,

S O A P S;

A P RA C TI CAL MAN U AL OF THE MAN UFACT URE O F

D O M E STI C, T O I L ET A N D O T H E R S OAPS .

A
G E O RG E H2
H
“

. U RS T , F C S . . .

E E E E
M M B R O F THE SOCI TY OF C H MICAL I ND USTR Y ; HO NOURS M BDALLIBT OF THE CITY
AND GUILDB O F LO NDO N IN BTITUTB.

IL M MN MWH Y M M H &H M WE W W W&

LO N DON
S CO TT , GRE E N W O OD
P UB LISHERS O F T HE

0 “M b Cotourman J ournal
’
s .

1 9, 2 1 AND 2 3 LU DG ATE HI LL, n o .

1 898 .
 P RE F AC E .

THE su b sta n c e of th i s bo o k ha s a lr ea dy a p p ea r e d

in th e fo rm of a r ti c le s i n th e pa ge s of t h e Oi l a n d
Colou r ma n J ou r n a l Th ese a r ti cles w er e r ec ei v ed
’
s .

wi th som u c h fa v ou r by th e r ea d e r s of th a t J ou rn a l
tha t i t h a s b e e n th o u gh t d e si r a b le to c o lle c t th e m
toge t h e r an d re
p ri n t th em i n bo ok fo r m . F or th i s

pu r
p ose th e a r t i c le s h a v e b e en th o r o u gh ly r e v i se d a n d

new m a tt e r a d ded to br i n g th e su b e c t
j u
p t o da te .

The a u th o r ha s n ot a tt e m t e d t o w r i te a c o m p le t e
p
trea t i se on Soa p M a n u fa c tu r e , bu t h a s a i m ed at

pr e se n t i n i n a b r i e f bu t , i t i s h o p e d c lea r m a n n e r
g ,

the r i nci a l r o c esses o f soa p m a n u fa c t u r e , w i th a n

p p p
accou n t of th e ra w m a te r i a ls u se d a n d th e sc i e n tific

pri n c i p le s w h i ch u n d e r li e th e v a r i ou s o
p e r a ti o n s .

Th e a u th o r h er e a c k n o w le d g e s h i s i n d e b te dn e ss
to se v e ra l e n gi n e e ri n g fir m s fo r th e loa n of m a c h i n er y
block s w h e r e w i th t o illu str a te th e c h a p te r on S oa p
Mac h i n e ry .

G E O RG E H H U R ST
. .

C H E M I C AL L AB O R AT O R Y ,

2 2 B LAC K FR I ARS ST RE ET ,

SAL FO R D , M AN C H E ST E R .
 C O NT E NTS .

C H AP T E R I .

INTROD UCT O RY — Soa p—Na tu r e o f Soa p —Ac ti on

. of Soa p

CH A PT E R I I .

SOAP-M AK E R S ’
—A lk a l i es a n d Fa ts—Sod a
ALKALI E s .

Man u fac p rg of Sod a —Sod a C ry sta l s— Ca u sti c

'

t
— — —
Sod a Cau sti c S od a L y e s P o ta ssi u m P o tas h es
—
Ca u sti c P ota s h C a st c ota h
u i P s L e —
y s A lka l i m e tr y
—Bor a x P h osp h a te o f Sod a — Si l i ca tes o f Sod a
-

a d P o ta sh
n — C o m m o n Sa l t—L i m e 6 to 5 3

C H A PT E R I I I .

SOAP FAT S AN D Gu s — C om p osi ti o n a n d P r oper ti es o f

O s
i l a n d F a ts— G ly c e r i n e — S oa p — Fa tty Ac i d s
Occ u e ce
r r n o f A n i m a l O i l s a n d F a ts — E x tra c t i o n

o An m a l O l s a
f i i n d —
Fa ts O c c u r r e n c e o f Vege tab l e
Oi l s — E x tra c ti o n o f e e b e —
V g ta l O l s R e fi n i n g a n d
i
Bl ea c h i n g O i l s—Sol ve n t E xtr ac ti o n P roc esses—Ta l
low —L a r d B o n e Gr ease —A n i m a l
- Soa p Fa ts
Ta l l ow O i l— La r d O i l— P l
a m O i l— Pa l m n u t O i l -

—
Coc o n u t O i l O l ve O i i l— C o t to s e d O i
n e l— L i n see d
Oi l—C a stor O i l—C o r n O i l—C a c ao B u tte r —R a p e O i l
—Re c ov e r ed G r eases—C u r r i e r s G r ea se —Y or k s h i r e
’

Gr ea se—Fu ll e r s Gr ea se—O l e i c Ac i d —Rosi n

’
54 to 1 5 7

C H APT E R I V .

PERF UM E s —An i se—B erga m ot—O i l of B i tte r A l m o n d s

—
.

Oi l of C a ra w a y —C ass i a C i n n a m o n —C i tr o n e l l e
C l ov es Co r i a n d e r Le m o n r a ss G
e r a ni u m G
L av e n d er —N er o l i —O r a n ge —Sa ssa r a s—S ta r A n i se
f
—M u sk—Ar ti fi c i a l M u sk—M y r b a n e 1 5 8 to 1 69
v fii C O N T E NT s

C H AP T E R V .

W AT E R As A SO AP M ATE R I AL

C HA P T ER VI .

S O AP M AC H I N E RY — A lk a l i . k s—F a t Ta n ks — F a t Ta n
Bl owe r s— Soa p P a s
n — Fi r e h ea te d Soa p Pa n s -

Ste a m h e at-
e d S oa p P a n s— So a p W h i r l s —P re ssu r e
Soa p B oi l er s— Soa p F r a m e s—W o od e n So a p F r a m e s
—
I r o n Soa p F r a m e s S l a b b i n g Soa p—Soa p S l a b b i n g
-

— —
M a c h n e s Soa p B a r r i n g Soa p S ta m p i n g M a c h i n e s
i
—To i l e t Soa p M a c h i n er y—Soa p C u tti n g M ac h i n es
-
Soa p C r u sh i n g M a c h i n e s —C r u tc h i n g M a c h i n e s
Soa p P u m p s— S oa p D r y i n g M ac h i n e s 1 77 to 2 2 3

C H A PTE R VII .

T E C H N O LO G Y OF SO AP -M AK I N O .
-
C la ss i fi c a ti o n of Soa ps
D o m e st i c ps— Sa po i fi c ti —M th od f Soa p
So a n a on e s o

m a k i n g—B oi l i n g Soa p— S a l ti g O u t— B o i l i n g o n n

S e gt h
t rn — F i tt e d S o a p C o m m P a l e So a p
s on

C a st i l e Soa p —P a l e Soa p — C o w n S a p—P i m o r o r r se

S oa p B o w n Soa p — M ott l e d S a p — C u d S a p s
— r o s r o

P a a ffi n Soa p s — F i ll d S p — S i l i ca te d Soa p
r e oa s s

C l
o d P oc ss o S oa p m
er f k i g
— W - k i g
a C o l d Pn or n ro

c es s Fi ll i n g C o l d p o s Soa ps — Soa p m a k i g
- r ce s - n

u n de P essu e O l e i c A i d Soa p —Hy d a te d S a p s

r r — r c r o
—Sa p n i fi c a ti on u n d e P e u —T o i l e t Soa p s
o r r ss re

M i ll e d To i l e t Soa p s C o ld p r oc s To i l e t Soa p s
- - e s

C o
o l u r i g S o
n a p s — S o a p C l u rs —T a s p a e t
o o So a p s r n r n

— I d t i a l Soa ps
n us r Spec i a l Soa p — M e d i c a te d s

—
So a p s So f t So a p D y S a p s Soa p Pow d e s
— —r o r 2 2 4 to 31 5

C H APTE R VI I I .

G LY C E R I N E I N SO AP Ly E s —G ly c e i n e i n Fa ts—P ro pe ti e s
. r r

o f G ly ce i ne — Re c e i n g G ly c e i n e f om So a p L y e
r ov r r r s

—G ly c e i n e P l a t r n 31 6 to 32 5

C HAP T E R IX .

LA Y I NG O UT A SO AP F AC TO RY —P l a n n i n g a
. Soa p F ac to rv 32 6 to
 CO NTE NTS . 1X

C H APT E R X .

E
PAG S

SOAP ANALY SI s —C on sti tu e n ts of Soa p —Sa m p l i ng S oa p

ly si s—W a te r i n Soa p—A lka l i i n Soa p—F a t
.

for An a
i n Soa p—M i n e r a l M a tte r s i n So a p—R os i n a n d oth er
Fats i n Soa p —Soa p An a ly ses

APPEND I CE S
A Hy d r om e te r Ta b l e
.

B H y d r om e te r Ta b l e
.

C T h e r m o m e tr i c T a b l e
.

D G r a v i ti e s of O i l s
.

E Gra i ti es of Cau sti c Sod a Lyes

. v

F Gr a i ti es of C au sti c Po tash L y
. v es

G Fats a n d Alka l i e s
.

H Gr a i ti es of Sa l t So l u ti on s
. v

1 . Li m e i n M i lk of Li m e .

K . G ly cer i ne So l u t i o n s
L . H a dfie ld ’
s S oa p Fram e
I ND EX
 L I S T O F I L L U S TR A T I O N S .

1 . Cau st i c L y e A ppa ra tu s
2 . Ly e T a n k
3 Ta . l l ow Re n d er i n g C h a m be r
4 Fa t Re n d e ri n g P
. lan t .

9 Fa t Boi l e r
3
9 S te a m F a t B oi l e r
S te a m F a t B o i l e r
1
7
0
9 Bon e B oi l er
9
5 B o n e Gr ease P l a n t
10 . O i l S e ed C ru sh i n g M i l l
11 . O i l See d G r i n d i n g M i ll
12 . O i l S ee d H ea t i n g K e t t l e
13 . O i l See d C r u sh i n g R o ll s
14 .
O i l C ak e M o u l d i n g M ac h i n e
15 . Hy d r a u l i c O i l P re ss
16 . O i l C a ke M ou l d s
17 . C a s tor See d D e c or t i c a tor
18 . C a sto r See d s
19 . Oil C l a r i f y i n g Ta n k
20 . O i l F i l te r P r e ss
21 O i l Bl e a c h i n g B o i l e r
22 O i l E x t r a c ti o n A ppa ra tu s
2 3 O i l E x tr a c ti o
n A pp a r a tu s
2 4 O i l E x tr
. a c t i o n A ppa r a tu s

25 . Ly e Ta n ks
26 . F a t Ta n k s
27 . S toc k Bl owe r
28 . F i r e h ea te d Soa p Pa n
-

29 . S te a m h e a te d Soa p P a n
-

30 S tea m Soa
. p Pa n

31 . S te a m So a p P a n

32 . So a p W hi l r

33 P r essu r e So a
. p B oi l e r .

34 . W ood e n Soa p F ra m e .

35 . I r o n Soa p Fr a m e
x ii L S I T OF I L L U ST RA TI O N S .

W h i ta k e r s ’
So a pF ra m e

M o r ga n ’
spF Soa r am e

S l a b b i n g S oa p
S l abb i n g M a c h i n e
Soa p W aggon
So p B a r r i n g M a c h i n e
a

Soa p B a r r i n g M a c h i n e
S o a p C u tti n g M a c h i n e
Soa p S ta m p i g M a c h i n e
n

S a p Sta m p i n g M a c h i n e
o

S o a p Sta m p i g M a c h i n e
n

Soa p Sta m p i g M a c h i n e
n

Soa p Sta m p i g M a c h i n e
n

Soa p Sta m p i n g M ac h i n e
Soa p C u tti n g M a c h i n e
S a p C r u sh i g M a c h i n e
o n

Soa p C u sh i g M c h i n e
r n a

Soa p S q u ee z i n g M a c h i n e
S oa p S q u e e z i n g M a c h i n e
55 . h
C r u tc i n g M a c i n e h
h
C r u tc i n g M ac i n e h
57 . So a p Pum p
Soa p D r y i n g M ac h i n e
59 . B o i l i n g Pa n fo Soa p L y es
r

G lyce i n e P l a t
r n

G lyce i n e P l a t
r n

62 . P l a n o f Soa p W o r k s
E l e v a ti on of So a p W or k s
E l e v a ti o n o f S oa p W o r k s
P l a n o f Soa p W or k s
66 . H a d fi e ld s Soa p F r a m e
’
 CHA P T E R I .

INTROD UCT ORY .

SO P A .

