Adrenalin

Adrenalina (latin ad-adaug, ren-rinichi) sau epinefrin, (suprarenin) este un hormon secretat n snge de glanda medulosuprarenal n cazuri de stress. Ajuns n snge ea determin creterea frecvenei cardiace, a presiunii sanguine, dilatarea bronhiilor i pregtirea organismului pentru o producere masiv de energie prin arderea lipidelor (lipoliz) i sinteza glucozei. Circulaia sngelui este activat la nivelul sistemului nervos central pe cnd la nivelul tractusului digestiv este diminuat. La nivelul SNC adrenalina devine un transmitor neuronal, cuplat cu proteina-G joac un rol intermediar i de activator al receptorilor nervoi.

Cuprins
[ascunde]

1 Istoric 2 Biosintez o o 2.1 Regularea biosintezei 2.2 Descompunere

3 Mecanismul de aciune [modificare]Istoric

Prima indicaie despre existena hormonului n glanda suprarenal, este colorarea clorurii de fier trivalent. Lucru observat n anul 1856 de fiziologul francez Alfred Vulpian. Acest lucru de descoperire a unei substane noi n suprarenal este publicat n anul 1886 n New York Medical Journal de William Bates. Faptul c aceast substan are o aciune deosebit din punct de vedere farmacolgic a fost stabilit n 1893 de fiziologii George Oliver i Edward Schfer. O conturare mai precis a acestor efecte farmacologice o face fiziologul polonez Napoleon Cybulski. Prima ncercare de izolare a substanei o face n anul 1897 John Jacob Abel care denumete substana epinefrin. Inspirat de ncercarea lui Abel, chimistul american de origine japonez Jokichi Takamine, reuete s izoleze o substan numit adrenalin, ce avea proprietile descrise de Oliver, Schfer i Cybulski. Prima sintez chimic a adrenalinei i reuete n anul 1904 lui Friedrich Stolz, adrenalina fiind primul hormon la care era cunoscut structura chimic i este produs pe cale sintetic.

[modificare]Biosintez
Ca punct de pornire a sintezei adrenalinei este aminoacidul tirozin sau fenilanalin. Acesta devine prin hidroliz L-DOPA i dup un proces de decarboxilare, devine dopamin activ care dup o hidrolizare stereoselectiv se transform n noradrenalin, care este prezent de asemenea n suprarenal. Noradrenalina printr-o metilare-N se transform n adrenalin. Concentraia normal de adrenalin n snge este sub 100 ng/l (ca. 500 pmol/l).

[modificare]Regularea

biosintezei

Regularea i stimularea biosintezei se realizeaz n organism prin aciunea excitant neuronal a adrenalinei, stare de excitaie care favorizeaz transformarea tiroxinei n dopa i apoi dopamin care se transform la rndul ei n noradrenalin. Cortizonul care ia natere n corticosuprarena faciliteaz transformarea noradrenalinei n adrenalin. Concentraia crescut n snge a adrenalinei declaneaz un mecanism de feedback care regleaz valorile concentraiei de adrenalin ntre anumite limite, prin reducerea sau creterea

producerii de tirozin.

[modificare]Descompunere
Adrenalina se descompune relativ repede (trei minute) n organism, metabolizarea este realizat n special prin aciunea enzimelor catehil-metil-transeraz (COMT) i monoaminooxidaz (MAO), substana rezultat este inactivat prin legare o parte de sulf i eliminat prin

urin.

[modificare]Mecanismul

de aciune

Mecanismul ei de aciune determin punerea rapid de energie la dispozia organismului, energie necesar n cazuri de pericol, pentru supravieuire prin fug sau lupt. Acest efect fiind realizat prin activarea proteine -G de adrenalin.

Aciunea stimulatoare a ei asupra inimii i sistemului circulator, duce la creterea volemiei sanguine centrale inim, muchii scheletici, prin derivaia sngelui periferic realizat prin contracia vaselor periferice, unde scade volumul de snge de la nivelul pielii i rinichilor i activarea receptorilor adrenalinei.

