Core Of The Embedded System

Embedded systems are domain and application specific and are build around a central core.

Categories
The core of embedded system falls into any one of the following categories:
General purpose and domain specific processors
Microprocessors Microcontrollers Digital Signal Processors

Application Specific Integrated Circuits(ASICs) Programmable Logic Devices(PLDs) Commercial off-the-shelf Components(COTS)

General Purpose & Domain Specific Processors

Almost 80% of Embedded Systems are processor/Controller based. The processor may be a micro-processor or a microcontroller or a digital signal processor depending on the domain and application.
Eg. Embedded systems in industrial control and monitoring applications make use of microprocessor or microcontroller where as domains which require signal processing such as speech coding, speech recognition make use of digital signal processors.

Microprocessors
A microprocessor is a silicon chip representing a CPU capable of performing arithmetic as well logical operations according to a predefined set of instructions, which is specific to the manufacturer. It contains Arithmetic and logic unit, control unit and working registers. A microprocessor is a dependant unit and it requires combination of other hardware like memory, timer unit, and interrupt controllerect. For proper functioning.

Microprocessors
Different instruction set and system architecture are available for the design of a microprocessor. Harvard and von-neumann are two common architectures for processor design.
Processors based on harvard architecture contains seprate buses for program memory and data memory, whereas processors based on VonNeumann architecture shares a single system bus for program and data memory

Microprocessors
Reduced Instruction Set Computing(RISC) and Complex Instruction Set Computing(CISC)are two common Instruction Set Architectures (ISA) available for processor design.

General Purpose Procesor (GPP)vs. Application Specific Instruction Set Processor

A GPP is designed for general computational tasks. They are produced in large volumes and per unit cost for a chip is low compared to ASIC or other Ics. On other hand ASIPs have architecture and instruction set optimized to specific domain/application requirement like network processing, automotive, telecom, digital signal processing and control applications.

Microcontrollers
A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU, a scratch pad RAM, special & general purpose register arrays, on chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, timer and interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports. It can be considered as a super set of micriprocessor.

Microcontrollers
Microcontrollers found greater place in embedded domain since they contain all necessary functional blocks for independent working. They are cheap, cost effective and are readily available in market.

Microcontrollers
Texas Instruments TMS1000 is considered worlds first microcontroller. In 1977 Intel entered the microcontroller market with a family of modern microcontrollers named MCS-48 family. Another important family of microcontrollers used in industrial control and embedded applications is the PIC family microcontrollers from Micrichip.

Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller

Microprocessor
A silicon chip representing a central processing unit, which is capable of performing arithmetic as well as logical operations according to a predefined set of instructions. It is a dependant unit. It requires the combination of other chips like timers, program & data memory chips, interrupt controllers etc for functioning. Most of the time general purpose in design and operation.

Microcontroller
It is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU, scratchpad RAM, special & general purpose register arrays, on chip ROM, Flash memory for program storage, timer & interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports. It is a self contained unit & it does not require external interrupt controller, timer, UART etc for its functioning. Mostly application-oriented or domain specific.

Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller

Microprocessor
Doesnt contain a built in I/O port. The I/O port functionality needs to be implemented with the help of a external programmable peripheral interface chip like 8255. Targeted for high end market where performance is important. Limited power saving options compared to microcontrollers.

Microcontroller
Most of the processors contain multiple built-in I/O ports which can be operated as a single 8 or 16 0r 32 bit port or as individual port pins. Targeted for embedded market where performance is not so critical(At present this demarcation is not valid). Includes lot of power saving features.

Digital Signal Processors

DSPs are powerful special purpose 8/16/32 bit microprocessors designed specifically to meet the computational demands and power constraints of todays embedded audio,video and communication applications. DSPs are 2 to 3 times faster than general purpose microprocessors in signal processing applications. It is because of architectural difference between two.

Digital Signal Processors

DSPs implement algorithms in hardware which speeds up the execution where as general purpose processors implement the algorithm in firmware and speed of execution depends on clock for the processors. In general DSP can be viewed as a micrichip designed for performing high speed computational operations for addition, subtraction, multiplication & division.

Key Units of a DSP

Program memory
Memory for storing the program required by DSP to process the data.

Data Memory
Working memory for storing temporary variables and data/signal to be processed.

Computational Engine
Performs the signal processing in accordance with the stored program memory. Computational engine incorporates many specialized arithmetic units and each of them operates simultaneously to increase the execution speed. It also incorporates multiple hardware shifters for shifting operands and thereby saves execution time.

Key Units of a DSP

I/O Unit
Acts as an interface between the outside world and DSP. It is responsible for capturing signals to be processed and delivering the processed signals.

RISC vs. CISC Processors/Controllers

The term RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set computing. All RISC processors/controllers posses lesser number of instructions in the range of 30 to 40. CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computing. Its instruction set is complex and instructions are high in number.

RISC vs. CISC Processors/Controllers

From a programmer point of view RISC processors are comfortable because he/she needs to learn only few instructions where as in CISC processor more instructions are required to be learnt and should understand the context of usage of each instruction.

