KGiSL - iTech

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a language designed for programming computers is an artificial language designed to express computations that can be performed by a machine, particularly a computer. a series of instructions written by a programmer according to a given set of rules or conventions (syntax ). is a notation for writing programs. All PL language can be divided into three categories Problem Oriented or High Level Languages Machine Oriented or Low Level Languages Middle Level Language
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 Machine language
Natural language of a particular computer Consists of strings of numbers(1s, 0s) Instruct computer to perform elementary operations one at a time Machine dependant

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Assembly Language
English like abbreviations Translators programs called Assemblers to convert assembly language programs to machine language. E.g. add overtime to base pay and store result in gross pay LOAD ADD STORE BASEPAY OVERPAY GROSSPAY
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High-level languages
To speed up programming even further Single statements for accomplishing substantial tasks Translator programs called Compilers to convert high-level programs into machine language E.g. add overtime to base pay and store result in gross pay grossPay = basePay + overtimePay
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Procedural Programming Languages

every program comes with a starting phase, a list of tasks and operations, and an ending stage. made up of procedures, subroutines, or methods. Fortran, Basic
requires that programmers break program structure into small pieces of code. associated with a "top-down" approach to design. C, Pascal requires the designer to specify the data structures as well as the types of operations to be applied on those data structures. a program thus becomes a collection of cooperating objects, rather than a list of instructions. C++, Java, Python
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Structured Programming Languages

Object-Oriented Programming Languages

A language written by Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie at Bell Laboratories. C is a general-purpose computer programming language developed in 1972. A Programming language (PL) C is a set of instructions used to communicate with the computer The set of instruction written in a PL is known as program

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Evolved from two previous languages

BCPL , B

BCPL (Basic Combined Programming Language) used for writing OS & compilers B used for creating early versions of UNIX OS Both were typeless languages

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C provides:
x Efficiency, x flexibility x many

high performance and high quality s/w

and power

high-level and low-level operations middle level and small size code

x Stability x Provide

libraries

functionality through rich set of function for other professional languages like
C C++ Java
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x Gateway

C is used:
x System x data

software Compilers, Editors, embedded systems compression, graphics and computational geometry, utility programs operating systems, device drivers, system level routines used in application programs

x databases, x Also

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C systems consist of 3 parts

Environment Language C Standard Library

Development environment has 6 phases

Edit Pre-processor Compile Link Load Execute
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Phase 1

Editor

Disk

Program edited in Editor and stored on disk Preprocessor program processes the code Creates object code and stores on disk Links object code with libraries and stores on disk
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Phase 2

Preprocessor

Disk

Phase 3

Compiler

Disk

Phase 4

Linker

Disk

Primary memory Phase 5 Loader

Puts program in memory

Primary memory Phase 6 CPU

Takes each instruction and executes it storing new data values

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Four stages
Editing: Writing the source code by using some IDE or editor Preprocessing or libraries: Already available routines compiling: translates or converts source to object code for a specific platform source code -> object code linking: resolves external references and produces the executable module

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Include files Global variable and function declaration Main function Function subprogram

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/* A first C Program*/ #include <stdio.h> void main() { printf(Learning C Programming is easy \n"); }

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Line 1: #include <stdio.h> As part of compilation, the C compiler runs a program called the C preprocessor. The preprocessor is able to add and remove code from your source file. In this case, the directive #include tells the preprocessor to include code from the file stdio.h. This file contains declarations for functions that the program needs to use. A declaration for the printf() function is in this file.

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Line 2: void main() This statement declares the main function. A C program can contain many functions but must always have one main function. A function is a self-contained module of code that can accomplish some task. Functions are examined later. The "void" specifies the return type of main. In this case, nothing is returned to the operating system.

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Line 3: { This opening bracket denotes the start of the program.

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Line 4: printf(Learning C Programming is easy\n"); printf () is a function from a standard C library that is used to print strings to the standard output, normally your screen. The compiler links code from these standard libraries to the code you have written to produce the final executable. The "\n" is a special format modifier that tells the printf to put a line feed at the end of the line. If there were another printf in this program, its string would print on the next line.

