Cod End Ma

Country Capital Area (sq.
km) Population Currency unit

Afghanistan Kabul 648,000 27,755,775 afghani = 100 puls
Albania Tirana 28,700 3,544,841 lek = 100 qintars
Algeria Algiers 2,319,000 32,277,942 dinar = 100 centimes
Andorra Andorra la Vella 468 68,403 euro = 100 cents
Angola Luanda 1,246,000 10,593,171 kwanza = 100 lwei
Antigua and Barbuda St Johns 442 67,448 dollar = 100 cents
Argentina Buenos Aires 2,780,000 37,812,817 peso = 100 centavos
Armenia Yerevan 29,800 3,330,099 dram = 100 luma
Australia Canberra 7,692,000 19,564,792 dollar = 100 cents
Austria Vienna 83,900 8,169,929 euro = 100 cents
Azerbaijan Baku 86,600 7,798,497 manat = 100 gopik
Bahamas Nassau 13,900 300,529 dollar = 100 cents
Bahrain Manama 620 656,397 dinar = 1,000 ls
Bangladesh Dhaka 144,000 133,376,684 taka = 100 poisha
Barbados Bridgetown 431 276,607 dollar = 100 cents
Belarus Minsk 208,000 10,335,352 Belarusian rouble
Belgium Brussels 30,500 10,274,595 euro = 100 cents
Belize Belmopan 23,000 262,999 dollar = 100 cents
Benin Porto Novo 113,000 6,787,625 franc = 100 centimes
Bhutan Thimphu 46,600 2,094,176 ngultrum = 100 chetrum,
Indian rupee
Bolivia La Paz 1,099,000 8,445,134 boliviano = 100 centavos
Bosnia-Herzegovina Sarajevo 51,100 3,964,388 dinar = 100 paras
Botswana Gaborone 600,000 1,591,232 pula = 100 thebe
Brazil Brasilia 8,512,000 176,029,560 real = 100 centavos
Brunei Bandar Seri Begawan 5,770 350,898 dollar = 100 sen
Bulgaria Soa 111,000 7,621,337 lev = 100 stotinki
Burkina Faso Ouagadougou 274,000 12,603,185 franc = 100 centimes
Burma (Myanmar) Rangoon 677,000 42,238,224 kyat = 100 pyas
Burundi Bujumbura 27,800 6,373,002 franc = 100 centimes
Cambodia Phnom Penh 181,000 12,775,324 riel = 100 sen
Cameroon Yaound 475,000 16,184,748 franc = 100 centimes
Canada Ottawa 9,976,000 31,902,268 dollar = 100 cents
Cape Verde Islands Praia 4,030 408,760 escudo = 100 centavos
Central African Republic Bangui 625,000 3,642,739 franc = 100 centimes
Chad NDjamena 1,284,000 8,997,237 franc = 100 centimes
Chile Santiago 757,000 15,498,930 peso = 100 centavos
China Beijing 9,561,000 1,284,303,705 yuan = 10 jiao or 100 fen
Colombia Bogot 1,140,000 41,008,227 peso = 100 centavos
Comoros Moroni 1,790 614,382 franc = 100 centimes
Congo Brazzaville 342,000 2,958,448 franc = 100 centimes
Congo, Democratic Kinshasa 2,344,000 55,225,478 franc = 100 centimes
Republic of (Zaire)
Costa Rica San Jos 51,000 3,834,934 coln = 100 centimos
Croatia Zagreb 56,500 4,390,751 kuna = 100 lipa
Cuba Havana 111,000 11,224,321 peso = 100 centavos
Cyprus Nicosia 9,250 767,314 pound = 100 cents
Czech Republic Prague 78,900 10,256,760 koruna = 100 halers
Denmark Copenhagen 43,100 5,368,854 krone = 100 re
Djibouti Djibouti 23,300 820,600 franc = 100 centimes
Dominica Roseau 751 70,158 dollar = 100 cents
Dominican Republic Santo Domingo 48,400 8,721,594 peso = 100 centavos
Appendix 1
Countries of the world
Population gures are based on 2002 estimates.
Ecuador Quito 271,000 13,447,494 sucre = 100 centavos
Egypt Cairo 1,002,000 70,712,345 pound = 100 piastres or
1,000 milliemes
El Salvador San Salvador 21,400 6,353,681 coln = 100 centavos
Equatorial Guinea Malabo 28,100 498,144 franc = 100 centimes
Eritrea Asmara 118,000 4,465,651 nakfa; Ethiopian birr
Estonia Tallinn 45,100 1,415,681 kroon = 100 sents
Ethiopia Addis Ababa 1,224,000 67,673,031 birr = 100 cents
Fiji Suva 18,300 856,436 dollar = 100 cents
Finland Helsinki 338,000 5,183,545 euro = 100 cents
France Paris 547,000 59,765,983 euro = 100 cents
Gabon Libreville 268,000 1,233,353 franc = 100 centimes
Gambia Banjul 11,300 1,455,842 dalasi = 100 butut
Georgia Tbilisi 69,700 4,960,951 lari = 100 tetri
Germany Berlin 357,000 83,251,851 euro = 100 cents
Ghana Accra 239,000 20,244,154 cedi = 100 pesewas
Greece Athens 131,000 10,645,343 euro = 100 cents
Grenada St Georges 345 89,211 dollar = 100 cents
Guatemala Guatemala City 109,000 13,314,079 quetzal = 100 centavos
Guinea Conakry 246,000 7,775,065 franc = 100 centimes
Guinea-Bissau Bissau 36,000 1,345,479 peso = 100 centavos
Guyana Georgetown 215,000 698,209 dollar = 100 cents
Haiti Port-au-Prince 27,800 7,063,722 gourde = 100 centimes
Honduras Tegucigalpa 112,000 6,560,608 lempira = 100 centavos
Hungary Budapest 93,000 10,075,034 forint = 100 ller
Iceland Reykjavik 103,000 279,384 krona = 100 aurar
India New Delhi 3,185,000 1,045,845,226 rupee = 100 paisa
Indonesia Djakarta 1,905,000 231,328,092 rupiah = 100 sen
Iran Tehran 1,648,000 66,622,704 rial = 100 dinars
Iraq Baghdad 438,000 24,001,816 dinar = 1,000 ls
Ireland, Republic of Dublin 70,300 3,883,159 euro = 100 cents
Israel Jerusalem 20,800 6,029,529 shekel = 100 agora
Italy Rome 301,000 57,715,625 euro = 100 cents
Ivory Coast Yamoussoukro 322,000 16,804,784 franc = 100 centimes
Jamaica Kingston 11,000 2,680,029 dollar = 100 cents
Japan Tokyo 378,000 126,974,628 yen = 100 sen
Jordan Amman 97,700 5,307,470 dinar = 1,000 ls
Kazakhstan Astana 2,717,000 16,741,519 tenge = 100 teins
Kenya Nairobi 583,000 31,138,735 shilling = 100 cents
Kiribati Bairiki 717 96,335 Australian dollar
Kuwait Kuwait City 17,800 2,111,561 dinar = 1,000 ls
Kyrgyzstan Bishkek 199,000 4,822,166 som = 100 tiyin
Laos Vientiane 237,000 5,777,180 kip = 100 ats
Latvia Riga 64,600 2,366,515 lat = 100 santims
Lebanon Beirut 10,500 3,677,780 pound = 100 piastres
Lesotho Maseru 30,300 2,207,954 loti = 100 lisente
Liberia Monrovia 111,000 3,288,198 dollar = 100 cents
Libya Tripoli 1,776,000 5,368,585 dinar = 1,000 dirhams
Liechtenstein Vaduz 160 32,842 franc = 100 centimes
Lithuania Vilnius 65,200 3,601,138 litas = 100 centas
Luxembourg Luxembourg 2,590 448,569 euro = 100 cents
Macedonia Skopje 25,700 2,054,800 denar = 100 deni
Madagascar Antananarivo 587,000 16,473,477 franc = 100 centimes
Malawi Lilongwe 118,000 10,701,824 kwacha = 100 tambala
Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 330,000 22,662,365 ringgit = 100 sen
Maldives Male 298 320,165 ruyaa = 100 laris
Mali Bamako 1,240,000 11,340,480 franc = 100 centimes
Malta Valletta 316 397,499 lira = 100 cents
Marshall Islands Majuro 181 73,630 US dollar
Mauritania Nouakchott 1,031,000 2,828,858 ouguiya = 5 khoums
Mauritius Port Louis 2,040 1,200,206 rupee = 100 cents
Mexico Mexico City 1,958,000 103,400,165 peso = 100 centavos
Micronesia Kolonia 701 135,869 US dollar
Moldova Chisinau 33,700 4,434,547 leu = 100 bani
countries of the world
Country Capital Area (sq. km) Population Currency unit
Monaco 1.5 31,987 euro = 100 cents
Mongolia Ulan Bator 1,565,000 2,694,432 tugrik = 100 mongos
Montenegro (see Union of Serbia and Montenegro)
Morocco Rabat 459,000 31,167,783 dirham = 100 centimes
Mozambique Maputo 799,000 19,607,519 metical = 100 centavos
Myanmar (see Burma)
Namibia Windhoek 824,000 1,820,916 rand = 100 cents
Nauru 21 12,329 Australian dollar
Nepal Kathmandu 147,000 25,873,917 rupee = 100 paisa
Netherlands Amsterdam 37,000 16,067,754 euro = 100 cents
New Zealand Wellington 268,000 3,908,037 dollar = 100 cents
Nicaragua Managua 120,000 5,023,818 cordoba = 100 centavos
Niger Niamey 1,267,000 10,639,744 franc = 100 centimes
Nigeria Abuja 924,000 129,934,911 naira = 100 kobo
North Korea Pyongyang 121,000 22,224,195 won = 100 jun
Norway Oslo 324,000 4,525,116 krone = 100 re
Oman Muscat 212,000 2,713,462 rial = 1,000 baiza
Pakistan Islamabad 804,000 147,663,429 rupee = 100 paisa
Panama Panama City 77,100 2,882,329 balboa = 100 centsimos
Papua New Guinea Port Moresby 463,000 5,172,033 kina = 100 toea
Paraguay Asuncin 407,000 5,884,491 guarani = 100 centimos
Peru Lima 1,285,000 27,949,639 sol = 100 cents
Philippines Manila 300,000 84,525,639 peso = 100 centavos
Poland Warsaw 304,000 38,625,478 zloty = 100 groszy
Portugal Lisbon 92,000 10,084,245 euro = 100 cents
Qatar Doha 11,400 793,341 riyal = 100 dirhams
Romania Bucharest 229,000 22,317,730 leu = 100 bani
Russia Moscow 17,075,000 144,978,573 rouble = 100 copecks
Rwanda Kigali 26,300 7,398,074 franc = 100 centimes
St Kitts and Nevis Basseterre 261 38,736 dollar = 100 cents
St Lucia Castries 616 160,145 dollar = 100 cents
St Vincent and the Kingstown 389 116,394 dollar = 100 cents
Grenadines
Samoa Apia 2,840 178,631 tala = 100 sene
San Marino San Marino 61 27,730 euro = 100 cents
So Tom and Principe So Tom 964 170,372 dobra = 100 centavos
