Nuclear Energy and Nuclear Physicsenergetica Si Fizica Nucleara

Comitetul Romn de Istoria si Filozofia tiinei i Tehnicii (CRIFST)
Curs de initiere in istoria si filozofia stiintei

Seria a IX-a, 2015
Energetica si fizica nucleara

descoperiri, accidente, lectii ale naturii
Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu
Martie 2015
Comitetul Romn de Istoria si Filozofia tiinei i Tehnicii (CRIFST) Curs de initiere in istoria si filozofia stiintei Seria a IX-a, 2015
Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu
http://lu.linkedin.com/in/danserbanescu1953
http://independent.academia.edu/DANSERBANESCU
www.researcherid.com/rid/B-9590-2012
http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dan_Serbanescu/publications
http://danserbanescu-risk.net/
Energetica si fizica nucleara descoperiri, accidente, lectii ale naturii, Dr.ing.Dan Serbanescu Martie 2015
Continut
De ce avem nevoie de energie nucleara
Ce este energia nucleara
Analiza evolutiei fizicii si energeticii nucleare
(trei metode : istoricizanta, tip expert, paradigmatic)
Previziuni pentru viitor
Se pare ca anumite
lucruri se repeta si,
din pacate,
cele importante se
repeta in rau..
Evaluation of nuclear science and nuclear energy technology

considered as a process to achieve knowledge on various aspects for the
given object,
its phases and specific paradigms, for which the dominant characteristics
of certain phases and future trends are of high interest.
Comparative method to consider three groups of possible approaches:

historical review,
expert review,
a structural paradigm method
The goal is to better identify, in a more refined and systematic manner

aspects related to the phases of sciences and their specific paradigms and
trends for change.
tiina si tehnologia nuclear i nvmintele etapelor sale

Etapele din tiina i tehnologia nuclear - obiect de studiu i metode de analiz
Obiectul de studiu prezentat n aceasta lucrare este un caz

particular al tiinei i tehnologiei, cea referitoare la domeniul
nuclear, privit ca o acumulare de cunotine cu rol de a ndeplini anumite
funcii.
Evaluarea unor aspecte asupra acestor cunotine, cum ar fi:
O1 - elementele dominante caracteristice anumitor etape sau

O2 - tendinele viitoare i posibile aciuni de susinere.
Tabel comparativ al rezultatelor cu diverse metode pentru obiectul de studiu

(Impact: S=scazut; M=Mediu; R=ridicat)
CRITERIU DE EVALUARE REZULTATE ANALIZ
IM
EM
IM i
EM
PASCUM
COMBINAT
Sincronia
si
diacronia
ntre
elemente
(naionale/intenaionale ale obiectului de studiu)
sunt analizate si puse n eviden
Inter i transdisciplinaritatea sunt considerate

importante pentru obiectul de studiu.
Sisteme conexe (societate, motenire cultural)

sunt considerate importante: Ce ar trebui s fac
alte sisteme dect cea definit de tiin, n acest
studiu de caz (tiina i tehnologia n domeniul
nuclear) ca s avem rspunsuri acceptabile dup o
metrica a succesului pentru toate cerinele de un
anumit tip- de ex de tip O1 i O2?
Exist rspunsuri la:De ce i cum s-a ntmplat c

energetica nuclear a evoluat aa cum se poate
documenta n informaii i la ce ar trebui s ne
ateptm n continuare?
Capacitatea de a identifica puncte slabe si de a face

predicii
The liberal arts - arts or skills that in considered in classical antiquity

essential for a free person to know in order to take an active part in civic life
participating in public debate,
defending oneself in court,
serving on juries or military service.
The core liberal arts

Grammar,
logic, and
Rhetoric
while
arithmetic,
geometry,
the theory of music, and
astronomy
also played a lesser part in education
In modern times, liberal arts education interpretation is not unique