SO AP h a s been known fr om ver y ea rly ti m es it is sever a l ,

tim es r eferred to in the Bible a n d is a lso r eferred to by som e

,

of the a ncient G reek wr iters : Aristoph a nes who lived a bo u t ,

434 B C a n d by P l a to who lived a bo u t 348 B C

. .
, , P liny who . .
,

died in A D 7 9 st a tes th a t so a p w a s first invented by the

. .
,

G a u ls a n d gives a n a cco u nt of its m a n u fa ct u re fr om a lk a li

,

a n d fa t the c a u stic a lk a li bein g prod u ced fr o m the a shes of

,

woo d an d he sta tes n a tu r al ea r ths by which it is presu m ed

, , , ,

lim e is m e an t The best so a p w a s m a de fr o m the fa t o f

.

g o a ts a n d the a shes o f beechwood b u t it w a s a lso m a de ,

from other form s of fa t a n d wood a shes P liny a lso ga ve .

a n a cco u nt of the m a n u fa ct u r e o f le a d so a p a n d its u se in

m edicine The r em a i n s of a so a p fa ctory h a ve been fo u nd

.

a m o n g the r u ins o f P o m peii The ea rlier Ara bi a n a lchem ists

.

in their writin gs spe a k of so aps bein g u sed for deter gent

p ur poses a n d for per son a l a pplic a tion It m a y be a dded th a t
, .

prior to th e inven tion of so a p a n d even u p to the pres ent ,

ti m e the a shes of wood to gether with s u ch e ar thy m a tters

, ,

a s fu lle r s e a rth whic h a ppe a r to h a ve deter ent properties

’
, g ,

w ere l a r gely u sed for w a s h in g a n d cle a nsin g .

U p to a bo u t the fo u rteenth ce n t u ry the Sp a n i a rds a n d

I t ali a ns were the l a rgest m a kers of so a p Abo u t the thir .
 2 SO AP MANU F A C T URE .

tee n th or fo urteenth cen tu ry so a p m a ki n g w a s i n trodu ced

-

into F ra nce by the P h oce a n s people of E gypti a n ori gin who

,

est a blished them selves a t M a rseilles wh ich fro m th a t ti m e ,

h a s rem a ined th e se a t o f a very extensive S o a p tr a de for it ,

h a s very m a ny n a t u r a l co n venie n ce s the forests of S o u ther n

,

F r a nc e givin g the n eed fu l wood ash while the se a weed o f ,

the sea yielded the b arill a need fu l for the m a n u fa ct u re o f

h ard so a p li m e for the c a u sti c i si n g w a s re a dily obt a i n ed
, ,

while the cli m a te o f So u thern F r a nce fa vo u red the growth o f

the olive trees from which the m a in i n g redient olive oil o f
, , ,

the M a rseilles so a p w a s obt a ined Bei n g sit u a ted on the sea

.

co a st M a rseilles w a s a ble to i m port l a r ge s u pplies of olive

,

oil fro m It a ly a n d b a rill a fro m Sp a i n

, .

It is so m ewh a t u n cert a i n when so a p m a ki n g w a s first -

i n trod u ced i n to E n gl a n d bu t it wo u ld prob a bly be a bo u t the

,

fo u rtee n t h ce n t ur y a n d c a m e to u s fr o m F r a nce a n d th e
, ,

F rench m ethod w a s lon g pr a ctised The e a rliest E n glish .

p a tent rel a ti n g to so a p m a ki n g wa s gr a n ted i n 1 62 2 si n ce

-
,

which ti m e m a n y h a ve been iss u ed U n til a bo u t th e end o f

.

the l a st ce n t u ry n o i m p r ove m ents either i n the process or

the m a teri a ls were m a de t h en L ebl a n c i n tr o du ced his proces s
,

o f m a ki n g sod a fro m s a lt a n d gr a d u a lly the L ebl a n c sod a

,

repl a ced the b a rill a sod a i n so a p m a ki n g The fo u n d a tion

-
.

o f m ode r n i n ventio n in so a p m a ki n is l r ely b sed u po n

g
-
g a a

the work o f C hevreu l o n the C he m istry o f fa ts a n d u pon ,

this work together with th a t o f L ebl a n c the pra ctic a l b a si s

, ,

u pon which so ap m a ki n g is to day co n d u cted h a s been

- -

b a sed.

NATU R E O F SOAP .

A s ordi n a rily u nderstood so a p is the prod u ct obt a i n ed by

boilin g the v a rio u s a ni m a l an d veget a ble fa tty m a tters wit h
one or other of the c au stic a lk a lies in a v a riety of w a ys th e ,

prod u ct bein g u sed for cle a nsin g pu rposes of a ll kinds Th e .

a lk a li re a cts with the fa tty m a tter a n d liber a tes fro m it th e .

 SO AP . 3

s u bst a n ce known a s glycer i n e while th e alk a li co m bines

,

with cert a in fa tty bodies of a n a cid n a tu re to form the

fa m ili a r a rticle wit h which every o n e is a cqu a inted a n d the ,

a ppe a r a nce o f w h ich m u st be known to a ll persons The .

a lk a li sod a is the one m o st co m m o n ly u sed and yields wh a t ,

a r e k n own a s the h ar d so a ps w h ile th e a lkali pot a sh yields

,

a n othe r ki n d o f so a p which is k n own as so ft so a p As the .

chem istry of soap m aki n g is de a lt with in detail in a n other

-

chapter it is not need fu l to disc u ss it m ore fu lly her e It

,
.

m ay be poi n ted o u t that co m po u n ds o f the fa tty a cids with

other b a ses than the alk a lies s u ch a s for i n stance li m e le a d
, , , , ,

al u m i n a , etc a r e known a n d so m e o f the m are o f se r vice in

.
, ,

var io u s directions bu t in com m o n u sa ge the term so a p is

,

restricted to the sod a a n d pot a sh com pou nds alre ady a ll u ded
to .

A CTI O N O F SO P A .

Th a t so a p is of very m a teri a l a s sist a nce in th e rem ov a l o f

dirt a n d gr e a se from clothes a n d the bodies of p er so n s h a s
lon g bee n k n ow n bu t the m a n n er i n which i t a cts i s n ot
,

eq u a lly well k n own an d pr ob a bly depends u pon a v a riety

,

o f c au ses , som e of which a r e of a physical n a t u re while ,

others a r e of a chem ic a l n a tu r e M a ny investi ga tion s h a ve

.

bee n m a de b y v a riou s perso n s a s to the cle a nsi n g pr oper ty .

P rob a bly th e S i m plest expl a n a tio n wo u ld be th a t the so a p

“

e xe r ts a n em u lsi fyin g a ctio n u po n the gre a sy m a tters which

a lw a ys a cco m p a ny th e dirt i n C lothe s etc a n d e n a ble s it to

,
.
,

beco m e di ffu sed thro u gh the wa ter with which the so a p i s

accom p a nied .

The a lk a li no dou bt pl a ys a n im por t a nt part in the deter

ent ac tio n o f so a p ,b t th t it is n o t a ll i m port a n t is proved
g u a -
}
b y the fa ct the pu re alk a li by itsel f h a s not the s am e C le a n s
i n g a ction n or h a s the a lk a li which is present i n the form of
,

s ilic a te o f sod a or a l u m in a te o f sod a the s a m e a ctio n a s the

'

k a l a li o f so ap .
4 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

Ther e is no dou bt th a t w a ter h a s som e a ction u pon so a p

when so a p is boiled with a l a rge qu a n tity of wa ter it dissolves
to a perfectly cle a r solu tio n bu t on coo li n g this becom es ,

m o r e or less t u rbid An other fe a t u re whic h m u st be n oticed

.

is th a t th ere is a n i n crea se i n the alka li n ity of the so ap whe n

it is dissolved in cold wa ter t h is c a n be shown by dissolvin g
a piece of so a p in a lcohol a ddi n g a fe w dr Op s o f phenol ,

phth a lei n sol u tio n a n d a llowi n g the a lk a li sol u tion to set

into a j a r ; on po u r in g wa ter into the j ar the so ap gra du a lly
be com es dissolved a n d the sol u tio n a cqu ires a red dish tint
,

showi n g the prod u ctio n of free a lk a li .

M essr s W r i ght a n d Tho m pson h a ve co n du cted a series O f

.

experi m ents u pon this su bject th e a ction of wa ter u pon ,

so a p a n d they ha ve deter m ined the a m ou n t of hydrolysis by

,

u si g v a rio
n u s a 5
qu ntities o w a ter ; their r esu lts ar e given in
f
the followin g t a ble

Hyd rolysis brou ght a b ou t by x M olecu les

of W a ter .

Soa p ma d e from
x = 150 x = 2 50 x = 6w x = 1 000 x = 2 000

Pu re stear i c ac i d .

N ear ly p u r e pa lm i ti c
a ci d

C ru d e l a u ri c

(c oc o n u t oi l
)
l
P u r e o ei c a c i d
Cru d e r i c i n o e i c ac i dl
Ch i efl y stea r i c , p a m i l
ti e , a n d o e i c ac i d s l
(p a m l-o i l tallow
soa p )
ll
Ch i efl y t a ow a n d rosi n
(p r i m r o se)
C otton seed

The figur es in this t a ble ar e the qu a ntities in per cent o f .

the a lk a li i n the so a p It is to be noted th a t a t a llow so a p

.

is less hydr a ted th a n a p a lm oil S o a p an d m u ch less th a n a -

cocon u t oil so a p while a cotto n oil so a p is m ore hydrolysed

-
,
-
 A C TI O N OF SO AP . 5

than a n y other kind The re a ctio n which t akes pl a ce

. m ay
perh a ps be expressed in the followi n
g eq u a tions
Sod i u m S te a ra te . W ater . C a u sti c Soda . S odi u m Aci d Stea ra te .

N a Cl H 02
2 H,O H inid NaOH om ,

N o w it is evide n t th a t i f this be the a ctio n o f w a ter u pon

soap the a lk a li th a t is th u s set free will h a ve a n a ctio n i n

é
sa on i f i n
p y a n d e m u lsi fyi n g the g re a se with which it is
brou ghfi c o n tac t whe n u sed fo r w a shi n p rposes an d
, g u ,

ther e fo r e to en a ble it to be re m oved a n d w a shed a w a y In .

som t e s m a ll percent a g e o f fa tty a cid which is set

fr ee m a y a ssist the cle a nsi n g O per a tio n .

The rel a tive h a rd n ess of a so a p with which m a y be com ,

bined its sol u bility i n w a ter is o f very m a teri a l i m port a n ce

,

as re a rds its cle a nsi n e ffects the r e is a consider a ble v a ri a

g g
tion i n rega rd to the h a rdness o f a so ap a n d n a tu r a lly the ,

har der the so a p the s m a ller the q u a n tity th a t will be ru bbed

off it when it is u se d A so a p m a de from t a llow is very
.

mu ch h a rder th a n a so a p m a de fro m O live or fro m coco n u t

oil a n d it t a kes there fore m ore ru bbi n
, g A g a i n the pro .

p ortion o f w a ter which m a y be le ft in a so a p infl u ences i ts

har dness the a vera ge qu a n tity of w a ter in a well m a d e ‘

-

sample o f so a p m a be t ken t 2 0 per ce nt i n a toilet so a p

y a a .
,

it m ay be a s low a s 1 3 to 1 5 per cen t In low gra de so a ps .

-

it m ay re a ch fro m 30 to 35 per cent the m ore w a ter there .

i s present the so fter they a r e a n d the m ore e a sily a r e they

rubbed a w a y Again so a ps v a r y i n their sol u bility i n w a ter ;
.

thu s for inst a nce while the ole a te of sod a is sol u ble i n 1 0
, ,

parts of w a ter the ste a ra te o f sod a requ ires a bo u t 1 00 p a rts

,

of w a ter for sol u tion This h a s a m a teri a l i n fl u en ce on the

.

wa shin g a n d l a ther i n g properties o f a so a p a lso u po n the ,

lasting properties so a ps from oliv e oil a n d cotto n seed oil

,
-

lather better bu t a r e r a ther m ore w a stefu l th a n so a ps m a de

from t allow a n d p a lm oil .
 CH A P T E R II .

SO P - A MAKE R S AL KAL I E S ’

IN the m a n u fa ct u re o ap two m a ter i a ls a r e requ ired : ( 1 )

of s

the fa t ( 2 ) the a lk a li The fa t or fa ts which a r e u sed in

,
.

the prep a r a tion of so a p will be descr ibed i n the n ext ch a pter

i n so m e det a il I n this ch a pter will be disc u ssed the a lk a lies
.
,

for there is m ore th a n o n e th a t c a n be u sed a n d the a lk a li n e ,

s a lts u sed i n so a p m a ki n g -
.

