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Reghina Dascal British Studies Course
Reghina Dascal British Studies Course
Investete n oameni!
STUDII CULTURALE
BRITANICE
Reghina DASCL
2010
Reghina DASCL
2010
2010
ISBN 973-0-04114-8
Contents
Contents
Unit 1
1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.1.6
1.1.7
1.1.8
1.1.9
1.1.10
1.1.11
1.1.12
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.2.5
1.2.6
1.2.7
6
7
8
CHAPTER I
Ten questions and answers about the British Isles
Is there any difference between the United Kingdom and 8
Great Britain?
What is the population of Britain?
9
Which are Britains largest ethnic minority groups?
9
Which religions are represented in Britain?
10
What does the Union Jack stand for?
11
Does Britain have a National Day?
12
What are Britains floral symbols?
12
How do the British celebrate traditional and religious
13
holidays?
How many people speak English worldwide?
17
Do Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland have their own 17
languages?
British Identity between oneness and hybridity
17
The way we never were. Cultural icons and their value
20
23
Key concepts
24
Glossary
30
Answers to SAQs
CHAPTER II
The making of a nation: historical invasions and their
contribution to the ethnogenesis of the British. The
major waves of immigration
What is a nation?
The Celtic past and its posterity
The Roman Conquest - a blessing in disguise?
The Anglo-Saxon invasion
The Viking invasion
The Norman Conquest and its consequences
A History of four nations? The major waves of immigration
Summary
Key concepts
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
SAA No.1
Selected bibliography
31
31
33
35
39
42
44
46
49
49
50
53
55
56
Contents
Unit 2
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.1.6
2.1.7
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
Unit 3
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.2
3.2.1
57
58
CHAPTER I
Britishness / Englishness / Europeanness hybrid,
plural identities vs. national identities
The resilience* of a term: Britain / British
The history of an idea: devolution
The legacy of the English revolution
The Glorious Revolution
Dissent and the industrial revolution
Home Rule
Devolution
Key concepts
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
59
CHAPTER II
Inter-racial relations in contemporary Britain
From immigration to multiculturalism
A short historical survey of immigration in Britain
Racism
Racial relations in contemporary Britain and the fight against
racial discrimination
Factfile: The Lawrence case
Ethnic / racial / national / cultural identities in a globalised
world
Summary
Key concepts
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
SAA No. 2
Selected bibliography
87
108
109
CHAPTER I
British monarchy how valid an institution in the third
millennium?
Monarchy an oasis of aristocracy in a modern world
Is the monarch a figurehead?
Functions of monarchy. Royal prerogatives
Key concepts
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
110
59
63
63
66
69
73
76
79
79
84
87
88
94
96
99
101
103
104
104
105
107
107
110
111
115
121
122
124
127
CHAPTER II
For or against the monarchy?
The tragic death of a princess and calls for the reform of the 131
monarchy
132
Summary
132
Key concepts
Contents
Unit 4
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
SAA No. 3
Selected bibliography
132
133
134
134
135
Unit objectives
136
4.1.1
137
CHAPTER I
A brief historical outline of the British Parliament. The
House of Lords and its radical reform under New
Labour
A brief historical outline of the British Parliament
137
4.1.2
Life of Parliament
140
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.1.6
143
145
147
148
CHAPTER II
British democracy in action: the House of Commons,
the thrust towards decentralization
Elections
Political parties
The House of Commons
Functions of the House of Commons
The decline of commons power and the movement for
reform
157
Summary
Key concepts
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
SAA No. 4
Selected bibliography
173
174
174
177
179
180
181
General Bibliography
184
4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
153
153
156
157
160
163
166
171
Introduction
Introduction
Instruments of evaluation
At the end of each unit you will be asked to submit a test paper to your
tutor who will check it and return it to you complete with feed-back and
grading. There are four SAAs (Send-Away Assignments) to be
submitted and you can find them at the end of each of the four units.
These assignments will either be submitted via snail mail or via e-mail,
as agreed upon with your tutor. Think First tasks are meant to build
on previously acquired knowledge and offer new contexts for
integrating this knowledge; SAQs (Self-Assessed Questions) are
meant to check newly-acquired knowledge, skills, and competences.
Formative evaluation - whose purpose is to validate or ensure that the
goals of instruction are being achieved and to improve the instruction,
accounts for 40% of your final grading. Summative evaluation, on the
other hand, provides information on whether you learned what you
were supposed to learn after using a certain instructional module.
Summative evaluation accounts for 60% of your overall grade.
5
Unit 1
WHO ARE THE BRITISH? BRITISH IDENTITY A PROCESSUAL
APPROACH
Unit Outline
1.1
1.1.1
1.1.2
1.1.3
1.1.4
1.1.5
1.1.6
1.1.7
1.1.8
1.1.9
1.1.10
1.1.11
1.1.12
1.2
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.2.5
1.2.6
1.2.7
Unit objectives
CHAPTER I
Ten questions and answers about the British Isles
Is there any difference between the United Kingdom and Great
Britain?
What is the population of Britain?
Which are Britains largest ethnic minority groups?
Which religions are represented in Britain?
What does the Union Jack stand for?
Does Britain have a National Day?
What are Britains floral symbols?
How do the British celebrate traditional and religious holidays?
8
8
9
9
10
11
12
12
13
23
24
30
CHAPTER II
The making of a nation: historical invasions and their
contribution to the ethnogenesis of the British. The major
waves of immigration
What is a nation?
The Celtic past and its posterity
The Roman Conquest - a blessing in disguise?
The Anglo-Saxon invasion
The Viking invasion
The Norman Conquest and its consequences
A History of four nations? The major waves of immigration
31
Summary
Key concepts
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
SAA No.1
Selected bibliography
49
49
50
53
55
56
31
33
35
39
42
44
46
After you have completed the study of this unit, you should be
able to:
10
The final version of the Union Flag appeared in 1801 when the
union of Great Britain with Ireland was completed with the inclusion
of the cross of St. Patrick. The fiery dragon of Wales on a field of
white and green is not represented on the Union Jack since Wales
was already united with England, but it is of course widely used
throughout Wales.
12
14
Another custom this time linked to Easter and the Lenten* fast
preceding it is Pancake Day whose religious name is Shrove
Tuesday. It is the day preceding Ash Wednesday (a day of
penitence just before the start of Lent) and derives its name from the
compulsory confessions made on that day (shrifts from the verb
shrive, shrove, shriven, being absolved, having your sins
forgiven). On this specific day all the goodies in the pantry have to
be finished off, making room for the ascetism of the Lenten fast.
15
language,
political culture
and religion
18
19
1.1.12 The way we never were. Cultural icons and their value
It is very risky to reduce something as complex and diverse as
identity to some images, objects, rituals, behaviour patterns and
current practices that we often call cultural icons. Cultural icons,
nevertheless, like all cultural clichs and stereotypes have some
value as they are short-cuts to acquiring authentic knowledge about
cultural identities.
Some years ago the Brits were invited by a prestigious paper
to respond to a questionnaire regarding the cultural icons of
Britishness. In the Daily Telegraph of October 8, 1995, the results
of the opinion poll appeared. When reading the readers reactions,
what becomes apparent is the difficulty of essentializing a very
complex and heterogeneous phenomenon like British society
today. What shone through the respondents answers was also
the fact that when the English are debating Britishness, they are
really debating Englishness. Many are inclined to attribute to
Britain icons and traditions, which are deeply English. In some
cases using Britain for England represents an attempt to find a
term that sounds more pluralistic than England.
Think first!
Before moving on, try and predict what the British have chosen as
cultural icons of Britishness, i.e. images, social practices, customs,
food, meals, everyday routines that in some way or another even
we, foreigners, have come to identify as typically English.
Write down your answer in the space provided and then check it
against the next paragraphs.
20
21
Think First!
Before reading on, reflect on the fact that people can hardly think of
a more typically British festive occasion than Christmas.
Use the space provided and write what you think is typically British
about Christmas in Britain.
Read the next paragraph to check your answers.
Key Concepts
stereotype
clich
census
devolution
Home Rule
hybrid identity
ethnical purism
multicultural
Commonwealth
decolonisation
bank holidays
common law holidays
Established Church
cultural icons
coat of arms
23
Glossary
allegiance = loyalty, faith and dutiful support to leader, country, idea
etc.
Angevins and Plantagenets = royal family of England from 1154 to
1399 which included Henry II, Richard II and Richard III. Geoffrey V,
Count of Anjou, father to Henry II, often used Plantagenet to name
his English royal descendants.
bank holiday = an official holiday (on a day other than Saturday and
Sunday) when banks, post offices and factories as well as many
shops are closed.
Beefeater = soldier who wears a special old-fashioned uniform
(which dates back to the 15th century) and acts as a ceremonial
guard in the Tower of London.
bobbing (apple-) = trying to pick up apples floating on water using
only ones mouth and not ones hands (typical of Halloween parties).
Caernarfon = a small holiday town on the coast of NW Wales which
is well-known for its castle that has hosted since the late 13th century
the investiture of the monarchs first born son as Prince of Wales.
Canterbury = a small city in SE England, famous for its cathedral,
which is the chief church of England. The Archbishop of Canterbury
is the head of the Church of England.
Cerdic = (in Anglo-Saxon tradition) the first Germanic king of
Wessex. There are some accounts of military campaigns that he
fought in during the fifth and sixth centuries which are recorded
mainly in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. The most interesting fact
about Cerdic is that his name is Celtic and not Germanic, this could
either be because his parents in naming him were influenced by the
surrounding Celtic culture or that he was in fact part Celtic himself,
rather than pure Germanic.
census = an official counting of a countrys total population,
complete with other important information about the economic,
professional, religious, cultural structure of the population. In Britain
there is usually a census every ten years, and the latest from 2001
marked a century since the first modern census was organized.
clich = an idea or expression used so often that it has lost much of
its expressive force, it has turned into a platitude.
Chamberlain, Joseph = member of the Liberal Party, a leader of
the Radicals, whose successful social reforms made him a national
political figure. He was a minister in Gladstones first government but
resigned over the issue of Irish Home Rule. This action helped to
24
tunes which the standing crowds sing along with. The programme
ends with Sir Edward Elgars Land of Hope and Glory and people
sing it while waving Union Jacks.
provenance = (place of) origin.
reductionist = an unjustifiably simplistic, narrow and limiting
perspective
robin (in the snow) = a common small European bird with a brown
back and wings and a red breast. A robin in the snow is one of the
most frequent motifs represented on British Christmas cards.
Royal Coat of Arms (also shortened to Royal arms) = heraldic
symbol of the British Royal House consisting of a shield topped by a
helmet and a lion bearing the Royal crown and flanked by two
rampant (standing) animals: a lion and a unicorn, surrounded by a
garter.
In the design, the shield shows the various royal emblems of
different parts of the United Kingdom: the three lions of England in
the first and fourth quarters, the lion of Scotland in the second and
the harp of Ireland in the third. It is surrounded by a garter bearing
the motto Honi soit qui mal y pense ('Evil to him who evil thinks'),
which symbolises the Order of the Garter, an ancient order of
knighthood of which the Queen is Sovereign. The shield is
supported by the English lion and Scottish unicorn and is
surmounted by the Royal crown. Below the motto of the Sovereign,
Dieu et mon droit ('God and my right') appears. The plant badges of
the United Kingdom -- rose, thistle and shamrock -- are often
displayed beneath the shield.
28
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
30
With this pattern in mind let us see how the history of the
various nations of the British Isles transcends the internal
boundaries of later date.
32
33
The Celts were among the four great Barbarian peoples known
alongside the Scythians, Persians and Libyans. These indigenous
elements, the communities with which the Romans came into
contact in the 1st century BC were Celtic-speaking, iron-using
societies organized on a tribal pattern. All over Britain there are also
clear indications of a unity of artistic expression, of ritual and
religious beliefs.
The British Celts were neither among the earliest Celts nor
among those of widest distribution. But on the other hand, these
Celts have left us the most complete picture of their civilization,
since they enjoyed freedom from foreign, especially Roman,
conquest longer than their continental neighbours. In parts they
escaped such influences altogether and thus preserved their culture
in a purer form. Their culture, language and art also indicate that
they shared a common culture with the Celts of continental Europe,
groups of whom crossed the Alps and sacked Rome in 390 BC. In
her classic work, Pagan Celtic Britain, Anne Ross assembles
evidence in favour of a common pattern reflected in attitudes and
beliefs: a reverence for rivers and wells, the cult of the severed
head, totemic animals and plants.