RISC vs CISC
RISC
Lesser number of instructions. Instruction pipelining and increased execution speed. Orthogonal instruction set ( allows each instruction to operate on any register and use any addressing mode). Operations are performed on registers only, the only memory operations are load and store.

CISC
Greater no of instructions. No instruction pipelining feature. Non-orthogonal instruction set (all instructions are not allowed to operate on any register and use anyaddressing mode. It is instruction specific). Operations are performed on registers or memory depending on the instruction.

RISC vs. CISC

RISC
A large number of registers are avaiable. Programmer needs to write more code to execute a task since the istructions are simpler ones. Single, fixed length instructions. Less silicon usage and pin count. With havard architecture.

CISC
Limited number of general purpose registers. Instructions are like macros in c language. A programmer can acheive the desired functionality with a single instruction which in turn provides the effect of using more simpler single instructions in RISC. Variable length instructions More silicon usage since more additional decoder logic is required to implement the complex instruction decoding. Can be harvard or von-neuman architecture.

Harvard vs. Von-Neuman Processor/Controller Architecture

The terms harvard and von-neuman refers to the processor architecture design. Microprocessors/controllers based on the Von-Neuman architecture share a single common single bus for fetching both instructions and data. Program instructions and data are stored in a common main memory. Von-Neuman based processors/controllers first fetch an instruction and then fetch the data to support the instruction fron code memory which slows down the controllers operation. It is also known as Princeton architecture, since it was developed by the Princeton University.

Harvard vs. Von-Neuman Processor/Controller Architecture

Microprocessors/controllers based on the Harvard architecture will have separate data bus and instruction bus which allows the data transfer and program fetching to occur simultaneously on both buses. With harvard architecture, the data memory can be read and written while the program memory is being accessed. These separated data memory and code memory buses allow one instruction to execute while the next instruction is fetched (pre-fetching).
The pre fetching theoretically allows much faster execution than von-neuman architecture. Since some additional hardware logic is required for the generation of control signals for this type of operation it adds silicon complexity to the system.

Harvard vs. Von-Neuman Architecture

I/O

CPU

Memory

Single Shared Bus

Program Memory

CPU

Data Memory

Harvard vs. Von-Neuman Architecture

Harvard Architecture
Separate buses for instruction and data fetching. Easier to pipeline, so high performance can be achieved . Comparatively high cost. No memory alignment problems. Since data memory and program memory are stored physically in different locations, no chances for accidental corruption of program memory.

Von-Neuman Architechture
Single shared bus for instruction and data fetching. Low performance compared to harvard architecture. Cheaper. Allows self modifying codes. Since data memory and program memory are stored physically in the same chip, chances for accidental corruption of program memory.

Big-Endian vs. Little Endian Processors/Controllers

Endianness specifies the order in which the data is stored in the memory by processor operations in a multibyte system(processors whose word size is greater than one byte). Suppose the word length is two byte then data can be stored in memory in two different ways:
Higher order of data byte at the higher memory and lower order of data byte at location just below the higher memory. Lower order of data byte at the higher memory and higher order of data byte at location just below the higher memory.

Little endian
Following figure means the lower order byteof the data is stored in memory at the lower address and higher order byte at the highest address. (The little end comes first).For example, a 4 byte long integer Byte3 Byte2 Byte1 Byte0 will be stored in the memory as shown below:

little-endian
Base Address+0 Byte 0 0x20000 (Base Address)

Byte0

Base Address+1

Byte 1

Byte1

0x20001 (Base Address +1)

0X20002 (Base Address +2)

Base Address+2 Base Address+3

Byte2 Byte 3

Byte2

Byte3

Ox20003 (Base Address +3)

Big-endian
Means the higher order byte of the data is stored in memory at the lowest address and the lower-order byte at the highest address. (The big end comes first.) For example, a 4 byte long integer Byte3 byte2 Byte1 Byte0 will be stored in the memory as follows:

Big-endian
Base Address+0 Byte 3 0x20000 (Base Address)

Byte3

Base Address+1

Byte 2

Byte2

0x20001 (Base Address +1)

0X20002 (Base Address +2)

Base Address+2 Base Address+3

Byte1 Byte 0

Byte1

Byte0

Ox20003 (Base Address +3)

Application Specific Integrated Circuit

Application Specific Integrated (ASIC) is a microchip designed to perform a specific or unique application. It is used as replacement to conventional general purpose logic chips. It integrates several functions into a single chip and thereby reduces the system development cost. Most of the ASICs are proprietary products.

Application Specific Integrated Circuit

As a single chip ASIC consumes a very small area in the total system and thereby helps in design of smaller systems with high capabilities/functionalities. ASIcs can be pre fabricated for a special application or it can be custom fabricated by using the components from a reusable building block library of components for a particular customer application. ASIC based systems are profitable only for large volume commercial productions. Fabrication of ASICs requires a non-refundable initial investment for the process technology and configuration expenses. This investment is known as NRE and it is one time investement.

