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UNIVERSITATEA DE ŞTIINŢE AGRICOLE

ŞI MEDICINĂ VETERINARĂ
“ION IONESCU DE LA BRAD” IAŞI
LUCRĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE
SERIA AGRONOMIE
VOL. 57, NR. 2
EDITURA “ION IONESCU DE LA BRAD” IAŞI
2014
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
2
Lucrări Ştiinţifice – vol. 57 (2) 2014, seria Agronomie
COORDONATORII REVISTEI ,,LUCRĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE’’
Redactor responsabil: Prof. dr. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi
Redactor adjunct: Prof. dr. Constantin LEONTE - USAMV Iaşi
Membri:
• Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Lucia DRAGHIA – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Liviu MIRON – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Benone PĂSĂRIN – USAMV Iaşi
COLEGIUL DE REDACŢIE AL SERIEI ,,AGRONOMIE’’

Redactor şef: Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi
Redactor adjunct: Prof. dr. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi
Redactori:
• Prof. dr. Wolfgang FRIEDT – Justus-Liebig-Universitat Giessen, Germany
• Prof. dr. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi, România
• Prof. dr. Andre FALISSE – Faculté Universitaire des Sciences Agronomiques Gembloux, Belgium
• Prof. dr. Christos TSADILAS – National Agricultural Research Foundation, Institute of Soil Mapping
and Classification Larissa, Greece
• Prof. dr. Ioan ŢENU – USAMV Iaşi, România
• Prof. dr. Ioan ROTAR – USAMV Cluj Napoca, România
• Prof. dr. Karoly BODNAR – Universitatea din Szeged, Ungaria
• Prof. dr. Vito Nicola SAVINO – Universitatea de Studii din Bari, Italia
• Prof. dr. Mike RUSSELL – College of Agriculture, Purdue University, Indiana, USA
• Prof. dr. Jan MOUDRY Jr. - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Czech Republic
• Prof. dr. Petr KONVALINA - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Faculty of Agriculture, Czech Republic
• Prof. dr. Gheorghe CIMPOIEŞ – Universitatea Agrară de Stat din Chișinău, Republica Moldova
• Prof. dr. Mihail RURAC – Universitatea Agrară de Stat din Chișinău, Republica Moldova
• Prof. dr. Boris BOINCEAN – Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova
• Prof. dr. Andrei BALINSKY - Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova
• Prof. dr. Adriano CIANI , Perugia University
• Prof. dr. Carmen del CAMPILLO GARCIA -University of Cordoba, Campus of Rabanales, Spania
• Prof. dr. Diego BEGALLI - Universitatea din Verona, Italia
• Dr. Virginijus FEIZA – Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, Lithuania
REFERENŢI ŞTIINŢIFICI:
• Prof. dr. Ioan AVARVAREI – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Mihail AXINTE – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Daniel BUCUR – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Aurel CHIRAN – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Viorica IACOB – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Paul SAVU – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Doina-Liana TOMA – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Gheorghe ŢÂRDEA – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Eugen ULEA – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Teodor IACOB – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Costică AILINCĂI – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Stejărel BREZULEANU – USAMV Iaşi
• Prof. dr. Culiţă SÎRBU – USAMV Iaşi
• Conf. dr. Mihai STANCIU – USAMV Iaşi
• Conf. dr. Elena GÎNDU – USAMV Iaşi
ISSN 1454-7414
Editat cu sprijinul Ministerului Educaţiei şi Cercetării Naţionale
© Editura ,,Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi
Lucrări Ştiinţifice - vol. 57 (2) 2014, seria Agronomie
3
COORDINATORS OF JOURNAL “LUCRĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE’
Manager Editor: PhD, Prof. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi
Assistant Editor: PhD, Prof. Constantin LEONTE - USAMV Iaşi
Members:
• PhD, Prof. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Pro.. Lucia DRAGHIA – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Liviu MIRON – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Benone PĂSĂRIN – USAMV Iaşi
EDITORIAL BOARD OF “AGRONOMIE’’

Editor- in -chief: PhD, Prof. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi
Assistant Editor: PhD, Prof. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi
Editors:
• PhD, Prof. Wolfgang FRIEDT – Justus-Liebig-Universitat Giessen, Germany
• PhD, Prof. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi, Romania
• PhD, Prof. Andre FALISSE – Faculté Universitaire des Sciences Agronomiques Gembloux, Belgium
• PhD, Prof. Christos TSADILAS – National Agricultural Research Foundation, Institute of Soil Mapping
and Classification Larissa, Greece
• PhD, Prof. Ioan ŢENU – USAMV Iaşi, România
• Prof. dr. Ioan ROTAR – USAMV Cluj Napoca, Romania
• PhD, Prof. Karoly BODNAR – Universitatea din Szeged, Ungaria
• PhD, Prof. Vito Nicola SAVINO – Universitatea de Studii din Bari, Italia
• PhD, Prof. M. RUSSELL – College of Agriculture, Purdue University, Indiana, USA
• PhD, Prof. Jan MOUDRY Jr. - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
• PhD, Prof. Petr KONVALINA - University of South Bohemia in České Budějovice, Czech Republic
• PhD, Prof. Gheorghe CIMPOIEŞ – Universitatea Agrară de Stat din Chișinău, Republica Moldova
• PhD,Prof. Mihail RURAC – Universitatea Agrară de Stat din Chișinău, Republica Moldova
• PhD, Prof. Boris BOINCEAN – Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova
• PhD, Prof. Andrei BALINSKY - Universitatea Alecu RUSSO din Bălţi, Republica Moldova
• PhD, Prof. Adriano CIANI - Perugia University
• PhD, Prof. Carmen del CAMPILLO GARCIA - University of Cordoba, Campus of Rabanales, Spania
• PhD, Prof. Diego BEGALLI - Universitatea din Verona, Italia
• PhD. Virginijus FEIZA – Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, Lithuania
SCIENTIFIC REVIEWERS:
• PhD, Prof. Ioan AVARVAREI – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Mihail AXINTE – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Daniel BUCUR – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Aurel CHIRAN – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof.. Viorica IACOB – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Gerard JITĂREANU – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Paul SAVU – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Teodor ROBU – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Doina-Liana TOMA – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Gheorghe ŢÂRDEA – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Eugen ULEA – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Vasile VÎNTU – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Teodor IACOB – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Costel SAMUIL – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Costică AILINCĂI – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Stejărel BREZULEANU – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Prof. Culiţă SÎRBU – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Assoc.Prof. Mihai STANCIU – USAMV Iaşi
• PhD, Assoc. Prof. Elena GÎNDU – USAMV Iaşi
ISSN 1454-7414
Editat cu sprijinul Ministerului Educaţiei şi Cercetării Naţionale
© Editura ,,Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi
Lucrări Ştiinţifice - vol. 57 (2) 2014, seria Agronomie
4
CONTENTS
Anca-Elena CALISTRU, Gerard JITĂREANU

NO-TILLAGE AROUND THE WORLD ............................................................................................ 11
Gheorghe BUCUR
RELATIVELY AGROTECHNICS EVALUATION OF THE SYSTEMS OF
CONVENTIONAL AND CONSERVATIVE TILLAGE WITHIN CROP ROTATION ...................... 17
Ahmed El KENAWY, Raul BAETAN, Isabella CORRADO, Daniele CORNARA,

Ion OLTEAN, Francesco PORCELLI
ALEUROCANTHUS SPINIFERUS (QUAINTANCE, 1903) (ORANGE SPINY WHITEFLY, OSW)
(HEMIPTERA, ALEYRODIDAE) INVADED SOUTH OF ITALY .................................................... 25
Ramazan TOPAK, Bilal ACAR1, Refik UYANÖZ, Ercan CEYHAN

PARTIAL ROOT ZONE DRYING IRRIGATION
AND DIFFERENT NITROGEN LEVELS AFFECT ON NITROGEN RECOVERY
EFFICIENCY FOR DRIP IRRIGATED SUGAR BEET CROP . .......................................................... 29
Nizamettin ÇİFTÇİ, Belgin ÇAKMAK, Zeki GÖKALP, Mehmet ŞAHİN

WATER MANAGEMENT AND WATER USE STRATEGIES IN TURKEY ..................................... 37
Daniel Costel GALEŞ, Gerard JITĂREANU

THE INFLUENCE OF HUMIC FERTILIZER ON MORPHOLOGICAL AND
PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF MAIZE CROP, IN THE CONDITIONS
OF THE MOLDAVIAN PLATEAU ................................................................................................... 41
Daniela MIHALACHE, Carmen Eugenia SÎRBU, Adriana Elena GRIGORE,

Traian Mihai CIOROIANU
PROTEIN HYDROLYSATES AND AMINO-ACIDS FERTILIZERS –
PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................................... 47
Victor PETCU, Costică CIONTU

THE EFFECT OF IMIDAZOLINONE AND TRIBENUROM-METHYL
TOLERANT SUNFLOWER TECHNOLOGY ON WEED CONTROL
EFFICENCY AND SOIL QUALITY .................................................................................................. 53
Milena MOTEVA, Margarita MONDESHKA, Ana STOEVA, Nadezhda YARLOVSKA

CONTEMPORARY ISSUES OF LAND USE AND WATER MANAGEMENT
FOR AGRICULTURE IN BULGARIA ............................................................................................... 59
Esmeralda CHIORESCU, Cristian SCRIPCARIU

CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDRAULIC DETERMINATION
OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS WITH JUNCTION CHAMBERS ........................................................... 69
Esmeralda CHIORESCU, Feodor FILIPOV, Sergiu JITĂREANU

FIGHTING WATER HAMMER IN THE PRESSURIZED ADDUCTION
WORKS OF HYDROTECHNICAL SYSTEMS .................................................................................. 75
5
Maria BABAIAN
ECOPEDOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF PASTURES INSOUTHERN PLAIN
OF MOLDOVAAND MEASURES TO IMPROVE ............................................................................. 79
Flaviana CORDUNEANU, Daniel BUCUR, Claudiu PRICOP Isabela BALAN,

Gheorghe ȘOVĂIALĂ, Ionuț - Cristian APOSTOL
THE MOST IMPORTANT HIGH FLOODS IN PRUT RIVER’S
MIDDLE COURSE-CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES ..................................................................... 85
Andreea DIACONU, Ioan TENU, Petru CÂRLESCU, Dan CAZACU

RESEARCH REGARDING THE INFLUENCE OF THE FAN SPEED OVER THE
OPERATING PROCESS OF A MACHINE FOR PEST AND DISEASE CONTROL IN
VINEYARDS, WITH SOLLUTION RECOVERY ............................................................................. 93
Andreea DIACONU, Ioan ŢENU

RESEARCHES REGARDING THE FLOW RATE UNIFORMITY
OF THE TARAL 200 PITON TURBO SPRAYING MACHINE FOR DISEASE AND PEST CONTROL
IN VINEYARDS AND INTENSIVE ORCHARDS ............................................................................. 99
Maria IORDACHE, Lenuţa COROIANU1, Maria DUMITRU,Cristian CĂLINIŢĂ,

Adela BĂRBULESCU
DYNAMIC OF SOIL MOISTURE CONDITIONS
OF NON-IRRIGATION TO S.C.D.P. BANEASA (2008-2013) ......................................................... 103
Daniel LEPADATU, Loredana JUDELE, Gabriel SANDULECHE,

Ana-Raluca ROSU, Maximilian DIAC
THE EVOLUTION OF OPTICAL AND OPTOELECTRONIC DISTANCE MEASUREMENT
TECHNIQUES IN APPLIED TOPOGRAPHY .................................................................................. 107
Daniel LEPĂDATU, Daniel COVATARIU, Loredana JUDELE,

Gabriel SĂNDULACHE, Ana-Raluca ROŞU, Maximilian DIAC
SPATIAL CO-ORDINATES OPTIMIZATION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING AND
BUILDING SERVICES FACULTY’S TOPOGRAPHIC NETWORK
USING GPS TECHNOLOGY ........................................................................................................... 113
Olesea COJOCARU
MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE, HUMUS CONTENT OF THE SOILS WITH
DIFFERENT DEGREE OF EROSION IN THE RECEPTION
BASIN „NEGREA” HINCESTI DISTRICT AND THEIR ACTION ON
THE EROSION PROCESS FROM REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA ..................................................... 117
Marian MUSAT, Alexandra RADU, Anca-Luiza STANILA, Lavinia PARVAN

THE DYNAMIC TEXTURE AND HUMUS CONTENT IN ARGIC CHERNOZEM
STATIONARY-SITE EROSION CONTROL ALDENI-BUZAU ...................................................... 121
PAVEL Vasile Lucian, BIALI Gabriela, STĂTESCU Florian, MARCOIE Nicolae, GAVRILESCU
Maria, APOSTOL Ionut Cristian
STUDY ON BIOREMEDIATION OF HEAVY METAL-CONTAMINATED
SOILS USING THE BACTERIA-PLANTS SYNERGY..................................................................... 125
Irina SENICOVSCAIA
BIOTA OF XEROPHYTE-FOREST CHERNOZEM UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USES .............. 129
6
Camelia SMARANDA, Dumitru BULGARIU, Teodor MĂLUŢAN, Maria GAVRILESCU

THE EVALUATION OF FACTORS AFFECTING SORPTION
OF PENTACHLOROPHENOL IN SOIL ........................................................................................... 133
Camelia SMARANDA, Dumitru BULGARIU, Teodor MĂLUŢAN, Maria GAVRILESCU

ASSESSMENT OF PHASEOLUS VULGARIS L. BIOMASS AS LOW-COST ADSORBENT FOR
THE REMOVAL OF CONGO RED DYE FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS ...................................139
Silviu-Gabriel STROE
ACCELERATED ELECTROCHEMICAL METHOD FOR STUDYING
THE CORROSION BEHAVIOR OF AISI321 STAINLESS STEEL
FOOD GRADE IN ACIDIC FOOD ENVIRONMENTS ....................................................................145
Ligia ACATRINEI
VARIABILITY OF SOME ECOPHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN THE MAIN CROP PLANTS
OF CENTRAL MOLDAVIAN PLATEAU AGROECOSYSTEMS ................................................... 149
Ligia ACATRINEI, Adina CĂLUGĂR

ANTHROPIC IMPACT EVALUATION BY SOIL-PLANT PERSPECTIVE
IN GRASSLANDS ECOSYSTEMS FROM NORTHEASTERN ROMANIA ....................................155
Gianina BUTNARIU, Silvia Brîndușa HAMBURDĂ, Mihai TĂLMACIU

PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON THE MAIN PEST CONTROL METHODS
OF PLUM PLANTATIONS .............................................................................................................. 163
Gianina BUTNARIU, Mihai TĂLMACIU, Silvia Brîndușa HAMBURDĂ

PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON PLUM PLANTATIONS ENTOMOFAUNA ....................................167
Nichita CROITORU, Sergiu PANUȚA, Ș. OLESEA, Oana LĂCĂTUȘU (BODESCU),

Maria Mădălina BODESCU
BIOECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FLY OR WORM CHERRIES
RHAGOLETHIS CERASI L. ............................................................................................................... 171
Mădălina Ecaterina CUCU (POIDA), Gheorghe Valentin ROMAN

OILCROPS EVOLUTION IN ROMANIA AND DOBRUDJA - TULCEA COUNTY ...................... 175
Oxana DARABAN, Iana BIZGAN, Ecaterina EMNOVA, Simion TOMA

ENZYME ACTIVITY INVOLVED IN N AND P CYCLES,
OF SOYBEAN PLANT RHIZOSPHERE SOIL, ROOTS AND LEAVES ......................................... 179
Emil GEORGESCU, Lidia CANĂ, Luxiţa RÂŞNOVEANU

TESTING EFFECTIVENESS OF THE MAIZE SEEDS TREATMENT CONCERNING
MAIZE LEAF WEEVIL (Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll) CONTROL,
IN LABORATORY CONDITIONS ...................................................................................................183
Gheorghe DONCEAN
CONDITIONS FOR OBTAINING UNIFORM PLASMA IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICAL

DISCHARGE WITH DOUBLE BARRIER (D-DBD) ........................................................................ 189
Gheorghe DONCEAN
CHROMATIC KINETICS IN THERMAL FIELD ............................................................................ 195
7
Silvia Brîndușa HAMBURDĂ, Neculai MUNTEANU, Andy Felix JITĂREANU,

Vasile STOLERU, Gabriel Ciprian TELIBAN, Gianina BUTNARIU, Lorena-Diana POPA
SWOT ANALYSIS OF RUNNER BEAN (Phaseolus coccineus L.) CULTIVATION IN
INTERCROPPING SYSTEM ............................................................................................................ 201
Silvia Brîndușa HAMBURDĂ, Neculai MUNTEANU, Vasile STOLERU,

Gabriel Ciprian TELIBAN, Gianina BUTNARIU, Lorena-Diana POPA
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON RUNNER BEAN (Phaseolus coccineus L.) BEHAVIOUR
DEPENDING ON THE TRELLISING SYSTEM .............................................................................. 205
Laura Ioana MACAVEI, Viorel MITRE, Ioana MITRE, Ioan OPREAN,

Aurelia POP, Iuliana VASIAN, Raul BĂEŢAN, Ion OLTEAN
RESULTS REGARDING THE CHEMICAL CONTROL OF EUROPEAN CHERRY
FRUIT FLY (Rhagoletis cerasi L.) IN CHERRY ORCHARDS FROM CLUJ AREA ...................... 209
Elena Ştefania MARDARE, Stelica CRISTEA, Relu Cristinel ZALA

RESEARCHES ON THE MICOFLORA OF SUNFLOWER’S ACHENES FOR THE HYBRIDS
CULTIVATED IN FETESTI AREA, IALOMITA COUNTY ............................................................ 213
Marin PANĂ, Stelica CRISTEA, Sorina CERNAT, Emilian NEGRILĂ

THE MYCOFLORA OF BARLEY - THE VARIETIES EXTENSION
CERTIFICATED AT ARDS – TELEORMAN .................................................................................. 217
Sergiu PANUȚA, Nichita CROITORU, Dina TROPOȘEL,

Oana LĂCĂTUȘU (BODESCU), Maria Mădălina BODESCU
Cydia funebrana Tr: BIOECOLOGICAL PARTICULARITIES AND COMBAT .............................. 221
Alexandra RADU, M. MUSAT, Anca Luiza STANILA, Lavinia PARVAN

PEDODIVERSITY OF SOIL COVER TĂTARULUI VALLEY RIVER BASINS,
WITH VALLEY ROAD AND VALLEY APPLES SLANIC
LOCATED ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE RESTED ...................................................................... 225
Stejărel BREZULEANU, George UNGUREANU, Carmen-Olguța BREZULEANU,

Carmen-Luiza COSTULEANU, Tiberiu IANCU, Felix Horațiu ARION
SOME ASPECTS OF BASING THE STRATEGIC DECISIONS IN AGRICULTURE BY
COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT OF INDICATORS OF ECO-EFFICIENCY ................................ 229
Adriano CIANI, George UNGUREANU, Stejărel BREZULEANU, Eduard BOGHIŢĂ

SIMULATION MODEL TO DETERMINE THE OPTIMAL FARMS SIZE
IN NE REGION OF ROMANIA ........................................................................................................ 237
Elena PETREA
DESIGNING A FRENCH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES COURSE
FOR THE AGRIFOOD SECTOR ...................................................................................................... 243
George UNGUREANU, Mihai STANCIU, Adriano CIANI,

Stejărel BREZULEANU, Gabriela IGNAT, Eduard BOGHIŢĂ
THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FOR NE REGION ....................................247
Constantin IATCO, Gabriela IGNAT, George UNGUREANU, Haralambie ATHES

ASPECTS REGARDING THE PRINCIPLES OF PERFORMANCE AUDIT ....................................253
8
Gabriela IGNAT, Constantin IATCO, George UNGUREANU,

Carmen COSTULEANU, Haralambie ATHES
ASPECTS REGARDING THE INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING
STANDARD I.A.S. 41 – AGRICULTURE ....................................................................................... 257
Carmen-Mariana MIHALACHE
THE ROLE OF THE EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE AND THE CIVIL SERVICE
TRIBUNAL IN CREATING THE NECESSARY PREREQUISITES FOR
DEVELOPING AN EUROPEAN CRIMINAL CODE FOR EUROPEAN CIVIL
SERVANTS AND EUROPEAN PUBLICLY APPOINTED OFFICE-HOLDERS ............................ 261
Elena VELESCU
THE TRANSDISCIPLINARY DIMENSION AND THE KNOWLEDGE
OF A FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN THE PROCESS OF LEARNING GERMAN .............................. 267
Elena VELESCU
AN INTERCULTURAL PHENOMENON: PET DOGS IN GERMANY
AND THE BENEFITS OF THIS HOBBY .......................................................................................... 271
Carmen Luiza COSTULEANU, Diana DUMITRESCU, Gabriela IGNAT, Nicolae BOBIŢAN

INSTRUMENTS FOR THE QUANTIFICATION OF ECONOMIC
PERFORMANCES OF THE ENTERPRISE ..................................................................................... 275
Gabriela-Paula PETRUŢA
THE OPINION OF PRACTICANT STUDENTS ON THE STIMULATION
OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES WITHIN LESSONS ..................................................................281
Oliver Constantin PRICOP, Cecilia POP

STRATEGIC CONCEPTS IN MANAGING THE COMPANIES
IN THE NORTH-EASTERN REGION .............................................................................................. 287
9
10
NO-TILLAGE AROUND THE WORLD
Anca-Elena CALISTRU1*, Gerard JITĂREANU1
e-mail: ancaelenacalistru@gmail.com
Abstract. No-tillage farming is a way of cultivating crops every year without disturbing the soil through tillage. It has
great benefits, not only on short term, reducing the amount of mechanical work and fossil fuels needed, but also on long
term, increasing the water quantity that infiltrates into the soil, the fertility, the organic matter retention and reducing the
soil erosion. The idea of Edward Faulkner in the 1940s was developed after the WWII, around the world, in 2009 being
used on 111 million hectares. No-tillage is now being practiced from the sea level up to 3000 m, from extremely rainy
to very dry areas. The countries from South America have the fastest adoption rates, in some of them no-tillage being
used on more than 70% of the cultivated area (Brazil, Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, and Uruguay). It is also used in the
U.S.A and Canada, Europe (Germany, Spain, and Finland), Asia (China, Kazakhstan, and India), Australia and Africa
(Morocco, Tunisia). All crops can be produced adequately using this system. The wide range of conditions where it can
be applied and its economic, social and environmental advantages should ensure the expansion of this technology in the
next years.
Key words: (no-tillage, conservation agriculture, long and short term advantages)
No-tillage is a system based on cultivating (FAO AQUASTAT, 2014). More than 2/3 of this
the soil without previous plowing. In this way, the surface is permanently under this system, meaning
crop residues are left on the topsoil, creating a that once started, the soil is never tilled again. USA
permanent layer which protects against hydric and and Australia also adopted the technology on wide
wind erosion (Hobbs P.R., 2007). At the same areas. The slowest adoption rate is found in
time, the organic matter can be better oxidized, the Europe, Asia and Africa.
soil aggregates are more stable and the water North America
infiltrates more easily. Nowadays, in almost every USA. In 1943, Edward H. Faulkner wrote
country there are at least some activities in no- “Plowman’s Folly”, a book in which he suggested
tillage (FAO, 2014). Area under no-tillage has that farmers should leave crop residues on the soil,
expanded to climates and soils earlier thought rather than plowing. Even if the book was a great
inadequate for practicing this technology success, the idea of not using the plow before
successfully. It is now being practiced by farmers sowing a crop was met with high skepticism
from the Arctic Circle, over the tropics to about among scientists (Triplett G.B. and Dick W.A.,
50º latitude south. From sea level in several 2008). After the World War II, emerged a new
countries of the world up to 3000 m altitude, from form of farming, using herbicides rather than
extremely dry conditions with 250 mm plowing to control weeds. Those chemicals, along
precipitation a year, to extremely rainy areas with with the machinery designed to plant seeds through
2000 or 3000 mm a year. It is practiced on all crop residues, set the start for no-tillage farming. In
kinds of farm sizes and soils that vary from 90% 1997, the technology was used on more than 19
sand to 80% clay (Derpsch R. et al., 2010). All million ha, representing about 50% of world’s total
crops can be produced in this system. at that time (Derpsch R. et al., 2010). In 2004, the
In 1999, the area under conservation tillage area under no-till was 25.3 million ha. Nowadays,
was 45 million ha. Ten years later, it was 111 it’s applied on 35.613 million ha, representing
million ha and the latest values presented by FAO around 25% of the cultivated land in the USA
show that this technology has spread rapidly, on (Montgomery D.R., 2008).
almost 155 million ha (table 1) (FAO, 2014). Canada. In Canada, no-till had a similar
The expansion of the area under no-tillage development as in the USA, due to erosion
was higher in the South America, being used on problems. The regions with high percentage of
more than 70% of the cultivated area in countries adoption are Saskatchewan (60.1 %), Alberta (47.8
like Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay %), Ontario (31.2 %), Manitoba (21.3 %) and
1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Romania.
11
British Columbia (19 %) (Derpsch R. and Friedrich Latin America

T., 2009). Being used in the year 2000 on only 8.8 Argentina. In the early 1970’s, several
million ha, no-tillage has spread on 18.313 million farmers started experimenting with no-till system,
ha in 2013 (FAO, 2014). but they gave up, because of the lack of adequate
Table 1 machinery and herbicides. In 1986, there was
Area under no-tillage worldwide founded the Argentinian Association of No-till
(FAO AQUASTAT, 2014)
Country Area under
Farmers (AAPRESID – Asociacion Argentina de
Conservation Productores En Siembra Directa), which helped the
Agriculture (ha) development and spread of the technology, by
Argentina 27 000 000 organizing conferences every year, with more than
Australia 17 695 000 1000 farmers (http://www.aapresid.org.ar). Since
Azerbaijan 1300
Belgium 268
then, this country had an exponential grow of no-
Bolivia 706 000 till farming, abandoning the idea that tillage was
Brazil 31 811 000 necessary to grow crops. The latest values show
Canada 18 313 000 that “siembra directa” is applied nowadays on 27
Chile 180 000 million ha, making Argentina one of the most
China 6 670 000 successful countries in term of no-till adoption.
Colombia 127 000
Democratic Republic of Korea 23 000
Bolivia. The first area under no-tillage in
Finland 200 000 Bolivia was settled in 1986, by Dr. Jean Landivar
France 200 000 on his farm of 2000 ha, for maize, sorghum and
Germany 200 000 some soybeans (Derpsch R. et al, 2010). Since
Ghana 30 000 then, the area under this technology has increased
Greece 24 000 constantly, from 240000 ha in the year 2000 to
Hungary 5 000
706000 ha in 2007 (table 1).
India 1 500 000
Iraq 15 000 Brazil. The first experiment on no-tillage
Ireland 200 was started in 1971, by Rolf Derpsch and a year
Italy 380 000 later, Herbert Bart, the first farmer who tried this
Kazakhstan 2 000 000 technology in Latin America, introduced this
Kenya 33 100 system on his farm. Even if it took 20 years for
Kyrgyzstan 700
Lebanon 1 200
Brazil to reach the first million ha under this
Lesotho 2 000 technology, in 2012 there were reported 31.811
Madagascar 6 000 million ha (www.febrapdp.org.br). About 70 % of
Malawi 65 000 no-tillage is practiced permanently, meaning that
Mexico 41 000 most farmers never till the soil again. The
Morocco 4 000 Brazilian farmers also use the green manure cover
Mozambique 152 000
Namibia 340
crops, on millions of ha, considering that they are
Netherlands 500 an important part of the no-till system (Derpsch R.
New Zealand 162 000 et al., 2005). The wide spread of the technology
Paraguay 3 000 000 was possible because there were quickly produced
Portugal 32 000 the machinery and equipment needed.
Republic of Moldova 40 000 Chile. Carlos Crovetto was the first farmer
Russian Federation 4 500 000
who used no-till in Chile, in 1978, understanding
Slovakia 35 000
South Africa 368 000 the long term benefits of this system on soil
Spain 792 000 physical and chemical properties. Nowadays, in
Switzerland 17 000 this country, no-till is used on 180000 ha, in other
Syria 30 000 words, on about 30% of the cropped area in rainfed
Tanzania 25 000 farming systems (FAO, 2014).
Tunisia 8 000
Colombia. In Colombia, due to the
Turkey 45 000
Ukraine 700 000 insecurity in rural areas and the political situation,
United Kingdom 150 000 the area under no-tillage hasn’t increased much in
United States of America 35 613 000 the last decade. If in 2005, there were 102000 ha
Uruguay 1 072 000 under this system, in 2011 there were reported
Uzbekistan 2 450 127000 ha (FAO AQUASTAT, 2014).
Venezuela 300 000
Mexico. In this country, the area on which
Zambia 200 000
Zimbabwe 332 000 no-till is applied has increased from 22800 ha in
Total 154 810 058 2007, to 41000 in 2011 (FAO AQUASTAT, 2014).
12
Uruguay. Uruguay had a great adoption rate Cantero-Martinez C., 2006). The reasons of
of the no-tillage system along the years, with adopting no-till in Spain were mainly, the
337500 ha in 1999, 655100 ha in 2008 and 1.072 machinery and input costs, need for tillage
million ha in 2013. The integration of crop simplification and time requirements for other
production with livestock is very popular in this agricultural activities (Lahmar R., 2008).
country. Pastures are used for several years, and Romania. The experiments with no-tillage
then the land is used for crops according to the started in in 1960s, at the Research Institute from
needs of the farmer (www.ausid.com.uy). Fundulea (Șarpe N. and Poenaru S., 2004), and
Venezuela. In 2005, there were reported after that, in other research centers also, but
300000 ha under no-tillage for this country because of the lack of specialized equipment and
(Derpsch R., 2005). weed problems, the results weren’t very
Europe and Russian Federation convincing. Nowadays, in Romania are used
Finland. Finland is one of the countries in variants of the reduced tillage system, but there is
Europe which had adopted no-till in a very fast no official data regarding the total area under
way. In 2011 there were reported 160000 ha. Two conservation tillage.
years later, the area had expanded to 200 000 ha. Switzerland. One of the countries in which
The rapid adoption of the technology was due to no-tillage practices tend to spread is Switzerland,
the fact that people believed in the success of the because of the reduction of the soil erosion.
technology and spread their experience to others. According to Swiss No-till, in 2010 was applied on
Also, there were manufacturers that produced 12500 ha, representing 3.5% of the cultivable area
quickly the planters needed for no-tillage, helping of the country, and the latest values show that the
a lot the farmers. technology has spread, on 17000 ha (www.no-
France. In France, in 2005, there were till.ch).
reported 150000 under no-tillage. From 2008, the Ukraine. The area under no-tillage, as
area has remained constant, of about 200000 ha shown by FAO, has increased quickly, from
(FAO AQUASTAT, 2014). In this country, 600000 ha in 2011, to 700000 ha two years later,
experiments with conservative agricultural systems Ukraine being the second European country after
were started in 1970, by INRA (Institut National Spain in terms of using this technology (FAO
de la Recherche Agronomique) and ITCF (Institut AQUASTAT, 2014).
Tehnique des Cereales et des Fourrages) Russian Federation. In 2011, there were
(Boisgontier D. et al, 1994), in order to reduce reported 4.5 million ha under conservation
labor time, production costs and to increase agriculture for this country, demonstrating that the
productivity (Goulet F., 2004). farmers are interested in the advantages provided
Germany. Even if the first experiments with by its use (FAO, 2014).
no-tillage started in Germany in 1966 (Baumer K., Africa
1979) and the results show that this technology has The no-till technology in Africa is in its
a lot of advantages on short and long time, the early stages of adoption.
adoption rate is still very low. In 2013, there were Northern Africa. In this part of the
reported 200000 ha under this system (FAO continent, no-till has been promoted particularly in
AQUASTAT, 2014). Tunisia and Morocco (Derpsch R. et al., 2010). It
Italy. In Italy, the expansion of the is used on 8000 ha in Tunisia and on half of this
technology started in the 1990s, in order to reduce area in Morocco (FAO AQUASTAT, 2014).
the costs (De Vita P. et al, 2007). The area under South Africa is using no-till on 368000 ha,
no-till was of 80000 ha in 2005 and in 2013, this despite the limited rainfall and erosion problems in
country was cultivating using this technology on many regions this country is experimenting.
380000 ha (table 1). Southern and Eastern Africa. Due to its
Spain. The researches regarding the no-till advantages, no-tillage has been adopted by many
system started in the 1980s and nowadays, Spain is countries in this part of the continent: Kenya
the leading country in terms of adopting this (33100 ha), Malawi (65000 ha), Mozambique
technology. It is applied on 792000 ha, according (152000 ha), Tanzania (25100 ha), Zambia
to the latest values provided by FAO, with annual (200000 ha), Zimbabwe (332000 ha) (FAO
crops represented by wheat, barley and much less AQUASTAT, 2014).
maize and sunflower (FAO, 2014). The first world Asia
congress on conservation agriculture took place in China has started no-tillage experiments in
Madrid in 2001 (Garcia-Torres L. et al., 2001) and 1960s, but the work was not extended and failed.
also, the third Mediterranean meeting on no-tillage In 1992, thanks to an ACIAR project, the
took place in 2006, in Zaragoza (Arrue J.L. and researches were taken up again and succeeded.
13
Nowadays, China is using conservation agriculture - Increased yields due to higher water infiltration
on 6670000 ha (FAO, 2014) and also produces and storage capacity;
many types of no-till seeders for smaller tractors - No tillage pan means roots can grow deeper;
(Gao H.V. et al, 2007). In the Beijing region, more - Increased farm efficiency;
than 85% of the farm land is under conservation - Improved soil structure;
agriculture (Derpsch R. et al., 2010). The main - Increased water use efficiency;
reasons for adopting of no-tillage in China were There are some barriers to be overcome for a
represented by the low level of soil organic matter better adoption rate of the system: knowledge on
and high wind and water erosion (Li H.W. et al., how to do it (know how), mindset (tradition,
2007). prejudice), inadequate policies as commodity
India. The Indian farmers adopted no-till in based subsidies (EU, US), availability of adequate
the rice-wheat double cropping production system seeding machines and suitable herbicides.
and has been adopted primarily for the wheat crop
(Derpsch R. et al., 2010), because, due to the time ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
needed to do the tillage, the sowing was delayed This paper is published under the frame of European
Social Fund, Human Resources Development Operational
and so, the yields were reduced. The official data Programme 2007-2013 project no. POSDRU/159/1.5/S/
provided by FAO (2014) show that last year, India 132765.
had 1.5 million ha under this system.
Kazakhstan. In this country, no-till was REFERENCES
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New Zealand is one of the first countries in June 1994.
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succeeded and later on, they continued with annual Congress on Conservation Agriculture, Nairobi,
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of the total cropland, including pastures and forage Derpsch R, Friedrich T., 2009 - Global overview of
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crops, representing 162000 ha (FAO, 2014). 4th World Congress on Conservation Agriculture:
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spread in the next years on more land, not only in International Journal of Agricultural and Biological
the countries where is already used, but also in Engineering, 3(1), pp. 1-25.
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Pisante M., 2007 - No-tillage and conventional
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15
16
RELATIVELY AGROTECHNICS EVALUATION OF THE SYSTEMS

OF CONVENTIONAL AND CONSERVATIVE TILLAGE WITHIN CROP ROTATION
Gheorghe BUCUR1
e-mail: bucurgheorghe1948@gmail.com
Abstract
The scientific researches were carried out by long-time standing experiences within the crops rotation with nine camps
within the Didactical-Experiential Station “Chetrosu”. They have been directed to a comparative agrotechnics
evaluation of different tillage systems and its’ influence on the weed control level, the soil capacity of water
conservation in soil, the degree of the field crops’ water assurance, some soil’s agro-physics peculiarities, the
productivity level of the researched plants. All researches results admit to establish the following: the plant health was
been also determined by concurrency capacity with field’s weeds. A better weeds control was assured by the winter
wheat and it proved a low numeric and gravimetric level of weeds. The lowest competitiveness with weeds has been
shown by peas bean, attesting a low numeric and gravimetric level of the weeds; the capacity of tillage systems has
differently influenced the weed control pointing out that, only conventional tillage systems have assured a positive
degree of the weed control. The studied tillage systems have not essentially influenced water storage capacity, the
degree of plants water assurance, except the observation of its growing unessential drift at the unconventional tillage
systems. The highest crops productivity level was assured by the conventional tillage system with a deep ploughing
with a furrows overthrow dominance.
Key words: crop rotation, field crops, productivity, conventional system, conservative system.
In Besarabia, at the end of the XIX century - minimal systems application establishes
and the beginning of the XXI century there were the humus content increase, hydro stabile macro
initiated warm disputes concerning the tillage. aggregates, apparent density values;
They argued on the idea - to plough or not to - the convenient role of unconventional
plough. tillages increases when they are applied within
In scientific literature, terms and concepts optimal rotation for crops (Guş P. and Rusu T.,
relating to soil conservation tillage are often 2005; Rusu T., et al, 2005; Marin D., et al, 2005;
treated differently. In the 1980s, the concept of Moraru Paula, et al, 2005).
conservative tillage came to term of tillage, which
meant to keep at least 30% of crop residues in the MATERIAL AND METHOD
soil surface in order to protect it from erosion. In
the 1990s, the definition of conservative tillage Experiments focused on studying various
bear some changes where it is not specified the tillage systems were founded in 1975 (table 1).
Scientific studies were and are still carried on
amount of crop residues rendered into soil. Later,
experimental fields of SDE” Chetrosu” Anenii-Noi
this system has progressed into “Plant Resource district, within the crop rotation of 9 camps with the
Management System". The conservative tillage is following crops’ structure:
represented by wide spectrum of agro processes of 1. Wheat/winter - 25%; 2. Corn/grains - 25%;
a basic tillage without furrows overthrow (chisel, 3. Peas/beans - 12.5%; 4. Soya/beans - 12.5%; 5.
paraplow, disc harrow, etc.) (Boincean B., 2011). Sunflower - 12.5%; 6. Corn/silo- 12.5% with the
Participants of the 5th International following sequence of crops in space and time within
crop rotation:
Symposium, “Minimal tillage systems "(Cluj- 1. Peas/beans; 2. Wheat/winter (1);
Napoca, 2008) have presented their points of views 3.sunflower; 4. Spring vetch; 5. Wheat/winter (2); 6.
on the positive and negative aspects of Soya/beans; 7.corn/grains (1); 8. Corn/grains (2); 9.
conventional and conservative tillage systems. lucerne (field jumping).
Most participants determine the following: Parcels area - 1000m2. The number of
- minimal tillage systems should be repetitions - 4. Variants distribution - systematic.
There were studied field crops within the rotation link
regarded as conventional tillage system alternative;
1
State Agrarian University of Moldova
17
“pea beans - winter wheat - sunflower – corn beans.”  weed pest threshold.
The researches aim: to study the conventional 2. the tillage systems influence on the soil
and nonconventional (conservational) tillage systems water storage, the provision level of the available
influence within crop rotation on some elements and water.
soil’s fertilization conditions. 3. the tillage systems influence on agro
Researches objectives provide the studding of: physics amount coefficients of the soil.
1. the weed spices spectrum modification 4. the tillage systems influence on the
dependent on tillage systems, specifying: productivity level of field crops within the rotation.
 weeds type;
 numerical and gravimetrical level of weeds;
Table 1
Experience’s variances
No. Tillage systems Tillage variants Tillage variants of Tillage variants Tillage variants of
peas beans of winter wheat the sunflower
1. Conventional system Deep ploughing (with Deep ploughing, Disking, Deep ploughing,
overthrow furrow 20-22cm 10 -12cm 25 – 27cm.
2. Nonconventional Deep loosening
Deep loosening, Disking, Deep loosening,
system (alternative, (without overthrow
20-22cm 10 -12cm 25 – 27cm.
conservation, minimum) furrows)
3. Conventional system Shallow ploughing Shallow ploughing, Disking, Shallow ploughing,
14-16cm 10 - 12cm 14-16cm
4. Nonconventional Shallow loosening
Shallow loosening, Disking, Shallow loosening,
system (alternative,
14-16cm 10 - 12cm 14-16cm
conservation, minimum)
5. Nonconventional Shallow tillage with
Disking, Disking, Disking,
system (alternative, disc harrow
10-12cm 10 -12cm 10-12cm
conservation, minimum)
Research methods and calculation: existence of 9 weed varieties, representatives of 6

< soil humidity determination method, total and botanical families and 5 biological groups;
available water reserves, the available water
provision level (B. Dospehov, 1977);
 at sunflower there were detected the
< determination method of the weed type, existence of 10 weed varieties, representatives of 6
numerical and gravimetric level, of the weed pest botanical families and 5 biological groups.
thresholds (B. Dospehov, 1977; N. Nicolaev, 2000); Percentage ration between terofite and
< field crops productivity potential criptofite weeds groups is:
determination method ( Neonila Nicolaev, 2003);  67:33 – at peas beans;
< some soil agro physics coefficients
determination method ( B. Dospehov, 1977);  67:33 – at winter wheat;
Crops harvest of: peas beans – divided, at the  60:40 – at sunflowers.
ripening of 75% of fruits; winter wheat – at the total Weed pest thresholds, the weed level are
ripening of grains, directly; sunflower – at scald phase influenced as by the studied tillage system as by
of 75% of calatidiu total amount, with of each crop the field crops biological properties to compete
production accounting, each variance, within each
with weeds. It was establish that compact seeded
repetition, on the all parcel. The harvest was
transferred to crops standard humidity. crops have a higher capacity of competing with
There were applied varieties and hybrids in weeds. In our experiences, this particularity was
the experience, which are included into Register of detected at the winter wheat. Weeding plants have
plants varieties homologated in the Republic of a lower competiveness with weeds (in our case
Moldova. corn grains and sunflower).
According to presented information from the
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION table 1 and 2, we could emphasize the following:
 at peas beans:
The first research objective provided the soil  the soil health has been influenced by the
health evaluation of studied field crops, stated by studied tillage systems particularities;
weed numerical and gravimetric level, weed pest  tillage systems has assured economic pest
threshold according to conventional and thresholds the a numerical and gravimetric LOW
conservative tillage systems. weed level;
Researches results allowed establishing the  studied tillage systems has assured a
following: LOW gravimetric level of weeds after green and
 at peas beans there were detected the aero-dried weeds mass;
existence of 9 weed varieties from 6 botanical
 it is detected the weed amount and mass
families and 4 biological groups; growing trend within conservative tillage systems
 at winter wheat there are detected the
18
(shallow tillage with plough, paraplow and disk systems (shallow tillage with paraplow and the
harrow) (table 1,2). dick harrow) (table 3, 4).
 at winter wheat:  at sunflower
 the soil health was less dependent of  tillage systems assured an ECONOMIC
studied tillage systems particularities; pest threshold and a numerical LOW weed level;
 tillage systems assured a  studied tillage systems assured a
PHYTOCENOTIC pest threshold and a numerical gravimetric LOW weed level - after green and
VERY LOW weed level; aero-dried weeds mass;
 studied tillage systems has assured a  it is detected the weed amount and mass
gravimetric VERY LOW level of weeds both after growing trend within conservative tillage systems
green and aero-dried weeds mass; (shallow tillage with the paraplow and dick
 it is also detected the weed amount and harrow) (table 5, 6).
mass growing trend within conservative tillage
Table 1
Soil health for peas beans, according to 2012-2013 tillage systems.
Previous cropping – corn/grains. Critical phase to weeds
Weeds
Experience Experience variances during the Weeds
2 Pest threshold numerical level
variances researching year amount/m
Deep ploughing Ploughing– 20-22cm. 74 Economic Low
Deep loosening Loosening – 20-22cm. 86 Economic Low
Shallow ploughing Shallow ploughing (14 – 16cm.) 90 Economic Low
Shallow loosening Shallow loosening (paraplow- 14 – 16cm.); 94 Economic Low
Shallow tillage
Shallow tillage (dicking) - 8-10cm. 92 Economic Low
with disk harrow
Table 2
Soil health for peas beans, according to 2012-2013 tillage systems.
Previous cropping – corn/grains. Critical phase to weeds.
Green and aero- Weed gravimetric level
Experience Experience variances during the
dried weeds after weeds mass
variances researching year 2
mass, g/m green aero-dried
Deep ploughing Ploughing –20-22cm. 114,5/28,5 Low Low
Deep loosening Loosening – 20-22cm. 164,0/43,0 Low Low
Shallow ploughing Shalloe ploughing (14 – 16cm.) 206,0/54,0 Low Low
Shallow loosening Shallow loosening (paraplow- 14 -16cm.); 248,0/64,0 Low Low
Shallow tillage with
Shallow tillage (disking) - 8-10cm. 227,0/62,0 Low Low
dick harrow
Table 3
Soil health for winter wheat, according to 2012-2013 tillage systems.
Previous cropping – peas beans. Critical phase to weeds
Experience variances during the Weeds Weeds
Experience variances 2 Pest threshold
researching year amount/m numerical level
Deep ploughing Shallow tillage disking – 10-12cm. 6 Phytocenotic Very low
Deep loosening Shallow tillage disking – 10-12 cm. 8 Phytocenotic Very low
Shallow ploughing Shallow tillage disking- 10-12 cm. 6 Phytocenotic Very low
Shallow loosening Shallow tillage disking- 10-12cm. 8 Phytocenotic Very low
Shallow tillage with disk
Shallow tillage dicking -10-12cm. 8 Phytocenotic Very low
harrow
Table 4
Soil health for winter wheat, according to 2012-2013 tillage systems.
Previous cropping – peas beans. Critical phase to weeds
Green and Gravimetric
Gravimetric weed
Experience Experience variances during the aero-dreid weed level
level after aero-
variances researching year avarege weeds after green
2 dried weeds mass
mass g/m weeds mass
Deep ploughing Shallow tillage disking – 10-12cm. 16,5/2.0 Very low Very low
Deep loosening Shallow tillage disking – 10-12 cm. 32,0/7,5 Very low Very low
Shallow ploughing Shallow tillage disking- 10-12 cm. 31,5/6,5 Very low Very low
Shallow loosening Shallow tillage disking- 10-12cm. 39,0/9,0 Very low Very low
Shallow tillage dicking -10-12cm. 55,0/11,5 Very low Very low
disk harrow
19
Table 5
Soil health for sunflower, according to 2012-2013 tillage systems.
Previous cropping – winter wheat. Critical phase to weeds
Weeds
Experience variances during the Weeds
Experience variances 2 Pest threshold numerical
researching year amount/m
level
Deep ploughing Ploughing– 25-27cm. 54 Economic Low
Deep loosening Loosening – 25-27cm. 56 Economic Low
Shallow ploughing Shallow ploughing (14 -16cm.) 55 Economic Low
Shallow lossening Shallow loosening (paraplow- 14 -16cm.); 66 Economic Low
Shallow tillage (dicking) - 8-10cm. 59 Economic Low
disk harrow
Table 6
Soil health for sunflower, according to 2012-2013 tillage systems.
Previous cropping – winter wheat. Critical phase to weeds
Green and Gravimetric Gravimetric
aero-dreid weed level weed level
Experience variances during the
Experience variances avarege after green after aero-
researching year
weeds mass weeds dried weeds
g/m2 mass mass
Deep ploughing Ploughing - 25-27 cm 123,0/29,0 Low Low
Deep loosening Loosening – 25-27 cm 174,0/43,0 Low Low
Shallow ploughing Shallow ploughing – (14-16cm.) 166,0/35,0 Low Low
Shallow loosening Shallow loosening (ploscorez- 14-16 cm.) 250,0/62,0 Low Low
Shallow tillage with disk
Shallow tillage (dicking) -8-10cm. 199,0/50,0 Low Low
harrow
Another research objective has provided available for plants at the tillage systems with deep
comparative evaluation of storing water capacities ploughing and loosening predominance (figure 1).
in soil according to conventional and conservative at winter wheat:
tillage systems. It was detected the following:  total water reserves have varied according
at peas beans: to tillage systems in the 160,9-201,4mm limits;
 total water reserves have varied according  water reserves available for plants have
to tillage systems in the 183,9-234,0mm limits; varied according to tillage systems in the 72,7-
 water reserves available for plants have 88,7mm limits that correspond to
varied according to tillage systems in the 118,6- UNSATISFYING water providing level;
124mm limits that correspond to SATISFYING  within studied tillage systems it can be
water providing level; determined the same higher capacity of water
 within studied tillage systems it can be storage available for plants at the tillage systems
determined a higher capacity of water storage with deep ploughing and loosening predominance.
(figure 2).
400
350
300 118,9 121,3

113,6
250 124,4 121,4
0-100cm RAAmm
200
0-100cm RTA mm
150
231,2 234 226
100 186,4 183,9
50
0
A28-30 P28-30 A14-16 P14-16 D10-12
Figure 1 Total and available water reserves at peas beans according to tillage systems, mm.
The horizon 0-100cm. Evidence I, 2013
20
 at sunflower: providing level;

 total water reserves have varied  within studied tillage systems it can be
according to tillage systems in the 245,0-249,0mm determined a light bearing increasing capacity of
limits; water storage available for plants at the tillage
 water reserves available for plants have systems with deep ploughing and loosening
varied according to tillage systems in the 132,0- predominance (figure 3, 4).
136,0mm limits that correspond to GOOD water
300
250 88,7 85,9 84,9

72,7
94,8
200
RAAmm
150
RTAmm
201,4 198,6 194,9 196,7
100
160,9
50
0
A28-30 P28-30 A14-16 P14-16 D10-12
Figure 2 Total and available water reserves at winter wheat according to tillage systems, mm.
The horizon 0-100cm. Evidence I, 2013
0-100 cm RTA
245 249
A 25-27
P 25-27
A 14-16
P 14-16
246 245
D 10-12
246
Figure 3 Total and available water reserves at sunflower according to tillage systems,0-100cm. Evidence I, 2013
0-100 cm RAA
132 136
A 25-27
P 25-27
A 14-16
P 14-16
134 133 D 10-12
134
Figure 4 Available water reserves at sunflower at the begging of vegetation period

according to tillage systems, 0-100cm. Evidence I, 2013
The third research objective is focused on be the most profitable from an agro technic point
tillage systems influences evaluation on soil’s of view (figure 5, 6, 7).
aggregate composition, on its hydro stability. Based on obtained results evaluation it were
Soil samples were collected from three detected the following:
layers: 0-10; 10-20; 20-30cm. studied tillage systems differently influence
There are presented obtained results of sieve aggregative composition values of the soil both at
in water and fraction values of macro structural sieve on land and sieve in water;
hydro stabile aggregates of 1-3mm, considering to
21
 at studied field crops and within tillage layer, at 25% level and a micro structural
systems it was determined a lower content of aggregates predominance - at 63% level (table 7).
macro structural hydro stabile aggregates, in arable
Table 7
Percentage quota and proportion percentage of macro and micro structural aggregates within tillage systems
Soil layer,cm Macrostructural aggregate , Microstructural aggregate, The proportion between
0,25-7,0mm,% <0,25mm,% aacro and microstuctural
aggregates
0-10 27 60 1:2,2
10-20 24 61 1:2,5
20-30 24 67 1:2,8
*at the percentage content evaluation of a macro structural hydro stabile aggregates with a 1-3mm diameter, it
was detected its’ decreasing bearing from 0-10 layers to the 20-30cm one (4,1-2,7%), without any essential difference of
its content within tillage systems (figure 5, 6, 7).
% 1-3mm
2
3
A28-30
P28-30
A14-16
2 P14-16
D10-12
Figure 5 1-3 mm aggregates quota at peas beans, according tillage systems,

the horizon 20-30cm, sieve in water, 2012
1-3mm
2
5
A 28-30
P28-30
A14-16
2 P14-16
D10-12
Figure 6 1-3 mm aggregates quota at corn grains, according tillage systems,

20-30cm 1-3mm
2
4
A28-30
3 P28-30
A14-16
P14-16
D10-12
4
3
Figure 7 1-3 mm aggregates quota at winter wheat, according tillage systems,

22
Table 8
Corn grains productivity according to tillage systems, 2011- 2012
Corn Crop, + /-unto deep % unto deep ploughing
grains t/ha ploughing
Ploughing- 28-30cm 1,54 - 100,0
Paraplow – 28-30cm 0,21 -1,33 13,6
Shallow ploughing -14-16cm 0,87 -0,67 56,5
Shallow loosening, 14-16cm 0,92 -0,62 59,7
Shallow tillage with the harrow-10-12cm 0,63 -0,91 40,9
DL 05, t/ha 0,99
Table 9
Peas beans productivity according to tillage systems, 2011- 2012
Peas Crop, + /-unto deep % unto deep ploughing
beans t/ha ploughing
Ploughing- 20-22cm 0,60 - 100,0
Paraplow –20-22cm 0,40 -0,20 66,7
Shallow ploughing-14-16cm 0,31 -0,29 51,7
Shallow loosening- 14-16cm 0,29 -0,31 48,3
Shallow tillage with the harrow-10-12cm 0,33 -0,27 55,0
DL 05, t/ha 0,22
Table 10
Winter wheat productivity according to tillage systems, 2011- 2012
Winter Crop, t/ha +/--unto deep % unto
wheat ploughing deep ploughing
Disking-10-12cm 1,99 - 100,0
Disking-10-12cm 1,85 -0,14 92,0
Disking-10-12cm 1,43 -0,56 71,9
Disking-10-12cm 1,5 3 -0,46 76,9
Disking-10-12cm 1,83 -0,16 92,0
DL 05, t/ha 0,33
Table 11
Peas beans productivity according to tillage systems, 2012- 2013
Peas beans Crop, t/ha + /-unto deep % unto deep
ploughing ploughing
Ploughing- 20-22cm 1,67 - 100,0
Paraplow – 20-22cm 1,11 -0,56 66,5
Shallow ploughing -14-16cm 1,35 -0,32 80,8
Shallow loosening, 14-16cm 0,93 -0,74 -55,7
Shallow tillage with the harrow-10-12cm 0,77 -0,90 -46,1
DL 05, t/ha 0,59
Table 12
Winter wheat productivity according to tillage systems, 2012- 2013
Winter wheat Crop, t/ha + /-unto deep % unto deep
ploughing ploughing
Disking-10-12cm 5,70 - 100,0
Disking-10-12cm 5,20 -0,5 91,2
Disking-10-12cm 5,20 -0,5 91,2
Disking-10-12cm 5,30 -0,4 92,9
Disking-10-12cm 5,00 -0,7 87,7
DL 05, t/ha 1,16
Table 13
Sunflower productivity according to tillage systems, 2012- 2013
Sunflower Crop, t/ha +/--unto deep % unto deep
ploughing ploughing
Ploughing - 25-27cm 2,33 - 100,0
Paraplow - 25-27cm 2,20 -0,13 94,4
Shallow ploughing - 14-16cm 2,30 -0,03 98,7
Shallow loosening - 14-16cm 1,93 -0,43 82,8
Shallow tillage with the harrow – 10-12cm 2,13 -0,17 91,4
DL 05, t/ha 1,11
23
CONCLUSIONS level, all tillage systems have attested similar

values.
Evaluation results regarding the field crops  at all tillage systems was detected an
productivity level according to tillage systems it increasing bearing of percentage quota at
was determined the following: microstructural hydro stabile aggregates.
 field crops productivity was strongly Percentage proportion between macro and micro
influenced by the climatic conditions of the stable aggregates fractions into soil’s arable layers
agricultural year and less by tillage systems have varied under 1:2, 2 -1:2, 8 limits. Along with
particularities; arable layer deepness from 0-10 to 20-30cm, it is
 at extreme climatic conditions of the detected its’ decreasing from 4, 1 till 2, 7%.
agricultural year 2011-2012, the highest  the highest productivity level at studied
productivity was provided by the tillage system crops has been detected by the conventional tillage
with deep ploughing predominance (0.60 t / ha- at system with deep ploughing predominance. The
peas beans; 1.99 t/ha- at winter wheat; 1.54 t/ha - productivity level decreasing at the other tillage
at corn grains). Production decreases in contrast to systems was stated as significant and was
other tillage systems are considered as significant, confirmed by statistic processing of researches’
respectively representing: -0.20 - 0.31; -0.14 - results.
0.56; - 0.62 - 1.33 t/ha;
 at climatic conditions of the agricultural REFERENCES
year 2012-2013, the highest level of productivity
Boincean B., 2011 - Lucrarea solului – tendinţe şi
was also provided by tillage system with deep perspective, ACADEMOS, Chişinău, p.61-67.
ploughing predominance (1.67 t/ha at peas beans, Guş P., Rusu T., 2005 - Sistemele minime de lucrare a
5.70 t/ha – at winter wheat, 2.33 t/ha - at solului – alternative pentru protecţia mediului, Al
sunflower). Production decreases in contrast to 5-lea Simpozion cu Participare Internaţională
other tillage systems are considered as significant, ,,Sisteme de Lucrări Minime ale Solului”, Cluj-
Napoca, p. 9-19.
respectively representing: -0.32 - 0.90; -0.40 - Marin D., et al, 2005 - Influenţa sistemului de lucrări
0.70; - 0.03 - 0.43 t/ha. neconvenţionale asupra stabilităţii hidrice a
 tillage systems within experiences agregatelor structurale ale solului preluvosol
framework have not substantial influenced the soil roşcat din Zona Moara Domnească – Ilfov., Al 5-
lea Simpozion cu Participare Internaţională
capacity of water accumulation and storage. Even ,,Sisteme de Lucrări Minime ale Solului”, Cluj-
during deficit humidity years, it can be established Napoca, p. 38-43.
a light capacity increasing bearing of water storage Rusu T. et al, 2005 - Cercetări privind influenţa
within nonconventional (conservative) systems sistemelor minime de lucrare a solului asupra
conservării fertilităţii solului şi a rezervi de apă
with an overthrow furrows tillage predominance.
acumulată în sol, Al 5-lea Simpozion cu
According to assessment scale of assurance of Participare Internaţională ,,Sisteme de Lucrări
plant available water conservation and proving Minime ale Solului”, Cluj-Napoca, p. 19- 27.
24
Aleurocanthus spiniferus (QUAINTANCE, 1903) (ORANGE SPINY

WHITEFLY, OSW) (Hemiptera, Aleyrodidae) INVADED SOUTH OF ITALY
Ahmed El KENAWY1, Raul BAETAN2, Isabella CORRADO1,

Daniele CORNARA1, Ion OLTEAN2, Francesco PORCELLI1*
*e-mail: francesco.porcelli@uniba.it
Abstract
Inspection started from the Lecce city center, namely from the main public park or garden, then extended to orchards
and boundaries searching for infested plants. The specimens collected mainly came from young fully mature leaves
from the basal part of the infested trees. On infested trees puparia and eggs can be easily collected and black adults can
be spotted at the top twigs. Otherwise A. spiniferus is usually on the underside of the leaves. Puparia were slide-
mounted by quick-mounts method (Martin et al., 2000) or in Canada balsam following the suggestions of Pizza and
Porcelli (1993) and Martin (1999). The black puparia were bleached with a cold mixture of 30-volume ammonia and
20-volume hydrogen peroxide (Martin, 1999; Anonymous, 2004). Mounted specimens were identified following
Silvestri (1928), Bink-Moenen (1983), Kanmiya et al. (2011), Martin (1987 and 1999). The laboratory notes and the
observations were taken by stereomicroscope, light compound microscope and Hitachi TM3000 low pressure SEM. By
the end of 2009 OSW infested 68 of the 97 municipalities of Lecce district but the intensity of its infestation varied. In
2010 the pest infested 88 municipalities, except Diso, Guagnano, Melendugno, Novoli, Salice Salentino, Squinzano,
Trepuzzi, Uggiano la Chiesa and Veglie. In 2011 OSW started to spread into the villages of the Adriatic
coast.Apparently Melendugno and Diso were not infested by it. In 2011 A. spiniferus was found on a Citrus limon in a
private garden from San Pancrazio Salentino, a village in the Brindisi district.
Key words: Aleurocanthus spiniferus, citrus, Lecce District
Orange spiny whitefly, Aleurocanthus in South Italy, Apulia near Supersano - Lecce
spiniferus (Quaintance), figure 1, is reported to be District by Porcelli (2008) where it had become
one of the most destructive aleyrodids attacking acclimatized and was locally spreading. Thus,
citrus in tropical Asia. A. spiniferus originated in OSW is now recorded in the EPPO area. A.
south-east Asia and has spread widely in tropical spiniferus is a polyphagous insect, reported to
and subtropical Asia then to Australia, Africa and infest 90 plant species of 38 plant families.
the Pacific Islands, following the main trade Orange Spiny Whitefly A. spiniferus directly
routes. The pest was also reported in Kenya and affects the export of Citrus plants and fruits to
Indonesia ,Malaysia, India, Cambodia, Thailand, other countries (figure 2), thus posing a major
Japan, Marianas Islands, Mauritius Philippines, threat for national and international trade from the
Micronesia, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Mediterranean area and the European producers.
Hawaii, Sumatra and South Africa. Because of the particular OSW adults black color,
A. spiniferus was recorded for the first time it is easy to detect its presence in the field.
A B C
Figure 1 Aleurocanthus spiniferus stages: a) adult; b) puparia; c) eggs.
1
DiSSPA Sez Entomologia e Zoologia, UNIBA Aldo Moro, Bari, Italy
2
University of Agricultural Sciences and Vererinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca
25
Figure 2 a) Branch of citrus blackened by soot that develops on the honeydew;

b) orange covered with sooty mold; c) oranges contaminated and unmarketable.
MATERIAL AND METHOD 2000) or in Canada balsam following the suggestions

of Pizza and Porcelli (1993) and Martin (1999). The
Inspection started from the Lecce city center, black puparia were bleached with a cold mixture of
namely from the main public park or garden, then 30-volume ammonia and 20-volume hydrogen
extended to orchards and boundaries searching for peroxide (Martin, 1999; Anonymous, 2004). Mounted
infested plants. specimens were identified following Silvestri (1928),
Bink-Moenen (1983), Kanmiya et al. (2011), Martin
(1987 and 1999). The laboratory notes and the
observations were taken by stereomicroscope, light
compound microscope and Hitachi TM3000 low
pressure SEM.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
By the end of 2009 OSW infested 68 of the

97 municipalities of Lecce district but the intensity
of its infestation varied. In 2010 the pest infested
88 municipalities, except Diso, Guagnano,
Melendugno, Novoli, Salice Salentino, Squinzano,
Trepuzzi, Uggiano la Chiesa and Veglie. In 2011
OSW started to spread into the villages of the
Adriatic coast.Apparently Melendugno and Diso
were not infested by it. In 2011 A. spiniferus was
found on a Citrus limon in a private garden from
San Pancrazio Salentino, a village in the Brindisi
district.
OSW adults are able to fly downwind for a
short distance (Meyerdink et al., 1979) and can
enter cars or stick on people for long-distance
Figure 3 A. spiniferus (Quaintance 1903): movement. They can also travel on infested plants
(A) general aspect of the mounted puparium;
and twig-decorated fruits. Aleurocanthus spp. was
(B) submarginal dorsal glands; (C) marginal teeth
using light microscope with phase contrast; found on the leaves of infested plants that came
(D) posterior end of the puparium. from international trade. (Anonymous, 1997).
The spread of this pest had serious
The specimens collected mainly came from consequences; OSW represents a major threat to
young fully mature leaves from the basal part of the the environment because of the increasing
infested trees. On infested trees puparia and eggs
can be easily collected and black adults can be
pesticides distribution in response to massive
spotted at the top twigs. Otherwise A. spiniferus is infestations. Another negative aspect is the pest
usually on the underside of the leaves. Puparia were ability to infest wild plants, which are the main
slide-mounted by quick-mounts method (Martin et al., pest reservoir in the area.
26
Figure 4 The first detection of A. spiniferus in Lecce District
Figure 5 Diffusion of Aleurocanthus spiniferus in Apulia from 2008 to 2011
27
CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES
The plants are directly damaged through sap Cioffi M., Cornara D., Corrado I., Jansen M., Porcelli
F., 2013 - The status of Aleurocanthus spiniferus
sucking and the consequent excretion of from its unwanted introduction in Italy to date,
considerable amounts of honeydew that is Bulletin of Insectology, 66 (2) 273-281.
promptly infected by sooty mold. The latter Pizza M., Porcelli F., 1993 - Sull’allestimento di
indirectly damages the plant affecting plant preparati microscopici di pupari di aleirodidi
(Homoptera).- Bollettino della Società
respiration and photosynthesis, thus reducing the Entomologica Italiana, 125 (1), 3-5.
quality and the quantity of the fruits, which are Porcelli F., 2008 - First record of Aleurocanthus
black-stained and untradeable. spiniferus (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) in Puglia,
The infestation of OSW results into the Southern Italy. EPPO Bulletin, 38 (3), 516-518.
weakening of the trees, their defoliation and Porcelli F., Convertini S., Garonna A.P. and Pizza M.,
1903 - Aleurocanthus spiniferus (Quaintance)
dieback of the branches. It is possible that the (rhynchota,aleyrodidae), fitofago da quarantena
plants so weakened can die. recentemente introdotto in Italia. (eds). xxii
Congresso Nazionale Italiano di Entomologia
Ancona 15-18 Giugno 2009.
*** - USDA, 1974 - New United States records - Orange
spiny whitefly Aleurocanthus spiniferus
(Quaintance) Hawaii. Cooperative-Economic-
Insect-Report 24(30), 585.
28
PARTIAL ROOT ZONE DRYING IRRIGATION

AND DIFFERENT NITROGEN LEVELS AFFECT ON NITROGEN
RECOVERY EFFICIENCY FOR DRIP IRRIGATED SUGAR BEET CROP
Ramazan TOPAK1, Bilal ACAR1, Refik UYANÖZ2, Ercan CEYHAN3
e-mail: biacar@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract
This study was conducted to determine different nitrogen levels affect on nitrogen recovery efficiency, NRE, by use of
drip irrigation under partial root zone drying irrigation and fertigation techniques for sugar beet plant. Research was
performed in 2012 and 2013 at Konya - Çumra Plain of Turkey and Stine sugar beet cultivar was used. In study,
application of 100% irrigation water requirement of plant, FI (Full Irrigation) and 50% application of FI by using fixed
(FPRD50) and alternative partial root drying (APRD50) irrigation techniques, and application of 100% nitrogen
requirement of sugar beet, FN (Full Nitrogen) with two deficit nitrogen treatments of 75% (DN75) and 50% (DN50) of
FN levels were applied by drip irrigation. Different deficit nitrogen applications affect on crop nitrogen use was
researched comparatively under different irrigation techniques and fertigation method. The results showed that among
the irrigation treatments, differences in NRE from nitrogen fertilizer were found not significant. DN50 was found the
highest NRE of crop from nitrogen fertilizer. The greatest performances combinations in NRE of crop from fertilizer
nitrogen were, FIDN50 as 52.6%, FPRD50DN50 as 48.5% and APRD50DN50 as 41.0% interactions. Those results
showed that nitrogen requirement of crop can be reduced for drip irrigated sugar beet farming.
Key words: Sugar beet, drip irrigation method, PRD, deficit nitrogen, fertigation, nitrogen recovery.
Irrigated agriculture is the highest water user groundwater resources of basin is present and is
accounting for more than 70% of global not efficient and not sustainable (Anonymous,
withdrawals and this share is more than 90% in 2007; Topak and Acar, 2011). Sugar beet is high
some countries (IWMI, 2007). water consuming crop (Fabeiro et al. 2003) and
Konya Basin, Middle Anatolian Region, lies total water consumption for whole growing season
within a semi-arid climate with annual rainfall varies from 900 mm to 1200 mm (Dunham, 1993).
ranging from 280 mm to 500 mm and is one of the Proper irrigation can maximize sugar beet
most important agro-industrial regions of Turkey. yields while minimizing disease, water costs,
Such basin has about 13% of farmlands as well as fertilizer leaching, and soil erosion. One of the
3% of available water potential of Turkey and is efficient strategies for efficient irrigation water
included as water scant regions through the world. uses is deficit irrigation program in areas having
Irrigation area is about 650 000 ha in basin, and water shortage.
cereal and summer crops patterns are about 45% Under well management, deficit irrigation
and 55%, respectively. In summer crops, sugar results substantial water savings with little impact
beet is a main commercial field crop in this region on the quality and quantity of the harvested yield.
having the largest producer of Turkey with about Deficit irrigation can be defined as applying less
35% in 115 000 ha sugar beet growing area (Topak water than the crop needs for full development and
et al. 2008). Water lost by evapotranspiration is works with deep-rooted crops (Shock et al. 2013)
very high during growing season in the basin so such as sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.) (Kırda, 2002).
irrigation is vital important to maintain and Sugar beet tolerates mid and late-season plant
enhance the crop growth and yield. Irrigation water water stress and this characteristic make it a
is mainly obtained from the ground water suitable crop for production with “limited”
resources. Excess water extraction from irrigation. The potential benefits of deficit
1
Dr. Dept. of Farm Buildings & Irrigation, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk, Konya - Turkey
2
Dr. Dept. of Soil Science, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk, Konya - Turkey
3
Dr. Dept. of Field Crops, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk, Konya - Turkey
29
irrigation derived from 3 factors: increased crop yield per kg nutrient applied); agronomic
irrigation efficiency, and reduced irrigation and efficiency (AE, kg crop yield increase per kg
water opportunity costs (English and Raja, 1996). nutrient applied); apparent recovery efficiency
Under limited water resources where water (RE, kg nutrient taken up per kg nutrient applied);
is precious, partial root zone drying, PRD, is a and physiological efficiency (PE, kg yield increase
viable irrigation option to increase water per kg nutrient taken up).
productivity while margining the yield, rather than Differences in the scale of farming
only increasing the economic yield without operations and management practices such as
concerning the value of water in limited water tillage, seeding, weed and pest control, irrigation,
environments (Sepaskhah and Ahmadi, 2010). harvesting usually result lower NUE. Nitrogen
PRD is a modified form of deficit irrigation recovery in crops grown by farmers rarely exceeds
(English et al. 1990; Stikić et. al. 2010; Ibrahim 50% and is often much lower. A review of best
Ali et al. 2004). It is a novel irrigation strategy available information suggests average N recovery
since half of the roots is exposed to dry soil while efficiency for fields managed by farmer ranges
the other half is growing in irrigated soil (Ahmadi from about 20% to 30% under rain fed conditions
et al. 2010). Topak et al. (2012) studied deficit drip and 30% to 40% under irrigated conditions
irrigation effect on dry bean yield in Konya Region (Roberts, 2008).
of Turkey and suggested 30% deficit irrigation is Prasad (2009) reported that crop varieties
applicable for dry bean cultivation. However, PRD and cropping systems, soil management,
technique in sugar beet in this region has not been agronomic management (timely sowing and
studied so far (Topak et al. 2011). transplanting), weed control, water management
Adequate soil fertility is one of the (proper irrigation scheduling and moisture
requirements for efficient sugar beet production. conservation) in rain-fed agriculture, fertilizer
Nitrogen (N) is the most yield-limiting nutrient, materials and their methods of application are
and N management is critical to obtain optimum highly correlated with nitrogen use efficiency.
sugar beet yield and quality (Davis and Wastfall, Sugar beet profits are based on three key
2014; Koocheki et al. 1997). factors: root yield, sucrose content, and sucrose
Nitrogen has the greatest influence on crop recovery efficiency. Nutrients especially nitrogen,
yield and also is a key component of enzymes, N, can affect all three factors. Excess N in the soil
vitamins, chlorophyll and other cell constituents, can both reduce sucrose content and conversely, N
which are essential for crop growth and deficiency in the soil can reduce root and sugar
development. Indicators of nitrogen deficiency in yields (Moore et al. 2009). In a research, nitrogen
plants are poor growth rate, yellow leaves because use up to 240 kg/ha increased sugar yield and
of lack of chlorophyll as well as stunted through water use efficiency (Taleghani 1998). Increased
lack of leaf expansion. root yield under no water stress conditions with
Improving nutrient efficiency is a worthy increased N amount was much more by
goal and fundamental challenge facing the comparison to water stress conditions. In examine
fertilizer industry, and agriculture in general. The root yield, no water stress treatment by using 150
fertilizer industry supports applying nutrients at the kg N ha-1 resulted the highest yield. Water stress
right rate, right time, and in the right place as a treatment particularly constant water stress had the
best management practice for achieving optimum maximum water use efficiency (Esmaeili, 2011).
nutrient efficiency (Roberts, 2008). Leilah et al. (2005) researched the effect of
The effectiveness of variable rate of nitrogen adding 250 kg N/ ha into two equal portion (at 45
application heavily relies on the capability of and 60 days after planting), three equal portion (at
detecting nitrogen status while the fertilizer is 45, 60 and 75 days after planting), and four equal
being applied (Noh et al. 2006). portion (at 45, 60, 75 and 90 days after planting) in
Cai and Ge (2004) informed that content of a newly reclaimed sandy soil at Kalabsho region in
nitrogen in beet plant increased with the elevation the northern district of Belkas, Dakahlia
of nitrogen amount, which showed significantly Governorate, Egypt, during the two successive
positive correlation: the absolute content of seasons of 1994/95 and 1995/96. Addition of 250
nitrogen increased gradually with the growing kg N/ ha in four equal portions was recommended
proceeding, and reached the peak in root for maximizing sugar beet production.
formation, then decreased. This study was, therefore, performed to
Nutrient use efficiency, NUE, can be determine different N levels affect on nitrogen
expressed several ways. Mosier et al. (2004) recovery efficiency, NRE, of sugar beet crop by
described 4 agronomic indices commonly used to using drip irrigation under PRD and fertigation
describe NUE: partial factor productivity (PFP, kg techniques.
30
MATERIAL AND METHOD about 323 mm. The experimental site has no rainfall
whatsoever in summers.
A field study was conducted at the The soil in this area is alluvial origin with high
Experimental Station of Çumra Vocational School, lime contents and scant organic matter. The soils
about 50 km far from Konya city center of Turkey, at have no salinity as well as drainage problems such as
about 1000 m above the sea level. Climate in this water table (Ertaş, 1984). Some physical properties of
region is semi-arid with total annual precipitation of experimental site related to irrigation were presented
in table 1.
Table 1
Some physical properties of experimental field
*
Depth Texture** Field Capacity Wilting Point (%) Available Water Capacity, AWC,
(cm) (%)* mm/30 cm
0–30 C 30.55 18.89 45
30–60 C 32.74 19.42 57
60–90 C 32.93 19.76 57
*: % water by weight **: C, clay.
The Stine sugar beet variety was planted by other side was exposed to dry conditions in whole
machine on 18 April 2012 and 3 May 2013. After growth season.
sowing plants, the plots were irrigated by sprinkler Field trials were designated as divided
irrigation method, a watering volume of 25 mm. In experimental plots with tree replications. FI irrigation
both experimental years, beet plants were thinned to treatment was designated as control and irrigation
a distance of about 0.2 m on the rows at the 4th week program was made in accordance of FI. In irrigation
after planting. treatments, irrigation was started at 35-40% water
In study, N levels were designated as main depletion from the available water capacity through
and irrigations were sub-main plot treatments. Certain the crop root zone depth and other irrigations were
N levels were calculated by pure form and applied performed in the reference of FI.
nitrogen sources were DAP (for base application) and There was 3.0 m separation between each
urea (46% N for surface application) forms. plot to minimize water movement among treatments.
In this study, irrigation water and nitrogen Each experimental plot was 30 m x 2.7 m (6 rows per
requirements of sugar beet crop were reduced and plot) and had a total area of 81.0 m 2. In the study,
those amounts were applied by different drip irrigation whole plots were irrigated by drip irrigation system.
techniques. N treatments were as follows: application The drippers were inline type and placed 0.30 m
of 100% nitrogen requirement of plant, FN (Full apart from each other and had 2 L/h discharge rate at
Nitrogen), and two conventional deficit nitrogen 1.0 atm pressure. Emitter spacing was determined by
treatments of 75% (DN75) and 50% (DN50) of FN field test just before the experiment at research site.
with a total of 3 N levels. Irrigation treatments were as Lateral spacing was 0.45 m apart. Thus, the
follows: application of 100% irrigation water percentage of wetted area that related dripper
requirement of plant, FI (Full Irrigation), and 50% spacing to lateral spacing was about 90%, according
application of FI by using alternative (APRD50) and to the principles of Keller and Bliesner (1990).
fixed partial root drying (FPRD50) with a total of 3 By analysis of experimental soil in respect to
irrigation treatments. fertility, N, P, K contents of research soil were
In FI treatment, lateral lines were placed for determined and then N, P, K requirements of sugar
each row and those were arranged just next to the beet was determined. In this purpose, soil samples
crop row so that both sides of the crop rows were were taken from 0-30, 30-60 and 60-90 cm soil
wetted by this way. depths. In those soil samples, total N, (NH4+NO3),
In APRD50 treatment, laterals were installed was determined by Bremner, (1960), Jackson (1962)
just center of two crop rows and those were parallel and available phosphorus, P, was measured by
to the crop rows. In such treatment, irrigation events Olsen et al. (1954). Potassium, K, in soil was
were performed by rotation (laterals were used by determined by using 1 N Ammonium Ashetat
every other lateral use). One side of the crop rows extraction with fleymfotometre (Jackson, 1962; Kacar,
was irrigated like the FI treatment while the other side 1994). For optimum yield of sugar beet, as a pure
was exposed to dry condition. In next irrigation event, form of 90 kg P (P2O5)/ha, 270 kg K (K2O)/ha, 220 kg
irrigation was performed as opposite the previous N/ha are needed (Günşiray, 1990; Arıoğlu, 1997) and
one. those levels were used in basic fertilizer applications
In FPRD50 treatment, each lateral was in present study. From soil analysis, 57 kg N/ ha, 20
installed for two crop rows with a lateral spacing of 90 kg P/ ha and 700 kg K/ ha was determined before the
cm and those laterals were just in crop rows. In such experiment in research site.
plots, one side of the crop rows was irrigated while According to soil analysis, as a pure form, 36
31
Kg N / ha was applied to base for all treatments and the upper soil. Irrigations were started on 8 June
Diammonium Phosphate, DAP, was used for this (2012) and 15 June (2013) lasted on 12 (2012) and
purpose. Pure phosphorus as 70 kg P /ha was 10 (2013) September.
applied to all plots with sowing. The rest of N
amounts were applied to FN, DN75 and DN50 plots RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
with four equal parts in first four irrigations events by
fertigation. Therefore, total N applications were as
follows: FN: 160 kg N/ ha; DN75: 120 kg N/ ha and The study was conducted in two years and
DN50: 80 kg N/ ha. results as averages obtained from 2012-2013
Root yield was measured by manual growth periods were as follows:
harvesting the center two rows from a six-row subplot
on 6 October 2012 and 28 September 2013. A. Nitrogen Content in Root
To assess the effectiveness of nitrogen
fertilizer, Nitrogen Recovery Efficiency, NRE, can be
Irrigation treatments significantly affected N
used. NRE can be calculated as follows (Norton and levels in root (table 2) and FPRD50 produced the
Silvertooth,1999): highest N level as 0.68% and followed by
NRE= [(F-C)/N]*100 APRD50 as 0.64% and lowest one was in FI as
where: 0.55% in sugar beet root. The increase in applied
F- total N uptake in fertilized plots, kg/ha water resulted lower N level in root yield. In
C- total N uptake in unfertilized (check) plots,
examine the N levels effect on N content of root,
kg/ha
N- total fertilizer N applied kg N/ha. the highest N was obtained from FN as 0.68% (the
Monitoring of soil moisture content allows a highest N fertilizer application) and the lowest one
good assessment of the crop’s water needs. In was obtained from the lowest N fertilizer
treatments, soil water content measurements were application of DN50 as 0.55%. N levels had
made one day before irrigation in each a treatment significant effect on N levels in root. In examine
until harvest for all treatments by use of plastic irrigation x N level interaction, the highest N
access tubes 42 mm in diameter and 1.0 m long in
the soil and using a Time Domain Refroctometer
contents were found in FPRD50FN as 0.74% and
(TDR) (Imko, Trime-FM3-T3 probe, Imko APRD50FN as 0.72% while the lowest one was
Micromodültechnik GMBH, Ettlingen-Germany). The obtained from FIDN50 as 0.53%.
soil moisture content in the first 15 cm soil layer was
measured by the P3-rod probe designed for use in
Table 2
Nitrogen content in root, %
Years Irrigation N Levels
Treatments FN DN75 DN50 Mean
FI 0.57 bc 0.55 bc 0.53 c 0.55 b
2012-2013 FPRD50 0.74 a 0.67 ab 0.63 abc 0.68 a
APRD50 0.72 a 0.66 ab 0.55 bc 0.64 a
Mean 0.68 a 0.63 ab 0.55 b 0.62
Significant at 5%.
B. Nitrogen Content in Leaf fertilizer application as 3.32% and followed by

Data listed in table 3 reveal that irrigation DN75 as 3.08%. The differences between FN and
treatments had no significant effect on nitrogen DN75 were no significant. In examine irrigation
contents in sugar beet leaves. The nitrogen treatment x N level interaction, the highest N
contents of leaf for FI, FPRD50 and APRD50 contents were found in FPRD50FN as 3.42% and
treatments were obtained 2.97%, 3.13% and followed by APRD50FN as 3.34% while the
2.95%, respectively. However, N levels had lowest one was obtained from APRD50DN50 as
significant effect on nitrogen content of leaf. The 2.44%.
highest N contents were obtained from FN
Table 3
Nitrogen content in Leaf, %
Irrigation N Levels
Years Treatments FN DN75 DN50 Mean
FI 3.19 ab 2.97 ab 2.76 bc 2.97
2012-2013 FPRD50 3.42 a 3.21 ab 2.78 bc 3.13
APRD50 3.34 a 3.07 ab 2.44 c 2.95
Mean 3.32 a 3.08 a 2.66 b 3.02
Significant at 5%.
32
C. Nitrogen Uptake by Root significant effects on nitrogen uptakes from root

Data presented in table 4 show that and the highest nitrogen uptakes from root of sugar
irrigation treatments had no significant effects on beet crop were found in FPRD50FN as 122.4
nitrogen uptake from root. The highest nitrogen kg/ha, and followed by APRD50FN as 121.0
uptake from root was obtained from FPRD50 kg/ha, FIFN as 120.6 kg/ha, FPRD50DN75 as
treatment as 115.4 kg/ha. On the other hand, N 117.1 kg/ha, FIDN50 as 111.3 kg/ha and FIDN75
levels had significant effects on nitrogen uptake as 110.5 kg/ha while the lowest one was obtained
from root. The highest one was obtained from FN from APRD50DN50 as 89.4 kg/ha.
treatment as 121.3 kg/ha while the lowest one was
found in DN50 as 102.4 kg/ha. The interaction
between irrigation treatment and N levels had
Table 4
Total nitrogen uptake by root, kg/ha
Irrigation N Levels
FI 120.6 a 110.5 a 111.3 a 114.1
2012-2013 FPRD50 122.4 a 117.1 a 106.6 ab 115.4
APRD50 121.0 a 112.6 ab 89.4 b 107.7
Mean 121.3 a 113.4 ab 102.4 b 112.4
Significant at 5%.
Norton and Silvertooth (1999) stated that levels had significant effects on nitrogen use and
168 kg N /ha resulted 145 kg/ha and 210 kg/ha the highest nitrogen use of sugar beet crop were
nitrogen uptake for 1996 and 1997, respectively found in FPRD50FN as 55.2 kg/ha, and followed
for cotton plant at Casa Grande sandy loam soil by FIFN as 54.2 kg/ha while the lowest one was
(fine-loamy, mixed, hyperthermic, Typic obtained from APRD50DN50 as 33.1 kg/ha.
Natriargid (reclaimed) at the University of
Arizona Maricopa Agricultural Center (MAC) E. Nitrogen Recovery Efficiency
located northwest of Casa Grande, AZ. In our Data presented in Table 6 shows the effect
study, the highest N uptake was observed from the of irrigation treatments and N levels on nitrogen
highest N applied level of FN around 120 kg/ha. use recovery efficiency (NRE). As seen in Table
Our study findings were lower than the results of 6, those irrigation treatments had no significant on
Norton and Silvertooth (1999). The possible NRE. It varied from 41.1 % (FI treatment) and
reasons might be the differences in crop variety, 37.7% (APRD50 treatment). Different N levels
soil properties and environmental factors. had significant effects on NRE. The highest one
was obtained from DN50 as 47.4% and the lowest
D. Nitrogen Use from Fertilizer one was found in FN as 32.9%. The interaction
Data presented in table 5 reveal that between irrigation treatment and N levels had
irrigation treatments had no significant effect on significant effects on NRE and the highest NRE
nitrogen use from fertilizer. The highest nitrogen was found in FIDN50 as 52.6%. Our results were
use was obtained from FPRD50 treatment as 48.1 lower than results mentioned some European
kg/ha and the lowest one was found in APRD50 Countries such as Portual, Sweeden and France
as 43.4 kg/ha. Different N levels had significant (Brentrup and Palliere, 2010). It can be stated that
effects on nitrogen use. The highest one was increasing N rates resulted decreasing NRE so our
obtained from FN level as 53.6 kg/ha while the findings are inline with Norton and Silvertooth
lowest one was found in DN50 as 38.4 kg/ha. The (1999).
interaction between irrigation treatment and N
Table 5
Nitrogen use from fertilizer, kg/ha
Irrigation N Levels
FI 54.2 a 45.4 ab 42.8 ab 47.5
2012-2013 FPRD50 55.2 a 49.8 ab 39.4 ab 48.1
APRD50 51.2 ab 45.9 ab 33.1 b 43.4
Mean 53.6 a 47.0 ab 38.4 b 46.33
Significant at 5%.
33
Table 6
Nitrogen recovery efficiency, NRE, %
Irrigation N Levels
FI 33.4bc 37.3abc 52.6a 41.1
2012-2013 FPRD50 34.0bc 38.1abc 48.5ab 40.1
APRD50 31.5c 40.7abc 41.0abc 37.7
Mean 32.9b 38.7ab 47.4a 39.67
Significant at 5%.
CONCLUSIONS verimine etkileri (in Turkish with English

Abstract). Konya Bölge Topraksu Araştırma
Enstitüsü Müdürlüğü, Genel yayın No. 100,
The study aimed to research effects of Konya, 34ps.
different nitrogen rates on NRE for different drip Esmaeili M.A., 2011 - Evaluation of the effects of water
irrigated sugar beet crop. Increasing N rates has stress and different levels of nitrogen on sugar
resulted decreasing NRE so less amount of N beet (Beta Vulgaris). International Journal of
Biology, 3(2): 89-93.
applications are highly preferable to reduce the Gai B., Ge J., 2004 - The effect of nitrogen level on
fertilizer cost as well as sustainable environment. main nutrient of sugar beet. Nature and Science,
In regions where the water resources are limited, 2 (4): 79-83.
PRD is a viable irrigation alternative for Leilah A.A., Bodowi M.A., Said E.M., Ghonema M.H.,
sustainable use of water resources. Abdou M.A.E. 2005 - Effect of Planting Dates,
Plant Population and Nitrogen Fertilization on
Sugar Beet Productivity Under the Newly
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Reclaimed Sandy Soils in Egypt. Scientific
Journal of King Faisal University (Basic and
The present study was reviewed from the research Applied Sciences), 6(1): 95-110.
project supported by TUBITAK (Project No: Moore A., Stark J., Brown B., Hopkins B., 2009 -
111O286), Scientific Research Projects Southern Idaho Fertilizer Guide, Sugar beet,
Administration Unit, Turkish Government. University of Idaho Extension, CIS 1174, 7 ps.
Authors would like to thanks a lot for their Noh H., Zhang Q., Shin B., Han S., Feng L., 2006 - A
financial supports. neural network model of maize crop nitrogen
stress assessment for a multi- spectral imaging
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35
36
WATER MANAGEMENT AND WATER USE STRATEGIES IN TURKEY
Nizamettin ÇİFTÇİ1, Belgin ÇAKMAK2, Zeki GÖKALP3, Mehmet ŞAHİN1
E-mail: nciftci@selcuk.edu.tr
Abstract
Water is a renewable but limited natural resource. Each drop should effectively be used to meet the water and food
demands of ever-increasing populations. Agriculture is the largest water-consuming sector and the main target is to provide
efficient water use and reduce the amount of water use in agriculture. Environmental impacts on water resources and ever-
increasing water demands of domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors have made the water management a complex and
a difficult issue. Therefore, water-saving modern irrigation technologies should be used, waste water should be re-used,
deficit irrigations and water-harvesting practices should be implemented to provide efficient water use and water saving.
In the present study, water management and water use strategies of Turkey were discussed along with the accession
process of Turkey to European Union and recommendation were provided for effective water management and use.
Key words: Agriculture, efficient water use, water management, water saving.
Water is a basic and indispensable component Water-saving technologies have a special place in
of human life. It is a renewable but a limited natural these strategies. Currently in Turkey, agricultural
resource. Secure water supply for ever-increasing water demands are sufficiently met by current
populations is the most significant problem of world resources but the yields and productions per
nations. Available water resources are getting volume of water are really at low levels. Excessive
limited in one hand day by day, the demand of water is used in irrigations just because of
water-using sectors are also continuously increasing insufficient irrigation infrastructure. Almost 50%
every day. Thus, water resources management now of diverted water is lost along the way to the fields.
is the key issue to meet the increasing demands with Water deficit and water-related problems are at the
limited resources. Therefore, countries develop their door if the urgent measures are not taken soon to
own water-use strategies based on their current prevent such loses. Pressurized pipe systems
conditions. instead of open canal systems, deficit irrigation, re-
Total annual precipitation of Turkey is 642.6 use of treated waste waters and similar measures
mm and such an amount corresponds to 501 billion should be taken to save water in agriculture. In
m3 water. Technically and economically available present study, water management practices of
surface and ground water resources are 112 billion Turkey were summarized and current water-use
m3. Of 28.05 million hectare agricultural lands of strategies were discussed.
Turkey, 25.75 million hectare is irrigable. But
considering the technical and economic conditions INSTITUTIONAL AND LEGAL
together with currently available water resources, FRAMEWORK OF WATER MANAGEMENT
only 8.5 million hectare of this sum is considered
as irrigable. Today, about 5.61 million hectare land Water management is defined as planned
area have opened for irrigation and entire 8.5 development, distribution and use of water
million hectare is planned to be opened for resources. Water resources policies of Turkey are
irrigation by the year 2023. Turkey uses only 44 created by taking economic and social
billion m3 of currently available 112 billion m3 development and water-food security priorities of
resources and entire amount is planned to be used the country, EU full membership negotiations and
again by the year 2023 (Aküzüm T. et al. 2010). regional developments into consideration. Such
Water-use strategies should be developed in policies are updated continuously based on
water management practices of the country to meet changing conditions (SUEN, 2013). Turkish water
the ever-increasing demands of different sectors.
1
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Selçuk, Konya-Turkey
2
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Ankara, Ankara-Turkey
3
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Erciyes, Kayseri-Turkey
37
management policies have been reconstructed institutional and legal regulations to meet the
along with the Turkish accession process of requirements of EU directives.
European Union. Policies are mainly based on
integrated water management. Such management WATER USE AND STRATEGIES
practices take into consideration the meeting
current and future demands, providing food Effective water use can be provided through
security, management of water resources based on reducing water losses along the way from the
not only physical but also social, economic and resource to plants in irrigation implementations.
environmental factors. In integrated management, Water-users (farmers) in agriculture should be
water is considered as both a natural resource and a oriented toward the water-saving technologies and
commodity used based on quality and quantity. practices. Pressurized pipe systems, especially the
In Turkey, state is responsible for water drip irrigation, instead of open canal systems
management, preservation and use and serve for should be constructed and deficit irrigation
various purposes and such services are provided as practices should be implemented win regions with
the public services of the State for citizens. Water- deficit water resources.
use and preservation activities are managed by In Turkey, newly constructed systems are all
different institutions and organizations of the state. pressurized pipe networks. Previously, irrigation
In water management of Turkey, Administrative schemes were composed of 44% classical open
borders (province, town, village, municipality etc.), canal systems, 42% canalatte and 14% pipe
land utilizations (agricultural, forest etc.) and networks. Now, the ratio of pressurized pipe
institutional responsibilities are set by the laws and networks increased to 55% in all irrigation
regulations. Therefore, management is most of the schemes. Such an increase in pipe networks has
time shared by more than one institution and provided significant water savings in irrigations
organizations and turned into a partitioned fashion. since water losses throughout the water
Each institution or organization performs own conveyance and distribution network are
tasks along with their responsibilities. They all prevented. With regard to irrigation methods, the
work in a hierarchical structure created from the highest water losses are observed in surface
central authority to local authority. irrigation methods (%35-%60) which are still
Within Turkish accession process to EU, common in Turkey and the least water losses are
Turkey should create Framework Water Law observed in drip and sprinkler irrigation methods
between the years 2009-2013 along with the (%5-20). Widespread of sprinkler and drip
directives issued in EU Water Framework irrigation methods will reduce water losses provide
Directive (WFD). Ministries of Foreign Affairs, significant savings in irrigation water. Such
Energy and Natural Resources, Environment and savings can be directed to other sectors with water
Urbanization carry out technical works for Water deficits and water resources preservation and
Framework Directive. Water-related laws of sustainability can be provided.
Turkey are really old and scattered within various In Turkey, about 80% of irrigated lands are
laws. There isn’t any integrated water laws. irrigated by surface gravity irrigation methods. The
Various attempts were made recently but none has rest is irrigated by sprinkler and drip irrigation.
been competed or finalized, yet. But in any case, While plants use only 30-35% of diverted water in
an integrated law will be issued to comply with the surface irrigation methods, this rate reaches to 90-
WFD of European Union (Dalkılıç and 95% in sprinkler and drip irrigation methods.
Harmancıoğlu, 2008). Therefore, water-use efficiency is really high in
In WFD of European Union, member drip and sprinkler irrigation. Widespread of these
countries are obligated for an integrated watershed modern water-saving technologies can provide
management with each other and member water about 10% saving in water used in agricultural
framework directives constitutes a framework for sector and such saving corresponds to 50%
integrated water management throughout the entire increase in industrial and 100% increase in
Europe. The basic principle of the directive defines domestic water uses.
the water as “ …not a commodity but a heritage to
be preserved, supported and behaved accordingly”. WASTE WATER-USE IN AGRICULTURE
Moving from this basic principle, the directive
envisages a new and integrated approach aiming to The water coming from settlements, industrial
improve and preserve entire European waters. The facilities, energy facilities, agricultural and livestock
directive compiles the water policy of the Europe production sites and containing hazardous biological
under a single legal framework (Kibaroğlu Y. et al. and chemical materials are defined as waste waters.
2008). In brief, Turkey should realize serious Waste waters are classified in general as domestic,
38
industrial waste waters and runoff waters. Increased Thus, water harvesting comes into scene as a low-
populations, rapid urbanization and industrialization cost alternative (Tarı and Çakır, 2009). Water
create huge amounts of waste waters and such waste harvesting is to collect and store precipitations to
waters should be removed or eliminated without meet the water demands for various purposes. The
creating any harmful impacts on environment. collected amount is either stored to be used directly
Discharge of waste waters without any treatment or used to recharge groundwater.
spoils up the quality of surface waters and makes Collection of precipitation from a surface
them unavailable for other purposes. Re-use of (roof), storage and deliver to users are defined as
treated wastewaters provides two basic benefits. The roof water harvest system (ICARDA, 2010). Re-
first one is the use of waste water as an alternative use of gutter waters reduces water consumption
water resource and the second one is the prevention and provides an alternative means of water saving.
of pollution of water bodies receiving these waste Either above or below ground storages can be used
waters. to store the collected waters. Such storages are
Agricultural wastewaters are usually highly beneficial especially in dry regions and in
composed of drainage waters not used by plants. In regions with low quality surface and ground water
irrigation implementations, large portion of applied resources. The collected water can be used for
irrigation water is not used by plants and removed cleaning activities, irrigations, washing, pools and
as drainage water. Irrigation water is lost through small ponds, fire extinguishing, lavatory traps and
seepage, evaporation, runoff and improper car wash. In this way, significant water savings
operation of irrigation systems. In a study carried will be possible. Water harvesting is an easy and
out over irrigated lands of Konya Province of low-cost technology and can be applied at almost
Turkey, 22% of farmers were using drainage water every slope. About 50% of domestic water needs
as the source of irrigation water (Çiftçi et al. may be supplied from water harvesting
1995). (Kantaroğlu, 2000). Again, about 90% collection
Industrial wastewaters have different of precipitation will provide 50% water saving
characteristics based on the industrial sector. (ÇOB, 2011).
Process waters contain toxic metal, organic
matters, biological pollutants and radioactive DEFICIT IRRIGATION
elements. Treatment of such wastes requires
advanced technologies and expertise. In case Deficit irrigation is used for irrigations in
industrial wastewaters are treated with domestic regions with deficit water resources. In deficit
wastewaters, waste characteristics should fully be irrigation, water is applied either later than the
analyzed and total pollutant loads and their appropriate time or in less than the required
variation in time should accurately be estimated. amount or both practices are implemented together
Domestic wastewaters come from to put the plants into a little bit stress and allow
settlements and business facilities. They are them to use less water. In this case, rather than
basically composed of washing, shower and toilet targeting maximum yields, a certain amount yield
waters. Amount of wastewater created by a loss is allowed by taking water-yield relationships
settlement is depending on the population and into consideration. But such yield loses are tried to
amount of water used per capita. Therefore, be compensated by irrigating larger size of land
reliable estimation of the volume of wastewaters area with the same amount of irrigation water.
will only be possible with reliable population Amount and timing of deficits should carefully be
estimations and analyses. arranged to minimize the yield losses and to get the
optimum benefits from each drop of water.
WATER HARVEST TECHNIQUES Significant savings can be provided when deficit
irrigation programs are prepared in a technical
In arid and semi-arid regions, fashion (Kodal, 2007).
precipitations are either at very levels or unevenly Deficit irrigation can be applied in two
distributed throughout the year. Beside, fashions: continuous deficit through distributing
precipitations are lost through surface runoffs and the deficit evenly over the entire irrigation season;
evaporations and not able to be stored for dry planned deficit by applying deficit amounts at
periods. Therefore, new approaches have been certain plant growth stages. Continuous deficit can
developed to benefit from precipitations be applied by decreasing amount of irrigation
effectively. Although irrigation seems to be the water in each irrigation at certain levels, by
best solution for drought, it is an expensive applying irrigation water as to wet upper portions
approach and water resources are not sufficient of plant root regions, by increasing irrigation
everywhere to implement the irrigation systems. intervals, by applying irrigation water always
39
toward the same side of plant rows. Such practices  Irrigation systems should be designed as
may sometimes provide almost 50% savings in pressurized pipe networks,
irrigation water. Planned deficit are applied just by  Alternative water resources (re-use of waste
reducing the amount of irrigation water at certain waters, diversion of surface waters toward the
plant growth stages. Such deficit is applied mostly water-deficit regions, development of water saving
at the period in which plants are resistant to water methods and technologies) should be developed,
stress most.  Volume-based water pricing should be applied
rather than plant-area based pricing,
CONCLUSION  A coordination should be provided among the
water-related institutions and organizations,
Ever-increasing country population and  Farmers should be made conscious about water
consequently increasing water demands have made use and saving,
the planned and effective use of water resources.  A broad-coverage water law should be issued
Lack of sufficient legal regulations about the for effective use and preservation of water
allocation, use and management of limited soil and resources.
water resources let the waste of several resources.
On the other hand, social and economic welfare of REFERENCES
people and consequently increasing life standards
also increase domestic water use per capita. Aküzüm T., Çakmak B., Gökalp Z. 2010 - Türkiye’de
In Turkey, there isn’t any institutional Su Kaynakları Yönetimi ve Değerlendirilmesi.
coordination about the use and preservation of Tarım Bilimleri Araştırma Dergisi 3 (1): 67-74 (In
water resources. Related ministries and local Turkish).
Çiftçi N., Kara M., Yılmaz M., Ugurlu N., 1995 - Konya
administrations have their own task to do along Ovasında Drenaj Suları _le Sulanan Arazilerde
with the legal responsibilities. Accurate and Tuzluluk ve Sodyumluluk Sorunları. 5. Ulusal
reliable data is not available to implement the Kültürteknik Kongresi Bildirileri, 471-481, Antalya
proper water management practices. Most of the (In Turkish).
Dalkılıç Y., Harmancıoğlu N., 2008 - Avrupa Birliği Su
water resources data are not updated, insufficient Çerçeve Direktifinin Türkiye’de Uygulama
and owned by various institutions and Olanakları. TMMOB İnşaat Mühendisleri Odası 2.
organizations. Su Politikaları Kongresi. s. 415-424. Ankara (In
Initially, pressurized piped irrigation Turkish).
systems should be used instead of gravity surface Kantaroğlu Ö. 2000 - Yağmur Suyu Hasadı Plan ve
Hesaplama Prensipleri. IX. Ulusal Tesisat
irrigation methods in agriculture, which the largest Mühendisliği Kongresi s.1147-1151, İzmir (In
water-consuming sector of Turkey. Beside these Turkish).
systems, alternative water resources should also be Kibaroğlu A., Sümer V., Kaplan Ö., Sağsen İ., 2008 -
developed to save water in agricultural practices. Türkiye’nin Su Kaynakları Politikasına Kapsamlı
Bir Bakış: Avrupa Birliği Su Çerçeve Direktifi ve
For an effective water use and water saving, lands İspanya Örneği. . TMMOB İnşaat Mühendisleri
should be leveled; drainage, land consolidation and Odası 2. Su Politikaları Kongresi. s.184-194.
similar physical infrastructures should be carried Ankara (In Turkish).
out. In addition, water losses should be minimized, Kodal S. 2007 - Sulama Programlama Teknikleri. Orta
water management should be improved, Asya Sulama Suyu Yönetimi Çalıştayı 12-14
Eylül 2007. Toprak Gübre ve Su Kaynakları
agricultural support policies should be developed Merkez Araştırma Enstitüsü, 22s., Ankara. (In
and farmers should be made conscious about water Turkish).
use and preservation. Since agriculture is the Tarı A.F., Çakır R., 2009 - Kurak Bölgelerde Su
largest water-consuming sector in Turkey, Yönetimi. 1. Ulusal Kuraklık ve Çölleşme
Sempozyumu: 368-378, Konya (In Turkish).
effective water use practices should be initially *** - ÇOB, 2011 - Sürdürülebilir Su ve Atıksu Yönetimi
implemented in agriculture. For an effective water Su Tasarrufu Modellerinin Geliştirilmesi Projesi.
use in irrigations; T.C. Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı Özel Çevre
 Excessive water use should be prevented, Koruma Kurumu Başkanlığı www.ozelcevre.gov.tr
(In Turkish).
 Environmental impacts of irrigations should be *** - ICARDA, 2010 - Turkey Water Harvesting Booklet.
monitored and evaluated, Rain Water Harvesting. You can do it yourself.
 Irrigation-related institutions and organizations Allepo, Stria, 12p.
should create water management guides for *** - SUEN, 2013 - http://suen.gov.tr/tr/icerik/turkiye-su-
politikasi/21 erişim tarihi:15.01.2013 (In Turkish).
different climate scenarios,
40
THE INFLUENCE OF HUMIC FERTILIZER ON MORPHOLOGICAL