Asupra muchilor netezi, respiraiei, tractusului digestiv i vezicii urinare are o aciune diferit. Astfel determin creterea frecvenei respiratorii cu dilatarea bronhiilor, reducerea activitii digestive, a perstaltismului intestinal i n general de contracie a musculaturii netede de la nivelul vezicii urinare cu excepia gravidelor unde adrenalina acioneaz relaxant asupra uterului.

Mobillizarea rezervelor de energie se realizeaz prin metabolizarea grsimilor (lipoliz), adrenalina activnd enzimele lipaze i formare de glucoz i glucagon necesar energiei muchilor scheletici, prin inhibarea producerii de insulin.

Adrenalina produs de glandele suprarenale nu poate traversa bariera hemato-encefalic a SNC, de aceea se presupune c asupra sistemului nervos central are numai o aciune pe baza reflexelor nervoase.

Alte efecte ale adrenalinei sunt uscarea mucoaselor, de unde apare senzaia de gur uscat, piele de gsc, transpirare, midriaz pupilar, influennd i procesul de coagulare a sngelui.

Categorii:

Hormoni Medicam

Epinephrine
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

"Adrenaline" and "Adrenalin" redirect here. For other uses, see Adrenaline (disambiguation).

(R)-()-L-Epinephrine or (R)-()-L-adrenaline

Systematic (IUPAC) name

(R)-4-(1-hydroxy2-(methylamino)ethyl)benzene-1,2-diol

Clinical data

AHFS/Drugs.com monograph

MedlinePlus

a603002

Pregnancy cat.

A(AU) C(US)

Legal status

Prescription Only (S4) (AU)POM (UK) -only (US)

Routes

IV, IM, endotracheal, IC

Pharmacokinetic data

Bioavailability

Nil (oral)

Metabolism

adrenergic synapse (MAOand COMT)

Half-life

2 minutes

Excretion

Urine

Identifiers

CAS number

51-43-4

ATC code

A01AD01 B02BC09C01CA24 R01AA14R03AA01 S01EA01

PubChem

CID 5816

IUPHAR ligand

509

DrugBank

DB00668

ChemSpider

5611

UNII

YKH834O4BH

KEGG

D00095

ChEBI

CHEBI:28918

ChEMBL

CHEMBL679

Chemical data

Formula

C9H13NO3

Mol. mass

183.204 g/mol

SMILES

eMolecules & PubChem

InChI[show]

(what is this?) (verify)

Epinephrine (also known as adrenaline) is a hormone and a neurotransmitter. It increases heart rate, constricts blood vessels, dilates air passages and participates in the fight-or-flight response of [2] the sympathetic nervous system. In chemical terms, adrenaline is one of a group of monoamines called the catecholamines. It is produced in some neurons of the central nervous system, and in the chromaffin [3] cells of the adrenal medulla from the amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine. Extracts of the adrenal gland were first obtained by Polish physiologist Napoleon Cybulski in 1895. These [4] extracts, which he called nadnerczyna, contained adrenaline and other catecholamines. Japanese chemist Jokichi Takamine and his assistant Keizo Uenaka independently discovered adrenaline in [5][6] 1900. In 1901, Takamine successfully isolated and purified the hormone from the adrenal glands of [7] sheep and oxen. Adrenaline was first synthesized in the laboratory by Friedrich Stolz and Henry [6] Drysdale Dakin, independently, in 1904.
Contents
[hide]

[1]

1 Medical uses

o o o o o

1.1 Cardiac arrest 1.2 Anaphylaxis 1.3 Croup 1.4 In local anesthetics 1.5 Autoinjectors

2 Adverse effects 3 Measurement in biological fluids 4 Mechanism of action 5 Biosynthesis and regulation

5.1 Regulation

6 Chemical synthesis 7 Adrenaline junkie 8 Adrenaline addiction 9 Terminology 10 Notes 11 References 12 External links

[edit]Medical

uses

Epinephrine ampoule, 1 mg (Suprarenin)