Saudi Arabia Riyadh 2,150,000 23,513,330 riyal = 20 qursh or 100
halalas
Senegal Dakar 197,000 10,589,571 franc = 100 centimes
Serbia (see Union of Serbia and Montenegro)
Seychelles Victoria 453 80,098 rupee = 100 cents
Sierra Leone Freetown 71,700 5,614,743 leone = 100 cents
Singapore Singapore City 618 4,452,732 dollar = 100 cents
Slovakia Bratislava 49,000 5,422,366 koruna = 100 haliers
Slovenia Ljubljana 20,300 1,932,917 tolar = 100 stotins
Solomon Islands Honiara 276,000 494,786 dollar = 100 cents
Somalia Mogadishu 638,000 7,753,310 shilling = 100 cents
South Africa Pretoria 1,221,000 43,647,658 rand = 100 cents
South Korea Seoul 99,300 48,324,000 won = 100 jeon
Spain Madrid 505,000 40,077,100 euro = 100 cents
Sri Lanka Colombo 64,000 19,576,783 rupee = 100 cents
Sudan Khartoum 2,506,000 37,090,298 dinar = 10 pounds
Suriname Paramaribo 163,000 436,494 guilder = 100 cents
Swaziland Mbabane 17,000 1,123,605 lilangeni = 100 cents
Sweden Stockholm 450,000 8,876,744 krona = 100 re
Switzerland Berne 41,000 7,301,994 franc = 100 centimes
Syria Damascus 184,000 17,155,814 pound = 100 piastres
Taiwan Taipei 36,000 22,548,009 New Taiwan dollar
= 100 cents
Tajikistan Dushanbe 143,000 6,719,567 somoni = 100 dirams
Tanzania Dodoma 940,000 37,187,939 shilling = 100 cents
Thailand Bangkok 513,000 62,354,402 baht = 100 satangs
Togo Lom 57,000 5,285,501 franc = 100 centimes
Tonga Nukualofa 668 106,137 paanga = 100 seniti
Trinidad and Tobago Port-of-Spain 5,130 1,163,724 dollar = 100 cents
Tunisia Tunis 164,000 9,815,644 dinar = 1,000 milliemes
Turkey Ankara 779,000 67,308,928 lira = 100 kurus
Turkmenistan Ashgabat 488,000 4,688,963 manat = 100 tenesi
Tuvalu Funafuti 26 11,146 dollar = 100 cents
Uganda Kampala 241,000 24,699,073 shilling = 100 cents
Ukraine Kiev 604,000 48,396,470 hryvna = 100 kopiykas
Union of Serbia and Belgrade 102,200 10,656,929 dinar = 100 paras
Montenegro
United Arab Emirates Abu Dhabi 77,770 2,445,989 dirham = 100 ls
United Kingdom London 244,000 58,789,194 pound = 100 pence
United States Washington DC 9,373,000 280,562,489 dollar = 100 cents
Uruguay Montevideo 176,000 3,386,575 peso = 100 centsimos
Uzbekistan Tashkent 447,000 25,563,441 som = 100 tiyin
Vanuatu Vila 14,800 196,178 vatu = 100 centimes
Vatican City 0.44 1,000 euro = 100 cents
Venezuela Caracas 912,000 24,287,670 bolivar = 100 centimos
Vietnam Hanoi 330,000 81,098,416 dong = 100 xu
Yemen Sanaa 540,000 18,701,257 riyal = 100 ls
Zambia Lusaka 753,000 9,959,037 kwacha = 100 ngwee
Zimbabwe Harare 391,000 11,376,676 dollar = 100 cents
Appendix 2
Prime Ministers
and Presidents
[1721]1742 Sir Robert Walpole Whig
17421743 Earl of Wilmington
17431754 Henry Pelham
17541756 Duke of Newcastle
17561757 Duke of Devonshire
17571762 Duke of Newcastle
17621763 Earl of Bute Tory
17631765 George Grenville Whig
17651766 Marquess of Rockingham
17661768 William Pitt the Elder
17681770 Duke of Grafton
17701782 Lord North Tory
1782 Marquess of Rockingham Whig
17821783 Earl of Shelburne
1783 Duke of Portland coalition
17831801 William Pitt the Younger Tory
18011804 Henry Addington
18041806 William Pitt the Younger
18061807 Lord William Grenville Whig
18071809 Duke of Portland Tory
18091812 Spencer Perceval
18121827 Earl of Liverpool
1827 George Canning
18271828 Viscount Goderich
18281830 Duke of Wellington
18301834 Earl Grey Whig
1834 Viscount Melbourne
1834 Duke of Wellington Tory
18341835 Sir Robert Peel Conservative
18351841 Viscount Melbourne Whig
18411846 Sir Robert Peel Conservative
18461852 Lord John Russell Whig
1852 Earl of Derby Conservative
18521855 Earl of Aberdeen coalition
18551858 Viscount Palmerston Whig
18591865 Viscount Palmerston Liberal
18651866 Earl Russell Liberal
1868 Benjamin Disraeli
18681874 William Ewart Gladstone Liberal
18741880 Benjamin Disraeli Conservative
18851886 Marquess of Salisbury Conservative
18941895 Earl of Rosebery
19021905 Arthur James Balfour
19051908 Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman
Liberal
19081916 Herbert Henry Asquith
19161922 David Lloyd George coalition
19221923 Andrew Bonar Law Conservative
19231924 Stanley Baldwin
1924 James Ramsay MacDonald Labour
19241929 Stanley Baldwin Conservative
19291935 James Ramsay MacDonald coalition
19351937 Stanley Baldwin
19371940 Neville Chamberlain
19401945 Winston Churchill
19451951 Clement Attlee Labour
19511955 Sir Winston Churchill Conservative
19551957 Sir Anthony Eden
19571963 Harold Macmillan
19631964 Sir Alec Douglas-Home
19641970 Harold Wilson Labour
19701974 Edward Heath Conservative
19741976 Harold Wilson Labour
19761979 James Callaghan
19791990 Margaret Thatcher Conservative
19901997 John Major
1997 Tony Blair Labour
18671873 John A. Macdonald Conservative
18731878 Alexander Mackenzie
Liberal/Reform
18781891 John A. Macdonald Conservative
18911892 John J. C. Abbott
Liberal-Conservative
18921894 John S. D. Thompson Conservative
18941896 Mackenzie Bowell
1896 Charles Tupper
18961911 Wilfrid Laurier Liberal
19111920 Robert L. Borden Conservative
19201921 Arthur Meighen Liberal
19211926 W. L. Mackenzie King
1926 Arthur Meighen Conservative
19261930 W. L. Mackenzie King Liberal
19301935 Richard B. Bennett Conservative
19351948 W. L. Mackenzie King Liberal
19481957 Louis Stephen St Laurent
19571963 John George Diefenbaker
Progressive Conservative
19631968 Lester B. Pearson Liberal
19681979 Pierre Trudeau
19791980 Joseph Clark
19801984 Pierre Trudeau Liberal
1984 John Turner
19841993 Brian Mulroney
1993 Kim Campbell
19932003 Jean Chrtien Liberal
2003 Paul Martin
Prime Ministers of Great Britain and of the United Kingdom
Prime Ministers of Canada
prime ministers and presidents
Prime Ministers of Australia
19011903 Edmund Barton
19031904 Alfred Deakin Liberal
1904 John C. Watson Labor
19041905 George Houstoun Reid Free Trade
19081909 Andrew Fisher Labor
19131914 Joseph Cook Liberal
19151923 William M. Hughes Nationalist
19231929 Stanley M. Bruce
19291932 James H. Scullin Labor
19321939 Joseph A. Lyons
United Australia Party
19391941 Robert Gordon Menzies Liberal
1941 Arthur William Fadden
Country Party
19411945 John Curtin Labor
19451949 Joseph Benedict Chiey Labor
19491966 Robert Gordon Menzies Liberal
19661967 Harold Edward Holt
19671968 John McEwen
19681971 John Grey Gorton
19711972 William McMahon
19721975 Gough Whitlam Labor
19751983 Malcolm Fraser Liberal
19831991 Bob Hawke Labor
19911996 Paul Keating
1996 John Howard Liberal
18911893 John Ballance Liberal
18931906 Richard John Seddon
1906 William Hall-Jones
19061912 Joseph George Ward
1912 Thomas Mackenzie
19121925 William Ferguson Massey Reform
1925 Francis Henry Dillon Bell
19251928 Joseph Gordon Coates
19281930 Joseph George Ward Liberal
19301935 George William Forbes
19351940 Michael J. Savage Labour
19401949 Peter Fraser
19491957 Sidney G. Holland National Party
1957 Keith J. Holyoake National Party
19571960 Walter Nash Labour
19601972 Keith J. Holyoake National Party
1972 John R. Marshall
19721974 Norman Kirk Labour
19741975 Wallace Rowling
19751984 Robert D. Muldoon National Party
19841989 David Lange Labour
19891990 Geoffrey Palmer
1990 Mike Moore
19901997 James B. Bolger National Party
19971999 Jenny Shipley
1999 Helen Clark Labour
Prime Ministers of New Zealand (since the emergence of party government in 1891)
Presidents of the United States of America
17891797 1. George Washington Federalist
17971801 2. John Adams
18011809 3. Thomas Jefferson
Democratic Republican
18091817 4. James Madison
18171825 5. James Monroe
18251829 6. John Quincy Adams
Independent
18291837 7. Andrew Jackson Democrat
18371841 8. Martin Van Buren
1841 9. William H. Harrison Whig
18411845 10. John Tyler
Whig, then Democrat
18451849 11. James K. Polk Democrat
18491850 12. Zachary Taylor Whig
18501853 13. Millard Fillmore
18531857 14. Franklin Pierce Democrat
18571861 15. James Buchanan
18611865 16. Abraham Lincoln Republican
18651869 17. Andrew Johnson Democrat
18691877 18. Ulysses S. Grant Republican
18771881 19. Rutherford B. Hayes
1881 20. James A. Gareld
18811885 21. Chester A. Arthur
18851889 22. Grover Cleveland Democrat
18891893 23. Benjamin Harrison Republican
18931897 24. Grover Cleveland Democrat
18971901 25. William McKinley Republican
19011909 26. Theodore Roosevelt
19091913 27. William H. Taft
