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ADHESIVE BONDING
Function of adhesive To join components. Comprehensive bonding with substrate. Stress distribution is on large area. Stress distribution is uniform. Viscoelastic nature of polymer gives flexibility in the joint. Provide sealing affect to stop leakage.
Disadvantages of adhesive bonding Sensitive to peal and cleavage Require careful joint preparation. Limited shelf life or working time of adhesives. Sometime curing time is too long. Repair is almost impossible. Sensitive to heat and organic solvents. Direct inspection is not possible. Adhesive are prone to bacterial attack.
Adhesive bonding
Atoms seek to give or take electrons to stable themselves. Due to exchange of electrons they are +/- charged. At the joint interface when both +&- forces become equal ionic bond is formed. With covalent sharing of atoms covalent molecule is established.
ADHESIVES
Natural Adhesives
Animal-based adhesives (e.g., casein, collagen, gelatin) Plant-based adhesives (e.g., pitch, natural rubbers, asphalt) Mineral-based adhesives (e.g., sodium silicate, mineral-based sol-gels, calcium carbonate)
Synthetic Adhesives
Synthetic Organic Adhesives - Chemically-activated adhesives (e.g., cyanoacrylates, epoxies) - Heat or radiation-activated adhesives (e.g., one-component epoxies) - Evaporation or diffusion adhesives (e.g., phenolics) - Thermoplastic hot-melt adhesives - Pressure-sensitive (contact) adhesives
Synthetic Inorganic Adhesives - Portland cements - High-alumina, calcium aluminate cements - Mortars (e.g., gypsum) - Refractory cements - Dental cements - Glassy frits
Chemical etching and mechanical abrading important steps in adhesive bonding. 1. 2. 3. 4. Enhancing mechanical interlocking or anchoring. Creating clean and wettable surface. Increase in bond area due to an increase in the surface area. Formation of a chemical reactive surface.
The degree of wetting is controlled by the balance between the surface energy or surface tension of the liquidsolid interface versus the liquid vapor and solidvapor interfaces it replaces. It is believed that permanent adhesion results primarily from the forces of chemical bonding.
(3) Contamination of the adherend(s) by oil, grease, or adsorbed water (in some cases) due to improper cleaning; and
(4) Entrapped air at the interface.
Schematic illustration of the various mechanisms that can lead to adhesion during adhesive bonding: (a) mechanical interlocking of adhesive into asperities; (b) secondary bonding from adsorption with proper wetting from surface-energy effects; (c) electrostatic attraction from charge separation; and (d) diffusion of atoms or molecules back and forth between adhesive and adherends. Also, (e) the formation of a weak boundary layer leads to the adhesive failure of joints.
Stefan's equation:
f t = (a4) [1/(h12-h22)]
h1, h2 are initial and final clearance between adherends, is viscosity of the adhesive, a is the diameter or other dimensions of the contact, f is the force required to separate the surfaces, t is the time required to separate the surfaces. For considerable thicker layer Stefans equation become;
f t = (a2/h12)
Dirt, grease, cutting coolants and lubricants, ink or crayon marks, visible water (including dew, frost, and ice), obvious moisture (e.g., high humidity), and weak surface scales (e.g., oxides, sulfides, and other tarnishes) must be thoroughly removed. Cleaning Chemical, Physical, Mechanical or Combination Surface treatment steps 1. Solvent cleaning: Removal of soil from the surface without physically or
chemically altering the adherends.
(a) Vapour degreasing: Removal of loose adhering particulate matter, dirt, or light
soluble soils using hot solvent (e.g., trichloroethylene) vapor that condenses on the adherend and flows away debris. (b) Solvent wiping, immersion, or spraying: Several different solvents (e.g., ethanol, methanol, acetone, or trichloroethylene) for the removal of light or heavy soluble soils (e.g., oils, greases, waxes), dirt, and particulate matter.
(c) Ultrasonic vapor degreasing: The removal of more tenacious soil and insolubles
through the scrubbing action of collapsing bubbles (i.e., cavitation) arising from ultrasonic excitation of a liquid solvent.