AND PHYSIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF MAIZE CROP,
IN THE CONDITIONS OF THE MOLDAVIAN PLATEAU
Daniel Costel GALEŞ1, Gerard JITĂREANU1
e-mail: galesdan@yahoo.com
Abstract
During 2010-2012 we made a study regarding the influence of a humic fertilizer (Lignohumat) on some morphological
and physiological traits of maize. Lignohumat has a high content of humic acid and microelements, acting as a growth
stimulent and anti-stress agent for plants. The study was carried out in the pedo-climatic conditions of the Moldavian
Plateau, (Ezareni Farm, Iași, 47°5’-47°10’ N lat. 27°28’-27°33’ E long.), on a 3 - 4 % slope, cambic chernozem with
clay-loamy texture. The soil has a medium content of N and P and good content of K, slightly acid pH and 2.5 – 3.0 %
humus content. There were applied two treatments with the humic fertilizer, one on seeds with a dose of 100 g/10 l
water/t seeds and one on vegetation, on the 3-4 leaves stage, using 60 g/ha / 300 l water. We determined the average
number of seeds per cob, average plant height and leaf chlorophyll content. The results of the three experimental years
revealed a positive influence of the humic fertilizer on the assessed traits, the differences compared to the control being
statistically assured. Compared to the control, which had an average plant height of 178.5 cm, a chlorophyll content of
47.4 CCI and cobs with 508.1 seeds, the variant treated with Lignohumate recorded higher plants (with 8 cm), with
better chlorophyll content (3,5 CCI higher) and with more seeds/cob (25,1 more seeds).
Key words: lignohumate, humic fertilizer, maize, morphological properties
Aiken G. R. et al. (1985) cited by Leenheer hours in oxidant atmosphere, the whole process
J. A. (2002) defined humic substances as a general being supervised by a special software (figure 1).
category of organic substances found in the natural
environment, being biogenic, heterogenic, with
yellow to black colour and high molecular weight.
Humic substances occur as a result of the
decomposition of organic residues in soil by
synthesis of the products of decay (putrefaction of
dead animal and plant tissues). They are produced
by organic evolution of mineral materials, and are Figure 1 Manufacturing scheme of Lignohumat (by
quantified by the organic carbon increased 1.724 Oleg Gladkov, Rodion Poloskin, 2010)
times. This coefficient is the average ratio of the
humus mass and the mean content of carbon in The mineralization of the humic substances
humus: 100: 58% C = 1.724 (Borlan Z., şi colab., is higher in soils with optimum humidity and
1994). aeration, compared to soils with high content of
Morard P. et al. (2005) cited by clay (>30-35 %) and which are compacted (Rusu
Eyheraguibel B. et al. (2008) showed that the M. et al. (2005), Răus L. et al. (2013).
humic substances are obtained by the physical and Eyheraguibel B. et al. (2008) showed that
chemical degradation of the homogenous the humic substances do not increase the percent or
lignocellulosic material. Oleg Gladkov, Rodion the germination rate in maize seeds, but increase
Poloskin (2010) presented the accelerated the root elongation, due to the water and mineral
humification process of the lingo-sulphonates and consumption of the treated plants.
the obtaiing of Lignohumate (humic fertilizer).
This transformation process of the ligno-
sulphonates in humic products is made in 1.5-2
1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine “Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iași, Romania
41
MATERIAL AND METHOD There was made a seed treatment with 100 g
Lignohumate in 10 l water / t seeds. On vegetation,
The study was carried out in the pedo-climatic was made a foliar treatment, in the 4 leaves stage,
conditions of the Moldavian Plateau, at the Ezareni with 60 g/ha / 300 l water.
Farm, which belongs to UASVM Iași. The terrain has It has been determined the average number of
a slope of 3-4 %, the soil being a cambic chernozem, seeds per cob, the average plant height and the
with medium to good fertility (medium content of chlorophyll content. For the determination of average
nitrogen and phosphor and good content of plant height there were made measurements
potassium), with 2.5 – 3.0% humus and low acid pH. approximately 30 days after sowing, in two vegetation
In figure 2 are represented the climatic conditions for phenophases (early and late July) and at harvesting.
the analyzed period of time. The leaf chlorophyll content was measured
using the CCM 200 plus device from Opti-Science
(figure 3).
MAT - Multi-annual temperature

MAMT - Multi-annual mean temperature
Figure 3 Device for determining the chlorophyll

content of leaves (http://www.envcoglobal.com)
It is a device used for measurements in the

field and does the precise, reliable and easy
determination of the leaf chlorophyll content. It can
store up to 4000 measurements, made with a
detector with two photo-diodes and absorbance
AMR - Average monthly rainfall detector.
MAMR - Multi-annual mean rainfall The determinations were carried out
Figure 2 Characterization of climatic factors for
approximately 30 days after sowing, in early and late
2010-2012 (A – air temperature, B – rainfall) July, at the upper third, the middle and the lower third
of the plants, for a clearer highlight of the
Lignohumate influence on the plant development. The
The crop technology was specific for maize,
data was stored on the internal memory, and after
with a fertilization of 60 kg/ha a.s. P2O5 + 40 kg/ha a.s
being downloaded on the PC, it was processed using
N before seedbed preparation and 20 kg/ha a.s. N on
ANOVA and the F test.
vegetation at the first mechanical hoeing.
The seedbed was prepared in the sowing day,
with the combinatory, and the sowing was carried out RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
with SPC4-FS + U650, using the PR38A24 hybrid
from Pioneer. Determination of the average number of
The sowing was carried out when the soil grains per cob
temperature has reached 10 °C, with heating
The average number of grains per cob was
perspectives, at 8-10 cm depth and 70 cm between
rows, with a recommended density of 65000 influenced by the Lignohumate treatments, the
plants/ha. During the vegetation period, were made differences between the treated variant and the
one mechanical and two manual hoeings. control being statistically significant in 2010 and
Along with the agro-technical measures, there 2011 and unassured in 2012. The lowest difference
was made a chemical treatment with Dual Gold 960 from 2012 (20 grains/cob) was determined by the
EC (1,0 l/ha), against the annual monocot and some climatic conditions which have not favor the
dicot (Setaria sp., Echinochloa sp., Digitaria sp.,
Amaranthus sp., Chenopodium sp., Hibiscus sp.) and
fertilizer absorption, due to the long periods of
after emergence was applied Dicopur D (1,0 l/ha). hydric stress (table 1).
42
Table 1
The influence of Lignohumat on the average number of grains per cob in maize
Grains per cob
Difference (no
Year Variant Number of % compared to Significance
grains)
grains control
V 1 – Control (untreated) 540.3 100.0 0.0 Control
*
2010 V 2 – Lignohumate 564.6 104.5 24.3 x
LSD 5% = 15.8 grains LSD 1% = 24.8 grains LSD 0.1% = 42.3 grains
2011 V 2 – Lignohumate *
567.0 105.8 31.0 xx
*
2012 V 2 – Lignohumate 467.9 104.5 20.0
Average *
V 2 – Lignohumate 533.2 104.9 25.1 xxx
2010-2012
*
Lignohumate treatment - 100 g/10 l water/t seeds + 60 g/ha / 300 l water in the 3-4 leaves stage.
The statistical analysis of the mean values Determination of the average plant height
for the three experimental years shows a strong The average plant height was positively
influence of the Lignohumate treatments on the influenced by the Lignohumate treatments, being
average number of seeds per cob. Thus, the favored by the climatic conditions. The differences
number of seeds per cob for the treated variant was between the treated variant and the control were
25.1 higher compared to the control, which had statistically significant in each vegetation stage,
508.1 seeds/cob (table 1). with values of 4.5 cm after the plant emergence,
The average number of seeds/cob had higher 7.4 cm in early July, 9.8 cm in late July and 10.2
values for the treated variant compared to the cm at harvesting. The control plants had 45.3 cm
control, especially in the years with relative after emergence, 203.6 cm in early July, 233.0 cm
uniform repartition of rainfall. in late July and 232.2 cm at harvesting (table 2).
Table 2
The influence of Lignohumat on the average plant height in maize crop – mean values 2010-2012
Vegetation Plant height Difference
Variant Significance
stage cm % compared to control (cm)
V1 – Control (untreated) 45.3 100.0 0.0 Control
Emergence
V2 – Lignohumate* 49.8 110.0 4.5 xx
(29.05-05.06)
LSD 5% = 2.1 cm LSD 1% = 3.4 cm LSD 0.1% = 5.7 cm
Vegetation *
V2 – Lignohumate 211.0 103.6 7.4 xxx
(01.07-05.07)
Vegetation *
V2 – Lignohumate 242.8 104.2 9.8 xx
(29.07-31.07)
Harvest *
V2 – Lignohumate 242.5 104.4 10.2 xxx
(07.09-27.09)
*
The data analysis from table 2 highlights stages, when the plant height was 3.6 % in early
that the differences between the treated variant July, 4.2 % in late July and 4.4 % higher at
and the control were higher at emergence, when harvesting (table 2). This aspect shows that for
the plants were 10.0 % higher than the control. maize, it is very important the way it starts the
The positive effect of the Lignohumate treatments vegetation, the advance taken in the first stages
was slightly decreased in the other vegetation regarding the height being cumulated during the
43
whole period of life, for the treated variant. The statistical analysis of the mean values
Approximately 30 days sowing there were for the three experimental years shows a
recorded the highest differences between the significant influence of the Lignohumate
treated variant and the control, because the seed treatments on the average plant height in maize. It
treatments are superior to the foliar ones in reached 186.5 cm for the fertilized variant and
vegetation. 178.5 cm for the untreated control (table 3).
Table 3
The average height plant in maize crop – mean values on years and growing stages
Plant height Difference
Variant Significance
cm % compared to control (cm)
*
V 2 – Lignohumate 186.5 104.48 8.0 xxx
*
Determination of the leaf chlorophyll The statistical analysis of the mean values
content for the three experimental years shows a distinct
The leaf chlorophyll content was influenced significant difference between the treated variant
by the Lignohumate treatments, and the highest and the control. The treated plants had an average
differences between the treated variant and the chlorophyll content of 50.9 CCI, 3.5 CCI higher
control were recorded in the years with than the control (table 4).
emphasized hydric stress.
Table 4
The influence of Lignohumat on the chlorophyll content of maize leaves (mean values per plant)
Chlorophyll Difference
Year Variant Significance
CCI % compared to control (CCI)
Average
V 2 – Lignohumate* 50.9 107.38 3.5 xx
2010-2012
LSD 5% = 1.8 CCI LSD 1% = 2.9 CCI LSD 0.1% = 4.9 CCI
*
The leaf chlorophyll content depended also control ranged between 2.1-1.8 CCI in the upper
on the plant level at which it was measured, being third of the plant, 4.5-4.0 CCI in the middle and
lower in the upper third. 2.8-2.4 CCI in the lower one. In the less favorable
The climatic conditions have directly conditions of 2012, the differences were 4.3 CCI
influenced the chlorophyll content. In relative in the upper third of the plant, 4.4 CCI in the
normaly years, like 2010 and 2011, the middle and 5.5 CCI in the lower one (figure 4).
differences between the treated variant and the
Figure 4 The chlorophyll content of maize leaves (mean values on growing stages)
44
The results of the three experimental years REFERENCES

highlight the way in which the Lignohumate
reduces the negative effects of stress in plants, Borlan Z., Hera C., Dornescu D., Kurtinecz P., Rusu
M., Buzdugan I., Tănase Gh., 1994 - Fertilitatea
contributing to their growth and normal şi fertilizarea solurilor (Compediu de
development. agrochimie), Editura Ceres Bucureşti. ISBN 973-
40-0314-3.
CONCLUSIONS Eyheraguibel B., Silvestre J., Morard P., 2008 -
Effects of humic substances derived from
organic waste enhancement on the growth and
The humic fertilizer had a positive mineral nutrition of maize. Bioresource
influence on the number of seeds per cob, average Technology, 99, 4206-4212, ISSN 0960-8524.
plant height and leaf chlorophyll content. Thus, Leenheer J. A., 2002 - Analysis of non-humic
we can say that it has perspectives of being components of dissolved organic matter.
Symposia Papers Presented Before the Division
successfully used in the classical maize crop of Environmental Chemistry American Chemical
technology. Society Orlando, FL April 7-11, vol 42, nr. 1.
The perspective of this humic fertilizer is to Morard P., Gourdon C., Rigal L., Prat L., Silvestre J.,
be tested also for other crops, eventually on an 2005 - Procédé de de préparation d’une
composition humique artificielle et application.
unconventional soil tillage. French Patent.
Oleg Gladkov, Rodion Poloskin, 2010 - Efficiency
ACKNOWLEGMENTS and Application Prospects of Humatized Mineral
Fertilizers, 15th Meeting of the International
This paper was published under the frame of European Humic Substances Society Tenerife - Canary
Social Fund, Human Resources Development Islands. June 27- July 2.
Operational Programme 2007-2013, project no. Răus Lucian, Jităreanu Gerard, Ailincăi Costică,
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765. Țopa Denis, 2013 - Sisteme de lucrare a solului
în Câmpia Moldovei – Considerații practice și
teoretice. Editura Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Iași.
ISBN 978-973-147-125-9.
45
46
PROTEIN HYDROLYSATES AND AMINO-ACIDS FERTILIZERS -

PHYSICOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Daniela MIHALACHE1, Carmen Eugenia SÎRBU1,

Adriana Elena GRIGORE1, Traian Mihai CIOROIANU1
e-mail: ddobrinescu@yahoo.com
Abstract
The necessities of a sustainable agriculture require the use of fertilizing solutions and methods capable to respond to the
needs of agricultural crops and to the requirements of the environment protection. In this regard, extra-radicular
fertilizers and liquid fertilizers with application or incorporation into the soil respond to these priorities. In the past 20
years, the range of fertilizers has greatly diversified, currently being developed the compositions containing minerals
together with natural or synthetic organic substances, with application to a wide range of crops. Organic substances
added are intended to stimulate the activity of photosynthesis, absorption of nutrients, to provide a balanced nutrition, to
combat nutritional deficiencies and reduce the effects of different stressors. The most frequently used organic
substances are protein hydrolysates of plant or animal origin, and various amino-acids. Complex matrices resulted by
including into NPK structures organic substances led to the development of new types of bio-fertilizers whose
agrochemical effects were tested with positive effects on the nutrition of different crops in the conditions present in
Romania. Through a careful selection of raw materials and technological processes, certain formulas of bio-fertilizers
can be used in organic farming, where the imposed requirements are defined by European regulations and verified by
certification bodies. In my own researches the concerns are directed towards producing these fertilizers and their testing
in the vegetation/green house and in field. This paper shows the physical and chemical characteristics for some of the
complex matrices with organic substances used in agriculture.
Key words: fertilizer, protein hydrolysate, ferric chlorosis
The analysis of the data existing in the humic substances, fulvic substances, plant extracts,
specialized literature regarding the conventional peptides or protein hydrolysates of animal origin or
fertilizers of extra-radicular type or those with glycoproteins of plant origin, naphthenates,
substances having a stimulating effect of growth introduced in order to stimulate the metabolization
indicates the fact that the exclusive use of certain of nutrients, or to facilitate the absorption of ionic
substances in the category of bio-stimulators for species or molecules.
the treatment of agricultural crops often does not It is well known that the use of
lease to obtaining significant effects (Cioroianu microelements like iron, copper, zinc, calcium,
T.M. et al, 2011; Cioroianu T.M. et al, 2009; magnesium and manganese chelated with natural
Cioroianu T.M. et al, 2011; Cioroianu T.M. et al, organic substances are more easily absorbed by
2011). In such cases the “explosive” vegetative plants, and their presence may destroy or reduce
development of the plant is not supported by an bacteria, viruses, fungi or other pathogens when
additional contribution, fast, of macro and micro- applied as fertilizing substances to plants.
elements necessary for the nutrition (Iovi A. et al, In the field of agriculture it is recommended
2000). This phenomenon strongly occurs in case of the use of extra-radicular fertilizers not only in
a poor basic fertilization, on degraded soils, as well treating certain nutrition diseases of plants, but also
as in case of unbalanced macronutrient to prevent them, for increased yields, for increased
fertilization. quality of products and to reduce the negative
In practice, it is known a wide range of impact on the environment of conventional
liquid fertilizers, complex solutions with extra- fertilizers (Dorneanu A. et al., 2003). Also, the
radicular application, having as nutrients nitrogen, plants treated with fertilizers containing natural
phosphorus, potassium, meso and micro-elements organic substances with chelating role are more
that may also contain synthetic organic substances, resistant to frost, drought, to biotic and abiotic
1
Institutul National de Cercetare-Dezvoltare pentru Pedologie, Agrochimie si Protectia Mediului - ICPA Bucuresti
47
stress factors (Sîrbu C. et al, 2010; Sîrbu C. et al, micro and meso-elements are added: Fe, Cu, Zn,
2007; Sîrbu C. et al, 2008; Sîrbu C. et al, 2009; Mn, Mg, B, Mo, Co and protein hydrolyzate.
Trandafir V. et al, 2007; Trandafir V. et al, 2003). The main types of chemical reactions used
in the process of obtaining extra-radicular fertilizers
were:
MATERIAL AND METHOD - neutralization reaction;
- proton exchange reaction (ionization reaction,
The experiments conducted in the last 5 neutralization, ion displacement, hydrolysis);
years by I.N.C.D.P.A.P.M – I.C.P.A. Bucharest - reactions forming chelates and metal
(National Research and Development Institute for complexes;
Soil Science Agro-Chemistry and Environment) to The technological process for obtaining
obtain fertilizers with organic substance having a fertilizers of extra-radicular type included the
stimulating role of growth have used a protein following steps:
hydrolysate of animal origin, obtained through - obtaining the solution of NPK macro-elements;
neutral hydrolysis, having in its composition - obtaining the solution of chelated/complexed
proteins, protides and amino-acids free in microelements;
structure: glycine 30 -38%, alanine 10 – 15%, - obtaining the solution of protein hydrolyzate;
proline 10 – 15%, glutamic acid – 10%, - mixing, homogenization of the three solutions;
hydroxyproline 7 – 9%, aspartic acid 4 – 6%, The general scheme of processes used to
arginine 4 – 6%, serine 3 – 5 %, threonine 1 – 3%, obtain most of the extra-radicular fertilizers having
and as essential amino-acids in significant also in their composition protein hydolysates
proportions: lysine 2 – 4%, valine 2 – 4% leucine introduced as substances with a bio-stimulator role
2 – 3%, phenylalanine 1.5 – 2%, isoleucine 1 – 1.5 is shown in the figure 1.
%, histidine 0.7 – 1.5%, methionine 0.2 – 0.5%.
The fertilizers of extra-radicular type
obtained consist in a matrix of NPK type to which
Potassium source Demi water Phosphorus source
Neutralization process
Nitrogen sources
Process of dissolution of nitrogen sources
Microelements Chelating/
Fe, Cu, Mn, Mg, Zn, Complexing agents
Co, Mo, B Protein
hydrolysate
Chelating – Complexing Process
Mixing – Homogenization Process
Fertilizer
Figure 1 Scheme of general processes used to obtain extra-radicular fertilizers with protein hydrolysates
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS the protein hydrolysate of animal origin.

The experimental fertilizers were
Using the scheme of processes shown in the characterized physically and chemically in the
Figure 1, there were realized several versions of Laboratory for Testing and Control of Fertilizers
extra-radicular fertilizers, with the introduction Quality, accredited by the Romanian Accreditation
into a matrix of macro, meso and microelements of Association (RENAR), belonging to ICPA
48
Bucharest and agro-chemically tested in the Council of 13 October 2003 on fertilizers,

National Network for the authorization of Regulation (EC) No. 834/2007 of the Council of 28
fertilizers to be used in agriculture. June 2007 on organic production and labeling of
The chemical composition of the fertilizers organic products, and for repealing the Regulation
of foliar type experimentally obtained and agro- (EEC) No. 2092/91)
chemically tested in order to be authorized is The results of the agro-chemical tests for the
presented in the tables 1, 4 and 8 (Regulation (EC) experimental fertilizers are shown in the tables 2,
No. 2003/2003 the European Parliament and of the 3, 5 – 7.
Table 1
Chemical composition of fertilizers AMINO-FERT N, NK and NPK
Chemical composition AMINO-FERT NK AMINO-FERT N AMINO-FERT NPK
(g/l) (g/l) (g/l)
total nitrogen (N) 17,0 18,0 125,0
Phosphorus (P2O5) 0,01 0,01 70,0
Potassium (K 2O) 8,5 0,01 60,0
Copper (Cu) 1,0 1,0 0,22
Zinc (Zn) 1,0 1,0 0,18
Iron (Fe) 3,0 2,75 0,45
Manganese (Mn) 0,6 0,55 0,3
Boron (B) 0,5 0,5 0,3
Magnesium (MgO) 3,5 2,5 0,55
Molybdenum (Mo) - - 0,01
Cobalt (Co) - - 0,01
Sulfur (SO3) 28,0 19,0 3,5
Organic substances, of which 95,0 97,0 26,0
Protein substances 95,0 97,0 10,0
Table 2
The effectiveness of AMINOFERT products, applied to sunflower, cultivated on cambic chernozem
Unit: TELEORMAN Agricultural Research and Development Station
Basic soil fertilization with N-80, P2O5, - 80 Kg/ha
Quantity of
concentration %
fertilizers used Increase

Production of
Version No.
treatments
Number of
liters/ha
(kg/ha)
seeds
Soil
treatment
treatment
Treatment
For all
For a
kg/liter
the
kg/ha % fertilizer
used
1 Non-fertilized - - - - 2742 - 100,0 -
2 AMINOFERT N 2 0,5 5,0 10,0 3082 340*** 112,3 34,0
3 AMINOFERT NK 2 0,5 5,0 10,0 3193 451*** 116,4 45,1
4 AMINOFERT NPK 2 0,5 5,0 10,0 3216 474*** 117,3 47,4
Table 3
The effectiveness of AMINO-FERT products, applied to grape vine, variety Chasselas Doré,
cultivated on cambic chernozem. Unit: Institute of Biological Research, Iasi, Experimental Field of the University
of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iaşi Without basic fertilization in soil
Quantity of
Soil concentration

Production of
Version N .
liters/ha
treatments
Number of
o
(kg/ha)
grapes
For all the
treatment
treatment
%
Treatment kg/liter
For a
fertilizer
kg/ha %
used
1 Non-fertilized - - - - 11213 - 100.0 -

2 AMINOFERT N 3 0.5 5.0 15.0 15357 4144*** 136.9 276.3
3 AMINOFERT NK 3 0.5 5.0 15.0 15545 4332*** 138.6 288.8
4 AMINOFERT NPK 3 0.5 5.0 15.0 15607 4394*** 139.2 292.9
49
Table 4
Chemical composition of the fertilizer AMINO-FERT 1H
o Composition AMINO-FERT 1H
N.
(minimum values) (g/l)
Total nitrogen (N), of which: 130
- Nitric nitrogen 5
1
- Ammonium nitrogen 5
- Amide nitrogen 120
2 Phosphorus (P 2O5) 50
3 Potassium (K2O) 45
4 Copper (Cu) 0.07
5 Zinc (Zn) 0.05
6 Iron (Fe) 0.25
7 Manganese (Mn) 0.1
8 Boron (B) 0.1
9 Magnesium (MgO) 0.1
10 Sulfur (SO3) 0.5
Organic substances, of which: 12.0
11
- Protein substances, hydrolysate 7.5
Table 5
The effectiveness of the product AMINOFERT 1 H applied to H-Olt corn, cultivated on psamosol (sandy soil)
Research and Development Center for Agricultural Plants on Sands – DABULENI, Without basic fertilization
Quantity of
concentration %
Production of
Version N .
treatments
Number of
o
liters/ha
(kg/ha)
grains
Soil
For all the

treatment
treatment
Treatment kg/liter
For a
foliar
kg/ha %
fertilizer
1 Control - - - - 1644 - 100.0 -

2 AMINOFERT 1H 2.0 1.0 5.0 10.0 4522 2878*** 275.0 287.8
Table 6
The effectiveness of the product AMINOFERT 1 H applied to grape vine, variety Sauvignon,
cultivated on faeziom argic. Unit: Institute of Biological Research, Iasi, Experimental Field of the University of
Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iaşi. Basic fertilization with: Nt-100, P 2O5 – 100, K2O – 100 kg/ha
Quantity of
Soil concentration

Production of
liters/ha
Version N .
treatments
Number of
o
grapes
(kg/ha)
For all the
treatment
treatment
%
Treatment kg/liter
For a
foliar
kg/ha %
fertilizer
1 Control - - - - 5580 - 100.0 -

2 AMINOFERT 1H 3 1.0 10.0 30.0 8030 2450*** 144.0 81.7
Table 7
The effectiveness of the product AMINOFERT 1 H applied to sunflower, variety Favorit, cultivated on cambic
chernozem. Unit: TELEORMAN Agricultural Research and Development Station
Basic fertilization with N-80, P2O5, - 80 Kg/ha
Quantity of
concentration %

Production of
Version N .
treatments
Number of
liters/ha
o
(kg/ha)
seeds
Soil
For all the

treatment
treatment
Treatment
For a
kg/liter
kg/ha % fertilizer
1 Control - - - - 2118 - 100.0 -

2 AMINOFERT 1H 2.0 1.0 5.0 10.0 3134 1016*** 147.9 101.6
50
Table 8
Chemical composition of the fertilizer FERT - IRON
Chemical composition FERT – IRON (g/l)
Nitrogen (Nt) 60
Phosphorus (P2O5) 23
Potassium (K 2O) 27
Copper (Cu) 0.1
Zinc (Zn) 0.5
Iron (Fe) 27
Manganese (Mn) 0.1
Magnesium (Mg) 2.5
Boron (B) 0.5
Sulfur (S) 20
Protein hydrolysate 10
Means were compared by using Student test for the prevention and treatment of ferric chlorosis
at the level of significance a = 0.05. of grapevine. Fertilizing compositions have been
According to the data in Tables 2,3,5,6,7, it authorized for use in agriculture.
can be seen that there are significant differences
for the two fertilizers compared to control and they REFERENCES
are statistically insured.
The performances achieved after the extra- Cioroianu T.M., Sîrbu C., 2011 - Unconventional
Fertilizers – Extra-radicular fertilizers with protein
radicular application on the soil Chardonnay substances, Est Falia Publishing House,
grafted on rootstock Berlandiaeri x Riparia SO4-4 Bucharest.
(1% solution, three treatments) of the fertilizer Cioroianu T.M., Sîrbu C., Dumitru M., Dorneanu A.,
FERT - IRON can be summarized as follows: Stefanescu D., 2009 - Unconventional fertilizers
– liquid fertilizers, Est Falia Publishing House,
- it has brought a very significant production Bucharest.
increase of 50.7%, compared to the untreated Cioroianu T.M., Sîrbu C., Oprica I., Grigore A.,
control; Mihalache D., Dumitrascu M., Anton I., Soare
M., 2011 - Fertilizers with protein substances,
- it has brought an increase in grain dry matter technology, agro-chemical and physical
content, statistically highly significant of 9.9% characteristics, Scientific Papers of the
Symposium, Series I, vol. XIII - ISSN: 1453-1410,
compared to the untreated control; p. 449-453.
- it has brought an increase in sugar content from Cioroianu T.M., Sîrbu C., Oprica I., Grigore A.,
must (of grapes) / unfermented wine, very Mihalache D., Dumitrascu M., Anton I., Soare
M., 2011 - Fertilizers with protein substances,
significant from 254 g/l (untreated control) to technology, agro-chemical and physical
272.0 g/l. characteristics paper published in the volume of
Scientific Papers of the Symposium, Series I, vol.
- it has prevented and treated ferric chlorosis of XIII - ISSN: 1453-1410, p. 449-453.
grapevine. Dorneanu A., Dorneanu E., Sîrbu C., Cioroianu T.M.,
2003 - Foliar Fertilization a possible technology to
support modern, ecological agriculture –
CONCLUSIONS Symposium: "Diversifying the range of fertilizers
and improvement of their quality according to the
It has been developed a technology for requirements of sustainable agriculture" Bacau,
p. 249-257.
obtaining extra-radicular fertilizers of the type Iovi A., Iovi C., Negrea P., 2000 – Ecologic
NPK with macro, meso, micronutrients and protein technologies, Chemistry and technology of
hydrolysates. There were obtained and fertilizers with microelements, Politehnica
characterized physically and chemically five Publishing House, ISBN 973-9389-56-2.
fertilizers with extra-radicular application, agro- Sîrbu C., Cioroianu T.M., Dumitrascu M., 2010 - New
fertilizers with protein structure with phyto-
chemically tested in the National Network for stimulating role, Organic farming - Priorities and
fertilizers authorization. An increased production Prospects", Scientific works, Series Agronomy,
obtained by applying extra-radicular fertilizers, U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 52.
compared to the foliar unfertilized control, was Sîrbu C., Cioroianu T.M., Dumitru M., Dorneanu A.,
Mihalache D., Angelescu L., 2007 – Fertilizers
significant and ranged between 12% for the
containing chelating protein hydrolyzates with
sunflower and 50% for the grapevine. There have applications in agriculture – International
been formulated and obtained two fertilizers Symposium "Ecological restoration and fertilizers
AMINO-FERT N and NK, tested and certified, requirements in the area of Gorj County, Tg. Jiu,
compatible for application in organic farming. 4 – 5 October 2007 New Agris Publishing House,
p. 467- 474.
There has been formulated and obtained a fertilizer
51
Sîrbu C., Cioroianu T.M., Dumitru M., Dorneanu A., Trandafir V., Popescu G., Albu M.G., Iovu H.,
Negrila M., Mihalache D., Anghelescu L., 2008 Georgescu M., 2007 – Collagen bio-products,
- New types of bio-fertilizers with chelating protein ARS DOCENDI Publishing House, Bucharest.
hydrolyzed structures, with bio-stimulating and Trandafir V., Cioroianu T.M., Bratulescu V.,
protective role, with applications in sustainable Cioroianu T., 2003 - Use of collagen hydrolisate
agriculture, Annals of the University of as an active ingredient in bio-Fertilizers, Cucio
Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Pel. Mat., vol. 79 (6), p 289-293.
o
Iasi, series Agronomy, vol. 51 (2), p. 189-194. *** - Regulation (EC) N . 2003/2003 the European
Sîrbu C., Cioroianu T.M., Cojocaru I., Trandafir V., Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 2003
Albu M.G., 2009 - The fertilizers with the protein on fertilizers
o
chelated structures with bio-stimulating role, *** - Regulation (EC) N . 834/2007 of the Council of 28
Journal of Chemistry, vol. 60 (11). June 2007 on organic production and labeling of
organic products, and for repealing the
o
Regulation (EEC) N . 2092/91
52
THE EFFECT OF IMIDAZOLINONE AND TRIBENUROM-METHYL

TOLERANT SUNFLOWER TECHNOLOGY
ON WEED CONTROL EFFICENCY AND SOIL QUALITY
Victor PETCU1, Costică CIONTU1
e-mail: petcuvictor86@yahoo.com
Abstract
During the period 2012-2013 in Mostistea Plain, Fundulea, South-Est of Romania on experimental conditions, under
non irrigated conditions on cambic chernozem soil was carried out a field experiment with sunflower (Helianthus
annuus). The paper presents the results concerning the weed control efficency of the imidazolinone and tribenurom-
methyl tolerant sunflower technology and their effect on soil quality. Treatments with herbicides imazamox and
tribenuron-methyl were applied to sunflower using technologies and specific resistant hybrids. Beside herbicide
Express® 50 SG (sulfonylureas chemical group) was used the herbicide Frontier Forte (dimethenamid-P) and Stratos
Ultra® (cicloxidim). In the year 2013 the degree of weed infestation was higher due to heavy rainfall, but we got a good
weed control with the cultivation of IMI and SU sunflowers in both years. Enzyme activity from soil expressed as
catalase activity was similar to untreated control for sunflower treated pre-emerget with Frontier Forte®. Treatments
applied postemergence (Imazamox, Trimenuron-methyl) had either positive or values comparable to untreated control.
It showed an increase of cellulolytic activity after two month from herbicide treatments, suggesting an improvement in
soil biological conditions. The herbicides Frontier Forte® (pre-emergence) and Pulsar® 40 at post-emergence
application did not affect soil respiration, which suggests that these herbicides did not affect life from the soil. The fact
that in the case of pre-emergent herbicide Frontier Forte®, soil respiration is relatively low compared to the untreated
control suggests that microbial degradation was dificient at the moment. In respect of the nitrogen fixed nonsimbiotic
our results shown that after 10 days and one month of treatments application, the values were comparable to the control,
suggesting that the insignificant difference between the mean values of atmospheric dinitrogen fixed-free
(nonsimbiotic) can be interpreted as lack of influence of herbicide treatment.
Key words:
As a result of sunflower breeding over the will be necesary integrated study. In this respect
past several years, new hybrids have been the aim of this study was both to determine the
developed and introduced in commercial farm efficacy of the imidazolinone and tribenurom-
production, thus an increasing area is seeded with methyl tolerant sunflower technology on weed
of herbicide tolerant sunflower hybrids. A large control and to evidentiate their effect on soil
proportion of Romanian farmers tend to apply the quality.
CLEARFIELD® technology along with the
application of sunflower hybrids resistant to MATHERIAL AND METHODS
herbicide substance imazamox, as well as
sunflower hybrids resistant to tribenuron-methyl. The plots field trials were performed in
The main advantages consist in efficiency against Mostistea Plain, Fundulea, South-Est of Romania on
dicotyledonous weeds (Cirsium, Xanthium, experimental conditions, under non irrigated
conditions of the years 2012 and 2013. The
Chenopodium, Sorghum), considered “weed experiment was carried out by the block method, in
problem” for Romanian conditions and efficacy three replications, size of the experiment plot 25 m 2,
against parasitic weed Orobanche cumana, which on cambic chernozem soil, after predecessor winter
became a big problem with intensifying drought wheat in 2012 and winter rape în 2013. A total of 9
(Delckev, 2013). variants were investigated. Active substance and
Herbicides will remain in future agriculture doses of investigated herbicides are shown in table
1.
an effective tool for weed control as part of The post-emergence treatments were applied
integrated management of weeds, and to optimize in 14-16 BBCH growth stage of sunflower. Because
their use (Jocić et al., 2011; Knežević et al., 2011) herbicide Express® 50 SG has a low adhesion of the
1
University of Agronomical Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Agriculture Faculty, Bucharest
53
weeds it was mixed in tanck with adjuvant Trend® 90 horizon (0-10 cm) and were tested for respiration,
using a 0,1 % concentration (250 ml/ha). Pulsar® 40 cellulose biodegradation potential (Stefanic methods,
was used without the mixing in application any 2014) and nonsymbiotic nitrogen-fixed (Stefanic and
adjuvant. Oprea method, 2010). Cellulolytic activity is
The efficacy of herbicides against weeds was expressed in % cellulose degraded, respiration in mg
assessed as procent of damages (0%=no damage, CO 2 from 100 g of soil and dinitrogen fixation in N2
100%=total damages). fixed/ha.
Soil samples were performed from the plow
Table 1
Investigated variants
Treatments Active ingredients Time of application Doses rate, (l, g)/ha
Conventional technology – hybrid: Performer
Check untreated -
®
Frontier Forte 720 g/l Dimethenamid-P Pre-emergence 1,4
® ®
Stratos Ultra + Dash HC 100 g/l Cicloxidim + adjuvant 32-33 BBCH 2+2
®
Clearfied technology – hybrid LG 56.63
Check untreated
®
Pulsar 40 40 g/l Imazamox 14-16 BBCH 1,2
ExpressSun technology – hybrid PR64LE20
Check untreated
®
Frontier Forte 720 g/l Dimethenamid-P Pre-emergence 1,4
®
Express 50 SG 50 g/kg Tribenuron-methyl + 14-16 BBCH 30 +0,1%
®
+ Trend 90 adjuvant
® ®
Stratos Ultra + Dash HC 100 g/l Cicloxidim+ adjuvant 32-33 BBCH 2+2
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS parviflora and Hibiscus trionum. Annual grassy

weeds are represented by Echinochloa crus-galli,
The years of experimentation were totally Digitaria sangvinale, Setaria viridis, Setaria
different from the viewpoint of quantity and glauсa. Perennial species in the experiment are
monthly repartition of rainfall. The average of broadleaved weeds Cirsium arvense, Polygonum
monthly temperatures in the growing season of convolvulus, Convolvulus arvensis and grassy
crops were above the annual average, on average weed Sorghum helepense mainly by rhizomes.
1.9°C in 2012 and 1.2°C in 2013. There was a In this experimental conditions the
deficit of rainfall in the early part of the growing Dimethenamid-P herbicide had a lower efficacy
season, followed in May by precipitations that against Xanthium strumarium, Cirsium arvense
exceeded the normal of the zone and again a and Convolvulus arvensis (table 3).
deficit of rainfall in June, insufficient to meet Herbicide based on Imazamox destroys a
water needs of crops. In 2013 year, the cumulated large number of weeds species like: Echinochloa
rainfall exceeded with mm the normal of the zone crus-galli, Digitaria sangvinale, Setaria viridis,
(mm), (table 2). Setaria glauсa, Amaranthus retroflexus,
Dominant weeds that determine secondary Chenopodium album, Solanum nigrum, Portulaca
weeding in the experiment field are annual oleraceae, Sinapis arvense, Poligonum aviculare,
broadleaved species Xanthium strumarium, Hibiscus trionum, Sinapis ervanse, Raphanus
Amaranthus retroflexus, Chenopodium album, rapfanistum, Papaver rhoes, Poligonium
Solanum nigrum, Portulaca oleraceae, Sinapis convolvulus, Galinsoga parviflora, Capsella
arvense, Polygonum aviculare, Galinsoga bursa-pastoris, etc.
Table 2
Average temperature (°C) and monthly distribution of rain fall (mm) during the crop vegetation period.
Fundulea, 2012-2013
Average/
Month March April May June July August September
Sum
Temperature 2012 5.4 14.2 18 23.3 27.2 25.1 19.5 18.96
Temperature 2013 4.9 13.2 18.9 21.7 23.1 23.8 16.8 17.49
Multi-annual average 4.7 11.1 16.9 20.6 22.5 22 17.2 16.43
Differences 2012 0.7 3.1 1.1 2.7 4.7 3.1 2.3 2.53
Differences 2013 0.2 2.1 2 1.1 0.6 1.8 -0.4 1.06
Rainfall 2012 4.8 35.1 159.5 20.7 2 47.8 49.1 319.00
Rainfall 2013 39 38.5 97.1 126.7 96.1 22.2 91.4 511.00
Multi-annual average 37.5 44.6 59 72.3 72.2 51 50.1 386.70
Differences 2012 -32.7 -9.5 100.5 -51.6 -70.2 -3.2 -1 -67.70
Differences 2013 1.5 -6.1 38.1 54.4 23.9 -28.8 41.3 124.30
54
Table 3
Efficacy of some vegetation herbicides against annual broadleaved weeds and grasses in sunflower
according to the 100 % visual scale of assessment. Fundulea 2012-2013
Dimetenamid-P Cicloxidim Tribenuron-
Check Imazamox
Weeds pre-emergent post-emergent methyl
untreated 21 DAT
24 DAT 21 DAT 21 DAT
2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013 2012 2013
Xanthium strumarium 0 0 0 0 100 98 90 98
Amaranthus retroflexus 0 0 85 90 95 98 85 97
Chenopodium album 0 0 75 85 85 95 80 85
Solanum nigrum 0 0 85 90 98 100 85 87
Galinsoga parviflora 0 0 78 85 98 100 95 98
Hibiscus trionum 0 0 50 75 85 90 95 98
Portulaca oleracea 0 0 90 95 95 98
Sinapis arvense 0 0 40 75 95 98 97 98
Cirsium arvense 0 0 75 80 85 95
Setaria viridis 0 0 95 98 95 98 0 0
Setaria glauca 0 0 90 98 90 98 0 0
Echinochloa-crus-galli 0 0 85 95 98 100 95 100 0 0
Sorghum halepense 0 0 98 100 78 85 0 0
This herbicide completely destroy convolvulus, Galinsoga parviflora, Capsella

Xanthium strumarium as well. Imazamox controls bursa-pastoris, etc., and it is inefficient against
successfully perennial weeds - Sorghum helepense annual grasses and perenial grasses, too.
from seeds and rhizomes, Cirsium arvense and The obtained seed yields are the result of
Convolvulus arvensis. Imazamox fully controls the effect of the efficacy of the investigated
Orobanche cumana. Orobanche cumana grows herbicides. The highest seed yield is obtained
with the sunflower and is then destroyed by the using the technology Clearfield, (table 4).
herbicide. On one side Imazamox has completed Enzyme activity from soil expressed as
control against this parasitic weed and on the catalase activity was similar to untreated control
other side the herbicide decreases its seed reserve for sunflower treated pre-emerget with Frontier
from the soil. Forte. Treatments applied postemergence
Herbicide based on Tribenuron-methyl (Imazamox, Trimenuron-methyl, Cicloxidim) had
controls very well all perennial and annual either positive or values comparable to untreated
broadleaved weeds like: Cirsium arvense, control under 2012 and under climatic conditions
Convolvulus arvensis, Amaranthus retroflexus, of 2013 the herbicides not affected significant
Chenopodium album, Solanum nigrum, Datura catalase activity, (table 5).
stramonium, Abutilon theophrasti, Portulaca It showed an increase of cellulolytic
oleraceae, Sinapis arvense, Poligonum aviculare, activity after two month from herbicide
Hibiscus trionum, Sinapis arvanse, Raphanus treatments, suggesting an improvement in soil
rapfanistum, Papaver rhoes, Poligonium biological conditions (figure 1).
Table 4
Influence of some herbicides and on seed yield of sunflower (2012 - 2013)
Technology Yeld seeds, 2012 (kg/ha) Yeld seeds, 2012 (kg/ha) Average, 2012-2013 (kg/ha)
Check untreated 2130 2470 2300
Conventional 2450 2614 2532
Express SUN 2890 2960 2925
CLEARFIELD 2930 3110 3020
Table 5
Influence of some herbicides applied to sunflower on soil cellulolytic activity. Fundulea, 2012-2013
Pre-emergent Cellulolytic activity Post-emergent Cellulolytic activity
treatment (% cellulose degraded) treatment (% cellulose degraded)
2012 2013 2012 2013
Check untreated 11.72 12.10 Check untreated 2.83 b 7.25 a
Dimetenamid-P 10.28 10.85 Tribenuron methyl 7.63 a 8.25 a
LSD 5% 4.25 3.58 Cicloxidim 4.21 a 6.32 a
Imazamox 2.51 b 5.86 a
LSD 5% 4.06 3.12
55
20
Cellulose activity (% cellulose degraded) One months after treatment
18
Two months after treatment
16
14
12
10
0
Check Tribenuron methyl Dimethenamid-P + Imazamox
Cicloxiidim
Figure 1 Cellulolytic activity in soil after application of herbicides. Fundulea, 2012.
The herbicides with Cicoxidim and 2012) but on the contrary quantities of nitrogen
Imazamox at post-emergence application did not fixed-free (non-symbiotic) can reach 190-245 kg /
affect soil respiration, which suggests that these ha / month (Stephen et al., 2012). It is known that
herbicides did not affect life from the soil. The fact pesticides, in general, reduce the ability of
that in the case of pre-emergent herbicide symbiotic nitrogen fixation (Fox et al. 2007).
Dimethenamid-P, 2012, soil respiration is Our results shown that after 10 days and one
relatively low compared to the untreated control month of treatments application, the values were
suggests that microbial degradation was dificient at comparable to the control, suggesting that the
the moment, (table 6). insignificant difference between the mean values
Recent data from the literature shows that of atmospheric dinitrogen fixed-free
non-symbiotic nitrogen fixation in soil is (nonsimbiotic) can be interpreted as lack of
quantitatively negligible, as previously believed influence of herbicide treatment, (table 7).
(Feher, 1954 and Eliade, 1977 quote by Stefanic,
Table 6
Influence of herbicides applied to sunflower crop on soil respiration. Fundulea, 2012-2013
Respiration Post-emergent Respiration
Pre-emergent treatment
(mg CO2/100 g of soil) treatment (mg CO 2/100 g of soil)
2012 2013 2012 2013
Check untreated 91.44 a 95.58 a Check untreated 39.66 b 41.24 b
Conventional (Dimethenamid-P) 58.57 b 84.42 a Tribenuron methyl 85.69 a 66.66 a
LSD 5% 14.97 10.20 Cicloxidim 44.75 b 44.48 b
Imazamox 42.70 b 42.6 b
DL 5% 28.76 16.41
Table 7
Dynamics of atmospheric dinitrogen fixed-free within 30 days of incubation.Fundulea, 2012, 2013
Sol recoltat la 10 zile de la tratament Sol recoltat la o luna de la tratament
Variants
N2–free-fixed (mg/100 g soil) N 2–free-fixed (mg/100 g soil)
2012 2013 2012 2013
Check untreated 3.025 a 6.18 a 6.010 a 6.18
Tribenuron Methyl 2.027 a 3.35 a 5.979 a 3.93
Imazamox 6.004 a 2.94 a 4.504 a 3.11
LSD 5% 8.10 4.25 8.98 4.30
56
CONCLUSIONS L.) are influenced by pre-emergence herbicide

and time of post-emergence weed removal. Field
Crops Research, 128, 137-146.
Imazamoxherbicide by Clearfield Fox J.E., Gulledge J., Engelhaupt E., Burow M.E.,
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imidazolinones on broomrape tubercles in sunflower production from the point of view of
sunflower." International Symposium “Sunflower crop rotation." Helia 33.52: 25-36.
Breeding on Resistance to Diseases”. Weston B., McNevin G., Carlson D., 2012 - Clearfield®
Elezovic I., Datta A., Vrbnicanin S., Glamoclija D., Plus Technology in Sunflowers. In Proc. XVIII
Simic M., Malidza G., Knezevic S.Z., 2012 - Sunflower Conf., Mar del Plata-Balcarce,
Yield and yield components of imidazolinone- Argentina (pp. 149-154).
resistant sunflower (< i> Helianthus annuus</i>
57
58
CONTEMPORARY ISSUES OF LAND USE AND WATER MANAGEMENT

FOR AGRICULTURE IN BULGARIA
Milena MOTEVA1, Margarita MONDESHKA1, Ana STOEVA1, Nadezhda YARLOVSKA1
e-mail: milena_moteva@yahoo.com
Abstract
Protection of the agricultural land is a consistent goal of the Common Agricultural Policy. Regulated criteria for
sustainable land use are a precondition for reconciliation of property interests with ecological issues. Bulgarian legacy
from the inherent to socialism intensive agricultural production includes soil degradation processes, and from the recent
Agrarian Reform – fragmented, small-sized and scattered land tenure that puts obstacles to modern and efficient
agriculture. In this paper, an overview and structural analysis of the recent agricultural land use is made. The reasons for
the inefficient irrigation and drainage management in relation to the existing legislation and ensuing land management
processes are discussed. Data from recent national census and property counting have been processed.. The analyses
show unsustainable land management (around 9% of the agricultural land is unutilized and the total number of holdings
has recently decreased with around 45%). There is great polarity in the agricultural ownership and land use (67% of the
holdings – 0-1 ha sized - manage 10% of the utilized agricultural area (UAA) while only 2% of holdings - >50 ha sized
- 84% of UAA). Location of land tenure and land arrays is inadequate to the technological parameters of the existing
irrigation and drainage systems and this makes their functioning difficult. This, in combination with other exploitation
problems contributes for only 20% efficiency of these systems. Physical, operational, organizational and pricing
problems lead to low interest to irrigation. Actually, only 3.6% of UAA is under irrigation, although 15% of UAA is
potentially irrigable. Further, around 82% of the agricultural land is subjected to water erosion. The yearly erosion
varies with the type of land use and 51% of it originates from the fields. Considering the fertility of Bulgarian soils and
the favorable for agriculture relief and climate conditions, improving land management is the key approach to create
conditions not only for obtaining high agricultural production, but for complex solution of land use problems. First of
all, an adequate legislation for establishment of middle size property and land consolidation, differentiated according to
site topography, is needed. If so, proper mechanization and efficient irrigation will be applied, soil protection and
landscape preservation activities will be allowed, and market and social benefits will be established.
Key words: land use, irrigation&drainage, legislation, management, Bulgaria
“Balancing consumption with sustainable land use change, and land intensification (Cioloç,
supply” is the greatest challenge of nowadays 2010).
(UNEP, 2014). The increasing population and the A step to turning the agricultural territory
increasing demand for food put an inevitable issue into advantage of an EU member-country is
for greater agricultural production. The reconciliation of globalization with country
counterpoint of applying intensive cultivation diversity. Bulgarian agriculture today has to match
practices in order to obtain higher yields is the interests of Bulgarian economy with EU global
maintenance of the natural resources in their issues for food production. It has to find
original quality and viability. For the sake of life conformity of the national traditions in land use
sustainability, main prerogatives of CAP 2014- with the EU requirements of sustainable use of the
2020 are the conservation of the environment and natural resources and balanced territorial
mitigation to climate change (Overview of CAP development. Agriculture in Bulgaria has for a
Reform; The CAP after 2013 – Public Debate). long historical period been not only the basis of
Protection of the agricultural land is a consistent economics, but also of the whole society. Today, it
goal. Regulated criteria for sustainable land use are is experiencing crisis. Since 2007 CAP is a
elaborated for reconciliation of property interests determining factor for agricultural development of
with ecological issues. The main battle is fought the country. Under its powerful stimulus for
for sustainable land use against land competition, structural changes and creation of modern and
competitive agricultural production, land
1
University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Sofia, Bulgaria
59
utilization definitely prospered. In spite of that, the of the state instruments, harmonized with those of
expected higher added value and the welfare of the CAP, for stimulating sustainable exploitation of
farmers and the rural people has not been gained the agro-eco-systems and for recognizing special
yet.. Bulgaria has no reliable agricultural planning as the basic one (National Strategy for
production. The agricultural production is not Sustainable Development of Agriculture 2014-
properly structured, its share of GDP is low – 7% 2020; National Strategic Plan for Rural
per capita, the technological level is low. Development 2007-2013).
An old approach to the actually old issue of Efficient agricultural special planning! –
sustainable land use is the spatial and land what is needed?:
development planning. Historically, the regulation 1) information about the quantitative
of this activity was subjected to the interests of the characteristics of the natural resources, such as
managing political order. The consolidated land land area, soils, water and environment;
use from the past, which was state controlled, 2) information on infrastructural activities
hardly took care of the depletion of the natural and availability of infrastructural networks that
resources, neither was considered private interests serve the agricultural production;
towards land. Spatial planning in agriculture today 3) land use traditions of the regions,
destined to put legitimate rules for long-term 4) knowledge of methodologies for
agricultural land use and to reconcile private and resources management, considering near and far
public interests in land use. Since the beginning of future changes of the environment,
the democratic process, Bulgarian agriculture 5) reliable legislation and regulatory,
experienced many upheavals. The so called Land 6) financing sources.
Reform turned agriculture into the only production The goal of the paper is to make a review of
sector in Bulgarian economy that had a decreasing the land and water resources for agricultural
share in GDP (Popov, Ivanov, 2012; Koteva et al., production in Bulgaria; to highlight land use
2014). The main reason for that is the lack of state planning and design of the structural elements of
agricultural policy in the period when land was the agricultural territory; to point out gaps in
directly returned to the land owners. Land tenure Bulgarian legislation towards efficient land use and
was turned into a small-sized, fragmented and water management.
scattered one that put obstacles to large-scale
mechanization, melioration and planning. There MATERIAL AND METHOD
was low interest of the owners in utilizing of their
land for agriculture. Land use was inefficient and Data from national agricultural censuses of the
Ministry of Agriculture and Food (MAF) and National
uncontrolled. A lot of abandoned lands occurred.
Institute of Statistics (NIS) have been processed.
The new stage for agriculture and Data of scientific investigations in soil erosion are
agricultural land use in Bulgaria started with the illustrated and presented.
pre-accession period and with the following EU The following methods of analysis were
membership. The tendencies of utilizing the applied: systematic and comparative analysis;
agricultural land turned into positive. Nowadays method of statistical groups, and expert assessment
Indicators analyzed are:
lease holding is strongly developed, hence one can
 qualitive and quantitative indicators characterizing
hardly see uncultivated lands but here come land and water resources for agriculture of the
another kind of problems - legislative and country: permanent land use; structure of the
following functional and profitable ones. Though agricultural area (AA), structure of the utilized
spatial planning in agriculture is realized as agricultural area (UAA), structure of the agricultural
profitable, it is still theoretically considered by the area - by slope, by type of degradation processes,
state and society. Voluntary land usage and by susceptibility to sheet erosion and deflation;
annual soil losses by water erosion per type of land
agricultural practices in combination with small
use; structure of the irrigable area by type of
and fragmented holdings today lead to irrational irrigation; structure of the irrigated crops; available
use of land, low technological level of agriculture and used water resources; parameters of the
and low income from it. There are still large areas - available irrigation and drainage network; balance
legacy from the intensive agricultural production between caught and delivered water for irrigation;
past - of degraded, saline and acid soils. There are  parameters characterizing the structural condition of
also areas with disturbed by uncontrolled the farms - relative value of holdings by UAA and by
economic size; distribution of holding UAA by size
industrialization soils. EU and national subsidies of UAA, standard output distribution by economic
are strong drivers for agricultural land use but is size of the holdings and by farm type; dynamics of
not always a common tool for settling problems in the number of holdings and average UAA size
land competition. Joint provision of public and 2003-2005.
private goods is the main precondition for revision
60
Expert assessment of some aspects of

national legislation on land and water management in
agriculture is presented.
Land resources.
Various relief, soil and climate diversity
over the country determine multiple food and
beverage production. Geographically, land
characteristics are the following: lowlands (0-200
m asl) - 32% of the total surface area, hills (200-
600 m asl) – 41%, high lands – 25% and
Figure 2 Structure of the agricultural area (Source:
mountains (above 1600 m asl) – 2% (Geography of MAF, 2010)
BG, 2002). Agricultural lands are situated up to
800 m asl hence 70% of land surface in Bulgaria Therefore the field cropping areas have the
has potential for agricultural production. greatest share in AA: 50% are cropped with cereals
Nowadays, the relative value of the agricultural and 30% - with industrial crops. The area with
area (AA (http://faostat.fao.org)) in relation to the fresh vegetables is 10%, and with forage plants and
whole surface area is 58.29% (6.42 mln ha) (figure fallow land – 3% each (figure 3).
1). It is a high contribution to the AA of Central
and Eastern Europe (EU CE) which average value
is 50% (FAO, 2014). Forest area of the country is
34.74% (3.83 mln ha) - 4.74% higher than the
average for EU CE; surface waters - 1.79%, and
damaged territory – 0.23%.
Bulgarian AA under arable land, permanent
crops and permanent pasture, which is the Utilized
AA (UAA) (http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu ) is
91.5% (figure 2). This completes 53.33% of the
surface area of Bulgaria or 5.88 mln ha.
Figure 3 Structure of UAA

(Source: MAF, 2010)
Quality of soils and soil degradation processes.

Bulgarian soils have one of the greatest
potential in Europe for sustainable intensification
of the agricultural production. They meet the
requirements for high soil performance and high
soil resilience (Blum, 2014). Therefore, when
Figure 1 Permanent use of the territory of Bulgaria crops are selected correctly, according to soil
(Source: MAF, 2011) fertility, climate impact and economic planning,
Presently, agricultural land use is traditional. crop yields are high and farming is efficient. The
Since wheat and maize grain are still the strategic soil coverage in Bulgaria is characterized with a
great variety due to sufficient diversity of soil
food crops, mostly field crops are being cultivated.
Further, land use is subjected to the up-to- forming factors (soil forming rocks, strongly
date tendencies for energy crops growing for the uneven relief, varied bioclimatic conditions and
purpose of bio-fuel production and substitution of anthropogenic activities) and has a mosaic
structure. It includes 42 soil varieties, classified in
fossil fuels with bio-fuels (with regards EU
Directive for 20% usage till the end of 2020). 16 soil types (data of Soil Resources Agency
The specific soil and climate conditions (SRA)) (figure 4). They complete 21 of all 28
allow production of highly qualitative fruits and world soil groups. The greatest part of Bulgarian
vegetables. soils - 53.2% consists of deep and fertile soils;
39.3% of the soils are underdeveloped and
61
shallow; and around 7.5% of the territory has no has very low to moderate risk of erosion with soil
soil cover (Valev, 2004). removal < 20 t/ha/y, for 31.7% of AA the risk is
moderate, for 19.5% - moderate to high and for
10.4% - high and very high with >100 t/ha/y
removal of soil particles.
Figure 4 Soil map of Bulgaria (Source: Valev, 2010)
Soil quality is greatly dependent on

topography. The greatest part – around 33% of AA Figure 6 Distribution of the agricultural land by type
is sloped to up 3%. For these areas are suitable all of degradation processes (Source: Krumov et al.,
kinds of soil treatment directions and irrigation 2010)
technologies. Significant disadvantage in the flat
areas is their vulnerability to wind erosion. The impact of land use on erosion can be
Around 66% of AA is sloped >3%, seen on figure 9. Considering only the out-of
including 18.6% with slopes 3-6% and around eligible-losses, 51% of the total soil losses are
35.2% - >6%. These slopes make these areas from the cropped fields, 33% is from grasslands,
vulnerable to sheet water erosion (figure 5). and 12% is from the permanent crops.
(Mondeshka, 2006). This may be caused by:
1) disregarding the direction of tillage with
slope;
2) improper grazing;
3) lack of soil prevention and protection
activities, etc.
Figure 5 Distribution of the agricultural land by slope

(Source: Ruseva et al., 2010)
As to Krumov et al., 2010, around 49% of

Bulgarian soils are subjected to water erosion,
while 18% - to wind erosion, 20% of the soils
suffer from salinization, and 12% - from
acidification. Soil compaction is spread over 18% Figure 7 Tendency to sheet erosion of Bulgarian
of the soils (figure 6). soils (Source: Ruseva et al., 2010)
Ruseva et al., 2010 have established that the
potential risk of sheet erosion for 26.4% of the Water resources.
territory of the country is >100 t/ha/y, for 16.2% - Bulgaria has limited water resources, which
40-100 t/ha/y, for 21% - 10-40 t/ha/y, and for are unevenly spread over the territory of the
33.6% it is <20 t/ha/y. Actually, 52.8% of the country. The yearly water availability per capita is
affected soils are medium to strongly susceptible to twice smaller than that of Central Europe
sheet erosion (figure 7). The susceptibility to (http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.s
deflation is low – 68.3% of the territory has index I tm) The poorest in water resources is the
<125 t/ha/y (figure 8). Totally, 25.9% of the AA
62
northeastern part of Bulgaria, where predominantly Recently, farmers’ interest in irrigation is

autumn-winter cereals are cultivated. very low. Water consumption for irrigation is only
0.6% of the total consumption. There are a number
of physical, operational, organizational and pricing
problems that put difficulties to irrigation practice.
The heritage from the past is considerable: 252
irrigational systems constructed; 2209 dams; 6475
km open canal work (90% lined); 9269 km burred
pipe netwok; 530 km derivational canals; 681
pump stations. The areas equipped are 0.740 mil
ha, which is 12% of the existing UAA. Nowadays
the potentially irrigable area is 0.54 mln ha (9.2%
of UAA), but only 0.13 mln ha (2% of UAA) are
actually irrigated (MAF, 2010). Currently, on 74%
Figure 8 Tendency to deflation of Bulgarian soils of the irrigated areas surface irrigation is mostly
(Source: Ruseva et al., 2010) managed. Its network is cheap and technologically
feasible. Drip systems are gaining momentum.
They are applied to intensive crops as vegetable
and permanent crops (figure 10).
Figure 9 Annual soil losses caused by water erosion

per land use type (Source: Mondeshka et al., 2006)
Around 60% of the country water potential Figure 10 Irrigable area by type of irrigation
is in southern Bulgaria and part of middle-west (Source: MAF, 2010)
Bulgaria. The richest water resources, excluding
the Danube River are concentrated in the southern The crops that are mainly irrigated are the
mountain regions, while in the cultivated lands, grain crops, followed by permanent and vegetable
located predominantly in the plains, in the hilly crops (figure 11). Crops like winter wheat and
and low mountain lands, the water resources are barley are sawn on 60% of the irrigable areas,
less (Mondeshka et al., 2006). More than 75% of because of being easily managed. These crops have
the water resources origin from the territory of the low sensitivity to water and are inefficient in the
country (http://www. fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/). irrigated areas. Nowadays rehabilitation of the
The risk of water stress is assessed as medium to irrigational systems is needed. Canal network
low (http://maplecroft. com/portfolio/mapping/). needs to be restored because it has been built in the
The annual surface flow is 19.4 bil m3 /y, and 80s of the last century and in many places is
ground flow – 6.0 bil m3/y. The annual already out of exploitation. Present land
consumption is 68% of the available waters - 12.0 fragmentation doesn’t fit to the functionality of the
bil m3/y (http://www.nsi.bg/bg/ content/2541). existing irrigation and drainage systems. Nor the
Bulgarian agriculture and agricultural practices are cropping patterns take onto consideration the
strongly dependent on the scarce atmospheric technological units of those systems, which makes
resources, which are unevenly distributed as over them inoperative. The water losses dependent on
the territory of the country, so during the potential non-operability of the irrigational systems and bad
vegetation period. Irrigation is a recommended functionality of the irrigational areas are shown on
practice for obtaining high and sustainable yields. figure 12. By adding to these facts the one that the
The results from climate scenarios open and closed network has been violently robbed
(http://meteorology.meteo.bg/) provide for future and damaged, the result is that the water
climate warming and drought, hence irrigation conveyance efficiency of the irrigational systems is
practices will be more and more vital for only 20% and the water application efficiency –
agriculture. 50%.
63
dualistic model of agricultural production

management still exists. It is seen on figure 13 and
figure 14 that the greatest number of holdings -
67% - wields UAA of 0-1 ha size, but it is only
10% of the total UAA of the country. While only
2% of the holdings wield UAA of >50 ha size, but
it is the greatest share of the total UAA – 84%.
Figure 11 Structure of the irrigated crops

(Source: MAF, 2010)
Figure 13 Distribution of holdings by UAA

(Source: MAF, 2010)
Figure 12 Balance between caught and delivered for

irrigation water: (Source: NIS)
Drainage network suffers nearly the same

problems like irrigation network. The drainage
infrastructure consists of 254 km Danube River
dikes, 2260 km prevention dikes, 3153 km river
corrections, 5748 km drainage canals, 76 drainage
pump stations, 11 retention dams. Every year,
0.153 mln ha need to be drained regularly.
Nowadays drainage activities become very
important under the impact of climate changes and Figure 14 Distribution of holding UAA by size of UAA
(Source: MAF, 2010)
the increasing number of flood events. The
territory under the need of flood prevention is
0.166 mln ha (MAF, 2010). Drainage systems are Logically, the balance between the
badly maintained. Lots of drainage canals and economic size of the holdings (figure 15, figure
veins are silted and need exemption from the 16) is the same – 68.9% of the holdings have
clogging materials. economic size less than 2 th EUR and generate
only 9% of the standard output of agriculture,
Structure of the holdings while the economic size of 0.4% of the holdings is
The small-sized ownership on land puts greater than 250 th EUR and generate 42% of the
obsticles to rational agricultural land management. output.
The main purpose of the Land Reform of the 90-s The processes of restructuring of land
of the last century was to recover the ownership of ownership and land use are greatly influenced by
the agricultural lands in order to ensure social the political changes in Europe and are mainly
justice. Restoration of land property in its real size connected with the membership of the country in
and land borders caused great fragmentation in EU. Main driver of land use in the past 2007-2013
land use and creation of a large number of small CAP period is the policy of subsidizing farmers
farms. This was the basis, on which the processes from EU funds (Pillar I). The pre-accession period
of transformation of ownership, land tenure and and the period of newly established membership of
land use started. Twenty years later, the National Bulgaria bring a permanent tendency of
Agricultural Census of 2010 reveals that the consolidation of the holdings and land use. In
64
2007, the number of the holding is twice less than there are gaps that cause misunderstandings and
in 2003 (figure 17). discrepancies in land relations and land use.
Figure 17 Dynamics of the number of holdings and

average size UAA (Source: MAF, 2010)
Figure 15 Holding by economic size The main output - 47% comes from field
(Source: MAF, 2010) crop production, which characterizes agricultural
production as extensive (figure 18).
Figure 16 Standard output distribution by economic

size of the holdings (Source: MAF, 2010)
The reduction is most intensive for the small

holdings that wield up to 2 ha - almost twice, and
Figure 18 Standard output distribution by farm type
the reduction of 2-5-ha holdings is 18%. The (Source: MAF, 2010)
tendencies of the bigger holdings are positive. The
group of 10-50-ha increases almost twice in Bulgarian legislation and problems arising.
number, the number of 50-100-ha holdings The state is required to ensure: mandatory
increases 1.5 times, while the large farms >100 ha for specifically targeted land use; optimization of
increase with 36%. The average holding size the size of the property; protection of the owners’
increases from 4.4 ha to 10.1 ha, but is rights, wield and use of land; land protection;
considerably lower than the average of EU-27, development of infrastructure; operation of a
which is 179 ha. The main driver of the reliable system of payments related to land; and
consolidation processes is the direct payments, control over the turnover of land and land market.
regulated by CAP. In spite of the changes, the The state should maintain strict liability for
organizational structure of Bulgarian agriculture is violations of land legislation. The heritage from the
strongly polarized - the small group of holdings Land Reform is that of partial land consolidation
dominates. and lack of regulations for prohibition or
Modern Bulgarian legislative environment restriction of further division of property by
on land-use planning consists of a set of laws and inheritance, partitions and sales. The complexity of
regulations mainly governing ownership, the problem deepens with the fact that after the
environmental protection, and sustainable restoration of property, 1.5 million hectares of it,
resources management. It is to greatest extent one fifth of AA (19.4%) is indivisible, but still the
harmonized with European legislation but still process of division is taking place. Bulgarian
legislation provides a slow and tedious procedure
65
for priority buyer of land that can be easily There is another significant problem arising
circumvented - through donations, mortgages, from a very liberal procedure for change of the
change of status (only for agricultural land) and primary use of agricultural land for construction
with no account of the economic viability of the purposes under the Law on Protection of
priority buyer. The priority is not combined with Agricultural Lands. As a result, the agricultural
the financial resources for buying land and area decreases. This process is most intensive after
guarantees for future profitable business. The 2006. It is difficult nowadays to establish a balance
fragmented property structure, the land between both compatible interests of society and
ownership/landuse structure, and the significant business - conservation of the agricultural land and
scattering of the properties hinder the development the growth of investments.
of agricultural production and decrease its A step to sustainability in agriculture, land
competitiveness. Today, the relatively high level of use and rural development would be creation of a
concentration of land lease and land use Land Management Act, or at least Land
compensates the unfavorable effects. Consolidation Act to regulate land use processes
Land management over the past CAP period and contribute to optimization of land use. When
2007-2013 was justified in terms of increased land management activities, including land
income. Other public goods like landscape consolidation, are state supported and regulated,
protection, sustainability, and rural development the trust of landlords and land users in the
were not considered. The new CAP now requires profitability of these activities for their private
complex activities for achieving “green interests increase. Also their credibility to the
agriculture” and support for young farmers. It is public good of these activities enhances. In this
expected to redirect land use to new priorities – sense, there were some recent changes in Law on
such as environmental protection, development of Ownership and Use of Agricultural Land to a
viable farms, sustainable agricultural production support of voluntary land consolidation by which
and social development in the rural areas. to reduce the property fragmentation; to introduce
One of the biggest disadvantages of better regulation of agreements on land use by
Bulgarian Law on Ownership and Use of increasing their transparency and improving the
Agricultural Land is that it gives unregulated procedure for resolving disputes. Still there is no
freedom for choice of permanent land use for the particular ordinance to regulate the terms and
owner’s tenure. There are no rules for compliance conditions for the preparation and implementation
of the individual type of land use with the of plans in case of land use changes or
preferable or traditional land use of the cultivated consolidation of lands. The optimization of land
areas, which in most cases is subjected to the management requires reliable legal regulation of
specific environmental and economic conditions of land owner/land user relations, especially of the
the region. Thus it puts possible obstacles to process of signing/termination of contracts.
consolidation of land use. Presently, both sides have poorly protected rights
Another gap is that the Law on Ownership on termination of contracts and Lease Act needs
and Use of Agricultural Land guarantees a one- certain improvement.
year term Agreement for the cultivated arrays Important questions that need their
while the requirement for receiving agro- legislative decisions are those related to the
ecological subsidies by EU is 5-year same-land structure of agricultural areas. The Law on Spatial
tillage, including crop rotation. This puts a tenant Planning regulates the development plans, which
who receives such subsidy in risky situation for task is to provide the overall structure of the
paying penalties in case of withdrawal of a shortly municipalities, parts thereof or of individual
contracted plot from his array under cultivation. settlements with their territories. In terms of
The Law enables incorrect relations between the agricultural land, however, their role is very
tenants themselves too. limited. The agricultural area is solely determined
There is no statutory restriction on the size but no structural activities are pointed out or
of the rented area. This frees a large-scale lease recommended therein. There is no legislation and
holding. Presently, this is the reason for existence regulatory for spatial planning and design of the
of monopoly in agriculture that has impact on land infrastructural elements in the agricultural territory.
management and especially on the structure of the There is no even definition and specification for
agricultural production making it inefficient as a what is an agricultural land development plan
whole. For this reason, the establishment of small except for its categorization as a specialized one in
and medium-sized enterprises is prevented and the Law of Spatial Planning. At the same time,
rural areas get depopulated. agricultural land development plans are mentioned
in different strategic and legal documents. The lack
66
of regulation for such evidently needed plans leads a dual agricultural structure is functioning – a
to adverse environmental and farming practices. relatively small number of large farms wielding
A tax system for land owing and land use significant part of the agricultural land and a large
has not yet been established. group of small semi-subsistent farms wielding a
Some of the gaps in water management for small part of the agricultural land; there is lack of
irrigation are: disparity between the programmes legal certainty of land wielding with consequences
for the development of irrigation in the past and for receiving EU subsidies for agricultural
current economic policy of the country after 1989, production; lack of state guarantee of market sell
leading to a mismatch between the parameters of output with consequences for inefficient structure
existing irrigation systems and their current use in of the agricultural production; losses of GDP from
conditions of small and fragmented land tenure; inefficient use of the irrigation & drainage
inefficiency of the existing irrigation and drainage infrastructure and the relevant fields; great
network due to the low utilization rate of existing discrepancy between intentions and
irrigation systems; low efficiency of the systems, implementation of environmental protection in
constructed according to irrigation technology with agricultural activities; and still deepening of
increased losses of water, resulting in incomplete depopulation of rural areas. CAP drivers of 2007-
recovery of the water resource; energy systems in 2013 and state legislation on land ownership and
which water prices are high; ineffective land use were ineffective to stimulate the
management model of irrigation and drainage; lack development of the small and middle holdings and
of strategy for the development of irrigation and establishment of rational structure of the
drainage activities; insufficient investment for agricultural production.
recovery, reconstruction and maintenance of In order to exploit the production potential
irrigation infrastructure; d ifficulties in the of the country legal mechanisms for important
establishment and operation of the irrigation activities should be developed. A fundamental one
associations; lack of monitoring for the irrigation is regulation of land development planning which
systems. The accent of the new Programme for would guarantee sustainability of the agricultural
Rural Development, relevant to the Regulation and other economy sectors with interests towards
(EU) No. 1305/2013 of the European Parliament land. This will contribute for crop growing which
and of the Council on Support for Rural is adequate to the soil potential; proper usage of
Development by the European Agricultural Fund the existing infrastructure and construction of new
for Rural Development (EAFRD) and the one; environmental protection; increase of
Regulation (EU) No. 1306/2013 of the European employment and income from agriculture; and
Parliament and of the Council on the Financing, finally development of rural areas and restoration
Management and Monitoring of the Common of the natural status of Bulgaria as an agricultural
Agricultural Policy is on investments in tangible country, famous for its high quality agricultural
assets, including infrastructure, gives a new production. The real steps to improvement of
impulse for revision and revitalization of irrigation legislation towards land are creation of legitimate
and drainage management. grounds for: land ownership consolidation,
transparency of land relationship, quick and fair
CONCLUSIONS procedures, and regulated spatial planning in
agriculture. What the society and agricultural
Bulgarian agriculture has deep historical producers are vitally waiting for is a Land
roots. It is, because of the favorable land, soil and Management Act or at least Land Consolidation
water resources that ensure growing of diverse Act with Regulatory for implementation of the
agricultural crops and practicing of different specific activities and generated land development
farming systems. Bulgarian soils have one of the plans.
greatest potential in Europe for sustainable Successful agriculture is an issue of proper
intensification of agricultural production. land and water management. It can be developed
Presently, Bulgarian agriculture is extensive. only on proper land and water use. The key
There are several main reasons – lack of adequate approach to that is by developing an adequate
state policy during the period of Land Reform to legislation - such one that would contribute for
guarantee further consolidated land use; lack of middle-size property establishment and for land
legal mechanism for land ownership prevention consolidation, for proper mechanization and
from further fragmentation by inheritance, efficient irrigation, for soil protection and
partitions and buys/sales transactions; improper landscape preservation, for market and social
management of land and water resources, land benefits.
relationship and agricultural production. Therefore:
67
ACKNOWLEGMENTS Ruseva S., Lozanova L., Nekova D., Stefanova V.,

Dzhodzhov H., Tzvetkova E., Malinov I.,
This study was supported by the Center for Research Krumov V., Chehlarova-Simeonova S., 2010 -
and Design in the structure of the University of Risk of soil erosion in Bulgaria and
Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy in Recommendations for soil-protection use of the
Bulgaria (Project BN 170/14 “Current Issues and agricultural lands. Part І and Part ІІ.
Challenges to Agricultural Land-Use Planning In PubilshSighSet-Eco, S., 304 and 319 pp.
Bulgaria”) Valev V, Georgiev B., 2010 - Agroecological Resourses
of Bulgaria, basis for land planning. Ed. Poni, S.,
172 p.
REFERENCES *** - Agricultural Census in Bulgaria 2010. 2012.
Edition of the Ministry of Agriculture and Food
Blum W., 2014 - Potential and Limits of Sustainable (MAF), № 235, Decemper 2012, Agrostatistics
Intensification of Agriculture. Report of Int. Department, 321 p.
Conference “Land as a Resource”, 19.06.2014, *** - Agricultural report 2011, SAPI, MAF
EC, Brussels, Belgium *** - National Strategy for Sustainable Development
https://scic.ec.europa.eu/streaming/index.php?es of Agriculture in the Period 2014-2020. 2014.
=2&sessionno=415185ea244ea2b2bedeb0449b9 MZH, 354 p.
26802 *** - National Strategic Plan for Rural Development
Cioloç D., 2010 - The CAP after 2013, European (2007-2013). European Agricultural Fund for
Commission - SPEECH/10/400, 22/07/2010 Rural Development, 2008
http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_SPEECH- *** - Overview of CAP Reform 2014-2020
10-400_en.htm?locale=en http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/policy-
Koteva N., Mladenova M., Dzhandarmov P., 2014 - perspectives/policy-briefs/05_en.pdf
Sructural farm changes. Institute of Agricultural *** - The Common Agricultural Policy after 2013 -
Economics, 50 p. Public Debate. Executive Summary of
Krumov V., Ruseva S., Malinov I., Dinev N., 2010 - Countributions
Degradation of Soils – Methods and Measures for http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/cap-post-
Soil Conservation. In: Soil Resources and their 2013/debate/report/executive-summary_en.pdf
sustainable Management, Agricultural Academy, *** - Geography of Bulgaria. 2002. BAS
S., 41-46 *** - FAO Statistical Yearbook 2014: Europe and
Mondeshka M., Ruseva S., Marinov I.. Tabakov B., Central Asia Food and Agriculture, 130 p.
Lazarov A., Slavov D., Boteva D, Malinova L., *** - UNEP (2014) Assessing Global Land Use:
Stoyanov H., Petrova R., 2006 - Soil Balancing Consumption with Sustainable Supply
Degradation Processes and Options for *** - http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu
Sustainable Land Management in Bulgaria. *** - http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm
Minerva Publishing. Sofia. 303 pp. *** - http://faostat.fao.org/site/375/default.aspx
Popov R., Ivanov B., 2012 - Bulgarian Agriculture and *** - http://maplecroft.com/portfolio/mapping/maplecroft/?
Expected Impact of CAP Reform. Avangard theme=gr
Prima, S., 100 p. *** - http://meteorology.meteo.bg/
68
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE HYDRAULIC DETERMINATION

OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS WITH JUNCTION CHAMBERS
Esmeralda CHIORESCU1, Cristian SCRIPCARIU2
e-mail: esmeralda_chiorescu@yahoo,com
Abstract
Drains and collectors have the role of collecting the water from an aquifer as well as transporting it to the collecting
chamber. In transit, the drains are equipped with inspection chambers at no more than 400 m from each other that serve
not only for the maintenance but also as hydraulic junctions for successive sections when there are changes of slope,
direction or size, in which case the location distance may be much smaller (Arsenie M., 1982). For the drainage systems
(Bârsan E., 2001,), from the hydraulic point of view, the following conceptual models are considered: 1o closed drain
with cylindrical/prismatic bed, unconfined, in which there is gradually changing motion and the flow rate varies - on the
sections between two successive chambers; 2o singularity with sudden change of section, with rapidly varied movement
regime - on crossing a junction chamber. While for the first conceptual model there are already established, real life
tested mathematical models, for the second one there are no satisfactory theoretical approaches. Starting from the
general equations of hydrodynamics, like the continuity equation, we designed in this paper a mathematical model to
determine the functional relation between water levels from the two ends of the two sections of the drain connected by a
chamber. This model was implemented in a complex computer program of flow simulation for the entire length of the
drainage system, and used to solve a representative study case.
Key words: drainage system, junction chamber, rapidly varied motion, mathematical modeling, numerical simulation
The mathematical models for the auxiliary forces exerted on the fluid in the space D limited
constructions that equip the drainage system are by the surface S (Ionescu, D. Gh., 1997):
used to determine the boundary conditions for the
flow problems in gradually varied permanent    
S   v   v  n   dA   Fe (1)
regimes.
A mathematical model was developed in this where:
study for the simple junction chamber (with or ρ=fluid density in the space D;
without slope change/breaking; with or without

v = velocity vector on surface S;
change of shape and/or dimensions of the cross 
n = exterior unit normal on surface S.
section of the drainage pipes/culverts). Usually, the control surface S is made of:
For the mathematical modeling we took into
account the local charge losses when sudden
change of flow section occurs, as well as the
S = SI + SE +SL +SS (2)
equations belonging to the theorem of the motion where:
quantity (impulse). SI – the entering surface in the space D;
In a permanent regime, we define the SE – the exit surface in the space D;
control surface as being the fixed surface S that SL – the surface of the space D bordered by
limits a space D belonging to the space occupied the free level of the water;
by a fluid in motion. SS – the surface of the space D bordered by
If on the surface S there are rigid solid solid bodies (walls, immersed bodies).

bodies, their surfaces must be considered as
belonging to the control surface.
The sum of the exterior forces 
Fe , has
the following general expression, (3) (Strecker W.
In a permanent regime, according to the
and Wayne C. Hub, 2002):
motion quantity (impulse) theorem, the motion
quantity that goes through the control surface S in       
a time unit, is equal to the sum of the exterior F e PI  PE  PL  PS  Fg  Fr ( 3)
1
USAMV Iasi
2
UTI Iasi
69
2
Lb  Ai  Vi 2
where: h  1   
    r
PI , PE , PL , PS =pressure forces that act  Ae  2  g (7)
normally, on the respective surfaces SI, SE, SL and
SS; - for the sudden narrowing of the section,

Fg =the fluid gravity in the space D, hr  hrIb ,
pointing downwards;
 1  Ae  Ve2
Fr =the resistance force corresponding to hrIb   1   
2  Ai  2  g
the losses of hydraulic charge, hr (usually, losses (8)
hr are mainly local, caused by the singularities σ where:
Ai , A2 = the area of the live section in the
between the entrance sectors „in” and the exit ones
„from” the space D), opposing the flow direction input sectors i-i and, respectively, output e-e;
and usually horizontal. Vi , V2 =the average velocity in the input
The absolute value of the pressure force, P, sectors i-i and, respectively, output e-e.
which acts on the vertical surface S, can be For a stream channel, limited by a rigid side
assessed using the following general relation (4): surface SS, calculating the surface integral from the
left side, the expression (1) becomes:
  
P  g    hG  A    hG  A (4)   Q   E VE  I VI    Fe (9)
where: where:
g=gravity acceleration; Q=the input/output flow rate into/out of the
  g   = specific gravity of the fluid space D
(water); β;I, βE = the motion quantity coefficient on
A= the area of the surface S; hG=the depth of the surface SI and, respectively, SE;
the centroid of the surface S. VI, VE = the average velocity on the surface
The absolute value of the gravity Fg of the SI and, respectively, SE; these can be rendered by
fluid in the space D is given by the following using the continuity equation, (10):
expression (5): V Q A (10)
Fg  g    W    W (5)
Where: MATERIAL AND METHOD
W= is the volume of the fluid in the space
D. The chambers of this type are usually
located in the central sectors of the drain/culvert, if
The modulus of the resistance force Fr of o
one or more of the following conditions are met: 1
(6): – the change of slope of the culvert bed (basemat);
  Q  hr   Q  hr o o
2 – break in slope; 3 change of shape and/or size
Fr      Ar  hr (6) of the cross-section of the pipes/culverts.
Vr Q Ar
In order to apply the motion quantity
where: theorem for a junction chamber (of parallelipiped
Q=the flow rate of the stream of fluid shape) of two collector sectors, we designed the
between the sectors i-i and e-e, which limit the calculus formula depicted in (figure 1). The control
o
singularity σ; space D includes: I – the downstream section of
Vr= the average velocity of the stream the upstream collector sector, limited upstream by
o o
between the sectors i-i and e-e; the surface Sr; II – the actual chamber and III –
Ar= the average area of the live section of the upstream section of the downstream collector,
the stream between the sectors i-i and e-e. limited downstream by the surface SE. The
sections Io and IIIo are long enough so that we can
At the point of sudden change of the flowing
consider the hydrostatic distribution of pressures
section, depending on the ratio between the areas on the surfaces Sr and SE, but, at the same time,
of the sectors i-i and e-e, the local charge losses hr short enough so that we can neglect the distributed
can be determined using one of the following charge losses and the grade variation of the drain
o o
relations: bed (the basemats of the sections I and III are
considered to be horizontal).
- for the sudden widening of the section, Both sectors, Io and IIIo, transport the same
hr  hrLb flow, Q we only selected the geometrical
,
characteristics of area and elevation of the centroid
for the live section of the stream:
o
- For the sector I :
70
Lucrări Ştiinţifice – vol. 57/2014, seria Agronomie
A1=fA1 (h), zG1=fzG1 (h) and (22) it results the following expression for the
(11) force Fr:
and for the sector IIo, l
Fr      z C  z RC   Q 2 
A2=fA2 (h), zG2=fzG2 (h) (12) 2
2
For the calculus formula that was adopted  f A1 (h1 )  1 1 f A2 ( h2 )  1 
 
  1    1   2 
(fig. 1), the expression (3) is re-written in extenso   l   zC  z RC   f A1 ( h1 ) 
2
2  l   z C  z RC   f A2 ( h2 )  

in the following way:
       (24)
F e PI  PE   PL   PS   Fg  Fr (13) Finally, considering the relations (16)÷(18), (21)
and (24), the motion quantity equation (14) can be
Applying the relation (9), designed following re-written in this way:
the flowing direction (x-x axis), considering the   h1 , h2 , zC   0 (25)
directions of the exterior forces (13), we get: that is an equation in the variables h1, h2 and zC.

  Q    E VE   I VI     Fe x (14) As far as the elevation of the free water
level in the chamber is concerned, zC, in reality we
 can come across one of the two following
 F  e x
 PI  PE   PSC 1  PSC 2   Fr (15) situations: the elevation zC is monitored, so it has a
known value, zC  zC ; while in the absence of
where: PSC1 and PSC2 are the exterior forces (as monitoring, the elevation zC can be approximated
reactions of the hydrostatic pressures) which act, in this way:
respectively, on the upstream and downstream z1  z2 zR1  h1  zR 2  h2
walls of the chamber. zC   (26)
Next, using the relations (10), (11) and (12), 2 2
the velocities VI and VE can be written in this way: Hence, in both aforementioned situations,
the only variables from the equation (26) are the
depths h1 and h2; depending on the direction on
Q Q the axis s when making the hydraulic calculus – in
VI  and VE  (16)
f A1 (h1 ) f A2 (h2 ) the flowing direction (from upstream to
downstream) or in the opposite direction to the flow
The pressures PI, PE , PSC1 and PSC2 are (from downstream to upstream) – in the equation
determined using the expressions of the type (4), (25), the depth h1 is known and h2 unknown, or,
in which the area A and the centroid elevation, zG, respectively, the depth h2 is known and h1
are evaluated using the relations (11) and (12): unknown.
PI     h1  zG1   A1     h1  f zG1 (h1 )   f A1 (h1 ) RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

(17)
The mathematical model described by the
PE     h2  zG 2   A2     h2  f zG2 (h2 )   f A2 (h2 ) equations (11)÷(26) was applied to a simple
(18) junction chamber characterized by the following
1 2 
PSC1      l   zC  z RC   f A1  zC  zR1    zC  f zG1  zC  z R1   determining dimensions (table 1): upstream sector
2  CL 2800/2400, with zR1=40.00 m; downstream
(19) sector CL 2500/2150 with zR2 =39.80 m; prismatic
1 2  chamber with zRC =38.50 m , L= 3.00 m, l =6.5 m,
PSC 2      l   zC  z RC   f A2  zC  z R 2    zC  f zG2  z C  z R 2   
2  (β1 = β2 =1.10; α1 = α2 =1.30).
(20)
From the equations (19) and (20) results (21):
a). For the flow rate Q=5.30 m3/s and
PSC1  PSC 2    f A2  zC  z R 2    zC  fzG2  zC  z R 2  
h1=ham=2.00 m, we got:
  f A1  zC  zR1    zC  f zG1  zC  z R1   (21) Z1 = 42.00 m, A1 =4.5844 m2, ZG1 = 41.0774
The resistance force Fr can be determined m, V1 =1.1561 m/s, P1 = 41494 N.
with the expression (6), where:
Ar  l   zC  z RC  (22) The equation (25), with the condition (26),
2
was numerically solved through the Nelder-Mead
 A  V2 1  A  V2 algorithm, with the starting value (h2)0=1.99 m and
hr  hrLb  hrIb  1  1   I   1  2   E (23)
 Ar  2  g 2  Ar  2  g the maximum allowed error of 10-5 m, and, after 47
Next, using the expressions (11) and (12) iterations, we got the solution h2 =hav =1.6435 m.
and and considering the expressions (16) for the
velocities VI and VE from the expressions (6), (7)
The solution h2 =hav =1.6435 m was In this way we got the graphic
achieved for the following values of the hydraulic- representations from (fig. 2) ; the coordinates point
functional parameters of the chamber: (ham, hav)Test =(2.00 m, 1.6435 m), determined
through the calculus detailed in section a) and
Z2 = 41.4435 m, ZC = 41.7218 m, A2 = emphasized by the marker „pentagram”, is
3.3881m2, V2 =1.5643 m/s correctly located on the curve with the parameter
PE=P2 = 24598 N, ZG2 = 40.7034 m, ZC = Q1=5.30 m3/s.
41.7218 m,
f zG1  zC  z R1  =ZcG1 = 40.9574 m, AC = CONCLUSIONS
2
20.9414 m , VC = 0.2531 m/s, The notion of hydraulic-functional
PSC1=PC1 = 301140 N, characteristic of the junction chambers of the
A2C = 3.8765 m2, f zG2  zC  zR 2  =ZcG2 = drains and culverts was introduced, describing the
40.8133 m, PSC2=PC2 = 296380 N, relation between the depths of the water from
hrLb  hr_Lb = 0.0416 m, hrIb  hr_Ib = upstream and downstream from the chamber for a
certain value of the transported flow rate; when a
0.0523 m, Fr =Ff = 19277 N. lot of discrete values are allocated to the flow rate,
the relation between the two depths is described by
b). The calculus method presented above a family of hydraulic-functional characteristic
was repeatedly applied for the following values of curves.
the functional parameters: A mathematical model was developed for a
family of hydraulic-functional characteristic curves
Q  Qi   Q1 , Q2 , Q3   5.30, 7.50,10.00 for the simple junction chamber (with or without
change/break in slope; with or without changing
min
, h1  ham  ham 
 Qi  , hammax  the shape and/or sizes of the cross-section).
and with the condition: The mathematical model elaborated in
section 2 was applied using an adequate computer

h2  hav  havmin  Qi  , havmax .  software program for a simple junction chamber
with break in slope and a change of shape and the
max max
where the values h and h correspond to the
am av sizes of the cross-section on a pipeline, and the
depth for which the flow modulus is maximum. resulting family of hydraulic-functional
min characteristic curves was graphically presented.
The values ham  Qi  and havmin  Qi  are The abovementioned mathematical model
CR
equal to the critical depths, ham  Qi  and and computer program may be implemented into
complex software packages applicable for any of
havCR  Qi  , corresponding to the flow rate Qi , and the permanent – gradual or varied flowing regime.
are the solutions of the equations of the type
3
ACR   Qi2
 0
BCR g
Table 1
min min
The determination of the values h max
am
max
,h
av ,h am  Qi  and h  Qi 
av
max max 2 3 min
Section Tube
ham h av
Qi  Q gi
BCR A CR ACR BCR ham havmin
[m] [m 3/s] [m ]
5 [m] [m 2] [m ]
5
[m]
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5.30 3.7224 2.7982 2.1839 3.7224 1.0496
2800/2400
upstream
7.50 7.4541 2.7554 2.7386 7.4541 1.2490

CL
2.2448
10.00 13.2518 2.6532 3.2760 13.2518 1.4473
5.30 3.7224 2.4737 2.0960 3.7224 1.0808

downstream
2500/2150
7.50 7.4541 2.3748 2.6062 7.4541 1.2907

CL
2.0098
10.00 13.2518 2.1977 3.0767 13.2518 1.4958
72
a) b)
c) d)
e)
Figure 1 The calculus formula for a simple junction chamber:
a). Longitudinal profile; b) Plane view (horizontal); c) Upstream wall of the chamber; d) downstream wall
of the chamber; e) back-lateral wall of the chamber (the lateral-front wall of the chamber differs only in the
contrary direction for the x axis). b1, b2 = the widths of the sectors I° and III°;L, l =length and width of the
chamber; zR1, zR2 = elevations of the section beds I° and III°; zRC = elevation of the chamber bottom; z1, z2 =
elevations of the free water levels for the sectors I° and III°; zC = elevation of the free water level in the chamber
Hydraulic-functional characteristics of the simple junction chamber, for flows Q < Q < Q ....
1 2 3
1.8
|- Q3
1.75
1.7
1.65 (ham,hav)Test
-
1.6 |- Q2
hav ,[m]
1.55
1.5
1.45
1.4
|- Q1
1.35
1.3
1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
ham ,[m]
Figure 2. The hydraulic-functional characteristics of the simple junction chamber with the following
determining dimensions: upstream sector CL..; downstream sector CL , prismatic chamber with zRC =38.50 m ,
L= 3.00 m, l =6.5 m.
REFERENCES
Arsenie M., Arsenie I. D., 1982 - Profile de canale cu Ionescu D. G., 1997 - Introducere în hidraulică, Ed.
proprietăţi remarcabile, Profilul hidraulic optim, Tehnică, Bucureşti.
Hidrotehnica, vol. 26, nr. 6, Bucureşti. Strecker W., Wayne C. H., 2002 - Global Solutions for
Bârsan E., 2001 - Alimentări cu apă, Editura CERMI, Drainage Portland, Oregon-SUA.
Iaşi.
74
FIGHTING WATER HAMMER IN THE PRESSURIZED ADDUCTION WORKS

OF HYDROTECHNICAL SYSTEMS
Esmeralda CHIORESCU1, Feodor FILIPOV 1, Sergiu JITĂREANU2
echiorescu@uaiasi.ro
Abstract
This paper presents an experimentally proven mathematical model of determining theoretically the functional
characteristics of an overpressure safety valve of open type, with a spring. These were implemented in a computer
program that simulates the water hammer in a gravitational adduction, to quantitatively determine the suppressing effect
of the valve. For the qualitative and/or quantitative effect of the water hammer, the elasticity of the fluid and of the pipe
wall must be taken into consideration. Although the duration of the phenomena, TLB =tf – t0, is usually relatively small,
the study of the water hammer is of paramount importance since, in the absence of constructive solutions and/or
adequate usage measures, dangerous overpressures and/or under-pressures may occur, leading to the loss of resistance
and/or stability of the hydraulic system with serious economic and safety consequences. The goal of this study is to
determine the sections and the moments in which dangerous pressures occur, as well as to find technical solutions to
fight water hammers. As far as the values of the parameters are concerned (that is the pressures) and their time
variation, respectively the manifestation of the water hammer phenomena, these are specific to each concrete hydraulic
plant and, in fact, we cannot make significant general assessments. Some apparently insignificant particularities of the
general design may be the cause of serious distinctions in the manifestation of the water hammer phenomena.
Analytical formulae, graphic-analytical methods and numerical methods can be used to determine the dangerous
pressure values.
Keywords: water hammer, safety valve, mathematical modeling, numerical simulation, overpressure suppression.
The “water hammer (hydraulic shock)” the case of pumping adduction works, and the
phenomenon in pressurized hydraulic systems sudden closing of a valve downstream – in the case
(particularly a unifilar pipe) consists in a of gravitational adduction works. In these cases the
nonpermanent (transitory), quickly variable pressure variations have relatively large amplitude
movement taking the shape of flow and pressure that can be several times bigger than the pressure
waves that travel with a speed called celerity which in the permanent regime of design/usage. Thus,
is a lot higher than that of water in permanent depending on the longitudinal profile of the
regime (celerity is limited by the speed of sound in pipeline, in certain moments, in some sections
water) (Bartha I., Javgureanu, V., Marcoie N., there may be either overpressures or under-
2004); in this way, during the manifestation of this pressures that may be dangerous for the resistance
phenomena, both hydrodynamic parameters that and/or the stability of the adduction work.
are considered to be important for the motion, the Consequently, although the duration of the
piezometric charge H and the flow rate Q are phenomenon, TLB =tf – t0, is usually relatively
dependent on the spatial coordinate x as well as on small, the study of water hammer is of paramount
the temporal one t. importance since, the negative effects of water
Water hammer is generated by the sudden hammer may trigger serious economic and safety
change of one or both hydrodynamic parameters in consequences.
any of the adduction sections, a change that may be When the occurrence of these dangerous
accidental or controlled – by using a device pressures cannot be totally eliminated only through
generically called “control device”. The most non-structural exploitation measures, the adduction
severe scenarios of occurrence and manifestation work must be equipped with adequate safety
of water hammer are: accidental interruption of devices that must limit the overpressures and/or
electric power supply (power outage/failure) - in under-pressures to values below the resistance
1
USAMV, Iaşi
2
APIA, Iaşi
75
capacity of the pipe. The investment and the The operating principle design of the safety
maintenance costs of the safety devices for water valves with spring and counter-weight is shown in
hammer can sometimes be pretty high, even (figure 2) (Alexandrescu Ovidiu, 2002). The valve
prohibitive, for this reason, the construction- of the diameter d has the surface of the area S; a
hydrostatic force Fh=p.S,oriented upwards, caused
dimensional type of safety device must be
by the hydrostatic pressure p, acts on the valve,
established through specialized determinations, together with the proper gravity of the valve G and
sometimes even using computer simulations. the elastic force Fe of the pre-compressed spring
For the qualitative and/or quantitative effect (figure 2a) or the gravity force F1 (figure 2b), all
of the water hammer, the elasticity of the fluid and oriented downwards.
of the pipe wall must be taken into consideration.
This paper presents an experimentally
proven mathematical model of determining
theoretically the functional characteristics of an
overpressure safety valve of open type, with a
spring. These functional characteristics were
implemented in a computer program that
simulates, in various scenarios, water hammer in a
gravitational adduction, to quantitatively determine
the suppressing effect of the valve.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
From the numerous ways of limiting the a. b.

overpressures, we selected the method of Figure 2 The operating principle design of safety
evacuation of a certain amount of water into the valves: (a) with spring; (b) with counter-weight.
atmosphere (without the possibility of recovery)
through anti-shock devices like safety valves with Depending on the ratio of these forces, the
spring (figure 1) that open when reaching a certain
valve has one of the following positions:
pressure value.
These devices will be placed in certain (so
Closed valve for:
called “deep”) points of the longitudinal profile of
the adduction work, in which the pressure in the p  S  Fe  0   G sau p  S  F1  0   G (1)
pipe axis – both during permanent regimes and open valve, at the height Δz
during the water hammer – is the highest. ( p  p)  S  Fe  z   G sau ( p  p )  S  F1  z   G
(2)
wherep > 0– is the pressure increase comparing
to the pressure in the initial permanent regime.
In the case of the valve with spring, the
dependency of the elastic force of the opening Δz
is given by the expression (Popescu Şt., 1999):
Fe  z   Fe  0   k  z , for 0  z   z max , (3)

where k – the elastic constant of the spring;
 z max - maximum opening of the valve, set due
to constructive-functional reasons. Fe  0  = the
pre-compression force of the spring, adjusted in
relation to the sealing pressure pe, which has to be
set at a higher or at least equal value to the
Figure 1 Safety valves of the open type with spring;
1-Adjusting screw, 2,3-Nut, 4 - Cap, 5- Spring holder, maximum pressure in permanent (stationary)
6- Spring, 7- Spring holder,8- Pin,9- Bearing,10 - regimes, ps max:
Clapper ,11- Clapper gasket, 12- Upper stem, 13-
Seat, 14- O’ring, 15- Skirt,16- Flange, Fe  0   pe  S  G, for pe  ps max (4)
17- Pressure ¼’gas
The anti-shock devices in are always placed We wish to calculate the equation of the
in concrete chambers, while the one of the functional characteristic of the valve which
NEYRPIK type can be placed directly in the expresses analytically the relation between the
atmosphere. evacuated flow Q and the piezometric charge H
76
from the section where the valve is; to this end, the  0, for H  H e
following expressions must also be considered:  3
-The pressure p+p in relation to the charge H:  d
Qsup  63056    H  H e   H , for H e  H  H sat
 k
p  p    g  H (5)  8.1919  d   z   H , for H  H sat
 max
- The velocity equation c for the vent: (15)
where k  7697.4  d  ( H sat - H e ) /  z 
2
c  v  2  g  H (6) max
whereφv is the velocity coefficient of the vent.

