Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence

Chapter 11

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Guideposts for Study

What is adolescence, when does it begin and end, and what opportunities and risks does it entail? What physical changes do adolescents experience, and how do these changes affect them psychologically? What brain developments occur during adolescence, and how do they affect adolescent behavior? What are some common health problems in adolescence, and how can they be prevented?

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Guideposts for Study

How do adolescents thinking and use of language differ from younger childrens? On what basis do adolescents make moral judgments? What factors affect adolescents school success and their educational and vocational planning and preparation?

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Adolescence and Puberty

Adolescence
The passage from childhood to adulthood

Puberty
Process that leads to sexual maturity or fertility

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Adolescence as Social Construction

No such concept in preindustrial societies Today, adolescence is a global phenomenon Time for growth and change Stereotypes of risk-taking behaviors

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Box 11.1 Globalization of Adolescence

Adolescence is no longer a Western phenomenon In many nonwestern countries, adolescent boys and girls live in separate worlds Puberty heightens preparation for gender roles Cultural change is complex
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Puberty

Adrenarche

Between ages 6 and 9 Maturing of the adrenal glands Production or androgens (DHEA) Maturing of the sex organs Girls: ovaries increase estrogen Boys: testes increase androgens
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Gonadarche

Physical Changes of Puberty

Both males and females:

Growth spurt Pubic hair Deeper voice Muscular growth

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Puberty Onset
Girls

Between ages 8 and 10

Boys

Between ages 9 and 11

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Primary Sex Characteristics

Females

Ovaries Fallopian tubes Uterus Vagina

Males Testes Penis Scrotum Seminal vesicles Prostate gland

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Secondary Sex Characteristics

Females
o

Males
o

Breasts Pelvis changes

Broad Shoulders Facial Hair

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Adolescent Growth Spurt

A rapid increase in height and weight Typically lasts about 2 years Results in common gawkiness Teens become more concerned about their appearance

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Signs of Sexual Maturity

Spermarche

First ejaculation Nocturnal emission (wet dream) Average at age 13

Menarche

First menstruation (first period) Average at age 12

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Secular Trend
A decrease in average age of pubertal onset Possible explanations:

Higher standard of living/better nutrition Overweight Relationship with father

Pheromones
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Adolescent Brain

A work in progress Immaturity of adolescent brain has led to questions of legal responsibility Risk taking comes from two brain networks
o o

Socioemotional network (i.e. peer influence) Cognitive control network (responses to stimuli)

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Two Major Brain Changes

Growth Spurt

Chiefly in frontal lobes Reasoning, judgment, and impulse control

Gray Matter Growth

Continued myelination Facilitates maturation of cognitive abilities

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Physical Activity

Exercise in adolescence is usually much less than in childhood. 1/3 of U.S. high school students do NOT engage in enough physical activity. U.S. adolescents exercise less than in previous generations and less than those other countries.
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Sleep Needs

Average sleep declines to less than 8 hours at age 16 Still, many adolescents do not get enough sleep

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Sleep Patterns

Changes in circadian timing and melatonin may account for tendency to stay up late. School schedules are out of sync with biological rhythms.

Tendency to be sleepy during the day and sleep in on weekends to make up for loss

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Nutrition

U.S. adolescents have less healthy diets than other industrialized countries

Fewer fruits and vegetables More sweets, chocolates, and junk food

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Obesity/Overweight

U.S. teens are more likely to be overweight than their age-mates in industrialized countriesnumbers tripled between 1980 and 2004.