Adrenaline is used to treat a number of conditions including: cardiac arrest, anaphylaxis, and superficial [8] bleeding. It has been used historically for bronchospasm and hypoglycemia, but newer treatments for these, such as salbutamol, a synthetic epinephrine derivative, and dextrose, respectively, are currently [8] preferred. [edit]Cardiac

arrest

Adrenaline is used as a drug to treat cardiac arrest and other cardiac dysrhythmias resulting in diminished or absent cardiac output. Its actions are to increase peripheral resistance via 1receptordependent vasoconstriction and to increase cardiac output via its binding to 1 receptors. [edit]Anaphylaxis Due to its vasoconstrictive effects, adrenaline is the drug of choice for [9] treating anaphylaxis. Allergy patients undergoing immunotherapy may receive an adrenaline rinse before the allergen extract is administered, thus reducing the immune response to the administered allergen. It is also used as a bronchodilator for asthma if specific 2 agonists are unavailable or [10] ineffective. Because of various expressions of 1 or 2 receptors, depending on the patient, administration of adrenaline may raise or lower blood pressure, depending on whether or not the net increase or decrease in peripheral resistance can balance the positive inotropic and chronotropic effects of adrenaline on the [citation needed] heart, effects that increase the contractility and rate, respectively, of the heart. The usual concentration for SQ or IM injection is 0.3 - 0.5 mg 1:1,000. [edit]Croup Racemic epinephrine has historically been used for the treatment of croup. Racemic adrenaline is a [13] 1:1 mixture of the dextrorotatory (d) and levorotatory (l) isomers of adrenaline. The l- form is the active [13] component. Racemic adrenaline works by stimulation of the -adrenergic receptors in the airway, with resultant mucosal vasoconstriction and decreased subglottic edema, and by stimulation of the [12] adrenergic receptors, with resultant relaxation of the bronchial smooth muscle. [edit]In
[11][12]

local anesthetics

Adrenaline is added to injectable forms of a number of local anesthetics, such as bupivacaine and lidocaine, as a vasoconstrictor to retard the absorption and, therefore, prolong the action of the anesthetic agent. Some of the adverse effects of local anesthetic use, such as [14] apprehension, tachycardia, and tremor, may be caused by adrenaline. [edit]Autoinjectors Adrenaline is available in an autoinjector delivery system. EpiPens, Anapens, and Twinjects all use adrenaline as their active ingredient. Twinjects contain a second dose of adrenaline in a separate syringe and needle delivery system contained within the body of the autoinjector. Though both EpiPen and Twinject are trademark names, common usage of the terms is drifting toward [citation needed] the generic context of any adrenaline autoinjector.

[edit]Adverse

effects

Adverse reactions to adrenaline include palpitations, tachycardia, arrhythmia, anxiety, headache, tremor, hypertension, and [15] acute pulmonary edema. Use is contraindicated in people on nonselective -blockers, because severe hypertension and [16] even cerebral hemorrhage may result. Although commonly believed that administration of adrenaline may cause heart failure by constricting coronary arteries, this is not the case. Coronary arteries have only [17] 2 receptors, which cause vasodilation in the presence of adrenaline. Even so, administering high-dose adrenaline has not been definitively proven to improve survival or neurologic outcomes in adult victims of [18] cardiac arrest. [edit]Measurement

in biological fluids

Adrenaline may be quantitated in blood, plasma, or serum as a diagnostic aid, to monitor therapeutic administration, or to identify the causative agent in a potential poisoning victim. Endogenous plasma adrenaline concentrations in resting adults are normally less than 10 ng/L, but may increase by 10-fold during exercise and by 50-fold or more during times of stress. Pheochromocytoma patients often have plasma adrenaline levels of 1000-10,000 ng/L. Parenteral administration of adrenaline to acute-care [19][20] cardiac patients can produce plasma concentrations of 10,000 to 100,000 ng/L. [edit]Mechanism

