2.

MODELE ECONOMICE GENERALE

2.1.Baza teoretic a modelrii
n acest cadru general, obiectul de cercetare l constituie economia
FDUH DF LRQHD] L vQ HOHDV

ca o realitate obiectiv complex, format dintr-un mare numr de indivizi (agen L fiecare, cu o anumit autonomie, pentru producerea, distribu LD
FRQVXPXO GLQWUH GH HL VFKLPEXO

bunuri, ntr-XQ
%XQXULOH L

FDGUX

LQVWLWX LRQDO GRX

FDUH

RUJDQL]HD]

LQWHUGHSHQGHQ HOH

DJHQ LL

VXQW

no LXQL

SULPDUH

FDUH

necesit precizri. 1. Bunurile. Sensul cuvntului "bun" este aici unul foarte larg, cuprinznd att
EXQXULOH PDWHULDOH FkW L VHUYLFLLOH GH RULFH IHO $VXSUD EXQXULORU GLQ HFRQRPLH VH

impun dou ipoteze: - exist un numr ntreg, finit de bunuri (N). Un bun particular va fi descris de
PXO LPHD FDUDFWHULV

ticilor sale fizice. Ipoteza se refer la faptul c aceste caracteristici

variaz discontinuu; - bunurile sunt perfect divizibile. Fiecare bun (reperat cu indicele k, k=1,2,...,N) are asociat o unitate de msur a cantit LL
,SRWH]D HVWH RDUHFXP

restrictiv deoarece presupune c oricare ar fi msura cantit LL

XQXL EXQ L VH SRDWH

DVRFLD XQ QXPmU UHDO L UHFLSURF RULFH QXPmU UHDO SR]LWLY SRDWH IL PmVXUD FDQWLWm LL

dintr-un bun. Aceste dou ipoteze permit introducerea spa LXOXL

N
DFHVW VSD LX 3H ILHFDUH D[ HXFOLGLDQ FX

N dimensiuni,

R , astfel c o mul LPH RDUHFDUH GH N bunuri se va putea reprezenta printr-un punct n se iau cantit LOH
GH UHODWLYH OD XQ EXQ FX QDWXU XQ FRPSOH[

fizic bine
YD I

specificat. O astfel de mul LPH

N

EXQXUL VDX

GH EXQXUL ]

definit, deci, ca un vector n R (z R ). Organizarea social a activit LL

SR]LWLY VDX QXO 3UH XO E HFRQRPLFH SHUPLWH FD LQGLYL]LL DJHQ LL V VFKLPEH EXQXUL vQWUH HL )LHFmUXL EXQ L VH DWDHD]m XQ SUH

, care este un numr real

unului k este pk 0XO LPLL WXWXURU EXQXULORU GLQ HFRQRPLH vL YD FRUHVSXQGH XQ YHFWRU DO SUH XULORU p=(p ,p ,...,p ,...,p ). 1 2 k N

Definim valoarea unui complex de bunuri z, prin produsul scalar p z= pk zk .

k

Dou complexe dH schimbabile (z

1
L

EXQXUL

DYkQG

DFHHDL

YDORDUH

VH

FRQVLGHUm

Fm

VXQW

z sunt schimbabile dac pz =pz ).

1 2

Fie complexele de bunuri particulare z =(0,...,1,...,0) - toate componentele egale cu 0, numai componenta a k-D HJDOm FX  L z =(0,...,...,x) - toate componentele nule n afar de ultima, a N-D
FH FRQ LQH FDQWLWDWHD

x. Dac pz =pz , rezult pk=pN.x,

sau x=pk/pN. Raportul dintre pk L pN GHILQHWH FDQWLWDWHD GH EXQ N dat pentru a ob LQH n schimb o unitate de bun k
3XWHP IL[D FRQYHQ LRQDO SUH XO XQ HFRQRPLHL L V

ui bun egal cu 1,
SUH XULOH

bunul respectiv fiind numit "numeraire"-XO

FHORUODOWH EXQXUL vQ IXQF LH GH DFHVWD

H[SULP P

Pentru a ncheia aceast scurt prezentare, adugm nc o ipotez: dou cantit L cantit L
HJDOH GLQWU XQ DFHODL EXQ VXQW SHUI

ect echivalente ntre ele. Ipoteza este

restrictiv, dar cazurile practice pot fi reduse la acesta. Pentru a fi echivalente dou
HJDOH WUHEXLH FD EXQXO V

fie omogen. n realitate numeroase produse exist

GLIHULWH GLQ DFHODL EXQ FD

sub o gam mai mare sau mai mic de calit L &RQFHSWXO GH EXQ SUH]HQWDW DLFL SRDWH fi adaptat la aceast realitate, considernd dou calit L echivalente dect dac sunt disponibile n aFHODL
GRXm EXQXUL GLIHULWH 'H DVHPHQHD VH WLH Fm GRXm FDQWLWm L HJDOH QX VXQW SHUIHFW ORF L vQ DFHODL PRPHQW GH WLPS

5H]ROYDUHD FRQVWm WRW vQ D FRQVLGHUD DFHODL EXQ GDU GLVSRQLELO vQ ORFXUL GLIHULWH VDX vQ SHULRDGH GLIHULWH FD EXQXUL GLIHULWH 6H PmUHWH IRDUWH PXOW QXPmUXO GH EXQXUL vQ

model, dar aceasta nu deranjeaz din punct de vedere teoretic, N putnd fi orict de mare, dar finit. 2. $JHQ LL. Activitatea economic a indivizilor este, pe de o parte, profesional, iar pe de alt parte, privat. Sub primul aspect, ea se situeaz cel mai adesea n cadrul ntreprinderilor avnd
JHQHUDO vQ LQWHULRUXO FD RELHFW SURGXF LD 6XE FHO GH IDPLOLHL PHQDMXOXL L LPSOLFm

-al doilea, aceasta are loc, n

FRQVXPXO GH EXQXUL SHQWUX

satisfacerea direct a nevoilor. Pentru teorie, este comod de a distinge cele dou tipuri

de celule organizate n care opereaz una sau alta din aceste activit L
DJHQ L FRQVXPDWRUL L DJHQ L SURGXF 0DL JHQHUDO DJHQ LL VXQW )LHF

GLVWLQJkQG

tori.
LQGLYL]L JUXSXUL GH LQGLYL]L RUJDQL]D LL FDUH

constituie unit L

HOHPHQWDUH

rui agent i corespunde un centru de decizie

autonom. Presupunem c agen LL SRW IL UHSDUWL]D L vQ GRX categorii: productorii, care transform unele bunuri n alte bunuri; consumatorii, care utilizeaz pentru nevoi personale unele bunuri.
3ULPLL VXQW QXPL L L vQWUHSULQGHUL VDX ILUPH FHLODO L UHSUH]LQW vQLL ILH FHOXOH GH LQGLYL]L VROLGDUH IDPLOLL ILH JUXSXUL VRFLDOH

fie indivizii
YDVWH FDUH

PDL

urmresc obiective comune pentru satisfacerea direct a nevoilor lor.

&X DFHVWH SULPH QR LXQL WHRUHWLFH JHQHUDOH SXWHP SUHFL]D IRUPDO FH VH vQ HOHJH SULQ HFRQRPLH  'HILQL LD YD GLIHUL GXS

modelul considerat, reprezentarea acestei

realit L vPERJ LQGX-se cu noi concepte. n acest stadiu preliminar, putem spune c o
HFRQRPLH VH GHILQHWH SULQ

R PXO LPH GH EXQXUL R PXO LPH GH FRQVXPDWRUL R PXO LPH GH SURGXF

tori.

Vom numi "stare" a economiei un set de valori particulare ale vectorilor de

EXQXUL FRQVXPDWH L EXQXUL SURGXVH Q WHRULLOH SR]LWLYH FDUH FDXWm Vm GHWHUPLQH SUH XULOH EXQXULORU SHQWUX D GHILQL VWDUHD HFRQRPLHL YD WUHEXL DG SUH XULORU EXQXULORU

uJDW

L XQ YHFWRU DO

n acest cadru general, modelarea microeconomic (o numim astfel pentru c se adreseaz agen LORU s descrie
HFRQRPLFL QX L FDGUXOXL LQVWLWX LRQDO FDUH RUJDQL]HD]

LQWHUGHSHQGHQ HOH GLQWUH DFHWLD vL SURSXQH DFWLYLWDWHD DJHQ LORU HFRQRPLFL DGLF

s furnizeze modele care

explic n termeni abstrac L FXP GHWHUPLQ fiecare consumator cantit LOH GLQ fiecare bun pe care l consum, cum determin fiecare productor cantit LOH
GLQ ILHFDUH EXQ SH FDUH vO SURGXFH L

cum simultan aceste comportamente

determin pre XULOH EXQXULORU $FHDVWD IDFH RELHFWXO modelelor de echilibru economic; s cerceteze care ar fi cea mai bun organizare a produc LHL
FRQVXPXOXL Vm GHWHUPLQH GHFL RUJDQL]DUHD RSWLPDOm VFKLPEXULORU L L V

studieze

propriet LOH

XQHL VW

ri a economiei care realizeaz aceast stare optimal.

Aceasta face obiectul modelelor de optimizare.

Q DFHVW VSD LX YDVW L JHQHURV DO WHRULHL PLFURHFRQRPLFH V

-au construit foarte

multe modele. Literatura despre modele poate umple o bibliotec. O parte, evident incomplet, este ilustrat n capitolele urmtoare.

2.2. Modelul consumatorului

Presupunem c exist n economie I consumatori. Fiecare consumator este reperat cu indicele i (i=1,2,...,I). Activitatea consumatorului i este reprezentat prin complexul xi avnd componentele xik ce definesc cantit LOH Adesea xi
VH QXPHWH SDQLHU GH FRQVXP ([LVWm GH EXQXUL FRQVXPDWH SDQLHUH GH FRQVXP

QXPHURDVH DFHVWRUD

accesibile consumatorului i. Fie Xi

PXO LPHD

QXPLWm

PXO LPHD

consumatorului i, care uneori este identificat cu R +.

0RGHOXO vL SURSXQH Vm GHWHUPLQH FXP DOHJH FRQVXPDWRUXO FHO PDL EXQ SDQLHU GH FRQVXP GLQ PXO LPHD GH SDQLHUH FDUH

-i sunt accesibile. Pentru aceasta va trebui

precizat mul LPHD GH SDQLHUH DFFHVLELOH

$GPLWHP DLFL F  OD XQ PRPHQW GDW EXQXULOH GLQ HFRQRPLH VXQW GH LQXWH vQ SURSULHWDWH SULYDW GH F WUH DJHQ L

Fie d

YHFWRUXO GRWD LHL LQL LDOH vQ EXQXUL D FRQVXPDWRUXOXL

i $FHVWD SRDWH

GHFLGH V

YkQGD R SDUWH GLQ GRWD LD VD LQL LDO  &RUHVSXQ] WRU QLYHOXOXL V X GH

DOWRU DJHQ L UHD

liznd astfel un venit. De exemplu, fie

YkQG 

dki

GRWD LD VD vQ EXQXO

"PXQF

calificare, consumatorul i SRDWH VFKLPED R XQLWDWH R RU

&RQVXPDWRUXO GHFLGH V VLWXD LLOH XUP WRDUH

 GH H[HPSOX GH PXQF GH PXQF

SHQWUX XQ VDODULX RUDU

si SUH XO PXQFLL

de exemplu, cantitatea yki -O

L SH SLD D PXQFLL VH SRDWH vQWkOQL FX XQD GLQ

J VHWH XQ SDWURQ GLVSXV V

DQJDMH]H OD QLYHOXO RIHUWHL VDOH GH PXQF

L RE LQH DVWIHO YHQLWXO

Vmi=si.yki

HYHQWXDO DFHVWD VH UHGXFH FX FRWL]D LL

le sociale, impozit);

J VHWH XQ SDWURQ GLVSXV V RIHUH UHDOL]kQG XQ YHQLW GLQ PXQF

-O

DQJDMH]H SHQWUX XQ QXP U GH RUH GH PXQF

PDL PLF GHFkW HVWH HO GLVSXV V

PDL PLF RPDMXO HVWH XQ FD] SDUWLFXODU FkQG

yki=0

L HO SULPHWH HYHQWXDO

iQGHPQL]D LD GH Rmaj); dect s

i
J VHWH XQ SDWURQ GLVSXV V L HVWH GH DFRUG V

-O DQJDMH]H OD QLYHOXO RIHUWHL VDOH GH PXQF

 GDU vL RIHUD XQ VDODULX RUDU PDL PLF

VH DQJDMH]H QHJOLM P DLFL UHVWULF LLOH OHJDOH GH SH SLD D PXQFLL

9HQLWXO GLQ PXQF LQL LDO

YLQH V

VH DGDXJH YHQLWXULORU GLQ DOWH VXUVH DGLF

GLQ YkQ]DUHD DOWRU EXQXUL GLQ GRWD LD VD

FKLULL GREkQ]L HWF 9HQLWXO WRWDO RE LQXW HVWH IRORVLW SHQWUX FRQVXP LVDX HFRQRPLVLUH 3DUWHD GLQ YHQLWXO WRWDO FRQVXPXOXL HVWH DSRL UHSDUWL]DW SH GHVWLQD LL ORFXLQ  KUDQ  WUDQVSRUW UHFUHHUH VWXGLL HWF Q XUPD DFHVWRU

GHVWLQDW

HWDSH L GHFL]LL ILH 9 YHQLWXO GHVWLQDW DFKL]L LHL GH EXQXUL SHQWUX FRQVXP

Fiecare consumator dispune, deci, de un venit Vi s cumpere cantit LOH

SUH XO GH EXQXUL SH FDUH GRUHWH Vm

FDUH HVWH OLPLWDW L HO WUHEXLH OH FRQVXPH GH SH SLH HOH

UHVSHFWLYHORU EXQXUL SUHVXSXVH FD ILLQG SLH H FRQFXUHQ LDOH ILHFDUH EXQ

k avnd
YHQLWXO

pk. Valoarea panierului de consum xi

QX

WUHEXLH

Vm

GHSmHDVFm

disponibil: p xi =

p x
k k

i k

Aceast restric LH

HVWH

QXPLW

"restric LH

EXJHWDUm

GHILQHWH

PXO LPHD

SDQLHUHORU DFFHVLELOH Q FRQWLQXDUH YRP UHQXQ D V

mai specificm indicele i. Pentru mii de consum X

L FRQ LQH

D XXUD DQDOL]D VROX LHL PRGHOXOXL SH FDUH O FRQVWUXLP DVXSUD PXO L

se face ipoteza: Ipoteza 1

0XO LPHD

HVWH

FRQYH[m

vQFKLVm

PmUJLQLWm LQIHULRU

vectorul nul (X este un compact nevid).

&RQVXPDWRUXO DUH GLYHUVH SUHIHULQ H vQWUH IL L SDQLHUHOH I FXW ILH GH FRQVXP FH

-i sunt

accesibile. Reprezentarea preferin HORU

PXO LPHD

SRDWH

SULQWU QRWDWm

-o preordine pe i, fie printr-o

UHOD LH ELQDUm

WRWDOm

UHIOH[LYm

WUDQ]LWLYm

IXQF LH GH XWLOLWDWH

Ui( ):

i1

i xi2 arat c panierul de bunuri xi1 este preferat sau indiferent

i2

panierului de bunuri x

1RWD LD

i n loc de i semnific preferin D VWULFW.

 preordinea numai dac :

i poate fi reprezentat prin func LD

GH XWLOLWDWH

Ui( 

GDFm L

i1 i1

i xi2, implic Ui(xi1) Ui(xi2); i xi2, implic Ui(xi1) > Ui(xi2).

