_

+
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Table of Contents
The Operational Amplifier______________________________slides 3-4 The Four Amplifier Types______________________________slide 5 VCVS(Voltage Amplifier) Summary: Noninverting Configuration____________slides 6-9 Inverting Configuration________________slides 10-12 ICIC(Current Amplifier) Summary________________________slide 13 VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier) Summary_____________slides 14-15 ICVS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary_______________slides 16-18 Power Bandwidth_____________________________________slide 19 Slew Rate____________________________________________slide 20 Slew Rate Output Distortion____________________________ slide 21 Noise Gain___________________________________________slide 22 Gain-Bandwidth Product_______________________________slide 23 Cascaded Amplifiers - Bandwidth________________________slide 24 Common Mode Rejection Ratio__________________________slides 25-26 Power Supply Rejection Ratio___________________________slide 27 Sources_____________________________________________slide 28
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

The Operational Amplifier

Usually Called Op Amps An amplifier is a device that accepts a varying input signal and produces a similar output signal with a larger amplitude. Usually connected so part of the output is fed back to the input. (Feedback Loop) Most Op Amps behave like voltage amplifiers. They take an input voltage and output a scaled version. They are the basic components used to build analog circuits. The name operational amplifier comes from the fact that they were originally used to perform mathematical operations such as integration and differentiation.

Integrated circuit fabrication techniques have made highperformance operational amplifiers very inexpensive in comparison to older discrete devices.
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

The Operational Amplifier

+VS
Inverting i(-)

_
RO Ri + A

vid
Noninverting

Output vO = Advid

i(+)

-VS
i(+), i(-) : Currents into the amplifier on the inverting and noninverting lines respectively vid : The input voltage from inverting to non-inverting inputs +VS , -VS : DC source voltages, usually +15V and 15V Ri : The input resistance, ideally infinity A : The gain of the amplifier. Ideally very high, in the 1x1010 range. RO: The output resistance, ideally zero vO: The output voltage; vO = AOLvid where AOL is the open-loop voltage gain
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

The Four Amplifier Types

Description
Voltage Amplifier or Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS) Current Amplifier or Current Controlled Current Source (ICIS)

Gain Symbol
Av

Transfer Function
vo/vin

Ai

io/iin

Transconductance Amplifier or Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCIS)

Transresistance Amplifier or Current Controlled Voltage Source (ICVS)

gm (siemens) rm (ohms)

io/vin

vo/iin

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

i(+) vid
+

Noninverting Configuration
+ _
+

iO iF

iL
+ +

vin
_

i(-)

vO
-

vF
_ +

R F RL

vL
_

vid = vo/AOL Assuming AOL vid =0 Also, with the assumption that Rin = i(+) = i(-) = 0

v1 Applying KVL the following equations can be found: v1 = vin vO = v1 + vF = vin+ iFRF
_

R1 i1

This means that, iF = i1 Therefore: iF = vin/R1 Using the equation to the left the output voltage becomes: vo = vin + vinRF = vin RF + 1 R1 R1

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Noninverting Configuration Continued
The closed-loop voltage gain is symbolized by Av and is found to be: Av = vo = RF + 1 vin R1 The original closed loop gain equation is: Av = AF = AOL AF is the amplifier gain with 1 + AOL
feedback

Ideally AOL , Therefore Av = 1 Note: The actual value of AOL is given for the specific device and usually ranges from 50k 500k. is the feedback factor and by assuming open-loop gain is infinite: = R1 R1 + RF
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Noninverting Configuration Continued
Input and Output Resistance
Ideally, the input resistance for this configuration is infinity, but the a closer prediction of the actual input resistance can be found with the following formula: RinF = Rin (1 + AOL) Where Rin is given for the specified device. Usually Rin is in the M range.

Ideally, the output resistance is zero, but the formula below gives a more accurate value: RoF = Ro AOL + 1 Where Ro is given for the specified device. Usually Ro is in the 10s of s range.

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier)

i(+) vid

Noninverting Configuration Example

+ iO
+

iL iF
RF RL + vL _

vin

+ _

_
vF _ + v1 _

i(-)

+ vO -

Given: vin = 0.6V, RF = 200 k R1 = 2 k , AOL = 400k Rin = 8 M , Ro = 60 Find: vo , iF , Av , , RinF and RoF

R1 i1

Solution: vo = vin + vinRF = 0.6 + 0.6*2x105 = 60.6 V R1 2000 Av = RF + 1 = 2x105 + 1 = 101 R1 2000

iF = vin = 0.6 = 0.3 mA R1 2000 = 1 = 1 = 9.9x10-3 AOL 101

RinF = Rin (1 + AOL) = 8x106 (1 + 9.9x10-3*4x105) = 3.1688x1010 RoF = Ro = 60 = 0.015 AOL + 1 9.9x10-3*4x105 + 1

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Inverting Configuration
iF i1
+

RF

R1

+
vin
_

_ RL

vO
-

The same assumptions used to find the equations for the noninverting configuration are also used for the inverting configuration.