W hen ever a hi ghly b a sic body like sodi u m hydroxide ,

c au stic sod a N a O H or pot a ssi u m hydr oxide c a u stic pot a sh

, ,

KO H or c a lci u m hydroxide sl a ked li m e C a H 2 02 or even

, , ,

le a d Oxide P b O is boiled with a fa t the l a tter u n dergoes

, ,
t i
wh a t is c a lled sa p on i fic a ti on ; th a t is there is p r o du c e d a
“

body which is kn own a s so a p a n ar ticle of gre a t dom estic ,

a n d co m m erci a l u s e to gether with a n other body know n a s

,

g lyceri ne I n. the ch a pter de a li n

g with the so a p fa ts it is

s hown th a t they a r e co m bi n a tio n s o f s u n d r y a cid bodie s ,

which ar e gener a lly kn own a s the fa tty a cids with the b a s e ,

g lyce r yl o f lycer i n e or a s che m ists p r e fer to c a ll it

g
, , , g lycer o l , ,

to S how th a t a s fa r as its chem ic a l rel a tio n s ar e co n cern ed i t

is a llied to the a lcohols T a ki n g for i n st a n ce a typic a l O i l
.
, , ,

olive oil this i s co m posed a lm ost en ti r ely o f olei n whi c h

, ,

is a c Om bi n a tion of oleic a cid H C ISH 3302 with glyceryl C3H 5

, , , .

The l a tter body i s a tr ib a sic co m po u n d while oleic a cid i s ,

o n ly a m on ob a sic body so th a t on e c h em ic a l eq u iv a lent o f

'
,

g lyce r yl r e u i r e s th r e e c h e m ic a l eq u iv a le n ts to fo r m olei n ;
q
the l a tter ther efore h a s the form u l a
, ,

018H 3302
CsH a CI SH 3302
01811 3302
 CO MP O SITIO N OF FAT S . 7

Sim il a rly ste a rin the c h a r a cteristic constitu ent of t a llow

, ,

i s a com po u n d of ste a ric aci d H C I SH 35 02 a n d glyceryl

, , .

Palmi ti n the ch a r a c teristic bod y in p a lm O il cont a ins p a l

, ,

mitic a cid H 01 6 H 31 02 co m bined with glyceryl in like pro

, ,

p ortio n s to t h ose present in olein .

W he n these fa ts a r e boiled with the a lk a line bodies n a m ed

above the glyceryl splits o ff a n d for m s glycerol while the ,

alk a li co m bines with the fa tty a cid to form so a p a s is show n ,

in the followi n g chem ic a l equ a tio n s

C“H 5 3N a O H 3N a C 0 CHH (o n ),
O le i n S odi u m G l ycer i n e
hyd roxi d e (soa p)
KO H O H )8
GIyif
301811 35 0, S G
S tea r i n P otassi u m P otassi u m e i ne
r
h yd ro xi d e ste a ra te

2 H 3,0, senor SC a 2 C 311 31 02 2 0 H ( O H )3

Palmi t n C a lci u m Ca l c u m Olyi:eri IIe
hyd ro xid e palmi ta te

The so a ps which ar e form ed by the a lka line e a rfi i s

( c a lci u m b a
,
ri u m stro n ti
,
u m a n d m a g nesi
,
u m ) le a d iron , , ,

copper a n d the m et a ls genera lly ar e insol u ble i n w a ter ;

, ,

those form ed by the a lk a li m eta ls ( pot a ssi u m sodi u m , ,

lit h i u m ) a r e solu ble in w a ter hence these only a r e u sed in

,

do m estic a n d indu stri a l work a ltho u gh the fa ct th a t li m e

,

a n d other m et a ls will form i n sol u ble so a ps h a s been t a ken

a dv a nt a g e o f for v a riou s u sefu l p u rposes The a lk a lies .

sodi u m a n d pot a ssi u m will therefore be de a lt with here ,

a ltho u gh a word or two will be s a id concer n in g li m e a n d

m a gnesi a .

The term a lk a li co m es down to u s fro m Ara bic ti m es ;

°

its m e a n in g is re a lly a l ka li the s a lt a n d it w a s u s ed to

, ,

denomi n a te a s a line body o ften fo u n d i n the hot E a stern

cli m es a s a n efflor e sc en ce on the soil a n d m ore especi a lly ,

in the n ei ghbo u r hood O f st a bles a n d the dr ain a ge of ru bbish

he a ps T his a lk a li w a s of a ver y cr u de co m position a n d
.

v a r ied so m ewh a t in i ts co m position a ccordin g to its sou rce ;

the property which ga ve it v a lu e w a s th a t of form i n g a n
8 SO A P MANUFAC T URE .

em u lsion with oil a n d this em u lsion h a d stron ger clea n si n g

,

powers th a n either the oil or th e a lk a li There is no dou bt .

th a t th i s property w as du e to the a lk a li cont aini n g a ppr e c i

a ble qu a ntities o f the c a rbon a te a n d c a u stic form s of the

a lk a li proper . A s co u r se O f ti m e went on it w a s fou n d ou t

th a t a si m il a r body w a s obt a ined by the co m b u stio n of wood ,

which w a s fo u n d to le ave a white a sh on b u rn in g this ash ,

p ossessi n g stro n er a lk a line prope r ties

g th a n the ori gin a l
a lk a li.

These gra d u a lly u s u rped the n a m e to them selves Then .

it Wa s a scert ai n ed th a t se a weeds a lso le ft a shes of a n a lk a line

C h a r a cter o n co m b u stio n wh i ch a r e fo u n d to be di fferen t in
,

their a ction on oils th a n the a shes from wood the so a p they ,

m a de bein g h a rder i n C h a r a cter th a n th a t m a de by wood a shes ,

co n sequ en tly two ki n ds of a lk a li c a m e to be reco gnised

m a rine a lk a li fro m se a weeds ve get a ble a lk a li fro m trees ;
,

a n d m oreover the so a p m a kers be g a n to prod u ce two ki n ds

, ,
-

o f so a p — h ard so a p fro m the fir st m entioned alk a li so ft so a p

-
.

fro m the ve get a ble a lk a li Then the fa ct th a t by trea tm ent

.

with b u rn t li m e these a lk a line bodies co u ld be con verted

into stro n ger bodies th e c au stic a lk a lies c am e to be fou n d
, ,

ou t,
a n d th a t these h a d m ore a ctio n o n the fa ts w a s a lso

reco gnised a n d m a de u se o f in so a p m a ki n g Then fin a lly - .

c a m e the discovery by Si r H u m phrey D avy th a t th e a lk a lies

were com po u nds of two pec u li a r m et a llic bodies one of wh ich ,

he n am ed sodi u m the other pot a ssi u m O f these m et a ls it

, .

will be s u ffi cien t to sa y tha t sodi u m h a s Si n ce be c om e of som e

i n d u stri a l i m por t an ce they a r e so ft m et a ls c onsider abl y ,

li ghter th a n wa ter on wh ich the y flo a t W hen fresh they

,
.

h a ve a silver white a ppe a ra n ce bu t soon beco m e oxidised on

-
,

expos u re to the ai r becom ing co a ted with a film of oxide ;

,

on w a ter they ha ve a n energetic a ction Sodi u m floa ts wit h .

a hissi n g so u n d a n d c a u ses the evol u tio n o f h y dro g e n whil e

, ,

c a ustic sod a sodi u m h ydroxide rem a ins i n sol u tio n P o

, ,
.
 AL KAL I E S . 9

tassi u m h a s ra ther m ore e n ergetic action a n d the hy dro gen ,

which i s libera ted is set o n fir e and b u rns owi n g to the ,

gre a t a m o u nt o f e n er gy which is developed while c au stic ,

pot a sh r e m ains in solu tio n The follo win g eq u a tions r ep r e

.

sent the a ctio n of these two m et a ls o n wa ter

1m ; IEO N MHI
I II
sodi u m wa te r so d i u m hyd rogen
h yd ro xi d e
K K OH H
pota ssi u m tassi u m
yd r o xi d e

The a lka line com po u n ds which ar e of m o st i n tere st to the

so a p m a ker a r e t h e two na m ed a bove a s the res u lt of the
-

a ctio n o f the m et a ls o n w a t er vi z sodi u m h ydroxi de or

, ,

ca u stic sod a wh ich h a s the chem ic a l form u la N a O H a n d

, ,

pot a ssi u m hydr oxi de or c a u sti c potash the che m ic a l form u l a

, ,

o f wh ic h i s K O H a s these a lone a r e c a p a ble o f a cti n g u pon

,

an d form in g with fa ts th e vario u s co m m erc i a l for m s of so a p .

Be si des these the c a rbon a tes of the sam e m et a ls sodi u m ,

carbo n a te or a s it is better known sod a N azC Oa a n d p o ta s

, , ,

si u m c ar bon a te or pota sh K QC Os a lso m eri t a t tentio n a s

, , ,
,

bein g the ori gin a l form s of the a lka li from which the c au stic
form s a r e m a n u fa ct ur ed .

W h ile it is o n ly the c au stic alk a lies which h a ve the pro

perty o f s a poni fyin g fa ts a s h a s been pointed ou t a bove yet
, ,

both the c au sti c an d c arbo n ate a lkalies will act u pon an d

com bine with the fa tty a ci ds to form so a ps ; in the form er
c as e so a p a n d water ar e th e only produ cts form ed while in ,

t h e la tter c a rbo n ic a cid g a s is evolved at the s a m e tim e

- The .

m an u fa ct u re o f so da is now on e of the gre a test chem ic a l

i n d u stries known m a n y m illions of m o n ey being i n vested in
,

the alk a li m a n u fa ctu r e wh ich is c a rried on with g reat energy

a n d skill in G re a t Brit a i n .

DA SO .

O f the two a lk a lies u sed in so a p m a kin g sod a occ u pie s -

,

the first pl a ce the two form s c a rbo n ate N a2 003 a n d c a u sti c

, ,
 10 SO A P MANUFAC T UR E .

N a OH ,being th ose u sed in so a p m akin g an d these will now -

,

be considered .

The co m po u n d wh ich is u n iversally u nderstoo d whenever

"
th e term sod a is u sed is the carbonate of the m etal ,

sodi u m wh ose chem ica l for m u l a h a s j u st been given It is

‘

, .

virtu a lly a co mpo u nd ( if the dioxide of carbon or ca rbo n ic

acid ga s with th e oxide of m et a l so di u m It co m es into .

com m erce in fiv e form s

Sod a a sh a m ore or less p u re a nhydro u s c a rbo n a te
, .

R e fin ed alk a li al m ost i f not qu ite p u re a n hydro u s c a r

, , ,

bon a te ; this form is t h a t g e n era lly known as c a lcined soda on

t h e co n ti n ent .

S o da crystals know n a s sa l soda in Am eric a ; this is in

,

t h e form of larg e cry st a ls a n d co n t a ins 1 0 m o lec u les o f w a ter

,

of cryst a llis a tion ; it h a s the for m u la N a C osl o O

z
.

C ry st a l carbon a te or cryst a l so da ; th is is i n the form of

sm a ll crystals and cont a ins o n e m olec u le O f w
, a ter of cr y sta lli

s ation ; it has the form u l a N a 2 C OaH 2 0 .

T h e bicarbon a te the form m ostly u sed in ordi n ary c u lin

,

a r y work a n d m edicine ; it h a s th e for m u l a N a H C os .

T h e raw m ateri a l for th e m a nu fa ct u re of th e di ffer e nt

for m s of c arbonate of sod a is s a lt the chlori d e O f sodi u m ,

h a vi n g th e form u la N a C l a lthou gh be fore the ti m e o f L e

,

b l a nc se a weeds co n s titu ted the so u r ce fro m whence it w a s

m a de .

Ther e ar e two c h ief processes wh ereby so da is m a de fro m

s a lt th a t kn own as th e L ebl a nc process and th a t known as
, ,

th e a m m onia sod a process the latter bein g the one w h ic h

-
,

b ids fa ir to be th e chie f p r ocess of the fu tu re It is not .

i n te n ded here to en ter into a m inu te a ccou nt o f th e details

O f the m a n u fa ct u re bec a u se a s a ru le so a p m a ker s do n ot
, , ,
-

m a ke their own alk a li a n d a r e not t h ereb y i n terested i n th e

,

d et a ils A brie f acco u n t of the vario u s processes o f m an u

.

fa ct u re will be given .
 SO DA . 11
o

The L eblan C sod a process w a s i n ve n ted by N icholas

L ebl a nc i n the l a tter p a rt of th e l a st cent u ry d u ri n g th e ,

t i m e o f the firs t F rench R evol u tio n which i f it di d nothin g ,

e lse g a ve the L ebl a n c sod a process to th e world

, It is du e .

t o E n glish ente r prise a n d c h em ic a l S ki ll th a t th e process h a s

a tt a ined th e perfection it h a s a ltho u h in the m a in pri n ciples
g ,

it is j u st the s a m e a s when L ebl a n c first described it .

