Limbi quechua

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Acest articol se referă la limba vorbită în America de Sud. Pentru alte utilizări, vedeți Quechua
(dezambiguizare).
Quechua

Qhichwa Simi / Runa Shimi / Runa Simi

Vorbită în Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Columbia, Ecuador și Peru
Regiuni Anzii Cordilieri
Număr de vorbitori circa 14 milioane, dintre care 10.5 milioane vorbitori nativi (locul 65)
Sistem de scriere alfabetul latin
Clasificare
Quechuan

 Quechua

Statut oficial și codificare

Limbă oficială în Peru și Bolivia
Organ de
Academia Mayor de la Lengua Quechua
reglementare
ISO 639-1 qu
ISO 639-2 que
ISO 639-3
(cel mai que
răspândit dialect)
SIL q
Extras
Răspândire în lume
Puteți vizita Wikipedia în Quechua
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Quechua, în limba quechua, Qhichwa simi, sau Runa Simi, este o limbă nativ americană a
Americii de Sud. A fost vorbită de-a lungul munților Anzii Cordilieri cu mult înainte de
constituirea Imperiului Inca, care a folosit-o ca limbă oficială. Quecha este larg folosită astăzi în
diferite regiuni ale Anzilor și a Altiplano, prezentând diferite varietăți, care sunt cunoscute sub
numele colectiv de ‘dialecte quecha’, fiind astăzi vorbită de peste 14 milioane de oameni (dintre
care cel puțin 10 milioane sunt vorbitori nativi) din America de Sud, incluzând Peru, sud-vestul
și centrul Boliviei, sudul Columbiei și al Ecuador-ului, nord-vestul Argentinei și nordul Chile.
Este cea mai răspândită limbă vorbită de locuitorii nativi ai celor două Americi.

Deși a fost tratată la modul general ca o singură limbă, cei mai mulți dintre lingviști consideră că
ceea ce se află în denominarea quecha este o familie de limbi de tip quecha, având aproximativ
46 de dialecte, care pot fi grupate în cel puțin șapte limbi.[1] [2] [3]

Quechua este o limbă regulată aglutinantă, spre deosebire de limbile de fuziune. Ordinea
normală într-o propoziți este SOV (subiect - obiect - verb). Numărul său larg de sufixe schimbă
semnificația cuvintelor conferind nuanțe subtile de înțeles. Printre cele mai notabile aspecte
gramaticale se numără conjugarea bipersonală (verbele trebuie să fie conjugate simultan în
relație cu subiectul și obiectul), evidenţialitatea (indicarea sursei și a gradului de cunoaștere al
afirmațiilor), particule indicând topicul, precum și sufixe indicând cine este beneficiarul unei
acțiuni, respectiv atitudinea vorbitorului față de acțiune.

Cuprins
 1 Istorie
  2 Distribuție geografică
 3 Număr de vorbitori
 4 Vocabular
 5 Fonologie
o 5.1 Vocale
o 5.2 Consoane
 6 Sistemul de scriere
 7 Gramatică
o 7.1 Pronumele personale
o 7.2 Adjective
o 7.3 Numerale
o 7.4 Substantive
o 7.5 Adverbe
o 7.6 Verbe
o 7.7 Particule gramaticale
o 7.8 Evidentiațialitate
 8 În cultura populară
 9 Vezi și
 10 Note
 11 Referințe
 12 Bibliografie
 13 Legături externe

Istorie
Distribuție geografică
Astăzi există patru grupuri mari:

 Quecha I or Waywash is spoken in Peru's central highlands. It is the most diverse branch
of Quechua,[4] such that its dialects have often been considered different languages.

 Quechua II or Wanp'una (Traveler) is divided into three branches:

 II-A: Yunkay Quechua is spoken sporadically in Peru's occidental highlands;
 II-B: Northern Quechua (also known as Runashimi or, especially in Ecuador, Kichwa) is
mainly spoken in Colombia and Ecuador. It is also spoken in the Amazonian lowlands in
Ecuador and Peru;
 II-C: Southern Quechua, spoken in Peru's southern highlands, Bolivia, Argentina and
Chile, is today's most important branch because it has the largest number of speakers and
because of its cultural and literary legacy.

