Chapter 5

Eukaryotic Cells and Microorganisms

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The History of Eukaryotes

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They first appeared approximately 2 billion years ago Evidence suggests evolution from prokaryotic organisms by symbiosis Organelles originated from prokaryotic cells trapped inside them

A larger prokaryotic cell such as an archaea has a flexible outer envelope and Mesosomelike internal membranes to enclose the nucleoid. Nuclear envelope Early nucleus

A smaller prokaryotic cell similar to purple bacteria that can use oxygen

The larger cell engulfs the smaller one; smaller one survives and remains surrounded by the vacuolar membrane.

Smaller bacterium becomes a permanent resident of its Host s cytoplasm; it multiplies and is passed on during cell division. It utilizes aerobic metabolism and increases energy availability for the host. Early endoplasmic reticulum Early mitochondria Ancestral eukaryotic cell develops additional membrane pouches that become the endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus.

Photosynthetic bacteria (similar to cyanobacteria) are also engulfed; they develop into chloroplasts. Ancestral cell

Chloroplast Cell wall

Many protozoa, animals

Image by D. J. Patterson (provided by micro*scope http://microscope.mbl.edu)

Algae, higher plants

Ancient Eukaryotes
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y.

Chloroplasts

Cell wall
Andrew Knoll Andrew Knoll

(a)

(b)
3

Eukaryotic Microbes

The Eukaryotic Cell

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Cell wall*

Mitochondrion

Cell membrane

Golgi apparatus

Rough endoplasmic reticulum with ribosomes

Microfilaments Flagellum*

Nuclear membrane with pores Nucleus Lysosome Nucleolus

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Microtubules

Microvilli/ Glycocalyx

Chloroplast* Centrioles* *Structure not present in all cell types

Organization of the Eukaryotic Cell

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Eukaryotic cell

External organelles and other structures Boundary of cell

Appendages Flagella Cilia Glycocalyx Capsules Slimes Cell wall Cell/cytoplasmic membrane Cytoplasmic matrix Nucleus Nuclear envelope Nucleolus Chromosomes Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi complex Mitochondria Chloroplasts

Internal organelles and other contents

Organelles

Ribosomes Cytoskeleton Microtubules Microfilaments 6

External Structures
Locomotor appendages: Flagella
Long, sheathed cylinder containing microtubules in a 9+2 arrangement Covered by an extension of the cell membrane 10X thicker than prokaryotic flagella Function in motility
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y .

outer dynein arm B subfiber of doublet singlet

Microtubules Cilium

Cell Membrane ciliary membrane short glycocalyx fringe bb

Courtesy Richard Allen

(a)

Courtesy Richard Allen

(b)

(c) Whips back and forth and pushes in snakelike pattern

Twiddles the tip

Lashes, grabs the substrate, and pulls

External Structures
Locomotor appendages: Cilia
Similar in overall structure to flagella, but shorter and more numerous Found only on a single group of protozoa and certain animal cells Function in motility, feeding, and filtering
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Oral groove with gullet

Macronucleus

Micronucleus

(a)

Contractile vacuole

(b)

Power stroke

Recovery stroke

External Structures
Glycocalyx
An outermost boundary that comes into direct contact with environment Usually composed of polysaccharides Appears as a network of fibers, a slime layer or a capsule Functions in adherence, protection, and signal reception Beneath the glycocalyx Fungi and most algae have a thick, rigid cell wall Protozoa, a few algae, and all animal cells lack a cell wall and have only a membrane

Boundary of the Cell

Cell wall
Rigid, provides structural support and shape Fungi have thick inner layer of polysaccharide fibers composed of chitin or cellulose and a thin layer of mixed glycans Algae varies in chemical composition; substances commonly found include cellulose, pectin, mannans, silicon dioxide, and calcium carbonate

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Boundary of the Cell

Cytoplasmic (cell) membrane
Typical bilayer of phospholipids and proteins Sterols confer stability Serves as selectively permeable barrier in transport Eukaryotic cells also contain membranebound organelles that account for 60-80% of their volume

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Concept Check:
Which part of the Eukaryotic cell is responsible for contacting the outside environment and signaling between cells?