The process of m a king sod a by this m ethod ta kes pl a ce

in sever a l s ta ges I n the first pl a ce s alt is m ixed with
.
,

su lphu ric a cid i n iron p a n s when there is evolved l a rge ,

qu a n tities O f hydrochloric a cid ga s I n the e a rly d a ys of

-
.

a lk a li m a kin g this
-
w sent i to the t m osphere m ch
g as a s n a u ,

to the detrim en t of th e veget a tion o f the s u rro u ndi n g dis

t r i c ts ; bu t now it is a bsorbed by p a ssi n g the g a ses u p l a rge
towers dow n which a cu rren t of w a ter is conti n u a lly p a ssin g
, .

T h e a cid g a s is very solu ble i n w a ter an d a l m ost i f not ,

q u ite a ll o f it is t a ke n u p by the wa ter to for m wh a t is

c o m m only kn ow n a s tower s a lts the co m m erci a l form
“ ”
,

o f hydrochlo r ic a cid Besides the hyd r och lor ic a cid there

.
,

i s form ed sodi u m s u lph a te or a s it is kn ow n s a lt c a ke ”

,

T h e eq u a tion representi n g the C h a n ge is

2 N a Cl E12 8 04 N a,S O 4 2 H Cl
So d i um Su lphu ric So di u m H yd rochlori c
c hlorid e ac i d su lph
a te ac i d

This st a ge of the p r ocess is known a s th e sa lt c a ke

p rocess .

The n ext stage o f the pr ocess i s a m ore co m plic a ted on e .

T h e sa lt c a ke fro m the l a st O per a tion is n o w m ixed with a

c er tain propor tion o f gro u n d co a l a n d li m esto n e a n d he a ted ,

to a red he a t in wh a t is kno wn a s the bl a ck a sh fu r n ace ; -

h ere it is well worked a bo u t by r a bblin g u n til a ll che m ic a l

a ctio n h a s ce a se d the pr od u ct for m in g wh a t a r e c a lled b a lls
'

o f bl a ck as h It owes its n am e bl a ck a sh to the fa ct th a t

.
, ,

in the e a rly d a ys O f the i n d u s t ry it w a s bl a ck bu t n o w a s a ,

12 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

ru le it is o f a brownish grey colo u r n evertheless the n a m e -

is ret a ined The for m of fu rn a c e for m er ly u sed is th a t known

.
‘

a s the reverbe r a tory fu r n a ce th e workin g bei n g do n e by h a n d ,

a n d is a very l a borio u s piece O f wo r k bu t now revolvi n g fu r ,

n a ces a r e u sed work ed m ech a n ic ally th u s doing a w ay with

, ,

h a nd l a bo u r .

The chem ic al re a ctio n s which g o on in the bl a ck a sh -

fu r n a ce a r e prob a bly of ra ther a co m plic a ted descriptio n bu t ,

br iefly they m a y be co n side r ed to proceed u po n th e followi n g

li n es the sodi u m s u lphate a n d the c a rbon of the co a l
re a ct with on e an other r esu lti n g in th e form a tion of sodi u m
s u lphide a n d c a rbo n m o n oxide The sodi u m s u lphide t h u s .

form ed re a cts with the c a lci u m c a rbo n a te with th e form a tio n

o f sodi u m c a rbo n a te a n d c a lci u m s u lphide Althou gh thes e .

a r e the m a in re a ctio n s whi ch occ u r yet there a r e so m e su b ,

si di a r y re a ctio n s goi n g on so th a t bl a ck a sh is a com plex ,

m ixt u re o f co m po u n ds .

The p r ocess i s sho wn i n the for m of a n eq u a tio n as

N a S O4 40 N 8 CO3 400 Ca S
S od i u m Ca r bon Ca lc i u m SO 3u m
i Ca r b o n Ca lci u m
sul ph a te ca r bona te ca r bon a te m on oxi d e sul ph ide

as well a s a si m ple equ a tio n c a n do .

Bl a ck a sh co n t ains both S olu ble a n d i n sol u ble co n stit u ent s ,

a n d the followin g is a com plete a n a l y sis o f a s a m ple

ANAL Y S I S OF B L A CK AS H .

S olu b le const i tu e n ts .

Sod i u m ca r b o n a te , N aQ C Os
S od i u m ox i d e , N aQ O
S od i u m chl i d N Cl or e, a

So d i u m sulp h t N SO a e, aQ 4
S od i u m sul p hi t N 8 0 e, a2 3

S od i u m th i l ph t N 8 0
o su a e, a2 2 3
So di u m sulp h i d N s e, az

So d i u m l mi
a u t N A1 0
n a e, a
2 2 4
Sod i u m S ili c a te , N a Z Si O3
.

S od i u m c ya n i d e N a CN
N
,

Sod i u m su lp h oc ya n i d e , N a sC
 BL A C K ASH . 13

In so lu b le c on sti tu en ts .

l
Ca c i u m su lphi d e, Ca S 2 9 5 04 per c en t .

Ca lci um c a r b t
on a e, C a CO ,
Calc i u m ox i de , Ca O
F err o u s su l phi d e, F eS °
55 4
Al u mi n a , A12 0 , 1 72
Sili c a , Si O 2
M a gn e si a , M gO °
2 66
S od i u m ox i d e, N aaO ‘
344
Ca r b
on 4 2 63
San d 1 2 37

The next Opera tio n consists in th e extra ction by a process

o f lixivi a tio n with w a ter of the sol u ble co n stit u ents This .

is done by a n i n geniou s arra n gem en t of v a ts whereby a ll the

s ol u ble portion is co m pletely extra cted witho u t m u ch di fli c u lty ,

we a k liqu ors fro m previo u s b a tches bein g u sed at first an d

fr esh w a ter for fin a l tre a t m ents The insolu ble portion goes .

to form wh a t is c a lled v a t wa ste wh i ch u sed to be at on e tim e ,

t h e Mn n oi r o f the a lk a li m aker bu t co m p a ra tively recently

'' -
,

a pro cess h a s been inve n ted wh ereby the s u lp h u r it cont a ins ,

a n d this is the v a lu a ble constit u ent o f it is recovered a n d ,

u s ed for m a ki n s lph ric cid

g u u a .

A s m i ght be expected from th e a n a lysis of bl a ck a sh

wh ich is given the liqu or which is known a s bl a ck a sh
,
-

li qu or h a s a co m plex co m position I t u s u a lly has a spe ci fic .

g r avity of 1 2 6 to ( 5 2 to 5 8 a n d co n t a ins
° °

S di m
o u b t N CO
c ar on a e , az , p t e r c en .

S d i m h yd
o u i d N OHr ox e, a

S di m
o u lp hi d
su N s e, az

S di m
o u lp hi t N SO
su e, az ,

S d i m th i
o u lp h t N S O
osu a e, aQ Q t ,
race

S di m
o u l p h t N SO
su a e, aQ
,
S d i m hl id N Cl
o u c or e, a

S di m i l i t N Si O
o u s ca e , a2 3

S di m l m i
o u a u t N na e, 1 02

w i th tr aces of sodi u m cya n ide so di u m ferrocy a nide sodi u m , ,

s u lphocya nide a l u m in a silic a ferrou s s u lphide

, , , .

The we a k t a nk liqu ors h ave a Si m il a r co m positio n an d ,

u su ally co n t a in a bo u t 1 4 p a rts per 1 000 o f solid m a tter .

The t a n k liqu or is r u n into settli n g t a n ks to a llow a n y

14 S O AP MANUFA C T URE .

l i
a um n a , silic a etc to settle ou t It is then r u n down a
,
.
, . .

tower thro u gh which c a rbon ic a cid ga s a n d a i r a r e p a ssi n g - .

This bring s a bo u t cert a i n ch a n ges r esu lti n g i n the incre a s e ,

o f the a m o u n t o f c a rbon a te the liq u o r cont a ins T his it doe s .

by the c ar bonic a cid a cti n g on the c au stic sod a sodi u m ,

s u lphite a n d thios u lph a te an d co n verti n g them i n to c ar bon

,

a te . Then a t the sa m e ti m e a cert ain a m o u n t of o x id a tio n

, ,

occu rs the iro n su lph u r su lph oc ya n i de s cya nides s u lphites

, , , , ,

a n d si m i la r s a lts ar e oxidised So m e o f them a r e then a bl e

.

to form i n sol u ble bodies which settle ou t on the liqu or bein g

su bsequ en tly a llowed to settle i n t an ks .

The n ext oper a tio n is c a lled s a lti n g down The liqu or is .

pl a ced i n sh a llow t a n ks u su a lly i n the fi n e o f the fur n a ces so

, ,

a s to m a ke u se of the w a ste he a t which p a sses a w a y fr o m

them Th e w a ter gr a du a lly ev apor a tes a w a y ; the s a lt s it con

.

t ai n s cryst a llise ou t a n d a r e fished ou t by m e a n s of perfor a ted

,

iron l a dles N ext the s a lts ar e m ixed with a s m a ll a m o u nt

.

O f s a wd u st a n d fu rn a ced whe n they a r e m o r e co m pletely

converted i n to c a r bon a te The p r od u ct is sod a a sh O f this

. .
‘

there a r e two form s one known a s c a u s tic sod a a sh bec a u s e

,
-
,

it con t ains a s m a ll qu a n tity of c a u stic sod a the oth e r is ,

k n own a s c a r bon a te a sh I t is n ot qu ite p u r e sodi u m c a r

.

bo n a te bu t co n t a i n s v a ri a ble qu a n tities of c a u stic sodi u m

, ,

chlo r ide sodi u m su lph a te e tc It is sold of v a ryin g degrees

, ,
.

o f st r e n gth known a s 48 per cent 5 0 per ce n t 5 2 p e r cent .

, .
, .
,

u p to 5 8 per ce n t which is the stro n gest m a de These

.
, .

figu res re fe r to the proportio n o f sodi u m oxide the a sh m a y

co n t a i n i n th e form of either c a u stic or c ar bon a te It is so m e .

ti m e s kn own a s th e a v a il a ble a lk a li to disti n gu ish it from ,

th a t which i s a lso prese n t in the form o f su lph a te chloride , ,

etc which is n ot a v a il a ble or u sefu l for an y of the p u rpose s

.
,

to which sod a a sh is p u t .

T h e followin g a n a lyses ar e of a 48 per cent a sh and o f .

a 5 8 per ce n t a sh .
 SO DA A SH . 15

48 p c ash . . . 68 p c ash. . .

S odi u m ca r b o n a te , N a2 003 p . c .
p . c.

S od i u m su lph a te , N RQ SO4 °
20
S od i u m h yd r oxi de , NaOH
S odi u m chl o r i de , N a Cl °
54
Ca l ci u m ca r b o n a te , Ca C O , trac e s °
13
M agn e si u m ca r b o n a te , M gCO , 04
Ir on ox i d e , F e2 03 O4
Al m i
u na, A12 0, 01
S i li ca , S i O2 09
M oi st u r e , 19

The gre a t di fferen ce i n the rel a ti ve p u rity o f th e tw o

s a m ples o f a sh is seen fro m these two a n a lyses for while ,

ther e is a fa irly la rge n u m ber o f i m p u rities i n the 5 8 p er

cent a sh ye t they ar e o n ly pre se n t i n ve r y s m a ll am ou nts
.
,

wh ich c a n h av e no pr a c tic a l i n flu en c e on the u si n g of

’ ~

the a sh ; where a s in the 48 per cent a sh these i m p u rities .

bei n g in m u c h l a r ger a m ou n t c a n n ot fa il to exer t so m e i n

flu e n c e .

W h a t is k n o wn re fin ed a lk a li is m a de fro m sod a a sh of
as

g ood qu a lity by dissolvin g i n w a t e r a llowi n

g a n y i n sol u ble ,

m a t t er to se ttle o u t the n boili n g down fishi n g ou t the , ,

cr yst a ls which com e ou t first a s these consi st ch iefly of the

, ,

su lph a te a n d ch loride then boili n g do wn q u ite dr y ,

.

S od a cr yst a ls a r e the cryst a llised fo r m co n t a ini n g 1 0 m ole ,

cu les of w a ter o f cryst a llis a tio n i n it T his is t h er efore .

so m eti m es known a s the de c a c a r bon a te or dec a hydr a te to

di sti n gu is h it fr om the other c r yst a lli n e for m wh ich is de ,

sc r ibed below S od a cryst a ls a r e m a de by dissolvin g sod a

.

as h in w a ter a llowi n g a n y i n sol u ble i m p u r ities to settle o u t

, ,

then evapora ti n g the sol u tio n dow n u n til it h a s a stren gth

T w when it is pl a ced i n t a n ks to c r yst a llise ou t
°
or 5 6 .
, ,

which it does i n l a r ge tra n sp arent prism a tic cryst a ls , ,

.

T h ese ar e dr a ined fro m the m other liq u or dried or .

p ac ked into b a gs or kegs for s a le These cryst a ls keep very .

we ll bu t a r e sli ghtly efflor esc en t th a t is they te n d to lose

, , ,

t h eir wa ter of cryst a llis a tio n a n d beco m e dry a n d powdery .