X, consumatorul produce o
 F

3HQWUX D DOHJH XQ SDQLHU GLQ PXO LPHD GH SDQLHUH

RUGLQH XQ FODVDPHQW R LHUDUKLH SH DFHDVWD PXO LPH FX DMXWRUXO UHOD LHL GH SUHIHULQ

sau alege acel panier care maximizeaz Ui(  maximizeaz Ui

SH PXO LPHD

$GPL kQG

vectorul x0 care (p, V) ale

0
vQ IXQF LH

Xi este unic, considerm fXQF LD

YHFWRULDO

crei componente sunt func LLOH QXPHULFH k(p1,p2,...,pN,V) ce determin xk

de p L V )XQF LD k VH QXPHWH IXQF LD FHUHULL FRQVXPDWRUXOXL SHQWUX EXQXO k. Pentru construirea modelului trebuie precizat func LD Ui( ). Dup cum este cunoscut, exist o ntreag teorie a utilit LL
SHQWUX UHSUH]HQWDUHD SUHIHULQ HORU

consumatorului, ai crei reprezentan L FRQVDFUD L VXQW 6WDQOH\ -HYRQV &DUO 0HQJHU L Leon Walras. Nu vom insista aici asupra acestHLD
GDW  DFHDVWD SRDWH IL UHSUH]HQWDW 0HQ LRQ P GRDU F YRQ 1HXPDQQ L 0RUJHQVWHUQ DX GDW FRQGL LLOH ULJXURDVH vQ FDUH SRUQLQG GH OD R UHOD LH GH SUHIHULQ D SULQWU R IXQF LH GH XWLOLWDWH 5H LQHP SHQWUX IXQF LD

de utilitate urmtoarele ipoteze: Ipoteza 2. )XQF LD U definit pe X HVWH FRQWLQXm L FUHVFmWRDUH Ipoteza 3 Ipoteza 4
)XQF LD HVWH GXEOX GLIHUHQ LDELO

, iar primele derivate nu sunt

2 1

niciodat nule simultan;

)XQF LD

U este strict cvasi-concav, adic, dac U(x ) U(x ) pentru

1 1 2

dou complexe diferite, atunci U(x) > U(x ) pentru orice x (x ,x ). Putem scrie acum modelul general al consumatorului astfel: Max U(x) px V x X, x=(x1,x2,...,xN), p=(p1,p2,...,pN)

Modelul se trateaz cu tehnicile clasice de analiz matematic. Vectorul x care maximizeaz U sub restric LD px V este identic cu vectorul x care maximizeaz liber
IXQF LD

L(x,)=U(x)-(px-V), numit lagrangean. Ipotezele fcute asupra mul LPLL X U permit demonstrarea urmtoarei propozi LL . Dac: 2 sunt satisfcute;

L IXQF LHL

3URSR]L LD 

LSRWH]HOH  L

V 0 L pk>0 pentru orice k=1,2,...,N, atunci: exist un vector x care maximizeaz U vector verific ecua
'DFm vQ SOXV LD

VXE UHVWULF LD EXJHWDUm L DFHVW

px =V .
VDWLVImFXWm L LSRWH]D  DWXQFL

HVWH

x este

XQLF

IXQF LD

x =(p,V) FDUH GHILQHWH SH x este continu.

0 0
3URSR]L LD QH DVLJXU

de existen D

VROX LHL

RSWLPH

SHQWUX

PRGHOXO

FRQVXPDWRUXOXL 'HPRQVWUD LD DSHOHD]

la teoreme cunoscute n analiza matematic.

0

S-D FHUXW FD WRDWH SUH XULOH V fie pozitive. Dac admitem ca unii pk s fie nuli (exist
EXQXUL JUDWXLWH GHPRQVWUD LD FHUH LSRWH]H VXSOLPHQWDUH 3HQWUX D DU

ta c px =V, se
L D FRQWLQXLWm LL FXQRWLQ H GH

procedeaz prin reducere la absurd, iar demonstrarea unicit LL OXL x

IXQF LLORU FHUHULL DWXQFL FkQG LSRWH]D  HVWH VDWLVImFXWm

SUHVXSXQH

analiz matematic mai vaste.

3UHVXSXQHP DFXP Fm HVWH VDWLVImFXWm L LSRWH]D  &RQGL LLOH GH RUGLQXO , SHQWUX FD IXQF LD ODJUDQJHDQ /

) s admit un extremum, cer ca derivatele par iale n raport

0

cu xk L , evaluate n punctul x s fie nule, adic: Uk - pk = 0, k=1,2,...,N;

p x
k k

=V

[1].

Prin Uk s-D

QRWDW GHULYDWD GH RUGLQXO , D IXQF LHL GH XWLOLWDWH

U n raport cu

variabila xk L H[SULPm XWLOLWDWHD PDUJLQDOm n raport cu bunul k.

Considerm acum dou din primele N

HFXD LL

>@

RE LQXWH

SULQ

DQXODUHD

derivatei lagrangeanului n raport cu xs, respectiv cu xh. Eliminnd ntre cele dou
HFXD LL VH RE LQH UHOD LD

Us/Uh =ps/ph care exprim faptul c rata marginal de

,, GH H[WUHPXP VH UHIHU

VXEVWLWXLUH vQWUH EXQXULOH V L K WUHEXLH Vm ILH HJDOm FX UDSRUWXO SUH XULORU DFHORU EXQXUL &RQGL LLOH GH RUGLQXO

la matricea derivatelor de

ordinul II ale lagrangeanului. Fie Ukh derivata secund a lui L( ) n raport cu xk L xh .

&RQGL LLOH GH RUGLQXO ,, FHU FD IRUPD S

tratic
k

u
k ,h

Ukh uh s fie negativ sau nul

pentru orice vector u asfel nct planul determinat de restrLF LD

p u
k k

=0. Aceasta se traduce prin faptul c, n

OXL

EXJHWDU

, varia LLOH

U n vecintatea lui x , s fie cele de ordinul I

QHJDWLYH VDX QXOH HVWH YRUED GH YDULD LLOH GH RUGLQXO ,, SHQWUX F VXQW QXOH 'HWDOLL VXSOLPHQWDUH J VL L vQ DQH[D PDWHPDWLF  6LVWHPXO GH HFXD LL >@ DUH L

N+1

HFXD LL

FH

ermit determinarea a N+1

necunoscute (cele N cantit L xk

PXOWLSOLFDWRUXO

). Dm n continuare, fr

GHPRQVWUD LH XQ UH]XOWDW LPSRUWDQW DO PRGHODULL PLFURHFRQRPLFH

3URSR]L LD  'DFm LSRWH]HOH     VXQW VDWLVImFXWH L GDFm QLFL XQ SUH

pk nu

este negativ, un vector x

FDUH HVWH LQWHULRU PXO LPLL

X L YHULILFm VLVWHPXO >@ SHQWUX R

valoare corespunztoare a lui constituie un echilibru al consumatorului.

$QDOL]D VROX LHL PRGHOXOXL FRQVXPDWRUXOXL

Comportamentul de consum individual a fost descris cu ajutorul unui model simplu: cu un venit (V L OD SUH XUL XQLWDUH DOH EXQXULORU pk, k=1,2,N fixate exogen,
FRQVXPDWRUXO GHFLGH FDQWLW LOH GH EXQXUL SH FDUH OH DFKL]L LRQHD] 

xk, k=1,2,,N

DVWIHO vQFkW XWLOLWDWHD VDWLVIDF LD FRQVXPXOXL V X V

ILH PD[LP  6ROX LD PRGHOXOXL R OHDJ FDQWLWDWHD FRQVXPDW

UHSUH]LQW  GHFL IXQF LLOH FHUHULL GH FRQVXP SHQWUX F FHUXW  GLQWU

-un bun k

GH SUH XULOH EXQXULORU L GH YHQLWXO DORFDW FXPS U ULL DFHVWRU

bunuri.

6FRSXO XUP ULW vQ DFHVW SDUDJUDI HVWH GH D VWX

dia modificarea cererii de bunuri

OD UkQGXO ORU

DWXQFL FkQG YDULDELOHOH H[RJHQH YHQLW SUH  VH PRGLILF

Scopul poate fi atins pe un model de dimensiuni reduse. Fie o economie n care

H[LVW QXPDL GRX EXQXUL

N=2. Variabilele endogene sunt componentele vectorului

L SUH XULOH

de consum x=(x1, x2)T, iar variabilele exogene sunt venitul disponibil V

XQLWDUH DOH FHORU GRX EXQXUL

p=(p1, p2). 'DW

ILLQG IXQF LD GH XWLOLWDWH

U(x)=U(x1, x2)
VXE UHVWULF LD

FDUH GHVFULH SUHIHULQ HOH FRQVXPDWRUXOXL PRGHOXO VH VFULH EXJHWDU

MaxU (x 1 , x 2 )

px = p1x 1 + p 2 x 2 V .

Lagrangeanul asociat este:

L (x 1 , x 2 , ) = U (x 1 , x 2 ) + ( V p1x 1 p 2 x 2 )

unde >0 este multiplicatorul Lagrange DWDDW UHVWULF LHL EXJHWDUH

&RQGL LLOH GH RSWLPDOLWDWH GH RUGLQXO , FRQGXF OD VLVWHPXO GH HFXD LL

U 1 p1 = 0 (1) U 2 p 2 = 0 V p 1x 1 p 2x 2 = 0

unde U k =

U , k=1,2. x k

6LVWHPXO

DUH

VROX LD

x 10 = x 1 (p1 , p 2 , V ) ; x 20 = x 2 (p1 , p 2 , V

) reprezentnd

IXQF LLOH FHUHULL GH EXQXUL 'DF FRQVLGHU P

.
UHVWULF LD EXJHWDU HVWH OLQLDU GHFL FRQYH[  L L FRQGL LD

LQHP FRQW GH IDSWXO F

U(x1, x2) R

IXQF LH GH XWLOLWDWH FRQFDY  DWXQFL HVWH vQGHSOLQLW

GH RSWLPDOLWDWH GH RUGLQXO ,, VROX LD 6H REVHUY

0 x 0 = x 10 , x 2

ILLQG XQ PD[LP FRQGL LRQDW

F  vQ JHQHUDO FRQGL LLOH GH RSWLPDOLWDWH GH RUGLQXO , VXQW HFXD LL GH

forma f(x)=0
YHQLWXOXL VH

$WXQFL FkQG VH SURGXFH XQ RF H[RJHQ R PRGLILFDUH D SUH XULORU VDX VWULF HFKLOLEUXO FRQGL LLORU HJDOLWDWHD FX ]HUR 3HQWUX D UHIDFH

RSWLPDOLWDWHD

WUHEXLH

FD

YDULDELOHOH

HQGRJHQH

VH

DMXVWH]H

VH

PRGLILFH

coUHVSXQ]
H[SULP

WRU DVWIHO FD PRGLILFDUHD WRWDO

D PHPEUXOXL VWkQJ V

ILH QXO  3HQWUX D

PHQ LQH RSWLPDOLWDWHD WUHEXLH GHFL FD GLIHUHQ LDOD WRWDO PRGLILFDUHD WRWDO  V ILH QXO 

D PHPEUXOXL VWkQJ FDUH LLQG VLVWHPXO  VH RE LQH

df (x ) = 0  'LIHUHQ

d[ U 1 p1 ] = U 11dx 1 + U 12dx 2 dp1 p1d = 0

d[ U 2 p 2 ] = U 21dx 1 + U 22dx 2 dp2 p 2d = 0
d[ V p1x 1 p 2 x 2 ] = dV p1dx 1 x 1dp1 p 2dx 2 x 2dp 2 = 0

unde U ks

2U , k,s= = x k x s

VXQW

GHULYDWHOH

PL[WH

GH

RUGLQXO

,,

DOH

IXQF LHL

GH

XWLOLWDWH HYDOXDWH vQ SXQFWXO VROX LH DO VLVWHPXOXL  6HSDUkQG HFXD LL YDULD LD YDU

iabilelor endogene (dx1, dx2, d

UH]XOW

VLVWHPXO

GH

U 11dx 1 + U 12dx 2 p1d = dp 2 (2 ) U 21dx 1 + U 22dx 2 p 2d = dp 2 p dx p dx = dV + x dp + x dp 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1

6LVWHPXO  SRDWH IL UH]ROYDW RE LQkQG VXFFHVLY SH

dx1, dx2, d

vQ IXQF LH GH

dp1, dp2, dV. Producem, n continuare, analiza pentru dx1 (modificarea cererii din primul
EXQ LDU UH]XOWDWHOH VH H[WLQG XRU SHQWUX

dx2

0HQ LRQ P F

DQDOL] P DLFL

FD]XO XQXL VLQJXU RF H[RJHQ

a)

0RGLILFDUHD FHUHULL FkQG VH PRGLILF

YHQLWXO GLVSRQLELO LDU SUH XULOH U PkQ

neschimbate
3HQWUX D IDFH R DOHJHUH V SUHVXSXQHP XQLWDUH DOH F DUH ORF R FUHWH

re a venitului
QHVFKLPEDWH

consumatorului (dV>0 (dp1=dp2=0

FRUHVSXQ] WRU 1RW P OXL FX

SUH XULOH

EXQXULORU 

U PkQkQG L FX

GHWHUPLQDQWXO SULQ

VLVWHPXOXL vQ

1 determinantul

dx1

RE LQXW

vQORFXLUHD 

a primei coloane cu coloana

termeniloU OLEHUL Q XUPD FDOFXOHORU UH]XOW

2 U 11 + p12U 22 = = 2 p1 p 2 p 2

1 = 2 U 11U 22 2U 1U 2U 12+U 22U 12

(s-D IRORVLW IDSWXO F p1 =

U1 U , p 2 = 2 conform cu (1)). Deoarece >0, iar paranteza

F

HVWH QHJDWLY  ILLQG FKLDU FRQGL LD GH RSWLPDOLWDWH GH RUGLQXO ,, UH]XOW 7RWRGDW 

>0.

1 = dV (p 2U 12 p1U 22 ), rezultnd:
dx 1 = 1 dV (p 2U 12 p1U 22 ) = ,

sau:
dx 1 dV =
dp 1 = dp 2 = 0

p 2U 12 p1U 22

(3).

Semnul lui
SRVLELOH GRX

dx 1 dV

GHSLQGH QXPDL GH VHPQXO QXP U WRUXOXL SHQWUX F

>0. Sunt

FD]XUL

GDF

p2U12-p1U22>0, atunci

dx 1 dx 1 este aici modificarea cererii de > 0 . Cum dV dV

F  vQ

EXQ  FkQG VH PRGLILF

YHQLWXO LDU SUH XULOH U PkQ QHVFKLPEDWH UH]XOW

DFHVW FD] FUHWHUHD YHQLWXOXL FRQGXFH OD FUHWHUHD FHUHULL GH FRQVXP

Un bun la

care cHUHUHD FUHWH VFDGH FkQG YHQLWXO FUHWH VFDGH HVWH XQ EXQ
GDF

QRUPDO 

p2U12-p1U22<0, atunci
LQYHUV

dx 1 < 0 dV

Q DFHVW FD] FUHWHUHD YHQLWXOXL DUH R

LQIOXHQ

DVXSUD FHUHULL GH FRQVXP

Un bun la care cererea scade

LQIHULRU  SUH XO DFHOXL EXQ

FUHWH FkQG YHQLWXO FUHWH VFDGH HVWH XQ EXQ

b) Modificarea cererii dintr-XQ EXQ FkQG VH PRGLILF

6

FRQVLGHU P DFXP R FUHWHUH D SUH XOXL EXQXOXL  

dp1>0

YHQLWXO L SUH XO

EXQXOXL  U PkQkQG QHVFKLPEDWH 

dV=dp2=0

,QWXLWLY VH DGPLWH F

dx 1 < 0 pentru dp1

FHUHUHD FD IXQF LH GH SUH

DUH SDQWD QHJDWLY 

3URFHGkQG

FD

PDL

vQDLQWH

UH]XOW 

2 1 = dp1 p 2 + x 1 (p1U 22 p 2U 12 ) 

dx 1 dp1 dV = dp dx 1 dp1 dV = dp

=
2

=0

2 p U p1U 22 p 2 x 1 2 12 2 p 2 dx x1 1 dV

VDX

LQkQG FRQW GH UH]XOWDWXO GH OD SXQFWXO D

=
2

(4).
dp 1 = dp 2 = 0
SUH XO DFHOXL EXQ VH FRPSXQH GLQ

=0

9DULD LD

cererii dintr-XQ EXQ FkQG VH PRGLILF

2 doi termeni: primul

DUH VHPQ DPELJXX SHQWUX F

p 2

HVWH QHJDWLY SHQWUX F

>0, >0, iar al doilea x1

dx 1 dV

x 1 0 , iar
VDX

dx 1 dV

SRDWH IL SR]LWLY VDX QHJDWLY vQ IXQF LH GH

QDWXUD

EXQXOXL

vQ

FDX]

QRUPDO

LQIHULRU

1X

VH

SRDWH

DILUPD

FDWHJRULF

FHUHUHD VFDGH GDF GDF

SUH XO FUHWH HVWH XQ EXQ QRUPDO

EXQXO vQ FDX]

dx 1 > 0  dV

DWXQFL FX VLJXUDQ

dx 1 < 0 dp1

SHQWUX F

DPELL WHUPHQL VXQW QHJDWLYL

GDF

EXQXO vQ FDX]