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Line 5: } This closing bracket denotes the end of the program.

Note
s

C is a Case Sensitive All C statements must be terminated by a semicolon ( ; )

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Comment should be enclosed between /* Single Line Comment is // It is used to increase the readability of the program.

*/

Any number of comments can be given at any place in the program. Comment cannot be nested. It can be split over more than one line
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\n \t \r \a \\ \ \? \ \0

new line tab carriage return alert backslash double quote Question Mark Quotation Mark Null

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Alphabets Digits Special-symbols

Constants Variables Keywords Instruction Program

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A character denotes any alphabet, digit or special symbol used to represent information.

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The alphabets, numbers and special symbol when properly combined form constants, variables and keywords A constant is a quantity that doesnt change A variable is a name given to the location in memory where the constant is stored
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C constants can be divided into two major categories

Primary Constants Secondary Constants
C Constants Secondary constants

Primary Constants

Integer Constant Real Constant Character Constant

Array, Pointer Structure, Union Enum

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An integer constant must have at least one digit It must not have a decimal point It could be either positive or negative If no sign precedes an integer constant, it is assumed to be positive

ex., 123, -321, +78

No commas or blanks are allowed within an integer constant

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Real constants (RC) must have at least one digit It must have a decimal point It could be either positive or negative Default sign is positive No commas or blank are allowed within a RC
Ex., 0.0083, -0.75, +247.0

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A Single character constant is either a single alphabet, a single digit or a single special symbol enclosed within single quotes The maximum length of a character constant can be 1 character Eg a, 1, 5, = (Valid) asd, 12 (Invalid)

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It is a sequence of characters enclosed in double quotes Characters may be letters, numbers, special characters enclosed in double quotes.
Eg., Hello! 1987 ?...! X

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Identifiers are names given to various program elements, such as variables, functions and arrays A variable name is any combination of alphabets, digits or underscores The first character in the variable name must be an alphabet
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Keywords are the reserved words They cannot be used as variable names. There are only 32 keywords available in c
double else enum extern float far void if int long near register return static struct switch typedef union unsigned do goto signed while default for

auto break case char const continue short

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There are basically four types of instructions in C

Type declaration instruction Eg: int sum; float ave; char name,code; Input/Output instruction Eg: scanf(), printf()

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 Arithmetic instruction

Eg : x = sum +2;
Control instruction

Eg : while do statement for statement if statement

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C Supports several different types of data, each of which may be represented differently within the computers memory. Basic data types are listed below: Data Type int char float double Description integer quantity single character floating point number double-precision floating point number Typical Memory 2 bytes 1 bytes 4 bytes 8 bytes

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A variable is a data name that used to store a data value A variable may take different values at different times during execution A variable name should be meaningful Ex: Average Total Height 1.They must begin with a letter. Some system allows _ as the first character. 2.ANSI standard recognizes a length of 31 characters. 3.Length should not be normally more than 8 characters. 4.Upper case and lower case are significant. 5.It should not be a keyword. 6.White space is not allowed.

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Valid
John Value X1 ph_value mark

Invalid
123 % 25th (area) group 1
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Declaration does two things

It tells the compilers what the variable name is It specifies what type of data it holds

Declaration of must be done before they are used in the program Syntax :
<data type> <variable name>; Eg:
int count; int num,total; double ratio;

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auto local variable declared within a function static local variable which exist and retain value even after control is transferred to calling function extern Global variable known to all function register Local Variable which is stored in the register static and external variables are automatically initialized to zero Automatic (auto) variables contains undefined values called garbage unless they are initialized.

