UTCB - Buletin Stiintific - 2008 - Nr. 2

UNIVERSITATEA TEHNIC DE CONSTRUCII BUCURETI
BULETINUL TIINIFIC
BULETINUL TIINIFIC
AL
UNIVERSITII TEHNICE
DE CONSTRUCII
BUCURETI
NR.2/2008
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CUPRINS
STUDII
Rspunsul structurilor cu un nivel dotate cu amortizori cu mas acordat
n condiiile seismice din Romnia - Ghindea Cristian ............................................................ 5
Legtura dintre managementul calitii n construcii i reducerea riscului
Nafees Ahmed Memon................................................................................................................. 16
Predicia strii mbrcmintei rutiere utiliznd metode numerice
Bogdan Tudor, Rodian Scnteie................................................................................................... 32
Modelele terenului de fundare pentru mbrcaminti rigide. Vasile Cornea...................... 41
Evaluarea calitii apei n zonele costiere Alexandra Crmizoiu........................................ 51
Realizarea bazei de date a unui sistem informatic cadastral din Republica Moldova
Nistor Livia .................................................................................................................................. 59
Evaluri prin incercri de rezisten la solicitri termomecanice ale
aliajelor pentru structuri aerospaiale - Indira Andreescu ...................................................... 67
Reducerea emisiilor la motoarele ecologice pentru camioane si utilaje
de constructii (I) Srbu Laureniu............................................................................................ 74
Influena coninutului armonic al curenilor asupra sarcinii admisibile a
conductoarelor electrice Mircea Roca................................................................................... 82
Un model fizic de ardere a particulei de rumegu n suspensie Ioana Mogo .................... 97
Modelarea hidraulic a reelei de canalizare. Studiu de caz: municipiul Buzu
Alexandru Lungu, Victor Octavian Luca..................................................................................... 105
Modelarea i optimizarea deciziilor pentru conducerea tiinific a activitii
operatorului de alimentare cu ap i canalizare - Claudiu Albu ........................................... 111
Rspunsul structurilor cu un nivel

dotate cu amortizori cu mas
acordat n condiiile seismice din
Romnia
One Story Buildings Endowed With

Tuned Mass Dampers Seismic
Response for Romanian Earthquake
Condition
Cristian Ghindea, asist. univ. ing., Universitatea Tehnica de Construcii Bucureti (Technical University of
Civil Engineering of Bucharest), Catedra de Rezistena Materialelor (Strength of Materials Department), e-mail:
ghindea@utcb.ro
1. Introducere
1. Introduction
Pentru obinerea unui nivel acceptabil de

performan al cldirilor, n cazul unei
micri
seismice,
n
proiectarea
convenional se utilizeaz capacitatea
structurii de rezistenta de a absorbi i disipa
energie. Aceasta disipare de energie nu se
poate produce fr admiterea unui anumit
grad de degradare a structurii. Un exemplu ar
fi apariia articulaiilor plastice la capetele
grinzilor i la bazele stlpilor, elemente care
au un rol important ns i in sistemul pentru
preluarea ncrcrilor gravitaionale.
La nivel mondial, tot mai multe cldiri sunt
proiectate s reziste la aciunea seismic
utilizndu-se un concept relativ nou, i
anume acela de a introduce n structur
dispozitive speciale cu rolul de a absorbi
i/sau disipa energia indus n structur de
micarea seismic.
Dispozitivele de amortizare cu mas acordat
(TMD - Tuned Mass Damper) se ncadreaz n
aceast categorie de dispozitive speciale. n
alte ri, au fost folosite cu succes aceste
dispozitive pentru reducerea vibraiilor
structurilor cu rspuns dinamic caracterizat de
contribuia unui anumit mod de vibraie [1].
Studiul are in vedere urmrirea rspunsului
structurilor dotate cu sisteme de amortizare
cu masa acordat n condiiile speciale date
de seismicitatea teritoriului Romniei.
Datorit necesitii acordrii dispozitivului
de amortizare cu un mod de vibraie
predominant al structurii [2] s-au analizat trei
structuri cu un singur nivel, acestea fiind
echivalate cu trei sisteme cu 1 GLD.
Caracteristicile dinamice ale sistemelor cu 1
GLD au fost determinate n funcie de
caracteristicile dinamice ale micrilor
To obtain a reasonable performance level,

for conventional seismic design are used the
damping and dissipation capacities of the
lateral resistant structure. This admits a
certain degree of deterioration of the
structure. Such an example is
the
appearance of plastic hinges in beams and at
the base of the columns, elements with an
important role in supporting the gravitational
loads.
Globally, more buildings are designed to resist
to seismic loads using a relatively new concept
which presupposes to include in the structure
some special devices to damp or/and dissipate
the earthquake induced energy.
The Tuned Mass Damper (TMD) devices can
be included in this special category of
devices. In other countries this devices were
successfully used for vibration reduction in
structures
with
dynamic
response
characterized by one vibration period [1].
This paper pursues to obtain the dynamic
response of buildings endowed with tuned
mass dampers for the special earthquake
conditions of Romanias
countryside.
Because of the necessity of the device to be
tuned with the predominant vibration period
of the structures [2] three one story buildings
were analysed. All the buildings were
modeled as a SDOF system. The dynamic
characteristics of the SDOF systems were
chosen in accordance with the dynamic
characteristics of the considered earthquake
records.
To characterize the response we took the
following cases:
- the structure without the dampening system
was equated with a SDOF system (fig. 1.1),
and
Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008
Fig. 1.1 Sistem cu 1 GLD

SDOF system
seismice considerate.
Pentru caracterizarea rspunsului s-au considerat:
- structura fr sistemul de amortizare, echivalat
cu un sistem cu 1 grad de libertate dinamica
(figura 1.1), i
- structura cu TMD, echivalat cu un sistem cu
doua grade de libertate (figura 1.2). Un grad de
libertate corespunznd sistemului iniial si cel de
al doilea grad de libertate corespunznd
sistemului de amortizare.
Rezolvarea acestei probleme a pornit de la
ecuaia de echilibru dinamic caracteristic unui
sistem cu 1 GLD i, respectiv, de la ecuaiile de
micare ale sistemului cu masa acordata [3].
Ecuaia de echilibru dinamic pentru 1 GLD:
M&x&(t ) + Cx& (t ) + Kx(t ) = Mu&&g (t )
(1.1)
Sistemul de ecuaii de echilibru dinamic pentru 2
GLD:
- pentru sistemul secundar:
md [&y&(t ) + &x&(t )] + cd y& (t ) + k d y (t ) = md u&&g (t )
(1.2)
- pentru sistemul principal:
M&x&(t ) + Cx& (t ) + Kx(t ) cd y& (t ) k d y(t ) = Mu&&g (t )
(1.3)
unde:
M , md - masa sistemului de baz i, respectiv,
masa sistemului de amortizare;
C , cd - coeficientul de amortizare al sistemului
de baz i, respectiv, al sistemului de amortizare;
K , k d - rigiditatea sistemului de baz i,
respectiv, rigiditatea sistemului de amortizare;
&x&(t ), x& (t ), x(t ) - acceleraia, viteza i deplasarea
relativ corespunztoare sistemului de baz;
&y&(t ), y& (t ), y (t ) - acceleraia, viteza i deplasarea
relativ
corespunztoare
sistemului
de
amortizare;
6
Fig. 1.2 Sistem cu 2 GLD (sistem cu 1 GLD +

amortizor cu masa acordata)
Two-DOF system (SDOF system + TMD)
- the structure with TMD was equated with a

Two-DOF. One degree of freedom
substitutes the initial system and the second
DOF substitutes the dampening system.
The response was obtained by starting from
the equation of motion of the SDOF and,
from the equations of motion system for the
Two-DOF system [3] respectively
The equation of motion for SDOF system:
M&x&(t ) + Cx& (t ) + Kx(t ) = Mu&&g (t )
(1.1)
The equations of motion system for TwoDOF system:
- for the secondary system:
md [&y&(t ) + &x&(t )] + cd y& (t ) + k d y (t ) = md u&&g (t )
(1.2)
- for the principal system:
M&x&(t ) + Cx& (t ) + Kx(t ) cd y& (t ) k d y(t ) = Mu&&g (t )
(1.3)
where:
M , md - the mass of the principal system
and,
the mass of the damping system,
respectively;
C , cd - the damping coefficient of the
principal system and,
the damping
coefficient of the damping system,
respectively;
K , k d - stiffness of the principal system and,
the stiffness of the damping system,
respectively;
&x&(t ), x& (t ), x(t ) - relative acceleration, velocity
and displacement of the main system;
&y&(t ), y& (t ), y (t ) - relative acceleration,
velocity and displacement of the damping
system;
u&&g (t ) - acceleraia terenului.
u&&g (t ) - ground acceleration;
Rezolvarea ecuaiilor dinamice de echilibru s-a

realizat cu ajutorul metodei Newmark de
integrare a ecuaiilor difereniale pas cu pas [4].
Pentru integrare s-a considerat acceleraia liniar,
iar parametrii corespunztori, specifici metodei
de integrare Newmark, au fost alei astfel:
= 0.5 i = 1 6 .
The time-stepping solution was reach using

the Newmarks method of integration for the
differential equation system [4]. In this case
the linear acceleration method is considered,
for which the Newmark integration
parameters were = 0.5 and = 1 6
2. Descrierea micrii seismice i alegerea

cazurilor de studiu
2. Earthquake Motion Characterization

and Studies
S-au analizat ase nregistrri corespunztoare a

trei micri seismice importante din sursa
Vrancea. Caracteristicile nregistrrilor precum i
locaiile unde s-au efectuat acestea se regsesc n
tabelul 2.1.
n scopul determinrii perioadelor critice sau realizat spectre Fourier pentru fiecare
nregistrare n parte (figura 2.12.6).
For three important earthquake motions from

Vrancea source six corresponding records
were analyzed. Table 2.1 shows the
characteristics of the records and the
recording sites.
To show the critical vibration period, for
each record, the Fourier Spectra were made
(figure 2.12.6)
Tab. 2.1 nregistrri micri seismice
Earthquakes acceleration records
nregistrare
Record
Acc. 1
Acc. 2
Acc. 3
Acc. 4
Acc. 5
Acc. 6
Locaie
Recording Site
INCERC Bucureti
INCERC Bucureti
IMGB Bucureti
Focani
Mgurele
INCERC Bucureti
Sursa, componenta
Source, component
Vrancea, NS
Vrancea, NS
Vrancea, NS
Vrancea, NS
Vrancea, NS
Vrancea, NS
n tabelul 2.2 sunt redate caracteristicile

importante pentru fiecare din nregistrrile
luate n discuie.
Urmrind rezultatele obinute n urma
analizrii spectrelor Fourier pentru cele ase
nregistrri, s-au considerat trei sisteme cu
un grad de libertate dinamic ale cror
perioade proprii de vibraie s se gseasc n
vecintatea perioadelor de rspuns maxim
ale micrilor seismice analizate. Pentru
acestea s-a considerat ca masa ( M ) i
coeficientul de amortizare critic ( ) sunt
constante, singurele variabile fiind perioada
proprie de vibraie ( T ) i, implicit,
Data
Date
04.03.1977
30.08.1986
30.08.1986
30.08.1986
30.05.1990
30.05.1990
t
0.005 s
0.01 s
0.005 s
0.01 s
0.01 s
0.005 s
Durat
Duration
65.37 s
25.94 s
42.92 s
21.68 s
57.56 s
52.485 s
Table 2.2 shows the important dynamic

characteristics for every record.
After the analyses of the Fourier Spectra
three SDOF systems resulted.
Those systems have the fundamental
vibration period in the neighborhood of the
peak response period of the accounted
earthquake records.
For those systems, the mass ( M ) and the
critical damping coefficient ( ) were
considered as constant, the only variables
being the vibration period ( T ) and, the
stiffness of the system ( K ), respectively.
Spectrul Fourier
Spectrul Fourier
400
160
350
140
300
120
100
200
SFA
SFA
250
80
150
60
100
40
50
20
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
T [s]
0.5
1.5
INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS
2.5
3.5
T [s]
Fig. 2.1 Spectrul Fourier pentru Acc. 1

Fourier Spectra for Acc. 1

Spectrul Fourier
Spectrul Fourier
160
140
140
120
120
100
100
SFA
SFA
80
60
80
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
0.5
1.5
2.5
IMGB Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS
0.1
3.5
0.5
0.9
1.3
1.7
2.1
2.5
2.9
3.3
Focsani, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS
T [s]

3.7
T [s]

Spectrul Fourier
Spectrul Fourier
140
90
80
120
70
100
60
80
SFA
SFA
50
40
60
30
40
20
20
10
0.5
1.5
2.5
Magurele, seism Vrancea 30.05.1990,componenta NS
3.5
T [s]
0.5
1.5
2.5
3.5
T [s]


rigiditatea sistemului ( K ). Aceste sisteme

sunt descrise n tabelul 2.3.
Table 2.3 shows the properties of analyzed

systems.
3. Studiu parametric
3. Parametric Study
Prima etapa a studiului parametric a vizat

determinarea
influenei
diverselor
caracteristici ale sistemului de amortizare
asupra comportrii de ansamblu a structurii
cu TMD. S-a analizat structura de tip A sub
The purpose of the first stage of the study

was to determine the influence of different
characteristics of the damping system on the
general behavior of the system with TMD.
Type A structure have been analyzed under a
Tab. 2.2. Caracteristici importante ale micrilor seismice

Important earthquake record characteristics
nregistrare
Record
Acc. 1
Acc. 2
Acc. 3
Acc. 4
Acc. 5
Acc. 6
Caracteristici principale
Principal characteristics
T [s]
ASF
1.64
340.70
1.36
139.39
1.64
119.21
0.43
151.57
1.61
120.90
2.21
83.09
Alte perioade importante

Other important vibration periods
T=2.41s, ASF=261.8
T=1.46 s, ASF=100.2
T=1.21 s (ASF=141.32);T=0.89 s, (ASF=131.26)
T=1.34 s, ASF=103.32
T=0.99 s (ASF=78.66); T=1.32 s (ASF= 70.83)
Tab. 2.3 Sisteme cu un GLD
SDOF Systems
Sistem
System
Cazul A
Case A
Cazul B
Case B
Cazul C
Case C
T
[s]
M
[t]
1.60 s
50 t
0.05
1.35 s
50 t
0.05
1.00 s
50 t
0.05
aciunea micrii seismice descrise de

accelerograma 1 (nregistrare INCERC Bucureti,
seism Vrancea 4.03.1977, componenta NS),
parametrii sistemului de amortizare care au fost
variai, fiind masa ( md ) i coeficientului de
amortizare critic ( d ) al TMD-ului.
n tabelul 3.1 sunt prezentate denumirile cazurile
analizate n aceast etap, precum si
caracteristicile detaliate.
Comparaia rspunsurilor sistemului fr TMD i
a sistemului cu TMD s-a realizat prin
reprezentarea variaiei n timp a deplasrilor
relative la nivelul sistemului cu 1 GLD cu sau fr
TMD.
load described by accelerograme 1 (recorded

at INCERC Bucharest, Vrancea Source,
4.03.1977, N-S component). The variables of
the TMD system were the mass ( md ) and the
critical damping coefficient ( d ).
Table 3.1 shows the titles of the analyzed
cases and the detailed description of the
characteristics.
The comparison between the structure
without TMD and the structure with TMD
was carried out by showing the time-history
of the relative displacement of the first DOF
with or without TMD.
Tab 3.1. Cazuri analizate pentru sistemul cu TMD

Analysis cases for TMD system
Sistem 1GLD
TMD
s
d
Caz
Ts
Td
Ms
md
(t)
(s)
(%M
(s)
)
s
(%)
(%)
nregistrare INCERC Bucureti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS (Acc.1)
INCERC Bucharest Record, source Vrancea, 4.03.1977, NS component (Acc. 1)
1.
A.I.1
50
1.60
5%
1%
1.60
5%
2.
A.I.2
50
1.60
5%
2%
1.60
5%
3.
A.I.3
50
1.60
5%
5%
1.60
5%
4.
A.II.1
50
1.60
5%
1%
1.60
10%
5.
A.II.2
50
1.60
5%
2%
1.60
10%
6.
A.II.3
50
1.60
5%
5%
1.60
10%
7.
A.III.1
50
1.60
5%
1%
1.60
15%
8.
A.III.2
50
1.60
5%
2%
1.60
15%
Urmrind variaia deplasrilor la nivelul

structurii pentru cele nou cazuri analizate,
concluziile preliminare nu sunt diferite de cele
ntlnite n literatur [1] ca fiind caracteristice si
altor tipuri de micri seismice:
- O mai bun comportare o au sistemele avnd
masa adiionala de 2% si, respectiv, de 5%, din
masa sistemului de baza. Mrirea masei
adiionale de la 2% la 5%, aduce un aport
benefic la reducerea amplitudinilor sistemului
de baz, dar acest lucru presupune o cretere
semnificativ a ncrcrilor verticale care
acioneaz asupra structurii (figurile 3.13.3);
- Creterea amortizrii sistemului TMD nu ajut
la micorarea amplitudinilor maxime, ci doar la
o atenuare a micrii mai rapid, n numite
limite
ale
amortizrii
(figurile 3.43.6).
From the representation of the structure

displacements in all nine analyzed cases, the
conclusions were no different from the ones
met in the literature [1] for other types of
earthquake motions:
- The systems with 2%, respectively, 5%
TMD mass are more suitable than the others.
Increasing the mass from 2% to 5% brings a
favorable contribution to the reduction of the
amplitudes of the main system displacement,
but also presumes a significant increase of
the vertical loads acting on the structure
(figures 3.13.3);
- TMD damping rise does not help to reduce
the peak amplitudes, it only attenuates faster
the motion at certain levels of the damping
(figures 3.43.6).
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
Deplasare structura [m]
0.4
0.4
0.1
0
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
-0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.4
-0.4
GLD
A.I.1
A.I.2
t [s]
A.I.3
GLD
A.II.1
A.II.2
t [s]
A.II.3
Fig. 3.1 Sistem fr TMD i sistemele cu d = 5%

System without TMD and systems with d = 5%

[A.I.1 ( m d = 1% M ), A.I.2 ( m d = 2% M ),
A.I.3 ( m d = 5% M )]
[A.II.1 ( m d = 1% M ), A.II.2 ( m d = 2% M ),
A.II.3 ( m d = 5% M )]
INCERCBucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS

0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
-0.1
0.2
0.1
0
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
-0.1
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.4
t [s]
-0.4
GLD
10
A.III.1
A.III.2
A.III.3
t [s]
GLD
A.I.1
A.II.1
A.III.1

Fig. 3.4 Sistem fr TMD i sistemele cu m d = 1% M

System without TMD and systems with m d = 1% M
[A.III.1 ( m d = 1% M ), A.III.2 ( m d = 2% M ),
A.III.3 ( m d = 5% M )]
[A.I.1 ( d = 5% ), A.II.1 ( d = 10% ),

A.III.1 ( d = 15% )]
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.1
0
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
0.4
0.4
0.1
0
16
18
20
22
24
26
A.I.3
A.II.3
A.III.3
28
30
-0.1
-0.1
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.4
-0.4
GLD
A.I.2
A.II.2
A.III.2
t [s]

[A.I.2 ( d = 5% ), A.II.2 ( d = 10% ),
A.III.2 ( d = 15% )]
Pentru grade de amortizare mai ridicate

efectul sesizat anterior se diminueaz (figura
3.4 si 3.5).
Datorita observaiilor de mai sus, numrul de
cazuri prevzute pentru analiza a fost
restrns. S-a considerat ca sistemul de
amortizare cu cea mai raionala comportare
este sistemul cu masa adiionala de 2% din
masa sistemului principal, avnd coeficientul
din amortizarea critica de 5%.
GLD
t [s]

[A.I.3 ( d = 5% ), A.II.3 ( d = 10% ),
A.III.3 ( d = 15% )]
For a bigger damping the attenuation is

weaker (figures 3.4 and 3.5)
As a result of the earlier observations, the
number of cases in the parametric study has
decreased. The favorable damping system
considered has 2% mass, reported to the
main system mass, and 5% critical damping
coefficient.
Tabelul 3.2. Cazuri analizate pentru sistemul cu TMD
Analysis cases for TMD system
Sistem 1GLD
TMD
SDOF System
s
md
Ts
Ms
Td
(t)
(s)
(%M
(s)
)
s
(%)
nregistrare INCERC Bucureti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS (1)
INCERC Bucharest Record, source Vrancea, 4.03.1977, NS component (1)
1.
A.I.2
50
1.60
0.05
2
1.60
2.
B.I.2
50
1.35
0.05
2
1.35
3.
C.I.2
50
1.00
0.05
2
1.00
4.
A.I.2
50
1.60
0.05
2
1.60
5.
B.I.2
50
1.35
0.05
2
1.35
6.
C.I.2
50
1.00
0.05
2
1.00
nregistrare IMGB Bucureti, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS (3)
IMGB Bucharest Record, source Vrancea, 30.08.1986, NS component (3)
7.
A.I.2
50
1.60
0.05
2
1.60
8.
B.I.2
50
1.35
0.05
2
1.35
9.
C.I.2
50
1.00
0.05
2
1.00
nregistrare Focani, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS (4)
Focani Record, source Vrancea, 30.08.1986, NS component (4)
10.
A.I.2
50
1.60
0.05
2
1.60
11.
B.I.2
50
1.35
0.05
2
1.35
12.
C.I.2
50
1.00
0.05
2
1.00
nregistrare Mgurele, seism Vrancea 30.05.1990,componenta NS (5)
Caz
Case
d
(%)
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
11
Mgurele Record, source Vrancea, 30.05.1990, NS component (5)

13.
A.I.2
50
1.60
0.05
2
1.60
14.
B.I.2
50
1.35
0.05
2
1.35
15.
C.I.2
50
1.00
0.05
2
1.00
16.
A.I.2
50
1.60
0.05
2
1.60
17.
B.I.2
50
1.35
0.05
2
1.35
18.
C.I.2
50
1.00
0.05
2
1.00
n tabelul 3.2 sunt prezentate cazurile

studiate in etapa a II-a a studiului parametric.
Cele mai importante rezultate sunt prezentate
n figurile 3.7 3.12.
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
Table 3.2 shows the cases analyzed in the

second stage of the study.
Figures 3.7 3.12 shows the representative
results of the analysis.
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
-0.1
0.1
0.2
0
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
-0.1
-0.2
-0.2
-0.3
-0.3
-0.4
fara tMD
t [s]
cu TMD
fara TMD
cu TMD
t [s]
Fig. 3.8 Sistem fr /cu TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.30s ];

System without/with TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.30s ]
Fig. 3.7 Sistem fr /cu TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.60 s ];

System without/with TMD [ Ts = Td = 1.60 s ]
INCERC Bucureti, Vrancea 4.03.1977, NS (1.64s)

0.1
0.15
0.075
0.1
0
16
18
20
22
24
26
28
30
0.05
0.05
0.025
0
3
12
15
18
21
-0.025
-0.05
-0.05
-0.1
-0.075
-0.15
t [s]
fara TMD
12
-0.1
fara TMD
cu TMD
cu TMD
t [s]


0.14
0.15
0.12
0.1
0.1
0.08
0.04
0.02
0
-0.02
10
12
14
16
18
20
-0.04
0.06
0.05
0
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
-0.05
-0.06
-0.08
-0.1
-0.1
-0.12
-0.15
-0.14
t [s]
fara TMD
fara TMD
cu TMD
t [s]
cu tMD


Focani, Vrancea 30.08.86, NS (0.43s; 1.21s; 0.89s)
0.18
0.04
0.16
0.14
0.03
0.12
0.1
0.02
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
-0.02 8
10
12
14
16
18
20
-0.04
-0.06
0.08
0.01
0
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
-0.01
-0.02
-0.08
-0.03
-0.1
-0.12
-0.04
-0.14
-0.16
-0.05
-0.18
fara TMD
cu tMD
t [s]
fara TMD
cu TMD
t [s]


Focani, Vrancea 30.08.86, NS (0.43s; 1.21s; 0.89s)
INCERC Bucureti, Vrancea 30.05. 90, NS (2.21s; 0.99;

1.32s)
4. Concluzii i direcii de studiu
4. Conclusion and Future Studies
Dup analiza comparativa a rspunsului

structurilor analizate n cazurile expuse
anterior se pot trage urmtoarele concluzii:
- Raportat la rspunsul sistemului fr TMD
se observ c sistemul de amortizare nu
intr in lucru, n mod semnificativ, dect
dup ocul maxim al seismului. Reducerea
de amplitudine a deplasrii n momentul
ocului maxim este neglijabil (maxim 5%).
Exist ns anumite cazuri n care ocurile
maxime apar cu o scurta ntrziere, acestea
fiind precedate de o micare important care
activeaz TMD-ul (figura 3.13). n acest caz
reducea rspunsului dinamic este de
aproximativ 25%;
- Dup ocul principal, care n majoritatea
micrilor studiate se produce nc de la
nceput, reducerea amplitudinilor oscilaiilori
depinde de coninutul de frecvene al
micrii seismice. Dac micarea seismic
After the analysis of the structural response

for the studied cases, the conclusions are:
- Referring to the response of the system
without TMD, we may observe that the
damping device runs significantly only after
the peak impulse of the earthquake.
Displacement amplitude reduction at the
peak earthquake impulse can be neglected
(maximum 5%).
There are some cases in which the peak
impulses are delayed being preceded by an
important oscillation which acts on the TMD
(figure 3.13). In this case the peak reduction
is about 25%;
- After the first impact, which in almost all
cases occurs at the beginning of motion,
amplitude reduction depends on the
frequency content of the earthquake motion.
If the earthquake has the important response
near the tuned period of the system with
13
are un rspuns important in apropierea perioadei

de acordare a sistemului cu TMD atunci
reducerea deplasrilor dup ocul iniial este
considerabil ntre (20-50%) (de exemplu:
figurile 3.7, 3.10, 3.13, 3.14);
- n cazul n care micarea seismic nu se
acordeaz la rndul su cu sistemul i cu TMDul, rspunsul sistemului cu TMD poate s fie
aproximativ acelai sau mai mare in comparaie
cu sistemul fr TMD (de exemplu: figurile 3.8,
3.9, 3.12). Un caz deosebit este prezentat n
figura 3.12 unde aproape pe toata durata
excitaiei seismice, structura cu TMD are un
rspuns mai mare dect cel al structurii fr
TMD.
- Comparnd cazurile analizate mai sus, se mai
poate observa banda ngust de frecvente in
care sistemul cu TMD se poate acorda cu
micarea seismica (pentru o diferen de
aproximativ 0,20 s 0,30 s rspunsul se
denatureaz drastic) (de exemplu aa cum se
poate observa n figurile 3.8, 3.11,3.12)
Structurile reale au mai mult de un grad de
libertate dinamic. Pentru obinerea unor
concluzii mai acoperitoare trebuie studiat
efectul sistemelor de amortizare cu mas
acordat asupra unor sisteme cu mai multe
grade de libertate. Astfel rezult necesitatea
dezvoltrii unui studiu n aceast direcie. ns
datorit gradului de incertitudine din punctul de
vedere al micrii seismice trebuie avut in
vedere ca la o evaluare mai amnunit a
modului de comportare a sistemelor de
amortizare cu mas acordat, pe lng micrile
nregistrate care ne stau la dispoziie s se
foloseasc i o serie de micri generate
artificial, compatibile cu spectrul de proiectare
descris n normativele n vigoare.
Studiul a fost realizat cu finanare UEFISCUCNCSIS n cadrul programului PNII, contract
nr. 67/2007
TMD then the reduction can be taken into

account (20-50%) (for example: figures
3.7, 3.10, 3.13, 3.14);
- For the case in which the earthquake
motion is not tuned with the main system
and with the TMD the response can be
similar or greater than the response of the
structure without TMD (for example:
figures 3.8, 3.9, 3.12). In figure 3.12 a
special case is showed for which the
response of the structure with TMD is
greater than the response of the structure
without TMD almost from the start to the
end of motion.
- By comparing the presented cases one
can notice the thin frequency domain in
which the TMD system can be tuned with
the earthquake motion (for about 0.20 s
0.30 s the response can be drastically
tainted)( for example: figures 3.8,
3.11,3.12).
Real structures have more than one degree
of freedom. For a more general
conclusion it is necessary to study the
effect of the tuned mass damper on some
MDOF systems. So the necessity to
develop the study results also in this
direction. Regarding the incertitude of the
earthquake motion, for the TMD system
studies it is necessary to take into account,
besides the recorded accelerograms, some
artificial generated accelerograms also, that
are compatible with the design spectra
available.
This study was made with resources from
UEFISCU-CNCSIS, as a part of a PNII
Program, contract no. 67/2007.
La rponse des structures un tage dotes damortisseurs avec masse accorde dans les conditions
sismiques de Roumanie
Rsum
Les dispositifs damortissement avec masse accorde font partie de la catgorie des dispositifs spciaux
dattnuation des effets du mouvement sismique ou des structures. Ils sont constitus, en principe, dun poids, dun
ressort ainsi que dun amortisseur, relis une structure, et dont le rle est la rduction de la rponse dynamique. La
frquence de lamortisseur est accorde une frquence de la structure ; par consquent, quand celle-ci est stimule
14
une rsonance se produira, en contretemps avec le mouvement sismique. Lnergie est dissipe par la force
dinertie de lamortisseur, qui actionne sur la structure.
La mise en place de ce dispositif en fonction des conditions sismiques de Roumanie ne saurait tre accomplie sans
une tude dtaillee afin dtablir la rponse des structures avec masse accorde [Tuned Mass Damper] sur une
action sismique caractristique de notre pays.
Ltude souhaite procder lobservation du comportement de quelques structures un tage dotes damortisseurs
masse accorde par rapport divers mouvements sismiques importants, enregistrs suite au tremblement de terre
ayant eu lieu dans la source de Vrancea.
La dtermination de la rponse pour une structure un tage se fait selon lquivalence avec un systme un degr
de libert. Les caractristiques dynamiques du systme sont dtermines an fonction du mouvement sismique.
Bibliografie
References
[1] MOUTINHO, C., CUNHA, A., CAETANO, E.,. Anlise Experimental de TMDs para a Atenuao da Resposta
Ssmica de Estruturas de Edifcios. Portugalia : SSMICA 2004: 6 Congresso Nacional de Sismologia e
Engenharia Ssmica, 2004.
[2] L. CALADO, J.M. PROENA, A. PANO. Innovative materials and techniques for seismic protection. s.l:
PROHITECH, 2004. Vol. Earthquake Protection of Historical Buildings by Reversible Mixed Technologies.
WP5_proj.no.INCO-CT-509119.
[3] J. CONNOR, Introduction to Structural motion control. s.l. : Prentice Hall, 1999. ISBN 0130091383.
[4] ANIL K. CHOPRA, Dynamics of Structures. Third Edition, Prentice Hall, 2007. ISBN 013156174x.
Dispozitivele de amortizare cu mas acordat fac parte din categoria dispozitivelor speciale de atenuare a efectelor
micrii seismice asupra structurilor, fiind constituite, n principiu, dintr-o greutate, un resort si un amortizor ataate
unei structuri cu rolul de a-i reduce rspunsul dinamic. Frecventa amortizorului este acordata la o anumita frecventa
a structurii n aa fel nct atunci cnd este excitat, amortizorul va oscila defazat cu micarea structurii. Energia este
disipata de fora de inerie a amortizorului care acioneaz asupra structurii.
Implementarea acestor dispozitive n condiiile seismice ale Romniei nu se poate face fr un studiu amnunit
privind rspunsul structurilor cu TMD la aciunea seismic caracteristic rii noastre.
Studiul i propune s urmreasc comportarea unor structuri cu un nivel dotate cu amortizori cu mas acordat la
diverse micri seismice importante, nregistrate, ca urmare a cutremurelor produse n sursa Vrancea.
Determinarea rspunsului structurii cu un nivel se face prin echivalarea acesteia cu un sistem cu 1 GLD ale crui
caracteristici dinamice sunt determinate n funcie de aciunea seismic.
15
Legtura dintre managementul

calitii n construcii i reducerea
riscului
Linking quality management in

construction with seismic risk
reduction
Nafees Ahmed Memon, dr. ing., Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti (Technical University of
Civil Engineering Bucharest), e-mail: memon_nafees@yahoo.com
1. Introducere
1. Introduction
Daunele cauzate de recentele cutremure din

Pakistan, Indonezia, Iran, India i Turcia au atras
atenia asupra vulnerabilitii sociale i
economice n continua cretere datorat
riscurilor seismice. Numrul mare de pierderi
umane continu s existe, iar pierderile
economice sunt ntro cretere dramatic. n
urmtorii 20 de ani este de ateptat ca populaia
unora dintre cele mai srace orae ale lumii s
ajung egal cu cea a Indiei i Chinei, nsumate,
iar oamenii s fie nevoii s triasc, s nvee, i
s muncesc n aceste aglomerri urbane. Avnd
n vedere lipsa resurselor i caracterul imperios
de a construi, calitatea construciilor va continua
s scad dac nimic nu se va schimba rapid.
Acest
lucrare
face
legtura
dintre
implementarea Sistemelor de Management al
Calitii n societile de construcii precum i
procesele de construcie, pe de-o parte, i
reducerea riscului seismic, pe de cealalt parte.
Ea sugereaz msurile necesare ce trebuie
adoptate n diferite stadii ale duratei unui proiect
de construcii pentru a mbuntii calitatea
construciilor i a reduce, n consecin, riscul
pierderilor mai sus menionate. Ea subliniaz de
asemenea i avantajele implementrii sistemelor
de management al calitii n organizarea
construciei.
The
damages
caused
by
recent
earthquakes in Pakistan, Indonesia, Iran,
India and Turkey have brought attention
to the increasing social and economic
vulnerability to seismic risks. There
continue to be large human losses from
earthquakes and the economic losses are
rising dramatically. In the next 20 years
the combined population of todays India
and China is expected to appear in some
of the worlds poorest cities and will need
places to live, learn, and work. Given the
lack of resources and the urgency to build,
the quality of construction will, unless
something changes quickly, continue to
decline.
This
paper
links
the
implementation of Quality Management
Systems in construction companies and
construction process with seismic risk
reduction. It suggests necessary measures
to be taken at different stages in the life
cycle of a construction project in order to
improve the quality of constructions and
consequently reduce the risk of damages.
It also highlights the advantages of
implementing
quality
management
systems in construction organization.
2. Importana studiului
2. Importance of study
Lumea s-a confruntat de nenumrate ori cu

imense pierderi din cauza cutremurelor.
Seismele au cauzat pe lng imense pierderi
omeneti, i importante pierderi financiare sub
form de structuri prbuite. Daunele
recentelor cutremure din Pakistan, Indonezia,
Iran, India i Turcia au atras atenia asupra
vulnerabilitii sociale i economice n
The world has been facing huge losses on

account of earthquakes time by time. The
earthquakes not only cause huge losses of
human lives but a significant financial
loss also results in the shape of collapsed
structures. The damages caused by recent
earthquakes in Pakistan, Indonesia, Iran,
India and Turkey have brought attention
16
continu cretere datorat riscurilor seismice.

Numrul mare de pierderi umane continu s
existe, iar pierderile economice sunt ntro
cretere dramatic. n plus, n rile srace,
riscurile datorate producerii cutremurelor sunt
mari i n continu cretere. n urm cu
cincizeci de ani, att n oraele dezvoltate ct i
n cele slab dezvoltate, ameninate de
posibilitatea producerii de cutremure, numrul
de locuitori era acelai. Astzi, sunt de cinci
ori mai muli oameni n orae slab dezvoltate
dect n cele dezvoltate. Acum cincizeci de
ani, rezistena la cutremur a cldirilor din
oraele dezvoltate era mai bun dect cea din
oraele subdezvoltate, i ea s-a mbuntit n
mod constant, n timp ce n oraele slab
dezvoltate s-a nrutit constant. n urmtorii
20 de ani, se estimeaz ca populaia global
va crete cu 2 miliarde. Din acele 2 miliarde,
doar 50 de milioane vor reveni rilor
industrializate iar restul, rilor n curs de
dezvoltare.
to the increasing social and economic

vulnerability to seismic risks. There
continue to be large human losses from
earthquakes and the economic losses are
rising dramatically. In addition to this,
earthquake risk in poor countries is large
and rapidly growing. Fifty years ago, the
population of the worlds largest
earthquake-threatened cities was equally
divided between rich and poor countries.
Today, there are five times as many
people in poor as in rich earthquakethreatened cities. Fifty years ago, the
earthquake resistance of buildings in rich
countries was better than that of buildings
in poor countries, and since then it has
steadily improved, while that in poor
countries has steadily worsened. In the
next 20 years, the worlds population is
likely to increase by 2 billion. Of that 2
billion, only 50 million will be added to
industrialized countries, the rest to
developing countries.
Din cauza migraiei interne, din zona rural

n cea urban, populaia oraelor din rile
n curs de dezvoltare este probabil s
creasc la rndul ei cu 2 miliarde n aceast
perioad (Brian E. Tucker, 2004). Avnd n
vedere faptul c n urmtorii 20 de ani se
estimeaz c populaia unora dintre cele
mai srace orae ale lumii va ajunge egal
cu cea a Indiei i Chinei, nsumate, iar
oamenii vor fi nevoii s triasc, s nvee,
i s munceasc n aceste aglomerri urbane
[1]. Avnd n vedere lipsa resurselor i
caracterul imperios de a construi, calitatea
construciilor va continua s scad dac
nimic nu se va schimba rapid.
Because of internal migration, from the

countryside to cities, the urban population
of developing countries is likely to
increase by itself by 2 billion people over
this period
(Brian E. Tucker, 2004).
Imagine that in the next 20 years the
combined population of todays India and
China is likely to appear in some of the
worlds poorest cities and will need places
to live, learn, and work [1]. Given the lack
of resources and the urgency to build, the
quality of construction will, unless
something changes quickly, continue to
decline.
Sigurana mediului construit este un drept

fundamental.
Declaraia
Comisiei
Naiunilor Unite i a Drepturilor Omului
prevede urmtoarele : Toate persoanele au
dreptul la o locuin adecvat, dreptul de a
deine o proprietate i a tri ntrun mediu
sigur, sntos i ecologic (raportul
UNCHR,1994). Experienele ultimelor
cutremure, n special n rile n curs de
dezvoltare, au demonstrat c suntem
departe de a atinge aceste deziderate.
Safety in the built environment is a

fundamental right.
The declaration of
United Nations Commission on Human
Rights states that, All persons have the
right to adequate housing, land tenure and
living conditions in a secure, healthy and
ecologically
sound
environment
(UNCHR report, 1994). Experiences in
recent
earthquakes,
particularly
in
developing
countries,
conclusively
demonstrate that we are far from reaching
17
Prpastia dintre rile dezvoltate i n curs

de dezvoltare se lrgete: n secolul
douzeci, patru din cinci decese cauzate de
cutremure au avut loc n rile n curs de
dezvoltare. n anul 1950, dou din trei
persoane proveneau din oraele din zone
seismice, n curs de dezvoltare, n timp ce
n 2000, raportul era de nou la zece
(Geohazards International, 2004). Odat cu
creterea populaiei globale, n special n
rile n curs de dezvoltare, aceast
vulnerabilitate devine din ce n ce mai
pronunat. Potrivit Naiunilor Unite, n
2000, o jumtate din populaia globului
tria n zone urbane ce acoper 3% din
teritoriu, o alarmant cretere a densitii.
Pn n 2015, Naiunile Unite estimeaz c
23 de orae vor avea o populaie ce va
depi zece milioane, i din acestea 6 vor fi
localizate n ri n curs de dezvoltare. Din
primele zece aglomerri urbane preconizate
pentru 2015, opt sunt orae cu risc seismic
de la moderat la ridicat. Cele zece sunt:
Tokio, Mumbai, Dhaka, Karachi, Mexico
City, New York, Jakarta i Calcutta [23].
Un cutremur major n unul dintre aceste
orae, n special ntrun ora cu
infrastructur fragil i cldiri vulnerabile,
poate cauza distrugeri majore i un numr
mare de mori. n rile n curs de
dezvoltare nu numai populaia urban
devine din ce n ce mai vulnerabil, dar este
n cretere i numrul de dezastre. Avnd n
vedere creterea numrului de locuitori, a
vulnerabilitii i a numrul de dezastre n
ntreaga lume este necesar pentru rile n curs
de dezvoltare s ia msuri de micorare a
dezastrelor seismice. Una dintre aceste msuri
este s fie mbuntit calitatea construciilor
aa cum este subliniat n acest articol.
this goal. The gap between developed and

developing countries is widening: four of
every five deaths caused by earthquakes in
the twentieth century occurred in
developing countries. Of people living in
earthquake threatened cities in 1950, two of
every three were in developing countries; in
2000, nine of ten were in developing
countries (Geohazards International, 2004).
As the worlds population grows,
particularly in developing countries, this
vulnerability
becomes
even
more
pronounced. According to the United
Nations, in 2000, one-half of the worlds
population lived in urban areas crowded
into 3% of the land area, an alarming
increase in population density. By 2015, the
United Nations estimates that 23 cities will
have populations exceeding ten million, and
of those, all but 4 will be in less developed
countries. Of the top ten urban
agglomerations projected for 2015, eight
are cities with a known moderate to high
seismic risk, including Tokyo, Mumbai,
Dhaka, Karachi, Mexico City, New York,
Jakarta, and Calcutta [23].
A major earthquake in one of these cities,
particularly in a city with a vulnerable
building stock and fragile infrastructure,
could cause major devastation and a
significant number of deaths. Not only are
urban populations in developing countries
becoming increasingly more vulnerable, but
also the number of disasters is increasing.
Considering the increase in population,
vulnerability and number of disasters
around the world it is necessary for the
developing countries to take proactive
measures for earthquake disaster mitigation.
One of the important proactive measures in
this perspective is to improve the quality of
constructions as emphasized in this article.
3. Calitatea precar a construciilor

principal cauza a pierderilor umane i
financiare
3. Poor construction quality- the major

cause of human & financial losses
Literatura de specialitate n domeniul mai sus

menionat arat c precara calitate a
construciilor a fost principala cauza a
Literature review in the above mentioned

area reveals that poor construction quality
was the major cause of human and financial
18
pierderilor umane i financiare n cutremurele

devastatoare ce au avut loc n Pakistan, India i
Turcia. Studiile i rapoartele de cercetare
referitoare la zona afectat de ctre cutremurul
din Pakistan dezvluie faptul c principala
cauz a deceselor i a pierderilor de proprieti
i imobile n cutremurul din Kashmir a fost
calitatea precar a construciilor [12][24][28].
Raportul pentru Cutremure Speciale (Raportul
EERI Special Earthquake) (December 2005) cu
privire la cutremurul din Kashmir relateaz
urmtoarele: practic calitatea precar a
construciilor a cauzat numrul mare de
calamiti.
losses in devastating earthquakes which

occurred in Pakistan, India and Turkey.
The surveys and research reports of
earthquake affected area in Pakistan
reveal that one of the major causes of
heav death toll and property loss in
Kashmir earthquake is poor construction
quality [12][24][28]. The EERI Special
Earthquake Report (December 2005) on
Kashmir earthquake describes that:
basically the poor quality building
construction caused the large number of
fatalities.
Avnd n vedere acest adevr, este o imens

nevoie s se aplice Practicile de Management al
Calitii n sectorul construciilor pentru a
mbunti calitatea construciilor i n
consecin pentru a reduce riscul unor viitoare
pierderi umane i financiare.
Considering the above fact, there is an

immense
need
to
apply
Quality
Management Practices in the construction
sector in order to improve the construction
quality and consequently reduce the risk of
human and financial losses against future
earthquakes.
4. Obiective
Principalul obiectiv al acestei lucrri este de

a evidenia aspectele legate de cum pot fi
micorate riscurile n construcii. n acest
context, lucrarea de fa face legtura dintre
implementarea sistemelor de management
al calitii n companiile de construcii i
procesul de construcie, pe de-o parte, i
reducerea riscului seismic, pe de alt parte.
4. Objective
The main objective of this paper is to

highlight the aspect that how risk can be
reduced in construction. In this context, this
paper links the implementation of Quality
Management Systems in construction
companies and construction process with
seismic risk reduction.
5. Durata de via a unui proiect de

construcii
5. Life cycle of a construction project
Institutul de Management al Proiectelor