19131921 28. Woodrow Wilson Democrat
19211923 29. Warren G. Harding Republican
19231929 30. Calvin Coolidge
19291933 31. Herbert Hoover
19331945 32. Franklin D. Roosevelt Democrat
19451953 33. Harry S. Truman
19531961 34. Dwight D. Eisenhower
Republican
19611963 35. John F. Kennedy Democrat
19631969 36. Lyndon B. Johnson
19691974 37. Richard Nixon Republican
19741977 38. Gerald Ford
19771981 39. Jimmy Carter Democrat
19811989 40. Ronald Reagan Republican
19891993 41. George Bush
19932001 42. Bill Clinton Democrat
2001 43. George W. Bush Republican
Ruler Dates of Life
reign
Saxon Line
Edwy 955957 died 959
Edgar 959975 944975
Edward the Martyr 975978 c.963978
Ethelred the Unready 9781016 c.9691016
Edmund Ironside 1016 c.9801016
Danish Line
Canute (Cnut) 10171035 d.1035
Harold I 10371040 d.1040
Hardecanute 10401042 c.10191042
Saxon Line
Edward the Confessor 10421066 c.10031066
Harold II 1066 c.10191066
House of Normandy
William I (the 10661087 c.10271087
Conqueror)
William II 10871100 c.10601100
Henry I 11001135 10681135
Stephen 11351154 c.10971154
House of Plantagenet
Henry II 11541189 11331189
Richard I 11891199 11571199
John 11991216 11651216
Henry III 12161272 12071272
Edward I 12721307 12391307
Edward II 13071327 12841327
Edward III 13271377 13121377
Richard II 13771399 13671400
House of Lancaster
Henry IV 13991413 13671413
Henry V 14131422 13871422
Henry VI 14221461, 14211471
14701
House of York
Edward IV 14611483 14421483
Edward V 1483 1470c.1483
Richard III 14831485 14521485
Ruler Dates of Life
reign
House of Tudor
Henry VII 14851509 14571509
Henry VIII 15091547 14911547
Edward VI 15471553 15371553
Mary I 15531558 15161558
Elizabeth I 15581603 15331603
House of Stuart
James I 16031625 15661625
Charles I 16251649 16001649
Commonwealth (declared 1649)
Oliver Cromwell, 16531658 15991658
Lord Protector
Richard Cromwell 16581659 16261712
House of Stuart
Charles II 16601685 16301685
James II 16851688 16331701
William III and 16891702 William
Mary II (Mary 16501702
d.1694)
Anne 17021714 16651714
House of Hanover
George I 17141727 16601727
George II 17271760 16831760
George III 17601820 17381820
George IV 18201830 17621830
William IV 18301837 17651837
Victoria 18371901 18191901
House of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha
Edward VII 19011910 18411910
House of Windsor
George V 19101936 18651936
Edward VIII 1936 18941972
George VI 19361952 18951952
Elizabeth II 1952 b.1926
Appendix 3
Kings and Queens
of England and the
United Kingdom
Appendix 4
Weights, Measures,
and Notation
British and American,
with Metric Equivalents
Linear measure
1 inch = 25.4 millimetres exactly
1 foot = 12 inches = 0.3048 metre exactly
1 yard = 3 feet = 0.9144 metre exactly
1 (statute) mile = 1,760 yards = 1.609 kilometres
1 int. nautical mile = 1.852 kilometres exactly
= 1.150779 miles
Square measure
1 square inch = 6.45 sq. centimetres
1 square foot = 144 sq. in. = 9.29 sq. decimetres
1 square yard = 9 sq. ft = 0.836 sq. metre
1 acre = 4,840 sq. yd = 0.405 hectare
1 square mile = 640 acres = 259 hectares
Cubic measure
1 cubic inch = 16.4 cu. centimetres
1 cubic foot = 1,728 cu. in. = 0.0283 cu. metre
1 cubic yard = 27 cu. ft = 0.765 cu. metre
Capacity measure
british
1 uid oz = 1.7339 cu. in. = 0.0284 litre
1 gill = 5 uid oz = 0.1421 litre
1 pint = 20 uid oz = 34.68 cu. in. = 0.568 litre
1 quart = 2 pints = 1.136 litres
1 gallon = 4 quarts = 4.546 litres
1 peck = 2 gallons = 9.092 litres
1 bushel = 4 pecks = 36.4 litres
american dry
1 pint = 33.60 cu. in. = 0.550 litre
1 quart = 2 pints = 1.101 litres
1 peck = 8 quarts = 8.81 litres
1 bushel = 4 pecks = 35.3 litres
american liquid
1 pint = 16 uid oz = 28.88 cu. in. = 0.473 litre
1 quart = 2 pints = 0.946 litre
1 gallon = 4 quarts = 3.785 litres
Avoirdupois weight
1 grain = 0.065 gram
1 dram = 1.772 grams
1 ounce = 16 drams = 28.35 grams
1 pound = 16 ounces = 0.4536 kilogram
= 7,000 grains (0.4535923 exactly)
1 stone = 14 pounds = 6.35 kilograms
1 hundredweight = 112 pounds = 50.80 kilograms
1 short ton = 2,000 pounds = 0.907 tonne
1 (long) ton = 20 hundredweight = 1.016 tonnes
Metric, with British
Equivalents
Linear measure
1 millimetre = 0.039 inch
1 centimetre = 10 mm = 0.394 inch
1 decimetre = 10 cm = 3.94 inches
1 metre = 100 cm = 1.094 yards
1 kilometre = 1,000 m = 0.6214 mile
Square measure
1 square centimetre = 0.155 sq. inch
1 square metre = 10,000 sq. cm = 1.196 sq. yards
1 are = 100 square metres = 119.6 sq. yards
1 hectare = 100 ares = 2.471 acres
1 square kilometre = 0.386 sq. mile
= 100 hectares
Cubic measure
1 cubic centimetre = 0.061 cu. inch
1 cubic metre = 1,000,000 cu. cm = 1.308 cu. yards
Capacity measure
1 millilitre = 0.002 pint (British)
1 centilitre = 10 ml = 0.018 pint
1 decilitre = 10 cl = 0.176 pint
1 litre = 1,000 ml = 1.76 pints
1 decalitre = 10 l = 2.20 gallons
1 hectolitre = 100 l = 2.75 bushels
1 kilolitre = 1,000 l = 3.44 quarters
Weight
1 milligram = 0.015 grain
1 centigram = 10 mg = 0.154 grain
1 decigram = 100 mg = 1.543 grains
1 gram = 1,000 mg = 15.43 grains
1 decagram = 10 g = 5.64 drams
1 hectogram = 100 g = 3.527 ounces
1 kilogram = 1,000 g = 2.205 pounds
1 tonne (metric ton) = 1,000 kg = 0.984 (long) ton
The conversion factors are not exact unless so marked. They are given
only to the accuracy likely to be needed in everyday calculations.
weights, measures, and notation
Temperature
Fahrenheit water boils (under standard
conditions) at 212 and freezes at 32.
Celsius or Centigrade water boils at 100 and
freezes at 0.
Kelvin water boils at 373.15 K and freezes at
273.15 K.
To convert Centigrade into Fahrenheit:
multiply by 9, divide by 5, and add 32.
To convert Fahrenheit into Centigrade:
subtract 32, multiply by 5, and divide by 9.
To convert Centigrade into Kelvin:
add 273.15.
F C C F
40 40 40 40
10 23 10 14
0 18 0 32
10 12 10 50
20 7 20 68
30 1 30 86
40 4 40 104
50 10 50 122
60 16 60 140
70 21 70 158
80 27 80 176
90 32 90 194
100 38 100 212
(approx.) (exact)
The metric prexes
Abbreviations Factors
deca- da 10
hecto- h 10
2
kilo- k 10
3
mega- M 10
6
giga- G 10
9
tera- T 10
12
peta- P 10
15
exa- E 10
18
deci- d 10
1
centi- c 10
2
milli- m 10
3
micro- 10
6
nano- n 10
9
pico- p 10
12
femto- f 10
15
atto- a 10
18
Pronunciations and derivations of these are
given at their alphabetical places in the
dictionary. They may be applied to any units
of the metric system: hectogram (abbr. hg)
= 100 grams; kilowatt (abbr. kW) = 1,000 watts;
megahertz (MHz) = 1 million hertz; centimetre
(cm) =
1
100 metre; microvolt (V) = one
millionth of a volt; picofarad (pF) = 10
12
farad,
and are sometimes applied to other units
(megabit, microinch).
Power notation
This expresses concisely any power of 10 (any
number that is formed by multiplying or dividing
ten by itself), and is sometimes used in the
dictionary.
10
2
(ten squared) = 10 10 = 100
10
3
(ten cubed) = 10 10 10 = 1,000
10
4
= 10 10 10 10 = 10,000
10
10
= 10,000,000,000 (1 followed by ten
noughts)
10
2
= 1/10
2
= 1/100 = 0.01
10
10
= 1/10
10
= 1/10,000,000,000
6.2 10
3
= 6,200
4.7 10
2
= 0.047
SI units
1. Base units
Physical quantity Name Abbreviation
or symbol
length metre m
mass kilogram kg
time second s
electric current ampere A
temperature kelvin K
amount of substance mole mol
luminous intensity candela cd
2. Supplementary units
or symbol
plane angle radian rad
solid angle steradian sr
3. Derived units with special names
or symbol
frequency hertz Hz
energy joule J
force newton N
power watt W
pressure pascal Pa
electric charge coulomb C
electromotive force volt V
electric resistance ohm
electric conductance siemens S
electric capacitance farad F
magnetic ux weber Wb
inductance henry H
magnetic ux density tesla T
luminous ux lumen lm
illumination lux lx
Element Symbol Atomic
no.
actinium Ac 89
aluminium Al 13
americium Am 95
antimony Sb 51
argon Ar 18
arsenic As 33
astatine At 85
barium Ba 56
berkelium Bk 97
beryllium Be 4
bismuth Bi 83
bohrium Bh 107
boron B 5
bromine Br 35
cadmium Cd 48
caesium Cs 55
calcium Ca 20
californium Cf 98
carbon C 6
cerium Ce 58
chlorine Cl 17
chromium Cr 24
cobalt Co 27
copper Cu 29
curium Cm 96
dubnium Db 105
dysprosium Dy 66
einsteinium Es 99
erbium Er 68
europium Eu 63
fermium Fm 100
uorine F 9
francium Fr 87
gadolinium Gd 64
gallium Ga 31
germanium Ge 32
gold Au 79
no.