Introducing the expression of the constant k
in the above equations, we got: (eq. 16), and (eq.
Through the lateral side of the cylinder of
17).
diameter d, height z and area·d·z, the flow
rateis evacuatedwith the velocity c ( eq. 5):
 0, for H  H e
Q  c    d z  c (7)

 H  He
z   z max  , for H e  H  H sat
where c is the contraction coefficient. H - H
 sat e
From the system of (eq. 1)÷(eq. 5) we got: 
- the opening z of the valve, corresponding to the   z max , for H  H sat
piezometric charge H, H  H e is: (16)
z  0 , for H  H e (8)  0, for H  He


 g 2  H  He
z    d   H  H e  ,for Qsup  8.1919 d  zmax   H , for He  H  Hsat
4 k  Hsat - He
H e  H  H sat (9)  8.1919 d  zmax  H , for H  Hsat

z   z max , for H  H sat (10) (17)
where:
H e  pe  g    is the sealing charge; RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Hsat = the saturation charge (the minimum
value for which the opening of the valve is
For a valve with the constructive parameters
d=100 mm and  z max =40 mm, tuned for He=140
 z max ),.
The equation of the functional characteristic m.c.a. and Hsat =150 m.c.a. ( k=19244 N/m), the
of the valve are: functional features – of control (eq.16 ) and flow
Q  0 , for H  H e (11) (eq. 17) – display the following particularized
shapes:
2 v
Q  2  g 3  d 3    H  He  H ,
4 k  0, for H  140
for H e  H  H sat (12) 
z  0.0040   H  140  , for 140  H  150
Q    2  g   v   c  d   z max  H ,  0.040, for H  150

for H  H sat (13) (18)
Considering the actual numerical values for the
general constants g and π, the material constant ρ  0, for H  140
and the velocity φv and contraction φc coefficients, 
2
g = 9.80655 m/s , π = 3.1416, ρ= 999.4 kg/m
3 Q  0.0033   H  140   H , for 140  H  150
and φv =0.97, φc =0.607, 
 0.0328  H , for H  150
The expressions (10)÷(13) are written in this way:
(19)
 0, for H  He and are a depicted in (fig. 3) and (fig. 4).
 2 The control and flow characteristics of the
 d
z 7697.4  HHe  , for He  H  Hsat (14)
overpressure safety valve of open type, with a
 k
spring, were implemented in a computer program
  zmax , for H  Hsat that simulates, in various scenarios, water hammer
in a gravitational adduction.
77
In the considered study case for a The suppressing effect of the valve was:
gravitational adduction with the diameter Dn=400 p max
 162.82 -149.19=13.63 m.
max
mm, the length L=14 Km, geodetic altitude
difference ΔZ=97 m, for the flow Q = 0.200 c.m./s,
CONCLUSION
water hammer was generated by closing the
downstream valve of a gravitational adduction in
Tm= 10’. The analysis of the variation of the
Water hammer was simulated in two hydrodynamic parameters of the pressurized water
scenarios: 1°- without the overpressure valve and adduction works during the water hammer
2° - with the overpressure valve d=100 mm. manifestation is of paramount importance since
In the first scenario the overpressure was both overpressures and under-pressures may lead
max to negative effects like jeopardizing the resistance
pmax  162.82 m (fig. 3).
and/or the stability of the system with important
economic and safety consequences.
The determination of the adduction at the
moment of the water hammer is done at first for
the hypothesis of the absence of the specialized
safety devices and then, only in case of dangerous
overpressures and/or under-pressures, there
follows a second calculus stage in which the
pressurized hydraulic system in question is
considered to be equipped with safety devices.
One of the most common devices of
controlling the overpressures is the safety valve
that can be of various constructive-functional
types; this paper analyzing the open valve with
spring.
Based on general equations of the solid body
mechanics and hydraulics, concrete analytical
expressions were determined for the control and
Figure 3 Hypothesis 4A.Closing the downstream
valve, Tm= 10’.Piezometric lines envelope curves flow characteristics of the open valve with spring.
The mathematical model elaborated in
In the second scenario, with the overpressure section 4 was applied, using an adequate computer
valve the overpressure was pmax max
 149.19 m software program for the open valve with spring
Dn 100 and the control and flow characteristics of
(figure 4). this valve were graphically presented.
The aforementioned mathematical model
and computer program were implemented into a
complex computer software package of calculus at
water hammer; thus, applying it for an actual
pressurized adduction, the suppressing effect of the
safety valve was emphasis.
REFERENCES
Alexandrescu O., 2002 -Maşini şi echipamente

hidraulice, Ed. U.T.“Gh.Asachi” Iaşi.
Bartha I., Javgureanu V., Marcoie N., 2004 -
Hidraulica, Ed. Performantica, Iaşi.
Popescu Ş., 1999 - Aplicaţii informatice în hidraulica
sistemelor hidrotehnice, Ed. Cermi, Iaşi.
**** Normativ, Faza 1, 2009 - Redactarea I privind
Calculul si combaterea loviturii de berbec la
conductele pentru transportul apei – Contract nr.
Figure 4 Hypothesis 4B.Closing the downstream 443 din 22.12.2009, Beneficiar: M.D.R.T.
valve,with the overpressure valve, Tm= 10’
78
ECOPEDOLOGICAL CONDITIONS OF PASTURES INSOUTHERN PLAIN

OF MOLDOVAAND MEASURES TO IMPROVE
Maria BABAIAN1
e-mail: sasumaria@gmail.com
Abstract
The purpose of the research was to study the conditions and their influence on ecopedological development on pastures
and to develop measures to improve them. Objectives included studying of climate, microclimate, topography, river
network, geological structure, studying soils, flora and fauna, the share of pasture land structure in the Southern Plain of
Moldova and their productivity in these circumstances. Research methods included soil description field method
morphometric analysis of soil humus - Tiurin method, bulk density metal - displacement method, humidity - way
thermostatic temperature measuring soil surface and a depth of 20 cm was performed with thermometers Savinov other
methods accepted in agro ecology. They described ecopedological conditions of pastures, highlighted relief items,
exhibition, inclination, altitude. Altitude of grassland area is of four levels: 50 - 100m, 100 - 150m and 150 m. During
the years of research, they found an increase in air temperature, representing an annual average of 11 degrees to 11.5
degrees. The structure of the soil cover of pasture and common carbonate humus predominates with different degree of
erosion and colluvial slopes under river valleys (Botna, Cogâlnic, Ialpug). The valleys are spreadnealuviale
hydromorphic soils in alluvial river valleys with some physic-chemical features. Respectively determined floristic
composition and productivity of pastures under concrete ecopedological in its results were established quantitative and
qualitative classes that were used to develop measures of improving the pasture differential Plain Southern Moldova.
Key words: pastures, Moldavian plain southern, productivity
The current development of humanity is 2000). Coefficient of ecological pastures stability

characterized by a developing rhythm that becomes varies from 0.62 to 0.68 (compared to arable land -
faster than food production. Global and regional 0.14), (Bejan I., 2010). According to several
levels have an increase in the need of food, authors (Constantinovici A., 2001; Rusu T., 2003;
including animals (Chilimar S., 2012). In this Rusu T. and Chereş M., 2008) pasture productivity
context, animals breeding – is an ongoing activity is determined by the variability of ecopedological
and importance to current agriculture. European conditions. Therefore, in this paper, some results of
Council directives states that livestock production research on pasture were exhibited describing
has a very important role in the agronomic ecopedological features of Moldavian Southern
community and results in this area depends largely Plain. Also were described the measures of
on the quantity and quality of pastures (Bahcivanji increasing increase the quantity and quality of their
S., 2008). To achieve genetic potential size of over output by applying different improvement
70% is the main task, because the animal nutrition procedures.
and quality of feed, including pastures (Chilimar
M., 2012) depends on it. The results of the MATERIAL AND METHOD
research conducted in different countries have
shown that the households with a more developed Investigation program included observations,
field measurements of parking lots, pasture land
livestock sector, have the higher rate of the expedition routes, collecting soil samples and plants
harvest, as well as their capacity (Chereş R., in the field, laboratory analysis by various research
2008). Rational use of pastures will reduce soil methods biotope and biocenosis accepted. Thus, the
erosion on slopes, preventing local microclimate description field soils was performed by morphometric
changes, regional and desertification of the method; humus soil was examined by the method of
landscapes. Grasslands are characterized by an I. Tiurin; the soil temperature at the surface and a
depth of 20 cm was measured with thermometers
increased value of the coefficient of ecological
Savinov; bulk density was determined by the metal
stability, thus generating economic stability and displacement. Data were used in the previous studies
ecological farms (Goldştain V. and Boincean B., conducted by the Institute of Engineering searched
1
79
for Land Management (2009), the SHS materials regimes. During the period 2009-2012 the annual
(2010-2013), Land Cadastre of the Republic of amount of rainfall varied according to Comrat
Moldova (2010).
hydro meteorological station (figure 1) from 438
mm to 613 mm.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Rainfall had a tendency to decrease - from
613 mm (2010) to 556 mm (2012). The deviations
The climate of the South Moldavian Plain is from the norm were from 95% (2011) to 148%
generally unstable and variable both annually and (2010).
seasonally as in terms of thermal and precipitation
Figure 1 Rainfall (mm) in the Moldavian Plain area of the South
Particularly in this region, seasonal rainfall indicators of -23°C (2010-2012). Drought

regime was varied which was manifested by temperatures above 30°C were recorded in 2009 in
droughts in winter, spring, summer and autumn. In the months of June, July, August and September;
2009, April was dry (3 mm) and November (8 in 2010 - only in June, July, August, in 2011 in
mm). In 2011, deficient rainfall months were May, June, July, August, September, and in 2012 -
February - 10 mm in March - 9 mm, -19 mm in in April, May, June, July, August and September.
August and November - 1mm. In 2012, low There has been a considerable increase in
rainfalls were recorded in March - 17 mm, June - temperature, with 0.6 to 1.79 ° C to multi values,
November 14 mm - 10 mm. The thermal regime which may intensify the desertification of the
was characterized by varying the temperature by Moldavian Plain South.
years, seasons and monthly. Annual average Frequent drought events in the area given the
temperatures in the South Moldavian Plain were values observed in the analysis of hydrothermal
11.40°C (2009), 11.6°C (2010), 10.46 (2011) and coefficient (HTC), calculated and shown in table 1.
11.5°C (2012); the maximum values and ranged CHT values less than 0.7 indicates dryness
from 35°C (2011), 38°C (2009-2010) and 40°C of climate, those below 0.6 indicates weak
(2012). The minimum temperature went from - expression of droughts and less than 0.5 indicates
17°C (2009) to -19°C (2011), and reached the severe drought.
Table 1
Values of hydrothermal coefficient (VHC) pasture during the growing season in South Moldavian Plain
Year 2010 Year 2011 Year 2012
Season,month PAM PAM PAM
SM Comrat SM Comrat SM Comrat
Căuşeni Căuşeni Căuşeni
III 1,1 1,0 0,9 0,7 1,7 1,2
Spring IV 0,8 0,8 1,0 1,0 0,6 0,5
V 0,9 0,8 0,9 0,6 0,5 1,3
VI 1,0 0,9 1,2 0,2 0,2 0,2
Summer VII 0,9 0,6 0,9 0,6 0,4 0,4
VIII 0,7 0,5 0,1 0,3 0,5 0,8
XI 0,9 0,8 0,3 0,7 0,5 0,3
Autumn X 1,0 0,9 0,9 0,9 0,88 1,62
XI 0,7 0,6 0,1 0,1 0,59 0,51
80
From Synthesis CHT values also show that the spreading areas of grassland with higher
droughts are weaker in March, stronger in June, altitudes of 150 m (Pervomaisc, Cainari New
July, August, and ranges from weak to strong in Village, Selemet, Cimislia Bugeac etc.).
September and November. This region is provided The grassland area with lower altitudes
with light (2100 - 2200 hours/year), heat (solar (100-150 m) with slope length varies between 500-
radiation is brief 4279-4521 MDJ/m2, the sum t° 700 m (Chircăieşti, Tanatari, Grigorievca, Zaim,
10°C and higher active 3100 - 3500ºC according to Salcuta, Sadaclia, Ceadîr - Lunga, Taraclia etc.).
SHS materials, 2010-2013). The landscape of Values of the landscape can be used to
grassland is characteristic to the South Moldavian determine microclimatic particularities of concrete
Plain (Ursu A., 2011), in hilly in the north and land certain altitude, inclination, exposition. As a
north – west parts, where altitudes reach 258 m result of field measurements of air and soil
(Sagaidac) and 252 m (Chircaiestii and Codreni), temperature on various relief items four types of
in plan curled to the south - east (Poplar Ştiubei), microclimate were found (table 2). South Plains
southern (Basarabeasca) and south - western Grasslands Moldova river valleys are separated by
(Taraclia), where lower altitudes to 150-100 m and Botna, Ialpug, Cogalnic and their tributaries. We
60-50 m above sea level. Altitudinal range in analyzed some quantitative and qualitative
pastures differ 5 levels <50 m, 50-100 m, 100-150 indicators of river water that feeds the groundwater
m and less than 150 m. Fragmentation depth is 100 and maintain their river basin, Water conditioning
m to the north and 40-80 m south of the heights system of grassland soils. TDS of river water is
southern water directions become large, the slopes increased from N to S, from 1,523 to 4,081
of different forms, linear, concave and convex - mg/dm3 .
less steep. Slope length is larger (800 - 1200 m) in
Table 2
The degree of heat supply of grazing land in the river valley Botna (2010-2012)
Types of
Relief items Deviations temperatures, ° C to plateau, sunny
microclimate
Nr.
on the surface in the soil, the depth
diurnal maximum minimal of 0-20 cm
1 Moderate Water balance (plateau) 0,0 0,0 0,0 0,0
2 Moderate - hot Superior slopes W, E, NE 1,0 2,0 1,0 0,8
Middle and inferior slopes
3 Hot 1,5 2,5 2,0 1,2
NE, E, SE, S
Middle and inferior slopes
4 Very hot 2,5 4,0 3,0 1,5
SW and S
Geological rock soil formation as (2.83 ha) to ten (81.9 ha) to hundred (154,0-203
components of grassland agroecosystem biota are ha) hectare. Values grassland soils evaluation
represented in superficial layers of loess clays notes after genetic properties range from 13,5º up
light porous carbonated, high capacity of water to 90° (points), which is determined by the degree
retention and conductivity, favorable for the of soil erosion on slopes and salinisation,
development of specific pasture grass species. sodiumisation, gleyzation, swampy land soils
Dust and sand fractions dominance on land slopes under lowland in river valleys meadows in valleys
poor condition and their resistance to erosion. and, more rarely, in the slopes in the form of
Geological rocks in the river meadows are steps. Evaluation notes can be used to group fields
represented in lighter alluvial deposits near the in order to establish homogeneous organic land
river, the levees and clay loam medium, alluvial (TEO). Types, subtypes and grassland soil types
colluvial - as terraces. The structure of the soil are distinguished by morphological clues
cover of pasture and common carbonate humus Diagnostic (Cerbari 2010, Ursu 2011). Size
predominates (typical weak humus) with varying composition clay loam (45-60% clay physical)
degrees of erosion, depending on the slope slopes. and loamy medium (30-45% natural clay)
More rarely, small areas (6-12 ha) are spread prevails, rarely found texture clay - loam (60-75%
cambic humus (leachate) and typical (typical clay physics), loam - sandy (20-30 % natural clay)
moderate humus). and sandy - loam (10-20% clay physics). Physical
In the valleys and, rarely, the slopes of properties of soils of pasture land were
hydromorphic soils are spread: typical marshy highlighted by one of the leading integrated
grounds, marshy grounds, swampy muddy marshy indicator of the status (quality) soil - bulk density.
grounds. Said land areas vary from a few acres Increasing the bulk density values of the black
81
earth Cambic (1.31 to 1.35 g/cm3). Moderate to valesiaca, Festuca Callieri), various species of
deep black earth carbonate (1.37 to 1.39 g/cm3) feather grass (Stipa capillata, Stipa lessingiana,
and leads to the strong erosion (1.42 to 1 44 Stipa pulcherrima), bluegrass (Poa bulbosa,
g/cm3 ). There has been a considerable increase in Poaangustifolia, Poa versicolor), couch grass
bulk density in the footsteps of cattle after grazing (Agropyron repens, Agropyron cristatum,
density values reaching apparent in layer 0-20 cm, Agropyron intermedium, Antropogon ischaemum,
1.65 to 1.68 g/cm3 and in layer 20-30 cm, 1.46 to Bromopsis inermis), that are favorable for
1.49 g/cm3. These are critical values for the grazing cattle. A large amount of biomass, enrich
expansion of pasture grass roots. Pasture soil the soil with organic matter conditions, stimulates
moisture has varied widely during the months soil biological activity, soil structure, preventing
during the growing season from March to pasture land degradation from erosion. Cases of
October, depending on the amount of rainfall and negative anthropogenic influence have been
groundwater levels. Soil moisture values are observed through massive arson of pasture land
higher in floodplain rivers Botna, Cogalnic, and illegal construction of sheepfolds, which led
Ialpug (with 13.0 to 14.5%) and the inferior to considerable destruction of vegetation cover
slopes (with 12.41 to 13.23%). An increase in soil (projective cover <10%).
moisture has been in the forest and pasture area, Pasture productivity depends largely on the
constituting 25% of pasture (20% of soil mass). In ecopedological conditions. The climatic
July 2012, soil moisture decreased to 5.02% of conditions of 2012 pasture productivity were
pasture land mass. Values of lower amount of lower in comparison to the years 2010 and 2011,
basic cations were found to strongly eroded which led to higher temperatures up to 26.6 ° C
calcareous humus (19.70 me/100g soil). At all (June) and lower rainfall, 14 mm (June). A
soils in the amount of Ca2+ cations are hydrothermal coefficient value during the growing
predominant. Cation content of sodium (Na) was season was 0.2 to 0.4, indicating severe drought.
recordedin alluvial meadow soil (0.2 me/100 g Could be established some legitimate depending
soil). Increased amounts of carbonates were on the productivity of grassland landscape
established in very strong and highly eroded soils elements - exposition, slope, elevation and shape
(up to 16% CaCO3 ). The amount of soil response of the slopes. With slopes north - eastern, pasture
was greater (pH - 8.30) in the alluvial soil, which production was higher (2436 kg/ha) compared to
was dried and the residue of large values (0.24%). the pastures on the south - western (1690.5 kg/ha).
The beneficial effects of living organisms in the Pasture productivity values diminishes the middle
soil on physical and chemical properties are well slopes and increase to their inferior (from 2436 to
known. Earthworms enhance the decomposition 1783.5 - 3028.3 kg/ha). Higher slopes (≥ 10 °)
of organic waste recycling, annually, and lead to decreasing productivity of 2.9 to 6.1 times.
nutrients, increase nitrogen availability to plants It established a clear relationship between
andalso microbial activity in the soil. The grassland productivity and soil subtype. Pasture
outcome of the investigation is to determine the productivity decreased from about 2.7 times to
extent of soil respiration activity of calcareous humus, cambic humus (1677 kg/ha).
microorganisms in soil. In the research, soil An essential decrease was recorded in heavily
respiration with pasture land was in relation to the eroded carbonate humus (786 kg/ha) compared
suitability depending on soil moisture. The soils with eroded calcareous humus (1808 kg/ha).
of the inferior slope for this feature have higher Pasture productivity colluvial soils (cover)
values - 1771, 39 mg CO2 per 1m2 within one was, on average for two years, 7.952 kg/ha or 1.8
hour from the middle slope where they were only times more than the cambic humus, and 4.7 times
462.62 mg CO2 per 1m2/h. It was established that more than the calcareous humus. With alluvial
the values of the soil cellulolytic activity increases clayey soil - middle pasture productivity was on
the surface to 0-10 cm and depth to 10-20 cm. average two years 6.006 kg/ha, and if
During the study the soil has shown an increased solonezation - 2404.5 kg/ha and for solonnezation
uneven soil cellulolytic activity on pasture depth - 1543.5 kg/ha, thus decreasing with 2 5 and 3.9
layers 0-10 cm and 10-20 cm. Overall, soil times. It was noted that the alluvial soils of
profiling results in physical, physic - chemical and marshy grassland productivity is high (8179.5
biological condition of pasture productivity in kg/ha), but they forage quality is very low. Forage
South Moldavian Plain. quality proved to be higher in species with
Floristic composition of grasslands in South overwhelming associations with leguminous herbs
Moldavian Plain is characterized by Xerophyte (in valleys, slopes and river valleys inferior N -
species adapted to drought and dryness. Among 1.2-1.3%, P2O5 - 0.13 to 0.15% and K2O - 1,5 to
these are the following grasses: fescue (Festuca 1.7%). Pasture land classification was developed
82
depending on their productivity: very low, low, making rational grazing, improving the measures
moderate, major and highly increased. Based on of time, the action and the current annual average
this classification, the consequence was proposed, (table 3).
Table 3
Value scheme of pastures productivity of Moldavian Southern field (2010-2013)
Productivity class Dried mass Succesivitatea
kg/m2 t/ha grazing improvement
Very low 0,07 0,7 V I
Low 0,250 2,5 IV II
Moderate 0,350 3,5 III III
Increased 0,450 4,5 II IV
Very increased >0,600 >6 I V
Overall, as measures to improve pasture soil biological activity of pastures cambic

land located on slopes with different gradients can hummus (5.5%), typical (1%), normal (11%),
serve organization hydro-erosion by natural carbonate (42.2%), groundwater wetlands (6.4%),
processes (1.5 m deep trenches reinforced grass alluvial (2.2%). It was also characterized the
and shrubs), forestry (strips of trees in 2 - 3 rows, floristic composition of pastures on the slopes,
strips of shrubs in rows 3-5), agro (cartridge, valleys and river valleys. Pasture productivity was
cracking, harrowing, vegetation thinning, etc.). It noted under concrete ecopedological (climate,
is also necessary to create green ecological relief, soil) and on this basis have been developed
network, afforestation and grassing ravines on a classes of grassland productivity. Measures have
surface of 955 ha. Stabilization of landslides in an been developed to improve the productivivity of
area of 726 ha, also through afforestation and grasslands.
grassing. It is recommended that grazing reasoned
scientific organization, depending on the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
conditions of agroecosystem ecopedological
The financial support for our work is from the UASM,
pastures. Grassland reconstruction must take into Republic of Moldova.
account the levels altitude landscapes. Meadows
and valleys inferior species to be sown with salt- REFERENCES
resistant and moisture to produce quality hay.
Trinity of lower third of the slopes can be Bahcivanji M., 2008 - As much hay quality. In:
Agricultural Moldova, 5-6: 24-25.
used for crop rotation furajero - cereal rotation Bejan I., 2010 - Land use in the Republic of Moldova.
running short for green mass and preserved for the Chisinau: ASEM, 165 p.
winter (Lupa cu et al., 2011). Middle and Cerbari V., 2010 - Monitoring soil quality Moldova.
superior inbred and stabilized prior slopes will be Chisinau: Pontos, p. 476.
used effectively for grazing. Chilimar S., 2012 - How will it work with livestock. In:
Agricultural Moldova, 7-8: 30-31.
Constantinovici A., 2001 - Improving permanent
CONCLUSIONS pasture. In: Agro-plus, 1: 12.
Goldštajn, V., Boinčan, B., 2000 -Vedenie hozâjstv na
Share pastures fund structure of Southern èkologičeskoj osnove v lesostepnoj i stepnoj
zonah Moldovy, Ukrainy i Rossii. Моsкvа:
Moldova Plain Land localities varies between ,,ÈкоNivа’’. 267 p.
1.9% and 35.9% of the total. Described the annual Lupa cu M., Lala M., et al., 2011 - Environmentally
and seasonal climatic conditions. Were ameliorative potential of short rotation cereal
highlighted in microclimatic particularities fodder crop rotations.In: Agricultural Moldova, 6-
depending meadow grassland landscape elements 7:18-22.
Rusu T., Chereş M., 2008 - Environmental Economics.
were established characteristics relief forms, Cluj – Napoca: Risopoint: 144-244
grasslands (plateau, exhibition, slope, elevation). Rusu A., 2003 - Growing low productive grassland
It showed that grazing lands are subject to soils. Chisinau. p.80
degradation by ravines (955 ha) and landslides Ursu A., 2011 - Soils Moldova. Chisinau: Science, p.
99-123.
(726 ha). Some quantitative and qualitative *** - Investigation localities soil ofSouthern Moldova
indicators of river water were estimated that feed Plain Chisinau, 2009. p.121
the groundwater and maintain their river basin and *** - Bulletin of the State Hydrometeorological Chisinau,
water conditioning system of grassland soils. The 2010-2013.
soil was characterized by rocks of soil biota as *** - Land Cadastre of the Republic of Moldova, 2010.
Chisinau, p.189-214.
part of pasture. We established morphological,
physical, physico - chemical and microbiological
83
84
THE MOST IMPORTANT HIGH FLOODS IN PRUT RIVER’S

MIDDLE COURSE-CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES
Flaviana CORDUNEANU1, Daniel BUCUR 1, Claudiu PRICOP 2 Isabela BALAN3,

Gheorghe ȘOVĂIALĂ4, Ionuț - Cristian APOSTOL1
e-mail: codruneanuflaviana@gmail.com
Abstract
Hydrological risks phenomena on Prut River’s middle course are a consequence of the global climate change or
variations at the regional and planetary level and secondly, the human intervention in the specific landscape. Statistical
analysis focused on the maximum flows recorded at Radauti – Prut, Stanca-Aval, respectively at Ungheni emphasized
the multiannual maximum flow variability during 1978 – 2012. The analysis of monthly maximum flows indicates
spacial differences caused by local conditions and climatic characteristics of the periods in which they occurred. For the
Prut River, the highest flow recorded in the period 1978 – 2012 was 4240 m³ /s at Radauti – Prut in July 2008, as a
result of heavy rainfall which fell in Ukraine. The spacial location of the Stanca – Costesti reservoir on the middle
course of the Prut river outlined a downward trend of the flows recorded at the hydrometric stations located
downstream, due to the mitigating role. Upstream is highlighted a clear upward trend,knowing that the flood peak from
2008 exceeded the flow with the probability of 1 %. Floods study is an important aspect, also the infrastructure
monitoring of water resources because they are unevenly distributed and equipped in the middle course. It is necessary
to ensure the consistency between quantitative and qualitative management policies applied in Romania, Moldova and
Ukraine. Anthropogenic intervention in the Prut river basin triggered negative reactions, and these major imbalances
made the floods to emerge stronger.
Key words: flood, variability, risk, maximum flow
The geopolitical importance of the Prut ArcGIS software and recorded data at the
basin is that the river which drains this area is the pluviometric and hydrometric stations on the studied
area. Angot rainfall index (k) was calculated to
eastern border of the European Union and NATO.
highlight the characteristics of monthly rainfall
Prut River is a first order left tributary of the variation. It revealed also a seasonal growth trend in
Danube and springs in the north – eastern side of spring and summer of 2008 and 2010 on Prut Rive’s
the Cerna - Hora ridge (Wooded Carpathians - middle course.
Ukraine), at an altitude of 2068 m. In Ukraine, Prut The major floods occurred upstream and
river has a total length of 251 km and 695 km downstream of Stanca – Costesti reservoir were
forms the natural border between Romania and cought on the hydrographs of flows recorded in a
three – hour interval.
Moldova. The studied area is characterized by a
temperate climate with excessive influences.
Knowing the floods’ genetic factors, this paper
proposes an analysis of their frequency in the last
The occurrence of floods is primarily due to
35 years on the middle course of the Prut River
the natural factors related to climatic conditions
that generate large amounts of rainfall (Degre A. et
MATERIAL AND METHODS
al., 2013). They induce the growth of levels or
Statistical analysis focused on the maximum
flows higher than normal and the overflow of
flows recorded at Cernauti, Radauti – Prut, Stanca- waters in the adjacent areas. The land field affected
Aval, respectively at Ungheni outlined the multiannual by floods depends on width of the riverbed, earth
maximum flow variability during 1978 - 2013. variation rates in the river floodplain respectively,
For the maps with the average rainfall high water level, flow and duration of the flood
distribution and multiannual mean flow was used
1
University of Agricultural sciences and Veterinary Medicine in Iasi
2
Water Basin Administration Prut – Bârlad
3
Gheorghe Asachi" Technical University of Iasi
4
INOE – IHP Bucharest
85
wave ( Hancu S. et al, 1971) . be made, with some degree of certainty, the rainfall
Studies undertaken by the Intergovernmental regime is random, with a high degree of
Commission on Climate Change and the European unpredictability.
Environment Agency shows that rainfall increased The spatial distribution of the average
with 10 - 20 % after 1975 in Romania, as in other rainfall (figure 1) shows that in the extreme north
regions of Europe. The average temperature at the of the studied area rainfall amount is higher
Earth’s surface has increased with 0.6° C in the last (Darabani 775 mm), and in the north - east does
century and the development was three times faster not exceed 550 mm (Radauti - Prut, Stanca - Aval).
since 1975. If the thermal regime predictions can
Figure 1 The map with the average rainfall distribution
86
Prut River floods in 2008 and 2010 were changes in the frequency and severity of floods as
caused by heavy rainfall in the upper basin well as droughts and for outputs from climate
(Wooded Carpathians - Ukraine) and in the middle models which predict increases in hydrological
one. variability (Fuchs et al., 2009).
Total monthly values recorded in July 2008 The multiannual variability of maximum
at the rainfall stations in the observed area are : flow recorded on the Prut River, highlights
168 mm (Oroftiana), 161.1 mm (Radauti - Prut), significant values in 1981, 1988, 1991, 2005, 2008
119 mm (Ungheni). In 2010, significant rainfall and 2010 at the all hydrometric stations located
quantities have fallen since May – 89.5 mm, in along the Prut River, on the sector we studied . An
June - 277 mm, in July – 124.8 mm at Oroftiana. elaborate analysis of the maximum monthly flow
At Radauti – Prut were recorded in the same year values recorded at the three stations : Radauti –
103.2 mm in May, 165 mm in June and 149.9 in Prut, Stanca – Aval and Ungheni indicate spatial
July. At Ungheni rainfall station , total monthly differences caused by local conditions or rainfall
value which interests was reached in June 2010 and thermal characteristics of the periods in which
(115.4 mm). they occurred. Maximum values in June and July
Angot rainfall index (k) was calculated to have a high frequency of occurrence (56%),
highlight the characteristics of monthly rainfall followed by the period April – Mai (25.7 %).
variation. At the stations along Prut River: On the Prut River, the largest value recorded
Oroftiana, Radauti –Prut and Ungheni is in the period 1978 – 2012 was 4240 m3/s at
characteristic the type represented by supraunitary Radauti – Prut hydrometric station in July 2008,
values in April – July and subunitary values in the exceeding the flow with the probability of 1 %
period from November to March at Oroftiana or (3806 m3/s). The values corresponding to the
Radauti – Prut, and in August, October, November maximum flows of 1988, 1991, 2005 and 2010
and March at Ungheni. Supraunitary values have the probabilities between 2 % and 10 %.
characterizing June, July and August indicate a The impact of the flood in Radauti – Prut
rainy period on the middle course of the Prut section, in 2008, was due to the aggregation of two
River: at Oroftiana pluviometric station k ˃ 1 in contrary forces : the flood wave coming from
April (1.26), May (1.89), June (2.04) or July 2008 Ukraine territory and the remuu wave originated in
(3.14) and in 2010 k ˃ 1 in June (1.52) and July the lake, which was propagated upstream on a
(3.31). Angot index variation at the two distance of 70 km (Romanescu et. al, 2011).
pluviometric stations keep the same seasonal Basically the flood began on July 24, 2008
growth trend (spring and summer) in 2008 and at Cernauti, where the flow jumped to 387 m3/s
2010. At Radauti-Prut hydrometric station the and the level exceeded the warning rate (314 cm)
multiannual average flow for the period 1978 – with 186 cm. In the same day at Radauti – Prut
2012 was 86 m3/s. In 2008 and 2010 the annual hydrometric station was registered the level of
average flow was 137 m3/s and 156 m3/s, values attention - 290 cm and a maximum flow of 434
much higher than the module flow. At Stanca – m3/s. During three days the level reached 1088 cm,
Aval hydrometric station the multiannual average + 488 cm above the danger level and was
flow calculated for the same period is 88 m3/s. maintained until July 30, 2008 (803 cm).
Annual values of 2008 and 2010 In 2010 at Cernauti hydrometric station the
Maximum flow, through the special effects level increased in 24 hours from 117 cm to 412 cm
that prints on the hydrological regime, is the most (June 23, 2010), value corresponding to a flow of
important phase of it. However, in this stage of 677 m3/s. The maximum flow registered in 2010
treatment, the most spectacular as evolution, was 2070 m3/s (July 10), when the level reached
effects and volume of water transported are the 645 cm.
floods (Beighley R. E. et al, 2005). At Radauti-Prut station, in 2010, the
Data analysis of the maximum flow warning lever was exceeded since June 24 (460
recorded at the hydrometric stations located on the cm) and the danger level on June 25 (612 cm, + 12
Prut River shows that they came from the rain and cm above danger level), June 29 – 688 cm, June 30
are the largest in the whole period of observations. – 685 cm. On July 1st the level reached 709 cm
Upstream hydrometric records have an (109 cm over danger level), level corresponding to
obvious upward trend and downstream, due to the a flood peak of 2137 m3/s. Downstream the flood
attenuation role exercised by the reservoir, the elevation was exceeded on June 27 (301 cm), and
trend is downward. the danger level on June 30 (383 cm, 8 cm above
There is a consensus that hazards resulting the danger level). The maximum level reached at
from hydrological extremes are on the increase. Stanca – Aval 459 cm (+84 cm over danger level)
This fact is confirmed by evidence both for recent on July 3, corresponding to a flow of 879 m3/s.
87
Figure 2 Angot monthly rainfall index variation in 2008 and 2010
Stânca – Costesti reservoir is located on the ha and a total length of 90 km. The flow
middle course of the Prut River. At the normal calculation providing 0.1 % is 1530 m3/s and
retention level it has an area of 5900 ha, a corresponds to a level of 99.50 m.
maximum volume of 1400 mil. m3 and a length of In 2008 and 2010 the maximum flow
7 km. At the maximum level it has an area of 9200 recorded at Stanca – Aval hydrometric station was
88
1050 m3/s and 885 m3/s (higher values than the The flood control is achieved by the tranche
probability flow of 10 % - 745 m3 /s ). For the of 550 mil. m3, volume that can be in the
floods with minor importance and also for the one accumulation between the normal level of retention
with the probability of 1 % , the flow discharged and the rate of the tilting – gates in the “closed”
downstream from the reservoir have the same size, position and the tranche of 115 mil. m3/s located
600 – 700 m3/s. above the upper edge of the tilting – gates.
Figure 3 Multiannual average flow distribution map
89
a) Radauti – Prut hydrometric station
b) Stanca – Aval hydrometric station

Figure 4 The variability of multiannual maximum flows during 1978 – 2012
Under the conditions of high water level, the In case of the propagation to a flood with the
discharged flow exceeds 300 m3/s , and the lake flow corresponding to a probability of 1 % (3806
level overtakes the rate of 90.80 m. Water supply m3/s in Radauti – Prut section), such as the flood of
to the uses is done through the turbinate flows in 2008, downstream the maximum flow will not
the two power plants, and the transport capacity of increase above 700 – 765 m3/s, and in the reservoir
the riverbed downstream is 500 – 550 m3/s. Partial will not exceed the maximum level of 98.20.
emptying can be done through the reserve Flood mitigation is at the crossroads of
waterintake (40 – 70 m3/s) and through the different policies (agriculture, environment, land
complete opening of the two bottom emptying, use planning, and water management) (Evrard O.et
including the lateral draining, in this case the al., 2010).These function of Stanca – Costesti
evacuated flow will be 600 – 700 m3/s. The flow reservoir is undeniable, but the hydrostatic
should not exceed 700 m3/s in Ungheni section, pressure exerted on the dam was manifested a long
where the floods on Jijiacould have a significant period (20 – 30 days) in 2008 and 2010 and the
contribution. stored water volume reached the probability of 0.1
%. In the late July 2008 the water level values in
90
the lake were 98.21 m (July 30, 2008) and 98.20 m were recorded since June and in July reached
(July 31, 2008) and the maximum volume retained 1244.30 mil. m3. High volume values were
was 745 mil. m3. In 2010, values that exceeded the maintained until the end of August , 776.73 mil. m3
gross volume of the reservoir at normal retention on August 31, 2010.
Figure 5 Major floods occurred upstream of Stanca – Costesti reservoir
Figure 6 The main floods occurred at Ungheni hydrometric station
At Ungheni hydrometric station, the of 1% on July 8 and 9, when the value of 796 m³/s
hydrograph with the last 5 floods, presents flow was recorded , respectively on July 14 and 15,
values higher than 700 m3/s on August 13 , 1991 when it reached 792 m³/s. The interval of this flood
(710 m3/s), August 5, 2008 (748 m3/s) and from 4 event was from June 26 to August 7. The flood
July (707 m3/s) to July 18 , 2010 (703 m3/s). In wave has been propagated slowly downstream due
2010, was exceeded the flow with the probability to the low slope (0.4 – 0.2‰) of Prut River and the
91
control of discharged flow from Stanca – Costesti frequency of floods in Romania. Judicious
reservoir. exploitation of the hydrotechnical construction and
Floods in the area between Stanca – Costesti the draining operations played an important role in
accumulation and Prut confluence with the Danube the transit of the flood waves and reduced the
were amplified by unauthorized exploitation of negative effects.
gravel from the riverbed and the repeated
deforestation on the basin slopes or on the REFERENCES
longitudinal alignment of the levees.
Beighley R.E., Dunne T., Melak J.M., 2005 -
It is estimated that the damage caused by the Understandig and modeling basin hydrology:
floods are 20% lower as a result of the warning and interpreting the hydrogeological signature.
the hydrological forecast (Diaconu C. D. et al., Hydrological processes 19 (7) : 1333 – 1353.
2009). Providing these means, significant historical DOI: 10.1002/hyp.5567;
Degre A., Sohier C., Bauwens A., Grandry M., 2013 -
events on the Prut River occurred in July – August Using agro – hydrology to adapt to climate
2008 , affected the settlements located downstream evolution, In: Transboundary water management
of Oroftiana and upstream of the Stanca – Costesti in a changing climate. Proceedings of AMICE
reservoir, downstream and upstream of Gorban Final Conference. Dewals, B. And Fournier, M.
respectively, an area of 51830 km² Two years (eds.). Sedan.p.85-86 ;
Diaconu D.C., Jude O., 2009 - Prognoze hidologice,
later, in June – July 2010 were flooded 36543 km². Editura Matrix Ron, Bucure ti;
Evrard O., Heitz C., Liegeois M., Boardman J.,
CONCLUSIONS Vandaele K., Auzet A. - V., van Wesemael B.
2010. A comparison of management approaches
to control muddy floods in central Belgium,
Climate variations at the planetary and
northern France and southern England. Land
regional level, as well as the anthropogenic degradation & development. 21 (7) : 322-335.
intervention in the studied sector of the river, Special Issue: SI. DOI: 10.1002/ldr.1006
favored the manifestation of floods in 1985, 1988, Fuchs S., Spachinger K., Dorner W., Rochman
1991, 1998 and 2005. In July – August 2008, a Juliette, Serrhini K. (2009) - Evaluating
cartographic design in flood risk mapping.
total area of 51830 km² was affected, and in June – Environmental hazards-human and policy
July 2010 – 36543 km². dimensions. 8(1) : 52-70.
Prut River floods in 2008 and 2010 were Hâncu S. Stănescu P., Plataga G., 1971 - Hidrologie
caused by the heavy rainfall in the uppercourse agricolă. Elemente de hidrologie teoretică şi
aplicată pentru îmbunătăţiri funciare, Editura
(Wooded Carpathians – Ukraine) and in the Ceres, Bucureşti;
middle one. Romanescu G., Stoleriu C., Romanescu A.M. 2011 -
Supra-unitary values of Angot monthly Water reservoirs and the risk of accidental flood
rainfall index characterizing spring and summer occurrence. Case study: Stanca-Costesti
indicate a rainy period in the middle course of Prut reservoir and the historical floods of the Prut
River in the period July - August 2008, Romania.
River in the two years we studied. Hydrological processes. 25:2056-2070.
Building the Stanca – Costesti reservoir on
the middle course of the Prut River reduced the
92
RESEARCH REGARDING THE INFLUENCE OF THE FAN SPEED OVER

THE OPERATING PROCESS OF A MACHINE FOR PEST AND DISEASE
CONTROL IN VINEYARDS, WITH SOLLUTION RECOVERY
Andreea DIACONU1, Ioan TENU1, Petru CÂRLESCU1, Dan CAZACU1
e-mail: andreea_diaconu_a@yahoo.com
Abstract
Pest and disease control in vineyards is one of the major technological links that require high costs; therefore, the
construction of the spraying machines has an important role in the development of effective treatments, while achieving
low consumptions of phytosanitary solution. In order to improve the working process, the vineyards and orchards
sprayers are equipped with axial fans, which provide the transport of the toxic liquid droplets dispersed by the nozzle
and the agitation of the foliar mass, favoring the deposition of the substance on both sides of the leaves. In order to
reduce the solution losses during the working process, an equipment for recovering the droplets that are not retained by
the foliar mass was designed and developed. The recovery equipment was mounted on a low volume sprayer for
vineyards and intensive orchards, type TARAL 200 PITON TURBO, equipped with an axial fan; the solution
dispersion is achieved hydraulicaly, due to the high pressure of the liquid. The solution recovery equipment consists of
two reclining vertical panels, positioned on each side the vineyar row; at the base the pannels are equipped with gutters
for collecting the solution which is not retained by the leaf system. The recovered solution is taken from the gutters with
a hydraulic pump and transferred to the graded collection receptacles. The hydraulic circuit of the machine is equipped
with flow meters in order to measure the total amount of solution sprayed by each pad. The experimental investigations
were carried out in laboratory conditions, for different working pressures in the hydraulic system, for fan speeds of 800,
1100 and 1400 rpm, and for different positions of the recovery panel. The analysis of the experimental results shows
that the working process of the sprayers is complex and endowing with the recovery equipments may significantly
reduce the consumption of the toxic solution used for pest and diseas control.
Key words: axial fan, solution recovery equipment, fan speed.
Performance of diseases and pests in are studied extensively, but major problems related
vineyards requires high costs of pesticide prices to the corect application treatments in vineyards
increasing in recent years by about 90%. Because and orchards still persist.
many treatments are applied within one year (8-10 Modern equipments use electrostatic
treatments) and binding for high output, they get to spraying methods or use panels (tunnels) to direct
pollute the environment. Pesticide residues that airflow in order to reduce spray drift and
reach the soil endanger human health, the animals turbulence occurring around the nozzle during
and the microorganisms. Therefore, plant spraying (Ozkan et al., 1997). Deflector panels
protection should be an integrated concept, taking alter the trajectory of droplets penetrating plant
into account the technical, economical and mass, turning to the rows of plants. This prevents
environmental aspects (Berka, 2001). It is the movement of liquid droplets in areas other than
necessary for the spraying equipment to be those specified for the treatment, contamination of
reliable; the treatments should be performed with other crops and soil, coating uniformity while
low consumptions of fuel and toxic solution, while increasing plant mass (Dobre, 2010). From this
increasing the quality of the opperating proces in point of view, the spray tunnel and recycling the
terms of the efficiency over the phytopathogenic recovered solution provide reduced consumption
agents. In order to achieve these goals a new of material and increase the effectiveness of
generation of spraying equipments was developed treatment (Planas et al., 2002 Baldoin et al., 2008).
in the recent years, aiming to increase the The present paper is inscribed in the
effectiveness of the droplets deposition on the leaf research context mentioned above, studying the
surfaces and to reduce the effect of drift (Ozkan et influence of fan speed on the rate of sollution
al., 1997). Pesticide runoff and spray drift droplets recovery.
1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iasi-Romania
93
used for pest and disease control in vineyards.

MATERIAL AND METHOD The equipment is supported of a metal frame
mounted on the sprayer. Two of collapsible supports
In order to reduce the cost of performing sustaining two polycarbonate panels are mounted on
treatments to control diseases and pests in vineyards the metal frame; the collapsible suports are rotated in
and to reduce soil pollution by pesticides, a special the transport position and operating position by the
equipment was designed and built within the means oft wo hydraulic cylinders. The solution
department of agricultural machiner of the University recovered by the polycarbonate panels is then
of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of collected in tanks using electric pumps. The height of
Iasi, aiming to recover the toxic sollution droplets that the equipment above ground is adjusted using a rod.
were not deposited on the surface of the leaves. Two flowmeters were insterd into the hydraulic circuti
(figure 1). This equipment was mounted on a fo the spraying equipment in order to measure the
spraying machine, type TARAL 200 PITON TURBO, flow rate of solution towards the booms.
Figure 1 Spraying machine for pest and disease control with equipment for the retrieval of droplets: 1 –
spraying machine; 2 – frame of the droplets retrieval equipment; 3 – graduated glass cylinders; 4 – hydraulic
cylinder; 5 – tensional bar for height adjustment; 6 – swinging swivels; 7 – parallelogram mechanism; 8-
supporting rods; 9, 12 – polycarbonate panels; 10 – electric pumps; 11 – gutters for droplets retrieval.
The equipment was tested in laboratory

conditions in order to evaluate the amount of solution RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
recovered for different speeds of the fan (different
airflow rates). The tests were carried out for different
airflow ratea of the fan, corresponding to the fan For the three fan rotation speeds the average
speeds of 800, 1100 and 1400 rev/min. The air velocity, in the vicnity of the nozzles, was asa
experimental tests were performed at different follows: 8.27 m/s for 800 rpm, 11,71 m/s for 1100
pressures (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.4 MPa), rpm and 14.32 m/s for 1400 rpm.
while the recovery pannels were positioned at a Using the air speed data the average air flow
distance 1500, 1700, 1900 and 2100 mm from the rate was calculated, taking into account a cross-
axis of the spraying machine and at heights 300, 500
and 700 mm above the ground. sectional area of the fan of 0.41 m2 and the
For the the above mentioned fan rotation following results were obtained: 12204 m³/h at
speeds the air speed was measured by the means of 800 rpm, 17280 m³/h at 1100 rpm and 21132 m³/h
an anemometer. at 1400 rpm.
94
1400 rpm, h=300 mm
70 7
.9
60 57
Recovered percent (%)

2 9
.1 .3 9
.1 5
47 49 48 45.
50 6 12 .29 4
0.
5
.5 .97 .4 .22 . .8
2
4 78 4 .3
7 .8
4 37 37 38 40 41 36 39 9 .2 8. .0 39 5 3 38
40 .0 35 3 38 .79 37 .73 .0 .5 3 9
33 . 32 0.4 34 .2 .83 .8
30 32 33 3 30 28 32
30
20
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Pressure (MPa)
1500 mm 1700 mm 1900 mm 2100 mm
Figure 2 The recovery of the solution sprayed on the operating pressure, the arrangement height of the panel to
300 mm, and fan speed of 1400 rpm.
1100 rpm, h=300 mm

3
60 .4
7 .3
.1
1 53 54
51 50
50 2 6 5 7 5 .4
.5
5 .6 4.1 .6 8 .3 1.5 .1 44 4 1 4
41 39 4 42 .5 43 4 38 .4 2.0 .1 1 3
35 39 4 8 5 39 1 .6 .1
40 .1 .9 .7 38 38 .08 .14
33 36 35 5
.2 5 7
.2 84 33 33 2
31 9.9 31 29. .9
2 29
30
20
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Pressure (MPa)
1500 mm 1700 mm 1900 mm 2100 mm
800 rpm, h=300 mm

23
60
.
54
49 1
6
50 5
.4
5
.6
7
51
47 95
.8
1
2
50
50
50
3
44 . 14
.8
.6
48
.1
3
.
1
.8
47
46 5
.0
.4
47
50
9
47
5
.9
45
47
3
.1
.0
45
1
.3
43
38 7
42 3
43
.4
.4
.7
4
8
42
41
2
.
.8
41
40
.0
.7
.5
38
37
37
40
30
20
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Pressure (MPa)
1500 mm 1700 mm 1900 mm 2100 mm
The best result was obtained at the speed of recovered from the solution sprayed at the speed of
1400 rpm (21132 m³/h), followed by 1100 rpm 1400 rpm and a pressure of 0.2 MPa (figure 2) and
(17280 m³/h) and then to 800 rpm (12204 m³/h) 54.33% at 1100 rpm at 1.2 MPa (figure 3). For a
front panel height the ground 300 mm and the width of 1500 mm, 54.23% recovered from the 800
width thereof to the machine axis 1700 mm and rpm and 0.4 MPa (figure 4). The reason why a
1500 mm. better recovery is obtained at a higher fan speed is
For a width of 1700 mm, to a rate of 57.97% due to the fact that the air flow has the strength to
95
carry a greater number of drops of toxic solution to from the equipment; as a result fewer droplets
the recovery panels. reach the recovery panels.
For the height of 500 mm, the recovery rate For the height of 700 mm it was also found
increased while decreasing the fan speed. Thus, at that the recovery rate increased when the fan speed
the speed of 800 rpm, a recovery rate of 51.73% decreased. At 800 rpm, the best recovery rate
was obtained at a pressure of 0.2 MPa (figure 5). (44.76% of the total flow) was obtained for a
At 1100 rpm, the recovery rate was 43.78% of the distance of 1500 mm and a pressure of 0.4 MPa,
total amount of the solution sprayed at 0.4 MPa (figure 8). At speeds of 1100 and 1400 rpm, the
(figure 6). For a fan speed of 1400 rpm and the optimum distance in terms of recovery rate was
same pressure of 0.4 MPa, a recovery rate of 1700 mm: 40.27% for a pressure of 0.4 MPa and
35.56% was obtained (figure 7). These values were 1100 rev/min (figure 9), and 34.83% for 0.2 MPa
recorded when the panels were placed at distance and the speed of 1400 rpm (figure 10) .
of 1500 mm from the axis. It was found that the The recovery rate decreased when the height
recovery rate increased when the distance from the of the panel increased. This might be due to the
axes decreases, due the greater droplets transport fact that the angle of the spray nozzle at the base of
distance achieved when the pane was further away the spraying machine is not in the coverage area of
the panel.
800 rpm, h=500 mm
60
3
.7
7
.2
47 4
45 29
51
51
.2
6
43 5
49
49
.5
.1
41 97
.8
4
50
44 47
2
7
46
.6
.9
45
.8
.5
.
2
.
44
38 4
42
43
35 .83
.7
8
.7
39 3
.6
6
4
.
40
6
.2
38
40
.3
.0
.6
1
32 .4
40
37
.6
37
36
35
30 68
4
3
.7
.0
8
.
32
.5
32
30
20
10
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Pressure (MPa)
1500 mm 1700 mm 1900 mm 2100 mm
Figure 5 The recovery of the solution sprayed on the operating pressure,

the arrangement height of the panel to 500 mm, and fan speed of 800 rpm.
1100 rpm, h=500 mm
8
50
.1
8 .7 6
45 43 .8
43 42.3 7 3
.5 1.1 3 .13 .2
4 .4
3
4 46 41 4 .6 40 5
.1 .85 .2
9
40 41
38 8.1 2 .
.1 38 32 38
40 3
1 33 37 36 .37 22 .0
6
.9
3 7
.1 . 35 .2
35 32 29 34 2 33 8 33 5
.0 68 .1 7 .3 27
28 27. 28 7.0 28 27.
30 2
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Pressure (MPa)
1500 mm 1700 mm 1900 mm 2100 mm

96
1400 rpm, h=500 mm
6
.5
40
34 1
1
.9
35
.5
5
34
8
.9
.3
3
.6
.1
32
35
.0
33
33
32
32
2
28 .01
.8
7
.3
28
29
23 .94
30
8
.2
.4
26
22
.3
2
25
21 6
.7
24
22 8
.7
20 2
25
.2
19 16
20 93
20 5
1
.0
.2
19 2
20 9
.6
21
.2
3
.7
.
.
21
.6
.7
20
16
20
15
10
5
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Pressure (MPa)
1500 mm 1700 mm 1900 mm 2100 mm

Therefore, high mounting heights of the achieved for an operating pressure of 1.2 MPa.
panels requires a lower flow of air to recover a Increasing the pressure led to the reduction of the
large amount of solution. From the obtained recovery rate due to excessive spraying of the
results, it was observed that the optimal pressure in solution, which led to the reduction of the droplets
terms of recovery rate was 0.2 and 0.4 MPa, with size, which do no longer have contact with the
an exception for the height 300 mm and the speed panels.
of 1100 rpm, when a good recovery rate was
800 rpm, h=700 mm

6
.7
50
.3 .2 45 2 .1
8 4
.8 6
45 41 41 9.5
6 9
.4 0.3 43 4 41 9.2 5 3
.5 2 6
35 4 28 .5 5 8
40
3
8 4. 38
3 .0 38 36.7 22 .9 6.9 5 .0 6.2 2
.4 3 37 35 3 34.3 35 3 34.3
33 .1
4
9 6 3.
35 .7 .6 3
32 30 .3
6 .9
29 28 6 28
30 .0
26
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Pressure (MPa)
1500 mm 1700 mm 1900 mm 2100 mm
Figure 8 The recovery of the solution sprayed on the basis of the pressure of the working height
of 700 mm from the panel arrangement and the fan speed of 800 rpm.
1100 rpm, h=700 mm
8 7
.3 0 .2
4 2 7
45 .2 .55 .4 9.8
39 39 29 39 4 4 38 3 1 3 34 4 7 .3
8
40 6. .7 .96 .3 .52 .9
3 33 34 31 35 .2 36. .7 9
35 32 36
Recovered procent (%)
.8
4
35 5
.2 . 01 35 32. . .82
35 32 28 31 31 2
5
30 8.3 27
1 .2 8
.0 2 7.
30 27 5 27 5.8 2
2 2
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Pressure (MPa)
1500 mm 1700 mm 1900 mm 2100 mm
97
1400 rpm, h=700 mm
40 3
8 .8 .4
7 7 .7
35 32
.6
34 1
.9 05 27 .4
5
2 .3
3 32
.9
33 33
.0
33
30 30. 30.

30 .8
6 30 6. 0 30 1
3 2 .5 4
30 27 .6
26
.6 48
26 23 25. 4.2 4 22 4 7 9
.7 .0 19
.7 4. .6 5 3. 3
25
2
22 2 23 17 24 2.7 21 2 .0
2 22
20
15
10
5
0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Pressure (MPa)
1500 mm 1700 mm 1900 mm 2100 mm
CONCLUSIONS ACKNOWLEGMENTS
This paper was published under the frame of European

The results of research conducted in Social Fund, Human Resources Development
laboratory conditions, the influence of fan airflow Operational Programme 2007-2013, project no.
on the process of recovering lost after the spray POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765.
solution by using equipment designed for that
REFERENCES
scopt and mounted sprayer for pest and disease
control in vineyards and intensive fruit type Alexandru T., 2005 - Horticultural machinery,,
TARAL 200 PITON TURBO, allow us to point Publisher Sitech, Craiova.
out the following conclusions: Baldoin C., Zanche C., Bondesan D., 2008 – Field
- fan air flow affects the recovery; testing of a prototype recycling sprayer in a
vineyard: Spray distribution and loss, Agricultural
- fan speed of 1400 rpm with an air flow of Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal,
21132 m³/h, which is obtained in a recovery of Manuscript ALNARP 08 001, Vol. X.
57.97% of solution sprayed, at a height above Berca M., 2001 - Agriculture in transition. Studies and
the ground panel and the width of 300 mm from articles (1998-2001), Publisher Ceres, București.
the axis of the machine spraying of 1700 mm; Dobre P., 2010 - Horticultural machinery. Part II.,
București.
- fan speed of 1100 rpm with an air flow of Florescu I., 2007 - Hydraulic machines. Lecture notes
17280 m³/ha achieved a recovery of 54.33% for for student use, Publisher Alma Mater, Bacău.
the same positions of the panels; Neghiu L., 2008 - Horticultural machinery and
- fan speed of 800 rpm with an air flow of equipment, Vol. I, Publisher Risoprint, Cluj-
Napoca.
12204 m³/ha obtain a recovery of 54.23%, Ozkan H.E., Miralles A., Sinfort C., Zhu H., Fox R.D.,
51.73% and 44.76% with increasing height of 1997 - Shields to reduce spray drift, Jurnal
the panel for a width of 1500 mm; Agricultural Engng Research 67, p. 311 – 322.
- optimum distance from the axis machine Planas S., Solanelles F., Fillat A., 2002 - Assessment
panels for high recovery are 1500 and 1700 mm; of recycling tunnel sprayers in mediterranean
vineyards and apple, Orchards Biosystem
- optimum height above the ground panorama is Engineering 82 (1), p. 45-52.
300 mm; Popescu O., 2006 - Horticultural machinery, Publisher,
- the working pressure has been obtained the Bucureşti.
best consequential was 0.4 MPa, followed by 0.2 Țenu I., Diaconu A., Roșca R., 2013 - Equipment to
reduce soil pollution by pesticides in pest and
MPa;
disease control in vineyards, Scientific,
- equipment made solution reduce pollution by Agronomy Series, Vol. 56, No.1, Publisher „Ion
plant and its recovery; Ionescu de la Brad”, Iași, p.103-106.
- equipment reduces fuel consumption by
simultaneous treatment of two rows.
98
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE FLOW RATE UNIFORMITY

OF THE TARAL 200 PITON TURBO SPRAYING MACHINE FOR DISEASE
AND PEST CONTROL IN VINEYARDS AND INTENSIVE ORCHARDS
Andreea DIACONU1, Ioan ŢENU1
e-mail: andreea_diaconu_a@yahoo.com
Abstract
Pest and disease control is one of the most important technological links, because damages caused by them can be very
large. Fruit production can be completely compromised if the application of plant protection products is not done
correctly and on time. Chemical control is the main method used in plant protection. To do this, specially adapted
spraying equipments are used. Sprayers are equipped with different types of nozzles, made from different materials
resistant to corrosion and hydro abrasion produced by the toxic products, leading to the de-calibration of the spray
nozzles. Thus the flow rate of chemical solution was affected, increasing the consumption. In order to avoid this
phenomenon it is recommended to test the nozzles before each campaign, by measuring the flow rate of the liquid. With
this idea in mind the TARAL 200 PITON TURBO spraying equipment was tested; the procedure consisted in collecting
the liquid distributed by the nozzles during two minutes; the amount of collected solution was than measured with a
graduated cylinder. The experiments were carried out in four repetitions for three rotation speeds of the power take-off
shaft (310, 460 to 540 rpm) and different pressures of the liquid (0.2, 0.4, 0.6, 0.8, 1.0, 1, 2 to 1.4 MPa). After
determining the flow rate uniformity, it was found that the best result was obtained for rotation speeds of the power
take-off shaft of 540 rpm.
Key words: nozzles, spraying machine, TARAL 200 PITON TURBO.
Pest and disease control in vineyards and constructive types of nozzles, made of stainless
orchards is one of the most important technological steel, brass, plastic and ceramic, materials which
works, without which production would not be of are resistant to chemical hydroabrasion of the plant
quality and consistent year after year. Without protection products. Despite their resistance to
proper and timely implementation of phytosanitary hydro abrasion, the spray nozzle orifice becomes
treatments, production could be completely de-calibrated in time. This will cause excessive
destroyed (Berca, 2001). dispersal of plant solution and uneven spray
Chemical control is the main method of distribution, with untreated and over treated areas. .
performing this task; however, the increase of the In order to avoid this phenomenon it is
number of treatments applied within one year recommended to test the nozzles before each
results in higher costs. Plant protection products campaign, by measuring the constant flow rate of
are highly toxic and pollute the environment. This the liquid through each nozzle.
is harmful microorganisms in the soil, animals, The purpose of this study is to evaluate the
birds, people and even vegetation, as plants life flow rate uniformity for the TARAL 200 PITON
becomes shorter. Therefore, pest and disease TURBO spraying machine, used for pest and
control must take into account technical, disease control in vineyards and intensive
economical and ecological aspects equally (Berca, orchards.
2001).
The spraying equipments used for pest and MATERIALS AND METHOD
disease control must ensure efficient treatment,
with superior quality of the operating indices in In order to determine the flow rate uniformity
order to prevent production losses, high pesticide for the TARAL 200 PITON TURBO spraying machine
(figure 1), the flow rate through each nozzle was
consumptions and to reduce environmental measured using the volumetric method. Flow rate
pollution (Nagy et al., 2006; 2007). To this end, measurement was achieved by mounting hoses at
the spraying machines are equipped with different the end of each nozzle and collecting the distribute
1
Universitatea de Științe Agricole și Medicină Veterinară, Iași
99
solution into containers (figure 2), during two minutes; and R4), for three rotation speeds of the power take-
a graduated cylinder was used to measure the off shaft (310, 460 to 540 rpm) and for different
amount of accumulated solution. The experimental pressures (0.2, 0.4, 0, 6, 0.8, 1.0, 1.2 and 1.4 MPa).
tests were carried out in four repetitions (R1, R2, R3
Figure 1. Sprayer for pest and disease control in vineyards and intensive orchards,
type TARAL 200 PITON TURBO
Figure 2. Collection of solution sprayed from each nozzle to spray machine type TARAL 200 PITON TURBO
After measuring the flow rate of each nozzle where n is the number of nozzles.
( q i ), the flow rate for the entire equipment ( Qi ) was The average flow rate of the spraying machine
calculated, using the following formula: ( Qm ) was calculated for several repetitions, using the
in relation:
Qi =  qi (l/min),
i 1
100
in RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Q
i 1
i
Qm = (l/min), For the determination of the average flow of
n fluid to the spraying machine ( Qm ), to the three
where:
rotation speeds of the power take-off shaft and at
Qi – the flow rate for each repetition;
different working pressures, to determine the
n – the number of tests performed (repetitions).
volume of fluid machine ( Qi ) in four repetitions.
Flow rate uniformity ( C d ) was calculated with
The experimental data were summarized in table 1.
the relationship:
The flow rate uniformity ( C d ) was
 i n 
  (Q i Qm ) 2  calculated with the relationship presented above
 i 1  and the results were plotted against the operating
 n( n  1)  pressure, as shown in figure 3.
C d = 1   *100 (%), The chart shows that, for the nominal speed
 Qm  of the power take-off shaft, the pressure variation
  did not significantly affect the flow rate
  uniformity, which was higher than 94%
 
(94.550.185 for all the pressure ranges).
where:
For lower speeds the flow rate uniformity
Qi – the flow rate for each repetition; was significantly affected by the operating pressure
Qm – the average flow rate; (96.950.732% at 460 rpm; 97.960.288%),
n – the number of tests performed (repetitions). probably due to the flow rate variations which are
characteristic for the positive displacements
pumps, especially at lower rotation speeds.
Table 1
The flow rate uniformity of the TARAL 200 PITON TURBO
Rotation speeds of the power take-off shaft (rpm)
Pressure 310 460 540
Repetitions
(MPa) Qi Qm Qi - Qm Qi Qm Qi - Qm Qi Qm Qi - Qm
(l/min) (l/min) (l/min) (l/min) (l/min) (l/min) (l/min) (l/min) (l/min)
R1 1,15 0 1,54 0,140 1,58 -0,085
R2 1,18 0,030 1,34 -0,060 1,55 -0,115
0,2 1,15 1,40 1,66
R3 1,15 0 1,35 -0,050 1,70 0,035
R4 1,12 -0,030 1,37 -0,030 1,83 0,165
R1 1,18 -0,067 1,69 0,142 1,94 0,137
R2 1,31 0,062 1,44 -0,107 1,93 0,127
0,4 1,24 1,54 1,80
R3 1,24 -0,007 1,63 0,082 1,85 0,047
R4 1,26 0,012 1,43 -0,117 1,49 -0,312
R1 1,32 -0,052 1,90 0,175 2,20 -0,070
R2 1,40 0,027 1,58 -0,145 2,67 0,400
0,6 1,37 1,72 2,27
R3 1,31 -0,062 1,90 0,175 2,06 -0,210
R4 1,46 0,087 1,52 -0,205 2,15 -0,120
R1 1,41 -0,0400 2,18 0,125 2,31 -0,275
R2 1,51 0,050 1,94 -0,115 2,96 0,375
0,8 1,45 2,05 2,58
R3 1,39 -0,060 2,23 0,175 2,57 -0,015
R4 1,50 0.040 1,87 -0,185 2,50 -0,085
R1 1,57 -0,050 2,35 -0,040 2,42 -0,402
R2 1,62 0 2,31 -0,080 3,21 0,387
1,0 1,62 2,39 2,82
R3 1,58 -0,040 2,48 -0,090 2,89 0,067
R4 1,71 0,090 2,42 0,030 2,77 -0,052
R1 1,71 -0,052 2,46 -0,057 2,57 -0,392
R2 1,68 -0,082 2,49 -0,027 3,33 0,367
1,2 1,76 2,51 2,96
R3 1,79 0,027 2,59 0,072 3,05 0,087
R4 1,87 0,107 2,53 0,012 2,90 -0,062
R1 1,84 0 2,57 -0,050 2,70 -0,457
R2 1,75 -0,090 2,66 0,040 3,57 0,412
1,4 1,84 2,96 3,15
R3 1,85 0,010 2,61 -0,010 3,32 0,162
R4 1,92 0,080 2,64 0,020 3,04 -0,117
101
The flow rate uniformity of the TARAL 200 PITON TURBO (% )
105
100
Flow rate uniformity (%)
95
90 310 rpm
460 rpm
85 540 rpm
80
75
70
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Pressure (MPa)
Figure 3 Flow rate uniformity spraying machine for pest and disease control in vineyards
and intensive orchards TARAL 200 PITON TURBO
The results of researches conducted in Berca M., 2001 - Agriculture in transition. Studies and
articles (1998-2001), Publisher Ceres, Bucharest.
laboratory conditions regarding the flow rate Nagy E. M., Coţa C., 2007 - Contributions to verify
uniformity of the TARAL 200 PITON TURBO alignment equipment for the treatment plant in
spraying machine for pest and disease control in Romania to EU, Scientific Papers, Vol. 50,
vineyards and intensive orchards type, led to the Agronomy Series.
Nagy E. M., Coţa C., 2006 - Operating performance and
following conclusions: quality of work drive phytosanitary treatments in
 the flow rate uniformity reached values higher vineyards and orchards ATOM 1000. Agriculture -
than 94% for all the tested operating regimes; Science and Practice, no. 1-2:57-58.
 significant variations of the flow rate Nagy E. M., Coţa C., Roman M., Fodorean G., 2006 -
Ensure appropriate management of pesticides by
uniformity, depending upon the operating pressure, accurate assessment of the characteristics of
were recorded for speeds of the power take-off equipment for phytosanitary treatments in
shaft lower that the nominal one (540 rpm); vineyards and orchards. Agriculture - Science
 operating the equipment at the nominal speed of and Practice, no. 1-2:57-58.
Ţenu I., Diaconu A., Roşca R., 2013 - Equipment to
the power take-off shaft resulted in minor reduce soil pollution by pesticides in pest and
deviations of the flow rate uniformity over the disease control in vineyards, Scientific Papers,
entire pressure range (94.550.185%). Agronomy Series, Vol. 56, No.1, Publisher „Ion
Ionescu from Brad”, Iasi, p.103-106.
ACKNOWLEGMENTS

Social Fund, Human Resources Development
Operational Programme 2007-2013, project no.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765.
102
DYNAMIC OF SOIL MOISTURE CONDITIONS

OF NON-IRRIGATION TO S.C.D.P. BANEASA (2008-2013)
Maria IORDACHE1, Lenuţa COROIANU11, Maria DUMITRU1,

Cristian CĂLINIŢĂ1, Adela BĂRBULESCU1
e-mail: mioaraiordache@yahoo.com
Abstract
This work is a short presentation to put in evidence the evolution of soil moisture for 2008-2013 period, according to
the changes of rainfall regime due to the globall warming and other conditions and extreme climate changes. The study
was done on the soil SCDP Baneasa plantation in conditions of non-irrigation. It was concluded that in the years of
2008, 2011, 2013, the rainfall amount was much lower than in the years of 2009, 2010, 2012, namely between 265
mm and 290 mm, respectively between 304-524 mm. However, it should be noted, that from the point of view of the
rainfall, both years groups, were placed below normaly multiannually average by 596,2 mm). Being dependent of
rainfall amount, the soil moisture (U%) fell below the lower limit of the optimum moisture period in the (2008, 2011,
2013), years, but was maintained in optimum moisture period in the (2009, 2010, 2012) years. From the quarterly
average results, the amount of rainfall that fell during the six years investigated, represent only 44% to 88% from the
multianually normaly average value. Although the drought was felt partly in the reducing soil moisture, this is a
consequence of the normal soil ability (capacity) to maintain of the (moisture) absorbed water.
Keywords: soil moisture, drought, atmospheric precipitations.
In the present period is observed an role of the soil layer, of the edaphic volume
accumulation of negative factors that powerful correlated with the root system of (orchards) fruit-
affects and almost constant the climate evolution trees-growing (Blaga Ghe., 1996; Voiculescu N.,
both global and regional level, as well as the zonal 1999). They have shown the importance of the
level of meteorological changes. The globally absorption capacity and of the water retention in
negative factors is due to human activity such as soil that depends on maintaining and improving of
massive and of long standing deforestation, the soil nutrient capacity (Voiculescu N., 1999)
industrial technologies, that produce major and the soil fertility regarding both relationship
changes, consisting in pollution (soil-air-water), between the content of the humus and water supply
the destruction of the ozone layers, evaporation or in the soil, and the importance of soil suction force
rapid condensations of large quantities of water and water requirements of plants, etc., (Jităreanu
(glaciers). This explains the fact that climatic G., 1996; Unguraşu A, Stănescu Fl., 2013). The
changes are planetary extensive and therefore are soil water reserve expressed by "active humidity"
practically intractable from the local point of view. has been studied by some famous researchers, from
Such aspects have been studied by other the point of view of "wilting coefficient" as well as
researchers (Jităreanu G., 2007). As a result, in the differentiation process and fruit bud formation
such circumstances, both atmospheric in fruit trees (Cociu V,1993), through which the
precipitations and the evolution of atmospheric water supply is dynamic regarded from one season
temperature, can not be influenced or corrected. It to another, from a period of active growth at the
is easly observed both the correction of a part of vegetative rest, and from one year to another
them and the modification of soil moisture. (Chiriţă C-tin,1967).
Therefore, should be given attention to soil quality In SCDP fruit tree Baneasa plantation are
in orchards (fruit-trees-growing or farming in fruit trees species that have different degrees of
general) as soil quality serves to partially sensitivity to water deficit as apple, cherry with
compensate atmospheric precipitations climate moderate sensitivity and apricot, peach with
disruption and air temperatures. So for example, reduced susceptibility. In the present study, for the
some famous researchers have studied the depth interpretation of the results of soil moisture
1
Research-Development Station for Fruit Trees- Growing Baneasa Bucuresti, Romania
103
samples (U%), we take into consideration the soil “minimum” soil moisture (for 2008, 2013, 2011),
characteristics that allow the accumulation and or in the "optimal" range for soil moisture (for the
maintenance of water reserves. The objective of years 2012, 2009, 2010). Also the amount of
this work is the evaluation of the soil moisture on rainfall was lower in 2008, 2011, 2013 than in the
specific methods such as the effect of rainfall years 2009, 2012, 2010
regime on the water accumulation in soil correlated For 2008, the annual humidity average of the
with the evolution of atmospheric temperature. soil (U%) was 16,7% and represents the lowest
value of the studied period 2008-2013. It is a
MATERIAL AND METHOD lower value of the "optimum" moisture period, but
it is included within the "low" (minimum) period
To estimate the state of soil moisture relative to without affecting , in any way the trees survival.
the amount of rainfall, were performed decade and It is because the type of rooting, fruit trees are in
sometimes twice a month throughout the years
generally resistant to fluctuations in annual
(2008-2013), soil sampling and laboratory gravimetric
determinations 3 depths (0-20, 20-40, 40-60 cm). The precipitation. During the (trimesters II and III), the
soil samples were extracted randomly with specific average moisture content of the soil (U%) was only
sounding from different areas of SCDP Baneasa 15.6%. Annual amount of rainfall was 262,7 mm
plantation, so that the samples are representative for and is characterized as the driest year of the period
the entire experimental surface. To determine the of six years investigations, in which the volume of
soil moisture, it was applied the classical gravimetric rainfall is only 44 % of the normaly multiannualy
method (according to the studied methodology of
ICPA laboratory ) through which the extracted fresh
average value (596.2 mm). The average air
soil samples, were, each weighed, in special vials temperature from April-September period was
with cover in order to dry them in an oven at 105 ° C, 18,45ºC, so higher than normaly multiannualy
5 hours, followed by subsequent weighing after average value (18,05ºC) during this period.
drying. The difference resulted between the two For 2009, the humidity of the soil (U%) was
weighings (of the fresh soil and the dry soil in oven) 18,8% and is placed in an "optimum" period of
was expressed as a percentage (%). The results
humidity, and in the (April-September), the
obtained of the soil (U%) were decadal and then,
interpreted by the monthly, average quarterly and average (U%) soil was greatly reduced, reaching
annual average and their interpretation served to "minimum" 15,9% moisture. The annual rainfall
assess soil water deficit for the studied period (2008- amount was 304 mm and 51% of normaly
2013). multiannualy average value. The average of air
temperature was moderate, so the second and third
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS trimesters were together 18.4ºC, compared to the
normaly multiannualy value (18,05ºC), of the same
The soil in our fruit trees plantation SCDP period. Thus, the evapotranspiration process of soil
Baneasa, is assigned in the soil type „sloppy- was also moderately maintaining the water
argiloiluvial molic on a forest reddish brown proportion of the soil at a minimum interval
background”. The characteristic porosity (46-49%) For 2010, humidity (U%) soil was 21.5%, in
and clay argillaceous texture, provides a good on "optimal" soil moisture. For the second and
water absorption and accumulation (Cociu V, third trimesters period, the soil (U%) average was
1993; Blaga Ghe.,1996, Ghenea N., 2004). Also, not greatly reduced, succeded in remaining in the
the parent rock is more than 1,5 m deep and “optimum” interval 20,8%. The annual amount of
contribute to the completion of favorable rainfall was 524.1 mm, the best value in the period
conditions both for water storage and rooting. The studied (2008-2013) and represents 87.9% of the
humus content (2,7 to 3%) and slightly acidic pH normaly multiannualy average value (596,2 mm).
to neutral (6.7-7) are also contributing factors to From the point of view of atmospheric
the limitation of the drought effects. Thus, the temperature, the month (T°C) average from April
„mull” humus type (trough the humic acid with the to September was 18,2°C, relatively about normaly
partial saturation of the base) is a main component multiannualy average value (18.05°C) for the two
of the soil fertility and also favors water quarters (II and III); so the soil U% was also
preservation. moderately protected.
The results obtained (table 1) and (figure1, For 2011, the annual average of the soil
figure 2, figure 3) reveals the average annual humidity (U%) was 17.7%, being included so at
humidity (U%) of the soil and annual amount of the upper limit of "minimum" humidity interval.
rainfall during the period 2008-2013. All annual The average of the soil moisture for April-
values of the rainfall (2008-2013) were placed September was for 17, 5%. The annual amount of
/classified far below average normaly multiannualy rainfall was 264,8 mm and represents 44,4% of the
value by 596,2 mm. Soil moisture was either normaly multiannualy average value. In the second
104
and third quarters, the average of air temperature thermic excess favored evapoperspiration that has
was 18,3°C and thus was moderate reduced soil moisture in the upper limit of
evapoperspiration maintaining soil water reserves. "minimum” interval, though the amount of rainfall
However, it should be noted that in the first part of was very high.
the fourth quarter 2011 (at the exit of vegetation) For 2013, the annual average of soil
there was a dry period, making U% soil to fall well humidity (U%) was 17,56% and is therefore
below the minimum of the limit of 13,3%. included in the upper limit of the "minimum"
For 2012, the annual average of the soil humidity and during the second and third
humidity (U%) soil was 18,3% and was at the trimesters, the humidity average was reduced to
lower limit of "optimum" moisture, and during the 15,7%. The annual amount of rainfalls was 290,6
months of April to September soil moisture mm and represents 48,7% of the normaly
average (%) decreased to 17,05%. The amount of multiannualy value (596,2 mm). From the point
the rainfall was 419,7 mm and represents 70,4% of of view of atmospheric temperature in the period
the normaly multiannualy average value. In the April to September, the average (TºC) was 19°C
months from April to September the atmospheric almost 1ºC confronted bay the multiannual average
temperature (20,15°C) far in excess of the normaly (18,05ºC) of the same period.
multiannualy average value (18,05ºC). This
Table 1
The correlation of obtained values with the normaly multiannual values
( * / ** / ***)
Period 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013
(*)
Soil humidity (U%) Annual Average (%) 16,7 18,8 21,5 17,7 18,3 17,56
II and III trimesters (%) 15,6 15,9 20,8 17,7 17,05 15,07
(**)
Atmospheric Average Annual (mm) 262,7 304 524 264,8 419,7 290,6
precipitations (mm) Percentage(%) compared to the
44 51 87,9 44,4 70,4 48,7
multiannualy average
(***)
Atmospheric Average (ºC) second and third
18,45 18,4 18,2 18,3 20,15 19,0
Temperature (TºC) trimesters
(*)
Range of soil moisture (U%): optimum 18-22%; minimum 18 to 14%; 22-26% maxim
(**)
Atmospheric Precipitation (multiannual average): 596.2 mm (for 40 years from 1969 to 2009, values provided
by LRBS-NMA and SpeI pdf. Forecast Pcs.
(***)
Air temperature (multiannual average) of trimesters.II and III: 18,05ºC
Graphic 1,
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Necesar Optim U% sol
Umiditatea solului
30
25
20
(U%)
15
10
5
0
.I . II I
. IV
% .% .% im .II
tim m
in ax tr tr
im im r im
op m tr t
Figure 1 Dynamic of soil moisture quarterly period 2008-2013
in terms of irrigation at SCDP Baneasa, compared to the optimal, maximum and minimum values(%)
Graphic 2.
multianuale 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

600
suma precipitatiilor
500
400
(mm)
300
200
100
Figure 2 Dynamic of atmospheric precipitations annual period 2008-2013

in terms of irrigation at SCDP Baneasa, compared to the multiannual value
105
Graphic 3.
2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Multianuale Trimestriale
Suma (mm)Precipitaţii
250
200
150
100
50
0
trim.I
trim.II
trim.III
trim.IV
Precipitaţiile
trimestriale
Fig. 3. Dynamic of atmospheric precipitations quarterly period 2008-2013
in terms of irrigation at SCDP Baneasa, compared to the multiannual value
Therefore evapoperspiration losses were representative year with normaly multiannualy

high. (table 1) it is an interdependence between the values and may be considered to be a favorable
values of U% soil (annual average) and rainfall year 2008-2013 period.
(annual amount mm) and over them we observe the
atmospheric temperature. The comparable data of CONCLUSIONS
the soil moisture shown that in 2009 the annual
humidity (average) 18,8% and in 2012 , annual Regarding soil characteristics from SCDP
humidity is with 18,3%; but the amount of rainfall Baneasa plantation, it should be noted that in
reported the annual value for 2009 is 51% and for period 2008-2013, the atmospheric precipitation
2012 is 70,4%. The difference of atmospheric decreased quantitatively and the atmospheric
precipitation is not found in soil moisture, because temperature increased compared to multiannualy
the average of atmospheric temperature in (II and value average, resulting the doubling of negative
III trimesters) 2009 was only slightly higher effects to enssure the necessary of soil water.
(0,35°C) compared to multiannual temperature However, the soil succeded in maintaining optimal
(18,05ºC average for the April-September) reserves (factory) of water. The soil at SCDP
interval; and in 2012 the atmospheric temperature Baneasa, due to its characteristics, being as
average was marked with a difference by 2,1ºC “sloppy-argiloiluvial molic on a forest reddish
namely 20,15ºC, compared to multiannualy brown background”, with texture, porosity and
average value. satisfactory content of humus and acid-base
In the years 2011 and 2013 it is shown the equilibrium and due to the agrotehnique permanent
same correlations, namely that in 2011 U% annual and maintenance works, allow the water storage
soil was slightly increased on average by approx. and maintaining the humidity moisture at
17,7% compared to 17,56% for 2013, although the satisfactory to optimal level.
amount of atmospheric precipitation was higher in
2013 namely 48,7% compared to 44,4% for 2011. REFERENCES
The role of temperature in the April-September
through evaporperspiration is also present: in 2011 Blaga G., 1996 - Pedologie, Ed.Didactică şi pedagogică
Bucureşti, p.49
the average atmospheric temperature is only Cociu V.,1993 - Caisul, Ed.Ceres 1996, Bucureşti, p.105
0,25ºC higher while in 2013 this average is higher Chiriţă, C-tin.,1967 - Solurile României , Ed. Agrosilvică
approximately 1ºC compared to 18,05ºC the Bucureşti, p.151
normaly multiannualy average value for trimesters Ghenea N., et al, 2004 - Pomicultura, Ed. Matrix,
Bucureşti, p.239
II and III ). Jităreanu G., 2007 - Evaluarea aportului de elemente
The yers 2010 had the greatest amount of şi metode de conservare a solului asupra calităţii
atmospheric precipitation and as a result had the resurselor de apă din sol, Ed.Moldotech, p.18.
highest value of soil moisture, an average of Stănescu F., Unguraşu A., 2013 - Cercetări privind
approx. 21,5%. efectele porozităţii asupra regimului aero hidric al
solului, Univ.Tehnica Iaşi, (pdf.) p.9
It is evident that both the volume of rainfall Voiculescu N., 1999 - Enciclopedia speciilor pomicole,
throughout the year (524,1 mm) and the average Ed. Academia Romana 1999, Bucuresti, p.55
temperature of the second and third trimesters of
only 18,2°C, make 2010 a comparable and
106
THE EVOLUTION OF OPTICAL AND OPTOELECTRONIC DISTANCE

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES IN APPLIED TOPOGRAPHY
Daniel LEPADATU1, Loredana JUDELE 1, Gabriel SANDULECHE2,

Ana-Raluca ROSU1, Maximilian DIAC2
e-mail : daniel.lepadatu@gmail.com
Abstract
Over the years, measurement techniques have evolved because of the increasing complexity of engineering works and
execution speed while adapting to global economy needs. Contrary to angle measurements, distance measurements
have involved a number of technical errors that could be diminished through technology advancement and innovative
methods. In this paper we try to present a gradual evolution of these types of measurement methods and technologies.
The complexity of these technologies has significantly decreased their execution time and increased their accuracy of
determination reaching a few millimeters in certain situations. Thus, we set off from the first types of devices which
determined distances around the 15th century and reach photogrammetry techniques of determination and the total
smart station. This station uses methods and technologies which increase the speed and accuracy of the determination.
We also present 3D scanning laser technology which is among the latest findings in the research area. Finally, we show
different advantages and disadvantages of each of these presented methods.
Keywords: applied topography, optoelectronic distance measurement, 3D scanning laser, photogrammetry techniques
At the beginning of the 17th century the At the mid 19th century, Ignazio Porro
telescope was invented to be used mainly in invented the stadimeter that later equipped all
astronomy. At the same time, it also began to be modern theodolites (figure 1a). Thus, using a scale,
associated with various topographic instruments, two stadimetric wires engraved on the telescope
leading to the invention of the modern theodolite reticle and the readings on the rod, we indirectly
by Thomas Sisson (Miles 1999) in 1725, a reticle get the distance between two points.
being added to the telescope. Being also equipped
with side rulers and mark scales (figure 1) it MATERIAL AND METHOD
allowed an empirical determination and control of
distances. The continuous development of the
optoelectronic instruments and technologies for
measuring distances has lead to new approaches
and uses of the national networks of control points,
applicable in various fields like:
- Triangulation networks thickening allows
the determination of longer distances using
these technologies;
- The use and exploitation of engineering
networks allows the study of the behavior in time
of engineering works, the possibility of following
the measurement and the interpretation of results
in different ways
The optoelectronic measurements have had a

large range of uses due to the new technologies that
Figure 1 Theodolite
have provided the required accuracy, as follows:
a) Modern b) Classic - Laboratory determinations for industrial
purposes
1
“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iaşi, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
2
“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iaşi, Faculty of Hidrotechnics, Geodesy and Environmental Engineering
107
- Constructing and monitoring buildings of vital which decreased about six times, consequently the
importance (e.g. nuclear power plants) price decreased too, to 5,000 dollars down from
- High accuracy technological lines (ship
25,000 dollars, the price of its predecessor.
construction)
- Studies of landslides.
Unlike the measurements for the determination of

horizontal or vertical angles, the distance
measurement has required more laborious measures
and methods since the measurement errors are more
frequent and consequently, bigger.
The invention of the optoelectronic

Figure 4 Geodetic Distance Meter –Model 4D
measuring instruments or Electronic Distance built by AGA
Measurement (EDM) was possible after the
World War II after the notion of radar transmission The next model, Model 6, was built in 1967
became popular. (figure 5) and was more similar to the classical
devices but it still did not have their weight nor
reliability. This model weighed 17 kg, in 1968
being built the first model which replaced the light
waves with laser beams.
The characteristic of the reception prisms
(figure 6) is that the reflected beam is always
transmitted in the same direction regardless the
Figure 2 Electronic Distance Mesurement – EDM direction of the incident beam, improving greatly
the measuring accuracy.
The term geodimeter is short for Geodetic In 1957 T.L. Wadley made the first
Distance Meter (figure 1) which was invented by tellurometer MRA1 that did not use the light waves
the Swedish E. Bergstrand in 1948 and used for the but the radio-electric waves which are less
first time in Canada in 1952. It uses the technique dispersed than the former.
of measuring distances through light signals (1).
The first device of this kind weighed 100kg and it
took about 2 to 3 hours to determine a distance. It
was mainly used by the army for night
measurements up to 30 km and having a
determination accuracy of 1/300,000.
Figure 5 Geodetic Distance Meter – Model 6

Geodimeter with batery of nine prisms
Modern technology has allowed rapid

development of the measuring instruments and
devices and especially the ones for measuring the
Figure 3 Geodetic Distance Meter – NASM-2A built distances optically. Thus, the tachymeters (figure
by swedish from AGA
1) have known considerable improvement of
Figure 9 presents the 4D model of the same measuring performance due to these technologies
Swedish maker AGA. On the left there is the that allowed shorter measuring times and greater
control panel and on the right there is its optical accuracy and consequently a more frequent use in
part. current practice.
Weighing half of the previously mentioned
model, it can measure distances up to 5 km. The
loss of weight had a negative effect on the distance
108
Figure 6 Types of tachometrics

a) Trimble 3300, b) Elta 13C , c) Laica TCR 307
Figure 8 Scaner Laser 3D
Their evolution has lead in time to the use of
the term Total Station (figure 7) due to a series of This technology is mainly used by the
features like: engineers (Popia M., 2013) and architects and
- The possibility of automatic storage of replaces the traditional techniques with a powerful
data on internal or external memory tool of 3D rendering that allows gathering more
- The implementation of special programs complex data in a shorter time, leading to lower
which allow specific topographic costs of greater, more complex projects.
measurements used in engineering Having a hight measuring of accuracy
- The automatic processing of the field data
(1 mm) this technology can be used to
using the implemented programs
- The transformation and presentation of the
digitalize complex elements like apartment
results in graphical formats – CAD buildings, historical buildings and even
factories. The amount of data recorded is
The measuring precision can reach 2 – 5 mm extensive and the scan distance is limited to
in 2 – 5 seconds, depending on the model. 20-40 m.
3D laser scanning provides among other
things:
- 3D visualization and manipulation of
digitalized objects (buildings, land areas,
installations)
- Accurate determination of distances
between identified points
- Volumetric modeling of buildings using
shape recognizing functions.
There are also other advantages brought by 3D
laser scanning technology that are worth
mentioning:
- Various types of surveys
- Elimination of survey errors caused by the
Figure 7 Laica Total Station – TPS 1200+ omission of certain elements
- 3D digital files of high precision
Lasergrammetry is a method of - The measurement is done faster so the
mathematical digitization of three dimensional whole process is less time consuming
objects with high usage potential due to this The satellite technology (Global Navigation
possibility of 3D rendering. Satellite System – GNSS) is ideal for the
determination of spatial coordinates of points and
The laser uses the infrared technology; the consequently of distances (Andrei C., 2013). This
infrared waves are electromagnetic waves of a method is useful when the density of points is not
greater wave length than that of visible light, but that great, for instance, for distances of 50 – 100 m
shorter than that of microwaves. on a scale of 1:5,000 or 1:10,000. If the terrain
The scanner-laser (Barras V., 2013) is a allows it, the measurements can be done using an
portable device (figure 1) measuring in three off-road vehicle equipped with a mobile receptor
dimensions that uses laser technology to create 3D that optimizes the automatic processing of the
representations of objects of detailed shapes and registered data in real time.
dimensions and complex geometries.
109
In Romania, the first photograph from a

hot-air balloon was taken by the officer Vaitoianu
(1889), the first photograph from a plane being
taken by Aurel Vlaicu (1901). The following table
highlights some advantages and drawbacks of
lasergrammetry and photogrammetry in
comparison.
Figure 9. Global Navigation Satelite System – GNSS
The Total Smart Station (figure 10) is a

mixture of GNSS receptor and Total Station,
having superior features for a very accurate and
fast determination of the coordinates of the
topographic points.
The smart station has the following Figura 11 Photogrammetry

advantages: Aerian picture taken by a drone
- Is very precise and quick Table 1 .
Advantages and disadvantages for lasergrammetrie
- Saves time and money and photogrammetry
- Increases productivity and profits
Photogrammetry Lasergrammetry
Cost accepable Very expensive
Taking and Medium picture Short picture taking
recording the taking time time
picture Requires good
weather conditions Not necessarily
Storage space Relatively small - large – tens of Go
several Go
Energy Great autonomy Low autonomy
consumption
Data processing long short

Figure 10 Leica Viva Smart Station time
Accuracy good Very good – down
Photogrammetry is the science or to millimeters or
technique that deals with the acquisition of reliable tenths of millimeter
information about the natural environment or Scale Indirect – post Direct on data
physical objects through recording, measuring and treatment acquisition
interpreting data starting from photographic aerial
images taken with special technologies and CONCLUSIONS
devices.
Due to the complexity of the systems used This paper presents a chronology of optical
to get these photographs, this technology is very and optoelectronic distance measuring techniques.
expensive, but, at the same time, it is the fastest to Thus, starting from the classic theodolite, we got to
use on large areas (Albi E., 2006). Security advanced technologies which integrated satellite
institutions like the army, make use of this technique with Total Station into one single device
technology extensively, using drones (planes giving it great autonomy in doing the
without a pilot – figure 11) to avoid the danger of measurements through combining the classic and
spying or surveillance accidents. satellite methods.
The first photogrammetric surveys were In table 2, there is a synthesis of these
done by Aimé Laussedat (1848-1850). The aspects and the advantages and disadvantages of
technique was improved by Albrecht Meydenbauer these technologies in chronological order.
(1834-1921) who founded the Royal Prussian
Photogrammetry Institute.
110
Table 2.
Advantages and disadvantages for the presented methods and devices
Date Method and devices Advantages and disadvantages
Paralactic Small distances
methtod with Require additional calculations - indirect method
known base Requires two devices or successive displacement of one
1720 Modern theodolite Paralactic Readability depends on mira reading
methtod Require additional calculations - indirect method
using bribery Requires two operators
or stage Small distances
One operator
Without
Small distances – 100 m
reflector
Accurate and fast
Maintained
1960s Two operators
wave
With Large distances
reflector Frequency modulation required
Total Station Accurate and fast
One operator
Without
Small distances
reflector
Accurate and fast
1980s Pulsed wave Two operators
With High load
reflector Accurate and fast
Accuracy and time measuring variables
GNSS Drivable field measurements
Long Post-treatment
Finale date: Model 3D
Numeric photogrammetry
Accurate
Need more pictures of the same data
Fast post-treatment
1990s Very expensive
Lasergrammetry
Final Data: Model 3D
Very accurate
Idem station totale standard
Robotic system Traceability and automated detection prism
Total Station
Allows efficiency scheduling for different implemented
Preinstalled software measurement techniques
Efficiently combines classical techniques with satellite
measurement
2005 Total Station + GNSS
One or two operators – function of the complexity of the
work
REFERENCES Popia M., 2013 - Terestrial laser scaning tehmology

used in the field of shipbuilding, Journal of
Andrei C., Cardei M., 2013 - On the performance or Geodesy and cadastre, N 15, 2013., 121-128.
real-time Netwwork-based GNSS positioning. Milles S., Lagofun J., 1999, Topographie et topométrie
Revcad, Journal of Geodesy and cadastre, No. moderne 1. Eyrolles, Mesures de distance,
15. pp 13-22. p.137-185
Albi E., 2006 - Elaboration d’une methodologie de *** - Aftopo - Association Française de Topographie :
releve architecturale. Contribution basée sur la http://www.aftopo.org/
combinaison de techniques d’acquisition. These *** - AGA Museum teem men: http://www.aga-museum.
de doctorat. UNIVERSITE DE NANCY, HENRI nl/page/aga-geo
POINCARÉ. *** - Leica - http://www.leica-geosystems.com/en/
Barras V., Delley N., Chapott G., 2013 - Scanners index.htm
lasers en conditions réelles. XYZ Mars, n°137
Courbon P., 2013 - Topographie: un demi-siècle
d’évolution technologique. Éditée par
l’Association Française deTopographie, available
at http://www.aftopo.org
Ismat M.E., Ali A.S. 2011 - Comparative study of
accuracy in distance measurement using: Optical
and digital level, Journal of King Saud University
Engineering Sciences, n°23, p.15-19.
Negrila A., Onose D., 2013 - Dam monitoring using
terestrial laser scanning., Journal of Geodesy and
cadastre, N 15, 2013., 149-158.
111
112
SPATIAL CO-ORDINATES OPTIMIZATION OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

AND BUILDING SERVICES FACULTY’S TOPOGRAPHIC NETWORK
USING GPS TECHNOLOGY
Daniel LEPĂDATU1, Daniel COVATARIU 1, Loredana JUDELE1,

Gabriel SĂNDULACHE2, Ana-Raluca ROŞU1, Maximilian DIAC2
e-mail: daniel.lepadatu@gmail.com
Abstract
This paper aims to optimize the spatial coordinates of the locating terminals points of our faculty, initially determined
using GPS technology. Additional measurements were performed to one year interval with another GPS receiver. So
was obtained a new set of coordinates that was used to obtain a better determination thereof by the average of the two
determinations. In order to determine the coordinates of the new points was used GNSS Permanent Stations National
Network using RTK method: RTCM (Radio Technical Commission for Maritime Services). Measurements were
performed with GPS SOUTH S82T and GPS SOUTH S82V, whose field book has implemented software
transcomputation real-time geographic coordinates obtained in STEREO-70 coordinate system. Network of permanent
GNSS stations has used fixed station IASI_2.3 and virtual station RO_MAC_3.1_GG. Solutions for new measured
points were fixed, the determination’s accuracy being ranged from 0.034-0.010 meters. Following these two rounds of
measurements of the spatial coordinates of locating points of the faculty network using GPS technology we obtained a
set of coordinates that increase their accuracy. But also shows that errors occur are due the type of used receiver and
satellite position based on the time of determination, or other types of influences. These errors will be highlighted in
this study to show that sometimes it are important and can`t be neglected during training measurements with these
modern tools.
Key words: spatial coordinates optimization, locating network, Global Positioning System – GPS
The purpose of this paper is to determine the put in difficulty. This it happen because he lacked
position of the landmarks from the Faculty of civil the responsibility of working with the real values
Engineering with a medium accuracy using GPS of coordinate’s points from different applications
technology. Were made two series of and almost impossible to verify the final results
measurements (in two consecutive years) with two with values of existing points.
different GPS receivers. Were also highlighted the Also topographic points will be used as
factors that could influence (in a manner more or benchmarks to in-time monitoring of the buildings
less important) the determinations final accuracy of behaviour surrounding the Faculty of Civil
the landmarks spatial coordinates. Engineering and Building Services.
Setting-up a topographic reference network
in order to increase the efficiency of the students MATERIAL AND METHOD
classes is a necessity to develop the quality of
learning which will substantially contribute to the In order to create a reference network of four
understanding of the utility of the Surveying points arranged in our Faculty’s area (figure 1), points
that were prepared and then placed with the active
discipline which was considered (until recently)
participation of the students during practical classes.
less important by all stakeholders in the The landmarks was cast from reinforced
educational process. Taking into account the concrete and having a truncated pyramid shape with
signals received from employers which 0.20 m base, 0.15 m small base length and 0.50 m in
understands the importance of specific knowledge height. The supports on the ground were performed
it is considered to be vital the approaching of the by using bolts having 50 cm long attached with epoxy
studied cases in order to be near the real problems resin.
from the sites where the future engineer is often
1
“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iaşi, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Building Services
2
“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iaşi, Faculty of Hidrotechnics, Geodesy and Environmental Engineering
113
Figure 1 Situation plan with landmarks position
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS coordinates of these points with its.