It can refer to
literature,
languages,
art history,
music history,
philosophy,
history,
mathematics,
psychology
science.
1. Is engineering (nuclear) part of

the reactor physics (nuclear )
physics scientific environment?
2. And if not what is going on and
how is that explained?
3. What next expects us if it is so?
We will come back to this!
It can also refer to studies on a liberal arts degree program. For

example, Harvard University offers a Master of Liberal Arts degree, which covers
biological
social sciences
humanities.
In any interpretation Liberal art refers to matters not relating to the curricula
professional,
vocational,
technical
Net capacity in key regions 2013-2040 - IEA outlook 2014
By 2040 an expanded nuclear fleet has saved almost 4 years of

current CO2 and for some countries has improved security of energy
supply
Power capacity by source 2013-2040 IEA outlook 2014
EU CASE
Why nuclear?
Video of IAEA
Why nuclear?
Video of IAEA
Prezentarea generala
a
fizicii si energeticii
nucleare
Nuclear reactor physics is the branch of science studying application

of chain reaction to induce a controlled rate of fission in a nuclear reactor for the
production of energy.
Nuclear reactors use a chain reaction to induce a controlled rate of nuclear fission in
fissile material, releasing both energy and free neutrons.
A reactor consists of an assembly of
nuclear fuel (a reactor core),
usually surrounded by a neutron moderator
light water,
heavy water,
graphite, or
zirconium hydride,
mechanisms such as control rods that control the rate of the reaction.
The physics of nuclear fission affects the design and behavior of nuclear reactors.
Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the

constituents and interactions of atomic nuclei.
The most commonly known applications of nuclear physics are
nuclear power generation and
applications infields like
nuclear medicine
magnetic resonance imaging
nuclear weapons
ion implantation in materials engineering
radiocarbon dating in geology and archaeology.
The field of particle physics evolved out of nuclear physics and is typically
taught in close association with nuclear physics.
Nuclear engineering and technology that studies the implementation of

nuclear physics and reactor physics in real plants
Nuclear system in a country assumes a certain minimal

infrastructure:
Research and design
Operation and maintenance
Utility and licensee in the NPP process
Public and industry
National and international components
International treaties
On the other side nuclear field is a technology area
Nuclear engineering is a technology

so technology features apply to it,
too.
Elemente constitutive ale fizicii

si energeticii nucleare
Reactor theory and nuclear theory

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Basic reactor theory

Neutron theory related to reactor properties, life cycle etc
Reactor kinetics
Reactor dynamics control, regulation, stability
Thermodynamics of NPP and heat transfer in reactor and othe
important components of NPP
Physical and chemical reactions in reactor and NPP, materials
Research reactors and special installations to be used with
reactors (accelerators etc)
Non stationary reactors (space propulsion etc)
Turbines for NPP
Steam Generators for NPP
Radiation protection for nuclear reactors and installations
Construction, sitting general layout and nuclear plant theory
Nuclear power plants components manufacturing, operation
NPP operation
NPP safety and risk analyses
NPP and fuel cycle economics
Manuale Teoria Reactorilor Nucleari

Exemple
Abordare clasica Gleston si Edlund
Abordare standard actuala standard DOE. Standard DOE
Abordare pregatire tip vestic saxon.... Manual tip vestic saxon
Abordare pregatire tip rusesc. Manual tip rusesc
Abordare pregatire Romania.. Prof Berinde Fac Fizica
Prof Purica UPB, Prof Margarit Pavelescu, dr.I Cuculeanu
Abordari diferite ale aceluiasi subiect caz particular personal
studentie,
doctorat,
pregatire operator reactor ,
autorizare conform standarde si
analize risk cercetari si probleme speciale (noi reactori, CS, SES)
Elemente de detaliu despre

fisiune
Despre fisiune (1)
Despre fisiune (2)
Despre fisiune (3)
Despre fisiune (4)
Despre fisiune (5)
Despre fisiune (6)
Despre fisiune (7)
Despre fisiune (8)
Despre fisiune (9)
Nuclear fission and fusion

How does it work?
Video of science web
Despre fisiune (9)
Nuclear fission and fusion

How does it work?
Video of science web
Despre fisiune (10)
Modele ale fisiunii
Review of the reactor

physics and nuclear energy
engineering using three approaches
Historical
Expert review type
Paradigm evolution type
Review of evolution of reactor physics and

nuclear physics
- Historical approachShort sample list international

Short sample list Romania
Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1) the world's first artificial nuclear

reactor(1)
The construction of CP-1 part of the Manhattan Project, and
carried out by the Metallurgical Laboratory at the University of
Chicago.
It was built under the west viewing stands of the
original Stagg Field. The first man-made selfsustaining nuclear chain reaction was initiated in CP-1 on 2
December 1942, under the supervision of Enrico Fermi.
Fermi described the apparatus
as "a crude pile of black bricks and wooden timbers."
it was made of a large amount
of graphite and uranium,
with "control rods" of cadmium, indium, and silver,
and unlike most subsequent reactors, it had no radiation shield or
cooling system.
Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1) was the world's first artificial (2)
On 2 December 1942, CP-1 was ready for a demonstration.