16 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

This is the m ost fa m ili a r form of sod a a s it is i n this form ,

th a t it m a kes its a ppe a r a nce i n ou r ho u seholds for w a shin g

a n d d o m estic sco u ri n g .

It is this form of sod a which is u sed in m akin g dry so a p s ,

fo r which pu r pose a dv a n t a g e is o ften t a ken of the fa ct th a t

when he a ted sod a cryst a ls will m elt into a liqu id which when
it cools will set i n to a brittle cryst a lli n e solid m a ss G ener .

a lly sod a cryst a ls o r sa l sod a a s the Am eric a n s c a ll it

, is ,

fa irly p u re bu t it co n t a ins tr a ces of other sod i u m com po u nds

, ,

a s will be see n fro m the followi n g a n a lysis o f a s a m ple

AN AL Y S I S O F SO DA C RY ST AL S .

S od i u m ca r bo n a te , N a2 003 p e r c e n t .

S od i u m hyd i d N OH r ox e, a
°
10
Sod i u m lp h t N SO
su a e, aQ ,
Sod i u m hl i d N Cl
c or e, a 2 7
W a ter HQO
,

I l bl m tt
n so u e a er O3 °

F rom which it wi ll be seen th a t wa ter is the pri n cip a l

constit u en t of sod a cryst a ls The i m pu rities which a r e .

present ar e u s u a lly a ccident a l a n d c a nnot a lwa ys be a voided ,

b iI t it is not a n u n co m m o n circ u m st a nce to cryst a llise so m e

S odi u m s u lph a te a lon g with the cryst a ls as these tend to ,

m a ke the c r yst a ls h a rder a n d there fore better a ble to resist

, , ,

h a ndlin g witho u t bre a kin g .

T h e other process of m a ki n g c a rbon a te of so da fro m s a lt

i s th a t known a s the a m m oni a sod a process a n d which i s -
,

worked in this co u n try on a n extensive sc a le by Bru nner ,

M ond C o o f N orthwich the C heshire Alka li C o a t M iddle

.
, ,
.
,

wich a n d by other firm s

,
.

The principle of th is process h a s lon g be en known It .

consists i n th a t when c a rbon ic a cid ga s is passed into a -

strong s a lt sol u tio n m a de a lk a li n e with a m m onia c a rbo n a te ,

o f sod a is fo rm ed a n d precipit a tes ou t bein insol u ble i n th e

g ,

a lk a li n e liq u ors while a m m o n i a chloride re m a ins in sol u tio n

,

A ltho u gh so well kn own m a n y diffi cu lties a r e m et wi th i n

,
 A MM O N IA SO DA . 17

worki n g the process on a l a rge sc a le an d there a r e bu t fe w ,

o f t h e m a ny pl a nts devised to t a ke adv a ntag e of the p r inciple

in volved th a t h a ve been at all s u ccess fu l The m ost so is .

th a t of Solv a y which is the one in opera tion a t all the

,

pr i n cip a l a m m oni a sod a works in this co u ntry

- .

T h e prod u ct obt a i n ed a t first is th e bicarbo n a te of sod a ,

a s is i n dic a ted i n th e eq u a tio n

H ,O NH, 00, N a Cl N a H CO , N H ,Cl

This bicarbon a te is precipit a ted ou t then heated in a ,

fu r n ace when it is co n verted i n to the norm a l c a rbo n a te which

, ,

is the n sen t i n to co m m erce a s sod a a sh This prod u ct o h .

t a i n e d by th e a m m o n i a sod a process is re m a rk a ble for i ts

-

p u rity as the follo wi n g a n alysis will show

,
°

C b ar t f don a e o so a

S d i m hl i d
o u c or e

Si li ca

L im e
M a gn e si a

Al u m in a a n d i r on
M o i stu r e

From this r a w m a teri a l re fined alk a li is m a de by dissolvin g

i n w a ter cl a ri fyi n g the sol u tion a n d ev a po r a ti n g down while
, ,

the other fo r m s of c arbon a te m o n ohydra te a n d dec ahydra te ,

cryst a ls a r e obta ined by solu tio n a n d cryst allisi n g in the u su a l

,

w ay .

The m oni a
sod a h a s the a dv a nt a ge over the L ebl an c
am

sod a i n bei n g p u rer a n d there fore st r o n ger .

AS rega rds the properties of the c a rbo n a te of sod a so m e ,

ide a will h a ve been ga thered fr om wh a t h a s been S a id a bove .

It will be s u ffi cie n t to sa y th a t it is fairly e a sily solu ble i n

water the sol u bility i n cre a si n g with i n cre a se of tem per a t u re
,

thu s wate r a t 0 C will dissolve a t °

a n h ydr o u s c a rbon a te or
per cent of th e
. .
‘
per ce n t of the c r yst allised
, .

c a rbon a te a n d a t 30 C ,
per cent of dry c a r bo n a te a n d
°
. .

per ce n t of soda cryst als will be dissolved

. .

2
18 SO AP M ANUFA C T URE .

S odi u m c a r bo n a te possesses sli ghtly alk a li n e proper tie s ;

it will re a c t with a ll a cids p r odu ci n g the cor respondi n g ,

sodi u m s a lt with th e evo lu tio n of c a rbo n i c a cid ga s ; t h u s it -

m a y be u sed i n th e prep a r a tio n o f so a ps fr o m the free fa tty

acids a lthou gh the evol u tio n of ga seo u s c a rbon ic a cid ga s is
,
-

a dis a dv an t a e bec a u se it c au ses th e so a p to fob b a dly i n the

g ,

process I t c a n n ot be u sed to m a ke so a p fr o m the oils a n d

.

fa ts bec au se car bo n ic a cid bei n g we a ker th a n th e fa tty a cid

, ,

i n the O ils h a s n o power to liber a te those a cids fro m thei r

,

com bin a tio n s with glyce r i n e wit h which they a r e c om bi n ed ,

i n the v a rio u s oils a n d fa ts .

C USA TI C SO DA .

C a u stic soda or sodi u m hy droxide N a O H is the so a p

, , ,

m a ker s a lk a li p a r ex cellen ce I n the e a rly d a ys o f the

’
.

a lkali m a n u fa ct u re c a u stic sod a w a s not a n a rticle of c om

m erce a n d every so a p m a ker h a d to c a u sticise his own

,
-

a lk a li m aki n g it fro m the sod a a sh of th a t ti m e ; bu t the

,

a lk a li m a ker soo n be a n to m a ke c a u stic sod a a s a n a rticle

-
g
of co m m erce a n d the p r ocess h a s n o w beco m e so per fected
,

th a t c a u stic sod a c a n be bou ght a s a com m erci a l a rticle

alm os t ch em ic a lly p u r e a t a ll even ts cont aini n g som ethi n g
,

like p e r ce n t o f the p u re c h e m ic a l
. .

O n the l a r ge sc a le c a u stic sod a is obt a i n ed either fro m

—
the fin ish ed sod a ash this is n ot o ften do n e by the c a u stic
m aker bu t it is wh a t th e so a p m a ker does i f he m a kes his
,
-

—
own c a u stic or from the liq u or O bt a i n ed in lixivi a tion o f the
black a sh b a lls or fro m the red liqu ors The l a tter yiel ds
-
, .

wh a t is k n own a s cre a m c a u stic bec au se it h a s a pale

“
,
”

crea m colo u r ; it co n t a i n s a good m a n y i m pu rities W h a tever .

m a y be the so u r ce o f the a lk a li the c a u sti c i si n g oper a tion is ,

the s a m e i n e a ch c a se A liqu o r is m a de i f from the r e

.
,

fin ed sod a a sh by si m ply dissolvi n g i n w a ter to a stren gth o f

,

fro m 2 0 to 2 2 T w ; so m e m a kers u se the liqu or we a ker th a n

° °
.
 C AU STI C SO DA . 19

thi s from 1 4 to 1 5 T w bu t there is no m ateri a l a dv a n t a ge

,
°
.
,

in so doi n g ; the oper a tion c a n be done with as m u ch e a se

with 2 2 T w liqu ors as with 1 4 T w liqu ors and it is m u ch
° °
,
. .

cheaper to boil do wn the stro n g liq u ors than it is th e we a k

li qu ors on the other h a nd it is not advisable to u se liqu ors

much i f a n y stron ger than 2 2 T w a s then the c au sti c i si n g
°

,
.

does n ot g o o n so well .

Th e liq u ors m a de fro m the bl a ck a sh b a lls are a llo wed -

to settle to ge t a ll insol u ble m a tter ou t of them a n d this m u st ,

be don e thoro u ghly it is best to blow a i r thro u gh them first

so as to o x idise so m e o f th e i m p u rities cont a ined in the m a ss

whereby th ey a r e thrown ou t i n a n insol u ble form .

The r ed liqu ors ar e u sed i n the form in which they are

obt ai n ed i n the first inst a nce .

The c a u sti ci si n g can be c a r ried ou t in a lm ost an y kind of

conven ie n t a pp a r a t u s ; so m e m a kers u se a n old boilers set
y
on en d fo r the O per a tion The liqu ors a r e h eated by ste a m
.

to nearly the boil then an iro n c a ge filled with q u ick li m e of

,
-

g d qu a lity is lowered in the ste a mi n g is c a rried on u ntil a

o o ,

p ortion o f th e liq u or t a ken o u t filtered and tre a ted

, with a

li ttle dil u te h ydroch loric acid shows no trac e of efierv e sc e n c e .

The re a ction wh ich goes on is shown in the followi n g

equation

C e R ,o, N CO , 2 Na O H C e c o3
C alci u m So i u m S o di u m Ca lc i um
h
yd r oxi d e ca r bona te hyd ro xi d e ca r bona te

It t a kes a bou t a n hou r and a h a lf to cau sticise a b a tch of

soda liqu or .

D u r in g the process of c a u sti c i si n g m a ny i m p u rities i n

the sod a liq u ors beco m e altered a n d a r e t h rown ou t in a n

i nsolu ble form t h u s any s u lphide of sodi u m is oxidised to

,

sulph a te and this re a ctin with the li m e for m s s lph te f

g u a o

lime which p a sses into th e insolu ble residu e which is for m ed ;

,

any a l u m i n a te a n d silic a te is si m il a r ly deco m posed a n d i n

’

sol u ble a l u m i n a a n d silica throw n dow n .

2 0 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

W hen the c au sti c i si n g oper a tion is com pleted c a lci u m , th e

c a rbon a te a n d insolu ble i m pur ities ar e a llowed to settle ou t ,

a n d th e cle a r c a u stic liqu ors ar e r u n into boilin g pots to be

boiled down to the solidi fyin g point The li m e m u d is not .

thrown a w a y bu t som e fresh t a n k liqu or is ru n i n an d a

, ,

n e w ca u sti c i si n g oper a tio n c a rried ou t The li m e m u d fro m .

this is tre ated with w a ter a n d allowed to settle ou t th e ,

liqu ors contain som e a lk a li a n d a r e u sed for dissolvin g som e

,

fresh b a lls fin a lly the li m e is filtered fro m a n y liq u or a n d

, ,

u sed in the black a sh fu rn a ces- .

The c au stic liq u ors are first boiled down in wr o u ght iron -

p a ns or pots to a stren gth of a bou t 34 T w then they a r e °

.
,

r u n in t o c a st iro n p a n s where the concentr a tion is conti n u e d

-
,

u n til a stren gth o f fr o m 7 0 to 80 T w is obt a ined

°
F rom °
. .

these a fte r a llowin g a n y insol u ble m atter to settle ou t th e

, ,

liq u or is ru n into a c a st iro n pot in which it is con centr a ted

r -
,

down W hen nearly fin ished som e n itre is a dded to o xi di s e

.
,

a n y bodies a n d so ens u re their re m ov a l fro m the c au sti c

, .

W hen ne a rly fin ished the contents of the pot a r e tested fo r

,

their alk a li stren gth a n d the workin g so a rr a n ged a s t o

,

m a ke the finished c a u stic o f the req u ired de gree o f

str en gth .

The fin ished cau s tic is then r u n i n to wrou ght iron dru m s -

,

in which it is a llowed to solidi fy a n d i n wh ich it is sold ,

.

C o m m er ci a l c a u stic sod a is a cr e a m or w h ite m ass h a vi n g ,

a sli ght fib r o u s stru ct u re It is ver y hy groscopic rea dil y

.
,

a bsorbin g w a ter fro m the a i r a n d p a ssi n into hi h l

g a g y
c a u stic liqu or It a lso re a dily a bsorbs c a rbon ic a cid from th e
.

a i r p a ssi n g into c a rbon a te so th a t it is not desir a ble th a t

,

cau stic sod a sho uld be exposed too m u ch to the a i r .

It is sold as cre a m 60 per cent ca u stic white 60 p e r .