of action

See also: Adrenergic receptor As a hormone, adrenaline acts on nearly all body tissues. Its actions vary by tissue type and tissue expression of adrenergic receptors. For example, adrenaline causes smooth muscle relaxation in the airways but causes contraction of the smooth muscle that lines most arterioles. Adrenaline acts by binding to a variety of adrenergic receptors. Adrenaline is a nonselective agonist of all [16] adrenergic receptors, including 1, 2, 1, 2, and 3 receptors. Epinephrine's binding to these receptors triggers a number of metabolic changes. Binding to -adrenergic receptors inhibits insulin secretion by [21] the pancreas, stimulates glycogenolysis in the liver and muscle, and stimulates glycolysis in muscle. Adrenergic receptor binding triggers glucagonsecretion in the pancreas, increased adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion by the pituitary gland, and increased lipolysis by adipose tissue. Together, these effects lead to increased blood glucose and fatty acids, providing substrates for energy production [21] within cells throughout the body. In addition to these metabolic changes, epinephrine also leads to broad alterations throughout all organ systems.

Physiologic responses to epinephrine by organ

Organ

Effects

Heart

Increases heart rate

Lungs

Increases respiratory rate

Nearly all tissues Vasoconstriction or vasodilation

Liver

Stimulates glycogenolysis

N/A, systemic

Triggers lipolysis

N/A, systemic

Muscle contraction

[edit]Biosynthesis

and regulation

Adrenaline is synthesized in the medulla of the adrenal gland in an enzymatic pathway that converts the amino acid tyrosine into a series of intermediates and, ultimately, adrenaline. Tyrosine is first oxidized to L-DOPA, which is subsequently decarboxylated to give dopamine. Oxidation gives norepinephrine, which is methylated to give epinephrine. Adrenaline is synthesized via methylation of the primary distal amine of noradrenaline by phenylethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PNMT) in the cytosol of adrenergic neurons and cells of the adrenal medulla (so-called chromaffin cells). PNMT is found in the cytosol of only cells of adrenal medullary cells. PNMT uses S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) as a cofactor to donate [citation needed] themethyl group to noradrenaline, creating adrenaline.

The biosynthesis of adrenaline involves a series of enzymatic reactions.

For noradrenaline to be acted upon by PNMT in the cytosol, it must first be shipped out of granules of the + chromaffin cells. This may occur via the catecholamine-H exchanger VMAT1. VMAT1 is also responsible for transporting newly synthesized adrenaline from the cytosol back into chromaffin granules in [citation needed] preparation for release. In liver cells, adrenaline binds to the -adrenergic receptor, which changes conformation and helps Gs, a G protein, exchange GDP to GTP. This trimeric G protein dissociates to Gs alpha and Gs beta/gamma subunits. Gs alpha binds to adenyl cyclase, thus converting ATP into cyclic AMP. Cyclic AMP binds to the regulatory subunit of protein kinase A: Protein kinase A phosphorylates phosphorylase kinase. Meanwhile, Gs beta/gamma binds to the calcium channel and allows calcium ions to enter the cytoplasm. Calcium ions bind to calmodulin proteins, a protein present in all eukaryotic cells, which then binds to phosphorylase kinase and finishes its activation. Phosphorylase kinase phosphorylates glycogen [citation needed] phosphorylase, which then phosphorylates glycogen and converts it to glucose-6-phosphate.

