Chapter 5 Signal Encoding and Modulation Techniques

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Encoding and Modulation Techniques

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Digital Signaling Versus Analog Signaling

Digital signaling
Digital or analog data is encoded into a digital signal Encoding may be chosen to conserve bandwidth or to minimize error

Analog Signaling
Digital or analog data modulates analog carrier signal The frequency of the carrier fc is chosen to be compatible with the transmission medium used Modulation: the amplitude, frequency or phase of the carrier signal is varied in accordance with the modulating data signal by using different carrier frequencies, multiple data signals (users) can share the same transmission medium
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Digital Signaling
Digital data, digital signal
Simplest encoding scheme: assign one voltage level to binary one and another voltage level to binary zero More complex encoding schemes: are used to improve performance (reduce transmission bandwidth and minimize errors). Examples are NRZ-L, NRZI, Manchester, etc.

Analog data, Digital signal

Analog data, such as voice and video Often digitized to be able to use digital transmission facility Example: Pulse Code Modulation (PCM), which involves sampling the analog data periodically and quantizing the samples
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Analog Signaling
Digital data, Analog Signal
A modem converts digital data to an analog signal so that it can be transmitted over an analog line The digital data modulates the amplitude, frequency, or phase of a carrier analog signal Examples: Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK), Frequency Shift Keying (FSK), Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Analog data, Analog Signal

Analog data, such as voice and video modulate the amplitude, frequency, or phase of a carrier signal to produce an analog signal in a different frequency band Examples: Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation (FM), Phase Modulation (PM)
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Digital Data, Digital Signal Digital signal

discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses each pulse is a signal element binary data encoded into signal elements

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Periodic signals
Data element: a single binary 1 or 0 Signal element: a voltage pulse of constant amplitude Unipolar: All signal elements have the same sign Polar: One logic state represented by positive voltage the other by negative voltage Data rate: Rate of data (R) transmission in bits per second Duration or length of a bit: Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit (Tb=1/R) Modulation rate: Rate at which the signal level changes, measured in baud = signal elements per second. Depends on type of digital encoding used.
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Interpreting Signals
Need to know
timing of bits: when they start and end signal levels: high or low

factors affecting signal interpretation

Data rate: increase data rate increases Bit Error Rate (BER) Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR): increase SNR decrease BER Bandwidth: increase bandwidth increase data rate encoding scheme: mapping from data bits to signal elements

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Comparison of Encoding Schemes signal spectrum

Lack of high frequencies reduces required bandwidth, lack of dc component allows ac coupling via transformer, providing isolation, should concentrate power in the middle of the bandwidth

Clocking
synchronizing transmitter and receiver with a sync mechanism based on suitable encoding

error detection
useful if can be built in to signal encoding

signal interference and noise immunity cost and complexity: increases when increases data rate
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Encoding Schemes
Positive level (+5V) Negative level (-5V)

Positive level (+5V) No line signal (0V) Negative level (-5V)

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Encoding Schemes

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NonReturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L) Two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits Voltage constant during bit interval
no transition, i.e. no return to zero voltage more often, negative voltage for binary one and positive voltage for binary zero

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NonReturn to Zero INVERTED (NRZI)

Nonreturn to zero inverted on ones Constant voltage pulse for duration of bit Data encoded as presence or absence of signal transition at beginning of bit time
transition (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1 no transition denotes binary 0

Example of differential encoding since have

data represented by changes rather than levels more reliable detection of transition rather than level

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Advantages and disadvantages of NRZ-L, NRZI

Advantages
easy to engineer good use of bandwidth

Disadvantages
dc component lack of synchronization capability

Unattractive for signal transmission applications

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Multilevel Binary Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI) Use more than two levels (three levels, positive, negative and no line signal) Bipolar-AMI
zero represented by no line signal one represented by positive or negative pulse one pulses alternate in polarity no loss of sync if a long string of ones long runs of zeros still a problem no net dc component lower bandwidth easy error detection
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Multilevel Binary Pseudoternary Binary one represented by absence of line signal Binary zero represented by alternating positive and negative pulses No advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-AMI Each used in some applications

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Multilevel Binary Issues

Advantages:
No loss of synchronization if a long string of 1s occurs, each introduce a transition, and the receiver can resynchronize on that transition No net dc component, as the 1 signal alternate in voltage from negative to positive Less bandwidth than NRZ Pulse alternating provides a simple mean for error detection