SAQ 2
In her book Urme celtice n spiritualitatea i cultura romneasc
(Univers, Bucuresti, 1972) Virginia Cartianu offers a comparative
analysis of similar practices, rituals, artefacts and iconographic
motifs in Romanian traditional society and art, underlining the lasting
effects of Celticity on Romanian territory.
Three of the items listed below are not Celtic. Can you guess which
they are? Check your findings against the answer provided in the
Answers section.
contracts reinforced by oaths with no written support,
written contracts signed by both parties,
oaths taken on a hot iron,
reinforcing contracts by curses,
blood brotherhood,
marriage fairs (such as the famous Mount Gaina Fair),
the head considered the seat of the soul; sacredness of the
severed head (endowed with prophetic gifts);
the wheel;
a cult of roses;
circumscribed cross;
a cult of sacred stones;
34
35
36
37
the most famous examples: The Arthurian cycle and the Cornish
legend of Tristan and Iseult).
Impact of
Christianisation
For the next important chapter of British history, the AngloSaxon invasion, we have as an extraordinary source of information,
the work of the monk, great scholar and historian Bede (mostly
known as the Venerable Bede), who completed his Ecclesiastical
History of the English People in 731. It is an account related from the
angle of the invaders, who were pagan while their victims were
Christian. Bede solved the problem by attributing the English victory
to the working of Divine Providence.
The character of this invasion has to be judged critically. We
know from archaeological evidence that the continuous history of
Anglo-Saxon settlements actually began under Roman rule, round
the year 400.
We should also avoid an understanding of this invasion as
catastrophe-ridden, complete with massacres and the total
destruction of villas, Roman castra, etc. The Roman towns were not
totally abandoned, they became the tuns or settlements (manors) of
the powerful Anglo-Saxon chieftains. There is ample evidence that
the English knew what a ceaster was -- a word used with remarkable
consistency in place names: Mameceaster (Manchester) or
Ventanceaster (Winchester).
There are hints at the clashes of different cultures in the 6th and
th
7 centuries. The impact of Christianization was important, but for
many bretwaldas or Brytenwaldas (these were sub-kings, a concept
that indicates the instability of political power and dominance in a
heptarchy* marred* by internal battles for power) who depended on
warfare for amassing wealth, the conversion to Christianity was skindeep. It was a society riddled with feuds, and the succession to
kingdoms was fluid and uncertain. The criterion of eligibility for kings
was gift-giving or potlatch*. The splendour of the great royal shipburial at Sutton Hoo (discovered in 1939), shows that kingdoms
were won and lost for such treasures, a trait that the Germanic tribes
shared with many heroic warrior societies on the continent.
The pagan ship-burial of Sutton Hoo and the pagan aristocratic
ideas expressed in Beowulf (8th century epic about the adventures
and fortunes of Beowulf) or in the heroic lines of the Battle of Maldon
(a poem celebrating a great battle against the Vikings in 991), may
serve as a reminder that there was no instant Christianization. It was
a world in which if a king lost support he quickly perished and his
kingdom with him. Beowulf fights with monsters and dragons,
inhabitants of a pre-Christian mental world. When he is killed, his
followers lay him with rich treasures in a mound overlooking the sea,
just as the East Angles had done for their king at Sutton Hoo:
39
difference was between, on the one hand the older kingdoms of the
east and south coasts - East Anglia, Essex, Kent and Sussex - and,
on the other, the newer, more powerful, expanding kingdoms of the
north, the Midlands and south-west Northumbria, Mercia and
Wessex in particular. Their settlement and the diffusion of their
cultural model led English society towards a more mobile structure,
which valued loyalty to lord rather than loyalty to kin, the latter being
typical of more static, more traditional societies.
Monarchical institutions stood a much better chance of
developing in this type of society. It was a more fluid social structure
that encouraged trade as an honourable, socially acceptable activity.
There was a certain amount of localism in Scotland, Ireland and
Wales, but this trait should not be overemphasized. Pre-Christian
Ireland had indeed been tribal, rural, hierarchical and based on a kin
ethos, but from the 5th century on, it underwent considerable
change, despite the survival for many centuries to come of old
institutions and beliefs. There was still polygamy, and up to the 12th
century, even the ancient tarbfeis* survived and an overall
obsession with rituals. Despite the important changes that the British
Isles saw from the 5th to 8th centuries, the late Roman Empire
exercised a continuing influence upon all the cultures of the British
Isles, which is why there are sufficient grounds for calling these
centuries the Post-Roman centuries.
The conversion of this traditional society of kings, warriors and
farmers to Christianity was initiated by Pope Gregory the Great in
597 and according to tradition he had seen English youths in Rome
and pronounced them not Angles but angels. Despite the relative
success of the conversion in its first stages, in the next centuries
Anglo-Saxon monks were going to become some of the most devout
missionaries in the whole of Europe, many of them returning to their
lands of origin, Saxony or Frisia, preaching and setting up sees* (like
St. Boniface).
SAQ 5
Read the following passage from Bedes History:
This is how the present life of man on earth, King, appears to
me in comparison with that time which is unknown to us. You are
sitting feasting with your aldermen* and thegns* in winter time; the
fire is burning on the hearth in the middle of the hall and all inside is
warm, while outside the wintry storms of rain and snow are raging;
and a sparrow flies swiftly through the hall. It enters in at one door
and quickly flies out through the other. For the few minutes it is
inside, the storm and wintry tempest cannot touch it, but after the
briefest moment of calm, it flits from your sight, out of the wintry
storm and into it again. So this life of man appears but for a moment;
what follows or indeed what went before we know not at all. (quoted
in the Oxford History of Britain, ed. Kenneth O. Morgan, p. 73).
41
The fact that Bede was a devout man of the Church attempting the
Christianization of the Anglo-Saxons should lead you to a correct
answer.
42
43
navy
wardrobe
cupboard
sheriff
castle
yard
cow
deer
hunting
horse
stone
beef
book
parliament
reign
city
town
hamlet
clerk
parson
convent
earl
thane
goal
scullery
tea
tomato
window
gate
portal
mercy
veal
court
curtain
battle
war
mother
prince
sir
church
lady
pardon
lord
prison
chain
collar
feast
breakfast
supper
bacon
mutton
royal
duke
borough
cushion
woman
man
child
pork
After you have identified each, group them under the following
headings:
44
home, household:
the military:
religion:
ranks:
45
Dutch and
Flemish
immigrants
Gypsy and
Black
immigrants
French and
Dutch
Protestant
immigrants
46
SAQ 8
The SS Empire Windrush carrying hundreds of young men and
women from the Caribbean, docked in Tilbury. The ships arrival
signalled the beginning of a mass migration from the disintegrating
empire which was to have profound effects on Britain for the years to
come.
Here are some excerpts from a Speech by The Prince of Wales at
the S.S. Empire Windrush Reception, 25 June, 1998:
It is an immense pleasure to meet the Windrush veterans here
today. Thank you for coming and for your contributions to this
country during the war, when many of you fought for it, and since.
Stoicism, patience and dignity is called for during difficult times.
However, it would be wrong to dwell on these: we are here to
celebrate. Equally, it would be insulting to suggest that all the
optimistic expectations you had when you stepped off the Windrush
were met. There are many obstacles to overcome: ignorance and
prejudice, the challenge of finding decent housing and work, the
general cultural shock and the sheer cold
What does the Prince of Wales think about interracial relations in
contemporary Britain?
Write your answer in the space below and then compare it to that
given in the Answers section, at the end of the unit.
48
Summary
In this unit you have revised and enriched some of the
previously acquired knowledge of Britain, its national symbols, its
main institutions, social and cultural practices and traditions. It
offered you the opportunity to engage with cultural stereotypes, with
what we call cultural icons, to judge their essentialism as well as to
challenge their relative, limited value.
Whilst presenting the historical invasions and their contribution
to the shaping of the British national identity, the second chapter of
this unit aims at fighting commonly held views about the catastrophic
and downright destructive character of historical invasions. Adopting
a processual approach we can successfully illustrate such
phenomena as cultural osmosis, exchange or acculturation.
Comparisons are invited between the Romanization of Celtic Britain
and that of the province of Dacia, as well as reflections on a
common Celtic cultural stock.
The main waves of immigration are then surveyed, highlighting
the shaping of the post-war multicultural Britain, a situation that
renders problematic the definition of Britain as an entity made up of
four nations.
Key Concepts
nation-state
cultural osmosis
migration
processual approach
elite dominance
ascendancy
waves of immigration
colonial ideology
slave trade
xenophobia (-ic)
49
Glossary
alderman = member of English county or borough council, next in
dignity to Mayor.
ascendancy = a position of power, influence and control.
Black Death = the plague epidemic of the 14th century which
reduced the population of England by one third and greatly
influenced important social shifts such as the generalization of paid
labour.
Breton = native of Brittany in NW France.
Carolingian Empire = second Frankish dynasty, founded by
Charlemagne, a great leader, promoter of Christianity who was
crowned emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in the year 800.
colonial ideology = policy of maintaining colonies, mentality
supporting the exploitation of allegedly backward and weak peoples
under the pretext of civilizing them and helping them out of
savagery
Counter-Reformation = a Catholic reformation of the church in the
16 and 17th centuries in response to the claims of the Reformation.
Cromwell, Oliver = an English general, politician and Puritan. He
was leader of the parliamentarian army against King Charles I in the
Civil War and became Lord Protector of England after the Kings
execution in 1649.
Cumbria = a county of NW England made up mostly of the old
counties of Cumberland and Westmorland, which contains the
beautiful Lake District national park.
Danelaw = part of N and E England occupied by Danes in the 9th11th centuries.
Druid = priest, magician, soothsayer, teacher of the Celts, one of
the highest and most prestigious positions in Celtic societies. Most
probably the etymology of the word can be traced to oak, the most
sacred tree for Celts. So a druid was one who had the knowledge of
the oak, hence a deep, great knowledge.
elite dominance = in conquests and invasions episodes of
dominance due to the accepted superiority of a certain economic,
military, social or cultural system.
filid = a bard, a poet of the Celts.
Flemish = native of Flanders, a region of the Low Countries in what
is now part of Belgium and Holland.
50
51
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
Some of the 161 words of Dacian origin are: prunc, mo, brad,
copac, buz, grumaz, gard, strugure, mazre, balaur, viezure, a
rbda, a speria, tare, mare, bucuros. The suffixes esc and ete
are of the same origin as well as dava, the Dacian word for fortified
settlement. Several names of rivers are of Dacian origin as well:
Donaris (Dunre), Argessos (Arge), Samus (Some), Maris
(Mure), Dierna (Cerna), Alutus (Olt).
Ovid, the Roman poet, is believed to have written a number of
poems in Dacian during his exile, but they had never been found.
SAQ 2
For the Celts there was uninhibited circulation between the world
of the living and that of the dead, so they used to send messages
to the dead and on their most important festivals there were
special festivities honouring the dead. We can amply document
such practices in Romania.
Thus the three items which are not Celtic are: written contracts, a
cult of roses and temples.
SAQ 3
A bath was a complex concept for the Romans addressing the
human mind as well as the body: men sana in corpore sano (it was
usually made up of a gym, a library, a meeting place where people
could have a drink and socialize). The Great Bath in the city of Bath
was accidentally discovered in the 19th century when a leak from the
Kings Bath (built in the 12th century over the original Roman
reservoir) had to be investigated and mended. In the Great Bath we
can see the changing room (apodyterium) where the bathers
stripped, then they moved into the hottest room (caldarium) for
scraping, oiling, cleaning and hair and hard skin removal, then
moved to the tepidarium to cool gently before an invigorating cold
plunge in the frigidarium.
SAQ 4
Should your answer not be comparable to the one given below,
please revise section 1.2.4 of the unit.
