NETWORKING FUNDAMENTALS

Selected Concepts

WHAT IS A NETWORK?

A network is simply two or more computers that are linked together. The most common types of networks are:

Local Area Networks (LANS) and Wide Area Networks (WANS).

The primary difference between the two is that a LAN is generally confined to a limited geographical area, whereas a WAN covers a large geographical area. Most WANs are made up of several connected LANs.

TYPES OF NETWORKS

Local Area Network (LAN) a network that spans a small area such as a building or an office.

Software applications and other resources are stored on a file server. Print servers enable multiple users to share the same printer.

Wide Area Network (WAN) a network that spans a wide geographical area; there are several types of WANS

Metropolitan area network (MAN) Public access network (PAN) Value added network (VAN) Virtual private network (VPN)

TYPES OF NETWORKS

Intranet An intranet is a private LAN designed for use by everyone within an organization. An intranet might consist of an internal e-mail system, a message board and one or more Web site portals that contain company news, forms, and personnel information. Access to an intranets web site is restricted by a firewall.

Extranet a network that connects people within your company with people who are outside your company-all within a secure, password-protected network that can be accessed from anywhere. Backbone Networks This are high-bandwidth channels that typically connect LANs with each other and are often referred to as backbones.

 Peer-to-Peer

Networks - A peer-to peer network is a network where the computers act as both workstations and servers.

Share files, send messages, and print to a shared printer. Each computer has similar capabilities and responsibilities. Each user decides which data and devices to share. No central point of control in the network. Best if there are ten or fewer computers.

Advantage of Peer-to-Peer
Less

initial expense - No need for a dedicated server. - An operating system (such as Windows XP) already in place may only need to be reconfigured for peer-to-peer operations.

Setup

Disadvantage of Peer-to-Peer
Decentralized

- No central repository for files and applications. - Does not provide the security available on a client/server network.

Security

 Client/Server

Network - A client server

network is defined as specific type of online network comprised of a single central computer acting as a server that directs multiple other computers, which are referred to as the clients.

By accessing the server, clients are then able to reach shared files and information saved on the serving computer. Further, client server networks are very similar in nature to peer to peer networks with the exception that it is only the server that can initiate a particular transaction.

Components of a Network

Servers - Sometimes called host computers, servers are powerful computers that store data or applications and connect to resources that are shared by the users of a network. Clients - These computers are used by the users of the network to access the servers and shared resources (such as hard disks and printers). These days, it is typical for a client to be a personal computer that the users also use for their own non-network applications. Channels - Also called the network circuit, the channel is the pathway over which information travels between the different computers (clients and servers) that comprise the network.

Channel

Server Client

Components of a Network

Interface devices - These are hardware devices that connect clients and servers (and sometimes other networks) to the channel. Examples include modems and network interface cards.

Operating systems - The network operating system is the software of the network. It serves a similar purpose that the operating system serves in a standalone computer.

BENEFITS OF A NETWORK

Information sharing: Hardware sharing: Software sharing:

Authorized users can use other computers on the network to access and share information and data. This could include special group projects, databases, etc. One device connected to a network, such as a printer or scanner, can be shared by many users. Instead of purchasing and installing a software program on each computer, it can be installed on the server. All of the users can then access the program from a single location.

Collaborative environment:

Users can work together on group projects by combining the power and capabilities of diverse equipment.

Ambrose, Bergerud, Busche, Morrison, and Wells-Pusins: IC3 BASICS, Thomson Course Technology, 2003

RISKS OF NETWORK COMPUTING

The security of a computer network is challenged everyday by:

Equipment malfunctions System failures

Note: equipment malfunctions and system failures may be caused by natural disasters such as floods, storms, or fires, and electrical disturbances

Computer hackers Virus attacks

COMMUNICATIONS MEDIA

Communications Channel

To transfer data from one computer to another requires some type of link through which the data can be transmitted. This link is known as the communications channel. To send data through the channel requires some type of transmission media, which may be either physical or wireless.

PHYSICAL MEDIA

Twisted-pair cable consists of two independently insulated wires twisted around each other (least expensive
type of cablethe kind that is used in many telephone systems)

Coaxial cable consists of an insulated center wire grounded by a shield of braided wire (the primary type of

cabling used by the cable television industry; it is more expensive than twisted pair)

Fiber-optic cable contains hundreds of clear fiberglass or plastic fibers (threads) (made from thin, flexible

glass tubing; bandwidth is greater, so it can carry more data; it is lighter than metal wires and is less susceptible to interference; it is fragile and expensive)

ISDN line a special digital telephone line that transmits and receives information at very high speeds

 Coaxial

Cable

Fiber-Optic

Cable

Twisted-pair Cable

ISDN

line

WIRELESS MEDIA

Microwave system transmits data via high-frequency radio signals through the atmosphere Satellite system receive transmitted signals, amplify them, and then transmit the signals to the appropriate locations Cellular technology uses antennae resembling telephone towers to pick up radio signals within a specific area (cell) Infrared technology transmits data as infrared light waves from one device to another, providing wireless links between PCs and peripherals
Note: The type selected is determined by the type of network, the size of the network, and the cost.