HVWH XQ EXQ LQIHULRU

dx 1 < 0  YDULD dV

LD FHUHULL DUH VHPQ

DPELJXX DWXQFL FkQG SUH XO FUHWH

c) Modificarea cererii dintr-XQ EXQ FkQG VH PRGLILF

SULPXOXL EXQ U PkQkQG QHVFKLPEDWH 

SUH XO DOWXL EXQ

&RQVLGHU P DFXP R FUHWHUH D SUH XOXL EXQXOXL  

dp2>0
DFHVW

YHQLWXO L SUH XO FD] VH RE LQH

dV=dp1=0

dx 1 dp 2

=
dV = dp 1 = 0

p1 p 2 dx x2 1 dV

(5).
dp 1 = dp 2 = 0
VWLPXOH]H VDX V UHGXF FHUHUHD GH EXQ

2 FUHWHUH D SUH XOXL EXQXOXL  SRDWH V

1

GLQ FDX]D FHORU GRL WHUPHQL FDUH H[SOLF

YDULD LD FHUHULL SULPXO WHUPHQ

p1 p 2

este pozitiv, al doilea x 2

$WXQFL FkQG

dx 1 poate fi pozitiv sau negativ. dV

SUH XOXL EXQXO XQXL  EXQ EXQXO  SURYRDF VXQW R FUHWHUH D

FUHWHUHD DOW EXQ

consumului dintr-XQ

FHOH

GRX

EXQXUL

"substituibile n

consum"

Q VLWXD LD LQYHUV  FvQG FUHWHUHD SUH XOXL XQXL EXQ UHGXFH FRQVXPXO GLQWU EXQXUL VXQW

XQ DOW EXQ FHOH GRX

"complementare".

d)

(FXD LD OXL 6OXWVN\ 5HOD LD  FDUH H[SOLF YDULD LD FHUHULL GLQWU XQ EXQ FkQG SUH XO DFHOXL EXQ

FUHWH SXQH vQ HYLGHQ

GRL WHUPHQL D F URU LQWHUSUHWDUH HVWH SUH]HQWDW

vQ FRQWLQXDUH

Desigur,
EXQXOXL  L GDF V FUHDVF

orice

modificare

unei

variabile

exogene

din

modelul

FRQVXPDWRUXOXL PRGLILF

XWLOLWDWHD FRQVXPXOXL DFHVWXLD Q DFHVW FD] D FUHVFXW SUH XO QX VH PRGLILFH WUHEXLH FD ILH

VH GRUHWH FD XWLOLWDWHD FRQVXPXOXL V VH UHGXF

YHQLWXO ILH V

SUH XO EXQXOXL  ILH R FRPELQD LH D FHORU GRX

PRGLILF UL Q PRG FXUHQW OD R FUHWHUH GH SUH  JkQGLP LPHGLDW R FUHWHUH D YHQLWXOXL SHQWUX FRPSHQVDUH DGLF RELFHL R FODX] PXQF  7UHEXLH FUHWHUHD OXL GHWHUPLQDW YDULD LD YHQLWXOX SHQWUX D PHQ LQH XWLOLWDWHD FRQVWDQW PDL FX VHDP F  GH

GH LQGH[DUH D VDODULXOXL HVWH SUHY ]XW

vQ FRQWUDFWHOH FROHFWLYH GH

i (intensitatea acesteia) astfel nct

U PkQ OD DFHODL

p1 V

ILH FRPSHQVDW  DGLF

XWLOLWDWHD FRQVXPDWRUXOXL V

QLYHO FX FHD LQL LDO

vQDLQWH GH PRGLILFDUHD SUH XOXL 5D LRQ P SH JUDILFXO GLQ ILJXUD

nr. 2.1.
x2

(x 1 *, x 2 *) A

(x 1 , x 2 ) 0 B B x1

Figura nr. 2.1: Efectul de subVWLWX LH L HIHFWXO GH YHQLW

&RQVXPXO RSWLPDO vQ VLWXD LD LQL LDO

x1, x2

DVLJXU

XWLOLWDWHD

U(x1, x2)=u.

Cnd p1 FUHWH p1>p1, dreapta bugetului (AB) devine AB, iar consumatorul, avnd un buget mai redus, nu mai poate atinge nivelul de utilitate ini LDO
DFHVW QLYHO LQL LDO WUHEXLH V FUHDVF YHQLWXO  3HQWUX D UHYHQL OD HVWH vQ

V>V)

L DOHJHUHD VD RSWLPDO

punctul (x1*, x2*

VLWXD LD H[RJHQ H[RJHQ

VLWXDW SH FXUED GH LQGLIHUHQ FRPSHQVHD] FDUDFWHUL]DW

LQL LDO  GDU FX

x1*<x1 p1, p2

&UHWHUHD

venitului de la V la V
FDUDFWHUL]DW

H[DFW SH FRQVXPDWRU (O GH YHQLWXO

este indiferent ntre

L VLWXD LD

LQL LDO 

SUH XULOH

GH YHQLWXO

V L SUH XULOH p1, p2 SHQWUX F U(x1, x2)=U(x1*, x2*)=u 6 -a schiPEDW FRQVXP

D FRPSHQVD PDL SX LQ EXQ 

UHPDUF P WRWXL F L PDL PXOW EXQ  $WXQFL FkQG

VWUXFWXUD FRQVXPXOXL V X V

YHQLWXO

FUHWH

V>V)


SHQWUX

FUHWHUHD

SUH XOXL

(p1>p1)

XWLOLWDWHD

U PkQkQG

FRQVWDQW

dU=0), consumul de bun 1 se reduce

(x1*<x1 1RW

P DFHVW UH]XOWDW SULQ

dx 1 . dp1 dU = 0

3HQWUX D GHWHUPLQD YDULD LD FHUHULL GH EXQ  FkQG SUH XO V X D FUHVFXW GDU XWLOLWDWHD U PkQH FRQVWDQW  VH SURFHGHD] 6FULHP GLIHUHQ LDOD WRWDO D DVWIHO OXL

U(x1, x2)

HJDO P

FX

]HUR

dU=U1dx1+U2dx2=0.
&RQGL LLOH GH RSWLPDOLWDWH GH RUGLQXO , GDX UH]XOW 

U1=p1, U2=p2

L vQORFXLQG

dU=(p1dx1+p2dx2)=0 DGLF p1dx1+p2dx2=0.

Q DFHVWH FRQGL LL XOWLPD HFXD LH D VLVWHPXOXL  GHYLQH

-dV+x1dp1+x2dp2=0.

Rezolvnd sistemul n dx1 UH]XOW este negativ,

FHHD FH MXVWLILF

dx 1 p 2 = 2 dp1 dU = 0

 6HPQXO DFHVWHL YDULD LL

UHGXFHUHD FRQVXPXOXL GH EXQ  

x1*<x1). Am

UHJ VLW SULPXO WHUPHQ DO UHOD LHL  $FHDVWD VH SRDWH VFULH DFXP VXE IRUPD

dx 1 dp1 dV = dp

=
2

=0

dx 1 dx x1 1 dp1 dU = 0 dV

(6).
dp 1 = dp 2 = 0

5HOD LD

HVWH

FXQRVFXW

VXE

QXPHOH

GH

HFXD LD

OXL

6OXWVN\

DUDW

modificarea cererii dintr-XQ compune din doi termeni:

EXQ FkQG SUH XO V X FUHWH 0HPEUXO GUHSW vQ  VH

Primul,

dx 1 este numit dp1 dU = 0

HIHFW GH VXEVWLWX LH

L HVWH QHJDWLY SH JUDILF HIHFWXO

GH VXEVWLWX LH IDFH WUHFHUHD GH OD 

x1, x2) la (x1*, x2*)). Denumirea de efect de p1

FRQVXPDWRUXO UHDF LRQHD] L PDL SX LQ GLQ QX V

VXEVWLWX LH SURYLQH GLQ IDSWXO F  OD R FUHWHUH D OXL FXPS UkQG PDL PXOW GLQ EXQXO  DO F UXL SUH EXQXO  DO F UXL SUH

-a modificat,

D FUHVFXW WRDUHD MXVWLILFDUH FUHWHUHD GDF YHQLWXO V X QX VH

Al doilea termen este numit "efect de venit" L DUH XUP lui p1

UHGXFH SXWHUHD GH FXPS UDUH D

FRQVXPDWRUXOXL

DMXVWHD]  'H IDSW QRXO EXJHW DO FRQVXPDWRUXOXL UHSUH]HQWDW vQ JUDILF SULQ GUHDSWD

AB FRQGXFH OD R DOHJHUH RSWLPDO GDF EXQXO  HVWH XQ

(x , x ) astfel:
1 2
QRUPDO HVWH DWXQFL

EXQ

x 1 < x 1*
GHFkW

SHQWUX FHO

YHQLWXO

FRUHVSXQ] WRU

FRQVXPXOXL

x1*

PDL

PDUH

FRUHVSXQ] WRU

bugetului AB (V>V). S-D

DU WDW DQWHULRU F

SHQWUX XQ EXQ QRUPDO XQHL

VF GHUL D YHQLWXOXL L VH DVRFLD]

R VF GHUH D FRQVXPXOXL

GDF  vQV  EXQXO  HVWH XQ EXQ LQIHULRU DWXQFL FRQVXPXO FRUHVSXQ] WRU

bugetului

AB este

mai

mare

( x 1 > x 1* 
VDX

&XUED

GH

LQGLIHUHQ

FRUHVSXQ] WRDUH YD IL WDQJHQW GUHDSWD GXS FXP EXQXO 

OD GUHDSWD HVWH QRUPDO

AB fie la stnga lui x 1* , fie la

LQIHULRU 'LQ DFHVW PRWLY

trecerea de la (x1*, x2*) la (x 1 , x 2 ).

6 UHPDUF P L IDSWXO F

punctul (x 1 , x 2 ) nu a fost reprezentat pe grafic. Efectul de venit face tocmai

DO GRLOHD WHUPHQ DO HFXD LHL OXL 6OXWVN\

-efectul de

venit-

HVWH FX DWkW PDL PDUH vQ YDORDUH DEVROXW  FX FkW

x1

HUD LQL LDO PDL PDUH

&RQVXPDWRUXO YD IL FX DWkW PDL DIHFWDW GH FUHWHUHD SUH XOXL

p1, cu ct consuma o

cantitate mai mare din bunul 1.

QVXPkQG FHOH GRX

HIHFWH UH]XOW   QHJDWLY FHUHUHD GH EXQ  VFDGH

&kQG DX DFHODL VHPQ vQ FD]XO GH ID

(este bun normal).

&kQG FHL GRL WHUPHQL DX VHPQH FRQWUDUH HIHFWXO GH VXEVWLWX LH QHJDWLY VH

opune efectului de venit (pozitiv, pHQWUX

FHO PDL SUREDELO VFDGH 'RDU GDF

EXQ LQIHULRU L FHUHUHD GH EXQ 

HIHFWXO GH YHQLW HVWH PDL PDUH vQ YDORDUH

DEVROXW  GHFkW HIHFWXO GH VXEVWLWX LH FHUHUHD GH EXQ  FUHWH DWXQFL FkQG SUH XO FUHWH $VWIHO GH EXQXUL OD FDUH FUHWHUHD SUH XOXL HVWH vQVR LW FUHWHUHD FHUHULL UHSUH]LQW FD]XUL UDUH VH QXPHVF EXQXUL *LIIHQ GH

2.3. Modelul productorului

Limitndu-ne la o realitate pur economic, putem afirma c agentul produc
vQWUHSULQGHUHD HVWH R XQLWDWH PDL PXOW VDX PDL SX LQ FRPSOH[ WRU

, care pune n lucru

GH SURGXF LH

GLYHUL IDFWRUL GH SURGXF LH LQSXW XUL SHQWUX D IXUQL]D vQ FHOH PDL EXQH FRQGL LL

EXQXUL

VHUYLFLL

RXWSXW XUL

UH]XOWDWH

GLQ

WUDQVIRUPDUHD

IDFWRULORU

XWLOL]D L $FHDVW

defini LH WUHEXLH H[SOLFLWDW:

LQSXW XULOH

factorii de produF LH

VXQW

vQ

HVHQ

, de trei categorii: bunuri

IRQJLELOH FDUH GLVSDU VDX vL VFKLPEm QDWXUD vQ SURFHVXO GH WUDQVIRUPDUH PXQFD

uman sub diversele ei forme; serviciile date de bunurile de produc LH GXUDELOH

EXQXULOH L VHUYLFLLOH SURGXVH 

output-XULOH

SRW

FRUHVSXQGH

ILH

EXQXULORU

VHUYLFLLORU GH FRQVXP ILQDO ILH EXQXULORU GH SURGXF LH XWLOL]DWH FD LQWHUPHGLDU GH

alte ntreprinderi pentru a produce alte bunuri.

WUDQVIRUPDUHD IDFWRULORU GH SURGXF LH SRDWH IL vQ HOHDV RELQXLW SULQ WUDQVIRUPDUH VH vQ HOHJH D HODERUD

n diferite sensuri. n mod -l face capabil s

XQ EXQ D

VDWLVIDFm R QHYRLH 'DU OD IHO GH ELQH D WUDQVIRUPD vQVHDPQm L D IDFH GLVSRQLELO

ntr-XQ

ORF GDW L OD XQ PRPHQW GDW XQ EXQ $FWLYLWm LOH GH WUDQVSRUW L VWRFDUH

sunt considerate activit L GH SURGXF LH 7UDQVIRUPDUHD WUHEXLH V se fac "n cele

PDL EXQH FRQGL LL  DWkW vQ VHQV WHKQLF FkW L HFRQRPLF 'LQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH

tehnic, dac o produc LH

UHFODP

utilizarea a n

IDFWRUL GH SURGXF LH L SHQWUX D

produce un nivel dat de output avem de ales ntre dou tehnici care presupun utilizarea cantit LORU a1,a2,...,an, respectiv a1,a2,...,an, cu aiai pentru orice i,
FHO SX LQ R LQHJDOLWDWH ILLQG VWULFW

, este evident c vom alege prima variant.

EXQH FRQGL LL WHKQLFH 3UREOHPD GHYLQH L

Dac nu se procedeaz
VSXV QX VH SURGXFH

DD vQVHDPQm Fm VH DFFHSWm R DQXPLWm ULVLSm VDX DOWIHO vQ FHOH PDL

economic atunci cnd trebuie ales ntre cele dou colec LL dar inegalit LOH
QX VXQW YHULILFDWH SHQWUX WR L HIHFWXD DOHJHUHD LQWHUYLQH QR LXQHD GH FRVW 9RP GHILQL SURFHVXO GH SURGXF LH FD XQ LU GH vQ VSD LXO EXQXULORU 3URFHVXO GH SURGXF LH

GH LQSXW

-uri ai

ai,

i. n acest caz, pentru a putea

N numere reale, adic un punct

A va fi definit prin vectorul [ai]. Se adopt SOHFkQG GH OD QLPLF

conYHQ LD

GH D QRWD SR]LWLY EXQXULOH SURGXVH RXWSXW XULOH L QHJDWLY IDFWRULL GH

SURGXF LH LQSXW

-urile). n ipoteza c nu poate exista produc LH

D QX IDFH QLPLF 

adugm c cel pu LQ R FRPSRQHQW a vectorului este negativ. Prin extensie, vectorul [0] const n procesul de produc LH GHQXPLW

6m SUHVXSXQHP GH H[HPSOX Fm H[LVWm WUHL EXQXUL SmPkQW PmVXUDW vQ KD PXQFm RUH L JUkX NJ 'DFm YUHP Vm SURGXFHP  NJ JUkX SRUQLQG GH OD  KD WHUHQ L  RUH PXQFm SURFHVXO GH SURGXF LH HVWH UHSUH]HQWDW SULQ

vectorul [-1, -275, +3000] R3

$GHVHD XQ SURFHV GH SURGXF LH DUH FRPSRQHQWH

QXOH

'DF

n exemplul anterior -1, -275, +3000, 0]

adugm un al patrulea bun, de exemplu, struguri, procesul corespunztor produc LHL GH

JUkX YD IL >

R4.