The Anglo-Saxon ethos can be described as one of loyalty, courage,
heroism, devotion to ones lord (lordship based on kinship is far
more important at this stage than kingship which is characteristic of
a later date. A good example would be the poem The Battle of
Maldon, in which a nobleman asks to be killed since his life has no
meaning after the death of his lord on the battlefield). Their poetry
and their songs also reveal a reflective, melancholy mood. The
fleeting passage of time is a primary source of such melancholy
reflections.
SAQ 5
These famous words are ascribed by Bede to a Northumbrian
nobleman who is urging King Edwin to accept Christianity, since life
without faith can be compared to the miserable life of the bird which
can only for a brief moment enjoy the good and righteous life.
SAQ 6
administration and law: clerk, sovereign, crown, parliament,
goal, prison, reign, royal, regal, city;
religion: abbey, convent, prayer, priest, lesson, parson, mercy,
pity, pardon;
54
manners and courtly life: chain, collar, feast, beef, bacon, veal,
mutton, pork;
home/household; castle, chamber, scullery, portal, curtain,
supper, wardrobe, cushion;
ranks: prince, duke, baron, sir, servant, farmer;
military: army, navy, battle, peace.
SAQ 7
Should your answer not be comparable to the one given below,
please revise section 1.2.7 of the unit.
The major causes of immigration are: political and religious
persecution, poverty, illiberal, totalitarian regimes, the need to join
members of ones family.
SAQ 8
The Prince of Waless attitude is twofold: on the one hand he
acknowledges the black Brits contribution to a culturally diverse
country, to British life in general but at the same time thinks that
prejudice and discrimination remain everyday facts of life for many
of them.
SAA No. 1
Why is the enlarged definition of Britain as four nations in one still
too narrow for defining Britishness?
Send the answer to this question to your tutor. Your test paper
should not exceed two pages (1000 words). In order to successfully
complete the assigned task you should particularly review
subchapter 1.2.7 about the major waves of immigration and also
subchapters 1.2.2.-1.2.6 with regard to the ethogenesis of the Brits.
An adequate coverage of the content required accounts for 70% of
your grade while your linguistic accuracy accounts for the remainder
of 30%.
You could consider the bibliography below for further reading.
55
Selected Bibliography
1. Cartianu,V. 1972. Urme celtice n spiritualitatea i cultura
romneasc. Bucureti: Editura Univers, pp.45-46; 155-174
2. Dascl, R. 2000. British Topics. Timioara: Eurostampa, pp.22-35;
62-64
3. Irimia Anghelescu, M. Dicionarul universului britanic, Bucureti:
Humanitas
4. McDowall, D. 1991. An Illustrated History of Britain. Harlow:
Longman,
5. Nicolescu, A. 1999. Istoria Civilizaiei Britanice. Volumul I. Iai:
Institutul European, pp.19-32
6. Room, A. 1996. An A to Z of British Life. Oxford: Oxford University
Press
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Unit 2
BRITAIN A MULTICULTURAL SOCIETY?
Unit Outline
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.1.6
2.1.7
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
Unit objectives
58
CHAPTER I
Britishness / Englishness / Europeanness hybrid, plural
identities vs. national identities
The resilience* of a term: Britain / British
The history of an idea: devolution
The legacy of the English revolution
The Glorious Revolution
Dissent and the industrial revolution
Home Rule
Devolution
59
Key concepts
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
79
79
84
CHAPTER II
Inter-racial relations in contemporary Britain
From immigration to multiculturalism
A short historical survey of immigration in Britain
Racism
Racial relations in contemporary Britain and the fight against
racial discrimination
Factfile: The Lawrence case
Ethnic / racial / national / cultural identities in a globalised world
87
Summary
Key concepts
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
SAA No. 2
Selected bibliography
103
104
104
105
107
107
59
63
63
66
69
73
76
87
88
94
96
99
101
57
This unit traces in its first part the development of an idea, that
of devolution that has already led to a debate of unprecedented
breadth about the future of Britishness. The first chapter examines
the troubled past of the provinces, the episodes of cultural
exchange, of cooperation and amalgamation but also the more
tense and critical moments of the unions history. It raises a question
that no one can answer yet: are we faced with a steady process of
dissolution of Britishness or with a new concept of Britishness?
The second chapter of this unit discusses inter-racial relations
from a multicultural perspective furthering respect and
understanding for cultural diversity and inter-cultural communication.
Beyond mind-sets, ideas and attitudes a multicultural framework
assumes the establishment of institutional structures, legislation and
public policies meant to translate ideas into social practice. British
society is viewed in this unit through the lenses of racial
discrimination and multiculturalism, highlighting great achievements
but also setbacks in its pursuit of inter-racial justice and fairness.
After you have completed the study of this unit, you should be
able to:
Unit
objectives
58
60
SAQ 1
In the image below you can see the cover of a very important book
debating the future of Britishness: Andrew Marrs The Day Britain
Died published in 2000.
Can you guess what the object wrapped up in the Union Jack is?
What does the title of the book suggest?
If Britain was born in 1707, could a date be ascribed to its death?
62
leading to the Union was John Knoxs* Kirk the reformed church of
Scotland, in the latter half of the 16th century, a process very much
encouraged by the Tudors and by the succession of James VI of
Scotland, son of Mary Stuart, to the English Crown in 1603.
The extension of the new imperial power and the modernisation
of society were symbolised by the royal supremacy, the translation
of the Bible into English (the Bible in English proved to be a
formidable instrument of Anglicization), clerical marriage and the
dissolution of the monasteries. However, we cannot speak about a
single, national English culture at this point.
SAQ 3
In 1396 the first translation of the Bible was the work of John
Wycliffe a scholar from Oxford. Henry IV condemned his work and
Wycliffe was exiled.
What could have been so subversive about the translation of the
Bible into English? Think about the spread of literacy in those times
and common peoples knowledge of the classical languages (Greek,
Latin).
Write your answer in no more than 100 words and compare it to that
given in the Answers section, at the end of the unit.
Figure 2.2
John Wycliffe
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65
By the end of the 17th century, an English empire had come into
existence affecting most of the British communities, although rural
Ireland, the Scottish Highlands and north Wales remained more or
less unaffected. In these regions, local institutions like the wise men
of the village, the fair, the wake and kinship ties retained their hold
in the face of attempts at Anglicization by the English-oriented gentry
and clergy.
The shift of Scotland from pro-French Auld Alliance* to
Reformation is very important. John Knox, who had taken a crucial
part in the Edwardian reformation, was backed financially by the
English. Likewise in Ireland, the mid-17th century marked the peak of
reformation and the myth of the Irish massacre of 1640 led to a
string of punitive actions, which followed in the next decade under
Cromwell.
The Protestant interest was placed on the defensive after the
Restoration and even forced into full retreat during the crisis of 16881689. After the victory of William III at the Boyne in 1690, the future
of Ireland was decided for the next two centuries on the basis of
Protestant landowning ascendancy. Most historians agree that for
many in those two centuries, the sense of belonging to a church
replaced an earlier culturally-based identity formula. The
divisiveness of the feudal period gave way to a new form of
divisiveness based on religion.
A clash of
cultures in
Wales
1660, and replaced it with the will of the nation expressed through
parliament. The Toleration Act of 1689 was seen as a revolutionary
step towards democracy and freedom. It granted freedom of worship
to Protestant nonconformists provided they shared the basic
doctrines laid down in the Thirty-Nine Articles of the Anglican
Church*, and it allowed dissenters to build their own places of
worship.
In the context of the British Isles, the Revolution gained many
more meanings. In Scotland it was only after the battle of Culloden
of 1746 that the regime set up in 1689 became relatively secure.
The same can be said about Ireland. James II was decisively
defeated and Ulster Protestantism triumphant only after the fate of
the Stuart cause was decided by the Battle of the Boyne in 1690
(the blood bath that took place still holds a prominent place in the
Irish collective memory).
The result of William IIIs* victories can hardly be regarded as a
victory of liberal principles, as sometimes suggested. It meant the
establishment of Episcopalian ascendancy in Ireland and of
Presbyterianism in Scotland. The legacy of the civil wars led to the
perpetuation of distrust and hostility between the cultures of the
Church and of Dissent.
An Anglican ascendancy, as Jonathan Clark remarks in his
book English Society 1688-1832 prevails as a unifying factor
controlling the institutions of power long after 1688. Episcopalian
culture was dominant in the universities, public schools, army, navy
and the Church itself. Dissenting culture had to create its own
structures in response to such challenges.
The English Empire thrived after 1688, with the growth of the
American colonies; trade with the colonies became an important
feature of the English economy. The prosperity of London in the 18th
century, but also the rise of such ports as Liverpool and Bristol, was
bound up with colonial trade including slave trade.
The triumphal mood of the first half of the century gave way to
a deep crisis from 1763 (when the government attempted to raise
money from the colonies by means of the Stamp Act of 1765) up to
the recognition of American independence in 1783. A series of
British defeats followed, which ended with the decisive defeat of
France in America and India, a high point of imperial achievement.
Imperialism was traditionally underpinned by efforts at
Anglicization. It is interesting to follow the course that such
anglicising influences took in Wales, Scotland and Ireland and how
these were fed into the subcultures there.
South Wales was anglicised, i.e. cosmopolitanised and
commercialised, whilst the north, heavily Welsh-speaking and rural,
embraced Methodism*. For Scotland the dominant culture was
Lowland Presbyterianism reinforced by the Act of Union, reflected in
the power of the Kirk, universities and schools.
In Ireland we see three cultures clashing: Episcopalian in the
east, Presbyterian in Ulster (Northern Ireland) and the Catholic
majority to be found in all provinces. Episcopalians held power,
though a minority numerically, as they were mostly landowners who
belonged to the Established Church.
67
A cultural
mapping of
Scotland
The terms of the Act of Union allowed Scotland to keep its own
educational and legal systems and its own church.
68
1.
2.
3.
4.
John Wesley never left his home town but his spreading fame
made his church very popular;
Puritans, Quakers and other Nonconformist sects became wellknown for their social concern, greatly influencing trade unionism
and labour movement in Britain.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The Reform Act of 1832* and the establishment of University
College London testify to the new strength of Dissenters. They
expressed a growing demand against the paying of taxes for the
upkeep of the parish church, against the legal requirement that
dissenters be married within a Church of the Establishment, and the
continued exclusion of dissenters from Oxford and Cambridge. In
1834 a dissenting conference demanded the Disestablishment of
the Church*.
70
SAQ 7
The main doctrinal and attitudinal differences between the two
cultures, the Establishment and Dissent boil down to the sets below.
What set of traits is characteristic of each of the two cultures?
The Dissent:
SAQ 8
What is the name of the famous engineer who completed the Great
Western Railway from London to Bristol, who designed the first
propeller-driven ship to cross the Atlantic and the Clifton suspension
bridge to span the Avon Gorge?
Wilkinson
Wedgwood
Brindley
Stephenson
Brunel
Telford
SAQ 9
The Irish emigrated in huge numbers to a part of the world where
they still form the largest Irish community outside Ireland.
Where is that?
Write your answer below and then compare it to that given in the
Answers section, at the end of the unit.
At the end of World War I Ireland was not divided by class but
by culture. The cultural differences between north and south were
accentuated by religion. The distinguishing features of Irish identity
in the south were Catholicism and nationalism, nourished by a
revival of an interest in Gaelic culture and the Irish language.
In 1916 Sinn Fein* came into being to oppose the Protestant
north-east. If in 1914 a civil war had been prevented as the
Protestants of Ulster wanted at all costs to preserve the union, the
Rule Bill was put into effect after the war, and after three years of
military struggle, Ireland split into the six counties of Northern Ireland
(Ulster), which were given a measure of Home Rule, and the 26
counties of the Free Irish State.
SAQ 10
By arranging chronologically the following events you will end up
with the story of the Troubles in Northern Ireland:
1.
30 January 1972 Blood Sunday when the customary
water cannons were replaced by real guns and 13 demonstrators
were shot dead by soldiers;
2.
Stormont, the parliament of N Ireland unable to accept
British interference, resigned;
3.
Attacked by Protestant extremists. Clashes with the
police - serious tensions between the communities;
4.
August 1969 severe rioting broke out in Londonderry
and Belfast;
5.
British troops sent in to restore order;
6.
1969 IRA* moved in to protect Catholics from the gangs
of protestant extremists;
7.