HOW ARE NETWORKS CATEGORIZED?

Networks

are usually classified using three properties:

Topology Protocol Architecture

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

Network Topology (or layout) refers to the way computers and peripherals are configured to form networks Bus topology all computers are linked by a single line of cable Star topology multiple computers and peripheral devices are linked to a central computer, called a host Ring topology each computer or workstation is connected to two other computers, with the entire network forming a circle Hybrid topology combine network layout types to meet their needs

Bus, Star, Ring Topology

Hybrid Topology

Networking Concepts and Technologies

A computer technician is required to configure and troubleshoot computers on a network. A computer technician should understand IP addressing, protocols, and other network concepts.

IP Addressing Fundamentals
OSI and TCP/IP
OSI Reference Model

TCP/IP

Terms used in this tutorial

7 Application Thistable is presented for reference purposes. 6 Presentation Application 5 first column shows the 7-layer OSI Reference Model, TheSession 4 is a model used todesign protocols that make networking Host to Host TCP port, UDP port whichTransport possible. (TCP/UDP) TheNetwork column Internet (IP) TCP/IP protocol stack in shows the 3 second IP address reference Linkthe OSI model. TCP/IP is the prevalent protocol to 2 Data Network Interface MAC address stack for data networking. 1 Physical The third column shows that an IP address is a layer 3 (L3) address, as well as its relationship to the MAC address and TCP/UDP port, which are not covered in this tutorial.

The IP address is a 32-bit address that consists of two components.

IP Address

One component is the network portion of the address, consisting of the network bits. The network bits make up the left portion of the address.

They consist of the first bit up to some boundary, to be discussed later.

The second component is the host portion of the address, consisting of the host bits.

The host bits make up the right portion of the address. They consist of the remaining bits not included with the network bits.

IP Address
Dotted decimal notation

Machines read the IP address as a stream of 32 bits. However, for human consumption, the IP address is written in dotted decimal notation.

The 32-bit address is divided into 4 groups of 8 bits (an octet or a byte). Each octet is written as a decimal number ranging from 0 to 255. The decimal numbers are separated by periods, or dots.

IP Address Classes

Class A

Large networks, implemented by large companies and some countries Medium-sized networks, implemented by universities Small networks, implemented by ISP for customer subscriptions Special use for multicasting Used for experimental testing

Class B

Class C

Class D

Class E

Subnet Masks

Subnet masks are used to make classful networks more manageable and efficient, by creating smaller subnets and reducing the number of host addresses per subnet to what is actually required. Subnet masks were first used on class boundaries. Example

Take class A network 10.0.0.0 with network mask 255.0.0.0. Add additional 8 subnet bits to network mask. New subnet mask is 255.255.0.0. New subnets are 10.0.0.0, 10.1.0.0, 10.2.0.0, and so on with 65534 host addresses per subnet. Still too many hosts per subnet. Take class A network 10.0.0.0 with network mask 255.0.0.0. Add additional 16 subnet bits to network mask. New subnet mask is 255.255.255.0 New subnets are 10.0.0.0, 10.0.1.0, 10.0.2.0, , 10.1.0.0, 10.1.1.0, 10.1.2.0, , 10.2.0.0, 10.2.1.0, 10.2.2.0, and so on with 254 host addresses per subnet.

Example

Subnets (continued)

Example

Take class B network 172.16.0.0 with network mask 255.255.0.0. Add additional 8 subnet bits to network mask. New subnet mask is 255.255.255.0 New subnets are 172.16.0.0, 172.16.1.0, 172.16.2.0, and so on with 254 host addresses per subnet.

As shown in these examples

A class A network can be subnetted to create 256 (28) /16 subnets. A class A network can be subnetted to create 65536 (216) /24 subnets. A class B network can be subnetted to create 256 (28) /24 subnets.

IP Address Configuration

Manual configuration

Manually configure each device with the proper IP address and subnet mask. A Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server automatically assigns IP addresses to network hosts.

Dynamic configuration

Network Interface Card (NIC) is the hardware that enables a computer to connect to a network and it has two addresses:

The IP address is a logical address that can be changed. The Media Access Control (MAC) address is "burned-in" or permanently programmed into the NIC when manufactured. The MAC address cannot be changed.

NETWORK/COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS
A protocol is simply an agreed-on set of rules and procedures for transmitting data between two or more devices. Features determined by the protocol are:

How the sending device indicates it has finished sending the message. How the receiving device indicates it has received the message. The type of error checking to be used.

NETWORK/COMMUNICATIONS PROTOCOLS
Most

networks use Ethernet, but some network may use IBMs Token Ring protocol. On the Internet, the major protocol is TCP/IP (an acronym for Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol).

EXAMPLE OF AN ETHERNET BUS

Ethernet LANs use a bus topology. All stations are connected to a single long cable. Any station can send a signal along the cable, which all other stations will receive. Unlike ring topologies, the cable doesn't close a loop.

TOKEN RING NETWORK

A token passing ring LAN is a group of computers connected in a loop. The group uses a token passing access mechanism. A computer wishing to send data should first receive permission. When it gets control of the network it may transmit a frame. Each frame transmitted on the ring is transmitted from one computer to the next, until it ultimately returns to the initiator of the transmission.