This traditional classification, though still a helpful guide, has been increasingly challenged in
recent years, since a number of regional varieties of Quechua seem to be intermediate between
the two branches.

Număr de vorbitori
The number of speakers given varies widely according to the sources. The most reliable figures
are to be found in the census results of Peru (1993) and Bolivia (2001), though they are probably
altogether too low due to underreporting. The 2001 Ecuador census seems to be a prominent
example of underreporting, as it comes up with only 499,292 speakers of the two varieties
Quichua and Kichwa combined, where other sources estimate between 1.5 and 2.2 million
speakers.

 Argentina: 100,000
 Bolivia: 2,100,000 (2001 census)
 Brazil: unknown
 Chile: very few, spoken in pockets in the Chilean Altiplano (Ethnologue)
 Colombia: 9,000 (Ethnologue)
 Ecuador: 500,000 to 1,000,000
 Peru: 3,200,000 (1993 census)

Additionally, there may be hundreds of thousands of speakers outside the traditionally Quechua
speaking territories, in immigrant communities.

Vocabular
A number of Quechua loanwords have entered English via Spanish, including coca, cóndor,
guano, jerky, llama, pampa, puma, quinine, quinoa, vicuña and possibly gaucho. The word
lagniappe comes from the Quechua word yapay ("to increase; to add") with the Spanish article la
in front of it, la yapa or la ñapa in Spanish.

The influence on Latin American Spanish includes such borrowings as papa for "potato",
chuchaqui for "hangover" in Ecuador, and diverse borrowings for "altitude sickness", in Bolivia
from Quechua suruqch'i to Bolivian sorojchi, in Columbia, Ecuador, and Peru soroche.

Quechua has borrowed a large number of Spanish words, such as pero (from pero, but), bwenu
(from bueno, good), and burru (from burro, donkey).

Fonologie
Descriere de mai jos se aplică dialectului Cusco ; există diferențe mari pentru alte varietăți de
quechua.

Vocale

Quechua folosește doar trei vocale: /a/ /i/ și /u/, asemănător cu limba aimara. Vorbitorii
monolingvi pronunță aceste vocale [æ] [ɪ] și respectiv [ʊ], deși vocalele spaniole /a/ /i/ și /u/ pot
fi folosite. Când vocalele apar lângă consoanele uvulare /q/, /qʼ/ și /qʰ/, sunt pronunțate [ɑ], [ɛ] și
[ɔ].

Consoane
 labială alveolară postalveolară palatală velară uvulară glotală
oclusivă / africată p t tʃ k q
oclusivă sau africată
pʰ tʰ tʃʰ kʰ qʰ
aspirată
ejective p’ t’ tʃ’ k’ q’
fricative s h
nazală m n ɲ
laterală l ʎ
bătută ɾ
sonantă j w

Niciuna dintre oclusive și fricative nu sunt sonore; sonorizarea nu este fonemică în vocabularul
nativ quechua al varietății moderne Cusco.

Voiceless bilabial plosives

Meniu
0:00
Pronunția fonemelor bazate pe
consoane oclusive bilabiale surde în
Quechua

Aproximativ 30% din vocabularul prezent în quechua modernă este preluat din limba spaniolă și
este posibil ca unele sunete spaniole (cum ar fi f, b, d, g) să fi devenit fonemice, chiar și pentru
vorbitorii monolingvi de quechua.

Sistemul de scriere
Articol principal: Quechua alphabet.

Quechua has been written using the Roman alphabet since the Spanish conquest of Peru.
However, written Quechua is not utilized by the Quechua-speaking people at large due to the
lack of printed referential material in Quechua.