hafnium Hf 72
hassium Hs 108
helium He 2
holmium Ho 67
hydrogen H 1
indium In 49
iodine I 53
iridium Ir 77
iron Fe 26
krypton Kr 36
lanthanum La 57
lawrencium Lr 103
lead Pb 82
lithium Li 3
lutetium Lu 71
magnesium Mg 12
manganese Mn 25
meitnerium Mt 109
mendelevium Md 101
mercury Hg 80
molybdenum Mo 42
neodymium Nd 60
neon Ne 10
neptunium Np 93
nickel Ni 28
niobium Nb 41
nitrogen N 7
nobelium No 102
osmium Os 76
oxygen O 8
palladium Pd 46
phosphorus P 15
platinum Pt 78
plutonium Pu 94
polonium Po 84
potassium K 19
praseodymium Pr 59
no.
promethium Pm 61
protactinium Pa 91
radium Ra 88
radon Rn 86
rhenium Re 75
rhodium Rh 45
rubidium Rb 37
ruthenium Ru 44
rutherfordium Rf 104
samarium Sm 62
scandium Sc 21
seaborgium Sg 106
selenium Se 34
silicon Si 14
silver Ag 47
sodium Na 11
strontium Sr 38
sulphur S 16
tantalum Ta 73
technetium Tc 43
tellurium Te 52
terbium Tb 65
thallium Tl 81
thorium Th 90
thulium Tm 69
tin Sn 50
titanium Ti 22
tungsten W 74
uranium U 92
vanadium V 23
xenon Xe 54
ytterbium Yb 70
yttrium Y 39
zinc Zn 30
zirconium Zr 40
Appendix 5
Chemical Elements
Appendix 6
Greek Alphabet
a alpha a
B beta b
1 , gamma g
Z ) delta d
E c epsilon e
Z . zeta z
H n eta e
O 0 theta th
I t iota i
K t kappa k
H z lambda l
A u mu m
N v nu n
2 . xi x
O o omicron o
H pi p
F p rho r, rh
2 o . sigma s
T t tau t
Y o upsilon u
c phi ph
X / chi kh
Y o psi ps
D c omega o
Principal Planetary Satellites
Planet Satellite Year of Diameter Mean distance from Orbital
discovery (km) centre of planet (10
3
km) period (d)
Earth Moon 3,476* 384.4 27.32
Mars Phobos 1877 27* 9.4 0.319
Deimos 1877 15* 23.5 1.262
Jupiter Amalthea 1892 262* 181 0.498
Io 1610 3,630* 422 1.769
Europa 1610 3,138* 671 3.551
Ganymede 1610 5,262* 1,070 7.155
Callisto 1610 4,800* 1,883 16.69
Saturn Mimas 1789 390* 199 0.942
Enceladus 1789 500* 238 1.370
Tethys 1684 1,050* 295 1.888
Dione 1684 1,120* 377 2.737
Rhea 1672 1,530* 527 4.518
Titan 1655 5,150* 1,222 15.95
Hyperion 1848 340* 1,481 21.28
Iapetus 1671 1,440* 3,561 79.33
Phoebe 1898 220* 12,952 550.5(R)
Uranus Miranda 1948 480* 130 1.414
Ariel 1851 1,160* 191 2.520
Umbriel 1851 1,190* 266 4.144
Titania 1787 1,600* 436 8.706
Oberon 1787 1,550* 583 13.46
Neptune Proteus 1989 400* 118 1.12
Triton 1846 2,700* 354 5.877(R)
Nereid 1949 340* 551 360.2
Pluto Charon 1978 1,190* 20 6.387
*Irregular: maximum dimension. (R) retrograde.
Many other small satellites are known for Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune
Appendix 7
The Solar System
The Sun and Planets
Planet Mean distance Equatorial Mass Volume Orbital Rotation
from sun diameter (earth1) (earth1) period period
(10
6
km) (km) or year or day
Sun 1,400,000 330,000 1,300,000 25d*
Mercury 57.9 4,878 0.06 0.06 87.97d 58.65d
Venus 108.2 12,102 0.81 0.86 224.7d 243.0d(R)
Earth 149.6 12,756 1.00 1.00 365.3d 23.93h
Mars 227.9 6,786 0.11 0.15 687.0d 24.62h
Jupiter 778.3 142,980 318 1,323 11.86y 9.93h*
Saturn 1,427 120,540 95.2 752 29.46y 10.66h*
Uranus 2,871 51,120 14.5 64 84.01y 17.24h*(R)
Neptune 4,497 49,530 17.1 54 164.8y 16.11h*
Pluto 5,914 2,280 0.002 0.01 248.5y 6.39d(R)
*At equator. (R) retrograde.
a *shrewdness of apes
a herd or *pace of asses
a *cete of badgers
a *sloth or *sleuth of bears
a hive of bees; a swarm, drift, or bike of bees
a ock, ight, (dial.) parcel, pod, *eet, or
*dissimulation of (small) birds; a volary of birds
in an aviary
a sounder of wild boar
a *blush of boys
a herd or gang of buffalo
a *clowder or *glaring of cats; a *dowt (= ?do-out)
or *destruction of wild cats
a herd, drove, (dial.) drift, or (US & Austral.) mob
of cattle
a brood, (dial.) cletch or clutch, or *peep of
chickens
a *chattering or *clattering of choughs
a *drunkship of cobblers
a *rag or *rake of colts
a *hastiness of cooks
a *covert of coots
a herd of cranes
a litter of cubs
a herd of curlew
a *cowardice of curs
a herd or mob of deer
a pack or kennel of dogs
a trip of dotterel
a ight, *dole, or *piteousness of doves
a raft, bunch, or *paddling of ducks on water;
a team of wild ducks in ight
a ing of dunlins
a herd of elephants
a herd or (US) gang of elk
a *business of ferrets
a charm or *chirm of nches
a shoal of sh; a run of sh in motion
a cloud of ies
a *stalk of foresters
a *skulk of foxes
a gaggle or (in the air) a skein, team, or wedge of
geese
a herd of giraffes
a ock, herd, or (dial.) trip of goats
a pack or covey of grouse
a *husk or *down of hares
a cast of hawks let y
an *observance of hermits
a *siege of herons
a stud or *haras of (breeding) horses; (dial.) a team
of horses
a kennel, pack, cry, or *mute of hounds
a ight or swarm of insects
a mob or troop of kangaroos
a kindle of kittens
a bevy of ladies
a *desert of lapwing
an *exaltation or bevy of larks
a *leap of leopards
a pride of lions
a *tiding of magpies
a *sord or *sute (= suit) of mallard
a *richesse of martens
a *faith of merchants
a *labour of moles
a troop of monkeys
a *barren of mules
a *watch of nightingales
a *superuity of nuns
a covey of partridges
a *muster of peacocks
a *malapertness (= impertinence) of pedlars
a rookery of penguins
a head or (dial.) nye of pheasants
a kit of pigeons ying together
a herd of pigs
a stand, wing, or *congregation of plovers
a rush or ight of pochards
a herd, pod, or school of porpoises
a *pity of prisoners
a covey of ptarmigan
a litter of pups
a bevy or drift of quail
a string of racehorses
an *unkindness of ravens
a bevy of roe deer
a parliament or *building of rooks
a hill of ruffs
a herd or rookery of seals; a pod of seals
a ock, herd, (dial.) drift or trip, or (Austral.) mob
of sheep
a *dopping of sheldrake
a wisp or *walk of snipe
a *host of sparrows
a *murmuration of starlings
a ight of swallows
a game or herd of swans; a wedge of swans in the
air
a herd of swine; a *sounder of tame swine, a *drift
of wild swine
a *glozing (= fawning) of taverners
a *spring of teal
a bunch or knob of waterfowl
a school, herd, or gam of whales; a pod of whales; a
grind of bottle-nosed whales
a company or trip of wigeon
a bunch, trip, or plump of wildfowl; a knob (less
than 30) of wildfowl
a pack or *rout of wolves
a gaggle of women (derog.)
a *fall of woodcock
a herd of wrens
Appendix 8
Collective nouns
Terms marked * belong to 15th-century lists of proper terms, notably that
in the Book of St Albans attributed to Dame Juliana Barnes (1486). Many
of these are fanciful or humorous terms which probably never had any real
currency, but have been taken up by Joseph Strutt in Sports and Pastimes
of England (1801) and by other antiquarian writers.
English, like all languages, is used at many differ-
ent levels of formality depending on the context
and purpose of the speech or writing. In the most
formal register, a machine might be said to be mal-
functioning; in a neutral or everyday register (stan-
dard English) it will be described as not working,
and in informal contexts it will be said to be bust or
kaput. Each situation or context calls for its own
different kind of language. No one style of vocabu-
lary and grammar is superior to another; it is their
appropriateness to the occasion that matters. In
general people naturally vary the way that they
speak or write in different situations, be they mak-
ing a speech, chatting to a friend, or writing to an
elderly relative.
The technical term for a particular level of use in
language is register. Register is not the same as
accent: a person with a strong regional accent may
speak standard English, and a speaker of Received
Pronunciation (the standard accent of English as
spoken in the south of England) may use the latest
street slang.
Unless otherwise stated, the words and senses
recorded in this dictionary are classed as standard
English. Standard English is generally appropriate
in most situations and contexts. It is typically the
language of ofcial communications, broadcast-
ing, and printed matter. It is not the same as cor-
rect English; a particular form of dialect or slang
may have syntactical rules that are just as strict and
consistent as those of standard English.
Informal language
Informal language is used more in conversation
than in writing, especially among people who know
each other, or by particular social groups or occupa-
tions. It is sometimes called slang; slang also refers
specically to the informal vocabulary of particu-
lar groups of people, for example teenagers or
members of the armed forces. Informal language is
also sometimes described as colloquial language.
Informal speech is marked by short sentences, a
preference for the active over the passive voice,
and unconventional syntax features such as omis-
sion of the subjectas in Just been shopping or
Wanna go for a drink?
Informal vocabulary typically includes exten-
sions or reversals of meanings of established words
(e.g. wicked = very good), shortenings of words
(e.g. brill from brilliant and cred from credibility),
compound formations (e.g. airhead and couch
potato), and blends (e.g. ginormous from gigantic
and enormous), contractions such as Ill, hes, and
gonna (for going to), as well as special processes
such as rhyming slang (e.g. butchers = butchers
hook = look) and back slang, in which words are
reversed (e.g. yob = boy).