Spunem c un proces de produc LH HVWH SRVLELO GDFm H[LVWm FXQRWLQ HOH WHKQLFH la un moment dat, pentru a realiza procesul. Aici intervine doar limita tehnic. Limitrile datorate rarit LL IDFWRULORU
GH SURFHV GH SURGXF LH SRVLELO Q GH SURGXF LH QX LQWHUYLQ vQ JHQHUDO vQ QR LXQHD XQHOH FD]XUL SXWHP vQV

vorbi de procese de
SRVLELOH SHQWUX R

SURGXF LH SRVLELOH IL[kQG DSULRUL XQLL IDFWRUL GH SURGXF LH 'H H[HPSOX QX HVWH OLSVLW GH VHQV GH D YRUEL GH PXO LPHD GH SURFHVH GH SURGXF LH

ntreprindere de 300 ha, adic pentru o ntreprindere unde factorul de productie "pmnt" este fixat la un anumit nivel. n definirea mul LPLL
SURFHVHORU GH SURGXF LH

posibile pentru o ntreprindere dat este recomandabil s se precizeze care sunt

IDFWRULL ILFL L FDUH VXQW FHL FDUH YDULD]m

Presupunem acum c n economie sunt J ntreprinderi, reperate prin indicele j=1,2,...,J. Fie a
j j
L

b complexele de bunuri reprezentnd respectiv input-urile (a k L

'LIHUHQ D

output-urile (b k) ale ntreprinderii j dac acesta este un input.

y k=b k-a k

HVWH

SURGXF LD

QHW

" a

productorului j. Ea este pozitiv dac bunul k este un output, respectiv negativ,

j j
L FX

Notm cu y vectorul de componente y k

SURGXF LH SRVLELOH SHQWUX SURGXF

Y R

PXO L

mea proceselor de

torul j 5HVWULF LLOH WHKQLFH GH SURGXF LH YRU IL UHGDWH

IXQF LH GH SURGXF LH 

fie prin y Y 
j j

ILH DSHOkQG OD XQ FRQFHSW PDL OLPLWDW FHO GH

F (y )=0. Q FRQWLQXDUH UHQXQ m la specificarea indicelui j.

$VXSUD PXO LPLL

Y se fac urmtoarele ipoteze:

1 2
GHILQHVF SURGXF LL SRVLELOH

Ipoteza 1 (aditivitatea). Dac doi vectori y , y (y Y, y Y), atunci vectorul y=y +y

1 1 2 1 2 1

GHILQHWH R SURGXF LH SRVLEL GHILQHWH DWXQFL R

l (y Y).
SURGXF LH SRVLELO

Ipoteza 2 (divizibilitatea). Dac vectorul y ( y Y 

L

HVWH

XQ

QXPmU

FXSULQV

vQWUH



YHFWRUXO

y
1

GHILQHWH

GHDVHPHQHD R SURGXF LH SRVLELO

(y Y).
1
GHILQHWH R

Ipoteza 3 (randamente de scar constante). Dac vectorul y

SURGXF LH SRVLELO

(y1 Y

L GDFm

este un numr pozitiv, atunci vectorul y

( y1 Y).
1
L

GHILQHWH GH DVHPHQHD R SURGXF LH SRVLELO

Ipoteza 4 (convexitatea). Dac vectorii y dac HVWH XQ QXPmU

SURGXF LH SRVLELO

GHILQHVF SURGXF LL SRVLELOH L

FXSULQV vQWUH  L  DWXQFL YHFWRUXO

y +(1-) y defiQHWH R
1 2

Admitem acum c productorul caut s maximizeze valoarea "produc LHL nete", adic: py= pk yk = p k bk
k k

p
k

ak .

5HSUH]HQWkQG

GLIHUHQ D

vQWUH

YDORDUHD FROHF LLORU

GH

EXQXUL

RXWSXW L LQSXW

expresia anterioar poate fi interpretat drept "profit" (evident, este vorba despre profit economic, nu contabil). Cel mai bun comportament al productorului va consta, deci, n maximizarea profitului. Prin urmare, modelul general al productorului se scrie astfel: Max py y Y sau Max py F(y)=0 de func LD
GH SURGXF LH

)RORVLQG SHQWUX UHVWULF LLOH WHKQLFH IRUPDOL]DUHD GDW

F(y1,y2,...,yN) = 0 [2], modelul productorului cere maximizarea lui py VXE UHVWULF LD [2], care este o problem clasic de extremum cu legturi. Condi LLOH pentru ca un vector y s fie solu LH astfel nct: pk-Fk=0, k=1,2,...,N. [3].
0
GH GHULYDWD SDU LDO GH RUGLQXO ,

LPSOLF

s existe multiplicatorul Lagrange ,

Prin Fk am simbolizat valoarea luat n y cu yk.

&RQGL LLOH GH PDL VXV LPSOLF

a lui F n raport

rela LD

Fs/Fr = ps/pr, adic rata marginal de substituire ntre bunurile s

UDSRUWXO SUH XULORU 'DF DWXQFL IXQF LD GH SURGXF LH VH SRDWH L

r este egal, la echilibru, cu

VXE IRUPD

se consider c bunul 1 este output-XO L FHOHODOWH VXQW LQSXWVFULH L

uri,

expliFLW y1=

f(y2,y3,...,yN)

L FRQGL LLOH GH RUGLQXO , GHYLQ

p1=

pk=-fk, pentru k 1, ceea ce

implic -fk=pk/p1, adic productivitatea marginal sau eficien D IDFWRUXOXL k este egal
FX UDSRUWXO GLQWUH SUH XO IDFWRUXOXL L FHO DO R

utput-ului.

/D GHULYDWHOH

IHO

FD

OD

PRGHOXO DOH

FRQVXPDWRUXOXL GH

FRQGL LLOH

GH

RUGLQXO LSRWH]D

,,

VH

UHIHU

la

VHFXQGH

IXQF LHL

SURGXF LH

LPSOLFkQG

UDQGDPHQWHORU

marginale necresctoare. Se demonstreaz rezultatul:

3URSR]L LH

. Dac restric LLOH

WHKQLFH

sunt reprezentate printr-R

0

IXQF LH

GH

SURGXF LH GLIHUHQ LDELOm FDUH GHILQHWH R PXO LPH HFXD LLOH >@ L >@ SHQWUX R YDORDUH D OXL

Y convex, iar vectorul y verific

corespunztoare, atunci y este un echilibru

HVWH IXQF LD YHFWRULDO VXQW IXQF LLOH

al productorului. Solu LD
UHSUH]HQWkQG PRGHOXOXL RIHUWD JHQHUDO  DO SURGXF WRUXOXL

y=(p),
QXPHULFH

QHW

&RPSRQHQWHOH

DFHVWHLD RIHULWH

yk=k(p1,p2,,pN)

FDUH GDX FDQWLW

LOH GH EXQXUL

OD GLYHUVH SUH XUL 'DF

EXQXO N HVWH XQ RXWSXW VROX LD PRGHOXOXL HVWH IXQF LD RIHUWHL SURGXF WRUXOXL LDU GDF EXQXO N HVWH XQ LQSXW GDW ILLQG FRQYHQ LD GH VHPQ DGRSWDW  RIHUWD FX VHPQXO PLQXV

HVWH GH IDSW IXQF LD FHUHULL GH LQSXW

$QDOL]D VROX LHL PRGHOXOXL JHQHUDO DO SURGXF

WRUXOXL

0RGHOXO JHQHUDO DO SURGXF WRUXOXL IRUPDOL]HD]

GHFL]LLOH FX SULYLUH OD QLYHOXO

output-ului produs, a "consumului" de input-XUL VDX de bunuri (oferta de bunuri oXWSXW

FRQGXF OD FkWHYD SURSULHW 'DF HVWH PXO LPHD

IDFWRUL GH SURGXF LH L D PRGXOXL GLQ IXQF LLOH RIHUWHL QHWH

GH DORFDUH D DFHVWRUD $QDOL]D VROX LHL PRGHOXOXL FRQVWLWXLW

UHVSHFWLY FHUHUHD GH EXQXUL LQSXW WUHEXLH V

L JHQHUDOH DOH DFHVWRU IXQF LL GH SURGXF LH FDUH FRQ LQH YHFWRULL SURGXF LLORU QHWH ILH SULQ

SRVLELOL UHSUH]HQWDUHD UHVWULF LLORU WHKQLFH DOH SURGXF WRUXOXL SRDWH IL I FXW

yY FD] vQ FDUH DOHJHUHD FHOXL PDL FRQYHQDELO YHFWRU DSHOHD]

PXO LPLORU ILH SULQ IXQF LD GH SURGXF LH SRVLELO HVWH L LQWHUHVDQW

OD FRQFHSWH GLQ WHRULD QX RULFH WUDQVIRUPDUH

F(y)

LQkQG FRQW F

D SULRUL QH OLPLW P QXPDL OD DFHL YHFWRUL GH SURGXF LH QHW SXQFW GH YHGHUH WHKQLF GDF 5H]XOW F

care sunt "eficace". Un vector posibil y1 HVWH HILFDFH GLQ y1Y

L QX H[LVW XQ DOW YHFWRU

1 y2Y astfel nct y k2 y k , k=1,2,,N

YHFWRULL HILFDFH DSDU LQ IURQWLHUHL PXO LPLL QXPHULF GHILQLW SH

Y

)XQF LD GH SURGXF LH HVWH GHFL R IXQF LH

Y R N astfel nct:

 F(y)=0 GDF

L QXPDL GDF

\ HVWH YHFWRU HILFDFH

F(y) 0 GDF yY. Fie pRN YHFWRUXO SUH XULORU EXQXULORU Lagrangeanul asociat modelului este:
L(y1 , y 2 , , y N , ) = p y + [ F (y )] = =

p
k =1

y k + [ F (y 1 , y 2 ,..., y N

)]

LDU FRQGL LLOH GH RSWLPDOLWDWH GH RUGLQXO , VXQW

L = 0, y k
L = 0

= 1,2,..., N

DGLF  VLVWHPXO GH HFXD LL

p k Fk = 0 k F(y1 , y 2 ,..., y N ) = 0

= 1,2,..., N

FDUH

SHUPLWH

RE LQHUHD

FDQWLW

LORU

GH

EXQXUL

\k

vQ

IXQF LH

GH

SUH XULOH

pk:

y k = k (p 1 , p 2,..., p N

) DGLF

IXQF LLOH RIHUWHL QHWH GH EXQXUL LOH VROX LHL PRGHOXOXL JHQHUDO DO SURGXF WRUXOXL VXQW

&kWHYD GLQ SURSULHW

a.

)XQF LD RIHUWHL QHWH HVWH RPRJHQ DGHY U GDF YHFWRUXO L

GH JUDG ]HUR vQ UDSRUW FX SUH XULOH QWU

y0

PD[LPL]HD] VXE

p y

VXE

UHVWULF LD

F(y)=0, el
HVWH

PD[LPL]HD] LPSRUWDQW $FHDVW

(p ) y , >0
F

DFHHDL

UHVWULF LH

3URSULHWDWHD

GHRDUHFH DUDW

DOHJHUHD QXPHUDLUH XOXL HFRQRPLHL HVWH DUELWUDU 

SURSULHWDWH HVWH FXQRVFXW

L VXE QXPHOH

DEVHQ D LOX]LHL PRQHWDUH 

b.

'DF

SUH XO

XQXL

EXQ

FUHWH U

RIHUWD ILH

QHW

GLQ

DFHO GRX

EXQ

QX

SRDWH GH

VFDG  FX

y k k = 0 . ntr-DGHY p k p k

p1, p2RN

VLVWHPH

SUH XUL

1 2 pk pk

y1, y2 y2

VROX LLOH FRUHVSXQ] WRDUH ORU \ HVWH YHFWRU SRVLELO DYHP F

PD[LPL]HD]

p1 y pentru
7RWRGDW 

y<

&XP L

p1 y 2 p 1 y 1 

y2

PD[LPL]HD]

p2 y

pentru yY
GRX

FXP

y1 este vector posibil, rezult

OD

p2 y 1 p 2 y 2 

&HOH

UHOD LL

FRQGXF

(p1-p2)(y1-y2)0,

sau

(p

1 k

2 1 2 pk yk yk 0 , k=1,2,,N

)(

5H]XOW

p k y k 0 , sau

y k 0 , sau, p k

OD OLPLW 

y k 0. p k
DVXSUD RIHUWHL QHWH GH VXEVWLWXLUHD vQ SURFHVXO GH SURGXF LH D

c. Efectul produs

inputului s cu inputul r

HVWH DFHODL FX FHO DO VXEVWLWXLULL OXL

r cu s

DGLF 

y r y s = , r, s = 1,2,..., N p r p s
3HQWUX D GHPRQVWUD DFHDVW SURSULHWDWH GLIHUHQ LHP VLVWHPXO FRQGL LLORU GH

optimalitate de ordinul I, rezultnd sistemul:

N dp = Fkr dy r + Fk d k r =1 N F dy = 0 k k k =1

k=1,2,,N

)RORVLQG QRWD LLOH

dp=(dp1,dp2,,dpN), dy=(dy1,dy2,,dyN), F''=(Fkr), 1<k,r<N, F'=(F1, F2,, FN),

VLVWHPXO VH VFULH VXE IRUP PDWULFLDO DVWIHO

F F dy dp = . (F )T 0 d 0

Fie

F F (F )T 0

S = T (s )

s 0

LQYHUVD

PDWULFLL

VLVWHPXOXL

5H]XOW

dy S d = (s )T

s dp 0 0

dy=S dp sau

dy = S . Matricea S are ca elemente dp

GHULYDWHOH PL[WH GH RUGLQXO GRL DOH IXQF LHL GH SURGXF LH VROX LH DO FRQGL LLORU GH RUGLQXO

F, evaluate n punctul
F

I &XP DFHDVW

PDWULFH HVWH VLPHWULF  UH]XOW

Srs=Ssr, de unde:
d . 0RGHOXO
H[SULP $FHDVW

y r y s = , r, s = 1,2,..., N . p r p s

SURGXF WRUXOXL SRDWH IL DERUGDW L SULQ SULVPD IXQF LLORU GH FRVW FDUH UHOD LD GLQWUH FDQWLWDWHD SURGXV L YDORDUHD LQSXW

-urilor necesare.
PDL JUHX

DERUGDUH HVWH FULWLFDELO

GHRDUHFH IXQF LLOH GH FRVW GHSLQG GH SUH XULOH

input-XULORU LDU UH]XOWDWHOH RE LQXWH FX DMXWRUXO PRGHOXOXL VH LQVHUHD] n modelele de echilibru general (care vor fi
7RWXL VWXGLXO PRGHOXOXL SULQ IXQF LLOH LQWHUHVDQWH 'DF SUHVXSXQHP F GH FRVW FRQGXFH OD

VWXGLDWH vQ SDUDJUDIXO XUP WRU UH]XOWDWH

QXPDL EXQXO  HVWH XQ RXWSXW LDW FHOHODOWH vQ PRG H[SO

bunuri sunt input-XUL

DWXQFL IXQF LD GH SURGXF LH SRDWH IL GDW WRUXOXL VH VFULH vQ DFHVW FD]

icit:

y1=f(y2, y3,,yN) 3URILWXO SURGXF

p y =
1RW P

k =1

p k y k = p1 y 1 +

k =2

yk .
L

VP(y1)= p 1 y 1 valoarea output-XOXL

SURGXV

CT(y1)= p k y k
k =2

valoarea input-XULORU

LQkQG FRQW L GH FRQYHQ LD GH VHPQ  UH]XOW F 

asupra variabilelor

modelului (input-urile au semnul "p y = p1 y 1

N k =2

y k = VP (y1 ) CT (y1 ) .

Q FRQGL LLOH XQRU SLH H DOH EXQXULORU LQSXW FRQFXUHQ LDOH SURGXF WRUXO FRQVLGHU SUH XULOH

pk, k=2,,N FD

H[RJHQH L GDF

IL[ P RXWSXW

-ul, y 1 = y1 

SXWHP F XWD

FHO PDL PLF FRVW QHFHVDU UHDOL] ULL RXWSXW XOXL IL[DW 5H]XOW

SUREOHPD

Min .CT (y 1 ) =

k =2

yk,

VXE

UHVWULF LD

1 = f (y 2 , y 3 ,..., y N y

)

6ROX LD

DFHVWHLD

UHSUH]LQW

FDQWLW

LOH

GH

IDFWRUL GH SURGXF LH FDUH SHUPLW RE LQHUHD SURGXF LHL

1 cu cele mai mici costuri. y



Fie CT (y1 )

FRVWXO PLQLP 'DF

L SLD D EXQXOXL RXWSXW HVWH FRQFXUHQ LDO GLQ YkQ]DUHD RXWSXW

p1

H[RJHQ SURGXF WRUXO vQFDVHD]

-ului p 1 y 1

L XUP ULQG V

maximizeze profitul UH]XOW

1 CT (y 1 )], Max [p 1 y

de unde: p1 =
XO VH

1 ) dCT (y  1 dy
FRVW

3ULQ GHILQL LH GHULYDWD FRVWXOXL WRWDO vQ UDSRUW FX RXWSXW

QXPHWH

PDUJLQDO

Cm( y 1).

FRQFOX]LH

GHFL]LD

RSWLPDO

SURGXF WRUXOXL vQ FRQGL LLOH GHVFULVH SLH H FRQFXUHQ LDOH HVWH V RIHUWHL DVWIHO vQFkW SUH XO XQLWDU DO RXWSXW XOXL V

DOHDJ

QLYHOXO

ILH HJDO FX FRVWXO PDUJLQDO DO

SURGXF LHL

e.