Until the 20th century, Quechua was written with a Spanish-based orthography. Examples: Inca,
Huayna Cápac, Collasuyo, Mama Ocllo, Viracocha, quipu, tambo, condor. This orthography is
the most familiar to Spanish speakers, and as a corollary, has been used for most borrowings into
English.
In 1975, the Peruvian government of Juan Velasco adopted a new orthography for Quechua. This
is the writing system preferred by the Academia Mayor de la Lengua Quechua. Examples: Inka,
Wayna Qapaq, Qollasuyu, Mama Oqllo, Wiraqocha, khipu, tampu, kuntur. This orthography:

 uses w instead of hu for the /w/ sound.

 distinguishes velar k from uvular q, where both were spelled c or qu in the traditional
system.
 distinguishes simple, ejective, and aspirated stops in dialects (such as that of Cuzco)
which have them — thus khipu above.
 continues to use the Spanish five-vowel system.

In 1985, a variation of this system was adopted by the Peruvian government; it uses the Quechua
three-vowel system. Examples: Inka, Wayna Qapaq, Qullasuyu, Mama Uqllu, Wiraqucha, khipu,
tampu, kuntur.

The different orthographies are still highly controversial in Peru. Advocates of the traditional
system believe that the new orthographies look too foreign, and suggest that it makes Quechua
harder to learn for people who have first been exposed to written Spanish. Those who prefer the
new system maintain that it better matches the phonology of Quechua, and point to studies
showing that teaching the five-vowel system to children causes reading difficulties in Spanish
later on.

For more on this, see Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift.

Writers differ in the treatment of Spanish loanwords. Sometimes these are adapted to the modern
orthography, and sometimes they are left in Spanish. For instance, "I am Robert" could be
written Robertom kani or Ruwirtum kani. (The -m is not part of the name; it is an evidential
suffix.)

Peruvian linguist Rodolfo Cerrón-Palomino has proposed an orthographic norm for all Quechua,
called Southern Quechua. This norm, el Quechua estándar or Hanan Runasimi, which is
accepted by many institutions in Peru, has been made by combining conservative features of two
common dialects: Ayacucho Quechua and Qusqu-Qullaw Quechua (spoken in Cusco, Puno,
Bolivia, and Argentina). For instance:

Ayacucho Cusco Southern Quechua Translation

upyay uhyay upyay "to drink"
utqa usqha utqha "fast"
llamkay llank'ay llamk'ay "to work"
ñuqanchik nuqanchis ñuqanchik "we (inclusive)"
-chka- -sha- -chka- (progressive suffix)
punchaw p'unchay p'unchaw "day"
To listen to recordings of these and many other words as pronounced in many different Quechua-
speaking regions, see the external website The Sounds of the Andean Languages. There is also a
full section on the new Quechua and Aymara Spelling.

Gramatică
Pronumele personale

În quechua, există șapte pronume Number

personale, șase dintre ele sunt cele comune
multor limbi, eu, tu, el / ea, respectiv noi, Singular Plural
voi și ei /ele, dar persoana întâi plural (noi) Ñuqanchik (inclusiv)
este nuanțată, existând două forme, cea Întâi Ñuqa
care semnifică "noi cu tine/voi", numită Ñuqayku (exclusiv)
inclusivă, respectiv cea care semnifică "noi Persoană
A doua Qam Qamkuna
fără tine / voi", numită exclusivă. Quechua
adaugă, de asemenea, sufixul -kuna la A treia Pay Paykuna
persoanele a doua și a treia singular, qam și
pay pentru a crea formele de plural qam-kuna și pay-kuna.

Adjective

Adjectives in Quechua are always placed before nouns. They lack gender and number, and are
not declined to agree with substantives.

Numerale

 Cardinal numbers. ch'usaq (0), huk (1), iskay (2), kimsa (3), tawa (4), pichqa (5), suqta
(6), qanchis (7), pusaq (8), isqun (9), chunka (10), chunka hukniyuq (11), chunka
iskayniyuq (12), iskay chunka (20), pachak (100), waranqa (1,000), hunu (1,000,000),
lluna (1,000,000,000,000).
 Ordinal numbers. To form ordinal numbers, the word ñiqin is put after the appropriate
cardinal number (e.g., iskay ñiqin = "second"). The only exception is that, in addition to
huk ñiqin ("first"), the phrase ñawpaq is also used in the somewhat more restricted sense
of "the initial, primordial, the oldest".