Inclusion of informal terms in dictionaries is not
a new idea: Samuel Johnson included some in his
Dictionary of the English Language (1755),
although he used the disapproving term low word.
Much informal vocabulary is short-lived, and rela-
tively few words and uses pass into standard Eng-
lish. Exceptions include bogus, clever, og, joke,
prim, rogue, and snob, which were all classed by
Johnson as low words. Conversely, some words
that were once standard have passed into vulgar
slang(e.g. arse, shit, and tit): this is taboo language,
typically relating to sex or bodily functions.
Formal and technical language
In more formal writing, as is found in reports,
ofcial letters, etc., sentences tend to be longer
with more subordinate clauses, and the passive is
commoner than it is in standard or informal Eng-
lish. The indenite personal pronoun one is more
likely to be used than the less formal you, and upon
may be used rather than on. Formal vocabulary
includes such words as ascertain, desirous, pur-
chase, and endeavour. More formal words are
sometimes also used for humorous effect, for
example purloin (meaningsteal). Formal words are
usual in instructions and notices: alight (from a bus
or train), conveyance (for vehicle), enquire (rather
than ask), notify (rather than tell), and select
(rather than choose). The language of technical
writing has its own terminology: for example,
gravid, meaning pregnant, occurs only in medicine
and biology.
Old uses and literary language
Some expressions that were formerly common are
no longer in ordinary use but remain in the general
word stock, and are employed to give a deliberately
old-fashioned effect, for example in historical
ction or in humorous contexts. This dictionary
distinguishes between archaic expressions, which
have generally not been everyday currency for a
century or more (e.g. fain or bedchamber), and
Appendix 9
Types of language
types of language
those that are dated: these may still be encoun-
tered occasionally, especially among older people,
or they may be words that were coined relatively
recently but then fell out of use again, such as
gasper (a cigarette) or wizard (excellent).
Some words are found chiey in literature or
poetry written in an elevated style, such as corus-
cate, dolorous, enshroud, or eve. Many such expres-
sions are old words that have dropped out of
ordinary use.
The table above gives some standard English
words with their equivalents in different registers.
Dialect
A dialect is a non-standard form of language that is
used in a particular local region. Examples of Eng-
lish dialects are those of NE England (known as
Geordie) and of Liverpool (known as Scouse). A dis-
tinction can be made between traditional dialect,
which is generally to do with rural life and farming
practices which have mostly died out, and contem-
porary dialect, where speakers may not be aware
that a particular term is in fact a regional one. This
dictionary aims to include the more frequently
encountered contemporary dialect terms, such as
claggy, emmet, and scran, but in general does not
set out to record traditional dialect.
Scottish and Irish
Scottish and Irish English have a long history and a
number of distinctive features, which have in turn
inuenced North American and other varieties of
English. This dictionary gives a wide coverage of
Scottish and Irish English expressions, such as
agley, dreich, howff, jaggy, and scoosh (Scottish)
and filte, gossoon, and make a hames of (Irish).
World English
English is spoken as a rst language by more than
300 million people throughout the world, and used
as a second language by many millions more. One
in ve of the worlds population speaks English
with a good level of competence, and within the
next few years the number of people speaking Eng-
lish as a second language will exceed the number of
native speakers. This could have a dramatic effect
on the evolution of the language: in the process of
being absorbed by new cultures, English develops
to take account of local language needs, giving rise
not just to new vocabulary but also to new forms of
grammar and pronunciation. At the same time,
however, a standardized global English is spread
by the media and the Internet.
The main regional standards of English are
British, US and Canadian, Australian and New
Zealand, South African, Indian, and West Indian.
Within each of these regional varieties a number of
highly differentiated local dialects may be found.
This dictionary includes thousands of region-
alisms encountered in different English-speaking
areas of the world, although its scope must neces-
sarily be limited. In general it is the similarity
rather than the difference between the regional
varieties that is striking, particularly in terms of
grammar.
Standard
attractive,
good-looking
clothes, clothing
criminal, villain
criticize
die
drunk, intoxicated
house, home
praise
small
walk
Informal
bootylicious, dishy,
t, foxy, lush
clobber, duds, gear,
glad rags, threads,
togs
baddy, crim, crook,
gangsta, hood
bad-mouth, put down,
slag off, slam, slate
buy it, croak, kick the
bucket, pop your
clogs, snuff it
lashed, legless,
plastered, smashed,
tight, wrecked
crib, gaff, pad
big up
teeny, titchy, weeny
mosey, toddle, pootle,
trog
Formal
apparel, attire
malefactor
excoriate
expire
inebriated
abode, domicile,
dwelling, habitation
laud
exiguous
ambulate,
perambulate
Old/literary use
beauteous, comely,
fair, pulchritudinous
habiliment, raiment,
vestments
knave, rogue
dispraise
decease
besotted
drum
cry up, magnify,
panegyrize
minikin
fare
types of language
US English
US English is of course particularly inuential, on
account of Americas dominance of cinema, televi-
sion, popular music, trade, and technology, includ-
ing the Internet. Many terms that enter the
dictionary from the US quickly become established
in British English: some examples from the last ten
years or so are geek, nerd, school student, and 24/7.
Many US equivalents for British terms are familiar:
sidewalk for pavement, checkers for draughts,
cookie for biscuit, and vest for waistcoat. Other dif-
ferences are more subtle. Some words have a
slightly different form, e.g. dollhouse (US)/dolls
house (Brit.), math (US)/maths (Brit.), tidbit
(US)/titbit (Brit.), while American constructions
that are strange to British ears include I just ate,
teach school, and a quarter of ten (rather than a
quarter to ten).
Canadian English
Canadian English is subject to the conicting
inuences of British and American English. In
vocabulary there is a lot of US inuence: Canadians
use billboard, gas, truck, and wrench rather than
hoarding, lorry, petrol, and spanner; but on the
other hand they agree with the British in saying
blinds, braces, porridge, and tap rather than shades,
suspenders, oatmeal, and faucet.
Australian and New Zealand English
The vocabularies of Australian and New Zealand
English are very similar. Both have been enriched
by words and concepts from the hundreds of
indigenous languages that pre-dated European
settlers, only about fty of which continue as rst
languages. The line between formal and informal
usage is perhaps less sharply drawn in
Australasian English than it is elsewhere: sufxes
such as -o and ie, giving us expressions such as
arvo (afternoon), reffo (refugee), and barbie
(barbecue), are freely attached to words even in
more formal contexts.
South African English
Since 1994 South Africa has had eleven ofcial
languages: English, Afrikaans (descended from
Dutch), Zulu, Xhosa, and other largely regional
African languages. English is the rst language of
only about 10 per cent of the population, but the
second language of many others. The English of
native Afrikaners has inevitably inuenced the
standard English of white South Africans, exam-
ples being such informal usages as the afrmative
no, as in How are you?No, Im ne and the all-
purpose response is it?, as in She had a baby last
weekis it?
Indian English
The role of English within the complex multilin-
gual society of India is far from straightforward:
together with Hindi it is used across the country,
but it can also be a speakers rst, second, or third
language, and its features may depend heavily on
their ethnicity and caste. The grammar of Indian
English has many distinguishing features, of which
perhaps the best-known are the use of the present
continuous tense, as in He is having very much of
property, and the use of isnt it as a ubiquitous
question tag: We are meeting tomorrow, isnt it?
The rst example reects another characteristic of
the language, which is to include intrusive articles
such as in or of in idiomatic phrases. Verbs are also
used differently, with speakers often dropping a
preposition or object altogether: I insisted immedi-
ate payment, while double possessivesour these
prices (instead of the British English these prices
of ours)are commonplace.
West Indian English
Standard British English has traditionally been
the linguistic model for the Commonwealth
Caribbean, although recently the import of US
television, radio, and tourism has made American
English an equally powerful inuence. The many
varieties of Creole, inuenced by West African
languages, are also productive. A characteristic
usage is that of the objective pronoun where
British English would use the subjective or pos-
sessive, as in me can come an go as me please or he
clear he throat. Jamaican Creole is the most wide-
ly known, and has spread beyond the region, espe-
cially to the UK, where it inuences the speech of
black Britons.
Electronic text communication takes a number of
different forms, chiey email, posting to online
chat rooms and newsgroups, and SMS (Short Mes-
saging Service) messages between mobile phones.
Although all electronic communication shares cer-
tain features, each form is developing its own
specic conventions.
The vocabulary, syntax, and style of electronic
text communication is much more uid than that
found in formal writing, and may also be highly
personalized. Electronic communication is typi-
cally very informal in nature and characterized by
many features more often found in conversational
speech.
SMS (text messages)
Text messages are necessarily the most abbrevi-
ated form of communication; most mobile-phone
networks restrict users to around 160 characters
per message and the handset does not facilitate the
composing of lengthy messages. Although many
users develop their own codes, there are basic prin-
ciples that govern the formation of abbreviations:
2certain words or syllables can be represented by
letters or numbers that sound the same but
take up less space. For example, U sounds the
same as you and C sounds the same as see
(e.g. CU = see you), while the number 8 can be
substituted wherever the sound /-ayt/ occurs in
a word (e.g. GR8 = great, L8R = later)
2words are shortened by simply omitting certain
letters, especially vowels (e.g. MSG = message)
2abbreviations are formed from the initial let-
ters of familiar xed phrases, such as BFN bye
for now or TTYL talk to you later.
These principles, and the abbreviations them-
selves, are also found to a lesser extent in conversa-
tions in chat rooms and in email. A fuller list of
SMS abbreviations is given below.
Chat rooms and email
The language used in email, chat rooms, and news-
groups is not as restricted by space considerations
as text messaging , but short messages are favoured
because they save disk space, are more likely to be
read by browsing users, and because composition
time is limited if users are participating in real-
time conversations. Plain text is favoured, since it
ensures that a message will be readable on almost
any hardware or software conguration, but this
means that one cannot use italics, bold face, and
other presentational effects to indicate tone, atti-
tude, signicance, etc. Instead, capital letters,
punctuation, and emoticons (arrangements of key-
board characters to represent facial expressions)
are used to comment on ones text.
Sentences often follow patterns typical of
speech, with features including the omission of
subjects (e.g. Going back to the missus every Sunday
instead of Hes going back to the missus every Sun-
day) and the use of llers such as like and innit.
Informality or light-heartedness is also signalled
by the users choice of spelling, correct forms often
being less favoured than phonetic or semi-
phonetic spellings (the shop seems to have bin closed
for a cuppla daze). Other features of spelling and
punctuation include the writing of two or more
words as one (abit, alot), the disregard of commas
and full stops, and the omission of the apostrophe
(e.g. dont instead of dont).