GPS technology is a technology of high
Recognising the potential of the performance and high precision depending on the
determination techniques using GPS technology in following requirements in the recognition phase of
order to achieve a modern and precise reference, land (table 1).
were considered useful to determine the spatial
Table 1
Landscape recognition’s exigencies
Obstacles absence
Satellites visibility from the station points
Interference source’s absence
Ground materialization of the points
The reference point’s checks
Its stability
Travelling manner
Setting-up the logistic devices Access and travelling time
Special equipment (if it is required)
The errors that may occur by using GPS 0.001 ÷ 0.01 m.

system in order to determine the spatial The topic of in-time monitoring of the
coordinates of a point are: building’s displacements must represent an
1. Number and integrity of orbital satellites important goal for all engineering structures
(functional); especially for those of vital importance. Such
2. Delays in atmospheric layers and signal monitoring, by topographic methods, can detect on
reflection; time fissures, subsidence and spatial displacements
3. Errors due to receiver clock and orbital of engineering structures. It can be ordered the
errors; measures to prevent disasters such as breakage or
4. The number of visible satellites, their loss of structural stability of dams by the
position at a certain time and their selective occurrence of uncontrollable events that have not
availability (type of information access - free or was set at the design stage. Monitoring structural
secure). displacements (having high precision
measurements) will be performed by cyclic
It is relevant that the relief, the buildings, the measuring the angular and linear values using
electronic interference or sometimes even topo-geodetic methods and instruments.
vegetation can block signal reception, causing In order to determine the coordinates of the
position errors or even total lack of position. After new points was used GNSS Permanent Stations
placing the terminals according to the situation we National Network using RTK method: RTCM
proceeded to determine the spatial coordinates (Radio Technical Commission for Maritime
using GPS system with a device type that has a Services).
114
Measurements were performed with two Table 3

GPS receivers: SOUTH S82T (figure 2 left) and GPS’s errors
Error range Typically error
SOUTH S82V (figure 2 right), who’s field book Errors sources
[meters] [meters]
has implemented software transcomputation real- Ionosphere 5.0 0.4
time geographic coordinates obtained in STEREO- Troposphere 0.5 0.2
70 co-ordinate system. The determinations were Ephemerides 2.5 0
made in 2013 July (for the first set) and 2014 May. Satellites watch deviations 1.5 0
Multipath effect 0.6 0.6
Measurement noise 0.3 0.3
Total ~ 15 ~ 10
In addition to these errors, the GPS

measurement can be influenced also by the
choosing of the service’s period for which you
must take into account four main factors:
1. base length
2. the number of visible satellites
3. satellite constellation geometry (PDOP)
4. signal / noise ratio for satellite signal
(Signal to Noise Ratio – SNR).
Depending on the basis length, the work
session’s length can be estimated in relation to the
Figure 2 GPS SOUTH S82T and S82V system desired accuracy according to table 4.
receivers
Table 4
The work session’s length in relation to the base’s length
From the permanent GNSS stations network
Base length [km] Work session’s length [minutes]
were used fixed station IASI_2.3 and virtual 0-1 10-30
station RO_MAC_3.1_GG. Solutions for new 1-5 30-60
measured points were fixed, the determination’s 5-10 60-90
accuracy being ranged from 0.034-0.010 meters 10-15 90-120
(see table 2).
Systematic errors that occur during the
Table 2 measurement’s process could be underlined by the
Spatial Coordinates GPS receivers in the final report by the following
Land Spatial Spatial Average parameters (table 5):
mark Coordinates [m] Coordinates [m] Coordinates
No. Receiver – S82T Receiver – S82V [m]
1. Horizontal dilution of precision - HDOP
X 631322.925 631322.877 631322.901 2. Vertical dilution of precision – VDOP
1 Y 696501.349 696501.341 696501.345 3. Tridimensional dilution of precision – PDOP
Z 42.2927 42.352 42.322 4. Number of visible satellites – SATS
X 631330.945 631330.949 631330.947
2 Y 696470.343 696470.413 696470.378 Table 5
Z 42.316 42.357 42.337 Parameters used to estimate the GPS’s accuracy
X 631339.146 631339.102 631339.124 Land Measurement Measurement
GPS
Y 696436.915 696436.989 696436.952 mark Accuracy Accuracy
3 Information
Z 43.879 44.046 43.963 No. Receiver – S82T Receiver – S82V
X 631291.465 631291.417 631291.441 SATS 10 6
Y 696407.848 696407.865 696407.857 PDOP 2.916 3.248
4 1
Z 43.836 43.827 43.832 HDOP 1.205 2.167
VDOP 2.655 2.419
SATS 12 7
While the GPS signal passes the layers of PDOP 1.828 2.242
the atmosphere that is affected by a number of 2
HDOP 0.998 1.393
errors. These are presented in the table 3. VDOP 1.531 1.757
There are a number of ways to minimize SATS 6 4
such errors. For example we can (through a PDOP 8.281 19.106
3 HDOP 1.711 7.148
numerical modelling) to predict the delay which VDOP 8,103 17.719
will occur in a typical day, but atmospheric SATS 8 6
conditions are rarely the same. For this reason PDOP 2.999 2.34
these modelling will never be very reliable. 4 HDOP 1.464 1.433
VDOP 2.617 1.850
115
Could be considered (from the table 5) learning can be done by specific means of each
that the measurements carried out with Receiver- discipline. Land Surveying specific to civil
S82T were more appropriate than those carried out engineers could be improved by actions and
with Receiver-S82V, this is because of several requirements (specific to the didactic manner) that
factors that had influenced the determinations. contribute effectively to the educational process.
CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
In this paper we determined the optimal
Bazlof Y.A., et al, 1999 - GLONASS to GPS: A New
coordinates of the terminals of landmarks of Coordinate Transformation,. GPS World, Vol. 10,
Faculty of Civil Engineering using GPS No. 1, pp. 54.58.
technology. The process of with this technology is Boş N., Iacobescu O., 2007 - Topografie modernă, ed.
how fast and also complex due to the multitude of C.H. Beck, Bucureşti
Johnson N.L., 1994 - GLONASS Spacecraft,. GPS
factors that may influence (sometimes significant World, Vol. 5, No. 11, pp. 51.58.
manner) the accuracy of the determination. Kleusberg A., 1990 - Comparing GPS and GLONASS,.
In this context the measurements were GPS World, Vol. 1, No. 6, November/December,
influenced firstly by the existence of adjacent pp. 52.54.
buildings which has disrupted the visibility of Langley R.B., 1997 - GLONASS: Review and Update,.
GPS World, Vol. 8, No. 7, pp. 46.51.
satellites and by the existence of vegetation (trees) *** - Commission of the European Communities,
that we had sometimes blocked the signal. 2000, Commission Communication to the
The reference network is optimum territorial European Parliament and the Council on
distributed; covering much of the area associated GALILEO,. Brussels, Belgium
*** - Navstar GPS System Surveying for Civil
with our Faculty and will help to determine the Engineering, Topography and Construction,
precise coordinates of all points used in the Wexford College Press, ISBN: 9781934939178
practical applications, ensuring efficiency and *** - Navtech Seminars and GPS Supply, 2001
usefulness of this discipline and rigorous training GPS/GNSS newsletter
of our graduates. *** - http://www.expertcadastru.ro/blog/79-trilateratie-
gps. html
The improving of the quality of teaching and
116
MORPHOLOGICAL STRUCTURE, HUMUS CONTENT OF THE SOILS

WITH DIFFERENT DEGREEOF EROSION IN THE RECEPTION BASIN „NEGREA” HINCESTI
DISTRICTAND THEIR ACTION
ON THEEROSION PROCESS FROM REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
Olesea COJOCARU1
e-mail: olesea.cojocaru@bk.ru
Abstract
In conditions of Moldova, with the complicated geomorphological structure, one of the processes that have caused and
causes deterioration in the present intensive soil cover, the default ambient environment is soil erosion. Critical level of
soils humification of Moldova show off preserving and the increase of humus content, first of all, in soils affected by
erosion. Purpose of the study was to evaluate the morphological structure and humus content of the soils with different
degree of erosion from reception basin "Negrea" carried out based on the data of the six principal soil profiles. The data
obtained confirmed that catchment erosion territory "Negrea" is the main factor irrecoverable destruction of agricultural
soil profile and reduced their production capacity. Soil is the main natural resource of the Republic of Moldova on
which her food security, economic potential and welfare of the people. In general, we emphasize that soil erosion is the
most urgent, the most acute and even the most threatening problem. Of the mentioned we consider that, in conditions of
Moldova, erosion control is decisive in diminishing measure of soil degradation process. Aim of the researches
envisaged was in highlighting the particularities genetic, assessment of negative modifications soil characteristics of the
reception basin in the erosion result of erosion and appreciation of quality of the different agricultural use. According to
the research carried out it was found that the soil cover of reception basin "Negrea" is exemplification of unity durable
of the interaction soil, vegetation, environment and man in a one hilly region. The conservation reserves of humus are
vital to Moldova's agriculture.
Key words: Erosion, Humus content, Morphological composition, Reception basin, Soil profile.
Soil is the main natural resource of the interaction soil, vegetation, environment and man
Republic of Moldova on which her food security, in a one hilly region. The reception basin
economic potential and welfare of the people (Nor "Negrea", is situated on the plain of the Middle
D., Balteanschi D., 2004). In general, we Prut within the limits the estate the „Negrea”
emphasize that soil erosion is the most urgent, the community, district Hincesti being part of the
most acute and even the most threatening problem. accumulation basin Lapusnita rivulet, left tributary
Of the mentioned we consider that, in conditions of of the river Prut. The object of study occupies the
Moldova, erosion control is decisive in north-east and middle agricultural territory of the
diminishing measure of soil degradation process. village of New Negrea.
Humus is the main index of soil fertility. As a
result of microbial activity, humus is mineralized MATERIAL AND METHOD
slowly releasing nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and
other elements (Andries S., Tiganoc V., Leah N. et The conservation reserves of humus are vital
al., 2007). to Moldova's agriculture (Andries S., Tiganoc V., Leah
Aim of the researches envisaged was in N. et al., 2007), so the determination of humus is
carried out in all soil samples taken. The carbon cycle
highlighting the particularities genetic, assessment plays a decisive role in the global environmental
of negative modifications soil characteristics of the changes, to which the rest of the elements` cycles are
reception basin in the erosion result of erosion and closely linked and in the climate change. The diversity
appreciation of quality of the different agricultural of natural conditions of soil formation and their
use. According to the research carried out it was interaction with anthropogenic factors have led to the
found that the soil cover of reception basin formation of reception basin territory "Negrea" a soil
cover variable and complex character. Morphological
"Negrea" is exemplification of unity durable of the description of the profiles was performed and was
1
Institute of Pedology, Agrochemistry and Soil Protection "Nicolae Dimo" , Chisinau, Republic of Moldova, MD–2070
117
developed soils map obtained from 1:5000 scale destroyed by erosion. Formation of micro terraces
mapping, which demonstrate spatial distribution of between rows in vineyards and orchards, grassing
soils with different degree of erosion. The reception
space between trees in orchards led to decrease
basin "Negrea" located in the middle basin of the
rivulet Lapusnita and is typical for all catchments fully erosion. As a result, intensified processes of
formed as a result of erosion of the high terraces accumulation of organic matter in the former
fragmentation of Prut River and its left tributaries. The underlying the weak humus horizons, returned to
location and the description of morphological detailed, the surface by subsoiling.
morphometric determination of indicators reception The second case. Fields in central reception
basin soils "Negrea" was made based on data basin vineyards and orchards about 20 years ago
obtained for the six main soil profiles: the profile Nr.1.
Not eroded chernozem ordinary; the profile Nr.3.
were cleared and arable land included. Under the
Poorly eroded ordinary chernozem; the profile Nr.6. influence of this action anthropogenic the erosion
Moderately eroded ordinary chernozem; the profile processes intensified, fertile soil losses have
Nr.4. Strong eroded ordinary chernozem; the profile increased. So, as a result of recent deforestation
Nr.15. Cumulative chernozem izohumic; the profile vineyards and orchards old plantations and arable
Nr.10. Sol typical cumulative. land crossing is expected to sharply increase
Methods for conducting research and analysis
erosion reception basin territory. Not erodate soils
of soil in the field included: detailed mapping of soil
cover reception basin at the scale 1:5000 as are spread only to summit quasi horizontal surface
instructed in force; location and morphological (inclination about 1˚). These soils are used as a
description of the soil profiles, the determination of yardstick to determine the extent of soil erosion on
morphometric indices of soil, soil sampling for slopes by comparing the thickness of humiferous
laboratory analysis; determine the extent of soil profile of eroded soils with the thickness
erosion slopped in the reception basin the based on
humiferous profile – yardstick not erodate.
data summary thickness humiferous of profile with
higher humus content of 1.00%, etc. Comparative Reserves of humus in soil erosion compared to the
characteristic parameters investigated soil gave normal profile (complete) gets their quantitative
possibility to recommend measures necessary for characteristics.
diminishing the negative impact of erosion. The information on the morphological
composition and the content of humus horizons in
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the six main profiles of soil is as follows:
Profile Nr.1, not eroded chernozem ordinary
In the process of carrying out soil studies it is characterized by profile type: Ahp1→
was found that soil erosion affects an extremely →Ahp2→Ahb→Bh1→Bh2k→BCk1→BCk2.
large on the status of humus, reducing, depending Layer thickness of humiferous profile on humus
on the degree of manifestation, humus and of content greater than 1% - 92 cm. Features: the
nitrogen reserves in the soil naturally, their depth. existence of a horizon of 20-35 cm after arable
Only one catastrophic downpour caused in a short powerful compact, which prevents the spread deep
time, is powerless to wash the slope a quantity of roots and reduces water permeability.
humus accumulation that nature he needed Profile Nr.3, poorly eroded ordinary
centuries or even millennia (Florea N. et al., 1987). chernozem is characterized by profile type:
Soils on the slopes are affected by denudation and Ahp1→Ahp2→Ahb→BCk→Ck with layer
evolve through pedogenesis denudational - thickness of humiferous profile on humus content
compensation, meaning that the relatively long greater than 1 % - 75 cm. Features: existence of a
period that occurs slowly denudation processes, horizon of 20-35 cm after arable very strong
there is a certain development of soil depth, thus compact, which prevents the spread deep roots and
compensating pedogenesis - at least partially – contribute to erosion.
denudation (Nor D., Balteanschi D., 2004). The Profile Nr.6, moderately eroded ordinary
exception is if there is an accelerated erosion of chernozem is characterized by profile type:
soil due to anthropogenic inappropriate works, ABhp1→ABhb2→BCk1→BCk2 with layer
where massive loss of soil through erosion cannot thickness of humiferous profile on humus content
be compensated by process of pedogenesis. These greater than 1% - 48 cm.
two cases are present on the reception basin Profile Nr.4, strong eroded ordinary
"Negrea". chernozem is characterized by profile type:
First case. Use of land under perennial Bhp1→Bhb2→BCk1→BCk2→BCk2 with layer
plantings and unclog led to the return of land thickness of humiferous profile on humus content
surface soil humus horizons underlying the weak greater than 1% - 40 cm.
initially eroded. Also surface humus horizons they Profile Nr.15, Cumulative chernozem
were buried 30-50 cm depth in this respect is izohumic is characterized by profile type:
preserved on the possibility of being further Ahp1→Ahp2→Ahb→Bh1→Bh2k →BCk with
118
layer thickness of humiferous profile on humus layer investigated range from 25-38 mg/100g soil
content greater than 1% - 135 cm. not erodate and weakly eroded soils and
Profile Nr.10, Sol typical cumulative arable 17-20 mg/100g soil moderately and strongly
is characterized by profile type: eroded soils. Finally it can be concluded that
Ihp→IIh→IIIh→IVh→Ahb→Bhb→Bhb reception basin the soils erosion have lost at 20
1→ →Bhb2→BC with layer thickness of until 60-80% from thickness profile of humiferous,
humiferous profile on humus content greater than humus content in arable layer of their was reduced
1% - 220 cm. All profiles are observed reversing from 3.00-4.00% not erodate and weakly eroded
initial genetic horizons. soils till 1.00-2.00% strong and very strong soils
Soil material (pedolit), washed down slopes, eroded.
in valleys accumulates and forms cumulative soils.
Humus content in arable layer of chernozem CONCLUSIONS
cumulative izohumic (Turcanu M., Banaru A. et
al., 1994) varies between 3.00-3.40% and slowly For the correct and rational measures to
decreases in depth. Chernozem izohumic protect the soil from erosion is necessary to know
cumulative occupies small the foot of slopes. Were its causes, natural and anthropogenic regularities of
formed as a result of slow accumulation of fine manifestation and development, territorial
material and humiferous of soil (pedolit), washed expansion, dividing the types and degrees.
down slopes. The profile of chernozems ordinary Diversity of conditions the terrain, rock, and
izohumic cumulative differs from that of ordinary agricultural use, determines formation reception
chernozems not erodate by a greater thickness of basin territory "Negrea" of a coating variable and
genetic horizons and humiferous profile in full and complex soils the composition of which
often with a higher content of humus. The average predominates usual chernozem with varying
thickness of humiferous profile of these soils is degrees of erosion (83%). The increase of the
less than 120 cm, but sometimes reaches 150 cm. degree of soil erosion leads to the decrease
Chernozem izohumic cumulative after qualities are concomitantly the content of humus, nutrients and
the most fertile soils in the fields investigated. It is their production capacity. Note weighted average
characterized by a more favorable moisture regime of creditworthiness of agricultural land in the
and are rich in humus and nutrients than soils reception basin it is now equal to 55 points, the soil
eroded (Cerbari V., 2010). cover is generally characterized by a medium
Typical cumulative soils formed in pedolit productivity. Grubbing of perennial plantations
recent sediments are under moderate humus gives rise to increased erosion on arable further
content in arable layer of humiferous profile vary used. Parallel with grubbing of perennial
within 2.40-2.70%. Under the layer of pedolit plantations is necessary to convert anti-erosion
recently cumulative sediment is buried a soil black land already used in arable and conducted
color izohumic containing about 3.4-3.5% humus monitoring erosion processes in order to prevent
horizon Ahb buried. Not erodate soils, slightly accelerating the deterioration of the soil cover.
eroded and cumulative izohumice after humus Providing a systematic control is necessary
content is classified as moderately humiferous with for all forms of degradation that lead to triggering
trend passage under moderate humiferous in the soil erosion.
outcome of perennial plantations deforestation and
their use in arable plowed land slightly eroded soils REFERENCES
observed an increase in erosion processes and
dehumification. These data are necessary not only Andries S., Tiganoc V., Leah N. et al., 2007 -
Methodical instructions on soil agrochemical
for the elimination of the phenomenon of erosion, mapping. Ch.: Pontos, p. 35.
but also for the proper evaluation productivity of Cerbari V., 2010 - The monitoring of soils quality
eroded soils and selection protective measures and Republic of Moldova (database, conclusions,
restoring their (Nor D., Balteanschi D., 2004). The prognoses, recommendations). Ch.: Pontos, p.
reaction soils not erodate often and the low eroded 476.
Nor D., Balteanschi D., 2004 - Soil erosion – the
and cumulative izohumic is neutral for horizons essence, consequences, minimization and
Ah and Bh1 ( pH=6.9-7.2) and weak alkaline for stabilization process. Ch.: Pontos, p. 474.
horizons Bh2, BC and C. Soils moderately strong Florea N. et al., 1987 - Methodology development
and very highly eroded, and soils typical pedological studies. Part III. Bucuresti, p. 226.
Turcanu M., Banaru A. et al., 1994 - Methodical
cumulative is characterized by weak alkaline instructions for determining balance of humus in
reaction on the surface. Within the limits reception soils Moldova. Chisinau, Agroinformreclama, p.
basin soil reaction is not limiting factor for field 24.
crops. Mobile potassium content of soils arable
119
120
THE DYNAMIC TEXTURE AND HUMUS CONTENT

IN ARGIC CHERNOZEM STATIONARY-SITE
EROSION CONTROL ALDENI-BUZAU
Marian MUSAT1, Alexandra RADU1, Anca-Luiza STANILA2, Lavinia PARVAN3
e-mail: dr_marianmusat@yahoo.com
Abstract
The hilly area of Buzau county is very affected by degradation processes predominantly anthropogenic and natural
erosion. The surface erosion on agricultural land lost annually to 13.5 t/ha, double the limit. Advanced degradation of
the soil cover in the area, led to the award of the name "bad lands Buzau".
Key words:
The hydrographic basin Road Valley is In the stationary furnished 12 control plots,
located on the right side of the Slanic - Buzau located on arable land into two batteries: the first
contains six plots, each 100 square meters (25m/4m)
Valley previously called the degree of degradation
and a slope of 20%, the second contains six plots,
due to erosion, was chosen as the standard for each surface 40 square meters (10m/4m) and a slope
surface erosion intensity. This stationary erosion of 15%. Control plots are provided downstream
control works Aldeni-Buzau, established in 1967 devices to collect runoff and soil washing quantities
by Professor Stephen V., Associate Professor Ene (figure 1).
Al. and Eng Oblocinschi Al. Distribution crop plots was done properly
Soil type is argic chernozem, the control a three-year rotation with jumper field
(perennial grasses) recommended hilly land with a
development has been pursued in parallel with the slope of up to 20%. Placed in rotation crops are: corn,
processes of erosion, throughout the research winter wheat crops and perennial grasses, the share
programs. of each crop is 25%. Note that some plots were
The paper presents the data obtained during applied erosion soil protection systems (crops sown
1998-2011 on some soil properties (texture and crops in strips and grass strips).
humus content) and the average amount of soil Rotates for data comparison, one of the field
plots was maintained. During investigations were
washed from the plots required erosion control pursued runoff caused by torrential rainfall during the
works inside the experimental field. growing season, the amount of soil washed from the
They contribute to the finalization of perceive and their influence on some soil properties.
strategies aimed at reducing economic and social From each plot were collected soil samples (average
effects of the area through the preservation and samples) according to the "Methodology development
improvement of soil cover in accordance with the soil studies" ICPA Bucharest, 1987, to monitor the
characteristics of the soil.
principles of sustainable development.
The paper presents the data obtained during
1998-2011 on plots located on land with a slope of
MATERIAL AND METHOD 15% regarding: the total water fallen during the
growing season, temperature, amount of soil washed
The research was conducted in the river valley clay fraction natural variation and content humus, the
to the road where soil erosion control works depth 0-40 cm values were processed as annual
stationary Aldeni-Buzau, located on the left side of averages recorded during the study.
the basin.
1
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest
2
National Institute of Research and Development of Soil Science, Agrochemistry and Environmental Protection of
Bucharest
3
Spiru Haret, University of Bucharest
121
Figure 1 Plots for erosion control - location sketch Aldeni-stationary BUZĂU
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 85.5, after which the trend is decreasing. It stands
close to the average values in June and August, 72
Total Precipitation fallen from April to and 73.2 litres/m2. Quantity lowest monthly
September during 1989-2011 (figure 2) is average rainfall was recorded in April 35 litres/m2.
characterized by differences in values of 552 Monthly average temperatures (Fig. 4) were
litres/m2. The rainfall year was 2005, when there similar to the trend of monthly average rainfall. I
were 708.88 and driest litres/m2 2008 156.8 mean, the warmest month was July with 21oC,
litres/m2 register. followed by August with values very close to
Mean monthly rainfall recorded at the 20.6oC. The coldest month was April with an
growing season during 1998-2011 (figure 3) average of 9.8o C.
increase progressively until July litres/m2 value of
Figure 2 Dynamics of total rainfall during the growing season 1998-2011, recorded at stationary
122
Figure 3. Dynamics of average monthly rainfall for the period 1998-2011, recorded at stationary
Fig.4. Dynamics of average monthly air temperatures during 1998-2011, recorded at stationary
The average weight of soil washing 1998- erosion system with grass strips.
2001 in control plots is 9.9 t/ha and year. During Trend humus content (figure 5) and natural
this period, the control plots was applied to a three- clay (figure 6) is generally decreasing, with smaller
year crop rotation, the sole V2 and V5 were kept differences for parcels V3, V4 and V2 differences
fallow alternating two series of three years, while for parcels, V5 and V6. Erosion leads especially
sole V3 and V4 only once and received of sola colloidal particles of humus and clay on slopes that
jumper (perennial grasses). are carried as silt and soil clogs or adjacent water
Technical plants were sown in strips of two courses.
rows, and the corn crop has been applied anti-
45
44
43
42
41
40
(%)
39
38
37
36
35
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6
Figure 5 Changes in humus content of the soil in Figure 6 Changes in physical clay content of the
plots of mind during 1998-2011, recorded at soil in plots of mind during 1998-2011, recorded
stationary at stationary
123
In figure 7 we can see the influence of filtering technologies implemented erosion and
erosion on natural clay content of the soil. The perennial grasses.
smallest difference in the percentage of natural The soil left unprotected for a period (field)
clay was recorded at 0.5% plot V3, V4 followed by in a production cycle is affected by soil erosion
a plot of 0.6%, where the amount of soil washing compared to permanently covered with vegetation.
was about 7 tons/ha. Largest decrease in the An example of this is the plot V6 which have an
percentage of natural clay V6 plot occurred in average 16 t/ha washed with 10 t/ha to normal.
5.8%.
Humus content of the soil decreases by 0.2% CONCLUSIONS
to 0,4% at V3 and V4 (figure 8), the largest
percentage decrease was recorded in plots that V1 Total rainfall from April to September fallen
and V5 of 0.6%. during 1998-2011 (Figure 2) is characterized by
differences in values of 552 litres/m2 ;
45
Mean monthly rainfall for the period 1998-
40 2011 recorded at stationary gradually increase until
35 July litres/m2 value of 85.5, after which the trend is
30 decreasing;
25
20 The warmest month was July with 21oC
15 coldest April with an average of 9.8oC;
10 Trends in humus and clay content is
5
0 19
generally decreasing physical with smaller
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6
98 differences for parcels V3, V4 and V2 differences
for parcels, V5 and V6;
Figure 7 The influence of the erosion of the natural Average annual erosion was in the range 7-
clay content (%) Ground the control plots 16 t/ha and year;
with a slope of 15% during 1998-2011, Role filtering technologies applied and
recorded at stationary
perennial grasses erosion is evidenced by average
erosion values close to normal during 1998-2011 6
3 20 t/ha and year;
2.5 The soil left unprotected for a period (field)
15
2 in a production cycle is most affected by erosion,
1.5 10 more physical and more clay than the soil humus
1
1
5 9 permanently covered by vegetation.
0.5
0 0 REFERENCES
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6
Băloiu V., Ionescu V., 1980 - Defending land against,
Figure 8 The influence of the amount of mold erosion landslides and floods, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti;
(%) Ground the control plots with a slope of 15% Ene Al., Radu Alexandra, 2000 - Impact of work on soil
during 1998-2011, recorded at stationary erosion in the lower river basin Slanic - Buzau
county, Editura Bren, Bucharest;
Moţoc M., Irina Vintilă, 1982- Allowable erosion , ICPA
Average annual erosion was in the range 7- Bucharest;
16 t/ha and year. It is noted values recorded in *** - Integrated management systems for soil and water
plots 7t/ha V3 and V4 7.3 t / ha, values close to the conservation in agroecosystems hill. Research
report, contract PNII-Ideas, 2008-2011;
normal value of 6 t/ha and year, due to the role of
*** - Methodology development soil studies -
I.C.P.A.Bucharest, 1987.
124
STUDY ON BIOREMEDIATION OF HEAVY METAL-CONTAMINATED SOILS

USING THE BACTERIA-PLANTS SYNERGY
PAVEL Vasile Lucian, BIALI Gabriela, STĂTESCU Florian, MARCOIE Nicolae, GAVRILESCU
Maria1, APOSTOL Ionut Cristian2
e.mail: pvlpavel@yahoo.com
Abstract
It is well known that different plant species can be associated with microbial communities with unique characteristics.
Various groups of viable microorganisms from soils can improve the plant growth mechanism, having the role of
hiperaccumulators and mitigate the toxic effects of heavy metals on plants. Moreover, the bioavailability and retention
of metals can be changed and improved as a result of microbial activity in soil. In order to survive and grow in soils
contaminated by heavy metals, certain species of plants develop a synergistic mechanism with the rizo-associated
bacteria, which can immobilize, mobilize or transform metals, making them inactive, thus allowing plants to tolerate
them in the absorption process. This paper proposes a management strategy for the microbial populations in the
rizosphere, by the application of microbial inoculations, consisting in a consortium of plant growth and promoting the
rhizo-and nitrogen-fixing bacteria to act as allies of plants and biofertilizers, which could provide beneficial systems for
ecosystem restoration.
Key words: bioremediation, heavy metals, contaminated soil
Rizosphere is the soil-plants interface and wheat crops can increase by up to 30% (Ghalomi
plays a significant role in the phito remedy of and collab., 2009). Also the bioavailability of
heavy-metal contaminated soils where microbial pollutants in the rizosphere is critical for the design
population can influence the mobility of heavy of phito remedy technologies with predictable
metals and the bioavailability thereof through the success (Khan, 2004; Wenzel, 2009).
release of complexing, acidifying agents, The absorption of metals by plants through
phosphate solubility, change of the redox potential. phito extraction has as triggering force the
This way, the microorganisms in the soil can different concentration of soil metal and of plants,
intensify the phito remedy potential (Glick, 2010; which is conditional on the transfer speed of the
Jing şi colab., 2007). metal from the solid state and the soil solution
Rizosphere – the volume of soil influenced towards the plants. PGPR microorganisms can
by plant roots – is the environment where represent an intermediate that ensures the
interactions between three categories of units take “continuous supply” of metallic species from the
place: plants, soil and microorganisms. solid state, in order to maintain the phito remedy
Microorganisms can be associated with roots in the process (fig. 5.1).
rizosphere, (mainly, rizobacterias which improve Generally, PGPR, namely Azotobacter, acts
the plant growth, PGPR) can increase the capacity in three different ways (Glick, 2003):
of plants to absorb the nutrients directly or  by synthesizing agents especially for
indirectly (Amora-Lazcano and collab., 2010; plants;
Glick and collab., 2007).  by facilitating the assimilation of certain
The application of PGPR as biofertilizers nutrients from the environment;
and fixing agents of the nitrogen from atmosphere  by protecting the plants against diseases.
has a critical contribution to the intensification of In this work, we have assessed the synergy
the phito extraction process. Azotobacter species is between Lepdium sativum and Azotobacter sp.
considered an oxygen fixing agent which can with respect to tolerance to the metallic ion Cd(II).
independently develop in aerobe environment
(Saharan and Nehra, 2011). The studies showed
that, in the presence of Azotobacter, the output of
1
“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Romania
2
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iassy
125
MATERIAL AND METHODS The inhibition percentage of the

germination is also expressed based on the total
The seeds of Lepidium Sativum plant were seeds, irrespective of the replicate, and is
cropped based on concentrations of Cd(II) expressed as follows:
solutions, namely 2, 4, 6, 8 mg/L, located in the
vicinity of the inhibition dose of Azotobacter sp.
enzymatic system, in 1.5 mL bacterial suspension.
The batch of seeds was acquired from a business
center. The seeds were examined and selected, No value has been assigned to the non-
namely the uncolored, damaged or abnormally germinated seeds for the length and weight
small seeds were removed. Three replicates have growing measurements. The average length of the
been used for each concentration. strain and root of germinated seeds in the witness
Each sample included 20 seeds of group and the testing concentrations are
Lepidium sativum, distributed on the filter paper of determined based on cumulated data (group of 20,
the Petri dishes. Afterwards, the solutions, at the irrespective of the replicate) and are used in order
above mentioned concentrations, were added. to express the inhibition percentage compared to
Also, there have been three replicates for the the witness group. The results were analyzed
witness, where the filter paper has been soaked in through the unidimensional variation analysis
distilled water, at pH 6-6.5. The Petri dishes were (ANOVA). The standard error of estimates did not
covered with a lid and left at the environment exceed 8% (Montvydiene and Marciulioniene,
temperature for three days, in light/darkness 2004).
alternation conditions (14 hours/10 hours) in order Further on, the plants were recovered from
to initiate the germination process. the Petri dishes, placed on a clean surface and
At the end of the three days of exposure measured. The measurements required in order to
for the L. sativum seeds, the lids have been determine the growth consist of the root length and
removed and the general status of the plants has the strain length.
been observed for the first time, as well as certain The tolerance index (TI) was also
fading, drying symptoms of the roots and determined, expressed as the ratio between the
discoloration of the leaves. strain length, or of the root of cropped plants,
Further on, the plants were recovered from respectively, and the lack of metallic ion (Burd and
the Petri dishes, placed on a clean surface and collab., 2000). All results have been statistically
measured. The measurements required in order to interpreted by means of ANOVA.
determine the growth consist of the root length,
the strain length, the mass of moist material of RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
the strain and the dry mass. The inhibiting effect
of contaminants is determined by comparing the The witness sample showed that
tested groups with the control (witness) groups. Azotobacter sp. bacteria can stimulate te growth of
The weight of the moist biomass has been Lepidium sativum plant, by improving the average
determined immediately after the measurements of root length by 20%, and the strain length by 30%
the plants, thus impeding the loss of water content (fig. 1). The response of Lepidium sativum
from the leaves. inoculated with Azotobacter sp. and exposed to
The dry substance has been determined
various concentrations of Cd shows that this
by placing the moist biomass into a drying
0
chamber at 105 C, for 24 hours. Porcelain species is sensitive to all concentrations of
capsules previously weighted through the analytic analyzed metallic ion, and the influence of
balance were used in this respect. The weight of Azotobacter sp. presence depends on the
the capsule plus the moist biomass were written concentration of the metallic ion (fig. 2). The
down, and after the drying process the capsules results of measurements performed on the root
were weighted once again. The difference between length of L. sativum plants imoculated with
the initial and the final weight represents the Azotobacter sp and exposed to cadmium (fig. 5.27)
quantity of dry substance. showed that the rizobacteria does not foster the
The germination process of the control growth of roots at the higher values of heavy metal
seeds should range between 90 and 100%, and
concentration (more than 6 mg/L Cd(II)).
the inhibition noticed at these control groups
control should be low, compared to the testing The result is similar in case of strains: the
groups. rizobacteria does not foster the growth of strains at
The germination capacity of the seeds the higher values of heavy metal concentration
and strain length of Lepidium sativum in (more than 6 mg/L Cd(II)) (fig. 3).
distilled water (the witness sample) were 91  The obtained results, which imply the
5% and 5.9  0.97 cm. Also, the roots length exploration and use of these natural mechanisms
was 5.5  0.8 cm, and the dry biomass 0.190  for the detoxification and accumulation of metals
0.051 (table 5.4) represent the scientific grounds for the wide scale
126
implementation of soil phito remedy strategies by growth of Lepidus sativus plant, by improving the
means of hyper-accumulating plants, bioabsorption average root length by 20%, and the strain length
– bioaccumulation and by means of the by 30%. The response of Lepidus sativus
rizobacterias-hyper-accumulating plants synergy. inoculated with Azotobacter sp. exposed to various
The study consisted of the monitored growth concentrations of Cd shows that this species is
of Lepidium sativus plant, cropped by means of sensitive to all analyzed concentrations of metallic
Cd(II) solutions with concentrations between 2- 8 ion, and that the influence of Azotobacter sp.
mg/L, located in the vicinity of the inhibition dose presence depends on the concentration of the
of the enzymatic system of Azotobacter sp. and metallic ion.
bacterial suspension. The witness sample showed
that Azotobacter sp. bacteria can stimulate the
9
8
7
Lungime, cm
6
5 în absenta Azotobacter sp.
4 în prezenta Azotobacter sp.
3
2
1
0
rădăcină tulpină
Figure 1. Root and strain length of L. sativus not inoculated and inoculated with Azotobacter sp. (average values SD of
the three replicates; no significant differences between the experiments, P <0,05)
8
Lungimea rădăcinilor, cm
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
ma rt o r 2m g/ L C d( II) 4 mg/ L C d( II) 6 mg/ L C d( II) 8m g/ L C d( II)
în absenta Azotobacter sp. în prezenta Azotobacter sp.
Figure 2. Root length of L. sativus not inoculated and inoculated with Azotobacter sp. at various concentrations of Cd(II)
in the crop environment (average values SD of the three replicates; no significant differences between the experiments,
P <0,05).
9
Lungimea tulpinilor, cm
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
ma rt o r 2 m g/ L C d( II) 4 m g/ L C d( II) 6 mg/ L C d( II) 8 mg/ L C d( II)
în absenta Azotobacter sp. în prezenta Azotobacter sp.
Figure 3. Strain length of L. sativus plants inoculated and inoculated with Azotobacter sp. at various concentrations of
Cd(II) in the crop environment (average values SD of the three replicates; no significant differences between the
experiments, P <0,05).
127
8. F.I., Khan, T., Husain, and R., Hejazi, 2004 - An

overview and analysis of site remediation
technologies, Journal of Environmental
CONCLUSIONS Management, 71, 95–122.
1. The study concerning the intensifying 9. D., Montvydiene, and D., Marciulioniene, 2004 -
Assessment of toxic interaction of heavy metals in
potential off bio remedy by means of bacteria-plant a multicomponent mixture using Lepidium sativum
synergy takes into consideration the fact that and Spirodela polyrrhiza, Environmental Toxicity,
certain plant species promote a synergy mechanism 19, 351-358.
with the associated rizobacterias, through which 10. B.S., Saharan, and V., Nehra, 2011 - Plant growth
promoting rhizobacteria: a critical review, Life
these can immobilize, mobilize or transform Science and Medicine Research, 21,.
metals, by making such inactive, and thus enabling 11. W., Wenzel, 2009 - Rhizosphere processes and
the plants to tolerate them during the absorption management a plant-assisted bioremediation
process. (phytoremediation) of soils, Plant Soil, 321, 385-
2. In this context, the paper reviews, based 408.
on experimental bases, at laboratory scale, a
management strategy for microbial populations in
the rizosphere, by applying a microbial
inoculation, which consists of a consortium of
plant growing and promotion of nitrogen fixing
rizobacterias, with the role of allies of plants and
bio-fertilizers, which might ensure benefic systems
for the recovery of ecosystems.
3. The exploration and use of these natural
mechanisms for the detoxification and
accumulation of heavy metals from soil can be
considered a bio remedy strategy through phito
remedy, based on hyper-accumulating plants, or
bio absorption and bio accumulation, by means of
microorganisms, of heavy metal polluted soils.
REFERENCES
1. E., Amara-Lazcano, L.A., Guerrero-Zuniga, A.,

Rodriguez-Tovar, A., Rodriguez-Dorantes, and
M.S. Vasquez-Murrieta, 2010 - Rhizospherie
Plant-Microbe Interactions that Enhance the
Remediation of Contaminated Soils, In: Current
Research, Technology and Education Topics in
Applied Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology,
Mendez-Vilas A. (Ed.) FORMATEX, 251-256.
2. G.I., Burd, D.G., Dixon, and B.R., Glick, 2000 - Plant
growth promoting bacteria that decrease heavy
metal toxicity in plants, Canadian Journal of
Microbiology, 46, 237-245.
3. A., Gholami, S. Shahsavani, and S. Nezarat, 2009 -
The effect of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria
(PGPR) on germination, seedling growth and field
of maize, International Journal of Biological Life
Science, 1 (suppl.1), 35-40.
4. B., Glick, 2010 - Using soil bacteria to facilitate
phytoremediation, Biotechnology Advances, 28,
367-374.
5. B., Glick, Z., Cheng, J., Czarny, Z.,Cheng, J., Duan,
T., and McConkey, 2007 - Promotion of plant
growth by bacterial ACC deaminase, European
Journal of Plant Pathology, 26, 227-242.
6. B., Glick, 2003 - Phytoremediation: synergistic use of
plants and bacteria to clean up the environment,
Biotechnology Advances, 21, 383–393.
7. Y-d., Jing, Z-I., He, and X-e., Yang, 2007 - Role of
rhizobacteria in phytoremediation of heavy metal
contaminated soils, Journal of Zhejiang University
SCIENCE B., 8, 192-207,.
128
BIOTA OF XEROPHYTE-FOREST CHERNOZEM

UNDER DIFFERENT LAND USES
Irina SENICOVSCAIA1
e-mail: irina_sen@mail.ru
Abstract
The influence of different land use management on the modification of biological properties of the xerophyte-forest
chernozem located in the southern zone of the Republic of Moldova has been investigated. The long-term arable
chernozem was compared to the virgin soil under forest. The xerophyte-forest chernozem in the natural ecosystem is
characterized by the favorable physical and chemical properties and is ideal standards in regard to the composition,
biomass and activity of the biota. A characteristic feature of the natural xerophyte-forest chernozem is the high
concentration of invertebrates and Lumbricidae family in the upper layers of soils and in the litter. Saprophages prevail
in the composition of the edaphic fauna in the virgin chernozem under forest, accounting for 90.8% of the total
abundence. Six families and seven species of invertebrates were found in the virgin chernozem. The concentration of
microorganisms in the top layer reaches 521.1 μ C g-1 soil. The abundance and reserves of biota and the humus content in
soil profiles decreased with its depth. The microbial biomass was connected with the humus content and amounts of
agronomic valuable aggregates. Prolonged use of the chernozem in the agricultural production led to the destruction of
soil structure, reduction of humus content and contributed to the degradation and decrease of soil biota stability. The
negative effects on soil biota were observed as a result of mineralization processes and long-term land management
practices without of organic fertilizers. A land management with the fallow areas is recommended for the regeneration of
the edaphic fauna and microorganisms and the natural restoration of the quality of xerophyte-forest chernozems.
Key words: soil biota, xerophyte-forest chernozem, land management, degradation
The degradation of soils in the Republic of fauna for nature reservations because of their great
Moldova is the most threatening problem for scientific importance (Krupenikov, I.A., 1967).
agriculture, for environment and people’s habitat. The purpose of the present research was
Dehymification of the arable soils is one of to determine the effect of the long-term
the main forms of soil degradation. The area of agricultural land utilization on biota’s state in the
arable soils reaches 854 900 hectares (Andries, S., xerophyte-forest chernozem in the connection of
et al., 2004). The decrease of productivity of arable the soil carbon sequestration problems,
soils as a result of mineralization processes development of the national soil biota quality
amounts to 10%, their compaction – to 10%. The standards and the protection of biodiversity.
main cause of the reduction of the organic matter
content is its mineralization as a result of intensive MATERIAL AND METHOD
soil tillage. A considerable deterioration of the
physical and chemical properties of arable soils has Experimental site is located in the southern
been observed. zone of the Republic of Moldova, on the Danubian
steppe province, in the district no. 12 of leached and
The habitat of soil biota has worsened
xerophyte-forest chernozems of the Tigechskaya
significantly. In these conditions, the role of Upland forest steppe, in the Baurchi-Moldoveni
natural soil-standards, which are located in the village, Cahul region (figure 1).
balanced undisturbed ecosystems during long The long-term arable chernozem was
periods of time, is increasing. A good example of compared to the virgin soil under forest. Sampling
the soil-standard for chernozems located in the was carried out in 2 profiles per soil horizons to a
south of the country can be the xerophyte-forest depth of 170 - 200 cm (figure 2).
Status of invertebrates. The state of
chernozem. Many years ago, the famous invertebrates was identified from test cuts by manual
Moldavian soil scientist Krupenikov I.A. proposed sampling of soil layers to the depth of soil fauna
to allocate forests with xerophyte-forest occurrence with application of Gilyarov and
chernozems and complexes of terrestrial and soil Striganova’s method (Gilyarov, M.S. and Striganova,
1
"N. Dimo" Institute of Pedology and Agrochemistry
129
B.R., 1987). The identification of invertebrate’s REZULTS AND DICUSSIONS

diversity at the rate of families and their classification
according to nutrition were carried out by Gilyarov
Invertebrates. Xerophyte-forest chernozems
and Striganova’s method (Gilyarov, M.S. and
Striganova, B.R., 1987). in conditions of the natural ecosystem have the
sharp differences from the arable soils according to
faunal indices. Invertebrate’s abundance in virgin
chernozems under natural vegetation was
significantly higher than in arable soils. The virgin
chernozem is characterized by a higher number
and biomass of soil invertebrates and Lumbricidae
family in comparison with arable chernozems
(table 1). The number of invertebrates reaches to
148 ex m-2, Lumbricidae family – to 76 ex m-2, and
their biomass – to 15.2 and 8.0 g m-2 accordingly.
The share of earthworms in the total abundance of
invertebrates constitutes of 51.4 % and their
biomass – 52.6 % in the virgin xerophyte-forest
chernozem.
Table 1
Figure 1 Fragments of natural landscapes - The number and biomass of invertebrates in the
primary forest with oaks (“Garnets”) located in virgin and arable xerophyte-forest chernozem
the southern zone of the Republic of Moldova Number of Biomass of
(Baurchi-Moldoven village, Cahul region) invertebrates, invertebrates,
-2 -2
Soil ex m gm
Lumbricide Lumbricidae
total total
family family
Virgin
xerophyte-
148.0 76.0 15.2 8.0
forest
chernozem
Arable
xerophyte-
56.0 40.0 8.0 6.2
forest
chernozem
The considerable share of invertebrates in

the virgin xerophyte-forest chernozem (56.8 %)
1 2 and Lumbricidae family (47.4 %) is concentrated
Figure 2 Soil profiles of virgin (1) in the 0-10 cm layer of soil and in the debris layer.
and arable (2) xerophyte-forest chernozem The virgin xerophyte-forest chernozem
Microbiological properties. The microbial contains 6 families and 7 species of invertebrates.
biomass C was measured by the rehydratation The families of Lumbricidae, Glomeridae,
method based on the difference between C extracted Cerambycidae, Formicidae, Pentatomidae and
with 0.5 M K2SO4 from dried soil at 65-700C within 24 Pieridae are usually presented in this soil. Species
h and fresh soil samples with Kc coefficient of 0.25 of Lumbricus terrestris, Glomeris marginata,
(Blagodatsky, S.A., et al., 1987). Reserves of Diplopoda De Blainville, Graphosoma lineatum,
microbial biomass have been calculated taking into
account the carbon content of the microbial cell and
Prionus coriarius, Pieris brassicae, Formica rufa
the bulk density of soils (Senicovscaia I., et. al., are dominated in the virgin xerophyte-forest
2012). Counts of microorganisms (bacteria, chernozem.
actinomycetes and fungi) were obtained on agar The main part in the total amount of
plates (Zvyagintsev, D.G., 1991). invertebrates is represented by saprophages. They
Soil chemical properties. Organic C was comprised 90.8% in the virgin xerophyte-forest
analyzed by the dichromate oxidation method
chernozem.
(Arinushkina E.V., 1970). The humus content was
calculated using the coefficient of 1.724. Indices of invertebrates’ number and
Soil physical properties. The structure- biomass decreased in arable chernozems by 2.6
aggregate composition of the soil was determined by and 1.9 times, earthworms – by 1.9 and 1.3 times
the method of Savinov, the bulk density was analyzed respectively. The diversity of invertebrates in the
by the cylinders’ method (Vadyunina, A.S. and arable chernozems decreases sharply. The arable
Korchagina, Z.A., 1973). soil contains 1-3 families of invertebrates.
Saprophages make up 71.4%.
130
Microorganisms. The abundance and microbes is concentrated in the 0-37 cm layer. This
reserves of biota and the humus content in soil soil is characterized by the gradual decrease in the
profiles decreased with their depth.The highest biomass with the depth as compared to virgin
level of the microbial biomass and organic carbon chernozem. Microorganisms in the arable soil have
content has been determined in the Ah1 horizon of been found up to 112 cm. Topsoil was exposed to
the virgin xerophyte-forest chernozems and the largest impact.
whereas the lowest – in the BC and C horizons of The reserves of the microbial biomass in 0-
both profiles. The organic carbon content 200 cm layer of the virgin chernozem constitute
constitutes 6.27%. The quantity of the microbial 6.6 t dry matter ha-1. The long-term use of plowing
biomass reaches to 521.1 μg C g-1 soil, the number leads to decrease of content and reserves of
of heterotrophic bacteria - 7.4*106 CFU g-1 soil, microbial biomass in arable chernozems in upper
fungi - 106.7*103 CFU g-1 soil (tab. 2). horizons and soil profile in whole. Profiles of the
Microorganisms in the virgin xerophyte-forest arable soil are covered by the degradation process
chernozem have been encountered in sufficiently in whole. The reserves of the microbial biomass in
high amounts to the depth of 138 cm, and some the 0-200 cm layer of the arable xerophyte-forest
species at the depth of 200 cm. chernozem are declined to the level of 5.2 t dry
In the arable chernozem the base mass of matter ha-1.
Table 2
Abundance of microorganisms and the humus content in the virgin and arable xerophyte-forest chernozem
Microbial Reserves Heterotrophic
Genetic Actinomycetes
Organic biomass (MB) C of MB bacteria Fungi,
horizon and Humus,
C, MB/Corg, (0-200 CFU
depth, % μgC -1 CFU -1 3
% -1 kg ha % cm), -1 6 g soil*10
cm g soil -1 g soil*10
kg ha
Virgin xerophyte-forest chernozem
Ah1 0-10 10.80 6.27 521.1 1042.2 0.83 7.4 6.2 106.7
Ah 10-61 4.45 2.59 341.9 4219.7 1.32 1.5 2.0 5.0
ABh 61-80 2.81 1.63 167.9 765.6 1.03 0.8 1.4 1.1
Bh1 80-112 1.80 1.04 49.0 423.4 0.47 6633.2 0.5 0.5 0
Bh2 112-138 1.09 0.63 25.4 182.3 0.40 0.7 0.4 0
BCk 138-165 0.71 0.41 0 0 0 0.7 0.3 0
DC 165-200 0.64 0.37 0 0 0 0.5 0.1 0
Arable xerophyte-forest chernozem
Ap1 0-16 3.00 1.74 215.4 792.7 1.24 4.8 8.7 45.7
Ap2 16-37 2.97 1.72 343.1 2089.5 2.00 4.1 13.4 35.9
B1 37-74 1.82 1.06 170.0 1736.0 1.60 1.9 4.8 3.6
B2 74-112 0.93 0.54 48.6 557.7 0.90 5175.9 2.0 1.8 0
BCk 112-140 0.50 0.29 0 0 0 0.3 1.0 0
BC 140-170 0.42 0.24 0 0 0 0.3 0.6 0
C >170 0.34 0.20 0 0 0 0.1 0.5 0
A similar trend in decrease has been noticed increased size of macrostructure, the content of
in the number of the heterotrophic bacteria and particles >10 mm reaches to 48.2%. It has the
fungi. But there was determined the increase in the increased share of agronomic valuable aggregates
number of actinomycetes, as it is known, (Σ 10-0.25 mm) constituting 76.0% in the upper
participating in the decomposition of difficult layer and the high structure coefficient (Ks) – 3.2.
degradable organic substances. This testifies about Structural aggregates show a high hydro-stability
the intensification of the humus mineralization in with the value more than 74% in horizons Ah1 and
the arable soil. Ah. In fact, the top layer of this soil-standard
The long-term use of the soil under arable consists of a layer of coprolites of earthworms; it
affected the structure of soil microbial has an excellent water-stable structure.
communities. More intensive land-use involving The long-term plowing leads to the
soil tillage stimulates the microbial decomposition destruction of water-stable soil structure. The bulk
of organic matter and tends to result in decrease in density values attest to 1.45 g cm-3. The hydro-
the microbial carbon pool and ultimately in stability of agronomic valuable aggregates
decrease in the humus content. decreases in the arable layer by 2 times on average.
Physical properties. The xerophyte-forest The content of the aggregates < 0.25 mm increases
chernozem has a granular structure with favorable in the dry sieving and as well as in the wet.
physical properties and the low bulk density –
1.00-1.20 g cm-3. This soil is characterized by the
131
Table 3 forest chernozem leads to decline of biota and

Physical properties of the xerophyte-forest humus content. A major reason of the biological
chernozem under different land management and physical degradation of chernozems under
Aggregates content (%) arable management is annual tillage, which aerates
Genetic the soil and breaks up aggregates where microbes
Bulk with the diameter (mm)
horizon
density, Ks are living. Furthermore, the soil doesn’t obtain the
and depth, -3 ∑
g cm >10 <0.25 plant residues sufficiently for the supply of edaphic
cm 10-0.25
fauna. Prolonged use of chernozem in the
Virgin xerophyte-forest chernozem
18.0 76.0 6.0 agricultural production led to the destruction of
Ah1 0 -10 1.00 3.2 soil structure, reduction of humus content and
9.8 76.0 14.2
Ah 10-61 1.21 48.2
48.2 3.6
0.9
contributed to degradation and decrease of soil
73.8 26.2 biota stability. The negative effects on soil biota
ABh 61-80 55.5 5.1 were observed as a result of mineralization
1.20 39.4 1.2
56.4 43.6
Arable xerophyte-forest chernozem processes and long-term land management
61.7 13.4 practices without organic fertilizers. A land
Ap1 0 -16 1.15 24.9 1.6
37.2 62.8 management with the fallow areas is recommended
65.4 8,2 for the regeneration of the edaphic fauna and
Ap2 16-37 1.45 26.4 1.9
39.6 60.4 microorganisms and the natural restoration of the
B1 37-74 65.6 7.0
1.38 27.4
52.6 47.4
1.9 quality of xerophyte-forest chernozems.
*numerator - dry sieving; denominator - wet sieving
ACKNOWLEGMENTS
Presented research work was carried out in the

CONCLUSIONS framework of the institutional project "Evaluation
of the state and resistance of soil invertebrates
The xerophyte-forest chernozem in the and microorganisms aiming to reduce the degree
of degradation and fertility conservation" (State
natural ecosystem possesses the favorable physical Registration No. 06-407- 035A) in 2006-2010.
and chemical properties and is the standard of the
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layer reaches 521.1 μ C g-1 soil. The soil biota’s Senicovscaia I., Marinescu C., et al, 2012 -
composition in natural ecosystems is complex and Methodological instructions on the assessment
diverse. Forests and field-protective belts are and increase of the soil biota stability in
medium for the conservation and restoration of the conditions of the degradation processes
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The long-term arable use of the xerophyte-
132
THE EVALUATION OF FACTORS AFFECTING SORPTION

OF PENTACHLOROPHENOL IN SOIL
Camelia SMARANDA1, Dumitru BULGARIU2, Teodor MĂLUŢAN3, Maria GAVRILESCU1
e-mail: betianuc@tuiasi.ro
Abstract
The release of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) derived from different industrial processes represents an important
source of environmental contamination. Pentachlorophenol (PCP) is a highly chlorinated organic compound that has
been extensively used as a broad spectrum biocide, particularly in the wood preservation industry. Due to its stable
aromatic ring structure and high chlorine content, PCP is persistent in the environment, and it has become one of the
most widespread contaminants in soil, sediments and water. In soil, the fate of POPs is governed by their interactions
with reactive soil colloids. The soil properties as well as the chemical properties of the pollutants, control its
bioavailability and transport, thus, affecting further remediation processes. The main objective of the present work was
to study the sorption of pentachlorophenol in soil, collected from Iasi area (Romania). The experiments were performed
in batch mode. Interest was directed towards the effects of contact time (0-72 h), initial pollutant concentration (5 - 20
mg L-1), pH and temperature (10 - 50oC). The sorbed amounts of PCP increased with increase in contact time and
initial concentration and reached the equilibrium after 24 h. Pentachlorophenol sorption increase with temperature in the
range of 10-25oC, suggesting an endothermic process, and decrease when the temperature increased from 25 to 50°C.
The results indicated that lower temperature (i.e. 10 to 25°C) was favorable for the sorption process. The high
temperature (50°C) might affect the physicochemical properties of soil therefore; the sorption PCP on soil was
significantly reduced.
Key words: soil, pentachlorophenol, sorption, pesticides
Soil contamination is a problem discussed as Several study regarding the sorption process
a degraded process which importance exceeds in of pentachlorophenol onto different type of soil
agricultural area. Soil systems play a key role in such as silt loam (DiVincenzo J.P., Sparks D.L.,
terrestrial ecosystem processes. It is a part of the 2001), allophanic soil (Cea M., et al., 2007; Cea
global disturbance in the ecosystem in transport of M., et al., 2010), soil and silty loam soil (Pu X.,
energy and substances, and is a main effect of the Cutright T.J., 2006), on sediments (Chen Y.X., et
soil degradation. al., 2004), on soil (regosol, fluvisol and
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) and its salt have chernozem) with organomineral complex (Dercova
been world-widely applied for more than 50 years K.,et al., 2006), on chernozem, protisoil and
as a biocide in industry, as wood preserving allophanic soil (Smaranda C., 2011).
reagent and also in agriculture, which led to The evaluation of the rate and extent of
serious soil contamination. Due to its stable sorption processes of persistent pollutants onto soil
structure, slow biodegradation, the PCP may represent a key factor for understanding their
present a toxicity risk in contaminated soils for behavior and fate in the soil matrix, and assessing
long periods of time, even if in low concentration their potential environmental impact. More studies
(He Y., et al., 2006; Cea M., et al., 2007). are still need to elucidate the sorption of PCP on
Elucidating the behavior of PCP requires an soil particles.
assessment of the processes influencing its fate, The objective of this research was to
transport, sorption, desorption, volatilization, evaluate the main parameters, that affect the
biodegradation, run-off and persistence in soils. sorption of PCP in surface horizons of natural soil
1
“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection,
Department of Environmental Engineering and Management Iasi
2
”Al.I.Cuza” University of Iaşi, Faculty of Geography and Geology, Department of Geology and Geochemistry, Iaşi,
Romania
3
Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection,
Department of Natural and Syntetic Polymers, Iaşi, Romania
133
samples, collected from Iasi area (Splai Bahlui – The experimental solutions with different
Tudor Vladimirescu), NE of Romania. concentration were obtained by diluting the stock
solution to a set concentration with an electrolyte of
0.01 M CaCl2. Solutes were added via methanol
MATERIAL AND METHOD carrier, keeping the methanol percentage in the range
of 0.5–1%, methanol in water solution has no
Soil significant effect on sorption.
The soil used in this study was sampled in the All the glass vials containing soil and PCP
surface layer (0-25 cm) from Splai Bahlui – Iasi solutions were shaken in darkness until the
county located in the North-Eastern of Romania. The measurement time was reached. For each batch
soil was classified by Romanian System of Soil experiment, blank samples were prepared and
Taxonomy (SRTS-2003), as protisoil with the subtype monitored (PCP solutions without soil). The blanks
entiantrosoil urbic associated with aluviosoil molic- did not indicate any significant PCP degradation or
gleic/pelic. The characteristics of soil samples are sorption losses during the course of the experiment.
shown in tab.1. Triplicate air-dried <0.02 mm particle Batch samples were equilibrated on a
size samples were analyzed according to standard temperature controlled rotating shaker at 10, 25 and
methods. The soil pH value was 5.88, determined by 50 °C. The pH of the solutions was adjusted with HCl
potentiometric method (soil:bidistilled water, 1/5 w/v; or NaOH (0.1 mol L−1).
size fraction < 0.01 mm; contact time – 30 minutes), An equilibration period of 72 hours was chosen
using a multimeter Cornning Pinnacle Model 555. The after preliminary experiments lasting up to 96 h
redox potential was determined through direct indicated that such duration was sufficient to achieve
method with a couple of platinum-calomel electrodes. equilibrium. At the end of the sorption period, the
The specific surface area of the soils was solution was separated from the adsorbent by
measured using the Brunauer–Emmet–Teller (BET) centrifugation at 6000 g for 20 minutes (Hettich EBA
method. Results were obtained by means of N2 20 Centrifuge, Germany). The supernatant was
adsorption at 77 K using Quantachrome Autosorb filtered through membrane filter 0.2 µm pore size
Automated Gas Sorption System analyser (OlimPeak) and the PCP concentration in the
(Quantachrome, USA). Prior to analysis, all soil supernatant was determined by HPLC (high pressure
samples were outgassed at 80°C for 6 h, under liquid chromatography). pH was measured using a pH
vacuum. meter (Hanna Instruments).
Soil morphological features of soil samples and The HPLC instrument equipped with a
quantification elemental analysis to identify the weight VARIANO 9010 pump, a Waters 717 Plus injector, a
percentage of major and minor elements present in Waters 486 (Tunable Absorbance Detector) detector
the samples were done using Scanning Electron operating at 220 nm, and a reversed-phase ZORBAX
Microscope (SEM) equipped with an Energy SB-C18 column made by Agilent (USA) was used.
Dispersive X-Ray system for qualitative and The mobile phase was made of methanol and 0.1 N
quantitative analysis and elemental mapping. The sulfuric acid solutions, the flow rate was 0.5 ml min-1.
analyses were performed by soil samples fixed on Instrument calibrations and quantifications were
copper supports. The microphotographs were performed against pure reference standards.
recorded using an Environmental Scanning Electron The amount of PCP sorbed onto soil particle at
Microscope (ESEM) type Quanta 200, at an time t, qt (mg g-1), were obtained by mass balance,
accelerating voltage of 15 kV with secondary according to equations (1):
electrons in low vacuum mode (LV). ( C  Ce )V
q i (1)
m
Chemicals
where, Ci and Ce are the initial and equilibrium liquid
Pentachlorophenol (PCP) was used as the phase concentrations of pesticide (mg L-1), V is the
model contaminant in this study. Pentachlorophenol
solution volume (L) and m is the mass of soil (g).
with the molecular formula C5Cl5OH and molecular
weight of 266.5 g mol−1, solubility of 3.0 μg ml−1 at
25°C, pKa of 4.75, and log Kow of 5.01, purchased RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
from Sigma Aldrich, was first purified with
dichloromethane though a silica gel column and than Characterization of soil samples
the solvent was removed on a rotary evaporator Chemical and mineralogical composition of
(Gmb H, Germany). A stock solution of PCP (1000 soil particles was analyzed and the results are
mg L−1) was prepared by dissolving 1 g of the depicted in the table 2. The mineralogical -
pesticide in methanol, the stock solution were kept at
40 C. Calcium chloride (CaCl2) was purchased from
chemical analysis relived that the main percent of
Fluka. Methanol, 99% purity was purchased from the investigated soil is represented by clay
Sigma Aldrich (Germany). minerals 47,62 %, silica 28.42 % and organic
mater 7.19 %, carbonated 4.86%, oxides and
Experimental procedure hydroxides of iron 3.54 %
The sorption experiments were carried out in The BET surface area, total pore volume and
batch mode. 20 mL of pesticide solution was added to
pore diameter, obtained by nitrogen adsorption
an accurately mass of soil and agitated in a
thermostatic shaker (IKA KS 4000 IC Control, isotherms were given in table 3. The surface area,
Germany) at 150 rpm, in the dark and 25oC. pore volume and mean pore diameter of the
134
protisoil were 26.26 m2g-1, 4.80 10-2 cm3g-1, and surface area (Smaranda C., 2011). The soil
73.17 Å, respectively. In accordance with the BET micropores have a special importance in chemical
analysis, the soil particles are covered by and physical sequestration of pollutants in the
micropores, which increase the surface by a factor environment, as well as in the selectivity of the
of 1.36 compared with macroscopically measured cation exchange.
Tabel 1
General characteristics of soil sample
Sample characteristics Soil
Area Splai Bahlui-Iaşi
Sampling deep (cm) 0 - 25
Soil type/subtype* Protisoil / Entiantrosoil urbic associated with aluviosol molic-gleic / pelic
Soil horizon* Apk / Bvk
Soil utilization Green area (ruderal plants - Gramineae)
Anthropic soil transformation Intense
Pollution degree** Weak to medium
pH 5.88
Eh 580.13
CTSC 10.61
Tabel 2
Chemical and mineralogical composition of soil sample (% w/w)*
Chemical-mineralogical composition IS-T
Clay minerals Smectite 15.29
(%. w /w) Illite 9.87
Kaolinite 19.20
Amorphous 3.24
Total 47.62
Carbonates Crystalline 3.17
Amorphous 1.73
Total (% w / w) 4.91
Iron oxides and oxihydroxides (%. w/w) Crystalline 1.50
Amorphous 2.04
Total 3.54
Silica (SiO 2) Crystalline 6.64
(%. w / w) Amorphous 4.42
Total 11.06
Others minerals** (%. w / w) 6.13
Organic matter Humic substances Huminic acids 3.19
(%. w / w) Fulvic acids 1.72
Humic 0.42
Total 5.33
Others non-humic organic compounds 1.86
Total 7.19
Undecomposed vegetal matter % (w / w) 0.73
Coarse fraction*** % (w / w) 1.51
*Reported at raw soil sample.
#
**Sulfates, phosphates, heavy minerals and relicts (from parent material). Organic compound unbound to hummus substances.
***Granulometric fraction Φ > 2,00 mm (raw fraction; includes fragments of unmodified minerals and rocks parentale).
Tabel 3 internal structure relatively dense, homogeneous,

Soil porosity characteristics formed by conglomerates of particles,
BET parameters Value
2
BET surface area (m /g) 26.26
characterized through crystal structure hexagonal
3 -2 and pseudo-hexagonal layered, this kind of texture
Total pore volume (cm /g) 4.805 * 10
Average pore diameter (Å) 73.17
is characteristic to mineral clays (Smaranda C.,
3
Micro-pore volume (cm /g) 3.087 * 10
-3 2011).
2
Micro-pore surface area (m /g) 7.015 The EDX elemental analysis shows the
2
External surface area (m /g) 19.25 presence of the usual components of
aluminosilicate minerals - Si, O, Al, K and Ca, as
The surface morphology of the soil can be seen in the EDX spectrum presented in
particles, analyzed by scanning electron figure 2. Silica, oxygen and aluminum are
microscopy (SEM) at 1000X is presented in figure elements present in high percent and are
1. The morphology of the soil samples show an distributed in bunch, mostly at the surface of soil
135
particles. Calcium, potassium and magnesium are initial concentration the rate of pesticide adsorbed
present in small quantity, and they are also, is faster; while for higher concentrations the
distributed in bunch. The heavy toxic elements Cd available sorption sites become fewer and the rate
and Cr are present in soil sample. of uptake onto soil matrix decrease (Dercova K.,
et al., 2006).
Effect of initial pesticide concentration
Four different concentrations 5, 10, 15 and Effect of contact time
20 mg L-1 were selected to investigate the effect The amount of sorbed pesticides per unit of
of initial concentration (C0) on the sorption of soil mass (mg g-1) enhances with contact time
PCP onto studied soil. The experiments were increasing and reached the apparent equilibrium
performed at 250C and natural pH of solution after 24 hours. A large quantity of pesticides has
(5.8). The results obtained are shown in fig. 3. The been sorbed onto soil after a relatively short
maximum sorption capacity increased from 0.09 contact time where the uptake more than 40% of
mg/g to 0.22 mg/g with the increase of pesticide the molecules was noticed within the first 2 hours
concentration from 5 to 20 mg L-1. For lower of the experiments (figure 3).
(a) (b)
Figure 1 Scanning electron micrograph of soil particles (a) before sorption process and (b) after PCP sorption
Figure 2 EDX spectrum of soil sample
136
Because the change of pH is the colligated

0,24
results of special soil properties, it may indicate
0,20
again the combined contributions of soil properties
on the sorption of PCP. Also, deprotonation of the
0,16 polar functional groups on the surface of soil
increases with pH, sorption of PCP is decreasing
qt (mg/g)
0,12
due to electrostatic repulsion and it favored
0,08 hydrophobic effect.
-1
20 mg L
-1
0,04 15 mg L
-1
10 mg L 0,25
-1
0,00 5 mg L
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0,20
t (h)
0,15
Figure 3 Effect of the initial concentration of PCP on
qt (mg/g)
-1
sorption onto soil (m soil = 1 g; CPCP = 5 - 20 mg L ;
o 0,10
T=25 C)
pH=4
Sorption continued slowly reaching an 0,05 pH=8
pH=6
apparent equilibrium after 24 h, reflecting 90-95%
of the sorption maximum, observed after 72 h. 0,00
These results are in accordance with the other

-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
sorption study (DiVincenzo J.P., Sparks D.L., t (h)
2001) where 78% of PCP was sorbed on soil, othet
study reported 60% of PCP uptake in the first 7 Figure 4 Effect of the pH on the sorption of PCP on
-1
hours (Cea M., et al., 2010). The difference of the soil (CPCP=10 mg L ; msoil = 1 g)
amount of PCP adsorbed can be attributed to the
differences in soil properties, the organic content Effect of temperature
of the Iasi soil is 5.33% (tab. 1) and 1.7% for first In order to determine the effect of
reported study and 7.9 % for the second. In fact, temperature on PCP sorption in soil, the
soil organic matter plays an important role in the experiments were carried out at three different
sorption of highly hydrophobic compounds such as values of temperature - 10, 25 and 500 C. The
PCP. The rapid sorption of the pollutant at the results are summarized in fig. 5. In general, the
beginning of the process indicates a surface increasing of temperature increases the rate of
phenomenon. diffusion of solute molecules from the solution to
the external or internal surface of the sorbent.
Effect of pH Over the studied temperature range, the
The effect of pH was studied carrying out at results indicated that temperature has important
both pH 4 and pH 8 to compare the protonated and influence on sorption processes; it was observed an
ionized forms of PCP, and also at pH 6 (soil increase of the sorption capacity with increasing
natural pH is 5.88). The experimental results are temperature in the range of 10 to 250 C. Over 250 C
depicted in fig. 4. The higher sorption capacity was the quantity sorbed decreased with increasing
obtained at pH 4, when qe value was 0,214 mg g-1, temperature.
and the lowest sorption capacity was obtained at These results indicate that the process is
pH 8. exothermic over 250C. Comparable results were
At pH 4, the PCP exists mainly (50%) in reported on PCP sorption on carbon nanotubes and
protonaded form and in ionized form at pH 8. With activated carbon (Salam M.A., Burk R.C., 2010).
the increase of pH, proportion of neutral PCP The result suggests that low temperature
decreases and proportion of ionized species regime is favorable for sorption of PCP in soils.
increases. This effect indicates that the mechanism of PCP
At low pH, PCP should be predominantly sorption on studied soil involves a physical
protonated and adsorb or partition more to soil process. It is possible that temperature to affect the
particles (He Y., et al., 2006). In general, as the pH bound linkage between soil and PCP if the sorption
comes closer to the pKa of the compounds, the process is attributed to interaction of functional
adsorption increases due to the hydrophobicity of groups.
their neutral form.
137
The uptake and mobility of PCP in protisoil

0,18 is highly influenced by soil pH. The PCP – soil
0,16 sorption system can be used as model in the design
0,14 of soil remediation systems and the methodology
0,12 developed for PCP may be considered to extend to
0,10 other POPs.
qt(mg/g)
0,08
0,06 ACKNOWLEGMENTS
0
10 C
0,04 0
25 C
0
This paper was elaborated with the support of a grant of
0,02 50 C
the Romanian National Authority for Scientific
0,00 Research, CNCS – UEFISCDI, project number
-0,02 PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0559, Contract 265/2011.
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
t (h) REFERENCES
Figure 5 Effect of the temperature on the sorption of Cea, M., Seaman, J.C., Jara, A., Fuentes, B., Mora,
-1
PCP on soil (C PCP=10 mg L ; msoil = 1 g; T - 10, 25, M.L., Diez, M.C., 2007 – Adsorption behavior of
500C) 2,4-dichlorophenol and pentachlorophenol in an
allophanic soil, Chemosph., vol. 67, p. 1354–
Also, high temperatures, such as 500C, may 1360.
modify physical-chemical properties of soil. Cea, M., Seaman, J.C., Jara, A., Mora, M.L., Diez,
M.C., 2010 - Kinetic and thermodynamic study of
Similar results were reported by Pang K.M., et al.,
chlorophenol sorption in an allophanic soil,
(2007) at sorption of PCP onto magnetite- Chemosphere, vol. 78, p. 86–91.
immobilized chitin, when the adsorption capacity Chen, Y.X., Chena, H.L., Xu, Y.T., Shen, M.W., 2004 –
decreased over 250C, the lowest values of qe were Irreversible sorption of pentachlorophenol to
obtained at 500C. Marouf R., et al., (2006) studied sediments: experimental observations, Environ.
Int., vol. 30, p. 31– 37.
the effect of temperature on the sorption of Dercova K., Sejakova Z., Skokanova M., Barancıkova
pentachlorophenol onto dolomite, and observed the G., Makovnıkova J., 2006 – Potential use of
same effect in decreasing of sorption capacity with organomineral complex (OMC) for bioremediation
temperature increasing, in the range 25-500C. of pentachlorophenol (PCP) in soil, Int. Biodet.&
Biodegrad., vol. 58, p. 248–253.
DiVincenzo, J., Sparks, D.L., 2001 – Sorption of the
CONCLUSIONS neutral and charged forms of pentachlorophenol
on soil: evidence for different mechanisms, Arch.
The sorption process of pentachlorophenol Environ. Contam. Toxicol., vol. 40, p. 445–450.
on protisoil was studied under different reaction He, Y., Xu, J., Wang, H., Ma, Z., Chen, J., 2006 –
Detailed sorption isotherms of pentachlorophenol
conditions, in batch equilibrium mode. The amount on soils and its correlation with soil properties,
of PCP sorbed increased with the contact time and Env. Research, vol. 101, 362–372.
with initial pesticide concentration. The sorption is Marouf, R., Khelifa, N., Marouf-Khelifa, K., Schott, J.,
rapid at the beginning of the process, indicates a Khelifa, A., 2006 - Removal of
pentachlorophenol from aqueous solutions by
surface phenomenon.
dolomitic sorbents, J. Colloid Interface Sci., vol.
The temperature is another important factor 297, p. 45–53.
that affects pesticide behavior in soil. The results Pang, K.M., Ng, S., Chung, K.W., Wong, P.K., 2007 -
show that low temperature regime is favorable for Removal of Pentachlorophenol by Adsorption on
sorption of PCP onto studied soil, while at high Magnetite-immobilized Chitin, Water, Air, & Soil
Poll., vol. 183, p. 1573-2932.
temperature the sorption process onto soil particle Pu, X., Cutright, T.J., 2006 – Sorption–desorption
is unfavorable; the temperature affect the mobility behavior of PCP on soil organic matter and clay
of PCP and leaching potential into groundwater. minerals, Chemosph., vol. 64, p. 972–983.
The acid–base behavior of PCP and the soil Salam, M.A., Burk, R.C., 2010 – Thermodynamics and
kinetics studies of pentachlorophenol adsorption
properties contribute to the complexity of PCP from aqueous solutions by multi-walled carbon
retention in the soil–water system. At low pH (4), nanotubes, Water Air Soil Pollut., vol. 210, p.
PCP is predominantly in protonated form and is 1573-2932.
sorbed or partitioned to soil. The increase of pH, Smaranda, C., 2011 – Studies concerning the behaviour
proportion of ionized species increases and of some persistent pollutants in environment,
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sorption of PCP molecules on soil particles is Iasi, Iasi, p. 281.
reduced.
138
ASSESSMENT OF PHASEOLUS VULGARIS L. BIOMASS

AS LOW-COST ADSORBENT FOR THE REMOVAL
OF CONGO RED DYE FROM AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS
Camelia SMARANDA1, Elena-Diana COMĂNIŢĂ1,

Laura Carmen APOSTOL1,2, Maria GAVRILESCU1
e-mail: betianuc@tuiasi.ro
Abstract
This research deals with the evaluation of available waste biomass of Phaseolus vulgaris L., as low cost adsorbents, in
the removal of organic azo dye Congo red (CR). The effects of operational parameters on the efficiency of dye removal,
including contact time, initial pollutant concentration and adsorbent dose have been investigated. The obtained results
show that the amount of dye uptake was found to increase with the increase of contact time and initial dye
concentration. The maximum sorption capacity was 1.291 mg g-1 for CR at 20°C. The removal efficiency of CR is
increasing with the increase on sorbent dose, in the range of studied concentration (10 - 30 mg L-1). For evaluating the
mechanism involved in the sorption process, the experimental results were analyzed using pseudo-I order kinetic model,
pseudo-II order kinetic model, the Ritchie second-order model and intraparticle diffusion model. The pseudo II-order
kinetic model agrees very well with the dynamic behavior of the sorption of CR dye onto Phaseolus vulgaris L. hull.
The experimental sorption results indicated that agricultural waste - bean hull could be applied as an low-cost sorbent
alternative used for azo dye removal from industrial effluents, taking into account that no pretreatment on the solid is
carried out.
Key words: low-cost adsorbent, Congo red, kinetic model, agricultural waste
In many industrial activities, such as an effective method for treat industrial dye
manufacturing of textile, leather, rubber, plastics, effluents, offering advantages over conventional
pharmaceutical, paper, photographic, cosmetic, techniques (Grassi, M., et al., 2012). The main
waxes, mineral oils, food stuffs etc. dyes are used attractions of biosorption are high selectivity, cost
for coloring. It is estimated that over 10,000 effectiveness, high efficiency and good removal
different dyes and pigments are used industrially performance (Kyzas G.Z., Kostoglou M., 2014). In
(Chiou M.S., et al., 2004; Jaikumar V. et al., 2009) the last decade, adsorption of the synthetic dyes
and over than 7 x 105 tons of synthetic dyes are from the aqueous solutions, has been studied onto
annually produced worldwide (Crini G., 2006; various agricultural biosorbent (McKay G., et al.,
Chequer F.M.D., et al., 2013). Azo colorants are 1999; Robinson T., et al., 2002; Crini G., 2006;
the most important class of synthetic dyes and Elizalde-Gonzalez M.P. et al., 2008; Hameed B.H.,
pigments, representing 60 - 80% of all organic El-Khaiary M.I., 2008; Hameed B.H., Ahmad
colorants (Püntener A., Page C., 2004). Industrial A.A., 2009; Sonawane G.H., Shrivastava V.S.,
effluents containing dyes are difficult to be treat, 2009; Apostol L.C., Gavrilescu M., 2010;
because the dyes organic molecules are stable to Bhatnagar A, Sillanpää M., 2010; Moussavi G.,
light, heat and oxidizing agents and are resistant to Khosravi R., 2011; Olivella M. et al., 2012).
microorganism actions. Adsorption has become the The present paper is focused to asses the
most effective method for the decolorization of adsorption potential of waste biomass Phaseolus
textile wastewater. Traditionally, activated carbon vulgaris L. for anionic dye Congo red in aqueous
was the most commonly used adsorbent (Kyzas solution.
G.Z., Kostoglou M., 2014). Congo red is an example of anionic diazo
The biosorption technique has become more dyes discharged in wastewater from textiles,
popular in recent years and has been proved to be printing and dying, paper and plastic industries
1
“Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection,
Department of Environmental Engineering and Management Iasi
2
”Stefan cel Mare” University of Suceava, Faculty of Food Engineering, Suceava
139
(Purkait M.K., et al., 2007). Also, Congo red is solution of 1000 mg L-1. The experimental dye
used for microscopic preparations, in biochemistry solutions with different concentration were obtained
by diluting the stock solution.
and histology (Vijayakumar G., et al., 2009).
MATERIAL AND METHOD
Biosorbent
The Phaseolus vulgaris L. waste used in this
study was obtained from a local farm. Before using as
sorbent, the waste was washed several times with
distilled water to remove dust particles and other
Figure 1 Molecular structure of Congo red
water-soluble impurities. After that, the material was
dried at 40ºC for 24h. The dried sample was crushed
Adsorption procedure
using a laboratory mill (Retsch GM 200, Germany).
The sorption experiments were carried out in
Finally, the bean hull were sieved and classified. No
batch mode. The effect of contact time and initial dye
other chemical or physical treatments were performed
concentration were studied by shaking the series of
prior to adsorption experiments. The sorbent was
flasks containing ten milliliters of CR solution with
stored in plastic boxes for further use. For the
known initial concentration, in the range of 10 to 30
experimental study bean hull (BH) fractions with size
mg L−1 were added to an accurately weighted mass of
less than 3 mm were used.
biosorbent. The samples were agitated in a
The chemical composition of carbohydrate of
thermostatic shaker (IKA KS 4000 IC Control,
bean hull, reported in literature (Kay D.E., 1979;
Germany) at 150 rpm and 200C, at natural pH of
Aremu M.O. et al., 2006; McGoodwin M., 2008;
solution.
Câmara C.R.S. et al., 2013), contains aminoacids
The samples were withdrawn at predetermined
(arginine, asparagines, tryptophan, tyrosine, lysine,
intervals of time (10, 20, 30, 60, 120, 180 and 240
betaine, etc.), vitamin C, salicylic acid, phosphoric
min) in order to determine the residual concentration
acid, minerals and is presented in table 1.
and the equilibrium point. Blank samples, with only
the biosorbent and identical volume of distilled water,
Table 1
were conducted simultaneously at similar conditions.
Chemical composition
of carbohydrate of bean hull After the experiments, the dye solution was
Compound Amount of compound
separated from the biosorbent by centrifugation at
Water 58.30
6000 rpm for 20 minutes (Hettich EBA 20 Centrifuge,
Proteine (%) 7.40 Germany). The supernatant was filtered through
Carbohydrates (%) 29.80 quantitative filter papers (0.45 µm - OlimPeak) and
Fates (%) 1.00 the dye concentration in the residual solution was
Fibers (%) 1.91 analyzed spectrophotometrically at λmax 497.5 nm
Ash (%) 1.63 (UV-VIS PG Instruments).
Calcium (mg/100g) 50 The effect of adsorbent dose on the equilibrium
Phosphorus (mg/100g) 160 uptake of AO7 was investigated with different BH
Iron (mg/100g) 2.60 concentrations (5 to 50 g L-1), at fixed initial
Thiamine (mg/100g) 0.34 concentrations of dye. The experiments were carried
Riboflavin (mg/100g) 0.19 out for 24 hours to ensure that equilibrium was
Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) 27 obtained.
Carotene (mg/100g) 0.057 The amount of dye adsorbed onto BH
adsorbent at time t, qt (mg g-1) and at equilibrium, qe
The surface morphology and fundamental (mg g-1), were obtained by mass balance, according
physical properties of biosorbent were determined by to equations (1) and efficiency of dye removed (R)
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) which is were calculated using the relationships (2):
equipped with energy dispersive X-ray Spectrometer ( C  Ce )V (1)
q i
(SEM-EDX) (Leica Cambridge S360). m
(C  C e ) (2)
Adsorbate
R%  i x100
Ci
Congo red (CR) is an anionic sulfonate diazo
where, Ci and Ce are the initial and equilibrium liquid
dye, water soluble; yielding a red colloidal solution,
phase concentrations of dye (mg L-1), V is the solution
with high solubility in organic solvents, chemical
volume (L) and m is the mass of biosorbent (g).
name according to EU inventory is benzidinediazo-
bis-1-naphthylamine-4-sulfonic acid. The molecular
Kinetic modeling
formula of CR (C.I. 22120) is C32H22N6Na2O6S2 and
The dynamics of sorption describes the rate of
molecular weight 696.66 g mol-1. The dye was
CR uptake on bean hull and this rate controls the
purchased from Sigma Aldrich and used as received. equilibrium time. In order to study the mechanism of
The molecular structure of the dye molecule is shown
sorption and potential rate determining steps,
in figure 1.
different kinetic models have been used to test
Dye was weighed and than dissolved in a
experimental data. The sorption dynamics of Congo
proper deionized water volume to prepare the stock red in BH were tested with the Lagergren pseudo-
140
first-order, the Ho pseudo-second-order, the Ritchie 0.45 mg g-1 to 1.29 mg g-1 with the increase of CR
second order kinetic model and the intraparticle dye concentration from 10 to 30 mg L-1.
diffusion model.
The increase in the concentration of
pollutant led to an increase in collision between the
molecules and biosorbent particles hence increased
the driving force to overcome resistance to mass
Morphologic characterization of biosorbent
transfer and thus an increase in uptake capacity
The surface morphology of the wastes
(Smaranda C., 2011). This effect may be as a result
particle was analyzed by scanning electron
of a decrease in the total adsorption surface area
microscopy (SEM). Figure 2 and figure 3 show the
available for dye molecules to bind due to
SEM micrographs and EDX analysis of BH
aggregation or overlapping of active sites.
samples. The micrographs showed a heterogeneous
Also, was observed (see figure 4) that rapid
porous structure with pores of large size.
adsorption of CR dyes took place within the first
minutes, after this initial step of high dye
adsorption rate, the adsorption rate became slower
and the equilibrium state was reached.
1,6
1,4
1,2 -1
10 mg L
-1
1,0 20 mg L
-1
30 mg L
q (mg g )
-1
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
0 50 100 150 200 250
t (min)
Figure 2 Scanning electron micrograph of BH before
adsorption process
Figure 4 Effect of initial CR concentration and
contact time on sorption onto bean hull (sorbent
-1
dose 5 g L ; initial dye concentration in solution: 10
-1 0
- 30 mg L ; temperature 20 C)
Effect of contact time

The amount of CR uptake per unit of
vegetable biomass (mg g-1) improves with contact
time increasing and reached the equilibrium after
20 minutes. As can be seen in the figure 5 the
initial dye concentration did not affect significant
the process time to reach its equilibrium state.
The experiments relives that biosorption
capacity of bean hull is higher at the beginning of
the process, due to a larger number of vacant
Figure 3 EDX spectrum of BH before adsorption
surface sites are available for the adsorption of the
process CR during the initial stage (0 to 20 minutes). After
these sites are progressively occupied by the dye
Effect of initial dye concentration on biosorption molecules the more difficult the adsorption
Three different concentrations, respectively becomes and the process tends to become
10, 20 and 30 mg L-1 were selected to investigate unfavorable. Comparable results were obtained for
the effect of initial dye concentration (C0) on the sorption of Congo red on soil (Smaranda C. et al.,
sorption of CR onto bean hull. The experiments 2011) and sorption of Erythrosine B onto bean hull
were performed at 200 C and natural pH of (Apostol L.C., Gvrilescu M., 2010).
solution. The results show that the time profiles of
The results obtained are shown in figure 4. dye uptake were single, smooth and continuous
The maximum sorption capacity increased from curves leading to saturation, which may suggesting
141
the possible monolayer coverage of CR molecules increase of surface area and the availability of
on the surface of BH particles (Mafra M.R., et al., more adsorption sites, but the percent of dyes
2013; Yakout S.M., Hassan S.H., 2014). removed from the aqueous solution is maintained
100 high, over 83%.
90 CR
4,0 90
80
70 3,5 80
60 3,0
70
R(% )
50 60
2,5
40
qe (mg g )
-1
50
R (%)
30 2,0
10 mg/L 40
20 20 mg/L 1,5
30
10 30 mg/L
1,0
0 20
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0,5 10
t (min)
0,0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Figure 5 Effect of the initial concentration on the BH mass (g)
removal efficiency of Congo red by BH (biosorbent
dose 5 g/L, pH 7-7.5)
Figure 6 Effect of BH mass on the CR adsorption
-1
efficiency (initial dye concentration 20 mg L ; bean
-1
Effect of biosorbent mass hull dose 5 - 50 g L ; contact time 24 hours)
The effect of biosorbent mass is an
important parameter that may affects the sorption Kinetic modeling
capacity. The study investigate the effect of Mathematical models that can describe the
biosorbent dose by varying the amount of bean hull behavior of a batch biosorption process operated
in the range of 5 to 50 g L-1which was contacted under different experimental conditions are very
with a fixed concentration of CR. The sorbent dose useful for scale up studies or process optimization.
influence was studied at 20o C for 20 mg L-1 CR A number of models with varying degrees of
concentration and natural pH of solution. complexity have been developed to describe the
Figure 6 shows that the removal efficiency kinetics of pollutants adsorption in batch systems.
of the CR, decrease very slowly with increase in The relatively short contact time, necessary
the biosorbent dose. The increasing the biosorbent for achieving equilibrium conditions, apart from
dose from 5 to 50 g L-1 led to a decrease in the the evident processing advantages, is considered as
amount of CR molecules adsorbed per unit mass of an initial indication that adsorption of on P.
the adsorbent leading to the decreases in qe values vulgaris hull is a chemical-reaction controlled,
from 3.29 mg g-1 to 0.31 mg g-1. rather than a diffusion controlled process.
The maximum of dyes uptake has The adsorption dynamics of CR onto BH
maximum values when adsorbent dose of 5.0 g L-1 were tested with the Lagergren pseudo-first-order,
was used, for this reason for further experiments the Ho pseudo-second-order, the Ritchie second-
this concentration was used. order model and the intraparticle diffusion model.
The increase of BH dose cause a decrease of The models equation and obtained results are
the amount of Congo red adsorbed per mass unit at presented in table 2.
the equilibrium. This effect could be attributed to
Table 2.
Sorption kinetic parameters for adsorption of Congo red onto BH
Kinetic model Equation Parameters 10 mg/L 20 mg/L 30 mg/L
Experimental qe (mg/g) 0.488 0.772 1.291
-1
Pseudo first k 1 k1 (min ) 0.089 0.011 0.077
order kinetic log q e  q t   log q e  qe (mg/g) 0.853 0.055 3.318
2.303 2
model R 0.927 0.851 0.942
Pseudo second t 1 t k2 (g/mg min) 0.543 2.041 1.900
order kinetic  2
 qe (mg/g) 0.486 0.765 1.303
q k 2q e q e
model h (mg/g min) 0.443 0.009 0.049
2
R 0.998 0.998 0.999
The Ritchie q qe (mg/g) 0.236 0.430 0.518
second order  t  1 α 0.107 0.282 0.243
q  q 2
kinetic model R 0.974 0.952 0.938
-1 0.5
Intra-particle qt  k id t 1/ 2  C kid1 (mg g min- ) 0.443 0.009 0.049
diffusion model C 0.238 0.685 0.995
2
R 0.917 0.886 0.823
142
The best fit for the experimental series of advantages, considered as an initial indication, that
this study was achieved by the application of adsorption of CR on BH is probably chemical
pseudo-second order kinetic equation. The values controlled, rather than a diffusion controlled
of qe predicted by the pseudo-second equation are process.
also in very good agreement with the experimental A detailed analysis using four kinetic
data for all studied concentrations and the initial models was carried out to investigate the
sorption rate is increasing with the increase of the biosorption of CR onto BH. Based on the
initial dye concentration from 10 to 30 mg L-1 (tab regression coefficient values, the sorption dynamic
2). of CR onto bean hull agreed very well with the
Comparing the values of regression pseudo second-order kinetic model. The results of
coefficients R2 of the applied kinetic models, the the intraparticle diffusion model suggested that
pseudo-second-order model can be used to predict intraparticle diffusion was not the only rate-
the adsorption kinetic of Congo red onto BH. controlling step of the process.
The plots of the linearized form of the The obtained results revealed that bean hull
pseudo-second order kinetic model for the could be employed as an effective low-cost and
adsorption of Congo red on bean hull are shown in easily available biosorbent for the removal of
figure 7. Similar results were reported by Purkait anionic dye - Congo red. This work represents a
M.K., et al., (2007). part of a large experimental program elaborated
Also, the intraparticle diffusion model within National Research Grant BIOSACC - IDEI
describe well the kinetics of Congo red on BH, PROGRAMME.
especial for concentration 10 mg L-1, when the
regression coefficients for the first line is R2= ACKNOWLEGMENTS
0.917.
The linearity of the plots indicates that This paper was elaborated with the support of a grant of
the Romanian National Authority for Scientific
intraparticle diffusion might play a significant role Research, CNCS – UEFISCDI, project number
in the initial stage of adsorption of CR onto BH, PN-II-ID-PCE-2011-3-0559, Contract 265/2011.
because the intra-particle diffusion equation is
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144
ACCELERATED ELECTROCHEMICAL METHOD FOR STUDYING

THE CORROSION BEHAVIOR OF AISI321 STAINLESS STEEL
FOOD GRADE IN ACIDIC FOOD ENVIRONMENTS
Silviu-Gabriel STROE1
e-mail: silvius@fia.usv.ro
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to study by electrochemical methods the behavior of AISI321 stainless steel food
grade samples in acidic corrosive environments. 3%, 6% and 9% CH3COOH solutions in bidistilled water were used.
The volume of solution studied was 300 ml. The exposure time of the stainless steel samples was 90 min. and the
exposure temperature was 22±1ºC. In order to achieve the proposed objective was been used a complex system
consisting of a potentiostat-galvanostat Wenking (HP 96-20), two multimeters Hameg (HM 8112-3) for voltage
monitoring, an original electrochemical cell and a computer for programming, acquisition and interpretation of
experimental data. In order to develop the mass balance the theoretical masses of 56Fe, Mn, Cr, Ni and Ti metal ions
which migrated in corrosive solutions were calculated. The chemical analysis of corrosive solutions after migration tests
was performed by ICP-MS method. The dissolution rates of metal ions studied were calculated. The results obtained
demonstrate the validity of the accelerated electrochemical method in laboratory tests for the study of the migration
phenomena of metal ions in acidic food environments.
Key words: stainless steel, electrochemical cell, migration, mass balance, disolution rate
Austenitic stainless steels are widely used in very useful tools to study the phenomena of
food raw material processing industry because adsorption to the electrode surface (Bagotsky V.S.,
have a good corrosion resistance in a very wide 2005). Among the electrochemical techniques used
range of food environments (Ait Albrimi Y., 2011) in this field are voltammetry and potentiometry.
(Alves H., Agarwal D. C., 2006). One of the most Their widespread application is due to very good
popular austenitic stainless alloys are chromium- sensitivity for a very wide range of concentrations
nickel-iron alloys alco known as the 300 series. of organic and inorganic compounds, short time
The AISI321 stainless steel grade has a very good analysis, providing a precise relationship between
corrosion behavior in a wide variety of corrosive the measured signal (current intensity) and
environments, including food products, the concentration, all at an average cost of processing
sterilizing solutions and organic and inorganic equipment.
chemicals (Page G. G., 1987). In literature there A large number of researches are shown in
are indications of corrosion behavior of the steel the scientific literature that various methods have
grades, but most often in pure acid solutions, the been applied to the study of electrochemical
results being taken only as a guide for behavior in phenomena in food systems interface (Wever D.J.,
these environments. Veldhuizen A.G., 1998), (Jafarian M., Gobalb F.,
Electrochemical techniques are very 2008), (Pardo A., Merino M.C., 2008), (Ningshen
efficient and inexpensive tool for all investigations S., Mudali U.K., 2009), (Stoica M., Bahrim G.,
laboratory for studying the corrosion mechanisms. 2012).
In addition to their application in basic research, In addition, a large number of analyzes
electrochemical techniques are of great application performed to determine the electrochemical
in the monitoring of any change in ionic balance or behavior of metal alloys in contact with the food
migration of electrons occurring on the surface of used in parallel some spectrometric techniques.
the electrode or at the interface between the metal Thus, lately have been developed and implemented
and the environment (Bard A., Faulkner L., 2001), many electrochemical techniques for studying
(Gulaboski R., Pereira C.M., 2008). More than behavior under specific metals and alloys in the
that, electrochemical techniques have proven also food industry (Zou Y., Wanga J., 2011).
1
Faculty of Food Engineering, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, Suceava, Romania
145
MATERIAL AND METHOD system was used - model UP213 (New Wave
Research), coupled with mass spectrometer with
The aim of this research was to study by inductively coupled plasma, ICP-MS - model 7500
electrochemical methods the behavior of AISI321 (Agilent Technologies). The concentrations of the
stainless steel food grade samples in acidic alloying and micro-alloyed elements of the stainless
corrosive environments. This paper is a continuation steel samples are consistent with the concentrations
of the researches carried out on samples from 300 provided by SR EN 10088-2:2005.
stainless steel series (Stroe S. G., 2013). The aim The chemical compositon of the stainless
was to increase the dissolution rate with direct effect steel is shown in table 1.
on the limit of detection of heavy metal ions from Table 1
Chemical composition of the AISI321 stainless steel
solutions, the accuracy of measurement of the
samples [wt %]
concentration of metal ions as well as productivity
Fe C Mn P S Si Cr Ni Ti
growth of the analytical research by reducing the
68 0.08 2.0 0.045 0.03 0.75 18 11 0.4
time required for corrosion and diffusion.
For studying the corrosion behavior of metal
discs samples were used with a diameter of 40 mm Acetic acid solutions of 3%, 6% and 9%
and a thickness of 2.5 mm. The sampling and CH3COOH in bidistilled water were used in the
sample preparation used in the experiment was experimental research. The solution temperature
made as described in the EFSA guidance note was maintained at 22±1ºC using a thermostatic bath
(EFSA, 2008). In order to avoid the contamination of Therm Phoenix II. The exposure time of samples for
the corrosive environment with foreign compounds carrying out the electrochemical accelerated test
from the surfaces of the samples materials (for was 90 min.
removal of oil), which had been washed with a In order to conduct the accelerated
detergent solution at 40±1°C, rinsed with double electrochemical tests a conventional system was
distilled water at 40±1°C and then placed in the used; the system consisted in a potentiostat-
ultrasonic bath Elma H-78224 for 15 minutes. The galvanostat Wenking HP 96-20 (Bank Elektronik,
samples were then dried in the oven at a Germany), two multimeters Hameg HM8112-3
temperature of 40±2°C. In order to determine the (Hameg, Germany) to monitor the voltage values, an
surface roughness a μScan system, manufactured original electrochemical cell and a PC system for
by NanoFocus, was used. The measurement and programming, acquisition and interpretation of
the calculation of the commonly parameters of experimental data obtained. AISI321 stainless steel
surfaces was carried out according to DIN EN ISO discs were used as a both working and counter
4287 and DIN EN ISO 4288. The average value of electrode. The stainless steel discs were used as
the surfaces roughness has been Ra=0.783125 µm. working and counter electrode by mounting them in
To determine the chemical composition of the supports made of polytetrafluoroethylene (teflon)
AISI321stainless steel samples the LA-ICP-MS (figure 1 a,b).
method was used. For this purpose a laser ablation
3
5 4 Hameg HM8112-3
+
6 -
Hameg HM8112-3
+ 2a 2b
-
Wenking HP 96-20
+ +
- -
2 1
a b
Figure 1 a The principle scheme of potentiostat-galvanostat system for studying the corrosion behavior of
AISI321 stainless steel: 1 - potenţiostat-galvanostat Wenking HP 96-20; 2 - electrochemical cell; 3 - Hameg
HM8112-3 multimeter for working voltage monitoring; 4 - Hameg HM8112-3 multimeter for recording the current
intensity values in the electrochemical cell; 5 - PC system; 6 - thermostatic bath
Figure 1 b Spatial view of the electrochemical cell: 2a - working electrode; 2b - counter electrode
The electrochemical cell voltages measured In order to develop the mass balance of the
by the HM 8112-3 Hameg multimeter are shown in metal species migrated from AISI321 stainless steel
table 2. samples in corrosive solutions the theoretically and
The metal species studied were 56Fe, Mn, Cr, the real balance were calculated.
Ni and Ti.
146
Table 2 The values of m calculated using the Relation

Voltage in electrochemical cells 1 were used to develop the theoretical mass
Concentration balance. For developing of the real mass balances
3 6 9
solution, [%] the acid solutions were analyzed by ICP-MS method.
Voltage, [V] 6.5 6.5 7.0 In order to study the corrosion phenomenon
To determine the theoretical masses of the that occurs in the electrochemical cell the dissolution
metal species dissolved in acetic acid solutions the rate, η, was calculated (relation 3):
Faraday's law was applied (law of electrolysis),
which stipulates that the mass dissolved is
proportional to the amount of electricity that runs (3)
through the system. Therefore, the amount of metal
dissolved from the anode is equal to the product of where,
the gram equivalent of the metal species studied, the mp - practical masses calculated from the
electric current intensity and the electrolysis time concentration of metal species obtained by the
(relation 1): ICP-MS analysis, [g];
mt - theoretical masses obtained used the Relation
(1)
1, [g];
The concentrations of electrolysis baths after
where,
90 min. were calculated using the relation 4:
m - amount of metal dissolved from the anode, [g];
k - gram equivalent of the species;
I - the current intensity in the electrochemical cell, (4)
[A]; where,
t - time of electrolysis, [min.]. C - concentration of the species analyzed by ICP-MS
The value of k was calculated using the method, [ppb];
equation: mp - practical mass, [g];
V - solution volume - 300, [ml].
Relation 1 was used to calculate the
theoretical mass of dissolved metal ions, using the
(2) weighted atomic mass (Ap), based on the ion
where, concentration in the stainless steel samples (relation
A - atomic mass of species, [g]; 5):
z - valence of the species (Fe, Mn, Cr, Ni, Ti);
F - Faraday’s constant (F=9.648533x104 C·mol-1)
(5)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The values reflect the kinetics of anodic

dissolution of metal ions from the AISI321
In table 3 presents the values of the stainless steel samples.
electrolysis current in potentiostatic regime, Table 4 presents the theoretically weight
according to the time, at various concentrations of values to be dissolved [g] for metal ions from the
acid food simulant environment, based on the samples of AISI321stainless steel grade after 90
relationship between electrolytic current and the min.
mass of the anode metal dissolved in the The values of dissolved real masses [g] of
electrochemical cell. the metal ions studied and found in the simulant
acid solutions (CH3COOH), obtained with the
Table 3 ICP-MS spectrometer, are shown in table 5. Thus,
The electric current values for the AISI321 stainless the dissolution rates η were calculated, using the
steel samples in 3%, 6% and 9% CH3COOH
solutions relation 3.
Current value, [A] The values of the dissolution rates η [%] of
Exposure time, [min.] 3% 6% 9% the dissolved metal ions from AISI321 stainless
90 0.1290 0.1710 0.1972 steel samples in acid simulant solutions are shown
in table 6.
Table 4
The theoretical masses as possible to be dissolved (if the dissolution rate should be 100%) for the metal ions
from AISI321 stainless steel samples after 90 min., [g]
Chem elem. 56
Ni Cr Fe Mn Ti
Conc. [wt%]
3 0.03900 0.02600 0.03900 0.03900 0.01900
6 0.05200 0.03500 0.05200 0.05200 0.02600
9 0.06000 0.04000 0.06000 0.06000 0.03000
147
Table 5
The real masses dissolved in acid simulant solutions from AISI321 stainless steel samples after 90 min., [g]
Chem elem. 56
Ni Cr Fe Mn Ti
Conc. [wt%]
3 0.00016 0.01414 0.00011 0.00106 0.00019
6 0.00017 0.01579 0.00014 0.00136 0.00023
9 0.00056 0.01691 0.00015 0.00159 0.00026
Table 6
The dissolution rates η of the metal ions in the 3%, 6% and 9% CH3COOH simulant solutions, [%]
Chem elem. 56
Ni Cr Fe Mn Ti
Conc. [wt%]
3 0.00424 0.53430 0.00292 0.02687 0.01002
6 0.00323 0.45011 0.00264 0.02590 0.00866
9 0.00938 0.41787 0.00263 0.02623 0.00847
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current gradient substantially increases Matykina E., 2008 - Corrosion behaviour of
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Stroe S.G., 2013 - Study of corrosion behavior of
I would like to thank Prof. G. Gutt from the Faculty of AISI304 stainless steel samples using
Food Engineering Suceava, for the permanent accelerated electrochemical methods, Journal of
scientific guidance and logistical support for this Faculty of Food Engineering, Stefan cel Mare
research. Without his constant guidance and University of Suceava, Romania, Volume XII,
help this paper would not have been possible. Issue 4 – 2013, p. 354 - 358.
Wever D.J., Veldhuizen A.G., de Vries J., Busscher
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Alves H., Agarwal D.C., Werner H., 2006 - NACE - *** - EFSA 2008 - EFSA. Food Contact Materials, Note
International Corrosion Conference Series, for Guidance, Updated on 30/07/2008.
Houston, USA.
148
VARIABILITY OF SOME ECOPHYSIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS IN THE MAIN

CROP PLANTS OF CENTRAL MOLDAVIAN PLATEAU AGROECOSYSTEMS
Ligia ACATRINEI1,
e-mail: ligia.acatrinei@icbiasi.ro
Abstract
Ecophysiological studies of species grown in agroecosystems of Central Moldavian Plateau were assessed by analysis
of metabolic parameters specific to highlight potential resource recovery biotope on which these plants are grown.
Parameters were analyzed at foliar gas exchange: intensity of photosynthesis-A, intensity of transpiration -E and water
use efficiency in photosynthetic assimilation, WUE (ratio A/E, indicators of hydric metabolism (relative water content)
and of carbohydrate metabolism (mono- , di -and polysaccharides) in the leaves of the studied species. Analyzed species
were winter wheat (cult. Triticum aestivum), sunflower (Helianthus annuus), maize (Zea mays) and alfalfa (Medicago
sativa), investigating the annual and perennial crops in four stations: Şerbesti (Iasi County), and respectively,
Cănţălăreşti, Buhăieşti and Rebricea (Vaslui County) from the Northeastern Romania. Such studies are continuing those
carried in other natural and anthropic ecosystems of Central Moldavian Plateau (forests, plantations, meadows and
pastures). This work approached also, the analyzing the coefficient of variation of gas-exchange parameters in crop
plants of different biotope conditions from NE Romania. The results were found that analyzed maize hybrids and
cultivars of winter wheat, improve in optimal terms of ecophysiological, resources the stations biotope at Central
Moldavian Plateau (mainly cambic chernozem and vertic subtype soils on slopes) in the climatic conditions of the year
2013 (with more precipitation in May-June). Water use efficiency showed an increased values during growth stage in
Zea mays on the haplic chernozem; meanwhile when character vertic showed in soil type as well as haplic vertic
chernozem, water use efficiency registered fluctuations.
Key words: agroecosystems, coefficient of variation, gas-exchange parameters
A large part of the territory of the Central This ecophysiological study is the
Moldavian Plateau is comprised of slopes less continuation of previous were carried out to the
favorable to crop conditions; many fields have natural forests (Antohe A. et al, 1995), forest
been misused for grazing. The increasing of plantations (AcatrineiL., 2013), grasslands
degraded lands has contributed much the old (Acatrinei L., 2010) from certain type of
system of tillage, transversal from hill to valley. ecosystems of Moldavian Central Plateau. In these
Arable hold over 50% of the total land of Central studies were also approached the coefficient of
Moldavian Plateau, but soil quality is partly variation of gas-exchange parameters in different
mediocre, especially on slopes. Soils is represented crops in relation with biotope conditions as an
by chernozem (moderate slopes) and regosols instrument of indirect analysis of water availability
(steep slopes), humic gleysol (moist plains). from soil.
Analyzed soils are considered typical for steppe
zone in Central Moldavian Plateau, NE Romania. MATERIAL AND METHOD
In rainy springs stagnation can occur at surface and
anaerobic processes with negative influences on It were analyzed sugars indicators content
young plants root system. In the summer season from leaves (mono-, di- and polysaccharides) by
due to its high clay content, pedological drought using Bertrand method combined with method
manifested by the appearance of cracks intensified Borel, 1953, in dried plant material. Results were
expressed as g% of dry matter. Photosynthesis,
the evapotranspiration. These soils require
transpiration and stomatal conductance were
technological works to 40 cm deepth for raising, determined with LCi analyzing portable system
air and water circulation and also, for the (ADC Bioscientific, U.K). The indicator WUE (water
adjustment of biological activity of aerobic use efficiency) was calculated by the ratio of A
microorganisms (Bireescu L. et al, 2010). (rate of photosynthesis)/E (rate of transpiration).
1
Institute of Biological Research, Iaşi
149
Relative water content was calculated after relative on the field in each of agroecosystem type.
turgidity method. Photosynthetic active radiation intensity, Q leaf
Characterization of stations: it were including four (PAR) is fluctuating, as recorded for each crop
observations point in the Moldavian Central plant separately. Average parameters at leaf gas
Plateau geographical unit (Vaslui County and Iaşi
exchange, obtained during the period studied were
County)
1-Şerbeşti- Iaşi Conty(46° 53' 12,99''-N, 27° synthesized in two tables given below.
48' 58,08 "-E), in annual crops of Triticum aestivum In May, it can be observed that intensity of
(winter wheat), Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Zea photosynthesis registered values between 2.43 to
mays L. (maize) and perennial, Medicago sativa 5.54 µmol m-2 s-1 at cult. Triticum aestivum, from
(alfalfa); 2-Cănţălăreşti, Ştefan cel Mare-Vaslui 1.93 to 8.36 µmol m-2s-1 in hybrids of Zea mays
County (46° 45,57' 98-N, 27° 35' 28,86 "-E), in and from 5.44 to 6.13 µmol m-2s-1 in varieties of
annual crops of Triticum aestivum (winter wheat), Helianthus annuus, at variable active radiation (Q
Zea mays L. (maize); 3-Rebricea-Vaslui County leaf). The greater variation of the rate of
(46° 53,14' 77"-N, 27° 35' 51,55 "-E), in annual photosynthesis (A) was registered in Zea mays and
crops of Triticum aestivum (winter wheat),
the smaller in Helianthus annuus, both being in
Helianthus annuus (sunflower), Zea mays
L.(maize); 4 - Buhăieşti (46° 47' 41,23"-N, 27° 34' vegetative phenophase (table1). The transpiration
8,73 "-E), Vaslui, in perennial crop of Medicago in generally, has a smaller variation interval,
sativa (alfalfa). First analyses were carried out in cultivars of Triticum aestivum, winter wheat(at
May, in July, when winter wheat was yellow, ready beginning of the earing phenophase) is around 0.6
for the harvest was no more observation in that mmol m-2s-1 in all studied stationaries; from 0.5 to
specie. 1.05 mmol m-2s-1 was recorded at Zea mays
Statistical analysis included the arithmetic (vegetative growth, six leaves) and between 0.76 to
mean, standard deviation and coefficient of 1.04 mmol m-2s-1 in Helianthus annuus (vegetative
variability was calculated. growth stage 7-8 leaves) (table 1). WUE ratio
The research was conducted under National
(A/T) gives information on the use of water in the
Program Biodiv financed by National Authority for
Scientific Research. Soil classification is evaluated photosynthetic assimilation, more specifically
after WRB, 2006. refers to the amount of dry matter produced per
unit of water lost by transpiration. Water use
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS efficiency has almost the value around 5 in cult.
Triticum aestivum in all stationaries because of the
Foliar gas-exchange parameters provide earing phenophase (the products of assimilation
information about the rate of photosynthesis, were used for the ear formation and grains filling).
stomatal conductance and transpiration recorded
Table 1
Variation of foliar gas-exchange parameters in various agroecosystems
from Moldavian Central Plateau in May 2013
Ci E gs A WUE
Station Specie -2 -1 -2 -1) -2 -1 -2 -1
(μmol m s ) (mmol m s (mmol m s ) (μmol m s ) (A/E)
Triticum aestivum 226±35.59 0.67±0.12 0.08±0.03 3.63±0.83 5.45
Şerbeşti Zea mays 250±31.85 0.5±0.08 0.09±0.01 1.93±0.78 3.86
Helianthus annuus 212±17.15 0.76±0.03 0.1±0.02 5.44±0.65 7.19
Cănţălăreşti
Zea mays 221±25.07 0.98±0.07 0.48±0.19 5.1±0.39 5.18
Rebricea Zea mays 116±25.47 1.05±0.04 0.11±0.01 8.36±0.88 8.00
Legend: Qleaf-PAR(photosynthetic active radiation), Ci- CO2 concentration in substomatal cavity,
A-photosynthesis rate,E-transpiration rate, gs- stomatal conductance, Wue-water use efficiency. Mean ± SE.
On July, the maize, in the emergence intensity, which leads to lower organic mass
phenophase of tasseling (male flower) and even (WUE values given by A/E) because of higher
stigma (at Şerbeşti and Rebricea stations) water consumption (table 1, table 2). An
photosynthesis intensity increased, which leads to increasing of water use efficiency was observed in
higher organic mass values ratio A/E (WUE) than Zea mays at Cănţălăreşti from 5.18 (May) to 7.10
was registered in May (table 2). In hybrids of (July) and at Şerbeşti from 3.86 (May) to 9.34
Helianthus annuus, although the intensity of (July) meanwhile Helianthus annuus hybrids
photosynthesis is up from the previous month showed a slight decreasing (table 2).
analyzes is observed an increase in respiration
150
Table 2
Variation of foliar gas-exchange parameters in various agroecosystems
from Moldavian Central Plateau in July 2013
Ci E Gs A WUE
Station Specie -2 -1 -2 -1) -2 -1 -2 -1
(μmol m s ) (mmol m s (mmol m s ) (μmol m s ) (A/E)
Medicago sativa 369±1.17 0.435±0.032 0.27±0.162 0.13±0.01 0.29
Şerbeşti Zea mays 186±21 0.67±0.05 0.16±0.067 6.26±0.72 9.34
Buhăieşti Medicago sativa 258±5.09 0.83±0.053 0.14±0.026 3.12±0.22 3.78
Cănţălăreşti Zea mays 126±13.18 0.83±0.09 0.08±0.08 5.89±0.74 7.10
Zea mays 156±17.6 1.2±0.087 0.36±0.107 7.38±0.74 6.15
Rebricea
Legend: Qleaf-PAR(photosynthetic active radiation). Ci- CO2 concentration in substomatal cavity.
A-photosynthesis rate. E-transpiration rate. gs- stomatal conductance. Wue-water use efficiency. Mean ± SE.
In table 3, the variation coefficient of gas- stressor that limited the photosynthesis rate could
exchange parameters was analyzed at different be this negative determinant character revealed by
growth stage of crop plants in dependency with haplic vertic chernozem, a degraded chernozem.
type of soil. In vegetative period of crop plants Coefficients of variation Cv of A and also, Cv of
(May), coefficient of variation for photosynthesis E having the closer values showed an uniformity
(CV of A) varied into an interval between 15.9 % of resources of biotope (intensity of light,
(cult. Triticum aestivum- Cănţălăreşti) to 39.44 % availability of water and nutrients, etc) which is
(Helianthus annuus-Şerbeşti). In the same growth happening in Cănţălăreşti stationary with haplic
stage, Cv of E varied between 13.73 % chernozem (table 3). The influence of biotope
(Helianthus annuus-Şerbeşti) until 40 % (cult observed also in Medicago sativa when Cv of A
Triticum aestivum-Şerbeşti). Variation of (25.4 %) and Cv of E (27.8 %) have closer values
transpiration is due to a mechanism of opening or (small variation) showed in Buhăieşti station, in
closure stomata during daytime, intensity of light, moisture plains with haplic gleic chernozem.
air humidity as other environmental parameters. Soil of Rebricea station is haplic vertic
In May of 2013 registered a large amount of chernozem with a high content of clay which is
precipitation (85 mm/mp. according to ANMH). swelling in moisture (retain water) and during
Close values of coefficient of variation for drought is cracked. Thus, estival consistency is
photosynthesis (Cv of A) and also, transpiration very hard forming clods and medium to low
(Cv of E) were observed in cult. Triticum aeration porosity, comparable with that of
aestivum (Cănţălăreşti and Rebricea), Zea mays Şerbeşti. At the surface, on the first 40 cm, the
(Cănţălăreşti) and Helianthus annuus (Rebricea) texture is good, medium-fine and not fine as
(table 3). The high clay content in soil, as well as Şerbeşti, Humus and nutrient content is higher
the presence of vertic character represents than Şerbeşti and the soil reaction is still weak
processes which affect his abilities much acid to neutral, but with lower values on surface
favourable of chernozem (subtype haplic vertic). than Şerbeşti (Bireescu et al,. 2010).
At Şerbeşti station because of clay, consistency of During the studied period, in all studied
dry soil is hard and in summer is forming lumps, crop plants, carbohydrate metabolism is
which is an ecological determinant excessive and characterized by the increased accumulation of the
negative. Its chemical characteristics, soil polysaccharide, especially those insoluble (figure
reaction, nutrient and also, humus content are 1). Polysaccharides ranged 90-70 % in May and
perfect favourable compared to those negative between 75-65 % in July of total sugars fraction
physical. Soil from Cănţălăreşti station is haplic (figure 1). In May, insoluble polysaccharides
chernozem with a better texture, moderately fine, recorded values between 27.87 g % (Zea mays-
medium aeration porosity. Chemical station I) to 39.10 g % (Zea mays-station II).
characteristics are very good (neutral reaction low Soluble polysaccharides ranged from 1.90 g % -T.
alkaline, medium humus content and well aestivum (station I) to 6.43 g %- Helianthus
supplied with nutrients. Vertic character not annuus (station I) (figure1). Analyzed
shows and thus does not degrade soil structure. disaccharides in leaves crop plants are between
Photosynthesis reaction in light phase requires the 2.45 g % - Helianthus annuus (station I) and
water photolysis for the electronic transport. 12.44 g % - Triticum aestivum (station II)
Water availability from soil in different growth (figure1). Monosaccharides have the lowest
stage of plant could be a stressful factor. The proportion of these recorded values between 1.53
151
g % in Helianthus annuus (station I) and 4.79 g % In early July, the accumulation of total
in Helianthus annuus (station III) ) (figure 1). carbohydrate content were recorded a range in
Close values of total content of polysaccharides in varieties of Helianthus annuus between 25.19 g %
leaves has a range between 32 g% (station I. (station I) to 32 g % (station II-) in the vegetative
Şerbeşti) -39 g % (station II, Cănţălăreşti) in growth phenophase, emergence of capitulum
cultivars of winter wheat (T. aestivum). (inflorescence) (figure 1).
Table 3
Coefficients of variation for photosynthesis and transpiration in different crop plants
in Moldavian Central Plateau
24May Station Specie Growth stage CV of E(%) CV of A (%)
Type of soil
Şerbeşti cult. Triticum aestivum Boots swollen (4 40 31.22
(Haplic vertic (winter wheat) leaves)
chernozem) Zea mays Vegetative (6 33.02 22.5
leaves)
Helianthus annuus Vegetative (6-7 13.73 39.44
leaves)
Cănţălăreşti cult. Triticum aestivum Boots swollen (4 17.9 15.9
(Haplic (winter wheat) leaves)
chernozem) Zea mays 4 leaves 25.34 26
Rebricea cult. Triticum aestivum Boots swollen (4 23.8 27.6

(Haplic vertic (winter wheat) leaves)
chernozem) Zea mays 4-6 leaves 14.05 35
Helianthus annuus Vegetative (6-7 29.83 23.74
leaves)
3 July Şerbeşti Zea mays 12 leaves 26.51 33.42
(Haplic vertic Silks are visible.
chernozem) Helianthus annuus The inflorescence 19.31 31.41
begins to open (18
leaves)
Medicago sativa Flowering (after the 25.61 38.13
first scythe )
Cănţălăreşti Zea mays 8-10 leaves fully 36.04 32.27
(Haplic chernozem) emerged
Buhăieşti Medicago sativa Flowering (after the 25.4 27.86
(Gleic haplic first scythe )
chernozem)
Rebricea Helianthus annuus Beginning of 34.78 22.98
(Haplic vertic flowering (19-20
chernozem) leaves)
Zea mays 12 leaves 25.15 28.40
Silks are visible
Legend: coefficient of variation (CV) for rate of transpiration (A). rate of transpiration (E)
Medicago sativa alfalfa (after the first

stitch) accumulate in leaves total carbohydrate a In Canţălareşti station, RWC registered
low amount with a relatively constant value of 31 close values in maize and winter wheat, around
g% glucose, a higher value was registered in 80%. In vegetative growth stage, water status in
station IV (Buhăieşti station) with gleic haplic cells is higher in all analyzed crop plants.
chernozem, moisture and salted soil. On July, relative water content has a range
On May. analysis of relative water of variation in maize between 89% (Rebricea
content (RWC). as a measure of water station) until 90-95% (Şerbeşti, respectively.
status/deficit in relation with soil quality Cănţălăreşti station), sunflower between 45%
(quantity of clay). showed a variations in (Şerbeşti) -57 % (Rebricea) and alfalfa between
63% (Şerbeşti station) until 83% (Buhăieşti
winter wheat between 76% (Rebricea station)
station). During this period is a small variation of
- 91% (Şerbeşti station), in maize between this relative water content, especially in maize.
78% (Şerbeşti station) - 92% (Rebricea Relative water content increased from the
station) and in sunflower between 58% previous growth stage in maize and decreased in
(Şerbeşti station) until 67% (Rebricea station) sunflower which is smaller water consumption,
(figure 2). even the both species were having the same days
152
after sowing.
solub.polysacch.
g % glucosis May July
insolub.polysacch.
75
70 disacch.
65 monosacch.
60
55
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 2 3 4 2 2 3 4
I II III I II III IV
Legend: 1-cult. Triticum aestivum. 2-Zea mays. 3-Helianthus annuus.