British government decided to take over responsibility for
law and order;
8.
In the late 60s many Catholics (who made up more than
a third of Irelands population) first organised peaceful
demonstrations for civil rights;
9.
The role of the army changed from protecting the
Catholics to fighting the IRA who previously did not have much
support in N Ireland;
74
10.
The Good Friday Agreement, signed in 1998, and its
provisions successfully passed. A referendum* organized in Ireland
and N Ireland;
11.
The Province under direct rule from London;
12.
The agreement led to the reopening of Stormont and
replacement of British rule by a power-sharing government where all
political parties were represented;
13.
They used all the methods of terrorism to try to achieve
their aim to get the British army out and secure a united Ireland;
14.
In 2002, Stormont was once again suspended over
mounting disagreements, especially the refusal of the IRA to
decommission (give up weapons);
15.
Early 70s IRAs control of some urban areas was so
great that they were called no-go areas (e.g. Londonderry).
Now check your findings against the answer given in the Answers
section, at the end of the unit.
Home Rule in
Wales
Home Rule in
Scotland
2.1.7 Devolution
After World War II the victory of Labour* restored the influence
of the periphery in the persons of such cabinet ministers as
Emmanuel Shinwell*, Aneurin Bevan* and Harold Wilson**. In the
meanwhile, Ireland had toughened its anti-British attitude with the
decision of neutrality during World War II. This was, however, a
decision in favour of economic stagnation and cultural isolation.
Here Church and State fought to keep Ireland uncontaminated by
the pressures of modernity; divorce and contraception were
prohibited and a system of literary censorship was enforced. By
1972 this attitude seemed to have changed decisively when the Irish
voted overwhelmingly in favour of joining the EEC*.
For 50 years the politics of Northern Ireland has remained
frozen in an ethno-religious mould with two-thirds of its Protestant
76
77
78
Key Concepts
Glossary
anglocentric = centred on England
Auld Alliance = alliance that came into being after the attempt of
Edward I* to conquer Scotland in 1295. The Scots turned to the king
of France for support. According to the Auld Alliance whenever
England attacked any of the two countries, the other would
immediately make trouble behind Englands back. It lasted well into
the 16th century.
Battle of Britain = name given to the fighting between British and
German aircraft during the summer and autumn of 1940, when the
German aircraft repeatedly bombed British cities, and British aircraft
tried to fight them off. The bombing stopped late in 1940 and this
was seen by British people as a great victory for them. Winston
Churchill said about the British pilots who fought in the Battle of
Britain: Never in the field of human conflict was so much owned by
so many to so few.
Bevan, Aneurin = British Labour politician from Wales, known for
his excellent speeches. As Minister of Health (1945-1951) he helped
establish the NHS National Health Service.
Bill of Rights = written statement of the most important rights of the
citizens, which in 1689 consecrated a more democratic and
progressive arrangement that overrode the power of the king to
favour popular will represented in parliament.
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81
82
83
William (III) and Mary = William III (of Orange), king of England
Scotland and Ireland from 1689 to 1702. His wife, Mary II, the
daughter of King James II, had equal power and that is why people
usually talk about the reign of William and Mary.
Wilson, Harold = English Labour politician (born in Yorkshire) who
was prime minister from 1964 to 1970 and from 1974 to 1976.
Zwingli, Ulrich = Swiss humanist and reformer of the Church. His
radicalism was apparent in his concept of church and state
overlapping.
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
Should your answer not be comparable to that given below
please read sections 2.1.6 and 2.1.7.
On the front cover of A. Marrs book you can see a coffin wrapped
up in the Union Jack being lowered into the grave a powerful
symbolic image for the death of a nation, for the dissolution of
Britishness as national identity. In the book and the film screened
after the book the date ascribed to the death of Britain (born in
1707) is 1997 (devolution in Scotland and Wales).
SAQ 2
Britishness was still considered to be a common good for all
provinces in the 60s. The battle of Britain* fuelled like never before
British pride. This type of heroism associated with Britishness and
heroism in World War II gave way gradually to new patterns of
expressing national identities in the 70s when Britishness started to
feel oppressive. In the 70s Scottish and Welsh nationalism were on
the rise and the troubles in Northern Ireland took a dramatic turn. In
the 90s English nationalism became very prominent and more and
more voices are heard today calling for an English Parliament, just
like the national parliaments reopened in Scotland and Wales.
SAQ 3
The whole movement of the Reformation, which sparked off such
important cultural developments all over Europe hinged on the
translation of the Bible into English, thus allowing people to have a
direct knowledge of the Bible, thus also encouraging interpretation
and different readings of the Bible and more critical attitudes to
clerical corruption and abuse. Had Henry IV supported Wycliffe and
the Lollards* to go on with their project the English Church might
have become independent in the early 15th century. On the contrary,
Henry IV was a devout Catholic.
84
SAQ 4
Charles I dissolves parliament desiring to become an absolute
monarch; when he tries to impose Anglicanism in Presbyterian
Scotland, the Presbyterian Scots rioted, raised an army, occupied
Northern England. King feels compelled to summon Parliament and
ask for their financial and military support. Parliament imposes its
conditions in return for its support (mostly limiting the kings
prerogatives). In 1642 Charles gathered his army. Kings followers
called Cavaliers, those of Parliament Roundheads (because of their
specific haircut). Between 1642 and 1648 several battles were
fought (Naseby, Marston Moor, Preston) and several attempts made
at negotiations with the king fail. A Parliament reduced to one third,
made up mostly of Puritans tries the king for high treason and in
January 1649 Charles I is executed. Monarchy and the House of
Lords abolished by Cromwell; a Protectorate is constituted with
Cromwell Lord Protector and a one-house parliament. In 1660
Charles II is restored to the throne.
SAQ 5
The false sentences are:
John Wesley* never left his home but his spreading fame made
his church very popular.
SAQ 8
His name is Isamabard Kingdom Brunel (1806-1859).
85
SAQ 9
Should your answer not be comparable to that given below
please revise section 1.2.7.
In the 19th century, Irish emigrated in huge numbers to America that
has tried quite often recently to support the peace plans for Northern
Ireland (e.g. Bill Clinton).
SAQ 10
The right order of the sentences: 7, 3, 4, 8, 5, 12, 14, 1, 6, 2, 10, 9,
11, 13.
SAQ 11
Braveheart (a film directed by Mel Gibson) won most Oscar awards
in 1996, amongst them the Best Picture Award. Concern was
expressed repeatedly with the films anglophobia. Teenage Scottish
audiences cheered every time Wallace killed an Englishman. This
Gibson-styled Wallace (a Scottish hero in the 13th century who
fought against the English led by Edward I) was compared with the
notorious Bosnian Serb military commander General Radko Mladic
(one of the most wanted war criminals in Europe).
SAQ 12
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87
SAQ 1
Before reading the next section, try to think of the meaning of
multiculturalism. What does it mean, in your opinion?
Write your answer in the space below and then compare it to that
given in the Answers section, at the end of the unit.
88
SAQ 2
Match the following groups of people who settled in Britain with the
right date of their settlement and also rank them chronologically.
Check your answer against that provided in the Answers section,
at the end of the unit.
1
Norman Conquest
a.
17th century
b.
3rd century
Gypsies
c.
8th century
Celts
d.
5th century
e.
1066
f.
1656
Romans
g.
1st millennium BC
h.
43 AD
i.
16th century
10
Caribbeans
j.
after 1066
11
k.
12
Anglo-Saxons
l.
1290
13
m.
14
Resettlement of Jews
n.
15
o.
19th century
16
p.
17
q.
22 June 1948
18
r.
throughout the
1950s and early
60s
19
s.
16th century
20
Vikings
t.
the 1970's
21
u.
89
9.9%
13.1%
16.3%
20.5%
Think First!
The following fragment comes from an essay by a well-known
British novelist and playwright of Pakistani origin (his mother was
English, his father Pakistani), Hanif Kureishi. How would you
describe an inner city using the props below:
he found three Englands. There was guide-book England, of
palaces and forests; 19th century industrial England of factories and
suburbs; and contemporary England of by-passes and suburbs. Now
half a century later, there is another England as well: the inner city.
The inner city in question is in Bradford/ derelict houses/
poverty/ unemployment/ most of the area an Asian district/ pubs
stayed open late/ heavily policed/ diverse, disparate population,
ethnically mixed/ no shared outlook, beliefs and an established
form of life. (London Kills Me, Faber & Faber, 1991, pp. 128-130)
Write your answer in the space below (in no more than 100
words) and do not forget to add it to your portfolio.
22%
37%
52%
67%
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Think First!
Read the following fragments from Hanif Kureishis essay England
In the mid-1960s Pakistanis were a risible subject in England,
derided on television and exploited by politicians. They had the
worst jobs, they were uncomfortable in England, some of them had
difficulties with the language. They were despised and out of place.
From the start I tried to deny my Pakistani self. It was a curse and I
wanted to be rid of it. I wanted to be like everyone else. I read with
understanding a story in a newspaper about a black boy, who, when
he noticed that burnt skin turned white, jumped into a bath of boiling
water. At school one teacher always spoke to me in a Peter Sellers
Indian accent. Another refused to call me by name, calling me
Pakistani Pete instead
(London Kills Me, Faber & Faber, 1991, 73-75, 100)
Now try to answer the following questions and write your answers in
the space below:
Have you ever experienced the feeling of being ridiculed for being
different in a certain environment, at school, in the street, or on a
visit abroad?
Have you ever witnessed manifestations of racial attitudes? If yes,
how did you react?
Please add these answers to your portfolio for further discussions
during the tutorials.
93
2.2.3 Racism
As to the integration of ethnic minorities, many think that a kind
of deep-rooted institutionalised racism inherent in the British
continues to manifest itself. I think credit should be given to the
British for a whole range of attitudes, institutions and structures that
have developed in Britain with a view to accommodating, integrating
and providing equal opportunities in all fields for people belonging to
ethnic minorities. However, moments of intensification of racial
hatred are quite frequent.
In April 1968, perhaps in an attempt to challenge Edward
Heath*s* leadership of the Conservative Party, Enoch Powell, a
right-wing nationalist, forecast with inflammatory rhetoric rivers of
blood in British cities on the lines of race riots in the US. A former
Professor of Classics, Powell declared that, Those whom the gods
wish to destroy they first make mad. We must be mad, literally mad
as a nation, to be permitting the annual flow of some 50,000
dependents It is like watching a nation busily engaging in heaping
up its own funeral pyres. He spoke very emotionally of a formerly
quiet street, which had become a place of noise and confusion due
to coloured neighbours.
SAQ 5
Read the following fragments of different racist discourses. What
ideas do they share? In what ways do they differ from one another?
The breeding of millions of half-caste children would merely
produce a generation of misfits and create national tensions
(Duncan Sandys, 1967)
This country will not be worth living in for our childrenAs I
look ahead I am filled with foreboding. Like the Romans I seem to
see the River Tiber foaming with much blood (Enoch Powell,
1968).
"Europe becomes more and more a province of Islam, a colony
of Islam." (Oriana Fallaci, The Force of Reason, 2004)
Christianitys ancient stronghold of Europe is rapidly giving
way to Islam... Current trends suggest Islamization will happen, for
Europeans seem to find it too strenuous to have children, stop illegal
immigration, or even diversify their sources of immigrants. Instead,
they prefer to settle unhappily into civilizational senility. (Daniel
Pipes director of The Middle East Forum and author of Miniatures).
We are a British nation with British characteristics. Every
nation can take some minorities and in many ways they add to the
richness and variety of this country. But the moment a minority
threatens to become a big one, people get frightened. Some people
have felt swamped by immigrants. Theyve seen the whole character
of their neighbourhood change
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95
Immigrant
rights
96
SAQ 6
Who was the first British Asian who played for England? She was
picked to keep goal for the England womens under 16s side in a
Dublin tournament against USA, Scotland, Ireland and Wales. She
has played for Southampton Saints FC and Arsenal Ladies FC and
her name is among the following:
Michael Chopra
Permi Jahooti
Anwar Uddin
Aman Dosanj
Harpal Singh
A very important structure created for combating racial
discrimination was the Commission for Racial Equality CRE, set
up under the 1976 Act. Its main duties are: to work towards the
elimination of racial discrimination; to promote equality of opportunity
and good race relations between persons of different racial groups
and to keep the working of the Act under review. The CRE is
empowered to issue codes of practice, to carry out formal
investigations and to issue non-discriminatory notices after findings
of unlawful racial discrimination. They have conducted over 100
such investigations that resulted in significant changes in
employment practices and housing allocation policy. The codes of
practice covering employment, education, housing and the health
service provide guidance on the operation of the law.