(Project Management Institute) (PMI
2000) definete durata de via a
proiectului (Project Life cycle) (PLC)
astfel: succesiunea continu a fazelor
unui proiect de la nceput sau pn la
finalizare [2]. Din punct de vedere al
beneficiarului, durata de via a
proiectului unei construcii poate fi
ilustrat schematic ca n figura 1.
The Project Management Institute (PMI

2000) defines the Project Life cycle (PLC)
as: the steady progression of a project from
its beginning to its completion [2]. From
the perspective of an owner, the project life
cycle for a constructed facility may be
illustrated schematically in figure 1.
19
Cererea pieii sau Alte nevoi/

Market demands or Precieved needs
Planificarea conceptual i Studiu de fezabilitate/
Conceptual planning and Feasibility study
Proiectare i Inginerie/
Design and Engineering
Achiziie i Execuie
Procurement and Construction
Darea in Folosin/
Startup for occupancy
Utilizarea i ntreinerea/
Operation and maintenance
ncheierea funciunii/
Disposal of facility
Definirea obiectivelor proiectului i a scopului su/

Definition of project objectives and Scope
Plan conceptual i Proiectare preliminar/
Conceptual plan or Preliminary Design
Planuri de Proiectare i Prescripii /
Construction plans and specification
Finalizarea construciei/
Completion of Construction
Luarea n primire a facilitii/

Acceptance of facility
ndeplinirea duratei de via/
Fullfilment of Useful Life
Fig. 1: Principalele stadii din durata de via unui proiect de construcii

Main stages of the life cycle of a construct project
n esen, un proiect este conceput n timp

util pentru a corespunde cererilor pieei
sau nevoilor. Mai multe posibiliti pot fi
considerate n faza de planificare
conceptual a proiectului, iar fezabilitatea
tehnologic i economic a fiecrei
alternative este evaluat i comparat n
vederea selectrii celui mai bun proiect.
Schemele financiare ale fiecrei variante
propuse trebuie analizate, i proiectul este
planificat n concordan cu timpul necesar
finalizrii lui i cu circuitul financiar
disponibil. Dup ce scopul proiectului a
fost definit cu precizie, proiectarea
detaliat va furniza planul proiectului, iar
estimarea costului final va sta la baza
controlului costurilor. n fazele de achiziie
i construcie, furnizarea de materiale i
ridicarea construciei pe antier trebuie
planificate i controlate cu atenie. Dup
terminarea construciei, exist o scurt
perioad de funcionare sau testare a
construciei cnd aceasta este ocupat
pentru prima dat. n cele din urm,
managementul facilitii este lsat n
atribuiile beneficiarului ce va deine totala
20
Essentially, a project is conceived to meet

market demands or needs in a timely
fashion. Various possibilities may be
considered in the conceptual planning
stage, and the technological and economic
feasibility of each alternative is assessed
and compared in order to select the best
possible project. The financing schemes
for the proposed alternatives must also be
examined, and the project is programmed
with respect to the timing for its
completion and for available cash flows.
After the scope of the project is clearly
defined, detailed engineering design will
provide the blueprint for construction, and
the definitive cost estimate will serve as
the baseline for cost control. In the
procurement and construction stage, the
delivery of materials and the erection of
the project on site must be carefully
planned and controlled. After the
construction is completed, there is usually
a brief period of start-up or shake-down of
the constructed facility when it is first
occupied. Finally, the management of the
facility is turned over to the owner for full
posesiune pe tot restul vieii cldirii, pn

cnd aceasta va fi demolat sau destinaia
i va fi schimbat [2].
occupancy until the facility lives out its

useful life and is designated for demolition
or conversion [2].
6. Legtura dintre Managementul

Calitii n durata de via a unui proiect
de construcii i reducerea riscurilor
seismice
6. Linking Quality Management in the

life cycle of a construction project with
seismic risk reduction
Managementul Calitii n durata de via a

unui proiect de construcii reprezint
procesele necesare pentru a asigura faptul
c acel proiect va satisface nevoile pentru
care a fost iniiat. El cuprinde planificarea
calitii, asigurarea i controlul la nivelul
diferitelor faze ale duratei de via a
proiectului. Caliatea precar a construciei
poate fi cauzat de nerespectarea
procedurilor de management al calitii n
diferite stadii ale duratei de via a
proiectului. inta acestei seciuni este de a
relaiona proiectul de management al
calitii cu reducerea riscului seismic.
Quality management in the life cycle of a

construction project means the processes
required to ensure that the project will
satisfy the needs for which it was
undertaken. It covers quality planning,
assurance and control at various stages
of a project life cycle. Poor construction
quality may be caused due to
overlooking
quality
management
practices at different stages of project
life cycle. This section aims to link
project quality management with seismic
risk reduction.
6.1 Managementul Calitii n analiza

cererilor pieii sau a nevoilor
6.1 Quality management in analyzing

market demands or perceived needs
Scopul acestei faze este de a defini

obiectivele proiectului i scopul su. O
dat ce proprietarul a identificat nevoile
unei noi faciliti, beneficiarul trebuie s-i
defineasc cerinele i a contureze
constrngerile bugetare. Aceasta implic
stabilirea n linii mari a caracteristicilor
proiectului ca de exemplu locaia, criteriile
de performan, mrimea, configuraia,
forma, echipamentul, serviciile i alte
cerine ale proprietarului necesare pentru a
stabili aspectele generale ale proiectului.
The aim of this stage is to define project

objectives and scope. Once an owner has
identified the need for a new facility, the
owner must define the requirements and
delineate the budgetary constraints. It
involves establishing broad project
characteristics
such
as
location,
performance criteria, size, configuration,
layout, equipment, services and other
owner requirements needed to establish
the general aspects of the project.
Caracteristicile proiectului ca de exemplu

locaia i performana sunt importante din
punctul de vedere al managementului de
risc seismic. n timpul seleciei locaiei
trebuie avute n minte aspecte legate de
amplasmentul geotehnic i de zona
seismic. Nevoile societii includ, pe
lng altele, structuri cu rezisten
seismic. De aceea atenia acordata
Project characteristics like location and

performance are important from seismic
risk management point of view. While
selecting the location geotechnical site
consideration and seismic zone of the site
should be kept in mind. The perceived
needs of the society include safe structures
against earthquakes besides other needs.
Therefore
consideration
of
above
21
parametrilor de mai sus are o importan

exceptional n aceast faz a proiectului.
parameters is of paramount importance in

this phase of project.
(1)
Managementul Calitii n
analiza cererilor pieei sau a
nevoilor /
Quality Management in
analyzing market demands
or perceived needs
(6)
nciunii i ntreinerii /
Quality Management
during operation and
maintenance
Legtura dintre
durata de via a unui proiect
de construcii i reducerea
riscurilor seismice /
Linking Quality Management
in the life cycle of a
construction project with
seismic risk reduction
(5)
Managemntul Calitii la
stadiul de execuie /
Quality Management at
construction stage
(2)
Managementul Calitii la
nivelul Planificrii
conceptuale i a studiului de
fezabilitate /
conceptual planning and
feasibility study stage
(3)
nivelul proiectrii i
ingineriei /
the design and engineering
stage
(4)
nivelul achiziiilor /
Quality Management
at procurement stage
Fig. 2: Legtura dintre Managementul Calitii n durata de via a unui proiect de construcii i reducerea
riscurilor seismice
Linking Quality Management in life cycle of a construction project with seismic risk reduction
Aplicarea practicilor de management al

calitii folosete la realizarea obiectivului
de mai sus. Paii recomandai pentru a
ndeplini acest obiectiv includ i:
-
22
Angajarea de profesional calificat i cu

experien
Asigurarea preciziei datelor n cadrul
analizei nevoilor societii/comunitii
Luarea n calcul a aspectelor legate de
amplasamentul geotehnic i a zonelor
seismice
Aplicarea principiilor de management
al calitii n procesul de mai sus
Application of quality management

practices can help in achieving the above
objective. Recommended steps to achieve
this objective include:
-
Employment
of
qualified
and
experienced professionals.
Assuring the accuracy of data in
analyzing
the
needs
of
society/community.
Consideration of geotechnical site
considerations and earthquake zone.
Application
of
total
quality
management principles in the above
process.
6.2 Managementul calitii la nivelul

planificrii conceptuale i a studiului de
fezabilitate
Planificarea conceptual se oprete brusc
la faza de proiectare detaliat, dei o
cantitate
considerabil
de
lucrri
preliminare arhitecturale i inginereti sunt
necesare. Definirea termenului lucrrii este
esenialmente
responsabilitatea
proprietarului, dei o echip de proiectani
poate fi chemat pentru a oferi asisten
tehnic i consiliere.
Asistena tehnic n selectarea parametrilor
de proiectare ca de exemplu ncrcrile
seismice i adoptarea standardelor
seismice adecvate este de asemenea
important pe lng alte consideraii ce
trebuie fcute. Paii recomandai n a
ndeplini obiectivele includ i:
- Adoptarea criteriilor de managementul
calitii n selectarea proiectaniilor.
- Selectarea codurilor i standardelor
adecvate pentru proiectarea structurilor
n concordan cu cerinele proiectului.
6.2 Quality management at conceptual

planning and feasibility study stage
6.3 Managementul Calitii la nivelul

proiectrii i ingineriei
6.3 Quality management at the design

and engineering stage
Obiectivele acestui nivel sunt Prescripiile

i Planurile de Construcie (Construction
Plans and Specifications). Aceast faz
implic proiectarea arhitectural i de
rezisten a ntregului proiect. Ea ajunge la
un punct culminant o dat cu planele
finale de lucru i prescripiile programului
total de construcie.
The objectives of this stage are

Construction Plans and Specifications.
This phase involves the architectural and
engineering design of the entire project. It
culminates in the preparation of final
working drawings and specifications for
the total construction program.
Din punct de vedere al managementului de

risc seismic proiectarea detaliat i
prescripiile trebuie s fie n conformitate
cu cele mai recente coduri seismice. Paii
recomandai n acest stadiu sunt urmtorii:
-
Luarea
n
considerare
a
condiiilor de mediu din punct de
vedere al proiectrii seismice
Utilizarea celor mai recente
coduri seismice.
Precizarea n cadrul prescripiilor
tehnice a tehnologiilor folosite
Conceptual planning stops short of the

detailed design, although a considerable
amount of preliminary architectural or
engineering work may be required. The
definition of the work is basically the
responsibility of the owner, although a
design professional may be called in to
provide technical assistance and advice.
Technical assistance in the selection of
design parameters like earthquake load
considerations and adoption of proper
seismic standards is also important besides
other considerations. Recommended steps
to assure the objective include:
- Applying the quality management
criteria in the selection of design
professional.
- Selection of proper seismic codes &
standards for the design of structure in
accordance of perceived needs of the
project.
From the seismic risk management point

of view the detailed design and
specifications should be in accordance of
updated seismic codes. The recommended
steps at this stage include:
-
Consideration of specific site

condition from seismic design
point of view.
Use of updated seismic codes.
Defining the use of required
technology in the technical
specification.
23
6.4. Managementul calitii la nivelul

achiziiilor
6.4. Quality management at procurement

stage.
Achiziiile se refer la comandarea i

livrarea echipamentelor i materialelor
necesare, n special a celor care implic un
interval mare de timp pentru livrare.
Selectarea celei mai adecvate forme de
organizare a proiectrii i a lucrrilor de
teren reprezint astzi un aspect
fundamental al procesului de achiziie.
(Turner, 1997; Ashworth, 2002). Din ce n
ce mai mult, echipa beneficiarului include
specialiti n domeniul managementului
facilitilor (n special cei menii s
soluioneze nelmuririle clientului legate
de organizare) care trebuie s fie familiari
cu amplitudinea de extindere a opiunilor
achiziiilor [5] [29]. n cadrul acestui
proces, muli cercettori sunt de acord c
proiectarea, managementul, i
execuia pot fi teoretic considerate pri
distincte, dei n realitate exist o oarecare
sinergie i suprapunere. (Best and de
Valence, 1999; Masterman, 2002; Walker
and Hampson, 2003). Pentru acest motiv,
categoriile metodelor de achiziie au fost
clasificate n trei activiti distincte:
Procurement refers to the ordering,

expediting and delivering of key project
equipment and materials, especially those
that may involve long delivery periods.
Selecting
the
most
appropriate
organization for design and construction
work represents a fundamental aspect of
the modern building procurement
process (Turner, 1997; Ashworth, 2002).
Increasingly, the integrated client team
includes
facilities
management
practitioners (particularly those concerned
with client strategic issues in the
organization) who need to be familiar with
the expanding range of procurement
options [5] [29]. Within this process, many
researchers
agree
that
design,
management and construction can
theoretically be viewed as discrete parts,
although in reality some synergy and
overlap does exist (Best and de Valence,
1999; Masterman, 2002; Walker and
Hampson, 2003). For this reason,
categories of procurement methods have
been classified around three distinct
activities:
(1) Sisteme tradiionale (includ costuri

estimate prin adaos, cantiti
provizorii);
(2) Sisteme proiectare-execuie (includ
proiectarea,
managementul
i
execuia); i
(3) Sisteme bazate pe management
(includ proiectare i administrare;
managementul
contractrii
i
managementul construciei).
24
(1) traditional systems (including costplus, provisional quantities);

and
build
systems
(2) design
(including design, management and
construction); and
systems
(3) management-oriented
(including design and manage;
management
contracting
and
construction management).
6.4.1 Selectarea criteriilor adecvate de

achiziie
6.4.1
Selection
procurement criteria
Selecia unei ci adecvate de achiziie este

o sarcin complex att pentru client ct i
pentru consultantul clientului (n special
managerilor de faciliti strategice ce
lucreaz pentru client) i rmne o enigm
pentru muli cercettori, dup cum o arat
volumul mare de cercetri efectuate n
Selecting an appropriate procurement path

is a complex and daunting task for both the
client
and
the
clients
advisers
(particularly client strategic facilities
managers) and remains an enigma for
many researchers, as evidenced by the
volume of research conducted in this
of
appropriate
acest domeniu (Franks, 1984; Bennett and

Grice, 1990; Chan et al., 2001; Cheung,
2001; Masterman, 2002). Este adeseori
recomandat ca alegerea traseului de
achiziii s se bazeze pe prioritile i
obiectivele clientului (Turner, 1997) ct i
pe consideraii de rezisten i siguran,
economice, de mediu i sociale (Love,
1996). Cel mai des ntlnit criteriu n
literatura de specialitate, dedicat alegerii
metodelor de achiziie include timpul,
precizia preului, flexibilitatea, calitatea,
complexitatea,
riscul,
concurena,
responsabilitatea, disputa i arbitrajul
(NEDO, 1985; Skitmore and Marsden,
1988; Love, 1998).
subject area (Franks, 1984; Bennett and

Grice, 1990; Chan et al., 2001; Cheung,
2001; Masterman, 2002). It is often
recommended that the choice of
procurement route should be based on the
clients objectives and priorities (Turner,
1997) as well as engineering, economic,
environmental and social considerations
(Love, 1996). The most common criteria
found in literature concerning the choice
of procurement methods include time,
price certainty, flexibility, quality,
complexity, risk, price competition,
responsibility, and dispute and arbitration
(NEDO, 1985; Skitmore and Marsden,
1988; Love, 1998).
Din punct de vedere al managementului

riscului seismic, calitatea managementului
n procesul de achiziie este important
odat ce acest proces va asigura cea mai
adecvat organizare a proiectrii i
execuiei. n afar de asta va ajuta la
asigurarea criteriilor de calitate n selecia
echipei
tehnice
a
proiectului,
a
echipamentului i a materialelor. Paii
recomandai n procesul de achiziie din
punct de vedere al managementului de risc
seismic sunt:
- Adoptarea unui Criteriu de Evaluare a
Achiziiei (Procurement Assessment
Criteria (PAC)) adecvat lund n
considerare factorii: viteza (timp),
precizia preului, flexibilitatea, nivelul
calitii, complexitatea, evitarea riscul,
concurena preului, responsabilitatea,
disputa i arbitrajul.
- Selectarea celei mai adecvate organizri
pentru a prelua aceste sarcini
- Asigurarea criteriilor de calitate n
selectarea echipei tehnice a proiectului, a
echipamentului i a materialelor.

of view quality management in the
procurement process is important as this
process will ensure the most appropriate
organization for design and construction.
Besides this it will help in ensuring the
quality criteria in the selection of key
project technical staff, equipment and
materials. The recommended steps in the
procurement process from the seismic risk
management point of view are:
- Adoption
of
the
appropriate
Procurement Assessment Criteria
(PAC) considering the factors: speed
(time), price certainty, flexibility,
quality
level,
complexity,
risk
avoidance,
price
competition,
responsibility, and dispute and
arbitration.
of
most
appropriate
- Selection
organizations to undertake the work.
- Ensuring the quality criteria in the
selection of key project technical staff,
equipment and materials.
6.5 Managemntul calitii la stadiul de

execuie
6.5 Quality management

construction stage
Execuia este procesul de punere n

aplicare a proiectului i de punere n lucru
a materialelor i echipamentelor. Ea
implic obinerea de mn de lucru,
Construction is the process of physically

erecting the project and putting the
materials and equipment into place and
this involves providing the manpower,
at
the
25
26
echipamentele de construcie, materiale,

furnizori, supraveghere i management,
pentru a realiza obiectivele propuse. Odat
ce procesele de proiectare i de achiziie sau ncheiat iar condiiile de asigurare a
calitii au fost ndeplinite, urmtorul nivel
important este asigurarea calitii n timpul
operaraiilor de construcie propriu-zis.
Aceasta depinde de un control adecvat al
calitii n timpul execuiei proiectului.
construction
equipment,
materials,
supplies, supervision, and management
which are necessary to accomplish the
work. Once the design and procurement
process has been done according to quality
requirements, the next important stage is
to ensure the quality during construction
operation. This depends upon the proper
quality control during execution of the
project.
Din punct de vedere al managementului

riscului seismic, controlul calitii n
timpul execuiei este de o extrem
importan. Unul dintre motivele cele
mai importante pentru care structurile au
cedat n timpul recentelor cutremure n
rile aflate n curs de dezvoltare, a fost
lipsa calitii n faza de proiectare sau n
faza de execuie ori n ambele. Paii
recomandai pentru controlul calitii n
faza de execuie sunt:
antreprenorilor
i
- Selectarea
subantreprenorilor adecvai.
- Echipa tehnic, administrativ ct i
muncitorii calificai i necalificai trebuie
s fie n concordan cu nevoile
proiectului.
- Asigurarea calitii materialelor n
conformitate cu prescripiile proiectului.
- Selectarea i utilizarea tehnologiei i a
echipamentului adecvat n procesele de
execuie.
- Modificarea n timp util a planelor dac
acest lucru e necesar.
- Transparena n procesul de inspecie.
- Luarea de msuri pentru a stopa sau a
evita corupia.
- Refacerea n timp util a lucrrilor greite.
n
eviden
a
non- inerea
conformitilor i luarea de msuri
necesare rectificrii lor.
- Adoptarea unei strategii potrivit creia
lucrurile sunt fcute bine de prima dat.
From seismic risk management point of

view, quality control during the execution
is of utmost importance. One major reason
of the collapse of structures in recent
earthquakes in developing countries is the
lack of quality at the design stage or
construction stage or on both stages. The
recommended steps to control the quality
at the construction stage are:
6.6 Managementul calitii n timpul

funciunii i ntreinerii
6.6
Quality
management
operation and maintenance
Acest stadiu este focalizat pe utilizarea

facilitilor i ntreinerea ntregii cldiri/
This stage is focused on the use of

facilities and the maintenance of the whole
Selection of appropriate contractors

and subcontractors.
Technical staff, administrative staff,
skilled workers and unskilled workers
should be according to the project
needs.
Ensuring the quality of materials
according to specifications.
Selection and use of appropriate
technology and equipment in the
construction process.
Ensuring the timely changes in
drawings if required.
Transparency in inspection process.
Taking
necessary
measures
to
stop/avoid corruption.
Timely rejection of faulty work.
Recording the non-conformances and
taking
necessary
measures
for
rectification.
Adopting the strategy that things are
done right the first time.
during
structuri. n aceast faz sunt incluse de

asemenea i posibilele restaurri ale
cldirii.
Din punct de vedere al managementului de
risc seismic, aplicarea managementului
calitii n acest stadiu este foarte
important. Lipsa controlului calitii n
timpul fazei de ntreinere i funciune a
facilitilor poate mri riscul apariiei
daunelor n timpul cutremurelor. Paii
recomandai din punct de vedere al
controlului calitii n timpul funciunii i
ntreinerii sunt:
building/structure. In this stage the

possible renovations of the building are
also included.
of view application of quality management
is very important during this stage. Lack of
quality control during maintenance and
operation phase of the facility can increase
the risk of damage on account of
earthquakes. The recommended step from
quality management point of view during
the operation and maintenance stage are:
-
Asigurarea la intervale regulate de

timp a calitii n timpul ntreinerii
structurii.
Consolidarea structurii pentru a crete/
mbuntii stabilitatea la cutremure,
dac este necesar.
Studierea
deteriorrilor/comportrii
structurii n timpul cutremurelor i
luarea de msuri de remediere.
Analiza din timp n timp a funciunii
structurii i conversia funciunii sale
pentru a reduce riscul apariiei
deteriorrilor cauzate de cutremur dac
e necesar.
Dac se observ c o viitoare
ntreinere sau conversie a facilitilor
nu va fi util, atunci structura va trebui
dezasamblat iar prile i materialele
aflate nc n stare bun, refolosite.
Assuring
quality
during
the
maintenance of structure at regular
intervals.
Retrofitting of the structure to increase/
improve
its
stability
against
earthquakes if required.
Study of the structural losses/behavior
in the event of earthquakes and taking
remedial measures.
Analyzing the function of structure
time by time and converting the
function of structure to reduce the risk
of damages due to earthquakes if
required.
If it is observed that further
maintenance or conversion of the
facility will not be useful then the
structure should be dismantled and
possible parts and materials of the
structure should be recycled.
7. Legtura dintre Sistemele de

Management al Calitii n organizaiile
de construcii i reducerea riscului
seismic
7. Linking Quality Management

Systems in construction organizations
with seismic risk reduction
Trei principali participani/organizaii sunt

implicai de obicei n contractele
tradiionale de construcii: beneficiarul,
proiectantul
i
antreprenorul.
Implementarea sistemelor de management
al calitii la nivelul acestor participani
poate fi folositoare n mbuntirea i
meninerea calitii construciei i n
consecin n reducerea riscului seismic.
Principalele avantaje ale implementrii
sistemelor de management al calitii (ISO
Three main participants/organizations are

usually involved in traditional construction
contracts: client, designer and contractor.
Implementation of quality management
system in these organizations can be useful
in improving and maintaining the quality
of construction and consequently reducing
seismic risk. The main advantages of
implementing
quality
management
systems (ISO 9000 & TQM) in
construction organization from seismic
27
9000 & TQM) n organizaiile de

construcii din punct de vedere al
managementului riscului seismic sunt
menionate mai jos:
risk management point of view are given

below
Legtura dintre Sistemele de Management al Calitii

n organizaiile de construcii i reducerea riscului
seismic / Linking Quality Management Systems in
construction organizations with seismic risk reduction
1. Avantajele implementrii sistemelor de

management
al
calitii
la
nivelul
beneficiarului / Advantages of implementing
Quality management systems at client level
management al calitii la nivelul
proiectantului (consultantului) / Advantages
of implementing Quality Management
systems at designer/consultant level

management al calitii la nivelul
antreprenorilor
/
Advantages
of
implementing QM systems at contractor
level
Fig.3: Legtura dintre Sistemele de Management al Calitii n organizaiile de construcii

i reducerea riscului seismic
Linking Quality management systems in construction organizations with seismic risk reduction /
7.1 Avantajele implementrii sistemelor

de management al calitii la nivelul
beneficiarului:
7.1 Advantages of implementing Quality

management systems at client level:
28
Angajai calificai i motivai.

Accentuarea mbuntirii continue a
calitii.
Luarea n considerare a standardelor
seismice n faza de proiectare.
Selectarea consultanilor calificai.
Luarea n considerare a criterilor de
calitate
n
timpul
selectrii
consultanilor i a antreprenorilor.
Transparena n procesul de licitaie.
Monitorizare adecvat a calitii
construciei.
Detectarea non-conformitiilor.
Redresarea non- conformitiilor.
Qualified and motivated employees.

Emphasis on continuous quality
improvement.
Consideration of seismic standards in
design.
Selection of qualified consultants.
Consideration of quality characteristics
during selection of consultants and
contractors.
Transparency in bidding process.
Proper monitoring of construction
quality.
Detection of non-conformances.
Rectifying the non-conformances.
Asigurarea
calitii
n
timpul
ntreinerii i a funcionrii.
- Conversia/organizarea din timp a
facilitilor i reciclarea prilor sau a
materialelor refolosibile.
proiectantului/consultantului:
Echipa tehnic calificat, motivat

pentru o
mbuntire continu a
calitii.
Acuratee n a colecta datele necesare
proiectrii.
Luarea n considerare a celor mai
recente coduri i standarde seismice.
Acuratee n prescripiile i desenele de
proiectare.
O mai bun supraveghere a execuiei i
a calitii.
Control eficient i msuri luate
mpotriva corupiei.
Relaii bune de lucru cu beneficiarii i
antreprenorii.
Ensuring quality during maintenance

and operation phase.
- Timely conversion/disposal of the
facility and recycling of possible parts
and materials.
management
systems
at
designer/consultant level:
Qualified
technical
staff
with
motivation for continuous quality
improvement.
Accuracy in data collection for design.
Proper consideration of updated
seismic codes and standards.
Accuracy in design drawings and
specification.
Better supervision of the construction
process and quality.
Good control and measures against
corruption.
Good working relation with clients and
contractors.

antreprenorilor:

management systems at contractor level:
Echipa tehnic i muncitori calificai.

Utilizarea tehnologiei i metodei de
execuie adecvat.
Detectarea
adecvat
a
nonconformitilor.
Rectificarea din timp a nonconformitilor.
Punerea accentului pe efectuarea corect
a sarcinilor din prima ncercare.
Producerea construciilor de calitate n
conformitate cu prescripiile existente.
Finalizarea n timp a proiectului.
Luarea de msuri de siguran adecvate
pe antier.
Qualified technical and skilled

workers.
Use of appropriate technology and
construction method.
Proper detection of non-conformances.
Timely
rectification
of
nonconformances.
Emphasis on doing the things right the
first time.
Producing the quality construction
according to specification.
Timely completion of the project.
Provision of proper construction safety
measures on construction site.
8. Concluzii
8. Conclusion
Prbuirea structurilor n recentele

cutremure din ri ca Turcia, India, i
Pakistan au dezvluit faptul c unul dintre
motivele principale ale producerii daunelor
The failures of structures in recent

earthquakes in countries like Turkey, India
and Pakistan reveal that poor construction
quality is one of the most important
29
a fost calitatea precar a construciilor.

Aceasta poate fi cauzat de nerespectarea
criteriilor de management al calitii n
diferite stadii ale duratei de via a
proiectului. Acest lucrare a relaionat
managementul calitii unui proiect de
construcii i implementarea efectiv a
sistemelor de managementul calitii n
societiile de construcii cu reducerea
riscului seismic. Ea sugereaz luarea
msurilor necesare n diferite stadii ale
duratei de via a unui proiect de
construcii cu scopul de a mbunti
calitatea construciei i implicit de a
reduce riscul pierderilor umane i
financiare cauzate de obicei de calitatea
precar n cazul unui cutremur.
reasons in the failure of structures. Poor

construction quality may be casued due to
overlooking quality management practices
at different stages of project life cycle.
This paper has linked quality management
in life cycle of the construction project and
effective implementation of Quality
management systems in construction
companies with seismic risk reduction. It
suggests necessary measures to be taken at
different stages in the life cycle of a
construction project in order to improve
the quality of constructions and
consequently reduce the risk of human and
financial losses which is usually caused
due to poor construction quality in the
event of earthquakes
La relation entre quality management in construction et la rduction du risque

Rsum
Les endommagements causs par des sismes rcents au Pakistan, en Indonsie, en Iran, en Inde et en Turquie ont attir
lattention sur la vulnrabilit accrue aux risques sismiques, dun point de vue social et conomique. On continue avoir
des pertes humaines cause des sismes. Aussi les pertes conomiques sont importantes. Dans les prochaines 20 annes, on
sattend ce que la population combine des Indes et de la Chine daujourdhui fasse partie des plus pauvres du monde.
Cette population sera demandeuse de logements, de possibilits denseignement et de travail. En tenant compte de
labsence des ressources et de lurgence de construire continuellement, la qualit des constructions se rduira, si des
changements ne sont pas effectus. Ce projet-ci fait la liaison entre la mise en place des systmes de management de la
qualit dans les entreprises de construction et le processus de rduction du risque sismique. Nous ferons des suggestions
ncessaires d tre appliques pour amliorer la qualit des constructions et, par consquent, aptes rduire le risque
dendommagement. Dans le mme temps, on souligne les avantages de la mise en place des systmes de management de la
qualit dans lorganisation des constructions.
Bibliografie
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31
Predicia strii mbrcmintei rutiere

utiliznd metode numerice
Prediction of the Pavement

Condition Using Numerical Methods
Bogdan Tudor, drd.ing., director adjunct CESTRIN Bucureti (deputy director, CESTRIN Bucharest), e-mail:
bogdan.tudor@cestrin.ro
Rodian Scnteie dr.ing., director executiv CERT-CESTRIN (executive director CERT-CESTRIN Bucharest), email: rodian.scinteie@gmail.com
Sistemele de gestiune a mbrcmintei rutiere

sunt utilizate pentru a indica lucrri adecvate ce
urmeaz a se efectua asupra cii de rulare.
Pentru a avea o decizie corect sunt necesare
dou lucruri: o evaluarea a efectului imediat al
lucrrii asupra parametrilor de stare i evoluia
viitoare a sistemului rutier cu i fr intervenia
planificat. Pentru descrierea comportamentului
viitor se utilizeaz de modele de predicie.
Pentru aceasta se utilizeaz descrierea strii
prezente a sistemului i utiliznd ecuaii
adecvate se efectueaz o proiecie n viitor a
caracteristicilor n condiiile concrete de mediu
i solicitare. Ecuaiile sunt obinute prin
studierea datelor obinute pe sectoare similare n
condiii similare. Prezumia fundamental este
c structuri ale sistemelor rutiere similare se
comport similar n condiii similare.
Utilizarea metodelor de predicie pentru
determinarea evoluiei mbrcmintei rutiere
este o tem de mare actualitate pe plan mondial.
Pentru realizarea scopului propus s-a apelat la
instrumente moderne oferite de statistic, teoria
probabilitilor, teoria fiabilitii, ingineria i
tehnologia rutier. Datorit caracterului complex al sistemului structur rutier i a multiplelor sale interaciuni cu mediu ncon-jurtor
fizic se poate considera c analiza prediciei de
stare are un caracter multidisciplinar.Pornind de
la datele disponibile au fost analizate i
dezvoltate modele comportamentale pentru
neuniformitate (IRI), pentru rugozitate (HS) i
pentru capacitatea portant (descris prin
deflexiunea Benkelman). Pentru fiecare dintre
cele trei modele au fost folosite metode
diferite de analiz de regresie. Aceasta a
rezultat din comportamentul diferit al datelor.
Analiza de regresie a fost condus n fiecare
caz pornind de la dou ipoteze de lucru: 1)
variabilele independente au efect cumulativ,
i 2) au efect multiplicativ.
32
Pavement management systems are used to

indicate the appropriate works to be performed
on roads. To have a correct decision, two things
are absolutely necessary: an evaluation of the
immediate effect of the works on the condition
parameters and future evolution of the road
system with and without planned intervention.
To describe future behavior of the system a
prediction model is needed. A model is
generally formed by a set of equations which
takes into account the description of the present
condition and makes a projection in the future of
the main parameters based on the concrete
environment and demand conditions. Equations
are drafted based on studies on data collected on
similar sectors with similar conditions. The
fundamental assumption is that similar
structures in the same conditions perform
similarly.
The use of prediction methods to determine the
evolution of the pavement is a present concern
in the world.
To achieve the goal of the study, modern
instruments from statistics, probability theory,
reliability theory, road engineering and
technology are available. Due to the complex
nature of the road structural system and its
multiple interactions with the environment the
prediction analysis has a multi-disciplinary
character.
Starting from the available data, behavior models
have been analyzed and developed for evenness
(IRI), roughness (HS) and bearing capacity
(described by Benkelman deflection). For each of
the three models, different methods of regression
analysis have been used. This has resulted from
the different behavior described by data.
Regression analysis has been conducted in two
hypothesizes for each case: 1) independent
variables have cumulative effect, and 2)
independent variables have multiplicative
effect.
1. Modele numerice de evoluie pentru

parametrii msurai
1. Numerical Models for the Evolution of

Measured Parameters
Datele disponibile au fost analizate utiliznd

regresia liniara pentru a evidenia dependena
variaiei n timp a parametrilor de stare de
variabilele considerate. Modelele astfel
obinute sunt utilizate de procedurile de
predicie.
Conform datelor disponibile i nevoilor
decizionale au fost realizate:
Modele de evoluie pentru IRI,
Modele de evoluie pentru HS,
Modele de evoluie pentru deflexiune.
Din cauza imposibilitii de dezvoltare a unui
model teoretic, a prezenei unui grad de
incertitudine cauzat de insuficiena datelor i
cunotinelor, precum i a condiiilor impuse
pentru fiecare dintre parametri, exist mai
multe variante de model. Fiecare model
explic ntr-o anumit msur variaia
parametrului studiat. Pentru o decizie final ar
trebui s existe o relaie liniar ntre valorile
prezise i msurate:
Yi = aYi + b +
unde:
Yi valorile estimate prin aplicarea modelului
obinut n urma analizei,
Yi valorile msurate ale parametrului,
a coeficient de scala ( a 1,0 ),
b coeficient de poziie ( b 0,0 ),
eroarea termen aleator care respect
distribuia normal.
Pentru fiecare caz n parte trebuie verificat dac
a i b sunt suficient de apropiai de valorile
prescrise i dac indicatorul de verosimilitate R 2
are o valoare suficient de ridicat ( R 2 1 ).
Pentru analiz a fost utilizat EA/Limdep.
EA/LimDep ( Econometric Software, Inc.) e un
program ce poate fi utilizat pentru calcule
statistice, econometrice, analize de regresie.
Available data have been analyzed using

linear regression to underline the dependence
of the variation in time of the condition
parameters which have been considered. The
aggregated models have been used for
prediction procedures.
According to decision needs and available
data the following have been developed:
Evolution model for IRI;
Evolution model for HS;
Evolution model for deflection.
Due to the impossibility of developing a
theoretical model, the presence of a high
degree of uncertainty caused by insufficient
data and knowledge, as well as due to the
conditions imposed to each parameter, more
model variants are possible. Each model
explains in lower or higher extent the variation
of the studied parameter. For a final decision,
a linear relation between the measured and
predicted value should exist:
(1)
where:
Yi values estimated by the model resulted
from the analysis,
Yi measured values of the parameter,
a scale coefficient ( a 1,0 ),
b position coefficient ( b 0,0 ),
error random term which respects normal
distribution.
For each case a and b should be verified if
they are close to the prescribed values and if
the coefficient of determination R 2 has a
value sufficiently high ( R 2 1 ).
EA/Limdep was used for the analysis.
EA/Limdep ( Econometric Software, Inc.) is
a program fit for statistic and econometric
calculations or for regression analysis.
2. Analiza datelor pentru IRI i HS
2. Analysis of Data for IRI and HS
Modul de abordare pentru identificarea

dependenei IRI i HS de variabilele
independente a fost urmtorul:
S-a efectuat analiza multiliniar pornind de
la ideea unei nsumri a efectelor fiecrui
factor de influen:
The approach to identify the dependency of

IRI and HS on the independent variables has
been as follows:
Multi-linear analysis has been performed
based on the idea of a cumulative effect of
each influence factor:
33
Yi = a jV j ,i + b +
(2)
S-a efectuat analiza multiliniar pornind de

la premisa unei multiplicri a efectelor fiecrui
factor de influen:
Multi-linear analysis hasbeen performed

based on the idea of a multiplicative effect of
each influence factor:
Yi = a jV j ,i + b +
(3)
A fost evaluat relaia dintre valorile prezise

i valorile msurate;
A fost selectat forma corespunztoare, dac
a rezultat una acceptabil.
Correlation between predicted values and

measured values has been evaluated;
The appropriate form has been selected if an
acceptable one resulted.
2.1. Modelul de evoluie pentru IRI
2.1. Evolution Model for IRI
Variabil dependent a fost variaia uniformit-ii

( IRI ) pe diferite perioade. n final, s-a adoptat o
abordare incremental. Astfel, dac se dorete
calculul variaiei pentru un numr de ani, se face
calculul pentru fiecare an considernd modificrile
rezultate n parametri n anii anteriori.
Variabilele independente luate n calcul au fost:
IRI (valoarea la nceputul fiecrui interval
analizat);
Timpul;
Temperatura la 20 mm n sol;
Precipitaiile medii anuale;
Grosimea mbrcmintei bituminoase,
Grosimea straturilor de balast;
Grosimea total a structurii rutiere;
Traficul a fost luat n calcul ca valoare medie
anual dar i ca valoare cumulat. Deoarece s-a
dovedit c grosimile straturilor de balast i
grosimea total a structurii rutiere nu prezint
semnificaia dorit n analiz, a fost introdus n
lista datelor numrul structural modificat (SNP)
care ine cont nu doar de geometrie ci i de
natura materialelor.
Pentru calcul s-a avut n vedere ecuaia propus
pentru HDM-4:
The dependent variable has been the variation of

evenness ( IRI ) for different periods. Finally,
an incremental approach has been adopted. If the
variation should be estimated for more years, the
calculation is performed for each year
considering the modifications resulted in the
previews years.
Independent variables have been:
IRI (value at the beginning of the analysis
interval);
Time;
Temperature at 20 mm in soil;
Average annual precipitation;
Thickness of the bituminous pavement,
Thickness of the ballast layers;
Total thickness of the road system.
The traffic has been considered as annual
average daily traffic but also as cumulate
value. Because it has been proved that ballast
and total thickness are not significant in the
analysis the modified structural number (SNP)
has been included on the list of independent
variables. SNP includes not only the geometry
but also the nature of the materials.
For calculation, the equation proposed by
HDM4 has been used:
(4)
SNP = 3.2 Benk 0.63

Unde:
Benk este deflexiunea Benkelman n mm.
Pentru modelul multiplicativ s-a pornit de la
includerea tuturor variabilelor (att simpl ct
i logaritmul) i s-au reinut cte au fost
semnificative (p-value mai mic dect un
prag).
34
Where:
Benk is Benkelman deflexion in mm.
For the multiplicative effect the analysis has
started by including all available variables
(both simple and their logarithm) and retaining
as many are significant (p-value less than a
threshold).
De exemplu: timpul, logaritmul traficului

cumulat, IRI iniial, precipitaiile medii,
logaritmul temperaturii, logaritmul grosimii
totale, grosimea straturilor bituminoase au fost
reinute:
As an example: time, logarithm of cumulated

traffic, initial IRI, average precipitation,
logarithm of temperature, logarithm of total
thickness, thickness of bituminous layers have
been retained.
Tab.1 Ieirea LIMDEP pentru IRI