4-Medicago sativa. I-Şerbeşti (Iaşi County). II-Cănţălăreşti. III-Rebricea. IV-Buhăieşti (Vaslui County).
Figure 1 Variation of carbohydrates indicators in leaves of main crop plants from Central Moldavian Plateau
Relative Water Content

100
90
91 92 90 95
80 89
78 80 80 76
70 83
% 60 67
63
50 58
57
40 45
30 RWC
20
10
0
1 2 3 1 2 1 2 3 4 2 3 2 2 3 4
I II III I II III IV
MAY JULY
Legend: 1-cult. Triticum aestivum. 2-Zea mays. 3-Helianthus annuus.

4-Medicago sativa. I-Şerbeşti (Iaşi County). II-Cănţălăreşti. III-Rebricea. IV-Buhăieşti (Vaslui County).
Figure 2 Relative Water Content in main crop leaves at agroecosystems from Moldavian Central Plateau
CONCLUSIONS influence of biotope resources, also was observed

Investigation in crop plants of in Medicago sativa, when Cv of A (25.4 %) and
agroecosystems from Central Moldavian Plateau Cv of E (27.8 %) have close variation in Buhăieşti
showed that coefficients of variation Cv of A and station, in a moisture plains with haplic gleic
also, Cv of E with the close values indicate an chernozem.
uniformity of resources of biotope (intensity of During the studied period (May-July 2013),
light, availability of water and nutrients, etc) which carbohydrate metabolism is characterized by
is happening in Cănţălăreşti stationary with haplic increased accumulation of the polysaccharide,
chernozem without stressor as vertic character. The especially those insoluble in all analyzed crop
153
plants. The high accumulations of insoluble Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi, vol.
polysaccharides between 70-90% of total 53(2):31-35.
Antohe A., Murariu A., Pisica-Donose A., 1995 -
carbohydrates fractions registered also in Recherches sur la biosynthese des pigments
plantations from Central Moldavian Plateau which d’assimilation et sur l’intensite de la
was reported in previous work. This is mainly due photosynthese au Quercus petraea, Carpinus
to the specific type of soil with higher quantity of betulus et Tilia tomentosa dans certains
ecosystemes forestiers du Plateau Central de la
clay, haplic chernozem, subtype vertic. In July, Moldavie (Roumanie), An. Muz. Naţ. al Bucov.,
relative water content registered a higher values in Fasc. Ştiinţele Naturii, XIII, 97-107.
Zea may which need more quantity of available Bireescu. G., Ailincăi. C., Răuş. L., Bireescu. L., 2010
water from soil in phenophase of flowering than - Studding the Impacts of Technological
Helianthus annuus. Measures on the Biological Activity of Pluvial
Eroded Soils. In: P. Zdruli. M. Pagliai. S. Kapur.
A. Faz Cano (Editors). Land Degradation and
ACKNOWLEGMENTS Desertification. Assessment. Mitigation and
Remediation. Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg
This study was supported by BIODIV Research London New York. ISBN 978-90-481-8656-3; e-
Programme developed under coordination of ISBN 978-90-481-8657-0; ISBN 978-90-481-
National Institute of Research and Development 8656-3; DOI 10.1007/978-90-481-8657-0; pp.
for Biological Sciences Bucharest. Thank to Mr. 529-545.
Lazar Bireescu for analysis of soil and his Bireescu L. Bireescu G.. Constandache C. Sellitto
courtesy to makes them available for this paper. M.V., Dumitru M., Anton I., 2010 -
Ecopedological Research for Ecological
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154
ANTHROPIC IMPACT EVALUATION BY SOIL-PLANT PERSPECTIVE

IN GRASSLANDS ECOSYSTEMS FROM NORTHEASTERN ROMANIA
Ligia ACATRINEI1, Adina CĂLUGĂR1
e-mail: ligia.acatrinei@icbiasi.ro
Abstract
This paper approaches by the soil-plant perspective the evaluation of plant ecophysiological parameters and biological
indicators of soil (edaphic mesofauna) in different grassland ecosystems with different degrees of human intervention
from the Northeastern Romania. We have studied natural reserves, pastures and hayfields, in two different geographical
units - Central Moldavian Plateau and Moldavian Plain. Based on these results, it was considered the human impact
through analysis of statistical indicators (arithmetic mean, standard deviation, coefficient of variation) in accordance
with the characteristics of studied biotopes. Ecophysiological parameters were assessed by analysis of
photosynthesizing pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoid pigments) and fractions of soluble carbohydrate. Variability
of photosynthetic indicators was lower in the case of species from natural reserves and larger, but elevated in secondary
meadows and pastures. Accumulation of the carbohydrates was discussed in relation with soil type and it was observed
the smallest values occurred in anthropic ecosystems (pastures) and in the natural reserve of Central Moldavian Plateau.
Bioedaphic indicators were represented by some main groups of soil mesofauna (mites, collembolans, and on the
whole, other insects or groups of edaphic microarthropods), analyzed both in a quantitative and qualitative manner. The
density of edaphic microarthropods from the grasslands of Moldavian Plain was higher than that of Central Moldavian
Plateau. From the qualitative point of view generally, the mites are the dominant group and among them the oribatid
mites prevails. The ratio between the main detritomicrophagous groups (oribatid mites/collembolans) is in the favour of
the mites with few exceptions. Both quantitative and qualitative features of the edaphic mesofauna mostly depend on
the biopedoclimatic stational conditions, especially to the degree of the environmental anthropization, humidity, type of
soil etc. The most anthropized grasslands could be considered the hayfields from haplic chernozem in both studied
geographic areas This study was financially supported by BIODIV Research Programme developed under coordination
of National Institute of Research and Development for Biological Sciences Bucharest.
Key words: anthropic impact, bioindicators, carbohydrates, edaphic mesofauna, grasslands, statistic indicators
Moldavian Plain (Jijia Plain) with an grassland flora is offered by scientific reserve
altitude between 30-270 m, is almost entirely flora "Valea lui David" from the 6-7 km west of
steppe zone with haplic chernozem continued Iaşi where, in an area of 1 km2, growing over 400
south - east by small areas with chernozems. The species of flowering plants.
zonal soils occupy slightly undulating ridges with A distinct unit of Moldavian Plateau,
altitudes below 160 m high terraces and gentle Central Moldavian Plateau is characterized by a
slopes. Below 80 m (lower terraces and dried rugged, hilly landscape with vegetation typically
valleys or glacises) we meet typical chernozems for silvosteppe. Lithologyc substrate is
and above 160 m - gray soils and even clay represented by loesssands and bedrocks. Soils that
illuviated brown soils and brown - luvic soils. vegetation grows is represented by chernozem
Primary grassland steppe vegetation (currently (moderate slopes) and regosols (steep slopes),
subordinate to crops) is the association meso- humic gleysol (moist plains). The vegetation is
xerofilous fescue (Festuca sp.), with feather grass typical for silvosteppe zone, 50 % of territories is
(Stipa sp.) and other xero-mesophilous herbs and occupied by crops although the soils are mediocre
xerophytes. Fallow land, sometimes degraded (Roşu A., 1980).
because slope processes and grazing are This ecological study is a part of a
secondary associations with Poa bulbosa, Poa multidisciplinary research and carried out to the
pratensis, Bromus sp., Artemisia austriaca, natural and anthropic type of ecosystems of
Euphorbia stepposa etc. A synthesis of Jijia Plain North-eastern part of Romania. This work
1
Institute of Biological Research, Iaşi, branch of National Institute of Research and Development for Biological
Sciences, Bucharest
155
approaches by the soil-plant perspective the especially by mowing activities; type of soil is haplic
evaluation of plant ecophysiological parameters chernozem.
- Sărata Fereşti located in the Moldavian Plain
and biological indicators of soil (edaphic
(46°46′54″N 27°42′3″E) (Vaslui County), exploited
mesofauna) in relation with soil type of different especially by mowing activities; type of soil is haplic
grassland ecosystems with different degrees of hyposalic chernozem.
human intervention from the Northeastern - Deleni located in the Moldavian Plain
Romania: Moldavian Plain and Central Moldavian (47°27′44″N 26°53′20″E) (at the limit of Botoşani and
Plateau. Thus, it was performed the analysis of the Suceava, County) on the bank of Bahlui River; type
statistic indicators depending on the type of of soil is haplic vertic chernozem.
- Uricani located in the Moldavian Plain
ecosystem: natural reserves, hayfields, pastures to (47°9′24″N 27°29′10″E) (Iaşi County), type of soil is
assess the stability or vulnerability of each haplic chernozem.
ecosystem to external pressures (anthropogenic, - - Valea lui David located in the Moldavian Plain
climate fluctuations, erosions, changes in biotope (47°11′47″N 27°27′44″E) (Iaşi County) a meadow
resources etc). The concept of stability of mature outside of the reservation where the mode of
ecosystems is based on the fact that these are exploitation is through intensive grazing; type of soil
is haplic gleyc chernozem.
more stable and resistant to stress conditions,
- Ripiceni a pasture located in the Moldavian
while poor communities (removal/loosening of Plain (47°56′51″N 27°8′37″E) (Botoşani County);
species) lose their ability to compensate the type of soil is haplic chernozem.
fluctuations of the biotopes conditions. - Săveni a pasture located in the Moldavian Plain
(47°23′58″N 27°14′53″E) (Botoşani County), type of
MATERIAL AND METHOD soil is haplic vertic chernozem.
- Deleni a pasture located in the Moldavian Plain
(47°27′44″N 26°53′20″E) (Iaşi County), type of soil is
The investigations were carried out in
haplic vertic chernozem.
eighteen meadow ecosystems (three protected
- Scobâlţeni a pasture located in the Moldavian
areas, eight hayfields, seven pastures), as follows:
Plain 47°11′57″N 27°17′0″E) (Iaşi County), type of
- Fânaţurile de la Glodeni located in the Central
soil is haplic chernozem.
Moldavian Plateau (46°51′08″N 27°32′02″E) (Vaslui
- Soleşti II located in the Central Moldavian
County) is a floristic reserve of sylvosteppe; soil type
Plateau (46°46′N 27°47′E) (Vaslui County) is a
is haplic vertic chernozem. The impact of
pasture in the valley where the the phreatic water is
anthropogenic activity consists of mowing and using
near the surface, floristic composition is mainly
the surrounding land for agricultural use.
influenced by mesophilic species and meso-
- Movila lui Burcel located in the Central
higrophilic species are common, but also the species
Moldavian Plateau (46°50′44″N 27°48′08″E) (Vaslui
that survive well in a certain degree salinization of
County) is a floristic reserve; soil type is regosol
the soil on this pasture grazing is intensive which
arenic skeletic. The human impact consists here
causes weed growth; type of soil is gleyosol cernic
especially in reducing the reserve surface because
vertic endosalic.
of the construction of a church and by planting
- Pribeşti located in the Central Moldavian
acacia (Robinia pseudoacacia) on the Eastern and
Plateau (46°54′36″N 27°47′47″E) (Vaslui County) is
North-Eastern slopes.
a natural meadow situated on lower terrace on level
- Fâneţele Seculare Valea lui David located in
ground or very little inclined. The mode of
Moldavian Plain (47°11′47″N 27°27′44″E) (Iaşi
exploitation is through intensive grazing; type of soil
County), a natural reserve represented by a secular
is haplic vertic chernozem.
hayfield, a steppic habitat in a forest steppe region;
Series of 100 cm2 soil samples have been
type of soil is haplic vertic chernozem.
taken over from every plot. Edaphic mesofauna has
- Bobota, located in the Central Moldavian
been extracted from samples through the Tullgren -
Plateau (46°47′27″N 27°34′18″E) (Vaslui County) a
Berlese method (the variant suggested by Balogh)
secondary sylvosteppe meadow with numerous
and selected by systematic groups; it has been
xerophilous and xero-mesophilous elements,
noted the abundance of each group, on samples and
exploited as a hayfield; type of soil is haplic
ecological stands. The primary data obtained have
chernozem moderately eroded.
been processed by means of average abundance of
- Soleşti I located in the Central Moldavian
each group (ā) and global average abundance (Ā),
Plateau (46°47′17.4″N 27°46′41″E) (Vaslui County)
expressed as individuals/100 cm2 for each
is a coastal secondary meadow. Anthropo-
grassland. In order to obtain more accurate and
zoogenous pressure is manifested especially by
comparable data was calculated the mean of the
mowing being also noticed weed growth in a great
average abundance by type of soil and by
extent, type of soil is haplic vertic chernozem.
management practices.
- Vulturi located in the Moldavian Plain
Biological material used consisted of fresh
(47°15′1″N 27°32′11″E) (Iaşi County) exploited
leaves of dominant species of studied grassland.
especially by mowing activities; type of soil is haplic
Collections of material were made in June, July in
vertic chernozem.
the middle of summer. They used plants that were
- Horleşti located in the Moldavian Plain
flowering phenophase when the physiological
(47°06′57″N 27°24′11″E) (Iaşi County) exploited
indices analyzed were in the maximum
156
concentration. It was analyzed the following vegetations, with moisture soil as Săveni, Horleşti
indicators: chlorophylls a and b, total carotenoids and even Scobâlţeni but reduced in xerophilous
and sugars content from leaves (mono-, di- and
pastures and eroded as Valea lui David and
polysaccharides). Spectrophotometric method for
determination of pigments was solving in 85 % of Ripiceni (table 1).
fresh leaves of the investigated species (Meyer- Accumulation of the leaf sugars is
Bertenrath Ştirban, 1985). Results were expressed correlated with soil properties as well as, mineral
in mg/g of fresh weight (mg/g fr.w). Analysis of uptake, water availability and with humus content.
carbohydrates in dried plant material was made by The photoassimilatory pigments in dominant
Bertrand method combined with method Borel, 1953. species reflected their photosynthetic capacity and
Results were expressed as g % of dry matter.
Statistical analysis included the arithmetic
the adjustment to conditions in the station biotope
mean, standard deviation and coefficient of (Antohe A. et al., 1991). Plants are considered to
variability calculated for every station. Soil be most vulnerable to grazing damage when
classification is evaluated after WRB, 2006. carbohydrates in the roots are not sufficient
The research was conducted under National enough to initiate regrowth. With intense
Program Biodiv (2007-2010) financed by National defoliation, the entire root system becomes
Authority for Scientific Research.
smaller, shallower, and less branched. This affects
the plant ability to absorb water and nutrients
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS from the soil (Murariu A., 2003).
As regards the edaphic mesofauna, the
Variation of the total photosynthetic
present research continues some older ones. In a
pigments (chlorophylls and carotenoids) and
previous work developed in the hayfields and
soluble carbohydrates in leaf was disscused in
pastures from Moldavian Plain we found that the
relation with analyzed type of grassland (tab.1).
densities from pastures and hayfields have
Photosynthetic pigments showed a range between
generally the same values, with two exceptions,
4.2 until 5.27 mg/g fr.w. (Central Moldavian
that of Ripiceni - an anthropic xerophilous pasture
Plateau) and between 1.8 until 4.9 mg/g fr.w.
and that of Deleni - a xerophilous eroded, grazed
(Moldavian Plain) (tab. 1). In natural reserve, the
pasture; here we found the biggest densities,
coefficient of variation of photosynthetic
respectively the lowest ones from all the lawns
pigments is inversely proportional to the age of
taken into study (table 1) (Călugăr A., 2006). In
grassland; the lowest values were recorded in
the framework of the present research analysis of
reserves such as Movila lui Burcel and Valea lui
the densities of the edaphic mesofauna from
David, and the highest in the Fânaţul de la
different categories of grasslands/soil types/two
Glodeni (table 1). From previous studies it was
geographic areas has shown that the biggest
observed that the variation of ecophysiological
values from all investigated grasslands were
parameters (between species within the same plot)
found in pastures developed on haplic vertic
is much lower in natural reserves than in
chernozem from Moldavian Plain, followed by the
anthropogenic grasslands (Acatrinei L., 2006,
pastures from Central Moldavian Plateau
2010). Although the amount of photosynthetic
developed on the same type of soil (table 2). The
pigments is not highest( especially, in Moldavian
next highest density was observed in Moldavian
Plain), the coefficient of variation obtained in
Plain in natural reserves developed also on haplic
natural reserves is lowest(in reserves of Central
vertic chernozem. In the haplic vertic chernozem
Moldavian Plateau and respectively, Moldavian
the smallest densities of the edaphic mesofauna
Plain), where individuals of the community
were observed in the case of hay fields, both in
exploited equally the biotope condition
Moldavian Plain and Central Moldavian Plateau
(photosynthetic radiation). It was observed that
(table 2). These results are concordant with others
took place a decreasing of total photosynthetic
being well known that mowing reduces markedly
pigments in xerophilous pastures, grazed, as
the development of litter and restricts food
Valea lui David and Deleni (tab.1). Soluble
sources for many species of soil mesofauna and
carbohydrates in leaf have a ranging mean
also leads to unfavourable microclimatic changes
between 8.8 - 17.96 g % (Central Moldavian
(Piž V. and Stary J., 2006).
Plateau) and between 7.75 g % until 16.6 g %
The comparison made between the
(Moldavian Plain). Coefficient of variation for the
grasslands from the two geographic areas has
soluble sugars ranged between 9 % until 57 %
shown that in Central Moldavian Plateau the
(Central Moldavian Plateau) and between 10 %
edaphic microarthropods communities have the
until 38.53 % (Moldavian Plain). The soluble
abundances 1.5-35 times lower than those in
carbohydrates have the higher values in grassland
Moldavian Plain.
with mesophilous and even meso-xerophilous
157
Table 1
Variation of photosynthetic pigments and leaf carbohydrates in different type of grassland
Central Station Type of Total CV of total Soluble CV of soluble
Moldavian grassland photosynthetic photosynthetic carbohydrates carbohydrates
Plateau pigments (mg/g pigments (%) in leaf (g %) in leaf (%)
fr. w.)
Movila lui Xerophilous 4.7 ± 0.09 5.96 8.8 ± 0.17 25.04
Burcel Hayfield,
Natural
Reserve
Glodeni Xerophilous 4.3 ± 0.27 20.84 10.7 ± 0.2 26.12
Hayfield, 3
Years old
Natural
Reserve
Bobota Xero- 4.2 ± 0.25 39.60 13.09 ±0.14 34.24
mesophilous
Hayfield,
fallow for eight
years
Soleşti I Xero- 4.42 ± 0.32 23.38 14.9 ± 0.34 9.078
mesophilous
Secondary,
coastal
grassland
Soleşti II Mesophilous 4.86 ± 0.70 31.35 17.96 ±0.25 32.58
and meso-
hygrophilous,
Meadow
pasture
Pribeşti Meso- 5.27 ± 0.20 11.76 13.76 ± 0.15 57.22
xerophilous,
salted
meadow
pasture,
overgrazed
Moldavian Xerophilous 4.9 ± 0.03 1.42 13.6 ±0.01 25
Plain Hayfield,
Valea lui Natural
David Reserve
Xerophilous, 4.33 ± 0.36 10 11.5 ± 0.13 25.47
coastal
Vulturi hayfield
Xerophilous 4.47 ± 0.16 3 12.08 ± 0.89 17.62
coastal
Sărata hayfield
Hayfields, 4.96 ± 0.02 1.04 14.6 ± 025 27.76
meso-
xerophilous,
meadow,
Horleşti anthropized
Wet and salted 4.56 ± 0.01 25 7.92 ± 0.05 33.53
Uricani grassland
Mesophilous, 3.04 ± 0 29.83 16.6 ± 1.39 23.68
Săveni wet pasture
Anthropic 2.15 ± 0.18 5.6 9.06 ± 0.2 30
Xerophilous
Ripiceni pasture
Meso- 2.38 ±0.96 37 11.5 ± 0.05 26.14
xerophilous,
Scobâlţeni recent pasture
Xerophilous 1.8 ± 0.22 38 7.75 ± 0.08 38.53
Valea lui pasture, over
David grazed
Xerophilous 1.96 ± 0.4 5.96 10.5 ± 1.53 10
eroded,
Deleni grazed pasture
Legend: Mean ± SE, CV-coefficient of variation
158
The lowest value was observed in the case group, the biggest value of their abundance in all
of hayfields with haplic chernozem, followed by a the studied grasslands is observed in the pastures
natural reserve developed on regosol arenic with haplic vertic chernozem from Central
skeletic (table 2). Reporting the present results to Moldavian Plateau; here these mites developed
that obtained in the case of some pastures and densities even bigger than that observed in natural
hayfields from the middle sector of Prut, we reserves with the same type of soil from
observed similar or even slightly higher densities Moldavian Plain where was found the biggest
in the Moldavian Plain while those observed for next value of the oribatid abundances in all the
the Central Moldavian Plateau are lower, grassland ecosystems analyzed (figure 1, 2). A
especially regarding the hayfields (Călugăr A., relative high density is also remarked in pastures
2005). developed on the haplic vertic chernozem from
From the qualitative point of view this Moldavian Plain (figure 2). The smallest densities
study relieved with rare exceptions that among are observed in Central Moldavian Plateau in
mites the oribatids are the dominant group in all hayfields on haplic vertic chernozem and haplic
categories of ecosystems: natural reserves, chernozem (9 respectively 14 times lower than the
pastures and hayfields, both in Moldavian Plain biggest density). In Moldavian Plain the lowest
and Central Moldavian Plateau (figure 1, 2, 3). density is remarked in the case of a natural reserve
One of the mentioned exceptions is represented by with regosol arenic skeletic followed by a hayfield
the pastures developed on haplic chernozem from with haplic chernozem (figure 1, 3). Ivan, 2006 in
Moldavian Plain where acaridid mites represent a study devoted to oribatid mites from some lawn
the most numerous group (40% from the total ecosystems from Moldavian Plain found the
effectives of mites). These mites were abundant biggest densities and number of species in a
only in pastures while in hayfields they have only nature reserve, followed by hayfields. The
a sporadic presence; in samples provided from pasturing practiced even periodically on some
natural reserves was even absent. This fact was surfaces determines a considerable diminution of
also observed during other investigations and abundance especially in the plots where an
related to the increased intake of organic matter ecological factor becomes limiting (excessive
carried by the manure of grazing animals, humidity, salinisation). This limitation from some
knowing that acaridids are stimulated by ecological factors could be the explanation also in
anaerobic environments, rich in nitrogenous the case of this study, when qualitative and
substances (Wallwork, J.A., 1970, Krantz, 1978, quantitative characteristics of the edaphic
Huţu & colab., 1992, Călugăr A., 2005). communities are different, even the type of soil
Resuming the situation of the oribatid and the category of grassland are the same.
mites, a detritomicrophytophagous representative
100%
90%
80%
70%
60% Other groups

Other Insecta
50% Collembola
Actinedida
40% Oribatida
Gamasida
30%
20%
10%
0%
Haplic Vertic Chernozem Haplic Vertic Chernozem Regosol Arenic Skeletic
Moldavian Plain Central MoldavianPlateau
Figure 1 Weight of the main edaphic microarthropods groups in natural reserves
The ratio between the main cases, all of them identified for Moldavian Plain:
detritomicrofitophagous groups (oribatid pastures and hayfields developed on haplic
mites/collembolans) is under unit only in three
159
chernozem and pastures developed on haplic gleyosol cernic vertic endosalic. Literature data
vertic chernozem (table 2). indicate this ratio as an important bioindicator of
In the rest of the investigated situations, this the quality and state of humification of the
ratio is in the favour of the mites, the biggest organic substrate (Huţu & colab., 1992, Huţu &
values being observed in the case of nature Bulimar, 1993, Bulimar & colab., 1993).
reserves from Central Moldavian Plateau. The A subunitary ratio indicates a predominance
lowest ratio was remarked in the natural reserves of high humidity and mineralization, and an over
from Moldavian Plain, on haplic vertic chernozem unit ratio, a lower humidity and the predominance
and pastures from Central Moldavian Plateau, on of the humification process.
100%
80%
60%
Other groups
Other insects
Collembola
40% Acaridida
Actinedida
Oribatida
Gamasida
20%
0%
Haplic Haplic Vertic Haplic Gleyc Gleysol Cernic Haplic Vertic
Chernozem Chenozem Chernozem Vertic Chenozem
Endosalic
Moldavian Plain Central Moldavian Plateau
Figure 2 Weight of the main edaphic microarthropods groups in pastures
100%
80%
60% Other groups

Other insects
Collembola
Acaridida
40% Actinedida
Oribatida
Gamasida
20%
0%
Haplic Haplic Vertic Haplic Salic Haplic Haplic Vertic
Chernozem Chernozem Chernozem Chernozem Chernozem
Moldavian Plain Central Moldavian Plateau
Figure 3 Weight of the main edaphic microarthropods groups in hayfields
Considering all these aspects we can highest humidity. The rest of grassland
appreciate that in pastures and hayfields on haplic ecosystems in the Moldavian Plain and all of them
chernozem, as well as in pastures on haplic vertic from the Central Moldavian Plateau are
chernozem from the Moldavian Plain the characterized by an efficient necromass
mineralization predominates; in all these bioconversion, the humification prevailing. An
ecosystems the collembolans are much numerous, observation to be made is that related to situations
their populations being probably stimulated by the in which the edaphic microarthropods have small
160
densities but oribatid/collembolans ratios are over comparable in natural reserve with hayfields
unit like in the case of hay fields from Central growth on haplic vertic chernozem in Moldavian
Moldavian Plateau. Here, despite of smaller Plain with Central Moldavian Plateau (table 2).
densities the humification prevails, as confirms This small variation is due to an adaptation of
previous researches indicating that a greater similar conditions to irradiance and biotopes
fertility is not the result of a numerical stimulation resources, all being coastal xerophilous
of the microarthropods, but an edaphic grasslands. The plant community from natural
community with well balanced groups for a reserve from Central Moldavian Plateau on haplic
favourable conversion of the necromass (Huţu & vertic chernozem and on regosol arenic skeletic
colab., 1992). registered the smallest values of soluble sugars
A synphysiological view of total (LSC) comparative with other grasslands from
photoassimilatory pigments and leaf this area and also, with ones from Moldavian
carbohydrates were carried out in relation with Plain.
different type of soil from the two geographical In Moldavian Plain, pastures on haplic
units (table 2). On haplic chernozem, are vertic chernozem has different level of moisture,
distributed the hayfields and some pastures and contribution of mesophilous vegetation
(Moldavian Plain) and it were obtained close besides xerophilous one (eroded and intensive
values of ecophysiological parameters in hayfields grazed) lead to mean of total photosynthetic
but smaller in the pasture. The values of total pigments smaller than in hayfields and reserves.
content of photosynthetic pigments (PP) are
Table 2
Variation of biological indicators in relation with type soil in different grasslands
Geographic region Moldavian Plain Central Moldavian Plateau
natural pastures hay natural pastures hay
Type of soil reserves fields reserves fields
Haplic chernozem Ā - 213.0 178.9 - - 35.4
O/C - 0.83 0.49 - - 29.0
PP - 1.21 4.8 - - 4.2
LSC - 8.03 11.3 - - 13.09
Haplic vertic chernozem Ā 242.8 377.7 164.9 167.2 255.8 63.0
O/C 4.82 0.52 2.76 54.0 19.33 5.23
PP 4.3 2.85 4.33 4.3 5.27 4.42
LSC 13.6 12.23 11.5 10.7 13.46 14.9
Haplic gleyc chernozem Ā - 141.8 - - - -
O/C - 2.17 - - - -
PP - 1.8 - - - -
LSC - 7.75 - - - -
Haplic hyposalic Ā - - 168.2 - - -
chernozem O/C - - 2.55 - - -
PP 1.47 - -
LSC 3.08 - -
Gleyosol cernic vertic Ā - - - - 178.2 -
endosalic O/C - - - - 4.86 -
PP - - - - 4.86 -
LSC - - - - 18 -
Regosol arenic skeletic Ā - - - 60.8 - -
O/C - - - 35.4 - -
PP - - - 4.7 - -
LSC - - - 8.8 - -
Legend: O/C- oribatid mites/collembolans; Ā – global average density expressed as individuals/100cm 2 ,, PP- Mean of
photosynthetic pigments, LSC- Mean of leaf soluble carbohydrates.
CONCLUSIONS by haplic vertic chernozem, this type being

present in all categories of investigated grasslands
The most important fact in variation of and also, in the both geographic areas. In haplic
biological indicators could be considered the vertic chernozem densities of microarthropods,
biopedoclimatic conditions in each plot (type of generally are higher in pastures and smaller in
soil, soil moisture, type of vegetation and hayfields in the two regions. From functional
anthropic impact etc). point of view, humification is predominant in all
The great majority of soil is represented categories of grasslands and in both geographical
161
regions with exception of pastures from carbohydrates in pasture of Moldavian Plain on

Moldavian Plain, where mineralization is this type of soil is smallest, mainly because of
predominant. In these pastures collembolans land use and anthropization degree. Both in
developed greater populations higher than Moldavian Plain and in Central Moldavian
oribatids. Plateau, the smallest densities of the edaphic
The humidity factor strongly influences mesofauna were observed in the case of hayfields.
the photoassimilation in grasslands, as meso- Despite of overgrazing, the pastures
xerophilous, meadow of lower terrace, even in the especially, ones from the Central Moldavian
grazed ones, could have an intense photosynthetic Plateau, have the higher potential of regeneration
activity. Soluble sugars have smaller values in due to a meso-and hygrophilous character and
pastures, in this case the leaf content of insoluble optimal ratio between systematic and trophic
polysaccharides increased as an adaptation of groups of mesofauna as indirect indicator of soil
overgrazed vegetation. In all hayfields developed fertility. So, the most anthropized grasslands
on haplic chernozem photosynthetic pigments could be considered the hayfields from haplic
have close values, vegetations being xerophilous chernozem in both studied geographic areas.
and meso-xerophilous. The content of soluble leaf
ACKNOWLEGMENTS Călugăr A, 2006 - Qualitative and quantitative studies on

the edaphic microarthropods fauna in some
The authors are grateful to Dr. Otilia Ivan for providing the grassland ecosystems from Moldavian Plain
numerical data on oribatid mites and to Dr. (Romania), Studii şi comunicări. Complexul
Lazăr Bireescu for the data referring to the type Muzeal de Şt. Nat. „Ion Borcea” Bacău, vol 21:
of soil in the studied meadows and their 230-231.
courtesy to makes them available for this paper. Huţu M., Bulimar F., Donose-Pisică A., Davidescu G.,
1992 - Succesiunea microartropodelor edafice în
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162
PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON THE MAIN PEST CONTROL METHODS

OF PLUM PLANTATIONS
Gianina BUTNARIU1, Silvia Brîndușa HAMBURDĂ1, Mihai TĂLMACIU 1
e-mail: gianina.butnariu@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper summarizes the literature on the main pest control methods of plum orchards. The purpose of the paper is to
present the state of knowledge on the main pest control methods of plum plantations existing in our country and
beyond. The research was made based on comparative studies and case studies based on data from the specialized
literature. Integrated pest management is a system of measures using all available methods, including biological and
agrotechnical, as well as pesticides, to predict and prevent economic damage caused by pests. Pests are any organisms,
including weeds, insects, disease pathogens, which are harmful to the planting, crop growth, harvesting and marketing
of the fruit. Integrated pest management is a good practice in horticulture because, potentially, it can increase
productivity, reduce costs and contribute to the stability of agriculture and environment. As a general conclusion, plum
pests can be combated by both conventional and unconventional methods.
Key words: integrated pest management, orchards, pesticide
Plant protection in recent years developed compared with the results on other fruit species,
problems because plantations are aging and although the damage caused by pests and diseases
difficult to manage and new ones requires large each year are quite high (Tălmaciu Nela, 2009).
investments and specialized assistance to their Worldwide, studies have been conducted regarding
establishment to avoid production losses and integrated pest control in plum orchards in
ensure high quality of the fruit (Ulea E., 2003). Washington by Anthon and Smith, 1975.
Integrated pest management is a system of Integrated combat elements were gradually
measures using all available methods, including introduced in Bulgaria in 1975 by Poulev, in the
biological and agrotechnical, and also pesticides to fight against plum worms. In France, Touzeau, in
predict and prevent economic damage caused by 1975, developed a number of methods of winter
pests. Pests are any organisms, including weeds, forecasting and visual control of green crabs,
insects, disease pathogens, which are harmful to wasps, plum worms, Monilinia laxa (Baicu T.,
the planting, crop growth, harvesting and Săvescu A., 1978).
marketing of the fruit. Integrated pest management To reduce them, in integrated pest control,
is a good practice in horticulture because, primarily agrophytotechnical, physical-mechanical,
potentially, it can increase productivity, reduce biological methods are taken into account, and,
costs and contribute to the stability of agriculture ultimately, the chemical method.
and environment (Baicu Săvescu T. A., 1978).
In our country, although long complex MATERIAL AND METHOD
schemes to combat pests and diseases of crops is
known and practiced, an attempt of using these This paper summarizes the knowledge of the
programs has been developed in recent years, with main methods of pest control in plum plantations,
based on an extensive bibliography in our country
the advent of chemical combat negative and abroad. The biological material is a plum species
phenomena. The first work of its kind, "Integrated (Prunus domestica L.). As working methods,
pest and crop disease", belongs to the Radulescu comparative analysis and case study based on
E., Rafailă C., Alexandri Al., Săvescu A. team. A existing information in the literature were used, given
study and systematization of the literature in the the possible attack thresholds in ecological
field of integrated pest management was achieved circumstances in our country. Integrated pest control
was highlighted. This analysis takes into account the
by Baicu T., Săvescu A. (1986), Hatman et al. quantity and quality of the harvest, as well as its
(1986), etc. Concerns about integrated protection economic efficiency.
of plum culture research are relatively few
1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iasi
163
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION During migration, collecting insects is made by

shaking trees, collecting and burning larvae nests
Plum tree represents a base element in any or branches with pests, grating thicker stems and
fruit tree plantation. It grows in all parts of the branches peeling bark, moss, lichen and burning
country, enforces well in sloping land, being them, etc. (Tălmaciu Nela, 2009).
cultivated since ancient times. In order to have a Biological combat methods refer to the use
good yield and quality, leaf and fruit trees should of predators or parasites that can effectively reduce
not be damaged by diseases and pests. Among the pest populations. Although these methods can be
mentioned diseases there are: viroses - plum pox widely applied, they operate more efficiently on
(Plum pox virus), bacterioses - ulceration and small surfaces such as orchards, where it is
bacterial screening of the leaves of the trees pips necessary to combat a single species of pests.
(Pseudomonas syringae pv. mors-prunorum), Using predators or parasites that prey or parasitize
mycosis (Taphrina pruni), plum powdery mildew several biological species can reduce the methods’
(Podosphaera tridactyla), red leaf blotch efficiency.
(Polystigma rubrum) or fruit brown rot (Monilinia In Western European countries,
laxa), rust leaf plum (Transzchelia pruni-spinosae environmental pollution and toxicity of chemicals
Died.) etc. (Ulea E., 2003). on human health have generated the development
Among the pests, there are mentioned: fruit of biological struggle both in the field and in
wasps should be considered in spring, namely: protected areas. Advances in biological control of
plums black wasp (Hoplocampa minuta), plums key pests have made the biological combat a very
yellow wasp (Hoplocampa flava), kernels wasp safe method, effective and environmentally
(Eurytoma schneideri), aphids (the gray plum friendly, at the reach of all farmers. Among the
aphid - Hyalopterus pruni, small plum aphid- factors that require the development of biological
Brachycaudus helichrysi, large plum aphid - control methods, there are mentioned:
Brachycaudus cardui), which are vectors of virus • emergence of resistance phenomena of
diseases. main pests to pesticides;
The following are the main methods of pest • difficult to use highly toxic products, as a
control in plum plantations. result of which the production is consumed mostly
Agrophytotechnical combat methods fresh;
reside in the use of planting plum varieties that • environmental impact of air, water, soil
have proven to be resistant to plum seeds wasps and ultimately production for human consumption;
attacks, deep plowing in autumn or spring, until the • regulations becoming stricter on use of
emergence of adult Eurytoma schreineri Schr., pesticide (http://www.revista-ferma.ro/articole-
digging the soil around trees, mobilization of soil horticultura/combaterea-daunatorilor-prin-metode-
by disking, repeated hoeing during the growing biologice.html (accessed at 08.26.2014).
season, the collection and destruction of fallen Chemical control methods. Integrated pest
fruit. With the use of selection or genetic control does not preclude the use of chemical
engineering, resistant varieties to some types of methods. If used correctly, the pesticides are very
pest action are created. Using the given varieties to effective in reducing pest populations and damage
control certain pests may retain damage below potential.
economic injury level. However, at some point, the The need for more harmless preparations
pests can be adapted to overcome the factors of with shorter decay favored the creation of new
plant protection - this phenomenon is particularly pesticides that are generally harmless to workers
characteristic for the soil-borne pests such as fungi. and consumers, with lower doses of active
These methods give the plants vigor and, ingredient per unit area, which affects less on the
correctly applied, will help prevent diseases, insect environment. In addition, it is possible to use
damage and weed competition. The soil should be insecticides of biological origin consisting of
tested at least once every two to three years. The bacteria, viruses, nematodes, or produced from
analysis showed the pH of the soil, the nutrient plants.
concentrations and the advice data based on the Often, integrated pest management program
application of fertilizers and organic material of can reduce the need for pesticides, although this
healthy and vigorous plant growth. (www.aced. does not happen in all cases. Rather, such a
md/publication/download.php?id=107 (accessed at program allows more rational and effective use of
26.08.2014) pesticides. For example, controlling the evolution
Physico-mechanical methods to combat of a pest, we can apply pesticides when it passes
pests consist in belt traps around the trunks of trees through the most sensitive stage of its
to capture the larvae of Grapholitha funebrana Tr. development. Farmers will use the most harmless
164
and effective pesticide available in the pest consumers;

combat. Localized treatment usually is -entomophages’ possibility to maintain balance
environmentally sound and, economically, more in different cultures;
effective than treating the whole orchard. The type - genetic diversity in order to prevent or delay the
and amount of preparation are extremely emergence of virulent races of pathogens and
important, because the wrong pesticide may pests, the cultivation of varieties with complex or
damage useful biological control organisms, harm group resistance;
plants or reduce sellable crop yields. - systemic analysis of ecological factors which
Integrated control summarizes all methods determine the emergence and evolution of pests
of prevention and fights against diseases and pests, and cultivated plants;
with obvious ecological character as it promotes - use of forecasting methods and harmful
biological and agrophytotechnical measures rather economic threshold warning and the correlations
than chemical ones. Integrated battle strategy is between entomophagous and pests;
based on the maximum use of natural factors and - increase of the priority of agro and biological
uses especially combat tactics which disrupt methods of control;
agricultural environment as little as possible; resort - gradual reduction of synthetic chemical
to chemicals is made only if there is a threat of pesticides.
crop damage.
The use of natural enemies, as well as
genetic resistance, are fully compatible methods
that support integrated mutual fight. Control of
cultures is also used to expose pests to adverse
weather conditions to interrupt their natural
development, to increase the action of natural
enemies and crop resistance (figure 1). The
purpose of the integrated management programs
consists of reducing pests and, also, significant
crop damage (figure 2).
Figure 2. Benefits of the IPM Approach

(http://sccoastalpesticides.org/knowledgebase/ipm_adva
ntages.php (03.10.2014))
The concept of "economic damage

threshold" is based on the knowledge that the
numerically pest populations fluctuate naturally.
Therefore, control measures should be used only to
prevent the pest population growth from producing
economic damage.
Plant quarantine refers to certain rules and
conventions that provide control of all shipments
of agricultural products and the prohibition of
export, import or transit batches containing certain
Figure 1 Integrated Pest Management pest species (weed seeds, pathogens, eggs and
(http://www.amalpest.com.au/LearningCentre/PestContr insects, larvae or adults) considered as hazardous.
olStrategies (03.10.2014)) The technology measures that have an
important role in combating pests and harmful
Principles of developing general rules of insects first mention the following methods: crop
integrated - ecological control system, on groups of rotation, tillage, fertilizer application, land
cultures and on each culture can be summarized as selection, sowing and planting, crop maintenance,
follows: harvesting the crop for cultural and hygiene
- limitation of primary consumers measures (http://biblioteca.regielive.ro/ cribs /
(phytopathogens and insects) and weeds as ecology / anti-integrated-312066.html (accesed at
antagonists of basic primary producer; 26/08/2014).
- stimulation of secondary consumers Combating insect pests of plum plantations
(entomophagous) antagonists of primary before the second world war was done with a
165
limited range of inorganic chemicals, as well as ACKNOWLEGMENTS

some vegetable products.
To combat plum wasps, there may be This paper was published under the frame of European
applied: Actara 25 WG at a dose of 0.01% (only Operational Programme 2007-2013, project no.
after flowering); Calypso 480 SC dose of 0.02%, POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765.
combat and aphids; 25 WG Decis at a dose of
0.003%, combat and aphids; 50 EW Mega Decis at REFERENCES
a dose of 0.015%; Fastac 10 EC at a dose of
0.004% for wasp plum seeds and 0.015% for Anthon E., Smith L., 1975 - Integrated control of mite
Hoplocampa spp. Moreover, Faster 10 EC can be on prunes in central Washington. J. econ.
Entomol., 68(5): 655-656.
used at a dose of 0.025%, Karate Zeon, a dose of Baicu T., Săvescu A., 1978 - Combatarea integrată în
0.015%, Laser 240 EC, dose of 0.06%; Mavrik 2 F, protecția plantelor. Editura Ceres, București. 327
at a dose of 0.05% only of plum aphid gray; p.
Movento 100 SC at a dose of 1,875 l / ha; Nurelle Hatman M., Bobeş I., Lazăr Al., Perju T., Săpunaru
D 50/500 EC at a dose of 0.075% Pyrinex 25 CS at T.,1986 - Protecţia plantelor cultivate. Editura
Ceres, Bucureşti.
a dose of 0.3% Quick Pyrinex a dose of 0.1% etc. Poulev V., 1975 - Réalisations concernant la lutte
To combat the gray plum aphid,treatments Teppeki intégrée en vergers de pommiers en R. P.
can be applied at a dose from 0.012 to 0.014%. Bulgarie. C.R. 5 é Symp. Lutte intégrée en
However, to combat mites, treatments in the vergers, O.I.L.B./S.R.O.P., p. 89-96.
Tălmaciu Nela, 2009 – Dăunătorii din plantațiile de
first part of vegetation may be applied, with
prun. Editura Performantica. 150 p.
insecticides such Vantex 60 CS at a dose of Touzeau J., 1975 - Etudes préliminaires à l’introduction
0.015%, against red acarian, acaricide t Nissorun de la lutte intégrée en vergers de pruniers d’Ente
10 WP, at 0.03% (http://www.sanatateaplantelor. dans la régio d’Agen. C.R. 5e Symp. Lutte
ro/recomandari/348-no-pest-combating neglected- intégrée en vergers, O.I.L.B./S.R.O.P., p. 199-
210.
to-plum). Ulea E., 2003 - Fitopatologie. Editura Ion Ionescu de la
However, pest control treatments for plum Brad, Iași.
plantations may vary, combat schemes are diverse *** - www.aced.md/publication/download.php?id=107
and can vary as amount, depending on the financial (26.08.2014)
*** - http://biblioteca.regielive.ro/fituici/ecologie/
possibilities of farmers.
combatere-integrata-312066.html (26.08. 2014)
*** - http://sccoastalpesticides.org/knowledgebase
CONCLUSIONS /ipm_advantages.php (03.10.2014)
*** - http://www.amalpest.com.au/LearningCentre
Plum pests can be contained both by /PestControlStrategies (03.10.2014)
*** - http://www.revista-ferma.ro/articole-horticultura/
conventional and unconventional methods. combaterea-daunatorilor-prin-metode-
Integrated combat is a system based on integrated biologice.html (26.08.2014)
pest populations control, taking into account the *** - http://www.sanatateaplantelor.ro/recomandari/348-
environment and the dynamics of the considered nu-neglijati-combaterea-daunatorilor-la-prun
particular species, using all appropriate methods in (26.08.2014)
a compatible manner, to keep pests to a level that
does not produce economic damage.
166
PRELIMINARY STUDIES ON PLUM PLANTATIONS ENTOMOFAUNA
Gianina BUTNARIU1, Mihai TĂLMACIU 1, Silvia Brîndușa HAMBURDĂ1
e-mail: gianina.butnariu@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper summarizes the literature on entomofauna of plum orchards. The purpose of this paper is to present the state
of knowledge on the main pests of plum plantations existing in our country and beyond. The research was made based
on comparative studies and case studies data from the literature. The plum, for Romania, is a fruit tree species with
ancient resonance. Great adaptability to different climatic and soil conditions made the plum tree to grow and produce
spontaneous or cultivated varieties, range and variety being virtually limitless. Worldwide, the plum tree is attacked by
over 90 pest species belonging to the following orders: the Acari order: 6 species; the Heteroptera order: 4 species; the
Homoptera order: 16 species; the Coleoptera order: 18 species; the Hymenoptera order: 7 species; the Lepidoptera
order: 33 species; the Diptera order: 1 species; the Rodentia order: 2 species. As a general conclusion, the plum tree is
attacked by a large number of pests, which, depending on region, weather conditions etc., can adversely affect fruit
production.
Key words: orchards,damage,production
Pests and diseases affect a significant part of country's reputation. Durability of the trees and
the annual fruit harvest, from a few percent under their location on the same land for decades make
good protection to compromising crop in favorable the fight against pathogens and pests harder,
conditions for diseases (apple scab) or pests (plum compared to annual agricultural crops, where crop
stones wasps). Regardless of the size of the rotation is a very effective combat method
orchard, currently, when the sources of infection (Vincent C. et al, 1999).
with diseases and pests are very high, quality The large number of diseases and pests that
production can not be achieved without plant attack the plum tree makes the organization for
protection measures. To perform optimally fighting them to occupy a significant amount of
treatments, major diseases and pests must be time and concern for the growers. Protection, at the
known, as well as their biology (Baohong H. et al, current requirements, does not refer only to save
2005, Huang B. et al., 2005). the harvest, but the fight is necessary to achieve an
The most important diseases affecting trees increased percentage of quality, perfectly healthy
and fruit production, and which can be combated fruits, with no accumulation of toxic residues in
directly, are caused by fungi and bacteria. In fruits and their preparations (University of
addition, there may be a number of viruses and California, 1999).
mycoplasmosis, but in this case curative measures
can not occur, only preventive ones (Ulea E., MATERIAL AND METHOD
2003).
Among pests, the ones that cause the This paper summarizes the knowledge of
greatest damage are insects and mites that attack entomofauna of plum orchards, based on an
extensive bibliography from our country and abroad.
the stem and its components and nematodes that
The biological material is the plum species (Prunus
affect roots. Less important in general, but with domestica L.). As working methods, we used
major implications in particular cases, is the comparative analysis and case study based on
damage caused by birds and rodents (mice, rabbits, existing information in the literature, given the
deer) (Minaud J., 1980). possible attack thresholds, in the ecological
For our country, plum fruit tree is a species circumstances in our country. The number of pest
with ancient resonance. Characterized as the tree of species and orders to which they belong have been
highlighted. This analysis takes into account the
life or hope, it is spread from the plains to the quantity and quality of the harvest, as well as its
Carpathian hills and sometimes up to the foothills. economic efficiency.
Over the years, the plum and its products ensured
peasants’ sustenance, while contributing to the
1
167
years, produce great damage, a lot of research has

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS been done on pests prevalence, description and
biology, prevention and combating measures for
Plum trees requires a large number of pests in orchards (Olsen J.L. et al., 2011; Page P.,
treatments to prevent and combat diseases and 2003; Patch E.M., 1915).
pests, especially since the absence or insufficiency The research on pests in plum plantations
of treatments may lead to the compromise of 50- showed that they represent a large number and
70% of the crop of plums (table 1) (Tălmaciu M., which, depending on the area, weather conditions,
2009). etc., may adversely affect fruit production.
In many works of entomology, there are Worldwide, the plum tree is attacked by over 90
cases of occurrence of insect pests in crops raised pest species belonging to the following orders: the
multiple issues for science and practice of plant Acari order: 6 species; the Heteroptera order: 4
protection. In recent years, an unusual propagation species; the Homoptera order: 16 species; the
of pests in plum plantations has been noticed, such Coleoptera order: 18 species; the Hymenoptera
as plum pips wasp (Eurytoma schreineri Schr.), order: 7 species; the Lepidoptera order: 33 species;
plum black wasp and plum yellow wasp the Diptera order: 1 species; the Rodentia order: 2
(Hoplocampa minuta Christ. and Hoplocampa species. (Minaud J., 1980; Tălmaciu M. et al.
flava L.), plum worm (Grapholitha funebrana Tr.), 2004).
tested lice (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Const., Concerning plum plantations in Iasi county,
Partenolecaniun corni Bche.), aphids (Hyalopterus frequent species that produce significant damage
pruni Geoffr.), mites (Tetranychus urticae Koch., are: Grapholitha molesta Busck.; Euproctis
Panonychus ulmi Koch., etc.) (Koves D.S. et al, chrysorrhoea L.; Aporia crataegi L.; Lymantria
2002; Tălmaciu N. et al., 2006 a, b, c, d). dispar L.; Scolitus mali Bechst.; Rugidoscolytus
In addition to animal pests, damage from rugulosus Ratz.; Parthenolecanium corni Bché.;
pathogens is also reported, as follows: Plum pox Bryobia rubrioculus Scheut.; Qadraspidiotus
virus (plum pox), Pseudomonas syringae pv. mors- perniciosus Comst.; Hoplocampa minuta Christ.;
prunorum, Taphrina pruni, Podosphaera tridactyla Hoplocampa flava; Eurytoma schreineri Schr., etc.
and Polystigma rubrum. (Tălmaciu M. et al, 2007).
Starting from the fact that pests, in some
Table 1
Plum pests plantations classification (Tălmaciu Nela, 2009)
Species Species
Scientific name Scientific name
classification classification
Tetranychus urticae Hoch. Biyobia rubrioculus Scheut.
Hyalopterus pruni Geoffr. Eriophyes phloeocoptes Nalepa
Quadraspidiotus perniciosus Const. Hyphantria cunea Drury.
Parthenolecanium corni Bche. Hyponomeuta padella L.
Major pests Secondary
Hoplocampa minuta Christ. Operoptera brumata L.
pests
Hoplocampa flava L. Lymantria dispar L.
Grapholitha funebrana Tr. Euproctis crysorrhoea L.
Eurytoma schreineri Schr. Sciaphobus squalidus Gyll.
Rhynchites bacchus L.
The first treatment to prevent plum disease mites. A mandatory spring treatment is applicable
and pests should be applied from January to after the shaking of petals, as it covers a wide
February, when the tree fully bathes. The day range of diseases and pests. During the summer,
chosen for spraying must be one with there will be warning splashing for a variety of
temperatures above zero degrees, with a non- pests, such as Quadraspidiotus perniciosus and
existent or very low risk of precipitations and plum worm, but also for Monilinia laxa disease.
weak wind (Kaufman D.S. et al., 2004). Treatments are applied regularly at a distance of
The following splashes occur in spring, 2-3 weeks of each other (Kaufman D.S. et al.,
after budding, applying treatments against plum 2004).
diseases and pests, such as Monilinia laxa, red Last splash of the season takes place in
and brown spider and fungal screening. Plum November and it is aimed at treating the bark and
splashes are recommended before the opening of the wood, especially in old orchards (Kaufman
the petals, preferably on a wet, rainy day. At this D.S. et al., 2004).
stage, treatment is aimed at preventing and
combating Monilinia laxa,, fungal disease and
168
All these pests can be controlled by various Koveos D.S., Katsoyannos B., Broufas G.D., 2002 -
methods, but the most desirable is the biological First record of Eurytoma schreineri Sch.
(Hymenoptera - Eurytomidae) in Greece and
one (Wiackowski S.K., 1971). some observation on its phenology. Journal of
International Organization for Biological Applied Entomology, no.4, p.186-187.
Fight (OILB) defined biological control as a use Minaud J., 1980 - Principal enemies of the plum [pest,
of living organisms and products of their disease, control].Jardins de France (France).
Olsen J.L., Pscheidt J.W., Peachey R.E., 2011 -
biological purpose of regulating pest populations. prune and plum pest management guide for the
Through these, it is stressed, on one side, the Willamette Valley. Corvallis, Or.: Extension
conscious use of natural enemies of pests, and on Service, Oregon State University.
the other hand, the products of their metabolism in Page P., 2003 - Southeastern Peach, Nectarine and
order not to eradicate, destroy all pests, but only Plum Pest Management and Culture Guide.
Patch E.M., 1915 - The Pond-Lily Aphid as a Plum
to adjust their density. Extending biological pest Pest. Science. 42(1074), 164-164.
control methods is one of perspective directions of Tălmaciu M., Tălmaciu Nela., Georgescu T., 2004 -
development of plant protection, especially to Structura, dinamica și abundența speciilor de
reduce and eliminate pollution phenomena that coleoptere colectate din plantațiile de prun, în
condițiile Stațiunii Didactice Iași, jud. Iași. Lucrări
can produce chemicals (Wiackowski S.K., 1971).
științifice, vol.47, Seria Horticultura, Analele
The basic principle of the concept of U.S.A.M.V. Iasi, p.1183-1186.
biological control is the biocenotic balance, that Tălmaciu Nela, Tălmaciu M., Diaconu A., 2006 -
the population of a species (prey, host) is subject Observaţii privind biologia şi ecologia speciei
to other species (predators, parasites, pathogens). Eurytoma schreineri Schr. (Hymenoptera -
Eurytomidae) din plantaţiile de prun, în perioada
This balance, however, is oscillating, is dynamic 2002–2003. Lucrări ştiințifice, Seria Horticultură,
and can be disturbed by some agronomic and p. 1061-1066 , ISSN 1454‐7376.
plant protection practices. Therefore, it is Tălmaciu Nela, Tălmaciu M., Georgescu T., Diaconu
necessary to create favorable conditions to A., 2006 ‐ Observations concerning the
entomophages (Wiackowski S.K., 1971). efficiency of some insecticides products, used
for controling the Grapholitha funebrana Tr. pest
and Eurytoma Schreineri Schr. pest, from the
CONCLUSIONS plum plantations. Rev. Cercetări agr. în
Moldova, vol 4 (128), p.17‐24, ISSN 0379‐5837.
Plum is attacked by a large number of pests Tălmaciu Nela, Tălmaciu M., 2006 - Structure,
abundances, dynamics and parameter
which, depending on region, weather conditions ecological of the carabid fauna (Coleoptera –
etc., can adversely affect fruit production. From Carabidae) from plum plantations. ESNA, XXXVI
the study of bibliography results, we notice not Annual Meeting Iasi‐Romania, ISBN (10)
only the importance of knowing plum plantations 973‐7921‐81‐X ; ISBN (13) 978‐973‐7921‐81‐9.
pests, but also controversial or unresolved issues, Tălmaciu Nela, Tălmaciu M., 2006 ‐ Observations
regarding the measures of preventing and
which will have to be the highest priority for control the species Eurytoma Schreineri Schr.
research units in order to improve integrated pest, from the plum plantations.ESNA, XXXVI
protection strategy. Annual Meeting Iasi ‐ Romania, ISBN(10)
973‐7921‐81‐X; ISBN (13)978‐973‐7921‐81‐9.
ACKNOWLEGMENTS Tălmaciu Nela, Diaconu A., Tălmaciu M., Ulea E.,
2007 - Observations concernant la faune des
This paper was published under the frame of European carabides dans les vergers des pommiers situes
Social Fund, Human Resources Development au nord est de la Roumanie. Lucr. Şt. Vol.39,
Operational Programme 2007-2013, project no. partea a II‐a.Ed.Agroprint Timişoara, pag.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765. 441‐447.ISSN 1221‐5279.
Tălmaciu Nela, 2009 - Dăunătorii din plantatiile de
prun.Editura Performantica, Iași. ISBN:
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BIOECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF FLY OR WORM CHERRIES

Rhagolethis cerasi L.
Nichita CROITORU1, Sergiu PANUȚA1, Ș. OLESEA1,

Oana LĂCĂTUȘU (BODESCU)2, Maria Mădălina BODESCU2
e-mail: n.croitoru@uasm.md
Abstract
Fly or worm cherry attack cherries and sour cherry fruit and degree of attack depends on the baking times of these
species. Fruits of early varieties are practically not attacked because at the occurrence of female fruit ripening ends.
Much of the eggs are deposited on fruit varieties with middle and late ripening age. The damage are produced by the
larvae, which consume the pulp of the fruit around the kernel. Fruits attacked outside show deep cavities. In the years of
intensive development of this pest can be attacked 50-60% of cherries and 30% of sour cherry. These fruits cannot be
eaten fresh or present and cannot be used for processing. In combating this pest shall apply agrotechnical and chemical
measures.
Key words: Cherry tree, sour cherry, Rhagoletis cerasi L., biology, phenology, control
In Moldova, with climatic and soil MATERIAL AND METHODS

conditions pretty favorable for the growth and
fructification of fruit species, pomiculture is one of Experiences related to determining the
the main branches of agriculture. Together with biological efficiency of the preparation Engeo K SC
247 have been fulfilled in 2013, the plantations of
many other species, the cherry tree is a fruit
stone fruit crops, of Technology Experimental Station
species thanks to nutritional, technological and "Condru" Research Institute for Fruit Production. For
commercial characteristics of fruits. Cherry is a testing was selected the cherry tree plantation with
species that grows in the conditions of a simpler Hebros variety which has age of 17 and the area of
agrotechnical, offers consumers the earliest fruits 0.5 ha. The maturation period is the third decade of
with an aspect and great taste, ensures harvests June or the first decade of July. The planting scheme
each year. But to obtain high harvests of fruit with 4m x 5m with direction lines from North to South.
(Lazări I., 2002)
high biological value and high quality, a negative The experience included four versions: two
role they have pests and diseases of this crop. In doses of the preparation Engeo K 247 SC (0.15 and
plantations of cherry tree aphid causes regular 0.2 l/ha), standard and witness. As standard was
damage black louse of cherry, cherry leaf wasp, proposed the insecticide Calypso 480 SC in a dose of
golden weevil of cherry, etc. 0.3 l/ha recommended in the State Register of plant
Apart from these pests a negative influence protection products and fertilizers. The experiments
were performed in three repetitions, the location of
on the production of cherry fruit has fly which is parcels in land being compact randomized. Each
also called worm cherries. In the biology of fly parcel was divided into three trees, having a
cherries a series of particularities are directly rectangular shape with a surface area of 60 m 2. For
depends on the pedoclimatic conditions. Agro- isolation between the parcels of each variable from
technical measures to combat are not always the the elongated part were left 2-3 trees and laterally
most effective, in some cases, the most accessible. between repetitions the strip protection made a whole
row. Preparation and water consumption required to
For chemical control of fly cherries are allowed a
treat a parcel was calculated based on the
small number of plant protection products. consumption norm to 1 ha. The treatments for
(Busuioc M., 2006) experimental lot were fulfilled with manual watering
can back accommodated to sprinkling trees and fruit
trees.
1
2
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iasi
171
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS cause a strong infestation next year. At the same
time take into account the existence of wild cherry
To obtain the highest indices using and other plants attacked from spontaneous flora
integrated plant protection in general and cherry nearby.
culture in part is strictly necessary to forecast For the test research in 2013 were not
population the dynamic development of the pest opportunities to determine biological reserves from
which implies two steps. During the first stage is autumn because the proposals for testing taking
determined biological reserve before harvesting the place much later, in March. Therefore accessible
fruits from late ripening varieties. To these and for us was the second forecasting method, which
sour cherry are made determinations of the involves observations from spring on the biology
frequency and percentage of fruit attack. At each of the pest. From the beginning it was decided to
variety shall keep record of at least three trees, and determine the presence of musca in cherry
from each tree at least every three hundred fruits plantation intended for testing.
considering that an average of ten fruits attacked to For this purpose at the end of April were
one tree determines the next year a significant conducted 8 surveys in the soil with the surface of
reserve, which requires a careful tracking of pests 0.25 m2 and depth of the 2-15 cm, hibernating
next year. It take into account the biological pest pupae was determined evidence and determine
reserve estimated by surveys conducted in the soil their viability. The research results are presented in
around the tree, considering that an average table 1.
density of 10 pupae hibernating to one tree will
Table 1
Results of the determination biological reserve of cherry fly (2013)
The number of pupae
No. crt. Total number, The number of Of these Alive
2 2
pc. 1m , pc. dead, pc. Alive, pc Pc. at 1 m pupae, %
1 2 0 2
2 3 1 2
3 1 0 1
4 3 0 3
7,5 6,5 86,67
5 0 0 0
6 2 0 2
7 1 0 1
8 3 1 2
Total 15 - 2 13 -
The table reveals that biological reserve of corresponds to histogenesis process, which
fly cherries in the third decade of april is formed emphasizes that more than 3-6 days will begin the
by 7.5 pupae/m2, of which 6.5 pupae, or 86.67% flight of new adults. The research results are
were viable. Given index exceeds approximately 3 presented in table 2. The table reveals that first
times the economic damage threshold (2 pupae with pink eye, the number of five specimens
pupae/m2 ). This fact warns that the frequency of were found on 29 April. In subsequent records the
pest during the season of 2013 will be very high, number of pupae with such morphological features
and the rationality of using the chemical treatments has extended to increase and reached a maximum
is quite obvious. value (eg 42) on 10 May (table 2).
After observations on biological reserve, the First pupae with green eyes (1 ex.) were
biological material collected was buried in a detected on 7 May. On the same day was found an
growth box under the tree at a depth of 5 cm to empty pupa, from which has flown the first adult.
extend researches on the development of pupar The maximum number of pupae with green eyes
stage in order of accurate warning terms of making was detected in 13 to 20 May. Empty pupae were
the first treatment. For a higher accuracy pupae marked from May 7 to June 9, and the maximum
number was increased to 50 pc. by collecting number was found in the period from May 12 to
neighboring plots of cherry tree. To follow the June 3.
evolution of the pest, the observations were Based on the results obtained it can be noted
fulfilled daily and after emergence of the first adult that the first chemical treatment warning was
evidence was performed regularly during the three necessary performed at 13 to 22 may. These data,
days. It is well established that the development of however, requires a broader materialize because
fly pupae cherry can be determined by eye color of the pest development depends largely on the
future adult. Colour pink confesses that started the temperature of the soil and the environment, air
process of histoliza. Green color of pupae relative humidity and precipitation. It is known
172
that in the days with rain insect activity is observations on pest from warning cage on May 5
interrupted as long as the leaves are wet. Also in the experimental lot were placed three yellow
during the rains many adults die in the ground glue traps, which were hung in favorite places of
before flying into the tree. Therefore to determine fly cherries on top and sunny of the crown trees.
adult flight dynamics concomitantly with
Table 2
The dynamic development of fly pupae cherries (2013)
From these, ex. The number of The period of
Record Total number Pink eyes Green eyes empty pupae, ex. performing the
periods of pupae, ex. treatmentc
April
21.04. 0 0 0
22.04. 0 0 0
23.04. 0 0 0
24.04 0 0 0
25.04 0 0 0
26.04. 0 0 0
29.04. 5 0 0
Mai
1.05. 14 0 0
4.05. 29 0 0
7.05. 45 1 1
50
10.05. 42 3 2 The emergence of

13.05. 0 12 5 the first adults
16.05. 0 41 6
19.05. 0 33 14
22.05. 0 25 22 First treatment
25.05. 0 17 30
28.05. 0 10 37
31.05. 0 7 40 Second treatment
June
3.06. 0 4 43
6.06. 0 2 45
9.06. 0 0 47
12.06. 0 0 0
From the data of table 3 shows that the first 4.3 to 3.0 ex./trap. In this connection it was agreed
adults were captured at may 11 to 14. During of 10 the treatment to be repeated at 1 June.
days the numerical value of the flies has gradually The results obtained under the extension
increased and accounted maximum (5.3 adults/ records showed an essential decrease of adults and
trap) on 20 May. From the data obtained revealed reached a low of 0.3 ex/trap at June 7 to 10.
that the first chemical treatment was warned and Records made after treatment (4-10.06)
was done on 20 May. This sprinkling resulted in an showed that after June 10 in the experimental lot
essential reduction of the number of flies captured were not detected practically adults of fly cherries.
in the following records. Thus on May 23 were Based on the records made on of fly cherries
captured only 2.3 ex. which is 2.3 times less than biological reserve, pest biology and influence of
the previous evidence. ecological factors were found combating fly
The efficacy of the preparation, but has cherries were necessary and were achieved two
proved to be short-lived because in this period treatments.
were rains which have negatively influenced at For the assess the efficacy of different doses
concentration of the preparation. of the preparation during baking were harvested
This explains the increase again in the from each three trees that make up a repetition ripe
number of adults who have formed at 26 to 29 may fruits a 100 ripe fruits (total 300 fruits).
Table 3
The results of capturing adult fly cherries with glue traps (2013)
The Record periods
number of Mai June
traps 5 8 11 14 17 20 23 26 29 1 4 7 10 13
1. 0 0 1 1 3 5 3 4 1 1 0 1 1 0
2. 0 0 1 2 3 5 1 4 1 1 0 0 0 0
3. 0 0 1 1 4 6 3 5 1 0 1 0 0 0
Average 0,0 0,0 1,0 1,3 3,3 5,3 2,3 4,3 3,0 0,7 0,3 0,3 0,3 0
173
These were brought into the laboratory this way a high background for the application of
where after a few days were analyzed. To insecticides.
determine the presence of larvae at first fruits were Biological reserve of fly cherries constituted
split. In order to achieve more accurate results 7.5 pupae/m2 , of which 6.5 pupae, or 86.67% were
fruits subjected to analysis were introduced in viable.
water over 24 hours. After this period, the fruits The first pupae with pink eye were detected
were passed through sieves of different sizes. on 29 April and reached the maximum value (eg
Larvae were collected and counted on the last 42) on 10 May.
sieve. First pupae who have green eyes (1 eg.)
The data reveals that in version control the were detected in 7 May, and the maximum number
attack level of the fruits constituted 96.44% which of pupae with green eyes was detected in 13 to 20
further testifies to the high density of the pest in May.
the experimental lot. In the experimental variants The first fly cherries adults were captured at
this index was much lower and at preparation May 11 to 14 and during 10 days of numerical
Engeo K 247 SC with norm consumption 0.2 l/ha value of the flies has gradually increased and
2.67%. In the third variant this index made up accounted maximum (5.3 adults/trap) on 20 May.
20.22%. Terms performing chemical treatments were
The calculations of biological efficacy of established as a result of studying the biological
preparations and doses studied demonstrates that factors, ecological and phenological.
the most effective in combating fly cherries is the The most effective in combating the fly
insecticide Engeo K 247 SC with the norm cherries is insecticide Engeo K 247 SC, with
consumption 0.2 l/ha, which provides an efficiency consumption norm 0.2 l/ha which ensures a
of 97.23%, which is the standard . reduction in the fruits attacked by 97.23%.
The biological effectiveness of insecticide
Engeo K 247 SC to the norm consumption 0.15 REFERENCES
l/ha constituted 79.03% and gives essential as the
4th version so and standard. Busuioc M., 2006 - Entomologie agricolă, Centrul
editorial al UASM, – 639 p. ISBN 978-9975-64-
It should be noted that besides cherry fly in 020-6, Chişinău
the experimental lot were found single copies of Памужак Н., Кроитору Н., Пануца С., Тимуш А.,
black cherry aphid, with much lower density than 2010 - O результатах государственного
PED. Records made after the completion of испытания инсектицидов против вишневой
мухи на вишни и черешни., Lucrări ştiinţifice,
chemical treatments showed that this pest was not UASM, Chişinău, vol. 24, Pt. 2: Horticultură,
detected. Viticultură şi vinificaţie, silvicultură şi grădini
publice, protecţia plantelor, p. 315-320, 0,5 c.a.
CONCLUSIONS ISBN 978-9975-64-127-2.
Lazări I., 2002 - Îndrumări metodice pentru testarea
produselor chimice şi biologice de protecţie a
In the year of research biological reserve plantelor de dăunători, boli şi buruieni în
fly cherries was very high and exceeded three Republica Moldova.,Tipografia Centrală,
times the economic damage threshold, ensuring in Chişinău, 286 p. ISBN 9975-9597-3-3
174
OILCROPS EVOLUTION IN ROMANIA

AND DOBRUDJA - TULCEA COUNTY
Mădălina Ecaterina CUCU (POIDA)1, Gheorghe Valentin ROMAN
e-mail: ecaterina_madalina@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper aims to present the evolution of grown areas and productions of oilseed crops in the period 2007 - 2011 in
Romania, and in Dobrudja region - Tulcea County. It is based on statistical data extracted from the Romanian Statistical
Yearbook and data supplied by the Department for Agriculture and Rural Development from Tulcea. The data were
processed into following indices: oilseed crops grown in Romania and in Dobrudja - Tulcea County; total grown area
and for each species; total productions and average yields in evolution during the analyzed time interval. In the period
under review grown areas and productions fell in the first two years and then gradually increased from year to year. So,
in 2011 in Romania sunflower crop area increased by 17.9% and production of 2.4 times, rapeseed area increased by
4.6% and production by 106% and soybean area decreased by 48% and production had an increase of 8.1%. In
Dobrogea - Tulcea County area cultivated with sunflower increased by 17.7% and production 3.3 times, rapeseed area
increased by 20.4% and production by 52% and the area planted with soybeans decreased by 37% while production
increased by 15%. It is to emphasize that in Romanian, in Dobrudja region and in Tulcea County there are very
favorable conditions for oilseed crops growing.
Key words: evolution, oil crops, growing area, seeds yields, Romania and Tulcea County
In oilseed crops domain in our country there components represent about 60-80% of the seed
are remarkable achievements, especially in weight. Lately, there are concerns for extending
sunflower crop. Romania is one of the largest the use of oilseeds proteins.
sunflower growers in the world and is the first Significant amounts of vegetable oils are
country that introduced and cultivated sunflower using in soap industry, varnishes, paints, linoleum,
hybrids. There are important achievements related and others as lubricants, in metallurgy, tannery.
to sunflower growing technology, but in oil flax Vegetable oils which are liquid at
and castor-oil plant breeding and growing too. temperatures below 0°C (soybean, sunflower,
Vegetable fats have numerous uses in rapeseed oils) can be used as fuel for diesel
human nutrition and food industry. They are a engines, but with some drawbacks (deposits, wear)
concentrated form of energy, being the main and after some relatively large engines adjustments
energy provider for the organism. By burning a and fuel supply.
gram of fat releases 9.3 kcal, and twice from After oil extraction, the remaining cakes and
carbohydrates or proteins. Vegetable edible oils meals are concentrated feed rich in protein (30-
have good taste and high digestibility (around 35%), carbohydrates, fats and vitamins.
95%) surpassing animal fats, and being only by Cakes from certain oilseeds, from which oil
butter digestibility exceeded (98%). A was extracted by cold pressing, are used in the
disadvantage of vegetable oils is that, in the preparation of halva and other confectionery.
processing industry, they lose a lot of fat soluble Oilseeds crops are important from
vitamins (A, D, E, K). agrotechnical point of view. Those harvested early
Vegetable oils are widely used in canning (oil flax, early crucifers) are very favorable
and baking industry. By hydrogenation it is previous crops for winter cereals.
possible to obtain margarine, used in direct food or Oilseeds species as hoes crops, and well
confectionery. cultivated, they contribute to weeds control in crop
Besides fat content, oilseeds contain large rotations.
amounts of proteins (16/45%). These two
1
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest, 59 Marasti, Sector 1, 011464, Bucharest,
Romania, Mobile phone +40 740340064
175
significant increase of 86.1%, and soybean crop

MATERIALS AND METHODS had a significant decrease of 33.43%.
In 2009 all oil crops productions decreased
The work was carried out during year 2012, in as follows: sunflower production decreased by
which they used information from Romanian 6.1%, rapeseed production by 16.8% and soybean
specialized literature. Were also consulted reports production decline was of 7%.
results obtained from competent national institutions.
If productions fell in 2009, the difference
The main indicators used for this analysis
were: growing areas, seeds yields and total between 2010 to 2009 productions show that all
productions. Data used for this analysis are official crops had increases as follows: sunflower had a
data drawn from statistical yearbooks available from significant increase of 15%, and rapeseed and
the Romanian National Institute of Statistics and also soybean had highly significant increases,
statistics released by the Department of Agriculture respectively 68.5% and 77.8%.
and Rural Development of Tulcea County.
Year 2011 was favorably for sunflower crop
and the production increased significantly by
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 47.6%, in comparison to rapeseed production
decreasing by 21% and to soybean by 1.8%.
Table 1 presents the evolution of oilcrops
growing areas. In 2008 compared to 2007 the areas Table 2
decreased by 2.6% for sunflower and by 62.5% for Evolution of oilcrops productions in Romania
soybean, and rapeseed area had a slight increase. In Crop
Total production (thou tons)
2009 the areas with sunflower decreased by 5.9% 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
compared to previous year, rapeseed has increased Sunflower 546.9 1170.0 1098.0 1262.9 1864.1
Rapeseed 361.5 673.0 559.6 943.0 744.8
by 15% and soybean area reduced by 22%. Soyabean 136.1 90.6 84.3 149.9 147.2
If we calculate the difference in 2010 Oil flax 0.4 - -
compared to 2009 we can see that for all oil crops
the areas increased as follows: by 3.2% for
sunflower, by 28% for rapeseed and by 31% for
soybean.
The differences for oil crops growing areas
in 2011 compared to 2010 were as follows: for
sunflower the area increased by 24.5%, for
rapeseed the area decreased by 29%, while the
soybean crop area increased by 8.3 %.
Table 1.
Evolution of oilcrops growing areas in Romania
Figure 2 Graphical representation of
Crop Area (thou ha) oilseeds crops productions in Romania
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Sunflower 835.9 813.9 766.1 790.8 985.3
Rapeseed 364.9 365.0 419.9 537.3 381.6 In table 3 presenting the oilcrops areas
Soybean 133.1 49.9 48.8 63.9 69.2 evolution in Dobrudja – Tulcea County, we can
Oil flax 0.5 - - - - see that the difference of 2008 to 2007 shows a
decline of 6.6% of the area grown with sunflower,
a very significant growth of 51.2% for rapeseed,
and a very significant decrease of 69% for
soybean.
Regarding 2009 oilcrops growing area the
state was as follows: sunflower decreased by
13.8%, rape decreased by 12.6%, soybean had a
slight increase of 3.4%, and mustard growing area
increased 10 times.
In 2010, for oilcrops growing areas very
significant increases were recorded by 70.4% for
Figure 1 Graphical representation
of oilcrops growing areas in Romania
rapeseed, by 82% for soybean and by 86.6% for oil
flax, and for sunflower and mustard, the areas
Table 2 shows the evolution of oilcrops decreased of 7.1 %.
productions in Romania. Sunflower crop A comparison of the year 2011 to 2010
production in 2008 was higher than previous year shows a very significant increase of the area grown
of 114%, rapeseed production had a very with sunflower of 57.3% and an increase of 6.3%
176
for soybean, instead for rapeseed, oil flax and Productions from 2011 to 2010 show a very
mustard, the areas decreased very significantly, significant increase of 91% for sunflower, and
namely: by 46.5% for rapeseed, by 68.9% for oil significant decreases of 47.3% for rapeseed, of
flax and by 61% for mustard. 69,2% for oil flax, and of 65.2% for mustard,
Table 3 instead soybean production dropped by 27.7%.
Evolution of oilcrops growing areas
in Dobrudja-Tulcea County
Crops Area (thou ha)
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Sunflower 45.42 42.43 36.57 33.96 53.45
Rapeseed 22.32 33.75 29.48 50.24 26.87
Soybean 14.09 0.44 0.45 0.82 0.88
Oil flax 0 0 0.39 0.74 0.23
Mustard 0 0.065 0.73 0.68 0.27
Safflower 0 0.008 0 0 0

of oilcrops productions in Dobrudja-Tulcea County
CONCLUSIONS
In recent year’s sunflower and rapeseed

growing areas increased due to lower soybean
acreage, because of the European Union
restrictions to cultivate genetically modified
of oil growing areas in Dobrudja-Tulcea County soybean.
2008-2011 periods registered increased
Table 4 presents the production of oilcrops growing areas for oil flax and mustard in Dobrudja
in 2007-2011. Year 2008 compared to 2007 shows – Tulcea County, and very significant increases of
a very significant increase in crop yields for productions.
sunflower and rapeseed, 1.7 times respectively 1.9 Year 2011 was very favorable for sunflower
times. Regarding soybean crop even cultivated and rapeseed crops, and as a consequence
area had a decrease of 69%, production was higher productions increased of almost 2 times more, in
by 18.4%. comparison to 2010.
Output gap in 2009 compared to 2008 shows
that production had a very significant increase of REFERENCES
1.8 times for mustard crop and for other oil crops
productions fell by 33.7% for sunflower, by 32.6% Axinte M., Roman G.V., Borcean I., Muntean L.S.,
2006 - Field Crops Production (Fitotechnia), IVth
for rapeseed, and by 7.1% for soybean. Edition, „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Publishing
House, Iasi, p. 309-310.
Table 4 Roman G.V., Morar G., Robu T., Stefan M., Axinte M.,
Evolution of oilcrops productions et all, 2012 - Field Crops Production
in Dobrudja-Tulcea County (Fitotechnia), Vol. II - Industrial, Medicinal and
Crops Total production (thou tons) Aromatic Crops, ”Universitara” Publishing House,
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 Bucuresti, , p.15/115.
Sunflower 16.62 44.95 29.81 37.86 72.16 *** - http://www.insse.ro/cms/rw/pages/comunicate/
Rapeseed 19.36 57.53 38.78 56.13 29.55 arhiva_productie%20vegetala.ro.do
Soybean 1.37 1.62 1.51 2.18 1.58 *** - http://www.insse.ro/cms/files/pdf/en/cp14.pdf
Oil flax 0 0 0.39 0.67 0.207 *** - http://www.madr.ro/pages/raport/agricultura-
Mustard 0 0.15 0.42 0.56 0.195 romaniei-noiembrie-2010.pd.
Safflower 0 0.013 0 0 0
As regards 2010 as compared to 2009,

production increased in all oilcrops, as follows:
there was a very significant increase for oil flax by
70%, and a distinct significant increase for all
other crops, respectively: 27% for sunflower,
44.8% for rapeseed, 44.5% for soybean and 32.6%
for mustard.
177
178
ENZYME ACTIVITY INVOLVED IN N AND P CYCLES,