3HQWUX

RE LQH

DOWH

FkWHYD

UH]XOWDWH

X]XDOH

DOH

PRGHOXOXL

SURGXF WRUXOXL

FRQVLGHU P XQ FD] VLPSOLILFDW vQ FDUH XQ SURGXF WRU IRORVHWH GRL IDFWRUL GH SURGXF LH SHQWUX D UHDOL]D XQ VLQJXU RXWSXW )LH

y1, y2, y3 FDQWLW

LOH GLQ FHOH WUHL

EXQXUL LPSOLFDWH vQ SURFHVXO GH SURGXF LH UHVSHFWLY SULPXO EXQ ILLQG RXWSXW LDU EXQXULOH  L  GHVHPkQG LQSXW

-ul,

-uri. RestriF LLOH

WHKQLFH WHKQRORJLD VXQW

UHSUH]HQWDWH SULQ IXQF LD GH SURGXF LH IXQF LH FRQWLQX

y1=f(y2,y3)  L SUHVXSXQHP F f este o f

HVWH R VXSUDID vQ

L GXEOX GLIHUHQ LDELO  Q DFHVW FD] IL[ P RXWSXW

R3

VXSUDID D GH SURGXF LH L GDF

-ul la un nivel y1 , putem construi

curbe de izo-SURGXF LH GH LQGLIHUHQ

 FDUH GHILQHVF PXO LPHD FRPELQD LLORU GH

input-XUL FH SUHPLW RE LQHUHD DFHOXLDL QLYHO GH RXWSXW $OWH FXUEH X]XDOH VXQW FXUED
SURGXF LHL PHGLL VH FRQVLGHU XQ LQSXW GH H[HP

plu, y 3

IL[DW

SURGXF LD PHGLH

PM=

3 ) f (y 2 , y y2

GHILQHWH FDQWLWDWHD GH RXWSXW FH VH UHDOL]HD]

cu o unitate din input-ul y2;

FXUED SURGXF LHL PDUJLQDOH DUDW FDQWLW LL GH LQ

YDULD LD RXWSXW XOXL OD R YDULD LH XQLWDU

put Pm =

f = f2. dy 2

6H GHPRQVWUHD]

XRU XUP WRDUHOH UH]XOWDWH

FXUED FXUED

SURGXF LHL PDUJLQDOH DWLQJH PD[LPXO OD XQ QLYHO GH LQSXW \2 PD[LPXO SURGXF LHL PHGLL FXUED SURGXF LHL P

mai mic

GHFkW FHO FDUH DVLJXU

SURGXF LHL PDUJLQDOH LQWHUVHFWHD] DFHVWD H[LVW 

edii n punctul ei

GH PD[LP GDF

nivelul de input y2 pentru care Pm

FDUH FXUED SURGXF LHL GH SURGXF LH HVWH QXO 

 HVWH DFHODL FX QLYHOXO GH LQSXW SHQWUX

f are un maxim (punctul n care panta tangentei la curba

nivelul de input pentru cDUH 3P DWLQJH PD[LPXO HVWH DFHODL FX QLYHOXO GH LQSXW
FRUHVSXQ] WRU SXQFWXOXL GH  HVWH PD[LP HVWH DFHODL FX QLYHOXO GH LQSXW OD FXUED LQIOH[LXQH DO FXUEHL

f (punctul n care panta

tangentei la f HVWH PD[LP pentru care panta uneL

PD[LP 

nivelul de input pentru care PM

GUHSWH FH SOHDF

GLQ RULJLQH WDQJHQW

f, este

ntr-un caz concret, cele trei bunuri pot fi grul (y1), munca (y2 (y3
0 VXU P FDQWLWDWHD GH JUkX SURGXV

L SmPkQWXO

pe masur ce se aplic din ce n ce mai

IL[DW ,QL LDO R FUHWHUH D FDQWLW VSHFLDOL]DUHD L UH]XOWm R LL GH D FUHWHUH

mult munc pe o suprafa de teren dat (y3

PXQF QXP

r de salaria L

SRDWH

SHUPLWH

productivit LL

PDUJLQDOH D PXQFLL 'XSm DFHDVWm ID]m OD FUHWHUL DOH FDQWLWm LL GH

PXQFm FRUHVSXQG FUHWHUL DOH RX

put-XOXL

SURGXF LHL GH JUkX GLQ FH vQ FH PDL PLFL

Cantitatea de munc devine din ce n ce mai mare n raport cu suprafa D IL[ de teren.
&RQGL LD UDQGDPHQWHORU GH VFDU QHFUHVF WRDUH VH UHIHU OD FDQWLW

LOH

UHODWLYH

GH

input-XUL

L QX H DSOLFDELOm GDFm

cele dou input-uri cresc simultan sau dac au loc

SURGXF LHL vQ UDSRUW FX XQ IDFWRU GH

schimbri tehnologice. Definim elasticitatea output-XOXL

SURGXF LH LQSXW

-ul y2 FD UDWD GH YDULD LH UHODWLY a lui y1 n raport cu y2:

y (log y ) y 1 . e= y 1 1 = Pm = 2 y 2 PM

(log y ) 2

Se observ c elasticitatea output-ului este pozitiv dac produc LD PDUJLQDOm L

SURGXF LD PHGLH VXQW SR]LWLYH 3UHVXSXQHP F

f DUH IRUPD XUP

WRDUH

2 2 3 3 y 1 = f (y 2 , y 3 ) = A y 2 y3 B y2 y3 , cu A,B>0.

Punnd k1 = A.y3

k2 = B.y3

 FXUED SURGXF LHL WRWDOH

devine:

y1 = k1.y2 - k2.y2 , unde k1 L k2 depind de valorile fixate pentru y3 &XUEHOH SURGXF LHL PHGLL L PDUJLQDOH sunt: PM = k1.y2 - k2.y2
2
L

2 Pm = 2k1.y2 - 3k2.y2 .

3URGXF LD PHGLH DWLQJH PD[LPXO vQ SXQFWXO

y2 =

k1 , iar produc 2k 2

LD PDUJLQDO

n punctul y 2 =

k1 . Deoarece k1 3k 2

k2

VXQW VWULFW SR]LWLYL SURGXF LD PHGLH DWLQJH

maximul pentru o valoare mai mare de input y2 GHFkW SURGXF LD PDUJLQDO.

'DF QRW P

z = y 2 y 3 L

IL[ P

RXWSXWXO

OD

QLYHOXO

1 y1 = y

HFXD LD

2 2 3 3 1 =A.z -B.z , sau B.z -A.z + y 1 =0 devine y y 1 = Ay 2 y 3 By 2 y3

HFXD LH FH SRDWH IL D

rezolvat n raport cu z. Considerm cea mai mic rdcin pozitiv ca solu LH

HFXD LHL 9DORDUHD OX

1 : i z depinde de y

z=( y 1 ) sau y2.y3 =( y 1 ).

Curba GHILQHWH R L]R-SURGXF LH L]RFXDQW

 ,]RFXDQWHOH VXQW GHFL R IDPLOLH IL[DW 3URGXF LD

de hiperbole echilatere (deoarece ( y 1 ) este constant pentru y1

YDULD LH HVWH VXILFLHQW GH PDUH $FHVW OXFUX IDFH FD UDWD PDUJLQDO GRX YD LQSXW

marginal n raport cu unul din factori poate deveni negativ dac domeniul de
GH VXEVWLWXLUH

-uri n procesul de SURGXF LH s devin pozitiv

QLFLRGDW GH VXEVWLWXLUH HVWH SR]LWLY

 8Q SURGXF WRU UD LRQDO QX

DF LRQD

n partea unei izocuante unde panta tangentei la curba de , adic nu va utiliza niciodat o eneaz o produc LH PDUJLQDO negativ pentru unul din
 GRPHQLXO GH DORFDUH UD LRQDO

SURGXF LH UDWD PDUJLQDO

FRPELQD LH GH IDFWRUL FDUH DQWU

input-XUL 3HQWUX IXQF LD FRQVLGHUDW

a factorilor este:

2A 2A < y y < . 2 3 5B 3B
&RVWXO WRWDO GH SURGXF LH HVWH GDW GH HFXD LD OLQLDU

: CT=p2.y2+p3.y3+CF, unde

CF este costul eventualelor input-XUL IL[H L p2, p3 VXQW SUH XULOH XQLWDUH DOH LQSXWXULORU variabile.
/RFXO JHRPHWULF DO WXWXURU FRPELQD LLORU GH LQSXW FRVW WRWDO IL[ GHILQHWH R FXUE QXPLW L]RFRVW GH

-uri ce pot fi cumprate cu un CT =p2.y2+p3.y3+CF.

0

HFXD LH

Rezolvnd n raport cu y2, rezult:

p CT 0 CF 3 y . 3 p p 2 2
LQSXW

Panta curbei izocostului este egal cu raportul pre XULORU

,QWHUVHF LD FXUEHL L]RFRVWXOXL FX D[D

-urilor.

y2, reprezint cantitatea de y2 ce se poate

cumpra dac costul total, independent de costul input-urilor fixe, este alocat pentru y2
LDU LQWHUVHF LD FX D[D

y3, reprezint cantitatea total de y3 ce poate fi cumprat

OH DGRSWH XUP WRDUHOH GRX

dac costul total este consacrat pentru y3.

QWUH DOWH GHFL]LL SH FDUH SURGXF WRUXO WUHEXLH V

sunt mai importante:

1) Maximizarea output-XOXL VXE UHVWULF LH GH FRVW.

Modelul problemei de decizie este:

Max { y 1 = f (y 2 , y 3 )}

VXE UHVWULF LD

CT =p2.y2+p3.y3+CF. Pentru rezolvare se procedeaz astfel:

VH FRQVWUXLHWH IXQF LD OXL /DJUDQJH

L(y2,y3, ) = f(y2,y3) + (CT - p2y2 - p3y3 - CF);

0

se anuleaz derivatele par LDOH vQ UDSRUW FX y2, y3 L :

L y 2

= f 2 p 2 = 0

L y 3

= f 3 p 3 = 0

= CT

p 2 y 2 p 3 y 3 CF = 0 .

Primele dou rela LL

FRQGXF PD[LP

OD

f2=p2; f3= p3 sau f2/f3=p2/p3 adic la

GH FRVW VH RE LQH DWXQFL

concluzia c produc LD

supus la restric LD

FkQG UDSRUWXO SURGXF LLORU PDUJLQDOH HVWH HJDO FX UDSRUWXO SUH XULORU XQLWDUH DOH

input-urilor. Tot din rezolvarea primelor dou ecua LL

vQ UDSRUW FX

, rezult:

=f2/p2=f3/p3 adic sporul de output corespunztor ultimului leu cheltuit

trebuie s fie egal cu multiplicatorul .
'LIHUHQ LDOD WRWDO

a func LHL

FRVWXOXL FkQG S2 L S3

sunt exogene) este:

dCT=p2dy2+p3dy3.

nlocuind p2

p3 prin f2/

f3/ rezult: dCT=(1/)(f2dy2 + f3dy3)

WRWDO

expresia din parantez fiind diferen LDOD

a output-ului (dy1=f2dy2+f3dy3).

Rezult: dCT = (1/)(dy1), sau dy1/dCT= . Multiplicatorul Lagrange este, deci, derivata total a output-ului n raport cu costul. Optimul combinrii input-urilor corespunde punctului de
WDQJHQ L L]RFRVWXO GDW 

dintre izocuant

CT ).

2) 0LQLPL]DUHD FRVWXOXL VXE UHVWULF LH GH RXWSXW

Este problema determinrii costului minim pentru producerea unui

RXWSXW VWDELOLW 6H FHUH GHFL PLQLPL]DUHD IXQF LHL

CT=p2y2+p3y3+CF sub

UHVWULF LD

1 =f(y2,y3). Procedura de rezolvare este asemntoare cu cea dinainte: y

VH FRQVWUXLHWH IXQF LD

1 - f(y2,y3)]. L(y2,y3, ) = p2y2 + p3y3 + CF + [ y

FRQGL LLOH GH RUGLQXO ,

L = p f = 0 2 2 y
2

L = p f = 0 3 3 y
3

L = y 1 f ( y 2 , y 3 ) = 0

Din primele dou ecua LL

sim: f2/f3=p2/p3, sau 1/=f2/p2=f3/p3.

Multiplicatorul este inversul multiplicatorului L UHSUH]LQWm GHULYDWD WRWDOm D costului n raport cu output-ul (costul marginal). n acest caz, pentru
FRPELQD LD RSWLP

de input-uri se caut izocostul tangent la izocuanta dat

GH WDQJHQ m GLQWUH GLIHULWH L]RFXDQWH L L]RFRVWXULOH VDX

( y1 ).
&XUED SXQFWHORU FRUHVSXQ]mWRDUH VH QXPHWH FXUED GH H[SDQVLXQH D SURGXF LHL

"curba

FRVWXULORU PLQLPH  8Q SURGXF WRU UD LRQDO QX YD DOHJH GHFkW FRPELQD LLOH GH

input-uri ce se gsesc pe curba de expansiune.

* *
5H]XOWDWHOH SUHFHGHQWH UHIHULWRDUH OD

*
FRPSRUWDPHQWXO FRQVXPDWRUXOXL L DO

productorului sunt consistente numai n cazul cnd presupunem c n economie exist "concuren perfect", adic o situa LH vQ
FDUH ILHFDUH DJHQW FRQVLGHU

pre XO FD

R GDWm H[RJHQm VH VSXQH Fm DFHWLD DX XQ FRPSRUWDPHQW SDUDPHWULF ID

de pre 

Justificarea acestei ipoteze este c se ncearc modelarea unei economii cu un mare numr de agen L
HFRQRPLFL vQ FDUH ILHFDUH DJHQW HVWH QHJOLMDELO vQ UDSRUW FX SLD D

Este evident c n realitate exist o concuren imperfect. Analiza anterioar s-a referit la comportamentul unui agent considerat separat. S vedem acum ce se ntmpl la nivelul ntregii economii.

2.4. Modele de echilibru

Numim
DORFD LH D EXQXULORU vQ HFRQRPLH R UHSDUWL]DUH D DFHVWRUD vQWUH DJHQ LL

economici. La un moment dat, fiecare agent consumator are n posesie o anumit cantitate de bunuri, numit dota LH
GH LQXW LQL LDO

. Fie di, i=1,2,...,,

ij

GRWD LD

LQL LDO

consumatorului i n bunurile 1,2,...,N. De asemenea, fie partea din ntreprinderea j n proprietate privat de consumatorul i (i=1,2,...,I; j=1,2,...,J). "Resursele"
GH SURSULHWDWH GH LQXWH  WRWDOH DOH FRQVXPDWRUXOXL L VXQW FRPSXVH SH GH R SDUWH GLQ YDORDUHD GRWD LHL LQL LDOH

(pd ), iar pe de alt parte din valoarea pr LL

5HOXkQG QRWD LLOH I

ij

py j ).

cute la modelul consumatoUXOXL SXWHP VFULH PXO LPHD EXJHWDU a

consumatorului i sub forma: B = [x X ; px pd + ij py j ].

i i i i i
j

2 DORFD LH 

x ,x ,...,x ,y ,y ,...,y 

VH QXPHWH DORFD LH UHDOL]DELO

GDFm L QXPDL

dac: x X , i=1,2,...,I; y Y , j=1,2,...,J;

j j i i

x y
i k i

+ d i k , k=1,2,N.
i

DGLF  YHFWRULL GH FRQVXP UHVSHFWLY GH SURGXF LH VXQW YHFWRUL GH DFWLYLWDWH SRVLELOL SHQWUX ILHFDUH DJHQW LDU FHUHUHD WRWDO QX GHS HWH RIHUWD WRWDO SH QLFL R SLD

O stare optimal n economie poate fi definit ca acea aloca LH UHDOL]DELO care asigur utilitatea maxim pentru fiecare agent. Mai precis, un optim Pareto (dup numele
1
HFRQRPLVWXOXL LWDOLDQ FDUH D GHILQLW DVWIHO RSWLPXO HVWH R DORFD LH UHDOL]DELO

(x* ,...,x* ,y* ,...,y* ) astfel nct nu exist o alta (x ,...,x ,y ,...,y ) care s permit ameliorarea utilit
LL WXWXURU FRQVXPDWRULORU

, cu o ameliorare strict cel pu LQ

i i i i pentru unul, adic: U (x ) U (x* ), i=1,...,I L H[LVWm i astfel nct Ui(xi) > Ui(x*i).