Before a group of dignitaries, George Weil worked the final control rod while Fermi carefully
monitored the neutron activity.
The pile "went critical" (reached a self-sustaining reaction) at 15:25. Fermi shut it down 28
minutes later.
After the chain reaction was observed, Arthur Compton, head of the Metallurgical Laboratory,
notified James Conant, chairman of the National Defense Research Committee, by telephone.
The conversation was in an impromptu code:
The Italian navigator has landed in the New World.

Conant: How were the natives?
Compton: Very friendly.
Compton:
had no radiation shielding

and no cooling system of any kind. Fermi had
convinced Arthur Compton that his calculations were
reliable enough to rule out a runaway chain reaction
or an explosion. But, as the official historians of the Atomic Energy Commission later noted,
Unlike most reactors that have been built since, CP-1
the "gamble" remained in conducting "a possibly catastrophic experiment in one of the most densely
populated areas of the nation
The F-1 is a research reactor operated by
the Kurchatov Institute in

Moscow, Russia. When started on
December 25, 1946, it became the first
nuclear reactor in Europe to achieve a
self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction.
It is still in operation, with a power level
Reactor type
Graphite Pile
Reactor supplier
Russia
Power generation
Primary fuel
46411kg of natural
uranium metal
(UO2and U33O8)
Tertiary fuel
41kg of 2%
enriched uranium
Capacity factor
24 kWt
of 24 kW, making it the world's oldest

operating reactor
The ZEEP (Zero Energy Experimental Pile) reactor

was a nuclear reactor built at the Chalk River
Laboratories near Chalk River, Ontario, Canada (which superseded
the Montreal Laboratory for nuclear research in Canada).
ZEEP first went critical at 3:45 PM, September 5,

1945. ZEEP's main international significance is its status as the first
operational nuclear reactor outside of the United States.NRX and
Zeep buildings, Chalk River Laboratories, 1945
The reactor was designed by Canadian, British and

French scientists as a part of an effort to
produce plutonium for nuclear weapons during World War II.
ZEEP was instrumental in the development of the NRX and NRU reactors,
which led to the development of the successful CANDU reactor.
ZEEP was used to test reactivity effects and other physics parameters
needed for reactor development at Chalk River Laboratories, including fuel lattices
for the NRU reactor situated next door.
ZEEP was one of the world's first heavy water reactors, and it was also
designed to use natural (unenriched) uranium; a feature carried through to the
CANDU design. Uranium enrichment is a complex and expensive process; thus,
the ability to use unenriched uranium gave ZEEP and its descendants a number
of distinct advantages.
ZEEP continued to be used for basic research until 1970.It was
decommissioned in 1973 and dismantled in 1997. In 1966 ZEEP was
designated a historic site by Ontario, and commemorated with an historic
plaque. Both this plaque and ZEEP itself are now on display at the Canada
Science and Technology Museum in Ottawa, Canada
Exemplu de submarin atomic cu reactori cu apa usoara
Exemplu de centrala nucleara comerciala cu reactori cu apa usoara
CNE Cernavoda centrala CANDU
Generatiile urmatoare
ale reactorilor si
centralelor nucleare
Gas-Cooled Fast Reactor
Molten Salt Reactor
Lead-Cooled
Fast Reactor
Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactor
Supercritical-Water-Cooled Reactor
Very-High-Temperature Reactor
Review of evolution of reactor physics and

nuclear physics
- Expert
approach- (1)
Short sample list Romania
Review of evolution of reactor physics and nuclear physics - Expert approach(2)
Cap 4 teza doctorat Dan Serbanescu 1987
Oare de ce au triumfat in anii 60-70 si au ramas

preferate centralele nucleare racite cu apa
usoara?
O explicatie posibila:
Evolutia este haotica si
guvernata de alte
criterii decat cele
tehnologice, cum ar fi
militare, economice.
Poate pentru ca:
SAU POATE CA.
Oare de ce acum
discutam de reactori cu
gaze, saruri topite etc?
Poate din aceleasi motive