Racial equality Councils assist in cases of discrimination and
promote race equality. There are 87 such councils funded jointly by
the CRE and local authorities.
Recent initiatives include The Leadership Challenge, launched
in 1997, inviting British leaders to declare their commitment to the
principles of diversity and racial equality and to take practical
measures to promote racial equality in their organisations. In May
1998, Prime Minister Tony Blair accepted this challenge in the name
of the government.
There are Race in Media awards for the promotion of
excellence in the handling of race issues in the media and Visible
Women awards seeking to raise the profile of ethnic minority
women. A Race Relations Forum was set up by the Home Secretary
Jack Straw in June 1998. It advises on issues affecting ethnic
minority communities and acts as a voice for ethnic minority
interests in the heart of the government.
The UK agreed to the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997), which
provides a legal base for community action to combat discrimination
based on race. It enables member states to take action to combat
criminal acts of racism and xenophobia and to promote the security
of citizens. This is an important follow-on from the EU Joint Action
on Racism and Xenophobia, to which the UK is also a signatory.
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SAQ 7
Discrimination manifests itself in many ways. Here are some of
the targets of multicultural policies that need the establishment
of a just, fair and diversity-respecting society.
Can you match them with the concise definitions in the right
column?
1
Ageism
Heterosexism
Racism
Sexism
Institutional
racism
6 Transphobia
Ableism
99
100
Summary
In the first chapter of this unit you could follow a red thread in
the development of a sense of common origins, common history and
tradition a sense of Britishness in the British Isles. Beyond the
troubled history of the provinces, the episodes of cultural dialogue
and exchange, you could follow the main stages in the maturation of
a national consciousness in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland
that led to claims for Home Rule and in recent years led to Wales
and Scotland becoming devolved from the central authority in
London. These recent developments stirred an unprecedented
debate over the future of Britishness and of Britain, quite a few
voices claiming that Britishness is undergoing a slow but irreversible
process of dissolution and that devolution can only lead - in the
more or less distant future - to independence.
The second chapter of this unit aims at highlighting the great
achievements of Britain in its laudable attempt at establishing a
multicultural society, furthering respect, acceptance and
understanding for cultural diversity and inter-cultural communication.
Emphasis is laid on institutional structures, legislation and public
policies meant to translate generous social and cultural ideals into
everyday realities, into the provision of equal opportunities in all
sectors of public and private life. You are challenged to judge for
yourselves the achievements and also the setbacks in this pursuit
for inter-racial justice and fairness by reading about Stephen
Lawrence and the strong impact his murder had on contemporary
British society.
103
Key Concepts
acculturation
multiculturalism
Britpop
racism
institutional racism
globalisation
macdonaldization
Glossary
acculturation = process through which one adapts to or adopts a
different culture.
Bhabha, Homi = famous cultural studies scholar, a leading name in
postcolonial studies born to a small Parsi community in Bombay,
author of Nation and Narration (1990) and The Location of Culture
(1994).
Britpop = British musical movement from the middle 90s,
characterised by the appearance of bands who borrowed many
influences from 60s and 70s while creating big and catchy hooks, as
well as the glamour of earlier pop stardom and the sense that they
were creating the soundtrack to the lives of a new generation of
British youth.
council house = house or flat owned by the local town or county
council for which the family living in it pays rent.
institutional racism = racial discrimination entrenched in the
policies, internal regulations, practices of the main institutions in a
state, such as the police, employment offices, schools, etc.
globalization = set of processes triggered by the development of
information technology and mass communication that entail a
'reconfiguration of geography, so that social space is no longer
mapped in terms of territorial places, distances and borders. Also,
the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant
localities in such a way that local happenings are shaped by events
occurring many miles away and vice versa, generating
transcontinental or inter-regional flows and networks of activity.
The Guardian = serious, quality (as opposed to tabloids), national
daily newspaper in Britain, targeting mainly well educated people
with liberal or left-wing political opinions.
104
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
SAQ 2
4/g; 7/h; 11/b; 12/d; 20/c; 1/e; 9/j; 8/l; 3/i; 2/s; 5/a; 14/f; 6/n; 17/o;
13/u; 16/k; 21/q; 10/r; 18/m; 15/t 19/p
105
SAQ 3
Should your answer not be comparable to that given below
please revise section 2.1.2.
In the 2001 census, 9.9% of the population of England and Wales
identified themselves as being from an ethnic minority. Wales. This
figure includes those who identified as Irish (1.2%). The Irish
category was included for the first time in the 2001 census following
research published in 1997, which showed that Britains Irish
population experience racial discrimination and disadvantage.
SAQ 4
Two-thirds (67%) of Pakistanis and Bangladeshis are living in
poverty according to latest statistics. Poverty among Ethnic Minority
Groups in Britain, a report published by Child Poverty Action Group
(CPAG) defines poverty as living in families with incomes below 60%
of the average; it also found that a third of Indians and Caribbeans
and half of Black Africans are living in poverty. This compares with
less than a quarter of the British population overall. [source:
www.cpag.org.uk]
SAQ 5
SAQ 6
In April 1999, Aman Dosanj became the first British Asian to play for
England as goal-keeper in a Dublin tournament against USA,
Scotland, Ireland and Wales.
106
SAQ 7
1/e; 2/d; 3/b; 4/c; 5/f; 6/g; 7/a
SAQ 8
Black people were eight times, and Asians were three times more
likely, to be stopped and searched than white people in 2001/2.
714,000 stops and searches were recorded in England and Wales in
2001/2, of which 12 per cent were of black people, six per cent were
of Asian people and one per cent were of other minority ethnic
groups.
SAA No. 2
What was the contribution of the culture of Dissent to the
configuration of contemporary Britain?
Is Britain a multicultural society? Support your opinions with data
and facts.
Send the answers to these questions to your tutor. Your test paper
should not exceed two pages (1000 words).
In order to successfully complete the assigned tasks you should
particularly review subchapter 2.1.5 about the culture of Dissent
and 2.2.4 and 2.2.5 on race relations in Britain and on the
Lawrence case.
An adequate coverage of the content required accounts for 70% of
your grade while your linguistic accuracy accounts for the
remainder.
You could consider the bibliography below for further reading.
Selected Bibliography
1. Bhabha, H. K. 1997. Re-Inventing Britain. A Manifesto in British
Studies Now. 9/ April 1997. pp.9 - 10
2. Brnzeu. P. 1997. Corridors of Mirrors. The Spirit of Europe in
Contemporary British and Romanian Fiction. Timioara: Amarcord,
pp. 37-62
3. Dascl, R. 2000. British Topics. Timioara: Eurostampa, pp. 36-88
4. Irimia Anghelescu, M. Dicionarul universului britanic, Bucureti:
Humanitas
5. Kureishi, H. 1991. London Kills Me. London: Faber & Faber, pp.
27-37
6. Foreign and Commonwealth Office. 1999. Ethnic Diversity in
Britain. London
107
Unit 3
BRITISH MONARCHY IN THE THIRD MILLENNIUM
Unit Outline
Unit objectives
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.2
3.2.1
110
CHAPTER I
British monarchy how valid an institution in the third
millennium?
Monarchy an oasis of aristocracy in a modern world
110
Is the monarch a figurehead?
111
Functions of monarchy. Royal prerogatives
115
121
Key concepts
122
Glossary
124
Answers to SAQs
127
CHAPTER II
For or against the monarchy?
The tragic death of a princess and calls for the reform of the 131
monarchy
Summary
Key concepts
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
SAA No. 3
Selected bibliography
108
109
132
132
132
133
134
134
109
110
(Shakespeare, III)
111
Think First!
Before you go on reading, stop a minute and reflect on this
gelling of the community. We often speak about the lack of
cohesion in contemporary society, about the fact that
communities are fragmented and no longer united in the name of
commonly shared values, ideals etc.
Is this power of holding people together and imparting a feeling of
community and belonging to them real or symbolic?
Use the space below to write your answer and please dont forget
to add it to your portfolio so that you can further discuss the
matter during tutorials.
113
114
115
SAQ 3
The State Opening of Parliament is a rare occasion in the year to
admire the glamour and decorum of the monarchs glittering
ceremonial dress, her crown and, in general, the Regalia*.
Try to match the symbolic objects with their definitions at the
bottom of the box. Check your answer against that given in the
Answers section.
A)
B)
C)
D)
1. Object made of gold which contains the oil with which the
Sovereign is anointed*. There is a small hole in the beak
through which the oil is poured;
2. Worn by the sovereign on great state occasions. It has
among numerous other precious stones the Stuart Sapphire,
the Black Prince's Ruby, and St Edward's Sapphire, and,
above all the extraordinary and ancient Kohinoor diamond;
3. Made from marked gold and set with over 600 precious stones
and pearls, 6.5 inches in diameter made for Charles II's
coronation in 1661, it represents Christian Sovereignty;
4. Provided with a Cross. It signifies the Sovereign's temporal
power. It is decorated with 393 precious stones, including the
Star of Africa (Cullinan I) diamond - the largest top quality cut
diamond in the world;
116
117
SAQ 7
What does Remembrance day commemorate, and when is it
held?
Compare your answer to that provided in the Answers section.
The Queen has regular and confidential contacts with the Prime
Minister, enjoying what Walter Bagehot* called the right to be
consulted, the right to encourage and the right to warn (The English
Constitution, 1978:11). They usually meet every week on Tuesday
evening and then for several days in the late summer when she is
on holiday at Balmoral* in Scotland. She sees all Cabinet papers
and the records of Cabinet and Cabinet Committee meetings. She
receives important Foreign Office telegrams and a daily summary of
events in Parliament.
Her experience of the affairs of state is unrivalled in modern
times, since in almost 50 years on the throne she has had 10 Prime
Ministers and 15 different governments. As a permanent fixture in
the British political system, unlike temporary politicians, she has a
greater knowledge than they do regarding domestic and
international politics.
Key Concepts
figurehead
non-coercive power
Royal prerogative
Act of Settlement
Civil List
Honours List
Regalia
State Opening of Parliament
hung parliament
121
Glossary
anoint = to apply ointment or oil within a religious ceremony during
which a king/queen is consecrated.
Arendt, Hanah = German-American philosopher and political
theorist, author of The Origins of Totalitarianism, The Human
Condition, On Revolution, and Between Past and Future. She spent
much of her life attempting to understand the political and moral
causes of the Nazi rise in Germany and of other totalitarian regimes
of the 20th century.
Bagehot, Walter = English journalist and economist, closely
associated with the English institutionalist-historicist tradition. One of
the early editors of the famous and influential "Manchester School"
newspaper The Economist. His major work The English Constitution,
of 1867 is still a landmark in the field.
Balmoral = a castle in NE Scotland that has been a private home of
the royal family since 1852, when it was bought by Prince Albert,
Queen Victorias husband.
Barbarossa, (Emperor) = Friedrich I. Barbarossa, German King,
who became Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 1155. He led
many expeditions to conquer Italy and lay siege to Milan. He died on
a crusade to the Holy Land, on the way back in Turkey with a fever.
But as his corpse was not brought back to Germany, there was no
evidence, that he really was dead and this was the source of many
legends linked to his name. It was rumoured, that he was still alive
and would return in the right moment!
Bogdanor, Vernon = Professor of government at Oxford University.
His most important publications are: Devolution in the United
Kingdom (1999), Politics and the Constitution: Essays on British
Government (1996), The Monarchy and the Constitution (1995).
Chamberlain, Neville = conservative politician who as prime
minister continued the policy of non-intervention. He also thought
that by agreeing to some of the demands being made by Hitler and
Mussolini he could avoid a European war. The policy of
appeasement was not met with approval by his foreign secretary
Anthony Eden, who resigned in February, 1938. On 29th
September, 1938, Chamberlain, Hitler, Daladier and Mussolini
signed the Munich Agreement which spoke of peace in our time.