[edit]Regulation The major physiologic triggers of adrenaline release center upon stresses, such as physical threat, excitement, noise, bright lights, and high ambient temperature. All of these stimuli are processed in [22] the central nervous system. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and the sympathetic nervous system stimulate the synthesis of adrenaline precursors by enhancing the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase and dopamine--hydroxylase, two [citation needed] key enzymes involved in catecholamine synthesis. ACTH also stimulates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol, which increases the expression of PNMT in chromaffin cells, enhancing adrenaline [citation needed] synthesis. This is most often done in response to stress. The sympathetic nervous system, acting via splanchnic nerves to the adrenal medulla, stimulates the release of adrenaline. Acetylcholine released by preganglionic sympathetic fibers of these nerves acts on nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, causing cell depolarization and an influx of calcium through voltage-gated calcium channels. Calcium triggers the exocytosis of chromaffin granules and, thus, the release of [citation needed] adrenaline (and noradrenaline) into the bloodstream. Adrenaline (as with noradrenaline) does exert negative feedback to down-regulate its own synthesis at [citation needed] the presynaptic alpha-2 adrenergic receptor. Abnormally elevated levels of adrenaline can occur in a variety of conditions, such as surreptitious epinephrine administration, pheochromocytoma, and other tumors of the sympathetic ganglia. Its action is terminated with reuptake into nerve terminal endings, some minute dilution, and metabolism by monoamine oxidase and catechol-O-methyl transferase. [edit]Chemical

synthesis

Epinephrine may be synthesized by the reaction of catechol with chloroacetyl chloride, followed by the reaction with methylamine to give the ketone, which is reduced to the desired hydroxy compound. The racemic mixture may be separated using tartaric acid.

Formula for the synthesis of adrenaline

For isolation from the adrenal glands tissue of livestock: J. Takamine, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 20, 746 (1901). J. B. Aldrich, Am. J. Physiol., 5, 457 (1901).

Synthetic production: A. F. Stolz, Chem. Ber., 37, 4149 (1904). K. R. Payne, Ind. Chem. Chem. Manuf., 37, 523 (1961). H. Loewe, Arzneimittel-Forsch., 4, 583 (1954).

Farbenwerke Meister Lucins & Bruning in Hochst a.M., DE 152814 (1903). Farbenwerke Meister Lucins & Bruning in Hochst a.M., DE 157300 (1903). Farbenwerke Meister Lucins & Bruning in Hochst a.M., DE 222451 (1908). Tullar, B. F. (1948). "The resolution of dl-arterenol". Journal of the American Chemical Society 70 (6): 2067. doi:10.1021/ja01186a024. PMID 18863798. edit D. Flacher, Z. Physiol. Chem., 58, 189 (1908).

[edit]Adrenaline

junkie

"Adrenaline junkie" redirects here. For the British reality TV series, see Jack Osbourne: Adrenaline Junkie. Adrenaline junkie is a term used to describe somebody appearing to be addicted to epinephrine (endogenous), and such a person is sometimes described as getting a "high" from life. The term adrenaline junkie was popularly used in the 1991 movie Point Break to describe individuals enjoying dangerous activities (such as extreme sports, e.g. BASE jumping) for the adrenaline "rush". Adrenaline junkies appear to favor stressful activities for the release of epinephrine as a stress response. Whether or not the positive response is caused specifically by epinephrine is difficult to determine, as endorphins are [23][24] also released during the fight-or-flight response to such activities. [edit]Adrenaline

addiction

Adrenaline addiction is not officially included in the DSM; however, that does not mean it is not a topic of intense debate or will not be included in the future. Psychology Today defines it as Always overwhelmed, adrenaline junkies seem to have a constant need for urgency, even panic, to get them through the day. They cannot grasp the race driver's motto: you have to slow down to go fast. Instead, they keep their foot [25] on the pedal at full throttle, convinced that any deceleration is lost opportunity. The same source describes the reason for the addiction is that someone has experienced a traumatic event past but has [25] become "stuck." The traumatic event is over but the body keeps seeking adrenaline. Endorphins are [25] thus highly effective painkillers-numbing physical pain and emotional pain too. Symptoms include: have trouble relaxing or sleeping getting easily bored
[26] [26] [26] [26]

work long hours and still never get done

good at starting relationships, but have trouble sustaining them uncomfortable with too much closeness and intimacy.
[26]