Substantive

Noun roots accept suffixes which indicate person (defining of possession, not identity), number,
and case. In general, the personal suffix precedes that of number - in the Santiago del Estero
variety, however, the order is reversed.[5] From variety to variety, suffixes may change.

Examples using the word wasi (house)

Function Suffix Example (translation)
suffix indicating plural -kuna wasikuna houses
number
1.person singular -y, -: wasiy, wasii my house
2.person singular -yki wasiyki your house
3.person singular -n wasin his/her/its house
possessive suffix 1.person plural (incl) -nchik wasinchik our house (incl.)
1.person plural (excl) -y-ku wasiyku our house (excl.)
2.person plural -yki-chik wasiykichik your (pl.) house
3.person plural -n-ku wasinku their house
nominative - wasi the house (subj.)
accusative -(k)ta wasita the house (obj.)
comitative
-wan wasiwan with the house
(instrumental)
abessive -naq wasinaq without the house
dative -paq wasipaq to the house
genitive -p(a) wasip(a) of the house
because of the
causative -rayku wasirayku
house
benefactive -paq wasipaq for the house
locative -pi wasipi at the house
suffixes indicating
directional -man wasiman towards the house
case
-piwan, wasipiwan, including the
inclusive
puwan wasipuwan house
terminative -kama, -yaq wasikama, wasiyaq up to the house
transitive -(rin)ta wasinta through the house
-manta, - wasimanta,
ablative off/from the house
piqta wasipiqta
adessive -(ni)ntin wasintin the house (obj.)
immediate -raq wasiraq first the house
interactive -pura wasipura among the houses
exclusive -lla(m) wasilla(m) only the house
comparative -naw, -hina wasinaw, wasihina than the house

Adverbe

Adverbs can be formed by adding -ta or, in some cases, -lla to an adjective: allin - allinta ("good
- well"), utqay - utqaylla ("quick - quickly"). They are also formed by adding suffixes to
demonstratives: chay ("that") - chaypi ("there"), kay ("this") - kayman ("hither").

There are several original adverbs. For Europeans, it is striking that the adverb qhipa means both
"behind" and "future", whereas ñawpa means "ahead, in front" and "past".[6] This means that
local and temporal concepts of adverbs in Quechua (as well as in Aymara) are associated to each
other reversely compared to European languages. For the speakers of Quechua, we are moving
backwards into the future (we cannot see it - ie. it is unknown), facing the past (we can see it - ie.
we remember it).

Verbe

The infinitive forms (unconjugated) have the suffix -y (much'a= "kiss"; much'a-y = "to kiss").
The endings for the indicative are:

Present Past Future Pluperfect

Ñuqa -ni -rqa-ni -saq -sqa-ni
Qam -nki -rqa-nki -nki -sqa-nki
Pay -n -rqa(-n) -nqa -sqa
Ñuqanchik -nchik -rqa-nchik -su-nchik -sqa-nchik
Ñuqayku -yku -rqa-yku -saq-ku -sqa-yku
Qamkuna -nki-chik -rqa-nki-chik -nki-chik -sqa-nki-chik
Paykuna -n-ku -rqa-(n)ku -nqa-ku -sqa-ku

To these are added various suffixes to change the meaning. For example, -chi is a causative and -
ku is a reflexive (example: wañuy = "to die"; wañuchiy = to kill wañuchikuy = "to commit
suicide"); -naku is used for mutual action (example: marq'ay= "to hug"; marq'anakuy= "to hug
each other"), and -chka is a progressive, used for an ongoing action (e.g., mikhuy = "to eat";
mikhuchkay = "to be eating").

Particule gramaticale

Particles are indeclinable, that is, they do not accept suffixes. They are relatively rare. The most
common are arí ("yes") and mana ("no"), although mana can take some suffixes, such as -n/-m
(manan/manam), -raq (manaraq, not yet) and -chu (manachu?, or not?), to intensify the
meaning. Also used are yaw ("hey", "hi"), and certain loan words from Spanish, such as piru
(from Spanish pero "but") and sinuqa (from sino "rather").