,

cen t 64 per cent 7 4 per cen t a n d 7 7 per cent Thes e

.
, .
, .

figu res re fer to the proportion o f sodi u m O xide N azO c on , ,

ta i n ed in the cau stic irrespective of it bein g in th e form o f

,
 U S TI C
CA SO DA . 2 1

c a u stic or c a rbo n a te T h e ac tu al co m position of v a r io u s

. .

br a nds o f c a u stic is Shown in the followin g an a lyses

Cr eam W hi te W hi te Whi te
60 per 60 p e r 70 p e r 7 4 pe r
ce nt . ce nt . cent . ce nt .

Sodi u m hyd roxi d e 75 C °

73 C
°
84 C °
96 C °

S odi u m carb o n a te 42 C2
S od i u m c hl or i d e 19 C
°
CC
°

S od i u m su lp h t
a e

S od i u m s i li
ca e t OS
°
OS
°
C 1 °

S o di u m a u l mi t na e C8 °
trac e t rac e
S od i u m su lphit e

I n so l bl
u e 02
W a ter 90

These m a y be t a ken to be fairly represen t a tive a n a lyses

o f the v a rio u s gr a de s o f c au stic fro m w h ic h it will be seen ,

th a t th e lower gr a des cont ain a l a rge proportion of i m p u rities .

These h a ve a m a teri a l c fiect i n soap m a king They p a ss -

.

i n to the lyes bein g a ll sol u ble i n w a ter a n d a c t by ret a rdi n g

, ,

the sa p on i fic ati on of the oils a n d fa ts This th ey do in .

virt u e of soap bein g insolu b le in sol u tions o f a lkali n e salts ,

a n d S O t h ey tend to t h row the so a p ou t o f sol u tion as fa st a s

it i s form ed a n d thi s is j u st the opposite of wh a t the so a p

,

m a ker requ ires To ens u re perfect an d r a pid sap on i fic ati on

.
,

i t i s n ecess a ry th a t th e so a p a s it is form ed by the co m bin a

t ion o f the fa t a n d a lk a li Sho u ld p a ss into sol u tio n It is .

therefore desir a ble to u se a s good a ca u stic sod a a s possible ,

a n d conseq u ently better to p u rc h a se a 7 4 per ce n t cau stic th a n .

a 7 0 per cen t while in no c a se shou ld a we aker c au stic than

.
,

7 0 per cent be u sed a ltho u gh the writer k n ows th a t s u ch is

.
,

do n e by so m e so a p m akers The 7 7 per cent c a u stic is n ot

- . .

considered to m a ke good so a p by so m e so a p m a kers The - .

weaker c au stics cont a in a v ari a ble proportion of c arbon a te ,

d u e to i m perfect c a u sti c i si n g This car bon a te h a s very little .

a ction i f a n y i n s a po n i fyin g fa ts :a n d oils bu t it helps the

, , ,

oth er i m p u rities i n ret a r din g the form a tion of so a p This .

c fie c t o f a lk a line c a rbo n a tes a n d s a lts will be disc u ssed i n

fu ll in a nother pl a ce in these p a ges .

 2 2 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

It u sed to be the cu stom at one tim e so p m a kers to

for a -

m a ke their own cau stic fro m sod a ash a n d m a n y do so now

, ,

a r gu in g th a t it is m ore eco n om ical for them to m a ke their

own th a n to bu y it in the solid form while the so a p m a ker

,
-

h a s a lso to bea r the expe n se o f the labo u r a tte n din g its bei n g
dissolved i n to lye a gain T her e c a n sc ar cely be a n y dou bt
.

th a t for a so a p m aker to m a ke his own c a u stic is che a per

-

th a n to bu y it rea dy m a de on the other h a n d a n d th is is a

-
,

consideratio n which wei ghs with som e so a p m a kers ho m e -

,

m a de c au stic liqu ors a r e a p t to be de fective either by c o n ,

t ainin g u n deco m posed c a rbo n a te or by c on t a i n i n g traces of

li m e which h a s been u sed i n excess the n th e residu a l li m e
c a rbon a te sl u d ge which is obt a ined is a so u r ce o f anxiety
a n d tro u ble to the so a p m a ker who wo u ld o ften be a t a lo ss
-
,

how to get r i d of it while the c au stic m a ker c a n u se it u p

,
-

a a in in so m e other br a nch of his b u siness It m h w

g a y o .
,

ever be wo r th while to descr ibe the m ethod so m ewh at i n

,

detail by m e a ns of which the so ap m a ker m a y i f he chooses

-
, ,

m a ke h i s o w n c a u stic a n d this description will a pply eq u a lly

,

well for either c a u stic sod a or cau stic pot a sh .

F i r st M eth od : Cold P r ocess — An iro n t a n k is provided

.

which m a y be m a de ou t of a n O ld stea m boiler O n the - .

bottom of this is pl a ced a l a yer of 5 cwt of fresh qu ick .

li m e a n d on this is po u red s u ffi cient water to sl a ke it Six

, .

cwt of good sod a a sh are then evenly spr ea d over the l a yer
.

o f li m e Above the sod a is p la ced a nother l a yer of qu ick

.

li m e a n d a bove this a ga i n a n other l ayer of sod a W a ter is

,
.

n o w po u red o n , or we ak lye fr om a previo u s tre a tm ent m a y

be u sed a n d the m a ss is a llowed to st a nd for fifteen to sixteen
,

ho u rs when a ll the lye which h a s been for m ed is r u n ofl fr o m

,

the bottom this is gener a lly k n own a s fir st ru n n in gs M ore .

wa ter is n o w r u n on to the m a teri a ls in the t a n k a n d a ga in

a llowed to work for fiftee n to sixteen ho u r s a fter which the lye ,

is a gain r u n off constit u ti n g second ru nni n gs these will be

,
 C AU S TI C SO DA . 23

we a ker th a n th e fir st Afterwa r ds a fr esh qu a ntity of w a ter

.

i s r u n in a n d a fter a llowi n g it to st a n d the liq u or is r u n

,

off. T h is liqu or is too we a k to u se for so a p m a ki n g a n d is -

,

u sed in pl a ce o f w a ter i n m a kin g a n e w batch o f lye The .

resid u e i n the t a n k is n o w throw n a w a y This m ethod is .

rather fa u lty i n m a n y respects ; the lye is a p t to con ta in

eithe r u nch a n ged c a rbo n a te o f sod a or so m e li m e a n d it is ,

di ffi c u lt to rem edy these de fects The n ext p r ocess is p r e .

fer a b le .

S econ d M eth od : As be for e a n iron

B oi li n g P r ocess .
—

tan k is pr ovided wh ich i n this c a se is fitted with a n open

,

ste a m pipe which is u sed to

-
s u pply the n ecess ar y he a t .

B esi d es this t a n ks a r e req u i r ed for sl a ki n g the q u ick li m e

,
-

an d dissolvi n
g the a lk a li F ive cwt o f good. sod a a sh a r e .

dissolved i n 5 0 c wt o f w a ter ; 2 5 cwt of good q u ick li m e

. .
-

ar e sl a ked by addi n g s u ffi cie n t w a ter W hen these m a teri a ls .

ar e ready they a r e tr a n s ferred to the boili n g t a n k a n d he a ted

by a c u rre n t o f ste a m for som e ho u rs sa y fr om fou r to fiv e ,

.

To see whether th e oper a tion h a s bee n properly do n e a

sm all po r tio n is t a ken o u t o f the boiler a n d the li m e it c on ,

t ai n s a llowed to set tle ou t to the cle a r liq u or is a dded a ,

little lit m u s or better m ethyl o r a n ge a n d then su ffi cien t

‘

, , ,

hydrochloric a cid to tu r n the colou r r ed Shou ld n o eifer .

v escen ce t a ke pl a ce the O per a tio n h a s bee n properly m a de ,

an d t h ere is no c a rbo n a te p r ese n t Sho u ld th ere be e fier .

v esc en c e then s u ffi cie n t li m e h a s not been a dded i n the

,

firs t inst a n ce a n d m o r e sho u ld n ow be se n t in a n d the m i x

,

tu re a ga i n boiled for tw o ho u rs a fter which the settled lye ,

c a n be a a i n tested to see th a t n o c a r bo n a te rem a i n s u n

g
ch a nged T h e lye sho u ld a lso be tested for li m e which is
.
,

done by t a ki n g a s m a ll po r tio n of the cle a r lye a n d a ddi n g

a s ol u tio n o f sod a a sh whe n i f a n li m e be p r ese n t a white
y , , ,

pr ecipit a te will fa ll down I n this even t h a ppen i n g m ore

.

sod a a sh shou ld be a dded to the co n te n ts of the boiler an d ,

2 4 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

the m a ss a ga in boiled u p W hen the tests h a ve S hown that

.

the lye does n ot co n t a i n either u n decom posed c ar bo n a te of

sod a or li m e the m a ss is a llowed to s tan d for the c a rbo n a te
,

o f li m e which h a s been fo r m ed i n th e process to settle o u t .

The clear liqu or is dr a wn off i n to the lye t a n ks The li m e .

resid u e is the n sti r r ed u p with cle a n w a ter a n d a gain a llowed ,

to settle T h e cle a r liqu or is dr a wn off an d u sed for di ssolv

.

i n g u p fr esh sod a a sh wh ile th e li m e m u d is throw n a w a y

,
.

T h i r d M eth od S tr u n z L y e App a r a tu s — M r
. S M . . .

Stru n z h a s i n ven ted a ve r y conve n ien t form of a pp a r a tu s

for m a ki n g c au stic lye which is Shown
,
in the a ccom p a n y

F IG . 1 .

d r a w i n g ( fig S tr u n z s lye a pp a ra t u s co n sists of two

’
ing .

portio n s on e for m a ki n g the c au stic lye the other fo r fil

, ,

t e r i n g the li m e fr o m the lye I n the top vessel which is

.
,

m a de boile r sh a pe a n d provided with a n open ste a m pipe ar e -

,

pl a ced 800 lb of sod a a sh I n the u pper po r tion is a per

. .

fo r a te d iron pl a te on which l u m ps o f qu ick li m e a r e pl a ced -

.

The boiler is n ow filled with w a ter a n d ste a m t u rned on .

The li m e gr a d u a lly sl a kes a n d dissolves a n d p a ssi n g down,

w a rds c a u sti c i ses the sod a lye i n the lower portio n of the
boiler Abou t 650 lb of li m e a r e st a ted to be requ ired
. . .

A fter a few hou rs boili n g the m a ss i n the boiler is a llowed

’

,
 C AU STI C SO DA . 2 5

to settle ; the clear solu tion of c a u stic soda i s allowed to ru n

out of the pipe w h ic h is arran ged at th e side of th e boiler for
,

that p u rpose into th e lye st ore t a nk

, The residu a l li m e
- .
,

still co n t a i n in g so m e u nsepara ted lye is r u n into the lye a p ,

p a r a t u s below This consists

. o f a fi lteri n g m ateri a l placed

between perforated iron pl a tes the lye drains thro u gh them

i nto the lye s tore tank The li m e m u d or refu se is thrown
- .

away . F rom th e qu antities of m a teri al gi ven a bove it is

p os sible to prod u ce a sol u tio n o f c a u stic soda l y e 2 5 T w -
°
.

stron s ch s wo u ld be m de f ro m 6 00 lb o f 77 per cent

g ,u a a . .

c au stic sod a .

It is n ot possible to m a ke lyes of greater stren gt h than

2 5 T w beca u se th e li m e will n ot properly cau stici se s u ch
°

stron soda -h liq ors as m st be sed to m ake stron g

g a s u u u

cau stic lyes .

It sho u ld be hom e in m ind that th e qu ality of cau stic

lyes m a de by a n y one of t h ese processes is not only depend
'

en t u pon the c a re wit h w h ic h the operation i s carried ou t i n

th e directio n s of ens u rin g per fec t ca u sticisation of the a lk a li

u sed bu t in preventin any excess f li m e fi ndin g its way
, g o

into the a lkali ly e wh ich is m a de bu t a lso on the qu a lity of ,

the sod a a sh u sed ; the better the qu a li ty of th is the p u rer

will be the ca u stic m ade in a s m u ch as the sol u ble i m p u ri
,

ties salt s u lphate oi soda which a r e present in the low gr a des

, , ,

of soda a sh w i ll fin d their w a to re a ter or less exte nt

, y a g
into the c a u stic lye which is m ade a lth ou gh so m e of the ,

sulphate which m a be present in low r de oda s h es will -

y g a s a

be c au sti c i se d to som e extent bu t a n y chloride will n ot be,

a fiec ted in a n w
y a y .