..
Vezi
slidul
urmator
Review of evolution of reactor physics and nuclear physics
Paradigm type approach
Exista unele structuri generale care apar pentru astfel de sisteme complexe
De la pagina anterioara
Nuclear fission reactors human made and nature made..
CHICAGO PILE 1942-1943
OKLO GABON CCA 2 BLN YEARS AGO
WHAT DOES THE NATURE / OR WHOEVER SAYS ABOUT NUCLEAR REACTORS?
Some thoughts trigerred by

Oklo reactor (1)
Optimal power level
Diffusion of wastes
Criticality and algae CAS
Universal constants
challenged (alpha) more
reactor and neutronic studiess
needed
Oklo case and nuclear future
WHAT DOES THE NATURE / OR WHOEVER SAYS ABOUT NUCLEAR REACTORS?
Some thoughts trigerred by Oklo reactor (2)
Safety is achieved better for simple CS

CAS & Mandelbrot fractals for ES
Optimum for CS at each hierarchical level
Intrinsic safety expected target as this is the
nature lesson
CAS may mean also use of biological systems
for fuel cycle
Universal constants challenged (alpha)
fundamental shakes to quantum mechanics
Paradigm approach details - PASCUM
Rene Descartes, Discours sur la methode, 1637
PASCUM trsturi de baz (1)

Stiina i tehnologia nuclear formeaz, pentru evaluri de tipul O1
i O2 din cazul analizat, acelai corp de cunotine. Pentru sistemul
tiin tehnologie nuclear se consider faptul c ele evolueaz dupa anumite
reguli (cercetare, dezvoltare si trecerea la noi abordri).
Fiecare etap constituie o paradigm separat fiind guvernat de
anumite teorii, metode i alte caracteristici (societate, mediu cultural
etc) dominante.
Definirea obiectului de studiu i a metodelor de analiz necesit o
abordare dublu triadic, ce const n utilizarea a dou grupe de metode
(fiecare din trei componente)
una pentru obiectul de studiu i
alta pentru metodologia utilizat pentru acest obiect de studiu.
Aceste dou triade definesc un spaiu mai rafinat al obiectului de

studiu i al soluiilor, care indic necesitatea de a rspunde unor ntrebri,
care detaliaz O1 i O2, i se refer la:
Sincronia si diacronia ntre elemente (naionale / intenaionale
ale obiectului de studiu fizica i tehnologia nuclear);
Inter i transdisciplinaritatea n evaluarea rspunsurilor O1 i O2, cu
exemplificri din studiul de caz ales;
Alte sisteme conexe (societate, motenire cultural si tiina)
altele decat tehnologia nucleara care au impact asupra lor.

PASCUM cuprinde trei etape:
Dezvoltarea unui model al sistemului tiin tehnologie

nuclear
Dezvoltarea caracteristicilor specifice pentru tiin

tehnologie
Analiza structurilor generate la paii anteriori.
Principalelele caracteristici ale fazelor istoriei unei tiine (4)

1-A
Definirea necesitii
Avem o surs unic de cunoatere
Clarificarea diferenelor
Baza tiinei(lor) i a trsturilor sale / lor ca o abordare

dual
Dezvoltarea principalelor unelte
Crearea unei noi tiine / revolutionarea uneia existente ca

fiind guvernat de o abordare din trei- unghiuri de vedere
(posibil imposibil - probabil)
4-D
Verificarea stabilitii elementelor

definitorii pentru tiina respectiv
- teorii etc.
Durabilitatea unui element metodologic (teorie etc) aa cum

rezult din robusteea sa la paradoxuri
5-E
Identificarea principalelor
convingeri care impiedic evoluia
Fiecare faz definit n cheie istoric a respectivei tiine este

alimentat de anumite convingeri / credine i intuiii
6-F
Rafinarea cunotinelor dobndite

i imbuntirea eficienei utilizrii
lor
Fiecare teorie trebuie s aib un grad de utilitate n cadrul

tiinei respective i al societii
Cunoaterea absolut i cea relativ
7-G
ncercarea de a unifica metode

pentru obinerea unor rezultate
mai bune
Gestionarea
acumulate
cunotinelor
Existena i / sau introducerea / modificarea de ierarhii i

conexiuni ntre diversele teorii ale unei tiine conduc ctre
nevoia de a avea unelte ct mai bune de gestionare a
edificiului.
ncercarea continu de a rezolva

probleme nerezolvate i de a
extinde cunoaterea
Nevoia de nenfrnat de a atinge noi niveluri de perfeciune