A. Flagella B. Cell Wall

C. Glycocalyx
D. Cell Membrane
12

Internal Structures
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Nucleus
Compact sphere, most prominent organelle of eukaryotic cell Nuclear envelope composed of two parallel membranes separated by a narrow space and is perforated with pores Contains chromosomes Nucleolus dark area for rRNA synthesis and ribosome assembly

Endoplasmic reticulum

Chromatin

Don Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited

Nuclear Nuclear pore envelope (a)

Nucleolus Nuclear pore

Nucleolus (b)

Nuclear envelope

13

Nuclear changes during Mitosis

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Centrioles
Chromatin Cell membrane Nuclear envelope Interphase (resting state prior to cell division) 1

Nucleolus
Cytoplasm

Prophase

2
Daughter cells
Cleavage furrow Spindle fibers Centromere Chromosome Early metaphase

Chromosome

Telophase

Early telophase

7
Metaphase

Late anaphase

Early anaphase

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Internal Structures
Endoplasmic reticulum two types:
Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) originates from the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope and extends in a continuous network through cytoplasm; rough due to ribosomes; proteins synthesized and shunted into the ER for packaging and transport; first step in secretory pathway
Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER) closed tubular network without ribosomes; functions in nutrient processing, synthesis, and storage of lipids
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Rough endoplasmic reticulum

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Nuclear envelope Nuclear pore Polyribosomes

Polyribosomes Cisterna

(b)

Small subunit
mRNA (a) Ribosome RER membrane Protein being synthesized Cisterna Large subunit

(c)

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Internal Structures
Golgi apparatus
Modifies, stores, and packages proteins Consists of a stack of flattened sacs called cisternae
Transport vesicles
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Endoplasmic reticulum

Condensing vesicles
Cisternae

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Internal Structures
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Transport Processes
Transitional vesicles from the ER containing proteins go to the Golgi apparatus for modification and maturation
Condensing vesicles transport proteins to organelles or secretory proteins to the outside
Nucleus

Nucleolus Ribosome parts

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Transitional vesicles

Golgi apparatus Condensing vesicles

Cell membrane

Secretion by exocytosis

Secretory vesicle

nucleus RER Golgi vesicles secretion

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Internal Structures
Lysosomes
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Vesicles containing enzymes that originate from Golgi apparatus Involved in intracellular digestion of food particles and in protection against invading microbes

Food particle Lysosomes

Cell membrane Nucleus Golgi apparatus

Engulfment of food

Food vacuole

Vacuoles
Membrane bound sacs containing particles to be digested, excreted, or stored
Lysosome

Formation of food vacuole

Phagosome
vacuole merged with a lysosome

Merger of lysosome and vacuole Phagosome

Digestion Digestive vacuole

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Internal Structures
Mitochondria
Function in energy production Consist of an outer membrane and an inner membrane with folds called cristae Cristae hold the enzymes and electron carriers of aerobic respiration Divide independently of cell Contain DNA and prokaryotic ribosomes
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Circular DNA strand 70S ribosomes

Matrix
Cristae

Inner membrane (a) Outer membrane

Cristae (darker lines) Matrix (lighter spaces)

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(b)
Don Fawcett/Visuals Unlimited

Internal Structures
Chloroplast
Convert the energy of sunlight into chemical energy through photosynthesis Found in algae and plant cells Outer membrane covers inner membrane folded into sacs, thylakoids, stacked into grana Primary producers of organic nutrients for other organisms
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Chloroplast envelope (double membrane) 70S ribosomes

Stroma matrix

Circular DNA strand Granum Thylakoids

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Internal Structures
Ribosomes
Composed of rRNA and proteins Scattered in cytoplasm or associated with RER Larger than prokaryotic ribosomes Function in protein synthesis
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Small subunit mRNA Ribosome RER membrane Protein being synthesized Cisterna 22 Large subunit

Internal Structures
Cytoskeleton
Flexible framework of proteins, microfilaments and microtubules form network throughout cytoplasm Involved in movement of cytoplasm, amoeboid movement, transport, and structural support
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Rough endoplasmic reticulum Microtubule Ribosomes Microfilaments (a)

Cell membrane Mitochondrion

Courtesy of Life Technologies, Carlsbad, CA

(b)

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Comparing Prokaryotes, Eukaryotes & Viruses

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Concept Check:
The Eukaryotic organelle that is responsible for transporting vesicles inside the cells is the

A. Golgi
B. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum C. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum D. Nucleus
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Phylogenetic Relationships between Eukaryotes

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Taxonomy Based on mRNA Analysis Metazoa Myxozoa Choanoflagellates Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota Chytridiomycota (chytrids) Land plants Green algae Cryptomonads Traditional Kingdoms and Subcategories