These individuals have developed the belief that they will be highly successful when they are speeding along in life. However, when this becomes a pattern of behavior, it can cause health and performance issues to surface. Unlike other addicts whose behaviors are socially frowned-upon, adrenaline addicts are often praised for their frantic activity, even promoted for it during their careers. (which helps it to be such a pervasive disorder, adrenaline addiction can be very difficult to conquer) [edit]Terminology
[25]

This chemical is widely referred to as "adrenaline" outside of the United States; however, its United States Adopted Name and International Nonproprietary Name is epinephrine. Epinephrine was chosen because adrenaline bore too much similarity to the Parke, Davis & Co trademark Adrenalin (without the e), which was registered in the United States. The British Approved Name and European Pharmacopoeia term for this chemical is adrenaline and is indeed now one of the few differences [27] between the INN and BAN systems of names. Among American health professionals and scientists, the term epinephrine is used over adrenaline. However, pharmaceuticals that mimic the effects of epinephrine are often called adrenergics, and receptors for epinephrine are called adrenergic receptors or adrenoceptors. [edit]Notes

Stresul - ce este, boli asociate stresului, reactii caracteristice stresului, cauze, remedii
STRESUL In present,ritmul vietii isi pune amprenta asupra fiecaruia , cauzand forme diverse de stres care, fara anumite masuri preventive pot degenera in caderi mentale sau fizica. Stresul este o problema imporatanta in majoritatea tarilor puternic industrializate . Pe langa faptul ca este responsabil pentru numeroase boli si ore de munca pierdute , provoaca multa suferinta si durere. In trecut medicina considera stresul o creatiea pacientului : se considera ca este fie rezultatul autosugestiei , fie este pshiosomatic (cauzat de frica si anxietate) . In zilele noastre medicii au constientizat ca stresul este o problema medicala importanata desi in multe cazuri ei pot oferi un tratament medicamentos . Din pacate medicamentele care combat stresul pot crea dependenta ; din acest motiv este mult mai bine daca oamenii reusesc sa identifice cauzele ce provoaca stresul din viata lor si sa ia masuri preventive inainte ca acestea sa devina o problema. Ce este stresul? Stresul ce apare brusc si cu o mare intensitate el este provocat de frica . Esta o provocare directa a instinctului de spravetuire si declanseaza reactii fizice si chimice . De foarte multe ori cand suntem stresati ne simtim coplesiti de o senzatie puternica numita panica . Aceasta este rezultatul unei puternice secretii de adrenalina -hormonul produs de glandele suprarenale . Aceste glande sunt controlate de sistemul nervos. Adrenalina este eliberata direct in sange si are un efect imediat asupra oraganismului, pregatindu-l fie sa lupte, fie sa-o ia la fuga . Un val de adrenalina in sistemul sangvin este un raspuns la o sezatie de frica sau la un stres emotional sau fizic . El pregateste o serie de tesuturi si organe diferite ale corpului pentru o reactie in forta la o criza iminenta . 26658rbx65rfc5x Adrelina creste intensitatea si viteza batailor inimii si creste presiunea sangvina . De asemenea, grabeste conversia glicogenului in glucoza asigurand energie imediata pentru muschi.Totodata respiram mai repede deoarece plamanii incearca sa obtina mai mult oxigen.Temperatura corpului creste iar procesul de digestie inceteaza. Aceasta secretie de adrenalina este un raspuns pozitiv fata de circumstanta periculoasa sau inspaimantatoare . Este forta care le permite oamenilor sa reactioneze cat mai bine in situatii de criza si sa actioneze peste puterile lor obisnuite pentru a evita dezastrul . Cu toate aceste , in unele cazuri poate avea si efecte negative.