i nelegere, ca o cauz continu, latent, de rencepere a
ntregului proces de la zero.
2-B
3-C
8-H
9-I
Elemente ale metodologiei descrierii

etapelor n tiin
Parcurgerea acestor etape duce la
construirea unei matrici de tranziie i
generare a spaiului topologic al cunoaterii
pentru aceste cazuri analizate
Trecerile multiple ale procesului de
cunoatere genereaz in opinia autorului
structuri de genul celor reprezentate
alaturat.
Reprezentarea triadic iniial a
obiectului de studiu i a metodologiilor de
utilizat conduce la unele aspecte importante
pentru evaluarea rezultatelor acestor spaii
topologice ale cunoaterii dintr-o
perspectiv nou asupra inter i pluri
disciplinaritii.
Rezultatul acestor tranziii efectuate
de un numr foarte mare de ori, pentru
diverse convingeri i paradoxuri date, sunt
diverse spaii topologice
Notaiile K(i) se refer la o anumit faz de acumulare de cunotine, p(i) reprezint

probabilitatea de trecere dintr-o faz n alta, iar T(i) se refer la operatorul de tranzitie dintr-o
structur de cunoatere n alta.
Pot exista diverse tipuri de cunoatere, care pot coexista cu concepte privind diverse
abordri asupra unor tipuri de civilizaie
Relaia dintre componentele triadei obiectului de studiu (mit, realitate, art)
menionate anterior.
Relaiile de convergen sau intersecie dintre aceste elemente ale triadei cunoaterii.
Exist de asemenea unele consecine interesante, care confirm
similitudini considerate de interes pentru studiul ulterior al metodei, legate de

legtura dintre structura de cunoatere si spaiile topologice generate de
rezultatele cunoterii.
De asemenea un rezultat important este c exist diverse tipuri
posibile de poliedre i / sau spaii topologice ce se obin:
cu suprafee pe exterior doar (poliedre / varieti goale)
sau poliedre / varieti pline i care pot fi asimilate unor tipuri de
cunoatere specific anumitor civilizaii, n funcie de ce aspecte
dominante erau utilizate de ctre acestea pentru rezolvarea de
paradoxuri (cele mitice, cele artistice).
Se poate astfel vorbi de cunoateri cu similitudini cu cele antice (ale

unor societai dirijate de art sau mit), cu cele dominate de tiin, cu cele
renascentiste, raionaliste etc
n urma etapei I PASCUM se obin reprezentri ale unei topologii de tipul

celei reprezentate mai jos, care se ncadreaz unui ansamblu global al
ntregii societi.
i astfel, pornind de la reprezentarea iniial a strilor posibile pentru un
sistem tiin i tehnologia nuclear n general, se trece la etapa a II a
PASCUM. In etapa a doua a metodologiei se rafineaz strile generate
pentru un astfel de sistem n funcie de tipul chestionarelor cu criterii de
definire a paradigmelor pentru o etap dat.
Reprezentarea unei topologii a

cunoaterii pentru un sistem
condus / dominat de tiin
Criterii de analiz a paradigmelor unei etape n tiin
TRSTURI CARACTERIZARE PARADIGM exemplu

A
TRSTURI ALE PARADIGMEI
A1
NOUTATE/CREATIVITATE N DOMENIU
A2
IMPACT DE CONSOLIDARE SISTEM GLOBAL EXISTENT
A3
RELEVANTA TIINTIFIC/TEHNIC
A4
SUSTINERE SOCIAL/ECONOMICA A TIINTEI PT SUPORT TEHNOLOGIC
A5
EXISTENT SCHIMBURI GLOBALE TIINT / TEHNOLOGIE
URMRI PREVIZIBILE ALE PARADIGMEI
B1
ASUPRA DOMENIULUI INSU I
B2
PARTICIPAREA SOCIETTII NIVEL GLOBAL
B3
PARTICIPAREA ALTOR ELEMENTE LA NIVEL INTERNATIONAL
TOTAL IMPACT AGREGAT ATEPTAT
TEHNOLOGIE
STIINTA
Accidente nucleare, lectii

si paradigme
Curba tehnologica
Spatiul tehnologiei
Laws of low
doses linearity
or not at low
values of doses
Unknowns
of the
future
Basic constants - alpha
Elemente de considerat
pentru scenariile viitoare ale
fizicii reactorilor si fizicii
nucleare
Social or
economical
pressure
New technologies
Where does mankind go?