&X QR LXQLOH LQWURGXVH DQWHULRU SXWHP GHILQL VWDUHD GH 'HILQL LH 2 DORFD LH 

echilibru astfel:
N j j Y , adic p*y*

x* ,...,x* ,y* ,...,y*  L XQ VLVWHP GH SUH XUL p* R astfel nct:

j
vQ PXO LPHD GH SURGXF LH

a) y* maximizeaz profitul p*y

j j j i

p*y pentru orice y Y , j=1,2,...,J; b) x* maximizeaz utilitatea U (x ) p*x p*d +

F SLH HOH FHUHUHD

vQ PXO LPHD EXJ

etar B , B = [ x X ;

j
WRWDO

ij

p * y j ] , i=1,2,...,I;
HVWH HJDO

VH

cu

oferta

total

SH

WRDWH DO

x
i

= y j k + d i k , k=1,2,,N
j

QXPHWH

HFKLOLEUX

FRQFXUHQ LDO

propriet LL SULYDWH
Q ED]D LSRWH]HORU ImFXWH L D GHILQL LLORU SUH]HQWDWH G

m n continuare dou

teoreme care sintetizeaz rezultatele model

i

ULL PLFURHFRQRPLFH

Teorema 1. Dac U este strict crescmWRDUH vQ UDSRUW FX ILHFDUH YDULDELOm L GDFm exist un echilibru concuren LDO Pareto. Pentru demonstrarea acestei teoreme trebuie fcute ipoteze puternice. Optimalitatea paretian a echilibrului concurHQ LDO
PDUH JHQHUDOLWDWH FDUH SRDWH IL vQ HOHDV VHPQDOXO GDW GH SUH XO GH HFKLOLEUX FkQG H[LVW DO SURSULHW

LL

SULYDWH DWXQFL DFHVWD HVWH XQ RSWLP

, este o proprietate de
HFRQRPLFH vQ

intuitiv. Teorema 1 spune c este suficient

p* pentru a coordona activit LOH

mod descentralizat, satisfctor n sensul criteriului Pareto. Fiecare agent economic, prin comportamentul su de maximizare individual, se aliniaz sistemului de pre XUL
HJDOkQG UDWHOH ORU PDUJLQDOH GH GH VXEVWLWXLUH D vQ FRQVXP LQSXW D GRX EXQXUL SHQWUX FRQVXPDWRUL UHVSHFWLY WUDQVIRUPDUH GRX

uri (pentru productori) cu

HJDOH vQWUH HOH $FHVWH

UDSRUWXO SUH XULORU XQLWDUH DOH FHORU GRX VLVWHP GH

EXQXUL &XP WR L DJHQ LL IDF ID m DFHOXLDL PDUJLQDOH VXQW HJDOLWD

SUH XUL OD HFKLOLEUX WRDWH UDWHOH OD FDUH VH DGDXJ

egalit L

echilibrul pie HORU

tea cererii cu oferta)

caracterizeaz optimul Pareto n univers convex

SULQ XQLYHUV FRQYH[ VH vQ HOHJH F

ntreprinderile au randamente marginale necresctoare, iar consumatorii au preferin H

convexe). Aceast intui LH

QX

SHUPLWH

XQHRUL

vQ HOHJHUHD

RSWLPD

lit LL

HFKLOLEUXOXL

FRQFXUHQ LDO DWXQFL FkQG H[LVW

, n univers neconvex.
L VWULFW FUHVFmWRDUH SH PXO LPHD GH FRQVXP

Teorema 2. Dac: U este continu, cvasi-FRQFDYm X ; d k 0, k=1,...,N ; i=1,...,I; Y este convex, j=1,...,J atunci, fiind dat o aloca LH RSWLPDO Pareto (x* ,...,x* ,y* ,...,y* ), exist un sistem de
SUH XUL

p* R , astfel nct:
i i i i j j j

x* mazimizeaz U (x ) vQ PXO LPHD EXJHWDU B ; y* mazimizeaz p*y

vQ PXO LPHD

Y , j=1,...,J.

Teorema 2 asigur c o aloca LH RSWLPDO n sens Pareto poate fi descentralizat. Dac se d fiecrui consumator venitul V*i = p*x*
DJHQ LORU HFRQRPLFL VLVWHPXO L GH SUH XUL PD[LPL

GDFm

VH

DQXQ

mul LPLL
UHVWULF LD

p*, atunci maximizarea profitului

FRQVXPDWRUXOXL L VXE

ntreprinderii j (j=1,...,J)
i i

zarea utilit LL

bugetar p*x V* (i=1,...,I

FRQGXFH DJHQ LL OD SODQXUL GH FRQVXP L GH SURGXF LH

FDUH VXQW FRPSDWLELOH L FDUH FRLQFLG FX DORFD LD RSWLPDO

pe care ei au ales-o. Acest rii descentralizate.

rezultat este eficacit LL

IXQGDPHQWDO GHRDUHFH SHUPLWH vQ HOHJHUHD SODQLILF

2SWLPDOLWDWHD HFKLOLEUXOXL FRQFXUHQ LDO HVWH VXILFLHQWm vQ FHHD FH SULYHWH FULWHULXO GDU SRDWH FRUHVSXQGH OD R GLVWULEX LH D YHQLWXULORU vQ VRFLHWDWH PDL SX LQ

echitabil. Echilibrul concuren LDO DO SURSULHW LL SULYDWH Uspunde pe deplin criteriilor

GH HILFLHQ m HFRQRPLFm GDU QX L XQRUD GH MXVWL LH VRFLDO

2.4.1.

(FKLOLEUX HFRQRPLF SH GLIHULWH WLSXUL GH SLD

Modelul Arrow-Debreux-McKenzie prezentat ntr-R

DQWHULRU FUHHD] R LPDJLQH JHQHUDO

IRUP

DGDSWDW

n capitolul
LL SULYDWH

D IXQF LRQ ULL HFRQRPLHL 6FRSXO V X HVWH GH D

GHVFULH FRPSRUWDPHQWXO DF LXQHD DJHQ LORU vQWU R HFRQRPLH D SURSULHW

$WLQJHUHD DFHVWXL VFRS D IRVW SRVLELO

SULQWU R GHVFULHUH VLPSOLILFDW

D HFR

nomiei.

Singurele variabile endogene, explicate prin model, sunt variabilele de activitate

HFRQRPLF JHQHUDO DOH DJHQ LORU WRDWH FHOHODOWH ILLQG FRQVLGHUDWH H[RJHQH Q DFHVW FDGUX FX DJHQ L EXQXUL L SLH H FRUHVSXQ] WRDUH ORU GDWH H[RJHQ VLPSOLILFDW GHWHUPLQ

mRGHOXO

QLYHOXO RSWLPDO GH DFWLYLWDWH D DJHQ LORU SODQXULOH ORU GH FRQVXP FRQGL LLOH vQ FDUH DFHVWH DF LXQL LQGLYLGXDOH VH FRQMXJ

VDX GH SURGXF LH L DUDW

pentru a rezulta o stare de echilibru n economie. Aceste rezultate au valabilitate doar

vQ FDGUXO GHVFULV VXE WRDWH LSRWH]H H[SOLFLWH VDX LPSOLFLWH HQXQ DWH 'DF VFRSXO XUP ULW VH O UJHWH SHQWUX D DQDOL]D L DOWH DVSHFWH DOH UHDOLW HQGRJHQL]H]H V LL

HFRQRPLFH PRGHOXO WUHEXLH V RUL VH GRUHWH DF

H[SOLFH L DOWH YDULDELOH 2UL GH FkWH

est lucru trebuie completata cadrul economic general cu descrieri noi.

SLH HOH WXWXURU EXQXULORU GLQ HFRQRPLH VXQW GLPHQVLXQHD DJHQ LORU PLFL V QX ILH

([HPSOLILF P FX OXDUHD vQ FRQVLGHUDUH D XQHL QRL YDULDELOH GLPHQVLXQHD DJHQ LORU HFRQRPLFL Q PRGHOXO JHQHUDO LSRWH]D F SLH H GH FRQFXUHQ SHUIHFW

D SHUPLV FD YDULDELOD

SHUWLQHQW  0DL SUHFLV DJHQ LL HFRQRPLFL HUDX FRQVLGHUD L DVWIHO F XQ FRPSRUWDPHQW SDUDPHWULF ID GH SUH

vQ UDSRUW FX SLD D

HUD SODX]LELO Q FRQGL LLOH GHVFULVH

DJHQ LL FRQVLGHUDX SUH XO FD SH R YDULDELO GLPHQVLXQLL DJHQ LORU FDUH RSHUHD] FRPSRUWDPHQW VH VFKLPE  1H VLWX P SH SLD D XQXL EXQ SLD SH RPRJHQ  'DF YD

H[RJHQ  3ULQ OXDUHD vQ FRQVLGHUDUH D

SH SLD D XQXL EXQ VH vQWkOQHVF FD]XUL FkQG DFHVW

FDUH

HVWH

XQ

RXWSXW

SHQWUX

DJHQ L

SURGXF WRUL FH RSHUHD] GLQ DFHVW EXQ

SH DFHVW WRWDO

DJHQWXO IL

GHFLGH V

SURGXF FX

R FDQWLWDWH

yj

RIHUWD

SLD

Y =

y
j =1

j 

1RW P

j =

yj Y

j=1,2,,n

SDUWHD GH SLD

UHODWLY

D DJHQWXOXL

j. Variabila j GHILQHWH

GLPHQVLXQHD

agentului j

vQ

UDSRUW

FX

SLD D

3HQWUX

FDUDFWHUL]D

PHGLXO

FRQFXUHQ LDO

SH

SLD D

bunului respectiv folosim un indicator statistic cunoscut: "indicele de concentrare", definit prin IC n =
DJHQ LORU SUH]HQ L

j =1
SH

2 j

. Valoarea indicelui de concentrare depinde de dimensiunea

 GHFL GH QXP UXO DFHVWRUD LQkQG FRQW F

SLD

j =1

= 1,

YDORDUHD PD[LP

D LQGLFHOXL GH FRQFHQWUDUH VH UHDOL]HD]

DWXQFL FkQG SH SLD HVWH R SLD  L

H[LVW

un singur agent (n=1). n acest caz, IC1=1 L SLD D UHVSHFWLY

'DF SH SLD RSHUHD] PDL PXO L DJHQ L 

GH PRQRSRO  DVWIHO F

n 2), atunci 0< j

j2 < j

indicele de concentrare este:

IC n =

j =1

2 j

<

j =1

= 1,

DGLF

ICn<1.
3URSR]L LD XUP WRDUH DUDW FDUH HVWH YDORDUHD PLQLP D LQGLFHOXL GH FRQFHQWUDUH 3URSR]L LH 9DORDUHD PLQLP D LQGLFHOXL GH FRQFHQWUDUH VH DWLQJH DWXQFL FkQG

DJHQ LL SUH]HQ L SH SLD 'HPRQVWUD LH GLPHQVLXQLL DGLF

DX DFHHDL GLPHQVLXQH QXP UXO GH DJHQ L LGHQWLFL GLQ SXQFW GH YHGHUH DO

: Fie n

1 = 2 = ... = n =
2

1 . n acest caz, indicele de concentrare este n

IC n =

j2 =
j =1

1 1 = . n j =1 n
n

$U W P F

IC n

1 n

 IRORVLQG LQGXF LD PDWHPDWLF 

Pentru n=1 UHOD LD HVWH DGHY Pentru n=2, fie 1 , 2 indicele

IC 2 = 12 + 22 = 12 + 1 1

UDW

IC 1 1 );

GLPHQVLXQLOH FHORU GRL DJHQ L

1 + 2 = 1 

&DOFXO P

de

concentrare:
PLQLP D OXL ,&2

= 212 21 + 1 9DORDUHD

se

RE LQH SHQWUX

FDUH YHULILF

HFXD LD

dIC 2 1 = 0 , rezultnd 1 = d 1 2

IC 2

1 2

pentru orice cuplu ( 1 , 2 );

3UHVXSXQHP UHOD LD DGHY UDW SHQWUX

n=k ( IC k

1 k

 L GHPRQVWU P SHQWUX

n=k+1 $YHP F

IC k + 1 = = 1 k +1

j =1 2

k +1

2 j

j =1

2 j

+ k2 + 1 =
2

j + k2 +1 j =1 1 k + 1
k

Dar,
k

j =1
2

k +1

= 1,

k +1 = 1

j =1

1 k +1 =

j =1

1
j =1

=1 k +1

j 1. k j =1 1 k + 1
5H]XOW F

IC k + 1 ( 1 k +1 )
2
FDUH YHULILF

1 + k2+1  k

9DORDUHD PLQLP

D OXL

ICk+1

VH RE L

ne

pentru k +1

HFXD LD

dIC k + 1 = 0, d k + 1

de unde k +1 =

1 , k +1

iar

1 1 1 1 ; IC k + 1 1 + = k + 1 k k +1 k + 1

n concluzie, IC n este nFKHLDW

2 FRQVHFLQ R SLD 

1 n

HVWH DGHY UDW

SHQWUX RULFH

n N

L GHPRQVWUD LD

LPHGLDW

D SURSR]L LHL DQWHULRDUH HVWH F

LQGLFHOH GH FRQFHQWUDUH SH

HVWH FX DWkW PDL PLF FX FkW QXP UXO DJHQ LORU SUH]HQ L HVWH PDL PDUH Q

IXQF LH GH QXP UXO GH DJHQ L L LPSOLFLW GH GLPHVQVLXQHD DFHVWRUD SDUWHD GH SLD UHODWLY GH SLD GDF GH LQXW  GHRVHELP GLIHULWH IRUPH WLSXUL GH SLD 

a)

QXP UXO DJHQ LORU HVWH IRDUWH PDUH LQGLFHOH GH FRQFHQWUDUH HVWH PLF

WLQGH VSUH YDORDUHD PLQLP

1 n

 GLPHQVLXQHD DFHVWRUD HVWH PLF

vQ UDSRUW FX

SLD D

HVWH

vQGHSOLQLW

DVWIHO

XQD

GLQ

FRQGL LLOH

FDUH

GHILQHWH

SLD D

GH

FRQFXUHQ

SHUIHFW 

b)

GDF

QXP UXO DJHQ LORU HVWH VXSHULRU OXL   HVWH XQ ROLJRSRO 3HQWUX

n 2 

GDU VXILFLHQW GH PLF SLD D FX QXPDL GRL DJHQ

UHVSHFWLY

FD]XO

SDUWLFXODU

(n=2 SLD D HVWH XQ GXRSRO c)

GDF SH SLD RSHUHD] XQ VLQJXU DJHQW  

n=1), indicele de concentrare

HVWH PD[LP L SLD D HVWH GH PRQRSRO

0RGHOXO

JHQHUDO

GHVFULD

FRPSRUWDPHQWXO

DJHQ LORU

SH

SLD

FRQFXUHQ LDO

SHUIHFW  Q SDUDJUDIHOH XUP WRDUH HVWH SLD

analizat comportamentul pe celelalte tipuri de

YHGHP FH OHJ WXU H[LVW vQWUH GDW  SH R SLD

 QDLQWH GH VWXGLXO DFHVWRU FRPSRUWDPHQWH V

LQGLFHOH GH FRQFHQWUDUH L SURILWDELOLWDWHD DJHQ LORU FDUH RSHUHD] &RQVLGHU P GLQ QRX SLD D XQXL EXQ RPRJHQ SH FDUH RSHUHD] F 

Q DJHQ L L SUHVXSXQHP

agentul j produce cantitatea yj suportnd costurile totale CT j (y j ) = c j y j , cu cj>0. S-a presupus aici pentru simplificare un cost marginal constant; RIHUWD WRWDO pDUWHD
SH SLD HVWH

Y =

y
j =1

; j este j =
yj Y

GH SLD

UHODWLY

D DJHQWXOXL

, iar indicele de concentrare

este IC n = FHUHUHD WRWDO

j =1

2 j

;
HVWH

DJUHJDW  SH SLD

X=f(p) LDU GDF p HVWH SUH XO GH HFKLOLEUX

FX RIHU

SUH XO SHQWUX FDUH FHUHUHD HVWH HJDO

ta X=Y

UH]XOW

Y=f(p)

p(Y)=f-1(Y) YD IL LQYHUVD IXQF LHL FHUHULL &RQVLGHU

D SUH XOXL 

P R YDULD LH LQILQLWH]LPDO 

dp L D FDQWLW
GHRDUHFH

LL FHUXWH 

dY $YHP F
DUH

dp=p(Y)dY,
QHJDWLY 

dY 1 = dp p( Y
L

, cu p(Y)<0

IXQF LD

FHUHULL

SDQWD

GHILQLP

HODVWLFLWDWHD FHUHULL vQ UDSRUW FX SUH XO SULQ

e =

dY Y p( Y ) ; , sau e = dp p Y p( Y )

 profitul agentului j este P j = p ( Y ) y j cj y j

yj = p( Y

HO

HVWH

PD[LP

GDF

) cj ; p( Y )
L FLIUD QLYHOXO

indicele de profitabilitate al agentului j este raportul dintre profitul (Pj de afaceri CA j = p ( Y ) y j 

RSWLPDO DO DGLF

IP j =

Pj CA j

p( Y
V X

) cj p( Y )

 5H]XOW

RXWSXWXOXL

yj
IP j = yj

devine:
e Y

yj =
IP j =

p( Y

) cj p( Y )

Y ) cj p( Y ) p( = e Y IP j n final, p( Y ) p( Y )

sau

j , adic e

SRQGHUHD SURILWXOXL DJHQWXOXL UHODWLY

j vQ FLIUD VD GH DIDFHUL HVWH GDW

GH UDSRUWXO GLQWUH SDUWHD GH SLD SUH XO

L HODVWLFLWDWHD FHUHULL vP UDSRUW FX

OD QLYHOXO SLH HL GHILQLP XQ LQGLFH GH SURILWDELOLWDWH PHGLX FD PHGLH SRQGHUDW a indicilor indiviGXDOL agent: IP =
n j =1
IRORVLQG FD SRQGHUL SDUWHD GH SLD UHODWLY D ILHF UXL

j IPj =
PHGLH SH

j
j =1
SLD

j 1 = e e

j =1

2 j

IC n e

3URILWDELOLWDWHD

HVWH

GDW

GH

UDSRUWXO

GLQWUH

LQGLFHOH

GH

FRQFHQWUDUH L HODVWLFLWDWHD FHUHULL vQ UDSRUW FX SUH XO

2.4.2.