General Equations: i1 = vin/R1

iF = i1
vo = -iFRF = -vinRF/R1 Av = RF/R1 = R1/RF
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier) Summary

Inverting Configuration Continued
Input and Output Resistance
Ideally, the input resistance for this configuration is equivalent to R1. However, the actual value of the input resistance is given by the following formula: Rin = R1 + RF 1 + AOL

Ideally, the output resistance is zero, but the formula below gives a more accurate value: RoF = Ro 1 + AOL This is different from the equation used on the previous slide, which can be confusing.
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Note:

R1 R1 + RF

VCVS (Voltage Amplifier)

Inverting Configuration Example
iF i1 + vin _ RL R1 + _ + vO RF

Given: vin = 0.6 V, RF = 20 k R1 = 2 k , AOL = 400k Rin = 8 M , Ro = 60 Find: vo , iF , Av , , RinF and RoF

Solution: vo = -iFRF = -vinRF/R1 = -(0.6*20,000)/2000 = 12 V iF = i1 = vin/R1 = 1 / 2000 = 0.5 mA Av = RF/R1 = 20,000 / 2000 = 10 Rin = R1 + RoF = = R1/RF = 2000 / 20,000 = 0.1 RF = 2000 + 20,000 = 2,000.05 1 + AOL 1 + 400,000
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Ro = 60 = 1.67 m 1 + AOL 1 + 0.09*400,000 Note: is 0.09 because using

different formula than above

ICIS (Current Amplifier) Summary

Not commonly done using operational amplifiers iL Load
_ iin + 1 Possible ICIS Operational Amplifier Application

iin = iL
Similar to the voltage follower shown below:

_ +

vin
_

vin = vo
+

vO
-

Both these amplifiers have unity gain: Av = Ai = 1

Voltage Follower
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier) Summary

Voltage to Current Converter
iL i1
+

Load _ + OR vin
_ + +

Load i1 R1 _ + vin
_

iL

R1

vin
_

General Equations: iL = i1 = v1/R1 v1 = vin

The transconductance, gm = io/vin = 1/R1

Therefore, iL = i1 = vin/R1 = gmvin The maximum load resistance is determined by: RL(max) = vo(max)/iL
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

VCIS (Transconductance Amplifier)

Voltage to Current Converter Example
iL i1
+

Load _ +

R1

Given: vin = 2 V, R1 = 2 k vo(max) = 10 V

Find: iL , gm and RL(max)

Solution: iL = i1 = vin/R1 = 2 / 2000 = 1 mA

vin
_

Note: If RL > RL(max) the op amp will saturate The output current, iL is independent of the load resistance.

gm = io/vin = 1/R1 = 1 / 2000 = 0.5 mS RL(max) = vo(max)/iL = 10 V / 1 mA = 10 k

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary

Current to Voltage Converter
iF RF

_
iin +
+

vO
-

General Equations: iF = iin vo = -iFRF rm = vo/iin = RF

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier) Summary

Current to Voltage Converter
Transresistance Amplifiers are used for low-power applications to produce an output voltage proportional to the input current. Photodiodes and Phototransistors, which are used in the production of solar power are commonly modeled as current sources. Current to Voltage Converters can be used to convert these current sources to more commonly used voltage sources.

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

VCIS (Transresistance Amplifier)

Current to Voltage Converter Example
iF _ iin +
+

RF

Given: iin = 10 mA RF = 200 Find: iF , vo and rm

vO
-

Solution: iF = iin = 10 mA

vo = -iFRF = 10 mA * 200 = 2 V
rm = vo/iin = RF = 200
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Power Bandwidth
The maximum frequency at which a sinusoidal output signal can be produced without causing distortion in the signal.
The power bandwidth, BWp is determined using the desired output signal amplitude and the the slew rate (see next slide) specifications of the op amp. BWp = SR 2Vo(max) SR = 2fVo(max) where SR is the slew rate Example: Given: Vo(max) = 12 V and SR = 500 kV/s

Find:

BWp
BWp = 500 kV/s = 6.63 kHz 2 * 12 V
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Solution:

Slew Rate
A limitation of the maximum possible rate of change of the output of an operational amplifier.
As seen on the previous slide, SR = 2fVo(max)
f is the frequency in Hz

This is derived from: SR = vo/tmax Slew Rate is independent of the closed-loop gain of the op amp.