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Initialization Syntax:
<data type> <variable name> = <value> Eg:
int num = 5;

Values can be assigned using the assignment operator =

Eg:
int num; num = 5;

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An operator is a symbol (+,-,*,/) that directs the computer to perform certain mathematical or logical manipulations and is usually used to manipulate data and variables. Ex: a + b

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Arithmetic operators Relational operators Logical operators Assignment operators Increment and decrement operators Conditional operators Bitwise operators Special operators

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C operation Addition(+) Subtraction (-) Multiplication(*) Division(/) Modulus(%)

Algebraic f+7 p-c bm x/y, x , x r mod s y

C f+7 p-c b*m x/y r%s

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Operators in expressions contained within pairs of parentheses are evaluated first. Parentheses are said to be at the "highest level of precedence." ((a + b) + c) Multiplication, division and modulus operations are applied next. If an expression contains several multiplication, division and modulus operations, operators are applied from left to right. Multiplication, division and modulus are said to be on the same level of precedence. Addition and subtraction operations are applied last. If an expression contains several addition and subtraction operations, operators are applied from left to right. Addition and subtraction also have the same level of precedence. a * b + ( c d) / f
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Highest to lowest
() *, /, % +, -

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Algebra: a(b+c)+ c(d+e)

C: a * ( b + c ) + c * ( d + e ) ; Precedence: 3 1 5 4
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/* Program using Arithmetic operator */ #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int a=5,b=6; // Initializing variables int c; clrscr(); // To clear the screen c=a+b; // + operator printf(The result is : %d,c); c=b%a; // % operator printf(The result is : %d,c); }

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Relational Operator compares two values. Values can be any built-in C data type. The comparison involves such relationship as equal to, less than and greater than. The result of the comparison is either true or false.
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Operator

Meaning Is less than Is less than or equal to Is greater than Is greater than or equal to Equal to Not equal to

< <= > >= == !=

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Operator

Meaning Logical AND Logical OR Logical NOT

&& || !

Logical expressions are a compound relational expressions -An expression that combines two or more relational expressions Ex: if (a==b && b==c)

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 The

AND operator ( && ) requires both relationships to be true in order for the overall result to be true. either or both of the relationships are false, the entire result is false.

If

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Value of the expression a 0 0 1 1 b 0 1 0 1 a && b 0 0 0 1

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The OR Operator ( || ) takes two logical expressions and combines them. If either or both are true, the result is true. Both values must be false for the result to be false. a 0 0 1 1 b 0 1 0 1
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a|| b 0 1 1 1
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The ( && ) and ( II ) operators always appears between two expressions. Also known as binary operators. The NOT operator ( ! ) is a unary operator. It precedes a single logical expression and gives its opposite as a result. Example if !( marks > 50) is same as if (marks <= 50)

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Syntax: v op = exp; Where v = variable, op = shorthand assignment operator exp = expression Ex: x=x+3 x+=3

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Simple assignment operator

Shorthand operator a + =1 a - =1 a * = m+n a / = m+n a %=b

a = a+1 a = a-1 a = a* (m+n) a = a / (m+n) a = a %b

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1. 2.

Increment ++ Decrement -The ++ operator adds a value 1 to the operand The operator subtracts 1 from the operand Eg: ++a or a++ --a or a--

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Let the value of a =5 and b=++a then a = b =6 Let the value of a = 5 and b=a++ then a =5 but b=6 i.e.:
1.

a prefix operator first adds 1 to the operand and then the result is assigned to the variable on the left a postfix operator first assigns the value to the variable on left and then increments the operand.

2.

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When variable is not in an expression then Preincrementing and post-incrementing have the same effect Example int c = 5; ++c; printf(%d,c); // c = 6 and c++; printf(%d,c); // c= 6

are the same

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int c = 5; printf(%d,++c); c is changed to 6 Then prints out 6 printf(%d,c++); Prints out 5 (printf is executed before the increment) c then becomes 6
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/* Program using Increment operator */ #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int a=5,b; // Initializing variables clrscr(); // To clear the screen b = a++; // Post Increment operator printf(The result is : %d,b); b = ++a; // Pre Increment operator printf(The res ult is : %d,b); }

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main() { int c; c = 5; printf(%d\n, c); printf(%d\n, c++); printf(%d\n\n, c); c = 5; printf(%d\n, c); printf(%d\n, ++c); printf(%d\n, c); } return 0;