Some politicians, including Winston Churchill and Anthony Eden,
attacked the agreement. In March, 1939, after the occupation of
Czechoslovakia, Chamberlain realized that Hitler could not be
trusted, and his appeasement policy now came to an end. After the
invasion of Poland, Chamberlain was forced to declare war on
Germany.
122
123
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
The events alluded to are: the execution of Charles I in 1649, the
restoration of monarchy under Charles II in 1660, the century-long
rivalry with France: The Battle of Hastings, Hundred Years War, The
Seven Years War (1756-1763), the Norman conquest and the huge
impact of French on the vocabulary of English, the consolidation of
the British Empire, the waves of immigration in the 20th century.
124
SAQ 2
Ancient kings enjoyed a godly status, they were endowed with
supernatural capacities such as giving sun or rain in due season. In
the Middle Ages their status was that of intercessors between
humans and God and the fact that they were anointed with holy oil
conferred upon them nearly priestly status and also set the king
above human judgement (Edgar was the first English king to be
anointed in 973). For a long time monarchs were also believed to
have magic healing powers. People afflicted with such terrible
diseases such as scrofula longed to be touched by the king in the
hopes of miraculous recovery. We have ample evidence about the
royal gifts of healing from Edward the Confessor in the 11th century
to Charles II in the 17th century.
SAQ 3
A.
B.
C.
D.
2
3
1
4
SAQ 4
Should your answer not be comparable to that given below
please revise subchapter 1.1.12 and the glossary entry Royal
Coat of Arms on page 26.
The Order of the Garter was founded by Edward III* during the
Hundred Years War with France. The motto Honi soit qui mal y
pense may well have been directed at critics of the Kings claims to
the French throne, however, according to a tradition first recorded by
Tudor chroniclers, it originated at a feast celebrating the capture of
Calais in 1347. The Kings mistress, the Countess of Salisbury was
mocked by courtiers for losing her garter during a dance, but
Edward at once stepped forward and tied the blue ribbon around his
own knee, uttering the motto as a rebuke and stating that the Garter
would soon be held in the highest esteem.
SAQ 5
Queen Elizabeth
Philip, Duke of Edinburgh
Princess Anne
Charles, Prince of Wales
125
SAQ 6
Should your answer not be comparable to the one given below
please go back to the glossary entry The Commonwealth on
page 23.
The Commonwealth is a loose association of states with no formal
constitution or rules, among which only a few, such as Gibraltar and
the Falkland Islands, remain dependencies of Britain. The term as
such was for the first time used by Lord Roseberry, a Liberal
minister, who in 1884 considered Australias position in a
commonwealth of nations to be the right thing. The organization
founded in the post-war period was meant to replace the British
Empire, although the belief that the British Commonwealth could still
project Britain in the world had to be abandoned, in private, if not in
public. As Blair stated in 1996: We no longer have an empire and
although the Commonwealth gives us valuable links around the
world it is not an alternative to Europe. (Blair, 1996:210). There are
53 states within the Commonwealth, nearly one-third of the worlds
independent states with a combined population of over 1.8 billion.
About 30 percent of the world's population are drawn from the
broadest range of faiths, races, cultures and traditions. Members
range from vast countries like Canada to small island states like
Malta. The Queen is recognised as Head of the Commonwealth. In
16 countries, including Canada and Australia, she is also head of
State. Thirty countries, like Zimbabwe, India, Guyana, Ghana,
Bangladesh, Pakistan, Cyprus, etc., are republics and six of them,
like Brunei, Malaysia, Lesotho and Tonga have their own royal
families.
SAQ 7
Should your answer not be comparable to the one given below
please go back to section 1.1.8.
The Sunday nearest to the 11 November is when the Armistice was
signed (concluding World War I). On Remembrance Sunday, the
dead of both World Wars are remembered in special church
services and civic ceremonies, the chief of which is the laying of
wreaths at the Cenotaph in Whitehall, London by members of the
Royal Family (the whole procession is led by the Queen) in the
presence of the leading statesmen and politicians. A two-minute
silence is observed at 11 oclock in the whole country as a tribute to
the nations heroes.
126
127
about 100
over 450
about 1000
37.000
10.000
48.000
128
SAQ 2
You have so far read about several arguments in favour of the
monarchy, of the institutional validity of the monarchy in the
modern world.
How could you account for the fact that most prime ministers of
the Left, Liberal or Labour, have proved to be royalists?
Write your answer in the space below and then compare it to the
one given in the Answers section.
The Queen is granted the Civil List in return for handing over
the Crown estates to the Exchequer*, as has happened since
George III. Although those estates officially belong to the Crown, no
monarch could keep them if they considered, for example, that the
Civil List was not to their liking. Nevertheless, the Queen has a
considerable personal fortune in addition to jewellery and paintings.
Her stamp collection alone is said to be worth over one million GBP.
Critics argue that the tax-payers should not have to cover the
Queens personal expenses, those of the royal dependants, when
she is actually one of the richest women in the world.
A MORI poll (a special survey of opinion in a country done by
the company Market and Opinion Research International) in 1990
showed three-quarters of the population favoured taxing the
Queens income. Prime Minister John Major announced that the
Queen would pay income tax from April that year, though with a
huge allowance and exemption from inheritance tax for the Prince of
Wales. The Sunday Times in 1990, calculated her personal fortune
at 7 billion GBP, though this was dismissed by the palace.
Her critics also think that the functions that the Queen holds are
mostly meaningless and absurd. The Queen, they say, by
dispensing honours such as peerages, knighthoods and medals, in
fact, creates for the Prime Minister, on whose advice she elevates
people to such titles, a rich system of patronage, thus strengthening
the Prime Ministers manipulative powers.
Some of her other functions, they argue declaration of war,
signing of treaties, granting pardons, her annual opening of
Parliament, appointment of the Prime Minister, Cabinet, bishops,
Lords of Appeal and heads of corporations - are meaningless.
The Queen described the year 1992 as annus horribilis. It was
the year the media burrowed into the private lives of the younger
members of the royal family, into the intimacy of their love affairs and
marriage problems; there were marital scandals surrounding her son
Andrew and the heir to the throne, Charles. In the following years, the
prestige of the monarchy was dealt further blows that came to a head
in 1997 with the death of Diana, Princess of Wales. Then there was
vivid discussion of the future role of the royal family. There was a
general feeling of dismay and profound dissatisfaction with a
monarchy that had become more and more aloof from the problems
of the common people, ossified in rituals and artificial
conventionalism.
130
3.2.1 The tragic death of a princess and calls for the reform of the
monarchy
The death of Diana in August 1997 damaged, some say
beyond repair, the support for the monarchy in Britain.
In a poll published by Observer in 1997, it is evident how the
Queen and Prince Charles plummeted in popular support. The
ratings plunged from 71 in 1981 to 10 for the Queen and from 58 to
5 per cent for Charles. Still 74 per cent of the interviewees thought
that the institution should be maintained, but they added that an
overhaul of the institution was mandatory and only 12 per cent
thought that the status quo should be maintained. 81 per cent
thought that the Royal family should become more informal and less
concerned with preserving their traditional ways; 79 per cent thought
that the monarchy was out of touch with ordinary people in Britain.
To a last question concerning the succession to the Crown, only 38
per cent thought that Charles should be the next in line, whilst 53 per
cent thought that the Crown should go to Charless son William.
When Diana died in a car crash in Paris in the early hours of
Saturday 30, August 1997, the princess precipitated an
unprecedented crisis in the Royal Family.
Let me repeat, Diana didnt cause this. She was a force of
nature, but hardly El Nio. She was only a symbol of social changes
happening already, a political symbol because of her royal fate and
her choice of charities, friends, words and gestures. With her
emotional fragility and self-revelation, her baseball caps, natural look
of deference, hedonistic enjoyment of material things and her
complicated sex life, she was representative of the new, emerging
Britain just as surely as Charles and his mother represent an old
nation said Andrew Marr (One year on, has Britain changed? in
Guardian Weekly, 30 August 1998:13).
The author of the article thinks that this was the major effect of
Dianas death. It provided a much needed shock, a disruption to
everyday rituals which allowed for communal self-recognition: The
moment when we stared at the crowds and bouquets, we stared at
ourselves and thought, bloody hell, so thats what were like. It
offered, in the proper sense, a moment of national reflection. And
because to know oneself is to change, then a year on, yes, it is safe
to say that Dianas death changed the country (ibid.:13).
The monarchy as an institution has to dovetail* with modern
times whilst preserving the nearly sacred status that many of its
supporters hold dear: tradition, high moral standards, stability and
continuity as Stuart Hall* asserts in The Great Moving Right Show:
The major significance of the monarchy is its capacity to continue to
forge links among constitutional, political and social features of a
society which has been struck by far-reaching economic and social
problems and which is still marked by the powerful impact of the
politics of Tory leader Margaret Thatcher (1983:19-39).
131
Summary
In this unit you were given fairly ample opportunities to engage with
the structure, functions and overall significance of a defining British
institution monarchy whose fate is viewed with increasingly
sceptical eyes in the modern world. Many believe that the very
principles that underpin monarchy - such as hereditary rights or
class privilege, look absurd and out of synch with modern times, with
the very spirit of democracy. At the same time you are invited to
weigh the strengths of the institution against its weaknesses, to
develop awareness of the monarchs relatively symbolic power and
to account for the support that monarchy has managed to secure
over time from the, apparently, least likely political force to offer such
support the Labour Party. The unprecedented crisis monarchy
faced in the wake of princess Dianas death in 1997 is also
highlighted as well as calls ever since for the modernization of the
institution.
Key Concepts
Civil List
Establishment
Exchequer
meritocracy/meritocratic
Glossary
Civil List = the sum of money voted yearly by Parliament to the King
or Queen as head of state and to certain other related people.
dovetail = to fit together compactly or neatly.
Establishment = the powerful organizations and people who control
public life and support the established order of society.
Exchequer = the government department that is responsible for the
collection of taxes and the paying out of public money. It is part of
the Treasury whose chief minister is called Chancellor of the
Exchequer.
Hall, Stuart = British cultural theorist, born Jamaica in 1932, pioneer
in the field of cultural studies in the 1970s. Author of The Hard Road
to Renewal (1988), Resistance through Rituals (1989), The
Formation of Modernity (1992), Questions of Cultural Identity (1996)
and Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices (1997). He
currently sits on the Runnymede Trust's commission on the future of
multi-ethnic Britain.
132
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
SAQ 2
133
SAA No. 3
Can you give any examples of non-coercive power that is
nevertheless real power?
Many people believe that we might see elections for a president of
the UK by 2050. Do you agree or do you disagree? Bring
arguments in favour of your views.
Send the answers to these questions to your tutor. Your answer
should not exceed two pages (1000 words). In order to
successfully complete the assigned tasks you should particularly
review subchapters 3.1.2 and 3.1.3 on the distinction
coercive/non-coercive power and on the prerogatives of the
monarch, as well as chapter 3.2.
An adequate coverage of the content required accounts for 70% of
your total grade while your linguistic accuracy accounts for 30% of
it.
You could consider the bibliography below for further reading.
Selected Bibliography
1. Bogdanor,V. 1997. The Monarchy and the Constitution. Oxford:
Clarendon Press, pp. 185-194
2. Dascl, R. 2000. British Topics. Timioara: Eurostampa, pp. 101128
3. Emmet, D. 1953-54. The Concept of Power in Proceedings of the
Aristotelian Society, spring 1954. pp.1-26
4. Jones, B. and D, Kavanagh. 1998. British Politics Today. Sixth
edition. Manchester: MUP, pp. 120-130
5. McDowall, D. 1991. An Illustrated History of Britain. Harlow:
Longman
134
Unit 4
BRITISH DEMOCRACY IN ACTION
Unit Outline
Unit objectives
136
4.1.1
137
CHAPTER I
A brief historical outline of the British Parliament. The
House of Lords and its radical reform under New Labour
A brief historical outline of the British Parliament
137
4.1.2
Life of Parliament
140
4.1.3
4.1.4
4.1.5
4.1.6
143
145
147
148
Key concepts
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
153
153
156
CHAPTER II
British democracy in action: the House of Commons, the
thrust towards decentralization
Elections
Political parties
The House of Commons
Functions of the House of Commons
The decline of commons power and the movement for reform
157
Summary
Key concepts
Glossary
Answers to SAQs
SAA No. 4
Selected bibliography
173
174
174
177
179
180
4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.2.5
157
160
163
166
171
135
After you have completed the study of this unit, you should be
able to:
136
137
SAQ 1
Magna Carta or the Great Charter signed by King John in 1215 is
unanimously considered to be the earliest monument of English
freedom, the basis of English liberty. It marks the transition from
the age of traditional rights to the age of written legislation.