2. Intermediate cleaning: A process of removing soil or scale from an adherend surface with physical, mechanical, or chemical means, singly or in combination, without altering the adherend chemically. These cleaning methods are aggressive enough that they may remove some small amounts of the parent material. Mechanical methods: Grit blasting, wire brushing, sanding, abrasive scrubbing, or
scraping or filing.
Chemical methods: Alkaline, acid, and detergent cleaning (often with scrubbing).
Activation of the surface Removal of adsorbed gases, intervening oxides, or other scales, and the exposure of atomically clean material. 4. Priming: Application of a dilute solution of the adhesives active bonding agent in a
suitable organic solvent to the surface of the adherend to produce a dried film thickness of 0.00150.05mm (0.000060.002 in.).
Functions:
(i) Protection from oxidation (ii) Improvement in wetting (iii) Barrier layer to prevent undesirable reactions (iv) Holds the adhesive during assembly (v) Coupling agents (if present) in the primer helps adhesion
Cohesive failure
Failure in the form of physical separation that results in a layer of adhesive remaining on both adherend surfaces or, more rarely, when the adherend fails before the adhesive fails, with separation occurring totally within one of the adherends.
Mix failure
Joint failure in service or during testing is usually neither purely adhesive nor cohesive; it is usually a mixture of both modes. The operative failure mode is often expressed as a percentage of cohesive or adhesive failure, with an ideal failure being 100% cohesive.
Causes of failure
Surface contaminations Poor wetting of adherent Improper selection of adhesive Improper joint design Stress on the joint
Design Considerations
(1) Providing the maximum bonding area possible in the design to help spread the applied load and minimize stress in the adhesive; (2) Designing the joint in such a way as to force loads to be transmitted to the joint in favorable loading directions (e.g., pure compression, pure tension, ormost achievablepure shear) (3) Orienting joints or designing joint elements or reinforcements in such a way as to minimize unfavorable out-of-plane (i.e., peel or cleavage) loading; (4) Designing joints to ensure uniformity in thickness of the adhesive layer and keeping this layer as thin as practical to maximize tensile and shear strengths (5) Designing joints and their elements in such a way that volatile components of the adhesive can be expelled or absorbed by the adherends; (6) Designing joints from combinations of materials that will minimize stresses arising from differences in coefficients of thermal expansion (especially for hard brittle adhesives, such as many of the inorganic types, including cements and mortars); (7) Designing joint elements and assemblies in such a way as to facilitate adhesive application, curing, and inspection.
The aim of good adhesive-bonded joint design is to obtain the maximum strength for a given area of bond for structural efficiency
1. Mech. props. of Adherends 2. Residual stresses in the joint 3. True interfacial contact 4. Type of loading 5. Joint geometry The ideal adhesive-bonded joint is one in which, under all practical loading conditions, the adhesive is stressed in the direction in which it best resists failure (i.e., shear).
SCARF JOINT
The maximum shear stress in the adhesive occurs at the ends of the lapjoint overlap and is given by: tmax / tmean = (P/2)1/2 coth (P/2)1/2
where tmean is the mean (or average) applied shear stress ( = F/bl), and P is given by:
P = Gl2 / Et1t2
where G is the shear modulus of the adhesive, l is the length of the joint or the overlap, E is Youngs (tensile) modulus for the adherends (assumed to be the same), t1 is the thickness of the adherends (also assumed to be the same), and t2 is the thickness of the adhesive.
As P becomes larger, the degree of stress concentration max / mean approaches 1.0 (1) the adhesive gets stiffer relative to the adherend; (2) the modulus of the adherend gets lower relative to the adhesive; (3) the extent of the overlap increases; and (4) either the adherend or adhesive or both get thinner.
k relate the bending moment on the adherend at the end of the overlap, Mo the applied in-plane loading, t thickness of the adherend (assumed to be the same for both adherends).
- The two opposing forces applied to the single lap joint are not co-linear, so there will be some bending applied to the joint in addition to the in-plane tension. - The adherends are not completely rigid; they bend, allowing the joint to rotate in an attempt to bring the load lines into co-linearity. Very small loads No rotation MO = Ft/2 and k = 1.0
Higher applied loads lead to severe out-of-plane stresses at the ends of overlaps for a single lap joint, and these lead to the joints failure in peel.