5 5 6

5 6 6

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Syntax: exp1 ? exp2 : exp3 Where exp1,exp2 and exp3 are expressions Working of the ? : Operator: Exp1 is evaluated first, if it is nonzero(1/true) then the expression2 is evaluated and this becomes the value of the expression, If exp1 is false(0/zero) exp3 is evaluated and its value becomes the value of the expression Ex: m=2; n=3; r=(m>n) ? m : n;
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/* Program using Conditional operator */ #include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { int a,b,c; // Initializing variables a=5; // Assigning values b=6; clrscr(); // To clear the screen c=(a>b)?a:b; // Conditional operator printf(The result is : %d,c); }
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The conditional operators can be nested as shown below void main() {

int k, num = 30; k=(num>5 ? (num <=10 ? 100 : 200) : 500); printf(%d,k); }

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Operator

Meaning Bitwise AND Bitwise OR Bitwise exclusive OR Shift left Shift right

& | ^ << >>

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void main() { clrscr(); int a=5,b=6; int c; c=a&b; printf(a&&b:%d,c); c=a|b; printf(a||b:%d,c); c=a^b; printf(a^b:%d,c); int d; d=c<<1; printf(c<<1:%d,d); d=c>>1; printf(c>>1:%d,c); }

// a = 0101 , b = 0110 // c = 0100 = 4 // c = 0111 = 7 // c = 0011 = 3 // d = 0110 = 6 // d = 0001 = 1

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1.

Comma operator ( ,) sizeof operator sizeof( ) Pointer operators ( & and *) Member selection operators ( . and ->)

2.

3.

4.

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One of the essential operations performed in a C language programs is to provide input values to the program and output the data produced by the program to a standard output device. scanf, which can be used to read data from a keyboard. printf, which sends results out to a terminal.

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Each program that uses standard input / out put function must contain the statement. #include<stdio.h> at the beginning. Single character input output:
getchar() putchar()

String input and output:

gets puts

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#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> int main() { clrscr(); printf (Welcome to KGISL ); return 0; }

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#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> int main() { int num; printf(Enter the value of num:); scanf(%d,&num); printf(The value of num is:%d,num); getch(); }

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#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { char c; c=getchar(); putchar( c ); getch(); }

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#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> void main() { char name[10]; puts(Enter your name); gets(name); puts(Your name is:); puts(name); getch(); }
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%c-

Reads a single character

%f- Reads a floating point value %s- Reads a string %h- Reads a hexadecimal integer %o- Reads an octal integer %i- Reads an integer value same as %d

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C program is a set of statements, which are normally sequentially executed in the order in which they appear.
Conditional statements Looping statements. Unconditional statements

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One of the most important parts of any language is the ability to choose to execute statements based on the value of a particular variable. To execute a single statement or group of statement.

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There are four types of conditional statements.

Simple if statement Ifelse statement Nested if statement Switch case

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If Statement
if statement is a basic control flow structure of C programming language. if statement is used when a unit of code need to be executed by a condition true or false. If the condition is true, the code in if block will execute otherwise it does nothing. Only performs an action if the condition is true.

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Syntax if (Condition) { statements; } If the condition, whatever it is, is true, then the statement is executed.

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/* Demonstration of if statement */ void main( ) { int num ; printf ( "Enter a number less than 10 " ) ; scanf ( "%d", &num ) ; if ( num <= 10 ) printf ( Number is less than 10" ) ; }

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Ifelse Statement
To check more than one condition. Specifies an action to be performed both when the condition is true and when it is false

Syntax: if (condition) { true block of statements; } else { false block of statements; }

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#include<stdio.h> void main() { int a,b; clrscr(); printf(enter values of a and b:\n); scanf(%d%d,&a,&b); if(a>b) { printf(a is greater:%d,a); } else { printf(b is greater:%d,b); } getch(); }