Single out among the sentences below three which express the
main thrust of this precious document and then check your
answer against that provided in the Answers section, at the end
of the unit:
No freeman shall be seized or imprisoned, or dispossessed or
outlawed or in any way brought to ruin;
None of the royals can ever get married without the monarchs
consent;
To no man will sell, or deny, or delay, right or justice;
The accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial,
by an impartial jury;
Anyone criticizing the monarch in any way is to be prosecuted
under the Treason Felony Act.
1.
2.
3.
138
A Speaker was for the first time elected in 1376 and voiced the
objections of the commoners or their agreement, as they held very
little prestige at the time. Despite the etymology of parliament (to
meet for parley or discussion) the commoners had no right to speak
in parliamentary sessions. They were only supposed to listen to the
great feudal magnates. Anyway, as the debates leading to the
Speakers address were extremely noisy and boisterous, Edward III
decided to allot a special chamber to commoners - the Chapter
House of Westminster Abbey; later on, from 1547 to 1834, the
Commons were hosted in St Stephens Chapel, also founded by
Edward III.
While in most other European countries there were three
important social categories, estates or classes, represented in the
councils, the English parliament has almost from its very beginning
been bicameral. The explanation lies in the fact that the former strife
between the secular and ecclesiastical authorities led to their
inclusion in one chamber. But the increasing might and authority of
the Commons can also be accountable to its homogeneous social
structure underlying the socio-political stability and the economic
prosperity of England. The Upper House too proved stable: even in
139
141
SAQ 2
By putting the following events in order you will be able to obtain
the script of The State Opening of Parliament ceremony:
1. As the Queen arrives at the Sovereign's Entrance to the
House of Lords, the Royal Standard* is unfurled on the
Victoria Tower, replacing the Union Flag, and it remains there
while The Queen is within the palace. The Sovereign is
received by the Earl Marshal and also by the Lord Great
Chamberlain.
2. Several events occur before the actual State Opening and
The Queen is the last person to drive down the Royal Route.
The Regalia: the Imperial State Crown, the Cap of
Maintenance, the Sword of State are driven by coach from
the Tower of London to Westminster Palace for the
ceremony. The street liners pay compliments to the Regalia
as they pass by, showing the symbolic respect due to them.
3. The Lord Chancellor now advances and, removing the
Queen's Speech from a special silk bag, hands it to the
Sovereign but before it is read, the 'faithful Commons' must
be summoned to attend and hear the speech.
4. Various members of the Royal Family arrive by car and,
before the Royal Procession sets out, the Yeomen of the
Guard search the cellars of the Houses of Parliament. This
custom dates back to 5th November 1605, when Guy Fawkes
tried to blow up the Houses of Parliament.
5. This is the moment when a traditional ritual is carried out to
remind all concerned of the rights of the House of Commons
and of the abuse of these rights by King Charles I.
6. The Sovereign sits on the throne, with the Duke of Edinburgh
on her left. Other members of the Royal Family sit on the
front benches nearest the throne.
7. The Queen travels from Buckingham Palace to Westminster
along the Royal Route using the Irish State Coach drawn by
four horses. She has her usual Escort of the Household
Cavalry and street liners, who present arms as the Royal
Procession passes, guard the whole route.
8. As The Queen moves up the Royal Staircase to the Robing
Chamber she passes between two lines of dismounted
troopers of the Household Cavalry in full dress with drawn
swords exercising the privilege of being the only troops
allowed to bear arms within the Royal Palaces.
142
appeal for civil cases in Britain and for criminal cases in England,
Wales and Northern Ireland. Although until very recently the House
has still been disproportionately hereditary, the life peers tended to
play a fuller and more regular part in the proceedings.
Moreover, since 1963 it has been possible to disclaim
hereditary peerages within 12 months of succession, and
disclaimants lose their right to sit in the House but gain the right to
vote and stand as candidates at parliamentary elections. The
number of Lords used to exceed 1,200, although not all the peers
with a right to sit in the House of Lords attend the sittings.
Before 1999 there used to be 750 hereditary peers (61% of the
total number of peers). A significant number of hereditary peerages
were created during this century, and an important number of them
under the premiership of Lloyd George (1916-1922). Some of them
however date back to the Middle Ages: the Barony of Mowbray,
(1283), the Dukedom of Norfolk and the Earldom of Shrewsbury
(1483 and 1442 respectively). Hereditary peers however do not
always keep a low profile and they are not always backwoodsmen*.
Lord Home was Foreign Secretary under Macmillan and Heath, Lord
Shackleton was a senior member of Harold Wilsons government,
Lord Carrington was Defence Secretary in the Heath Government
and Foreign Secretary in Thatchers government.
Life peers have been created since 1958, the vast majority of
them being distinguished men and women from a wide variety of
walks of life who have been so honoured in recognition of their
political or public services. They may be former civil servants or
diplomats who retired at the top of their profession, soldiers who
rose to the highest military rank, successful industrialists or
prominent trade union leaders, distinguished scientists or
academics. However, the largest category of life peers is formed of
former politicians from the House of Commons or local government.
They are either retired senior ministers or very senior backbenchers*
whom the Prime Minister wishes to reward with a seat in the Lords.
Since the introduction of life peerages, the dynamics of the Lords
sittings have changed substantially for the better.
144
Think first!
The prestige of the House of Lords has eroded steadily over time.
Thus it was abolished in 1649 being declared useless and
dangerous by Oliver Cromwell, and in successive stages during
the 20th century (1909, 1911, 1949) its prerogatives have been
reduced. What could be the reasons for this decline in importance
of the Upper House, in your opinion?
Use the space below to write your answer.
Do not forget to include your answer in your portfolio for further
clarification during tutorials.
145
146
SAQ 3
What should be changed in the composition of the House of
Lords and why?
Do not write more than 200 words and please check your answer
against that given in the Answers section, at the end of the unit.
4.1.6 New Labour and the reform of the Lords: 800 years of history
ends in 7 minutes
Labour set up a committee in 1998 to examine the New Labour
manifesto commitment to reform the Lords. A bill to abolish the
powers of hereditary peers makes provisions for a two-stage reform,
Stage 2 being concerned with the shape of the chamber. It will be
however very hard for the New Labour to create the necessary
legislative time. Tony Blairs ideas for a reformed Upper Chamber
are strangely similar to Cromwells Other House, which was to
exclude almost all hereditary peers and be composed largely of his
nominees and dependents. Under Stage One, 659 of the 751
hereditary peers have lost their 800-year-old rights to sit and vote.
The 92 hereditary peers who have kept their seats will be removed
in the final stage of the reform.
148
SAQ 4
Guess which of the four items listed below was the criterion of
selection for the 92 Hereditary Lords to be allowed to sit until
stage two of the Reform?
149
Think First!
In your opinion which of the following recommendations made in
the 2001 bill will enable the House of Lords to become more
democratic?
Think First!
Before you go on reading, stop a minute and imagine yourself
taking part in this heated debate on how to proceed to the next
stage of the reform of the Lords.
Choose one of the main positions in the debate and state your
opinion bringing arguments in support:
152
Key Concepts
Elders council
Prorogation
Oueens Speech
Lords temporal/lords spiritual
Hereditary/life peers
Law lords
franchise
Government bills
filibustering
Legislative delay
backbencher
Glossary
backbencher = an MP who does not hold any special office and
who, therefore, in the House of Commons sits on the back benches
(as distinct from the front benches, on which ministers and members
of the Shadow cabinet sit).
backwoodsman = a member of the House of Lords who lives in the
country and hardly ever attends its meetings.
153
155
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
The three sentences from magna Carta are:
No freeman shall be seized or imprisoned, or dispossessed or
outlawed or in any way brought to ruin;
To no man will sell, or deny, or delay, right or justice;
The accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by
an impartial jury.
SAQ 2
The right order of the paragraphs: 2, 4, 7, 1, 8, 6, 3, 5.
SAQ 3
Should your answer not be comparable to the one given below,
please revise sections 4.1.3 and 4.1.4.
The hereditary principle, it was thought, is totally out of tune with
democracy; the Lords have a poor attendance record and represent
an outdated cluster of values no longer defensible in the
contemporary world: inequality, the right to rule, wealth, exclusive
private education, class privileges. The hereditary, non-elected
peers should not be allowed to frustrate the will of the elected
chamber. As Conservatives tend to have a majority over Labour in
the Lords and as they can increase their number in time of need by
summoning the less regular attenders (the backwoodsmen), they
are able to delay and amend radical policies for party political
reasons. Many think that several functions could much more
effectively be performed by the Commons or, in the case of the
judicial function, by a separate institution completely unconnected
with a second legislative chamber (like the Supreme Court in the
USA). Critics often air the view that a reformed chamber with
younger and more dynamic members might perform these tasks
more effectively.
SAQ 4
They had to endure the humiliating process of putting their names
forward for election in 75 words only. Very hard for people who are
accustomed to making very long speeches. Lord Strathclyde, the
Tory leader in the Lords gave one of the shortest addresses: a twoline election address outlining his parliamentary career.
156
158
Votes that did not go to the 'winner', that is, the total number
of votes for all of the other candidates who lost often resulted
in a figure far greater than that that the winner gained.
If the losers gain nothing, then what about all those who didn't
vote for the successful person?
Dont these people feel disenfranchised, i.e. not gaining through
their vote any representation in the House of Commons?
Together, such voters may constitute a majority but with votes
spread amongst different candidates, they represent a divided
majority.
Percentages of votes are not transformed into percentages of
seats in Parliament.
Within one constituency, a candidate may take a high
percentage of votes but if he or she is not the winner, their
votes mean very little at all and become statistics to be
analysed, not a source of political power.
It worked well in the past because of the traditional two-party
system in the country.
A new party like the Liberal-Democrat Party is disadvantaged
by the system.
159
SAQ 2
Is tactical voting democratic enough in your opinion? Do you
remember any instance in your voting experience when you
voted tactically or when you cast a negative vote (as we often
call the practice in Romania)?
Compare your answer to that provided in the Answers section,
at the end of the unit.
Figure 4.8 The logos of the three parties: Labour, Conservative and Lib Dems
161
SAQ 3
Margaret Thatcher who became leader of the Conservative Party
in 1975 and the first woman prime minister of Britain, having been
re-elected twice in successive general elections (a brilliant
performance only equalled by Tony Blair in May 2005), left an
indelible mark on British politics. Tony Blair became leader of the
Labour Party in 1994 and continued to move the party towards
the centre (according to his critics to centre-right, a situation
which earned him the title of Thatchers son).
Match the achievements listed below with one of the two Prime
Ministers mentioned above.
Margaret Thatcher:
Tony Blair:
162
163
SAQ 4
By filling in the gaps with the right words or phrases you will find
out about the main actors and the part that they play in the House
of Commons:
The ---------- (1) is the chief officer of the House of Commons,
elected by MPs to preside over the House. His/Her three ---------(2) are the next most important officers of the House. They take no
partisan part in debates or votes unless a vote is ---------- (3) which
is a rare occasion and in that case they have the decisive vote, or
---------- (4).
In front of the Speaker on the right sit the MPs of the biggest party,
which forms the government and facing them sit the MPs of the
parties who oppose them, the ---------- (5). The leader of the
government, the ---------- (6) sits on the government ---------- (7), of
course, next to his/her ---------- (8) the most important of these
form the ---------- (9) The minister responsible for relations with
other countries is called ---------- (10) The one responsible for law
and security is called ---------- (11) The one who deals with
financial matters and prepares the annual ---------- (12) is called --------- (13) Opposite this group sits the ---------- (14) - the main
person in the largest party opposing the government - and the ---------- (15), each member of which specializes in a particular area
of government.