Average teen girl needs ~2200 calories/day Average teen boy needs ~2800 calories/day

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Body Image

How one believes one looks Concern most intense during adolescence Pattern is more intense with females Normal increase in girls body fat African-American girls are more satisfied with their bodies than are Caucasian girls
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Anorexia Nervosa

Self-starvation Distorted body image Constantly dieting and believe they are fat May cause irregularity or cessation of menstruation Often good students and perfectionists
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Bulimia Nervosa

Bingeing and undoing of caloric intake on regular basis Undo calories by:

Self-induced vomiting Excessive exercise Laxatives or enemas Diuretics Dieting or fasting

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Treatment of Anorexia and Bulimia

Immediate goal is to get patient to eat and gain weight Patients may be hospitalized if severely malnourished Behavior therapy reward eating Cognitive therapy change body image Institutional settings and family therapy
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Drug Use and Abuse

Substance Use

Harmful use of alcohol or other drugs

Dependence or Addiction

Can be psychological or physiological Especially dangerous for adolescents because of changing brain structures

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Trends in Drug Use

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Risk Factors for Drug Abuse

Difficult temperament Poor impulse control and sensation seeking Biochemical basis and/or family influence Genetic predisposition or inconsistent parenting Early and persistent behavior patterns Peer rejection, alienation, or rebelliousness Attitudes toward drug use and early initiation
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Common Adolescent Drugs

Alcohol Marijuana Tobacco

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Depression

Prevalence increases during adolescence

Occurs in 9% ages 12-17, only 40% treated

Girls more susceptible than boys Can manifest as:

Sadness Irritability Boredom Inability to experience pleasure

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Causes of Death in Adolescence

Vehicular Accidents

Leading cause of death among U.S. teens Homicide, suicide and accidental deaths One-third of all injury deaths Almost one-fourth of U.S. high-school students have seriously considered suicide
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Firearms

Suicide

Piagetian Cognitive Development: Formal Operations

A capacity for abstract thought A more flexible way to manipulate information Usually develops around age 11 Also has emotional implications

I hate exploitation

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Piagetian Tasks for Formal Operations

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Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning

Problem-solving skills Developing a hypothesis and an experiment to test it Imagining relationships systematically Piaget attributed acquiring this new skill to:

Brain maturation Expanding environmental opportunities

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Evaluating Piagets Theory

Many late adolescents and adults (around1/3) are incapable of abstract thought Fails to capture the role or context of the situation The theory does not fully consider the role of metacognition
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Elkind: Immature Aspects of Thought

Idealism and criticalness Argumentativeness Indecisiveness Apparent hypocrisy Self-consciousness

Imaginary Audience

Specialness and Invulnerability

Personal Fable
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Changes in Information Processing

Structural: Increases in processing capacity

Expansion of working memory allows adolescents to deal with complex problems

Increased ability to obtain, handle and retain information Mathematical and scientific reasoning Improved proficiency in drawing conclusions
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Functional

Structural Change in Long-Term Memory

Increase in long-term memory capacity:

Declarative knowledge Procedural knowledge Conceptual knowledge

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Language Development

Adolescents can discuss abstractions:

Love Freedom Justice

Frequently use such terms as:

However Otherwise Therefore

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Kohlbergs Levels of Moral Reasoning

Level
PreConventional

Stage of Reasoning
Punishment and Obedience Instrumental Purpose and Exchange Approval of Others: The Golden Rule

Conventional Social Concern and Conscience Contracts, Rights and Democratic Laws Universal Ethical Principles
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PostConventional

Concerns About Kohlbergs Theory

Role of family influences Validity for women and girls Gilligans theory: An ethic of care Cross-cultural validity

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Influences on School Achievement

Self-efficacy

beliefs Parenting styles Ethnicity Peer influences Gender

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School Influences on Achievement

What is the quality of the school? Does the student like his/her school? Does the school tailor teaching to students abilities? Does the school help students transition to college?
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Dropping out of High School

3.8% of high school students dropped out during 2004-2005 school year Students at greatest risk:

Low SES Males Hispanics Students with low active engagement

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Factors That Promote Active Engagement at School

Family encouragement Small class size Warm and supportive school environment Early education programs

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Influences on Students Goals

Parental attitudes towards academics Gender and gender-stereotyping The educational system Are schools rewarding creativity? OR ..rote memorization?
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Guiding Non-College-Bound Students

Vocational counseling Vocational training programs Community colleges On-the-job training

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