OF SOYBEAN PLANT RHIZOSPHERE SOIL, ROOTS AND LEAVES
Oxana DARABAN1, Iana BIZGAN 1, Ecaterina EMNOVA1, Simion TOMA1
e-mail: kateemnova@mail.ru
Abstract
The research aim was to evaluate the influence of exogenous nitrogen sources on key-enzyme activity involved in
nitrogen (urease) and phosphorus (phosphatase) metabolism in the rhizosphere soil, roots and leaves of soybean plants
at bud-flowering stage. The field experiment was designed on 4 plots (12 m2, 60 plants/ m2): two fertilization treatments
x four replicates. The soil was fertilized in starting rates with mineral forms of N and P (N20P60): KH2PO4; NH4NO3
(ammonium nitrate) and (NH2)2CO (urea). Urease and phosphatase activity (acid, alkaline and total) were determined in
the studied material. Application of additional sources of mobile nitrogen (N) led to changes of enzymatic activities
determined in the rhizosphere soil and soybean plant organs. Urease activity showed an increase in soil treated with
urea, which probably served as a substrate for increased ammoniacal nitrogen amount and uptake, respectively. The
increasing of the phosphatase activity in the rhizosphere soil and roots, in the treatment with ammonium nitrate as soil
fertilizer, showed an intensification of the phosphorus mobilization. The obtained data indicated that there was an
increased need in phosphorus assimilation for plants, in this treatment. Phosphatase activity (acid and total) in leaves
was not influenced by the type of applicated fertilizer. Cultivation of soybean plants on soil fertilized with urea led to
increased productivity elements compared to ammonium nitrate. Experimentally, it has been argued, the significant role
of nitrogen sources in achieving mechanisms of functional integration and optimization of relations between roots and
rhizosphere processes driven by microorganisms, thus, contributing to increase the productivity potential of soybean
plants.
Key words: soybean plants, ammonium nitrate, urea, urease activity, phosphatase activity
In the soil, soluble forms of nitrogen are in a role in the nitrogen cycle, it catalyzes the
continuous processing. Nitrogen is absorbed by hydrolytic cleavage of urea to NH3 and CO2,
plants in the form of ammonium ions, nitrate and releasing thereby the inorganic N (which can be
to a lesser extent in the amide form (Toma S.I., volatilized into the atmosphere) with simultaneous
2008). Thus, there are plant species that give increase the pH of the soil (Khaziev F.H., 1990).
precedence to ammonia nitrogen nutrition and Soil urease activity values characterize the rate of
others of nitric nitrogen. According to published mineralization of substances containing nitrogen
data (Li S.X. et al., 2013) indicated ions can (Mihailovskaia N. et al., 2008). Phosphatase [EC
express different effects on nutrition, growth and 3.1.3.1-2] is a enzyme that catalyzes hydrolysis
productivity of various plant species. Different phosphoesteric linkages of diverse labile organic
types of fertilizers can exert different impact on molecules. Phosphatase activity contributes to the
metabolism and on the quality of the harvest, degradation of organic phosphates and their
respectively. Relationships established between conversion into forms easily assimilated by plants
plants (roots) and edaphic microbiota that (Nannipieri P., et al., 2011; Kiss Şt., Ştefanic Gh.,
synthesize and release various types of soil et al., 1991; Khaziev F.H., 1990). The mechanisms
enzymes, have an important role in the process of by which the soybean roots ensure the integrity of
plant nutrition. Soil enzymes have a major the function of suppling the plants with nitrogen, in
contribution in mobilizing soil nutrients, being drought conditions, using the biochemical activity
responsible for soil organic matter decomposition of microorganisms in the rhizosphere are not fully
(Emnova E.,Toma S., 2010; Tate R. III, 2001). As studied and thus, require further investigation.
a result, the activity of hydrolytic enzymes is a The research aim was to evaluate the
representative biochemical indicator of the soil influence of exogenous nitrogen sources on key-
quality (Emnova E.,Toma S., 2010). Urease (urea- enzyme activity involved in nitrogen (urease) and
amidohidrolaza) [EC 3.5.1.5], plays a significant phosphorus (phosphatase) metabolism of the
1
Institute of Plant Genetics, Physiology and Protection, Chisinau, Republic of Moldova
179
rhizosphere soil, roots and leaves of soybean at the natural pH of the soil (pH= 7.5). Soil chemical
plants. parameters were analyzed according to the
recommended methods (Mineev V., 1989).
Poductivity items were established at harvest.
MATERIAL AND METHOD Experimental data were statistically interpreted
using Microsoft Office applications. The veracity of
The research was conducted on IGFPP ASM the difference between arithmetic means was
experimental basis. In the field experiment four plots analyzed by Student t-test (bilateral test, type 3, with
were investigated (two variants of fertilization x 4 unequal variations).
replicates). Each plot with an area of 12 m 2 (5 m x 2.4
m) consisted of 3 experimental lines and 2 protection
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
lines, the distance between rows: 0.45 m, between
plots in width and length, respectively, 0.6 m and 1 m.
Soybean seeds were sown in the calculation of the 60 General characteristics of the soil.
plants / m 2. Determinations of the soil samples taken before
The soil was fertilized 14 days before sowing fertilizers introduction, allowed to assess the
with mineral forms of N and P in starting rates, overall soil condition at the time of the initial
recommended for soybean (Boaghii I., 2010; Toma investigation. It is known that calcareous
S., 2008; Corobco V., 1982). Phosphorus fertilizers
were introduced into the soil, as the background in
chernozem differs from other types and subtypes
the form of KH2PO4 (60 kg P2O5 / ha). Nitrogen of chernozem by higher pH value (Ursu A., 2011);
fertilizers have been amended in salt form NH4NO3 in the soil from experimental field it was 7.26; soil
(ammonium nitrate) and (NH2)2CO (urea) in a dose of water content was 20.07%. Organic matter content
20 kg N / ha. Roots, leaves, and rhizosphere soil of of carbonate chernozem was 2.87%, so the given
soybean plants, variety Indra were used as study soil is characterized as moderate humified. The
objects. Each agronomic sample was a mix of
content of mobile forms of nitrogen namely of
rhizosphere soil from 9 soybean plants (3 plants from
each of 3 experimental line). Plants with roots were ammonia nitrogen (N-NH4 ) was 0.77 mg/100 g
collected at the stage of bud-flowering. Seed material soil, and of nitrate nitrogen (N-NO3 ) 0.41 mg/100
was provided by ICCC "Selectia", Balti, RM. Indra g soil, indicating the prevalence of ammoniacal
soybean variety was approved in Republic of nitrogen in the soil. The coefficient of variation of
Moldova since 2006 and is a mid-early variety with a 14.6 to 18.8% average batch uniformity proved
vegetation period between 115-122 days. It is a experimentally. The soil of the experimental field
productive variety with a yield potential of 4390-4500
kg / ha (Iacobuţă M., et al., 2010). was characterized by a very low content of mobile
The activity of urease from the soil (UreS) was forms of phosphorus (P2O5). The results of the
determined by urea solution used as the substrate enzyme analysis showed that the hydrolytic
and Nesler reagent (Mineev V., 1989), the urease processes in the soil were triggered over (tab. 1)
activity in roots (UreR) and leaves (UreL), according Urease activity. Fertilization of the
to the methods described by Pocinoc (1976) and calcareous cernozem with urea has led to authentic
Pleshcov (1968) (Emnova E. et al., 2012; Emnova E.
et al., 2014).
increase of soil urease activity (Ure S) which
To estimate the activity of phosphatase (Pht) it recorded significantly higher values by 23.2% (p ≤
was used acidic or alkaline buffer solution (pH 5.0 0.001) compared with ammonium nitrate (tab. 2)).
and 10.2, respectively) by the method proposed by The increase of enzyme activity can be explained
Tabatabai and Bremner (1969) with disodium p- by the need to increase nitrogen assimilation from
nitrophenyl phosphate (pNP) as the substrate the soil by plants.
(Khaziev F. 1990; Taylor J., et al., 2002; Daraban O.,
2012). Total Pht were determined with distilled water,
Table 1
General characteristic of unfertilized calcareous chernozem
H SOS N-NH4, N-NO3 P 2O5 Pht S
pH UreS
% mg in 100 g a.d.s. acid total alkaline
mean 20.07 2.87 7.26 0.77 0.41 0.90 86.1 118.4 123.1 378.1
SD 0.74 0.04 0.02 0.11 0.08 0.09 6.2 4.7 3.9 14.4
CV, % 3.69 2.42 0.28 14.61 18.76 10.1 7.2 4.0 3.2 3.8
Note: H – soil water content; SOM – soil organic matter; N-NH4 – ammonia nitrogen; N-NO3 – nitrate nitrogen;
a.d.s. – absolutely dry soil; UreS - soil urease activity, NH4, mg in 1 g a.d.s./ 1 h at 37˚C; Pht S – soil phosphatase
activity, pNP, µg in 1g a.d.s./1 h at 37°C; SD – standard deviation; CV - coefficient of variation,%.
180
Table 2
Enzyme activity of N and P cycles
in the rhizosphere soil, roots and leaves of soybean plants, variety Indra
Pht
Ure
acid total alkaline
treatment Ammonium Urea Ammonium Urea Ammonium Urea Ammonium Urea
nitrate nitrate nitrate nitrate
mean 121.8 110.6 130.3 116.4 359.5 330.4 79 97
1
Soil SD 4.8 2.8 8.4 5.5 22.3 17.0 2.6 2.6
CV, % 4.0 2.6 6.5 4.8 6.2 5.1 3.2 2.7
mean 181.6 156.1 64.6 52.7 7.4 5.6 2767 3818
2
Roots SD 16.2 14.1 5.5 4.8 1.2 0.7 157 447
CV, % 8.9 9.0 8.5 9.1 16.4 12.9 5.7 11.7
2
mean 430.1 416.1 218.8 230.7 18.3 16.4 1689 1805
Leaves SD 38.6 39.3 33.8 25.5 2.5 0.7 119 125
CV, % 9.0 9.5 15.4 11.1 13.7 4.2 7.0 6.9
Note: Pht – phosphatase activity; Ure – urease activity; SD – standard deviation; CV – coefficient of variation;
a.d.s. – absolutely dry soil; index 1 (referring to Pht activity) – pNP, µg 1 g a.d.s../1 h at 37°C; index 2 (referring to
Pht activity) – pNP, mg 1 g a.d.s../1h at 37°C.
Table 3
Elements of productivity
Seed weight Pod weight Pod number
treatment mean mean mean
SD SD SD
per 1 plant, g per 1 plant, g per 1 plant, g
Ammonium
10.8 2.1 18.2 3.4 49.4 21.1
nitrate
Urea 13.9 2.3 22.7 3.6 57.7 31.4
Urease activity in root tissues (Ure R) of with urea. It was established a reliable increase (p
plants, variety Indra went much more intense than ≤ 0.001) of analyzed parameter in this treatment in
that of rhizosphere soil and was favored by the comparision to fertilization with urea by 16.3%,
application of urea fertilizers. Thus, the agrofond 22.6% and 33.4% for acid, total and alkaline Pht,
with urea fertilizer led to a genuine increase of respectively. Between plant roots’ phosphatase
UreR by 38%. A similar trend of increase observed activities determined in media with different pH
in plant leaves Indra (Ure L), where, in the values was obtained following inequality: alkaline
presence of urea it was noticed an increased Pht < total Pht < acid Pht. Total Pht activity values
nitrogen mineralization process by 6.8%. were closer to the alkaline Pht ones.
After analyzing the results we can assume The fertilization with various forms of
that the introduction of fertilizers in the soil as urea nitrogen did not follow with increase of acid Fht
led to increased urease activity in both the soil and and total activity in the leaves of soybean plants
the roots and leaves, serving as a substrate for (Pht L). Only the alkaline Pht activity, with the
formation and increased nitrogen uptake. lowest values, presented an increase at fertilization
Phosphatase activity. The results indicate ammonium nitrate, by 11.8% (p ≤ 0.05). Alike to
that fertilization with ammonium nitrate the plant roots, between the phosphatase activity
contributed to the increased Ft activity of determined in environments with different pH
rhizosphere soil (Pht S), as compared to the values the following relationship was obtained:
treatment with urea (tab. 2). The created alkaline Pht < total Pht < acid Pht.
difference was 10.1% (p ≤ 0.001), 11.9% (p ≤ Comparing the values of Pht activity
0.001) and 8.8% (p ≤ 0.01) for acid, total and determined in the three subjects it was found that
alkaline Pht, respectively. In rhizosphere soil both acid and alkaline Pht activity increases
phosphatase activity determined in different pH towards soil → root → leaves.
environments, has established the following Harvest items (tab. 3). In estimating the
relationship: acid Pht < total Pht < alkaline Pht. average number of pods per plant was noted that in
The values of total Pht activity was closer to the the agrofond with urea it was higher by 16.8% (not
acid Pht, alkaline Pht having the highest level. statistically significant) than the one with
Phosphatase activity determined in root ammonium nitrate. For variety Indra the kind of
tissue (Pht R) of soybean plants, variety Indra fertilizer significantly influenced the mass of pods
grown on agrofond with ammonium nitrate showed per plant. Thus, it achieved a 24.7% increase (p ≤
higher values than those grown in soil fertilized 0.05) for plants grown in soil fertilized with urea
181
compared to ammonium nitrate, which confirmed Daraban O., Zbanc E., Emnova E., Boincean B.,
the results of 2012: the beneffic effect of urea on Toma S., 2012 - Activitatea fosfatazicг a
cernoziomului tipic în asolament de câmp.
plant productivity of variety Indra (Emnova E. et „Edificarea societăţii durabile”, conf. şt.-practică
al., 2014). intern., Ch.: UASM, p. 162-168.
Emnova E., Toma S., Bizgan I., Daraban O., 2014 -
CONCLUSIONS Urease activity in soybean rhizosphere under
drought condition, Agrohimiia, vol. 1, p. 78-85.
Emnova E., Toma S., Daraban O., Druta I., 2012 -
Additional introduction of mobile nitrogen Enzyme activity in soybean root-adhering soil in
led to changes in enzymatic activities determined dependence on nutrition and water condition,
in rhizosphere soil and soybean plant organs, Lucr. şt., seria Agronomie, vol. 55 (2), U.Ş.A.M.V.
variety Indra. Urease activity in both the soil and Iaşi, p. 51-54.
Emnova E., Toma S., 2010 - Biological mineralization of
vegetal parts (roots and leaves) showed an increase organic nitrogen and its bioavailability as the
in case of urea treatment, which probably served as concept of soil fertility (lb. rusă). Buletinul AŞM.
a substrate after increased ammoniacal nitrogen Şt. vieţii., nr. 1, p. 31-39.
amount and uptake, respectively. Iacobuţa M., Vozian V., Pintelei N., Glatchi D., 2010 -
Comportarea soiurilor noi de soia în condiţiile de
The increasing of the phosphatase activity in stres climatic ale a. 2009, Lucr. şt. “Rolul
the rhizosphere soil and roots, in the treatment with culturilor leguminoase şi furajere în agricultura
ammonium nitrate as soil fertilizer, showed an Republicii Moldova. CŞP „Selecţia”, Bălţi RM, p.
intensification of the phosphorus mobilization. The 107-111.
obtained data indicated that there was an increased Khaziev F.H., 1990 - Metodî pocivennoi ănzimologhii.
Moskva: Ed. Nauka, 192 p.
need in phosphorus assimilation for plants, in this Kiss Ş., Ştefanic G., Paşca D., 1991 - Enzimologia
treatment. Phosphatase activity (acid and total) in mediului înconjurător. Enzimele şi fertilitatea
leaves was not influenced by the type of applicated solului. Bucureşti,. Ed. Ceres. 288 p.
fertilizer. Li S.X., Wang Z.H., Stewart B.A., 2013 - Responses of
crop plants to ammonium and nitrate N. In:
Cultivation of soybean plants on soil Advances in Agronomy.. v. 116. chapter 5. p.
fertilized with urea led to increase productivity 205-397.
elements compared to ammonium nitrate. Mihailovskaia N. Mikanova O., Vasilevskaia O., 2008 -
Experimentally, it has been argued, the significant Haracteristica activnosti ghidroliticeskih
role of nitrogen sources in achieving mechanisms fermentov dernogo-podzolistoi supescianoi pocivi
pod vliianiem udobrenii (lb. rusă), Pocivovedenie i
of functional integration and optimization of agrohimiia, nr. 2(41), p. 201-208.
relations between roots and rhizosphere Mineev V.G., 1989 - Handbook of agrochemistry, Ed.
microorganisms, thus, contributing to increase the Moscow State University. 304 p.
productivity potential of soybean plants. Nannipieri P., et al., 2011 - Role of phosphatase
enzymes in soil. Ch. 9, p. 215-243. In: Bunemann
E.K., Oberson A., Frossard E. (eds.), Phosphorus
REFERENCES in action. Biological processes in soil phosphorus
cycling. Soil Biology 26, Springer-Verlag Berlin
Boaghii I., 2010 - The influence of seed innoculation Heidelberg, Soil Biology Vol. 100, 483 p.
with trace elements and extraradicular fertilization Taylor J.P., Wilson B., Mills M.S., Burns R.G., 2002 -
on the soybean productivity (lb. rusă). In: Rolul Comparison of microbial numbers and enzymatic
culturilor leguminoase şi furajere în agricultura activities in surface soils and subsoils using
Republicii Moldova. Resp. ed. V. Vozian şi alţii. various techniques. Soil Biology & Biochemistry,
Ch.: „Tipografia Centrală”, p. 217-222. vol. 34 (3), p. 387-401.
Corobco V.A., 1982 - Soia. In: Zernobobovie culituri (lb. Toma S., 2008 - Aplicarea îngrăşămintelor în agricultura
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V.A, Chişinău: Cartea Moldovenească, p. 83-148. Ursu A., 2011 – Solurile Moldovei. Ch.: Ştiinţa, 323 p.
182
TESTING EFFECTIVENESS OF THE MAIZE SEEDS TREATMENT

CONCERNING MAIZE LEAF WEEVIL (Tanymecus dilaticollis GYLL)
CONTROL, IN LABORATORY CONDITIONS
Emil GEORGESCU1, Lidia CANĂ1, Luxiţa RÂŞNOVEANU2,
e-mail: emilgeorgescu2013@gmail.com
Abstract
Maize leaf weevil (Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll) is an economically important pest of maize crop in south and south-east
of the Romania. The insect is favored by high temperature and drought when maize plants are in first vegetation stages.
In this assessment it has studied effectiveness of some insecticides used like seed treatment in laboratory conditions, in
plastic pots sowed with treated and untreated maize seeds. Each pot was infested with adult insects collected from the
field after plant emergence. Insects mortality were higher in case of seeds treated both with thiametoxan (Cruiser 350
FS) and clothianidin (Poncho 600 FS) active ingredients. Seeds treated with tiacloprid active ingredient (Sonido)
provide lower mortality values. Attack intensity was lower in case of seeds treated both with thiametoxan (Cruiser 350
FS) and clothianidin (Poncho 600 FS) active ingredients and higher in case of treated seeds with tiacloprid active
ingredient (Sonido). Seeds treatment provides satisfactory protection for maize plants in first vegetation stages against
Tanymecus dilaticollis. Bioassays in laboratory conditions are a complementary method with field testing and provide
useful information regarding insect behavior.
Key words: laboratory conditions, seed treatments, effectiveness, Tanymecus dilaticollis
With an area higher then 2500000 ha, in last protection for maize crop at first vegetation stages
three years, maize is one of the most important against maize leaf weevil (Krusteva H. et al., 2006;
crop in Romania. According data from Ministry of Popov C. et al., 2006; Čamprag D., 2011).
Agriculture, in 2013, Romanian maize production Each year, at NARDI Fundulea, in field
occupy second place in EU27 after France (MADR conditions were organized assessments concerning
data, 2013). However maize average yield (kg/ha) effectiveness of the seed treatments for maize leaf
in Romania has lowest values comparative with weevil control (Voinescu I. et al., 1991;
other EU27 countries (FAOSTAT database, 2013). Barbulescu A. et al., 2001; Vasilescu S. et al.,
Year by year at maize crops it has registered yield 2005; Popov C. et al., 2007). However climatic
losses because of the weeds, diseases and pests conditions from spring time are variable from one
(Cristea M. et al., 2004). In some years, only year to another. According Popov C. et al. (2006)
because of the pests attack, maize yield losses in in years with reduced rainfall level in the spring,
Romania can arrive at 23 % (Trotus E. et al., the attack of T. dilaticollis on maize untreated
2011). Maize leaf weevil (Tanymecus dilaticollis plants was maximum or almost maximum, while in
Gyll) is an economically important pest of maize years with higher rainfall level the attack of T.
crop in south and south-east of the Romania dilaticollis on maize untreated plants was lower.
(Barbulescu A. et al, 2001). Year by year are As result, laboratory testing is a complementary
affected over 1 million hectares with maize by this method for evaluate seed treatment effectiveness.
pest (Popov C. et al., 2005). When T. dilaticollis Paulians F. (1972) make laboratory assessments to
attack maize plants in first vegetation stages evaluate cloro-derivate insecticides (DDT, HCH
(BBCH 10-14), yield losses are higher (Paulian F., and Aldrin) effectiveness concerning maize leaf
1972, Popov C. et Barbulescu A., 2007). High weevil control. Barbulescu A. et al. (2001) and
biological reserve of this pest can occur in case of Vasilescu S. et al. (2005) tested the efficacy of
maize monoculture (Voinescu I. et Barbulescu A, chemical treatment of maize and sunflower seeds
1998). Seed treatments provide satisfactory in laboratory conditions, using plastic pots and
1
Plant Protection Laboratory, NARDI Fundulea
2
Plant Protection Laboratory, ARDS Braila
183
isolators and a density from four to seven adult 8,0 l/t).

insects per plant. Keszthelyi, S. (2008) study For laboratory assessments we use plastic
pots (12x12x10 cm). Before sowing, pots are filing ¾
effectiveness of seed treatment and soil
with soil (brown chernozem), collected from untreated
disinfection, on three soils type, in laboratory areas (like forest). In each pot, it has sowing five
conditions, using isolators previously sown with maize seeds. Each experimental variant have four
corn (1-2 leaf stage). In Bulgaria, Draganova S. replications, each pot represent one replication. After
(2012) makes bioassays of T. dilaticollis adults beginning of the plant emergence, when maize plants
with some Beauveria bassiana isolates, for arrive at BBCH 11 stage (one leaf stage), it has
biological control of this pest. In last years, at added insects collected from the field. In each pot it
has added 20 insects to have a pest density of 4
Research-Development Institute for Plant adults per plant. After insects were added, the pots
Protection, Bucharest, it has researched mass were covered with isolators, bonnet with bolter (Fig.
rearing of T. dilaticollis, successive generations, in 1).
controlled conditions (Manole T., et al., 2013). Insects mortality were determined through
According this author, in controlled conditions dead insect counting at 1, 2, 3, 5 and 8 days after
after a few generations appear physiological plants infestation. Plants height was assessed at 5
and 8 days after plant infestation. Attack intensity of
disturbances, such as female sterility. As result, for
T. dilaticollis adults was evaluated at 5 and 8 days
laboratory assessment most of the authors prefer after plants infestation. This laboratory assessment is
collect adult insect from field, in places were similar with field assessment for maize leaf weevil.
plants or soil is untreated. The attacked plants have been rated by a scale from
1 to 9, elaborated by Paulian F. (1972) as follows:
MATHERIAL AND METHD • Note 1: plant not attacked;
• Note 2: plant with 2-3 simple bites on the leaf edge;
• Note 3: plants with bites or clips on leaf edge;
The researches have been carried out at Plant
• Note 4: plants with leafs chafed in proportion of 25
Protection Laboratory, National Agricultural Research
%;
Development Institute (NARDI) Fundulea, Calarasi
County, Romania.
%;
For laboratory assessments, adult insects of T.
dilaticollis were collected at the first decade of May,
%;
from the maize untreated plants, located both on the
• Note 7: plants with leafs chafed almost at the level
Plant Protection Laboratory and Ecological
of the stem;
Laboratory experimental fields. Until assessment
• Note 8: plants with leafs completely chafed and
starting, insects collected from the field are
beginning of the stem destroyed;
maintaining in laboratory for a few days at 15±2 ºC air
• Note 9: plants destroyed, with stem chafed close to
temperature and 80-85 % relative air humidity.
soil level.
In this experiment, it has tested next
The data were statistical analyzed through
insecticides: thiametoxan (Cruiser 350 FS in dose of
variance analysis method, using Microsoft Excel 2003
9,0 l/t), clothianidin (Poncho 600 FS in dose of 4,0 l/t
and ARM 8.5.0 software.
and dose of 2,0 l/t) and thiacloprid (Sonido in dose of
Table 1
Mortality of Tanymecus dilaticollis adults, as result of the maize seed treatments,
at NARDI Fundulea, in laboratory conditions
Nr. Dose Insects mortality
Variant
crt. (l/t) Adults Percent (%)
1 Control (untreated) — 0.25 1.25
2 Poncho 600 FS 4.0 13.25*** 66.25***
3 Poncho 600 FS 2.0 10.00*** 50.00***
4 Sonido 8.0 5.00** 25.00**
5 Cruiser 350 FS 9.0 13.50*** 67.50***
LSD (P<0.05) 2.58 13.29
LSD (P<0.001) 3.62 18.66
LSD (P<0.0001) 5.10 26.34
Table 2
Influence of the Tanymecus dilaticollis attack concerning Maize plants height, in laboratory conditions
Nr. Dose Plant height (cm)
Variant
crt. (l/t) At 5 days At 8 days
2 Poncho 600 FS 4.0 17.12*** 19.92***
3 Poncho 600 FS 2.0 13.43*** 15.67***
4 Sonido 8.0 4.17* 5.71*
5 Cruiser 350 FS 9.0 17.44*** 20.43***
LSD (P<0.05) 1.09 2.21
LSD (P<0.001) 1.52 3.10
LSD (P<0.0001) 2.15 4.38
184
Table 3
Effectiveness of the seed treatment concerning Tanymecus dilaticollis attack at maize plants,
in laboratory conditions
Nr. Dose Attack intensity (1-9)
Variant
crt. (l/t) At 5 days At 8 days
2 Poncho 600 FS 4.0 3.16*** 3.25***
3 Poncho 600 FS 2.0 4.45*** 4.61***
4 Sonido 8.0 6.88* 7.66*
5 Cruiser 350 FS 9.0 2.89*** 3.04***
LSD (P<0.05) 0.84 0.68
LSD (P<0.001) 1.18 0.96
LSD (P<0.0001) 1.67 1.35
REZULTS AND DISCUSSION variant. The differences between treated variants

and control are statistically assigned (P<0.0001)
Data from table 1 show higher insect except variant treated with tiacloprid (Sonido).
mortality values in case of plants emerged from Regarding plant height, data from table 2
maize seeds treated with thiametoxan (Cruiser 350 show higher differences between treated and
FS) and clothianidin (Poncho 600 FS) in dose of untreated plants. Plants emerged from the
4.0 l/t. At variant treated with tiacloprid (Sonido), untreated seeds, have a reduce height at five days
only 25 % of insects died after 8 days from plant after assessment starting, as result of the insect
infestation. attack. In case of seeds treated with higher dose of
clothianidin (Poncho 600 FS) and thiametoxan
(Cruiser 350 FS), plant height are higher then 17
cm. At variant treated with lower dose of
clothianidin (Poncho 600 FS), plant height, at five
days, arrive at 13.43 cm. At variant treated with
tiacloprid (Sonido), plant height have lowest
values from the experience (4.17 cm), the
differences between this variant and control variant
are not statistically assigned (P<0.0001). Three
days later, at second assessment, plants increasing
at all treated variants, except control (untreated)
variant, where plant height is lower, as result of T.
dilaticollis attack. Higher values of the plant
height, at 8 days, were registered at variants treated
Figure 1 Platic pots with isolators with thiametoxan (20.43 cm) and clothianidin
(19.92 cm). In case of variant treated with lower
In all treated variants it has registered a dose of clothianidin, plant height, at 8 days, arrive
mortality peek at three days after insect are added at 15.67 cm. At variant treated with tiacloprid
in plastic pots (figure 2). At variant treated with (Sonido), even if the plants height was higher
higher dose of clothianidin (Poncho 600 FS), comparative with first assessment, however
average adults mortality value, at three days was of differences are slight and not statistically assigned.
6.75 followed by variant treated with thiametoxan
(Cruiser 350 FS) and lower dose of clothianidin 8.00
(Poncho 600 FS). At variant treated with tiacloprid 7.00
(Sonido) higher mortality values registered at three 6.00

Number of dead adults
days after plant infestation, but those values are 5.00 Martor
lower comparative with other treated variants. In Poncho 600 FS
4.00 Poncho 600 FS
case of plants emerged from seeds treated with Sonido
3.00
thiametoxan (Cruiser 350 FS) and both doses of Cruiser 350 FS
clothianidin (Poncho 600 FS), average mortality 2.00
values were close, at one, two, five and eight days 1.00
after plant infestation. In case of plants emerged 0.00

DAY 1 DAY 2 DAY 3 DAY 5 DAY 8
from seeds treated with tiacloprid (Sonido), Days after plant infestation
average mortality values are similar with other
Figure 2 Mortality of maize leaf weevil adults,
treated variants, ad two days after plant infestation, in laboratory conditions
while at five and eight days are close with control
185
The lower values of the plants height in case thiametoxan (Cruiser 350 FS) the attack intensity
of variant treated with tiacloprid were as result of difference comparative with first assessment are
the low insect mortality and higher attack, slight. At this variants, insect mortality peek occur
comparative with other treated variants. At control after three days from plant infestation. At eight
variant, maize leafs are almost 100 % days most of the insect added in plastic pots are
consummated by the adult insects. In this case dead or affected. As result the insect rest alive
maize plants can’t recover and if this situation is don’t feed with leaf and attack don’t evolve.
meeting in the field conditions, the maize crop Contrarily at variant treated with tiacloprid
must be replaced. (Sonido) insect mortality have low values, and
Data from table 3 show lower attack many insects from plastic pots continue feeding
intensity of the maize leaf weevil at variants with maize leafs. As result attack intensity
treated with thiametoxan (Cruiser 350 FS) and increasing comparative with first assessment. At
higher dose of clothianidin (Poncho 600 FS), at eight days from plants infestation with maize leaf
five days from plant infestation. In this case maize weevil, attack intensity on a scale from 1 to 9 was
plants present bites on the leaf edge, and damages of 7.66. Most of the plants have leafs chaffed in
are minimum. Insects start feeding immediately proportion varying from 75 to 100 % and at some
after they were added in plastic pots. However, not plants, insects starting feeding with stem. More
all insects start feeding in same time. The effect of then 50 % of the maize plants from this variant
the insecticide occurs at 10-15 minutes after insect can’t recover.
starting feeding with seedlings emerged from
treated seeds. Nervous system of the insects is
affected and feeding process is stopped. In case of
variant treated with lower dose of clothianidin
(Poncho 600 FS) the attack intensity, on a scale
from 1 to 9 was 4,45. That means, the maize plants
has leaf chaffed between 25 and 30 %. At variant
treated with tiacloprid (Sonido) attack intensity on
a scale from 1 to 9 was of 6.88 that mean the maize
plants have leaf chaffed in proportion of 75 % and
at some plants chafed almost at the level of the
stem. At this variant it has registered lower
mortality of the adult insects. As result, many
insect feed with maize leaf at five days from plant
infestation, even this is a treated variant. Attack Figure 4 Maize plants destroyed by T. dilaticollis,
intensity at plants emerged from untreated seeds is at control (untreated) variant
8.02. At all plants from the pots, leafs are
completely chaffed and at some plants stems are In case of control variant, all plants were
beginning destroyed. In this case, plants can’t destroyed by T. dilaticollis adults at eight days
recover. from plant infestation (Fig. 4). Regarding maize
leaf weevil (T. dilaticollis) attack intensity, on
maize plants, the differences between variants
9.0
treated with both doses of clothianidin (Poncho
8.0
y = -0.0884x + 9.1463
r = 0.9855
600 FS), thiametoxan (Cruiser 350 FS) and control
7.0 (untreated) variant are statistically assigned
Attack intensity (1-9)
6.0 (P<0.001). However, the difference between

5.0 variant treated with tiacloprid and control variant
4.0
are not statistically assigned (P<0.0001).
3.0
2.0
1.0
CONCLUSIONS
0.0
0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0
Mortality (%)
In laboratory conditions, at treated variants,
it has registered mortality peek at three days after
Figure 3 Relation between insect mortality and attack seed treatment. Higher mortality values was
intensity, in laboratory conditions
registered at variant treated with thiametoxan
(Cruiser 350 FS) and clotianidin (Poncho 600 FS)
At second assessment, at eight days from
while lower mortality value it has registered at
plant infestation, in case of plants treated with both
variant treated with tiacloprid (Sonido).
doses of clothianidin (Poncho 600 FS) and
186
The insecticides on base of thiametoxan Curculionidae) under controlled conditions.

(Cruiser 350 FS) in dose of 9.0 l/t and clothianidin Scientific Papers, Series Management, Economic
Engineering in Agriculture and Rural
(Poncho 600 FS) in dose of 4,0 l/t have higher Development, vol. 13, nr. 4, pg. 195-200.
effectiveness in control of the maize leaf weevil in Paulian F., 1972 - Contribution at knowledge of the
laboratory conditions, at a density of 4 adult development, ecology and control of the
insects/plant. Tanymecus dilaticollis specie, Doctoral thesis,
I.A.N.B. Bucharest, pp. 300.
The insecticide on base of tiacloprid Popov C., Guran M., Raranciuc S., Rotarescu M.,
(Sonido) doesn’t assign satisfactory protection Spiridon C., Vasilescu S., Gogu F. - 2005,
against maize leaf weevil, in laboratory conditions, Phytosanitary state of the cereals, leguminous for
at a density of 4 adult insects/plant.. grains, forage and technical crops from Romania,
At control (untreated) variant, all plants year 2004. Problems of Plant Protection, vol. 33,
nr. 1-2, p. 7-30.
were destroyed by T. dilaticollis adults. Popov C., Trotus E., Vasilescu S., Barbulescu A.,
Rasnoveanu L., 2006 - Drought effect on pest
REFERENCES attack in field crops, Romanian Agricultural
Research, vol. 23, p. 43-52.
Barbulescu A., Voinescu I., Sadagorschi D., Penescu Popov C., Barbulescu A., 2007 - 50 years of scientific
A., Popov C., Vasilescu S., 2001 - Cruieser 350 activity in domain of field crop protections,
FS-A new product for maize and sunflower seed against diseases and pests, Annals of N.A.R.D.I.
treatment against Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll, Fundulea, vol. 75, p. 371-404.
Romanian Agricultural Research, vol. 15, p. 77- Popov C., Barbulescu A., Raranciuc S., 2007 - Seed
87. treatment a modern, efficient and less pollutant
Čamprag D., 2011 - Impact of climate to appearance of method for field crops protection, Annals of
field crop pests in Vojvodina [Serbia] during N.A.R.D.I. Fundulea, vol. 74, p. 133-139.
2001-2020 [i.e. 2010], Biljni lekar, vol. 39, nr. 4, Trotus E., Buburuz A. A., Zaharia P., 2011 -
pg. 434-446. Researches on the protection of maize crops
Cristea, M., Cabulea, I., Sarca, T., 2004 - Maize. against soil pests, Agronomical Researches in
Monographic study, Romanian Academy Moldavia, vol. 4, p. 45-51.
Publishing-house, vol. 1, p. 589-626. Vasilescu S., Popov C., Stoica V., Negrila M.,
Draganova, S. A., T. B. Toshova and D. I. Takov, 2012 Procopovici E., 2005 - Results regarding control
- Fungal pathogen of grey corn weevil of maize leaf weevil (Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll)
Tanymecus dilaticollis (Coleoptera: by chemical seed treatment during 2000-2004,
Curculionidae) and Bioassay with some Scientific Papers, USAMV, series A, vol. 48, p.
Beauveria bassiana isolates. Acta zoological 343-350.
Bulgarica, 64(3): 289-294. Voinescu I., Burdea V., Burean E., Luca E., Mustea
Keszthelyi, S., P. Kurucsai, T. Szabó, F. Pál-Fám and D., Petcu L., Sapunaru T., Udrea A., 1991 -
Z. Marczali – 2008, Chemical protections against Behavior of some maize varieties and hybrids
corn weevil (Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll.) on concerning seed treatment with Diafuran 35 ST
different soil types, VII. Alps-Adria Scientific and Carbodan 35 ST, Problems of Plant
Workshop, Stara Lesna, Slovakia, 1:191-194. Protection, vol. 19, nr. 1-2, p. 7-11.
Krusteva, H., Panajotova, M., Tonev, T., Karadzhova, Voinescu I., Barbulescu A., 1998 - Evolution of maize
Y., Milanova, S., Nikolov, P., Dimitrova, A., leaf weevil (Tanymecus dilaticollis gyll.) in various
Stefcheva, M., Ventsislavov, V., Chavdarov, L. crops depending on the preceding crop,
and Velichkov, A. - 2006, Good plant protection Proceedings of International Symposium on
practice in maize crops. Ministry of Agriculture Integrated Protection of Filed Crops, Vrnja~ka
and Food, Sofia, vol. 2, nr. 1, pg. 69–77. Banja, p. 157-164.
Manole T., Ionescu-Malancus I., Antonie I., Rebega L. *** - FAOSTAT database, 2013, http://faostat.fao.org/
C. – 2013, New contribution concerning the mass *** - MADR data, 2013 - http://www.madr.ro
rearing of Tanymecus dilaticollis Gyll (Coleoptera:
187
188
CONDITIONS FOR OBTAINING UNIFORM PLASMA

IN ATMOSPHERIC ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE
WITH DOUBLE BARRIER (D-DBD)
Gheorghe DONCEAN1
e-mail: g_doncean@yahoo.com
Abstract
Constructive solutions are presented for a double barrier for plasma-chemical reactor designed to treat multiple: fluid,
thin planar dielectric materials etc. In order to obtain a uniformly distributed plasma workload considering the nature of
the barrier, the geometric structure of the floating electrode (contact surface, the inner surface), the distance between the
electrode voltage. In each case, D-DBD plasma uniformity appreciate the RGB colorimetric analysis, average power,
lighting.
Key words: plasma D-DBD, electrodes, barrier, gap, colorimetric
The accumulated findings in PhD theses [1- Table 1

34] and our own research outcomes [35-41] Geometric characteristics (E0- fixed base electrode;
E1...E5 – floating electrodes)
enabled the preparation of the present paper which Characteristic Electrode
focuses on obtaining D-DBD plasma uniformly E 0a E1 E 2b E3c E4 E5
distributed in the gap between electrodes. In Length, [mm] 400 215 225 228 120 120
agriculture, D-DBD plasma is applied in treating Width, [mm] 250 90 58 100 50 55
soil, seeds, packaging liquids, meat products, etc., Heigth, [mm] 10 38 22 1.5 40 30
being highly effective in terms of agricultural Inner surface, Na 104 128 Na Na 600
2
[mm ] N 25 700 N N 0
output and shelf life. Discharge 100 459 202 228 600 307
2
surface, [mm ] 000 0 5 00 8
MATERIAL AND METHOD Capacity, CEi Na 2,4 1,2 Na Na 7,2
[pF] N 3 9 N N 1
Electrodes. Geometric characteristics a – base electrode; b- consisting of 3 modules; c - non-
The base (marked as E0, table 1), fixed coplanar surface
electrode is made of 10-mm thick aluminum and is
Characteristic volt-ampere curves
covered in 3-mm glass. The glass barrier extends
over the margins of the electrode to prevent
peripheral electric discharges (air penetration).
Figure 2 U1 [V] – U2 [kV] dependence

Figure 1 Fixed electrode (E0) Based on the standard curve of the electrical-
technical system, the voltage of the power supply is
Experimental findings can be expressed as measured based on well-known ratio:
follows: U1 [V] - I1 [A], U2 [kV]- I2 [mA] or in other
potential combinations, such as: I1 [A]-U2 [kV]. U1I1=U2I2,
During experiments, the average power supply values
were measured (U1 [V], I1 [A]), including for reasons
related to work safety and protection.
1
”Gh. Asachi” Tehnical University, Iasi
189
Gap=2.3 [mm]
I[ A]=0.0767*U [kV] -2.2287
1 E2 Si
Influence of the gap between the electrodes E4 Si
E1 E5 Si
I [A]
E5 Si D
0.5
1
3.4 [mm] I[ A]=0.0142*U [V]-2.3008
0.8 3 [mm]
0
2.3 [mm] U0=29 [kV]
0.6
I [A]
2 [mm] 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
0.4 U [kV]
0.2 Figure 5 Volt-ampere ratio characteristics
0
of electrodes with a 2,3 [mm] gap
U0=162 [V]
-0.2
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
U [V] For the electrical-technical system with the
E1
base electrode presented above, expressed in
6
3.4 [mm]
I[ mA]=0.4311*U [kV]-12.6544 various forms, the size of the gap between the
3 [mm] electrodes and the nature of the higher electrode do
4 2.3 [mm]
not have a major impact on the volt-ampere
I [mA]
2 [mm]
2 characteristic.
0
U0=29.3537 [kV]
The locus of D-DBD plasma in the CIE xy
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 diagram
U [kV]
Figure 3. Volt-ampere curves (U1 [V] - I1 [A], U2 [kV]
– I2 [mA]) for various gaps between electrodes E0
and E1
Figure 3 Equivalent blueprint

of a plasma-chemical cell
R – resistance; C – capacity; indices: E 0 – base
electrode; E i – floating electrode; b0 – base electrode
barrier; bi – floating electrode barrier; a – air; p –
plasma;
Influence of the nature of the electrode

Gap = 2 [mm]
I[ A]=0.0139*U [V]-2.2287
1
E2 Si
0.8 E4 Si
0.6 E5 Si
I [A]
E2 Si D
0.4
0.2
0
U0=160.3381 [V]
-0.2
80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
U [V]
Gap= 2 [mm]
I[ mA]=0.4216*U [kV] -12.2580

6
E2 Si
E4 Si
4 E5 Si
I [mA]
E2 Si D
0
U0=29.075 [kV]
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
U [kV]
Figure 4 Volt-ampere ratios characteristics
of electrodes with a 2 [mm] gap
190
Figure 6 Discharges at various time intervals (from

23 seconds onwards); R,G,B values
Table 2 Figure 8 Position of D-DBD air plasma at

RGB analysis from 23 seconds onwards atmospheric pressure in the CIE xy colour space
RGB/t[s] Red Green Blue
Linear analysis Light intensity
E with Si gap = 2 [mm]
23.00 11.0367 14.5746 231.2738
23.40 12.5528 13.6413 230.8059 15 MINIMINIMORUM
23. 80 10.0294 13.5368 222.9191 MAXIMORUM
Es [lx=lm/m ]
MeanMIN
2
24.00 8.9432 12.1185 212.5210 MeanMAX
10
Average 10.6405 13.4678 224.3799 MEAN
Std 1.5349 1.0133 8.7861

5
Surface, transversal analysis
23.00 8.7540 12.4300 201.4000
0
23.40 10.8000 11.4100 196.1000 100 120 140 160
U [V]
180 200 220 240
23.80 8.3230 11.7700 192.5000 a)

24.00 7.4220 10.8300 178.2000 Diff. of Min Max Values
Average 8.8247 11.6100 192.0500 10
Std 1.4290 0.6699 9.9306 8

dEs [lx=lm/m2]
6
Linear Analysis
250 4
200 Red 2
Green
150 Blue 0
R.G,B
-2
100 180 190 200 210 220 230 240
U [V]
50 b)
Figure 9 Minimum and maximum values (a)
0 and differences (b) for light intensity in voltage ratio
23 23.2 23.4 23.6 23.8 24
t [s] (E1, E2, E 4, E5, electrodes, with glass or glass-
Surface Analysis
250 textolite barrier)
Red
Green
200
Blue RGB Analysis
150 E1 Si
R.G,B
100 140
120
50 100
Blue
80
0 60
23 23.2 23.4 23.6 23.8 24
t [s] 40
Figure 7 Variation of R,G,B values at 23 seconds 20
3.5
3 240
220
2.5 200
There results the need to analyse plasma f [mm]
2 180
U [V]
using the blue (B) sensitive component with values
in the [0…255] range.
In the visible spectrum, the colour palette for
D-DBD plasma is located in the area of short
wavelengths (blue-purple).
191
E4 Si
Max. Intensity [0 - 255]

300
200
100
3.5
3 240
220
2.5 200
2 180
f [mm] U [V]
Figure 10 RGB analysis for the floating electrode

E1-glass (3 serial modules)
E2 Si
200
Blue
100
0 Figure 13 RGB analysis for the floating electrode

3 E4-glass
240
2.5 220
200
2 180 E5 Si
f [mm] U [V]
200
Blue
100
0
6
240
4 220
200
2 180
f [mm] U [V]

E2-glass
E2 ST
100
Blue
50
E5 - glass
E5 ST
0
5 240
4 220
3 200
2 180 150
f [mm] U [V]
Blue
100
50
0
4
3.5 240
3 220
2.5 200
180
f [mm] U [V]

E2-glass –textolite
192
plasma, also reflected through single volt-ampere

curves – figures 3, 5, 6.
In the kinetic time of development of D-
DBD plasma from 23 seconds onwards, figure 6,
the system dominant is the B (blue) component
with values in the [0 – 255] range, figure 8. The
standard deviation presents largely similar values
in linear analysis and surface analysis, table 2.
In colorimetric analysis terms, the colour
Figure 15 RGB analysis for the floating electrode palette of the D-DBD plasma is located in the blue-
E5 – glass-textolite purple area of the CIE xy diagram, figure 8.
Regardless of the mobile electrode, the mini-
Gap = 2.3 [mm]
300
E1 Si
minimorum and maxi-maximorum values for the
250 E2 Si light intensity of plasma are in a limited range –
E2 ST
200 E4 Si figure 9, not conducive to a high level of
B (blue)
150
E5 Si
E5 ST
discharges.
100
The RGB analysis of D-DBD plasma, Fig.
10-16, for various structures of the floating
50
composite electrode, provides the conditions for
0
180 190 200 210
U [V]
220 230 240 obtaining uniform plasma for various gaps. E4
Figure 16 B (blue) analysis for various electrode with glass barrier, fig. 13, provides a wide range
systems for obtaining uniform plasma: voltage: 200-240 V
(or 36-44 kV) and gap between electrodes 2-3 mm.
Table 3
Mathematical description
REFERENCES
(B=Blue; U– voltage [V]; b – free term)
No Electrode/barrier Polynomial coefficients B= a*U
-b Belousov V., Doncean G., 2010 - Course of technical
creativity, Publishing Performantica, 412 pp.,
1 E1 Si 1.4100 -207.8929
ISBN 978-973-730-697-3;
2 E2 Si 1.9214 -282.3571
Bhoj A. N., 2006 - Multiscale simulation of atmospheric
3 E2 ST 1.5572 -253.2121
pressurte pulsed discharges used in polymer
4 E4 Si 123 -1159.8 surface functionalization, University of Illinois at
5 E5 Si 2.1086 -267.9643 Urbana-Champaign;
6 E5 ST 1.8553 -250.3571 Chirokov A., 2003 - Self-organization of microdischarge
x: Si – glass; ST – glass-textolite; thickness of barrier on în DBD plasmă, Drexel University;
the floating electrode 2 [mm] Dixon A.R., 2010 - Micro- and nan-enginnering cellular
paterns with plasma technologies, University of
CONCLUSIONS Michigan;
Doncean G., Leonte P., Doncean M., Acatrinei C.,
2008 - Technical and economic aspects on
Papers [42, 43] specify 40 kV as the voltage applications and DBD reactors plasmochimice
required to obtain uniform D-DBD plasma. DBD, Publishing Performantica, 78 pp, ISBN:
According to the audiogram, the equilibrium state 978-973-730-462-9, VOL. I: 978-973-730-463-6;
of uniform plasma is achieved in approx. 100 Doncean G., Leonte P., Doncean M., Acatrinei C.,
2009 - Technical and economic aspects on
seconds.
applications and DBD reactors plasmochimice
GlidArc, Publishing Performantica, 82 pp, ISBN:
Z[dB]-(t[s]
-10 978-973-730-462
Doncean G., 2010 - Special procedures in textile
-20
chemical technology. Laboratory Guide,
-30 Publishing Performantica, 202 pp., ISBN 978-
Z [dB]
-40 973-;
Doncean G., Leonte P., Acatrinei C., Zănoagă C.,
-50
Niculaua M., Căruntu V., 2009 - Plasmo-
-60 chemical reactors. Construction, Operation.
-70 Projection. Publishing Performantica, 200 pp.,
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
t [s] ISBN 978-973-730-462, know-how;
Figure 17 Audiogram for D-DBD plasma Doncean G., Marilena D., 2012 - Modeling, simulation
and optimization of the technical and economic
processes, volume I, Basics in Matlab, Publishing
The base electrode, E0 – Figure 1, according Tehnopress, Iassy, ISBN 978-973-702-936-2,
to the equivalent graph – Figure 3, constitutes the 390 pp.;
determinant of the discharge processes in D-DBD
193
Fortunov A.A., 2013 - Interference plasma wave with Tendero C., 2005 - Torche plasma micro-onde à la
electronics dimeric structures based on GaAs / pression atmosphérique: application au
AlGaAs, Chernovolovka; traitement de surfaces métalliques, Universite de
Gentile A.C., 1995 - Kinetic processes and plasma Limoges;
remediation of toxic gases, University of Illinois at Han-Kwan D., 2011 - Contribution à l’étude
Urbana-Champaing; mathématique des plasmas fortement
magnetizes, Université Pierre et Marie Curie;
194
CHROMATIC KINETICS IN THERMAL FIELD
Gheorghe DONCEAN1
e-mail: g_doncean@yahoo.com
Abstract
The first section of the paper outlines the thermal kinetics of the thermoelectric cell and defines the thermistor as the
heating element during the isothermal period. The paper then focuses on uniform wetting and heating by adding
ethylene glycol. Data collection and processing algorithms are employed to convert between various color spaces and to
provide the mathematical equations which describe the evolution of the specific L, a, b components.
Key words: kinetics, coloring, thermoelectric cell, color space
Description of the electrotechnical system. 20

220 [V]
150 [V]
Thermoelectric cell 15 80 [V]
40 [V]
P[V*A]
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
t [min.]
Figure 3 Volt-ampere characteristics
Thermistor
Figure 4 Electrotechnical representation of the

thermistor
The thermistor as a low voltage heating

element is characterized by the I.S. Steinhard
and S.R. Hart model as follows [1 – 4] :
1/T=f(ln(R)),
where T is the temperature (0C) and R –
resistance (Ω).
Figure 1 Laboratory set-up
A- amperemeter; CT – thermal cell; T – digital
According to electrotechnical
thermometer; TC – thermocouple; P – potentiometer measurements, the constant temperature
regime yields the following matrix of values
which includes – by column – voltage (V),
amperage (A), and temperature (0C):
A = [ 220 0.01175 82
150 0.013 80
80 0.032 77
40 0.050 74],
based on which the matrix RT = [resistance
temperature] – by column – is calculated,
using the formula:
Figure 2 Heating kinetics curves (power voltage 220 RT = [A(:,1)./A(:,2) A(:,3)]
V, 150 V, 80 V and 40 V) – cooling (power-off)
1
”Gh. Asachi” Tehnical University, Iasi
195
Mathematical processing yields the It has also been specified that cobalt chloride –
CoCl 2 6H2O – upon heating loses water molecules
following values: successively. The states with a number molecules
1./T = [ 0.012195121951220 standing at n= 6, 4 are pink, while forms containing n
0.012500000000000 = 2, (1,5), 1 water molecules are blue. This effect is
0.012987012987013 used on meteorological paper to deliver the
qualitative indication of air humidity – dry (blue) and
0.013513513513514] humid (pink).
Wetting homogeneity
ln(R)=log(RT(:,1)) Based on the sequence:
ln(R) = [ 9.837529584744331 A=imread('4ic4-40V.jpg');
% selecting n pixels from image
9.353441215616856 [C,R,P]=impixel(A);
7.824046010856292 RGB=P./255;
6.684611727667927]. the specific RGB values of the examined test
samples.
[RGB]
According to the graphical Red
Green
representation (1/T; ln(R)) as outlined in 0.6 Blue
Figure 4, the dependence below results: 0.5
1/T = 1.0e+003 * [- 0.4
2.487246719788137*ln(R)+0.0402589593044 0.3
79], 200
150 160
180
140
which means that, in the present case, the Directia y
100
100
120
Directia x
thermistor is a Positive Temperature Figure 6 RGB distribution for the cobalt chloride -
Coefficient Thermistor (PTC), i.e. the distilled water system.
correlation higher temperature-higher
DS1=std(RGB)
resistance is observed. Moreover, the thyristor RGB= mean(RGB)
is a ceramic, Switching Type PTC, with rapid DS1 = [0.0103 0.0106 0.0104]
resistance increase as the temperature rises. RGB = [0.4753 0.2930 0.5040]
[RGB]
10
Red
Green
0.6
1/T [C exp(-1)]
9 Blue
0.5
8
0.4
7 0.3
500
6 450 100 120 140
0.012 0.01220.01240.01260.0128 0.013 0.01320.01340.0136 400 60 80
ln(R) 20 40
Directia y Directia x
Figure 4 Specific dependence of thermistor
Figure 7 RGB distribution for the cobalt chloride -
ethylene glycol system
MATERIAL AND METHOD
DS2=std(RGB)
Compared to the vast field of chromatic studies RGB=mean(RGB)
included in the bibliographical references [5-16], for DS2 = [0.0087 0.0078 0.0144]
the purposes of this paper cobalt chloride on cellulose RGB = [0.4919 0.2898 0.4897]
base (filter paper) with 1% ethylene glycol was used.
Worldwide, no chromatic research has been Following the addition of 1 % ethylene glycol
performed previously, while chemistry literature has in the wetting solution, with a 10 g/l concentration,
indicated that heating yields a color transformation uniform distribution on the sorption surface is
from pink to blue [17, 18, 19]. observed as well as the uniform heating of the test
sample on the thermoelectric cell. The values R - red,
B - blue in the RGB triad are close in value. The
standard deviation (DS) is lower for the chemical
+ system containing ethylene glycol.
Figure 5 Filter paper soaked with the cobalt chloride
solution
196
The matrix of time – temperature values for 0.2127 0.7152 0.0722

different power voltages 0.0193 0.1192 0.9502]
T(t)
70
T220=-0.0004*t2+0.2948*t+22.0571
M xyzLab=[ 0 1 0
60
T150=-0.0004*t2+0.2752*t+21.3429 1 -1 0
T80==-0.0003*t2+0.2526*t+21.1714
0 1 -1]
T40==0.0003*t2+0.0731*t+20.2571
50
T [C]
40
220 [V c.a.]
150 [V c.a.]
30 80 [V c.a.]
40 [V c.a.]
20
0 50 100 150 200 250
t[s]
Figure 8 Heating kinetic curves
Table 1. Working matrix: by column: time

Figure 9 Meaning of color shifts in the L*a*b* space
(seconds), (:,1) – temperature at: 220 (V), (:,2);
a(-) – more green, a(+) – more red,
150 (V), (:,3); 80 (V), (:,4); 40 (V), (:,5) b(+) – more yellow, b(-) = more blue,
p(:,:) =[ 0 22.0571 21.3429 21.1714 20.2571 white at L=1.00 and black at L=0.
10.0000 24.9611 24.0556 23.6639 21.0139
20.0000 27.7778 26.6889 26.0889 21.8222
30.0000 30.5071 29.2429 28.4464 22.6821 By the chromatic kinetics presented below
40.0000 33.1492 31.7175 30.7365 23.5937 was aimed at tracing the influence of temperature,
50.0000 35.7040 34.1127 32.9591 24.5567 correlated with time, on L, a, b chromatic
60.0000 38.1714 36.4286 35.1143 25.5714 indicators. In the first stage, the aim was to
70.0000 40.5516 38.6651 37.2020 26.6377 determine rules for the representation of color
80.0000 42.8444 40.8222 39.2222 27.7556
dynamics.
90.0000 45.0500 42.9000 41.1750 28.9250
100.0000 47.1683 44.8984 43.0603 30.1460
110.0000 49.1992 46.8175 44.8782 31.4187 Thermochromic dynamics
120.0000 51.1429 48.6571 46.6286 32.7429
130.0000 52.9992 50.4175 48.3115 34.1187 L(t)
140.0000 54.7683 52.0984 49.9270 35.5460 0.65

150.0000 56.4500 53.7000 51.4750 37.0250 40 [V c.a.]
0.6 80 [V c.a.]
160.0000 58.0444 55.2222 52.9556 38.5556 0.55 150 [V c.a.]
170.0000 59.5516 56.6651 54.3687 40.1377 0.5
220 [V c.a.]
L
180.0000 60.9714 58.0286 55.7143 41.7714 0.45

190.0000 62.3040 59.3127 56.9925 43.4567 0.4
200.0000 63.5492 60.5175 58.2032 45.1937 0.35
210.0000 64.7071 61.6429 59.3464 46.9821]
20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65
T[C]
L40 = [ 0.0003 -0.0214 0.7059]
In the dynamic heating regime, every 10 L80 = [0.0001 -0.0044 0.4822]
seconds, the digital images saved in .jpg format L150 = [ 0.0037 0.3558]
were stored. L220 = [ 0.0035 0.3574]
a(T)
40 [V c.a.]
80 [V c.a.]
0 150 [V c.a.]
220 [V c.a.]
Figure 8 Sequence of .jpg-type images -0.05

a
Using the appropriate mathematical -0.1

algorithm under the Matlab environment,
successive transformations were performed in the 20 25 30 35 40
T[C]
45 50 55 60 65
RGB →XYZ →Lab color spaces using the

Bradford spatial transformation matrixes: a40 = [ -0.0031 0.0823]
a80 = [-0.0030 0.0664]
[cx,cy,A]=improfile a150= [-0.0020 0.0311]
RGB=[A(:,:,1) A(:,:,2) a220 = [-0.0018 0.0304]
A(:,:,3)]./255
Msrgbxyz =[ 0.4125 0.3576 0.1804
197
b(T)
Uniform wetting is correlated with
40 [V c.a.]
-0.2 80 [V c.a.] uniform heating when ethylene glycol is
150 [V c.a.]
-0.4 220 [V c.a.] added.
In the first 210 seconds of heating the
b
-0.6
heating kinetics were generated, expressed by
-0.8 second-degree mathematical equations:
-1
20 25 30 35 40
T[C]
45 50 55 60 65 T220=-1.5714*t^2+17.6857*t+22.0571
T150=-1.4285*t^2+16.5143*t+21.3429
b40 = [ -0.0163 0.1433] T80==-1.2143*t^2+15.1571*t+21.171
b80 = [-0.0062 -0.1846] T40==0.9286*t^2+4.3857*t+20.2571,
b150= [ -0.0042 -0.2440]
b220 = [ -0.0040 -0.2450] where T – temperature [0C] and t – time [s].
b(a)
0 sRGB photographic sequences made
40 [V c.a.]
80 [V c.a.] every 10 seconds and stored in the .jpg format
-0.2
150 [V c.a.]
220 [V c.a.]
were processed through the RGB →XYZ
-0.4 →Lab conversion, tracing the kinetics of the
b
transformation of the characteristic L, a and b

-0.6
values, to assess coloring achieved at the
-0.8
following power voltages: 40 V; 80 V; 150 V
-0.1 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06
a and 220 V.
b40 = [2.6020 -0.2865] L40 = 0.0003*T^2 -0.0214*T + 0.7059;

b80 = [2.4473 -0.2953] L80 = 0.0001*T^2 -0.0044*T + 0.4822;
b150 = [2.4633 -0.2981] L150 = 0.0037 *T + 0.3558;
b220 = [4.9633 -0.3022] L220 = 0.0035 *T + 0.3574;
CONCLUSIONS a40 = -0.0031*T + 0.0823;

a80 = -0.0030 *T + 0.0664;
The technical application of intelligent a150 = -0.0020 *T + 0.0311;
materials is an avant-garde movement in the a220 = -0.0018 *T + 0.0304;
scientific world, with expanding areas of use.
Materials with variable chromatics are used as b40 = -0.0163*T + 0.1433;
sensors to indicate humidity, temperature, b80 = -0.0062*T - 0.1846;
electromagnetic radiation of various wavelengths, b150 = -0.0042*T - 0.2440;
as comfort coloring substances (intelligent b220 = -0.0040*T - 0.2450;
textiles), etc.
The present paper provides the foundations b40 = 2.6020*T - 0.2865;
of a scientific methodology to induce coloring by b80 = 2.4473*T - 0.2953;
setting up a 2 W thermoelectric cell with a PTC b150 = 2.4633*T - 0.2981;
(Positive Temperature Coefficient Thermistor) b220 = 4.96338*T - 0.3022.
serving as the active element, characterized by the
dependence: In most cases, the independent values L,
1/T = 1.0e+003 * [- a and b are assessed using first degree
2.487246719788137*ln(R)+0.0402589593044 equations, corresponding to linear
79], transformations. The values L40 and L80
in the isothermal period, with variables T – undergo non-linear transformations, and the
temperature [0C] and R – resistance [Ω]. correlated time and temperature factors
Uniform wetting was indicated by the determine a second-degree dependence.
standard deviation of RGB values:
DS1 = [0.0103 0.0106 0.0104]
DS2 = [0.0087 0.0078 0.0144]
198
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200
SWOT ANALYSIS OF RUNNER BEAN (Phaseolus coccineus L.)

CULTIVATION IN INTERCROPPING SYSTEM
Silvia Brîndușa HAMBURDĂ1, Neculai MUNTEANU 1, Andy Felix JITĂREANU1,

Vasile STOLERU1, Gabriel Ciprian TELIBAN1, Gianina BUTNARIU1, Lorena-Diana POPA1
e-mail: silvia_hamburda@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper presents the SWOT analysis of a runner bean crop (Phaseolus coccineus L.) in intercropping system, using
maize, sunflower and Jerusalem artichokes as associated plants, in the conditions of North-Eastern Romania. Runner
bean can be cultivated in several crop systems, associated or interleaved, depending on the area, traditions, technical
possibilities etc. Runner bean cultivation interspersed with maize is traditionally the best known, but it may be
successfully done with sunflower or Jerusalem artichoke, whose stem is also the suport system for the runner bean
plants. The SWOT analysis shows, as a main advantage, the fact that runner bean is a species with a high level of
rusticity and a higher ecological plasticity than the common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), due to higher resistance or
tolerance to pathogens. Grown in intercropping system, it benefits from an improved microclimate, close to
environmental requirements. A weak point is the competition for the elements that are necessary for the growth and
development of plants, which interleaving is performed with. As an opportunity, runner bean cultivation in
intercropping system can increase quality and quantity of production. Among threats, the adverse weather conditions
which may compromise the crop are highlighted. In conclusion, intercropping system can be adopted with good results
for runner bean cultivation in the conditions of North-Eastern Romania.
Key words: intercalated crops, strengths, opportunities, threats, weaknesses
Originally from South America, the runner Jerusalem artichoke or earth aplle (Helianthus
bean species (Phaseolus coccineus L.) is very less tuberosus L.).
known and researched in Romania. The previous A first idea of achieving runner bean
studies (Hamburdă S.B. et al, 2014; Munteanu N., intercropping system with maize, sunflower and
2006, Munteanu N. et al, 2007a, b; Munteanu N. et Jerusalem artichoke has been implemented at the
al, 2013; Popa L.D. et al, 2006, Popa L.D., 2010) UASMV Ia i in 2012-2013 (Hamburdă S.B. et al,
revealed the great diversity of existing populations 2013).
in the collection of the University of Agricultural Intercropping can be viewed as a practice to
Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi (UASVM). increase crop production, as is the culture of runner
However, the species has not been imposed in bean. Intercropping is influenced by a number of
culture as a species of economic importance, agrotechnical practices, which is the secret of
probably due to reduced attractiveness for the success of this cultivation system: plant density,
climbing form, less suitable for mechanization, date of crops establishment, available resources
yields that vary from year to year, lack of modern and spatial arrangement (Mazaheri D. et al, 2006).
and/or standardized cultivation technologies. The purpose of this paper is to present a
One of the most popular systems in our SWOT analysis on a runner bean crop in
country is that in which runner bean is (like the intercropping system using maize, sunflowers and
climbing common bean - Phaseolus vulgaris L. Jerusalem artichoke as interleaved plants, given the
var. communis) grown in maize, in nests, supported North-Eastern Romania conditions.
on individual poles or on maize plants (Hamburdă Cultivation of this species, by voluble
et al., 2013). growing assortments, known exclusively in
Following the intercalation system Romania, is conditioned, among other things, by
(intercropping) with maize, without prop, the idea finding a support system which is cheap, easy to
was generated to perform other intercropping perform and which improves environmental
systems, in which this is done with other crops conditions by the arranging of plants in the crop.
such as sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) and Searching solutions to this problem, different
1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Iași
201
cultivation systems have been generated, under In the case of runner bean intercalation with
more or less elaborated conditions, depending on sunflower, the leaves were removed from the
sunflower stems as it grew, leaving two to three
the area, traditions, technical feasibility etc.
leaves around the capitula, to maintain vegetation.
SWOT analysis (S - Strengths, W - The purpose of this operation was to not shadow the
Weaknesses, O - Opportunities, T - Threats) was runner bean plants too much (fig. 4).
used, which is a tool for formulating selection and
strategy. The method is used for business, usually.
Any successful business is based on the strengths,
correcting the weaknesses, exploiting the
opportunities and taking measures against external
threats.
SWOT analysis, as a transdisciplinary
method, is less known in the vegetable growing
research area, regarding cultivation technologies.
For the present study, we believe that this method
is a scientific way that highlights the factors that
may decrease the production and through which
production can be increased, both quantitatively Figure 2. Runner bean – intercropping with maize
and qualitatively, in terms of economic efficiency. (original photo)
MATERIAL AND METHOD
In accordance with the purpose and objectives

of the research, the experiment was placed in the
experimental field of vegetable growing department
within the "V. Adamachi" farm of UASVM Iași, in
2013-2014.
The biological material used to establish the
experience consisted of runner bean seeds, maize
seeds, sunflower seeds and tubers of Jerusalem
artichoke.
Plant cultivation was conducted in accordance
with the emerging technology rules of consulted
literature (Axinte et al., 2006, Popa, 2010, Ru ti,
Figure 3. Runner bean - intercropping with Jerusalem
2007, Stan et al., 2003). The culture was established
artichoke (original photo)
on well leveled ground; the soil is cambic chernozem,
well-stocked in nutrients, with an organic matter
content of 3.2-3.4% and a pH of 6.5-6.8. Care works
were those recommended by the specialized
literature (Axinte et al., 2006, Stan et al., 2003).
The experimental device was made of
randomized blocks with three repetitions. Four
different variants of plant interleaving were used
(figure 1). Row spacing was one meter and the
distance between plants in the row was 25 cm for V 1,
V2 and V3 variants and 40 cm for the V4 variant (figure
2, figure 3, figure 4).
Variant
V1 V2 V3 V4
1:1 1:2 1:3 2:1
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
   
 - runner bean plant
 - interleaved plant Figure 4. Runner bean – intercropping with sunflower
Figure 1. The arrangement of the plants in the field (original photo)
202
In the present experiment, biometric mixture directly to the feed (legumes compensate
observations and measurements were conducted, protein, while cereals provide carbohydrates), or
showing the state of the vegetation, plant may be collected separately for individual use.
phenology and production results. Amid these Growing runner bean in intercropping
observations and determinations, strengths,
system can increase the quality and quantity of
weaknesses, opportunities and threats of growing
runner bean in intercropping system were production. If one of the crops would be
analyzed. compromised, the other could provide income.
To perform SWOT analysis, eight steps Among the considered options, the most effective,
were followed, namely: goal setting; documentation in terms of quality and quantity, were variant V4,
regarding the current situation of runner bean followed by variants V1, V2 and V3 .
cultivated in intercropping system; enumeration of Weaknesses
strengths; enumeration of weaknesses; A weak point is the competition for items
enumeration of the potential opportunities; necessary for interspersed plant growth and
enumeration of the potential threats; setting development. This can be corrected by enriching
priorities; developing a strategy to address the
soil nutrients, especially during critical growing
problems in the SWOT analysis.
stages.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The greatest obstacle to the adoption of an
interleaved system is conceptualization of growing
Objective – SWOT analysis efficiency crops, the method of fertilization, the method of
resulting from opportunities to learn how and combating pests and diseases and, in particular, the
where it can make a runner bean crop in collection method.
intercropping system, under the conditions of the Another flaw is the inadequate density of the
North-Eastern Romania, economically efficient. plants. Given the vastness of cultures and different
Analysis of the current situation of possible combinations of climate and soil
intercropping highlights the fact that, in this area, conditions, it is possible to generalize the
there are no registered researches on this issue, recommendations in this direction. It is
runner beans being a species which is recommended to take into account five different
understudied. Different cases are known, with no aspects to achieve a successful intercropping: (1)
systematic evidence, especially without records of detailed planning; (2) seeding at the optimal age of
achievements in crops and yields. each culture; (3) adequate fertilization in the
Strengths optimal period; (4) effective control of weeds and
Runner bean is a species with a high level of pests and (5) a harvest without losses.
rusticity and ecological plasticity, higher than From the conducted research, for the V2 and
common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), due to V3 variants, runner bean crop has not developed
higher resistance or tolerance to pathogens. Being properly due to the insufficient light factor. This
a cool and humid climate species, cultivated in can be remedied by increasing the distance
intercropping system, it benefits from a between plants in the row. Among the analyzed
microclimate formed by the arrangement of plants variants, the lowest results were obtained for the
near optimal environmental requirements. V3 variant, followed by V2.
At the same time, the intercropping system Opportunities
reduces the number of damaging insect populations As an opportunity, runner beans can be
and, due to the diversity of plants, a large number grown as an ornamental plant, in addition to its
of useful insects is drawn; reduces crops diseases; great food value. Lately, there is a particular focus
reduces the number of weeds through allelopathy on achieving a healthy and decorative garden at the
or competition; increases or maintains organic same time. Also, there are efforts in achieving
matter content; more efficient use of farm land; mixed gardens, in which vegetables and flowers
diversified cropping patterns in a single season; associate harmoniously, taking into account the
improves the microclimate in agricultural allelopathy relations.
ecosystem etc. Threats
Given the high cost of support systems for Adverse weather conditions can compromise
runner beans, the stems of associated plants are the culture. This is a real threat because cosmic
favorable means for crop growth and development. factors can not be controlled. Also, another risk of
Residues from cropping plants are extremely ruining cultures is the improper association of
valuable as a silo, both qualitatively and species, without taking into account the allelopathy
quantitatively. Growing runner beans at the same relations.
time with interleaved plants in intercropping
system enables the collection and use of their
203
CONCLUSIONS nitrogen levels in Karaj, Iran. Journal of Central

European Agriculture. 7(2): 359-364.
Munteanu N., 2006 – Evaluarea biodiversită ii speciei
Intercropping success depends on thorough Phaseolus coccineus L. (fasole mare) în zona de
planning and thorough knowledge of the botanical, nord-est a României. Lucrări științifice, seria
ecological and technological particularities of the Horticultură, USAMV Iași.
associated species, especially habitus, root Munteanu N., Popa Lorena-Diana, Stoleru V., 2007a –
morphology, requirements for water and nutrients. On the agrobiological value of some local
population of runner bean. Lucrări științifice, seria
Following the research, it results that Horticultură, anul L (50), USAMV Iași.
intercropping system can be successfully adopted Munteanu N., Popa Lorena-Diana, Teliban G. C.,
for runner bean cultivation in the conditions of 2007b – Suitability of Phaseolus coccineus L.
North-Eastern Romania, but more laborious species for cultivation in sustainable agriculture
systems. Lucrări ştiinţifice, seria Horticultură, anul
researches are necessary. L (50), UŞAMV Iaşi.
Munteanu N., Hamburdă Silvia Brîndu a, Popa
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Lorena Diana, 2013 - Research on the main
productivity features in an assortment of runner
This paper was published under the frame of European bean (Phaseolus coccineus L.) in the
Social Fund, Human Resources Development environmental conditions from NE Romania.
Operational Programme 2007-2013, project no. Lucrări științifice, seria Agronomie, editura Ion
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765. Ionescu de la Brad, Iași. 56 (1): 159-162.
Popa Lorena-Diana, Munteanu N., Teliban G. C.,
REFERENCES Stoleru, V., 2008 – Yield comparative study on
some local populations of runner bean
(Phaseolus coccineus L.). Lucrări științifice, seria
Axinte M., Roman Gh.V., Borcean I., Muntean L.S.,
Horticultură, anul LI (vol. 51, pag. 605-612),
2006 - Fitotehnie. Editura “Ion Ionescu de la
USAMV Iași.
Brad” Iaşi.
Popa Lorena Diana, 2010 - Cercetări privind
Hamburdă Silvia Brîndușa, Dascălu T., Munteanu N.,
agrobiologia speciei Phaseolus coccineus L. în
2013 – Preliminary studies for new cultivation
vederea optimizării cultivării. Teză de doctorat.
systems of runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus
USAMV Iaşi. 232 p.
L.). Lucrări științifice, seria Horticultură, USAMV
Ruști Gr., 2007 - Cercetări privind îmbunătățirea
Ia i. 56 (2): 167-172.
tehnologiei de cultură a fasolei de grădină
Hamburdă Silvia Brîndușa, Munteanu N., Popa
urcătoare (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. comunnis
Lorena Diana, 2014 - Evaluarea unui sortiment
L). Teză de doctorat. U.Ș.A.M.V. Iași.
de fasole mare (Phaseolus coccineus L.) în
Ruşti G., Munteanu N., 2008 – Cultura fasolei de
condiţiile din judeţul Iaşi. Știința Agricolă.
grădină urcătoare. Editura „Ion Ionescu de la
Universitatea Agrară de Stat din Moldova,
Brad”, Iaşi.
Chișinău. 1: 38-41. Stan N., Munteanu N., Stan T., 2003 – Legumicultură,
Mazaheri D., Madani A., Oveysi M., 2006 - Assessing
vol III. Editura “Ion Ionescu de la Brad“, Iaşi.
the land equivalent ratio (LER) of two corn (Zea
mays L.) varieties intercropping at various
204
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS ON RUNNER BEAN (Phaseolus coccineus L.)

BEHAVIOUR DEPENDING ON THE TRELLISING SYSTEM
Silvia Brîndușa HAMBURDĂ1, Neculai MUNTEANU 1, Vasile STOLERU1,

Gabriel Ciprian TELIBAN1, Gianina BUTNARIU1, Lorena-Diana POPA1
e-mail: silvia_hamburda@yahoo.com
Abstract
This paper presents the behavior of the runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus L.) in three crop trellising systems: with
maize plants (intercropping), on individual string on a single row and on trellis with synthetic mesh. Runner bean and
maize were sown at the same time, in early May, at a distance of 0.4 m between nests and 1 m between rows . The
results were evaluated based on the main morphological and phenological plant features, including those regarding
agro-productivity. The results revealed significant differences between the studied variants and highlighted the
superiority of trellising system on individual string on a single row.
Key words: agro-productivity, intercropping, trellis, trellising mesh
Runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus L.) is a trellising and establishing the most effective
widely known species in Romania, within private trellising system.
gardens or households, being confused with the
climbing common bean (P. vulgaris L.). Runner MATERIAL AND METHOD
bean is a species that is cultivated similary with the
climbing common bean, and the harvest is In accordance with the purpose and objectives
relatively easily sold. This kind of bean is known of the research, the experiment was placed in the
as a luxurious food that is valued at higher prices experimental field of vegetable growing department
within the "V. Adamachi" farm of UASVM Ia i, in
than the common bean. It is a short-day plant, by 2013-2014.
origin, but most cultivars are neutral. It is a light The available biological material was made of
loving plant, but bears the shadow relatively well, the runner bean seeds (C3 local population) and
being cultivated interspersed with other species, maize seeds (Flato hybrid).
such as maize (Salinas A.D., 1988). The experimental device consisted of
Runner bean cultivation is profitable if an randomized blocks with three repetitions type. The
studied experimental factor was the trellising system
appropriate technology is used, based on the
with three degrees:
optimization of major technological factors V1- palis on maize plants (figure 1);
(cultivar, epoch, density and scheme setting) in V2 – individual string trellis in a single row
close relation to biological and ecological (figure 2);
peculiarities (Popa L.D., 2010). In Romania, the V3 – synthetic mesh trellis (17 cm mesh) in a
entries in the literature are few and incomplete, so single row (figure 3).
it is necessary to conduct systematic research to Each experimental plot had an area of 6 m2, 1
m distance between rows and 0.4 m between plants
substantiate cultivation technologies (Munteanu in the row.
N., 1985a,b, 2005, 2006; Munteanu N. et al., 1989, The establishment of the culture was held in
2007a, b; Popa L.D. et al., 2008). the first week of May, by direct sowing, three runner
The research aim is to assess the behavior of bean seeds/nest and two corn seeds/nest. At the time
runner bean in three crop trellising systems: with of emergence, in each nest there were two runner
maize plants (intercropping), on individual string bean plants and one maize plant. Thus, in each
repetition, in the case of runner bean trellising on
on a single row and on trellis with synthetic mesh. maize, there were 30 nests of runner bean plants and
Necessity of this research results from the fact that 14 plants of corn and in the runner bean mesh and
a standard technology for runner bean crop is not string trellising systems, there were 30 nests of
elaborated. Thus, there is an attempt to obtain runner bean plants.
profitable production by using different means of
1
205
The experimental culture was conducted

according to technical rules arising from the consulted
specialized literature (Munteanu N. et al, 1989; Stan
N. et al, 2003; Ruști G., 2007; Popa L.D., 2010;
Axinte M. et al, 2006). The culture was performed on
well leveled ground; the soil is a cambic chernozem,
well-stocked in nutrients, with an organic matter
content of 3.2 - 3.4% and a pH of 6.5-6.8.
Works were carried out as recommended for
common climbing beans (Munteanu N. et al, 1989;
Ru ti G. and Munteanu N., 2008; Popa L.D., 2010).
The culture was not irrigated.
To assess the influence of the experimental
factor, biometric observations and measurements
were made, on the main morphological and
phenological plant features, including agro-
productivity. Production results were statistically
interpreted according to the specialized literature
(Jităreanu G., 1994; Săulescu N.A. and Săulescu
N.N., 1967).
Figure 1. V1 – palis on maize plants
Between the studied trellising systems, there

were no significant differences in the
morphological and phenological characterization
of the runner bean plants (fig. 4, fig. 5, fig.6).
Figure 2 – V 2 - individual string trellis in a single row

Figure 4 – V1 (original photo)

Figure 3. V 3- synthetic mesh trellis in a single row
206
Results in the phenological characterization:

emergence is hypogeic, meaning it is achieved
only by the epicotil growing above ground, the
cotyledon leaves remaining in the soil; period from
sowing to emergence was about seven to ten days,
the period from emergence to appearance of the
first real trifoliate leaves was around five to seven
days, the period from emergence to the first
flowers was about 32 -35 days, the period from
emergence to the first pod was about 67-70 days,
the period from emergence to seed maturation was
around 115-122 days and the period from
emergence to the end of the vegetation period was
around 130-140 days (table 1).
Table 1
Phenological characters for runner bean
(number of days)
Sowing - emergence 7-10
Emergence - first real trifoliate leaf 5-7
Emergence – first flowers 32-35
Emergence – first pods 67-70
Emergence – seed maturation 115-122
Emergence – end of vegetation 130-140
Results in the terms of production
Results in terms of morphological Following investigations, it appears that
characterization: runner bean plant port is voluble; seed production ranged from 2234 kg/ha and 3610
size (height) of the plant is over two meters; plant kg/ha. Highest production was obtained in the
vigor is high; number of branches per plant is three variant V2, on individual string trellis in a single
to four; color is dark green foliage; flower color is row (3610 kg/ha), which recorded very significant
white; seed color is white; pods of widely varying positive differences from the experience average
size, with length of 8-17 cm and a width of 1.4 to 2 (2907 kg/ha), while the lowest production was in
cm; it is important to point out that the pod’s the variant V1 , palis on maize plants (2234 kg/ha),
length correlates with the number of seeds / pod, is highlighted very significant negative differences
longer pods having a higher number of seeds; seed from the control. Third version (palis on synthetic
size, measured by the length of the longest axis, mesh trellis in a single row) achieved productions
varies between 15 and 22 mm; the number of seed within the average experimental variation limits
per pod ranges from two to four. (table 2).
Table 2
Runner bean yield (2014)
Variant Yield Differences from the w
Semnification
no specification kg/ha % of the mean mean (kg/ha)
1 V1 2234 76,84 - 673 ooo
2 V2 3610 124,18 + 703 ***
3 V3 2878 99,00 - 29 NS
Mean 2907 100 - -
w
Significance of differences made by ANOVA (analysis of variance) for experimental factors and interaction of them;
NS, *,**,*** - indicate nonsignificant and positive significant at p≤0.05, 0.01, 0.001, respectively;
o,oo,ooo - negative significant at p≤0.05, 0.01, 0.001, respectively
DL 5% = 178,693
DL 1% = 295,679
DL0,1% = 553,4339
207
CONCLUSIONS urcătoare. Cercetări Agronomice în Moldova, vol.

4, Iași.
Munteanu N., 2005 - Studii preliminare privind
The runner bean considered in the study is a biodiversitatea speciei fasole mare (Phaseolus
vigurous plant with white flower; seed color is coccineus L.). Lucrări științifice, UȘAMV, Iași,
white; number of seeds in pods are 2-4. seria Horticultură.
In terms of phenology, plants arose after 7- Munteanu N., 2006 - Evaluarea biodiversității speciei
Phaseolus coccineus L. (fasole mare) în zona de
10 days from sowing, flowering occurred after 32- nord-est a României. Lucrări științifice, seria
35 days from the emergence, from the emergence Horticultură, USAMV Iași.
to seed maturation 115-122 days, and from Munteanu N., Popa Lorena-Diana, Stoleru V., 2007a -
emergence to end of the growing season 130-140 On the agrobiological value of some local
days. population of runner bean. Lucrări științifice, seria
Horticultură, anul L (50), USAMV Iași.
Seed production ranged between 2234 Munteanu N., Popa Lorena-Diana, Teliban G. C.,
kg/ha, obtained in the V1 variant, palis on maize 2007b - Suitability of Phaseolus coccineus L.
plants, and 3610 kg/ha, in the V2 variant, on species for cultivation in sustainable agriculture
individual string trellis in a single row. In the case systems. Lucrări ştiinţifice, seria Horticultură, anul
L (50), UŞAMV Iaşi.
of the V3 variant, on synthetic mesh trellis (17 cm Munteanu N., Hamburdă, Silvia Brîndușa Popa,
mesh) in a single row, the yield was 2878 kg/ha. Lorena Diana, 2013 - Research on the main
productivity features in an assortment of runner
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS bean (Phaseolus coccineus L.) in the
environmental conditions from NE Romania.
This paper was published under the frame of European Lucrări științifice, seria Agronomie, editura Ion
Social Fund, Human Resources Development Ionescu de la Brad, Iași. 56 (1): 159-162.
Operational Programme 2007-2013, project no. Popa Lorena-Diana, Munteanu N., Teliban G. C.,
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765. Stoleru V., 2008 - Yield comparative study on
some local populations of runner bean
REFERENCES (Phaseolus coccineus L.). Lucrări științifice, seria
Axinte M., Roman G.,V., Borcean I., Muntean L.S., Horticultură, anul LI (vol. 51, pag. 605-612),
2006 - Fitotehnie. Editura “Ion Ionescu de la USAMV Iași.
Brad” Iaşi. Popa Lorena Diana, 2010 - Cercetări privind
Hamburdă Silvia Brîndușa, Dascălu T., Munteanu N., agrobiologia speciei Phaseolus coccineus L. în
2013 - Preliminary studies for new cultivation vederea optimizării cultivării. Teză de doctorat.
systems of runner bean (Phaseolus coccineus USAMV Iaşi. 232 p.
L.). Lucrări științifice, seria Horticultură, USAMV Ruști G., 2007- Cercetări privind îmbunătățirea
Iași. 56 (2): 167-172. tehnologiei de cultură a fasolei de grădină
Hamburdă Silvia Brîndușa, Munteanu N., Popa urcătoare (Phaseolus vulgaris L. var. comunnis
Lorena Diana, 2014 - Evaluarea unui sortiment L). Teză de doctorat. U.Ș.A.M.V. Iași.
de fasole mare (Phaseolus coccineus L.) în Ruşti G., Munteanu N., 2008 - Cultura fasolei de
condiţiile din judeţul Iaşi. Știința Agricolă. grădină urcătoare. Editura „Ion Ionescu de la
Universitatea Agrară de Stat din Moldova, Brad”, Iaşi.
Chișinău. 1: 38-41. Salinas A. D., 1988 - Variation, taxonomy domestication
Jităreanu G., 1994 - Tehnică experimentală. Editura and germoplasm potentialities in Phaseolus
”Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iași, 167 pag. coccineus. In „Genetic Resources of Phaseolus
Munteanu N., 1985a - Phaseolus coccineus L. - o Beans” (edited by Gepts, P.), Kluver Academic
specie legumicolă care merită mai multă atenție. Publishers, Dordrecht/Boston/London.
Producția Vegetală, Horticultura, nr. 4/1985. Stan N., Munteanu N., Stan T., 2003 - Legumicultură,
Munteanu N., 1985b - Câteva aprecieri asupra unor vol III. Editura “Ion Ionescu de la Brad“, Iaşi.
populașii locale de fasole de grădină. Cercetări Săulescu N.A., Săulescu N.N., 1967 - Câmpul de
Agronomice în Moldova, vol. 4. experienţă- ediția a II a, Edit. Agro-Silvică de stat,
Munteanu N., Timofte Valentina, Timofte E., 1989 - Bucureşti.
Aspecte tehnologice ale culturii fasolei de grădină
208
RESULTS REGARDING THE CHEMICAL CONTROL

OF EUROPEAN CHERRY FRUIT FLY (Rhagoletis cerasi L.)
IN CHERRY ORCHARDS FROM CLUJ AREA
Laura Ioana MACAVEI1, Viorel MITRE², Ioana Mitre2, Ioan OPREAN³,

Aurelia POP3, Iuliana VASIAN³, Raul BĂEŢAN¹, Ion OLTEAN¹
e-mail: macavei_laura87@yahoo.com
Abstract
In neglected orchards the attack of European cherry fruit fly can affect the production by up to compromising. For
framing in the regulations asked by market, it is often required that in cherry plantations to intervene with several
strategies of pest control, in which frequently appears chemotherapy. To apply a reduced number of treatments we
must know the biological reserve of species and its life cycle. The experiment was conducted over two years, 2013-
2014, in an orchard located near Cluj-Napoca city, Romania.To study the biological cycle of this species, we followed
the dynamics of climatic factors, especially the accumulation of active degrees that were needed in going through
several stages of development. In order to apply the treatments, we observed flight dynamics of Rhagoletis cerasi using
sticky panels (provided by Institute of Chemistry "Raluca Ripan'' Cluj-Napoca). The treatments applyed in combating
of the fly consisted in two applications of products belonging to synthetic pyrethroids group. In 2013, the first adults
were recorded on 25 May, when the amount of active degrees accumulated was 410, 2 ° C. Frequency of fruits attacked
by cherries worm this year was 1%. In 2014, the adults emergence took place on May 21, which corresponded to value
of 343,8° C degrees acumulated. Although the population level was still high the frequency of attacked fruits was again
1%, which was mainly due to the possibility of migration of adults at distances over 100 m. In control variant, an
untreated orchard, frequency of attacked fruits in both years exceeded 30%.
Key words: chimical control, degree-day, integrated pest management, Rhagoletis cerasi L.
European cherry fruit fly, Rhagoletis cerasi however, an extremely important fact, especially
L. is an important pest of sweet cherry and tart now when it is known that the planet is going
cherry orchards and the fruits attacked by it cause through a period in which the biological and
some discomfort for the consumer. ecological stability is degradating.
Sometimes in neglected orchards, the The concept of integrated pest management,
production’s quality can be compromised in a very constitue an optimal solution in terms of applied
high percentage (Olszak R.W., Maciesiak A., technology. For performing a reduced number of
2004). In national and international laws are treatments, with maximum efficiency,we must
stipulated standards for fresh consumption so on know the biological reserves of species and its life
the market are accepted only the fresh fruits where cycle.
the frequency of attack is around 2% (Daniel C., Studies on estimateing the emergence of
Grunder J., 2012). Some importers claim that the Rhagoletis cerasi adults, based on soil temperature
attack rate to be even less than 1%. For achieving at a depth of 5 cm was made by Suta Victoria 1969
this norm it is often required that in cherry cited Chireceanu C., 2008. This method is
plantations to intervene with several strategies to uncomfortable to be applied (Kovanci O.B.,
control the pests, in which frequently enters Kovanci B., 2006).
chemotherapy. Another model for determining the moment
The control method in which chemicals are of emergence of European cherry fruit fly adults,
used has the easiest way of application, with good using temperature was studied both in Romania
results. Reconsideration of chemotherapy is,
(Chireceanu C., 2008) and abroad (Kovanci O.B., Kovanci B., 2006). It consists in summing of
1
Faculty of Agriculture, USAMV Cluj, Cluj-Napoca
2
Faculty of Horticulture, USAMV Cluj, Cluj-Napoca
3
Institute for Research in Chemistry “Raluca Ripan”, Cluj-Napoca
209
activedegrees (degree-day, DD) which were total of 44 panels and as control measures of
required for passing from pupal stage to adult species we applied two treatments, using for the
stage. Summing starts from the first day of first treatment Ciperguard 25 EC (0.02%) and for
February when the daily average temperature the second treatment, Calypso 480 SC (0.02%).
The first treatment was performed a few days after
exceeds 7°C. However the easiest way for
the beginnig of flight, and the second treatment
treatments warnings remain the observations on when it was achieved the flight’s peak.
flight’s peak through yellow sticky panels. In 2014, 55 traps were placed on May 14
and the insecticides used were Calypso 480 SC
MATERIAL AND METHOD and Ciperguard 25 EC.
At harvesting time, we checked frequency
The experiment was conducted over two of fruits attacked by studied pest. To assess the
years, from 2013 to 2014, in an orchard of efficacy of tested insecticides we took as a control
intensive type, located near Cluj-Napoca city, variant, an orchard where no chemical treatments
Romania. were applied, orchard which is located in proximity
For the research undertaken for estimateing of treated orchard. Observations were made on
the start of flight, we calculated the sum of active 500 fruits, collected randomly from different parts
degrees, by Savescu’s formula (1969, 1978) Σ of cherry tree.
(tn-7 ° C, were tn represents average daily
temperature). The summing of degrees started in RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
first day of February when we recorded daily
average temperature over 7 ° C, value which is In 2013 the first day with average
considered as inferior thermal threshold in
temperatures above 7°C was recorded in February
development of studied species. In the year 2013
this value was recorded on 25 February and in 12 25. The first catches noted on panels were on 25
February for the year 2014. May, that is after 89 days from the moment of
In order to apply the treatments, we registration of the first day with average
observed flight dynamics of Rhagoletis cerasi temperatures above 7°C. In this period there were a
adults using yellow and white sticky panels, total accumulation of 410.2 degree-day. Maximum
provided by the Institute of Chemistry "Raluca flight curve was recorded on June 24, respectively
Ripan 'Cluj-Napoca. Traps were placed at height of at 29 days after the beginning of flight. Taking as
approximately 1,5-1,8 m on the south side of reference the first date when lower developmental
canopy. Their reading was done twice a threshold was achieved, the maximum flight peak
week, by counting catches on each paneland the
occurred after 118 days, period in which were
the difference we get the number of catches.
In the year 2013 in May 20 were placed a acumulated 715.9 degree-days (table 1, 2).
Tabel 1
Start date for accumulation of active degrees and emergence of adults date
Year First day temp. > 7 °C Date of first adult capture
2013 25.03 25.05
2014 12.03 21.05
Tabel 2
Sum of active degrees necessary for emergence and for achieving maximum flight peak
Year First adult emergence Adults emergence peak
2013 410.2 751.9
2014 343.8 644.7
The first treatment in controlling the Calypso 480 SC was used as insecticides,
European cherry fruit fly was made on June 8. It conting on the systemic effect, so the possibility of
was used of synthetic pyrethroids), with contact affecting hatching and first larval age.
effect, affecting primarily adults population. In At harvest, the frequency of attacked fruits
(figure 1) it can be noticed that in this time began was below 1%. In untreated orchard, considered as
an intensification of adults flight. The second control, the frequency of attacked fruits was 44%
treatment was applied on 23 June, duo to the fact (with oscillations between 37% and 46%,
that we noticed that starting from June 20 the depending on the variety). It appears that the
number of captures on traps increased. Maximum application of both treatments reduced the
flight curve was performed at 1-2 days after frequency of attacked fruits in a proportion of
treatment. 97.7%.
210
Figure 1 Evolution of flight in 2013, arrows indicate the date in which chimical treatemens where applied
Figure 2 Evolution of flight in 2014, arrows indicate the date in which chimical treatemens where applied
In 2014, the first captures were found on above 7°C, with an amount of 644.7 active
May 21, at 98 days after recording temperatures degrees accumulated (tablle 1, 2).
above 7°C from February, which corresponded to This year the first treatment was performed
341.1 degree-days. The maximum level of on June 4, taking into account that on 3 June we
Rhagoletis cerasi adults recorded on traps was noticed a slight increase of adults flight (figure
after 26 days following emergence, on June 17. 2). The second treatment was applied on 15 June.
This year, the flight peak occurred after 125 days The decision in warning of treatement was
from the first day with average temperatures motivated by the fact that since June 13, has been
211
a strong increase of catches (on 10 June were 33 REFERENCES

captures and on 13 June were 122 captures). The
frequency of attacked fruits at harvesting was as Chireceanu C., 2008 - Preliminary phenologic model of
in the previous year of about 1%. In untreated predicting tha adult emergence of cherry fruit fly
Rhagoletis cerasi L. (Diptera: Tephritidae) in
control orchard the frequency of attacked fruits Baneasa area, Lucrări ştiinţifice U.S.A.M.V.B.,
was 38% (oscillations between 32% and 41%). By Seria A, vol. LI.
applying the two treatments the frequency of Daniel, C., Grunder, J., 2012 - Integrated Management
attack decreased by 97.4%. of European Cherry Fruit Fly Rhagoletis cerasi
(L.): Situation in Switzerland and
Europe, Insects,3, p. 956-988.
CONCLUSIONS Kovanci O.B., Kovanci B., 2006 - Reduced-risk
management of Rhagoletis cerasi flies (host
In Cluj area, the emergence of Rhagoletis race Prunus) in combination with a preliminary
phenological model, Journal of Insect Science,
cerasi L. adults, takes place in the last decade of vol. 6, 34.
May, corresponding to an effective temperatures Olszak R.W., Maciesiak A., 2004 - Problem of cherry
sum between 343.8 and 410.2 (starting at t0 = fruit fly (Rhagoletis cerasi) in Poland – flight
7°C) dynamics and control with some insecticides,
The flight peak is achieved after Integrated plant protection in stone fruit, vol.
27(5), p. 91 - 96
approximately 4 following emergence, with a sum Savescu A., Iacob, N., Cristea, N., Lefter, Gh.,
that varies between 644.7 and 751.9 degree-day Vonica I.L., 1969 - Prognoza si avertizarea in
(DD). protectia plantelor, Ed. Agrosilvica Bucuresti, p.
By applying to two chemical treatments the 224.
Savescu A., 1986 - Equivalence thermique, Bulletin de
proportion of attacked fruits can be reduced by l’Academie des Sciences Agricoles et
approximately 97.5% Forestieres, vol. 15, p. 175-184.
ACKNOWLEGMENTS

Operational Programme 2007-2013, project no.
POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765.
212
RESEARCHES ON THE MICOFLORA OF SUNFLOWER’S ACHENES FOR

THE HYBRIDS CULTIVATED IN FETESTI AREA, IALOMITA COUNTY
Elena Ştefania MARDARE1, Stelica CRISTEA 1, Relu Cristinel ZALA1
e-mail: elenamardare184@yahoo.com
Abstract
Improperly called "seed" the sunflower achenes are an important mean of production but also of transmission of fungal
diseases from this plant. The proper understanding of sunflower’s achenes pathology has implications both in yield and
in quality production. Researches made on the health of sunflower’s "seeds" were carried out into "in vitro" conditions
and aimed to identify some fungi that populate this plant’s achenes. The biological material was consisted of sunflower
achenes treated with Apron 3.3 l / t, coming from hybrids: PR63F73, LG 56.31CL, Tristan, NK Adagio, Clever, MS
Oliva CL. The micromycetes’ identification was achieved throw successive isolation and sub-culturing of them on the
culture medium PDA (Potato Dextrose Agar) and incubated in the thermostat at 220C. They were identified pathogens
like: Alternaria sp. - 65%, Stemphyllium sp. - 15%, Aspergillus sp. - 3%, Rhizopus sp. - 5%, Penicillium sp. - 2%. At
Clever hybrid was identified the presence of Fusarium sp. micromycete and the Aspergillus sp attack was absent.
Germination was 85% for the LC MS Oliva hybrid, 90% for Tristan hybrids and 95% for PR63 F73 and LG56.31CL
hybrids. The seeds’ germination was not affected at NK Adagio hybrid.
Key words: diseases, sunflower, Alternaria
The health of sunflower seeds has a The biological material was represented by
particular importance for obtaining higher the achenes from following sunflower hybrids:
PR63F73, NK Adagio, Tristan, MS Olivia CL ,
production in terms of quality and quantity (Raicu
Clever, LG 56.31CL. The achenes were treated with
C., Baciu D., 1978). Apron in a dose of 3.3 l/to.
The preservation and transmission of The sunflower achenes were placed in Petri
important pathogens of sunflower crop is done dishes on PDA culture medium (potato-dextrose-
also through seed. Sunflower seeds mycloflora is agar) and incubated at thermostat at 220 C. In order
associated with fungi like Alternaria sp. to be identified, the pathogens were isolated and
Aspergillus sp. Fusarium sp. Rhizopus sp. successively repicated on PDA culture medium and
incubated under the same conditions. The culture
(Abdullah S.K., Al Mosawi K.a., 2010 Sharfun- medium was prepared after the classic recipe (Hulea
Nahar, Mushtaq M., Hashmi M.H., 2005 A., 1969).
Suryanarayanana T.S., Suryanarayanana S.S., It had been determined the frequency of
1990). affected seeds by the identified micromycetes. The
Also, Alternaria helianthi micomyceta is observations were performed at 3, 6 and 9 days. For
considered an important pathogen of the the identification Zeiss Primo Star microscope was
used. The determination of sunflower seeds’
sunflower‘s seed (Udayashankar A.C., Nayaka s. germination was performed on filter paper.
Chandra, Archana B., Anjana G., Niranjana S.R.,
Mortensen C.N., Lund O.S., Prakash H.S., 2012).
The seeds’ treatment with different fungicides
controlled the Alternaria helianthi’s attack The data in table 1 show that the patogens
(Jeffrey, K.K., Lipps, P.E., Herr, L. J., 1984). species present on the sunflower’s achenes
belonged to Alternaria sp. (figure 1, figure 2.)
MATERIAL AND METHOD Stemphylium (figure 3), Penicillium, Rhizopus,
Aspergillus (figure 4), Fusarium. It was found that
There have been studied sunflower hybrids
coming from the ones cultivated in Fetesti, Ialomita pathogens: Alternaria sp., Stemphylium sp. and
County. The research aimed to identify the present Rhizopus sp. (figure 5) have populated the
pathogens on the sunflower achenes and their achenes of all the studied sunflower hybrids.
impact on germination.
1
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Bd. Mărăsti nr 59, sect 1, 011460, Bucharest, România
213
The micromycetes belonging to sunflower achenes hybrids: PR63F73, NK

Penicillium were identified at PR63F73, NK Adagio, Tristan and Fusarium sp. (figure 6) was
Adagio, MS OliviaCL, Clever hybrids. The present only at Clever hybrid.
Aspergillus fungi were present at the following
Table 1
The micoflora detected on sonflower’s achenes
The pathogenic agent
Hybrid
Alternaria sp. Stemphylium sp. Penicillium sp. Rhizopus sp. Aspergillus sp. Fusarium sp.
PR63F73 + + + + + -
NK Adagio + + - + + -
Tristan + + + + + -
MS OliviaCL + + + + + -
Clever + + - + - +
LG 56.31CL + + + + + -
The detected observations on the hybrid with 13%, and the lowest value was
micoflora’s incidence are shown in table 2. Thus, recorded for the NK Adagio hybrid, with 2%. The
it can be seen that Alternaria sp, present on the incidence of Rhizopus sp. fungus was relatively
sunflower achenes from all the analyzed hybrids, close to other hybrids: 5% for Tristan and
had the highest values of frequency, from all the LG56.31 CL and 6% for Clever. For MS Olivia
identified pathogens with high values at hybrids: CL hybrid the incidence was 3%.
MS Olivia CL (84%), followed by LG 56.31CL The Penicillium micromycetes were not
hybrid with 76%, NK Adagio with an incidence of presented for NK Adagio and Clever hybrids. The
70% and Clever with 65%. The PR63F73 hybrid frequency of the fungus was 5% for Tristan
presented an incidence value of Alternaria below hybrid, 2% for MS Olivia CL and LG 56.31CL
50%. hybrids and 3% for PR63F73. Aspergillus fungi
The pathogens of Stemphylium type, were not presented at Clever hybrid and had a
presented the highest values of incidence for frequency of 6% for Tristan hybrid. The
Tristan hybrid with 23%, Clever (20%) and frequency values were close with 4%, 3% and 2%
PR63F73 with 19%. The smallest incidence was for PR63F73, NK Adagio, MS Olivia CL and LG
noted at MS OliviaCL hybrid (7%). 56.31CL hybrids. The Fusarium sp fungus was
Rhizopus fungi, which were also present with a lower incidence of 4% only for
presented on the achenes of the studied hybrids, Clever hybrid.
showed the highest value incidence for PR63F73
Table 2
The micoflora’s incidence detected on sunflower achenes
Others
Alternaria Stemphylium Penicillium Rhizopus Aspergillus Fusarium
(leeses)
Hybrid sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp.
(after 9
(after 9 (after 9 (after 9 (after 9 (after 9 (after 9
days)
days) days) days) days) days) days)
PR63F73 45 19 3 13 4 0 16
NK Adagio 70 11 0 2 3 0 14
Tristan 55 23 5 5 6 0 6
MS Olivia CL 84 7 2 3 2 0 2
Clever 65 20 0 6 0 4 5
LG 56.31CL 76 15 2 5 2 0 0
214
Figure 1 Alternaria sp. - fructifications (MS Olivia CL)
Figure 2 Alternaria sp. - conidia ( NK Adagio) Fig. 3.Stemphylium sp. – conidia (PR63f73)
Figure 4 Aspergillus sp. - fructifications (Tristan)
Figure 5 Rhizopus sp. -- fructifications (MS Olivia CL)
215
Figure 6 Fusarium sp. – macroconidia ( Clever)
Table 3
Micoflora’s influence on sunflower’s germination
Germination (%)
Hybrid
after 4 days after 7 days
PR63F73 95 95
NK Adagio 85 100
Tristan 80 90
MS OliviaCL 65 85
Clever 75 85
LG 56.31CL 95 95
The data in table 3 shows that after 7 days of hybrids the percentage of germinated seeds
observation, sunflower seed germination was not increased by 20% and 10% in the interval between
affected for NK Adagio hybrid, also, with 95% for the two readings.
PR 6 3F 73 and LG 56.31CL. For Tristan hybrid
the germination was of 90% and for MS Olivia CL ACKNOWLEGMENTS
and Clever hybrids the germination was of 85%. It
was found out that for the sunflower seed Social Found, Human Resources Development
germination on filter paper their colonization by Operational Programme 2007-2013, project
the identified pathogens was reduced. no.POSDRU/159/1.5/S/132765
Abdullah S.K., Al Mosawi K.A., 2010 - Fungi

In accordance with the observations made, associated with seeds of sunflower
on the sunflowers’ achenes micoflora, the (HELIANTHUS ANNUUS) cultivars grown in Iraq,
following comments can be issued. Phytopathologia 57: 11-20.
The seed’s treatment allowed the Hulea Ana, 1969 - Guide fot mycology and bacteriology
development of fungi known for their development laboratories, Agrosilvica Publishing House,
Bucharest
at the seed’s level, and producion of molds. Jeffrey K.K., Lipps P.E., Herr L.J., 1985 - Seed-
The Alternaria sp., Stemphlium sp., treatment fungicides for control of seed borne
Rhizopus sp fungus., have colonized all the Alternaria helianthi on sunflower. Plant Disease,
sunflower’s achenes in all the studied hybrids. 69:124-126
Raicu Cristina, Baciu Doina, 1978 - Seed’s Pathology.
Higher frequency values were determined Ceres Publishing House, Bucharest
for the following hybrids: MS Olivia CLF = 84% Sharfun N., Mushtaq M., Hashmi M.H., 2005 - Seed-
and LG 56.31CL. The incidence values exceeded borne mycoflora of sunflover (Helianthus annuus
50%, excepting PR63F73 hybrid, which had 45%. L.). Pak.J.Bot.37:451-458.
Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus sp. Suryanarayanana T.S., Suryanarayanana S.S., 1990 -
Fungi associated with stored sunflower seeds. J.
pathogens, did not developed on the achenes of Econ. Taxon. Bot.14:174-176.
MS Olivia CL and Clever hybrids. The highest Udayashankar A.C., Nayaka s. Chandra, Archana B.,
value was recorded at Tristan hybrid, with 6%. Anjana G., Niranjana S.R., Mortensen C.N.,
The Fusarium sp fungal was identified only Ole S. Lund, Prakash H.S. 2012 - Specific PCR-
based detection of Alternaria helianthi: the cause
the achenes of Clever hybrid, with an incidence of blight and leaf spot in sunflower. Arch
value of 4%. Microbiol.194: 923-932.
The seeds’ germination was not affected for
NK Adagio hybrid. For MS Olivia CL and Clever
216
THE MYCOFLORA OF BARLEY - THE VARIETIES EXTENSION

CERTIFICATED AT ARDS - TELEORMAN
Marin PANĂ1 , Stelica CRISTEA1, Sorina CERNAT2, Emilian NEGRILĂ2
e-mail: marianpana@agricover.ro
Abstract
Knowing the health of the barley caryopsis holds an important place in this plant’s pathology and help the establishment
of its control measures, with major consequences in obtaining a high production in terms of quantity and quality. The
researches on barley seeds micoflora were carried out in "in vitro" conditions and the biological material used was
consisted of untreated barley caryopsis from several varieties: Andrei, Mareşal, Mădălin, Compact, Amical and Dana.
The micromycetes’ identification realised by successive isolation and sub-culturing on them in culture medium PDA
(Potato Dextrose Agar). The pathogens were incubated in thermostat at a temperature of 220C. The identified
micromycetes belonged to the next classes : Alternaria sp.- 45%, Drechslera sp.-31%, Macrosporium sp-10%,
Fusarium sp.-5%, Rhizopus sp.- 4%, Penicillium sp.- 2%, Aspergillus sp-3%. From the analyzed varieties the most
affected were: Mareşal, Mădălin and Compact. The micoflora detected on the analyzed barley caryopsis did not inhibit
their germination process.
Key words:
Barley is one of our country's most In order to identify pathogenic species, the
important grain and researches on the health of barley seeds were placed on PDA culture medium
(potato - dextrose agar) prepared after the classic
this plant represent a priority for obtaining high
recipe (Hulea A., 1969), in Petri dishes, in three
yields both in terms of efficiency and quality. repetitions. The method consisted in the isolation
An important place in the research activity and successive subculturing of the pathogens on the
consists of the barley seed’s pathology, which is same culture medium and incubating them in
an important mean in the transmission of thermostat at 220 C. The observations were made at
dangerous pathogens for this culture. Researches 3, 6 and 9 days and the micromycetes’ identification
on barley seed’s pathology revealed that it shows was done with Zeiss Primo Star microscope.
major implications on production (Raicu C.,
Baciu D., 1978), and the seeds used for sowing RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
must be free of parasites (Cana L., et al, 2010).
The data in table 1 show that species of
Barley seed-specific pathogens are
fungi belonging to Alternaria (figure 1)
responsible for significant crop losses, being taken
Drechslera (figure 2) and Macrosporium (figure
into account along with the seed’s treatment and
3) were present in the seeds of all analyzed
the varieties’ resistance (Arabi M.I.E., et al, 2004,
varieties. Fusarium sp fungal (figure 4) was
Shahim S.A., et al, 2013; Castanares E., et al,
detected in the seeds of Andrei, Amical, Compact,
2013).
Mădălin and Mareşal varieties, and was not
presented in the seed of Dana variety. Rhizopus sp
MATERIAL AND METHOD
pathogen was found on the seeds of Compact and
Research aimed to identify the barley Mareşal varieties, and Penicillium sp. and
caryopsis’ micoflora. The biological material was Aspergillus sp. micromycetes on seed varieties
represented by barley caryopsis from the barley from Dana, Amical, Mădălin and Mareşal. Dana
types, from 2013 harvest:Andrei, Mareşal, Mădălin, and Andrei seed varieties had the lowest fungal
Compact, Amical and Dana grown in ARDS- load.
Teleorman. Barley seeds were not treated
previously.
1
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Bd.Mărăsti nr 59,sect1,011460, Bucharest, Romania
2
Agricultural Research And Development Station Teleorman
217
Table 1
Micoflora detected on barley seeds
Variety The pathogenic agent
Alternaria Drechslera Macrosporium Fusarium Rhizopus Penicillium Aspergillus
sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp.
Andrei + + + + - - +
Amical + + + + - - +
Compact + + + + + - -
Dana + + + - - + -
Mădălin + + + + - + -
Mareşal + + + + + - +
Regarding the incidence of the identified 14% for Amical and Compact varieties.
micromycetes attack in table 2 it is observed that The attack of Fusarium sp. was not
the highest values were registered at Maresal observed on the seeds of Dana variety, and had an
variety with 51%, Compact and Mădălin with incidence of 8% for Mareşal and 7% for Amical.
47% and 46%, and the lowest value was found at For Andrei variety the Fusarium sp’s incidence
Dana variety with 38%. was of 3%. It had been noticed that Rhizopus sp.,
The frequency of Drechslera sp. fungus had Penicillium sp. and Aspergillus sp. were observed
values of about 31%, with lower values for Dana with reduced frequency values and only for
Variety, 23% and Andrei with 26%. The highest Compact, Mădălin, Amical and Mareşal varieties,
incidence value of Drechslera sp. was observed with values of 4% Rhizopus sp. on the seeds of
at the seeds coming form Mădălin variety. The Compact, 6% - Penicillium sp. on the seeds of
Macrosporium sp. fungus was related to Mădălin si 6% - Aspergillus sp. on the seeds of
Alternaria sp micromyceta with values between Mareşal.
7% for Andrei and Dana varieties and 12% and
Table 2
The micoflora incidence detected on barley’s seeds (after 9 days)
Variety Alternaria Drechslera Macrosporium Fusarium Rhizopus Penicillium Aspergillus
sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp. sp.
Andrei 42 26 7 3 0 0 0
Amical 45 32 12 7 0 0 4
Compact 47 33 14 4 4 3 0
Dana 38 23 7 0 0 0 0
Mădălin 46 35 10 6 0 6 5
Mareşal 51 34 9 8 3 0 6
Figure 1 Alternaria sp. – fructifications (Amical variety)
218
Figure 2 Drechslera sp. – conidia (Dana variety)
Figure 3 Macrosporium sp. – conidia (variety Compact)
Figure 4 Fusarium sp. – macroconidia (Mădălin variety)
219
Figure 5 Rhizopus sp. - fructification (Mareşal variety)
The observations made in the laboratory Arabi M.I.E., Jawhar M., Al Safadi B., Mirali B., 2004 -
Yield responses of barley to leaf stripe
conditions led to the following conclusions: (Pyrenophora graminea) under experimental
Barley seeds micoflora was associated with conditions in southern Syria. Journal of
its specific pathogens, fungi Drechslera. and Phytopathology152: 519-523, doi:10.1111/j.1439-
Fusarium varieties, but also with recognized 0434.2004.00891.x
Cana Lidia, Nagy Elena, Goga Nicolae, Stoica
pathogens that populate generally plants and seeds Valerian, Popov Constantin, 2010 - Cercetari
and that lead to their deterioration, as Penicillium privind perfectionarea tehnologiei de protective a
sp., Aspergillus sp. and Rhizopus sp., Alternaria cerealelor paioase impotriva agentilor patogeni
sp. transmisi prin samanta si sol, An INCDA
The micromycets of Drechslera variety were Fundulea, Vol LXXVIII, Nr.1, Protectia plantelor
Castanares Eliana, Dinolfo Maria Ines, Moreno Maria
identified on the analyzed seeds with a higher Virginia, Beron Corina, Stenglein S.A., 2013 -
frequency at Mădălin variety, where the value was Fusarium cerealis associated with barley seeds in
35%. Argentina, Journal of Phytopathology,161:586-
The fungi of Alternaria variety presented the 589, doi:10.1111/jph.12097.
Hulea Ana, 1969 - Guide fot mycology and bacteriology
highest incidence, with higher values at Mareşal laboratories, Agrosilvica Publishing House,
variety, 1% and Compact with 47%. Bucharest
Mareşal, Mădălin and Compact varieties Raicu Cristina, Baciu Doina, 1978 - Seed’s Pathology.
had the most diverse pathogen load and for Dana Ceres Publishing House, Bucharest
and Andrei varieties was registered the poorest Shahim S. A., Sunil Kumar G.B., Mojibur K., Doohan
Fiona M., 2013 - Brassinosteroid Enhances
pathogenic micoflora on the seeds. resistance to Fusarium Diseases of barley,
Phytopathology, vol 103, ( 12), p. 1260-1267.
220
Cydia funebrana Tr: BIOECOLOGICAL PARTICULARITIES AND COMBAT
Sergiu PANUȚA1, Nichita CROITORU 1, Dina TROPOȘEL1,

Oana LĂCĂTUȘU (BODESCU)2 , Maria Mădălina BODESCU
e-mail: s_panuta@yahoo.com
Abstract
Plum plantations are attacked by various species of sucking pests (aphids gray of plum, plum testaceous aphid) which
together with direct damage get dirty with sugary excrements all external organs in which develops various fungi of the
genus Capnodium, that cover organs attacked with an layer of fumagine. A good part of these pests serve as vectors in
the transmission and spread of various viral diseases. From pest defoliators most common are: leaf plum moth, hairy
caterpillar of oak, caterpillar with three tufts of yellow hairs, moths carnation leaf-rollers, etc. But the most dangerous
are considered carpofagi pests whose larvae attack the fruits in which outgrowth galleries destroying the pulp and seeds.
Following the attack the fruits presents galleries with excrements and abrasions. Among the most common and
damaging species of plum fruits are black wasp and wasp yellow of plum, plum seed wasp, worm plum and oriental
fruit moth.
Key words: Plum, Cydia funebrana Tr., biology, testing, control
In the fight against worm plums is when the intensity of laying the eggs increases,
recommended preventive measures, biological and especially after the fall of precipitation is
chemical. Among the preventive measures are recommended 1.5-2 weeks until the classic
important: making autumn plowing to destroy treatment insecticides applied with ovicidal action
hibernating larvae; cleaning the trunk by peeling ensures a long plant protection in plantations plum
bark and destruction by burning; daily gathering of tree, between 15 to 25 days and is not toxic to
fallen fruits and their destruction, before being humans and useful fauna (Croitoru N., 2002).
abandoned by larvae; applying girdles trap of During occurrence of larval mass, when
paper, corrugated cardboard, sackcloth, straw, rags, there are more than 2% of fruit with symptoms of
etc., at the trees strain to attract the larvae at fresh intrusion, it is recommended to use rotating
hibernation, which is then destroyed by burning for one of the following products: Sumithion 50 EC
each generation a part before the flight of (1,5-2,4 l/ha), Zolone 35 EC (2,0-2,5 l/ha), Bi-58
butterflies; use specific sex pheromone traps - Nou 40 EC (0,75-1,0 l/ha), Confidor 200 SL(0,3
FeroFun using one trap/3.2 ha for warning l/ha), Talstar 10 EC (0,4-0,6 l/ha), Fury 10 EW
optimum periods for applying chemical treatments (0,2 l/ha) etc; at a high frequency of pest, the
which allows the reduction of 1.5-2.0 times their treatment is repeated after 8-10 days ( Lazări I.,
numbers 9-10 and traps/ha for mass combating 2002).
through direct capture of males or disorientation Obtaining high productions of plum, in
method (Busuioc M., 2006). favorable climatic conditions for the development
Chemical treatments to both generations is of this crop pests, it is almost impossible without
applied to 3-4 days from the maximum flight of the using the insecticides, even if are respected all
butterflies using pheromone traps specific, taking alternative methods. In this situation requires the
into account the biological reserve of pest, the application of chemical treatments which can
cultivated variety and weather conditions during diminish pest population density.
the development and multiplication of the pest. At
the beginning of mass flight of butterflies, usually
1
2
University of Agronomy Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iasi
221
MATERIAL AND METHODS the requirements and methodical elaborations for

testing plant protection products and fertilizers
Investigations concerning the State approval
for insecticide Armor 350 SC were fulfilled in 2012. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The experiments were performed in the center of RM,
in the plum plantations of "Agro Empirically" Malcoci For determining the presence of the worm
village, Ialoveni. For the testing was selected plum plums and population density of this pest, in order
plantation where in the previous year the fruits attack to establish the terms of performing chemical
has exceeded the 2%, variety Stanley, approved in
Moldova. The scheme of planting is 6 x 3.5 m, area treatments at the end of April in plum plantation
provided of a plant constitutes of 21 m 2. Experimental pheromone traps were placed. The evidence of
plot it borders on all sides with plum orchard, which traps gave us the opportunity to see that in the first
has an area of 10 ha, age 6 years. The experiment five days of May were 1.5 males captured at a trap
was installed in three repetitions. The location on the diurnal.
ground was randomized, compact. Each plot was The records carried out further testify that
composed of five trees, with the surface of 105 m 2.
For the isolation between plots was left one tree and
the the dynamic development population of worm
strip protection drawn up a whole row. In the plums from first generation is increasing, reaching
experience were included four variants: 1 - untreated a maximum of 36.8 males per trap on a diurnal on
control; 2nd option - standard. Acting as standard it 15 May. In connection with this, the first treatment
was proposed the insecticide Proteus OD 110 with was achieved on May 22. It should be noted that
norm consumption 0.8 l/ha; 3rd version - Armor 0.20 the records still carried out the worm plum density
SC-350 l/ha; 4th version - Armor 350 SC-0.25 l/ha.
is quite uniform, and the maximum value does not
The necessary of preparation and the working
solution was calculated based on the consumption exceed more than 4.2 males per trap over a diurnal.
norm to 1 ha. Chemical treatments of Experimental The following three treatments were fulfilled on 7
lot were achieved manually with the portable sprinkler and 22 June, and 10 July. To assess the biological
The influence of ecological factors at the effectiveness of insecticides after the second wave
development of harmful and useful fauna was fall of surplus of fruit under the crown of the trees
performed based on data of the State Meteorological
were removed all the weeds and fallen fruit above
Station in Chisinau. The determination of biological
effectiveness of insecticides was done according to and leveled the soil (figure 1).
Figure 1 Flight dynamics plum worm in 2013
222
Table 1
Biological effectiveness of Armor 350 SC insecticide in controlling the worm plums
Reducing
attacking
fruit,%
Number From these,
From these, pieces compared to
Con- of fruits The pieces
witness in
sum- colected number
Nr. The crop
ption on a of fallen
Crt. variants Afected In the
norm, tree, fruit Attacked
Attacked by crown
l/ha pieces. analyzed by worm
Healthy by worm % other of Fallen
plum
plum factors trees
Treated
1 Witness with 300 224,87 75,13 25,04 100 63,21 36,79 0,0 0,0
water
Etalon,
2 Proteus 0,8 300 296,63 4,37 1,47 100 2,93 97,07 94,13 95,36
110 OD
Armor
3 0,20 300 292,85 7,15 2,38 100 5,74 94,26 90,50 90,92
350 SC
Armor
4 0,25 300 297,88 2,12 0,71 100 1,44 98,56 97,16 97,12
350 SC
DEM
5 3,91 1,39 4,12 4,71
95%
Collecting of all the fallen fruits and their the tree, so those collected under the tree crown it
analysis was performed at every 5 days. After the was found in the fourth variant, where these
last record, which was done with a day before indices were properly made up 97 16 and 97.72%,
harvest, we calculated the total number of fallen and is the standard. In the third variant essentially
fruits. This gave us the possibility to determine reduce attacks the fruits yield of 4, but is at the
the average percentage of attacking the fruits at level of the standard. It is worth noting that single
one tree model. copies of plum aphid gray, lice turtles and other
During harvest collection on model trees species of pests detected before treatment were
were collected of 300 fruit and determined the reduced entirely through chemical treatments in
percentage of those attacked by the worm plums. pest carpofagi.
Biological effectiveness calculation based on
harm reduction percentage compared to control CONCLUSIONS
was performed after previous formula.
The results and the calculation of biological During the growing season of 2012, in
efficiency are shown in table 1. The table reveals plum plantations were created favorable
that from the total number of fruits collected from conditions for the development of this crop pests.
a tree model (300 pieces) the highest degree of The most dangerous pests that exceeded the
infection was recorded in version control (75.13 economic damage threshold were wasps windows
pieces), which also make up 25.04%.The lowest plums, plum seed wasp and the worm plums.
number of fruits attacked was detected in the For the combating pests plum, in lot the
fourth variant, where this index made up 2.12 experimental carried out seven chemical
pieces at one tree, which constitute 0.71% and is treatments.
within the standard (1.47%). In the third variant Plum combating pests Armor 350 SC the
numerical value of 7.15 was attacked the fruits insecticide is effective with consumption norm
pieces at one tree, which also is 10.51 times lower 0.25 l / ha, which provides a reduction of the
than in the control, but this solution gives worm attacking the fruits plums - 97.16.
essentially the fourth version and is the standard. Armor 350 SC insecticide to the norm
The analysis of fallen fruits was found that consumption 0.20 l/ha, but gives essentially the
the lowest number of fruits damaged by plum fourth variant is the standard and can be included
worm was found in the fourth variant (1.44 in integrated protection system plum.
pieces) and this index is the standard (table 1).
The calculation of biological efficiency
gave us the opportunity to find that the highest
reduction of attacking, like the fruits plucked from
223
REFERENCES 2002, vol. 10 (Hoticultură), p. 81-83., 0,2 c.a.