Some techniques for improving a joints resistance to peeling loads (1) Riveting or spot welding (2) Beading the end of the thin member of the joint to provide increased stiffness from moment of inertia; (3) Increasing the width of the thin member at the ends of the overlap; or (4) Increasing the stiffness of the adherend.
The stiffness of joints composed of thin adherends can be increased by using doublers above or below the primary adherend, strong-back stiffeners (e.g., Ts, Ls, inverted Ys, Zs, etc.), formed beads, or other techniques.
Chemically, mortars are mixtures of inorganic materials known as ceramics, The most popular mortar is Portland cement. Ceramic components comprising the cement or mortar bond to water molecules by forming hydrogen bonds with the water. Full hydration takes time to occur, so cements and mortars require time to cure.
It might take only hours or a day to become set to appear hard, but it often can take as long as 20 or more days to develop full strength.
Maximize the amount of surface area or interface between the masonry units and the mortar or cement. Joints are made tortuous, running in many differentand preferably orthogonal directions to keep some significant portion of all joints loaded in shear as opposed to out-of-plane tension,
Hardener
A hardener is a substance added to certain types of adhesive bases that require a chemical reaction to cause the adhesive to cure.
Solvents are always liquid to thin the consistency of the adhesive base. They
evaporate or are absorbed by the adherends to allow the adhesive to set.
Carrier
A paper or fabric backing to a permanently tacky thermoplastic or a semicured thermoset adhesive to facilitate handling during application. (A carrier can, if it remains with the adhesive in service, serve as a reinforcement.)
Reinforcements
Particles, chopped or continuous fibers, or meshes added to the adhesive (or, for the latter, embedded in the adhesive layer) to add strength to the bonded joint.
Classification of adhesives
Natural and synthetic adhesives
Classification by application
Non structural
Holding components Sealing against fluids Impact absorption Electrical, water, or thermal insulations
Service limited to below 65-90oC, poor creep strength, poor resistance to organic solvents, fair peel strength compared to thermosetting.
When properly formulated, adhesive alloys utilize the most important or desirable properties of each component.
Classification by application
Classified in the way they applied on joining parts:
Joint preparation
Method of adhesive application Joint assembly method and bonding equipment
Polymeric Adhesives
Epoxy & Modified Epoxies
Epoxy (Acetone + Phenol) & Modified Epoxies (Diglycidyl ether of bisphenol)
Exothermic reaction, careful with overheating and the formation of bubbles. Metals, ceramics, and polymers can be joined. Aside from hardeners, other additives such as accelerators, reactive diluents, plasticizers, fillers, and resin modifiers are often used to modify behavior or impart special properties. The highest strengths (up to 10 ksi in shear) and best heat resistance are obtained with heatcured, two-part types. Modified epoxies incorporate various thermoplastics (including elastomeric types) and elastomeric thermosets to impart flexibility and toughness and better resistance to peel. Solids Contain no solvents, low shrinkage and bonding to impervious surfaces. Excellent in bonding dissimilar material combinations. Epoxy-nylon, epoxy-polysulfide, epoxy-phenolic, and epoxy-nitrile
Polymeric Adhesives
Acrylics and Modified Acrylics (acrylic monomers of ethyl acrylate, methyl acrylate, methacrylic acid, acrylic acid, acrylamide, and acrylonitrile).
- Two part systems, resin applied to one adherend and accelerant to the other adherent. - Separate storage for the two parts, curing occurs in minutes. - Shear strengths of upto 4 Ksi, show good peel, shear and tensile lap shear strength at low temperatures (- 110oC 120oC). Modified acrylics have additives that can penetrate hydrocarbon contaminents and also enhance the bond strength. (metal to metal structural bonding possible e.g., in autos) Silicone addition improves properties.
Polymeric Adhesives
Cyanoacrylates (super glues)
C5H5NO2 requires hydroxyl ions to cure Low-viscosity liquid acrylic monomers that polymerize easily in the presence of adsorbed water, especially where the adherend surface is slightly alkaline. Polymerization is ionic, and strong thermosetting bonds can be created with many materials, especially metals to nonmetals, with no added heat or catalyst, since most surfaces have adsorbed water present Mechanical properties Shear strengths up to 38.6MPa (5 ksi) Peel strength & impact resistance low Tolerance of moisture poor.
