Energy Band Structures in Electronic Materials

Introduction to Quantum Physics

Light (or any other EM radiation) shows wave behavior. Using wave theory one can explain phenomena like interference, reflection, diffraction and diffusion which light undergoes. C
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Light As a Wave

Introduction to Quantum Physics

Light waves carry energy in small units called photons/energy packets/quanta. Energy of a quanta, E h Photo-electric effect, Compton scattering, etc.. can be explained with this theory. However light also shows matter behavior!!
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Exercise
Calculate the energy of a blue photon which has a wavelength of 450nm.
h = 6.6 x 10-34 Js C = 3 x 108 ms-1

Introduction to Quantum PhysicsWave Behavior of Electrons

Electrons are usually treated as matter which obey Newtons laws. However, they show wave behavior. Wave behavior is governed by Schrodinger equation. This provides a relationship between the electronic wave function, electron mass, potential energy and position of the electron.
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Interference of Electrons

Wave-Particle Duality
Photons behave as waves as well as particles. Electrons behave as waves as well as particles. h This is characterized by p where p is the momentum. This is the De Broglie hypothesis.
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Electron Distribution in Shells

Electrons are distributed among shells and sub-shells to minimize the energy.
The attraction force between the nucleus and electrons and the repulsion force between electron should balance.

Pauli Exclusion Principle

To have this equilibrium, no two electrons in an atom can have all four quantum numbers equal. In other words in a single orbit, a maximum of two electrons can be present and they orbit in opposite directions. This is known as Paulis exclusion principle.
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Occupancy of Electrons
Shell K L Sub-shell s s, p Number of Orbits 1 1,3

M N

s, p, d s, p, d, f

1,3,5 1,3,5,7
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Occupancy of Electrons
When the shells and sub-shells are filled with electrons,
first each electrons occupies a vacant orbit, when all the orbits are half filled pairing starts.

This is known as Hunds rule.

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Hunds Rule-Carbon Atom

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Energy Levels in an Atom

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Energy Band Structure

An isolated atom displays the discussed electron level structure. When more atoms are brought together, each atoms orbit cause some mutual interaction and cause a change of energy in other atoms levels. In other words creates multiple wave functions rather than just one. With N atoms the result is a N-split energy level.

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Energy Band Structure

See Figure 4.8 in Electronic Materials and Devices by S.O.Kasap.

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Energy Band Structure

Any energy level is splitted. However the inner and fully filled energy levels are not splitted. Unfilled high energy levels too undergo splitting. When the number of atoms participating becomes too large, the energy split pattern becomes a continuous band. Now, instead of different filled and unfilled energy levels, we have energy band.
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Conductance and Valence Bands

Filled outer most energy bands are known as valance bands. Unfilled energy bands are known as conductance bands. Electrons in conductance band participate in conducting. At some higher energy (vacuum level), electron can get free from the solid. This energy level is the top boundary in the conductance band.
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Fermi Level
The energy level, up to which electrons can occupy in an absolute zero temperature. Value of the Fermi level depends on the reference point which is usually the bottom of the valence band. The energy needed to free an electron is equal to the energy gap between the Fermi level and the vacuum level. This is the work function.

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Energy Band Structure in Metals

In a metal the lattice of nuclei is submerged in an electron pool/gas. When a large number of atoms participate in the bond, the conduction and valence levels are split in to bands. However conduction and valance bands overlap.
Remember: d sub-shells have high energy than the next level s sub-shells
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Energy Band Structure in Semi Conductors

In semi conductors covalent bonds exist. Bonds share electrons. Small energy gap With the temperature some electrons in these bonds can absorb energy and move to the conduction band.

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Energy Band Structure in Insulators

In insulators, the energy gap is large. Even with high temperatures, electrons cannot acquire sufficient energy to cross the forbidden energy gap.

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Conductivity in Metals Explained

When an electric field is applied, electrons experience a force eE which accelerate the electron. The increasing velocity increases the kinetic energy. The increment in energy takes the electron energy to a higher level in the conductance band. Accelerated electrons generates a current flow. The possibility for this increment of energy is due to availability of free adjacent energy bands.
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Behavior of Semiconductors Explained

With an applied electric field, the free electrons can accelerate

Current flow.

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Insulators Properties Explained

Energy gap is large. Therefore no possibility of electron acceleration or current flow.

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Thank You

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