Some of the more established abbreviations used
in all types of electronic communication are listed
below:
AFAIK as far as I know
AFK away from the keyboard
ASL age, sex, location
ATB all the best
B be
BAK back at the keyboard
BBL be back late(r)
BCNU be seeing you
BFN bye for now
B4 before
BRB be right back
BTW by the way
C see
CUL8R see you later
F2F face to face
F2T free to talk
FWIW for what its worth
FYI for your information
GAL get a life
GR8 great
HAND have a nice day
H8 hate
HSIK how should I know?
HTH hope this helps
Appendix 10
English in Electronic
Communication
english in electronic communication
IANAL I am not a lawyer, but
(as a disclaimer)
IMHO in my humble opinion
IMO in my opinion
IOW in other words
JIC just in case
JK just kidding
KIT keep in touch
KWIM know what I mean?
L8R later
LOL lots of luck/laughing out loud
MOB mobile
MSG message
MYOB mind your own business
NE any
NE1 anyone
NOYB none of your business
NO1 no one
OTOH on the other hand
PCM please call me
PLS please
PPL people
R are
ROTF(L) rolling on the oor (laughing)
SIT stay in touch
SOM1 someone
SPK speak
TTYL talk to you later
TX thanks
U you
WAN2 want to
W/ with
WKND weekend
WU whats up?
X kiss
XLNT excellent
XOXOX hugs and kisses
YMMV your mileage may vary (i.e. your
experience may differ)
YR your
2 to, too
2DAY today
2MORO tomorrow
2NITE tonight
3SUM threesome
4 for
Emoticons
Emoticons typically represent a facial expression and are used chiey to mark the tone of the
preceding sentence or to indicate the writers feelings. The following are some of the more
commonly seen:
:-) happy (a smiley)
:-( unhappy
:-c very unhappy
:-X my lips are sealed
:-Q I dont understand
;-) winking
X= ngers crossed
:-P sticking ones tongue out
:-D laughing
:-( crying
:-/ sceptical
:-| bored, indifferent
:-o surprised
:-* kiss
O:-) angel
:-Y aside comment
:-V shouting
1. PARTS OF SPEECH
In this section the traditional names are used for
parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pro-
noun, conjunction, and preposition). Two other
terms are sometimes used in describing grammar.
One is modier, which means any word that
modies the meaning of another word (usually a
noun). It is broader in scope than adjective and
includes, for example, table in table lamp as well as
bright in a bright lamp or the lamp was bright. The
other is determiner, which means any word such
as a, the, this, those, and every which you put
before a noun to show how you are using the noun
(as in a re, the re, this re, those res, and every
re).
Nouns
A noun is a word that names something: a person
(woman, boy, Frances), a thing (building, tree), or
an idea (birth, happiness). A common noun names
things generally, whereas a proper noun names a
particular person, place, or thing. Collective
nouns, such as audience, family, generation, gov-
ernment, team, are nouns which refer to groups of
people or things. They can be treated as singular
or plural: see agreement below.
Proper nouns
Proper nouns are normally spelled with a capital
initial letter and refer to persons or things of
which there is only one example (Asia, Ark Royal,
Dickens). The term is sometimes understood more
broadly to include geographical and ethnic desig-
nations such as American and Ashanti, which
behave like common nouns, for example in allow-
ing the forms an American and the Ashanti. Some
genuinely proper names can also behave like com-
mon nouns in certain uses, for example a ne
Picasso (= a painting by Picasso), another Callas
(= a singer comparable to Callas). In these uses it
is usual to retain the capital initial letter.
Verbal nouns
A verbal noun (also called a gerund) is a form of a
verb ending with -ing that acts as a noun, for
example smoking in the phrase no smoking and in
the sentence Smoking annoys people. It should be
distinguished from smoking used as an adjective
(a smoking re) and as the present participle of
the verb (The man was smoking).
Because a verbal noun is a part of a verb as well
as being a noun, it keeps some of the characteris-
tics of verbs in its grammatical behaviour; for
example the forms They objected to me swearing
(non-possessive) and They objected to my swear-
ing (possessive) are both established in ordinary
usage, although the second, in which swearing is
treated as a full noun, is often preferred in more
formal writing.
Verbs
A verb is a word that describes an action (go, sit,
put) or state (be, live) and is normally an essential
element in a clause or sentence. A verb is
classied as transitive when the action affects a
person or thing called the object (We lit a re), and
as intransitive when there is no object (She
smiled).
Using the correct tense
Tense is the location in time of the state or action
expressed by a verb. English verbs properly have
only two tenses, the present (I am) and the past (I
was). The future is formed with shall or will,
other forms of the past are formed with auxiliary
verbs (I have been / I was being), and the past per-
fect is formed with the past tense of have (I had
been).
The tense used mostly corresponds to actual
time, apart from conventional uses such as the so-
called historic present, used for dramatic effect
in narratives (as in George gets up and walks over
to the window), and the future used in polite
requests (as in Will that be all for now?).
However, choice of tense (called sequence of
tenses) becomes more complex in reported
speech. If a simple statement such as Im afraid I
havent nished is put into indirect speech by
means of a reporting verb such as said, thought,
etc., the tense of the reported action changes in
accordance with the time perspective of the
speaker: He said he was afraid he hadnt nished.
The tense of the reported verb can stay the same
if the time relative to the speaker is the same as
that relative to the person reported: She likes
beans can be converted either to She said she liked
beans or to She said she likes beans, and I wont be
here tomorrow can be converted either to I said I
wouldnt be here tomorrow or to I said I wont be
here tomorrow.
Appendix 11
Guide to Good
English
guide to good english
shall and will
With I and we, shall should be used to form the
simple future tense (expressing a prediction of a
future action), while will is used to express an
intention to do something:
t I shall be late for work.
t We will not tolerate this rudeness.
With you, he, she, it, and they, the situation is
reversed; simple future action is expressed with
will, while shall expresses an intention or com-
mand:
t He will be late for work.
t You shall join us or die!
In speech, these distinctions are often not
observed.
should and would
The situation is similar with should and would.
Strictly speaking, should is used with I and we,
while would is used with you, he, she, it, and they:
t I should be grateful if you would let me know.
t You didnt say you would be late.
In practice, however, it is normal to use would
instead of should in reported speech and condi-
tional clauses, such as I said I would be late.
Active and passive
Verbs can be either active, in which the subject is
the person or thing performing the action (as in
France beat Brazil in the nal), or passive, in which
the subject undergoes the action (Brazil were beat-
en by France). In the passive voice verbs are usual-
ly formed with be, and the subject is expressed as
an agent introduced by the preposition by.
The passive is also used for impersonal con-
structions with it:
It is believed that no action should be taken.
It is felt that your complaint arises from a
misunderstanding.
Other verbs besides be can be used to form so-
called semi-passives (as in He got changed, They
seem bothered). Here changed and bothered are
behaving almost more like adjectives.
Subjunctive
The subjunctive is a special form (or mood) of a
verb expressing a wish or possibility instead of
fact. It has a limited role in English:
It was suggested he wait till the next morning.
Fundamentalist Islam decrees that men and
women be strictly segregated.
In these sentences, the verbs wait (in the rst)
and be (in the second) are in the subjunctive; the
ordinary forms (called the indicative) would be
waits and are.
There are other typical uses of the subjunctive:
2after if (or as if, as though, unless) in hypotheti-
cal conditions:
Each was required to undertake that if it were
chosen it would place work here.
2be or were at the beginning of a clause with the
subject following:
Were I to get drunk, it would help me in the
ght.
All books, be they ction or non-ction, should
provide entertainment in some form or other.
2in certain xed expressions and phrases, e.g. be
that as it may, come what may, perish the
thought, so be it, and others.
Participles
There are two kinds of participle in English: the
present participle ending with -ing as in We are
going, and the past participle ending with -d or -ed
for many verbs and with -t or -en or some other
form for others, as in Have you decided?, New
houses are being built, and Its not broken.
Participles are often used to introduce subordi-
nate clauses that are attached to other words in a
sentence, e.g.
Her mother, opening the door quietly, came into
the room.
A stylistic error occurs with so-called unattached,
misrelated, or dangling participles, when the
participle does not refer to the noun to which it is
attached, normally the subject of the sentence:
p Recently converted into apartments, I passed
by the house where I grew up.
Certain participles, such as considering, assuming,
excepting, given, provided, seeing, speaking (of),
etc., have virtually become prepositions or con-
junctions in their own right, and their use in a
grammatically free role is now standard:
tSpeaking of money, do you mind my asking
what you did with yours?
Adjectives and adverbs
An adjective is a word used to describe a noun,
such as sweet, red, or technical. An adverb is typi-
cally a word used to modify a verb, adjective, or
other adverb, such as gently, lazily, or very.
Position
Most adjectives can be used in two positions:
either before the noun they describe, where they
are called attributive, as in a black cat and a
gloomy outlook, or after a verb such as be, become,
grow, look, or seem, where they are called predica-
tive, as in the cat was black and the prospect looks
gloomy.
Some adjectives are nearly always used in the
predicative position and cannot stand before a
noun (e.g. afraid), while others are only found in
the attributive position (e.g. main).
Adjectives following a noun
In many xed standard expressions, adjectives
denoting status are placed immediately after the
nouns they describe, e.g. in court martial, heir
apparent, poet laureate, president elect, situations
vacant, and the village proper. In other cases, an
adjective follows a noun as a matter of sentence
structure rather than peculiarity of expression:
The waiter picked up our dirty glasses in his
ngertips, his eyes impassive.
Position of adverbs
Adverbs normally come between the subject and
its verb, or between an auxiliary verb and a main
verb:
She dutifully observes all its quaint rules.
Roosevelts nancial policy was roundly
criticized in 1933.
But for emphasis, or when the adverb belongs
closely to what follows the main verb, it comes
after the verb and before a following adverbial
phrase:
There is little chance that the student will
function effectively after he returns home.
Sentence adverbs
Some adverbs (such as clearly, happily, hopefully,
thankfully, unhappily) refer to a whole statement,
and form a comment associated more closely with
the speaker or writer than with what is said. In
this role they are called sentence adverbs.
Sentence adverbs often stand at the beginning of
the sentence:
Clearly, we will have to think again.
Sentence adverbs are well established in English,
although the use of thankfully and (in particular)
hopefully can arouse controversy:
sHopefully the road should be nished.
Although objection to such use is articial, be
aware that some people may take exception to
these words, especially in written or formal con-
texts.