Evidentiațialitate

Nearly every Quechua sentence is marked by an evidential suffix, indicating how certain the
speaker is about a statement. -mi expresses personal knowledge (Tayta Wayllaqawaqa chufirmi,
"Mr. Huayllacahua is a driver-- I know it for a fact"); -si expresses hearsay knowledge (Tayta
Wayllaqawaqa chufirsi, "Mr. Huayllacahua is a driver, or so I've heard"); -chá expresses
probability (Tayta Wayllaqawaqa chufirchá, "Mr. Huayllacahua is a driver, most likely"). These
become -m, -s, -ch after a vowel, although -ch is rarely used, and the majority of speakers usually
employ -chá, even after a vowel (Mariochá, "He's Mario, most likely").
The evidential suffixes are not restricted to nouns; they can attach to any word in the sentence,
typically the comment (that is, new information, as opposed to the topic).

În cultura populară
 The fictional Huttese language in the Star Wars movies is largely based upon Quechua.
According to Jim Wilce, Assistant Professor of Anthropology at Northern Arizona
University, George Lucas contacted a colleague of his, Allen Sonafrank, to record the
dialogue. Wilce and Sonafrank discussed the matter, and felt it might be demeaning to
have an alien represent Quechuans, especially in light of Erich von Daniken's popular
publications that claimed Inca monuments were created by aliens because "primitives"
like the Incas could never have produced them. Sonafrank declined, but a grad student,
who could pronounce but did not speak Quechua, recorded Jabba's dialogue. There are
reports that the dialogue was played backwards or remixed, possibly to avoid offending
Quechuans.[necesită citare]
 The president of Ecuador, Rafael Correa, speaks fluent Quechua.
 The sport retailer Decathlon Group brands their mountain equipment range as Quechua.
 In "Indiana Jones and the Kingdom of the Crystal Skull" Indy has a dialogue in Quechua
with Peruvians. He explains he learned the language with Pancho Villa.

Vezi și
 Limba aimara
 Anzi

Note
1. ^ Torero, Alfredo (1983), „La familia lingûística quechua”, América Latina en sus
lenguas indígenas, Caracas: Monte Ávila, ISBN 9233019268
2. ^ Torero, Alfredo (1974), El quechua y la historia social andina, Lima: Universidad
Ricardo Palma, Dirección Universitaria de Investigación, ISBN 9786034502109
3. ^ Ethnologue report for Quechuan (SIL)
4. ^ Lyle Campbell, American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native
America, Oxford University Press, 1997, p. 189
5. ^ Format:Ref-internet
6. ^ This is not unknown in English, where "before" means "in the past", and Shakespeare's
Macbeth says "The greatest is behind", meaning in the future.

Referințe
 Cerrón-Palomino, Rodolfo. Lingüística Quechua, Centro de Estudios Rurales Andinos
'Bartolomé de las Casas', 2nd ed. 2003
 Cole, Peter. "Imbabura Quechua", North-Holland (Lingua Descriptive Studies 5),
Amsterdam 1982.
  Cusihuamán, Antonio, Diccionario Quechua Cuzco-Collao, Centro de Estudios
Regionales Andinos "Bartolomé de Las Casas", 2001, ISBN 9972691365
 Cusihuamán, Antonio, Gramática Quechua Cuzco-Collao, Centro de Estudios
Regionales Andinos "Bartolomé de Las Casas", 2001, ISBN 9972691373
 Mannheim, Bruce, The Language of the Inka since the European Invasion, University of
Texas Press, 1991, ISBN 0292746636
 Rodríguez Champi, Albino. (2006). Quechua de Cusco. Ilustraciones fonéticas de
lenguas amerindias, ed. Stephen A. Marlett. Lima: SIL International y Universidad
Ricardo Palma. [1]