Disadvantages
receiver distinguishes between three levels: +A, -A, 0 a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits requires approx. 3dB more signal power for same probability of bit error
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Theoretical Bit Error Rate (BER) For Various Encoding Schemes

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Manchester Encoding
has transition in middle of each bit period low to high represents binary one transition serves as clock and data high to low represents binary zero used by IEEE 802.3 (Ethernet) LAN standard

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Differential Manchester Encoding

midbit transition is clocking only transition at start of bit period representing binary 0 no transition at start of bit period representing binary 1 used by IEEE 802.5 token ring LAN

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Advantages and disadvantages of Manchester Encoding

Disadvantages
at least one transition per bit time and possibly two maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ
R L D : Modulation rate , [baud ] R : Data Rate , [bps ] L : number of bits per signal elements D=

requires more bandwidth

Advantages
synchronization on mid bit transition (self clocking codes) has no dc component has error detection capability (the absence of an expected transition can be used to detect errors)

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Modulation Rate versus Data Rate

Data rate (expressed in bps)
Data rate or bit rate R=1/Tb=1/1s=1Mbps

Modulation Rate (expressed in baud) is the rate at which signal elements are generated
Maximum modulation rate for Manchester is D=1/(0.5Tb)=2/1s=2Mbaud

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Scrambling
Use scrambling to replace sequences that would produce constant voltage These filling sequences must
produce enough transitions to maintain synchronization be recognized by receiver & replaced with original be same length as original

Design goals
have no dc component have no long sequences of zero level line signal have no reduction in data rate give error detection capability
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B8ZS and HDB3

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Bipolar with 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS) To overcome the drawback of the AMI code that a long string of zeros may result in loss of synchronization, the encoding is amended with the following rules:
If 8 zeros occurs and the last voltage pulse was positive, then the 8 zeros are encoded as 000+0+ If zeros occurs and the last voltage pulse was negative, then the 8 zeros are encoded as 000+0+

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High Density Bipolar-3 zeros (HDB3)

The scheme replaces strings with 4 zeros by sequences containing one or two pulses In each case, the fourth zero is replaced with a code violation (V) successive violations are of alternate polarity

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Digital Data, Analog Signal Main use is public telephone system

has freq range of 300Hz to 3400Hz use modem (modulator-demodulator)

The digital data modulates the amplitude A, frequency fc , or phase of a carrier signal

A cos( 2f c t + )

Modulation techniques
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
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Modulation Techniques

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)

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Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)

In ASK, the two binary values are represented by to different amplitudes of the carrier frequency The resulting modulated signal for one bit time is
A cos( 0f c t ), binary 0 s (t ) = , binary 0 0

Susceptible to noise Inefficient modulation technique used for

up to 1200bps on voice grade lines very high speeds over optical fiber
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Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)

The most common form of FSK is Binary FSK (BFSK) Two binary values represented by two different frequencies ( f1 and f2 )
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

t A cos( 0f0 ), binary 0 s (t ) = t A cos( 0f 0 ), binary 0

f2

f2

f1

f1

f2

f1

f2

f2

f2

f1

f2

less susceptible to noise than ASK used for

up to 1200bps on voice grade lines high frequency radio (3 to 30MHz) even higher frequency on LANs using coaxial cable
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Full-Duplex BFSK Transmission on a Voice-Grade line

Voice grade lines will pass voice frequencies in the range 300 to 3400Hz Full duplex means that signals are transmitted in both directions at the same time

f1

f2

f3

f4

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Multiple FSK (MFSK)

More than two frequencies (M frequencies) are used More bandwidth efficient compared to BFSK More susceptible to noise compared to BFSK MFSK signal:
si (t ) = A cos( 2f i t ), where f i = f c + (2i 1 M ) f d f c = the carrier frequency f d = the difference frequency M = number of different signal elements = 2 L L = number of bits per signal element
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1i M

Multiple FSK (MFSK)

MFSK signal:
where f i = f c + (2i 1 M ) f d M = number of different signal elements = 2 L L = number of bits per signal element si (t ) = A cos( 2f i t ), 1i M

Period of signal element

Ts = LTb , 1 / Ts = 2 f d Ts : signal element period Tb : bit period

Minimum frequency separation

1 /( LTb ) = 2 f d 1 / Tb = 2 Lf d (bit rate )