Pronouns
A pronoun is a word such as I, we, they, me, you,
them, etc., and other forms such as the possessive
hers and theirs and the reexive myself and them-
selves. They are used to refer to (and take the
place of) a noun or noun phrase that has already
been mentioned or is known, especially in order to
avoid repetition, as in the sentence When she saw
her husband again, she wanted to hit him.
Reexive pronouns
Reexive pronouns are the type formed with -self,
e.g. myself, herself, and ourselves, used in sen-
tences in which the subject of the verb and the
object are the same person or thing, as in We
enjoyed ourselves and Make yourself at home.
Conjunctions
A conjunction is a word such as and, because, but,
for, if, or, and when, used to connect words, phras-
es, clauses, and sentences. On the use of and and
but at the beginning of a sentence, see SENTENCES
below.
Prepositions
A preposition is a word such as after, in, to, and
with, which usually stands before a noun or pro-
noun and establishes the way it relates to what
has gone before (The man on the platform, They
came after dinner, and What did you do it for?).
It is sometimes stated that a preposition should
always precede the word it governs and should not
end a sentence. However, there are cases when it
is either impossible or not natural to organize the
sentence in a way that avoids a nal preposition:
2in relative clauses and questions featuring
verbs with linked adverbs or prepositions:
What did Marion think she was up to?
They must be convinced of the commitment
they are taking on.
2in passive constructions:
The dress had not even been paid for.
2in short sentences including an innitive with
to or a verbal noun:
It was my dancing he objected to.
2. INFLECTION
Inection is the process by which words (princi-
pally nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs)
change their form, especially their ending, in
accordance with their grammatical role in a sen-
tence.
Verbs
Verbs normally add -s or -es to form third-person
present-tense forms (changes, wants), -ed to form
past tenses and past participles (changed, wanted),
and -ing to form present participles (changing,
wanting). However, some verbs form tenses by
changing their stem (throw, threw, thrown), and
others are completely irregular (have, had, had;
go, went, gone).
Verbs drop a nal silent -e when the sufx
begins with a vowel (as in shave, shaving). But a
nal -e is usually retained to preserve the soft
sound of the g in twingeing and whingeing. It is
also retained where it is needed to avoid confu-
sion with similar words, for example in dyeing
(from dye) as distinct from dying (from die).
Nouns
English nouns normally form their plurals by
adding -s, or -es if the singular form ends in -s, -x, -
z, -sh, or soft -ch (as in church but not loch).
Nouns ending in -y form plurals with -ies (policy,
policies), unless the ending is -ey, in which case the
plural form is normally -eys (valley, valleys).
Nouns ending in -f and -fe
Nouns ending in -f and -fe form plurals sometimes
with -fs (handkerchief, handkerchiefs; oaf, oafs;
proof, proofs; roof, roofs), sometimes -ves (calf,
calves; half, halves; knife, knives; shelf, shelves) and
occasionally both -fes and -ves (dwarf, dwarfs or
dwarves; hoof, hoofs or hooves).
Nouns ending in -o
Plurals of nouns ending in -o cause difculty in
English because there are few convenient rules
for choosing between -os (as in ratios) and -oes (as
in heroes).
As a guideline, the following typically form plu-
rals with -os:
2words in which a vowel (usually i or e ) pre-
cedes the nal -o (trios, videos).
2words that are shortenings of other words
(demos, hippos).
2words introduced from foreign languages
(boleros, placebos).
Names of animals and plants normally form plu-
rals with -oes (buffaloes, tomatoes).
Adjectives and adverbs:
comparatives and superlatives
Adjectives
An adjective has three forms: a positive (hot,
splendid), a comparative (hotter, more splendid),
and a superlative (hottest, most splendid).
Adjectives that form comparatives and superla-
tives using -er and -est in preference to (or as well
as) more and most are:
2words of one syllable (e.g. fast, hard, rich, wise).
2words of two syllables ending in -y and -ly (e.g.
angry, early, happy, holy, likely, lively) and corre-
sponding un- forms when these exist (e.g.
unhappy, unlikely). Words ending in -y change
the y to i (e.g. angrier, earliest).
2words of two syllables ending in -le (e.g. able,
humble, noble, simple), -ow(e.g. mellow, narrow,
shallow), and some ending in -er (e.g. clever,
tender).
2some words of two syllables pronounced with
the stress on the second syllable (e.g. polite,
profound, but not antique, bizarre, and others).
2other words of two syllables that do not belong
to any classiable group (e.g. common, cruel,
pleasant, quiet).
Words of one syllable ending in a single conso-
nant double the consonant when it is preceded by
a single vowel (glad, gladder, gladdest; hot, hotter,
hottest) but not when it is preceded by more than
one vowel (clean, cleaner, cleanest; loud, louder,
loudest). Words of two syllables ending in -l dou-
ble the l (e.g. cruel, crueller, cruellest).
Adjectives of three or more syllables use forms
with more and most (more beautiful, most interest-
ing, etc.).
Adverbs
Adverbs that take -er and -est in preference to (or
as well as) more and most are:
2adverbs that are not formed with -ly but are
identical in form to corresponding adjectives
(e.g. runs faster, hits hardest, hold it tighter).
2some independent adverbs (e.g. often and
soon).
Adverbs ending in -ly formed from adjectives (e.g.
richly, softly, wisely) generally do not have -er and
-est forms but appear as more softly, most wisely,
etc.
3. SENTENCES
A sentence is a group of words that makes com-
plete sense, contains a main verb, and begins with
a capital letter and ends with a full stop (or the
equivalent such as a question mark or an exclama-
tion mark).
There are three basic kinds of sentence:
2a simple sentence normally contains one state-
ment: the train should be here soon.
2a compound sentence contains more than one
statement, normally joined by a conjunction
such as and or but: I have looked at the evidence
and I have to say it is not sufcient.
2a complex sentence contains a main clause and
one or more subordinate clauses, such as a con-
ditional clause beginning with if or a relative
clause introduced by which or who: The story
would make headlines if it ever became public.
Relative clauses: using words
like who and when
A relative clause is one connected to a main clause
by a relative pronoun or adjective such as who or
whom, which, whose, or that, or by a relative
adverb such as when and where. (These words,
apart from that, are collectively called wh- words,
and a wh- word means any of these.) Most prob-
lems with this kind of clause are to do with the
choice between that and a wh- word, principally
which, who, or whom. For much of the time that is
interchangeable with any of these words, and it is
the more usual choice in everyday writing and
conversation.
There are two types of relative clause, called
restrictive and non-restrictive. A restrictive
clause gives essential information about a noun or
noun phrase that comes before (She held out the
hand that was hurt). A non-restrictive clause gives
extra information that could be left out without
affecting the structure or meaning of the sentence
(She held out her hand, which I clasped in both of
mine). A restrictive clause can be introduced by
that, which, who, or whose and is not normally pre-
ceded by a comma, whereas a non-restrictive
clause is normally introduced by which, who, or
whose (and not usually that), and is preceded by a
comma.
Sometimes that is more idiomatic than which,
for example when the construction is based on an
impersonal it or an indenite pronoun such as
anything:
There is something that I forgot to mention.
Is there anything that you want?
That is also more usual when which already occurs
earlier in the sentence in another role, for exam-
ple as an interrogative word:
Which is the one that you want?
Beginning sentences with and
and but
It is not wrong to begin a sentence with a con-
junction such as and or but. The practice is com-
mon in literature and can be effective. It is also
used for other rhetorical purposes, especially to
denote surprise (And are you really going?) and
sometimes just to introduce an improvised after-
thought (Im going to swim. And dont you dare
watch).
Negatives and double negatives
A repeated negative of the type He never did no
harm to no one is incorrect. However, a double
negative is acceptable when it is used with inten-
tional cancelling effect as a gure of speech, as in
It has not gone unnoticed.
Double negatives also occur, especially in
speech, in uses of the type You cant not go (= you
cannot consider not going, i.e. you have to go), in
which not go is effectively a single idea expressed
in a verb phrase.
4. AGREEMENT
Agreement is the process of making words t the
context of sentences, for example ensuring that
the singular form of a verb accompanies a singular
subject. For most of the time we apply the rules of
agreement instinctively, but problems can arise in
sentences involving certain phrases and combina-
tions.
Agreement within phrases
Awkward phrases
Some expressions can cause uncertainty because
they are grammatically ambiguous or combine
seemingly contradictory roles, for example phras-
es such as more than one and either or both:
More than one dealer has shown an interest in
the painting.
The meaning is clearly plural, but the grammar
remains singular because one is closer to the verb
as well as being the dominant word in its phrase
(we could not say More than one dealer have
shown an interest in the painting).
s The purchaser gets a licence to use either or
both products.
Here there is a problem of agreement with the fol-
lowing noun, because either calls for the singular
form product whereas both calls for the plural
form products; both wins out because it is closer to
the noun. Usually a better solution is to rephrase
the sentence to avoid the problem altogether:
t The purchaser gets a licence to use either or
both of the products.
Compound subjects
Two nouns joined by and are normally treated as
plural:
Speed and accuracy are top of the list.
But when the two nouns form a phrase that can be
regarded as a single unit, they are sometimes
treated as singular, even when one of them is plur-
al:
Fish and chips is my favourite meal
When a singular noun forming the subject of a
sentence is followed by an additional element
tagged on by means of a phrase such as as well as,
accompanied by, or together with, the following
verb should be singular and not plural, since the
singular noun is by itself the true subject:
The little girl, together with her friend Kerry, was
busy lling her bucket with sand.
Singular and plural nouns
Singular nouns treated as plural
Some nouns are singular in form but are used with
a verb that can be either singular or plural, or in
some cases only plural. The commonest of these
are the collective nouns which stand for a group or
collection of people or things, such as audience,
committee, crew, family, generation, government,
group, jury, team, and many others.
The general rule with words like these is to treat
them as singular when the emphasis is on the
group as a whole and as plural when the emphasis
is on the individuals that form the group:
A group of four young men in overalls was
standing close to him. (singular)
The jury retired at the end of the day to consider
their verdict. (plural)
Some collective nouns are fully plural:
By and large the police do a good job.
Plural nouns treated as singular
Other nouns are plural in form but are treated as
singular, either always or in some meanings. Chief
among these are the names of branches of knowl-
edge or science, such as acoustics and mathemat-
ics, activities such as billiards and gymnastics, and
diseases such as measles:
Acoustics is taught as part of the extended
course.
The gures show that measles is on the increase.
Other plural nouns, such as data, media, and agen-
da, are now commonly treated as singular.
Depending on their meaning, they are either
countable nouns, which can be used with a or an
and have plural forms, e.g. agendas, or mass
nouns, which do not have a plural form but are
used in the singular with words such as this and
much:
The media has lost interest in the subject.