The com m ercial c au stic sod a is u s u a lly s u pplied in l a rge

dru ms which requ ire to be broken open before the c a u stic
,

th ey cont a in c an be dissolved T his c a u stic is dissolved i n .

iron t anks with a s u itable qu a ntity o f w a ter a lth ou gh there

i s n ot m u ch di ffi c u lty in doi n g so still there a r e a ri ght a n d ,
2 6 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

a wr on g w a y of doi n g even this si m ple O pera tion The wron g .

w a y is to O pen the dr u m s a n d th r ow th e c a u stic to the bot

tom of the ly e t a n k . H er e it will beco m e sli ghtly a cted u po n
by the w a ter a n d a str o n g lye will be for m ed wh ich will
, ,

re m a i n i n con t a ct with the solid c a u stic a n d beco m in g s a t u r

, ,

ated will pr even t fu rther solu tio n ; then a ga i n the c au sti c

, ,

will ten d to set i n to a solid m a ss which is di ffi c u lt to de a l

,

with when a t the botto m o f a t a n k T h e r i ght w a y is to .

s u spen d the solid c a u stic a t th e top o f the t a n k j u st u n d e r

n e a th the s u r fa ce o f the w a ter u sed to dissolve it t h e n t h e ,

lye a s it is form ed bei n g he a vier th a n the s u rro u n di n g

,

F IG . 2 .

w a ter si n ks to the bottom so th a t the solid c a u stic i s by

, ,

re ason of the cur re n ts th u s set u p a lw a ys com i n g i n c o n

t a ct with fr esh w a ter or u n s a t u r a ted lye a n d co n sequ e n tly ,

soo n becom es dissolved This is c a rried ou t i n so m e w o r ks

.

by open i n g the d r u m s a t both e n ds a n d s u spen din g them i n

th e t a n ks by m e a n s o f ch a i n s A bette r m ethod is how e v er
.
, ,

to h a ve a per for a ted i r on pl a te pl a ced j u st u n der the s u r fa c e

of the water o r liq u o r i n the t a n ks O n this the dr u m s m a y
.

be pl a ced or the solid c au stic m a y be broken ou t o f t h e

,

d r u m s a n d th r ow n on to it (see fig .

A t a n k is pl a ced i n a r oo m or pl a ce a bove th e so a p b oil -

 C AU STI C SO DA . 2 7

in g kettles p a r t of this t a nk m a y be pl a ced below the floor ,

b u t a t le a st 1 8 in S ho u ld be a bove th e floor ; a swin g s yphon

.

t u be shou ld be pl a ced i n the tank for th e pu rpose of ru n n i n g

O ff th e lye F or this pu rpose a syphon t u be h a s som e a d
.

v a n t a g es over a si m ple or fixed t a pl ced in th e side o f th e

p a

t a n k A gr a tin g sho u ld be fixed i n th e top of the t a nk j u st

.

b e low the s u r fa ce o f th e liq u or co n t a i n ed i n the t a nk ; thi s

g r a ti n
g m a
y be pl a ced o n s u ppo r ts which exte n d fr o m S ide

t o side o f the t a n k O n this gr a ti n g the dru m s o f c a u stic

.

w h ich h a ve h a d the en d s kn ocked o u t a r e pl a ced th e w a ter ,

penet r a ti n g i n to the dr u m gr a d u ally dissolves o u t the c a u stic ,

the solu tion bein g he a vier th a n the wa ter si n ks to the bot

, ,

t o m o f the t a n k a co n st a n t circ u la tio n of fresh w a ter or

,

w e a k liqu or p a ssi n g thro u gh the dr u m beco m i n g str on g er i n

so doi n g which then goes down to the bottom of the t a n k
,
.

T h is goes on u n til a ll th e c a u stic in the t a nk is dissolved .

T h is m ethod of wor ki n g m e an s less la bou r i n the h a ndlin g

o f the c a u stic which is o f so m e a dv a n t a g e
, there is n o n u
d issolved c a u stic for m ed a t the bot t om o f the t a n k wh ile th e ,

O per a tion is do n e so m ewh a t qu icker .

F r om the solid cau stic sod a lyes o f an y stre n gth m a y be

,

m a de It shou ld be rem em bered th a t the sol u tion of solid

.

cau stic sod a in w a ter is a tten ded by the evol u tion of som e
co n sider a ble am o u n t of he a t which m a y be u tilised by r u n
,

ni n g the fresh a n d stil l w a rm c a u stic lyes i n to the so a p boilers -

.

C a u stic sod a lyes sho u ld n o t be kept too lo n g exposed to

-

the a tm osphere as they te n d to a b sor b c a r bo n ic a cid a n d p a ss

,

i n to c arbo n a te of sod a the a lk ali n e or so a p m a ki n g st r en g th

,
-

bei n g th er eby red u ced Shou ld it be n ecess a ry a t a n y ti m e

.

to keep lyes a con sidera ble tim e befor e u sin g they m a y be

preserved by po u ri n g on thei r s u rfa ce so m e m elted p a ra ffin
w a x which setti n g on cooli n g p r even ts a n y a i r fro m getti n g
,

to the lyes In this m a n n er they m a y be kept for som e ti m e

. .

The p araffin w ax c a n be u sed m a n y tim es .

2 8 S O AP MAN UFACT URE .

T h e follo win g table of the Speci fic gr a vities of sol u tions

c a u stic soda will be of service to so a p m akers -

Lb o f a ctu alN a O H con ta i ned

gh t g f
.

P er ce n t by wei of in 1 a llon of ly e ma d e ro m
co m m er ci a l ca u sti c o f

7 7 p er 7 4 p er 7 0 p er
NM O N 3 0 11
c en t
. ce n t .
 U STI
CA -
C SO D A L YE S . 29

7 7 p er 74 per
ce nt . ce n t .

2 7 39
°
2 °
61 5
2 681
°

2 88 1
°
2 °

7 50
2 °
81 8

2 9 55
30 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

The fig u r es i n this t a ble h a ve been m ost c a r efu lly c a lc u

la ted a n d it is believed th a t they a r e a cc u r a te a t a ll eve n ts
, ,

s u fficie n tly so fo r a ll tech n ic a l p u rposes The figu r es i n the

.

l a st three colu m n s givi n g the qu a n tities of a ctu a l c a u stic in

one ga llon of lye ar e n ew ; those for 7 4 p e r cen t a n d 7 0 per .

cen t c a u stics a r e b a sed on the a ssu m ptio n th a t the i m

.

pu r ities i n s u ch c au stic h ave a s m u ch i n fl u en ce i n r a isi n g

the speci fic gr a vity O f the lye a s the a c tUa l c a u stic itsel f h a s ,

wherea s a s a m a tter of fa ct they h a ve so m eti m es less i n

, ,

fl u e n c e a n d so m eti m es m ore so ; th a t the a ct u a l st r e n g th o f

,

the lye i n conte n ts of a ctu a l c au stic depe n ds u po n the ch a r

a cter o f the i m p u rities prese n t which will v a ry fro m ti m e to
,

ti m e still the figu res given m a y be a ccepted a s su ffi cien tly

,

cor rect for techn ic a l wor k By k n owi n g the stren gt h o f the

.

com m erci al c a u stic he is u si n g an d the gr a vity of hi s lye s ,

the so a p m a ker fro m this t a ble will be a ble to c a lcu l a te t h e

-

wei ght of act u a l c a u stic he m a y h a ve i n a n y given q u a n tity

of lye a n d th u s h a vi n g a given q u a n tity o f fa t a n d k n owin g
, ,

h o w m u ch c a u stic this w ill req u i r e b e will be a ble to a d d

,

j u st th e r ight am o u nt of lye to s a poni fy the fa t .

Sol u tio n s o f c au stic sod a h a ve a som ewh a t soapy fe e l

the y rea ct very stro n gly on the ski n dissolvin g it Th e y
, .

d is s olve wool a n d a ni m a l tiss u es rapidly a n d rea ct u p o n,

cotton m a ki n g it beco m e m ore tr an sp a ren t a n d ca u sin g it

,

to swell T h ey a r e powerfu lly b a sic a n d c a p able of neu t r a l

. ,

i si n g the stro n gest a cids the sodi u m s a lts which a r e form e d

,

be in g ch a r a cterised by their solu bility i n wa ter with oils a n d

fa ts it r ea cts very stro n gly .

The followi n g t a ble gives the propo r tion of c a u stic s oda

r eq u ired to s a po n i fy the v a rio u s oils a n d fa ts co m m only u sed

i n so a p m aki n g -
 PO T A S SI UM . 31

P er ce n t . of N a O H to sa pon i fy .

to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
to
12 49 to
to

PO T AS S I UM .

The seco n d a lk a li m et a l m u ch u sed in so a p m a kin g is -

p ot a s si u m . This rese m bles sodi u m in m a n y respects It .

i s a silver white m et a l very so ft li ghter th a n w a ter h a v i n g

-
, , ,

a speci fic r vity f 0 8 6 5 It m elts at C a n d a t a red

g a o . .
,

h ea t c a n be vol a tilised its vapo u r h a vi n g a gree n colo u r

,
.

Exposed to th e a i r it r a pidly oxidises to the m o n oxide ;

thrown o n w a ter it rapidly disco m poses it wit h the evol u tion
of hydro e n an d the for m tio f pot ssi m hydroxide
g a n o a u

( cau stic pot a sh ) ; the en ergy evolved i n th e re a ction bei n g

sufficie n tly reat to c au se the hydro gen to b u rn I t is m ore
g .

en er etic i n its a ctio n th a n sodi u m

g W ith o n e or. two ex
ce ti o n s e
p , g the
. .plati
,
n o chlo r ide a cid t a rtr a te a ll its s a lts
-
, ,

are re a dily sol u ble in w a ter while no n e are a bsol u tely i n

,

sol uble . I t w a s discovered by Si r H u m phrey D a vy i n 1 807

by the a ction of a power fu l electric c u r re n t on fu sed p ota s
si um h ydroxide .

P ot a ssi u m occ u rs ver y ab u n d a n tly a n d very widely dis

tribu ted in n a t u r e It is fo u n d i n se a w a ter i n m a ri n e
.
-
,

p l ant s
, i n pl a nts o f a ll ki n ds fro m whose
,
a shes
'

pot a ssi u m
in th e for m o f c a rbo n a te is l a r gely obt a i n ed it O ccur s c om
bin ed with a l u m in a a n d silic a te i n v a rio u s n a t u r a l sili c a tes ,

an d i n the form o f chloride a ssoci a ted with co m m o n s a lt ,

32 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

m a gnesi u m chloride in v a riou s locali ties it is a lso fo u n d a s

,

n itr a te a s a n efl or esce n c e on the so il in h ot co u nt r ies .

To potassi um i s a ssi gn ed the sy m bol K th a t bein g th e ,

first letter of th e L atin n a m e k a li u m th e Ar a bic ter m bein g ,

k ali Its atom ic wei gh t is

.

Two of its c om po u n ds a r e of speci a l interest to the so a p

m a ker v i a, th e c a rbo n a te a n d th e h y droxide or c a u sti c
,

pot a sh .

P o ta sh p otas si u m ca r bon a te
,
— Th is very i m port a nt c o m
po u nd has th e com positio n shown by th e form u la K zC O s .

Its ori gi n a l so u rce w as th e a shes Of plants bu t it is m a d e ,

a lso fro m th e vario u s deposits O f potassi u m ch loride fo u n d a t

S t a ss fu rt a n d Stan isl a u s by a process analo go u s to that o f

th e L e bl a nc sod a process .

Trees a n d oth er ve get a bles h a ve th e property o f a bsorb

i n g pot a ssi u m co m po u n ds fro m th e soil in fa irly l a r ge p r o
portion a n d a s th is is left behi n d in th e ash when th e trees
, ,

etc ar e bu rn t th e ash es of wood have for a lon g period been

.
, ,

u sed a s a so u rce O f pot a sh T h e followi n g t a ble co m piled

.

from several so u rces shows the percent a ge of a sh a n d t h a t O f

pot a sh yielded b y vario u s woods
Ash
p er ce nt .

1 2 2
°

The m anu fa ct u re of pot a sh from wood is a considera b l e

indu stry in C anada a n d Am eric a fro m whi ch co u n tries G re a t
,

Britain derives its pri n cip al s u pply .

The m eth od of m an u fact u re is com p a ra tively si m p le .

 PO T ASE E S . 33

The trees a r e Split or c u t u p into lo gs of convenient size

a n d b ur nt the a shes are collected a n d thrown into a t a nk
,

fi tted with a fa lse botto m a n d a little wa ter cont a inin g a

,

little sl aked li m e is p u t i n to th e t a nk the c a rbo n a te a n d ,

hydroxide in the a shes are freely solu ble in the wa ter a n d

a r e dissolved o u t while a n y s u lph a t e
,
chloride or other , ,

ne u tr a l s a lt is p a rti a lly converted i n to h ydroxide by the li m e

a n d p a rti a lly le ft i n sol u ble i n the resid u e o f the a shes i n ,

s u ffi c i e n t w a t e r bein sed to dissolve the m lo with the

g u a n
g
t w o prod u ct s desired .The liqu ors when s a t u ra ted ar e dra wn
O fl r u n i n to iro n pots a n d the n ev a por a ted to dryness when
'

, , ,

g r e yish pi n k m a sses a r e le ft behi n d ; the se co n stit u te

- pot
a sh es I t is owi n g to this m ethod o f m a n u fa ct u re th a t
thi s body owes its n a m e of pot a sh .