Animals

Kingdom Animalia

True Fungi (Eumycota)

Kingdom Eumycota

Plants EVOLUTIONARY ADVANCEMENT OF THE EUKARYOTES

Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Protista Division Chlorophyta Division Rhodophyta

Red algae Golden-brown and yellow-green alga Xanthophytes Brown algae Diatoms Water molds (Oomycota) Ciliates Colponema Dinoflagellates Haplosporidia Apicomplexans Entamoebids

Division Chrysophyta Division Phaeophyta Division Bacillariophyta

Zea (corn)

Stramenopiles (formerly heterokonts or chrysophytes)

Phylum Ciliophora Division Pyrrophyta Phylum Apicomplexa

Alveolates

Naegleria

Entamoebae

Phylum Sarcomastigophora Amoeboflagellates Kinetoplastids Euglenids Division Euglenophyta

Eukarya

Euglena

Lack mitochondria

Parabasilids (Trichomonas) Diplomonads (Giardia) Oxymonads Microsporidia

Phylum Sarcomastigophora

Universal Ancestor

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(a)

(b)

Survey of Eukaryotic Microbes

Fungi Algae Protozoa Parasitic worms

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Kingdom Fungi
100,000 species divided into 2 groups:
Macroscopic fungi (mushrooms, puffballs, gill fungi) Microscopic fungi (molds, yeasts) Majority are unicellular or colonial; a few have cellular specialization
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28
George Barron, University of Guelph, CANADA

Microscopic Fungi
Exist in two morphologies:
Yeast round ovoid shape, asexual reproduction Hyphae long filamentous fungi or molds

Some exist in either form dimorphic characteristic of some pathogenic molds

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Septum

Janice Carr/CDC

Dr. Judy A. Murphy, San Joaquin Delta College, Department of Microscopy, Stocton, CA

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Fungal Nutrition
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All are heterotrophic Majority are harmless saprobes living off dead plants and animals Some are parasites, living on the tissues of other organisms, but none are obligate Mycoses fungal infections Extremely widespread distribution in many habitats

(a)

Kathy Park Talaro

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(b)
New Zealand Dermatological Society

Fungal Organization
Yeast soft, uniform texture and appearance
Reproduce through an asexual process called budding
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Ribosomes Mitochondrion Endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus Nucleolus Nucleus Bud scars

Cell wall
Cell membrane Golgi apparatus

Storage vacuole
(a) Fungal (Yeast) Cell

(c)

Pseudohypha

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(b)
Janice Carr/CDC

Fungal Organization
Filamentous fungi mass of hyphae called mycelium; cottony, hairy, or velvety texture
Hyphae may be divided by cross walls septate Vegetative hyphae digest and absorb nutrients Reproductive hyphae produce spores for reproduction
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Septa

Septate hyphae Septum with pores Nucleus As in Penicillium

Nonseptate hyphae Nuclei As in Rhizopus

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Fungal Reproduction
Primarily through spores formed on reproductive hyphae Asexual reproduction spores are formed through budding or mitosis; conidia or sporangiospores
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(a) Vegetative Hyphae Surface hyphae

(b) Reproductive Hyphae Spores

Submerged hyphae

Rhizoids Spore Germ tube

Substrate
Hypha

George Barron, University of Guelph, CANADA

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(c) Germination

(d)

Types of Asexual Mold Spores

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(a) Sporangiospore

(b) Conidia Arthrospores Chlamydospores Phialospores

Sporangium

Blastospores Sporangiophore Columella 1 Sporangiospore Macroconidia 1 2 3

Sterigma Conidiophore

Porospore

Microconidia 2 4 5

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Fungal Reproduction
Sexual reproduction spores are formed following fusion of two different strains and formation of sexual structure
Zygospores, ascospores, and basidiospores

Sexual spores and spore-forming structures are one basis for classification

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Formation of zygospores
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Sporangium
Asexual Phase

Stolon

Strain
Rhizoid

+ Strain
Spores germinate.
Germinating zygospore

Zygote

Sexual Phase

Mature zygospore

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Production of ascospores
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Zygote nuclei that undergo meiosis prior to formation of asci

Ascospores

Asci Ascogenous hyphae Fruiting body Sterile hyphae

Ascogonium (female)

Cup fungus Antheridium (male)

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+ Hypha

Hypha

Formation of basidiospores in a mushroom

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Basidium

Pair of nuclei fuse to form diploid nucleus. Diploid nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei.