Example: Given: SR = 500 kV/s and vo = 12 V (Vo(max) = 12V) Find: The t and f. Solution: t = vo / SR = (10 V) / (5x105 V/s) = 2x10-5 s f = SR / 2Vo(max) = (5x105 V/s) / (2 * 12) = 6,630 Hz
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Slew Rate Distortion

v desired output waveform SR = v/t = m (slope)

v actual output because of slew rate limitation t

The picture above shows exactly what happens when the slew rate limitations are not met and the output of the operational amplifier is distorted.
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Noise Gain
The noise gain of an amplifier is independent of the amplifiers configuration (inverting or noninverting) The noise gain is given by the formula:
AN = R 1 + RF R1 Example 1: Given a noninverting amplifier with the resistance values, R1 = 2 k and RF = 200 k Find: The noise gain. AN = 2 k + 200 k = 101 2 k Note: For the noninverting amplifier AN = AV

Example 2: Given an inverting amplifier with the resistance values, R1 = 2 k and RF = 20 k Find: The noise gain. AN = 2 k + 20 k = 12 2 k Note: For the inverting amplifier AN > AV
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Gain-Bandwidth Product
In most operational amplifiers, the open-loop gain begins dropping off at very low frequencies. Therefore, to make the op amp useful at higher frequencies, gain is traded for bandwidth.

The Gain-Bandwidth Product (GBW) is given by:

GBW = ANBW

Example: For a 741 op amp, a noise gain of 10 k corresponds to a bandwidth of ~200 Hz

Find: The GBW GBW = 10 k * 200 Hz = 2 MHz

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Cascaded Amplifiers - Bandwidth

Quite often, one amplifier does not increase the signal enough and amplifiers are cascaded so the output of one amplifier is the input to the next. The amplifiers are matched so: BWS = BW1 = BW2 = GBW AN where, BWS is the bandwidth of all the cascaded amplifiers and AN is the noise gain The Total Bandwidth of the Cascaded Amplifiers is: BWT = BWs(21/n 1)1/2 where n is the number of amplifiers that are being cascaded Example: Cascading 3 Amplifiers with GBW = 1 MHz and AN = 15, Find: The Total Bandwidth, BWT BWS = 1 MHz / 15 = 66.7 kHz BWT = 66.7 kHz (21/3 1)1/2 = 34 kHz
Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) relates to the ability of the op amp to reject common-mode input voltage. This is very important because common-mode signals are frequently encountered in op amp applications. CMRR = 20 log|AN / Acm| AN log-1 (CMRR / 20) We solve for Acm because Op Amp data sheets list the CMRR value. The common-mode input voltage is an average of the voltages that are present at the non-inverting and inverting terminals of the amplifier. vicm = v(+) + v(-) 2 Acm =

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Common-Mode Rejection Ratio

Example
Given: A 741 op amp with CMRR = 90 dB and a noise gain, AN = 1 k Find: The common mode gain, Acm Acm = AN = log-1 (CMRR / 20) 1000 log-1 (90 / 20)

= 0.0316 It is very desirable for the common-mode gain to be small.

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Power Supply Rejection Ratio

One of the reasons op amps are so useful, is that they can be operated from a wide variety of power supply voltages. The 741 op amp can be operated from bipolar supplies ranging from 5V to 18V with out too many changes to the parameters of the op amp. The power supply rejection ratio (SVRR) refers to the slight change in output voltage that occurs when the power supply of the op amp changes during operation. SVRR = 20 log (Vs / Vo) The SVRR value is given for a specified op amp. For the 741 op amp, SVRR = 96 dB over the range 5V to 18V.

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Open-Loop Op Amp Characteristics

Table 12.11
Device
Technology

LM741C BJT 200 k

LF351 BiFET 100 k

OP-07 BJT 400 k

LH0003 Hybrid BJT 40 k

AD549K BiFET 100 k

1013 || 1 pF

AOL(typ)

Rin
Ro SR CMRR

2 M
50 0.5 V/s 90 dB

1012
30 13 V/s 100 dB

8 M
60 0.3 V/s 110 dB

100 k
50 70 V/s 90 dB

~100 3 V/s 90 dB

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002

Sources
Dailey, Denton. Electronic Devices and Circuits, Discrete and Integrated. Prentice Hall, New Jersey: 2001. (pp 456-509)
1Table

12.1: Selected Op Amps and Their Open Loop Characteristics, pg 457

Liou, J.J. and Yuan, J.S. Semiconductor Device Physics and Simulation. Plenum Press, New York: 1998. Neamen, Donald. Semiconductor Physics & Devices. Basic Principles. McGraw-Hill, Boston: 1997. (pp 351-357) Web Sources www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0803814.html http://www.infoplease.com/ce6/sci/A0836717.html http://people.msoe.edu/~saadat/PSpice230Part3.htm

Kristin Ackerson, Virginia Tech EE Spring 2002