MFSK signal bandwidth:

Wd = M ( 2 f d ) = 2 Mf d
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Example
With fc=250KHz, fd=25KHz, and M=8 (L=3 bits), we have the following frequency assignment for each of the 8 possible 3-bit f i = f c + ( 2i 1 M ) f d data combinations:
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111 f1 = 75 KHz f 2 = 125 KHz f 3 = 175 KHz f 4 = 225 KHz bandwidth = Ws = 2 Mf d = 400 KHz f 5 = 275 KHz f 6 = 325 KHz f 7 = 375 KHz f 8 = 425 KHz

This scheme can support a data rate of:

1 / Tb = 2 Lf d = 2(3bits )( 25 Hz ) = 150 Kbps
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Example
The following figure shows an example of MFSK with M=4. An input bit stream of 20 bits is encoded 2bits at a time, with each of the possible 2-bit combinations transmitted as a different frequency. f i = f c + (2i 1 M ) f d
00 01 10 11 i =1 i =2 i =3 i =4 f1 = f c 3 f d f2 = fc fd f3 = fc + f d f4 = fc + 3 fd

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Phase Shift Keying (PSK)

Phase of carrier signal is shifted to represent data Binary PSK (BPSK): two phases represent two binary digits binary 0 A cos( 0f c t ),
s (t ) = A cos( 0f c t + ), binary 0 binary 0 A cos( 0f c t ), = A cos( 0f c t ), binary 0 = Ad (t ) cos( 0f c t ),
1 0 0 1 0 0

d (t ) = 0
0 0 1 0 0

1 0

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Differential PSK (DPSK)

In DPSK, the phase shift is with reference to the previous bit transmitted rather than to some constant reference signal Binary 0:signal burst with the same phase as the previous one Binary 1:signal burst of opposite phase to the preceding one

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Four-level PSK: Quadrature PSK (QPSK)

More efficient use of bandwidth if each signal element represents more than one bit
eg. shifts of /2 (90o) each signal element represents two bits split input data stream in two & modulate onto the phase of the carrier

A cos( 2f c t + ) 4 3 A cos( 2f c t + ) 4 s (t ) = 3 A cos( 2f c t + ) 4 A cos( 2f c t 4 )

11 01 00 10

can use 8 phase angles & more than one amplitude

9600bps modem uses 12 phase angles, four of which have two amplitudes: this gives a total of 16 different signal elements
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QPSK and Offset QPSK (OQPSK) Modulators

QPSK : OQPSK :

0 I (t ) cos( 0f c t ) 0 0 s (t ) = I (t ) cos( 0f c t ) 0 s (t ) =

0 Q (t ) sin( 0f c t ) 0 0 Q (t Tb ) sin( 0f c t ) 0

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Example of QPSK and OQPSK Waveforms

for QPSK : 1 1 1 1

3 4 3 0 0 1 1 4 1 0 1 1 4 0 1 1 1

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Performance of ASK, FSK, MFSK, PSK and MPSK

Bandwidth Efficiency
ASK/PSK: MPSK:
data rate R 1 = = , transmissi on bandwidth BT 1 + r 0 < r <1

R log 2 M = , BT 1+ r

M : number of different signal elements

R log 2 M = MFSK: BT (1 + r ) M

Bit Error Rate (BER)

bit error rate of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB superior to ASK and FSK (see Fig. 5.4) for MFSK & MPSK have tradeoff between bandwidth efficiency and error performance

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Performance of MFSK and MPSK

MFSK: increasing M decreases BER and decreases bandwidth Efficiency MPSK: Increasing M increases BER and increases bandwidth efficiency

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Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line (ADSL) and some wireless standards combination of ASK and PSK logical extension of QPSK send two different signals simultaneously on same carrier frequency
use two copies of carrier, one shifted by 90 each carrier is ASK modulated

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QAM modulator

QAM :

s (t ) = d0 t ) cos( 0f c t ) + d 0 t ) sin( 0f c t ) ( ( 00 000 0 0 0 0 0

ASK ASK

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QAM Variants Two level ASK (two different amplitude levels)

each of two streams in one of two states four state system essentially QPSK

Four level ASK (four different amplitude levels)

combined stream in one of 16 states

Have 64 and 256 state systems Improved data rate for given bandwidth
but increased potential error rate
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