Portion of gill covered with basidia

Basidium

Cap

Gill Annulus Stalk Basidiospore Button

+ Basidiospore Basidiospore

Soil, plant litter

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Fungal Classification
Kingdom Eumycota is subdivided into several phyla based upon the type of sexual reproduction: 1. Phylum Zygomycota zygospores; mostly sporangiospores and some conidia 2. Phylum Ascomycota ascospores; conidia 3. Phylum Basidiomycota basidiospores; conidia 4. Phylum Chytridomycota flagellated spores 5. Fungi that produce only Asexual Spores (Imperfect)

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Diversity of Fungi
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George Barron, University of Guelph, CANADA

George Barron, University of Guelph, CANADA

Kathy Park Talaro

Chytrid cells

Diatom cell 10.0 mm

Gregory M. Filip Joyce E. Longcore, University of Maine

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Fungal Identification
Isolation on specific media Macroscopic and microscopic observation of:
Asexual spore-forming structures and spores Hyphal type Colony texture and pigmentation Physiological characteristics Genetic makeup

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Roles of Fungi
Adverse impact
Mycoses, allergies, toxin production Destruction of crops and food storages

Beneficial impact
Decomposers of dead plants and animals Sources of antibiotics, alcohol, organic acids, vitamins Used in making foods and in genetic studies

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Human Fungal Infections

43

Concept Check:
Fungi are generally classified according to their

A. Type of sexual spore B. Type of asexual spore C. Type of hyphae D. Type of habitat

44

The Protists
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Algae - eukaryotic organisms, usually unicellular and colonial, that photosynthesize with chlorophyll a Protozoa - unicellular eukaryotes that lack tissues and share similarities in cell structure, nutrition, life cycle, and biochemistry

Taxonomy Based on mRNA Analysis Metazoa Myxozoa Choanoflagellates Zygomycota Ascomycota Basidiomycota Chytridiomycota (chytrids) Land plants Green algae Cryptomonads

Traditional Kingdoms and Subcategories

Animals

Kingdom Animalia

True Fungi (Eumycota)

Kingdom Eumycota

Plants EVOLUTIONARY ADVANCEMENT OF THE EUKARYOTES

Kingdom Plantae Kingdom Protista Division Chlorophyta Division Rhodophyta

Red algae Golden-brown and yellow-green alga Xanthophytes Brown algae Diatoms Water molds (Oomycota) Ciliates Colponema Dinoflagellates Haplosporidia Apicomplexans Entamoebids

Division Chrysophyta

Stramenopiles (formerly heterokonts or chrysophytes)

Division Phaeophyta Division Bacillariophyta

Phylum Ciliophora Division Pyrrophyta Phylum Apicomplexa

Alveolates

Entamoebae

Phylum Sarcomastigophora Amoeboflagellates Kinetoplastids Euglenids Division Euglenophyta

Lack mitochondria

Parabasilids (Trichomonas) Diplomonads (Giardia) Oxymonads Microsporidia

Phylum Sarcomastigophora

Universal Ancestor

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Algae
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Photosynthetic organisms Microscopic forms are unicellular, colonial, filamentous Macroscopic forms are colonial and multicellular Contain chloroplasts with chlorophyll and other pigments Cell wall May or may not have flagella

Ribosomes

Flagellum Mitochondrion Nucleus Nucleolus Chloroplast Golgi apparatus Cytoplasm Cell membrane Starch vacuoles Cell wall

(a)

Algal Cell

46
Jan Hinsch/Photo Researchers, Inc

(b)

Algae
Most are free-living in fresh and marine water plankton Provide basis of food web in most aquatic habitats Produce large proportion of atmospheric O2 Dinoflagellates can cause red tides and give off toxins that cause food poisoning with neurological symptoms
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Algae Classification
Classified according to types of pigments and cell wall Used for cosmetics, food, and medical products

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Protozoa
Diverse group of 65,000 species Vary in shape, lack a cell wall Most are unicellular; colonies are rare Most are harmless, free-living in a moist habitat Some are animal parasites and can be spread by insect vectors All are heterotrophic lack chloroplasts Cytoplasm divided into ectoplasm and endoplasm Feed by engulfing other microbes and organic matter
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Protozoa
Most have locomotor structures flagella, cilia, or pseudopods Exist as trophozoite motile feeding stage Many can enter into a dormant resting stage when conditions are unfavorable for growth and feeding cyst All reproduce asexually, mitosis or multiple fission; many also reproduce sexually conjugation
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Trophozoite (active, feeding stage)

Trophozoite is reactivated.