ISBN 978-9975-64-127-2.
Busuioc M., 2006 - Entomologie agricolă, Centrul Lazări I., 2002 - Îndrumări metodice pentru testarea
Editorial al UASM, Chişinău, 639 p. ISBN 978- produselor chimice şi biologice de protecţie a
9975-64-020-6. plantelor de dăunători, boli şi buruieni în
Croitoru N., Busuioc M., Panuţa S., 2002 - Unele Republica Moldova, Tipografia Centrală,
aspecte privind modul de atac al viespii Chişinău, 286 p. ISBN 9975-9597-3-3.
sâmburilor de prun, Lucr. şt, UASM.. Chişinău,
224
PEDODIVERSITY OF SOIL COVER TĂTARULUI VALLEY RIVER BASINS,

WITH VALLEY ROAD AND VALLEY APPLES SLANIC
LOCATED ON THE RIGHT SIDE OF THE RESTED
Alexandra RADU1, M. MUSAT1, Anca Luiza STANILA2, Lavinia PARVAN3
e-mail: radualexandrateodora@yahoo.com
Abstract
The concept of genetic diversity and spatial expressed pedodiversity soil in a particular territory. For this purpose data
are correlated in the studied soil genesis with their spatial arrangement in that territory. This concept was presented in
the work of Professor Florea N. not "territorial units Pedodoversitatea genetic quality indices and geopedological
analysis ".
Key words: pedodiversity, hidrographic basin, variability, complexity
The soil in the hilly area of Buzau county is The total area is 205.39 ha mapped. The soil is
characterized by a diversity recognized, which is black earth area occupying more than half of the book
(figure 2).
why there have been developed numerous research
programs over time. This area was chosen for
study three watersheds Tatarului Valley with
Valley Road and Valley Apples, located on the
right side of Slanic soils in this area were analyzed
in terms of morphometric, calculated and
interpreted pedodiversity following indicators:
variability, soil weight, topogeographical index,
size and shape of areas, average size and
complexity index.
The results of a database joins absolutely
necessary application of GIS technology as a tool
for planning and analysis of the environmental Figure 1 Hydrographic basin Slanic - Buzau
consequences of human intervention.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Erodosol
Antrosol 2%
Valley catchment Tatarului with Valley Road 20%
and Valley Apples are located on the right side of
Slanic - Buzău (Fig. 1). In these basins were Aluviosol
conducted soil mapping at 1:5000 scale, in order to 8% Cernoziom
identify soil types and defining areas of spread. 54%
Number of main profiles open their morphological
description and interpretation of laboratory tests were
performed according to the "Methodology Figure Faeoziom
2 Share catchment soil types studied
development soil studies – ICPA Bucureşti, 1987".
Demarcation and separation field maps of areas Among other soil types identified anthrosol
occupied by different soil types was made taking into occupies 41 ha, phaeoziom 32.95 ha, aluviosoil 17.3
account pedogenetic factors specific study area. ha and erodosoil 3.6 ha.
Environmental conditions specific to each river basin Pedodiversity express spatial distribution of the
and anthropogenic intervention, led to different soil in a particular territory, analyzing the size, shape,
evolutions of the soil.
1
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest
2
Spiru Haret, University of Bucharest
3
National Institute of Research and Development of Soil Science, Bucharest
225
position and number of the areas occupied by them and influenced by pedogenetic factors (table 1).
Table 1
Pedogenetical factors specific hidrographyc basins studied
Nr. Hydrographic Tipul de sol Parental Relief Slope Agricultural
crt. basin material category use
1 Tătarului Valley Pelic - Erodosoil marl clay convex slope 25-35% arable
Argic Chernozem - clay slope, lower third 15-20% arable
Cambic Chernozem clay the middle slope 25-35% pasture
2 Road Valley Calcaric - Anthrosol marl platform terraces 15-20% orchard
Argic - Anthrosol marl clay platform first 15-20% orchard
Argic Chernozem shale slope left 15-20% arable
Calcaric Phaeoziom salty marl slope right 15-20% grassland
2 Apples Valley Calcaric Phaeoziom clay marl slope 10-15% arable
Coluvic Aluviosoil clay marl thalweg 5-10% arable
Cambic Chernozem loess slope left 15-20% pasture
Tipic Chernozem loess slope right 15-20% grassland
1. Soils in each river basin were analyzed

morphometric and were calculated and interpreted
following indicators of spatial pedodiversity:
1.Soil variability is the number of ground units
in a particular territory (number of units of work).
2. Percentage soil (PS) expresses the
percentage of soil units PS=Su/St x 100 where:
Su - area occupied by the unit of land (ha)
St – total area (ha)
3. Topogeographical index (IPT) is the ratio of
the areas occupied by azonal and zonal soils. ITP=S
azonal (km2)/ S zonal (km2)
Topogeographical index reference value is 1,
in which zonal soils are dominant, and over the
azonal.
4. The average of the area are carrying
forward the sum of the areas of each complex (Si)
soil and their number (h).
Sm = ΣSi / h
5. Complexity index (CI) expresses the

diversity of soil cover
Ic = n / St where n-number of areas of land,

the total area St.
In Hydrographic basin Tătarului Valey, was

used to calculate the indicators pedodiversity
cartogram mapping soils developed from the
perimeter soil studied (figure 3). The surface of
each soil type and the percentage of soil are shown
CC-ti – cambic chernozem , CI-ti – argic chernozem,
in the table 2. Pedodiversity indicators calculated ER-pr – pelic erodosoil
based on soil cartograms are shown in table 3. Figure 3 Catchment soils cartograme Tătarului Valley
Table 2
Areas and percentage of soils
2
Nr.crt Hydrographic basin Tipul de sol Areas (ha) % PS S (Km )
1 Tătarului Valley Pelic Erodosoil 3.6 8.4 0.4
Argic Chernozem 15.6 36.3 1.6
Cambic Chernozem 23.8 55.3 2.3
Total hidrographic basin 43 100 4.3
Table 3
226
Pedodiversity spatial indicators of hidrographic basin Tătarului Valley

Variability of The average The soil zonal The soil
soils area of habitat ITP surface area azonal surface Ic
2 2 2
(Km ) (Km ) area (Km )
3 1.43 0.2 3.9 0.8 0.69
In hydrographic basin Valley Road, was

used to calculate the indicators pedodiversity
carthogram mapping soils developed from the
perimeter soil studied (figure 4). The surface of
each soil type and the percentage of soil are shown
in the table 4. Pedodoversity indicators calculated
based on soil cartograms are shown in table 5.
CC-ti – cambic chernozem, CZ-ti – tiphic chernozem,

AS-co – coluvic aluviosoil,
CI-ti – argic chernozem, Pr-ti - calcaric salinic FZ-ar – argic faeoziom
phaeoziom, Pr-pz – calcaric anthrosol,
Pr-ar- argic anthrosol Figure 5 Catchment soils cartograme Mereului Valley
Figure 4 Valley Road catchment soils cartograme The surface of each soil type and the
percentage of soil are shown in the table 6.
Hidrographic basin Mereului Valley was Pedodiversity indicators calculated based on soil
used to calculate the pedodiversity indicators cartograms are shown in table 7.
cartogram mapping soils developed from the
perimeter soil studied (figure 5).
Table 4
Area and percentage of soil
2
Nr. Crt. Hydrographic basin The type of soil Area (ha) % PS S (Km )
2 Road Valley Calcaric Anthrosol 17 21.6 1.7
Argic Anthrosoil 24 30.5C 2.4
Argic Chernozem 27 43.3 2.7
Calcaric Phaeoziom 10.75 13.6 1.1
Total hidrographic basin 78.75 100 7.9
Table 5
Pedodiversity spatial indicators of hidrographic basin Tătarului Road
Variabiliy of The average The soil zonal The soil azonal
soils area of habitat ITP surface area surface area Ic
2 2 2
Km Km Km
4 1.97 0.9 2.7 2.4 0.51
227
Table 6
Area and percentage soils
2
Nr.crt Hydrographic basin The type of soil Area (ha) % PS S (Km )
3 Mereului Valley Calcaric Phaeoziom 22.2 26.5 2.2
Coluvic Aluviosoil 17.3 20.7 1.7
Cambic Chernozem 18 21.5 1.8
Tipic Chernozem 26.14 31.3 2.6
Total hidrographic basin 83.64 100 8.3
Table 7
Pedodiversity indicators into hydrographic basin Mereului Valey
Variability of The average area The soil zonal The soil azonal
2 2 2
soil of habitat Km ITP surface area Km surface area Km Ic
4 2.07 0.9 4.4 3.9 0.48
To compare the data obtained were Apples largest area.

calculated average values of the corresponding Azonal soils occupied an average area of
indicators mapped the entire surface. 9.5 km2. In Tătarului Valley catchment area soil is
Topogeographical index for the whole area - IPT pelic erodosoil 0.8 Km2. Argic Anthrosoil
= 0.63 zonal soils are dominant. limestone and calcareous phaeoziomul azonal
The soil surface area = 11 km2. Azonal = salic soils are in the catchment Road Valley
9.5 km2 land area. The average of the area - Sm = occupied an area of 2.4 km2 . Argic phaeoziom and
1.9 Km2. Complexity index CI = 0.51 limestone soils are coluvic aluviosoil Valley
Variability of soils in the three river basins Apples catchment area covering an area of 3.9
(figure 6) shows that the catchment Valley with km2. Topogeographical index (IPT) has the same
Valley Road and Apples are four units of work, value in valley basins and Valley Road Apples
and only three Tătarului Valley basin. 0.27 km2 over the entire surface media cards.
Complexity index (CI) expressed a variety
of coating medium from the ground, it subunit
values, which are the dominant means that soil
area.
CONCLUSIONS
The soil in the catchment area studied is
chernozem with a share of 54% and an average
area of 11 Km2 ;
Azonal soils are phaeoziom, aluviosoil,
Figure 6 Variability of soils erodosoil, anthrosoil and occupied an area of 9.5
into hydrographic basins studiated
km2 average; The average area of land areas of
1.42 km2 catchment is in the Tatarului Valley,
1.97 km2 Road Valley and 2.07 km2 in Mereului
Valley;
Index topogeographical (IPT) has the same
value in the basins Valley Road and Valley
Apples 0.27 km2 over the entire surface media
cards; Complex index (CI) expressed a variety of
coating medium from the ground, it subunit
values, which are the dominant means that soil
area.
Figure 7 Pedodiversity indicators
of river basins studied REFERENCES
The lowest average surface areas of 1.42 Florea N. 2009- Pedodiversity and pedociclicity,
km2 soil has Tătarului Valley (figure 7) with 0.64 Bucharest;
km2 less than the average area of the river basin GherghinaCarmen-Alina 2011 "Sinergism microrelief
depos-ground of Central Baragan" PhD thesis,
Valley Apples and 0.47 km2 less than the average University of Bucharest, Faculty of Geography;
of all surfaces book. Ene Alexandru, Radu Alexandra "Impact of work on
Zonal soils is chernozem with an average soil erosion in the lower river basin Slanic-
area of 11 km2. In Tătarului Valley catchment Buzau, Bren Publishing, 2000;
area it occupies 3.9 km2 soil in the Road Valley ***" Methodology development soil studies–
I.C.P.A.Bucureşti 1987.
basin 2.7 km2 and 4.4 km2 catchment Valley
228
SOME ASPECTS OF BASING THE STRATEGIC DECISIONS

IN AGRICULTURE BY COMPARATIVE ASSESSMENT
OF INDICATORS OF ECO-EFFICIENCY
Stejărel BREZULEANU1, George UNGUREANU1, Carmen-Olguța BREZULEANU1,

Carmen-Luiza COSTULEANU1, Tiberiu IANCU 2, Felix Horațiu ARION 3
e-mail: stejarel@uaiasi.ro
Abstract
This paper aims to analyse standard gross margin to business decisions on the use of production resources in the dairy
farms. The efficient running the activities in animal farms requires that the production resources, to be provided
combined and allocated in such a way as to result in: full capitalization of production capacity of the unit, obtaining
increased quantities of product per hectare and animal feed with minimized costs per unit, continuous increase of the
efficiency of resources due to the use of modern technologies, improved technical resources and not polluting the
environment with residues. For a company to be effective it must be well organized, use various computer programmes,
to provide data on the evolution of its activity at any time, to use advanced software to facilitate the work on the farm
and increase its productivity. For carrying out the study we used the case study as a major research strategy and for the
analysis of performance level of the farm we used the model of determining the standard gross margin made in Excel
worksheets. For data collection and analysis, we used techniques and instruments specific for qualitative research,
analyses of internal documents, technological records and discussions with the manager of Research and Development
Station for Cattle Growth (RDSCG) Dancu, Iasi County, Romania.
Key words: economics, gross margin, agricultural management, strategic decisions, milk-cows farm, eco-efficiency
In agriculture, the management decision is a increased quantities of product per hectare and
dynamic, rational process of choosing a course of animal feed with minim costs per product, continuous
increase in the efficiency of the resources used by the
action from any number of variations, to achieve a
application of modern technologies, improved
goal whose application influences the activity of at technical resources and non environmental pollution
least a person other than the decision maker by residues.
(Brezuleanu S., 2013). With a view to these requirements, the
specialists of agricultural farms have to deal with
MATERIAL AND METHOD technical and economic problems related to
foundation of business decisions on the use of
The decision making refers to less complex production resources, namely: specification of the
decision situations or when that situation is a optimal quantities of variable resources to be
repetitive one. In the case of the managerial act, the allocated to the unit production (per hectare, animal
variables involved are well known by the governor. At feed) to achieve high and cost-effective yields, by the
the base of the decisions there are the managers’ efficient use of all resources, both in the situation in
which the resources can be produced in sufficient
experience and intuition (Popa I., 2005). For a
business to be effective it must be well organized, quantities and if there are some limitations in their
purchasing, establishing the proportions for
use the computer programmes at any time to provide
data on the evolution of its activity, use advanced combining the resources in order to ensure either to
software to facilitate the work in the agricultural obtain the production levels with minimal costs or to
holding and increase its productivity (Stroebel H., achieve a level of production that would lead to
maximum profit, determining the most efficient way of
2009).
The efficient running of the activities in animal allocating the multi-valent resources that are in limited
farms requires that the provision with the production quantities in the farm (Matei I.V., Ungureanu L, 2013).
resources, their combination and allocation to be In Romania and the European Union there are
made in such a way as to result in: full capitalization numerous and diversified farms, being a complex
of the production capacity of the farm, obtaining reality. To facilitate the unitary analysis of the
1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iaşi, Romania
2
Banat University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Timișoara, Romania
3
University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine, Cluj Napoca, Romania
229
characteristics related to size (economic size) and the RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
economic results, it is necessary to use appropriate
terms. This notion is the standard gross margin
The case study was conducted at research
(SGM).The principles and basic rules for calculating
standard gross margins (SGM) are provided in the and development Station for dairy farm in the sub-
EEC Commission Decision of October 22nd 1999 urban area of Iasi. The Research and Development
amendment of the Decision 85/377/EEC establishing Station for Cattle Growth Dancu (RDSCG) Iasi
a Community typology for agricultural holdings was founded in 1981 by Decree 170, initially as
[notified under number C (1999) 3414] (1999/725/EC) Research and Production Station for cattle, a public
establishing a Community typology for agricultural institution with legal and extra-budgetary funding,
holdings. The outline presented in the document
provides an overview of the official rules for the
according to Law 290/2002, and from 12.01. 2006,
calculation of standard gross margin and contain according to GD no. 35, as Station of Research -
some additional explanations. Development in the field of animal husbandry,
The standard gross margin is an economic public institution with legal personality and
concept of great importance and novelty, used in the financed from own revenues and extra-budgetary
structural and technical-economic analyses of the funds. The livestock farm has a total number of
farms. The economic size of the holding shall be
1100 heads Romanian Black Spotted breed, of
determined on the basis of the total standard gross
margin of the holding. It shall be expressed in terms which 480 cows and heifers, 61 cattle of Red
of European Size Units (ESU). Holstein breed cattle and 58 heads of Grey Steppe
Standard gross margin (SGM) of an breed. The average milk production has increased,
agricultural activity (animal species) means the reaching an average of 6500 kg milk / lactation
monetary value of gross output of the activity at the with 254 kg of fat.
prices of delivery - loco manufacturer, minus the
The vegetal farm unfolds the activity in
corresponding specific costs. SGM is unitary (per
animal) and expressed in lei or Euro. In an order to ensure the forage base related to cows and
agricultural farm, breeding dairy cows cannot be youth within the farm. The agricultural area has
analyzed separately from other productive activities 605 ha, of which 515 hectares of arable land and
from the economic point of view (Odening M., 2000). 90 ha pastures. The forage base ensures the maize
A dairy cow exploits the nutrients that were obtained and roughage silage to provide necessary feeding
in the forage production. In order to use the resulted for animals for the whole year, as well as a part of
organic fertilizers it is usually needed their own land,
the resulting calves being eventually used on the
concentrated feed, maize produced in the farm and
farm, the resulting heifers being eventually used as for summer the full green mass requirement is
breeding youth. The raw product for breeding dairy ensured. The existing feed composition allows
cows includes the following monetary values: the making adequate rations according to
value of milk production, the value of calf and cull physiological states, age, production levels and
cows, the value of nutrients of the manure (as breed.
collateral natural production calculated in SGM)
We further present the calculation elements
possible subsidies for this production activity. The
forage production and livestock farming makes a unit for SGM of (RDSCG) Dancu (table 1).
in the agricultural farm, which is presented in the The calculation of gross product takes into
calculations of the gross margin in a disaggregated consideration the value of milk production, the
way (Reisch E. and Zeddies, J., 1992). In order to products resulting and the value of nutritive
analyze the profitability of forage production and substances in the manure (table 2).
livestock that valorise this forage, it is indispensable
the aggregation of income and expenditure of the two
Table 1
areas. The aggregation between forage and livestock Technical elements to calculate SGM for the
production makes possible: estimating costs and Romanian Black Spotted breed
necessary of factors for basic forage for a cow,
absorption of expenses with basic forage in Indicators Milk cow 6000 l/lactation
calculating gross margin for dairy cows, comparing Weight-alive (VA) &
600 kh VA 1,2 ULC
profitability of the vegetal products sold and the ones UNIT Large Cattle
used on their premises or their use in the various Period exploitation 4 years 3,8 lactation
activities of cattle production (Schuh C., 2002). Effective remont&
25.0 %/year 2.0 %/year
Determining the SGM levels on zones, on animal loss
Period between
agricultural activities, types of holdings, it provides the 385 days 1.05 years
kiddings
analysis and effective comparability with European
Union countries, regarding the SGM compatibility of Nr. of calves/calf loss 0.948/year 6%
the classification of the agricultural holdings, of the Milk production 6000 kg/year 6329 kg/lact
economic size and their technical-economic Milk content 4.1 % fat 3.6 % protein
orientation. Int this context, the paper elaborated an
analysis of standard gross margin (SGM) to
foundation of business decisions on the use of
production resources in the dairy farms.
230
Table 2 In the case of cow milk, in the category of

Calculation of gross product expenses that are to be covered from the gross
Raw product U.M. Kg/ Quantity €/kg €
UM
margin, the forage production is also included with
Milk kg - 6000 0.3781 2268.60 its fixed and variable expenses. In table 4,
Calves steers Nr. 80 0.446 5.38 191.60 respectively is shown how SGM looks like after
catle Nr. 80 0.446 5.31 189.37 taking into account the variable costs for basic
Reform 55% nr 330 0.230 2.35 178.37 forage:
Table 4
Manure s.a. UM use Volume €/UM € Value of SGM in € / cow / year
pure € / cow /
Production (without general direct
N 81,4 kg 55% 53.7 0.86 45.67 2966
payments - subsidies on surface) year
kg/UCL
Variable proportional costs (1 cow € / cow /
P2O5 33,0 kg 100% 39.6 0.8 31.68 1356
and feeding area) year
kg/UCL
Gross margin (1 cow and feeding € / cow /
K20 112,2 kg 100% 134,6 0.45 60.59 1610
area – after the practical method) year
kg/UCL
Raw product total 2965.87
Together with the aggregation between
livestock and forage production, it is also
After the practical method of calculating the calculated the SGM /ha of the area used and thus it
gross margin, there are taken into account only the is possible to make a comparison between the
costs for materials (heifers, forage, fuel, etc.) and economic efficiency and the vegetal products
services because they are undoubtedly variable marketed:
costs. There are not included the expenditures for
optional variable factors: necessary capital for Table 5
current means, labour force, land, rights of Value of SGM/ha of the area used
production and supply as well as expenditures for Gross margin (1 cow and feeding € / cow /
1610
area) year
fixed assets (amortization, interests etc.), general
Feeding area/ cow 0.40742 ha / cow
expenditures and costs with labour force for the
Gross margin (1 ha feeding area
general activities. Following this method, the 3952 € / ha
with 2454 cows)
marginal production adds up with the collateral
yields (the value of manure) and any subsidies For the situations where there are variable
proportional with the marketable production (milk, costs for capital (current means), labour force (in
calves, reformed cows). production), land, etc., progressively, they can
Applying the method described above for reduce from the gross margin. To differentiate the
the example of calculation of the gross margin, the indicators obtained from the gross margin,
following values are obtained (table 3). calculated by the practical method, these will be
called the gross margin I, II, III respectively. In the
Table 3
SGM Calculation for the dairy farm case of the dairy cow, all factors are deducted from
Production (main prod. + the total unit consisting of the cow milk and
2966 € / cow / year
Collateral Prod. and subsidies) feeding area. The indicators used arise from the
Variable proportional costs aggregation between the livestock and forage
996 € / cow / year
(Materials and services) production (table 6).
Standard gross margin (using
practical method)
1970 € / cow / year Both indicators are calculated by subtracting
the production costs (for cow and appropriate
The gross margin shows how much money feeding area) of raw product. Therefore, in the
is available annually for a cow to cover the costs of form (column "Total expenses"), before estimating
production with all the factors not accounted for the profit and entrepreneurial profit, all the relevant
(unpaid) so far. If we divide the gross margin for a costs will be listed first (differentiated by their own
cow to its necessary of energy from basic forage, and foreign factors).
we obtain an insight on the capitalization of forage Through the aggregation between cattle
through the cow. Gross margin / 10 MJ NEM (net breeding and forage production is possible to
energy milk) can be used as a basis for comparison assess the valorisation of surface, through
of different livestock directions of production for aggregation being given the necessary of field/cow
which the same basic forage ist capitalized. In (0.407 ha). The calculation of the remuneration of
addition, we can see if the gross margin from dairy the factors is performed for the factors drawn and
cattle is enough to cover variable costs with the for their own factors (family labour force, own
basic forage. This is where SGM/10 MJ NEM is capital, own land). In the first case they are not
greater than the variable costs for the production of taken into consideration, so, the same way, both
10 MJ NEM. for the extraneous factors and for the opportunity
231
costs for their own factors and it will be divided be divided to the quantity of their own used
the difference between the total production and factors.
total expenditure to the entire quantity of factors In Table 7 it will be calculated the profit and
used. In the second case, there are not taken into entrepreneurial profit per unit of production
consideration only the opportunity costs and it will (cow and year).
Table 6
Determination of total variable costs
Raw product U.M. Kg/UM Quantity €/kg €
Milk kg - 6000 0.3781 2268.60
Calves steers nr. 80 0.446 5.38 191.60
catle nr. 80 0.446 5.31 189.37
Reform 55% nr 330 0.230 2.35 178.37
Manure s.a. pure UM use Volume €/UM €
N 81.4 kg/UCL kg 55% 53.7 0.86 45.67
P 2O5 33.0kg/UCL kg 100% 39.6 0.8 3.68
K 20 112.2kg/UCL kg 100% 134.6 0.45 60.59
Raw product total 2965.87
Variable expenditure
Effective remont Quantity €/UM €
Heifer 0.250 nr/year 1.3 325
Forage Marketable MJ/NEM/UM Quantity MJ €/UM €
Calf Milk replacement - kg 60 - 1.65 99
Forage for calves - kg 40 - 0.27 10.64
Cow Forage barley 72 / kg 500 35900 0.12 60
Forage wheat 75 / kg 500 37450 0.12 60
Soy cake 76 / kg 320 24288 0.26 81.6
Concentrated f. 65 / kg 320 20800 0.18 57.28
Mineral forage - 55 - 0.41 22.5
Forage total 118438 391.02
Services UM Expl Quantity €/UM €
Cleaning 1 animal 1.5 8.18 12,27
Forage milling and mixing 100 kg 1695 0.02 25.43
Services total 37.70
Var. Expenditure with their own mecanization 108.68
Other expenditure Expl Quantity €/UM €
Veterinary surgeon, drugs 1 40 40
Electricity, water 1 28 28
Monting 1 20 20
Insurance, control milk production 1 40 40
Others 1 5 5
Other expenditure total 133.0
Variable expenditure total 995.39
Gross margin 1940.48
Table 7
The profit and entrepreneurial profit per Milk cow 6000 l/lactation
Basic data Used factors Foreign % Owner %
Main production 6000 kg Current means 6555.51 € 10 % 90 %
Price 0.3781 €/kg Fix means 32744.13 € 40 % 60 %
Secondary production 697.27 €/anim Labour- production 134.29 h 20 % 80 %
Variable proportional expenditures 14715.63 €/anim Labour -general 3h 70 % 30 %
Direct payments 3534.6 €/anim Arable Land 9.192 ha 60 % 40 %
Non arable Land 8.832 ha 20 % 80 %
Raw Product Expenditure Entrepreneurial Profit Profit
2965.87 2965.87
Variable proportional expenditure 14715.63 14715.63 14715.63
Gross Margin 14715.63 17681.51 17681.51
Expenditure capital current means
Foreign 655.55 € 7.0% 45.89 45.89 45.89
Owner 5899.96 € 5.0% 295 295
Variable expenditureI / Gross Margin I 15056.52 18022.39 17727.4
Expenditure Labour Production
Foreign 26.86 h 12 €/h 322.29 322.29 322.29
Owner 107.43 h 10 €/h 1074.3 1074.3
Expenditure II/ Gross Margin II 16453.11 19418.99 18049.69
232
Table 8
Agregation of forage production and animal breeding
Forage Production Variable Gross Neces of Fix cost for sell
Necess Prod Main Sec Expend Margin Curr Labour Machines Buildings
Activities
Energy t € € € € Mens Prod € €
MJ NEM € €
Milk cow 1135541 - 2268.6 687.27 995.39 1970.48 1300 48.12 2800 3600
6000l/ lact
Silage maize 90000 46.8 1050 -1050 525 9 1750 5000
60 %
Clover hay 5% 35000 8.4 620 -620 310 16 2300 2500
Meadow 45000 22 765 -765 38.5 10 1900 2750
sillage 35%
Total 2435 -2435 1217.5 35 5950 10250
The difference between the entrepreneurial (calculated for the primary production) and
profit and profit is that in the calculation of the production costs per unit. Costs per cow and
profit there are not included the opportunity costs feeding area (average expenses) are obtained by
for their own factors (capital, labour and land). In dividing the production costs to the amount
the case in which, for the goods from the category produced. If it's not just about the costs required
of fixed assets there is another possibility to use, for obtaining a product but also for other crops,
the more relevant are the fixed and opportunity then the value for collateral products (calves,
costs for the calculation of the entrepreneurial reform, fertilizers, slaughter subsidies, subsidies
profit. A positive value of the entrepreneurial profit for the corn silage) must be added to the
indicates that the production factors (even their production costs, in order to be able to get a
own) are paid; for their own factors it means a comparative size with the price for the primary
better remuneration than in the case of their use as product. A size of comparison for threshold-prices
an alternative activity. If the profit has a positive issued it is used the milk price, which is 0.378 € /
value, and the entrepreneurial profit is negative, kg.
then the means of production including wages, The calculation of production costs (total
interest and leases may be paid, but there is not costs in the long run) per piece of product results in
enough money left to pay their own used factors. the lower limit of the long-term price. If the
Based on the profit and the entrepreneurial product price is equal to the lower limit, the
profit we can see if it is possible to pay the operating profit will be zero (= 0) (and so all
working, capital, etc factors and not how much to factors are paid accordingly). In the example of
pay. To express as accurately as possible the calculation, the lower limit of the price serves to
efficiency of factors used to choose among several cover the total costs of production (breakeven)
options, it is calculated the difference between the presented in table 10:
total production and total expenditure (minus Table 10
expenses for the analysed factor) for one unit of Determing of production costs for main product
analysed factor (difference between their own Total production costs €/Animal 3189.36
factors and total quantity of factors).
Value of collateral productions €/Animal 697.27
The payment of factors is calculated and
Production costs for main product €/Animal 2492.09
presented in the following table 9:
Quantity produced (main product:
kg/Animal 6500.00
Table 9 milk)
The payment of factors Threshold - price for the main
€/kg 0.3834
product
Total production (quantity of
products × price, proportional 3154.92 €/animal
subsidies) So the price should increase by 0.0053 € /
All expenses other than expenses
2611.84 €/animal kg above the price set of 0.3834 € / kg for
for the analysed factor *) breakeven. This price difference is ultimately
Payment of factor / ha 543.09 €/animal reflected in the operating profit. The various
55.24 working indicators of economic efficiency for milk
The amount of factor used / ha)
hours/animal
Payment of factor / unit of factor 9.83 €/ working production are closely connected and cannot be
used hours analyzed separately. Taking into consideration
each indicator in part, it can be said that the
Proving the economic efficiency of production is economically efficient (long or short-
production, the direction can be made by term). In the example of calculation, these
comparing the price and the respective product connections between indicators may be proved
233
easily. Particularly clear is the connection in table (on average). If we set the expenses for one of the
11, because there are shown (simplified) all the factors, capital, work or land to the amount of
indicators, side by side. payment issued, the entrepreneurial profit is zero
If the price of the product is equal to the (achievements = total expenses), to pay the factors
lower limit of the long-term price (breakeven) we is exactly the cost obtained (on average) and the
get the entrepreneurial profit zero (achievements = lower limit of the exact price for the current price
total expenses) and just the payment for the product.
expenses necessary with the work, land and capital
Table 11
Connections between indicators
Basic data Nr/quantity Expenditure/unit Expenditure Gross Margin /Entrepren.
profit
Main production 6000 kg 0.38 € / kg - 2268.6
Secondary prod. With direct prop. payments 697.27 € - 697.27 €
Variable expenditure without interest 14715.63€ 14715.63€ 14715.63€
Gross Margin (without interest, wage, lease) 17681.51
Imposed cost 6555 € 5.2% 340.89 € 340.89 €
Level of production I 15056.52 € 18022.39 €
Imposed cost for labour force 134.29 h 10.4 € 1396.59 € 1396.59 €
Level of production II 16453.11 € 19418.99 €
Imposed cost for land use 18.024 ha 173.36 € / ha 3124.72 € 3124.72 €
Expend. for Amortiz. 2520 € 12.5 % 315 € 315 €
Milk share interest 1260 € 5.8% 73.08 € 73.08 €
Level of production III 19189.75 € 22155.63 €
Techniques amortize. 21672 € 8% 1733.75 € 1733.75 €
Buildings maintenance 43816 € 4% 1752.66 € 1752.66 €
Imposed cost for fix assets 32744 € 5.8% 1899.16 € 1899.16 €
Imposed cost for labour 3h 11.4 € / h 34.2 € 34.2 €
Other special fix expend 23 € 23 € 23 €
Other common expend 15 € 15 € 15 €
Breakeven 24503.12 € 27468.99 €
As regards the necessary of capital for the quality resources: financial, material, energy,
current means and animals, working time for human and not least information resources.
production, land, rights of production and delivery The development of dairy farms, with a
if anything changes (which in any case arises from view to the increase of production under high
the gross margin), we have to prove that for these economic efficiency raise a wide range of
changes there appeared possible additional costs or economic and organizational problems which
savings. It should be noted that, at SCDB Dancu, require use of appropriate methods for their
this increase of production was done with an solving. To make a profit on the farm the sum
unchanged necessary of basic feed. So from the gross margin on the activities must be greater than
forage production there do not appear marginal the fixed costs.
expenditures (or savings). If something would have To prove the economic efficiency of
been significantly changed in the necessary of changing the intensity of the farm analysed, we
basic feeding, and also the necessary surface for it, must include all the changes of the achievements
for Intensity II it would have been necessary a new and production costs. A change of the technique of
calculated aggregation and all the changes of the production is efficient if the marginal
expenditure and productions would have passed in achievements are higher than the marginal costs
this calculation. Simplified, the value of cost (that are at least equal). Usually, the marginal
factors was considered as the weighted average of production and costs are visible in the calculation
cost of the own and foreign factor. The expenses of gross margin, because the fixed costs do not
for the milk share include the pay off and interest. undergo changes as a consequence of the measures
of modifying the technology of production.
CONCLUSIONS Following the study and interpretation of
specialized data of the dairy farm we can conclude
To enhance the management practices which that the strategic management is a complex process
ensure high quality products and competitive carried out by all decisional department for
abilities, the dairy farms will have to adopt procurement, allocation, combination and rational
methods to assist the decision and proper use of resources and production factors (land,
management, which is why they need adequate labour, capital, information) to achieve goals,
234
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236
SIMULATION MODEL TO DETERMINE THE OPTIMAL FARMS SIZE

IN NE REGION OF ROMANIA
Adriano CIANI1, George UNGUREANU 2, Stejărel BREZULEANU2, Eduard BOGHIŢĂ2
e-mail: ungurgeo@yahoo.com
Abstract
The paper has the purpose to approach a fundamental problem of the Romanian agriculture, that is the one of the
intensive development as a result of a new phase of the vertical cooperation process, as well as to elaborate economical-
mathematical models, being this a necessity of a optimum dimension of the agricultural holdings, rationalization of
production processes, of specific consumes, of the economy of the labor force and the adaptation of the request of the
ago-alimentary products on the requirements of the market. Under these circumstances, the project tries to demonstrate
the importance of the optimum dimension of the agricultural holdings and the rationalization of the relationship
between them along the economic chain, as a result of the coordination and orientation of the decisions regarding the
production attained and its capitalization. In the context of nowadays economic situation in the Nod-East region of
Romania, the agricultural holdings need a change of attitude and strategy, in order to obtain a production at European
standards, according to the requirements of the market. The analysis of agricultural structures and projection optimal
size is a necessity in rural areas of prime importance for the Romanian agriculture, both as a theoretical issue and
practical implications of this phenomenon, regarding the current state of agriculture in the NE region and increased
plots properties. As a consequence, the resizing of the agricultural holdings, the partnership between the producers, the
integration of agricultural production, the rural development, the consumers’ constant request for agricultural and food
products, the decrease of the deficit of commercial balance for agricultural products, the increase of the population’s life
standard, the safety of the food, all these are goals that have to be under the continuous attention of the authorities at
central and local level.
Key words: optimum dimension of the holdings farms, economical-mathematical model, rural development
MATERIAL AND METHOD when the Council of the “wise” for the
examination of the macroeconomic evolution was
The methods consist in use mathematical and so critic regarding the agricultural structure.
economical model. The model constructed is a Models of the optimization of production
recursive monoperiodic positive model. With it help,
factors were elaborated in France, for the SW
the optimization of the structure of production, the
farm crop rotation, the level of investments, loans and region of the country, that after were divided into
the level of investments was made within six years. sub-regions. The next studies included 21 regional
units, and then 108 more regions.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS This issue can find an excellent solution
within this paper, by elaborating and applying the
The purpose of the paper is the analysis of following complex solutions: (1) analysis and
the economic and financial results, as well as the proposal of a model for the optimization of some
optimum sizing at the level of various types of technical and economic indicators in the
agricultural holdings in the NE region, in the agricultural holdings at the level of the NE region,
Romanian contemporary agriculture. such as: the size and the physical situation of the
The problem of the rational size of the static capital of the agricultural holdings; the
agricultural holding has been for a long time a efficiency of the investments and their recovery;
subject to think about for the agricultural the technical and the competitiveness level of the
specialists and general economists. In the years products; (2) setting a database for the evolution of
1968-1970 the discussion was on top, when the so the technical-economic indicators at the level of
called “European structural plans” were presented, the individual holdings in the last years and the
belonging to Schiller, Höcherl and Mansholt, and tendency for the future; (3) paper for the
1
University of Perugia, Italy
2
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iaşi
237
organization of the holdings and of the agricultural individual holdings recorded a slight increase,
production in the future; (4) determination and which occurred as a result of legacies to younger
analysis of the flexibility of the offer and consume families and the fact that older owners (without
rates for the main agricultural and agro-alimentary descendants, or descendants of the city) have
products; (5) paper for the marketing association of leased land to other families younger, in the village
the producers and processors in the NE region. and had no land in exchange for products or even
The rural area belonging to the NE Region food for them daily. Another case is that of
from the administrative point of view gathers the families who left rural areas and land temporarily
characteristics of not less than 463 parishes and leased to local people in exchange for goods or
2445 villages in the counties of Bacau, Botosani, smaller amounts of money (table 1).
Iasi, Neamt, Suceava and Vaslui, where an The land that belongs to a family are
approximate of 2,171,838 inhabitants live, different in the two areas investigated and the total
representing 56.6% from the population of the county area's largest & back area as a result of the
region. small number of existing families compared with
One can say that evolution of the number of NE Region.
Table 1
Evolution of the number of individual farms in 2010-2012
The
Average
Number of agricultural Total Arable land of Average
Total agricultural
Specification Year individual area of arable individual arable land/
agricultural land/
farms individual -ha- exploitation exploitation
exploitation
farms
2010 439.060 2.128.135 1.833.497 1.364.166 1.255.033 4,18 2,86
2011 438.840 2.130.268 1.832.030 1.365.533 1.256.290 4,17 2,86
NE Region
2012 439.280 2.132.400 1.833.864 1.366.900 1.257.548 4,17 2,86
(+/-) 2012/ 2010 220 4265 367 2734 2515 0,00 0,00
Data processed by statistical information from the NIS-regional statistics
Table 2
Evolution of the total area allocated per household
Agricultural
Arable land of
Number of land of Agricultural Arable
Specification Year individual
family individual land/family land/family
exploitation
exploitation
2010 506.491 1.833.497 1.255.033 3,62 2,48
2011 506.086 1.832.030 1.256.290 3,62 2,48
NE Region
2012 506.592 1.833.864 1.257.548 3,62 2,48
(+/-) 2012/ 2010 101 367 2515 3,62 24,82
Data processed by statistical information from the NIS-regional statistics
In territorial profile, the land fund is agricultural holdings, as well as the main economic
reflected in different services structures with indicators (production costs, the gross result, the
characteristics from an area of agricultural rate of gross profit etc.) for the agricultural
productions to another. production, in order to elaborate the optimum
In these counties, the large specialized sizing of agricultural holdings.
cooperatives appear and coexist with the multi- The research of the technical and economic
functional ones. A part of the specialized phenomena from many points of view, as well as
cooperatives were associated with food companies. the analysis calculations imply the operation with a
At the same time, it could be interesting to range of methods as follows: the monographic
have a look upon the size structure of the holdings method; methods used to study the structure of the
in the U.S.A., and for this purpose a lot of research phenomena in its elements and the relation of
was made by dividing the land in 144 areas, then in interdependence between them; analyzing methods
432 sub-regions, using the economic and of the characteristic phenomena of some
mathematical methods for the optimizing of the homogenous units; the method of the statistic
holding and production. grouping; the graphical method; the partial budget
Research was also done upon the factual method; the method of calculation of the
conditions of increase of economic efficiency of correlations; methods to foresee the evolution of
agricultural holdings in the NE region of Romania, the phenomena; economic and mathematical
taking into account the human effort, the material optimization methods in order to increase the
and financial investment within the field of economic efficiency.
238
The results of the paper will be exploited including the innovation, originality and
and disseminated, by specific methods and means, complexity of the suggested solutions.
so that they may reach the main beneficiaries – the Taking into consideration of the subject of
agricultural holdings, the private producers, the the paper - The agro-alimentary integration of the
consumers, the field specialists and experts, the NE Romanian region and the optimization of the
authorities, the academic environment or any kind size of agricultural holdings as an effect of the
of specialists that are interested in having a adaptation of the agro-alimentary products to the
production in safe and efficient conditions market’s request – we mark out that we have to
according to the EU requirements and regulations. deal with a scientific as well as practical problem
The paper assures especially the promotion and it represents an actual issue for the EU and
of the farms to be settled, whose size can allow the Romania. This approach wants to integrate the
practice of a viable agriculture, sustainable, programmer and the papers for a lasting
capable to apply new technologies and leading development, where the human is the main
towards profit and efficiency, and also to their character, along with the ecology and the
economic and organizational consolidation.(5). environment, and last but not least a rational
The purpose is to promote the setting up of exploitation of the resources.
farms whose size allows the practice of a viable, Structure optimization methodology requires
sustainable agriculture, capable to apply the newest a very diverse cultures, from the simple
technologies and lead to profit and efficiency and mathematics to economic modeling, a method
to their economical and organizational requiring computer use. This last method should be
consolidation. used only in large programs, covering very large
As a consequence, the resizing of the areas and differentiated in terms of productivity,
agricultural holdings, the partnership between the resulting in a series of restrictions or conditions to
producers, the integration of agricultural be included in the structure of economic and
production, the rural development, the consumers’ mathematical model. In our case, due to a
constant request for agricultural and food products, relatively small number of cultures and
the decrease of the deficit of commercial balance conditioning restrictions or lower number, we
for agricultural products, the increase of the applied the method of multiple variants.
population’s life standard, the safety of the food, For each mode calculation was made in a
all these are goals that have to be under the number of conventional animals - AC, which is
continuous attention of the authorities at central determined by the possibilities of farmers to
and local level. provide milk production, especially, in compliance
The studies underlined that in the NE with sanitary requirements of the European Union.
Region there were some possibilities to increase In essence, the proposed dairy herds appear to be
the agricultural production, without other low, but in the following years they will be able to
investments, whose reasonable use will lead to a increase the rate at which farmers can be provided
more complete use of the natural conditions, of all by investment modern animal husbandry
the economic and social means, as well as to the techniques. In relation to the size of farms, which
increase of the economic efficiency of agricultural are differentiated according to the production area
holdings. is located, have planned a number of conventional
The research results will draw the attention animal heads 15-30 (in conventional animal
upon the importance of the optimum sizing of the species cattle number equals the number of jelly
agricultural holdings according to its animals, namely cows milk), and high meadow
specialization, as well as the need of the reasonable area planned a number of conventional animals 5-
identification of the production in the NE Region. 20, depending on the size of those farms.
Eventually, a standard model of the holding groups In the U.S., the most favorable crops, crop
will be made, according to the optimum size, structure was designed for both favorability zones
which will allow the promotion and the practice of differentiated by planned production. In the
a technological flow according to the specialization module 25 ha (table 3), cereals occupy 52.6%
of the holding, as well as the requirements on the cumulative share of 12% technical plants and
market of products. The results can be extended fodder plants of 35.4%. Note that the category was
also for other regions having in view the size of introduced forage plants and feed barley reason
holdings and the characteristics of the area why this culture has a distinct position, but is
regarding the market request as well as the zoning included in group fodder.
of the production. In variant maximum productivity is obtained
The paper will contribute to the a profit of 12,494 lei, resulting in an average of
development of the information in the field,
239
about 500 lei per ha / ha and the total profit is a slightly lower profit of 41 464 lei and 518 lei /
positive 2 11 264 lei, of which is 451 lei / ha. ha.
In the module 80 ha (table 4) cereals are Module with the maximum size set by GEO
designed to occupy 65.7%, technical plants 108/2001, of 110 ha projected number of 30
15.86% and 18.44% fodder plants. In this way an conventional animals, namely cows, which
area of favorability resulting total profit 46,598 lei requires an area of 17.70 ha forage base, ie 16.09%
and 582 lei / ha. In zone of favorability resulted in of total arable land.
Table 3
Designing crop structure - module 25 hectares –
Nr. Area Profit - V1 Total profit Profit Total profit
Crops %
crt. ha lei/ha V1 - lei V2 - lei/ha V2 - lei
1 Wheat 20,0 5 634 3,17 880,2 2,901
2 Barley beer 8,0 2 535 1,07 461,5 923
3 Corn 24,6 6,15 724,5 4,455 653,6 4,02
4 Sunflower 8,0 2 804,6 1,609 652,9 1,304
5 Soy 4,0 1 583,5 584 510,1 510
6 Fodder 35,4 8,85 181,5 1,606 181,5 1,606
7 TOTAL 100 25 - 12,494 - 11,264
The remaining area was divided cereal crops accidental, but was determined by a relatively
- 76.67 ha, which means 69.7% technical plants - simple logic. Forage crops are strictly determined
15.63 ha, 14.21% respectively. In this way an area by the herd queen planned, so appears as a
of favorability total profit was 65,093 lei, restriction of minimum technical plants in general
representing 592 lei / ha and the total profit of is characterized by an economy attractive, but
favorability in February was 58,024 lei requires a strict individual machine systems, such
representing 527 lei / ha. as sugar beet, so I never even caught her in crop
Should be noted that with increasing total structure, although very favorable conditions found
area of cereal crops the share module. This was not throughout the area of NE Region.
Table 4
Designing crop structure - module 80 ha -
Nr. Area Profit Total profit Profit Total profit -
Crops %
crt. ha V1 / lei/ha V1 - lei V2 - lei/ha V2 - lei
1 Wheat 24,5 19,60 634 12.426 580,2 11.372
2 Barley beer 13,2 10,56 535 5.650 461,5 4.873
3 Corn 28,0 22,40 724,5 16.229 653,6 14.641
4 Sunflower 12,5 10,00 804,6 8.046 652,9 6.529
5 Soy 3,36 2,69 583,5 1.570 510,1 1.372
6 Fodder 18,44 14,75 181,5 2.677 181,5 2.677
7 TOTAL 100 80,00 - 46.598 - 41.464
CONCLUSIONS extremely slow pace of transformation.

Comparative analysis between Romanian potato
The paper is a new and comprehensive production strategies and existing in countries with
approach to agricultural structures in the context of developed agriculture, especially in the European
specific agricultural production, which motivates Union reveals serious gaps, embodied in the
the development of efficient farms to increase the performance levels of comparable systems.
quantity and quality of production. Potato Large differences between the systems
production strategies involved or have an active compared, due to agricultural structures and
role in economic growth may restrict or even structural changes too slowly in Romania are the
overlap with the factors of production structures, disadvantages can be overcome only through
analyzes focusing in this direction. effective economic mechanisms applied under a
Romania has no resources rich countries, legal framework adapted to the starting level, the
and no top managerial experience to create in a stages and objectives established with financial
short time all the best agricultural structures. It is support and social insurance.
therefore necessary rhythms objectives with We believe that the problem arises to
maximum efficiency and use of available determine that size, that size of farm crop profiled
resources. on the field that determines the economic viability
Dynamics of agrarian structures in NE of agricultural structures in the market economy.
Region by 2010 and in view of 2013 shows an Optimization of medium size agricultural
240
structures aimed at maximum efficiency use with Bold I., Craciun A., 1996 - Agricultural structures in the
climatic conditions, economic and social unit that world. Mirton Publishing House, Timisoara.
Brezuleanu S, Brezuleanu Carmen Olgu a, Ia co C.,
has an activity farm for profitable. 2013 - Fundamentation of human resources in
Achieving this goal in preparing the work of agricultural exploatations on the basis of labour
optimization requires consideration of a system of productivity indicators- Environmental
criteria and assumptions, the most important being: Engineering and Management Journal, April
2013, no. 4, pag. 763-767, print ISSN: 1582-
detailed knowledge of the earth's productive 9596, eISSN: 1843-3707, Impact factor 1,117,
potential, developing a uniform program for all Journal Citation Reports published by Thomson
cultures, getting agricultural products to market Reuters,
demand; promoting concentration and Ungureanu G., Ciurea I.V., Brezuleanu S., 2003 -
specialization of production on farms, irrespective Analysis of the agricultural households with
medium size in Romania,. Scientific papers,
of land ownership and organization. Series Agriculture,.CD. ISSN 1454-7414.
Ungureanu G., Brezuleanu S., Ciurea I.V., Moraru
REFERENCES R.A., 2003 - Analysis of the Agricultural
Household with medium size in Romania-
Alecu et al., 2001 - Management of agricultural Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină
exploitations. Ceres Publishing House, Veterinară Iaşi, Facultatea de Agricultură, Lucrări
Bucharest. Ştiinţifice, Suport CD, ISSN 1454-7414.
Axenciuc 1999 - Economic evolution of Romania.
Publishing House of the Romanian Academy,
Bucharest.
241
242
DESIGNING A FRENCH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES COURSE

FOR THE AGRIFOOD SECTOR
Elena PETREA1
e-mail: elenapetrea@uaiasi.ro
Abstract
Unlike the learning language methods of general French, which have as topic everyday life, designing French for
Specific Purposes (FSP) courses involves, for the teacher-designer, the processing of new contexts that he discovers and
which must become familiar to him. In the situation where there isn't already a manual for that area, the teacher-
designer of FSP courses has to set up an activity of investigation, research, collection and processing of information and
knowledge necessary to fulfil a course, these information and knowledge constituting the core of the communicative
situations targeted by that training program. The designing of a FSP syllabus follows a five-step approach: identification
of the training request needs analysis, data collection, data processing and elaboration of didactic activities. This article
is a result of the experience gained in designing FSP worksheets for the agrifood sector within the context of an
international partnership developed between five universities, from Romania (the "Ion Ionescu de la Brad" University of
Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iaşi, the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine
of Cluj-Napoca, the "Dunărea de Jos" University of Galaţi), Croatia (the University of Zagreb) and Republic of
Moldova (the "Alecu Russo" State University of Bălţi) and financed by the Agence universitaire de la Francophonie –
Bureau pour l’Europe centrale et orientale, entitled “Strengthening of French Language and of Research in French for
the non-specialist students in a multicultural and French-speaking environment” (November 2011-March 2014). The
article presents the five-step approach for FSP supports and illustrates the description of each step by concrete examples
taken from the educational sheets designed for the learners trained in agrifood sector.
Key words: French for Specific Purposes; designing and implementing; syllabus; agrifood sector
Designing programs in French for Specific a) the specialized foreign language, which
Purposes (FSP) involves, for the teacher-designer, requires global approach of a discipline or a
the processing of new contexts he discovers and professional field and is open to an audience as
that must become familiar to him. In the situation wide as possible. The example of the authors is
where there isn't already a manual for that area, the that of language courses coupled with the profile of
teacher-designer of FSP courses has to set up an a faculty, courses focused around a theme. The
activity of investigation, research, collection and consequence of this type of training offer would be
processing of information and knowledge the uncertainty regarding the training purpose in
necessary to fulfil a course, these information and terms of professional and academic use, and
knowledge constituting the core of the b) the foreign language for specific
communicative situations targeted by that training purposes, that works with each individual
program. situation, or, in other words, case by case,
The designing of a FSP syllabus follows a depending on the demands and needs of a precise
five-step approach: audience (Magiante J.-M., Parpette C., 2004).
a) identification of the training request,
b) needs analysis, MATERIAL AND METHOD
c) data collection,
d) data processing This article is a result of the experience gained
e) elaboration of didactic activities in designing FSP worksheets for the agrifood sector
inside an international partnership developed
(Magiante J.-M., Parpette C., 2004).
between five universities, from Romania (the "Ion
We consider important, from the point of Ionescu de la Brad" University of Agricultural
view of the terminology that we use in our work, Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iasi, the
the distinction that Jean-Marc Mangiante and University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary
Chantal Parpette operate between: Medicine of Cluj-Napoca, the "Dunarea de Jos"
1
243
University of Galati), Croatia (the University of Iasi; it was entitled "Designing teaching materials
Zagreb) and Republic of Moldova (the "Alecu Russo" in FSP" and had as trainer Mrs. Julie Stauber, from
State University of Balti) and financed by the Agence
Université Lyon2, France. The grid filled out by
universitaire de la Francophonie – Bureau pour
l’Europe centrale et orientale, entitled “Strengthening the teachers was divided into five columns:
of French Language and of Research in French for Domains, Locations, Conversation partners,
the non-specialist students in a multicultural and Activities, Speech acts; a separate column was
French-speaking environment” (November 2011- dedicated to "cultural needs".
March 2014). The article presents the five steps In the second stage of the analysis, teachers
designing approach of FSP supports and illustrates discussed based on the grid elaborated with the
the description of each step by concrete examples
taken from the educational sheets designed for the
students who already did professional internships;
learners trained in agrifood sector. this step allowed an identification of the most
required areas for this traineeship: dairy
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS processing, bakery and meat processing. The
discussion made possible a detailed analysis
A French for Specific Purposes course regarding the general communicative context, the
results either from a clear and precise request made role and status of communication (on
by a client (a person, a company, etc.) to a training vertical/horizontal), the contact dimensions (face to
institution, or it can be part, along with other face, group, etc.), the code used (rather written or
courses, of general French syllabi, for example, oral) and the language register.
according to CEFRL levels (Common European This step was followed by the direct contact
Framework of Reference for Languages), from a with the professional environment, for the
catalogue of courses proposed for a wide audience validation or invalidation of the elements already
of the same pedagogical institution. In the situation reunited, as well as for their completion.
we are concerned with, it presents the particularity For a FSP project, the data collection
to have resulted from a context common to all five represents the "most specific" step and the "centre
higher education institutions participating in the of gravity" of the approach (Mangiante, Parpette,
project: the existence, for a few years, of a growing 2004: 46). On the one hand, this stage "confirms,
number of students receiving professional supplements, even changes more the needs
internships financed by the Agence universitaire de analysis performed by the course designer"
la Francophonie or by the Erasmus programme. (Mangiante, Parpette, 2004: 46), an analysis that
These students perform practical internships in loses its hypothetical feature once attested by the
enterprises from the agricultural and food area, in fieldwork. On the other hand, this stage "provides
agricultural exploitations, in agencies involved in information and speeches on which basis it will be
the environmental protection or in veterinary constituted the linguistic training course"
offices or clinics, from France, in particular, and (Mangiante, Parpette, 2004: 46). The teacher-
the communication skills that are required from designer gets out of his usual context and faces
them enter in the professional training area. updated speeches in the situations where students
The needs analysis consists in the will find themselves after they have completed the
identification of the communicative situations in training; in this way, the designer can definitely
which students are likely to find themselves in the identify the needs of his future students (Carras:
target context during the professional internship, as 2007: 31).
well as in listing knowledge and linguistic and The first function of the data collection is "to
specialty skills that students should acquire during inform the teacher-designer about the area he is
the course. More specifically, the FSP syllabus going to handle, its actors, the specific situations,
designer must answer the following questions: To information and discourses that circulates in that
whom the student will speak in French? in what framework" (Mangiante, Parpette, 2004: 47, see
context? What does he have to say? to write? What also Carras, 2007: 31 and the following).
work tasks involving the use of French language he In our project, the collection of authentic
will have to meet? documents was achieved largely through field
In this case, the analysis was done in several activity - visits to enterprises, manufacturing
steps: it assumed, firstly, a personal reflection, processes records, interviews with experts and
doubled by a common one, of the teachers gathering of specific written documents. For if it is
involved in designing FSP resources in the possible to easily find on the Internet or in the
agrifood area, during the training organized by the specialized literature about dairy products, their
project. The training was conducted between 3rd manufacturing processes, the equipment from a
and 7th of June 2013, at the University of dairy processing plant, it is more difficult to
Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of imagine a cost sheet, a purchase order, a delivery
244
order, a safety analysis form and so on, or to  in the case of a video document, it was inserted
imagine speeches that occur between actors in the on the screen a title like "Cheese-making process."
area, such as a technologist, a quality manager, a There is also the possibility to design this re-
worker on the manufacturing chain, a cheese contextualization not by using the resources
maker etc. The familiarity with a branch of activity collected as they are, but by using them as
different from the initial training of the teacher- informational basis for the creation of fabricated
designer of language course on specific purposes documents. For reasons of sound quality,
demands from him a high degree of involvement: complexity or privacy, some recorded speeches are
he will have to move more often; fix meetings; then transcribed, and these transcripts allow the
explain the approach and carry out work in conception of reconstructed dialogues with
collaboration with his interlocutors. professional or amateur actors, or their recording
The second function of the stage of data and supporting with iconic items such as photos,
collection refers to its finality: these data will diagrams, etc.
serve, to varying degrees, as supports in the In the collection of authentic documents
designing of didactic activities. There are two necessary for the elaboration of didactic resources
major forms of use of the authentic documents for French language for specific purposes for the
collected: agricultural and food area, the Internet was a
 in their original form (in particular, written or valuable tool, to which the teachers-designers
iconic documents): thus it was done with the forms resorted in the cases where they didn't have the
and the recipes, for the case of the collection from possibility to achieve a fieldwork. Thus, the
the agricultural and food area and, more teachers have used video documents showing the
specifically, for dairy; jobs from the agricultural and food area, these
 by data processing in order to adapt them to the authentic documents being put at their disposal by
level of the public or to training needs (creating a francophone organizations responsible for
progression, for example) (Mangiante, Parpette, professional training. These movies (of a few
2004: 52-53) minutes, in their form from the elaborated
The work carried out by teachers-designers pedagogical documents) have the advantage of
involved a selection of the documents gathered, offering an overview of the profession, the
because they were in a large volume and often less activities undertaken, the qualities necessary for
usable; and then one passed to: practicing the profession in question, as well as on
 an adaptation at the level and the purposes of their advantages and disadvantages thereof; they
the learners (students in professional internship), also contain suggestive images of that professional
by an operation of simplification and by selecting environment.
only some aspects to be worked during the French The competencies targeted by the learning
language course for specific purposes for the units developed include:
agrifood area;  the discovery of the job, of the professional
 a processing of the resources gathered in order training required
to ensure a required progress of learning;  the presentation of the work situations
 an update of certain collected information for (manufacturing, equipment maintenance,
the purpose of reflecting the evolution in the area. operations ...)
A third type of data processing was also  the discovery of the European legislation in the
used, this one has established itself as an essential field.
aspect for any courses designer who uses an The didactic supports put at the student's disposal
authentic discourse for educational purposes - (re) are:
simulated situation exercise or re-contextualization  Learning sequences, with audio and video
(Mangiante, Parpette, 2004 : 55). Determined transcription of the documents, at the end
within a specific time and space, the oral discourse  A DVD containing audio and video documents,
does not always imply the verbalization of the as well as the key to the exercises.
contextual information; removed from the original
context, these data can hinder the understanding The organization of a learning sequence.
and therefore require an explanation, which our Each sequence consists of four parts:
team of teachers has conceived in two forms:  The introduction, which presents the context,
 in the case of an audio document, it was used an cultural references, lexical references;
introductory phrase like: "Sir ..., you are quality  The activities, in the order: oral comprehension,
manager in a dairy processing plant and you have written comprehension, vocabulary, grammar, oral
the courtesy to explain some requirements of a or written production;
laboratory approved by the European Community"  The evaluation
245
 The glossary ACKNOWLEGMENTS

At the end of the manual there are useful
documents: resources for the student The author wishes to thank the Agence universitaire de
la Francophonie – Bureau pour l’Europe centrale
(webliography, magazines, online dictionaries, et orientale as well as all the teachers and the
movies, television programmes, etc.), as well as students having participated to the project.
the transcripts for all audio and video documents.
The five steps of a French for Specific Abry Dominique et al., 2007 - Le Français sur Objectifs
Spécifiques et la classe de langue, Paris: Clé
Purposes program that we have presented and International.
exemplified in our work, based on the didactic Cuniţă A., 1997 - Predarea şi învăţarea limbilor străine
units of the textbook Communiquer en FOS. în România în perspectivă europeană, Bucureşti:
Renforcement du français pour les étudiants Editura Alternative.
(2014), allow students to actively participate in the Germain C., Tagliante, C., 1994 - La classe de langue,
Paris : CLE International.
learning activities, which are built according to Mangiante J.P., Parpette C., 2004 - Le Français sur
their linguistic needs and communication situations objectif spécifique: de l’analyse des besoins à
in which they will use the foreign language. In the l’élaboration d’un cours, Paris: Hachette
learning context specific to the five higher Petrea Elena et al, 2014 - Communiquer en FOS.
Renforcement du français pour les étudiants,
education institutions participating in the AUF Mons : Editions du CIPA.
project mentioned above, the student becomes a *** - Common European Framework of Reference for
full actor of the educational process in French for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment,
Specific Purposes for the agrifood industry. http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/source/framewo
rk_en.pdf
246
THE CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT FOR NE REGION
George UNGUREANU 1, Mihai STANCIU1, Adriano CIANI2,

Stejărel BREZULEANU1, Gabriela IGNAT1, Eduard BOGHIŢĂ1
e-mail: ungurgeo@yahoo.com
Abstract
Romania is the second largest country after Poland, among the countries of the Central and Eastern Europe, in terms of
population and territorial area. About 45% of the 22 million inhabitants work and live in rural areas. European Regional
Development has become over the years one of the most important political development since its actions have an
impact on a variety of issues, both economic and social. Integrating three priority objectives of the Union: economic
and social cohesion, the principle of subsidiarity and sustainable development, the regional policy is a separate policy,
an original creation of the Community. This policy reveals how the EU works and acts for the good of its citizens. The
hypothesis behind this research paper is that agricultural development policy is a policy of an interventionist nature,
borne out of the need for balanced development within the Union and the multidimensional nature of the regional
problems that compensatory act to mitigate with market imbalances single-handedly cannot solve. The research
approach focusses on the analysis of the following issues: problematic regions and regional development evolution of
the concept of European regional policy. I opted for a diachronic perspective destined to highlight the numerous events
that contributed to the emergence and development of this type of policy, the way in which regional policy is
implemented in Romania with a particular focus on the manner in which Romania has prepared to access structural
instruments and has approached the mechanisms of implementation of the European regional policy. The topic encloses
a multitude of issues, and can be analyzed from several perspectives: diachronic (evolution over time), legal
(implications on sovereignty or national policy implementation), economic and social (impact of this type of policy in a
given territory), management (given complex system programming and administration policy and its measures). The
study uses as research methods the legal analysis, the SWOT analysis and the case study. In this respect, it will, of
legally work of regional institutions in Romania, through the SWOT analysis expose strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats of global and regional case studies analyzed the RDA activity.
Key words: sustainable development, regional development, agricultural policy
Regional development is, for Romania, a characteristic of the administrative apparatus of

new concept that began to take shape in 1998 with Romania.
the advent of the first laws approaching this Sustainable development - DD - is the
phenomenon. The socio-economic regional concept of socio-economic development (figure 1)
development started quite slowly, determined as urged all UN countries, which seek harmonization
they were by the excessive centralization of three basic components.
Human Resources Economic increase Intergenerational

equity
Sustainable
development
It became a strategic objective adapted to

country-specific international
It is an evolutionary concept of society that allows long-term use environment such as socio-economic
development remain possible while maintaining an acceptable level of environmental quality.
Figure 1 Define the concept of sustainable development – DD
1
2
University of Perugia, Italy
247
As a weakness, it should be noted that there fact that Bucharest has not extended its influence
are still major disparities within regions where to neighbouring counties, the outskirts of the
predominantly agricultural counties coexist with capital being some of the most underdeveloped
the most developed. This phenomenon has gained counties of Romania.
momentum because of the threat of the impact of In order to apply the regional development
economic restructuring especially in mono- policy, eight regions have been established,
industrial areas, whose population has been summing up all the territorial area of Romania.
affected by unemployment. Affected were the Each development region comprises several
regions close to the border with the Republic of counties.
Moldova and Ukraine - and less developed regions It is necessary to establish regions of
along the Danube. development in Romania and to involve them in
One of the strengths of regional the actual process of the programming documents.
development is the increasing importance of table 1 shows that the main development region of
Bucharest. With 5.4% of the population, Romania is the North Eastern one, with an area of
Bucharest contributes 21% to the national GDP approximately 36,800 square kilometers and a
and 20 % of Romanian SMEs are recorded here. population of over 3.7 million inhabitants,
The capital attracted 51.1% of the total foreign comprising the counties of Bacau, Vaslui, Neamt,
investment. Bucharest is also one of the areas Iasi, Suceava and Botosani. This is followed by the
where there is a substantial positive migration to South East region which has about 35,700 square
future students. Furthermore, the city offers the kilometers and a population of over 2.8 million,
biggest opportunities for development research. consisting of the counties of Constanta, Tulcea,
However there is a weakness, namely the Braila, Buzau, Vrancea and Galati.
Table 1
Territorial-administrative structure required to manage regional development in Romania
Population
Geographic Surface Density
Counties 2 (thousand 2
Regions (km ) (people/km )
people)
1. North-East Bacau,Vaslui, Neamt, Iasi, Suceava, Botosani 36850 3743 101.6
2. South-East Constanta, Tulcea, Braila Buzau,Vrancea, Galati 35762 2868 80.2
3. South Teleorman, Giurgiu,Calarasi, Ialomita, Dambovita, Prahova, Arges 34453 3375 98.0
4. South-West Olt, Dolj, Gorj, Mehedinti,Valcea 29212 2341 80.1
5. West Caras-Severin, Hunedoara,Timis, Arad 32034 1955 61.0
6. North-West Cluj, Salaj, Bihor, Bistrita-Nasaud, Maramures, Satu Mare 34159 2766 80.7
7. Center Brasov,Covasna, Sibiu,Alba, Harghita, Mures 34100 2547 78.7
8. Bucharest Bucharest, Ilfov 1821 2210 1213.8
Source: National Commission for Statistics ” Romanian Statistical Yearbook” 2012
For a realistic assessment of Romania's per hectare of arable cultivation tends to increase
regional development level it is useful to compare since 2010.
the situation in Romania with that from the EU Rural development is subject to the same
countries, which have to approach the level of multi-way development that follows the
socio-economic development. The main indicators development of social and economic space. Rural
of regional development of Romania compared development can be defined as the transition from
with those of the EU countries are listed in table 2. the underdevelopment stage of the rural society to
The impact of agricultural policy higher one.
mechanisms and budget support for the agricultural The concept of rural development should be
sector are presented in table 3 generating the defined as the concept of rural space. Not
following: GDP share of agriculture from total infrequently is the concept of rural development
GDP declined gradually while reducing the share identified with that of growth. These two concepts
of public spending to support agriculture. The should not be confused. The increase must be
share of spending to support agriculture in the understood as a quantitative expansion of business.
State Budget of Romania was 4.65 % in 2007 of a Development aims to increase productivity both at
total of 14.38 % as GDP share of agriculture, and an individual and institutional level. Normally, the
in 2012 it was 5. 10% compared with 11, 69%. development process is preceded by processes of
From the data presented in table 3 results the growth. For example, a livestock farm which
following general conclusions: Agricultural GDP intends to increase the total production of a
248
particular product should take into account two used extensively. A similar situation is present in
factors - quantity - the number of animals and - other types of major private holdings - 93 % -
quality - the average performed by each animal. agricultural associations; 92.9% family
The development process, namely the increase of associations; and individual producers (tenants)
the average production per head is preceded by the 94.6%.
growth process, i.e. increasing the number of Table 2
animals on the farm. Currently, due to a faster pace The main indicators of regional development in
Romania compared to EU in 2012
of economic development at the necessary scale
European
territory the two processes of growth and Specification Unit Romania
Union
development occur simultaneously. mil.
Analysis of the current situation of the Total population 21,8 376,5
people
2
agricultural sector in Romania indicate the need to Total surface Km 238391 3 191 000
accelerate restructuring and modernization of people/
Population density 91,4 118
km²
agriculture, rural development and fisheries given
Population dynamics in
their economic and social importance for ensuring % 95,0 103,0*
2009/2012
integrated and sustainable economic development Share of rural population % 46,7 17,5*
of rural areas. Population structure by
% 100 100
In the NE region, the land occupies age
3,684,983 ha of the agricultural area totalizing  0-14 years % 17,3 17,4
 15-64 years % 68,6 67,0
2,131,421 ha of which 1,375,008 ha are arable
 60 years and over % 14,1 15,6
terrains (table 4). Euro/pe
In terms of regional development, Iasi PIB/people (ppc) 5. 700 24. 238
ople
County is part of the North - East Region (Region Employment structure % 100 100
1), which consists of six counties (Bacau,  Agriculture % 36,2 4,5
Botosani, Iasi, Neamt, Suceava, Vaslui), with a  Industry,
% 39,0 29,3
total population of 3,674,367 inhabitants, being in construction
 Services % 34,8 66,2
this respect, the first among the eight regions of the
Unemployment rate % 8,4 9,2
country (16.94% of the total population of Birth %o 10,5 -
Romania). Average life:
As mentioned previously, high potential  men years 67,6 74,6
agricultural companies that average farm area, but  women years 74,9 80,9
fell by almost 90% share of arable land, which is Source: National Commission for Statistics "Statistical
Yearbook of Romania",2012
Table 3
Budget support to agriculture and agricultural GDP per one hectare of farmland
and a person employed in agriculture during 2007-2012 - euro/ha-
Specification 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Budget support per hectare of arable cultivation 75,90 87,27 94,46 140,59 145,04 149,92
Budget support per hectare incumbent holdings
88,83 92,86 98,99 151,93 155,06 166,46
over 1 ha arable ***
Agricultural GDP per hectare cultivated arable 582,50 529,54 524,61 669,88 608,06 653,84
Agricultural GDP per employed person 1585,71 1306,25 1265,70 1735,75 1630,47 1752,92
Source: Calculations by the Statistical Yearbooks 2007-2012 and 2007-2012 Romanian State budget including budget revisions
Table 4
The land by use of 31 December 2013, thousand hectares
County Bacau Botosani Iasi Neamt Suceava Vaslui NE Region
Total areas 662052 498569 547558 589614 855350 531840 3684983
Agricultural areas 323468 392905 380997 283789 349131 401131 2131421
Which: Privat sector 320308 388469 370233 276684 340299 395847 2091840
Arable 184628 298477 253491 170473 179859 288080 1375008
Pastures 87528 75146 88109 69394 91108 873449 498634
Meadow 40247 14769 19651 40108 74819 7664 197258
Vineyards 7614 1847 11706 1111 - 15027 37305
Orchards 3451 2666 8040 2703 3345 3011 23216
Forests 279001 57187 99022 261330 456394 79182 1232116
Waters 14765 13849 12589 10374 13630 8156 73363
Other areas 44818 34628 54950 34121 36195 43371 248083
Source: Statistical Yearbook of Romania 2013
249
Table 5
GLOBAL SWOT ANALYSIS FOR NE -region
Strengths and weaknesses
Strengths Weaknesses
• Regional real GDP growth by 8.3% compared to the • Regional GDP/capita is 71.7 % of the country (the lowest
national (5.73%) -2011; value);
• Regional real GVA growth in the industry is twice the • High rate of poverty;
national-200 1; • Labour productivity is lower in all sectors of the national
• Existence of the E85 European road that runs from the (2000-2013);
north to the south of the region • Reduced number of SMEs - sites per thousand (2000 -
• Turnover in hotels and restaurants is only provided for 2013);
SMEs and micro-2013; • 51 % of employment (agriculture) counts for only only
• Positive natural area; 21% of regional GDP;
• The existence of three universities concerned with the • Low level of road infrastructure upgraded - % of road
scientific research, invention, technological innovation, infrastructure is below the minimum acceptable standards
and promote information; - 2013;
• There are cultural centers, monasteries, monuments of • Network of drinking water, sewerage and gas is
national and international importance (UNESCO); insufficiently developed (quantity and quality) compared to
the area and population of the county;
• Insufficient capacity of waste water treatment plants and
waste dumps;
• Low rate of use of accommodation capacity in operation
and average length of stay in the region in relation to
existing potential tourist;
• Low level of employed population in services;
• High population concentrated in rural areas ( 59.23 %);
• High unemployment in the region - in 2013.
Oportunities and threats
Opportunities Risks
• Ability to develop trade in the future thanks to the • Lack of cohesion measures for economic and social
county's eastern border of the European Union; development amid the lack of trust in the country's
• Reducing the inflation forecast and economic recovery;
lowering the cost of credit default;
• Encouraging new forms of tourism and valorization of • Low competitiveness of firms in the county with the
historical, cultural, spiritual and tradition; Member States after accession of Romania to the EU;
• Opportunity to develop the business as a result of • Continued ‘brain drainage’ to other regions and
construction abroad;
industrial parks and business incubators; • Further increase of the poverty of the population in
• Availability of raw materials and wood building materials region;
(see natural resources) able to attract foreign investors; • Existence of areas prone to natural disasters (landslides,
• The possibility of modernizing floods).
the local airport, the regional business support and
become a starting point for regional tourism routes;
• The possibility that social SERVICING existing
infrastructure by upgrading and rehabilitation to serve as
spaces for the development of integrated services for the
disadvantaged.
CONCLUSIONS near the border with Moldova and Ukraine. The

same is true, to some extent, the South also
Regional development is a new concept that dependent on agriculture and where the Danube
is as stimulating and diversifying economic acts as a barrier to cross-border trade. A positive,
opportunities, stimulate private sector investment, strong point is that the central and western parts of
helping to reduce unemployment and not the country have benefited from their position
eventually lead to an improvement in living closer to western markets and lower their
standards. dependence on the primary sector. So far, they
From an economic perspective, the threat is have received more FDI.
that the underdeveloped areas are concentrated in This system of direct payments by
the northeast, on the border with Moldova, and subsidizing agriculture has several advantages over
south along the Danube because of subsidy by price: financial effort to grant went
underdevelopment and unemployment is correlated from consumers (through lower prices) to
with the predominance of rural activities, as well taxpayers through the tax system.
as inability to attract foreign direct investment. Secondly, the direct payments system favors
Another weakness is that the North - East is farmers. The support system of agriculture by
affected both by its dependence on agriculture and price, agricultural subsidies benefit rather various
250
intermediaries between producers and consumers, commercial crop production model building a
namely engrosses, processors, intervention sectorial representative.
agencies/storage exporters. Manufacturers are only
indirectly supported by the fact that the REFERENCES
intervention price guarantee ensures their income
Brezuleanu S., 2005 - Tehnici folosite in determinarea
stability, but they get really engrosses negotiated obiectivelor unei exploataţii agricole pentru
prices, and not the high prices in the market. abordarea unui program european de finanţare,
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Universitatea de Stiinte Agricole si Medicina
Development said in a very recent study that the Veterinara, Facultatea de Horticultura, Lucrari
system of price subsidies to farmers lays only 25 % Stiintifice, Suport CD, ISSN 1454-7376.
Popescu A., 2012 - Dezvoltare rurală, Editura
of the grant. Universitar , Bucuresti.
From these references we have built a Stefan G., 2012 - Curs economie rurală, Editura
simulation model for the behavior of the North PIM-Iasi.
Eastern Region to assess the impact of the CAP on Ungureanu G., 2012 - Managementul dezvoltării rurale.
Curs, Iasi.
crop production in this region. Using models built Zahiu L. et al, 2009 - Agricultura Uniunii Europene sub
in this section were performed on a farm impactul politicii agricole comune. Editura Ceres,
specializing in the production plant in Iasi. Bucuresti.
Common Agricultural Policy Impact *** - www.inforegionordest.ro/proiecte_regio_nordest/Iasi
Analysis on Romanian agriculture specializing in
251
252
ASPECTS REGARDING THE PRINCIPLES OF PERFORMANCE AUDIT
Constantin IATCO 1, Gabriela IGNAT 1, George UNGUREANU 1 , Haralambie ATHES2,
e-mail: gabriela@uaiasi.ro
Abstract
The performance audit represents an examination and, more particularly, an independent and objective evaluation of the
extent to which a program or an activity of a public entity functions efficiently, while being productive. The
international INTOSAI audit standards define the concept as being an “audit of productivity and efficiency with which
the audited entity utilizes its resources to fulfill its responsibilities”. The nature of performance audit requests a careful
selection concerning the methodology used to obtain and examine the audit evidence. For this reason, the auditors have
to consider, at all times, the validity and coherency of the methods and techniques utilized. With time, performance
audit has imposed itself as an indispensable analysis criterion in the process of decision making, maybe one that is even
more important than legal control. When it comes to performance audit, an essential condition is the one referring to the
allocation, administration and use of resources effectively, economy-wise. The performance audit does not necessarily
involve the simultaneous analysis of productivity and efficiency. That is why we can state that auditing performance
refers to auditing inputs economy-wise, auditing the efficiency of the program and auditing the effectiveness of the
results. Lately, in practice, a fourth component has been added to the other three – respectively, auditing the impact that
a program, project or activity has on the environment.This special type of audit assists the government in elaborating
economic policies, contributing to the public responsibility, because the performance audit cannot verify the objectives
themselves, but their impact.
Key words: audit, performance, principles, optimal result, international audit standards
Performance audit represents a form of MATERIAL AND METHOD

auditing economic efficiency and efficacy with
which the audited entity uses its resources to fulfil Our approach has as objective a clarification of
its responsibilities. the issue of importance and necessity as far as
undergoing performance audit is concerned.
It offers an analysis of objectives so that Our research focused on systematizing and
managers can use the information to improve synthesizing the concepts comprised by the field-
performance and program operations, to reduce related literature. To accomplish this, the authors
costs and facilitate the decision-making processes. have gathered information from various documents,
One can say that performance audit using a fundamental method of research.
represents the dynamic process which stipulates
the adherence to applicable audit standards within RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
the activity of auditing.
The auditors‘ job is facilitated, as far as The sources in this field are extremely
selecting the information to be presented and the varied. Thus, according to Allouche & Laroche
adequate context for the audit conclusions, (2005), performance is a social construction
including here the discussion on the existence of carrying as many significations as there are
enough evidence to support it, by the continuous individuals or groups that use it. The concept of
evaluation of objectives, audit risks, procedures performance covers notions whose meaning is
and evidence while auditing. often contextual and leads to numerous
The conclusions of performance audit is a interpretations (Allouche et al., 2003). It contains a
logical result of all the elements mentioned above, framework of complementary and sometimes
and offers an evaluation of audit findings and their contradictory parameters, that do not have the
signification. same importance, even though the economic
dimension remains the dominant one (Chrétien et
al., 2005). Performance is an evolving concept,
1
2
„Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iasi
253
because the factors that can contribute to the provisions of national audit standards, elaborated
success of the organization at a certain stage of based on INTOSAI standards;
innovation could later on become incompatible –Complexity and completeness–
with the factors demanded by a different stage of performance audit is, by its nature, an ample
development or research (Boudabbous, 2011). enterprise, that can cover, selectively, several
According to the International Audit years, and it does not only refer to one year of
Standards INTOSAI, performance audit represents activity;
an evaluation or an independent assessment of the –Identification and selection of the most
degree to which an activity, a program or an adequate criteria to assess performance; the
organization functions efficiently, according to selection of criteria represents a complex activity,
economic rules. done by the auditors, based on the objectives of
The legal framework in the field of each audited entity;
performance audit (shortened A.P. as follows) is –Persuasiveness of the evidence obtained
represented by the Decision of the Court of after auditing; the performance audit has to provide
Accounts, no. 1/2009 for approving the set of rules information oriented towards achieved
regarding the organization and progress of specific performance and which allows the evaluation of
activities, published in „Monitorul Oficial”, no. 78/ the effect generated by the conclusions, regarding
February 10, 2009, chapter IV, 181 – 240 from the efficiency and efficacy;
main appendix, as well as the Guide elaborated by Performance audit has to combine direct
the Romanian Court of Accounts. audit with the audit of control systems, focusing
As far as strategies, planning, policy particularly on resources results and impact, as
development, projects, activities and public well as the degree to which policies and procedures
operations are concerned, the auditors will check executed by managers to promote, monitor and
whether the management: evaluate performance are adequate.
–undergoes periodic analyses, to eliminate The process of performance audit entails
useless operations; three phases – planning, examination and report. In
–evaluates the resources used and the results order to guarantee, as much as possible, the
obtained, compared to planned objectives; success of performance audit, all three phases have
–compares the separate and total costs of to possess certain qualities.
operations to those of similar businesses; That is why the specialized literature focuses
–gets involved in the professional training of on the SMARTEST approach, so that the auditor
the employees, uses performance factors, uses time has to make sure that:
rationally, introduces advanced methods and –sound judgement is exercised along the
develops the technology; entire process;
–keeps to the conformity of public –a combination of adequate methodologies
acquisitions, as far as deadlines, quantities, type, is used, in order to collect data;
quality and prices are concerned; –audit questions are formulated, based on
–proceeds to safely handling of the heritage which conclusions can be drawn;
of public organizations; –risks that can influence the report are
–improves the quality of the output without analyzed and managed;
raising specific and general costs; –the necessary tools are used in order to
–has designed and set a functional system successfully audit;
for measuring the quality of the results of the –the evidence is sufficient, coherent and
activity; usable for the conclusions of the audit;
–compares the degrees of the „3 E’s”, before –the structure of the final report is taken into
and after having take correctional actions, based on consideration right from the planning phase;
complete data; –transparency is crucial – an approach with
The main objective of performance audit, no „surprises” for the audited entity.
that of adding value and credibility to the opinion By nature, performance audit covers a
stated in the audit reports, is fulfilled if the audit complex domain, making appeal to reason and
mission is completely independent and there is interpretation; indeed, each aspect of performance
freedom regarding the domains to be audited. audit requires professional reasoning and personal
The main characteristics of missions of initiative.
performance audit are the following: Balanced reasoning has to be exercised, in
–Conformity with the International Audit particular, with processes of establishing audit
Standards; performance audit is done according to objectives (also called „audit questions”), of
the mandate given by law, in conformity with the defining relevant audit criteria, of establishing the
254
adequate quantity and quality for the audit The main objective of performance audit,
evidence, of elaborating the findings of the audit, that of adding value and credibility to the opinion
of formulating conclusions, as well as in the stated in the audit reports, is fulfilled if the audit
process of reporting. mission is carried under conditions of complete
Methodology sums up techniques for independence, while respecting the following
collecting and analyzing data that help principles: the existence of a well-defined warrant
acknowledge the evidence to formulate of performance audit, the freedom in selecting
conclusions. fields, and reasonable insurance.
In the ideal case, multiple methodologies To these, one can add the specific principles
will be used to collect a series of data and to guiding the auditors’ activity: responsibility,
colligate findings from different sources, thus integrity, objectivity and independence, the value
enhancing the quality and reliability of audit added as a result of having implemented the audit
evidence on which findings, conclusions and recommendations, competence, accuracy,
recommendations are based. perseverance, clear communication.
In the case of performance audit, it is Approaching performance audit with respect
recommended that the audit objectives be to the management sub-system automatically
established in the form of questions to which the assumes defining the framework of management
audited entity will have to answer. relations which is to be investigated and evaluated,
Among the risks that can affect finishing the right from the moment of issuing the warrant for
report in due time, for a quality audit, there are the mission of internal audit.
difficulties in gathering data, insufficient staff and The auditor aims at establishing the active
the lack of cooperation on the part of the audited factor, the person who puts into practice the
entity. designated task, while taking into account the
The use of adequate instruments will following: in-company relations, rights,
contribute to the guarantee of elaborating a obligations, competences, responsibilities,
realistic plan, and will consequently contribute to deadlines, information flows and circuits which are
monitoring and examining the accomplishments connected to management relations.
based on the plan. At the practical level, in the activity of
The evidence collected along the audit carrying out the performance audit one uses the
process represents a real basis to formulate definitions of the internationally acknowledged „3
observations and conclusions related to the audit E’s”.
questions. The pieces of evidence contribute to Performance audit does not imply, and
demonstrating, convincingly, a fact or a point that should have as purpose, a simultaneous and
has been examined. thorough examination of all aspects related to
Taking into consideration the structure of economic efficiency and efficacy.
the audit report, right from the beginning, will Rather, it will only focus on certain aspects
contribute to the proper management of the entire related to efficiency, based on the major potential
process and will enhance the probability of risks that have been identified.
obtaining positive results. The problems related to economicity are
Having in mind the diverse character of raised when a certain entity or an activity could
performance audit, one especially needs good reduce its costs of resources significantly for a
planning. This contributes to a certain ease in certain level of accomplishments or results.
establishing whether the audit is useful and The audit of economicity has as purpose
possible, and it helps towards establishing clear, establishing whether the resources chosen to fulfil
reasonable objectives, and towards defining the the objectives are adequate and whether they are
adequate approach and the necessary resources. In acquired at the lowest possible cost.
case the audit is badly planned, there is a risk for a Examining the aspects connected to
lack of efficiency in the audit activities. economicity often leads the auditor to the analysis
An essential conceptual landmark of of procedures and decisions within the audited
performance audit is represented by the actors of entity, with respect to the acquisition of goods and
this process: the audit coordinator, the audited services.
manager, and the auditor. The auditor will establish, in particular,
This approach is useful because these whether the acquisition procedure has allowed for
different actors all have a profound interest in the the best ratio quality/ price.
audit process, but sometimes differently and In using the concept of efficiency, the
antithetically, especially in what concerns the auditor will evaluate, within the analysis of the
results of the audit. program implementation or of the activity, to what
255
degree has the audited entity managed to obtain the actions, represented by policies, programs,
adequate result, qualitatively and quantitatively. activities, from the point of view of economicity,
When the efficiency audit has as objective efficiency and efficacy.
the examination of results, auditors often evaluate All these need to correspond to the
the processes through which an organization turns necessities of society, through focusing on the
resources into results. priority-issues, through a rigorous control of
When efficiency audit has as objective the effects, and through the economic use of resources.
examination of results one usually needs certain In order to elaborate the report it is
economic instruments to assess the real potential of necessary to stick to a well-defined structure, in
an audited entity, operation or program, to obtain which the objectives as well as the evidence of the
certain results, at a certain cost. audit are found, together with its conclusions.
Based on the approach to auditing, the
auditors will examine the reliability of the analysis CONCLUSIONS
done by the audited entity, or they will analyze
everything themselves. In performance audit, the conclusions which
Efficiency audit requires evidence, such as are to be formulated by the auditors of a superior
objectives, results that have been observed and audit organization will specify whether the
created by the analyzed action itself, and not by activity, the program or the entity audited have
other potential factors. Consequently, there is a been managed in an economic, efficient manner.
direct relationship between cause and effect. The The auditors will identify, collect and analyze audit
efficiency audit will be oriented towards evidence, regarding cash flow, process
accomplishments, results and impact. descriptions, as well as the perception and opinions
Auditors need to identify the risks that could of the public.
affect economicity, efficiency and efficacy, and to In performance audit, the activity of
formulate, based on these aspects, the audit collecting audit evidence has to be systematically
questions. Each concept has an equal importance, organized, in order to support the reasoning ability
and establishing priorities will be handled of the auditors, who are to draw conclusions
differently from case to case; nonetheless, auditors regarding the entity, program, activity or action
are encouraged to consider efficiency an element that has been audited.
of analysis, whenever this is possible. For this, the audit evidence needs to be
Through limiting the performance audit to coherent, relevant and reasonable.
some of the whole array of economic aspects, one
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Cadrul de guvernanta corporative al UE.
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Simultaneously, the information is also 2009, Standardele Internaţionale de Practică
useful to other entities, connected to the audited Profesională a Auditului Intern .
entity through various hierarchical relations or *** - Monitorul Oficial nr. 78 din 10 februarie, 2009.
*** - Curtea de Conturi a României Auditul performanţei-
contracts – that is, the citizens. ghid, Bucureşti, 2003.
The reports regarding performance audit *** - www.mie.ro
have to indicate the attention given by the political *** - www.cafr.ro
power, by the state and local administration to their
256
ASPECTS REGARDING THE INTERNATIONAL ACCOUNTING

STANDARD I.A.S. 41 - AGRICULTURE
Gabriela IGNAT 1 Constantin IATCO 1, George UNGUREANU1,