LIMDEP output for IRI
ONE
TIMP
L_TC
IRI
PRECMED
L_K
L_GT
GROSB
Coeff.
313.06
-0.46644
1.1754
0.144089
-0.01036
-61.9839
13.2503
-0.26763
Std.Err.
74.5733
0.078136
0.22665
0.051425
0.00153
13.3428
1.61811
0.036959
t-ratio
4.19802
-5.96955
5.18597
2.8019
-6.77093
-4.64551
8.18876
-7.24129
P-value
0.0247
0.0094
0.0139
0.0677
0.0066
0.0188
0.0038
0.0054
Pe baza rezultatului analizei a fost construit

ecuaia de evoluie. Aceast ecuaie are forma:
IRI = C0 exp( t t ) TRAFcum
TRAFcum
TEMPK
TEMPK
Based on the analysis the evolution equation has

been constructed. It has the following form:
(5)
exp( IRI IRI 0 ) exp( UMIDUMID )
GrosTot GrosTot exp( GrosB GrosB )
Unde:
IRI
Variaia IRI n intervalul de timp,
t
timpul n ani;
TRAFcum Traficul cumulat,
IRI 0
Valoarea IRI la nceputul intervalului,
UMID Precipitaiile anuale medii;
GrosTot Grosimea total a structurii rutiere;
GrosB
Grosimea straturilor asfaltice;
TEMPK Temperatura medie n sol (K).
Din cauza condiiilor privind semnificaia
statistic acest rezultat nu a putut fi reinut
( R 2 0.7 ).
Pentru parametrii selectai au fost analizate
diferite combinaii. Dintre acestea s-a reinut
urmtoarea dependen a variaiei anuale a IRI:
Where:
IRI
variation of IRI on the interval,
t
time in years;
TRAFcum cumulated traffic,
IRI 0
IRI at the beginning of the interval,
UMID average annual precipitation;
GrosTot total thickness of the road structure;
GrosB thickness of the bituminous layers;
TEMPK average temperature in soil (K).
Due to the statistical significance of the test
predicted vs. measured values ( R 2 0.7 ) the
result could not be retained.
For the selected parameters different combi-nations
have been analyzed. The following equation for the
variation of IRI has been finally obtained:
IRI = a0 e Ktraf TRAFb e KSNPSNP e KGrosPavGPav Umid Kprec Tk KTk

Unde:
TRAFb Traficul mediu pe band;
SNP
Numrul structural modificat;
GPav Grosimea mbrcmintei;
Umid Precipitaiile anuale medii;
Tk
Temperatura la 20mm n sol ;
a0 , Ktraf , KSNP , KGrosPav , Kprec , Tk
sunt coeficieni obinui n analizei de regresie.
(6)
Where:
TRAFb average traffic on lane;
SNP
modified structural number;
GPav pavement thickness;
Umid average annual precipitations;
Tk
temperature at 20mm in soil ;
a0 , Ktraf , KSNP , KGrosPav , Kprec , Tk
are coefficients resulted after the regression
analysis.
35
A fost efectuat verificarea corelaiei dintre

valorile prezise i valorile msurate i s-a
obinut urmtoarea imagine:
2.5
y = 1.054x - 0.0406
Valori prezise
2.0
The correlation between the predicted and

measured values has been verified as
presented in the following picture:
R = 0.9621
1.5
1.0
0.5
Valori masurate
0.0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Fig. 1 Verificarea corelaiei dintre valorile msurate i valorile prezise pentru IRI
Verification of the correlation between predicted and measured values for IRI
2.2. Modelul de evoluie pentru HS
2.2. Evolution Model for HS
Ca variabil dependent studiat a fost impus

variaia HS pe diferite perioade.
Pentru modelul cumulativ al HS s-a pornit de la
includerea tuturor variabilelor. Pentru fiecare
dintre ele s-a considerat variabila ca atare i
logaritmul ei. n anumite cazuri selectate intuitiv
au fost utilizate combinaii de variabile.
Un exemplu, n care au fost incluse HS i
traficul mediu anual este prezentat n continuare:
The dependent variable has considered variation of

HS for different periods.
The cumulative model for HS started by including
all the variables. For each variable the logarithm
was also considered. In certain cases combinations
of variables have been used. The insignificant
variables have been eliminated.
An example of a result including the HS and the
annual average daily traffic is presented in the
following table:
Tab.2. Ieirea LIMDEP pentru HS

LIMDEP output for HS
ONE
HS
TRAF
Coeff.
-0,11286
0,352883
1,95E-05
Std.Err.
0,047133
0,078165
7,57E-06
t-ratio
-2,3945
4,51457
2,57111
P-value
2,56%
2E-04
0,017
Pe baza rezultatului analizei a fost construit

urmtoarea ecuaia de evoluie:
HS = C 0 + C1 HS + C 2 TRAFmed
Based on the result of the analysis the

following equation was constructed:
(7)
Unde:
HS Variaia HS n intervalul de timp,
HS
Valoarea HS la nceputul intervalului,
TRAFmed Traficul mediu,
C 0 , C1 , C 2 Coeficienii dezvoltai n analiza
de regresie.
Where:
HS variation of HS in the interval,
HS
value of HS at the beginning of
interval,
TRAFmed average traffic,
C 0 , C1 , C 2 coefficients
resulted from
regression analysis.
Verification of the correlation:
Verificarea corelaiei:
36
0.35
0.30
0.25
Valori prezise
0.40
y = 0.6294x + 0.0459
2
R = 0.6447
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
Valori masurate
0.00
-0.05 0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
Fig. 2 HS; Relaia dintre valorile msurate i cele prezise

HS; relation between predicted and measured values
p-value are valoare acceptabil pentru fiecare

parametru inclus, dar R 2 nu este suficient de
mare i aceast formul explic doar ~63%
din variaia HS . Rezultatul nu a fost reinut.
Urmnd procedura specificat s-au obinut
mai multe variante de dependen. Totui, nu
s-a reinut nici-una.
De aceea s-a considerat c nu sunt suficiente
date pentru a obine o formul satisfctoare.
n consecin s-a trecut la adaptarea unei
ecuaii cunoscute. deja folosite n practic, i
s-a efectuat calibrrii coeficienilor la
condiiile specifice reelei rutiere pe care s-au
fcut msurtorile.
Ecuaia are urmtoarea form final:
p-value has an acceptable value for each

parameter, but R 2 is not big enough and this
formula doesnt explain more than 63% of the
variation of HS . The result has not been
retained. Following the specific procedure, more
variants of dependence equations have been
obtained. However, none of them could be
retained. Therefore, it has been considered that not
sufficient data are available to obtain a satisfactory
equation. As a result, a known equation, which has
already been used in practice, has been selected
and the calibration of the coefficients has been
performed to adapt it to the specific conditions
from Romania. The equation has the final form as
follows:
HS = a0 HS * ln(1 + TRAFb ) TRAFb KTrafB
(8)
Unde:
Where:
HS
este valoare la nceputul fiecrui an;
TRAFb Traficul mediu pe band;
a0 , KTrafB sunt coeficieni obinui n
analiza de regresie.
n urma analizei rmne o parte a variaiei
neexplicat. Acest lucru se corecteaz prin
calculul unui coeficient de scal.
HS
value at the beginning of each year;
TRAFb average traffic on lane;
a0 , KTrafB coefficients have resulted from
the regression analysis.
Following the analysis a part of the variation
still remains unexplained. This might be
corrected calculating a scale coefficient.
3. Modelul de evoluie pentru deflexiune
3. Evolution Model for Deflection
Aa cum am observat mai sus avem deja dou

modele de calcul a evoluiei din datele
disponibile.
As presented earlier, two calculation methods

are available for the calculation of the
evolution from available data.
37
Pentru datele de deflexiune disponibile s-a

refcut analiza i s-a constatat c nici-unul
dintre modelele anterioare nu corespund
necesitilor. De aceea s-a pornit de la ideea c
sectoarele de drum pentru care exist date,
proiectarea a fost fcut respectnd aceea
practic i deci, n conformitate cu normele n
vigoare se acoper suficient de bine cerinele
de trafic, condiii climatice i natura
pmntului. Valoarea iniial a deflexiunii,
generat prin proiectare, de asemenea, nu
influeneaz semnificativ variaia anual a
deflexiunii. Ca urmare, ecuaia obinut are ca
variabil independent doar timpul. S-a
obinut o relaie polinomial de ordinul 3.
Deoarece la momentul iniial variaia este,
evident, nul este raional s susinem c nu
exist termen liber:
For available deflection data, the analysis has

been performed in both hypothesis and none
of the models has been found proper to the
needs. Therefore, a new hypothesis has been
made: according to the norms, regulations and
best practice, the designer has already covered
sufficiently well the requirements of traffic,
climatic conditions, and soil nature. Also, the
initial value of the deflection, generated by
project, does not influence significantly the
annual variation of deflection. As a result, the
final equation has only one independent
variable: time. A polynomial relation of the
third degree has been obtained. Because at the
initial moment the variation is zero it is
rational to sustain that no free term exists. The
equation has the following form:
Benk (t ) = a3t 3 + a 2 t 2 + a1t
(9)
Unde:
Benk este variaia deflexiunii Benkelman
(n 0,01mm)
t
timpul de la ultima intervenie major
(construcie, reconstrucie, reabilitare)
a1 , a2 , a3
coeficieni obinui n analiza
de regresie.
where:
Benk variation of Benkelman deflection (in
0.01mm)
t
time from the last major intervention
(construction, rehabilitation, reconstruction)
a1 , a2 , a3
coefficients resulted from
regression analysis.
160
3
Variatia deflexiunii (mm/100)
140
120
100
80
60
y = 0.17179113x - 1.92281794x + 9.84750061x

2
R = 0.85308627
40
20
Timp (ani)
0
0
10
11
12
Fig. 3 Evoluia deflexiunii

Evolution of deflection variation
Corelaia dintre valorile calculate i valorile

msurate este prezentat n figura urmtoare:
38
The correlation between the calculated and

measured values is presented in the following
picture:
140
Valoare prezisa
120
y = 0.8487x + 5.8866
R2 = 0.8531
100
80
60
40
20
Valoare masurata
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
Fig. 4 Verificarea corelaiei dintre valorile msurate i cele prezise ale variaiei deflexiunii
Verification of the correlation between predicted and measured values for the variation
Se poate observa o valoare R 2 = 0.85 care

este la limit dar acceptabil pentru cazul dat.
A value R 2 = 0.85 might be observed which

is at limit but still acceptable.
4. Concluzii
4. Conclusions
Prezenta lucrare ia n studiu o tem de mare

importan din domeniul ingineriei rutiere i
anume analiza sistemic a evoluiei strii
mbrcminilor suple utiliznd informaiile
stocate n banca de date. Studiul analizeaz
parametrii care influeneaz performanele
mbrcmintei: indici de stare tehnic, IRI, HS i
deflexiune. Studiul s-a efectuat pe date culese de
pe sectoare experimentale pe o durat de peste 7
ani. Acolo unde nu au existat suficiente valori au
fost utilizate date de pe alte sectoare similare.
Analiza pornete de la premisa c structuri
similare, n condiii similare vor avea
comportament similar. De aceea rezultatele
obinute pentru anumite condiii (clim, trafic
etc.) vor putea fi folosite n evaluarea
performanelor altor sectoare cu structur
similar din alte zone cu condiii asemntoare.
Stabilirea cu acuratee a strii tehnice i a
riscurilor structurale se constituie ntr-un prim
pas spre dezvoltarea i implementarea unui
sistem de management al mbrcmintei rutiere
eficient. Rezultatele obinute sunt utilizate
pentru calibrarea actualei metodologii de lucru
bazate pe utilizarea HDM-4, dar i pentru
realizarea unui program de simulare i predicie
a evoluiei strii mbrcmintei rutiere adaptat
condiiilor specifice din Romnia.
The present paper takes into account a very

important problem for highway engineering
namely the systemic analysis of the evolution
of the pavement condition using information
from the databank. The study analyzes the
parameters that influence the performance of
the pavement: technical condition indices, IRI,
HS and deflection. The study has been
performed on data collected on experimental
sector over a 7 years period. Where no
sufficient values have been available other
data from similar sectors have been used. The
analysis starts from the postulate that similar
structures, in similar conditions will perform
similarly. Hence, the results derived for
certain conditions (climate, traffic etc.) could
be used to evaluate performances of other
similar structures from other areas with similar
conditions.
Assessment of the accurate prediction models
and the structural risks represents a first step
for the development and implementation of an
effective pavement management system. The
results are used to calibrate the present
methods based on HDM4, but also to
development of a simulation and prediction
software for pavements, better adapted to
Romanian conditions.
39
Rsum
Larticle prsente une tude dune grande importance pour le domaine dingnierie routire : lanalyse systmatique
dvolution de la condition technique des systmes routiers souples en utilisant les informations prsentes dans la base de
donnes. Ltude analyse les paramtres qui peuvent influencer les performances des routes : conditions techniques, IRI, HS,
dflexion. Ltude a t effectue sur des donnes collectes auprs de secteurs exprimentaux au cours de 7 annes. On a
utilis lanalyse de rgression multi-linale, avec deux hypothses : des effets additifs et des effets multiplicatifs. Lvolution
a t vrifie selon les conditions de trafic, la gomtrie des routes et les conditions climatiques.
Les rsultats seront utiliss afin de calibrer HDM4 et pour le dveloppement dun logiciel de simulation et de prdiction des
conditions.
Bibliografie
References
[1]
J. B. Odoki, Henry G. R. Kerali, HDM4 Highway Development & Development, Volume Four, Analytical
Framework and Model Descriptions; World Road Association, World Bank, 1999
[2]
William H. Greene, Econometric Analysis/LimDep Users Manual, www.prenhall.com/greene/ealimdep.doc
40
Modelele terenului de fundare

pentru mbrcaminti rigide.
Foundation
Pavements.
Models
for
Rigid
Vasile Cornea, drd. Ing, S.C. TELOXIM CON SRL Bucuresti, e-mail: v.cornea@yahoo.com
1. Introducere
1. Introduction
Dei n literatura de specialitate exist

multe modele elaborate , majoritatea pentru
mbuntirea modelului Winkler
( Filonenko Borodici, 1940; Heteny,
1946; Pasternak, 1954; Reisner, 1958;
Vlasov si Leontiev, 1960; Kerr,1964; Loof,
1965; Jones i alii care completeaz
modelul Vlasov i Leontiev, 1977;
Vallabhan i alii care modific i
mbunataete modelul Vlasov i Leontiev,
1988; ) n practic, s-au folosit n mod
obinuit modelele Winkler
(Dens Lichid) (DL) i modelul Solidului
Elastic (SE), vezi Fig.1.i respectiv
Fig.2[1], [2]].
Although in the specialty literature there

are many elaborated models, the majority
for the improvement of the Winkler model
(Filonenko Borodici, 1940; Heteny,
1946; Pasternak, 1954; Reisner, 1958;
Vlasov and Leontiev, 1960; Kerr, 1964;
Loof, 1965; Jones et al. which complete
the model of Vlasov and Leontiev, 1977;
Vallabhan et al. which
modify and improve the model of Vlasov
and Leontiev, 1988 ;) in practice, the
model of Winkler (Dense Liquid) and
the model of Elastic Solid (ES) have been
commonly used, see Fig.1.and respective
Fig.2[1], [2].
Fig.1. Modelul de fundare Dens Lichid (DL)

Foundation model Dens Liquid (DL)
Fig.2. Modelul de fundare al Solidului Elastic (SE)

Foundation model Elastic Solid (ES)
41
2. Comparaii intre modelul DL i SE
2. Comparison Between DL and SE

Model
Totui att modelul DL ct i modelul SE

nu sunt total adecvate, pentru a fi aplicate
terenurilor de fundare existente [3] i [4].
Astfel n modelul DL se consider c
rezistena la forfecare este neglijabil n
comparatie cu capacitatea de forfecare a
terenului de fundare i c n mod idealizat
terenul de fundare este reprezentat de un
set de resoarte independente caracterizat
prin parametrul K [kPa/m] (coeficientul
patului).
n modelul SE se asum c terenul de
fundare prezint un grad nalt de
interaciune la forfecare fat de
interaciunea uzual a terenurilor de
fundare aflate n situ iar prin aplicarea
acestuia rezult eforturi infinite pentru
marginile i colturile mbrcminii rigide.
Oricum prediciile celor dou modele
atunci cnd sunt aplicate terenurilor de
fundare reale prezint discrepane vizavi
de observaiile comportrii n situ.
However, both model DL and model SE

are not totally proper to be applied to the
existent foundation ground [3], [4].
Thus, in the DL model it is assumed that
shear strength can be neglected in
comparison with shear capability of the
foundation ground and
ideally the
foundation ground is represented by an
independent spring set characterized by
the K parameter [kPa/m] (bed coefficient).
In the ES model it is considered that the
foundation ground shows a high grade of
shear interaction than usually interaction
of the foundation grounds present in situ
and by using it infinite stress results under
the edges and corners of the rigid
pavement.
Anyhow the predictions of both models
when they are applied to the real
foundation grounds show the discrepancies
as against the observations of the in situ
behavior.
3. Consideraii recente privind cea mai

buna alternativ faa de modelele DL
i SE.
3. New Considerations Regarding the

Best Alternative compared to the DL
and ES models.
n ultimii ani tot mai muli cercettori

afirm c cele dou modele ar trebui s fie
nlocuite cu modelul Pasternak generalizat
de Vlasov i dezvoltat de Kerr, vezi Fig.3
i Fig 4.
In the last years several researchers have

assert that both models should be replaced
by the Pasternak model generalized by
Vlasov and developed by Kerr, see Fig.3
and Fig.4.
Fig. 3. Dal pe un model de fundare Pasternak.

Slab on a Pasternak foundation model.
42
Fig. 4. Dal pe un model de fundare Kerr.

Slab on a Kerr foundation model.
ku - rigiditatea resoartelor din stratul superior.
ku - upper layer spring stiffness.
kL - rigiditatea resoartelor din stratul inferior.
kL - lower layer spring stiffness.
G - rigiditatea la forfecare a stratului.
G - shear layer stiffness.
Modelul Pasternak reprezint o alternativ

pentru modelul (SE) privind asigurarea
unui grad de interaciune la forfecare intre
elementele de teren adiacente.
Astfel n recomandrile celui de al 4-lea
Simpozion Internaional privind Modelele
Teoretice ale Drumurilor din Beton i celui
de al 8-lea Simpozion Internaional privind
Drumurile din Beton, modelul Pasternak a
fost propus ca cel mai preferabil model
pentru terenurile de fundare ale drumurilor
din beton.
ntr-o comparaie ntre modelele (DL) i
Pasternak prezentat de Pronk n 1993 [4]
la a 5-a Conferin Internaional privind
Proiectarea i Reabilitarea mbracaminilor
din Beton acesta a artat c modelul
Pasternak poate fi considerat ca o
mbuntire logic a modelului (DL). n
ultimii ani s-au fcut progrese importante
n dezvoltarea instrumentelor analitice
pentru analiza dalelor din beton folosinduse pentru terenul de fundare modelul
Pasternak.
Au fost obinute soluii analitice pentru
analiza plcilor din beton infinite i
semiinfinite rezemate pe modelul terenului
de fundare Pasternak (Cauwelaert, 1997;
Cauwelaert i alii, 2002).
Deasemeni Stet i alii, 2001 au folosit
aceste soluii pentru a dezvolta unprocedeu
(backcalculation) pentru determinarea
The model Pasternak represents an

alternative for the model (ES) regarding
the assurance of an interaction degree to
shearingbetween the adjacent elements of
the foundation ground.
Thus, in the recommendations of the 4th
International
Symposium
on
the
Theoretical Modelling of Concrete
Pavements and the 8th
International Symposium on Concrete
Roads
the Pasternak model was proposed as the
most preferable model for the foundation
grounds of concrete roads.
In a comparison between the (DL) and
Pasternak models presented in 1993 [4] at
the 5th International Conference on
Concrete
Pavement
Design
and
Rehabilitation Pronk showed that the
Pasternak model could be considered a
logical improvement of the model (DL).
In the last years important progress was
made in the development of analytical
tools for the analysis of concrete slabs
using Pasternaks model for the foundation
ground.
Analytical solutions were obtained for the
analysis of infinite and semi infinite
concrete slabs resting on the Pasternak
foundation ground model (Cauwelaert,
1997; Cauwelaert et al. 2002).
Stet et al. (2001) also used these solutions
43
parametrilor modelului Pasternak al

terenului de fundaie.
Totui cu aceste soluii rezolvate exact
putea fi analizat numai efectul ncrcrii
roii.
n plus n cadrul acestora se considera un
contact perfect intre plac i fundaie,
aceast condiie neputnd fi prezent in
situ datorit voalrii din temperatur i
ncovoierii din umiditate a plcii din
beton.
Mai trziu n anul 2004 Stet i Cauwelaert
rezolv problema calculului eforturilor din
temperatur la plcile din beton pe o
fundaie Pasternak pentru structurile
formate din doua respectiv din mai multe
strate prin lucrarea [5] pe baza teoriei lui
Lemlin, 2003 publicat n 2004 [6].
O realizare important a fost folosirea
Metodei elementelor finite pentru analiza
dalelor din beton pe baza modelului
Pasternak n cadrul programului de
calculator ILLI SLAB, realizat de
Ioannides i alii (1985).
Formularea realizat de Ioannides i alii a
fost limitat doar la cazul unei ncrcri n
interiorul suprafeei plcii, placa de beton
fiind suficient de mare ca dimensiuni
pentru care influiena terenului de fundare
n zona marginilor plcii a putut fi
neglijat.
Aceast limitare a fost rezolvat de ctre
Khazanovich i Ioannides, 1993 odat cu
implementarea programului pe baza
elementelor finite ILSL2.
Formularea privind aceast limitare a fost
realizat de Khazanovich i Ioannides pe
baza consideraiilor propuse de Vlasov i
Leontiev,1960 pentru suprafaa terenului
de fundare de sub plac.
Aceast
aproximaie
impune
ca
deflexiunile de sub plac s fie funcie de
parametrii terenului de fundare i de
deflexiunea punctului de la marginea
plcii.
44
to develop a proceeding (backcalculation)

for the parameter determination of the
Pasternak foundation ground model.
However
with these solutions exact
solved accurately only the effect of wheel
load could be analysed.
In addition within the framework of those
solutions a full contact between slab and
the foundation is considered, although this
condition cannot be present in situ due to
temperature curling and moisture warping
of the concrete slab.
Later in the year 2004 Stet and Cauwelaert
solved the problem of temperature stress
calculation at concrete slabs resting on the
Pasternak foundation model for the
structures formed from two and more
layers respectively by paper [5] on the
basis of Lemlin theory, 2003 published in
2004 [6].
An important performance was the use of
the finite element method for the concrete
slabs analysis on the basis of Pasternak
model within the PC programme ILLI
SLAB,
realized by Ioannides et al.(1985).
The formulation devised by Ioannides et
al. was limited only to the case of a
loading in the interior of the surface plate,
the concrete slab being sufficiently large in
dimension for the influence of the
subgrade in the zone of the slab edges be
neglected.
This
limitation
was
solved
by
Khazanovich and Ioannides, 1993 together
with the implementation of the finite
elements programme ILSL2.
Khazanovich and Ioannides devised the
formulation regarding this limitation on
the basis of considerations proposed by
Vlasov and Leontiev , 1960 for the
foundation ground surface area under slab.
This approximation imposes that the
deflexions under the slab should be
according to the subgradeparameters and
the point deflexion at the slab edge.
Oricum i programul ILSL2 a prezentat

urmtoarele limitri:
- n cazul abordrii modelelor Pasternak i
Kerr nu poate fi considerat dect
ncrcarea interioar a plcii.
programul
ILSL2
nu
permite
considerarea
dect a unei singure plci (dal).
Toate aceste limitri ale programelor ILLI
- SLAB (1985), ILSL2 (1993) au fost
rezolvate de ctre Khazanovich i alii cu
ocazia formulrii programului pe baza
elementelor finite ISLAB2000 (2000).
Anyhow the programme ILSL2 presented

the following limitations:
- in the case of Pasternak and Kerr models
only the interior
slab loading.
can be considered
- ILSL2 programme permits only
the consideration of a single slab (plate).
All these limitations of the
ILLI SLAB (1985), ILSL2 (1993)
programmes
were
resolved
by
Khazanovich et al. with the occasion of the
programme
formulation
ISLAB2000
(2000) on the basis of finite elements.
3. Descrierea teoretic a modelului

Pasternak numit i modelul celor Doi
Parametri.
3. Theoretical Description of the

Pasternak Model Named the Model of
Two Parameters.
n modelul Pasternak n plus fa de

modelul Winkler (DL) se consider
caracterizarea terenului de fundare prin
rigiditatea transversal a terenului de
fundare
G [kP m].
Vom introduce aciunea forei tietoare
generat de placa de beton ncrcat
asupra terenului de fundare n modelul
matematic prin intermediul principiului
lucrului mecanic virtual.
Considerm placa rezemat pe terenul de
fundare ca n Fig.5.
In the Pasternak model in addition to the

Winkler Model (DL) the characterization
of the fondation ground by transversal
stiffness of the foundation ground (shear
layer stiffness) G [kP m] is considered.
We will introduce shear action generated
by a loaded concrete plate (slab) on the
foundation ground in the mathematical
model by the virtual mechanical principle.
We consider the plate resting on the
foundation ground as in the Fig.5.
Fig.5. Distribuia translaiei verticale in lungul grosimii fundaiei pentru placa din beton.
Vertical repartition of translation on foundation depth for concrete plate.
45
Corresponding to the coordinative axis x,

y, z, we have altogether three translation
components u, v, w.
Because our interest is the vertical
stiffness we can neglect the horizontal
translation.
In this case the vertical translation can be
divided into two components:
- the translation of the basis surface.
- the distribution of vertical translation in
the
depth of the foundation ground
represented by
the function (see Fig.5).
Therefore:
(1)
u = 0,v = 0, i w(x,y,z) = w(x,y) (z)
Corespunztor axelor de coordonate x,y,z,

avem n total trei componente de translaie
u,v,w.
Pentru c ne intereseaz rigiditatea pe
vertical putem neglija translaia pe
orizontal.
n acest caz translaia vertical se poate
mpri n dou componente:
- translaia suprafeei de baz.
- distribuia translaiei verticale pe
grosimea
terenului de fundare reprezentat prin
funcia (vezi Fig.5).
Deci:
Deformaiile se exprim astfel:

The deformations are like this:
x = 0 ; y = 0 ; z = w ( z ) ;
xy = 0 ; xz = (w x ) ; yz = (w y ) ;
(2)
(3)
w - the vertical deformation
w deformaia vertical
By replacing relations (2) and (3) in the

Substituind aceste relaii (2) i (3) n
virtual mechanical work principle a
principiul lucrului mecanic virtual se
equilibrium condition on vertical direction
obine o condiie de echilibru pe direcia
is obtained as:
vertical de forma:
2
(4)
C1 w + C 2 w = p
similar relaiei:
w +G
care definete modelul Pasternak unde p
este sarcina aplicat pe plac n [kPa] .
Ne intereseaz cei doi parametri care
caracterizeaz modelul Pasternak :
C1 [kPa/m] respective C2 [kPa m].
Dac se analizeaz ecuaiile de echilibru se
constat c , constanta C1 reprezint
rigiditatea de arc (resort) a terenului de
pe care reazem placa din beton ca n
modelul Winkler iar constanta C2
corespunde rigiditaii transversale a
terenului de fundare (n cazul cnd C2 este
46
similar with the relation:

w=p
(5)
which defines the Pasternak model where

p is the applied load on the plate in [kPa].
Our interest lies in these two parameters
which characterize the Pasternak model:
C1 [kpa/m] respective C2 [kPa m].
If the equilibrium equations are analysed
one may notice that the constant C1
represents the spring stiffness of the
foundation ground on which rests the
concrete slab as in the Winkler model,
while the constant C2 corresponds to the
transversal stiffness of the foundation
egal cu 0 se obine modelul Winkler)

terenul fiind considerat omogen i elastic.
Constantele C1 i C2 corespund n cazul
plcilor, unei suprafee unitare de plac,
adic ecuaia de echilibru poate fi
modificat pentru plci avnd ca urmare
modificarea unitilor de msur a
acestora.
4.Determinarea constantelor C1 i C2.
ground (in case C2 is equal to 0 the

Winkler model is obtained), the ground
being considered homogeneous and
elastic.
The constants C1 and C2 correspond in the
case of the plates to a unitary plate surface
and thus the equilibrium ecquation can be
modified having as the consequence the
modification of these measure units.
4. Determination
oCnstants
Pentru un anumit material C1 i C2 sunt

constante care definesc rigiditatea
terenului de fundare pe care reazem
placa, ele definindu-se astfel:
of
C1
and
C2
For a certain material C1 and C2 are the

constants which define the stiffness of the
foundation ground on which rests the plate
and are defined like this:
C = E
1
ed
( z ) 2 dz ;
(6)
2
C 2 = G dz ;
(7)
unde:
where :
Eed modulul edometric al terenului de

fundare
G - modulul de rigiditate transversal al
terenului de fundare
Eed the oedometric modulus of

foundation
ground.
G - the transversal stiffness modulus of
the foundation ground.
Acestea se pot determina pentru calcule

uor cu ajutorul nomogramelor elaborate
de cercettorul Pavel Kuklik de la
These can be easily determined in the

calculations through the graphs elaborated
by the researcher Pavel Kuklik from the
Departamentul de Mecanic al Facultaii

de Construcii, Universitatea Tehnic din
Praga vezi Fig.6.
Mechanical Department of the Civil

Engineering Faculty,Technical University
of Prague see Fig.6.
Valorile constantelor sunt prezentate

pentru diferite tipuri de terenuri de fundare
i pentru adncimea activ estimat.
The values of the constants are presented

for different foundation ground types and
for the estimated active depth.
47
Fig. 6. Nomogram pentru determinarea C1 si C2 .

Diagram for determination of C1 and C2 .
Tipuri de sol : A - roc si anrocamente ; B pietris ; C nisip ; D sol coeziv (argil)

Type of soils: A rock and stones; B gravel; C sand; D cohesive soil (clay)
48
5. Limite de aplicabilitate ale modelului

Pasternak
5. Usability limits of Pasternak Model.
Materialele granulare avnd coeficientul

lui Poisson 0,35 sunt mult prea coezive
i mai ales consolidate aa c o analiz
liniar elastic nu este corespunztoare.
Astfel de soluri necesit cercetri privind
mecanismul consolidrii acestora.
De asemeni deplasrile orizontale n
interiorul continuumului subiect al
ncrcrilor verticale
cresc dac
coeficientul lui Poisson crete.
The granular materials having the Poisson

coefficient 0,35 are much too
cohesive and areespecially consolidated so
that a linear and elastic analyse is not
suitable.
Such soils require researches regarding the
mechanism of their consolidation.
At the same time the horizontal
displacements in the interior of the continuum
subject of the vertical loads increase if the
Poisson coefficient increases.
Aceste comportri actuale arat c

aseriunile lui Vlasov i anume c
deplasrile orizontale pot fi neglijate sunt
false, altfel consideraiile lui Vlasov conin
numai un profil de deplasri verticale dei
profilele deplasrilor verticale nu sunt
aceleai n continuum exceptnd cazul
cnd R [7].
n particular cnd R H devine mic i
condiia ncrcrii se apropie de ncrcarea
concentrat distribuiile deformaiei sub
aria ncrcat a continuumului difer
foarte mult de acelea considerate de
Vlasov.
The present behaviours show that Vlasovs

assumption, i.e. that
the horizontal
displacements can be neglected are false,
otherwise these assumptions contain only one
profile with vertical displacement although
the profiles with vertical displacements are
not the same in the continuum with the
exception of the case when R [7].
In the particular case when R H become
small and the loading condition is
approaching the concentrated load the
deformation distributions under the loaded
area of the continuum differs very much from
those considerated by Vlasov.
Ca rezultat eroarea rapoartelor crete.

Dac R H devine mare distribuiile
deformaiei se apropie de consideraiile lui
Vlasov i eroarea rapoartelor descrete.
De aceea limitele de aplicabilitate sunt
= 0,3 i 0,2 R H 5 corespunztoare
unei bune aproximaii[8].
R - raza plcii circulare ncrcate cu
sarcina q.
H grosimea stratului granular omogen,
izotrop sub placa circular.
As a result, the ratios error increases .

If R H becomes great the deformation
distributions are approaching Vlasovs
considerations and the ratio error decreases.
Therefore the application limites are = 0,3
and 0,2 R H 5 corresponding to a good
aproximation [8].
R the circular plate radius loaded with the
load q.
H the homogenous and isotropic granular
layer thickness under the circular plate.
6. Concluzii
6. Conclusions
Obiectivul acestui articol a fost de a pune

n lumin alternativa cea mai corect fa
de modelele DL i SE i anume modelul
celor doi parametri (Pasternak).
Cel de al doilea parametru aici C2 conduce
la diminuarea deplasrilor ,eforturi interne
mai mici,momente ncovoietoare mai mici,
frecvene de vibrare libere cu amplitudini
mici [7] i arat continuitatea deplasrilor
adiacente[8].
Aceasta se poate anticipa prin faptul c
funcia densitii energiei de deformaie
include un termen adiional n cazul celui
de al doilea parametru n comparaie cu
modelul Winkler.
The objective of this paper was to put

under light the correct alternative as
opposed to models (DL ) and (ES), that is
the model of those two parameters
(Pasternak).
The second parameter, in this case, C2
leads to displacement decrease, smaller
internal
stresses,
smaller
bending
moments, free vibration frequences with
small amplitudes [7] and shows the
adiacent displacements continuity [8].
This can be anticipated by the fact that the
energy density function includes an
aditional term in the case of the second
parametre in comparison with the Winkler
model.
49
Les modles de fondation pour des revtements rigides.

Rsum
Lobjet de cet article est de mettre en vidence la plus correcte alternative au sujet des modles de fondation
(DL) et (SE) cest--dire le modle de fondation des deux paramtres (Pasternak).
Larticle prsente le modle de fondation des deux paramtres (Pasternak) par comparaison aux modles de
fondation(DL) et (SE).
Aussi, nous prsentons de faon synthtique la description thorique du modle de fondation des deux
paramtres (Pasternak) ainsi que les limites dapplication de celui-ci.
Bibliografie
References
50
[1].
RCNEL - Studiu de sintez privind metodele de dimensionare a mbrcminilor din beton

de ciment.Institutul de construcii Bucureti, Romania, 1977.
[2].
S. Jercan Drumuri din beton . Editura Corvin, ISBN 973 8192 98 6, 2002, Deva,
Romania.
[3].
KHAZANOVICH, L. - Finite Element Analysis of Curling of Slabs on Pasternak Foundation.

16th ASCE Engineering Mechanics Conference, July 16 18, 2003 , University of Washington,
Seattle,USA..
[4].
PRONK, A.C. - The Pasternak foundation An Attractive Alternative for the

WinklerFfoundation. Proceedings of 5th International Conference on Concrete Pavement Design
and Rehabilitation, 1993, Vol.1, Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA.
[5].
STET, M., CAUWELAERT, VAN F. The Elastic Length : Key to the Analysis of Multi
Layered ConcretePavements Structures. 5thInternational CROW workshop on Fundamental
Modelling of the design and Performance of Concrete Pavement, 2003, Istanbul, Turkey.
[6].
LEMLIN, M., JASIENSKY, A., CAUWELAERT, VAN F., LEONARD, D. The

Ccomputation o f ThermalStresses in Layered Concrete Structures on a Pasternak Foundation.
5th International CROW workshop on Fundamental Modelling of the Design and Performance
of Concrete Pavements, 2004, Istanbul, Turkey.
[7].
LAM,K.Y.,WANG, C.M., HE, X.Q. Exact Solution for Levy Plates on Two Parametres
Foundation Using Greens Functions. Engineering Structures,22, 364 378, 2000.
[8].
HIDEAKI TANAHASHI Pasternak Model Formulation of elastic Displacements in theCase

of a Rigid Circular Foundation. Journal of Asian Arhitecture and Building Engineering , May,
2007 / 167 173.
Evaluarea calitii apei n zonele

costiere
Water quality assessment in coastal

zones
Alexandra Crmizoiu , ing. OPTOELECTRONICA 2001 S.A., e-mail alex@optoel.ro
1. Introducere
1.Introduction
Dintre toate regiunile i tipurile de relief, zona

costier reprezint cel mai complex sistem de
mediu. Un aspect important n studiul i
monitorizarea resurselor de ap n zonele
costiere[1] este faptul c parametrii ce
caracterizeaz starea resurselor de ap dulce i
starea apelor maritime se modific n cadrul unor
procese la scar mic, cu o nalt variabilitate n
timp i cu schimbri rapide ale proprietailor
biochimice i fizice, pe regiuni relativ mici i n
intervale scurte de timp.
Among all types of regions and landscape, the

coastal zone is the most complex environmental
system. An important aspect in water quality
monitoring [1], is the fact that all characteristic
parameters for salt and fresh water are changing
in a very short time frame, having a high
variability in time, and being capable to change
the physical and bio-physical proprieties of the
water very fast in short time intervals and on
very small areas.
Pornind de la parametrii generali de monitorizare a

mediului, aa cum au fost identificati ntr-un raport
ESA [2], misiunile de teledetecie destinate
monitorizrii zonelor costiere trebuie s
ndeplineasc anumite condiii i cerine pentru a
putea rezolva problemele legate de urmrirea
proceselor costiere naturale i induse de activitatea
uman, mai ales cele privind economia i
transportul [3].
Starting from the general environmental

monitoring parameters, as they were identified in
the ESA report [2], the remote sensing missions
have to fulfil several conditions and
requirements in order to be able to solve the
problems related to natural coastal processes, and
induced by peoples activity, especially those
regardingthe
economy/
industry
and
transport[3].
Pentru o bun identificare a acestor parametri,

trebuie ndeplinite anumite cerine:
- Extinderea n timp a observaiilor de
teledetecie : lung i foarte lung (de la un an la 20
de ani)
- Precizia: precizia de determinare a parametrilor
de calitate a mediului 1%-10 %
- Rezoluia spaial: sub 500 m pentru
caracteristicile rmului, interiorul uscatului i
parametrii bio-geo-chimici, i 1-10 km pentru
parametrii suprafeei apei.
- Rezolutia temporal: ideal se consider a fi de
1-6 ore pentru parametrii ce afecteaz suprafaa
apei, o zi pentru parametrii privind interiorul
uscatului i parametrii bio-geo-chimici. Sistemele
actuale nu permit aceast frecven n momentul de
fa cu ajutorul teledeteciei. n mod real, o
For a good assessment of those parameters , the

requirements are:
- Time extension of remote sensing
observations : long and very long (from 1 year
to 20 years)
- Precision: the environmental quality
parameter precision is 1%-10 %
Spatial resolution : under 500m for the
coastal features, inland and for bio-geo-chemical
parameters, and of 1-10 km for water quality
parameters
Temporal
resolution:
ideally
is
conssidered to be of 1-6 hours for water quality
parameters , one day for inland environmental
parameters
and
for
bio-geo-chemical
parameteres. The present system cannot provide
51
frecven a determinrilor de o sptmn i chiar

trimestrial se consider a fi suficient pentru
determinarea majoritii parametrilor de mediu.
Apele costiere de pe sectorul romnesc al Mrii
Negre se ntind de la Periboina pn la Vama
Veche (frontiera cu Bulgaria) i se continu cu
apele costiere de pe sectorul bulgresc al Mrii
Negre. Conform criteriilor specifice WFD
(Water Framework Directive), reglementate de
Comisia European, se accept urmtoarea
clasificare tipologic a apelor costiere din
Romnia [4]:
-Tipul RO90 Ape costiere puin adnci cu
substrat nisipos, pe sectorul central al litoralului
romnesc, de la Periboina la Cap Singol.
-Tipul RO91 Ape costiere puin adnci cu
substrat mixt (nisip cu formaiuni insulare de
roc), pe sectorul sudic al litoralului romnesc,
de la Cap Singol la Vama Veche.
Datele de teledetecie permit estimarea doar a
unui numr limitat de parametri ai calitii apei.
Acetia
sunt:
clorofilaa,
turbiditatea,
concentraia de sedimente n suspensie,
adncimea de disc Secchi, temperatura suprafeei
apei i valurile de suprafa.
Scopul
monitorizrii calitaii apei este aprecierea
nivelului de poluare a apei [5]. Parametrii
enumerai mai sus permit evaluarea nivelului de
poluare a suprafeei de ap studiate. n cadrul
acestei lucrri, sunt prezentate rezultatele
obinute prin prelucrarea datelor Landsat, n
vederea punerii la punct a unei metodologii de
apreciere a calitii apei, cu ajutorul datelor de
teledetecie.
2. Compoziia apei
The coastal waters of the Romanian sector are

spread from Periboina to Vama Veche
(Bulagarian Frontier ) and are continued by the
coastal waters of the Bulgarian sector. In
conformity with the specific criteria of WFD
(Water Framework Directive), regulatedby the
European Union , the folowing typological
clasification of the Romanian coastal waters is
accepted [4]:
Type RO90 Swallow waters with sandy
substrate, on the central sector of the Romanian
seashore, from Periboina to Cap Singol.
-Type RO91 Swallow waters with mixed
substrate (sand with submersed rocky islands) in
the southern sector of the sea shore, from Cap
Singol to Vama Veche.
Remote sensing data allows the estimation of
only a limited set of water quality parameters.
These parameters are: chlorophyll a, turbidity,
suspended matter concentration, Sechi disk
depth, water surface temperature. The porpose of
water quality monitoring is the assessment of the
pollution level [5]. The above enumerated
parameters are a good measure of the pollution
level for the water surface under study. In this
paper are presented some results obtained by
processing the Landsat imagery in the attempt to
set up a methodology of water quality
assessment with remote sensed data.
2.Water Composition
Parametrii de calitate a apei sunt, de regul,

determinai n mod indirect, cu ajutorul unor
parametri intermediari, ce pot fi msurai cu
ajutorul senzorilor de teledetecie.
Acesti
parametrii sunt [6]: coeficienii de absorbie,
imprtiere i atenuare a luminii n coloana de
ap (notati cu a, b respectiv c), coeficientul de
atenuare ( K d ), reflectana de volum a apei (R),
52
such frequency for remote sensed data. Actually

a week interval for measurements and even a
trimestrial approach is considered to provide a
good measurement frequency, for the great
majority of the environmental parameters.
Water quality parameters are, usually, indirectly

determined with the help of intermediate
parameters that can be measured with the help of
remote sensing sensors. These parameters are [6]:
absorption coefficients, backscattering and
attenuation of light in the water column (noted
with a, b and c) attenuation coefficient ( K d ),
water volume reflectance (R), chlorophyll
concentraiile de clorofil i materii n suspensie

( C chl , C y i Cdet ). Un alt parametru important este
concentration and suspended matter (suspensions,

yellow substance, and suspended mater ( C chl ,
culoarea apei, prin lungimea de und

dominant (dom).
Pentru obinerea parametrilor fizico-chimici, au
fost amplasate n zona costier de ctre INHGA(
Institutul Naional de Meteorologie i
Hidrologie) un numr de 9 staii hidrologice de
rm i o staie hidrologic de larg pentru
determinri staionare (fixe)[4]. Acestea sunt:
Sulina Semnal Cea, Sulina Plaj, Sf. Gheorghe,
Portia, Midia, Constana Meteo, Constana
Cazino, Eforie Sud, Mangalia, Platforma
"Gloria".
C y and Cdet ). Another important parameter is water
a.
Concentraia de clorofil
colour through the dominant wavelength(dom).