(FKLOLEUXO SH SLD D GH PRQRSR

0RQRSROXO HVWH SLD D FDUDFWHUL]DW HVWH IRDUWH SX LQ SUREDELO FD DFHDVW SURGXV GH HD GUHSW R YDULDELO

GH H[LVWHQ D XQXL VLQJXU RIHUWDQW Q DFHVW FD] vQWUHSULQGHUH V FRQVLGHUH SUH XO EXQXOXL

XQLF

H[RJHQ

PRGHOXOXL )D

GH PRGHOXO JHQHUDO DO SLH HL

FRQFXUHQ LDOH PRQRSROXO YD GHFLGH DWkW DVXSUD YDULDELOHL FDQWLWDWH GH RXWSXW FkW L D SUH XOXL DOHJkQG QLYHOXO DFHVWRU YDULDELOH DVWIHO vQFkW SURILWXO UHDOL\DW V ILH PD[LP GDW GH

(YLGHQW GHFL]LD PRQRSROXOXL QX SRDWH IL WRWDO LQGHSHQGHQW  3HQWUX XQ SUH YD SXWHD YLQGH R FDQWLWDWH GH RXWSXW PDL PDUH GHFkW FHD DFFHSWDW

, el nu
SLD 

'LPSRWULY  GDF

GHFLGH XQ SUH

ULGLFDW YD YLQGH R FDQWLWDWH PDL PLF

GH RXWSXW

&RPSRUWDPHQWXO FHUHULL FRQVXPDWRULORU UHSUH]LQW DIODW

R UHVWULF LH SHQWUX vQWUHSULQGHUHD

vQ VLWXD LH GH PRQRSRO Q DFHVWH FRQGL LL PRQRSROXO SRDWH

a)

IL[H]H SUH XO RXWSXWXOXL V X O VkQG FRQVXPDWRULL V R FXPSHUH OD DFHVW SUH  L V

DOHDJ

FDQWLWDWHD SH

FDUH GRUHVF V

b)

IL[H]H FDQWLWDWHD GH RXWSXW SURGXV YRU SO WL SHQWUX DFHDVW FDQWLWDWH

ODVH FRQVXPDWRULL V

GHFLG

FH

pUH
&HOH QDWXUDO 

GRX

WLSXUL

GH

GHFL]LL

VXQW

HYLGHQW

HFKLYDOHQWH

GDU

SULPD

SDUH

PDL

Fie y=f(p) FXUED FHUHULL SLH HL DGLF

SUH XO XQLWDU  IXQF LH GH VLQJXU

IXQF LD FDUH OHDJ

FDQWLWDWHD YkQGXW

y) de p n
R

p

,QYHUVD DFHVWHL IXQF LL FXUED FHUHULL LQYHUVH YD H[SULPD SUH XO

FDQWLWDWHD

y:p=p(y)

&RQVLGHU P

XQ

VHFWRU

GH

DFWLYLWDWH

XQGH

H[LVW

vQWUHSULQGHUH FDUH SURGXFH RXWSXWXO 'DF vQWUHSULQGHUHD YLQG

XWLOL]kQG GLYHUVH LQSXWXUL DO F URU FRVW OD SUH XO

total este CT(y

e outputul y

p(y

HD vQFDVHD]

YDORDUHD SURGXF LHL

VP (y ) = p (y ) y

L GHFLGH FH FDQWLWDWH

SURGXFH DVWIHO vQFkW V

UHDOL]H]H XQ SURILW PD[LP DGLF 

VP (y ) CT (y )] = max [p (y ) y max [
y y

CT (y )].

&RQGL LD GH RSWLPDOLWDWH GH RUGLQXO , FHUH FD vQFDVDUHD PDUJLQDO

ILH HJDO

FX

costul marginal, deoarece:

d dVP (y ) dCT (y ) [ VP (y ) CT (y )] = = 0, dy dy dy

DGLF

VPm=Cm, unde VP m =
HVWH UHVSHFWDW

dVP (y ) dCT (y ) , Cm =  dy dy
L GH R

$FHHDL FRQGL LH GH PD[LPL]DUH

SURILWXOXL

vQWUHSULQGHUH

FDUH

HYROXHD]

SH

SLD

conFXUHQ LDO

 QXPDL F

YkQ]kQG RXWSXWXO V X

y

OD XQ SUH

p, considerat exogen

PRGHOXOXL V X GH FRPSRUWDPHQW HD vQFDVHD]

p y

L vQFDVDUHD HL PDUJLQDO

HVWH

d (p y ) = p  GH XQGH UH]XOW p=Cm. dy

n cazul monopolului, ncasarea PDUJLQDO

QX HVWH FKLDU

p, ci:

VP m =

dVP (y ) d = [p (y ) y ] = p (y ) + y dp (y ) = dy dy dy

1 dp (y ) y = p (y )1 + = p (y ) 1 + dy p (y ) e (y )

unde: e(y) este elasticitatea output-XOXL vQ UDSRUW FX SUH XO

e (y ) =

dy y dp (y ) p (y )

sau:
e (y ) = y y . p p

'DF

PRQRSROXO GHFLGH V

FUHDVF

RXWSXW XO V X FX

y DFHDVW

GHFL]LH DUH GRX

efecte asupra profitului: vQFDVHD] SRDWH V

FRQWUDYDORDUHD RXWSXW UHGXF SUH XO FX

-ului suplimentar vndut: p (y ) y ;

OD DFHVW SUH WRW RXWSXW

p L vQFDVHD]

-ul: y p .

(IHFWXO PRGLILF ULL RXWSXWXOXL FX

y DVXSUD vQFDV Uii este, deci:

VP = p y + y p

sau:

 VP p p y = p + y = p 1 + = y y y p 1 1 y = p 1 + = p 1 + y p e (y ) p p y

&kQG PRQRSROXO GHFLGH FDQWLWDWHD GH RXWSXW DVWIHO FD SURILWXO V X V

ILH PD[LP

HO UHVSHFW

FRQGL LD

VPm=Cm(y) sau p (y )1 +

1 = C m (y ) VDX vQF e (y )

1 p (y )1 = C m (y ) e (y )

(1).

Condi LD  GHWHUPLQ
6 UHPDUF P F

 GHFL QLYHOXO RSWLPDO DO RXWSXW

-ului (y*) monopolului.

SHQWUX 

e (y ) = 
L F

UHJ VLP FRQGL LD GH RSWLPDOLWDWH GH SH SLD D

FX FRQFXUHQ

SHUIHFW

p=Cm

GDF

e (y ) < 1 

DGLF

FHUHUHD HVWH LQHODVWLF 

atunci

1 > 1 e (y )
F

VPm(y) HVWH QHJDWLY

5H]XOW

PRQRSROXO QX YD DOHJH QLFLRGDW

XQ QLYHO DO RXWSXWXOXL SHQWUX FDUH

FXUED FHUHULL HVWH LQHODVWLF  &RQGL LD  VH SRDWH VFULH DVWIHO

p (y ) =

C m (y ) = r C m (y ), 1 1 e (y )

unde

r =

1 1 1 e (y )

L DUDW

SUH XO SLH HL HVWH PDL PDUH GHFkW FRVWXO PDUJLQDO FX UDWD GH

majorare r.
$P Y ]XW F DGLF PRQRSROXO DF LRQHD] vQ ]RQD vQ FDUH FXUED FHUHULL HVWH HODVWLF 

e (y ) > 1 , rezultnd r>1.

2.4.3.

(FKLOLEUXO SH SLD D GH ROLJRSRO

CeO
$FHDVW

PDL IUHFYHQW SH R SLD

 H[LVW

XQ DQXPLW QXP U GH DJHQ L GDU QX VXILFLHQW

GH PDUH SHQWUX D FRQVLGHUD F IRUP GH SLD

ILHFDUH GLQWUH HL DUH XQ HIHFW QHJOLMDELO DVXSUD SUH XOXL

VH QXPHWH

oligopol. Cele mai importante probleme pe astfel

de piH H
ID

FX XQ QXP U PLF GH DJHQ L VXQ OHJDWH GH LQWHUDF LXQLOH VWUDWHJLFH GLQWUH QXP UXO PLF GH DJHQ L FRQGXFH OD XQ FRPSRUWDPHQW QHSDUDPHWULF DJHQ LL vQWU

DFHWLD SHQWUX F

GH SUH  ,QWHUHVHD]  GHFL FH PRGHOH GH FRPSRUWDPHQW DGRSW

-un

mediu oligopolisWLF 1X QH SXWHP DWHSWD OD XQ PRGHO XQLF SHQWUX F

REVHUYDWH VLPSOLILFDW SHUPLWH QXPHURDVH GDF WLSXUL GH FRPSRUWDPHQW GRDU OD GRX D Q HOHJHUHD DQDOL]D VH OLPLWHD] XQHL S U L

vQ UHDOLWDWH SRW IL HVWH PXOW

DFHVWRUD

vQWUHSULQGHUL SH SLD

 'XRSROXO DOH

vQ HOHJHUHD

LPSRUWDQWH

FDUDFWHULVWLFLORU

FRPSRUWDPHQWDOH

DJHQ LORU DQJDMD L vQWU R LQWHUDF LXQH VWUDWHJLF  9RP FRQVLGHUD FD]XO FkQG FHOH GRX

vQWUHSULQGHUL SURGXF DFHODL EXQ HOLPLQkQG DVWIHO SUREOHPHOH OHJDWH GH GLIHUHQ LHUHD SURGXVHORU $DGDU SH R SLD XQ EXQ RPRJHQ H[LVW SH FDUH RSHUHD] QXPDL GRX vQWUHSULQGHUL FDUH SURGXF

XUP WRDUHOH YDULDELOH FH WUHEXLH OXDWH vQ FRQVLGHUDUH  OH SURGXF 

SUH XULOH pi, i=1,2 SH FDUH ILHFDUH vQWUHSULQGHUH OH SUDFWLF FDQWLW

LOH

yi, i=1,2, pe care fiecare ntreprindere decidH V

VLWXD LL GHFL]LRQDOH

6H GHRVHEHVF GRX

FkQG R vQWUHSULQGHUH GHFLGH SUH XO L FDQWLWDWHD SURGXV

FXQRVFkQG GHFL]LLOH

celeilalte;
FkQG vQWUHSULQGHUHD GHFLGH QLYHOXO YDULDELOHORU VDOH I U LQIRUPD LH GHVSUH

deciziile concurentului. n primD

VSXQH F VLWXD LH GDF OHDGHU R vQWUHSULQGHUH GHFLGH SUH XO vQDLQWHD FRQFXUHQWXOXL VH vQWUHSULQGHUH ILLQG SULFH IROORZHU  /D IHO OHDGHU vQ FDQWLWDWH

HD HVWH

vQ SUH  FHDODOW

FkQG YDULDELOD GH GHFL]LH HVWH FDQWLWDWHD SURGXV  YRUELP GH

respectiY

TXDQWLW\ IROORZHU  6LWXD LLOH GHFL]LRQDOH GH DFHVW WLS SRW IL PRGHODWH SULQ

WHRULD MRFXULORU ILHFDUH GLQ FHL GRL FRQFXUHQ L DGRSWkQG R DQXPLW vQFkW V RE LQ XQ FkWLJ PD[LP SRVLELO

VWUDWHJLH DVWIHO

n cea de-D
GHFL]LLOH

GRXD VLWXD LH FkQG R vQWUHSULQGHUH QX GLVSXQH GH LQIRUPD LL GHVSUH DFHDVWD YD WUHEXL V IDF DQXPLWH SUHYL]LXQL DQWLFLSD LL

FRQFXUHQWXOXL

GHVSUH DF LXQLOH FRQFXUHQWXOXL (YLGHQW L DFHDVW

VLWXD LH GHFL]LRQDO

VH PRGHOHD]

printr-un joc strategic. n primul caz, era vorba de un

XQ MRF VLPXOWDQ vQ FDUH GLQ QRX H[LVW GRX LORU SUH XOXL UHVSHFWLY DOHJHUHD VLPXOWDQ 5H]XOW D FDQWLW

MRF VHFYHQ LDO vQ DO GRLOH HVWH L DOHJHUHD VLPXOWDQ D

SRVLELOLW

DVWIHO SDWUX WLSXUL GH LQWHUDF LXQL VWUDWHJLFH

OHDGHUVKLS vQ SUH 

leadership n cantitate;
GHWHUPLQDUHD VLPXOWDQ GHWHUPLQDUHD VLPXOWDQ D SUH XULORU D FDQWLW LORU

'HVLJXU

H[LVW

XQ

DOW

WLS

GH

FRPSRUWDPHQW

FDUH

SUHVXSXQH

FRODERUDUHD

QWUHSULQGHULOH vQ ORF V

VH FRQFXUH]H vQWU XQ PRG VDX DOWXO SRW IRUPD FRDOL LL 9D IL

vRUED

vQ DFHVW FD] GH XQ MRF FRRSHUDWLY 'HWDOLL SULYLQG WHRULD MRFXULORU VH J VHVF vQ

paragraful 4.5.

2.4.3.1.

Modelul Stackelberg (leadership n cantitate)

OHDGHU

6WDFNHOEHUJ HVWH SULPXO HFRQRPLVW FDUH D VWXGLDW VLVWHPDWLF OHJ WXUD IROORZHU  GRPLQ 0RGHOXO V X DQDOL]HD] VHFWRDUH GH DFWLYLWDWH vQ FDUH R

vQWUHSULQGHUH

SH FHOHODOWH

'H

H[HPSOX

PXO L

DQL

vQ

LQGXVWULD

LQIRUPDWLF 

,%0

HUD

FRQVLGHUDW

FD

vQWUHSULQGHUH DQXQ H QR

GRPLQDQW  Q DFHVW VHFWRU FHOHODOWH ILUPH VH FRPSRUWDX DVWIHO DWHSWDX FD ,%0 V SURGXVH DSRL

ile

LQkQG FRQW GH GHFL]LD ,%0 OXDX SURSULLOH GHFL]LL ,%0 HUD GHFL OHDGHU FHOHODOWH HUDX

followers.

ntreprinderea j=1 este leader (L ntreprinderea j=2

vQWUHSULQGHUH WLH F UHDF LRQHD] HVWH

GHFLGH

SURGXF

FDQWLWDWHD

y1. -

IROORZHU

F) alegnd cantitatea y2. Fiecare

D RXWSXW SLD  XQGH

SUH XO GH HFKLOLEUX DO SLH HL GHSLQGH GH FDQWLWDWHD WRWDO

ului lor. Fie p(Y) LQYHUVD IXQF LHL FHUHULL WRWDOH SH DFHDVW
V WLP FH QLYHO DO RIHUWHL DOHJH VH JkQGHDVF

Y=y1+y2. Vrem
F

L pentru a-L
OD UHDF LD OXL DFHVWD YD

PD[LPL]D SURILWXO (YLGHQW vQ DFHDVW

GHFL]LH / WUHEXLH V L HO V / V

F. Intuitiv, L DQWLFLSHD]

F va dori

-L PD[LPL]H]H SURILWXO L F

LQH FRQW GH GHFL]LD VD 3HQWUX FD GHFL]LD

ILH FRUHFW

HO YD OXD vQ FRQVLGHUDUH SUREOHPD PD[LPL] ULL SURILWXOXL ) DGLF 

Y )y max [p (
y2

CT 2 (y 2 )],

unde: CT2(y2) HVWH FRVWXO WRWDO DO SURGXF LHL F 'DU devine:

LQkQG FRQW F

Y=y1+y2, problema

max [p (y
y2

+ y 2 )y 2 CT 2 (y 2 )].

