Clinton Hackney Anatomy & Physiology II BCTCS

Hormone (hormon = to excite or get moving) a mediator molecule that is released in one part of the body, but regulates the activity of cells in other parts of the body (Usually the blood stream if endocrine). Exocrine Glands secrete their products into ducts that carry the secretions into body cavities, into the lumen of an organ, or to the outer surface of the body. Endocrine Glands secrete their products into the interstitial fluid surrounding the secretory cells or the blood stream rather than into ducts. Endocrine System Collectively, all hormone secreting cells and endocrine glands.

Hormones provide a signal through an amplification process:

Hormones are secreted in picograms (10 ^ -12) and amplified via signal transduction. Physiological Response to Hormones is organismal wide (i.e. growth). All multicellular organisms produce hormones!!! 1. Biosynthesis of a particular hormone in a particular tissue. 2. Storage and/or secretion of the hormone. 3. Transport of the hormone to the target cell (s) 4. Recognition of the hormone by an associated cell membrane receptor or and intracellular protein. 5. Relay and amplification of the received hormonal signal via signal transduction. 6. Reuptake / Degradation of the hormone.

Hormone Signaling Occurs in the Following steps:

The major second messenger for hormones is cAMP

Signal Transduction

Hormones ultimately cause gene expression via signal transduction. H

*Somatostatin, histamine, growth factors (with respect to tissue growth), and clotting factors are paracrine agents. ** What might trigger This mechanism??? Paracrine signaling is involved in responses to allergens, tissue repair, the formation of scar tissue, and blood clotting.

The overproduction of certain paracrine hormones has been implicated in cancer.

Autocrine Function
Examples include: Cytokine interlukin-1 in activated monocytes (Occurs during Hematopoesis) & IL-2 in activated T-lymphocytes (In response to foreign antigen being presented to the immune system, ultimately causing production of Abs)

Examples include: Oxytocin, Growth Hormone, Prolactin, GnRH, etc., etc.

Can Neuronal Signaling be a part of the Endocrine System?

Binding Causes A Conformational Change in the Receptor and thus illicit downstream effects

In the stomach, one stimulus for secretion of hydrochloric acid by parietal cells is the release of histamine by neighboring cells. Is histamine an autocrine or a paracrine? Answer: Paracrine Can a hormone be both autocrine, paracrine, and endocrine or does it have to be one or the other? What determines this? Answer: One hormone call be all depending on the stimulus, condition, and location.

Example: Glucagon

Lipid Soluble

Hormones that can cross the cell membrane but require a transport protein in the blood. They do not require a receptor and directly effect gene expression. Examples: Steroid Hormones (cholesterol derived), Thyroid hormones (T3 and T4), and nitric oxide.
Hormones that cannot cross the plasma membrane and do not require a transport protein in the blood (due to blood plasmas high water content). Require a receptor and second messenger to effect gene expression. Examples: Amine hormones, Peptide & Protein hormones, Eicosanoid hormones (i.e. prostaglandins and leukotrienes)

Water Soluble

Omega-3-Fatty Acid

Permissive

When the action of one hormone requires the simultaneous action of another. Example: Epinephrine requires thyroid hormones T3 and T4 to initiate lipolysis. In this case the thyroid hormones are permissive to Epinephrine by stimulating the production of more epinephrine receptors. When the effect of two hormones acting together is greater than the individual effect of either. Example: Development of oocytes in the ovaries requires both estrogen (from ovaries) and FSH (from anterior pituitary). When the effect of one hormone opposes another Example: Insulin and Glucagon effects on blood sugar homeostasis.

Synergistic

Antagonistic

Hormone Producing Organs

Hypothalamus: Region of the brain that controls the Pituitary Gland and links the nervous system to the endocrine system.

Is responsive to:

Regulates body temperature, hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, sexual stimulation and circadian cycles just to name a few. Synthesizes 9 hormones and regulates the secretion of 7 pituitary gland hormones.
light, day length, pheromones, steroids, neurally transmitted information arising from the heart, stomach and reproductive tract, autonomic inputs, blood born stimuli such as leptin, ghrelin, angiotensin, insulin, and cytokines, osmolarity, stress, and invading microorganisms (by increasing body temperature).