In order to obtain the physico-chemical
parameters, 9 measurement stations were
established along the shore
by INMGHA
(National Institute for Meterogology and
Hydrology) and an offshore station for stationary
measurements [4]. These stations are located at
Sulina Semnal Cea, Sulina Plaj, Sf. Gheorghe,
Portia, Midia, Constana Meteo, Constana
Cazino, Eforie Sud, Mangalia, Platforma "Gloria".
a. Chlorophyll concentration
Pentru determinarea acestui parametru (Cchl) au

fost proiectai, construii i lansai mai muli
senzori: CZCS(1978 1986), OCTS(1996 1997)
SeaWiFS (1998 prezent), MOS (1996 prezent),
MERIS ( 2001- prezent).
For the chlorophyll (Cchl) measurement, several

remote sensing were designed, build and
launched: CZCS(1978 1986), OCTS(1996
1997) SeaWiFS (1998 present), MOS (1996
prezent), MERIS ( 2001- present).
Desi senzorul TM nu a fost proiectat n mod

special pentru determinarea acestui parametru,
imaginile furnizate de senzorul TM permit
determinarea coninutului de clorofil, utiliznd
benzile 1/2/3/4
In the spite of the fact that the TM sensor was not

specially designed for the measurement of this
parameter, the Landsat imagery allows the
chlorophyll concentration determination, by using
the 1/2/3/4 bands.
Pentru imaginile Landsat a fost

utilizat
urmtorul algoritm, propus de Foster [5]
Algoritmul se aplic radianei msurate de
senzor, pentru un domeniu al concentraiilor de
pigmeni: 0.3 - 2g/l, la o rezoluie spaial de
0,3 Km i o rezoluie temporal (la 45o N) de 18
zile.
( Cchl + C phaeo ) = a0 + a1TM1 + a2TM2 +
For the Landsat imagery the algorithm proposed

by Foster [5] was used. The algorithm applies
to the radiance measured by the sensor Landsat
TM, for a range of pigments concentration
values: 0.3 - 2 g/l, at a spatial resolution (km)
=0.03 and a temporal resolution ( at 45o N) = 18
days.
( Cchl + C phaeo ) = a0 + a1TM1 + a2TM2 + a3TM3
a3TM3 + a4TM4 + a5TM12 + a6TM22

unde TMi sunt benzile spectrale TM: TM1 (450520 nm), TM2 (520-600 nm), TM3 (630-690
nm), TM4 (760-900 nm). Rezultatul aplicrii
algoritmului este prezentat n Figura 1.
+ a4TM4 + a5TM12 + a6TM22

where TMi are the TM spectral bands: TM1
(450-520 nm), TM2 (520-600 nm), TM3 (630690 nm), TM4 (760-900 nm). The result of this
algorithm is presented in Figure 1.
Coeficienii ai sunt determinai printr-o analiz de

regresie prin cele mai mici ptrate. Aceste
constante sunt dependente de zon i de timp.
The coefficients ai are determined by a

regression analysis of the smallest squares. They
are site dependent as well as time dependent.
53
a0=361.26
a1=-18.43
a2=-2.85
0.43 a4=-0.14
a5=0.25 a6=0.15
b.
a0=361.26
a1=-18.43
a2=-2.85
0.43 a4=-0.14
a5=0.25 a6=0.15
a3=-
Concentraia de materii n suspensie
a3=-
Suspended matter concentration
De cele mai multe ori, zonele costiere sunt

caracterizate de o mare ncrctur de materii
aflate n suspensie. Acest lucru se datoreaz fie
aportului rurilor, fie proceselor hidrodinamice
(vnt/valuri/cureni).
Din valorile parametrilor msurai n decursul
anilor n staiile hidrometrice au fost extrapolate
valori care au permis realizarea unor griduri ale
transparenei apei mrii (mrimea invers
proporional cu turbiditatea) pentru ntreaga
regiune costier a Mrii Negre. Cteva din aceste
griduri [Chendes, 2003] sunt prezentate n Figura
1. Mediile anuale ale turbiditii n perioada
1991 - 1998 sunt prezentate n tabelul 1:
Most of the time, the coastal zones are

characterized by a great load of suspended matter.
This is due to the river contribution, or morphodynamic processes (waves/wind/currents).
From the measured values of the parameters,
along several years, in the hygrometric stations,
by extrapolation, several sea water transparency
grids were extrapolated (transparency is the
inverse value for turbidity). Some of these grids
[Chendes, 2003] are presented in Figure 1.
Annual averages for turbidity in the 1991-1998
period, are presented in Table 1:
Tabelul 1. Valorile medii ale turbiditilor i ale debitelor unitare de aluviuni n suspensie n anul 2000
Table 1 . Average values for turbidity and unitary flow of aluvionary and suspended matter for year 2000
Staia hidrometric
Hygrometric station
Turbiditatea/ Turbidity
(g/l)
2000
Sulina Semal Cea

Sulina plaj
Sfntu Gheorghe
Midia
Constana Meteo
Constana Cazino
Eforie Sud
Mangalia
0.324
0.332
0.121
0.107
0.116
0.107
0.106
0.106
Media
1991-1999
0.202
0.171
0.120
0.107
0.112
0.113
0.119
0.108
Debit unitar de aluviuni n suspensie

Unitary debit of suspended matter
(g/m2/s)
Media
2000
1991-1999
20.0
24.29
60.6
33.26
42.2
37.88
18.8
14.24
13.1
33.87
14.5
15.98
20.2
18.73
19.6
13.71
n mod obinuit, cea mai bun band spectral

pentru determinarea concentraiei de materii n
suspensie este zona roie a spectrului [7].
Usually the red bands are the best for suspended

mater concentrations [7].
n
Figura 2 este prezentat o clasificare
nesupervizat n 20 de clase. Pe imaginea rezultat
se suprapun grifurile realizate cu ajutorul datelor de
turbiditate. Acest lucru va servi la realizarea unei
clasificri supervizate. Pentru o mai bun
difereniere a claselor, cu ajutorul datelor adevr
teren, se editeaz setul de semnturi spectrale pentru
In Figure 2 an unsupervised classification 20

classes is presented. On the resulting image the
data grid for turbidity is superimposed. This is
used to perform a supervised classification and
the thresholds for spectral signatures are edited
to make the appropriate distinctions between
the different concentrations of suspended
54
a asigura o ncadrare ct mai corect a claselor

spectrale n categoriile de acoperiri, iar rezultatul
obinut este prezentat n Figura 3.
matter. The result of this procedure is presented

in Figure 3.
Fig. 1. Distribuia variaiilor de transparen a apei pentru zona costier romneasc n anii 1990 i 1991(transparen>7 nseamn
apa foarte limpede, valori mai mici de 2 semnific ap cu o turbiditate mare); scara aproximativ 1: 1750000
Transparency variation distribution for the Romanian coastal zone in the time interval 1990- 1991( Transparency >7 means a very
clear water, values below 2 means water with high turbidity). Approximate scale 1 :1750000
Fig. 2. Clasificare nesupervizat a imaginii Landsat TM din 1990 benzile 1/3/5/, cu 20 de clase pentru clasificarea preliminar.
Scara aproximativ 1: 1750000
Unsupervised classification of a Landsat TM image from 1990, bands 1/3/5/, with 20 classes for the preliminary
classification. Approximate scale 1: 1750000
55
Fig. 3. Clasificare supervizat 20 clase cu suprapunerea datelor de transparen a apei mrii pentru anul 1990. Scara
aproximativ 1: 1250000
Unsupervised classification 20 classes with the superimposition of the transparency data of the sea water, for the year 1990.
Approximate scale 1: 1250000
3. Discuii
3. Discutions
Determinarea
concentraiei
pigmenilor
clorofilieni a s-a facut prin intermediul
msurrii absorbiei pentru lungimile lor de und
caracteristice: 665, 645 i 630 nm i a permis
cunoaterea distribuiei spaiale a clorofilei de tip
a principalul indice al capacitii
asimilatoare a apei de mare. Astfel, la Portia,
mediile lunare arat c valoarea maxim a
clorofilei a n luna aprilie (3,57 mg/mc) este
mult mare dect mediile n lunile iunie (0,17
mg/mc), august (1,02 mg/mc) i octombrie (2,20
mg/mc). Aceast valoare maxim indic
dezvoltarea
abundent
a
populaiilor
fitoplanctonice responsabile pentru procesul de
nflorire caracteristic sezonului de primvar.
The assessment of the a chlorophyll pigment

concentration was made by measuring the
absorption for the 665, 645 i 630 nm
wavelenghts and resulted in the spatial
distribution of the a type chlorophyll, the main
parameter of the assimilating functions of the sea
water. In this way, at Portia, the monthly
averages show that the maximum chlorophyll is
reached in April (3,57 mg/mc) being higher than
in June (0,17 mg/mc), August (1,02 mg/mc) and
October (2,20 mg/mc). This maximum value is
an indication for the abundant development of
phytoplanktonic population, responsible for the
red blossoming phenomena, specific to the
spring season.
n zonele mai puin influenate de Dunre,

valorile maxime ale clorofilei a sunt mai mici.
Astfel, la Constana, valoarea maxim (1,41
mg/mc) s-a semnalat n luna februarie, fa de
In areas less influenced by the Danube, the

maximum values of a chlorophyll concentration
are smaller. Thus, at Constana, the maximum
value (1,41 mg/mc) was signalled in February,
56
0,47 mg/mc n luna mai sau 0,95 mg/mc n

octombrie. Pe vertical, pigmenii asimilatori
prezint valori mai ridicate la suprafa, n toate
sezoanele anului.
compared with 0,47 mg/mc in May or 0,95

mg/mc in October. On the vertical profile, the
assimilating pigments are higher at the surface of
the water in almost all year seasons.
Din Figura 2 se poate observa cum pana de

deversare a Dunrii alimenteaz cu nutrieni o
zon destul de extins situat in largul zonei
costiere. n zonele din imediata apropiere a
rmului, imaginile satelitare evideniaz zonele
afectate de poluarea costier, poluare care este
accentuat de procesele de diluie reduse. Tot n
aceste zone, temperatura suprafeei apei sufer
modificri semnificative, acest lucru datornduse n principal curentilor marini de suprafa,
direciei dominante a vntului i morfodinamicii
liniei de coast[8].
Form Figure 2 one can observe how the sediment

plume of the Danube as it flows into the sea, is
feeding with nutrients an extended area in the far
sea of the Romanian coastal zone. In the coastal
zones, in the close proximity of the shore, the
satellite images are showing the pollutionaffected areas, pollution amplified by the reduced
dilution processes. In the same areas, the sea
surface temperature has important variations due
to the morpho-dynamic characteristics and
surface sea currents and wind[8].
Un alt aspect al corelrii ntre turbiditatea apei i

distribuia temperaturii suprafeei apei ce poate fi
observat cu ajutorul Figurii 3, este faptul c
variaiile de temperatura ale suprafeei apei sunt
mult mai frecvente n zonele din imediata
apropiere a liniei de coast i sunt nsoite de
prezena unei cantiti ridicate de materii n
suspensie.
Another important aspect is the correlation

between water turbidity and sea surface
temperature. In Figure 3 the fact that the
temperature differences have the most
accentuated occurrence can be observed in areas
closest to the shore and are accompanied by high
quantities of suspended matter.
4. Concluzii
4. Conclusions
Valorile mrite ale pigmenilor asimilatori ai

fitoplactonului atest creterea cantitii de
fitoplancton, ca urmare a accenturii gradului de
eutrofizare al apelor litorale romneti. Utilitatea
abordrii studiului concentraiei i distribuiei
clorofilei la scar sinoptic rezid nu numai n
posibilittea estimrii biomasei fitoplanctonului, ci
i n surprinderea fenomenelor sezoniere de
nflorire, importante prin ntreaga lor suit de
consecine. Din analiza imaginilor satelitare, se
confirm tendina evideniat de masurtorile
clasice, c inflorirea roie este predominant n
zonele unde intervine influena apelor Dunrii.
The high values of the asimilating pigments of the

phytoplankton, are an indication of the increased
growth rate of the phytoplankton as a result of the
increase of eutrophication in the Romanian coastal
zone. The utility of the study on a synoptic scale of
the concentration and spatial distribution of a
chlorophyll, is an estimative measure for the
phytoplankton biomass and a tool for the seasonal
blooming phenomena assessment with their
consequences for the maritime environment. From
the satellite image analysis the hypothesis (resulted
from classical measurements) that red blossoming is
predominant where the Danubes water is involved
is confirmed.
Imaginile Landsat utilizate, cu o rezoluie

considerat bun pn la apariia sistemelor
satelitare de foarte mare precizie, au avantajul
disponibilitii pentru o perioad foarte lung de
The Landsat imagery, with a resolution that was

considered good until the new high resolution
systems have emerged, has as a main advantage the
57
timp. ntregul set de imagini a putut fi descrcat

gratuit de pe site-ul GSFC (Goddard Flight Space
Centre).
Metodologia de aplicare a tehnicilor de
teledetecie, pentru studiul modificrilor de mediu,
a fost structurat pornind de la necesitile
activitilor de monitorizare a mediului i de la
parametrii de mediu ce pot fi determinai cu
ajutorul tehnicilor de teledetecie ; au fost
considerate constrngerile de precizie, acoperirea
spaial i temporal impuse de acestea. Condiia
ideal este de a efectua msurtorile in situ,
simultan cu trecerea satelitului i preluarea
imaginii satelitare.
fact that they cover a very large period of time.The

images were downloaded free of charge from the
GSFC (Goddard Flight Space Centre) site.
The methodology used for water quality assessment
was structured starting with the environmental
monitoring
necessities
and
from
the
environmental parameters that can be determined
from the remote sensing data, precision
constraints, spatial coverage and temporal
availability. The ideal condition is to perform in
situ measurements simultaneously with the
satellite passage.
Rsum
Un aspect important concernant la surveillance de qualit de l'eau est le fait que tous les paramtres caractristiques de l'eau
marine et douce peuvent changer dans un dlai trs court ; leur variabilit au cours du temps est leve, les caractristiques
physiques et biophysiques de l'eau peuvent changer trs rapidement dans des intervalles courts et sur des secteurs trs
restreints. partir des paramtres gnraux de contrle de l'environnement, les missions de tldtection doivent remplir
plusieurs conditions afin de pouvoir aider rsoudre les problmes lis aux processus ctiers. Dans cet article on a utilis des
techniques de tldtection afin de dterminer les concentrations de chlorophylle et de sdiments dans leau marine de la zone
littorale Roumaine.
References
[1].
SION, I. , Protecia mediului, teledetecia spaial i strategia juridic a comunicrii sistemice , Buletinul de
Fotogrametrie i Teledetecie nr. 27-28, pg. 11-19, 2006
[2].
ZAVOIANU F. i CARAMIZOIU A., Study and Accuracy Assessment of Remote Sensing Data for
Environmental Change Detection in Romanian Coastal Zone of Black Sea, The XXth Congress of the
International Society for Photogrametry and Remote Sensing- Istanbul Book7D, pg. 778-784, 2000
[3].
Raport ESA Coastal Zone Earth Watch 1995
[4].
OGARU D, CHEVAL S., CHENDES V, CARAMIZOIU A., Population environment relationships along the
southern part of the Romanian Black Sea Coast: The 6th Open Meeting of the Human Dimensions of Global
Environmental Change Research Community, University of Bonn, 2005
[5].
CHENDES V. , Raport de cercetare TM-ZC, Programul AEROSPATIAL , 2006
[6].
FOSTER B. C., XINGWEI S., BAIDE, X., Remote sensing of sea water quality parameters using Landsat-TM.
Int. J. Remote Sensing, 14(5), pg2759-2771. 1993
[7].
IOCCG- report 3 Remote Sensing of Ocean Colour in Coastal, and Other Optically-Complex,Waters,
http://www.ioccg.org/reports/report3.pdf 2000
[8].
VOS R.J. i SCHUTTELAAR M. RESTWAQ, Data assessment, data-model integration and application to the
Southern North Sea ,Delft, The Netherlands. BCRS Report pg.95-19, 1995
[9].
IONESCU I., NOAJE I, Using HRV SPOT data for study of environments evolution in the Sulina Site from the
Danube Delta. The XIX-th Congress of International Society for
Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing,
Amsterdam, 2000, Vol. XXXIII, B VII, 2000
58
Realizarea bazei de date a unui sistem

informatic cadastral din Republica
Moldova
Database Creation of a Cadastral

Information System in the Republic of
Moldova
Nistor Livia, lector (lecturer) la Catedra Geodezie, Cadastru i Geotehnic (at the Chair of Geodesy, Cadastre and
Geotechnics), Facultatea Cadastru, Geodezie i Construcii (Department of Cadastre, Geodesy and Constructions),
Universitatea Tehnic a Moldovei (Technical University of Moldova), email: nistor_livia@yahoo.com
1. Generaliti
1. Generalities
Pornind de la rolul determinat pe care l are

pmntul n existena noastr, rezult importana
deosebit a evidenei exacte a proprietii i utilizrii
terenurilor, eviden cunoscut sub denumirea de
CADASTRU.
ntr-o ar democrat cu o economie liber fiecare
persoan, fizic sau juridic, trebuie s fie corect i
bine informat despre bunul imobil de care se
intereseaz i care i aparine n conformitate cu
legislaia naional, de aceea datele cu privire la
cadastru trebuie s fie bine organizate i accesibile
pentru toat populaia, n afar de informaia despre
documentele de drept. Despre documentele de drept
vor putea lua cunotin, n anumite condiii, doar
organele de drept, instanele de judecat i fiscul.
Informaia cu privire la cadastru este necesar pentru
a asigura potenialii utilizatori ai bazei de date cu
informaie veridic. Aceleai firme imobiliare, bnci
comerciale sau birouri notariale nu vor putea presta
servicii calitative, dac nu vor avea acces liber la
informaia cadastral.
Fiecare persoan analiznd datele despre o
proprietate sau alta, trebuie s aib sigurana
necesar c riscul de a investi n acest bun este infim.
-apoi, datele trebuie s lucreze" nu mpotriva
omului, ci pentru el. Desigur, informaia cadastral
este i o arm, dar ea este ndreptat mpotriva a tot
felul de escroci. Cel mai important lucru este faptul
c potenialul utilizator al bazei de date nu va
trebui s bat pragurile mai multor instane,
prile care au convenit asupra tranzaciei avnd
posibilitatea s perfecteze documentele la o singur
instituie: n cazul vnzrii-cumprrii, donaiei,
schimbului, motenirii, druirii proprietii - la
notar, iar punerea n gaj a ei - la banc. Dar acest
lucru va fi posibil numai dup conectarea lor la
baza de date cadastrale.
Baz de date cadastrale are un loc aparte n fiecare
ramur a economiei, fie c este vorba de urbanisti-
Beginning with the determined role of the earth in

our existence, it results the great importance of the
exact evidence of the property and of the use of
lands, evidence called CADASTER.,
In a democratic country with a free economy, every
person, natural or juridical, has to be correct and well
informed concerning the real estate of which he is
interested in and that belongs to him in conformity
with the national legislation, thats why the data
concerning the cadastre have to be well organized
and accessible for all the population, besides the
information concerning the law documents. Under
certain conditions, only the legal bodies, the law
courts and the revenue authority will look through
the legal documents.
The information concerning the cadastre is
necessary to ensure the potential users of the
database with veridical information. The same real
estate companies, the commercial banks or the
notary offices couldnt offer qualitative services in
case of not having free access to the cadastral
information.
Each person, analyzing the data concerning any kind
of property, needs to have the necessary certitude
that the risk of investing in this real estate is
infinitesimal. And, the data have to work for
people, not against them. Of course, the cadastral
information is also a weapon, but it is directed
against any kind of tricksters. The most important
thing is the fact that the potential user of the
database database will not have to present himself
to several instances, the parties that agreed on the
transaction, having the possibility of drawing up the
documents at the same institution: in case of
purchase-sale, donation, exchange, legacy, gifted
property- at the notary- and putting it in pledge- at
the bank. But, this fact will be possible only after
their connection with the cadastral data base. The
cadastral database database has a special place in
each branch of the economy, in town-planning,
town
59
c, construcii edilitare, gazoducte, drumuri, ci

ferate, organizarea transportului, acumularea
impozitelor, protecia mediului nconjurtor, etc.
Chiar i instanele de judecat au nevoie de datele
menionate, cci, n cazul unor procese legate de
litigiile patrimoniale judectorii
trebuie s cunoasc n detaliu multe informaii
despre proprietate. La nivelul autoritilor locale,
baza de date este necesar pentru gazificarea
localitilor, plantarea livezilor, planificarea
construciilor, etc.
De altfel, n lipsa acestei baze de date, multe
ministere i departamente activeaz mai mult n
baza unor calcule teoretice.
Baza n form digital este valoroas prin faptul c
n ea se concentreaz toat informaia despre
bunurile imobile, care, pn la crearea ei, se
coninea n mape voluminoase. Cu alte cuvinte,
actualmente, nu mai suntem nevoii s pierdem o
groaz de timp pentru a rsfoi nenumratele file, ci
este suficient s accesm calculatorul i n cteva
secunde proprietatea imobiliar care ne intereseaz
apare pe monitor n plintatea ei, cu toate datele de
care avem nevoie, n cazul cnd este deja creat
acea baz de date.
n cei apte ani de implementare a Primului Proiect
de Cadastru au fost identificate i nregistrate n
cadastru circa 4.3 milioane de proprieti imobiliare
din totalul de aproximativ 5.5 milioane de bunuri,
informaiile respective fiind incluse n 39 baze de
date ale oficiilor cadastrale.
Principiile de baz ale crerii sistemului
cadastral sunt:
descentralizarea nregistrrii imobilului

pn la nivel raional i municipal;
autenticitatea datelor;
unitatea
organizrii
structurale
a
informaiei n bncile de date, formatelor
de pstrare, acumulare i schimb de
informaie ale bncilor de date;
comparabilitatea datelor bazat pe

utilizarea bazei cartografo-geodezice
unificate, sistemelor de clasificare i
codificare, formatelor i structurilor de
date coordonate;
crearea i implementarea pe etape a

sistemului Cadastrului Naional, cu
orientarea spre sarcinile prioritare ale
Republicii Moldova, n mbinare cu
posibilitatea realizrii lor;
60
constructions, gas pipelines, roads, railroads,

transport
organization,
tax
collection,
environmental protection, etc. Even the juridical
instances need the mentioned data, because in the
event of some lawsuits in connection with the
patrimonial litigations, the judges have to know in
details more information about the property. At
the local bodies level, the database database is
necessary for gasifying the localities, for orchards
plantations, for constructions planning, etc.
Otherwise, for lack of data base, several
ministries and departments activate mostly on the
basis of some theoretical calculations.
The digital form base is valuable by the fact that it
is concentrated in it all the information concerning
the real estates that, before, was included in bulky
portfolios. Therefore, presently, we will not waste
time looking through the countless pages, but it is
enough to access the computer and in several
seconds the real property of which we are
interested in, will appear on the monitor in its
plenitude, with all the data we need, when this
database is already created.
In seven years of implementation of the First
Cadastre Project in the cadastre it have been
identified and registered over 4.3 millions of
real estates from the total number of 5.5
millions of goods, this information being
included in 39 database of the cadastral offices.
The basic principles of the creation of the
cadastral system are:
decentralization of registering the real

estate at regional and municipal level; data
authenticity;
unity of the structural organization of the

information in the data banks, in keeping
formats, accumulation and information
exchange of the databanks;
comparability of databases with the use of

unified map-drawing and geodesic base,
classification and codification systems, of
the formats and data coordinates;
creation and implementation of the

National Cadastre system on levels,
devoted to the priority tasks of the
Republic of Moldova, in connection with
the possibility of their realization;
the minimal tax for registration in order to

stimulate the initial registration;
permanent actualization of the data;
plata minim pentru nregistrare n

vederea stimulrii nregistrrii iniiale;
actualizarea permanent a datelor;
administrarea imobilului pe fiecare obiect

n parte, care include:
- delimitarea pe obiecte (formarea)
bunurilor imobiliare, clasificarea
i
nregistrarea
unic
a
obiectelor;
- nregistrarea pe obiecte a
drepturilor
patrimoniale;
estimarea
pe
obiecte
a
imobilului.
Chiar i pentru cel mai puin iniiai n acest
important domeniu al economiei naionale, este
tiut c orice bun imobil al fiecrui cetean
trebuie nregistrat.
n conformitate cu articolul 22 din Legea
cadastrului bunurilor imobile Registrul
bunurilor imobile este documentul de baz al
cadastrului. Dac datele din Registrul
bunurilor imobile nu coincid cu datele din alte
documente cadastrale sau cu datele din teren se
consider veridice datele din Registru, cu
excepia cazurilor de eroare tehnic evident.
Registrul bunurilor imobile conine nscrisuri
privind fiecare bun imobil, dreptul de
proprietate i alte drepturi patrimoniale,
tranzaciile cu bunurile imobile i alte temeiuri
facilitat de progresele tehnologice din
domeniul hardware i software.
Scopurile principale mai rezid n susinerea
creterii economice din Moldova i, n cele din
urm, reducerea srciei, prin asigurarea i
mbuntirea
securitii
proprietilor
imobiliare, inclusiv a celor funciare, majorarea
veniturilor obinute de stat n urma instituirii
unui sistem funcional de evaluare i impozitare
a lor, facilitarea dezvoltrii pieei imobiliare
prin crearea unui sistem cadastral i de
nregistrare transparent i bine operabil,
prestarea efectiv a serviciilor de baz de
nregistrare public a imobilelor.
Pentru a rspunde la exigenele acestor activiti
complexe a fost aleas soluia sistemului
informatic. n ultimii ani aceast evoluie a fost
facilitat de progresele tehnologice din
domeniul hardware i software.
real estate administration on each object

apart, that includes:
- delimitation
by
objects
(formation) of the real estates,
classification and a single object
registration;
- registration of the patrimonial
rights by objects; estimation by
objects of the real estate.
Even for the less non-initiated persons in this
important field of the national economy, the fact
that every real estate of the each citizen has to
be registered is known. In conformity with
section 22 of the Law of the real estate cadastre
The register of the real estates is the basic
document of the cadastre. If the data from the
Register of the real estates doesnt coincide with
the data from other cadastral documents or with
the data at the local level, veridical the data
from the Register are considered, except the
cases of evident technical error.
The Register of the real estates contains
documents concerning each real estate, the
property right and other patrimonial rights,
transactions with real estates and in other
reasons of birth, modification, taxation and
taking the property right.
For realizing in optimal conditions different
complex activities of developing all the
localities from the territory of the Republic of
Moldova, it is necessary to use a big quantity of
information which is subject to a process of
continuous actualization. In order to submit to
the exigencies of these complex activities it has
been chosen the solution of the informatic
system. In the last years, this evolution has been
facilitated by the technological progresses in the
hardware and software domain.
The main purposes consist in supporting the
economic growth in Moldova, and, at last,
poverty decreasing, by ensuring and improving
the security of the real property, including the
cadastral ones, increasing the incomes obtained
by the state after setting up a functional system
of evaluation and their taxation, facilitating the
development of the real estate market, creating a
well operated and transparent cadastral and
registration system, by offering basic and
effective services of public registration of the
real estates.
61
Planuri cadastrale
Cadastral Plans
Cadastru general Cadastru bunurilor imobile

General cadastre Real estates cadastre
Documentaia cadastral
Cadastral documentation
Subcapitolul I.
Bun Imobil
Subchapter I.
Real estate
Registrul bunurilor imobile

Register of the real estates
Subcapitolul II. Dreptul de

proprietate asupra bunului
imobil
Subchapter II. Property right
of the real estate
Subcapitolul III. Grevarea

drepturilor patrimoniale
SubchapterIII. Patrimonial
rights taxation
Baz de date
Database
Figura 1.1. Abordarea pentru crearea bazei de date

Consideration for creating a data base
2.
Proiectarea i realizarea bazei de date

spaiale
2. Outline and Creation of the Spatial

Database
Proiectarea
bazei
de
date
presupune
determinarea zonei de studiu, a sistemului de
coordonate utilizat, a straturilor necesare
studiului, a elementelor (obiectelor geografice)
incluse n fiecare strat, a atributelor necesare
descrierii fiecrui tip de element, a modului de
codificare i organizare a atributelor.
Procesul de proiectare a aplicaiilor GIS implic
pe lng designul vizual i proiectarea bazei de
date textuale, n special dac se preconizeaz
structuri de date de volum important.
Baza de date pentru cadastru este proiectat n
aa fel ca s furnizeze toate informaiile
necesare cu privire la terenuri, proprietari,
proprieti, construcii.
Baza de date conine tabele, interogri, forme,
macrouri, rapoarte i module.
Punctul central n cadrul unui sistem informatic
este reprezentat de ctre informaii spaiale/date
cadastrale, furnizate de cadastru i gestionate n
cadrul acestuia.
Proiectarea bazei de date se realizeaz n trei
pai:
Pasul 1. Identificarea obiectelor geografice i a
atributelor lor i organizarea lor pe straturi.
The database outline presupposes the

determination of the field of study, of the
coordinates system used, of the strata necessary
for the study, of the elements (geographical
objects) included in each stratum, of the
attributes necessary for describing each type of
element, of the way of codification and
organization of the attributes.
The projection process of GIS applications
implies besides the visual design, and the
textual database outline, especially when there
are foreseen data structures of important
size.
The database for the cadastre is designed to
provide all the necessary information
concerning the lands, the owners, the properties,
the constructions.
The database contains tables, quizzes, moulds,
mackerels, reports and modules.
The main point within an informatic system is
represented by the spatial information/cadastral
data, provided by the cadastre and administrated
within it.
The projection of the database is realized in 3
steps:
62
Pasul 2. Definirea atributelor.

Pentru fiecare atribut se specific modul de
codificare i spaiul necesar memorrii valorilor
admise. n plus, pentru ntreaga baza de date se
construiete un dicionar n care, pentru fiecare
strat se precizeaz numele atributelor asociate i
pentru fiecare atribut se indic valorile i
semnificaia valorilor posibile.
Pasul
3.
Asigurarea
nregistrrilor
coordonatelor ntre straturi
Clasele
de
elemente
geografice
sunt
reprezentate ca puncte, linii sau poligoane si
atributele lor, ele pot stoca si adnotri. Toate
clasele de elemente din cadrul unui feature
dataset au n comun acelai sistem de
coordonate. Tabelele pot conine atribute
suplimentare pentru o clasa de elemente sau
informaii geografice cum ar fi adrese sau
coordonatele X, Y, Z.
O geodatabase poate conine clase de relaii prin
intermediul crora se stabilesc relaii ntre doua
clase de elemente sau intre o clasa de elemente
i un tabel. Clasele de elemente dintr-un feature
dataset pot fi organizate n reele geometrice.
Reeaua combina elemente liniare si puncte
pentru a modela reele liniare i menine relaiile
topologice dintre clasele sale de elemente.
Analiza iniial
Initial analysis
Diagrame
Diagrams
Step 1. Identification of the geographical objects, of

their attributes and their organization
by strata.
Step 2. Defining the attributes.
For each attribute the codification mode and the
necessary space is specified for memorizing the
admitted values. In addition, for the entire database a
dictionary is set up where, for the each stratum the
name of the associate attributes is specified and for
each attribute it is the values and the meaning of the
possible values are indicated.
Step 3. Insurance of the coordinate registration
between strata.
The classes of geographical elements are represented
as points, lines or polygons and their attributes; they
can stock and make annotations. All classes of
elements within a feature dataset have in common
the same coordinate system. The tables can contain
additional attributes for a class of elements or
geographical information like addresses or X,Y,Z
coordinates.
A geodatabase can contain classes of relations by
means of which relations between two classes of
elements or between a class of elements and a table
are established. The classes of elements from a
feature dataset can be organized in geometrical
networks. The network combines linear elements
and points in order to model linear networks and to
maintain topological relations between its classes of
elements.
Physical
Design
Model conceptual
Conceptual model
Tabele
Tables
Design
fizic
Note
Notes
Testing
Testare
Implementation
Implementare
ntreinerea
Upkeeping
Figura 1. 2. Etapele parcurse n proiectarea unei bazei de date arbitrare.
Levels in outlining an arbitrary database
63
3. Crearea sistemului informatic
3. Creation of the Informatic System
Analiza geografic se efectueaz pentru a

rspunde obiectivelor i criteriilor stabilite
iniial pentru proiectul de GIS.
The geographical analysis is made to attain the

objectives and the criteria established initially
for GIS project.
Personal Geodatabase
Vizualizare
Vizualization
Analiza GIS
GIS analysis
SISTEM INFORMATIC
INFORMATIC SYSTEM
Figura 1.3. Crearea sistemului informatic.

Creation of the informatic system
4.
Rapoarte
4. Reports
Rezultatele analizei geografice sunt apoi

comunicate
prin
intermediul
planurilor
cadastrale, rapoartelor i graficelor. Planurile
cadastrale digitale, tabelele sinoptice i
reprezentrile grafice complexe generate n
urma analizei geografice dovedesc capacitatea
definitorie a GIS-ului de a crea noi informaii i
nu doar de a .gestiona i/sau extrage n diverse
maniere date anterior achiziionate, ceea ce
deosebete fundamental un GIS de un sistem de
gestiune a bazelor de date i de un sistem de
cartografiere automata.
Rezultatele analizei geografice se pot reprezenta
grafic pe o harta nsoite de o descriere sub
forma unui raport cuprinznd datele tabelare,
inclusiv valorile calculate n cadrul analizei.
Aceste rapoarte se obin prin interogarea bazei
de date care ocup un loc central n majoritatea
aplicaiilor GIS: Prin interogare se realizeaz
recuperarea datelor, operaie util n toate
etapele elaborrii unui proiect GIS.
Interogrile se pot realiza asupra unor date care
fac parte din baza de date existente, dar se pot
realiza i asupra unor date rezultate n urma
unor operaii analitice.
64
Then, the results of the geographical analysis

are communicated by means of the cadastral
plans, reports and graphics. The digital cadastral
plans, the synoptic tables and the complex
graphic representations made after the
geographical analysis demonstrate the definite
capacity of GIS to create new information and
not only to administrate and/to extract in
different ways, getting data previously, that
differs basically a GIS from a control system of
database and from an automatic mapping
system.
The results of the geographical analysis can be
represented graphically on a map, together with
a description in form of a report, including the
table data, inclusively the calculated values
within the analysis.
These reports are obtained by quizzing the
database which has a central place in the
majority of GIS applications: by quizzing, the
data recovery is realized a useful operation at
all levels of drawing up a GIS project.
The quizzes can be realized for some data from
the existent database, but also for some data
resulting of some analytical operations.
5.
Concluzii
5.
Conclusions
n prezent pentru Sistemul Informaional

Automatizat al cadastrului existent n Republica
Moldova este specific dezvoltarea neuniform a
unor componente din cadrul sistemului.
nregistrarea bunurilor imobile reprezint o
resurs informaional dezvoltat pe cnd
evaluarea bunurilor imobile n scopul
impozitrii se afl la etapa de dezvoltare.
Nowadays, for the Automatic Informational

System of the cadastre existent in the Republic
of Moldova the non-uniform development of
some components within the system is peculiar.
The registration of the real estates represents a
developed informational resource, but the
evaluation of the real estates for the purpose of
taxation is at the development level.
Particularitatea perioadei de astzi const n

finalizarea nregistrrii primare a tuturor
bunurilor imobile i evaluarea acestora n scopul
impozitrii. n perspectiv volumul nregistrrii
primare va descrete esenial i vor crete
nregistrrile curente, corectarea greelilor
comise, formarea bunurilor imobile, inclusiv pe
calea consolidrii terenurilor agricole.
The peculiarity of the present period consists in

finalizing the primary registration of all the real
estates and their evaluation for the purpose of
taxation. In the future, the size of the primary
registration will decrease essentially and the
current registrations will increase, the correction
of the errors made, the formation of the real
estates, inclusively by consolidating the agrarian
lands.
Cererea de a reorganiza sistemul cadastral

curent ntr-un sistem cu baza centralizat este
justificat. Fr a cunoate nc toate detaliile i
consecinele, se poate de presupus c baza de
date centralizat/integrat va soluiona multe
probleme care exist astzi.
Sunt idei referitoare la crearea sistemului geoinformaional naional. Totui, se va axa pe
sistemul de cadastru fundamentat pe o baz de
date centralizat i nu pe crearea sistemului geoinformaional naional.
Implementarea sistemului cadastral n temeiul
Bazei de Date Centralizate va nltura toate
neajunsurile. Acest sistem va asigura un
software i o ntreinere a suprastructurii mai
eficient i mai puin costisitoare.
The demand of reorganizing the current

cadastral system in a system with a centralized
base is justified. Not knowing yet all the details
and the consequences, we can presuppose that
the centralized database/integrated will solve a
lot of actual problems.
There are some ideas about creating the national
geo-informational system. However, it will be
directed to the cadastre system grounded on a
database centralized and not on creating the
national geo-informational system.
The implementation of the cadastral system on
the ground of the Centralized database will
remove all the problems. This system will
ensure the software and the suprastructure
upkeeping efficient and less expensive.
Gestionarea unei localiti, indiferent de

mrimea acesteia reprezint o activitate
complex n cadrul creia se utilizeaz o mare
cantitate de informaii i o mare varietate de
competene profesionale.
The administration of a locality, in spite of its

size represents a complex activity where it is
used a great quantity of information and a great
variety of professional competences.
n baza analizelor expuse n lucrare i din

informaiile gestionate prin intermediul unui
Sistem Informatic, bazat pe date cadastrale
veridice, pot remarca CADASTRUL- ocup
un rol central/imoportant n societate.
On the basis of the analyses exposed in this

paper and from the information administrated
by means of the Informatic System, based on
veridical cadastral data, I can notice the- THE
CADASTRE- has an important role in society.
65
Rsum
Le prsent travail dcrit quelques tapes concernant la ralisation et la projection dune base de donnes dun systme
informatique cadastral de la Rpublique de Moldavie. Il est opportun davoir procd limplication directe des
spcialistes avec exprience dans le choix des solutions hardware et software pour le dveloppement des systmes
informatiques dans tous les domaines, mais aussi dans la dfinition du processus technologique de traitement et de
stockage des donnes gospatiales. Un systme informatique cadastral doit tre bien conu, protg, et ne pas tre dirig
contre lhomme.
Bibliografie
References
[1].
[ARFC] Cadastru bunurilor imobile, vol. I-VI, Chiinu, 1998-2005
[2].
[Vasile Grama, Nistor Livia] Tehnologii G.I.S. cu ArcGIS Aplicaii, Chiinu, 2006;
[3].
[ ] ., TUM, Novopolotk, 2006
[4].
[ARFC] Ziarul lunar Cadastru, Chiinu, 2000-2007
[5].
Legislaie privind cadastrul i cartea funciar din Romnia, Matrix Rom, Bucureti, 2002
[6].
[Ionel Sion] Msurtori terestre fundamente, Vol II. Matrix Rom, Bucureti, 2002
[7].
[Gheorghe Badea, Ioan Folf] Msurtori terestre fundamente, Vol II, Matrix-Rom, Bucureti, 2002
[8].
[Caius Didulescu], Tez de doctorat Unele contribuii la realizarea planurilor numerice cadastrale,
Bucureti 2002
[ESRI Geosystems, Romnia] Introducerea n ArcGIS, Bucureti, 2004
[9].
[10].
[Gheorghe Badea] Teza de doctorat Contribuii privind utilizarea datelor cadastrale n sistemul
informaional al teritoriului, Bucureti, 2003
[11].
[ARFC] Concepia Sistemului Infomaional Geografic Naional. (SIGN), Chiinu 2003
[12].
[ARFC] Concepia Sistemului Informaional Automatizat Cadastrul Bunurilor Imobile, Chiinu, 2003
[13].
[Peter A. Burrough and Rachael A. Mc donnell] Principles of Geografical Information Systems,