Cell rounds up, loses motility.

Cyst wall breaks open. Early cyst wall formation

Mature cyst (dormant, resting stage)

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Protozoan Identification
Classification is difficult because of diversity Simple grouping is based on method of motility, reproduction, and life cycle
1. Mastigophora primarily flagellar motility, some flagellar and amoeboid; sexual reproduction 2. Sarcodina primarily amoeba; asexual by fission; most are free-living 3. Ciliophora cilia; trophozoites and cysts; most are free-living, harmless 4. Apicomplexa motility is absent except male gametes; sexual and asexual reproduction; complex life cycle all parasitic
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Mastigophora
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Flagellum

Ribosomes
Mitochondrion Endoplasmic reticulum Nucleus Pellicle Nucleolus Cell membrane Golgi apparatus Water vacuole Centrioles

Cell membrane Glycocalyx

Janice Carr/CDC

(a)

Protozoan Cell

(b)

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Sarcodina
Food vacuoles Nucleus

(a)

Pseudopods

Contractile vacuoles

David Patterson/MBL/Biological Discovery in Woods Hole

(b)

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Ciliophora
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Food vacuoles

Oral cilia in groove

Macronucleus Micronucleus Gullet Water vacuole (a)

Eric Russell, BioMEDIA ASSOCIATES Yuuji Tsukii, Protist Information Server

(b)

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Apicomplexa
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Cytostome

Food vacuoles

Nucleus

Cell membrane Cytostome (mouth) Food vacuole Endoplasmic reticulum Mitochondrion

ASM

Nucleus

(a)

Michael Riggs et al, Infection and Immunity, Vol. 62, #5, May 1994, p. 1931

(b)

55

Pathogenic Protozoa

56

Important Protozoan Pathogens

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Pathogenic flagellates
Trypanosomes Trypanosoma T. brucei African sleeping sickness T. cruzi Chagas disease; South America
Reduviid bug Cycle in Human Dwellings (a) Infective Trypanosome

(b) Mode of infection Cycle in the Wild

57

Important Protozoan Pathogens

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Infective amoebas
Entamoeba histolytica amebic dysentery; worldwide

Cysts in food, water

(a)

Stomach Trophozoites released Mature trophozoites

(b)
Large intestine site of infection (c) Small intestine

Eaten Cysts exit

Mature cysts

(d) Food, water Feces

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Concept Check:
Which of the following descriptions is true of both Algae and Protozoa?

A. They are both photosynthetic

B. They are both always unicellular C. They both contain mitochondria D. They are both heterotrophs
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Parasitic Helminths
Multicellular animals, organs for reproduction, digestion, movement, protection Parasitize host tissues Have mouthparts for attachment to or digestion of host tissues Most have well-developed sex organs that produce eggs and sperm Fertilized eggs go through larval period in or out of host body

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Major Groups of Parasitic Helminths

1. Flatworms flat, no definite body cavity; digestive tract a blind pouch; simple excretory and nervous systems
Cestodes (tapeworms) Trematodes or flukes, are flattened, nonsegmented worms with sucking mouthparts

2. Roundworms (nematodes) round, a complete digestive tract, a protective surface cuticle, spines and hooks on mouth; excretory and nervous systems poorly developed
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Helminth Classification and Identification

Classify according to shape, size, organ development, presence of hooks, suckers, or other special structures, mode of reproduction, hosts, and appearance of eggs and larvae Identify by microscopic detection of worm, larvae, or eggs
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.

Oral sucker Esophagus

Pharynx Intestine

Ventral sucker Cuticle Vas deferens Uterus Cuticle Testes Scolex Proglottid Seminal receptacle Ovary

(a)

Suckers

Immature eggs

Fertile eggs

(b)

Excretory bladder

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Distribution and Importance of Parasitic Worms

Approximately 50 species parasitize humans Distributed worldwide; some restricted to certain geographic regions with higher incidence in tropics Acquired through ingestion of larvae or eggs in food; from soil or water; some are carried by insect vectors Afflict billions of humans
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Lifecycle of the Pinworm

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Copulatory spicule Anus Mouth

Female

Eggs

Male

Selfinfection

Cuticle Mouth Fertile egg

Autoinoculation Crossinfection

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Concept Check:
Helminths are in the Domain ________ and in the Kingdom ___________.

65