Hypothalamus: links the nervous system to the endocrine system via the pituitary gland (hypophysis). The hypothalamus, is located below the thalamus, just above the brain stem.

A pea shaped structure that measures 1-1.5 cm in diameter. Connected to the hypothalamus by a stalk called the infundibulum. Has two distinct anatomical portions:

Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis): 75% of the total weight. Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis): The infundibulum is part of this region.

Blood supply coming from the heart, through the hypothalamus and to the pituitary gland, and eventually throughout the circulatory system is how these hormones are distributed. Collectively termed the Hypophyseal Portal System.

What circulation pathway do hypothalamic hormones take? What advantage does this provide? Answer: They diffuse into the primary plexus of the hypophyseal portal system after neuronal release, through the portal veins and into the secondary plexus where they can act immediately. What circulation pathway do anterior pituitary hormones take? Answer: They diffuse into the secondary plexus capillaries, which drain into the anterior hypophyseal and then to general circulation.

Consists of two anatomical sections:

Pars Distalis Larger portion Pars Tuberalis Forms a sheath around the infundibulum

Release of hormones from the anterior pituitary is stimulated by releasing hormones and suppressed by inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus (i.e. neurosecretion). Comprised of 5 distinct cell types:

1. Somatotrophs: secrete human growth hormone (hGH).

hGH stimulates insulin-like growth factors and regulates metabolism and body growth.

2.Thyrotophs: secrete thyroid-stimulating hormone. 3. Gonadotrophs: secrete two gonadotrophins [Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)] 4.Lactotrophs: secrete prolactin (PRL) 5.Corticotrophs: secrete adenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH).

ALL OF THESE HORMONES HAVE A RELEASING HORMONE (WHICH STIUMLATES THEM) OR AN INHIBITING HORMONE (WHICH BLOCKS THEM) COMING FROM THE HYPOTHALAMUS. THIS IS HOW THEIR RELEASE / INHIBITION AND THUS HOMEOSTASIS IS MAINTAINTED BY THE HYPOTHALAMUS. Example: hGH is released by growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH) and inhibited by growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHiH). All other hormones follow this terminology as well.

Growth hormone (GH) pathway

Adenoma

Consists of Two Distinct Sections:

Pars Nervosa larger bulb area used for hormone storage / secretion. Infundibulum Connection point between the hypothalamus and the Pituitary.

Does not synthesize hormones but does store and release two of them.

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - also called vassopressin and synthesized by the supraoptic nucleus in the hypothalamus. Oxytocin (OT) synthesized by the paraventricular nucleus is the hypothalamus.

Blood is received by the inferior hypophyseal arteries which branch from the carotids and drain into the capillary plexus of the infundibular process (where hormones have now been added). From this plexus, blood then flows to the posterior hypophyseal veins, into circulation, and eventually target cells.

By Osmoreceptors in the Hypothalamus

Posterior

Capillary Plexus of Infundibular Process

Carotids

A butterfly-shaped gland located inferior to the larynx (voice box). Composed of right and left Lateral Lobes on either side of the trachea connected by an isthmus. Contain Thyroid Follicles that possess Follicular Cells Between the Follicular Cells lie Parafollicular cells. Follicular Cells produce two hormones under TSH stimulation that utilizes a binding protein in the blood for transport [Thyroxine binding globulin (TBG)]: Thyroxine (T4) A prohormone that is converted to T3 by deiodinase. Triiodothyronine (T3) An active hormone that controls the rate of metabolic processes in the body and influences physical development. Parafollicular Cells produce one hormone: Calcitonin (CT)- Decreases the level of Calcium in the blood by acting on bone. Controlled by negative feedback.

Describe the differences in hormone release and gland size for someone who has had their thyroid removed. What hormones are increased? What happens to receptors? Is hormone production decreased? If so where and why? Describe the effect a hypothalectomy would have on an individual (assuming they lived through it) with respect to hormone release and body function / homeostasis.

Located in the posterior lateral lobes of the Thyroid (~40g each). There are two parathyroid glands attached superior and inferior to each thyroid lateral lobe (total of 4) Contain two dominate cell types:

Chief Cells produce parathyroid hormone (PTH). Oxyphil Cells Function unclear.