This data is in a form that can be used by other
institutions.
Some plural words adopted unchanged from other
languages, such as spaghetti and grafti, develop
singular meanings:
The furniture had been damaged and grafti
was daubed on the walls.
Subjects and objects
When the subject of the verb be is singular but the
part that follows is plural, the verb should gener-
ally agree with its subject, regardless of what fol-
lows:
The only trafc is ox carts and bicycles.
When the subject is a singular collective noun, the
verb may be in the plural, following the usual pat-
tern with such nouns:
Its prey are other small animals.
Indenite pronouns
Pronouns such as each, either, neither, and none
are called indenite pronouns. When used on
their own like a noun, they can vary between sin-
gular and plural. They are treated as singular
when the emphasis is on the individuals:
Neither the chairman nor the chief executive is
planning any dramatic gestures.
None of them has had enough practical experi-
ence to run the company.
and as plural when the emphasis is on the collec-
tion or group as a whole:
Neither his mother nor his father earn much
money now.
None of the staff were aware of the ransom
demand.
Plural pronouns used in the singular
There is often uncertainty about what possessive
word (his, her, etc.) to use when referring to a
subject whose gender is not specied. The safest
option is to put his or her:
Every student should hand in his or her assign-
ment by Tuesday.
But this can be awkward, especially when the sen-
tence continues for some time with repeated ref-
erences back to the original subject. In cases like
this it is now acceptable to use a plural form of
pronoun:
Every student should hand in their assignment
by Tuesday.
Either or and neither nor
A problem arises when one of the alternatives in
an either ... or ... or neither ... nor ... construction is
singular and the other plural. Here, the normal
choice is to make the verb agree with the one clos-
er to it:
t Either the twins or their mother is responsible
for this.
But often a better solution is to recast the sen-
tence to avoid the problem:
t Either the twins are responsible for this or
their mother is.
Personal pronouns
I, we, he, she, and they are subjective pronouns,
which act as the subjects of verbs, while me, us,
him, her, and them are objective, acting as the
objects of verbs and prepositions:
Its a tiny bit boring, between you and me.
The boys are coming with Gavin and me.
After the verb be it is more natural and usual to
use me, us, him, her, or they (the objective pro-
nouns), although what follows be is not an object
but a complement:
I said it was only me.
Thats us sitting on the bench.
The subjective forms (I, we, he, she, or they) are
not wrong but often sound stilted, especially the
rst-person forms I and we:
s I said it was only I.
It is, however, usual to use the subjective forms
when a relative clause (introduced by who or that)
follows:
t It was I who did it.
5. PUNCTUATION
The purpose of punctuation is to make writing
clear, by clarifying the structure of continuous
writing and indicating how words relate to each
other.
Full stop
The principal use of the full stop is to mark the
end of a sentence that is a statement:
Bernard went over to the bookcase and took
down an atlas.
This applies to sentences when they are not com-
plete statements or contain ellipsis:
London. Implacable November weather.
If an abbreviation with a full stop comes at the
end of a sentence, another full stop is not added:
Bring your own pens, pencils, rulers, etc.
Comma
The role of the comma is to give detail to the
structure of sentences and to make their meaning
clear by marking off words that either do or do not
belong together. It usually represents the natural
breaks and pauses that you make in speech, and
operates at phrase level and word level:
At phrase level
You should use a comma to mark off parts of a sen-
tence that are separated by conjunctions (and, but,
yet, etc.). This is especially important when there
is a change or repetition of the subject, or when
the sentence is a long one:
Mokosh could foretell the future, and she could
change herself into any form she pleased.
Readings are taken at points on a grid marked
out on the ground, and the results are usually
plotted in the form of computer-drawn diagrams.
It is not normally correct to join the clauses of a
compound sentence without a conjunction:
pHis was the last house, the road ended with
him.
Nor is it correct to separate a subject from its verb
with a single comma:
pThose with the lowest incomes and no other
means, should get the most support.
A comma also separates parts of a sentence that
balance or complement each other, and can intro-
duce direct speech, especially in continuation of
dialogue:
He was getting better, but not as fast as his
doctor wished.
Then Laura said, Do you mean that?
An important function of the comma is to prevent
ambiguity or momentary misunderstanding:
Mr Hogg said that he had shot, himself, as a small
boy.
Commas are used in pairs to separate elements in
a sentence that are asides or not part of the main
statement:
All history, of course, is the history of wars.
Commas are also used to separate a relative clause
that is non-restrictive (see relative clauses
above):
The money, which totals more than half a million,
comes from three anonymous donors.
A single comma sometimes follows adverbs,
phrases, and subordinate clauses that come at the
beginning of a sentence:
Moreover, they had lied about where they had
been.
When the sun began to sink, she could take the
riverside walk to the hotel.
A comma is always needed with however when it
means by contrast or on the other hand:
However, a good deal of discretion is left in the
hands of area managers.
At word level
A comma is used to separate adjectives having the
same range of reference coming before a noun:
a cold, damp, badly heated room
The comma is omitted when the adjectives have a
different range of reference (for example, size and
colour) or when the last adjective has a closer rela-
tion to the noun:
his baggy green jacket
a distinguished foreign politician
Commas are used to separate items in a list or
sequence:
The visitors were given tea, scones, and cake.
(The nal comma before and is regarded by many
people as unnecessary and left out; this dictionary
always includes one.)
Leave out the comma between nouns that occur
together in the same grammatical role in a sen-
tence (called apposition):
My friend Judge Peters was not at home.
But use one when the noun is a piece of extra
information that could be removed from the
sentence without any noticeable effect on the
meaning:
His father, Humphrey V. Roe, was not so
fortunate.
Semicolon
The main role of the semicolon is to mark a gram-
matical separation that is stronger in effect than a
comma but less strong than a full stop. Normally
the two parts of a sentence divided by a semicolon
balance each other, rather than leading from one
to the other:
The sky grew bright with sunset; the earth
glowed.
Honey looked up and glared; the man scurried
away.
You can also use a semicolon as a stronger division
in a sentence that already contains commas:
What has crippled me? Was it my grandmother,
frowning on my childish affection and turning it
to formality and cold courtesy; or my timid,
fearful mother, in awe of everyone including,
nally, me; or was it my wifes indelities, or my
own?
Colon
Whereas a semicolon links two balanced state-
ments, a colon leads from the rst statement to
the second. Typically it links a general or intro-
ductory statement to an example, a cause to an
effect, or a premise to a conclusion.
He was being made to feel more part of the
family: the children kissed him goodnight, like a
third parent.
You also use a colon to introduce a list:
The price includes the following: travel to
London, ight to Venice, hotel accommodation,
and excursions.
Apostrophe
The principal role of the apostrophe is to indicate
a possessive, as in Tessas house and the towns
mayor.
Singular nouns form the possessive by adding s
(the dogs bark = one dog), and plural nouns end-
ing in -s add an apostrophe after the -s (the dogs
barks = more than one dog). When a plural noun
ends in a letter other than s, the possessive is
formed by adding s : the childrens games, the
oxens hoofs, etc.
Beware of an apostrophe wrongly applied to an
ordinary plural, particularly in words ending in -o
but also in quite harmless words such as apples
and pears (e.g. p pears 30p a pound).
Beware also of confusing the possessive whose
with whos, which is a contraction of who is (e.g.
pWhos turn is it?).
For names ending in -s, the best course is to add
s when you would pronounce the resulting form
with an extra s in speech (e.g. Charless, Dickenss,
Thomass, The Timess); and omit s otherwise (e.g.
Bridges, Connors, Herodotus). With French
names ending in (silent) -s or -x, add s (e.g.
Dumass, le Rouxs) and pronounce the modied
word with a nal -z.
An apostrophe should not be used in the pro-
nouns hers, its, ours, yours, and theirs.
Be careful to distinguish its from its. Its (no
apostrophe) is a possessive meaning belonging to
it, whereas its (with an apostrophe) is a contrac-
tion meaning it is or it has:
Give the cat its dinner.
Its hard to know where to start.
An apostrophe is not normally used in the plural
of abbreviated forms (e.g. several MPs were stand-
ing around), although it is used in the possessive
(e.g. the BBCs decision to go ahead with the broad-
cast).
Another important use of the apostrophe is to
mark contractions such as Ill, theyve, couldnt,
and shes.
Hyphens
In print a hyphen is half the length of a dash, but
in writing there is often little noticeable differ-
ence. While the dash has the purpose of separat-
ing words and groups of words, the hyphen is
meant to link words and parts of words. The use of
hyphens is very variable in English, but the fol-
lowing guidelines reect generally agreed princi-
ples.
The hyphen is used to join two or more words so
as to form a single word (often called a compound
word), e.g. free-for-all, multi-ethnic, right-handed,
and punch-drunk. Straightforward noun com-
pounds are now much more often spelled either as
two words (boiling point, credit card, focus group)
or as one, even when this involves a collision of
consonants, which used to be a reason for putting
in the hyphen (database, earring, breaststroke). In
American English compound nouns generally
written as two words in British English are often
written as one word.
There are two cases in which a compound
spelled as two words is made into a hyphened
form or a one-word form:
2when a verb phrase such as hold up or back up is
made into a noun (hold-up, backup);
2when a noun compound is made into a verb
(e.g. a date stamp but to date-stamp). Note that
a normal phrasal verb should not be hyphenat-
ed: write continue to build up your pension not
continue to build-up your pension.
A hyphen is often used:
2to join a prex ending in a vowel (such as co-
and neo-) to another word (e.g. co-opt, neo-
Impressionism), although one-word forms are
becoming more usual (cooperate, neoclassical).
2to avoid ambiguity by separating a prex from
the main word, e.g. to distinguish re-cover (=
provide with a new cover) from recover and re-
sign (= sign again) from resign.
2to join a prex to a name or designation, e.g.
anti-Christian, ex-husband.
2to stand for a common second element in all but
the last word of a list, e.g. two-, three-, or four-
fold.
2to clarify meanings in groups of words which
might otherwise be unclear or ambiguous (e.g.
twenty-odd people came to the meeting).
You should also use a hyphen to clarify the mean-
ing of a compound that is normally spelled as sep-
arate words, when it is used before a noun: an up-
to-date record but the record is up to date.
There is no need to insert a hyphen between an
adverb ending in -ly and an adjective qualied by
it, even when they come before the noun: a highly
competitive market, recently published material.
When the adverb does not end in -ly, however, a
hyphen is normally required to make the meaning
clear when the adverb precedes the noun: a well-
known woman (but the woman is well known).

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