Oxford, 2004
[14].
[ESRI, Trimetrica Republica Moldova], ArcGis II, 2006/2007, Chisinau, 2006.
66
Evaluri prin incercri de rezisten la

solicitri termomecanice ale aliajelor
pentru structuri aerospaiale
Estimates of thermal-mechanical actions

through strength experiments on
aeronautical structure alloys
Indira Andreescu, prof.univ.dr.ing. Facultatea de Utilaj Tehnologic, Universitatea Tehnica de Constructii Bucuresti;
Professor Dr. Eng., Faculty of Machine Tools, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest e-mail:
indira_utcb@yahoo.com
O important familie de aliaje de magneziu, AZ,

face obiectul studiului de fa n vederea adoptrii
materialelor celor mai indicate pentru anumite
structuri aeronautice. Specimenele examinate au
fost: AZ 31B, AZ 63A, AZ 80A.
An important magnesium alloy family is the

subject of this research, aimed at adopting the
most adequate materials for certain aeronautical
structures. The examined specimens were: AZ
31B, AZ 63A, AZ 80A.
Caracteristicile mecanice la 200C ale familiei de

aliaje de magneziu examinate sunt centralizate n
tabelul nr. 1, datele servind drept referin la
aprecierea
comportrii
la
temperaturi
corespunztoare nclzirii aerodinamice a
structurilor ncorporatoare.
The mechanical characteristics of the examined

magnesium alloy family at 200C are centralized
in table no.1, the data being useful as reference
in assessing their behaviour for the adequate
aerodynamic heating temperatures of the
incorporated structures.
Lista prezentat n tabelul nr. 1 detaeaz

specimenul AZ 80A ca fiind superior n ceea ce
privete rezistena mecanic.
Edificri exploratorii cu privire la rspunsul
probelor din aliaj AZ 31B la solicitri
termomecanice. Setul principal de lucrri
investigaionale experimentale l-au constituit
determinrile variaiei cu temperatura a rezistenei
la solicitri mecanice ale epruvetelor din aliaj AZ
31B. Rezultatele sunt grafiate i tabelate n fig. 1.
The list shown in table no.1 points out the AZ

80A specimen as being superior in what the
mechanical strength is concerned
Investigation result concerning the AZ 31B
alloy samples answering to thermalmechanical actions. The principal set of
experimental investigating works was formed
by the calculations of the strength variation with
temperature of the AZ 31B samples during
various mechanical actions. The results are
plotted and tabled in fig.1.
Variaia funciei Rutr = f(T) evideniaz o

continuitate a scderii n pant abrupt a rezistenei
ultime la ntindere a epruvetelor de la 80% la 31%,
pe un parcurs de nclzire de la 100OC la 200OC.
Mai departe, la temperatura de 300OC - de interes,
n legtur cu nclzirea aerodinamic a structurii
aeronavelor - caracteristica respectiv s-a redus la
14,6% din valoarea sa nominal la temperatura
ambiant de 200C
The Rutr = f(T) function variation points out the

continuous decrease of the ultimate traction strength
on an abrupt slope, starting from 80% to 31%, when
heating from 1000C to 2000C. Further on, at 3000C
temperature - of interest concerning the
aerodynamic heating of the airship structure the
respective characteristic decreases to 14,6% from its
nominal value at 200C.
67
Tabel nr. 1
Table 1
AZ 31B
AZ 63B
AZ 80A
AZ 81A
AZ 91C
Rutr
24.6
16.9
30.2
23.9
12.7
Rezistena mecanic (daN/mm2)

Mechanical strength
Rctr
Rcc
Ruf
Rupc
14.8
8.4
12.7
26.3
7.0
7.0
11.2
25.3
19.7
12.0
13.4
33.7
7.0
7.0
12.0
25.34)
7.0
7.0
12.0
25.3
Materialul considerat d satisfacie n ceea ce

privete rezistena la solicitri termomecanice
pn la circa 100OC, n acest palier termic Rutr
diminundu-se cu numai 20% din valoarea sa
msurat la 20OC
Rcpc
16.2
19.7
25.3
22.5
22.5
Modulul (daN/mm2)
Module
E
G
4600
1700
4600
1700
4600
1700
4600
1700
4600
1700
The considered material is satisfactory, in what

the strength in thermomecanical actions is
concerned, up to 1000C, while on this thermal
level Rutr decreases with only 20% of its value
measured at 200C.
Fig.1. Time of exposure on each thermic level up to 100 h
Stabilirea caracteristicii de fluaj a comportat

generarea de curbe reprezentative ale deformaiei
specifice, respectiv de 2%, 3%, 4%, 5% i 7%
(fig.2).
The calculation of the yield characteristic

required the engendering of curves that were
representative for specific deformation levels, of
2%, 3%, 4%, 5% and 7% respectively (Fig.2).
Astfel pentru = 2% tensiunea cea mai mic, de

28 daN/mm2, a comportat un timp maxim de
meninere sub ncrcare (continu i lent)
pentru studiul de caz efectuat, i anume de 9
minute; la ncrcarea maxim de 46 daN/mm2 ,
o deformaie specific de 2% s-a produs ntr-un
timp mult mai scurt, respectiv cu puin mai mic
de 1 minut.
So, for = 2%, the 28 daN/mm2 lowest stress

required a maximum time of maintaining under
loading (continuons and slow) for the case study,
namely of 9 minutes; at a 46 daN/mm2 maximum
loading, a specific deformation of 2% took place in
a shorter time, that is, less than 1 minute.
68
Fig.2
ntr-o alt interpretare: epruvetele aflate n

palierul de nclzire de 150OC, solicitate la
ntindere sub 40 daN/mm2, la timpul t = 2,6 min
au prezentat o deformaie specific de 3%,
pentru ca la t = 4 min deformaia specific s
fie de 5%. Sub o tensiune mai mare, de 46
daN/mm2, deformaia specific de 3% i,
respectiv 5%, s-a produs ntr-un timp mai scurt,
i anume de 1,5 min i 2,3
In tabelul 2 au fost extrase datele
corespunztoare palierelor de nclzire de
200OC i 250OC. Astfel, epruvetele nclzite la
200OC solicitate la ntindere sub 15 daN/mm2
au prezentat o deformaie specific de 2% cnd
durata expunerii a fost de 5 min i de 4% cnd
timpul a fost de 16 min. In aceleai condiii de
tensiune i deformaie specific, timpul
corespunztor msurat pe epruvete nclzite la
250OC a fost, respectiv de 0,8 min i 1,8 min.
Acelai tip de epruvete nclzite la 250OC sub o
tensiune de ntindere mai mare, i anume de
18 daN/mm2, au prezentat o deformaie specific
de 2%, de ast dat ntr-un timp mai scurt, de
numai 0,21 min i o deformaie specific de 4%
cnd timpul a fost de 0,46 min, datele de
comparaie echivalente pentru epruvetele
nclzite la 200OC sunt, pentru = 18 daN/mm2;
= 2%; i 4%, iar t = 3,6 min i 10 min.
Tabelul nr. 2 evideniaz, cantitativ, o
pronunat scdere a timpului de fluaj,
corespunztor celor trei valori ale deformaiei
specifice precizate, atunci cnd expunerea
termic a probelor s-a fcut n palierul de
250OC, fa de temperatura de 200OC
In an other interpretation: the samples situated

on the 1500C heating level, acted under 40
daN/mm2 in traction, when t = 2.6 min showed a
specific deformation of 3%, and at t = 4 min, the
specific deformation was 5%. Under a higher
stress of 46 daN/mm2, the 3% and 5% specific
deformations took place in a shorter time (t=1.5
min and t = 2.3 min. respectively)
Table 2 shows the corresponding data for the
2000C and 2500C heating levels. So, the samples
heated at 2000C under 15 daN/mm2 stress
showed a 2% specific deformation for a 5 min
exposure time and 4% for a 16 min. exposure
time. For the same conmditions of stress and
specific deformation, for samples heated at
2500C the corresponding measured time was of
~0.8 min. and 1.8 min respectively.
The same type of samples heated at 2500C under
a higher traction stress, namely 18daN/mm2,
showed a specific deformation of 2%, this time
in shorter time, of only 21 min., and a 4%
specific deformation for a 0,46 min duration, the
equivalent comparison data for the 2000C heated
samples being, for = 18 daN/mm2; = 2%; and
4%, while t = 3,6 min and 10 min respectively.
Table 2 shows, from a quantitative point of view,
a significant decrease of the yield time,
corresponding to the three specified deformation
values, when the exposure of the samples to heat
was made at the 2500C level, with respect to the
2000C temperature.
69
Tabel nr. 2 (Table 2)

Valori comparative ale parametrului de fluaj t = f(,)
corespunztor palierelor termice de 200OC i 250OC
Comparative values of the t = f(,) yield parameter corresponding to the
2000C and 2500C thermal levels
daN/mm2
12
15
17
2%
T
3%
5%
2%
200OC
8.0
5.0
4.2
13.5
10.0
7.1
Parcursul explorator la determinarea

proprietilor termomecanice ale aliajului AZ
63A n domeniul de temperaturi pozitive
joase. n fig. 3 se prezint variaia relaiei
tensiune-deformaie specific prin curbe
ridicate la solicitri la ntindere ale probelor de
aliaj AZ 63A, n palierele termice de 150OC i
200OC, pe o durat a meninerii probei n fiecare
palier de 30 min.
3%
5%
250OC
32.0
23.0
15.5
2.1
0.85
0.4
2.4
1.3
0.6
4.4
2.3
1.1
Investigation steps for determining the thermalmechanical properties of the AZ 63A alloy in the
low range positive temperatures. Figure 3 shows
the variation of the relationship between stress
and specific deformation by means of curves
plotted for traction actions for the AZ 63A alloy
samples, between 1500C and 2000C heat levels,
while samples are maintained for 30 minutes on
each level.
Fig.3
Left: Stress daN/mm2
Down: Specific deformation 10-3 mm/mm
n fig. 4 se prezint o modalitate cuprinztoare

de grafiere a caracteristicilor de rezisten i
fluaj n condiii de expunere a probelor de aliaj
AZ 63A la o temperatur de 100OC.
70
Fig.4 shows a wide-range plotting of the yield

and strength characteristics of the AZ 63A alloy
samples when exposed to a 1000C temperature.
99%
98%
97%
91%
85%
75%
50,1%
46,2%
45%
46%
47%
43,4%
47%
43,0%
45,7%
43,6%
39,8%
25,8%
22,4%
22,2%
20,0%
Fig.4
1 Rutr , - strength for short mechanical actions on samples thermally exposed at 1000C before testing; 2. Rctr,
strength for short mechanical actions on samples thermally exposed at 1000C before testing; 3. Limit strength to
breaking, function of time; 4. Yield, necessary time for the 1.0% specific deformation; 5. Yield, necessary time for the
0.5% specific deformation; 6. Yield, necessary time for the 0.2% specific deformation; 7. Minimum yield ratio; 8.
Fatigue, stress cycle until breaking.
- Curbele 1 i 2 indic modificri ale

caracteristicilor Rutr i Rctr determinate de
meninerea sub sarcin aplicat scurt a probelor
expuse termic, nainte de test, la 100OC.
Evoluia R = f(t) n intervalul t = 1-100 ore, cu
msurtori repetate la t =10 ore, au indicat o
alur asemntoare a celor dou curbe
(rezistena probei a crescut cu timpul de
meninere a sa n palierul termic considerat).
- Curba 3 arat modul cum a variat tensiunea
de rupere cu durata meninerii sub efort
mecanic a probelor expuse termic la 100OC
nainte de test.
- Curbele 4, 5, 6 reprezint fluajul probelor,
semnificnd timpul de atingere a deformaiei
specifice date, respectiv de 1,0%, 0,5% i 0,2%,
la o variaie continu, lent a solicitrii
mecanice a probelor expuse termic timp de 1
or, 10 ore i 100 ore.

- Curves no. 1 and 2 show changes of Rutr and
Rctr characteristics determined by the fact that
samples are kept under a short applied load of
the thermally exposed to 1000C before testing.
The R = f(t) evolution in the t=1-100 hours
interval with repeated measurements at t = 10
hours indicated a similar shape of the two curves
(the sample strength grew with the time it was
maintained at the considered thermal level).
- Curve no. 3 shows how the ultimate stress
varied while samples were maintained under
mechanic load, being exposed at 1000C before
testing.
- Curves no. 4, 5 and 6 show the sample yields,
signifying the time needed to reach the given
specific deformation of 1.0%, 0.5% and 0.2% for
a continuous, slow variation of the mechanical
71
action on termally exposed samples for 1 h, 10

- Curba 7 reprezint relaia dintre rata minim
de fluaj i Rtr funcie de /t;
- Curba 8 arat numrul de cicluri pn la
rupere, adic oboseala relevat de probe.
Sinteza
investigaiilor
asupra
particularitilor termomecanice ale probelor
de aliaj AZ 80
O comparaie ntre efectele solicitrii continue,
lente a probelor de aliaj AZ 80A expuse nainte
de test, respectiv la T = 100OC i T = 150OC
este relevant prin datele din tabelul nr. 3
h and 100 h.
- Curve no. 7 shows the relationship between the
minimum yield ratio and Rtr function of /t;
- Curve no. 8 shows the cycle number until
breaking, namely the fatigue as shown on the
samples.
Synthesis of the investigation regarding AZ 80A
alloy sample thermal-mecanical characteristics.
Table no.3 shows a comparison between the slow,
continuous action effects of the AZ 80A alloy
samples exposed before testing at T = 1000 and T
= 1500C.
Tabel nr. 3
Table no.3
Date de fluaj comparative la T=100OC i T=150OC pe probe de aliaj AZ 80A
Comparative yield data on the AZ 80A alloy samples at T=100OC and T=150OC
100OC
t
1h
10h
100h
0.2%
58.0
6.0
52.0
5.4
46.6
0.5%
46.6
5.8
40.8
5.9
34.9
150OC
1.0%
24.0
1.4
22.6
2.3
20.3
0.2%
41.0
6.7
34.3
1.6
22.7
0.5%
33.7
9.1
24.6
9.1
15.5
1.0%
20.5
6.2
14.3
7.2
7.1
S-au constatat diferene importante ale mrimii

tensiunii de aplicat probei aflate n una sau alta
din cele dou stri termice menionate pentru a se
atinge acelai nivel al deformaiei specifice, ,
precum i atunci cnd timpul t variaz ntre 1 or
i 100 ore.
Significant stress size differences were noted

when applied to the sample placed in one of the
two mentioned thermal states, in order to reach
the same specific deformation level ; the same
was valid when time t varied from 1 h to 100 h.
Concluzii
Din grupa de aliaje AZ, investigate sub
raportul rezistenei la solicitri termomecanice
proprii structurilor aeronautice, satisface
preferenial indicii de performan aliajul AZ
80A.
Conclusions
From the AZ alloy class, whose stress was
investigated under the thermal-mecanical action,
adequate to the aerospace structures, AZ 80A
alloy preferentially confirms the performance
indices.
valuations par des essais de rsistance aux sollicitations thermomcaniques des alliages pour des structures
arospatiales.
.
Resum
On prsente des rsultats suite aux mesures de la rsistance thermomcanique effectues sur des prouvettes tmoin en
alliage de magnsium du groupe AZ.
72
Bibliografie
References
[1].
ANDREESCU, T.A. MUTIU, Concepte si evaluari privind metodologia caracterizarii aliajelor Al-Ti, Proiect
de cercetare, EI/2002, Raport de activitate, contract INCAS/ Societatea Academica Romana (SAR)
<Synergie> - MEC/ASR
[2].
Andreescu, T.A. Muiu, M. Stere, Studii i cercetri experimentale privind caracteristicile mecanice de
rezisten, de plasticitate i de comportare la coroziune a aliajelor experimentale, Raport de cercetare,
E2/2003, contract INCAS/SAR MEC/ASR
[3].
D.A. Rijinski, V.N. Romancik, Aviaionnoe materialovedenie i obrabotka materialov, Moskva, 1976
[4].
*** INCAS - S.A., Evaluri comparative, teoretice si experimentale, ale posibilitilor de performare a
aliajelor termorezistente prin implicarea mediilor termice tehnologice controlate, Raport de cercetare,
contract cu A.S.R., 2005
[5].
*** U.S. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Technical Note No. 668696 - 63-24.
[6].
*** Catalog preliminar pentru avionul IAR-S, Institutul Naional pentru Creaie Stiinific i Tehnic, 1983
[7].
*** Report of the AdHoc Committee on Air Force Aircraft Jet Engine Manufacturing and Production
Processes, United States Air Force Scientific Advisory Board, SAF/AQQS: the Pentagon, Washington, D.C.,
USA, 1992.
[8].
*** Department of Defense Handbook Metallic Materials and Elements for Aerospace Vehicle Structures,
MIL-HDBK-5H, 1 December 1998.
[9].
I.Andreescu, Evaluari prin incercari de rezistenta la solicitri termomecanice ale aliajelor pentru structuri
aerospaiale, Comunicare la cea de a VI-a Sesiune de comunicri tiinifice SIMEC 2007 , UTCB, Catedra
de Mecanic Tehnic i Mecanisme, 30 martie 2007.
[10].
*** MIL-HDBK-5H, Metallic Materials and Elements forAerospace Vehicle Structures, 1 decembrie 1998.
73
Reducerea emisiilor la motoarele

ecologice pentru camioane si utilaje de
constructii (I)
Reduction of emissions in the case of

ecological engines for trucks and
building equipment (I)
Sarbu Lurentiu, prof.univ.dr.ing. Facultatea de Utilaj Tehnologic, Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti
professor Dr., Faculty of Machine Tools, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
e-mail: laurentiusarbu_utcb@yahoo.com
1. Introducere.
De unde ncepe standardizarea emisiilor ?
Primele vehicule au fost camioanele. Volumul n
cretere al mrfurilor transportate n lumea
diesel, s-a fcut cu camioane i autobuze care au
o lung istorie n privina reglementrii emisiilor
poluante, care atrage un mare interes din partea
guvernelor i sunt foarte vizibile la dieselele din
segmentul personal de valoare medie. Acesta este
debutul la vehiculele pe roi pentru drumuri
rutiere, iar standardele pentru emisiile viitoare
vor arta, ceea ce este permis dup sistemul de
tratare a emisiilor. Partea de emisii obtinue dup
tratare, se refer la mecanismul prin care au fost
tratate suplimentar gazele de evacuare i care este
viaa motorului i a vehiculului.
1. Introduction
Where does emission standardization begin? The
first vehicles taken into consideration were the
trucks. The increasing amount of goods transported
in the Diesel world used trucks and buses with a
long history of norms and regulations concerning
pollutant emissions. This topic is now of great
interest for national governments and authorities,
and easy to perceive in Diesel engines used in the
personal average value segment. Things began to
happen for on-road and off-road vehicles, and
standards for future emissions will show what can
be done after emission treatment. After-treatment
emissions refer to the mechanism by which exhaust
gases were treated, as well as to the life of the
engine and of the vehicle as a whole.
2. Standardizarea emisiilor poluante [6].
2. The standardization of pollutant emissions [6]

In 2007, the auxiliary gas-treatment procedure
began to be considered for use for on-highway
vehicles, and the procedure will continue in 2008,
for Diesel engines equipped with particle filters,
trapping filters or DeNOx, oxidation or other
types of catalysts. For on-highway applications in
the U.S., regular Diesel fuel today has about 500
parts per million (ppm) of sulphur. Starting with
2006, most Diesel vehicles for various types of
roads must use ultra-low sulphur Diesel (ULSD)
with no more than 15 ppm sulphur at the pump.
The reduced amount of sulphur decreases
emissions, and Diesel engines always use
emission reduction devices, such as trapping
filters and catalytic converters. The use of these
systems along with ULSD may lead to a
reduction of over 90% particle emissions,
keeping HCs to nearly undetectable levels. For
the future, the ideal equation is a simple one:
ULSD + post-treatment burning gases = clean
Diesels.
Mecanismul de tratare suplimentar a gazelor

ncepe s fie utilizat ncepnd cu anului 2007
pentru vehiculele de transport pe autostrzi, iar
din 2008 pentru echipamente cu motoare diesel
care se deplaseaz pe drumurile principale
echipate cu filtre de particule, cu filtre de captare
sau DeNOx , oxidare sau alte tipuri de
catalizatori. Incepand din 2006, majoritatea
dieselelor pentru diferitele tipuri de drumuri
rutiere, trebuie s foloseasc combustibili diesel
cu foarte puin sulf (ultra low sulfur diesel),
(ULSD) i s nu aibe mai mult de 15 ppm nivel
de sulf la pomp. Coninutul mic de sulf produce
emisii sczute i totdeauna se folosesc pentru
diesele sisteme de reducere ca filtre de captare i
convertoare catalitice. Folosirea acestor sisteme
mpreun cu ULSD poate reduce emisiile de
particule cu mai mult de 90% i emisiile de HC la
nivelul admis sau de nedetectare a lor. Ecuaia
pentru viitor este simpl: ULSD + gaze de ardere
dup tratare = Diesele curate
74
European Union Emission Standards for various

types of engines used in civil engineering and
industrial applications are shown in Tables 1-4,
according to the Emission Standard of Clear
Explanation Caterpillar [6].
Starting from January 1st, 2006 the European
legislation forced all engine manufacturers to
develop new technologies that would allow them
to produce engines in conformity with the new
pollution norms and regulations, applicable to
engines with a capacity of over 175 CP, stage III
a of the EU, with reference to emissions of
pollutant gases; these norms and regulations are
also
valid
for
machine-tools
engine
manufacturers [1].
The emissions paradox [6]: one of the most
important challenges for engine manufacturers
lies in the fact that two of the major targets for
pollutant gases reduction in Diesel engines, PM
material particles and nitrogen oxides NOx work
in opposite directions. The reduction technology
for NOx generally leads to an increase of PM,
while the reduction strategy used for PM leads to
an increase of NOx (see Figure1).
Valorile European Union Emission Standards, pe

diferite categorii de motoare folosite n
construcii i aplicaii industriale sunt indicate n
tabelele 1-4, dup Emission Standard a Clear
Explanation Caterpillar[6].
De la 1 ianuarie 2006, legislaia a obligat pe toi
productorii de motoare s dezvolte tehnologii
care s permit construirea de motoare capabile
s ndeplineasc noile norme de poluare care se
aplic motoarelor mai mari de 175CP, etapa III a,
UE, privind emisiile de noxe, norme care i
vizeaz i pe constructorii de motoare pentru
utilaje[1].
Paradoxul emisiilor [6] : una din provocrile
majore pentru constructorii de motoare este
accea c, dou din intele majore pentru
reducerea noxelor din motoarele diesel, particule
materiale PM i oxizi de azot NOx , lucreaz n
direcii opuse. Tehnologia de reducere pentru
NOx , n general crete PM, iar strategia de
reducere folosit la PM, crete NOx. (v. fig.1).
Fig.1. Paradoxul emisiilor: particulele PM i oxizi de azot NOx lucreaz n direcii diferite [6].
The emissions paradox: PM particles and nitrogen oxides NOx work in opposite directions [6]
Standarde UE de emisii poluante pentru motoare diesel On-Road (g / kWh) ( smoke, n m-1)
EU pollutant emission standards for Diesel On-Road engines (g/kWh) (Smoke, in m-1)
Tabelul (Table )1 [6]
Tipul/Type Data/categoria
Date/Category
Euro I
1992 / < 85 kW
Euro II
Euro III
Ciclul testului
Test cycle
ECE/R-49
CO HC NOx
PM
Smoke
4,5 1,1
8,0
0,612
1992/ > 85 kW
4,5 1,1
8,0
0,36
1996
4,0 1,1
7,0
0,25
1998
4,0 1,1
7,0
0,15
0,25 2,0
0,02
0,16
2,1 0,66 5,0
0,10
0,8
1999
2000
ESC& ELR
idem
1,5
Eoro IV
2005
1,5 0,46 3,5
0,02
0,5
Euro V
2008
1,5
0,02
0,5
0,46 2,0
75
Limitri propuse de Recomandrile Nivelului III,a pentru motoare mobile Off-Road

Limitations suggested in the Recommendations for Level III a, for Off-Road mobile engines
Tabelul /Table 2 [6]
Puterea net (kW)
Net power
130< P < 560
75 < P < 130
CO
37 < P < 75
5,0
19 < P < 37
5,5
NOx + HC
(g/kWh)
4,0
4,0
3,5
5,0
PM
Data (Date)
0,2
0,3
2005
2006
4,7
0,4
2007
7,5
0,6
2005
Limitari propuse de Recomandarile Nivelului III,b pentru motoare mobile Off-Road

Limitations suggested in the Recommendations for Level III b, for Off-Road mobile engines
Tabelul/Table 3 [6]
Puterea net (kW)
Net power
130 < P <560
CO
75 < P < 130
5,0
37 < P < 75
5,0
Nox + HC
(g.kWh)
4,0
3,5
PM
Data(Date)
0,025
2010
4,0
0,025
2010
4,7
0,025
2011
Reglementari UE privind emisiile poluante pentru motoare diesel Off-Road ( g / kWh)

EU Regulations regarding pollutant emissions for Off-Road Diesel engines ( g / kWh)
Tabelul /Table 4 [6]
Puterea net ( kW)
Data
CO
HC
NOx
PM
Net power
(Date)
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Nivelul I/Level I
130 560
1999
5,0
1,3
9,2
0,54
75 130
1999
5,0
1,2
9,2
0,70
37 - 75
1999
6,5
1,3
9,2
0,85
Nivelul II /Level II
130 560
75 - 130
37 75
18 - 37
2002
2003
2004
2001
3,5
5,0
5,0
5,5
1,0
1,0
1,3
1,5
6,0
6,0
7,0
8,0
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,8
3. Motoare Ecologice pentru camioane Euro 4

si Euro 5[1,2.3].
3. Ecological engines for Euro 4 and Euro 5

trucks [1, 2, 3]
EGR este o tehnologie care are la baz

recircularea gazelor de eapament, ce impune
utilizarea unui turboncrctor cu geometrie fix,
sau variabila n unele aplicaii, prin care, emisiile
sunt atacate direct la surs de producere, n
acelai timp cu meninerea unui consum de
combustibil optim. Schema de principiu a
motorului EGR este prezentat n figura 2.
EGR is a technology based on the recirculation of

exhaust gases, requiring the use of a turbo-loader
with a fixed (and sometimes variable) geometry,
by which emissions are attacked directly at the
source, while maintaining, at the same time, an
optimal fuel consumption. The general diagram
of the EGR engine is shown in Figure 2.
76
Fig.2 Schema motorului EGR [1,2]; Figure 2. EGR Engine diagram [1, 2]
Pentru Euro 4, MAN ofer o solutie bazat pe

tehnologia EGR n combinaie cu filtrul de
particole MAN PM-KAT, pentru motoarele
common rail. Sistemul EGR utilizat de MAN
face posibil o reducere de NOx n interiorul
motorului corespunztoare cu Euro 4. In cea ce
priveste particulele, este folosit filtrul MAN PNKAT, un sistem de separator de particule care nu
are nevoie de ntreinere. Acesta permite o
reducere de 60% a masei de particule care nu are
nevoie de ntreinere. Acesta permite o reducere
de 60% a masei globale de particule i o
eliminare a microparticulelor n proporie de 8090%. MAN PM-KAT ( fig.3) declaneaz un
sistem chimic prin intermediul unui sistem global
care const dintr-un convertizor catalitic i un
separator de particule. In paralel MAN urmrete
i dezvoltarea unei soluii bazate pe tehnologia
EGR i MAN PM-KAT pentru Euro5.
For Euro 4, Man comes with a solution based

on EGR technology, combined with the
particle filter MAN PM-KAT, for common rail
engines. The EGR system used by MAN
makes it possible to reduce NOx inside the
engine according to Euro 4. In the case of the
particles, a MAN PM-KAT filter is used (a
particle separator system) which does not need
maintenance. This leads to a 60% particle
mass reduction and an 80 90% level of
micro-particle evacuation. MAN PM-KAT
(Figure 3) sets off a chemical action, through a
global system made of a catalytic converter
and a particle separator. At the same time,
MAN is aimed at developing a solution based
on MAN PM-KAT and EGR technology for
Euro 5.
Fig.3. Procedee aplicate la motoarele ecologice MAN [ 2]

Procedures used for ecological MAN engines [2]
77
Noua generaie de motoare americane Paccar MX

ce ndeplinesc cerinele Euro 4 i Euro 5 sunt
adaptate pentru utilizarea convertoarelor catalitice
DeNOx, tehnologia fiind cunoscut i sub numele
Selectiv Catalytic Reduction (SCR). Satisfacerea
cerintelor Euro 4 a necesitat o orientare ctre
EGR, n combinaie cu un turbocompresor cu
geometrie variabil TGV, pentru a putea face
mpreun reducerea de oxizi nitrici. Introducerea
catalizatorului DeNOx n 2008 pentru tehnologia
SCR este cea mai simpl soluie fa de sistemul
EGR. Convertorul catalitic la camioanele DAF
este integrat n amortizorul de sunet al galeriei de
evacuare. Unitatea de control electronic lucreaz
mpreun cu cea a motorului pentru a determina
cantitatea de AdBlue necesar injectrii n galeria
de evacuare, acest lucru fiind calculat n funcie
de turaia i cuplul motorului.
Noul sistem de reducere catalitic permite
extinderea posibilitilor de depire i a
standardelor Euro 6 ntr-un viitor apropiat[2]. In
figura 4,b este prezentat ansamblul rezervorului
de uree AdBlue al camioanelor DAF cu motoare
Paccar. Consumul de AdBlue al motoarelor
Paccar este cuprins ntre 0,5 si 1,5l la 100km [1].
The new generation of American engines Paccar MX,

complying with the requirements of Euro 4 and Euro
5, are adapted for the use of catalytic converters
DeNOx; this technology is also known as the
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR). In order to
comply with the requirements of Euro 4 it was
necessary to focus on EGR, combined with a turboblower TGV with a variable geometry, for the
reduction of nitric oxides. If the DeNOx catalyst is
introduced in 2008, it could be a simpler choice for
SCR than EGR. The catalytic converter of DAF trucks
is integrated into the noise damper of the exhaust
manifold. The digital control unit works with the
engine unit to determine the quantity of AdBlue which
is necessary for injection in the exhaust manifold; the
calculation is made according to the number of
rotations per minute and to the engine coupling.
Conceptul SCR (Selectiv Catalytic Reduction [4]
The SCR (Selective

Concept [4]
Este o tehnologie sofisticat care acioneaz asupra

gazelor arse emise de ctre motor, garantnd n
acelai timp nu numai o reducere a noxelor pn la
nivelul normelor Euro 5, dar i o reducere a
consumului de combustibil cu pn la 6%.
Tehnologia SCR necesit utilizarea unui aditiv,
derivat al ureei, numit de specialiti AdBlue. SCR
necesit utilizarea amoniacului pentru scderea
oxizilor nitrici n gazele de evacuare, ca i reducerea
funinginii rezultate la temperaturi nalte de
combustie. In principiu, se bazeaz pe adugarea de
amoniac sau uree, ca ageni de reducere pentru a
transforma oxizi nitrici periculoi n nitrai
inofensivi i vapori de ap, la nivelul convertizorului
catalitic. Practic, n acest proces, un fluid numit
AdBlue este distribuit sub forma unui jet de spray n
curentul rezultat de gazul de evacuare la nivelul
inferior al motorului.
78
The new catalytic reduction system opens a wide

range of possibilities to improve even the Euro 6
standards, in a not so remote future [2]. Figure 4, b
shows the AdBlue urea tank assembly for DAF
trucks having a Paccar engine. The AdBlue fuel
consumption for Paccar engines ranges from 0.5 to
1.5 liters for 100 km [1].
Catalytic
Reduction)
This is a sophisticated technology operating on

burnt gases emissions from the engine, which
guarantees not only a pollutant gases reduction
up to the level of Euro 5 norms, but also a fuel
consumption reduction up to 6%.
The SCR technology requires the use of an
additive, a urea derivative, which specialists call
AdBlue. SCR needs the ammonium for nitric
oxides reduction in exhaust gases, as well as for
soot reduction at high combustion temperatures.
As a principle, it is based on adding ammonium
or urea, as reduction agents, to turn hazardous
nitric oxides into inoffensive nitrates and water
vapors, at the level of the catalytic converter. In
fact, during this process, a fluid called AdBlue is
spread through a jet spray in the flow resulting
from the exhaust gas, at the level of the engine
bottom.
Fig.4,a
Fig.4,b
Fig.4, a: -Schema de principiu a tehnologiei SCR pentru motoare cu catalizator pentru reducerea selectiv a noxelor din
gazele de evacuare (Euro 5). Se aplic la : DAF, Iveco, Renault Trucks, Volvo Trucks, Mercedes Benz[ 3] ; 4,b Ansamblul rezervorului de uree AdBlue la camioanele DAF echipate cu motoare Paccar[ 1 ].
a: The basic diagram of SCR technology for catalyst-equipped engines, for the selective reduction of pollutants from
exhaust gases (Euro 5). It applies for: DAF, Iveco, Renault Trucks, Volvo Trucks, and Mercedes Benz [3]; Figure 4, b:
The AdBlue urea tank assembly for DAF trucks equipped with Paccar engines [1].
SCR este considerat tehnologia viitorului,

datorit combinaiei bune dintre economia de
combustibil rezultat, puterea de ieire a
motorului i compatibilitatea proceselor reziduale
cu mediul ambiant.
Astfel, consumul de
combustibil n acest caz este mai redus dect prin
oricare metod. De asemenea, aceast tehnologie
nu rspunde la nivelul de sulf din combustibilii
actuali, care este destul de ridicat. Singurul
dezavantaj este: necesitatea unei infrastructuri
capabile s ofere, aditivul albastru, n cantiti
suficiente.
SCR is seen as the technology of the future, due

to a positive combination between the resulting
fuels saving, the engine output power and the
compatibility of residual processes with the
environment. Thus, the fuel consumption in this
case is reduced to a larger extent than by any
other method. At the same time, this technology
does not respond to the level of sulphur from
existing fuels, which is quite high. The only
disadvantage is the need for an infrastructure that
could supply the necessary additive in sufficient
quantities.
Conceptul SCRT [ 4]
The SCRT Concept [4]
Compania german Eberspacher propune un

sistem revoluionar de reducere a noxelor care, va
reui eliminarea a peste 90% din particulele de
fum i oxizi de azot din gazele de eapament ale
camioanelor.
The German company Eberspacher proposes a

revolutionary system of pollutant gases
reduction, which is said to eliminate over 90% of
the smoke and nitrogen oxide particles from
truck exhaust gases.
79
Fig. 5. Conceptul SCRT aplicat la motoarele Euro 5[3]

The SCRT Concept applied for Euro 5 engines [3]
Standardele
europene
care
realizeaz
reglementarea emisiilor de noxe se vor ridica n
urmtorii ani, o dat cu introducerea normei Euro
5 din 2009 i Euro 6 din 2012, solicitnd astfel
soluii tehnice avansate de reducere a polurii din
partea productorilor de camioane. Sistemul
SCRT este alctuit din patru componente
principale, la nivelul crora au loc procese
chimice variate.
European Standards regulating pollutant gases

emissions will be improved in the next years,
when Euro 5 norm is introduced in 2009, and
Euro 6 in 2012. This means that truck
manufacturers must find advanced technical
solutions in order to reduce pollution levels. The
SCRT system is made of four main components,
each characterized by various chemical
processes
1.In prima etap, hidrocarbonaii i monoxidul de

carbon sunt transformate n dioxid de carbon i
ap. De asemenea, o parte a oxizilor de azot se
transform n dioxizi.
1. In the first stage, hydro-carbonates and the carbon

monoxide are turned into carbon dioxide and water.
At the same time, nitrogen oxides are partially turned
into dioxides.
2.Gazele de eapament trec apoi prin filtru activ

(elementele filtrante sunt acoperite cu un strat
subire metalo-ceramic), unde sunt reinute
particulele negre de fum. Stratul de particule
negre acumulate n filtru pot avea efecte negative
asupra presiunii de evacuare i asuport puterii
motorului i trebuie nlturate prin incinerare.
Acest lucru se realizeaz automat prin combustie
spontan a dioxidului de azot format n prima
etap, la temperaturi de 400 grade celsius. Filtru
are nevoie de o curire regulat, ns la intervale
mari de timp i nu necesit nlocuire.
2. Exhaust gases are then passed through an active

filter (the filtering devices are covered with a thin
film of metallic-ceramic substance), where black
smoke particles are stopped. The layer of black
particles accumulated on the filter may have negative
effects on the exhaust pressure and over the engine
power, and they must be burned. This is an automatic
procedure, taking place by means of the spontaneous
combustion of the nitrogen dioxide formed in the first
stage, at a temperature of 400 degrees Celsius. The
filter needs regular cleaning, but over large periods of
time, and it needs no replacing.
3.In urmtoarea etap, gazele trec prin camera de

injecie a ureei, unde datorit structurii speciale a
incintei se realizeaza un amestec omogen de gaze
arse i uree (AdBlue).
3. In the next stage, gases pass through the urea

injection chamber where, due to the special structure
of the respective space, the burned gases and the urea
form a homogeneous mix (AdBlue).
80
4.In procesul final, amestecul ajunge n camera

Reductorului Catalitic Selectiv SCR, unde
amoniacul rezultat n urma hidrolizei ureei reduce
oxizii de azot, rezultnd doar azot atmosferic i apa
sub form de vapori . In urma acestor serii de reactii
chimice, sunt eliminate peste 90% din particulele
negre de fum i oxizii de azot din gazele de eapament.
Totodat, sistemul SCRT mai beneficiaz i de o
structur care asigur i funcia de amortizor de sunet,
eliminnd practic partea final a tobei de eapament .
4. In the final process, the mix reaches the Selective

Catalytic Reduction (SCR) chamber, where the
ammonium resulting from urea hydrolysis turns the
nitrogen oxides into atmospheric nitrogen and water
vapors. Following this series of chemical reactions,
90% of the black smoke particles and nitrogen
oxides in the exhaust gases are removed. Also, the
SCRT system has a structure which ensures the
noise damping function, thus assuming the function
of the silencer end.
4. Concluzii:
4. Conclusions
The SCRT system may be divided into two
stages of the chemical process: the oxidation
inside the catalytic converter, for the removal of
smoke particles, and the catalytic reduction of
nitrogen oxides, with the help of urea injectors.
Sistemul SCRT poate fi separat n dou etape ale

procesului chimic : oxidarea n interiorul
convertizorului catalitic , pentru eliminarea
particulelor de fum, i reducerea catalitic a
oxizilor de azot cu ajutorul unui injector cu uree.
La reduction des emissions pour les moteurs cologiques et lourdes et lutilages de construction
Resum:
Nous prsentons les nouvelles technologies qui sadressent aux moteurs cologiques de grande puissance utiliss en
constructions, comme: EGR, EGR avec MAN PM-KAT, SCR, SCRT o bien ACERT. On prsente des projets, des
diagrammes, et on fait des apprciations sur les technologies de protection de lenvironnement et sur loptimisation du
fonctionnement des moteurs.
Bibliografie:
References:
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Mihilescu,R., Borcescu, R., Stoian,A.- Mediul dicteaza! (Environment Dictates!), IAA Hanovra
2006, Revista Cargo Romania,Bucuresti, nr.10/2006, pag.18-29.
[2].
Mihilescu, R.- Motoare MAN, Tainele Euro 4 si 5 (The Secrets of Euro 4 and Euro 5).
Revista Cargo Romania& Bus , Bucuresti, nr.9/2005, pag.72-73.
[3].
Pavel, D.- Mai mult decat Euro 4, DAF trucks a ales: SCR (More than Euro 4, DAF has
chosen: SCR), Cargo Romania & Bus Review, Bucuresti, nr.5/2005, pag. 36-37.
[4].
Pavel,D.- Noi tehnologii pentru motoare Euro 4 si Euro 5 (New Technologies for Euro 4 and Euro 5
engines), Cargo Romania& Bus Review, Bucuresti, nr11/2004
[5].
Srbu,L. Noi generatii de motoare ecologice pentru camioane si utilaje de constructii(I+II) (New
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echipamente, Bucuresti, nr.77 si 78/2007, pag.66-73 si 54-66.
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x x x - Emission Standards a Clear Explanation, Caterpillar, 2004, Painting in SUA, p. 11.
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Series CX.
81
Influena coninutului armonic al

curenilor asupra sarcinii admisibile
a conductoarelor electrice
The influence of the currents

harmonic content on the conductors
current carrying capacity
Mircea ROCA .l. ing., Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti (Technical University of Civil
Engineering), Facultatea de Instalaii, (Faculty of Building Services); e-mail: mirro@instal.utcb.ro
1. Consideraii generale
1. General terms
Rezistena aparent a conductoarelor este

ntotdeauna mai mare n curent alternativ dect
n curent continuu. Acest fenomen a fost
descris, pentru prima dat n 1883 de ctre
Horace Lamb pentru cazul conductoarelor
sferice i generalizat de ctre Oliver Heaviside
n 1885, pentru conductoare de orice form.
Fluxul magnetic variabil creat de un curent
alternativ interacioneaz cu conductorul,
determinnd
apariia
unei
tensiuni
contraelectromotoare induse, care tinde s
reduc curentul din conductor. Poriunea
central a conductorului este stbtut de cel
mai mare numr de linii de for ale fluxului
magnetic, n timp ce numrul de linii de cmp
scade pe msura apropierii de suprafaa
conductorului.
Fenomenul de autoinducie d natere unei
tensiune contraelectromotoare induse, care
variaz att ca amplitudine ct i ca faz n
diferite puncte ale seciunii transversale ale
conductorului, avnd valori efective mai mari n
centrul conductorului i mai mici pe spre
suprafaa acestuia. Ca o consecin, curentul
tinde s se concentreze n zonele n care
tensiunea contraelectromotoare are valori
minime, respectiv la suprafaa conductoarelor
cilindrice sau n muchiile conductoarelor
paralelipipedice, deteminnd ceea ce este
cunoscut sub numele de efect pelicular.
Densitatea de curent neuniform rezultat
conduce la micorarea seciunii efective a
conductoarelor, la creterea rezistenei aparente
a acestora i, implicit, a pierderilor de energie
din acestea.
Se definete raportul de efect pelicular ca fiind:
The conductors AC apparent resistance is

always bigger than the DC one. This
phenomenon was firstly described for spherical
conductors by Horace Lamb in 1883 and
generalised for conductors of any shape by
Oliver Heaviside in 1885.
The variable magnetic flux created by an
alternative current interacts with the conductor,
determining the appearance of an induced
counter-electromotive force, which tends to
reduce the current in the conductor. The utmost
number of magnetic field lines crosses the inner
central part of the conductor while this number
of field lines decreases towards the conductors
surface.
The self-induction phenomenon generates a
counter electromotive force, whose magnitude
and phase vary in different points of the
conductor transversal section, having increased
rms values in the central part of the conductor
and decreased ones towards its surface.
Consequently, the current tends to concentrate
in those areas where the counter-electromotive
force has extremely low values, that is, at the
surface of the cylindrical conductors or at the
edge of the parallelepiped conductors,
determining the so called skin effect.
The resulting irregular current density
determines the decrease of the conductors
effective section, the increase of their apparent
resistance and, implicitly, of their energy losses.
The skin effect ratio is defined as being:

Rf
S=
,
(1)
R0
82
n care:
Rf este valoarea rezistenei aparente n curent
altenativ,
R0 este valoarea rezistenei aparente n curent
continuu.
Amploarea i consecinele efectului pelicular
cresc cu frecvena i depind de dimensiunile i
forma conductorului, fiind independente de
valoarea efectiv a curentului din conductor.
Dac pentru armonica de ordinul nti
(fundamental) de frecven egal cu 50 Hz,
efectul pelicular este, practic, neglijabil, pentru
armonicile superioare prezena acestuia se face
simit din ce n ce mai puternic. De exemplu,
un conductor cu diametrul de 20 mm are la
frecvena de 350 Hz (armonica a 7-a) o
rezisten aparent egal cu 160 % din valoarea
rezistenei sale din curent continuu.
Creterea rezistenei aparente i, implicit, a
reactanei (datorit valorilor mai mari ale
frecvenei) conduce la creteri ale pierderilor de
tensiune, ale gradului de distorsiune a tensiunii
i ale pierderilor de putere din conductoare.
De asemenea trebuie subliniat faptul c, odat
cu creterea temperaturii, amploarea efectului
pelicular scade, determinnd o cretere mai
mic dect cea estimat, a rezistenei n curent
altenativ. Aceast dependen de temperatur
este mai pronunat la conductoarele de cupru
dect la cele de aluminiu de aceeai seciune,
datorit rezistivitii mai mici a cuprului
comparativ cu cea a aluminiului. Diferena
poate fi uor evideniat n cazul barelor de
distribuie de seciuni mari ale tablourilor.
Densitatea de curent J dintr-un conductor plan
masiv de grosime infinit scade exponenial cu
adncimea d msurat de la suprafaa
conductorului (vezi fig. 1), conform relaiei:
where:
Rf is the AC apparent resistance value,
R0 is the DC apparent resistance value.
The amplitude and the consequences of the skin

effect increase with the frequency and depend
on the conductor shape, being independent of
the rms current value of the conductor.
As long as for the first order (fundamental)
harmonic having a 50 Hz frequency the skin
effect is, practically, negligible, for high order
harmonics its presence becomes more and more
perceptible. For example, at a 350 Hz frequency
(7th harmonic), a 20 mm diameter conductor has
an apparent resistance equal to 160 % of its DC
resistance.
The increase of the apparent resistance and,
implicitly, of the reactance (due to higher
frequency values) determines the increase of the
voltage drops, of the voltage distortion and of
the power losses in conductors.
It must be pointed out, also, that the amplitude
of the skin effect decreases with the temperature
increase, giving rise to a lower than expected
AC resistance.
This dependence on the temperature level is
more marked for a copper conductor than for an
aluminium conductor of equal cross-sectional
area because of its lower resistivity.
The difference is easily noticeable in large
busbar sections.
The current density J in a plane, massive
conductor with infinite thickness decreases
exponentially with the depth d measured from
the conductor surface (see fig. 1), according to
the relation
J = Js e
,
(2)
n care este o constant denumit adncime introducerea unei noiuni de nveli (strat)
de ptrundere. Aceasta este definit ca fiind imaginar, denumit grosime pelicular sau
acea adncime la care densitatea curentului de where is a constant named penetration depth.
conducie a sczut la valoarea 1 e (la 36,7 %) This is defined as the depth where the
din valoarea Js a densitii curentului de conduction current density has decreased to a
value equal to 1 e (36,7 %) of the conduction
conducie nregistrate la suprafaa conductorului
current density value Js achieved at the
(considerat 100 %).
ncercnd s simplifice interpretarea efectului conductor surface (considered as 100 %).
pelicular, Boucherot [1] a propus n 1905
83
Trying to simplify the interpretation of the skin

effect, Boucherot [1] proposed in 1905 the
notion of an imaginary shell also called skin
thickness or penetration depth, where the
adncime de ptrundere, n care densitatea de
curent J este uniform. Cantitatea de cldur
degajat n ntregul conductor masiv,
caracterizat de o densitate de curent
neuniform, ce scade exponenial ctre zero
dinspre periferia conductorului ctre axa
acestuia, este egal cu cea degajat n nveliul
(stratul) periferic imaginar (de grosime ),

caracterizat de o densitate de curent uniform.
current density J is even.
The heat quantity that occurs in the whole solid
conductor, characterised by an uneven current
density that decreases exponentially to zero
from the conductor surface towards its axis is
equal to that generated solely by the peripheral
imaginary layer (of thickness ), characterised
by an even current density.
Fig. 1 Variaia densitii de curent n interiorul conductorului

Current density variation inside the conductor
Pentru conductoare cilindrice a cror raz B

este de acelai ordin de mrime sau mai mic
dect adncimea de ptrundere , ipoteza
descreterii exponeniale a densitii a
curentului de conducie cu adncimea b nu mai
este valabil. n acest caz, densitatea J a
curentului de conducie se obine prin
rezolvarea urmtoarei ecuaii difereniale:
d 2J 1 d J
+
d b2 b d b
n care:
b este coordonata dup raza conductorului,
b [0,B ] ;
where:
b is the coordinate along the
radius, b [0,B ] ;
= 2 f este valoarea pulsaiei curentului ( f

reprezentnd frecvena curentului);
este permeabilitatea absolut a materialului
conductorului,
= 0 r ,
0
fiind
permeabilitatea absolut a vidului (sau a aerului
uscat) i r permeabilitatea relativ a materialului
conductorului, iar este conductivitatea
electric a materialului conductorului.
= 2 f is the current pulsation value ( f

representing the current frequency);
is the absolute permeability of the
conductor material, = 0 r , 0 being the
vacuum (or dry air) absolute permeability and
r is the relative permeability of the conductor
material, and is the electrical conductivity of the
conductor material.
84
For cylindrical conductors whose radius B has

the same order of magnitude with the
penetration depth or less, the assumption of
the conduction current density exponential
decrease with the depth b is no longer valid. In
this case, the conduction current density J is
obtained by solving the following differential
equation:
= j J ,
(3)
conductor
Dac se face transformarea de variabil din b n

1
j b , ecuaia (3) capt forma unei ecuaii

Bessel de spea 1 i de ordinul zero. Prin
impunerea condiiei la limit J ( B ) = Js i
If a transformation of the variable from b into
j 2 b is performed, equation (3) becomes a

first kind and zero order Bessel equation. By
imposing J ( B ) = Js as a limit condition and
considernd c, pentru un conductor plin (nu considering that, for a massive (not tubular)
tubular) J trebuie s aib o valoare finit pentru conductor J must have a finite value for b = 0 ,
the solution to this equation is:
b = 0 , soluia ecuaiei este:
b
b
b
J0 2 j
Ber 2 j + j Bei 2 j
= Js
,
(4)
J ( b ) = Js
B
B
B
J0 2 j
Ber 2 j + j Bei 2 j
n care J0 ( x ) este funcia Bessel de spea 1 i de where J0 ( x ) is the Bessel function of the first
ordinul zero iar Ber ( x ) i Bei ( x ) sunt funcii
kind and zero order, while Ber ( x ) and Bei ( x )
Kelvin.
Valoarea total a curentului din conductor se
obine prin integrarea funciei J ( b ) pe
are Kelvin functions.

The total value of the conductor current is obtained
by integrating the J ( b ) function on [0, R ]
domeniul [0, R ] .
domain.
2 Determinarea pierderilor suplimentare prin

efect Joule n conductoarele parcurse de cureni
armonici
n cele ce urmeaz vom presupune existena unui

numr de nveliuri coaxiale de tip Boucherot
strbtute de armonici. Acestea sunt cu att mai
puine, cu ct inveliul este situat mai n
profunzimea conductorului (la distan mai mare
de suprafaa acestuia). Pentru fiecare ordin armonic
va fi calculat adncimea de ptrundere, iar pentru
fiecare strat interior toroidal (tub) delimitat de dou
adncimi de ptrundere consecutive, vor fi
calculate rezistena, valoarea efectiv adevrat a
curentului, densitatea de curent i pierderile de tip
Joule. Pe baza acestor valori calculate va fi
determinat valoarea pierderilor Joule totale din
conductor raportat la valoarea pierderilor Joule
care s-ar nregistra n conductor n prezena doar a
armonicii de ordinul 1.
Va fi determinat, de asemenea valoarea unui
coeficient de majorare a seciunii conductoarelor
parcurse de cureni armonici, definit ca valoarea
unui curent fundamental convenional care ar
produce aceiai cantitate de cldur ca i curentul
armonic dat.
n cazul unui curent cu un spectru armonic
precizat, adncimea de ptrundere k pentru
2. Supplementary Joule effect-type losses

quantification in conductors with harmonic
current flowing through
Next, let us suppose the existence of a number of

coaxial Boucherot type layers, in which harmonics
are flowing through.
These are fewer as the layer is situated deeper into
the conductor (at a greater distance from its
surface).
The penetration depth for each harmonic order will
be calculated and, for each inner toroidal layer
(tube), delimitated by two consecutive penetration
depths, the resistance, true rms current value,
current density and Joule-type losses will be
calculated.
Based on these calculated values, the ratio between
the value of the conductors total Joule losses and
the Joule losses that would occur in the conductor
in the sole presence of the 1st harmonic will be
calculated.
An increasing coefficient for the area of the
conductors in a harmonic current environment will
be determined, defined as the value of a
conventional fundamental current that would
produce the same heat quantity as the given
harmonic current.
For a current with a defined harmonic spectrum,
the penetration depth k for the k th harmonic
85
armonica de ordinul k este:
n care:
c =
order is:
1
1
k =
=c
,
fk
fk
where:
este o constant care depinde de
natura materialului conductor i care va fi

calculat n cele ce urmeaz pentru cupru ( ccu ) i
aluminiu ( cal );
fk reprezint frecvena armonicii de ordinul k
(unde k = 2n -1 , n N ).
Permeabilitatea absolut a vidului avnd valoarea
0 = 4 10 7 H m i permeabilitile relative
ale cuprului i aluminiului fiind r 1 , rezult c
permeabilitatea
absolut
a
materialului
7
conductorului este = 4 10 H m .
Conductivitatea
electric
a
materialului
conductorului se consider a avea, pentru cupru,
valoarea Cu = 5,80 107 S m iar pentru
c =
(5)
is a constant depending on the
conductor material and which will be calculated

below for copper ( ccu ) and aluminium ( cal );
fk represents the frequency of the k th order
harmonic (where k = 2n -1 , n N ).
The vacuum absolute permeability value being
and
the
relative
0 = 4 10 7 H m ,
permeability value for copper and aluminium
being r 1 , the conductors absolute
permeability value equals = 4 10 7 H m .

The electrical conductivity for the conductor
material
is
considered
as
being
7
Cu = 5,80 10 S m
for
copper
and
Al = 3,78 107 S m for aluminium.
aluminiu Al = 3,78 107 S m .

With these values, the resulting penetration depth
Cu aceste valori, adncimea de ptrundere pentru for copper is:
cupru rezult:
1
1
1
1
cuk =
=
= ccu
= 0.066085
.
(6)
fk cu Cu
fk
fk
fk 4 10 7 5.8 107
n mod similar, adncimea de ptrundere pentru Similarly, the resulting penetration depth for
aluminiu rezult:
aluminium is:
1
1
1
1
alk =
=
= cal
= 0.0818604
.
(7)
fk
fk
fk al Al
f 4 10 7 3.78 107
n continuare, vor fi luate n calcul numai Further on, only the odd harmonics not exceeding
armonicile impare de ordin pn la 51, dei cu o 51st order will be considered, although, with good
bun precizie pot fi luate n considerare doar accuracy, only the harmonics not exceeding 25th
armonicile de ordin de pn la 25. n tabelul 1
order can be considered.
sunt prezentate adncimile de ptrundere Cu k i Table 1 presents the penetration depths for copper
Cu k and aluminium Al k respectively.
Al k pentru cupru i, respectiv, pentru aluminiu.
Figure 2 presents the frequency dependence on
n figura 2 este prezentat dependena de
the penetration depth for copper and aluminium.
frecven a adncimii de ptrundere pentru cupru
We consider (see fig. 3) a cylindrical conductor of
i aluminiu.
B radius exceeding the penetration depth in
Considerm (vezi fig. 3) un conductor cilindric de
copper Cu 1 of the 1st (fundamental) harmonic, a
raz B mai mare dect adncimea de ptrundere
n cupru Cu a armonicii de ordinul 1 fortiori exceeding aluminium penetration Cu 1
1
(fundamentalei), deci cu att mai mare dect

adncimea de ptrundere Al 1 n aluminiu a
of
the
armonicii de ordinul I (fundamentalei).

86
1st
(fundamental)
harmonic.
Tab. 1. Adncimile de ptrundere pentru cupru i aluminiu

Penetration depths for copper and aluminium
Cupru - Copper
Aluminiu - Aluminium
Ordinul k al armonicii
f
Harmonic order k
Cu k
Cu k
Al k
Al k
-
[Hz]
[m]
[mm]
[m]
[mm]
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
21
23
25
27
29
31
33
35
37
39
41
43
45
47
49
51
50
150
250
350
450
550
650
750
850
950
1050
1150
1250
1350
1450
1550
1650
1750
1850
1950
2050
2150
2250
2350
2450
2550
0,009350640
0,005398595
0,004181734
0,003534210
0,003116880
0,002819324
0,002593401
0,002414325
0,002267863
0,002145184
0,002040477
0,001949743
0,001870128
0,001799532
0,001736370
0,001679425
0,001627738
0,001580547
0,001537236
0,001497301
0,001460325
0,001425959
0,001393911
0,001363931
0,001335806
0,001309352
9,35
5,40
4,18
3,53
3,12
2,82
2,59
2,41
2,27
2,15
2,04
1,95
1,87
1,80
1,74
1,68
1,63
1,58
1,54
1,50
1,46
1,43
1,39
1,36
1,34
1,31
0,011582691
0,006687270
0,005179937
0,004377846
0,003860897
0,003492313
0,003212460
0,002990638
0,002809215
0,002657251
0,002527550
0,002415158
0,002316538
0,002229090
0,002150852
0,002080313
0,002016288
0,001957832
0,001904183
0,001854715
0,001808912
0,001766344
0,001726646
0,001689509
0,001654670
0,001621901
11,58
6,69
5,18
4,38
3,86
3,49
3,21
2,99
2,81
2,66
2,53
2,42
2,32
2,23
2,15
2,08
2,02
1,96
1,90
1,85
1,81
1,77
1,73
1,69
1,65
1,62
Fig. 2 Variaia adncimii de ptrundere n funcie de

frecven
Penetration depth depending on frequency
Fig. 3. Adncimi de ptrundere, razele miezului

cilindric i ale nveliurilor toroidale i ariile
suprafeelor acestora
Penetration depths, cilindrical core and annular
layer radii and their surfaces
87
Trebuie observat faptul c n conductor exist o

zon cilindric (de raz n ) care nu este, practic,
strbtut de ctre nici una dintre armonicile de
curent (nici chiar de ctre fundamental), orice
punct situat n aceast zon aflndu-se, n raport
de suprafaa conductorului, la o adncime mai
mare dect adncimea de ptrundere a
armonicii de ordinul 1 (fundamentalei).
Se face convenia ca, dat fiind ipoteza anterior
menionat, n calculele urmtoare s nu se fac
referire, n mod special la vreun material
conductor anume, considerndu-se o adncime
de ptrundere k generalizat corespunztoare
armonicii de ordinul k , ntr-un material
oarecare. Aceste adncimi de ptrundere k
reprezint limile unor coroane circulare ale
cror arii A k sunt date de relaia:
It must be noticed that inside the conductor

there is a cylindrical zone (of radius n ) which,
practically, is not circulated through by any of
the current harmonics (not even by the
fundamental), any point situated in this zone
being (with regard to the conductor surface) at a
depth exceeding the penetration depth of the 1st
(fundamental) harmonic.
It is agreed that, in accordance with the above
mentioned hypothesis, no special mention of
any particular conductor material shall be made
in the following calculations, considering a
generalised penetration depth k
that
th
corresponds to the k harmonic in a certain
material. These penetration depths k represent
the widths of some annuli having the areas Ak
given by the relation:
Ak = B ( B k ) = B ( B k ) B + ( B k ) = k ( 2B k ) .
(8)
Valorile efective adevrate ale curenilor care The actual rms values of the currents that flow
strbat tuburile ale cror seciuni transversale through the tubes, whose transversal sections
sunt coroanele circulare menionate anterior are the above mentioned annuli, are (in the
sunt (n absena componentei continue):
absence of the DC component) as follows:
2
I A = I12 + I32 + .... + Ik2 =

k
2
k
(9)
Densitile
de
curent
corespunztoare
coroanelor circulare de arii Ak sunt:
JA =
k
IA
Ak
Din fig. 3 rezult, de asemenea, relaia:
The current densities that correspond to the

annuli having Ak areas are
2
k
k ( 2B k )
From
fig.
(10)
3,
another
relation
results:
B = 0 = n + 1 ,
(11)
n care 0 poate fi considerat ca fiind where 0 can be considered as being the
adncimea de ptrundere a componentei de penetration depth of the DC component
curent continuu.
Se noteaz cu m k grosimea torului (tubului) m k shows the coaxial toroid (tube) depth inside
coaxial din interiorul conductorului stbtut de the conductor crossed by harmonics of an order
armonici de ordin maxim egal cu k (unde k not greater than k (where k has the same
are aceeai valoare k = 2n -1 , cu n N ). value k = 2n -1 , with n N ).
Rezult, astfel, relaiile particulare:
Thus the following particular relations result:
m 0 = 0 1 = n ;
m 47 = 1 49
m 1= 1 3
m 3 = 1 5
i relaia generalizat:
88
m 49 = 1 51
m 51= 1 53 = 1
as well as the generalized relation:
m k = 1 k + 2 .
(12)
(13)
Convenind s se noteze cu A0 , A1 , A3 ,
...., Ak ,..... A49 , A51 ariile suprafeelor
transversale ale miezului cilindric i ale
nveliurilor toroidale (tuburilor) coaxiale
succesive, rezult c mrimile acestora sunt
date de relaiile particulare:
A0 = n 2
Agreeing to denote the areas of the transversal

surfaces of the cylindrical core and of the
consecutive coaxial toroids (tubes) located
inside the conductor with A0 , A1 , A3 ,
...., Ak ,..... A49 , A51 , their sizes are given by the
particular relations:
2
2
A1 = ( n + m 1 ) ( n )
2
2
A3 = ( n + m 3 ) ( n + m 1 )
........................................
(14)
2
2
A51 = ( n + m 51 ) ( n + m 49 )
i, respectiv, de relaia generalizat:

and, respectively, by the generalized relation:
2
2
Ak = ( m + m k ) ( n + m k 2 ) .
(15)
innd seama de expresia grosimii m k a Taking note of the annulus depth m k expression
coroanei circulare dat de relaia (8-13), rezult given by (8-13), it results that the following
urmtoarea relaie a ariei suprafeei transversale expression of the transversal surface area Ak of
Ak a unui tub oarecare:
a certain tube is:
2
2
Ak = ( n + m k ) ( n + m k 2 ) =
= n + (1 k + 2 ) n + (1 k )
2
} = .... .
(16)
.... = ( k k + 2 ) ( B k ) +( B k + 2 )
Ak = ( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2 )
Rezistena electric a unui unui tub oarecare k de The electrical resistance of a certain unitary
length ( l = 1 m ) tube k is given by the relation:
lungime unitar ( l = 1 m ) este dat de relaia:
1
1
.
(17)
= rA k =
=
=
rA k
l =1m
Ak Ak ( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2 )
Astfel, expresia pierderilor Joule pA k ntr-un So, the resulting expression of the Joule losses
pA k in a certain unitary length tube k is:
tub oarecare k de lungime unitar rezult:
pAk = rA k I A2 k .
Conductorul cilindric poate fi considerat a fi

alctuit dintr-un miez cilindric de raz a , care
nu este strbtut de ctre nici una dintre
armonicile de curent, ci doar de ctre
componenta de curent continuu a curentului i
din nveliuri (tuburi) toroidale coaxiale
succesive, strbtute de un numr cresctor de
armonici de curent de ordine din ce n ce mai
mari. Astfel, tubul 1 este parcurs numai de ctre
curentul armonic de ordinul 1 (fundamental).
(18)
The cylindrical conductor can be considered as

being made of a cylindrical core of a radius,
which is not circulated through by any of the
current harmonics but only by the current DC
component and by consecutive toroidal layers
(tubes), circulated through by a growing
number of harmonics of an increasing order. So,
tube no. 1 is circulated through only by the 1st
order (fundamental) harmonic current.
89
Tubul 3 este parcurs de ctre curenii armonici

ordinul 1 i 3. Tubul k este parcurs de curenii
armonici de ordinul 1, 3, 5, 7, ..., k . Ultimul tub
(51) este parcurs de ctre toi curenii armonici
(de ordinul 1, 3, 5, 7, ..., k , ..., 47, 49 i 51).
Densitile de curent corespunztoare nveliurilor
toroidale (tuburilor) coaxiale succesive de arii
Ak sunt egale cu densitile de curent ale
Tube no. 3 is circulated through by the 1st and 3rd

order harmonic currents. Tube no. k is circulated
through by the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, ..., k th order
harmonic currents. The last tube (51) is circulated
through by the 1st, 3rd, 5th, 7th, ..., k th, ..., 47th 49th
and 51st order harmonic currents.
The corresponding current densities of the
consecutive toroidal layers (tubes) of Ak areas
are equal to the current densities of the toroidal

layers of Ak areas.
The current densities of the consecutive toroidal
layers (tubes) increase from the conductor axis
towards its periphery.
So, the true rms values of the currents that
circulate through the layers (tubes) of Ak
transversal areas are:
( )( 2B k k + 2 ) k I 2 .
(19)
Ak = k k + 2
j j
k ( 2B k )
tuburilor toroidale de arii Ak . Valorile densitilor

de curent din straturile (tuburile) toroidale
coaxiale
succesive
cresc
dinspre
axa
conductorului ctre periferia acestuia.
Astfel, valorile efective adevrate ale curenilor
care strbat tuburile de seciuni transversale Ak
sunt:
IA k = J A
Cu aceste expresii, pierderile Joule pAk ntr-un

tub oarecare k vor fi date de relaia:
pA k = r A k I
2
Ak
With these expressions, Joule losses pAk in a

certain tube k will be given by the relation:
( )( 2B k k + 2 )
1
=
k k +2
( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2 )
k ( 2B k )
pA k =
( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2 ) I 2
j j
2
k2 ( 2B k )
j I
2
j
(20)
Pierderea Joule total p din conductorul de The total Joule loss p in the unitary length tube
lungime unitar este dat de relaia:
is given by the relation:
( )( 2B k k + 2 ) k 2
p = pA k = k k + 2 2
(21)
Ij .
2
k ( 2B k )
k
k
j
Pierderea Joule care s-ar nregistra n ntregul The Joule loss that would occur in the entire
conductor n prezena doar a armonicii 1 conductor in the sole presence of the 1st
(fundamentalei), dac inem seama de harmonic (fundamental), if we take into account
adncimea de ptrundere a armonicii 1, este the penetration depth of the 1st harmonic, is
dat de relaia:
given by the relation:
I12
2
p1 =
I1 =
.
(22)
( B2 n2 )
( B2 n2 )
Dac nu se ine seama de adncimea de
ptrundere a armonicii 1 i se consider
curentul distribuit uniform n ntreaga seciune
transversal a conductorului, expresia pierderii
Joule menionate anterior devine:
If we dont take into account the penetration

depth of the 1st harmonic and the current is
considered as being evenly distributed over the
entire conductor transversal section, the
expression of the above mentioned Joule loss
becomes:
2
I12
p1 =
I
=
.
(23)
1
B2
B2
90
Se definete un coeficient de suprancrcare A thermal overload factor ct due to the current

termic ct datorat coninutului armonic al harmonic content is defined as being the ratio
curentului ca fiind raportul dintre pierderea between the total Joule loss and the Joule loss
Joule total i pierderea Joule care s-ar that would occur in the entire conductor in the
nregistra n ntregul conductor n prezena doar sole presence of the 1st harmonic (fundamental)
a armonicii 1 (fundamentalei) date de relaia given by (23), which is mostly encountered in
(23), care este i cel mai des ntlnit n practic practice and which represents, at the same time,
i care reprezint, totodat i ipoteza de calcul the
most
disadvantageous
calculation
cea mai dezavantajoas. Acest coeficient de hypothesis.
suprancrcare termic ct cuantific degajarea This thermal overload factor ct quantifies the
de cldur suplimentar produs n conductor supplementary heat development produced in
de ctre un curent avnd un coninut armonic the conductor by a current having a certain
oarecare, comparativ cu cea produs n acelai harmonic content, compared to that produced in
conductor doar de ctre armonica 1 the same conductor only by the 1st harmonic
(fundamental) a aceluiai curent. Astfel:
(fundamental) of the same current. So:
( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2 ) k I 2
k
j j
2
k2 ( 2B k )
p
ct =
=
=
I12
p1
B2
.
(24)
k
ct =
B ( k k + 2 )( 2B k k + 2
2
2
k
( 2B k )
I
)
2
j
I12
Considernd expresia general a adncimii de Considering the general expression of the

ptrundere k dat de relaia (5), prin nlocuirea penetration depth k given by (5), by
ei n relaia (24), rezult:
substituting it in (24), the result is:
1
1
c
c k 2
B 2 fk
2B
I j
f
f
f
f
k +2
k
k +2
k
(25)
ct =
j 2 .
2
I
k
1
c
c 2B
fk
Avnd n vedere faptul c marea majoritate a

aparaturii de msurare a parametrilor de calitate
a energiei electrice exprim valorile armonicilor
ca procente din armonica de ordinul 1
(fundamental), i notnd aceste valori
procentuale cu h1 , h3 , h5 , .... , hk , .... h51 (cu
h1 = 1 ) rezult c:
k
I
j
2
2
2
= ( I12 + I32 + .... + Ik2 ) = ( h1 I1 ) + ( h3 I1 ) + .... + ( hk I1 ) = I12 h 2j
j
j
j
k
2
j
Taking into consideration the fact that the great

majority of the power quality parameters
measuring equipment evaluates the harmonic
magnitudes as percents of the 1st harmonic
(fundamental) and denoting these percentages
with h1 , h3 , h5 , .... , hk , .... h51 (with h1 = 1 )
it results that:
I
j
2
j
=I
2
1
2
j
(26)
=c I
2 2
i 1
91
n care ci =
h 2j
este un coeficient de
where
ci =
2
j
is
an
incrementing
majorare a valorii efective a curentului

fundamental, datorit prezenei armonicilor.
Astfel, expresia coeficientului de suprancrcare
termic ct devine:
1
B 2 fk
f
k
coefficient of the rms fundamental current due

to the harmonics.
So, the expression of the thermal overload
factor ct becomes:
c
c
2B
k
f
f
k
k
2
+
h2
ct =
j j
2
k
c
c 2B
fk
.
(27)
1
1
c
c
B 2 fk
2B
f
f
f
f
+
+
k
k
2
k
k
2
c2
ct =
i
2
k
c
c 2B
fk
Reamintim faptul c finalitatea acestei abordri We iterate that the finality of this approach is
o constituie elaborarea unei metode optime de the elaboration of an optimal dimensioning
dimensionare a conductoarelor i cablurilor prin method for conductors and cables in terms of
prisma aportului termic suplimentar datorat the supplementary heat input due to the
curenilor armonici. Prin urmare rezult ca harmonic currents. Therefore, it is necessary to
necesar introducerea unui alt coeficient, introduce another coefficient, able to point out
capabil s evidenieze majorarea de seciune the section increase which should be taken into
necesar a fi luat n considerare n calculul de account when dimensioning conductors and
dimensionare a conductoarelor i cablurilor cables circulated through by harmonic currents.
parcurse de cureni armonici.
So, we define an incrementing coefficient ch of
Definim astfel, un coeficient de majorare ch a the fundamental current rms value due to the
valorii efective a curentului fundamental presence of the harmonics and skin effect, as
datorit prezenei armonicilor i a efectului being the reported value of a certain
pelicular, ca fiind valoarea raportat a unui fundamental current that would produce the
curent fundamental care ar produce acelai efect same caloric effect as the given harmonic
termic ca i curentul armonic dat. Cu alte current. In other words, this coefficient
cuvinte, acest coeficient exprim de cte ori indicates how many times the magnitude of a
este mai mare amplitudinea unui curent fundamental current exceeds that which would
fundamental (de frecven egal cu 50 Hz) care generate the same caloric effect as the given
ar produce acelai efect termic ca i curentul harmonic current comparative to the 1st
armonic dat dect armonica 1 (fundamentala) harmonic of the respective current. The
curentului
armonic
respectiv.
Expresia expression of the incrementing coefficient ch is
coeficientului de majorare ch este dat de given by the relation:
relaia:
c h = ct =
92
1
fk + 2
1
B 2 fk
f
k
2B
f
k
c
c 2B
fk
1
fk + 2
c
fk + 2
c2 .
i
(28)
Deosebirea fundamental dintre coeficienii de

majorare ch i ci definii prin relaiile (28) i (26)
este aceea c primul ine i de adncimea diferit
de ptrundere a armonicilor de curent, n timp ce
al doilea presupune c densitatea curentului
efectiv adevrat este aceeai n orice punct al
seciunii transversale a conductorului.
Prin urmare, coeficientul de majorare ci poate fi
definit i ca raportul dintre valoarea efectiv
adevrat a unui curent armonic i valoarea
efectiv a fundamentalei (a armonicii de ordinul
nti) a curentului respectiv:
k
ci =
2
j
I12 h 2j
j
2
1
I12 h 2j
j
I1
(I
k
2
1
Similar modalitii de abordare de mai sus, poate

fi definit o aa numit valoare efectiv adevrat
corectat Icr a unui curent armonic, ce poate fi
exprimat prin relaia:
1
B 2 fk
f
k
The fundamental difference between the

incrementing coefficients ch and ci defined by
(28) and (26) is that the first one takes into
account the different penetration depths of the
current harmonics, while the second assumes that
the true rms current density is the same in any
point of the conductor transversal section.
Therefore, the incrementing coefficient ci may
also be defined as the ratio between the actual rms
value of the harmonic current and the rms value
of the fundamental (1st harmonic) of the
respective current:
+ I32 + .... + Ik2 )
I1
I
j
I1
2
j
I
.
I1
(29)
Similar to the above approach, a so called

corrected true rms value Icr of a harmonic
current can be defined, and thereby can be
expressed by the relation:
c
c
2B
fk
fk + 2 k 2
(30)
Icr =
Ij
2
k
j
c
c 2B
fk
n acest fel, avnd la baz relaia (28), coeficientul So, based on (28), the incrementing coefficient
de majorare ch poate fi definit i ca raportul ch may be also defined as being the ratio between
1
fk + 2
dintre valoarea efectiv adevrat corectat Icr a

unui curent armonic i valoarea efectiv a
fundamentalei (a armonicii de ordinul nti) a
curentului respectiv:
c h = ct =
B 2 fk
f
k
1
B 2 fk
f
k
the corrected true rms value Icr of a harmonic

current and the rms value of the respective
currents fundamental (1st harmonic):
2B
fk
c
c 2B
fk
1
fk + 2
1
c
2B
fk + 2
fk
2
c
c 2B
fk
I1
Se consider spectrul armonic tipic curentului

absorbit de variatoarele de turaie (VSD
c
fk + 2
c
fk + 2
k
I 2j
j
=
I12
(31)
2
j
Icr
I1
The typical harmonic spectrum of the current

absorbed by the VSDs (Variable Speed
93
Variable Speed Drives) ce utilizeaz modularea

n durat a impulsurilor (PVM Pulse Width
Modulation) destinate motoarelor asincrone
trifazate de mare putere n varianta cea mai
dezavantajoas, corespunztoare unui grad de
ncrcare de 50 % a motorului [2] (tabelul 2
coloana 6):
Drives)that use PVM (Pulse Width Modulation)

meant for three phase high power asynchronous
motors in the most disadvantageous alternative,
corresponding to a 50 % motors load level [2]
(table 2 6th column) is considered:
Tab. 2 Spectrele armonice tipice al curentului absorbit de ctre un VSD

Typical Harmonic Spectra of PWM Type VSDs
Gradul de ncrcare a
100 %
75 %
50 %
motorului
Motor Load Level
Amplitudine
Unghi
Amplitudine
Unghi
Amplitudine
Ordinul k al armonicii
Amplitude
Angle
Amplitude
Angle
Amplitude
Harmonic order kh
[%]
[]
[%]
[]
[%]
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
100
0
100
0
100
3
0.35
-159
0.59
-44
0.54
5
60.82
-175
69.75
-174
75.09
7
33.42
-172
47.03
-171
54.61
9
0.5
158
0.32
-96
0.24
11
3.84
166
6.86
17
14.65
13
7.74
-177
4.52
-178
1.95
15
0.41
135
0.37
-124
0.32
17
1.27
32
7.56
9
9.61
19
1.54
179
3.81
9
7.66
21
0.32
110
0.43
-163
0.43
23
1.08
38
2.59
11
0.94
25
0.16
49
3.7
10
3.78
Pentru acest spectru, valoarea coeficientului ci de

majorare a valorii efective a curentului este
ci = 1,38 .
Valorile calculate ale coeficientului de
suprancrcare termic ct i ale coeficienilor de
majorare a valorii efective a curentului ci i ch
pentru cteva seciuni de conductoare sunt
Unghi
Angle
[]
7
0
-96
-174
-171
-102
16
71
28
10
16
95
-8
7
For this spectrum, the value of the rms current

incrementing coefficient ci is ci = 1,38 .
The calculated values of the thermal overload factor ct
and of the rms current incrementing coefficients ch and
ci for some conductor areas are presented in table 3:
prezentate n tabelul 3:
Tab. 3 Valorile calculate ale coeficienilor ct , ci i ch
The calculated values of ct , ci i ch coefficients
B (mm)
1,0
2,0
2,5
3,0
5,0
10,0
15,0
ci
1,38
1,38
1,38
1,38
1,38
1,38
1,38
ct
1,90
1,90
2,16
2,52
4,25
8,48
12.54
1,59
2,06
2,91
3,54
ch
1,38
1,38
1,47
Trebuie observat faptul c pentru conductoare
cu raza de pn la 2 mm, consecinele efectului
pelicular sunt neglijabile, valorile coeficienilor
ch i ci fiind aceleai. Pentru raze mai mari de
94
It must be noted that, for conductors having a

radius not exceeding 2 mm, the consequences
of the skin effect may be neglected, the values
2 mm, consecinele efectului pelicular ncep s

fie notabile, astfel nct, pentru conductoare cu
raza de 10 mm, de exemplu, valoarea
coeficientului ch este de 2,1 ori mai mare dect
cea a coeficientului ci . Cu alte cuvinte, pentru
conductoare cu raza de 10 mm, un curent al
crui spectru armonic este cel prezentat n
tabelul 2 - coloana 6, va avea, pentru o
component fundamental considerat unitar
(100 %), o valoare efectiv adevrat egal cu
138 % (n ipoteza c densitatea curentului
efectiv adevrat este aceeai n orice punct al
seciunii transversale a conductorului) i de 291
% (dac se ine seama i de adncimea de
ptrundere a armonicilor de curent).
Trebuie s remarcm, de asemenea, faptul c
pentru conductoare cilindrice de raze mai mici
dect adncimea de ptrundere n cupru a
armonicii de ordinul 1 ( Cu 1 = 9,35 mm ),
consecinele efectului pelicular se diminueaz i
densitatea de curent n seciunea transversal a
conductorului tinde s se uniformizeze. Ca o
consecin imediat cantitatea de cldur
suplimentar
degajat
(exprimat
prin
intermediul coeficientului de suprancrcare
termic ct ) scade, iar valoarea coeficientului de
majorare ch a valorii efective a curentului
scade, de asemenea.
of ch and ci coefficients being the same. For

radii bigger than 2 mm, the consequences of the
skin effect start to be noticeable, so that, as an
example, for conductors with a 10 mm radius,
the value of ch coefficient is 2.1 times bigger
than that of ci coefficient. In other words, for
conductors with a 10 mm radius, a current
having that harmonic spectrum presented in
table 2 6th column will have, for a basic
fundamental component (100 %), a true rms
value equal to 138 % (supposing that the true
rms current density is the same in any point of
the conductor transversal section and equal to
291 % if the penetration depth of the current
harmonics is taken into consideration.
We must, also, remark that for cylindrical
conductors with radii smaller than the copper
penetration depth of the 1st harmonic
( Cu 1 = 9,35 mm ), the consequences of the
skin effect decrease and the current density in
the conductor transversal section tends to
homogenise. As an immediate consequence, the
supplementary heat development (quantified by
the thermal overload factor ct ) decreases and
the value of the rms current incrementing
coefficient ch also decreases.
3. Conclusions and proposals
3 Concluzii i propuneri
Dimensionarea unui conductor (cablu) parcurs

de cureni care au un spectru armonic nenul
doar n funcie de valoarea efectiv a
fundamentalei reprezint o subdimensionare
sever, care conduce la supranclzirea
conductorului (cablului) i la deteriorarea
izolaiei acestuia. Chiar i dimensionarea la
valoarea efectiv adevrat a curentului nu este
corect, deoarece presupune o densitate de
curent uniform n orice punct al seciunii
transversale a conductorului, ceea ce reprezint,
n mod evident, o prezumie fals. Trebuie s
observm, de asemenea, faptul c pentru
conductoare cu seciuni mici, consecinele
efectului pelicular pot fi neglijate, i acestea
trebuie dimensionate la valoarea efectiv
adevrat a curentului armonic obinut
Dimensioning of a conductor (cable) circulated

through by currents having a non-zero harmonic
spectrum based only on the fundamental rms
value represents a severe underrating, which
determines the conductor (cable) overheating
and insulation damage.
Even the dimensioning based on the current true
rms value is incorrect, because it assumes an
even current density in any point of the
conductor transversal section, which obviously
represents a false assumption.
It must also be noted that for conductors with
small sections, the consequences of the skin
effect may be neglected and they must be
dimensioned based on the harmonic current true
rms value, resulting from multiplying therms
95
prin nmulirea valorii efective a fundamentalei

cu coeficientul ci . Aceast valoare efectiv
adevrat a curentului, care este de ci ori mai
mare dect valoarea efectiv a armonicii de
ordinul nti implic necesitatea adoptrii
pentru conductoare i cabluri a unor seciuni
mrite fa de cele recomandate actualmente
prin normative, care nu in seama de prezena
din ce n ce mai semnificativ a armonicilor de
curent generate de ctre receptoarele neliniare.
Pentru seciuni mai mari, consecinele efectului
pelicular devin semnificative, astfel nct
conductoarele trebuie dimensionate la valoarea
efectiv adevrat corectat a curentului
armonic, care ine seama i de adncimile de
ptrundere diferite ale armonicilor de curent i
care se obine prin nmulirea valorii efective a
fundamentalei cu valoarea coeficientului ch .
Considerm c prezint interes att continuarea
analizei i pentru conductoare de alte forme
(paralelipipedice, de exemplu) ct i
determinarea valorilor coeficienilor ch i ci
pentru cureni armonici care prezint alte
spectre dect cel utilizat n aceast analiz, cum
ar fi cei absorbii de echipamentele care
utilizeaz arcul electric.
value of the fundamental with ci coefficient.