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else-if ladder

For checking more than one conditions Syntax:

if(condition-1) { /* code block if condition-1 is true */ } else if (condition-2) { /* code block if condition-2 is true */ } else if (condition-3) { /* code block if condition-3 is true */ } else { /* code block all conditions above are false */ }

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#include<stdio.h> void main() { int a,b,c; clrscr(); printf(enter values of a,b,c:); scanf(%d%d %d,&a,&b,&c); if(a>b)&&(a>c) { printf(a is greater); } else if(b>a)&&(b>c) { printf(b is greater); }

else { printf(c is greater); } getch(); }

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Nested if statement

Syntax: if(condition) { if(condition) { if statement; } else { else stmt; } } else if { else if stmt; } else { else stmt; }
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void main() { int a,b,c; clrscr(); printf("Enter values of a,b,c:"); scanf("%d%d%d",&a,&b,&c); if (a > b) { if (a > c) { printf("A is greater"); } else { printf("C is greater"); } }

else if (b > c) { printf("b is greater"); } else { printf("c is greater"); } getch(); }

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Loops Cause a section of your program to be repeated a certain number of times. The repetition continues while a condition is true. When condition becomes false, the loops ends and control passes to the statements following the loop. Types of Loops for loop while loop do while loop

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The for allows us to specify three things about a loop in a single line. a)Setting a loop counter to an initial value. b)Testing the loop counter to determine whether its value has reached the number of repetitions desired. c)Increasing the value of loop counter each time the program segment within the loop has been executed.

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The general form of for statement is as under. for ( initialization expression; test expression; increment expression) { statement 1; statement 2; . . statement n; }

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void main ( ) { int j; for ( j=0; j < 15; j++ ) { printf(%d\n,j); } getch( ); }

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Loops can also be nested. The placing of one loop inside the body of another loop is called nesting. Syntax:

for( intialization; test _condition; Increment;) { for( intialization; test_condition;increment;) { statemet; } statement; }

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#include<stdio.h> void main ( ) { int i, j; clrscr ( ); for (j=1; j<=4; j++) { for (i=1; i<=5; i++) { printf(*); } printf(\n);; } getch ( ); }

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Loops can also be nested like if statements. void main ( ) { int r, c, sum; for ( r = 1; r<= 3; r++) { for( c =1; c <= 2; c++) { sum = r + c; printf(Sum:%d,sum); } } }
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The while loop allows programs to repeat a statement or series of statements, over and over, as long as a certain test condition is true. The while loop is an entry-condition loop Syntax:

while (test-condition) { statement }

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#include<iostream.h> void main() { int i=0; clrscr(); while(i<10) { printf(%d,i); i++; } getch(); }
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 The do-while loop is similar to the while loop, except that the test condition occurs at the end of the loop. The do-while loop is an exit-condition loop.
Syntax

do { statement } while (condition);

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#include<iostream.h> void main() { int i=0; do { i++; printf(%d,i); }while(i<5); getch(); }

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Unconditional statement
This statement will be executed without any condition. Goto Break Continue

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 The goto statement is a jump statement which jumps from one point to another point within a function. Syntax

goto <label name>;

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Example: goto statement

#include<stdio.h> #include<conio.h> intmain() { inta=0; n: printf("\n %d",a); a++; if(a<10) { goton; } getch(); return0; }

//Label

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break statement
Causes immediate exit from the loop Used in while, for, dowhile or switch statements

continue statement
Skips remaining statements in loop body and start from the beginning of loop
Used in for loop, while , dowhile loops

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void main ( ) { int k; for ( k= -5; k < 25; k= k+5) { printf(%d,k); printf(Good day\n);; } }

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void main ( ) { int k; for ( k= -5; k < 25; k= k+5) { printf(%d\n, k); break; printf(Good day); } }

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void main ( ) { int k; for ( k= -5; k < 25; k= k+5) { printf(%d, k); conitnue; printf(Good Day); } }

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Example: break & continue statement #include<stdio.h> void main() { int i; for(i=0;i<20;i++) { if(i==10) break;

if(i%2==0) continue; } printf(%d,i); }

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