Carmen COSTULEANU2, Haralambie ATHES3
e-mail: gabriela@uaiasi.ro
Abstract
At the end of the year 2000, the European Parliament passed a standard specifically addressing agriculture, the
International Accounting Standard IAS 41 – Agriculture. This standard introduced the fair value evaluation model to
agriculture. Based on this, one can approach the management of transforming biological assets, so that on the occasion
of initial and final accounting of each economic exercise these assets can be evaluated at their fair value, diminished
with the estimated selling expenses. According to this international standard, the agricultural activity represents “the
management of biological transformations and harvesting biological assets, with the purpose of selling them or
transforming them into agricultural products or supplementary biological assets”. As Barry J. Epstein and Eva K.
Jermakowicz note, “in the context of old international accounting standards, most of the rules applicable to agriculture
(IAS 2 regarding stocks, IAS 16 regarding property and IAS 18 regarding income) deliberately excluded all or almost
all examples related to agriculture. An analysis of financial statements issued for agricultural companies would have
revealed the consequences of this neglect: a large array of methods and principles were applied by companies in the
field of forestry or grain production. The objective of this standard is to prescribe the accounting treatment and
information disclosure of agricultural activities”. IAS 41 has to be applied “in the accounting of biological assets and
agricultural products at the time of harvest and government grants. The Internation Accounting Standard IAS 41
becomes the starting point in the evaluation of the fair value of assets in the field of agriculture. The objective of the
present paper is to present the main aspects of IAS 41 in Romania.
Key words: international accounting standards, agricultural accounting, biological assets, fair value, financial statements
A characteristic trait of agriculture is the fact societies internationally marketable, as well as a

that a part of the means of production is obtained larger volume of investments, had an effect of
directly from the production process. increasing the dimension, area of applicability and
This leads to a series of particularities commercial character of agricultural activity.
connected to the acknowledgement and evaluation This has determined an even greater
of the accounting structures characteristic to necessity for financial statements based on
agricultural activities. coherent accounting principles, universally
The specificity of agricultural activities accepted – the International Financial Report
determines a series of particularities at the level of Standards (IFRS).
financial accounting as well, on the one hand, from
the point of view of assets and results, and on the MATERIAL AND METHOD
other hand, from the point of view of specific
documents. Our approach has the objective of analyzing
Most of the business organizations involved the IAS 41 standard.
Our research is focused on synthesizing the
in agricultural activities are relatively small,
notions comprised by the specialty literature
independent, usually associations or family regarding the implementation of the IAS 41 standard.
enterprises, oriented towards cash accounting, In order to reach this objective we have used a
often perceived as not obligated to present general fundamental research methodology.
financial statements.
Moreover, an international tendency towards
liberalization, an increasing number of the
1
2
„Petre Andrei” University, Iaşi
3
„Alexandru Ioan Cuza” University, Iaşi
257
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS are involved in two types of production: the first
has to do with the modification of the assets,
At the beginning of the year 2003, the through maturation or breeding. The second one
international specialists in the design of norms deals with making separable products, which can
reached the conclusions that agriculture cannot be be regarded, initially, as agricultural production.
excluded anymore from the area of applicability of Biological assets are, most commonly,
IFRS; as a result, IAS 41 Agriculture was issued. managed in groups (herds of animals, crop fields
The objective of this standard is to prescribe or clusters of trees).
“the accounting treatment and information In order to be able to talk about a group, its
presentations regarding agricultural activity”. components have to be homogenous in nature, and
IAS 41 establishes a set of criteria for homogeneity has to exist in the activity for which
agricultural activities, referring to the common the group is used, as well.
characteristics amidst the diversity of the activities For example, cherry trees which are used for
in agriculture: fruit production will not be in the same group with
–Animals and plants are capable of those from which the wood is used.
biological transformations; Biological transformation entails the
–Management of transformation. The processes of growth, maturation and reproduction,
manner of management facilitates the biological which cause quantitative and qualitative
transformation, or at least stabilizes the conditions modifications for a certain biological asset.
which are adequate for the respective processes The harvest represents the separation of
(for example, the level of nutritious elements, agricultural products or the termination of vital
humidity, temperature, fertility and light). This processes of a biological asset.
system of management differentiates agricultural Biological assets are actually plants and live
activity from other kinds of activities. For animals.
example, harvesting the products from resources Biological assets are not identical with crops
that have not been managed (from example, or agricultural production that is why the
oceanic fishing or deforestation) does not represent distinction between the former and the latter
an agricultural activity; category is important, taking into account the fact
–The evaluation of the transformation. The that the accounting for each one could be different.
qualitative modification (for example, genetic Acknowledging biological assets as such
quality, density, degree of maturation/ ripeness, happens when:
protein content, degree of fibre resistance) or –the entity controls the asset as a result of
quantitative modification (for example, number of anterior events;
chickens, weight, volume, length or fibre diameter, –there is a probability for economic benefits
number of ducklings), determined by biological associated with the assets to enter the enterprise;
transformation, is evaluated and monitored as a –the fair value or cost of the asset can be
routine management function. realistically evaluated.
The Agriculture Standard is applicable in the The initial acknowledgement is done at
accounting of biological assets, agricultural acquisition cost or production cost, according to
products at the moment of harvest and government case, and for the balance is done as minus
subsidies. cumulated amortization and the cumulated
IAS 41 Agriculture is neither applicable in provisions for depreciation.
the case of direct exploitation activities, nor for the Biological assets acknowledged as current
agricultural product which is harvested and is, assets are comprised by the category of stocks. It is
consequently, a non-biologic product. to be noted that in this category fall young animals
Moreover, the standard does not refer to the and animals of any kind (calves, lambs, piglets,
accounting of agricultural production which is not foals and others) raised and used for reproduction,
included in processing. animals and birds that are fattened in order to be
Agricultural activity represents the capitalized on, colonies of bees, as well as
management of biological transformations in production animals – wool, milk, fur.
plants and animals, therefore the management of In what concerns cereal cultures, they are
biological assets for sale, as agricultural products treated, from the viewpoint of accounting, as
or as additional agricultural products. products on the stocks along their circle of
Biological assets represent the fundamental production, while crops are regarded as finite
assets of agricultural activities, owned for their products.
capacity for transformation. Barry J. Epstein and Stocks are evaluated using the model of
Eva K. Jermakowicz mention that biological assets historical cost. According to this model, assets are
258
initially acknowledged at cost value, and in the Although the experts had in mind more
balance they are presented at the minimum evaluation modalities (net potential earnings,
between cost and the value that can be obtained by current cost or market value, as alternatives to
selling or using them. historical cost), they finally reached the conclusion
After the initial accounting process, and at that fair value is the one that reflects most
the closure of each financial exercise, biological accurately the profits in the field of agriculture.
assets have to be evaluated at their fair value, Supporters of this model bring arguments in
diminished with the estimated sale costs. favour of the idea that the effects of the
IAS 41 introduces in agricultural accounting modifications caused by biological transformation
the evaluation model based on fair value, from are best reflected through a reference to the
which the estimated costs of the sale point are modification of fair value for biological assets.
subtracted. They consider that the modifications of fair
This represents a major shift in comparison value in the case of biological assets bear a direct
with the traditional model for evaluation, based on connection to modifications appeared in the
historical cost, applied on a large scale in the potential for future economic benefits to be
primary sector. generated by the enterprise.
The evaluation based on fair value allows The evaluation of agricultural activity based
finding relevant information, reflecting the effects on fair value can be supported by a series of
of modifications caused by the biological arguments:
transformation of biological assets. –the evaluation of the cost of biological
In determining fair value, the standard sets a assets is sometimes less credible than the
hierarchy of approaches. evaluation of fair value, because the coupled
First of all, fair value corresponds to the products and the coupled costs can create
price practiced on an active market. situations in which the relationship between entries
An active market is a market where the and costs is incorrectly defined, leading to arbitrary
following conditions are being fulfilled: the goods calculations of costs in the case of various results
marketed are homogeneous; information buyers of biological transformation;
and sellers exist at any moment; prices are –many biological assets are marketed with
available to the public. clear prices, and their presence strengthens
The modifications of fair value in biological significantly the credibility of market value as
assets influence directly the perspectives of indicator of fair value;
regeneration of future benefits foreseen by the –the continuous and relatively long
economic entity. production cycles, with episodes of instability in
This type of evaluation influences the production as well as in the market environment,
agricultural activities in which biological assets often lead to a lack of accord between the
that generate future benefits have an economic life- accounting period and a complete production
cycle which exceeds the period of the financial cycle. In the absence of accounting related to fair
exercise. value, the integral earnings from the long-term
Using fair value as model for production process would be reported for periods
acknowledgement and measurement of biological that are too lengthy, which in turn would lead to a
increase leads to evaluating and reporting the significant distortion of performance or of the
income along the entire period of growth of a financial status that corresponds to that period.
plantation, up until the moment of harvest. The transactions connected to the production
Standard 41 Agriculture asks for the of biological transformation possess a diminished
agricultural enterprise to use an approach based on connection to the biological transformation itself,
fair value when it evaluates biological assets used and an even farther one with the expected
in the agricultural activity, an exception being the economic benefits.
cases when fair value cannot be coherently Nonetheless, IAS 41 allows for one
evaluated. exception from the fair value evaluation.
This exception from the model of historical Thus, if at the moment of initial accounting
cost is the most important aspects regarding this of a biological asset there is no market price and
standard and creates an accounting model which the other evaluation methods of fair value are not
corresponds to certain demands for accurate applicable, the mentioned asset can be evaluated at
presentation. acquisition cost, or at production cost diminished
Maybe it is for this reason that this new with whatever ulterior costs are necessary.
characteristic of IAS 41 has generated numerous
debates at the stage of design and exposure.
259
This exception, however, ceases to be entity has to acknowledge the subsidy as profit or
applied if later on an adequate evaluation of fair loss only when the conditions for the subsidy are
value can be done. satisfied.
Subsidies connected to biological assets
evaluated at their fair value have to be included in CONCLUSIONS
accounting at the moment when all the conditions
for receiving subsidies are fulfilled. Standard IAS 41 sets the accounting
Even though the majority of studies are treatment for agricultural activity, presenting
against the provisions of the IAS 41 standard for financial statements and information. The standard
the evaluation of biological assets, there are focuses primarily on the evaluation of biological
supporters of this treatment as well. assets based on fair value.
Authors like Argilés and Slof underline the The implementation of the standard in
fact that the generalization of this model is various countries has led to a radical change of
beneficial for small family farms, which possess accounting practices for large agricultural
limited resources and limited abilities to calculate societies, through the shift from evaluating in
their costs. historical value to the evaluation in fair value.
Other authors, like Barlev and Haddad, state
that fair value in accounting leads to divulging REFERENCES
information in a complete manner and is
compatible with transparency. Argilés J.M., Slof E.J., 2001 - New opportunities for
farm accounting, European Accounting Review,
In other words, fair value involves 10(2).
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consistent and an information source that is more value versus historic cost Valuation for Biological
adequate and can be more easily compared. assets: Implications for the quality of financial
Another element of novelty of IAS 41 information, Working Papers in Economics 215,
Universitat de Barcelona.
Agriculture is represented by the accounting of Barlev B., Haddad J.R., 2003 -Fair value accounting
government subsidies related to agricultural assets. and the management of the firm, Critical
IAS 41 modifies this treatment in the case of Perspectives on Accounting, 14(4).
reporting by an entity of an unconditioned Feleaga L., 2012 - Consideratii teoretice privind
implementarea standardului IAS 41 in Romania,
government subsidy, connected to biological assets Economie teoretica si aplicata, vol XIX.
evaluated at fair value minus estimated sale costs. Feleaga N., 2002 - Fair accounting versus bad
Thus, “an unconditioned government accounting, Ed. Economica. Bucuresti.
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value minus the costs generated by sale has to be Value Accounting, Theoretical and Applied
Economics Review, 5.
acknowledged as profit or loss only and only when Scortescu G. et al, 2004 - Ghid pentru intelegerea si
the government subsidy becomes eligible.” aplicarea Standardelor Internationale de
If a government subsidy offered for a Contabilitate IAS 41 , Ed. CECCAR, Bucuresti
biological asset evaluated at its fair value minus 2004
*** - Standardele Internaţionale de Raportare Financiară
sale costs is conditioned, including here the case
(IFRS), CECCAR, Bucureşti, 2011.
when a government subsidy forbids an entity from
engaging in specific agricultural activities, an
260
THE ROLE OF THE EUROPEAN COURT OF JUSTICE AND THE CIVIL

SERVICE TRIBUNAL IN CREATING THE NECESSARY PREREQUISITES
FOR DEVELOPING AN EUROPEAN CRIMINAL CODE FOR EUROPEAN
CIVIL SERVANTS AND EUROPEAN PUBLICLY APPOINTED OFFICE-
HOLDERS
Carmen-Mariana MIHALACHE1
e-mail: av_carmen_diaconu@yahoo.com
Abstract
The European Court of Justice is, according to Article 13 of TEU, the European institution which serves as a guardian
of European law from the perspective of compliance with the Treaty on European Union and the way of its
interpretation and appliance by enabling procedural safeguards and effective judicial protection in the fields covered by
Union law.
Key words: The European Court of Justice, Lisbon Treaty, Common Law, the pillar structure
The role of the European Court of Justice RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

has been revised with the entry into force of the
Lisbon Treaty on 1 December 2009, which had in Although the concept of pillar disappears
jurisdictional plan the disappearance of the pillar with the coming into force of the Lisbon Treaty, in
structure introduced by the Maastricht Treaty and respect of common foreign and security policy,
the extrapolation of its power to the entire area of called CFSP, the competences of the Court are
freedom, security and Union Justice, restrictions limited, having its jurisdiction only in two
imposed by the EU Article 35 and 68 EC being hypothetical situations: 1) control of delimitation
removed. Therefore, as regards the police and between competences of the Union and CFSP,
judicial cooperation in criminal matters, the whose implementation should not affect the
competence of the European Court of Justice is Union's competences and powers of the institutions
binding and is not subject to a declaration of each in the exercise of exclusive and shared
Member State, by means of which the respective competences of the Union, 2) judgment of the
state acknowledges this competence and indicates actions for annulment against decisions providing
the national courts that could notice it. The for restrictive measures against natural or legal
changes introduced by the Lisbon Treaty co-opt persons adopted by the Council, for example in the
the field of the police and of the criminal justice in fight against terrorism (freezing of funds). In
the Common Law and all national courts may refer relation to the provisions of Art. 19 of TEU, the
to the Court of Justice. This criminal jurisdictional European Court of Justice is composed of the
competence becomes complete after the fifth Court, the General Court and specialized courts.
anniversary of the entry into force of the Lisbon A specialized Court is the Civil Service
Treaty. In this respect we make reference to Art. Tribunal which started operations on October 1,
10 of Protocol no. 36 regarding the transitional 2005, as established by the Council Decision no.
provisions. 752 of 02.11.2004 and had its material jurisdiction
assigned on: a) disputes between the European
MATERIAL AND METHOD Union and its agents according to Art. 270 of
TFEU, which as statistics currently stands at about
Gyven the topic analized, material and method 120 per year compared to the 35,000 people who
consist in the study of the law such as the Lisbon represent the unit of administration in the Union.
Treaty, Maastricht Treaty, Council Decision no. 752 of
The settled disputes concern employment relations
02.11.2004, etc, the judicial practice and the policies
set by the European Union. in terms of payment, career development,
1
261
recruitment, disciplinary measures, as well as terms of the following definition - any industry and
social security system linked to disease, age, any person invested in a function that is involved
disability, work accidents, family allowances. If in getting undue benefits related to the exercise of
we make an analogy with the Romanian judicial this function. From this perspective, the
and jurisdictional system, the Civil Service international concern has been a constant need to
Tribunal is similar to the Contentious- combat corruption from ambient that relate to the
Administrative Court Section, which legally civil servant who, without directly asking
divides work relations through the civil service something, expectes from citizens or people with
marked by public servant status law no. 188 of leadership positions in various companies to
1999, between the civil servant and the contracting submit tacitly a certain tender. Also amid those
authority. The difference lies in the fact that such emerging meetings, as a trigger for the
section shall not judge the disputes between phenomenon of corruption in terms of active
contract staff and public contracting authorities, subject, it was found necessary to become aware of
such disputes being strictly for the competence of criminal accountability of legal persons from
the Court-section Labor Disputes, judges assessing committing acts of corruption on public servants to
the lawfulness according to the provisions of the meet their own interests, as well as, in the absence
Labour Code. b) It was given to resolve disputes of a single European criminal code, to combat
between the competent bodies, offices or agencies corruption committed by foreign officials.
and their staff. (Gyula Fabian, Procedural Law of In order to harmonize legal concepts in
the European Union, Ed.Hamangiu, 2014). criminal policy, from our point of view, we are
The Civil Service Tribunal, in terms of obliged to harmonize the objective and subjective
organizational and functional matters, is part of the content of the possible criminal acts, which by
European Court of Justice, its members having their committing breaches the settled conformity
similar status of judges of the Court. The decisions report and which aims, according to the provisions
of the Civil Service Tribunal may be appealed to of Article 2 of TEU, to protect the human dignity,
the Court within two months of notification as freedom, democracy, equality, the rule of law,
Court decisions can be appealed in the same human rights and those belonging to minorities, all
manner before Court. The grounds of appeal are juxtaposed on the principles of pluralism, non-
therefore limited to strict matters of law, as they discrimination, tolerance, justice, solidarity and
are not suspensive of the effects of the decision equality between women and men.
appealed, and the procedure is short. In terms of criminal liability on the
The purpose of this study is that, by European public servant and the European official,
analyzing current jurisdictional competences of the a transitional jurisdictional procedure which shall
European Court of Justice, to propose expanding precede the European criminal code, would be to
its powers in criminal matters in terms of the need extend criminal jurisdiction of the European Court
for a single European Forum which shall as well of Justice on those cases, the Civil Service
decide on the criminal liability of officials of Tribunal representing the first instance of
different nationalities, that are part of the jurisdiction and the Court of second instance of
administrative structure of the European Union. judicial review.
The jurisdictional competence should aim those The difficulty of achieving a single
national officials working in the administrative European criminal code in a reasonable period of
units of the Member States and which by their time consist of the generated doctrinal fascination
conduct affect the financial security of the Union for the criminal liability along with its two
as well as the holders of public positions in components, objective and subjective, focused on
Europe. This evolution of the Court's jurisdictional the active subject of the judicial report of the
competence derives from the awareness of the criminal law conflict, usually state authority that
need to combat corruption manifested in protects the holder of the protected social value.
international meetings such as the 19th Conference When the protected social value is the EU financial
of European Ministers of Justice, entitled security, the protected holder is de facto, the
administrative, civil and criminal Aspects, and the European public interest, the citizens of the single
role of the judiciary in the fight against corruption European area, their confidence in individuals
held in Malta on 14-15 June 1994, event that holding important positions or European or
crystallized the need to define the phenomenon of national public offices and who endanger by their
corruption, perceived differently from state to conduct, the European feasible policy and
state. The report, that led to the preparation of this accessible through the European money through
conference prepared by the Italian Minister of various coordinated measures to support European
Justice, analyzed the phenomenon of corruption in and national government agencies.
262
Nationally, the main active subject of the criminal judicial instruments created by giving way
judicial report of the criminal law conflict is to the national ones, according to the fact that the
considered to be the state as the main reflection of European Union should grow toward a federal
national sovereignty, contracted from the ability of state. Our support shows de facto the European
a nation to decide its own fate and forever establish ideal promoted by a series of pre-war thinkers such
criminal penalties for all people circulating in its as the abbot Saint-Pierre (under the name of Irénée
territory, without complying with the criminal law Castel, who lived between 1658-1743 and who
conformity report. In this respect, authors such as cherished, given the realities of his time, the belief
N.N. Polianski, quoted by V.Paşca and R.Mancaş that in order to ensure peace present and future,
in the paper on Criminal Law, General necessary including for the trade development, the
part,Publishing House Universitatis Timisensis, sovereigns should sign a perpetual alliance
2002, Timişoara, consider that the active subject of governed by a European senate, with a possibility
criminal liability would be the judicial bodies. We of coordinating a European army financed by
adopt the view of the authors such as D.Pavel or contributions from member states), Jeremy
L.Biro (in the paper named Aspects of the criminal Bentham (lived between 1748-1832, jurist,
justice report, in SUUB, 1966, p.60) who claim philosopher and a English social reformer, who
that the right of prosecuting the offenders through believed that a space and a European legal order
judicial bodies is conducted as representatives of would be possible by signing a treaty, generally
status, based on functional prerogatives that have guaranteed by France and England to Congress,
been invested by the Constitution (if we refer to concluding the treaty with the participation of two
the judiciary and the Public Ministry) or the law of delegates for each European country, the European
organization (criminal investigation authorities and space under the agreement being governed by a
those of the execution of the sentence). Moreover, Common Court of Justice, the only competent to
a tide of opinion was developed in this context, settle disputes between states), J.J.Rousseau (lived
that seem to more match with the factual social between 1712-1778, and supported a European
reality protected by the criminal law, the existence republic as a philosopher and as an outstanding
of an active subject adjacent to the state authority, representative of the Enlightenment), Victor Hugo
found in the natural or legal person, usually the (who claimed at the Peace Congress in Lugano, the
right holder of the protected social value (such as need of a European nationality, possible by
pluralism, non-discrimination, tolerance, justice creating the United States of Europe, which will
and solidarity with European general values), crown the ancient world). All of them were
which explains the legal possibility in some cases philosophers who wanted a United Europe in
to decide the initiation of criminal proceedings and juxtaposition of a peace plan suitable to ensure the
the exercise of the right to participate in criminal security and sovereignty of states regardless of
proceedings as an injured party . their size).
The creation of a single European area The doctrinaire study often draws legal
governed by the free movement of people, goods hypothesis that can serve as material working tools
and marchandise, have meant the creation of an depending on the direction of policy development
institutional mechanism grafted on institutive toward which the European Union strives for: a
treaties (Merger Treaty in Brussels Single federal voice (a first example of a federal trend
European Act, the Maastricht Treaty, the Treaty of was the Paneuropean movement in the interwar
Adsterdam, the Treaty of Nice, Lisbon Treaty), years, supported by Aristide Briand, a French
which gave rise to a new legal order, created by foreign minister and Gustav Stressman, his
disposing of some attributes of national German counterpart, seen also in the light of
sovereignty, integrated in the legal system of the economic objectives such as the creation of new
Member states. This feature of the Union area, markets for the industry of European countries,
seen as a legal order, was established by the streamlining the continent's economy and its
decision of the European Court of Justice, C6-64, integration into the international circuit, issues that
called the Costa case, which established the have been studied extensively in works such as
principle of the precedence of Community law History of International Relations, Bucharest,
before national who has implicitly assigned a Romania of Tomorrow Foundation Publishing
higher legal force (D.Vătăman, Institutional law of House, 2002, p.108 and federal European projects
the European Union, Universul Publishing House, from interwar period, George Sbârnă, Sylvi
Bucharest, 2011) Publishing House, Bucharest, 2002, p.18) or an
In the first stage of our study we want to intergovernmental mechanism for cooperation with
highlight the fact that a European area, guarantor national voices. The national sovereignty in the
of a legal order is possible only by European field of criminal legal means so closely linked to
263
the principle of territoriality remains a sensitive national identity, a refusal to achieve a European
topic. The political context reminds us somehow of superstate and militant of a much clear cutting of
failure of the Paneuropean movement, juxtaposed competences and of participation in national
on the skeleton of the League of Nations parliament in joint activity with specificity shaping
organization (the establishment of this of the community institutions,
international organizatio, in the context of which e) the euroscepticism, manifested as policy
the memorandum, called the Pact, was voted ideology exhibiting skepticism towards the EU and
together with the Treaty of Versailles, being European integration (in the context of the
integrated therein and which coincided with the economic crisis, each state ultimately defended its
time of the formal entry into force of the Treaty of national interest, the most developed European
peace, i.e. January 10, 1920), created as an states limiting the right to work for nations from
international organization in order to meet Eastern Europe, forgetting about impact of the
international obligations of peace and security. competition in the manufacturing sector from East,
characterized by the failure of many eastern
CONCLUSIONS economic activities and associated with the
abolition of a large number of jobs), a trend
The Community establishment was associated with the desire to preserve the
generated by the desire of achieving a safe space, sovereignty and identity of European nations, the
based on the desire of equality regardless of the drift manifested by non-accession to the euro area
size of the state, the protection of minorities, the of countries such as the United Kingdom,
advancement of economic and social welfare by Denmark, Sweden.
creating a legal framework for equal rights and We synthesized the schools of thought
freedoms for all, a promoter of European regarding possible Community developments for
unification in order to avoid a new international considering the possible implementation of a
conflagration. From the theoretical foundations European criminal code, even in a small matter as
perspective which divide the way of functioning such of our review, yet sensitive, in the context of
and, why not, of the development of space which the civil servant or the holder of a public
juxtaposed to the European Union, which consists office is the exponent of national state power
of 28 Member States, there are several schools of appointed or elected by Populis vox.
thought (I.Gh. Bărbulescu, European Union - from However, in the context in which the
national to federal, Tritonic Publishing House, protected social value is fundamental for the good
Bucharest, 2005, p.20, Mădălina Viziteu, School of economy of the European Union, the transfer of
thoughts on community building, pp.307-308, from powers to the European Court of Justice in
the collection of Romanian law in the context of criminal law matters in order to protect the
EU requirements, Hamangiu Publishing House, community financial security would be a form of
2009): compromise, characterized by overcoming crisis
a). Monnet's sectoral functionalism, inspired situations, such as that of 1966, when France
by French legal institutionalism, which led to the refused to take its place in the Council, likely to be
ECSC and EUROATOM establishment, based on overcome by the compromise of Luxembourg,
the sectoral approach, focused specifically on coal when it was decided that, where there are very
and steel, the emerging industries of the moment, important intersts at stake on a part of a Member
b) the intergovernmentalism, characterized State, the Council will extend the discussion till the
by intergovernmental cooperation, promoted by reach of a compromise that can be adopted
Charles de Gaulle, unanimously.
c) the neofonctionalism consisting of
spillover process and consisting of concept of ACKNOWLEGMENTS
extending the community powers from one domain
The paper represents a post-doctoral researche in the
to another, project,The modernization of national legislation
d) intergovernmental federalism, a in the context of standardization of European law
continuation of the sectoral functionalism and its social and political implications on the
supported by Joschka Fischer, German foreign administrativesystem,Contract.no.POSDRU/159/
minister who suggested, in a speech in 2000 at the 1.5/S/141699
Humboldt University of Berlin, to transform the
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part, Publishing House Universitatis Timisensis, 9379-ad23cc2cc911/publishable_fr.pdf,
2002, Timişoara. *** - The Treaty of Adsterdam, http://europa.eu/eu-
Sbârnă G., 2002 - Federal European projects from law/decision-making/treaties/pdf/treaty_of_
interwar period, Sylvi Publishing House, amsterdam/treaty_of_amsterdam_fr.pdf
Bucharest. *** - Treaty of Nice,https://www.ecb.europa.eu/ecb/legal/
Vătăman D., 2011 - Institutional law of the European pdf/fr_nice.pdf
Union, Universul Publishing House, Bucharest *** - Lisbon Treaty- http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/
*** - Merger Treaty in Brussels Single European Act, pdf/traite.pdf,
http://www.cvce.eu/content/publication/1999/1/1/9
72ccc77-f4b8-4b24-85b8-
265
266
THE TRANSDISCIPLINARY DIMENSION AND THE KNOWLEDGE

OF A FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN THE PROCESS OF LEARNING GERMAN
Elena VELESCU1
e-mail: elena.velescu@uaiasi.ro
Abstract
The students who learn German as a second or third foreign language, in general, have at least 4 years of profiency in
English or French. Is it enough to directly introduce students into the work on texts in German? What are the
particularities of German texts in order to facilitate the access of learning and understanding of the German language?
Is it possible to involve specialized topics in the German course? The strategies of understanding a specialized text in
German are acquired during a learning process, which is aimed to carefully observe the relation between the text and
the image, the title, the subtitle of the paragraphsor the highlighted words in the text; the adjusting between the topic of
the subject and the interest of the students. The structure of a text’s content can be done in the native language, but the
German keywords will be revealed in order to be retained. The advantage of this approach of language learning is that
students become more aware of the musicality and the tonality of the German language by association and analogy with
other Germanic languages, such as English. They will develop their ability to analyse and synthese through
comprehension exercises on a text, starting from familiar elements to complex questions, by learning to extract the
global meaning of the text from the context and by appealing to transversal knowledge. This perspective allows students
to develop their vocabulary, facilitates the access to specialized knowledge in the students’ field of interest and ensures
a higher motivation in the process of a foreign language learning.
Key words: plurilinguism, pedagogy, language, German, English, French
Multilingualism represents the capacity of doesn’t understand. But, a few months after his
understanding and speaking more languages. From father’s death, Canetti moved with his mother and
this point of view, handling more than one two brothers first to Zurich and then to Vienna. On
language brings major benefits, because it gives the way to Vienna, his mother decided that time
you not only a certain confidence in had come to initiate him into the German language.
communication, but it also introduces the speaker Her method was nothing but very simple. She
into the system of concepts and the cultural recited German sentences to him and made him
background of a language. Besides several studies repeat them until she was satisfied with his
on the health’s benefits of learning a new pronunciation; then she translated them for him
language, there is also a European cultural and once only, and expected him to remember them.
political policy requirement that encourages the Patience was never her special virtue, however,
early learning of foreign languages. The report of and when he failed to remember his lesson
the European Union, entitled: “The Europeans and correctly, she grew exasperated and rewarded him
their languages” (Europäische Kommission, 2012), by shouting such encouraging remarks as: “My
shows that German is the most widely spoken, son’s an idiot! I didn’t realize that my son’s an
with 16% of Europeans saying it is their first idiot!” or “Your father knew German too, what
language, followed by Italian and English (13% would your father say!” It is hard to believe, that
each), French (12%), then Spanish and Polish (8% this violent method conducts to success. However,
each). The acquisition of a second or third Elias will achieve the absolute mastery in the
language isn’t sometimes very easy. Elias Canetti, German learning language. In his Memoirs, Elias
in his autobiographical novel “The Tongue Set Canetti wrote:
Free”, depicts this phenomenon. The young “What a man touched upon, he should take
Canetti, who already speaks both Spanish and with him. If he forgot it, he should be reminded.
English well, is excluded from his parents’ What makes a man worth is that he incorporates
communication, because they are talking in that everything he has experienced. This includes the
“secret language” called German, a language he countries where he has lived, the people whose
1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medecine, Iasi
267
voices he has heard. It also takes in his origins, if for the foreign languages learners. Many German
he can find out something about them... not only language phenomena, words, grammar structures,
texts, etc. could be explained by analogy with English
one’s private experience but everything concerning
(Neuner, G., Hufeisen, B., Kursisa, A., Marx, N.,
the time and place of one’s beginnings. The words Koithan, U., Erlenwein, S., 2009).
of a language one may have spoken and heard only The emphasis on the content (the age-
as a child imply the literature in which it flowered. appropriate contents, the inclusion of learner’s life
The story of a banishment must include everything with the world of the language that someone started
that happened before it, as well as the rights to learn) is of major importance.
subsequently claimed by the victims. Others had Another method used in teaching a foreign
language based on the speaker’s plurilingualism is
fallen before, and in different ways; those too are text-oriented, which means the inclusion of new types
part of the story. It is hard to evaluate the justice of of texts from new media means of communication
such a claim to history... We should know not only like: e-mail, sms, chat, etc.
what happened to our fellow men in the past but Finally, the instrumentalisation of the learning
also what they were capable of. We should know process will activate in learners the learning
what we, ourselves, are capable of. For that, much strategies that they have already achieved and will
develop the “visual dictionary” that will provide a
knowledge is needed; from whatever direction, at
creative way to handle with the language (for
whatever distance, knowledge offers itself; one example, from the comparison of hypothesis to
should reach out for it, keep it fresh, water it and dealing with a word’s significance, language rules, the
fertilize it with new knowledge.” (Canetti, Elias, code of practice, self-evaluation, etc. (Byram, M.,
1999). The economic realities nowadays changed 2003).
the Europeans’ perception regarding the benefits
of learning a new language. The same report of EU RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Commission reveals that most Europeans think that
a key advantage of learning a new language is On a lexical level, the multitude of learning
people’s chance to work abroad. More than half of materials for beginners, provide us many
the Europeans (53%) use a foreign language at examples. The fact that there are a lot of lexical
work (including travelling abroad on business), similarities between English and German leads to
while a slightly smaller proportion use it during activating vocabulary, in order to use the English
holidays abroad (47%). A little over two fifths of knowledge and to explore it into a new language.
respondents think that learning a new language A very common example is the word’s field
would help them to get a better job in their own “Körperteile“. The analogy to the English words
country (45%) or study in another country (43%). will help learners to memorize them in German
Just under two fifths (38%) believe learning a new (figure 1).
language would help them with understanding
people from other cultures. A little under a third of
respondents believe that personal satisfaction
(29%) and meeting people from other countries
(29%) are some of the benefits of learning a
language. A much smaller proportion cite using the
internet (14%), feeling more European (10%) and
maintaining knowledge of a language spoken
within the family (10%) as key advantages of
learning a new language.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
When we learn a new language (second, third,

etc.), we have access to the language knowledge of
the first language and, on the other hand, the
experience that we have already achieved from
learning another language.
First of all, we will deal with the language’s
level and we will broach the issue of the reflection
over the languages, especially on the comparison
made between languages and the possibilities of
tying the existing language knowledge. We will focus
on the level of learning and we will set examples for a
learning strategical reflection. We will set up the Figure 1 (Neuner, G., Hunfeld, H., 1993, 2007).
understanding as a basic principle and starting point
268
A good level of vocabulary acquisition in Another semantic category is the idiomatic

English will facilitate students an easier learning of expression, that could generate errors and
German words. The same association can be done difficulties for learners while translating: to make a
for the francophonic speakers with the German decision in English is eine Entscheidung treffen
verbs ending on “-ieren”: abonnieren, explodieren, (*to meet a decision). The use of metaphorical
fotografieren, ignorieren, illustrieren, sich expression can bring the learner to a
konzentrieren, publizieren, legalisieren, operieren, comprehension of the cultural background and the
profitieren, provozieren, reparieren, transportieren, structure of a language (eng. Not my cup of tea vs.
gratulieren, amortisieren, kritisieren, akzeptieren, germ. nicht mein Ding/Fall; to be unable to hold a
profitieren. Others examples are the following candle to somebody vs. germ. jemandem nicht das
nouns: das Phänomen, die Provokation, die Wasser reichen können, etc.) (Karlson, Léon,
Toilette, der Tourismus, die Tradition, die Karlson, Linda, 2000).
Transfusion. These different strategies of learning
In addition, in the field of vocabulary, the illustrate the cognitive strategies such as
learners must pay attention to the cognate or “false construction of word groups with strong
friends. These are similar spoken or written words, connection (synonym, antonym, family words,
but with different meanings, such as gift (das semantic fields, word association, etc.), the use of
Geschenk) and Gift (poison). For the French learning cards, the visualisation of word’s
language, we can notice the following examples: significance and grammar rules, the scenic
der Akademiker (diplômé de l’université), die representation of words, the mixture of words or
Alimente (pl.) (pension alimentaire), die Art (sorte, entire phrases. These metacognitive strategies are
espece), das Baiser (meringue), brav (gentil), die useful in planning and organising of learning.
Demonstration (manifestation), die Diäten (pl.)
(émoluments, députés), die Differenz (le CONCLUSIONS
differend), der Dirigent (le chef d’orchestre), die
Dose (boîte), der Etat (budget), die Figur By reflecting on the existence of different
(silhouette), hantieren (manipuler), der Intendant languages and cultures, learners should develop
(PDG, audiovisuel, théâtre), das Klavier (piano), their ability to respectfully interact with speakers
der Kompass (boussole), der Konkurs (faillite), das of other languages or cultures. In addition, learners
Konzept (projet détaillé), das Kostüm (tailleur should expand the empathy in order to recognize
dames), kulant (arrangeant), das Kuvert and to relativise their own cultural imprint.
(enveloppe), die Linie (ligne de bus, métro), das Thereby the mutual comprehension and the
Lokal (restaurant), luxuriös (luxueux), die Messe cooperation with the others will be improved.
(salon, exposition), moderieren (animer), nett Using these learning strategies, learners will be
(sympa), die Notiz (note), ordinär (vulgaire), der more responsible about their language experience.
Paragraph (article de loi), das Parterre (rez-de- Multilinguism is not an intangible and
chaussée), penibel (minutieux), das Plumeau abstract keyword, but it should be an attitude,
(couette), der Praktikant (stagiaire), primitiv based on principles, for those learners who are the
(rudimentaire), die Promotion (doctorat), das messengers of plurilingualism and not just the
Quartal (trimestre), raffiniert (subtil), recherchiert representative or the agent of their own language.
(documenté), das Regal (étagère), der Tank Considering this purpose, the complex
(réservoir), das Toupet (moumoute), der Tresor competences of learning a new language and the
(coffre-fort), das Trikot (maillot sportif), die Visite acquisition of a second or third language must be
(tournée médicale). Another category of nouns that taught and acquired from the early period of
English speakers would find difficult to be learnt in school, in order to integrate it easier.
German are the partial “false friends”, which refer
to the words that take partially significance into the REFERENCES
other language. For example, the connotation of
Baur R., Hufeisen B., 2011 - « Vieles ist sehr ähnlich ».
the English word record (Höchstleistung, Individuelle und gesellschaftliche
Schallplatte, Aufzeichnung) is bigger than the Mehrsprachigkeit als bildungspolitische Aufgabe,
German noun Rekord, that is possible only in the Baltmannsweiler, Schneider Verlag
sense of top efficiency and maximum benefit. On Hohengehren.
the contrary, the English word bank refers to both Byram M., 2003 - Intercultural Competence, Strasbourg
(Council of Europe Publishing).
the institution where money are saved and to the Canetti E., 1999 - The Memoirs of Elias Canetti: The
sides of a river, while the German noun Bank Tongue Set Free/The Torch in My Ear/The Play
represents the institution of money and also the of the Eyes, Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
seat.
269
Chighini P., Kirsch D., 2009 - Deutsch im Martinez Helene, Reinfried M., 2006 -
Primarbereich, München (Fernstudieneinheit 25; Mehrsprachigkeitsdidaktik gestern, heute und
Universität Kassel/Goethe-Institut). morgen. Festschrift für Franz-Joseph Meißner
Europäische K., 2012 - Die europäischen Bürger und zum 60. Geburtstag, Tübingen, Narr.
ihre Sprachen. Spezial Eurobarometer 386, Neuner G., Hufeisen B., Kursisa A., Marx N., Koithan
http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/ U., Erlenwein S., 2009 - Deutsch als zweite
archives/ebs/ebs_386_de.pdf. Fremdsprache, München (Fernstudieneinheit 26;
Hufeisen B., Neuner G., 2003 - Mehrsprachigkeits Universität Kassel/Goethe-Institut München).
konzept - Tertiärsprachen - Deutsch nach Neuner G., Hunfeld H., 1993, 2007 - Methoden des
Englisch, Strasbourg (Council of Europe fremdsprachlichen Deutschunterrichts, eine
Publishing). Einführung, München (Fernstudieneinheit 4;
Karlson L., Karlson Linda, 2000 - Le SAMU du Universität Kassel/Goethe-Institut München).
germaniste, Paris, Ellipses Market.
270
AN INTERCULTURAL PHENOMENON: PET DOGS IN GERMANY

AND THE BENEFITS OF THIS HOBBY
Elena VELESCU1
e-mail: elena.velescu@uaiasi.ro
Abstract
Over 10 million Germans have a dog as a pet. Sometimes it represents the best friend and it often may be an alternative
for children or a partner. In the last few years, there has been a tendency to consider animals close to man, a good
reason for specialised companies to take advantage of this hobby and significantly increase their sales in this field. The
historian Wolfgang Wippermann, in his book Die Deutschen und ihre Hunde (The Germans and their dogs) noticed the
incarnation of the dogs into human beings having the needs and the characteristics close to their owners. There are
persons who turn their dog into an object of veneration. For over a decade there have been magazines and special shops
for dog owners as well as websites, like facebook for dogs where more than 15 000 quadrupeds are signed in
(www.stadthunde.com). Cosmetics for dogs, such as toothpaste which tastes like chicken or shampoo for the fur, cost
the German pet owners an average, about 3, 7 billion, according to the statistics made by the Central Organization of the
Zoo Stores (Zoologischer Zentralverband Fachbetriebe). The food for big dogs costs 90 Euros per month in Germany,
plus a canine psychologist and massage sessions. In Germany, there are over 5 million dogs, half of a quarter million
are from the German Shepherd breed, famous for its loyalty, intelligence and cooperativeness. This dog had an active
role in the German history; the Nazis rose it to an icon status within their ideology as a means of propaganda and terror
in the concentration camps. After the Second World War, the dogs belonging to this breed had different characteristics
in the two halves of Germany. After the unification, a compromise had been reached to so that the current breed
possesses the best characteristics of the two types. Today, the German Shepherd is recognized both in the role of
Austrian Commissioner Rex, and worldwide there are registered around 10 million copies, according to the World
Union of Associations of German shepherd dogs.
Key words: pedagogy, language, authentic documents, agronomic profile
The relationship between human beings and style magazine has been active on the market for
dogs encountered many changes over the last over 10 years. Since 2007 there is also a portal,
period of time. Both of them became very close to stadthunde.com, a kind of Facebook for dogs,
each other. The dog is often seen as a family where almost 15.000 dogs are registered.
member. Sometimes, it is the replacement for a Over five and a half million of dogs are
partner or a child. The sociologists talk about the living in Germany. A quarter of them are German
humanisation of, perhaps, one of the oldest pet dog shepherd dogs. They are considered one of the
of the world. Some of them consider this most popular dogs and one of the most loyal,
metamorphosis very disturbing. The historian cooperative and diligent. They are also a reflection
Wolfgang Wippermann, in his book, “The of the German history. The Nazis made them a
Germans and Their Dogs” says that the dog is no symbol for their ideology. They were part of their
longer a dog since we are working assiduously at propaganda and an instrument of terror, in the
its human incarnation (Wippermann, Wolfgang, concentration camps.
1999). The experts consider that the social It is important to notice that nineteenth-
development is one of the reasons which led to century German sheepdogs were descendants of
such a statement as the number of single dog the original domesticated wild dogs. There was no
owners is increasing in Germany. standardization across regional lines; sheepdogs in
A lot of dog owners transfer their life and Bavaria, for example, could vary widely in: range,
consumption habits on their pets. The dogs become fur-colour, size, or shape from the sheepdogs with
a symbol of status and a life-style object(for equivalent purposes in Hamburg. Dogs living in
example, there are dogs living in a designed warmer regions, for example, would evolve
doghouse). Because of this trend, The Dogs life-
1
University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medecine, Iasi
271
without the thick, warm fur coats that came to lower heart rates during rest than the people who
characterize sheepdogs working in colder regions. did not own a pet. The results were true whether
By the nineteenth century, however, the they were at rest or undergoing stress tests.
social landscape had changed in a way that would Another study showed that children with
profoundly had an impact over the origin of the hypertension lowered their blood pressure while
German Shepherd breed. Increasingly, rural, petting their dog.
agriculture-based economies were giving way to To manage cholesterol, doctors still
urbanization and the rise of the prosperous, recommend you to follow guidelines regarding
business-oriented middle classes – a process that diet, exercise, and medication. But owning a pet
was especially dominant in Germany. has the power to decrease the dangers of
cholesterol. Researchers have noted lower levels of
MATERIAL AND METHOD cholesterol and triglycerides in people who own
pets compared to people who don't. However, this
In the last couple of years, there has been a could be attributed to the lifestyle factors of pet
tendency to consider animals close to man. This owners.
hobby was perfect for specialized companies which
Research has shown that the long-term
have significantly increased their sales in this field.
The expenses are generally $110 a month, as it benefits of owning a cat include your heart
follows: protection. Over the 20 years of one study, people
- Food: $912/year ($76/month) who had never owned a cat were 40% more likely
- Medication (heart-worm and flea to die of a heart attack than those who had.
preventative): $176/year ($15/month) Another study showed that dog owners had a
- Toys and treats: $100/year ($8/month) significantly better survival rate one year after a
- Vet bills: $120/year ($10/month)
According to the American Society for the
heart attack. Overall, pet owners have a lower risk
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, the average annual of dying from any cardiac disease, including heart
cost for a large dog is around $900. failure.
The economy understood it very well, that Therapists are prescribing pets as a way of
there are customers who are willing to pay for dog dealing with and recovering from depression. No
shampoo and toothpaste products. 3,7 billions Euros one loves more unconditionally a man than a pet.
paid the German people for such products last year
(according to the Zentralverband Zoologischer
And pets will listen to your talk for as long as the
Fachbetriebe). Despite of food costs there are also: a person has something to say. Petting a cat or dog
dog license fee, the insurance or the medical has a calming effect. Taking care of a pet - walking
treatments or visits to the vet. For the dog owners with it, grooming it, playing with it - takes us out
who have a lot of money to invest in the health care of ourselves and helps us feel better about the way
of their companions, there are also: animal we spend our time.
psychological counseling and dogs massage.
People who own dogs tend to be more
Besides the tooth and grooming cosmetics, the
food habits can be also very expensive( bio or vitamin physically active and less overweight than people
products and mash for the new born dogs). There are who don't. Taking your dog for a daily 30-minute
owners who feed their dogs with vegetarian meals, walk will keep us moving and such an activity is
with spelt, zucchini or rice with soya and carrots. perfect for our health. Two 15-minute walks, one
More than all others companies, the feeding bowl is in the morning and one in the evening, will do the
earning with its sale products for animals. same thing. And after that, just playing fetch in the
back yard with the dog will earn healthful
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS dividends.
If we exercise with our pet, both will have
Another benefit for the pet owner is the fact great benefits: shine a flashlight on the wall or
that dogs can improve your health. It only takes a wave a string while we do a step aerobics routine.
few minutes spent with a dog or a cat or watching Nationwide, there are yoga classes for people and
fish swim to feel less anxious and less stressed. their dogs, called doga. One of the keys to a
The body goes through physical changes during healthy mind is staying connected to one another.
that period of time, changing your mood. The level Pet owners have the tendency to want to talk with
of cortisol, a hormone associated with stress, is other pet owners. A dog is a conversation waiting
lowered and the production of serotonin, a to happen. People, especially dog owners, stop and
chemical associated with well-being, is increased. talk to us when they see us walking our pet.
We must take care of our weight and do exercises, Visiting a dog park is a way to socialize with other
but having a pet can help us manage the blood owners while our dog socializes with their dogs.
pressure. In a study applied to 240 married Researchers have found out that children
couples, pet owners had lower blood pressure and raised in a home where there is a dog or a cat are
272
less likely to develop allergies. The same is true for demonstration). And some work has been done
kids who live on a farm with large animals. In training dogs to warn before a seizure occurs. This
addition, higher levels of certain immune system gives the person time to lie down or move away
chemicals show a stronger immune system which from a dangerous place such as a hot stove.
will help keep them healthy as they get older. Specially trained dogs can perform tasks that
For people with diabetes, a sudden drop in let people with Parkinson disease maintain their
the level of blood glucose can be very serious. independence. They can pick up dropped items or
Some dogs can alert their owner about a dangerous fetch requested ones. They can provide balance
drop before it actually happens. They may be support, open and close doors, and turn lights on
responding to chemical changes in the owner’s with their paws. They can also sense when
body that give off a scent. The alarm gives the someone with Parkinson is "freezing" and touch
owner time to eat a snack to avoid the emergency. the foot to let the person keep walking. Groups like
About one in three dogs living with people with “Pet Partners” can help you find a good service
diabetes have this ability. “Dogs for Diabetics” is dog.
training more dogs to help more people. Visits from therapy dogs help patients
Some mental health therapists use a dog in recovering from devastating illness or an event
therapy. A dog in the office may help someone feel such as a stroke. Some dogs are trained to
more comfortable. But that's not all. A remark to or understand a range of commands which let them
about a dog may show what's really on someone's help people with aphasia (a language disorder
mind. One therapist tells about a couple who came common in older adults, particularly those who
to his office and started arguing. The dog, which have had a stroke) feel good when they see the dog
usually just slept during the session, got up and understands them. And, petting or scratching a dog
wanted out. He used that to help the couple see can help a patient rebuild strength while recovering
how their fighting affected others, especially their from a stroke or other illness. It also creates a
children. feeling of calm.
Kids with ADHD can benefit from working
with and keeping a pet. Taking charge of the jobs
on a pet care schedule helps a child learn to plan
and be responsible. Pets need to play, and playing
with a pet is a great way to release excess energy.
That means falling asleep faster at night. Because
the bond between a pet and a child is unconditional
love, pets help children with ADHD learn about
self-esteem.
Sensory issues are common among children
with autism. Sensory integration activities are
designed to help them get used to the way
something feels against their skin or how they react
to certain smells or sounds. Both dogs and horses
sometimes have been used in these activities. Figure 1 German Shepherd
Children usually find it calming to work with (http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1
animals. And animals easily hold the attention of 0/German_Shepherd_Dog_with_disc.jpg)
children with autism.
Strong bones are your best defense against People with AIDS are less likely to be
osteoporosis and painful fractures. Walking your depressed if they own a pet, especially if they're
dog helps. It's a weight-bearing exercise that strongly attached. And with an animal in the home,
strengthens your bones and the muscles around people with Alzheimer have fewer anxious
them. It also lets you spend time in the sun, which outbursts. The animal also helps the caregivers feel
provides vitamin D. If you have osteoporosis, be less burdened. Cats seem to be particularly helpful
sure you guard against falls. Use a short leash that since they require less care than dogs.
won't get tangled. Some studies are being done on bringing
A "seizure dog" is one that has been specially trained animals into clinical settings,
specially trained to live and work with people who which is happening in more and more hospitals and
have epilepsy. Some are trained to bark and alert nursing homes. One of the biggest advantages of
the parents when a child is having a seizure outside letting patients interact with animals in such places
or in another room. Some lie next to a person appears to be the improved mood and the dropping
having a seizure to prevent injury (as seen in this level of anxiety.
273
Brost H., 2009 - 111 Gründe, Hunde zu lieben. Eine

The dog ownership tend to see dogs as pets Liebeserklärung an des Menschen treuesten
and hobbies rather than as necessary helpers on the Freund, Schwarzkopf & Schwarzkopf, Berlin.
farm or in the field. Ironically, this migration of Lacher Andrea, 2011 - Im Land der Hundefreunde, in
dogs from helpers to family pets eventually paved Deutsch Perfekt, 11/2011, Planegg, Spotlight
the way for the German Shepherd to become one Verlag, p. 50-54.
Wippermann W., 1999 - Die Deutschen und ihre Hunde
of the most well-known and accepted breeds : ein Sonderweg der deutschen
around the world today. Mentalitatsgeschichte?, Berlin, Siedler.
The benefits of bringing a dog to work are *** - http://pets.webmd.com/ss/slideshow-pets-improve-
so increasingly obvious that more companies are your-health
*** - http://www.getrichslowly.org/blog/2012/04/17/the-
catching on. Studies show that people who interact costs-and-benefits-of-the-family-dog/
with a pet while working have lower stress levels *** - http://www.thegermanshepherd.org/breed-history-
throughout the day, while people who do not bring of-the-german-shepherd/nineteenth-century-
up a pet see their stress levels increase over time. developments.html
Dogs in the office also lead to people taking more *** - http://www.stadthunde.com/
*** - http://www.dogs-magazin.de/
breaks, to play with or walk the dog, which makes
them more energized when they return to work.
This, in turn, has led to much greater job
satisfaction and productivity.
274
INSTRUMENTS FOR THE QUANTIFICATION OF ECONOMIC

PERFORMANCES OF THE ENTERPRISE
Carmen Luiza COSTULEANU1, Diana DUMITRESCU2, Gabriela IGNAT1, Nicolae BOBIŢAN2
e-mail: ccostuleanu@yahoo.com
Abstract
Financial analysis is characterized by interpretative approach based on the data provided by the accounting process. It
tries to make assessments of the situation and enterprise performance with particular emphasis on their relevance. A
proper financial analysis involves not only a flawless calculation of indicators or a flawless presentation of tables and
diagrams. Using financial analysis as a management tool for monitoring the enterprise, as well as a system for moving
the mechanisms contributing to increased performance and economic efficiency in order to ensure competitive
advantage will confer a privileged position in all disciplines involving dynamic management processes. The company’s
profitability is the most important qualitative index of the economic activity that expresses the capacity of making
profit. The rates that describe profitability are: the Sales Profit Rate (SPR), the Excess of Gross Profit (EGP), the Rate
of Economic Profit (REP), the Self-financing Capacity (SFC), Financial Profitability (FP) and Global Profitability (GP).
We took into account the case of S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi. We followed the evolution of the main economic-
financial indicators between 2011 and 2013. Despite some good indicators (SRP, EGP, REP, SFC and FP), in the case
of S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi one can really notice a low overall profitability, which means that the company’s
capacity to create value is low.
Key words: economic performances, indicators, profitability, agricultural company
The research activity of the economy realized by the decision act, which implies three
domain was vital for the progress of humanity. To systems: the operational system or the acting
be aware of each goal of any economical science system, within which the respective economic
paper and to lead is the purpose of any economy phenomena; the management system, which
politics. represents the ensemble of decision and their
For the economy science to be a positive action in the functioning of the informational
one, the economical reality has to be well known. system; and the informational system, which
Experience and intuition are insufficient today to makes the link between the operational and
efficiently and operationally solve the problems management system (Pântea P.I., 2009).
generated by the more and more complex and ever- The subunits of an agricultural company
changing economic reality (Horomnea E., 2004). (farms and sectors) keep their balance sheet
Today, the focus is more and more on the separately up to the level of check balance; to get
scientific management of the economic activity, the check balance on all the agricultural activity,
which actually means scientifically elaborated the data are centralized monthly. The records
decisions. (clients, suppliers, debtors, creditors, etc) is kept
A definition of management, in its more on the level of the company. Both orders and
restrained sense, would be the coordination of goods reception are achieved through the supply-
functions and of the persons who carry out these shipping-sale department within the company,
functions, in view of achieving a certain wherefrom they are distributed to farms and
beforehand-established goal (Bojian O., 2006). sectors.
Under the current conditions, the actions of The personnel: each unit is managed by a
each economic unit, natural person, autonomous farm or sector manager, assisted by an economic
department, national company or trade firm manager. In terms of operating staff, the vegetable
represent the consequence of the targeted goal, farms have full-time employees, the tractor
conjugated with environment stimuli. The mechanics, whose number has to fit into an
materialization of the management process is established one, according to the agricultural
1
Department of Agroeconomics, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Iaşi, Romania
2
Department of Accounting, West University of Timişoara, Romania
275
surface currently operated and the structure of the the labour market. We followed the evolution of the
crops. main economic-financial indicators: the turnover;
overall liquidity; general solvency; the working
Live-stock farms employ zootechnical
capital; the needed working capital; pecuniary
workers who are trained in taking care of the resource balance; and especially the profitability.
animals that exist on a farm, while their number
varies according to the number of live-stock, RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
species, and the mechanization degree.
The service sectors (mechanic, service) are The size and nature of a company’s
coordinated by a department head (a mechanical functions depend on a series of general and
engineer as a rule), helped by an economic specific factors, which may be internal or external
manager and a foreman who is specialized in cars to the company, the most important being: the
and tractors, for the mechanical sector, and another socio-economic framework, the specificity of the
foreman specialized in zootechnical service, within market and the type of company. The relations of
the SERVICE department. The operating personnel the company in the market are therefore highly
are made up of mechanics for the maintenance of diverse, and may be grouped according to several
cars and tractors or of the installations in the criteria (Pahone, C., 2005; Costuleanu, C., 2009):
zootechnical sector. The number of staff is sized in • The object of the relations: purchasing-
conformity with the number of tractors or of the selling relations and information sharing and
plants in the zootechnical area. The number of staff receiving.
is also sized according to the number of tractors The Purchasing-selling relations may take
and agricultural machinery that the company owns. various forms: goods delivery, goods and services
As an integral part of the environment, the purchase, consumer services, renting, loan and
company is constantly connected to several other mediation activities. The purchasing-selling
constituents. The company belongs to a whole relations can be successively expressed as: the pre-
range of networks it uses to develop and finalize its contractual relations (mainly achieved by means of
economic activity. These relationships between the negotiation, order, offer request and firm offer);
unit and the constituents of its external contractual relations (their main tool is the contract
environment are, through their nature and content, complemented by a series of activities such as:
of two kinds: market and competition forces. invoicing, delivery, shipping, reception and
Out of the high range of relations that exist deduction); post-contractual relations (appear
between the company and its external environ- during the guarantee and post-guarantee period).
ment, market forces stand out due to their The aim of the information-sharing relations
complexity and size. They refer to the selling and is the sustaining and the materialization of the
purchasing of goods and services, to the capital selling-purchasing relations, which are achieved
loan and to recruitment. Market research through advertising, public relations and other
constitutes the premise and the starting point in any promotion means.
company’s activity (Brânzan A., et al, 1999). • According to the profile of the market
The market force represents for the modern agents, the relations can be: with suppliers and
company the benchmark against which the present service providers, with beneficiaries, with the
and the future situations are confronted, the source public institutions and structures;
of ideas for new products or for the modernization • According to their frequency, the relations
of the existing ones. are constant, temporary or occasional;
The interactions between the company and • According to their focus, the relations can
the market are also revealed by the supply- be focused dimensionally, spatially or temporally,
production-selling flow. As well as, this interaction or they can be dispersed.
is reflected in the company’s directing its activity S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi develops part-
towards priority objectives such as satisfying, to nerships with: suppliers (S.C. AGRI****** S.R.L.:
the highest degree, the consumers’ needs through fertilizers and seeds; S.C. BIOT***** S.R.L.:
the goods it creates and sells, increasing efficiency equipment leasing; and S.C. NUT***** S.R.L.:
and profitability, based on the overall sales and the concentrated and combined-feed, premixes for pigs
unit profit (Ristea M., 2003). and cattle) and customers (S.C. BIOT*****
S.R.L.; S.C. AGRO**** COMP S.R.L.; and S.C.
MATERIAL AND METHOD ALM*** S.R.L.).
The turnover of the S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L.
We took into account the case of S.C. Iaşi represents the total sales figure of the
AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi. We established the compa-ny’s
relations with the market, referring to three important
organization for a stated period, which results
elements: the goods market; the capital market; and from: sold production, income resulted from
276
selling the goods and income resulted from (EGP), the Rate of Economic Profit (REP), the
operation subsidies devolving on the net turnover. Self-financing Capacity (SFC), Finacial Profitabi-
The turnover does not include either the VAT or lity (FP) and Global Profitability (GP).
the income resulted from the sale or the transfer of The Sales Profit Rate (SPR) defines the
fixed assets. company’s profitability; describes the company’s
The overall liquidity compares the capacity to increase the shareholders’ wealth and
financing sources to the current uses and measures to fulfill the main rationale for the existence of a
the short-term coverage degree of the company’s trading society: making profit. If the rate is too
debts by means of the circulating assets. The low, it determines the lack of attractiveness and
higher the liquidity, the higher the guarantee insufficient self-development sources. If the rate is
needed for the reimbursement of the debts is. The negative, the company loses capital.
constant and sharp decline of this indicator is the The Excess of Gross Profit (EGP) is the
proof of an insufficient net working capital and company’s main financing source, since it
results in payment default. encompasses amortizations, in addition to
The general solvency measures the operation profit, while the former in their quality
guarantees that the company offers to the creditors. of simply calculated but unpaid expenses are mere
It describes the degree to which the company’s accumulations of the company up to the moment
total debts may be covered through its capitals. when they are used as investment resources.
The constant and dramatic cut in solvency leads to An operation deficit brings forward the very
the creditors’ loss of confidence provided by the rationale for the existence of a company. The
company. It leads to the loss of faith the use up of insufficient Operation Gross Excess engenders
the circulating capital meant for reinvestment. It difficulties in pecuniary resources.
expresses the coverage degree of the company’s The Rate of Economic Profit (REP) reveals
debts through its capitals. The constant and sharp the degree to which the assets of the company are
reduction of the overall solvency leads to the loss capitalized. The economic profit emphasizes the
in the creditor’s trust and to both long-term and capacity of the operation to increase the company’s
short term financing difficulties. patrimony, represented by its assets. The economic
The working capital ensures the operational loss signals serious operation failures which wear
fluent development, measuring the relative out the company’s wealth. If the economic profit is
independence of the company as compared to the too low, it hinders development through self-
takings cashed in from debts. It represents the financing or own resources. Values which are
surplus of “long” financing sources (permanent lower than the average on each sector reveal an
capitals) against lasting uses (fixed assets). The inefficient use of the assets, their inappropriateness
bigger it is, the more positive the company’s in relation to the specificity of the business
treasury will be. operated by the company (in the Anglo-Saxon
The needed working capital describes the literature this indicator is called “earning power”).
level of current financing necessities. It is that part The Self-financing Capacity (SFC) refers
of the circulating assets that cannot be covered by to the company’s possibilities to develop its
short-term debts and which should be financed out activity based on its own resources. The self-
of stable sources (NWC). The bigger it is, the more financing capacity of the company cumulates the
the company needs “long-term” and important financing sources generated by its own functioning
sources. The reduction of NWC based on debt (the net output and amortization expenses). If the
increase is nevertheless highly risky. self-financing capacity is too low, it determines the
The pecuniary resource balance describes use of external resources, which are expensive and
the capacity of the company to generate liquidities. rare. A negative capacity is equivalent to the self-
It reveals the difference between the company’s destruction of the company’s wealth, the use up of
available balance and the short-term credits that the circulating capital meant for reinvestment.
are contracted. The unfavorable evolution signals Financial Profitability (FP) measures the
that the company is not capable to generate enough contribution that the company’s net profit or net
liquidity and is forced to ask for credit, which may loss has in the development or diminishing of its
lead to bankruptcy. own capitals. If the financial profitability is too
The company’s profitability is the most low, the way in which the company works does not
important qualitative index of the economic contribute sufficiently to the increase of the
activity that expresses the capacity of making stakeholders’ wealth. If it is negative, it damages it
profit. in time.
The rates that describe profitability are: the
Sales Profit Rate (SPR), the Excess of Gross Profit
277
Figure 1 The turnover for S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi between 2011-2013 (thousands lei)
Figure 2 The Sales Profit Rate (SPR) for S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi between 2011-2013
Figure 3 The Excess of Gross Profit (EGP) for S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi between 2011-2013
Figure 4 The Rate of Economic Profit (REP) for S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi between 2011-2013
278
Figure 5 The Self-financing Capacity (SFC) for S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi between 2011-2013
Figure 6 The Financial Profitability (FP) for S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi between 2011-2013
The Global Profitability (GP) measures the in the case of S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi reveals
importance VAT holds for operating revenues and also that the near future will not be affected by
characterizes the company’s capacity to create cash resources problems, since financing sources
value starting with purchasing from third parties. A have been provided and are marked by positive
low Global Profitability frees little resources for increasing indicators.
salaries, taxes and profit. The negative values The Rate of Economic Profit (REP) reflects
signal that the company should not exist. the degree to which the company’s assets are
Some of the most important economic- capitalized. This indicator is marked, in the case of
financial indicators for S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi by positive, increasing
Iaşi are presented in the above figures (figure 1, 2, values (in the last 3 years), which emphasizes the
3, 4, 5, 6). ability of operation to increase the company’s
The values indicated by the Sales Profit Rate patrimony.
(SPR) between 2011-2013 reflect the high interest The Self-financing Capacity (SFC) indicator
for the increase of the stakeholders’ wealth. A calculated for the last three years, proves that S.C.
negative rate reflects the decapitalization situation, S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi is able to develop its
but the indicators for S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi activity based on its own resources. Since high
have positive and increasing values, which values (almost double for the year 2013) can be
illustrate a quality of the economic activity, noticed, it results that S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi
expressed in the capacity of making profit. does not have to use external sources or even to
The values of the Excess of Gross Profit use up the circulating capital for re-investment.
(EGP) between 2011 and 2013 reflect the amounts The Financial Profitability (FP) for the
accumulated by the company up to the moment period 2011-2013 reveals high values in the case of
when they are used as investment sources, that is S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi, with an important
an increase of the financing sources of S.C. increase in 2013, which shows us that the
AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi. It is known that an functioning of the company contributes to the
insufficient gross operation excess determines cash increase of the shareholders’ wealth and does not
resources problems. The analysis of this indicator run any danger to damage it in time.
279
In the case of S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi does not have
one can really notice a low overall profitability, to use external sources or even to use up the
which means that the company’s capacity to create circulating capital for re-investment as stated by
value is low. the self-financing capacity (SFC) indicator.
The financial profitability (FP) shows that
CONCLUSIONS the functioning of the company contributes to the
increase of the shareholders’ wealth and does not
We took into account the case of S.C. run any danger to damage it in time
AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi. We followed the evolution Despite the above good indicators, in the
of the main economic-financial indicators between case of S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi one can really
2011 and 2013: the turnover; overall liquidity; notice a low overall profitability, which means that
general solvency; the working capital; the needed the company’s capacity to create value is low.
working capital; pecuniary resource balance; and
especially the profitability. REFERENCES
S.C. AGRO**** S.R.L. Iaşi has positive and
increasing values of sales rate profir (SRP), which Bojian O., 2006 - Enterprise accounting, Eficient
Publishing House, Bucureşti
illustrate a quality of the economic activity, Brânzan A., Manea V., Mareş D.M., 1999 - Financial
expressed in the capacity of making profit. accounting, „România de Mâine” Foundation
The data provided by excess of gross profit Publishing House, Bucureşti
(EGP) reveal also that the near future will not be Costuleanu C., 2009 - Patrimonial entities accounting,
Performantica Publishing House, Iaşi
affected by cash resources problems, since Horomnea E., 2004 - Accounting bases, 2
nd
ed.,
financing sources have been provided and are Sedcom Libris Publishing House, Iaşi
marked by positive increasing indicators. Pahone C., 2005 - Accounting information in decisional
The rate of economic profit (REP) is marked process, Junimea Publishing House, Iaşi
by positive, increasing values (in the last 3 years), Pântea P.I., 2009 - Financial accounting, Intel Credo
Publishing House, Deva
which emphasizes the ability of operation to Ristea M., 2003 - Commercial societies accounting,
increase the company’s patrimony. Universitarian Publishing House, Bucureşti
280
THE OPINION OF PRACTICANT STUDENTS ON THE STIMULATION

OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES WITHIN LESSONS
Gabriela-Paula PETRUŢA1
e-mail: petruta_gabriela@yahyoo.com
Abstract
The aim of this paper consists in emphasizing point of view of the practicant students on the stimulation of various
intelligences within the lessons they taught in gymnasium. The methods used in this research were the questionnaire
and analysis of the activity’s products carried out by the students within the activity of pedagogical practice. The
research was carried out during academic years 2011-2012 and 2013-2014. The group participating to the research
included students in the 3rd year of study at the Faculty of Sciences, University of Pitesti, as follows: 55 students, in the
academic year 2011-2012 and 22 students, in the academic year 2013-2014. By analyzing the given answers was found
that in the academic year 2011-2012, as compared to the academic year 2013-2014, the great majority of students were
willing to stimulate the various intelligences of schoolchildren. So, they have stimulated a higher number of
intelligences, using a diversified range of didactic methods within the lesson, being much more concerned about
organization of some learning activities for the school children, than about transmitting knowledge. In conclusion, it can
be stated that, according to the opinion of students, the stimulation of various intelligences within the lesson depends on
both subjective and objective factors.
Key words: multiple intelligences, lesson, practicant studens, subjective factors, objective factors
The concept of multiple intelligences is different one to each other. He mentioned that is
plural of the traditional concept of intelligence, very important “to recognize and to take care of all
used in psychology, and it is atributed to Gardner. the different human intelligences, and all
The author of Multiple Intelligences Theory (MI combinations of intelligences”. Regarding to the
theory) considered that “it can be described better development of intelligences, Gardner emphasized
the human cognitive competence in terms of a set that “any individual can develop his/her own
of abilities, talents or mental aptitudes”, which he intelligence if is well motivated, if lives in a
named “intelligences” (Gardner H., 2006). Gardner culture which values that intelligence, and if exist
supported the idea that human intelligence is a human and artefactual resources (for instance,
“biopsychological potential to process information texts, PC programs, study groups) which he/she
that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve can use” (Gardner H., 2006). Considering the MI
problems or create products that are of value in a theory, Armstrong emphasized that each person is
culture” (Gardner H., 2000). Following his using daily all types of intelligence, but each one
researches, Gardner identified initially seven “has a unique mode of showing his/her
intelligences, and subsequently nine, considering inteligence” (Armstrong T., 2011).
that each person is unique and possess a certain The teachers have an important role in
intelligence profile composed from at least nine identifying, developing and using intelligences
different intelligences (musical/rhitmic, within the activity of teaching-learning-evaluating
bodily/kinesthetic, logical/mathematical, verbal/ carried out in school. As mentioned by Oprea,
linguistic, visual/spatial, interpersonal, teaching in accordance to the strong points of
intrapersonal, naturalistic, and existential schoolchildren means to know them well and to
intelligence), from which he/she has developed adapt the didactic strategies to their particularities.
one, or two intelligences. In the author’s vision Thus, the teacher can choose which the methods
does not exist two persons who have the same and didactic procedures to use within the lesson,
intelectual profile, not even the twins, who, taking into consideration what the schoolchild can
although have entirely or almost entirely the same perform at best, what he/she like to do, how he/she
genotype, have different experiences and are learn better, and by which modalities this can be
1
University of Pitesti
281
stimulated. Dwelling on learning, in the case when questionnaire comprised questions concerning to:
the strong points of the schoolchildren are taken the interest of students in stimulating different
into consideration, the author mention that is intelligences within lesson, type of lesson, methods
necessary that the schoolchildren are aware “of and didactic tools used, as well as the working
tasks given to the schoolchildren during the lesson,
their own attitudes, talents, abilities” and to use
the reasons they rest on stimulating/not stimulating
them “to compensate the lack of others, or their certain types of intelligences during lesson and the
less expressed presence”. For stimulating each type opinion regarding additional stimulation of other
of intelligence, she proposed learning activities intelligences, if they would teach again the lesson.
within the lessons of language and communication, The data obtained by analyzing the answers given
and mathematics (Oprea C.L., 2009). Also, Bocoş by the students to questions from the
dwelling on curricular design at micro level, questionnaire were completed with those obtained
mentioned a series of questions concerning the from analysis of the lesson project and working
precise modes to show different intelligences and records. The starting hypothesis was the following:
proposed learning tasks for a whole range of stimulation of the different intelligences within
lesson depends on the interest showed by the
intelligences identified by Gardner, in the case of a
students for its realization, conscientiousness in
chemistry lesson (Bocoş M., 2013). designing the lesson, and also other factors such
Taking into consideration the numerous as big number of schoolchildren in class, short time
books and papers published in our country and in which they must reach the proposed objectives,
abroad, which reffers to the Theory of Multiple scientific content which must be teached, etc. The
Intelligences and to its valorization in the population sample investigated in our research
educational practice, we consider that is necessary comprised 55 students in the third year of study,
that the practicant students, the future teachers, from the University of Piteşti, Faculty of Sciences,
know this theory and particularly the mode in in the 2011-2012 academic year and 22 students,
which it can be applied within the didactic activity. in the academic year 2013-2014 The population
sample included 15 students in Biology, 11
In this paper we are aiming to emphasize the
students in Ecology and environment protection, 5
students opinion on the stimulation of different students in Horticulture, 9 students in Chemistry, 8
intelligences of the schoolchildren within the students in Environment engineering, 7 students in
lessons they teached during the pedagogical Physical engineering. in the 2011-2012 academic
practice carried out in gymnasium, in the academic year, and 14 students in Biology, 4 students in
years 2011-2012 and 2013-2014. In carrying out Chemistry, and 4 students in Physical engineering,
this research we focussed on the following in the academic year 2013-2014.
objectives:
 to establish the interest level for stimulating RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
the types of intelligences within the final
lesson;
From the practicant students questionned
 to identify the mode in which practicant in the academic year 2011-2012, 72.72% have
students have stimulated the different mentioned that they wanted to stimulate to high
intelligences; extent the different intelligences to the
 to emphasize the reasons they rest on schoolchildren during the lesson. A smaller
choosing to stimulate/not to stimulate percentage of practicant students, respectively
certain types of intelligences within the final 27.27%, wanted to stimulate to a certain extent the
lesson. schoolchildreen’s intelligences. In the academic
year 2013-2014, half of the students (50%) stated
MATERIAL AND METHOD precisely that they wanted to stimulate to a great
extent the different intelligences to the
The present paper represents a continuation
schoolchildren during the lesson. The same
of a research carried out during the academic year
2011-2012, in which we investigated the
percentage of students (50.00%) were willing to
stimulation of multiple intelligences by the stimulate to a certain extent the types of
practicant students within the lessons, whose intelligences to the schoolchildren. None of the
results were published in 2012 (Petruţa G.P., practicant students have mentioned that he/she
2012). This time, taking into consideration the wanted to stimulate to a small extent, or not at all,
opinion of practicant students regarding the the schoolchildren’s intelligences.
stimulation of multiple intelligences during lessons, In the academic year 2011-2012, for the
we carried out an empirical based on the majority of practicant students (89.90%) the final
questionnaire method and on the analysis of the lesson they teached in gymnasium was a mixt
activity’s products carried out by the students
lesson. In the academic year 2013-2014, the final
within the activity of pedagogical practice. The
lesson was one of transmitting/acquiring new
282
knowledge in the case of 50% from the practicant within the lesson following didactic methods:
students, and a mixt lesson in the case of 10% from a) explanation, demonstration by drawing,
students. A small percentage of students, observation, and conversation – 16.36% from
respectively 10.90% from them in the academic students;
year 2011-2012, and 4.54% in the academic year b) explanation, demonstration, model device
2013-2014, have been teaching lessons for the (drawings/plastic models), conversation – 21.18%
formation of intelectual skills and abilities. from students;
Regarding on the intelligences that the 2) verbal, logical and visual intelligences (27.26%
practicant students stimulated to the from students), by using:
schoolchildren, it can be stated that by combining a) explanation, demonstration, model device
different didactic methods, tools and organization (chemical formulas and ecuations of the chemical
forms of activity with the schoolchildren, they reactions), conversation, exercise - 5.45% from
have stimulated many more types of intelligences students;
(tab.1), in different moments of the lesson. b) explanation, demonstration of images,
Thus, within the mixt lessons, in the stage observation, and conversation – 18.18% from
of verifying the schoolchildren’s knowledges, students;
90.90% from the questionned students in the c) explanation, demonstration of Power Point
academic year 2011-2012 have stimulated the presentation, observation, and conversation –
verbal intelligence of the schoolchildren, by using 3.63% from students;
conversation. A small percentage, representing 3) naturalistic, verbal and logical intelligences
9.09% from students, have activated the verbal and (10.90% from students) by using:
intrapersonal intelligence of schoolchildren, by a) observation (for instance, leaf and fruit in oak,
using the individual working record. Also, the hazelnut tree and beach tree), conversation,
verbal intelligence have been stimulated by the learning by discovery, and explanation – 5.45%
majority of students in the academic year 2013- from students;
2014, the filled questionnaires showing that b) observation, conversation, problem solving,
86.36% from the students used conversation for and explanation - 5.45% from students;
verifying or updating the knowledges of 4) logical, kinesthetic and verbal intelligences by
schoolchildren, within the mixt lessons, using within the lesson practical work, observation,
respectively lessons of transmitting/ acquiring new conversation, and explanation - 3.63% from
knowledges. Only 13.63 % from the students have students;
activated the verbal and interpersonal intelligence, 5) verbal, logical and interpersonal intelligences,
asking the schoolchildren to fill in an working by using Summarize-Pair-Share, explanation,
record in pairs. conversation and demonstration - 3.63% from
For psychological preparation of the students;
schoolchildren for acquiring new contents, the 6) verbal, logical, interpersonal, and naturalistic
verbal intelligence have been stimulated, in the intelligences by using explanation, demonstration,
academic year 2011-2012, by 80% from students brainstorming - 1.18% from students.
who have used conversation, and 7.27% from By analysing the content of lesson projects
students who have been asking the schoolchildren was found that 16.36% from students have
to fill in a rebus, whose solving result in the lesson stimulated the verbal and naturalistic intelligences,
title. The verbal and visual intelligence have been asking the schoolchildren to observe and describe
stimulated by 12.72% from students, who have the constitution of some plants or different organs
used conversation based on images downloaded of the observed plants/animals. Naturalistic and
from internet. In the academic year 2013-2014, a logical intelligences have been activated by
high percentage of students (72.72%) have 18.18% from students, who asked the
stimulated the verbal intelligence by using schoolchildren to compare the plants/animals
conversation, and 13.63 % from students by using studied in the new lesson with those studied
the riddle for finding the lesson title. The verbal previously, or with the plants/animals related to
and visual intelligence have been stimulated by them, in order to establish similarities and
13.63% from students, who have used conversation dissimilarities. A small percentage of students
based on images. (3.63%), have activated the logical intelligence of
In the stage of communicating/acquiring schoolchildren, asking them to motivate their own
new contents, in the academic year 2011-2012, opinions concerning various processes (over
students activated the following intelligences: exploitation of natural resources, etc.).
1) verbal, visual, naturalistic and logical Interpersonal and ecological intelligences, have
intelligences (37.54% from students), applying been stimulated by 1.18% from students, who have
283
asked the schoolchildren groups to propose ideas by applying brainstorming (Petruţa G. P., 2012).
for collecting and recycling wastes on categories,
Table 1
Multiple intelligences activated within the lessons presented by the practicant students
Students
How multiple intelligences were stimulated within lessons in the academic year in the academic year
2012-2013 (%) 2012-2013 (%)
Verbal intelligence
- using conversation for verification 90.88 86.36
- using conversation for drawing attention 79.97 72.72
- using a riddle to call the schoolchildren attention - 13.63 %
- using conversation based in images 12.7 13.63 %
- filling in a rebus 7.26 -
- using conversation 81.79 95.42
- using explanation 61.78 90.88
- using problem solving 5.44 -
- using brainstorming 1.81 -
- using Summarize - Pair – Share 3.63 -
- describing some organisms 16.35 -
- explaining with the own words of some concepts 14.53 -
- explaining of an image from the manual, etc. 9.08 -
- using conversation for fixation of knowledges 54.54 72.72
- using lecture for fixation of knowledges 14.53 -
Logical intelligence
- using demonstration 9.09 13.63
- using learning by discovery 5.45 -
- using exercise 19.99 18.17
- using algorithmization 14.53 4.54
- comparing different plants/animals 18.17 -
- using Graphic Organizer 1.81 -
- extracting the essential from a text using Summarize 3.62 13.63
- motivating of the own opinions 3.62 -
Visual intelligence
- using demonstration by drawing 16.35 -
- using demonstration of drawings/images/plastic models 41.78 45.44
- using observation 49.06 68.16
- using model device 41.78 27.26
- using practical work 3.62 -
- using Graphic Organizers 1.81 -
- presenting of a scientific content in PowerPoint view 3.62 13.63
- realizing a schematic drawing based on a image 9.08 18.18
- realizing a schematic drawing based on the new acquired
7.27 -
knowledges
- explaining an image from the manual, etc. 9.08 -
- sticking onto a flipchart, near the names of species studied,
- 9.09
drawings representing different organs specific to them
Kinesthetic intelligence
- using practical work 3.62 18.18
Intrapersonal intelligence
- using the individual working sheet for verification 9.08 9.09
- using individual working sheet for fixation 21.80 36.36
Interpresonal intelligence
- solving the working tasks in groups 5.44 18.17
Naturalistic intelligence
- observing and describing the constitution of some plants or
16.35 4.54
different organs of plants/animals
- comparing different plants/animals 18.17 -
- proposing of ideas for wastes collecting 1.81 -
(After Petruţa, G.P., 2012)
284
In the academic year 2013-2014, in the stage schoolchildren were asked to solve the working
of communicating/acquiring new contents, the tasks in writing (to explain concepts with their own
students have activated the following intelligences: words, to fill in lacunar phrases, etc.) A small
1) verbal, logical and visual intelligences (59.07% percentage (7.27%) from the students have
from students), using: activated, apart from these three intelligences, the
a) conversation, explanation, demonstration and visual and kinesthetic intelligences, asking the
observation of images – 31.81% from students; schoolchildren to realize supplementary a
b) conversation, demonstration, Power Point schematic drawing. The verbal and logical
presentation, explanation, and observation – 13.63 intelligences have been activated by only 1.18%
% from students; from students, who have realized a descriptive
c) explanation, demonstration, model device graphic organizer (Petruţa, G. P., 2012).
(chemical formulas and equations of the chemical In the academic year 2013-2014, the most
reactions), conversation, exercise – 13.63 % from students have stimulated the verbal intelligence of
students; schoolchildren, by using conversation in the stage
2) logical, kinesthetic, interpersonal and verbal of fixation of knowledges. A small percentage of
intelligences, by using within the lesson practical students (18.18 %), have activated the verbal,
work in groups, observation, conversation, logical and intrapersonal intelligences, by using an
explanation – 18.18% from students; individual working sheet by which the
3) verbal, intrapersonal, logical and visual schoolchildren were asked to solve the working
intelligences, by using explanation, work with tasks in writing. The verbal and visual intelligences
the manual, conversation, modelation and have been stimulated by only 9.09% from students,
demonstration - 9.09% from students; who asked the schoolchildren to stick onto a
4) verbal, interpersonal, visual intelligences, by flipchart, near the names of species studied within
applying conversation, explanation, work with the the lesson, drawings representing vegetative and
manual in groups, demonstration, observation of reproductive organs specific to them (for instance,
images - 4.54% from students. for common spruce, fir tree, pine tree, white cedar
By analysing the content of the lesson’s and larch tree, have been sticked drawings
projects was found that 4.54% from students, have representing the stem, leaves and flowers).
stimulated verbal and naturalistic intelligences by Within lessons for formation of intellectual
asking the schoolchildren to observe and describe skills and abilities, 10.90% from students have
the different organs of plants. The intrapersonal stimulated the schoolchildren’s verbal and logical
and visual intelligences have been activated by intelligences, by applying conversation, model
18.18% from students, who have asked the device, algorithmization, and exercise in order to
schoolchildren to realize independently schematic solve problems, in the academic year 2011-2012.
drawings representing certain human or animal The same intelligences have been stimulated by
organs studied in the new lesson. applying the same methods by 4.54% from
In the stage of fixation of knowledges, students, in the academic year 2013-2014 (tab. 1).
54.54% from students, in the academic year 2011- Among the reasons mentioned by students
2012, have activated schoolchildren verbal regarding application of the Theory of Multiple
intelligence by using conversation. Also, 14.54% Intelligences within lesson we recall the following:
more we succeed to stimulate many more
from students have activated verbal intelligence by intelligences, more the schoolchildren are
using work with the manual, asking the interested by the new knowledges they must to
schoolchildren to answer to the questions from the acquire, and the number of schoolchildren who
end of lesson or to read the curiosities. A small participate actively at lesson is bigger; by the more
percentage of students (9.09%), have challenged various learning activities proposed by the teacher
the verbal, logical, visual and naturalistic to be carried out within the lesson, the
intelligences, giving to the schoolchildren as schoolchildren can develop themselves other
working task to explain an image from the intelligences, not only the dominant ones; the
manual/atlas or from the Internet. The same schoolchildren learn better if they likes the
percentage (9.09%) of students have challenged learning activities proposed by the teacher during
the visual, kinesthetic and verbal intelligences, the lesson. Regarding the reasons for which
asking the schoolchildren to realize a schematic students did not stimulated certain types of
drawing based on an image from the manual. Some intelligences during the lesson, they stated
of the students (14.54%), have stimulated the precisely the following: projecting of diverse
verbal, logical and intrapersonal intelligences, by learning activities, in such way to be stimulated as
using an individual working sheet by which the many as possible intelligences, needs a longer time
285
to prepare the lesson, compared to the case when schoolchildren intelligences to a great extent and to
the practicant student intends only to transmit the a certain extent, respectively. In the academic year
new knowledge; the too higher number of 2011-2012, the students have used a more
schoolchildren in the class rise difficulties in diversified range of modes to stimulate the same
organization of some learning activities by which intelligences, succeeding to activate a higher
the interpersonal intelligence can be stimulated; the number of intelligences to the schoolchildren
need to reach primarily the objectives formulated during the lesson, as compared to the practicant
in the lesson project in a very precisely determined students in the academic year 2013-2014. It was
time represent sometime an impediment for the found that, from the students point of view, the
stimulation of verbal intelligence by realizing some stimulation of intelligences within the lesson
processes of own creation, and of visual depends both of subjective factors (practicant
intelligence by realizing some graphic organizers; student who projects the lesson), and objective
the possibility of organizing some activities aiming factors (number of schoolchildren in the class,
at stimulation of certain intelligences, such as duration of the lesson, scientific content of the
kinesthetic or musical intelligence, depends on the lesson). In order to optimize the didactic activity
scientific content of the lesson. Concerning the carried out by the practicant students, we
students willing to stimulate also some other recommand designing of the didactic activity with
intelligences, those who participated to this more attention, primarily by finding diverse modes
research during the academic year 2011-2012 of stimulating as much as possible intelligences
stated precisely that, if they would teach again the during the lesson.
lesson, they would stimulate the naturalistic and
intrapersonal (9.09%), visual and interpersonal REFERENCES
intelligences (3.63%), and respectively verbal and
Armstrong T., 2011 - Eşti mai inteligent decât crezi. Un
visual intelligences of the schoolchildren (3.63%). ghid al inteligenţelor multiple pentru copii.
In the academic year 2013-2014, as revealed by the Traducere din limba engleză de Boga, D. L. Ed.
analysis of the filled questionnaires, 7.27% from Curtea Veche Publishing House, Bucureşti, p.13.
the practicant students would activate additionally Bocoş M., 2013 - Instruirea interactivă: repere
the verbal and intrapersonal intelligences, 13.63% axiologice şi metodologice, Ed. Polirom, Iaşi. p.
147 - 156.
would activate also the naturalistic intelligence, Gardner H., 2006 - Inteligenţe multiple – noi orizonturi.
and 9.09% from the students would develop also Ed. Sigma, Bucureşti, p. 13, 33, 97.
the interpersonal intelligence of the schoolchildren. Gardner H., 2000 - Intelligence Reframed: Multiple
Intelligences for the 21st Century. Basic Books.
p. 33–34. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_ of_
CONCLUSIONS multiple_intelligences#CITEREFGardner2000
Oprea C.L., 2009 - Strategii didactice interactive. EDP.
Most of students who carried out their Bucureşti. p. 72-98.
pedagogical practice in the gymnasium during the Petruţa G.P., 2012 - Multiple intelligences stimulated
academic year 2011-2012 have been interested to a within the lessons by the practicant students from
the Faculty of Science, Procedia - Social and
great extent in stimulating the different Behavioral Sciences 76 (2013) p. 676-680.
intelligences during the final lesson, while in the www.sciencedirect.com.
academic year 2013-2014 equal percentages of
students have been willing to activate the
286
STRATEGIC CONCEPTS IN MANAGING THE COMPANIES

IN THE NORTH-EASTERN REGION
Oliver Constantin PRICOP1, Cecilia POP1
e-mail: opric24@yahoo.com
Abstract
The current socio-economic context requires the continuous adjustment of the companies’ reference points and tools for
decision and action and a good knowledge of the strategic management on the part of the practitioners. The study
highlights the strategic reference points underlying the strategic management activity in the Romanian companies in the
North-Eastern region and the way the current crisis has changed them. We have determined the extent to which the
specific concepts regarding strategic management are known and put into practice by the decision makers and the way
their use affects the activity of the companies they manage. To a high extent, strategic management concepts are either
not properly known by managers or not properly put into practice (or not at all), especially in the case of small firms,
where decision makers most often are not professionals or focus on the operational nature of the decision rather than on
its strategic nature. Large companies are characterized by an acceptable level of strategic planning, which leads to a
deeper understanding of the strategic management’s role in a market economy in times of crisis.
Key words: strategic management, strategic scenario, strategic planning, strategic orientation.
The current socio-economic context requires

the continuous adjustment of the companies’ Due to the diversity and multiplicity of the
reference points and tools for decision and specific strategic management concepts, in order to
be able to conduct the research, we had to select a
organizational action because "the world has
part of the concepts so as to identify the extent to
entered a new economic stage: from normality to which they can be found in the activities of the
turbulence" (Kotler Ph., Caslione J.A., 2009). The organizations in the North-Eastern region.
economic normality of an organization, understood The concepts we have decided to analyze
as a rational entrepreneurial approach based on have been selected out of those that are considered
variables and mechanisms which are already to be basic concepts by the strategic management
known or possible to anticipate through theory (Petri or I.I., 2007; Ciobanu I., 2006) and that
influence the theory and practice of strategic
prospective attitude, tends to be eroded by the management:
speed and unpredictability of the action of the - The concept of market and its dynamics, which we
environmental factors. In order to understand the can find in market strategies, strategic portfolios,
turbulent dynamics of the current strategies and to competitive analysis, etc.
identify the reference points that underlie the - The concepts of vision, mission, strategic objective
future construction of strategic management, we and strategy, which are basic concepts.
- The concepts of competitive advantage and
must firstly understand the current context (Growe strategic planning, which are extremely important for
A., 1999). the managerial practice.
Within Romanian organizations, the need In terms of methodology, the applied research
for an effective strategic management is not only a has sought to highlight the strategic guidelines
condition for improving the effectiveness of the underlying the strategic management activity in the
activity, but also a requirement for survival in an Romanian firms in the North-Eastern region and the
way the current crisis has changed them. Therefore,
uncertain environment, characterized by the lack of
regarding the actual data, the study was based on
clear prospects for stability and development. A using the method of direct primary data collection: the
first step is to identify the current situation, namely survey.
the extent to which the firms currently use the The tool used for the survey was a
specific concepts of strategic management and the questionnaire developed for the firm managers in the
extent to which this approach is being effective. North-Eastern region. The questionnaire included 22
questions, out of which 7 were general interest
questions, which were necessary for the
MATERIAL AND METHOD
1
287
segmentation of the community, and 15 were created

in order to be able to analyze the elements of strategy Share of the organization that have
and strategic planning that exist within the strategic scenarios
organizations. The community investigated through 19%
19%
direct survey, which was conducted by using the Total agreement
questionnaire as main tool, was represented by 10%
Partial agreement
companies from Iasi, Botosani and Piatra Neamt. The
survey unit was the manager, regardless of gender, Neither agreement/nor
hierarchical level or age. The questionnaires were disagreement
33% Partial disagreement
conducted at the companies’ head quarters in the 19%
three survey areas: the cities of Iasi, Botosani and Total disagreement
Piatra Neamt. The sample size was limited by certain
organizational restrictions and by the nature of the
information requested. The resulted sample was Figure 1 Use of strategic scenarios in the companies
made of 21 companies. Because we wanted to in the North-Eastern region
analyze the correlations determined by the size of the
organizations and their object of activity, the sample After analyzing the activities of the
was heterogeneous from these points of view. organizations under study, two conclusions were
drawn: a) less than 50% of the organizations (about
REZULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 48%) have formulated a vision or strategic
mission; however, they cannot be found in the
In its modern meaning, the concept of documents underlying the process of strategic
market no longer represents only the place where planning, even though 52% of the managers
the supply meets the demand (the geographic believe that a long-term vision is necessary. b)
market), but also a mix of organizations, activities, 55% of the managers understand by vision their
systems, relationships and interests, needs and own view of the business in the short term, which
infrastructures. For this reason, the strategic shows a lack of knowledge regarding the strategic
implications of this concept are very large. meaning of this concept and the strategic role it
The current characteristic of the markets is plays in business planning.
their high level of dynamics, which indicates the When we talk about strategic objectives, we
current economic dynamics. From the strategic most often refer to the long-term objectives,
perspective, understanding these dynamics is because the strategy requires a longer period of
particularly important especially in the context of time in order to be achieved. Unlike the short and
the current economic chaos theory described by medium term objectives, which may change
Kotler and Caslione (Kotler, Caslione, 2009). depending on the influence of the internal and
The strategic recommendations made by external factors, long-term objectives are
Kotler and Caslione regarding the way of recommended to remain unchanged as long as the
approaching the markets in times of crisis by organization does not plan a completely different
developing strategic scenarios designed to simulate approach to the business. A constant long-term
various situations of development and to avoid objective ensures business continuity, while
failure are partially or fully adopted by about 42% focusing the efforts of the organization on a known
of the organizations under analysis. This shows direction. Our study has revealed the fact that most
that many Romanian companies are aware of the of the organizations (95%) have set strategic
benefits of the predictive attitudes with respect to objectives for different time horizons; of the total
the market evolution (figure 1). objectives set by the organization, 43% are short
What is worrying is that 19% of the term objectives, 36% - medium term objectives
managers do not understand the concept of and 21% - long term objectives (figure 2).
strategic scenario and the role of anticipating The above figure also shows that in the long
market developments, and do not provide a term the level of objective achievement is medium
positive or negative opinion. to high, in the medium term, it is above average
What the concepts of mission and vision and high in a ratio of 82%, and in the short term a
have in common is their ideological role in high level (33%) prevails.
underlying the strategy of an organization. The analysis of the objectives in terms of the
"The core ideology is the binding factor that activities undertaken within the firms in the North-
ensures the cohesion of an organization as it Eastern region shows that both in the case of the
develops and expands at global level and creates primary activities as well as in the case of the
diversity in the workplace" (Collins J.C., Porras support activities of the value chain the short and
J.I., 1996). If the vision is a statement of medium term objectives prevail (figure 3).
principles, the mission is a statement regarding the
way of committing to the principles.
288
Level of objective achievem ent

Very high (over 95%)
5
4 High (80-95%)
40%
7% 4%
3 35%
Above average (60- 4%
30% Advantages
80%) 6% 14%
2 25% 7%
Average (40-60%) 2% Positions
20% 4%
1 8% Solutions
15%
Below average (20- 20%
10% 16% Results
0 40%) 11%
Short term Medium Long term 5%
(1 year) term (1-3 (over 3 Low (5-20%) 0%
years) years) Short term Mediumterm Long term
Tim e horizon Very low (under 5%)
Figure 4 Strategic orientation of the organizations on
Figure 2 Level of objective achievement depending time horizons
on the time horizon
The crisis has changed the structure of the

50% organizations’ strategic options to a small extent;
45% 43%
however, it has caused changes regarding their
Share of the objectives
40% 37%
34% share. Except for the merger and acquisition
35% 31%
29%
30% 26% strategies, as well as the strategies of market
25% Short term objectives
20%
expansion, all the other options have carried
Medium term objectives
15% through after the emergence of the crisis. The
Long term objectives
10% greatest increase can be noted in the case of cost
5%
0%
strategies, followed by the consolidation and
Primary activities Support activities stabilization strategies and the differentiation
Types of activities
strategies (as a way of survival). However, in the
Figure 3 Share of the objectives on types of activities case of cost strategies, nomination is caused by the
fact that some managers misinterpret the goal of
the strategy (cost reduction) because they do not
Along with the simple ways of defining the
know the theoretical content of the strategy.
concept of strategy, some authors believe that Noteworthy is the fact that the emergence of the
presenting the different parts of the conceptual crisis has determined the development of activity
content is more appropriate. The most reduction strategies, which confirms the cautious
representative example is the case of H. Mintzberg, and defensive behaviour of the Romanian
who conducts an analysis of the conceptual content organizations.
of the concept of strategy as it derives from the The concept of competitive advantage
underlies the value perspective of strategic
managerial practice and the specific literature
management. The term firstly emerged in English
(Mintzberg, 1996): as "competitive advantage" and was subsequently
- strategy is a plan. translated and adopted by the Romanian specific
- strategy is a tactic. literature both with the sense of "competitive
- strategy is a model / pattern of action. advantage" as well as ”competition advantage”.
- strategy is a position. This overlap was caused, amongst others, by the
- strategy is a perspective. fact that the term was developed by M. Porter in
research papers that approached the phenomena of
Regarding the organizations under analysis
competition and strategy. However, we believe that
and the way they have defined their strategies,
we need to separate the two concepts because their
more than 95% of them have a strategy; however,
notional root, namely the words "competitive" and
microenterprises and small enterprises do not set
"competition" do not have a similar meaning.
long-term strategies. Around 47% of the strategies
Competitiveness is a prerequisite, and competition
are result-oriented; the firms that adopt short-term
is a state induced by a certain context.
strategies have a greater share in this respect.
Competitiveness can occur even if the organization
Companies with long-term strategies are those that
is not in competition with a third party, or in
focus mostly on the market position (14%) (figure
relation to a generic internal or external reference
4).
standard, while competition occurs in relation with
others, in an environment of comparability and in
relation to an external reference standard, which
289
has physical or legal identity. Many Romanian CONCLUSIONS

managers do not know the concept of competitive
advantage very well. They associate all the In the future, our applied research should be
functions involved in the economic and conducted for all the areas of activity and also for
technological processes of the organization where the other regions of the country. The study also
it holds a minimum of competence with the key requires a deeper approach of the content as it is
competencies, which should underlie and important to have a barometer for the applicability
differentiate their own strategies. Thus, from the of the strategic management theory in Romania.
total of 11 potential key economic competencies The main limitations of the research were the small
and 10 managerial competencies: number of survey units (generated by certain
- 33% have indicated over 50% of the economic constraints in gathering the information) and the
competencies and 48% have indicated over 50% of small number of the conceptual variables analyzed.
the managerial competencies as key competencies The research results can be a warning for the
- 33% have indicated between 1-3 key economic theoreticians regarding the way certain specific
competencies and 38% have indicated 1-3 key concepts are inadequately understood by managers
managerial competencies, as recommended by the and improperly put into practice or not at all,
strategic management theory. thereby questioning their practical usefulness.
The concept of strategic planning needs to
be redefined from an adaptive perspective. We REFERENCES
must not forget that strategic planning is based on
consumer knowledge. Strategic planning should no Kotler P., Caslione J.A., 2009 - Chaotics:
longer be regarded as a rigorous mechanism management și marketing în era
designed to implement a strategic template. In their turbulențelor (Chaotics: management and
daily activity, about 81% of the organizations marketing in the age of turbulence), Publica
surveyed make strategic plans. Of these, 41% use Publishing House, Bucharest, p.37
Growe A., 1999 - Only the Paranoid Survive,
in the ratio of over 80% the components of
Current Doubleday, Random House
strategic planning processes, and 29% of the Publishers, New York
organizations use all these components. The Petri or I.I., 2007 - Management strategic:
activity of budgeting is done in a ratio of 42% for abordare potențiologică (Strategic
the long term (annually or multi-annually), in a management: Potentiological approach),
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and quarterly) and in a ratio of only 3% for the Timișoara
short term (monthly). Ciobanu I., 1998 - Management strategic
In the long-term, the strategic plan is based (Strategic management), Polirom Publishing
on the budget for 67% of the organizations and in House, Iaşi
Porter M., 2008 - Despre concurență (About
the medium and short term 50% and respectively
competition), Meteor Business Publishing
57% of the organizations adjust their budget in House, Bucharest, p.72
order to fit the measures in the strategic plan. Collins J.C., Porras J.I., 1996 - Building Your
Company’s Vision, Harvard Business
Review, September-October
Mintzberg H., 2000 - Ascensiunea și declinul
planificării strategice (Rise and fall of
strategic planning), Publica Publishing
House, Bucharest, p.89
290
Consilier editorial: Vasile VÎNTU

Tehnoredactori: Mihai STAVARACHE, Elena POPOVICI
Corector: Costel SAMUIL
Bun de tipar: 04.12.2014
Apărut: decembrie 2014. Format 210x297
Editura: ,,Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi
Aleea M. Sadoveanu nr. 3, 700490
Tel. 0232-218300; fax 0232-260650
E-mail: editura@uiasi.ro
ISSN: 1454-7414
PRINTED IN ROMANIA
Tipar Digital realizat la Tipografia PIM

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Editorial Consultant: Vasile VÎNTU

Technical Editors: Mihai STAVARACHE, Elena POPOVICI
Reader: Costel SAMUIL
Imprimatur: 04.12.2014
Published: decembrie 2014. Format 210x297
Publishing House: “Ion Ionescu de la Brad’’ Iaşi
Aleea M. Sadoveanu nr. 3, 700490
Tel. 0232-218300; fax 0232-260650
E-mail: editura@uiasi.ro
ISSN: 1454-7414
PRINTED IN ROMANIA
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COORDONATORII REVISTEI ,,LUCRĂRI ŞTIINŢIFICE’’

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Elena Ştefania MARDARE, Stelica CRISTEA, Relu Cristinel ZALA

Marin PANĂ, Stelica CRISTEA, Sorina CERNAT, Emilian NEGRILĂ

Sergiu PANUȚA, Nichita CROITORU, Dina TROPOȘEL,

Alexandra RADU, M. MUSAT, Anca Luiza STANILA, Lavinia PARVAN

Stejărel BREZULEANU, George UNGUREANU, Carmen-Olguța BREZULEANU,

Adriano CIANI, George UNGUREANU, Stejărel BREZULEANU, Eduard BOGHIŢĂ

George UNGUREANU, Mihai STANCIU, Adriano CIANI,

Constantin IATCO, Gabriela IGNAT, George UNGUREANU, Haralambie ATHES

Gabriela IGNAT, Constantin IATCO, George UNGUREANU,

Carmen Luiza COSTULEANU, Diana DUMITRESCU, Gabriela IGNAT, Nicolae BOBIŢAN

Oliver Constantin PRICOP, Cecilia POP

NO-TILLAGE AROUND THE WORLD

Anca-Elena CALISTRU1*, Gerard JITĂREANU1

British Columbia (19 %) (Derpsch R. and Friedrich Latin America

Options Assessment (STOA) project. European

RELATIVELY AGROTECHNICS EVALUATION OF THE SYSTEMS

Research methods and calculation: existence of 9 weed varieties, representatives of 6

300 118,9 121,3

250 124,4 121,4

 at sunflower: providing level;