This true rms current value that is ci times
bigger than the rms value of the 1st harmonic
implies the necessity of adopting, for
conductors and cables, increased sections
comparative to those recommended at present
in normatives in contempt of the more and more
significant presence of the current harmonics
generated by the nonlinear loads.
For bigger sections, the consequences of the
skin effect become significant; therefore the
conductors must be dimensioned based on the
corrected true rms value of a harmonic current,
which takes into consideration the different
penetration depth of the current harmonics, and
which is obtained by multiplying the rms value
of the fundamental with the value of ch
coefficient.
We consider that it would be of great interest to
continue the analysis for conductors with
different shapes (parallelepipedic, for example),
and to determine the values of the incrementing
coefficients ch and ci for harmonic currents
having other spectra than the one used in this
analysis, such as those absorbed by the
equipment based on the electric arc.
L'influence du contenu harmonique des courants sur le calcul des dimensions de capacit de charge courante
des conducteurs
Rsum
Le calcul des dimensions d'un conducteur parcouru par des courants ayant un spectre harmonique diffrent de zro
bas seulement sur la valeur efficace du fondamental reprsente une sous-estimation grave, provoquant la surchauffe
du conducteur et lendommagement de l'isolation. Mme le dimensionnement bas sur la valeur efficace vritable du
courant n'est pas correcte. Les conducteurs ayant de petites sections doivent tre dimensionns partir de la valeur
efficace du courant harmonique. Pour de plus grandes sections, les consquences de l'effet de peau deviennent
significatives, donc les conducteurs doivent tre dimensionns partir de la valeur efficace vritable corrige du
courant harmonique, qui prend en compte la profondeur diffrente de pntration des harmoniques du courant et qui est
obtenue en multipliant la valeur efficace du fondamental avec la valeur du coefficient ch.
Bibliografie
References
[1].
[2].
[3].
96
BOUCHEROT, P.: Effet de peau.Bull. S.I.E. 4/1905 and 11/1908;

CHANG, G. W., XU, W., RIBEIRO, P. F.: Modeling of Harmonic Sources Power Electronic
Converters
ROCA,M., LAZR, . Dimensionarea conductoarelor i cablurilor parcurse de cureni armonici A
XIV-a Conferin a Facultii de Instalaii din Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti, 26 27
nov. 2007.
Un model fizic de ardere a particulei

de rumegu n suspensie
A Physical Model for Combustion of a

Sawdust Particle in Suspension
Ioana Mogo, drd.ing. Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucuresti, Catedra de Termotehnica, e-mail: Eng., PhD
trainee, Technical Univ. of Civil Engineering, Heat Treatment Chair ; oana_mogo@yahoo.com
1.Prezentarea problemei
1.Topic Description
Pentru aplicaiile tehnice, un model fizic care s

urmreasc evoluia particulei de rumegu n
suspensie, pe traseul din focar, este de preferat
dac ndeplinete dou condiii: procesele
termo-chimice prin care trece particula s fie
cele principale, chiar n condiiile n care
reprezint aproximaii ale unor procese mult
mai complexe; ecuaiile s fie rezolvabile
printr-un program de calcul n care se poate
interveni
cu
sondarea
parametrilor
termocinetici ai particulei i cu corecturi pe
parcurs, deci un program care s fie editat
special pentru aceast problem.
Modelul fizic este transpus n programul de
calcul ARDPART. care a fost elaborat ntr-un
sistem conversaional, cu avantajul de a se
putea interveni. Au fost efectuate verificrii ale
programului
cu
urmtoarele
variabile:
temperatura focarului 700 1200 0C ;
dimensiunea particulei de rumegu 2-6 mm ;
temperatura de nceput a procesului reductor
al cocsului 500-900 0C.
Principala concluzie important este c
rezultatele sunt n bun concordan cu
rezultatele experimentale obinute pe o serie de
focare experimentate i pe cazane funcionnd
cu rumegu
For technical experimental use, a physical

model able to follow the behaviour of the
sawdust particle in suspension inside the
furnace is preferable if two conditions are met:
the thermo chemical processes through which
the particle is passing must be the main
processes, even when these are approximations
of more complex processes; the equations must
be easy to solve by a calculation program,
suitable for intervention by investigation of the
thermo-kinetic parameters of the particle, and
to corrections along the way. Such a program
should be developed precisely for this purpose.
The following variables were used for the

corroboration of the software: the furnace
temperature 700 1200 0C; the size of sawdust
particles: 2 6 mm; the temperature at the
initiation of the coke reduction process 5009000C. The main conclusion is that our results
are in accordance with the experimental results
obtained after testing a number of furnaces and
boilers based on sawdust.
2. Date de baz pentru modelul particulei
2. Fundamentals of the Particle Model
Modelul fizico-matematic pornete de la

descrierea fenomenelor termice de evoluie a
particulei pe msura creterii temperaturii. La o
particul de dimensiuni mici, n stare de
suspensie n focar, timpul fazelor de uscare i
degajare a volatilelor este neglijabil fa de
timpul de ardere a cocsului.
Starea de funcionare n regim a camerei pentru
The physical - mathematical model starts from

the description of thermal phenomena,
following the particle behaviour as temperature
rises. For a small size particle, in suspension
inside the furnace, the time required to dry and
exhale the volatiles is negligible compared to
the time required for the combustion of coke.
The operation status of the combustion
The physical model is applied in the calculation

software ARDPART, which was developed in a
conversational system allowing interventions.
97
arderea particulelor de lemn n suspensie este

caracterizat printr-o temperatur ridicat a
mediului, de ordinul 700 1000 0C. La
temperaturi mai ridicate de 600 0C reactivitatea
carbonului reprezint principala caracteristic
n procesul de ardere i n consecin devin
predominante procesele de reducere de tipul :
CO2 + C = 2 CO
Fluxul masic de oxigen ajunge la particul prin
difuzie, dup care n contact cu suprafaa de
carbon are loc reacia chimic de oxidare.
Timpul de difuzie este cel care guverneaz
timpul procesului deoarece reacia oxigencarbon este att de rapid nct timpul ei este
neglijabil.
Bilanul termic al particulei determin
nclzirea ei: din cldura de reacie, QAR , un
flux pleac cu coninutul de cldur al gazelor
CO degajate la temperatura adiabat de ardere
n reacia de formare a lor, QCO , i un flux de
cldur pleac transmis prin radiaie de
suprafaa particulei, QRP, la temperatura
particulei; particula primete un flux de cldur
prin radiaia mediului din focar, QRF, la
temperatura focarului. Particula primete sau
cedeaz un flux de cldur prin convecie care
este egal cu conducia prin stratul limit, QCL.
S-a urmrit determinarea unui sistem de ecuaii,
dezvoltat cu diferene finite, astfel ca s poat fi
rezolvat cu un program de calcul. In final a
rezultat un soft care urmrete cu rigurozitate
fenomenul fizic pe toat durata n care particula
trece de la forma iniial la dispariie.
Viteza de suspendare a particulei n camera de
ardere este o mrime determinant a fenomenelor
fizice.
Tabelul 1 Variantele orintative
Table 1 Selected options:
latura particulei /
particle side [mm]
2
4
6
temperatura focarului /
furnace temperature[C]
600 - 900 - 1200
600 - 900 - 1200
viteza de plutire / floating

speed [m/s]
4.03 - 4.67 - 5.23
5.69 - 6.60 - 7.40
600 - 900 - 1200
Pentru diferite mrimi de particule i medii de

gaze de ardere n care evolueaz se calculeaz
criteriul Re. Se constat c n toate cazurile
particula n suspensie are o micare laminar n
raport cu gazul de antrenare. In aceste condiii
98
chamber for wooden particles in suspension is

characterized by a high temperature of the
environment, around 700 1000 0C. For
temperatures higher than 600 0C the reaction of
the carbon is the main feature in the
combustion process and consequently the most
important reduction process is:
CO2 + C = 2 CO
The oxygen flux mass reaches the particle by
diffusion, then a chemical oxidation reaction
takes place, due to its contact with the carbon
surface. The diffusion time determines the
duration of the process, since the oxygen
carbon reaction is so fast that its duration is
negligible.
The thermal balance of the particle determines
its heating: from the reaction heat, QAR a
heating current results, having the heat content
of the CO gases released at the adiabatic
temperature of combustion during their
generation, QCO, along with another heating
current, originating in the radiation of the
particle surface, QRP, at particle temperature.
The particle receives a heating current from the
radiation of the furnace agent, QRF, at the
furnace temperature. The particle is receiving
or releasing by convection a heating current
which is equal to the conduction in the
boundary layer, QCL.
The scope was to set up an equation system,
developed with finite differences, so as to be
solved by a calculation program. The resulting
software strictly follows the physical
phenomena along the process whereby the
particle in its initial form eventually disappears.
The suspension velocity of the particle in the
combustion chamber is a parameter determined
by the physical phenomena.
6.97 - 8.08 - 9.06
For different particle sizes and mediums for

combustion gases behaviour a Re criterion is
calculated. Results show that in all cases the
particle in suspension has a laminar movement
in connection to the medium gas. In these
grosimea stratului laminar la suprafaa

particulei se calculeaz dup
relaia lui
Blasius:
= 5 * (*l/w)^0.5 sau echivalent
/l = 5 / (Re)0.5.
conditions the thickness of the laminar layer at

the particle surface is calculated based on
Blasius relation: = 5 * (*l/w)^0.5
or
0.5
equivalent /l = 5 / (Re) .
Tabelul 2: Cteva caracteristici Re i grosimi de strat limit

Table 2: Re characteristics and thickness of the boundary layer
latura
particulei /
particle
side[mm]
viteza
particulei /
particle speed
[m/s]
temperatura
focarului / furnace
temperature[C]
2
4
2 - 9
2 - 9
900 - 1100
900 - 1100
19 - 69.8
37.9 - 139.6
grosimea stratului
limit /
thickness of
boundary layer
[mm]
2.30 1.20
3.25 1.69
2 - 9
900 - 1100
56.9 - 209.4
3.98 2.07
n difuzia oxigenului la particul este

important cunoaterea distanei medii ntre
dou particule n suspensie. Aceast distan
dac este mult mai mare dect stratul limt al
particulei nu va influena procesul de ardere. Se
remarc distana ntre particule de ordinul 50 de
ori mai mare dect grosimea srtatului limit,
ceeace arat c particulele nu se influeneaz
reciproc n procesul de ardere.
Re
For the oxygen diffusion at the particle level it

is important to know the average distance
between two particles in suspension. If this
distance is longer than the boundary limit of the
particle, it will not influence the combustion
process. It should be noted that the distance
between particles is 50 times longer than the
boundary layer, meaning that the particles are
not influencing each other in the combustion
process.
Tabelul 3: Distana medie ntre dou particule n suspensie

Table 3: Medium distance between two particles in suspension
temperatura gazelor/ Gas temperature
C
900
1000
1100
Distana ntre particule p / distance between particles
mm
55.3
56.9
58.3
grosimea stratului limit sl / thickness of boundary layer
mm
1.08
1.14
1.20
(w=9m/s)
raportul dintre distana ntre particule i grosimea

stratului limit p/sl
3. Fluxurile de cldur asupra particulei
Schema fluxurilor de cldur este prezentat n
schema de mai jos.
50
49
3. Heating currents over the particle

The graphic of the heating current is presented
below:
QRF
QCL
51
QINC
QRP
QCO
QAR
QINC flux de cldur disponibil pentru nclzire particulei
QAR - flux de cldur de reacie produs de arderea carbonului pn la CO
99
QCO - flux de cldur care pleac cu coninutul de cldur al gazelor CO degajate la temperatura
adiabat de ardere a CO
QRF - flux de cldur transmis prin radiaia mediului din focar, la temperatura focarului
QRP - flux de cldur care pleac prin radiaie de la suprafaa particulei la temperatura particulei
QCL - flux de cldur prin convecie, primit sau cedat, egal cu conducia prin stratul limit.
QINC heating current available for heating the particle
QAR reaction heating current produced by carbon combustion up to CO
QCO heating current released with the heat content of the CO gases exhaled at the adiabatic
temperature of CO combustion
QRF heating current transmitted by radiation of the furnace medium, at the furnace temperature
QRP heating current by radiation off particle surface, at particle temperature
QCL heating current by convection, received or released, equal to the conduction in the boundary
laye
QAR - se determin n intervalul de timp ,
QAR is determined in the time interval ,
sufficiently short so the temperature variation
suficient de mic astfel nct variaia de
in this interval will not affect significantly the
temperatur n acest interval s nu afecteze
parameters of the process development.
sensibil parametrii de desfurare a procesului.
The mass flux of oxygen JO2 is defined by the
Fluxul specific masic de oxigen JO2 este
mass transfer relation:
definit de relaia de transfer de mas:
M O 2 PO 2 g
M O 2 PO 2 g
kg
kg
J O 2 = DO 2
(1)
(1)
J O 2 = DO 2
2
RG (Tlim + 273) m s
RG (Tlim + 273) m 2 s
unde DO2 este coeficientul de difuzie al
oxigennului , PO2 presiunea parial de O2 n
gazele de ardere, Tlim temperatura n stratul
limit.
Fluxul de mas de carbon n reacie este 12/16
din JO2 nmulit cu suprafaa activ:
12
kg
M C = J O2 S p
(2)
16
s
In intervalul de timp masa de carbon fix
variaz cu : Mc
M C = M C [kg]
and therefore
MAS fin = MAS in M C [kg]
i luxul de cldur degajat prin arderea

carbonului fix:
Q AR = M C H CARB 1000 [J]
(4)
QCO - Oxidul de carbon este degajat la
temperatura particulei T1 i se evacueaz la
temperatura adiabat Tt de ardere n recia C
CO .
Cantitaea de cldur consumat pentru procesul
de nclzire va fi:
Q AR = M CO c pCO (Tt T1 ) [J]
(5)
100
where DO2 is the oxygen diffusion coefficient,

PO2 the partial pressure of O2 in the combustion
gases, Tlim - temperature in the boundary limit.
The mass flux of carbon under reaction
is 12/16 from JO2 multiplied with the active
surface:
12
kg
M C = J O2 S p
(2)
16
s
Within the time interval the stable carbon
mass varies with: Mc
(3)
and the heating current released by combustion

of the stable carbon:
Q AR = M C H CARB 1000 [J]
(4)
QCO carbon oxide is released at the
temperature particle T1 and is evacuated at a
combustion adiabatic temperature Tt under the
reaction C CO.
The quantity of the heat used up for the heating
process will be:
Q AR = M CO c pCO (Tt T1 ) [J]
(5)
QRF - oeficientul de absorbie-emisie al

volumului este EPSGAZ = 0,9 i coeficientul de
absorbie emisie a particulei de carbon este
EPSPART = 1 Rezult n timpul DELTAU o
cantitate de cldur radiat de mediul din focar
spre particul:
4
QRF = C 0 g p (T f + 273) S p [J ] (6)
QRF the absorption emission coefficient of

the volume is EPSGAZ = 0.9 and the absorption
emission coefficient of the carbon particle is
EPSPART = 1. The quantity of heat radiated by
the furnace environment to the particle within
the time span DELTAU is:
4
QRF = C 0 g p (T f + 273) S p [J ] (6)
QRP -ntr-o zona de ardere la temperatur

ridicat a norului de particule de carbon,
cantitatea de cldur radiat de particul spre
mediul din focar este:
4
QRP = C 0 g p (T p + 273) S p [J ] (7)
QRP in an area with high combustion

temperature of the carbon particle cloud, the
quantity of heat radiated by the particle to the
furnace environment is:
4
QRP = C 0 g p (T p + 273) S p [J ] (7)
QCL - Particula avnd o deplasare cu viteza de

portan n mediul din camera de ardere va
efectua un schimb de cldur convectiv cu
mediul din focar Rezult cantitatea de cldur
schimbat ntre mediu i particul prin
convecie pe suprafaa exterioar SPART n
timpul :
QCL The particle movement with a spread

velocity inside the combustion chamber will
perform a convective exchange of heat with the
medium from the furnace. Therefore the
quantity of heat exchanged between the
medium and particle by convection on the outer
surface SPART in the time is:
QCL = S p
g
(T f Tlim )
sl
[J]
(8)
5. Calculul cldurii de nczire a

particulei i temperatura particulei
dup intervalul de timp .
Din bilanul termic prezentat anterior rezult

ecuaia de determinare a cantitii de cldur de
nczire a particulei dup intervalul de timp :
QINC = Q AR QCO + QRF QRP + QCL [J ] (9)
Aceast cantitate de cldur duce la nclzirea
particulei i, deoarece dimensiumea particulei
este foarte mic, se poate considera c
temperatura particulei este uniform n tot
volumul. Rezult creterea de temperatur a
particulei dup intervalul de timp :
QINC
[K ]
(10)
MAS p c par
Rezult temperatura final a particulei de cocs
dup intervalul de timp DELTAU de ardere:
T1FIN = T1 + DELT
T =
Terminarea calculului este determinat de

condiia de MASFIN <= 0 , adic o consumare
complet a particulei de carbon.
QCL = S p
g
(T f Tlim )
sl
[J]
(8)
5. Calculation of the heat required for

heating the particle, and particle
temperature after the time interval :
The thermal balance described previously leads

to the equation for the calculation of the heat
quantity needed to heat the particle after the
time interval :
QINC = Q AR QCO + QRF QRP + QCL [J ] (9)
This heat amount will heat up the particle and,
as the size of the particle is very small, it can be
considered that the particle temperature is level
in the whole volume. Therefore the particle
temperature rise after time interval is as
follows:
QINC
[K ]
(10)
T =
MAS p c par
The final temperature of the coke particle after
time interval DELTAU for combustion is:
T1FIN = T1 + DELT
The completion of the calculation is determined
by the condition MASFIN <= 0, representing a
complete burn out of the carbon particle.
101
5. Rezultate privind temperatura i timpul

de ardere a particulei
5. Results referring to the temperature and

combustion time of the particle
Au fost efectuate rulri ale programului cu

urmtoarele variabile :
- temperatura focarului 700 1200 0C
- dimensiunea particulei de rumegu 2-6 mm
The program was run several times, based on

the following variables:
- Furnace temperature 700 1200 0C
- Size of the sawdust particle 2-6 mm
- temperatura de nceput a procesului reductor

al cocsului 500-900 0C
Principala concluzie important care a rezultat
din compararea rezultatelor de calcul cu
determinrile experimentale pe instalaia pilot
este c rezultatele obinute pe model sunt n
bun concordan cu rezultatele experimentale
obinute pilot i pe o serie de focare industriale
experimentate n cadrul lucrrilor de certificare
a cazanelor funcionnd cu rumegu.
- Temperature at the initiation of the coke

reduction process 500-900 0C
The most important conclusion resulting from
the comparison of the calculation results and
experimental determination in the pilot
installation is that the results obtained on the
model are well coordinated with the
experimental results within a pilot project
performed for a number of industrial furnaces
tested during authorization works for sawdustbased boilers.
6. Evolution of the wooden particle
temperature during combustion
For a typical case of combustion of a wooden
waste particle in the furnace the results are
presented in Fig. 1.
6. Evoluia n timpul de ardere a

temperaturii particulei de lemn
Pentru un caz tipic de ardere a unei particule de
deeu de lemn n focarul cu ardere n suspensie,
s-au obinut rezultatele prezentate n fig. 1.
VARIATIA TEMPERATURII PARTICULEI

FUNCTIE DE TEMPERATURA FOCARULUI
TEMPERATURA
PARTICULEI [C]
2500
2000
Tf = 500
Tf = 600
Tf = 1000
1500
1000
500
0
0
TIMP [S]
Fig. 1 . Variaia temperaturii particulei funcie de temperatura focarului
The variation of particle temperature depending on the furnace temperature
Se poate urmri intensitatea mare a proceselor

termice n primele dou secunde de proces n
care influena reaciilor termo-chimice aduce
particula la o temperatur nalt de ardere, dup
102
A high intensity of the thermal processes can be

noted during the first two seconds when, under
the influence of the thermal chemical
reactions, the particle reaches a high
combustion temperature, followed by a

stabilization of the process and an extinction of
the combustion process caused by the
consumption of the particle material.
care urmeaz o stabilizare de proces i o

stingere a procesului de ardere ca urmare a
consumrii materialului particulei.
CANTITATI DE CALDURA FUNCTIE DE TIMP

0.4
QAR
0.3
0.2
QINC
Q [J]
0.1
0
QCONDLIM
0
-0.1
QR
-0.2
-0.3
QCO
-0.4
TIMP [s]
Fig. 2. Echilibrul termo-chimic al arderii particulei de combustibil solid

The thermal chemical balance of the solid fuel particle combustion
Timpul de ardere al particulelor de combustibil

solid n suspensie n focar funcie de
temperatura focarului este prezenatat n
diagrama fig.3
The time required for the combustion of solid

fuel particles in suspension in the furnace
depending on the furnace temperature is
presented in fig. 3.
TIMP DE ARDERE A
PARTICULEI [s]
TIMPUL DE ARDERE A PARTICULEI DE LEMN

FUNCTIE DE TEMPERATURA FOCARULUI
4.5
d=8 mm
d=2
d=6 mm
3.5
3
2.5
d=4 mm
d=4
d=6
d=2 mm
d=8
2
600
700
800
900
1000
TEMPERATURA FOCARULUI [C]
Fig. 3. Timpul de ardere a particulei de lemn

Interval of wooden particle combustion
103
Resume
La vitesse de combustion des particules de combustible solide se caractrise par le fait que la dimension des particules
est de 2..8 mm et que, ces dimensions, relativement importantes, la distance entre les particules est de lordre de 50 x d,
ce qui dtermine que la couche limite de chaque particule soit indpendante des couches limite voisines. Ltat de
fonctionnement de la chambre de combustion pour la combustion de particules en suspension se caractrise par une
haute temprature du foyer, de lordre de 700 900 0C. Ltape dterminante est celle de la combustion du coke, cest-dire du carbone fixe, qui apparat aprs que les matires volatiles ont t rejetes. Le carbone fixe br^ule selon un
schma cintique, form par un modle physico-mathmatique expos dans louvrage. Le modle a t confirm par des
recherches exprimentales effectues sur un foyer pour la combustion de dchets de bois.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1].
ANTONESCU N., STANESCU P.D., ANTONESCU N.N. Procese de ardere Matrix-Rom Bucharest
[2].
ANTONESCU N., ANTONESCU N.N., STANESCU D. , MOGOS I. - Cercetri privind un model fizic
de ardere n suspensie a rumeguului - Conferina UTCB de Instalaii Bucureti - publicat n volumul
Eficien, Confort, Conservarea Energiei i Protecia Mediului Bucureti 2006
[3].
ANTONESCU N.N., ANTONESCU N., STANESCU D. , OLEA_POPESCU L., MOGOS I. - Un model

fizic de ardere a particulei de rumegu n suspensie - Conferina Naional de Termotehnic (XVI) UPG
Ploieti mai 2007 publicat n Maini i instalaii termice vol.2, pg.254-264 ISSN 1843-1992
104
Modelarea hidraulic a reelei de

canalizare
Studiu de caz: municipiul Buzu
Hydraulic Modeling of the Sewerage

Network.
Case Study: City of Buzu
Alexandru Lungu, drd. msc. ing, NETAQUA SRL Bucureti, e-mail: netaqua@gmail.com
Victor Octavian Luca, prof. dr. ing, Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti (Technical University of Civil
Engineering Bucharest), Catedra de Hidraulic (Hydraulic Department), e-mail: lucao@mail.utcb.ro
1. Introducere
1. Introduction
Una dintre componentele proiectului ISPA

desfurat n municipiul Buzu a constituit-o
dezvoltarea unei metodologii de inventariere
i supraveghere a sistemelor de alimentare cu
ap i canalizare administrate de regia
municipal, pe baza facilitilor oferite de
GIS (Geographical Information System) i
software-ul de modelare hidraulic. Pachetele
software folosite au fost IntergraphGeomedia pentru componenta GIS, DHI
Mike Net pentru reeaua de alimentare cu ap
i, respectiv, DHI Mouse pentru reeaua de
canalizare.
One of the ISPA project components for the

city of Buzu has been the development of a
methodology for asset inventory and
supervision of the water and wastewater
networks managed by the municipal water
company, based on the facilities provided by
GIS (Geographical Information System) and
the hydraulic modeling software. The
software packages used have been the
Intergraph Geomedia for the GIS component,
the DHI Mike Net for the water network
hydraulic modeling and the DHI Mouse for
the sewerage network.
Pe lng realizarea modelului propriu-zis, n

cadrul proiectului s-a urmrit i transferarea
informaiilor i cunotinelor ctre beneficiar,
astfel nct la sfritul proiectului acesta s
preia sarcina actualizrii i dezvoltrii
ulterioare a modelului, pna la scara
ntregului sistem.
Besides the completion of the hydraulic

model itself, the information and knowledge
transfer towards the beneficiary has been
aimed at in the project, so that the updating
and development of the model up to the full
scale system be undertaken by the water
company by the end of the project.
2. Ipotezele modelului
2. Model Assumptions
Lipsa sau insuficiena datelor primare:

digitizare parial a tramei stradale, reele de
ap i canal disponibile pe planuri de situaie
nu ntotdeauna actualizate i corelate, lipsa
unui istoric al nregistrrilor privind att
consumurile ct i interveniile operate n
reele, a necesitat o munc laborioas de
colectare, prelucrare i actualizare a datelor
de teren. Pe de alta parte, timpul limitat,
disponibil pentru construcia modelului a
condus la definirea unei zone pilot, modelat
n detaliu, urmnd a fi dezvoltat ulterior ntrun model complet, la scara ntregii reele
municipale.
Lack or insufficiency of primary data: partial

digitizing of the street layout, unavailability
of updated and correlated layouts for the
water and wastewater networks, as well as the
lack of historical records concerning both the
consumption and repair activities in the
networks required a tedious work for
collection, process and update of field data.
On the other hand, the limited time available
for the build-up of the hydraulic model led to
the definition of a pilot area, modeled in
detail, meant to be developed later on in a
complete model to the full extension of the
municipal network.
105
Zona pilot decis iniial pentru modelarea

reelei de canalizare a fost extins pentru a
lua n considerare aportul de debit pluvial al
colectoarelor ce deservesc i zone din afara
suprafeei pilot ns descarc n colectoare
incluse n zona pilot.
Reeaua de canalizare din municipiul Buzu
funcioneaz n ntregime gravitaional, n
sistem unitar, fiind deservit de patru
colectoare principale, circulare, cu diametre
cuprinse ntre 500-2000 mm, seciunile
devenind n aval ovoide OV1100/1650 mm i
respectiv clopot CL2200/1390 mm. Deoarece
la debite meteorice ncrcarea colectoarelor
este substanial mai mare dect n cazul
debitelor menajere, modelul pentru reeaua de
canalizare a fost dezvoltat pentru aceste
condiii. Zona pilot a fost discretizat n
bazine de canalizare avnd suprafee de 0,5
pn la 7 ha (fig.1), considerndu-se c
fiecare bazin descarc ntr-un cmin inclus n
model.
The pilot area initially decided for the

modeling of the sewerage network has been
extended in order to take into account the
storm water flows of the collectors that are
serving zones beyond the limits of the pilot
area, but discharging in the sewers belonging
to the pilot area.
The wastewater network of the city of Buzu
is fully operating by gravity, using a unitary
collection system and including four main
circular collectors with diameters ranging
between 500 and 2000 mm; on the
downstream portions the cross sections
become egg-shaped (1100/1650 mm) and
bell-shaped (2200/1390 mm). As at storm
water flows the load of the collectors is
substantially bigger than in the case of
domestic flows the hydraulic model of the
sewerage network has been developed for
these conditions. The pilot area has been
divided into catchments of 0.5 up to 7 ha (fig.
1), considering that each catchment
discharges in a manhole included in the
model.
Limita zonei pilot

Pilot area limit
Limita zonei pilot extinse
Extended pilot area limit
Fig.1 Delimitarea bazinelor de colectare a apelor pluviale

Definition of catchments for storm water collection
n lipsa unor date complete i actualizate

asupra cminelor, au fost necesare ridicri
topografice, determinri ale cotelor de nivel
la radier precum i msurtori ale
106
Due to the lack of complete and updated data

concerning the manholes, new topographical
surveys have been performed as well as field
determinations of invert levels and collector
dimensiunilor colectoarelor.
dimensions.
Ieirea din zona pilot a fost modelat prin

intermediul unei guri de vrsare, impunnd n
acest punct un nivel al apei la intradosul
colectorului (suma dintre cota radierului i
diametrul nominal al colectorului, n punctul
de vrsare).
The outlet of the pilot area has been modeled

as a discharge mouth, having the water level
equal to the level of the top of the collector
(the sum of the invert level and the collector
nominal diameter, calculated in the discharge
point).
n lipsa unui istoric zilnic privind cderile de

precipitaii pentru zona Buzului, pe baza
ploilor medii lunare n perioada 1901- 1990, a
fost dezvoltat o ploaie sintetic de calcul,
conform modelului Chicago (fig.2). Modelul
a fost rulat pentru dou perioade de revenire:
1 an i respectiv 10 ani.
The lack of historical daily rainfall data for

Buzu area has led to the development of a
synthetic design storm according to the
Chicago model (fig.2) and based on the
average monthly rainfalls for the period
between 1901 and 1990. The model was run
for two return periods: 1 year and 10 years.
Fig.2 Ploile de calcul pentru 1 i respectiv 10 ani perioad de revenire

Design storms for 1 and 10 year return periods
3. Interpretarea rezultatelor
3. Interpretation of Results
n funcie de datele primare introduse,

programul de calcul furnizeaz o serie de
rezultate sub form grafic pentru a descrie
variaia parametrilor hidraulici (debit, vitez,
grad de umplere a conductei, inundabilitate
exprimat ca diferen ntre nivelul apei i cel
al terenului) att pentru noduri ct i pentru
bare. Aceti parametri pot fi exprimai ca
valori minime, maxime sau n mod animat
(variaie dinamic, n timp a parametrului).
Based on the primary input data, the

hydraulic model may provide various
graphical outputs describing the variation of
hydraulic parameters (flow, velocity,
collector filling degree, inundabilityexpressed as difference between ground and
water levels) for both nodes and links. These
parameters may be expressed as minimum,
maximum or animated values (dynamic
variation in time of the parameter).
n urma rulrii programului pentru o perioad

de analiz dinamic de 24 de ore (durata se
Following the run of the model for a 24 hour

dynamic analysis period (the duration can be
107
poate stabili de ctre utilizator, ns creterea

acesteia mrete semnificativ timpul necesar
rulrii i totodata solicit resurse importante
din partea sistemului pe care are loc rularea),
au fost identificate zonele cu probleme de
inundabilitate (noduri i colectoare).
set by the user, but an increase of simulation

time significantly extends the necessary
running time and requires important
computational resources) the potentially
floodable areas have been identified (in terms
of nodes and links).
Pentru ploaia de calcul cu perioad de

revenire la 1 an s-au obinut schemele din
fig.3 i respectiv fig.4, pe care sunt indicate
zonele afectate de inundaii.
The representations presented in fig.3 and

fig.4 are indicating the areas affected by
flood, in case of a design storm with a return
period of 1 year.
Fig.3 Noduri inundabile la ploaia cu timp de revenire

de 1 an
Flooded nodes for 1 year return design storm
Fig.4 Colectoare inundabile la ploaia cu timp de

revenire de 1 an
Flooded links for 1 year return design storm
Similar, pentru ploaia de calcul cu perioad

de revenire la 10 ani (fig.5 i respectiv fig.6),
s-au evideniat zonele afectate de inundaii,
acestea fiind mai extinse i afectnd n special
zonele amonte ale colectoarelor I i II.
Similarly, for a 10 year return design storm

(fig.5 and fig.6) the areas affected by flood
are indicated, in this case being more
extended and affecting the upstream portions
of collectors I and II.
Fig.5 Noduri inundabile la ploaia cu timp de revenire

de 10 ani
Flooded nodes for 10 year return design storm.
Fig.6 Colectoare inundabile la ploaia cu timp de

revenire de 10 ani
Flooded links for 10 year return design storm
n plus, modelul a furnizat i profilele

longitudinale, pe care se evideniaz zonele
afectate de o posibil inundaie (fig 7).
Additionally, the model also provided

longitudinal profiles indicating the areas
potentially affected by flood (fig.7).
108
Fig.7 Profil longitudinal pe Str. 13 Decembrie i Str. Cazrmilor

Longitudinal profile on 13 Decembrie St and Cazrmilor St.
Pe lng rezultate grafice, programul de

modelare furnizeaz un raport detaliat asupra
componenei reelei analizate, ipotezele de
calcul i variaia parametrilor hidraulici
(debit, vitez, nivel al apei in colector, grad
de umplere) precum i momentul de timp i
respectiv poziia geografic n care se
realizeaz aceste valori.
In addition to the graphical outputs, the

modeling software provides a detailed report
concerning the components of the analyzed
network, the considered assumptions and
variation of the hydraulic parameters, as well
as the timing and the exact geographical
position where these values are reach.
4. Concluzii
4. Conclusions
Un
model
bine
dezvoltat
permite
mbuntirea
administrrii
reelei
i
identificarea zonelor sensibile (zonele
inundabile din reeaua de canalizare etc).
Totodata, programele de modelare hidraulic
permit conceperea unor scenarii pentru
diferite situaii ce pot aprea n exploatarea
curent (posibile dezvoltri ale sistemelor,
comportarea acestor sisteme n condiii de
avarie sau ploi abundente).
A well developed model allows the

improvement of the network operation and
the identification of sensitive areas (floodable
areas). Furthermore, the hydraulic modeling
software allows the elaboration of scenarios
describing various situations that may occur
during the current operation of the network
(potential extension of the system, the
network behavior in cases of failure or
abundant storms).
Pe de alta parte, pentru a fi eficiente,

modelele vor trebui ntreinute i dezvoltate
astfel nct s reflecte toate modificrile
survenite n cadrul sistemelor: nlocuiri de
colectoare, modificri sau adugri de
racorduri, modificri semnificative ale
graficelor de consum.
On the other hand, in order to be efficient the

models must be maintained and developed in
order to reflect all the changes occurred in the
system: replacement of the collectors,
modifications or additional connections in the
system, significant changes in water
consumption patterns.
109
Rsum
Un des composants du projet d'ISPA pour la municipalit de Buzu a t le dveloppement d'une mthodologie pour
la surveillance et l'inventaire des actifs de socit d'eau, bass sur la prparation de GIS et des modles hydrauliques
pour les rseaux de systme d'gouts et l'eau. Cet article prsente les tapes principales du dveloppement du modle
de rseau de systme d'gouts, en termes d'hypothses utilises pour la modlisation de l'ingnierie, des phnomnes
hydrauliques et hydrologiques, aussi bien que l'interprtation et la discussion des rsultats principaux. Finalement,
les conclusions et des suggestions pour des vnements futurs et les amliorations du modle sont prsents.
Mots-cls : modle hydraulique, rseau de systme d'gouts, pluie synthtique, inondation.
Bibliografie
References
[1] BLITZ, E. Proiectarea canalizrilor, Editura Tehnic, Bucureti, 1970, pag. 33 126.
[2] NEGULESCU, M. Canalizri, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1978, pag. 7 61.
[3] *** MOUSE - Short introduction and tutorial, DHI Water & Environment, Copenhagen, 2003.
[4] *** MOUSE User guide, DHI Water & Environment, Copenhagen, 2003.
Prezentul articol a fost prezentat public in

cadrul Lucrrilor celei de a patra Conferine a
Hidroenergeticienilor din Romnia (26- 27
mai 2006) i publicat n volumul I al
documentelor Conferinei.
110
The present article has been presented at the

Fourth Conference of the Romanian Hydro
Energeticist Engineers (26th- 27th of May
2006) and published in volume I of the
Conference Proceedings.
Modelarea i optimizarea deciziilor

pentru conducerea tiinific a
activitii operatorului de
alimentare cu ap i canalizare
Modelling and Optimisation of the

Decisions for Scientific Management
of Water Supply and Sewerage
Operator Activity
Claudiu Albu, drd. ing., consilier superior, Ministerul Mediului i Dezvoltrii Durabile, Direcia General pentru
Managementul Instrumentelor Structurale, Direcia Fond de Coeziune, e-mail: claudiu.albu@mmediu.ro
1. Prezentare conceptual general
1. General Conceptual Presentation
1.1. Otimizarea deciziilor
1.1. Decision Optimisation
Decizia constituie, conform celor precizate n

[2] un act de conducere de o deosebit
importan care stabilete modul i/sau calea
pe care se angajeaz mijloace umane i
materiale pentru ndeplinirea sarcinilor
prezente i pentru dezvoltrile lor n viitor,
precum i pentru depirea unor dificulti sau
nlturarea unor deficiene care apar pe
parcursul desfurrii unor activiti.
Practica conducerii ntreprinderii a demonstrat
c realizarea unor indicatori calitativi i
cantitativi ridicai este condiionat n mare
parte de activitatea decizional pe care factorii
de conducere o desfoar la diferite nivele.
Procesul de luare a deciziei a evoluat de la
decizia luat pe baz de intuiie, practic,
logic i bun sim la deciziile luate pe baze
tiinifice folosind metoda modelrii, a
calculelor matematice comparative i a
tehnicii de calcul oferite de calculatoarele
electronice. Aplicarea metodelor tiinifice nu
implic ns nlturarea metodei intuitive.
Procesul de luare a deciziilor se desfoar n
mai multe etape, respectarea lor strict, ca
ordine i coninut, constituind condiii
fundamentale pentru luarea unor decizii
optime:
sesizarea necesitii elaborrii unei
decizii, necesitate provenit ca prevedere a
procesului de conducere sau datorat unor
neajunsuri n activitate;
culegerea i prelucrarea datelor
(informaiei) i elaborarea variantelor de
soluionare;
alegerea variantelor de soluionare a
problemei;
punerea n aplicare a deciziei.
According to [2], the decision is a very

important management act, establishing the
manner and/or way of utilising human and
material resources for accomplishing the
present tasks and the future developments, as
well as for overcoming difficulties and
deficiencies that occur during the activity.
The company management practice has
demonstrated that the accomplishment of
high quality and quantity indicators is mostly
conditioned by the decision making activity
developed by the management leaders at
different levels.
The decision making process has evolved
from the decision taken on the basis of
intuition, practice, logic and common sense
to decisions established on scientific basis
using the modelling method, on comparative
mathematical calculation and on calculation
technique provided by electronic computers.
Still, applying scientific methods does not
eliminate intuition.
The decision making process has several
stages. The strict observation of these stages,
as a succession and structure represents the
fundamental conditions for making optimum
decisions:
observing the necessity of decision
making, resulted from a provision of the
management process or due to some activity
inconvenient;
data (information) collection and
processing and elaboration of solution
variants;
selection of problem solving variants;
decision implementation.
111
Astzi elaborarea deciziilor tiinifice nu se

poate concepe fr utilizarea calculului
operaional i a teoriei deciziilor: calculul
operaional conduce n multe cazuri la
variante, iar teoria deciziei este aceea care
stabilete regulile de urmat pentru alegerea
variantei care va fi aplicat.
For the time being scientific decision taking

can not be done without the use of
operational calculation and decision theory:
operational calculation provides in many
cases variants, and the decision theory
establishes the rules for choosing the
specific variant to be applied.
2. Modelarea sistemelor
2. Systems Modelling
2.1. Caracterizarea sistemului
2.1. System Characterization
Sistemul reprezint, conform [7], un ansamblu

de elemente legate ntre ele prin relaii de
interaciune i/sau interdependen i care
acioneaz ca un ntreg organizat, capabil de a
atinge o anumit finalitate.
Pentru a caracteriza un sistem este necesar s
se defineasc urmtoarele noiuni: mulimea
elementelor sistemului; structura sistemului;
finalitatea sistemului i aciunea sistemului.
Ca obiect complex, sistemul este format dintro mulime de elemente concrete sau abstracte,
care contribuie n mod organizat la realizarea
aciunilor ansamblului.
According to [7], the system represents a group

of elements connected one to each other through
interactive and/or interdependence relations,
acting as an organised whole, able to reach a
certain finality.
The following elements must be defined in
order to characterise a system: the elements of
the system, the structure of the system, system
finality and system action.
As a complex object, the system consists of
concrete or abstract elements, paying their
contribution to whole system action
completion.
2.2. Tipuri de sisteme
2.3. Types of systems
Dup natura material a elementelor

sistemului deosebim:
- sisteme concrete;
- sisteme abstracte;
Sistemele concrete sunt formate din elemente
materiale iar cele abstracte din concepte,
noiuni, idei etc.
n funcie de natura mulimii elementelor unui
sistem se disting:
- sisteme formate din mulimi determinate;
- sisteme formate din mulimi vagi.
Dup structur, sistemele pot fi:
- sisteme cu structur constant n timp;
- sisteme cu structur variabil.
Dup modul de atingere al finalitii, sistemele
se clasific n:
- sisteme cu evoluie liber;
- sisteme cu conducere.
Sistemele cu evoluie liber se caracterizeaz,
conform [9], printr-o dependen direct a
ieirilor de intrri, astfel nct finalitatea se
atinge numai ntmpltor, ca rezultat al
According to the material nature of system

elements, there are:
- concrete systems;
- abstract systems;
Concrete systems consist of material
elements while the abstract ones are
composed of concepts, notions, ideas etc.
According to the nature of the elements in a
system, there are:
- systems of determined aggregates;
- systems of vague aggregates.
According to structure, the systems are:
- systems with constant structure in time;
- systems with variable structure.
According to the way of reaching their
completion, systems are classified as:
- systems with free evolution;
- systems with management.
According to [9], systems with free evolution
are characterised by a direct dependence of
the outputs on the inputs, in such a manner
that the copletion is reached just incidentally,
112
aciunii aleatoare a factorilor de mediu. n

sistemele de conducere, prin procesul
feedback, aciunea factorilor din mediul care
ndeprteaz sistemul de la norm este
micorat sau anihilat i sistemul i atinge
finalitatea.
as a result of aleatory action of environmental

factors. In the case of management systems, by
feedback process, the action of the
environmental factors taking back the system
from the norm is minimised or annihilated and
the system reaches its purpose.
2.3. Modelare cibernetico-economic
2.3. Cybernetic-Economic Modelling
n accepiunea tehnico - tiinific prin model

se nelege, conform [24] i [34], un sistem
teoretic sau material cu ajutorul cruia pot fi
studiate indirect proprietile i transformrile
unui alt sistem mai complex, considerat
original i cu care prezint o anumit analogie.
Modelul abstract desvrit este formula
(relaia) matematic. Pentru c nu descrie
ntotdeauna ideal procesul, se recurge la unele
simplificri.
Formalizarea sistemelor complexe apare
dificil n ceea ce privete descrierea dar i
rezolvarea modelelor n vederea obinerii unor
soluii analitice, a cror valoare deosebit
const n generalitatea lor. Cnd o soluie
analitic nu este posibil, se recurge la calculul
pas cu pas, evoluia strii sistemului i
situaiile caracterisitice fiind stabilite atribuind
diferite valori variabilelor independente.
Realizarea modelului este posibil pe baza
informaiilor utiliznd anumite instrumente
matematice, grafice denumite tehnici de
modelare.
Modelarea cibemetic se caracterizeaz prin
utilizarea n general a modelelor funcionale,
folosind n primul rnd metoda cutiei negre ca
principiu de modelare. Ea se caracterizeaz de
asemenea prin folosirea conexiunii inverse ca
principal analogie structural a sistemelor de
conducere. n acest caz este important s se
pun n eviden cele dou mari sisteme: cel
de execuie i cel de conducere precum i
relaiile dintre ele. O alt caracteristic
esenial a modelrii cibernetice o constituie
importana pe care acesta o acord evidenierii
legturilor informaionale n sistem.
According to [24] and [34], following the wide

accepted technical scientific approach, the
model is defined as a theoretical or material
system by which the properties and
transformations of another more complex
system, considered original and analogous to
some extent, can be studied.
The perfect abstract model is the mathematical
formula. Simplifications are adopted as the
process is not always ideally described.
Complex system formalizing appears difficult
for description purposes as well as for model
solving in order to obtain analytic solutions,
whose special value consists in their generality
. When an analytic solution is not possible, step
by step calculation is adopted; system status
evolution and characteristic situations are
established by attributing different values to
independent variables.
Model completion is possible based on the
existing data by utilizing some certain
mathematic or graphic instruments called
modelling techniques.
Cybernetic
modelling
is
generally
characterized by functional model use,
adopting mostly the black box method as a
modelling principle. Also, it is characterized
by reverse connexion as the main structural
analogy of management systems. It is
important in this case to define the two major
systems: execution and command and the
relationship between them. Another essential
characteristic of cybernetic modelling is the
importance of the informational connexions
inside the system.
2.4. Modelarea matematic
2.4. Mathematical Modelling
Cercetarea operaional - aplicarea