INTERNET PROTOCOLS

NETWORKING HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Hub electronic device (with a number of ports) used in a LAN to link groups of computers Repeaters (also called amplifiers) electronic devices that receive signals and amplify and send them along the network Routers - electronic devices used to ensure messages are sent to their intended destinations Gateway consists of hardware and/or software that allows communications between dissimilar networks Bridge consists of hardware and/or software that allows communication between two similar networks

HUBS

The original Ethernet LANs relied on certain physical characteristics of the cable carrying the network data (usually coaxial cable). New Ethernet technologies introduced new cable types that we unable to fulfill the original physical requirements. New devices - hubs were introduced to simulate those characteristics. Simply put, the hub's major function is to replicate data it receives from one device attached to it to all others.

REPEATERS
A common problem in the networking world is that of weakening electrical signals. Electrical signals traveling through wires (such as copper wires used in most networks), weaken due to the wire's electrical resistance. This effect limits the lengths of the cable that can be used. A repeater will overcome this limit, when there is a need to connect two computers at a larger distance. A repeater is connected to two cable segments. Any electrical signal reaching the repeater from one segment, will be amplified and retransmitted to the other segment.

An illustration of a repeater at work The electrical signal entering the repeater at one end is weakened. The repeater amplifies the electrical signals and resends the data.

ROUTERS

Routers connect two or more networks and forward data packets between them. When data arrives from one of the segments, the router decides, according to it's routing table, to which segment to forward that data.

GATEWAY
"Gateway" is a term that was once used to refer to a routing device. Today, in the TCP/IP world, the term "router" is used to describe such a device. The term gateway now refers to special-purpose devices, that perform protocol conversions. Gateways implement application layer conversions of information received from various protocols.

Examples of gateways found on today's markets are:

VocalTec Gateway: A gateway that converts human speech traveling on analog phone lines into local area network protocol data, and visa-versa. RadVision Gateway: Converts video from digital phone lines into local area network protocol data, and visa-versa.

MODEMS

An illustration of data sent using a modem and a regular telephone line. A modem is a device that converts digital data originating from a terminal or computer, to analog signals used by voice communication networks such as the telephone system. At one end, modems convert the digital pulses to audible tones and convert audio tones back to digital pulses at the other. The word "Modem" stands for "MOdulator-DEModulator".

MODEMS

Transmission speed Modems are available in different transmission speeds, which are measured in BPS (bits per second) also called BAUD rate. Standard modems speeds: 9600 baud, 14400 baud, 28800 baud, 33600 baud, 56800 baud.

Internal/External Internal modems are electronic cards. An internal modem is installed in one of the computer's expansion slot. External modems are fully functioning external devices. The external modem is connected to a computer using a serial cable to one of the computer's serial ports, and draws power from an external power source.

EXAMPLE OF FIREWALL

Firewalls are systems that establish access control policies among networks. They can block information from entering a network or from getting out of that network, they can permit different users to perform different kinds of operations, according to the user's authorizations.

NETWORK ARCHITECTURE

Network architecture refers to the way a network is designed and built. The two major types are:

Peer-to-peer architecture Computers connect with each other in a workgroup to share files, printers, and Internet access. This is used to connect a small number of computers. Client/server architecture sends information from a client computer to a server, which then relays the information back to the client computer, or to other computers on the network

COMMUNICATION PROTOCOLS

used to transmit files. Simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP) used to transmit e-mail messages. Post office protocol (POP) allows the recipient to retrieve messages. Wireless application protocol enables wireless devices to access and use the Internet using a client/server network. 802.11 protocol for wireless LAN technology
File transfer protocol (FTP)

DATA TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS

Bandwidth (rate of transmission) This property of network channel describes how fast information can be transmitted over the channel. It is measured in bits per second (bps) . Transmission Directional Capability: The direction in which information can be transmitted over a channel depends on whether the channel is simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex. (three modes of transmission.
Simplex: Information can be transmitted only in one direction Half-duplex: Information can be transmitted in both directions, but only in one direction at a time Full-duplex: Information can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously Note: 1000 bps = 1 Kbps (kilobit per second); 1000Kbps = 1 Mbps (megabit per second); 1000Mbps = 1Gbps (gigabit per second).

DATA TRANSMISSION CHARACTERISTICS

Analog or Digital (type of signal) Analog transmission takes the form of continuous waves transmitted over a medium at a certain frequency rage Digital transmission sends data in the form of bits Serial or Parallel (order of bits) Serial transmission all of the data bits are transmitted one bit after another in a continuous line Parallel transmission data bits are sent at the same time along multiple paths

COMMUNICATIONS SOFTWARE

E-Mail Software used to send and receive electronic messages using the Internet Web Browser allows users to access and view Web pages Groupware allows groups of people on a network to share information and to collaborate on various projects

Troubleshooting Process
Step 1 Identify the problem Step 2 Establish a theory of probable causes Step 3 Determine an exact cause Step 4 Implement a solution Step 5 Verify solution and full system functionality Step 6 Document findings