Prea mult stres , pentru o perioada indelungata de timp , poate fi extrem de daunator . Poate afecta sistemul imunitar , astfel incat persoana respectiva poate fi mai supusa riscului de inbolnavire . Pierderea de energie cauzat de stresul continuu impiedica organismul sa se refaca zilnic ; afectand capacitatea de a preveni bolile si ranirea . Boli asociate stresului

Crestere frecventei batailor inimii si presiunii sangvine datorita stresului prelungit poate duce la ingrosarea arterelor , favorizand astfel aparitia anginei si a infarctului . O crestere de aci gastric , mai ales daca procesele sunt incetinite , poate provoca o iritatie a mucoasei stomacului , cauzand ulcerul duodenal sau gastric. Foarte multe boli de piele sunt legate de stes. Foarte multi medici cred ca encefalomielita mialgica se datoreaza incapacitati corpului de a face fata normal infectiilor virale.Stresul poate reduce raspunsul imunitar la infectii,permitand acestora sa persiste si pe termen lung sa provoace oboseala musculara si mentala . Unele studii ale cercetatorilor americani au asociat stresul cu diferite forme de cancer . Cancerul de san s-ar parea ca apare mai des la femeile care se bf658r6265rffc 2 cofrunta cu un grad ridicat de stres in viata de zi cu zi . Este posibil ca stresul intens sa afecteze sistemul imunitar atat de mult incat sa permita cresterea si multiplicarea celulelor canceroase. Pe langa aceste efecte fizice mai exista si alte consecinte ale stresului care trebuie luate in considerare. Depresiile grave,un rezultat al stresului prelungit,pot duce la dependenta fata de medicamente sau alcool . Dupa cum se poate observa stresul ne poate afecta in numeroase moduri. Este periculos si poate chiar ameninta viata ; din acest motiv , primul pas catre tratarea cu succes a stresului este intelegerea lui. Reactii caracteristice stresului

Stresul provoaca o varietate de raspunsuri la oameni diferiti . De exemplu , unora le tremura mainile,dintii le sunt inclestati si obrajii rosii . Aceste mecanisme de aparare erau foarte utile omului primitiv, dar pentru omul modern ele sunt jenante si dau nastere unui stres si mai puternic. Unele simptome ale stresului sunt semnale de alarma . Aceste se pot prezenta sub forma unor probleme fizice minore , cum ar fi ticuri si spasme musculare,dureri de cap frecvente , dereglari ale digestiei si ale proceselor de excretie . Consumul exagerat de cafea , tigari si alcool reprezinta o modalitate prin care oamenii incearca sa reziste in perioadele stresante din viata lor . Formele acute de stres pot fi marcate de simptome ca : pierderea poftei de mancare , insomnie , furie , ostilitate si incapacitate de concentrare. Alte reactii de stres pot fi observate in modul nostru de comportare . Acestea pot fi constiente sau cel mai adesea inconstiente . Astfel , oamenii supusi stresului pot ignora sau refuza sa recunoasca realitatea unor situatii stresante . Ei pot nega existenta unui fapt negativ , cum ar fi o despartire , esecul la locul de munca , sau o boala cronica . Ei pot sa argumenteze esecul suferit , sustinand ca oricum nu doreau sa castige , sau pot sa incerce sa-i compenseze prin concentrarea asupra altor probleme . Aceste activitati inlocuitoare ascund ostilitate si agresiunea pe care stresul si anxientatea le provoaca adeseori. Cauzele stresului

Cauzele ce declanseaza aceste reactii sunt numite factori de stres. Modul in care se comporta un individ daca este supus unor factori de stres depinde de caracteristicile personalitatii sale si de starea mentala in care se afla. Evenimentele externe sunt printre cele mai frecvente cauze de stres in viata oamenilor. Nu vorbim doar de ritmul alert al vietii moderne , ci de o acumulare de evenimente care luate fiecare separat ar putea fi suportate , dar se adauga