practic a modelrii matematice - are o
Operational
research,
the
practical
application of mathematical modelling, has a
113
metodologie bine pus la punct. Metodologia

are 6 faze, fiecare faz fiind alctuit din una
sau mai multe etape:
formularea problemei;
construirea modelului matematic care
va reprezenta fenomenul cercetat;
derivarea soluiei din model;
testarea modelului i a soluiei
derivate;
stabilirea elementelor de control
pentru soluie;
implementarea soluiei.
3. Prezentarea unor modele matematice
aplicabile activitii operatorilor de
alimentare cu ap i canalizare
well established methodology consisting of 6

phases, each consisting of one or several
steps, as follows:
formulation of the problem;
building of mathematical model
representing the studied phenomenon;
solution derivation from the model;
model and derived solution testing;
development of solution control
elements;
solution implementation.
3. Presentation of Mathematical Models
Applicable to the Activity of Water Supply
and Sewerage Operators
3.1. Basics
3.1. Noiuni de baz
n cele ce urmeaz se vor introduce noiuni de

baz utilizate n elaborarea modelelor
economice dinamice, conform [29].
Considerm c sistemul economic modelat
este un sistem de producie. Numrul total de
produse realizate de sistemul respectiv la
momentul t va fi notat cu n(t). Cantitatea din
produsul i aflat n sistem la momentul t se va
nota xi(t; t=1,2, ...n(t)). Vectorul x=(x1, x2, ...,
xn(t)) descrie cantitatea total de produse
existent n sistem. Putem considera c x
En(t), unde En(t) este un spaiu n(t) dimensional
i se numete spaiul strilor. Dac En(t) E+n(t)
= { x/x=(x1, x2, ..., xn(t), xi 0, atunci definim
x En(t) ca fiind spaiul strilor admisibile.
Se va considera ca fiind un proces de
transformare dinamic n sistemul de producie
considerat procesul prin care sistemul trece
din starea x n care se afl la momentul t, n
starea y la momentul urmtor t+1. Evident c
i y En(t). Procesul de transformare dinamic
poate fi atunci reprezentat de vectori (x,y) = z,
unde z E+n(t)+n(t+1).
Procesul poate fi privit i din alt punct de
vedere. Starea x n care se afl sistemul la
momentul t exprim cantitatea de produse
intrate n sistem n acel moment, deci este
input-ul sistemului. Trecerea n starea z la
momentul t+1 nseamn, n esen, nlocuirea
lui x cu y, deci y reprezint cantitatea de
produse ieit din sistem la momentul t, deci
114
The following will introduce some basic

notions utilized for the dynamic economic
models elaboration, according to [29].
We consider that the modelled economic
system is a production system. The total
number of manufactured products realized
by the system at the time t will be n(t). The
quantity of i product existing in the system at
the time t will be xi(t; t=1,2, ...n(t)).
The vector x=(x1, x2, ..., xn(t)) describes the
total quantity of products present in the
system. We may consider that x En(t),
where En(t) is a space with n(t) dimensions
called statuses space. If En(t) E+n(t) = {
x/x=(x1, x2, ..., xn(t), xi 0, then we define x
En(t) as the space of acceptable statuses.
The process through the system passes from
the status x at the time t, to the status y at the
next moment t+1 will be considered as a
dynamic transformation process. Obviously
also y En(t). The dynamic transformation
process can be then represented by vectors
(x,y) = z, where z E+n(t)+n(t+1).
The process may be seen from a different
point of view. The status x of the system at a
time x expresses the quantity of products
entered in the system at that time, so it
represents the system input. Passing to the
status z at the time t+1 it represents,
essentially, replacing of x with y, so y
represents the quantity of products coming
out from the system, so is the output of the
este output-ul sistemului. Prin urmare, x se

mai numete i vectorul input-urilor iar y
vectorul output-urilor.
ntr-un anumit moment de timp notat cu t,
sistemul poate conine mai multe procese de
transformare (dinamice) posibile, deci se poate
introduce
mulimea
transformrilor
(dinamicilor) admisibile ale sistemului
modelat, caracterizat dup cum urmeaz:
system. Therefore, x is also called the input

vector and y output vector.
At a certain moment t, the system may
include
several
possible
(dynamic)
transformation processes, so we can define
the group of the acceptable transformations
(of the dynamics) of the modelled system,
characterised as follows:
Zt = { z/ z = (x, y) E+n(t)+n(t+1)}
Pentru a fi o mulime a transformrilor
admisibile, mulimea Zt trebuie s satisfac
patru propriti principale, i anume:
a) Procesul de transformare (0, y) Zt dac i
numai dac y=0. Cu alte cuvinte, dac
vectorul input-urilor x=0, atunci vectorul
output-urilor y nu poate fi dect nul.
b) Zt este o mulime convex. Acest lucru
nseamn c pentru orice z1 = (x2, z2) Zt,
vectorul
z = z1 + (1 ) z 2 = ( x1, y1) + (1 )( x 2, y 2)
[0,1]
c) Zt este o mulime nchis. O mulime C
En se numete nchis dac pentru orice ir de
vectori x1, x2, ..., xn din C pentru care
lim xi = x0 , rezult c i x0 C.
Zt = { z/ z = (x, y) E+n(t)+n(t+1)}
In order to be a group of acceptable
transformations, the group Zt must satisfy
four main properties, namely:
a) The transformation process (0, y) Zt if
and only if y=0. In other words, if input
vector x=0, then output vector y can be just
zero.
b) Zt is a convex group. This means that for
any z1 = (x2, z2) Zt, the vector
d) Zt este un con. O mulime K E se

numete con dac din x0 K rezult c i x0
d) Zt is a cone. A group K En is called

cone if from x0 K results that also x0 K
K pentru 0.
for 0.
3.2. Problema de optimizare dinamic
3.2. Dynamic Optimisation Problem
3.2.1. Formularea problemei de optimizare

dinamic
3.2.1. Defining the Dynamic Optimisation

Problem
Determinarea soluiei unei probleme de

optimizare ce apare ntr-un model dinamic
presupune aflarea componentelor optimale ale
unui program pe un orizont finit sau infinit de
timp. Pentru a rezolva o astfel de problem se
aplic o metod de optimizare dinamic, deci
se efectueaz optimizarea pe un orizont de
timp. S considerm mai nti un exemplu
dup care vom formula problema de
optimizare dinamic i vom introduce
principalele metode de rezolvare ale acesteia.
Definirea s-a fcut n special pe baza [29] i
innd cont de [3], [6] i [14].
S considerm un operator de ap i canal care
Finding the solution for an optimisation

problem which appears as part of a dynamic
model requires finding the optimal program
components over a limited or non limited
time horizon. A dynamic optimisation
method applies in order to solve a problem of
this type; subsequently, optimisation is
performed over a time horizon. Let us
consider first an example and second
formulate the dynamic optimisation problem
and introduce the main solving methods.
Defining was realised mainly based on [29]
and considering [3], [6] and [14].
Let us consider a water and sewerage
z = z1 + (1 ) z 2 = ( x1, y1) + (1 )( x 2, y 2)
[0,1]
c) Zt is a closed group. A certain group C
En is called closed if for any row of vectors
x1, x2, ..., xn from C for which lim xi = x0 ,
i
results that also x0 C.
115
dorete s-i maximizeze profitul total pe o

anumit period de timp, s spunem de la
momentul 0 la momentul T. Pentru orice
moment de timp t [0,T], operatorul va
dispune de un anumit stoc de capital i de ali
factori de producie. S ignorm deocamdat
ceilali factori de producie i s considerm
doar capitalul, pe care l notm cu k(t), indicnd
astfel faptul c este dependent de timpul t.
Vom numi k(t) variabil de stare. La acelai
moment de timp t, operatorul va lua o decizie,
s spunem privind rata produciei (spre
exemplu cantitatea de ap brut care se va trata
i apa brut i tratat care se vor pompa). Vom
nota aceast decizie cu u(t). Din cantitatea
disponibil de capital k, mpreun cu decizia u
la momentul de timp specificat firma obine un
anumit profit. Deoarece acest profit este
dependent de mrimea lui k(t) i de rata u(t), l
vom nota (k(t), u(t), t).
Dac considerm timpul continuu, atunci
profitul total pe care l va obine operatorul n
intervalul de timp considerat va fi
operator wishing to maximize the total profit

over a time period, supposing from time 0 to
time T. For any time moment t [0,T], the
operator will have a certain stock of capital
and other production factors. Let us ignore
for the time being the other production
factors and consider just the capital, written
k(t), indicating in this manner that it depends
of time t.
We will call k(t) status variable. At the same
moment of time t, the operator will take a
decision, regarding the production rate (for
instance the raw water quantity to be treated
and the raw and treated water to be pumped).
We will call this decision u(t). The company
obtains profit from the available capital
quantity k, together with the decision u at a
specified time moment. Considering that this
profit depends on the size of k(t) and on the
rate u(t), we will call it (k(t), u(t), t).
If we consider the time as continuous, then
the total profit obtained by the operator over
the considered period of time will be
T
= (k (t ), u (t ), t )dt
= (k (t ), u (t ), t )dt
Rata produciei, deci decizia u(t) se modific n

decursul timpului pe orizontul [0,T]. Rezult
de aici c operatorul trebuie s aleag un
t =T
program {u (t )}t =0 supus anumitor restricii, i
care determin rata de schimbare a stocului de
capital. Deci aceast rat de schimbare dk/dt
este funcie de starea prezent sau capitalul
disponibil k(t), de decizia u(t) adoptat i de
timpul t.
Putem deci scrie:
.
dk
k (t ) =
= f (k (t ), u (t ), t )
dt
Se observ faptul c variabila decizional u(t)
influeneaz rata cu care stocul de capital se
modific i, n consecin, cantitatea existent
din stocul de capital la momentele urmtoare
de timp.
Profitul total este, deci, n realitate o funcie de
decizia u(t) i obiectivul operatorului este s
maximizeze profitul total n raport cu u(t),
deci
T
max u (t ) = (k , u, t )dt .
u (t )
0
Production rate, therefore the decision u(t)

modifies over the time horizon [0,T]. It
results that the operator has to choose a
t =T
programme {u (t )}t =0 subject to certain
restrictions, determining the capital stock
exchange rate. Therefore this exchange rate
dk/dt is according to the present status or of
the available capital k(t), of the decision u(t)
adopted and of the time t.
We can therefore write:
.
dk
k (t ) =
= f (k (t ), u (t ), t )
dt
Notice the fact that the decisional variable
u(t) has influence over the modification rate
of the capital stock and, subsequently, the
available existing capital stock quantity for
the future time moments.
So the total profit is in reality a function of
the decision u(t) and the objective of the
operator is to maximize the total profit in
relation to u(t), and therefore
T
max u (t ) = (k , u , t )dt .
u (t )
0
116
Vom numi variabila u(t) variabil de control.

Un operator de ap i canal are, pe lng stocul
de capital, i ali factori de producie, cum ar fi
munc, active i altele. De asemenea, operatorul
poate adopta anumite decizii care influeneaz
mrimea profitului la un moment de timp dat. n
consecin, variabilele de stare i variabilele de
control sunt vectori.
Profitul total este numit funcionala obiectiv
i are valoarea scalar real.
Se poate, acum, formula urmtoarea problem
de optimizare dinamic:
T
max [u (t )] = [ x(t ), u (t ), t ]dt + [ xT , T ]
u ( t )U
We will call u(t) control variable.

A water and sewerage operator has, in addition to
the capital stock, other production factors as well
such as labour, assets and other things. Also, the
operator may adopt certain decisions which will
have influence over the size of the profit at a
certain time moment. Consequently, the status
and control variables are vectors.
The total profit is called the objective
functional and has a real scale value.
It is possible now to formulate the following
dynamic optimisation problem:
max [u (t )] = [ x(t ), u (t ), t ]dt + [ xT , T ]
u ( t )U
n condiiile
.
dx
x(t ) =
= f [ x(t ), u (t ), t ],
dt
x(0) = x0 dat si / sau x(T ) = xT dat
Dac exist o singur variabil de stare, T
reprezint o curb ca cea din figura 3.1. T este
o relaie specificat ntre x(t) i t=T.
n figura 3.1 sunt prezentate mai multe
traiectorii admisibile ale lui x. Dac xa este o
traiectorie optimal, punctul terminal va fi A
i momentul de timp final TA. Dar, n cazul n
care xb este traiectoria optimal, punctul final
va fi B i momentul final TB. De notat c att
A ct i B aparin curbei T.
Under the conditions

.
dx
x(t ) =
= f [ x(t ), u (t ), t ],
dt
x(0) = x0 given and / or x(T ) = xT given
If there is only one status variable, T
represents a curve as defined in figure 3.1. T
is a specified relation between x(t) and t=T.
Figure 3.1 presents several acceptable
trajectories of x. If xa is an optimal trajectory,
the terminal point will be A and the final
time moment TA. But, in case that xb is the
optimal trajectory the final point will be B
and the final moment TB. Mind that A as
well as B belongs to curve T.
A
xa
xb
TA
TB
Fig. 3.1. Traiectorii admisibile ale strii x a sistemului

Acceptable trajectories of x status of the system
117
3.2.2. Principiul
continu)
maximului
(forma
3.2.2. Maximum Principle (continuous

shape)
S considerm problema de optimizare

dinamic:
Let us consider the dynamic optimisation

problem:
J = I ( x, u , t )dt + F ( xT , T )
J = I ( x, u , t )dt + F ( xT , T )
n condiiile
Under the conditions
x = f ( x, u , t ), x(0) = x0 , x(T ) = xT
Trebuie determinate toate comenzile
admisibile u(t) U i toate soluiile
corespunztoare acestora x(t), deci perechile
(x(t),u(t)) care conduc la cea mai mare
valoare posibil a lui J. Definirea s-a fcut n
special pe baza [29] i innd cont de [3], [6]
i [14].
Mai nti introducem o funcie vectorial
nenul (t ) = (1 (t ),..., n (t )) T
ale crei componente se numesc variabile de
coastare sau variabile auxiliare i construim
expresia:
n
H ( x, u, , t ) = I ( x, u, t ) + i (t ) f i ( x, u, t )
i =1
care se numete funcie Hamiltonian.

Vectorul (t) se numete i multiplicator
Lagrange.
Principiul maximului al lui Pontreaghin
spune c dac u*(t) i x*(t) sunt optimale n
raport cu funcionala J, atunci trebuie s
existe o funcie (t) astfel nct pentru toi t
[0,T] sunt ndeplinite condiiile:
.
dx
H
xi = i =
, i = 1,..., n
dt
i
(3.2)(3.3.)
.
di
H
i =
=
, i = 1,..., n
dt
xi
iar H i atinge maximul pentru u*(t), deci
H(x*,u*,t) H(x*,u,t)
(3.4)
pentru toi u U. n plus sunt ndeplinite
condiiile la limit:
F
xi = i (T ), i = 1,..., n
(3.5)
xi
x(0) = x0
(3.6)
Cele n ecuaii (3.2) reprezint pur i simplu
ecuaiile de dinamic:
.
x i = f i ( x, u , t )
118
x = f ( x, u , t ), x(0) = x0 , x(T ) = xT
All acceptable commands u(t) U and all

their corresponding solutions x(t), therefore
the pairs (x(t), u(t)) leading to the highest
possible value of J must be determined.
Defining was realised based on [29] and
considering [3], [6] and [14].
We will first introduce a non null vector
function (t ) = (1 (t ),..., n (t )) T
the components of which are called coasting
or auxiliary variables and prepare the
expression:
n
H ( x, u, , t ) = I ( x, u, t ) + i (t ) f i ( x, u, t )
i =1
called Hamiltonian function. The vector (t)

is called Lagrange multiplier.
The maximum principle of Pontreaghin
states that if u*(t) and x*(t) are optimal
related to functional J, then a function (t)
must exist in such a manner that for all t
[0,T] the following conditions are fulfilled:
.
dx
H
xi = i =
, i = 1,..., n
dt
i
(3.2)(3.3.)
.
di
H
i =
=
, i = 1,..., n
dt
xi
and H reaches its maximum for u*(t), and
therefore
H(x*,u*,t) H(x*,u,t)
(3.4)
For all u U. In addition, the following
limitation conditions are fulfilled:
F
xi = i (T ), i = 1,..., n
(3.5)
xi
x(0) = x 0
(3.6)
The n equations (3.2) simply represent the
dynamics equations:
.
x i = f i ( x, u , t )
Aceste ecuaii mpreun cu cele n ecuaii

(3.3) sunt denumite ecuaiile canonice
Hamiltoniene i definesc un sistem
diferenial cu 2n ecuaii n necunoscutele x
i . Rezolvnd, obinem valorile optimale
ale vectorului de stare x*(t) i respectiv
valorile optimale ale variabilelor de costare
*(t). Aceste valori se nlocuiesc n
Hamiltonianul H. Dac acesta i atinge
optimul ntr+un punct interior u U,
valorile optimale ale vectorului u(t) sunt
date de ecuaia:
H
=0
t
care este echivalent cu relaia (3.4). Se
obine, astfel, un sistem de i ecuaii cu
necunoscutele uj, j=1,,r.
n fine, cele 2 ecuaii date de (3.5) i (3.6)
sunt condiii la limit sau de transversalitate.
These equations together with the n

equations (3.3) are called the canonical
Hamiltonian equations and define a
differential system with 2n equations with
the undetermined x and . Solving, we obtain
the optimal values of the status vector x*(t)
and the optimal values of the coasting
variables *(t) respectively. These values are
replaced in the Hamiltonian H. If the last
mentioned reaches optimum in an interior
point u U, the optimal values of vector u(t)
are given by the equation:
H
=0
t
Which is equivalent to the relation (3.4). In
this manner we obtain a system with i
equations with the undetermined uj, j=1,,r.
Finally, the 2 equations given by (3.5) and
(3.6) are limit or transversal conditions.
4. Exemple de utilizare
4. Examples for Utilisation
4.1. Fundamentarea deciziei de alegere a

unui echipament de producie pe baza
costului minim de folosin
4.1.
Substantiation
of
Production
Equipment Choice Decision Based on the
Minimum Utilisation Cost
Prezentul exemplu este bazat pe [40]. Un

operator de ap-canal are posibilitatea de a
alege ntre patru echipamente de producie
E1, E2, E3, E4 n vederea realizrii produciei
propuse n cadrul strategiei pe termen lung.
Preurile de achiziie, ntreinere i reparaii
previzibile corespunztoare duratei de
funcionare a fiecrui echipament sunt
prezentate n tabelul urmtor:
The present example is based on [40]. A

water and sewerage operator has the
possibility to choose among four production
equipments E1, E2, E3, E4 in order to achieve
the proposed production as part of the long
term strategy.
The predictable prices for procurement,
maintenance and reparations corresponding
to the functioning duration of each
equipment are presented in the table below:
Tabelul/Table 3.1(EURO)
Anul
1
2
3
4
(Year)
Cheltuieli
C1
C2
C3
C4
/expenses
Echipament/
equipment
E1
350000
20000
E2
420000
20000
30000
E3
520000
13000
37000
50000
E4
700000
10000
28000
40000
Not: Se consider c cele patru echipamente au acelai randament tehnic.
Note: The four equipments are considered to have same technical effectiveness.
S se fac discuia economic a problemei, s

se formuleze criteriul de alegere a celui mai
5
C5
70000
Economic discussion of the problem and

formulation of the chose criteria of the most
119
eficient echipament i s se aplice n vederea

rezolvrii problemei.
Rezolvare:
a) Discuia economic a problemei
Un operator de ap-canal are, de regul,
posibilitatea de a alege ntre mai multe
echipamente de producie - E1, E2,,El,,Ek, l
= 1,..., k , k = numrul echipamentelor
existente pe pia pentru a-i realiza
producia stabilit n cadrul unei strategii pe
termen lung. Pe baza documentaiei tehnicoeconomice i a ofertelor productorilor,
operatorul cunoate preurile de cumprare ale
acestor echipamente: P1, P2,,Pl,,Pk,
precum i cheltuielile de ntreinere i reparaie
previzibile pentru funcionarea acestor
echipamente:
C1, C2,,Ct,,Cn, t = 1,..., n , n = numrul
anilor de folosin pentru fiecare echipament.
Pe baza acestor informaii, societatea
comercial trebuie s decid ce echipamente
prefer. Evident c, de pe poziia teoriei
economice, criteriul de alegere l va reprezenta
minimumul costului anual de folosin:
min y l , unde y l reprezint costul mediu anual
effective equipment are required as well as

the application for problem solving.
Solution:
a) Economic discussion of the problem
A water supply and sewerage operator has
usually the possibility to choose between
several production equipments - E1,
E2,,El,,Ek, l = 1,..., k , k = the number of
equipments available on the market in
order to achieve the production established
as part of a long-term strategy. Based on the
technical-economic
documents
and
manufacturers offers, the operator knows
the purchasing costs of these equipments,
namely: P1, P2,,Pl,,Pk, as well as
maintenance and repair expenses predictable
for equipment operation:
C1, C2,,Ct,,Cn, t = 1,..., n , n = the
number of years in use for each equipment.
Based on this information, the commercial
company has to decide what equipments it
prefers. Obviously, from the position of the
economic theory, the choise criteria will be
the minimum of the annual operation cost:
min y l , where y l represents the average annual
de folosin a unui echipament l.

Aceast alegere se poate face n mai multe
situaii cum ar fi:
1. Cheltuielile de achiziie, ntreinere i
reparaii sunt constante pe ntreaga perioad
de timp;
2. Cheltuielile de achiziie, ntreinere i
reparaii ale echipamentului se modific de la
un an la altul, pe toat durata de exploatare a
echipamentului;
3. Cheltuielile totale de exploatare a unui
echipament Yl ct i costul mediu anual de
exploatare pot fi exprimate n valorile
nominale ale cheltuielilor de achiziie,
ntreinere i reparaii ale echipamentelor;
4. Cheltuielile totale de exploatare a unui
echipament Yl ct i costul mediu anual pot fi
exprimate n valorile actualizate ale
cheltuielilor de achiziie, ntreinere i reparaii
ale echipamentelor.
Discuia cazurilor de mai sus se face pe baza
ipotezei c, un echipament odat ales, va fi
folosit pe toat durata realizrii produciei
societii, fapt ce presupune c echipamentul
va fi nlocuit de r ori, i = 1, r , r = numrul de
operation cost of an equipment l.

This choice can be done in several situations
such as:
1. Procurement, maintenance and repair
expenses are constant over the entire time
period;
2. Procurement, maintenance and repair
expenses are modified from one year to
another, over the entire equipment exploitation
duration;
3. Total operation costs of an equipment Yl as
well as the average annual operation cost can
be expressed in terms of nominal values of
procurement,
maintenance
and
repair
expenses;
4. Total operation expenses of an equipment Yl
as well as the average annual cost can be
expressed in updated values of procurement,
maintenance and repair expenses;
The discussion of the above mentioned cases is
realised based on the hypothesis that, once a
certain equipment choice, will be utilised over
all the duration of the production of the
company, supposing that the equipment will be
replaced r times, i = 1, r , r = equipments
120
nlocuiri ale echipamentelor.

Cazul 1-3 - cheltuieli de achiziie, ntreinere
i reparaie constante la valoarea nominal
- costul global de exploatare pe n perioade de
timp al utilizrii unui echipament i pentru r
nlocuiri este urmtorul:
Yl=(P+C1+C2++Cn)1+
(P+C1+C2+
+Cn)2 ++ (P+C1+C2++Cn)r Yl = r
(P+Cit)
(1)
unde:
t = 1,..., n , n = numrul anilor de
folosin a unui echipament;
i = 1...,, r , r = numrul de nlocuiri ale
echipamentelor.
- costul mediu anual de exploatare a unui
echipament pornind de la relaia (1) va fi:
Y
r ( P + C it ) P + C it
(2)
=
yl = l =
nr
nr
n
Deci, pe baza relaiei (2), calculat pentru
fiecare echipament n parte, preferina
societii se va ndrepta ctre acel echipament
cruia i corespunde min y l .
number of replacements.
Case 1-3 - Procurement, maintenance and
repair expenses constant to nominal value
- the global operation cost over n time
periods of utilising an equipment and for r
replacements is the following:
(P+C1+C2+
Yl=(P+C1+C2++Cn)1+
+Cn)2 ++ (P+C1+C2++Cn)r Yl = r
(P+Cit)
(1)
where:
t = 1,..., n , n = number of years of
operation for an equipment;
i = 1...,, r , r = equipment number of
replacements.
- Annual average operation cost of an
equipment considering relation (1) will be:
Y
r ( P + C it ) P + C it
(2)
=
yl = l =
nr
nr
n
Therefore, based on relation (2), calculated
for each equipment separately, the preference
of the company will go with the equipment
which corresponds to min y l .
Cazul 1-4 cheltuieli de achiziie, ntreinere

i reparaii constante la valoarea actualizat
Pe baza relaiilor (1) i (2) se deduce c preul
mediu anual de exploatare se calculeaz cu
ajutorul relaiei:
1 P + C it
yl =
(3)
n (1 + a ) t 1
unde a = rata dobnzii.
Cazul 2-3 - cheltuieli de achiziie, ntreinere
i reparaii constante la valoarea nominal. n
acest caz, costul global de exploatare devine:
Yl=(P1+C9+C12++C1n)+(P2+C21+C22+
+C2n)++ (Pr+Cr1+Cr2++Crn)
r
n
Yl = Pi + C it
(4)
i =1
t =1
Pe baza relaiei (4) se deduce expresia

costului minim anual de exploatare:
r
n
1
Pi + C it
yl =
(5)
n r i =1
t =1
Cazul 2-4 - cheltuieli de achiziionare,

ntreinere i reparaii variabile la valori
actualizate. Pornind de la relaiile (4) i (5),
costul mediu anual de exploatare pe baza
cruia se va decide alegerea echipamentelor ce
urmeaz a fi achiziionate devine:
Case 1-4 Procurement, maintenance and

repair expenses constant at updated value
Based on relations (1) and (2), the average
annual operation cost is calculated with the
relation:
1 P + C it
yl =
(3)
n (1 + a ) t 1
where a = interest rate.
repair expenses constant at nominal value. In
this case, the global operation cost becomes:
Yl=(P1+C9+C12++C1n)+(P2+C21+C22+
+C2n)++ (Pr+Cr1+Cr2++Crn)
r
n
Yl = Pi + C it
(4)
i =1
t =1
Based on relation (4) the expression of

the annual minimum operation cost is
calculated as follows:
r
n
1
Pi + C it
yl =
(5)
n r i =1
t =1

repair expenses variable at updated values.
Starting with relations (4) and (5), the annual
average operation cost will be the base for
decision making in terms of choosing the
equipments to be procured becoming:
121
1 r
1
P
+
i C it
t 1
n r i =1
t =1
(1 + a )
(6)
De reinut:
1. Relaiile de mai sus sunt valabile dac i
numai dac numrul de ani de folosire a
echipamentelor este constant i egal cu n (t =
1,..., n ), pentru toate cele k ( l = 1,..., k )
echipamente existente pe pia. n caz contrar,
costul mediu anual se va calcula pentru toate
echipamentele pe baza duratei celei mai mari
de folosire a unui echipament.
2. De asemenea, relaiile sunt valabile numai
dac cele k echipamente au acelai randament
tehnic. n cazul n care cele k echipamente au
randamente tehnice diferite, relaiile de mai
sus trebuie corectate cu producia realizat de
fiecare echipament n parte. Cu alte cuvinte,
nu se mai lucreaz cu cheltuielile de
achiziionare, ntreinere i reparaii n mrimi
absolute, ci cu valorile acestora exprimate n
mrimi derivate, respectiv prin raportarea
cheltuielilor de achiziionare, ntreinere i
reparaii la randamentul tehnic al fiecrui
echipament.
b) Alegerea celui mai eficient echipament pe
baza valorilor nominale ale costurilor de
exploatare. n cazul aplicaiei practice, dac
nu se ine cont de rata dobnzii, trebuie
calculat preul anual de exploatare pentru
fiecare dintre echipamente, dup care va fi
ales acel echipament care are cel mai mic cost
anual de folosin. Astfel:
yl =
1 r
1
P
+
i C it
t 1
n r i =1
t =1
(1 + a )
(6)
Nota Bene:
1. The above relations are valid if and only if
the number of years of utilising an
equipment is constant and equal to n (t =
1,..., n ), for all the k ( l = 1,..., k )
equipments available on the market. In the
contrary case, the annual average cost will be
calculated for all equipments based on the
longest operation duration of certain
equipment.
2. Also the relations stays valid only if the k
equipments have the same technical
effectiveness. In case the k equipments have
different technical effectiveness the above
relations must be corrected with the
production
realised
utilising
certain
equipment separately. In other words,
procurement, maintenance and repair
expenses are not utilised any more in
absolute values, but as derived, by reporting
the procurement, maintenance and repair
expenses to the technical efficiency of
certain equipment.
yl =
b) The choice of the most efficient

equipment based on the nominal values of
operation costs. In the case of a practical
application, if interest rate is not considered,
the annual operation cost must be calculated
for each equipment; after this, the equipment
having the lowest annual operation cost will
be selected. Therefore:
1
370000
(350000 + 20000) =
= 185000 EURO / an
2
2
1
470000
= (420000 + 20000 + 30000) =
= 156666,67 EURO / an
3
3
1
620000
= (520000 + 13000 + 37000 + 50000) =
= 155000 EURO / an
4
4
1
848000
= (700000 + 10000 + 28000 + 40000) =
= 169600 EURO / an
5
5
y E1 =
yE2
yE3
yE4
n aceast situaie, este necesar s fie

achiziionat echipamentul E3, care are cel
mai mic cost anual de exploatare 155000
EURO/an, dar aceast decizie nu este
corect deoarece echipamentele nu au o
122
In this situation, the equipment E3 will be

procured as it has the lowest annual
operation cost 155000 EURO/year, but this
decision is not correct because the
equipments do not have a uniform
durat de funcionare uniform: E1 (r1 = 2),

functioning duration d: E1 (r1 = 2), E2 (r2 = 3),
E2 (r2 = 3), E3 (r3 = 4), E4 (r4 = 5). Deci,
E3 (r3 = 4), E4 (r4 = 5). Therefore, the annual
costul minim anual de exploatare va fi
minimum operation cost will be calculated
calculat pentru toate echipamentele n
for all the operational equipments according
funcie de durata de funcionare maxim r
to the maximum operation period r = 5
= 5 ani:
years:
1
1090000
y E1 = (350000 + 20000 + 350000 + 20000 + 350000) =
= 218000 EURO / an
5
5
1
910000
y E 2 = (420000 + 20000 + 30000 + 420000 + 20000) =
= 182000 EURO / an
5
5
1
1140000
y E 3 = (520000 + 13000 + 37000 + 50000 + 520000) =
= 228000 EURO / an
5
5
1
848000
y E 4 = (700000 + 10000 + 28000 + 40000 + 70000) =
= 169600 EURO / an
5
5
n concluzie, decizia corect este aceea de a
achiziiona echipamentul E4 deoarece, pe o
perioad de 5 ani, acesta are cel mai mic
cost de anual de folosin 169000
EURO/an.
c) Alegerea celui mai eficient echipament pe
baza valorilor actualizate ale costurilor de
exploatare. Dac se ine seama de valoarea
actualizat a costului, de rata dobnzii i de
faptul c durata de funcionare nu este
uniform, n vederea calculrii costului
anual de folosin va fi utilizat urmtoarea
relaie:
1 P + C it
yl =
(7)
n (1 + a ) t 1
unde a = rata dobnzii.
n cazul n care rata dobnzii este constant
i egal cu 10 %, costul minim anual de
folosin va fi calculat astfel:
In conclusion, the correct decision is to

procure the equipment E4 because, over a
five year period, it has the lowest annual use
cost 169000 EURO/year.
c) the choice of the most efficient equipment
based on the updated values of the operation
costs. If the updated cost value, the interest
rate and the fact that the functioning duration
is not uniform are considered, the following
relation will be utilised for the calculation of
the annual use cost:
1 P + C it
yl =
(7)
n (1 + a ) t 1
Where a = interest rate.
Considering the case that the interest rate is
constant and equal to 10 %, the annual
minimum use cost will be calculated as
follows:
1
20000 350000 20000 350000
(350000 +
+
+
+
) = 182303,8EURO / year
5
1,11
1,12
1,13
1,14
1
20000 30000 420000 20000
= 420000 +
+
+
+
= 158437,54 EURO / year
5
1,11
1,12
1,13
1,14
y E1 =
yE2
1
13000 37000 50000 520000
y E 3 = 520000 +
+
+
+
= 191025,89 EURO / year
5
1,11
1,12
1,13
1,14
1
10000 28000 40000 70000
y E 4 = 700000 +
+
+
+
= 162018.99 EURO / year
5
1,11
1,12
1,13
1,14
Rezultatele de mai sus conduc la urmtoarea
concluzie costul minim anual de folosin,
innd cont de valorile actualizate ale
The above results are coming to the

following conclusion minimum annual use
cost, considering the updated costs values
123
costurilor i de rata dobnzii, a fost obinut

n cazul echipamentului E2.
4.2. Determinarea nivelului produciei
pentru care profitul este maxim
and interest rate, was obtained for the

equipment E2.
4.2. Determination of production level with
maximum profit
Prezentul exemplu este bazat pe [40].

Premise:
Informaiile privind relaiile dintre pre, cost i
nivelul produciei pot fi redate sintetic prin
egalitile:
- p=25-0,0001Q, n sensul c preul scade cu
0,1 RON la fiecare 1000 mc ap potabil/lun
vndui suplimentar,
unde
p = preul de producie;
Q = cantitatea de ap potabil produs lunar,
i
- C = 50Q + 2, reprezentnd funcia de cost n
care apare elemental constant 2 i elementul
variabil 50.
Exist premise pentru extinderea produciei
vdute pn la 140.000 mc/lun.
Cerine:
Determinai nivelul produciei pentru care
profitul este maxim, avnd n vedere veniturile
totale din realizarea produciei (venit total =
pre x producie vndut), precum i egalitatea
compatibil cu profitul maxim care este cost
marginal = venit marginal.
Venitul total = p . Q = (25-0,0001Q) .Q =
25Q-0,0001Q2
d ( pQ)
= 25 0,0002Q
Venitul marginal =
dQ
dC
Costul marginal =
= 50.
dQ
Egalitatea Cost marginal = Venit marginal
exprimat n raport cu rezultatele anterioare
este
50 = 25 0,0002Q
de unde
25
Q=
= 125.000mc / luna
0,0002
Nivelul cel mai profitabil al produciei,
adic Q = 125.000 mc/lun presupune un
pre p = 25 0,0001.125.000 = 12,5
RON/mc ap potabil vndut.
This example is based on [40].

Premises:
Information regarding the rations between
the price, cost and production level may be
synthesised by the following relations:
- p=25-0,0001Q, meaning that the price
decrease with 0,1 RON for each 1000 mc
drinkable water/month sold supplementary,
where
p = production(manufacturing) price;
Q = water quantity produced monthly, and
- C = 50Q + 2, representing the cost relation
(function) with the constant element 2 and
variable element 50.
There are premises for sold production
increase up to 140.000 mc/month.
Requirements:
Determine the production level to which the
profit is maximum, considering the total
income from production completion (total
income = price x sold production), as well as
the relation compatible with the maximum
profit, namely marginal cost = marginal
revenue.
Total revenue = p . Q = (25-0,0001Q) .Q =
25Q-0,0001Q2
d ( pQ)
= 25 0,0002Q
Marginal revenue =
dQ
dC
Marginal cost =
= 50.
dQ
The relation Marginal Cost = Marginal
Revenue expressed in relation to the above
results is
50 = 25 0,0002Q
From where
25
Q=
= 125.000mc / month
0,0002
The most profitable production level, namely
Q = 125.000 mc/month presupposes a price p
= 25 0,0001.125.000 = 12,5 RON/mc sold
drinkable water.
5. Concluzii
5. Conclusions
124
Articolul de fa, elaborat pe baza celor

prezentate n bibliografie, nu i propune
elaborarea pn la finalizare a unei strategii
integrate de dezvoltare a sistemelor de
alimentare cu ap i canalizare. n schimb,
dorete stabilirea unor exemple de modele
aplicabile deciziilor care trebuiesc luate ct i a
unor exemple de aplicare a unor modele
specifice. Pentru aceasta prezentul document
este structurat n trei pri i anume:
- Prezentare general a conceptului de
modelarea i optimizarea deciziilor;
- Prezentarea unor modele specifice aplicabile;
- Exemple de aplicare a modelelor prezentate.
Prezentul document reprezint o propunere de
interpretare a aplicrii principiilor modelrii i
optimizrii deciziilor activitii generale a
operatorilor de alimentare cu ap i canalizare.
Funcie de necesitile proprii, cititorii pot
dezvolta conceptele i rezultatele prezentate.
The present document, based on the studies

mentioned in the references, is not aiming to
finalise an integrated waster supply and
sewerage systems strategy. Instead, examples
of models applicable for the decisions to be
taken are established as well as examples of
some specific model application. For this
purpose, the present article is structured by 3
parts, namely:
- General presentation of the concept of
decision modelling and optimisation;
- Presentation of several specific applicable
models;
- Examples of applying the presented
models.
This document represents a proposal for the
interpretation
for
applying
decision
modelling and optimisation principles to the
activity of water supply and sewerage
operators. According to necessities, the
readers may develop further the concepts and
the results presented.
Modelirung und Optimierung der Entscheidungens fur die Wissentschlaftische Leitung der Wasserversorgung
und Kanalisation Operateure.
Zusammenfassung
Dieser Artikel grdet sich auf dem Sachen, die in die Bibliographie beschreibt sind. Er schlgt sich nicht nur die
Ausbereitung einer Entwicklungs Strategie fr die Wasserversorgung und Kanalisation, sonder auch eine anwendbar
Modelle festzusetzen und auch Beispiele von Anwendungen fr spezifiche Modelle. Darum ist dieses Dokument in
drei Seiten geteilt:
Die Beschreibung der Modellierung und die Entscheidungs Optimierung
Die Beschereibung eine spezifische anwendbare Modelle
Beispiele von Anwendungen fr Modelle
Diese Dokument ist ein Vorschlag fr die Wasserversorgung und Kanalisation Operateure zu wenden die
Modellierung und Optimierung der Entscheidungens an. Die Lesers Knnen die Konzepte und Resultate entwickeln.
Bibliografie
References
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125
[8]. CIOBANU GH., IGNESCU E., Optimizri liniare. Cercetri operaionale cu aplicaii n economie, Ed. ASE,
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[20]. KOUTSOZANNIS A., Modern Microeconomics, Macmillan, London, 1991;
[21]. MANDELBROT B., Obiecte fractale, Ed. Nemira, Bucureti, 1998;
[22]. MURATA Y., Mathematics for Stabilyty and Optimisation of Economic Systems, Academic Press, New York, 1977;
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126
PECICAN, E.S., Econometrie, Editura ALL, Bucureti, 1994.

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UNIVERSITATEA TEHNIC DE CONSTRUCII BUCURETI

Rspunsul structurilor cu un nivel

One Story Buildings Endowed With

Pentru obinerea unui nivel acceptabil de

To obtain a reasonable performance level,

Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008

Fig. 1.1 Sistem cu 1 GLD

Fig. 1.2 Sistem cu 2 GLD (sistem cu 1 GLD +

- the structure with TMD was equated with a

Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008

u&&g (t ) - acceleraia terenului.

u&&g (t ) - ground acceleration;

Rezolvarea ecuaiilor dinamice de echilibru s-a

The time-stepping solution was reach using

2. Descrierea micrii seismice i alegerea

2. Earthquake Motion Characterization

S-au analizat ase nregistrri corespunztoare a

For three important earthquake motions from

n tabelul 2.2 sunt redate caracteristicile

Table 2.2 shows the important dynamic

Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS

Fig. 2.1 Spectrul Fourier pentru Acc. 1

Fig. 2.2 Spectrul Fourier pentru Acc. 2

IMGB Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS

Focsani, seism Vrancea 30.08.1986,componenta NS

Fig. 2.3 Spectrul Fourier pentru Acc. 3

Fig. 2.4 Spectrul Fourier pentru Acc. 4

Magurele, seism Vrancea 30.05.1990,componenta NS

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 30.05.1990,componenta NS

Fig. 2.5 Spectrul Fourier pentru Acc. 5

Fig. 2.6 Spectrul Fourier pentru Acc. 6

rigiditatea sistemului ( K ). Aceste sisteme

Table 2.3 shows the properties of analyzed

Prima etapa a studiului parametric a vizat

The purpose of the first stage of the study

Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008

Tab. 2.2. Caracteristici importante ale micrilor seismice

Alte perioade importante

aciunea micrii seismice descrise de

load described by accelerograme 1 (recorded

Tab 3.1. Cazuri analizate pentru sistemul cu TMD

Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008

Urmrind variaia deplasrilor la nivelul

From the representation of the structure

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS

Deplasare structura [m]

Deplasare structura [m]

Fig. 3.1 Sistem fr TMD i sistemele cu d = 5%

Fig. 3.2 Sistem fr TMD i sistemele cu d = 10%

INCERC Bucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS

Deplasare structura [m]

Deplasare structura [m]

Fig. 3.3 Sistem fr TMD i sistemele cu d = 15%

Fig. 3.4 Sistem fr TMD i sistemele cu m d = 1% M

[A.I.1 ( d = 5% ), A.II.1 ( d = 10% ),

Buletinul tiinific al UTCB nr.2 2008

INCERCBucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS

INCERCBucuresti, seism Vrancea 4.03.1977,componenta NS

Deplasare structura [m]

Deplasare structura [m]

Fig. 3.5 Sistem fr TMD i sistemele cu m d = 2% M

Pentru grade de amortizare mai ridicate