Bibliografie
 Adelaar, Willem F. H. Tarma Quechua: Grammar, Texts, Dictionary. Lisse: Peter de
Ridder Press, 1977.
 Bills, Garland D., Bernardo Vallejo C., and Rudolph C. Troike. An Introduction to
Spoken Bolivian Quechua. Special publication of the Institute of Latin American Studies,
the University of Texas at Austin. Austin: Published for the Institute of Latin American
Studies by the University of Texas Press, 1969. ISBN 0292700199
 Curl, John, Ancient American Poets. Tempe AZ: Bilingual Press, 2005.ISBN 1-931010-
21-8 http://red-coral.net/Pach.html
 Gifford, Douglas. Time Metaphors in Aymara and Quechua. St. Andrews: University of
St. Andrews, 1986.
 Harrison, Regina. Signs, Songs, and Memory in the Andes: Translating Quechua
Language and Culture. Austin: University of Texas Press, 1989. ISBN 0292776276
 Jake, Janice L. Grammatical Relations in Imbabura Quechua. Outstanding dissertations
in linguistics. New York: Garland Pub, 1985. ISBN 082405475X
 King, Kendall A. Language Revitalization Processes and Prospects: Quichua in the
Ecuadorian Andes. Bilingual education and bilingualism, 24. Clevedon, UK:
Multilingual Matters LTD, 2001. ISBN 1853594954
 King, Kendall A., and Nancy H. Hornberger. Quechua Sociolinguistics. Berlin: Mouton
de Gruyter, 2004.
 Lara, Jesús, Maria A. Proser, and James Scully. Quechua Peoples Poetry. Willimantic,
Conn: Curbstone Press, 1976. ISBN 0915306093
 Lefebvre, Claire, and Pieter Muysken. Mixed Categories: Nominalizations in Quechua.
Studies in natural language and linguistic theory, [v. 11]. Dordrecht, Holland: Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1988. ISBN 1556080506
 Lefebvre, Claire, and Pieter Muysken. Relative Clauses in Cuzco Quechua: Interactions
between Core and Periphery. Bloomington, Ind: Indiana University Linguistics Club,
1982.
 Muysken, Pieter. Syntactic Developments in the Verb Phrase of Ecuadorian Quechua.
Lisse: Peter de Ridder Press, 1977. ISBN 9031601519
 Nuckolls, Janis B. Sounds Like Life: Sound-Symbolic Grammar, Performance, and
Cognition in Pastaza Quechua. Oxford studies in anthropological linguistics, 2. New
York: Oxford University Press, 1996. ISBN
 Parker, Gary John. Ayacucho Quechua Grammar and Dictionary. Janua linguarum.
Series practica, 82. The Hague: Mouton, 1969.
  Sánchez, Liliana. Quechua-Spanish Bilingualism: Interference and Convergence in
Functional Categories. Language acquisition & language disorders, v. 35. Amsterdam: J.
Benjamins Pub, 2003. ISBN 1588114716
 Weber, David. A Grammar of Huallaga (Huánuco) Quechua. University of California
publications in linguistics, v. 112. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. ISBN
0520097327
 Wright, Ronald, and Nilda Callañaupa. Quechua Phrasebook. Hawthorn, Vic., Australia:
Lonely Planet, 1989. ISBN 0864420390

Legături externe
Format:Wikibookspar Format:Wiktionarylang

 El Quechua de Santiago del Estero, extensive site covering the grammar of Argentinian
Quechua (in Spanish)
 runasimi.de Multilingual Quechua website with online dictionary (xls) Quechua -
German - English - Spanish.
 Quechua Language and Linguistics an extensive site.
o The Sounds of the Andean Languages listen online to pronunciations of Quechua
words, see photos of speakers and their home regions, learn about the origins and
varieties of Quechua.
 CyberQuechua, by the Quechua-speaking linguist Serafín Coronel Molina.
 Multilingual Dictionary: Spanish - Quechua (Cusco, Ayacucho, Junín, Ancash) - Aymara
 Toponimos del Quechua de Yungay, Peru
 Sacred Hymns of Pachacutec
 Quechua Network's Dictionary a very good one.
 Quechua lessons (www.andes.org) in Spanish and English
 Quechua course in Spanish, by Demetrio Tupah Yupanki (Red Científica Peruana)
 Detailed map of the varieties of Quechua according to SIL (fedepi.org)
 Quechua - English Dictionary: from Webster's Online Dictionary - the Rosetta Edition.
 Ecuadorian Quechua - English Dictionary: from Webster's Online Dictionary - the
Rosetta Edition.
 Google Quechua
 5 Quechua dictionaries online