Profitul F depinde de output-ul (y1) ales de L. Din punct de vedere al F, y1 este o

YDULDELO H[RJHQ GHRDUHFH

DOHJH SULPXO &RQGL LD GH RSWLPDOLWDWH vQ SUREOHPD

este:
p( Y

)+

y2

dp ( Y dy 2

dCT 2 = 0, dy 2

Y )+ y2 unde p (

dp ( Y dy 2

= VP m 2

HVWH

vQFDVDUHD

PDUJLQDO

VXPD

vQFDVDW

GH

ntreprinderea 2 cnd vinde y2 XQLW iar

dCT 2 = Cm2 dy 2
HVWH FRVWXO

L GH RXWSXW OD R YDULD LH XQLWDU DO SURGXF LHL

D SUH XOXL SLH HL RSWLPDO D

PDUJLQDO

F

'HFL]LD

F este

FDUDFWHUL]DW

GH HJDOOLWDWHD

VP m 2 = C m 2  DGLF

p (y 1 + y 2 ) + y 2

dp ( Y dy 2

= C m2 .

Cnd F FUHWH RXWSXW-XO V

X vQFDVDUHD GLQ YkQ]DUHD SURGXF LHL FUHWH SHQWUX F  FUHVFkQG

YLQGH R FDQWLWDWH PDL PDUH OD SUH XO GH HFKLOLEUX DO SLH HL 'DU SH SLD RIHUWD SUH XO GH HFKLOLEUX OD R FHUHUH GDW  VFDGH

dp ( Y dy 2

) < 0 . Prin urmare, decizia F

GH FUHWHUH D RXWSXW XOXL V X DQWUHQHD]

R VF GHUH D SURILWXOXL SHQWUX ILHFDUH XQLWDWH PDL ULGLFDW (VWH GH UH LQXW F P DFHDVW VROX LH SULQ VROX LD

GH SURGXV SH FDUH R YLQGHD DQWHULRU OD XQ SUH

problemei F GHSLQGH GH DOHJHUHD I

QXPLP

FXW

GH

L 1RW

y2=f2(y1) L R

IXQF LH GH UHDF LH  SHQWUX F

DUDW

FXP UHDF LRQHD]

F la output-ul ales de L.

y2

Cu rb e d e izop rofit p en t ru F

y 2 =f 2 (y 1 )

Fu n c ia d e r ea c ie

y1

y1

)LJXUD QU  6ROX LD SUREOHPHL )

6H REVHUY

SURILWXO

FUHWH SH P VXU

FH QH GHSODV P GH OD GUHDSWD VSUH

stnga n graficul din figura nr. 2.2, deoarece pentru un nivel y2 dat, profitul F FUHWH
GDF

y1 scade. Profitul F atinge maximul cnd y1=0

GDW  L FXUED GH L]RSURILW

DGLF

HVWH vQ SR]L LH GH

PRQRSRO $OHJHUHD RSWLPDO

D ) YD IL vQ SXQFWXO GH WDQJHQ FRUHVSXQ] WRDUH

GLQWUH GUHDSWD

y1=ct.
GH

(decizia L tangen

0XO LPHD

SXQFWHORU

GHWHUPLQ

FKLDU IXQF LD GH UHDF LH D

F: f2(y1).

7UDW P DFXP SUREOHPD GH GHFL]LH D OHDGHU FDUH PD[LPL]HD] SURILWXO WLLQG F

-ului (L). Acesta decide output-ul y1 y2=f2(y1). Problema L

DUH IXQF LD GH UHDF LH

este:
Y )y 1 CT 1 (y 1 )] max [p ( y 1 y 2 = f 2 (y 1 )

sau:

max [p (y
y1
2EVHUY P F

+ f 2 (y 1 ))y 1 CT 1 (y 1 )].
GDF HO GHFLGH RXWSXW

L LD vQ FDOFXO IDSWXO F

-ul y1, atunci output-

ul total va fi Y=y1+y2=y1+f2(y1).
*UDILF VROX LD SUREOHPHL

L este:

y2

Cu r b e d e izop r ofit p en t ru L

S Fu n c ia d e rea c ie a F

y1

)LJXUD QU  6ROX LD SUREOHPHL /

Profitul L va fi cu att mai mare cu ct curba de izRSURILW HVWH PDL MRDV

F SURILWXO

SHQWUX

L este cu att mai mare cu ct y2 (output-ul F) este mai mic. Echilibrul

Stackelberg (punctul S

HVWH vQ SXQFWXO GH WDQJHQ

GLQWUH IXQF LD GH UHDF LH D

FXUED GH L]RSURILW FRUHVSXQ] WRDUH D

L.

2.4.3.2.
Q ORF V WUHEXLH V WUHEXLH V GHFLG FDQWLWDWHD

Leadership n pUH
IL[HD] SUH XO &D L vQ FD]XO DQWHULRU OD HFKLOLEUX

y1, acum L F
6

L L

SUHYDG YkQG

FXP VH YD FRPSRUWD

UHPDUF P IDSWXO F

OD DFHODL SUH

SURGXVHOH ORU VXQW LGHQWLFH 'DF

F ar practica
QX YD

SUH XUL GLIHULWH FRQVXPDWRULL YRU SUHIHUD SURGXVXO FX SUH XO PDL PLF DVWIHO F H[LVWD R VLWXD LH GH HFKLOLEUX SHQWUX FDQWLW L GH RXWSXW SR]LWLYH FRQVLGHU

Fie p

SUH XO IL[DW GH

L. n acest caz, F

SUH XO S FD H[RJHQ L DOHJH

output-ul y2 care L

PD[LPL]HD]

SURILWXO OD DFHVW SUH  (YLGHQW

VH FRPSRUW

FD L

FXP SLD D DU IL FRQFXUHQ LDO  0RGHOXO

F este:
CT 2 (y 2 )]

max [py
y2
L FRQGL LD GH RSWLPDOLWDWH HVWH

p=Cm2 UH]XOWkQG IXQF LD RIHUWHL F QRWDW F(p). p, F va oferi F(p). VkQ]

ULOH

WLH F

GDF

IL[HD]

SUH XO

L vor fi, deci: CL(p) se

CL(p)=C(p)- F(p), unde C(p)

QXPHWH Q LSRWH]D F SUH XO DOHDJ

HVWH IXQF LD FHUHULL WRWDOH D SLH HL &XUED

curba cererii reziduale a L". CT1(y1)=cy1

DGLF

Cm1 este constant, profitul realizat de L la

ILH PD[LP HVWH

p va fi egal cu (p-c)CL(p) p
L

3HQWUX FD DFHVW SURILW V vQFDVDUHD

WUHEXLH V FX FRVWXO FXUEHL SH FDUH

y1) astfel nct VPm1=Cm1

PDUJLQDO

HJDO

PDUJLQDO OD IHO FD vQ FD]XO SLH HL GH PRQRSRO 'DU

VPm1

WUHEXLH DVRFLDW

cererii reziduale CL(p) DGLF L R SRDWH YLQGH OD SUH XO p.

FXUEHL FDUH P VRDU

FDQWLWDWHD GH RXWSXW HIHFWLY

2.4.3.3.

'HWHUPLQDUHD VLPXOWDQ

D FDQWLW

LORU

Modelul L-F este un model simetric (o ntreprindere lua decizii naintea

FHOHLODOWH Q XQHOH VLWXD LL LSRWH]D DVLPHWULHL QX SDUH UHDOLVW  3UHVXSXQHP DFXP F FHOH GRX vQWUHSULQGHUL GHFLG VLPXOWDQ FDQWLW ILHFDUH YD WUHEXL V ILHFDUH vQ LOH SH FDUH OH YRU SURGXFH 3HQWUX D OXD

R GHFL]LH FRUHFW DFHVWRU

DQWLFLSH]H FDUH YD IL RXWSXW

-ul celeilalte. Pe baza care i

R OD

DQWLFLSD LL

treprindere decide apoi nivelul ofertei

ILHF UHL vQWUHSULQGHUL

PD[LPL]HD] VLWD LH FkQG

SURILWXO 6WXGLHP GHFL XQ HFKLOLEUX vQ WHUPHQL GH DQWLFLSD LL DGLF DQWLFLSD LLOH SUHYL]LXQLOH UHIHULWRDUH

FRPSRUWDPHQWXO FHOHLODOWH VH FRQILUP  8Q DVWIHO GH HFKLOLEUX VH QXPHWH

HFKLOLEUX

Cournot".
3UHVXSXQHP F 'DF HD GHFLGH V vQWUHSULQGHUHD  DQWLFLSHD] F vQWUHSULQGHUHD  YD SURGXFH

a . y2

SURGXF

y1, output-ul total va fi Y

a = y1 + y 2

L OD DFHDVW

RIHUW

WRWDO  SUH XO SLH HL YD IL

pY

( ) = p (y
a

a . + y2

Modelul ntreprinderii 1 va fi:

max [p (y
y1

a + y2 y 1 CT 1 (y 1 ) .

a Pentru un nivel y 2
vQWUHSULQGHULL  1RW P

IL[DW

H[RJHQ

H[LVW FDUH

y 1*
H[LVW

FDUH vQWUH

PD[LPL]HD] RXWSXW

SURILWXO

UHOD LD

IXQF LRQDO

-ul anticipat al
RSWLPDO D

vQWUHSULQGHULL  L RXWSXW UHDF LH LQWURGXV

a ) -ul ntreprinderii 1 prin y 1 = f 1 (y 2

FX GLIHUHQ D F DLFL

(VWH FKLDU IXQF LD GH DOHJHUHD

DQWHULRU

y1

HVWH

ntreprinderii 1 (nu output-ul F n raport de alegerea L

vQ FHOH GRX

vQ IXQF LH GH DQWLFLS ULOH

UHODWLYH OD GHFL]LD FHOHLODOWH vQWUHSULQGHUL ,QWHUSUHWDUHD IXQF LHL GH UHDF LH HVWH GLIHULW FD]XUL GDU PDWHPDWLF HOH VXQW GHILQLWH OD IHO Q PRG LGHQWLF VH GHWHUPLQ V X SUHVXSXQkQG F

y 2 = f 2 y 1a . Fiecare ntreprindere alege nivelul output-XOXL

( )

a output-ul celeilalte este y 1a , respectiv y 2 . n general, nivelul optimal al output-ului

unei ntreprinderi este diferit de output-ul pe care cealDOW

a * va fi ( y 1* y 1a , respectiv y 2 ). y2

vQWUHSULQGHUH DQWLFLSHD]

* a * * n cazul n care y 1* = y 1a , respectiv y 2  FRPELQD LD GH RXWSXW-uri ( y 1 , y 2 ) = y2

caUH YHULILF

UHOD LLOH

* y 1* = f 1 y 2 * y2 = f2
VH QXPHWH HFKLOLEUX &RXUQRW

( ) (y )
* 1

ntr-R UHSUH]HQWDUH JUDILF

 DYHP

y2

y *1 =f 1 (y *2 )

y *2

y *2 =f 2 (y *1 )

y *1
Figura nr. 2.4: Echilibrul Cournot

y1

(FKLOLEUXO &RXUQRW SXQFWXO & VH J VHWH OD LQWHUVHF LD FXUEHORU GH UHDF LH L

aUDW

QLFL R vQWUHSULQGHUH QX J VHWH SURILWDELO V DOHJHUHD HIHFWLY I FXW

VFKLPEH GHFL]LD SULYLQG RXWSXW GH FHDODOW 

-ul

V X DWXQFL FkQG GHVFRSHU

REZUMATUL CAPITOLULUI

1. Economia este o realitate obiectiv complex format dintr-un mare numr de aJHQ L
FDUH DF LRQHD]  $JHQ LL HFRQRPLFL VXQW GH GRX

HFRQRPLFL

fiecare, cu o anume autonomie, pentru produc LD VFKLPEXO L FRQVXPXO GH EXQXUL categorii: agen L
GH SURGXFmWRUL vQWUHSULQGHULOH L DJHQ L

consumatori (indivizii, familiile). 3. Consumatorul clasific diferitele posibilit L fie printr-R IXQF LH GH XWLOLWDWH 3UHIHULQ HOH
 0XO LPHD EXJHWDU FRQVXP GXS

preferin HOH

VDOH

3UHIHULQ HOH

consumatorului pot fi reprezentate fie printr-o preordine total pe mul LPHD

QRUPDOH VXQW PRQRWRQH L

SDQLHUHORU GH FRQVXP

convexe.

cuprinde toate panierele de bunuri accesibile consumatorului pentru pre XUL L

FXUEm GH LQGLIHUHQ

venituri date.
 0XO LPHD FRPELQD LLORU GH EXQXUL FDUH DVLJXUm DFHHDL XWLOLWDWH VH QXPHWH 3DQWD FXUEHL GH LQGLIHUHQ

".

esWH

GHQXPLWm

UDWm PDUJLQDOm GH VXEVWLWXLUH

L PmVRDUm FkW HVWH GLVSXV

individul s cedeze dintr-XQ EXQ SHQWUX D RE LQH PDL PXOW GLQ DOW EXQ 6. Alegerea optimal a consumatorului este panierul care, n mul LPHD
FXUED GH LQGLIHUHQ LQGLIHUHQ m L SDQWD EXJHWDU

, se situeaz pe

cea mai ridicat. Pentru panierul optimal exist egalitatea ntre panta curbei de
GUHSWHL EXJHWXOXL  'DFm WR L FRQVXPDWRULL VXQW FRQIUXQWD L FX DFHOHDL SUH XUL

L DX WR L XQ FRPSRUWDPHQW UD LRQDO HL YRU DYHD WR L DFHHDL UDW  5HVWULF LLOH WHKQLFH DOH SURGXF

marginal de substituire.
GH SURGXF LH FDUH G

torului pot fi reprezentate fie prin mul LPHD

GLIHULWHOH FRPELQD LL GH LQSXW XUL L RXWSXW

-uri realizabile din punct de vedere tehnic), fie prin

GH LQSXW

IXQF LD GH SURGXF LH FDUH G

cantitatea mazim de output asociat unor cantit L GDWH GH LQSXW-uri). -uri ce permit producerea unei ocuantei este
WHKQLFH

8. Izocuantele sunt curbe care arat mul LPHD FRPELQD LLORU cantit L

GDWH GH RXWSXW Q JHQHUDO L]RFXDQWHOH VXQW PRQRWRQH L FRQYH[H 3DQWD L]

msurat de "rata marginal de transformare". 9. Alegerea optimal a productorului const n maximizarea profitului sub restric LLOH VDOH
 2 VLWXD LH HFRQRPLFm HVWH HILFDFH vQ VHQV 3DUHWR GDFm QX H[LVWm QLFL XQ PRG GH

Aceasta implic faptul c produsul marginal al fiecrui factor de produc LH V fie egal cu pre XO Vu.
D FUHWH VDWLVIDF LD XWLOLWDWHD XQXL DJHQW IDU  8Q HFKLOLEUX FRQFXUHQ LDO DO

a o diminua pe a altuia.
SURSULHW

LL

SULYDWH

HVWH

DORFD LH GH

EXQXULORU SURGXF LH

vQWUH

DJHQ LL

economici care maximizeaz profitul productorilor n mul LPHD

PD[LPL]HD]

XWLOLWDWHD FRQVXPDWRULORU vQ PXO LPHD EXJHWDUm L DVLJXUm HJDOLWDWHD FHUHULL FX RIHUWD SH WRDWH SLH HOH  Q IXQF LH GH QXP UXO GH DJHQ L L GH GLPHQVLXQHD DFHVWRUD SDUWHD GH SLD GHRVHELP L DOWH IRUPH GH SLD UHODWLY GH LQXW 

PRQRSRO ROLJRSRO PRQRSVRQ D SH FDUH VXQW GHILQLWH GLIHULWH

tipuri de echilibru.
 5HFRPDQGmUL ELEOLRJUDILFH >@ >@ >@ >@ >@ >@ >@ >@ D