altor factori de stres.Acum cativa ani s-a demonstrat ca o cadere nervoasa sau o tentativa de suicid este adesea precedata de o serie de evenimente care creeaza presiuni asupra individului. Evenimentele cele mai distructive si periculoase sunt cele care implica un conflict sau o pierdere. Poate fi pierdere unei persoane sau a unui lucru important . Alte griji suplimentare pot determina sfarsitul modului de viata de pana atunci . O suferinta fizica poate afecta imaginea propriei persoane si increderea in fortele proprii , daca nu-si poate continua viata normala . Conflictele izbucnesc mereu atat la munca cat si acasa . Certurile cu persoanele agreate sau respectate sun extrem de nocive , mai ales daca neintelegerea este lasata nerezolvata. Necesitatea de a alege intre mai multe variante naste de asemenea conflicte . Cand oamenii sunt confruntati cu alegere , ideea deciziei creste nivelul stresului . Daca varianta care o prefera le este refuzata datorita unor circumstante pe care nu le pot controla , apare frustrarea si amaraciunea . Uneori oamenii evita sa ia o decizie pentru ca nu doresc sa se streseze din acest motiv . Aceasta reactie nu face decat sa inrautateasca situatia . La locul de munca , managerii care nu reusesc sa ia decizii sunt o sursa de frustrare pentru subordonati . Stresul poate aparea si daca oamenilor nu le

3 este clar ce au de facut sau daca simt ca nevoile lor nu au fost luate in considerare . Obiectivele nerealiste sunt o sursa de stres pentru studenti , fie ca se refera la parinti sau la scoala . In societatea moderna nevoia de realizare este foarte importanta.Daca aceasta devine o motivatie obsedanta,cu siguranta va determina aparitia stresului.

Remediile stresului

Exista momente in care stresul nu poate fi evitat;in aceasta situatie este important sa invatam sa ne descurcam , astfel incat sanatatea sa fie cat mai putin afectata . Acesta presupune o tratare efectiva si exacta a situatiei si gasirea unor solutii pozitive de rezolvare . Este foarte importanta recunoasterea unor semnale de alarma : persoanele care sufera de primele simptome fizice caracteristice stresului excesiv , descrise anterior , ar trebui sa-si analizeze viata , sa incerce sa o reorganizeze si sa redobandeasca controlul. Alt aspect important pe care fiecare ar trebui sa-l invete pentru a putea face stresului este petrecerea unei perioade de timp in singuratare si liniste . Acest concept este strain occidentalilor , dar este esential pentru estici . Este important pentru fiecare persoana sa poata avea macar cateva minute de liniste in fiecare zi . Pentru anumiti oameni acest lucru inseamna practicarea yoga sau a meditatiei transcedentale , sau consacrarea a 20 minute zilnic pentru calm si contemplare . Sau poate insemna practicarea religiei proprii , cu regulele stricte si ritualurile pe care aceasta le impune. Relaxarea si redobandirea echilibrului interior se pot obtine si prin tehnici de respirati si relaxare. Pentru oameni origine naturala a lucrurilor este de a munci din greu fizic sau intelectual,iar apoi odihna si relaxarea . Dar viata moderna lasa mult prea putin timp relaxarii de care avem cu totii nevoie . Suntem invatati chiar din copilarie sa minimizam timpul alocat odihnei.

Un somn eliberat de stres

Somnul suficient este o alta conditie esentiala pentru o viata lipsita de stres , dar multi oameni nu se pot decupla pe timp de noapte . Mintea suprasolicitata isi continua activitatea in pofida oboselii si a incercarilor disperate de adormi . Somnul adanc este necesar tuturor , tineri sau batrani ; obtinerea unui somn eliberat de stres poate insemna invatarea unor tehnici de relaxare a respirarii calme si practicarea de metode corecte de vizualizare .

Tehnici de respiratie Respiratia este un aspect esential al relaxarii,a carei importanta nu trebuie subestimata . Multe persoane care sufera de stres se confrunta cu dificultati de respirare ; aceste tensiuni pot fi indepartate printr-o respiratie adanca si regulata . Pentru a respira calm trebuie sa permitem mai intai diafragmei sa-si mareasca dimensunile . Restul zonei toracice va urma aceasta miscare in mod natural . In acest mod respira oamenii cand dorm. Este posibila obtinerea unei respiratii regulate prin exercitii repetate , iar controlul si relaxarea obtinute sunt de mare ajutor multor persoane ce sufera de stres.