Methyl cyanoacrylate stronger and more impact resistant joints (metals & rigid
adherends)
Polymeric Adhesives
Anaerobics These are single-component monomeric liquids that harden satisfactorily only in the absence of gaseous oxygen.
Polymeric Adhesives
Urethanes
Thermoplastic crosslink under certain conditions One- and two-part systems Dissolved in solvents Also used as hot melts Flexible and good peel strength Urethanes are generally applied to both adherends Curing is usually done at room temperature, full curing takes many hours or days. Heat can be used to soften the adhesive if it becomes too dry before bonding.
Silicones
One- and two-component systems cure to thermosetting solids. One component systems Acidic or non-acidic cure at RT Two-component systems condensation polymerization (prone to reversion) Good peel strength -60 250oC (some can upto 370oC) Flexibility, impact resistance, and resistance to moisture, hot water, oxidation, and weathering. Poor lap strength.
Silicone adhesives are expensive but versatile. They are able to bond metals, glass, paper, wood, thermosetting and thermoplastic polymers, and a wide variety of rubbers.
Excessive dryness
Vacuum Radiation Biological agents
treatments
Quality controlling during bonding execution i.e. proper time, temperature and pressure for curing Destructive and nondestructive testing and evaluation of joints
Cement
Certain glues or adhesive materials used in dentistry and for certain organic and many inorganic bonding agents used to join engineered ceramics, including porcelains.
It is also the common name of certain organic (polymerbased) adhesives used to bond rubber (i.e., rubber cements). It is the name of a material used for joining in masonry (i.e., the joining of stone, clay products, or cement or
concrete products).
It is a substance that is a nonmetallic, inorganic compound known as a ceramic that binds particulate aggregates into a cohesive structure through a chemical reaction, called hydration, involving hydrogen bonding of ceramic particles with water molecules.
Cement
Sodium Silicate
Introduction of CO2 converts the bridges to a solid glass that joins the sand grains into a solid mold.
The aluminum phosphate cement bonds the alumina particles so they can withstand operating temperatures as high as 1,650oC (3,000oF).
Sculptures, plasterers use to finish walls, and plaster board Small particles (actually crystals) of CaSO4 interlock into large crystals of gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) through hydration.
Cement
Portland cement has an overall composition in which the major resulting constituents
are tricalcium silicate (3CaO:SiO2) and dicalcium silicate (2CaO:SiO2). There are also relatively minor additions of tricalcium aluminate (3CaO:Al2O3), brownmillerite (approximately 4CaO:Al2O3:Fe2O3), some CaO, some MgO, and glass.
The reaction between bisphenol A and epichlorohydrin can be controlled to produce different molecular weights. Low molecular weight molecules tend to be liquids and higher molecular weight molecules tend to be more viscous liquids or solids.
11. Apply the allowable-stress design procedure to the single-overlap, bearing-type shear-loaded joint shown in Figure. Assume the bolts in the joint are made from ASTM 325 steel and have 14 threads per inch and that the joint plate is made from ASTM A36 steel.
13. What would the edge distance (i.e., the distance from the center of the bolt hole to the edge of the joint plate) be if tear-out were just possible for the joint shown in Figure?
15. Apply the allowable-stress design procedure to the double-overlap, bearingtype shear-loaded splice joint shown in Figure. Assume the same bolt and joint plate materials as in Problem #11. Assume the bolts have a pitch of 2.0 mm.
17. Using the allowable-stress design procedure for the joint shown in Figure, what value of target preload would be needed to just assure there would be no slip at the joint interface, assuming the joint elements were treated to have a slip coefficient (of friction) s of 0.40?
19. Suppose the load on the joint shown in Figure were 300 kN, and the dimensions were x1= 40 mm, x2 = 80 mm, L = 320 mm, and w = 80 mm. What would the load be on the most highly loaded fastener(s) if the fasteners were each 10 mm in diameter?