Paid office-holders in the government who are entitled to sit on the
first bench, hence ---------- (16) make up about 100 of the total
number of MPs. The figure includes the government ---------- (17)
(the name is derived from the whipper-in in fox-hunting whose job
is to ensure that the hounds are kept under control) They are
Ministers of the ---------- (18) and constitute important channels
between backbenchers and frontbenchers. MPs without special
positions in their party sit behind their leaders at the back and are
called ---------- (19).
Opposition
Prime Minister
front bench
Foreign Secretary
ministers
casting ballot
Deputies
tied
front benchers
Crown
164
Speaker
Cabinet
Home Secretary
Chancellor of the Exchequer
backbenchers
Leader of the Opposition
budget
Shadow Cabinet
Whips
Whips are chosen within the party and their duties include
keeping members informed on forthcoming parliamentary business,
maintaining the partys voting strength, ensuring members
attendance during important debates and also passing on to the
party leadership the opinions of backbench members. The Whips
also indicate the importance their party attaches to a vote on a
particular issue by underlining items of business (once, twice, three
times) on the notice sent to MPs. Failure to comply with a three-line
whip (the most important) is usually seen as rebellion against the
party (as has happened quite often lately with bills proposed by the
New Labour government).
SAQ 5
The whip also refers to a document sent out weekly to MPs
detailing the forthcoming business of the House. Items are
underlined once, twice or three times to indicate their importance
to the party leadership. A three line whip means that party
leadership expects MPS to turn up and vote on the matter under
discussion.
Rank the following messages so as to indicate one-, two- or a
three-line whip and then compare your answer to that given in
the Answers section:
YOUR ATTENDANCE IS ESSENTIAL
YOUR ATTENDANCE IS REQUESTED
YOUR ATTENDANCE IS NECESSARY
166
Think First!
Do you think the Prime Ministers Question Time is an example of
democracy? Do you think that half an hour is enough for such
pressing and divisive issues as banning fox-hunting, the troubles
in Northern Ireland or the Prince of Waless marriage to Camilla
Parker Bowles?
Use the space below to write your answers.
Please include your answer in your portfolio for discussions
during tutorials.
SAQ 6
Match items in column one with items in column two to have a
clear summary of the legislative process in British politics and then
compare your findings to the answer given in the Answers
section, at the end of the unit:
1.
2.
3.
Committee Stage
c.
4.
Third Reading
d.
5.
Twelfth Stage
e.
6.
Report Stage
f.
7.
Royal Assent
g.
8.
Second Reading
h.
169
The exit doors, the one to the right hand of the Speaker and
one to her/his left are opened.
Two attendants count aloud while the Chief Whips see to it
that all MPs leave by the right door.
The Speaker calls: Clear the lobby.
All MPs give their names and leave.
Those in favour go out through the right-hand door and those
against by the left-hand door.
After two minutes, the Speaker puts the matter to the vote.
Throughout the houses of Parliament bells start to ring
signalling MPs to go to the division lobbies.
170
reform the reform agenda has been sitting there for years
Parliament does not exist - but the task is to make it exist.
Thirdly, the power of the Prime Minister has tended to become
greater and greater, as he or she has exerted sometimes a very tight
control (as in the case of Thatcher and Blair) over the hundred
members of the Cabinet. MPs are reluctant to challenge the prime
ministerial endorsement by acting independently.
Furthermore, the Commons prerogatives have been
superseded by many other governmental agencies, like the civil
service* (about half a million are employed in the civil service now
compared to about 50,000 at the beginning of the 20th century). The
growth of bureaucracy has also led to the delegation of a growing
volume of legislation, with Parliament agreeing only the framework
while often the important details are entrusted to civil servants. What
is more, pressure groups have been on the rise over the last decade
or so. These interest groups are an important source of advice,
information and lobbying. Moreover, new legislation is often
formulated by ministers and civil servants in conjunction with
pressure group representatives.
As with many European Parliaments, British membership of the
EU leads to important decisions concerning the UK economy being
taken by Community institutions rather than the House of Commons.
The means of direct democracy such as referenda have also had an
important effect on eroding the power of the Commons.
The movement for reform has gained ground since the 60s and
some of the recent reforms stemmed from a report of 1978 to the
effect that the relationship between the House and the government
is now weighed in favour of the government to a degree which
arouses widespread anxiety and is inimical to the proper working of
our parliamentary democracy.
A House of Commons Commission was set up in 1978 which
gave the House a greater measure of political and financial control
over its own administration and personnel appointments. Special
standing committees and ad hoc groupings that scrutinise bills in
detail during the committee stage, were soon followed by others in
an attempt to balance out the pressure groups.
One of the most important reforms initiated was the setting up
of select committees after the publication of the 1978 report. In
1979, most of the old committees that counted very little were
abolished, and 14 new ones were established for Agriculture,
Defence, Education, Employment, Wales, etc. They are made up of
156 MPs in all, and they have so far produced over 400 reports on a
whole range of topics. Devolution and proportional representation
might also have important effects on the activities of the House of
Commons in the future.
Once in power, Labour established the Select Committee on
the Modernisation of the House of Commons. The leader of the
House set out the governments four priorities in 1997: more
effective legislation through the publication of more draft bills and
more extensive consultation; holding ministers to account through
the hourly afternoon sessions for questioning the Prime Minister and
other ministers; improving the monitoring of delegated legislation,
172
Summary
In this unit you were invited to sample the British democracy in
action, to gradually become aware of the great merits of a political
arrangement that laid the foundation of modern democracies,
expressing the basic tenets of citizens rights, duties and freedoms in
the Magna Carta of 1215 and developing and enhancing them ever
since. You were permanently referred to as actors in the political
game (you are mature Romanian citizens and you have voted at
least once) and asked to analyse and compare the main democratic
institutions and practices of British society to those in your own
country. The history of the two Houses of Parliament further supports
the idea of democratic development in British society and a particular
emphasis is laid on the radical changes that the House of Lords
underwent under the last eight years of New Labour rule.
173
Key Concepts
constituency
enfranchise/disenfranchise
first-past-the-post (TPTP)
proportional representation (PR)
tactical voting
casting ballot
whipped/free vote
Tory/Whig
Lib-Dems
Whip
by-election
Cabinet/Shadow Cabinet
Question Time
Division
Hansard
Civil Service
Glossary
by-election = an election held in a single constituency between one
general election and the next. It may be held because an MP has
retired or died, or because s/he has been transferred to the House of
Lords.
Cabinet = the government; the executive group of ministers, usually
about 20 in number, who are chosen by the Prime Minister to
determine government policies. The team of ministers in the
Opposition (the major political party not currently in power) who
would probably form the cabinet if their party won the next general
election is called Shadow Cabinet.
casting ballot = a deciding vote used when both sides have an
equal number of votes
Civil Service = the state organization, composed of several
ministries or departments, that is responsible for carrying out the
work of the government at all levels. Civil servants have no right to
be actively involved in politics or to become an MP. Their position
thus is not affected by a change of government.
consituency = a political administrative district whose voters elect a
single MP to represent them in the House of Commons.
174
175
176
Answers to SAQs
SAQ 1
Should your answer not be comparable to the one below please
revise section 4.2.1
The most undemocratic reason is the non-representation of a
substantial number of people in Britain in the House of Commons
where policy and legislation are made. These people do feel
frustrated, and this can contribute to the feeling of
disenfranchisement and to the electorates apathy and absenteeism.
SAQ 2
SAQ 3
SAQ 4
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
Speaker;
Deputies;
tied;
casting ballot;
Opposition;
Prime Minister;
front bench;
ministers;
177
(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
Cabinet;
Foreign Secretary;
Home Secretary;
budget;
Chancellor of the Exchequer;
Leader of the Opposition;
Shadow Cabinet;
front benchers;
Whips;
Crown;
backbenchers
SAQ 5
Your attendance is requested
Your attendance is necessary
Your attendance is essential
SAQ 6
Should your answer differ from the one given below please
revise section 4.2.4.
First Reading
178
SAQ 7
The Speaker calls: Clear the lobby. Throughout the houses of
Parliament bells start to ring signalling MPs to go to the division
lobbies. After two minutes, the Speaker puts the matter to the vote.
The exit door, one to the right hand of the Speaker and one to
her/his left are opened. Those in favour go out through the righthand door and those against by the left-hand door. All MPs give their
names and leave. Two attendants count aloud while the Chief Whip
sees to it that all MPs leave by the right door.
SAQ 8
Should your answer be different from the one given below
please revise sections 4.2.1 and 4.2.5 and also the glossary
entry proportional representation on page 171.
Nothing can be anticipated with any certainty, but the consequences
of devolution (reduction in size), proportional representation (new
parties being represented in the House), increased demands for final
accountability of the executive to Parliament, and the strengthened
role of select committees and of the Nolan committee, also better
contacts between Westminster and the European Parliament, might
add important dimensions to this issue in the not so distant future.
SAA No. 4
In your opinion, is Labours proposal fair in resolving the point that
legislative power should not be conferred by birth?
What do you think about the law-making process in Britain?
Is there any British procedure, practice or institution that you
would like to see in Romanian society? Why?
Send the answers to these questions to your tutor. Your answer
should not exceed three pages (1500 words). In order to
successfully complete the assigned tasks you should particularly
review subchapters 4.1.5 and 4.1.6 referring to the reform of the
House of Lords and subchapter 4.2.4 on the legislative function of
the House of Commons.
An adequate coverage of the content required accounts for 70% of
your total grade and your linguistic accuracy for 30% of it.
You could consider the bibliography below for further reading.
179
Selected Bibliography
1. Bromhead, P.A. 1958. The House of Lords and Contemporary
Politics. London: Routledge, pp. 10-25
2. Dascl, R. 2000. British Topics. Timioara: Eurostampa, pp.130155
3. Garner, R. and R., Kelly. 1998. British Political Parties Today.
Manchester: MUP, ch.I
4. Jones, B. and D, Kavanagh. 1998. British Politics Today. Sixth
edition. Manchester: MUP, pp. 126-148
5. Robbins, K. 1998. Britain and Europe: Devolution and Foreign
Policy in International Affairs, 74/1. pp.105-118.
180
Edward I
(1272 - 1307)
Edward III
(1327 - 1377)
James I
(1603 - 11625)
George III
(1760 - 1820)
Elizabeth I
(1558 - 1603)
Charles I
(1625 - 1649)
Queen Victoria
(1837 - 1901)
Elizabeth II
(Coronation 1953)
181
John Wycliffe
(1329 - 1384)
William E. Gladstone
(1809 - 1898)
182
Oliver Cromwell
(1599 - 1658)
Robert Peel
(1788 - 1850)
Neville Chamberlain
(1869 - 1940)
John Wesley
(1703 - 1791)
Benjamin Disraeli
(1804 - 1881)
Winston Churchill
(1874 - 1965)
Harold Macmillan
(1894 - 1986)
Edward Heath
(1916 - 2005)
Harold Wilson
(1916 - 1995)
183
General Bibliography
1. Bhabha, H. K. 1997. Location of Culture. London and New York:
Routledge
2. Brnzeu. P. 1997. Corridors of Mirrors. The Spirit of Europe in
Contemporary British and Romanian Fiction. Timioara: Amarcord
3. Brown, I. 1966. A Book of England. London: Collins
4. Colley, L. 1992. Britons. London:Verso
5. Dascl, R. 2000. British Topics. Timioara: Eurostampa
6. Irimia Anghelescu, M. Dicionarul universului britanic, Bucureti:
Humanitas
7. Jones, B. and D, Kavanagh. 1998. British Politics Today. Sixth
edition. Manchester: MUP
8. Kearney, H. 1989. The British Isles. A History of Four Nations.
Cambridge: CUP
9. McDowall, D. 1991. An Illustrated History of Britain. Harlow:
Longman
10. Nicolescu, A. 1999. Istoria Civilizaiei Britanice. Volumul I. Iai:
Institutul European
11. Oakland, J. 1998. British Civilization, An introduction. 2nd edition.
London and New York: Routledge
12. Solomos, J. 1993. Race and Racism in Britain. London: Macmillan.
184
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