Parathyroid hormone:

Regulates Calcium (Ca 2+), Magnesium (Mg 2+), and Phosphate (HPO4 2-) in the blood by acting on bone osteoclasts. Acts on the kidneys to produce Calcitrol (the active form of Vitamin D). Stimulated by low blood Calcium, inhibited by high blood Calcium.

Located superior to each kidney in the retroperitoneal space with a flattened pyramidal shape (3-5 cm in height, 2-5 cm wide, 3-5g mass). Composed of 3 Sections:

1. Capsule: Outer covering 2. Adrenal cortex (Consists of 3 Zones) and is the middle of the Adrenal Gland:
A. Zona Glomerulosa outer zone that produces hormones called

mineralocorticoids because they maintain mineral homoeostasis. B. Zona Fasciculata - medial zone that produces hormones called glucocorticoids to maintain glucose homeostasis. C. Zona Reticularis - inner zone that produce weak androgen hormones (dehydroepiandrosterone DHEA) that have masculinizing effects .

Contains Chromaffin Cells that produce 2 hormones: Epinephrine (80%) Norepinehprine (20%)

3. Adrenal Medulla is the inner section:

Adrenal Cortex is stimulated by ACTH, increased blood K+ levels, and Angiotensin II Adrenal Medulla is stimulated by Acetylcholine from neurons.

The pancreas is both an endocrine & exocrine gland. Located in the curve of the duodenum. Cells are arranged in clusters called acini:

Within the are 1-2 million pancreatic islets called Islets of Langerhans. Alpha Cells secrete glucagon (raise blood glucose) Beta Cells secrete insulin (lower blood glucose) Delta Cells secrete somatostatin (i.e. hGHIH) F Cells produce pancreatic hormone.

Types of cells within the Pancreatic Islets:

Ovaries and testes possess organs that produce gametes called gonads:

Ovaries Produce:

Male gametes = sperm Female gametes = oocytes

Testes Produce:

Estrogen & Progesterone regulate the menstrual cycle, maintain pregnancy, prepare the mammary glands for lactation, and promote enlargement of the breast and widening of the hips at puberty. Inhibin Inhibits secretion of FSH Relaxin Helps to dilate the uterine cervix during labor and delivery. Testosterone - Promotes descent of the testes, regulation of sperm, and development of secondary sex characteristics such as beard and deep voice Androgen Same as testosterone but very weak

Note: The testes also produce inhibin to block FSH and keep males from having female sex characteristics. Female is the default hormonal state for humans.

A small endocrine gland attached to the roof of the third ventricle of the brain at the midline (0.1-0.2g mass). Contains two cell types:
Neuroglia Pinealocytes secrets a hormone called melatonin.

Melatonin controls the human biological clock.

The more darkness, the more melatonin and thus the sleepier you get.

Seasonal affective Disorder (SAD) depression associated with long winter months due to the overproduction of melatonin.

Located behind the sternum between the lungs. Plays a role in immunity by producing:
Thymosin Thymic humoral factor (THF) Thymic factor (TF) Thymopoietin promotes T-cell maturation.

Produces several hormones to include:

Gastrin Increases movement of stomach and promotes release of gastric fluids. Glucose - dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) Stimulates pancreatic beta cells to release insulin. Secretin stimulates release of pancreatic fluids and bile. Cholecystokinin regulates release of bile and gives the feeling of fullness. Ghrelin promotes appetite by increasing before meals and decreasing after meals.

NOTE: Receptors for fullness are found at the top of the stomach. Check on Learning: How then can overeating become a positive feedback loop in obese patients? Why dose this make gastric-bypass successful?

Adipose Tissue: A type of loose connective tissue that stores fat.

Produces a hormone called Leptin.

Leptin a hormone that signals the CNS by activating NeuroPeptide Y neurons to give the body a full feeling and tell you to stop eating.

Genetic Knockout for Leptin Receptor

Thyroid Function

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Vae5CcaPN_8

Pancreas Function

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qzjjW--I2Q&feature=related