Quo Vadis Domine?
Kardashev scale civilization levels

Type Terawatts
Level of used energy
Comments
4104 4x105
Solar insolation to
earth
Existing Earth level cca

4103
possible to reach
type I in 100-200 years
II
41017
Energy radiated by its

own star
Few thousands years
III
41028
Energy on the scale of

its own galaxy
One million years
Group I Cosmic level

Creation of the Universe
1068
Supernova explosion
1044
Group II Energy sources
D-D fusion energy possible from worlds oceans
1031
100-megaton H-bomb
1017
Fission one ton of Uranium
1015
Yearly solar emission
1017
Burning a million tons of coal
1016
Energy available from earth's fossil fuels
1023
Exploding volcano (Krakatoa)
1016
Thunderstorm
1014
Group III Natural phenomena / significant human achievements
Earth moving in orbit
1033
Cretaceous-Tertiary extinction theory meteorite
1023
Exploding volcano (Krakatoa)
1019
Severe earthquake (Richter 8)
1018
E = mc2 of 1 gram
1014
Energy to put the space shuttle in orbit
1013
Energy used in one year per capita U.S.
1012
Mankind future and nuclear energy Carl Sagan
Mankind future and nuclear energy Carl Sagan
Multumesc si un ultim mesaj:

Omul trebuie sa Calculeze, sa Simta si sa Viseze
in egala masura in prcesul cunoasterii.
Cred ca singura formula care ne poate asigura un
viitor este sa contam pe aceasta triada a cunoasterii

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Comitetul Romn de Istoria si Filozofia tiinei i Tehnicii (CRIFST)

Curs de initiere in istoria si filozofia stiintei

Energetica si fizica nucleara

Evaluation of nuclear science and nuclear energy technology

Comparative method to consider three groups of possible approaches:

The goal is to better identify, in a more refined and systematic manner

tiina si tehnologia nuclear i nvmintele etapelor sale

Obiectul de studiu prezentat n aceasta lucrare este un caz

Evaluarea unor aspecte asupra acestor cunotine, cum ar fi:

O1 - elementele dominante caracteristice anumitor etape sau

Tabel comparativ al rezultatelor cu diverse metode pentru obiectul de studiu

CRITERIU DE EVALUARE REZULTATE ANALIZ

Inter i transdisciplinaritatea sunt considerate

Sisteme conexe (societate, motenire cultural)

Exist rspunsuri la:De ce i cum s-a ntmplat c

Capacitatea de a identifica puncte slabe si de a face

The liberal arts - arts or skills that in considered in classical antiquity

The core liberal arts

In modern times, liberal arts education interpretation is not unique

1. Is engineering (nuclear) part of

We will come back to this!

It can also refer to studies on a liberal arts degree program. For

Net capacity in key regions 2013-2040 - IEA outlook 2014

By 2040 an expanded nuclear fleet has saved almost 4 years of

Power capacity by source 2013-2040 IEA outlook 2014

Nuclear reactor physics is the branch of science studying application

Nuclear physics is the field of physics that studies the

Nuclear engineering and technology that studies the implementation of

Nuclear system in a country assumes a certain minimal

Nuclear engineering is a technology

Elemente constitutive ale fizicii

Reactor theory and nuclear theory

Basic reactor theory

Manuale Teoria Reactorilor Nucleari

Elemente de detaliu despre

Despre fisiune (1)

Despre fisiune (2)

Despre fisiune (3)

Despre fisiune (4)

Despre fisiune (5)

Despre fisiune (6)

Despre fisiune (7)

Despre fisiune (8)

Despre fisiune (9)

Nuclear fission and fusion

Despre fisiune (9)

Nuclear fission and fusion

Despre fisiune (10)

Modele ale fisiunii

Review of the reactor

Review of evolution of reactor physics and

- Historical approachShort sample list international

Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1) the world's first artificial nuclear

Chicago Pile-1 (CP-1) was the world's first artificial (2)

On 2 December 1942, CP-1 was ready for a demonstration.

The Italian navigator has landed in the New World.

had no radiation shielding

The F-1 is a research reactor operated by

the Kurchatov Institute in

of 24 kW, making it the world's oldest

The ZEEP (Zero Energy Experimental Pile) reactor

ZEEP first went critical at 3:45 PM, September 5,

The reactor was designed by Canadian, British and