Application Specific Integrated Circuit

If non-recurring engineering charges is borne by a third party and the application Specific Integrated Circuit(ASIC) is made openly available in the market, the ASIC is referred as Application Specific Standard Product (ASSP). The ASSP is marketed to multiple customers just as a general purpose product is, but to a smaller number of customers since it is for a specific application.

Application Specific Integrated Circuit

Since ASICs are proprietary products, the developers of such chips may not be interested in revealing the internal details of it and hence it is very difficult to point out an example of it. Moreover it will create legal disputes if an illustration of such an ASIC product is given without getting prior permission from the manufacturer of the ASIC.

Programmable Logic Devices

Logic devices provide specific functions, including device to device interfacing, data communication, signal processing, data display, timing and control operations, and almost every other function a system must perform. Logic devices can be classified into two broad categories:
Fixed Programmable

Programmable Logic Devices

As the name indicates, the circuit in a fixed logic device are permanent, they perform one function or set of functions once manufactured, they cannot be changed. On the other hand programmable logic devices(PLDs)offer customer a wide range of logic capacity, features, speed, and voltage characteristics- and these devices can be reconfigured to perform any number of functions at any time.

Programmable Logic Devices

With programmable logic devices, designers use inexpensive software tools to quickly develop, simulate and test their design. Then a design can be quickly programmed into a device, immediately tested in a live circuit. The PLD that is used for this programming is exact same PLD that will be used in the final production of a piece of end equipment, such as a network router, DSL modem, a DVD player or an automotive navigation system.

Programmable Logic Devices

ryThere are no NRE costs and the final design is completed much faster than that of a custom, fixed logic device. Another key benefit of using PLDs is that during the design phase customers can change the circuitary as often as they want until the design operates to their satisfaction. It is because PLDs are based on re-writeable memory technology- to change the design, the device is simply repeogrammed. Once the design is final the customers can go into immediate production by simply programming as many PLDs as they need with final software design file.

CPLDs and FPGAs

Programmable logic devices are of two types
Field Programmable Gate Arrays(FPGAs) Cmplex Programmable Logic Devices(CPLDs)

FPGAs offer highest amount of logic density. The largest FPGGA provides 8 million system gates. They also have built-in hardwired processors, substantial amount of memory, clock management systems,and support for lates very fast device to device signaling technologies. FPGAs are used in applications as data processing, instrumentation, telecommunication and digital signal processing.

CPLDs and FPGAs

CPLDs offer much smaller amounts of logicabout 10,000 gates They offer very predictable timing characteristics and are therefore ideal for critical control applications. They require low amounts of power and are very inexpensive making them ideal for cost sensitive, battery operated, portable applications such as mobile phones and digital hand held assistants.

Advantages of PLDs
Programmable logic devices offer number of advantages over fixed logic devices:
They offer much more flexibility during the design cycle because design iterations are simply a matter of changing the programming file and the result of design changes can be seen immediately in working parts. They do not require long lead time for prototypes or production parts-the PLDs are already on a distributors shelf ready for shipment. They do not require customer to pay for large NRE costs and purchase expensive mask sets PLd supplier incurr those costs when they design their programmable devices and are able to amortize those costs over the multi-year lifespan of a given line of PLDs.

Advantages of PLDs
PLDs allow customers to order just the number of parts they need, when they need them, allowing them to control inventory. Customers who use fixed logic devices often end up with excess inventory which must be scrapped or if demand for their producr surges, they may be caught short of parts and face production delays. PLDs can be reprogramme even after a piece of equipment is shipped to a customer.

Commercial Off-the-Shelf Components (COTS)

A commercial off-the-shelf product is that which is used as-is. COTS products are designed in such a way to provide easy integration and interoperability with existing system components. The COTS component itself may be developed around a general purpose or domain specific processor or an application specific Integrated circuit or a programmable logic device.

Commercial Off-the-Shelf Components (COTS)

Typical examples of COTS hardware units are remote controlled toy car control units including the RF circuitory part, high performance, high frequency microwave electronics (2-200GHz), high bandwidth analog to digital convertor, devices and components for operation at very high temperatures, electro-optic IR imaging arrays UV/IR detectors etc.

Commercial Off-the-Shelf Components (COTS)

The major advantage of using COTS is that they are readily available in the market, are cheap and a developer can cut down his development time to a great extent, which in turn reduces the time to market embedded systems. Though multiple vendors supply COTS for the same application, the major problems faced by end user is that there are no operational and manufacturing standards.

Commercial Off-the-Shelf Components (COTS)

A commercial off the shelf component manufactured by a vendor need not have hardware plug-in and firmware interface compatibility with one manufactured by a second vendor for the same application. This restricts the end user to stick to a particular vendor for a particular COTS. This greatly affects the product design.

Commercial Off-the-Shelf Components (COTS)

The major drawback of using COTS components in embedded design is that the manufacturer of the COTS component may withdraw the product or discontinue the production of COTS at any time if a rapid change in technology occurs and this will adversely affect a commercial manufacturer of the embedded system which makes use of the specific COTS product.