I n thi s a r ticle whe n eve r pot a sh is n a m ed it will h a ve

,

r e fe r e n ce to the c a r bo n a te of pot a ssi u m while the hyd r oxide,

m a y be re fe r red to a s c a u stic pot a sh b u t n ever a s pot a sh ”

,

T h e pot a she s ar e gr a ded by i n s p ectors i n to fir sts seco n ds “ ” “

, ,

t h i r d s a n d u n br a n d a b le s
,
"

F r o m the pot a shes pe a r l a sh is m a de by c a lc i n i n g i n a

r ev e r ber a to r y fu r n a ce ; the s m a ll a m o u n t o f c a r bo n a ceou s
m a tte r i n th e pot a shes i s b u r n t o ff th e hyd r oxide co n ver ted
,

i n t o c a r bon a te som e s u lphide s u lphite thios u lph a te p r esen t

, , ,

a r e co n ver ted i n to s u lph a te T h e c a lci n ed m a ss is the n

.

li xivi a ted with a s m a ll qu a n tity o f w a ter the solu tio n i s the n ,

ev a po r a ted down to dr yn ess a n d by a git a tio n d u r i n g soli di fi

,

c a tio n the p r odu ct i s obt a i n ed i n gr a n u l a r m a sses of a white

c olo u r a n d for m s the pe a r l a sh o f co m m erce The pr ocess o f .

m a n u fa ct u re t h u s briefly sketched is the on e followed in

m o s t loc a lities .

T h e co m position o f pot a shes an d pea rl a s h is ver y

“

v a ri a ble a ltho u gh the m a in co n stit u ent is the c a rbo n a te yet

, ,

there is a lso presen t hydroxide s u lph a te chloride silic a te

, , , ,

a l u m i n a te s m a ll qu a n tities o f i n sol u ble m a tter sodi u m s a lts

, , ,

3
34 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

etc P ot a sh is a lso obt a ined from beetroot m ol a sses the

.
,

a shes fro m which co n t a in 4 5 to 5 0 per cent o f pot a sh A . .

s m a ll qu a n tity is m a de from s u i n t the n a tu ra l gr e a se of wool , .

A l a r ge qu a n tity is m a de fro m the su lp h a te a n d chloride

of pot a ssi u m by a m odi fic a tio n o f the L ebl a nc sod a process .

The s u lph a te is first prep a red then this is furn a ced with ,

li m estone a n d co a l th e r es u ltin g a sh is lixivi a ted with

,

w a ter the liqu ors ar e then ev a pora ted do w n to O bt a i n th e

,

pot a sh This process gives pot a sh of a hi gh de gree O f

.

pu rity a n d s u ch pot a sh is likely to s u persede th a t from wood

,

a shes owin g to its gre a ter p u rity a n d lower cost .

The followi n g t a ble shows the com position of v a rio u s

com m erci al qu a lities of pot a sh co m piled from the p u bli sh e d ,

a n a lyses o f T a tlock a n d other chem ists

M ontreal . Fi rsts . Seconds . h

T i r ds . P ea r la sh .

P ota ssi u m c ar b o n a te

P o ta ssi u m h yd ro x i d e

Po ta ssi u m su lp a te h
P otassi u m c or i de hl
S odi u m ca r on a te b
h
S od i u m ydr ox i d e
l bl i li
So u e s ca , a u l mi n a
I l bl
n so u e

W a t er

Le bla nc P otas h
.

°
13
°
2 1 06
° °
15
°
45 80

The a bove a n a lyses will s u ffi ce to S how the a vera ge c o m

position of com m erci a l pot a shes They ar e sold on a ba s i s .

O f cont a i n i n g so m u ch per cent o f a ct u a l c a rbon a te th e .

,

st a n d a rd bei n g 90 per cent of carbon a te a stand a rd whi c h

.
,

is only obt a in a ble i n the best pe a rl a shes .

 CA U S TI C PO T AS H . 35

C a rbo n a te pot a ssi u m is free l y solu ble in w a ter 1 00

of ,

a rt s of whic h a t 0 C dissolve parts at °

1 0 0
°

p .
; .

a rt s ; a t 30 C 1 09 p a rts ; a t 5 0 C 1 1 2 9 parts at 2
°
0 C 1 34 5
°
8
°

p . . .

a rts a n d a t 1 00 C 1 5 3 6 parts
°

p , . .

CA S U TI C P O AS T H .

This i m portant pot a ssi u m com po u nd h a s the form u l a

K OH . A s far a s its m a i n properties ar e concern ed it closely ,

r e se m bles the correspon di n sodi m co m po nd ; it is however

g u u , ,

s li g htly m ore h y roscopic a n d shows reater a ffi nity fo r the

g g
c a rbo n ic a cid of the at m osphere It is rather stron ger or m ore
.

c a u stic in its a ction on v a riou s bo di es a property du e chiefl y ,

t o the gre a ter a ffi n it y O f potas si u m for acids a n d other bodies .

It is a wh ite solid body of an am orph ou s ch ara cter a n d

, , ,

h a vi n g a speci fic gr a vity of At a little below red he a t

i t m elts to a n oil y looki n g liqu id whi c h h a s a m ost power fu l
-
,

a c tio n o n a ll ani m al and ve g et a ble tiss u es It dissolves .

e a s ily i n w a ter th e sol u tio n bein g a cco m panied with the

,

e v olu tio n of considerable he a t a n d it absorbs w a ter on ex

,

o s u r e to the a t m osp h ere The a qu eo u s sol u tio n possesses

p .

s t r on gly a lk a line and c a u stic properties and when O f a ,

m o der a te de gree O f co n cen tr a tion s u ch sol u tion h a s a solvent

a c tio n on a ni m al tiss u es It is a lso capable of neu tra li sin g
.

th e stron gest acids known form i n g th e pot a ssi u m s a lts a ll

, ,

O f which a r e sol u ble in w a ter ; a fe w m a y be obt a ined i n the

for m of precipitates fro m very stron g solu tions o f pot a sh ,

o w in g to th eir sli gh t solu bility .

E xposed to th e air cau stic pot a s h sol u tions rapidly a bsorb

c a rbonic a cid p a ssin g first i n to th e c a rbon a te u lti m a tely in to
, ,

th e bic a rbon a te ; on th is a cco u n t it is desirable to expose

p o t a sh lyes a s little a s possible to the air Aqu eo u s sol u tion s .

p r ecipit ate th e m etal as hy droxide from solu tion s of som e

m e t a llic s a lts s u c h a s ferr o u s a n d ferric chlorides copper ,

c hloride m a g nesi u m s u lph a te a l u m ini u m s u lp h a te etc

, , ,
.
36 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

P otassi u m hy droxide is a lso sol u ble in alcohol m ethyl ,

a lco h ol lyceri e d so m e other solve ts

g , n a n ,
n .

Ca u stic pot a sh is m a de by processes si m il a r to those

em ployed i n prep a rin g c a u stic sod a a n d a l thou gh it m a y be ,

p u rch a sed fro m the a lk a li m a ker so a p m akers a r e still in -

,
-

the h a bit of prepa ri n g it the m selves The s a m e m ethods .

o f worki n g as descri bed u nde r c a u stic sod a m a be sed n d

y u a

n eed no fu rther description here W ei ght for wei gh t pot a sh .

t a kes less li m e to c a u sticise it th a n sod a the proportions ,

bein g a s 69 to 5 3 It is best to a llow fro m 50 to 5 3 lb o f

. .

q u ick li m e to ever y h u n dredwei ght of pot a sh

- .

C a re sho u ld be t aken i n m a ki n g th a t a ll the pot a sh h a s

bee n c a u sti c i sed a s will be Shown by the a cid test a n d a lso
, ,

th a t no excess of li m e be u sed These de fects m a y be c u red .

by u si n g m ore li m e or the a dditio n Of m ore pot a sh a s the

, ,

c a se m a y be .

C o n ve n ie n t st r e n g ths o f c a u stic pot a sh lyes to m a ke a r e

o r 40 T w w h ic h co n t a i n a pp r oxi m a tely 1 lb 1 2} lb
°
. .
, ,

1 2 lh a n d 2 lb a ct u a l c a u stic pot a sh p e r ga llo n

-
.
,
. S e e t a ble . .

W hen c a u stic pot a sh lye s a r e boiled down u n til they a r e

i n a st a te o f q u iet fu sio n a n d the n a llowed to cool solid , ,

c a u stic pot a s h is obt a i n ed U s u a lly three q u a li ties a r e

.

m a de . The best co n t a i n s fr om 80 to 8 5 p er cen t o f a c t u a l .

pot a ssi u m hyd r o x ide the m e di u m fro m 7 5 to 80 p e r cen t

, .
,

a n d th e lowest fr o m 7 0 t o 7 5 per ce n t The followi n g .

a n a lyses show th e co n stit u e n t s u s u a lly fo u nd i n co m m erci a l

c a u stic pot a sh
P o ta ssi u m h yd i d r ox e

P o ta ssi u m c arb t on a e

P o t a ssi u m su lph t a e

P o t a ssi u m chl i d or e

P o ta ssi u m n i t r i te

Sodi u m hyd r oxi d e

l bl
So u e sili c a a n d a u m i n a l
I l bl
n so u e m a t te r
W a ter
 CA U STI C PO T ASH . 37

fr om which it will be see n that com m erci a l ca u stic potashes

are n ot of so p u re a ch a r a cter a s the co m m erci a l c a u stic

sod as .

Sever a l t a bles h a ve been p u bli shed by D a lton L u nner ,

man an d R ichter o f the stren gth of a qu eo u s c au stic pot a sh

,

lyes These t a bles ar e not ver y concordan t an d good service

.
,

would be re n dered to tech n ic a l chemi stry by som e co lle ge pro

fessor o f chem istry settin g hi s st u dents to work to solve this

pr oblem The
. fo llowin g t a ble is b a sed on the o n e given by
Dalton which is prob a bly a s a cc u r a te a s a n y of the m
,

B
TA L E OF S R E N T GT H O F CAUS TI C P OTAS H SOL UTI O N S AT 60 F °
.

Cau stic pot a sh is u sed in so a p m a ki n g on ly for m a ki n g

-

soft so aps It a cts u po n a n d sa p on i fies oils a n d fa ts m u ch

.

more readily th a n does c a u stic sod a a n d the so a ps so pro

,

du ced ar e m ore freely sol u ble i n w a ter a n d h a ve hy groscopic

pr o perties O n.e h u n d r ed p a rts o f d r

y pot a ssi u m ole a te will
absorb 1 62 p a rt s of w a ter fr o m the a i r ; the s a m e q u a n tity o f

po t assi u m p a lm it a te will t a ke u p 3 5 p a rts o f w a ter while

,

sodi u m ste a rate o n ly a bsorbs 7 4 per cen t o f w a ter

5 . .
 38 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

H a rd
pot a sh so a ps ar e n ot m a nu fa ctu red in pra ctice ,

a ltho u h they c a n be m de a s will be described fa rther

g a

on .

The com bi n in g equi v a lent of pot a ssi u m hydroxide K O H , ,

bein g hi gher ( 56) th a n is th a t of sodi u m hydroxide N a O H ,

oils requ ire a l a rger proportion by wei ght of cau stic

potash th an they do of c a u stic sod a to sapo n i fy them on the
oth er h an d a proportion a tely gre a ter wei ght of so a p is yielded .

G e n era ll y oils take fro m 1 8 5 to 2 0 per cent of p u re c a u stic

.

pot a sh to s a poni fy them ; som e t a ke a little m ore others a ,

little le s s .The followin g t a ble gives the percen t a ge of a ct u a l

K O H requ i r ed to s a poni fy the oils com m o n ly u sed with c au s
tic potash to m a ke soft so a ps a ltho u gh a few others h a ve
,

b e en a dded to m a ke the t a ble com plete These percent a ges

.

correspond with the K oettstor fer n u m bers O bt a ined in the

testi n g of oils

AL K AL I M E T RY .

A lk a lim etr y is the a rt of determ i n in g the va l u e of th e

a lk a li n e bodies which h a ve been described a bove the car
,

bon e tes and hydroxides of pot a ssi u m a n d sodi u m .

As u su a lly c a rried ou t the process depe n ds u pon the fa c t

t h a t when a n y of the a lka la ti v e com po u nds in q u estion a r e
bro u ght into co n t a ct with s u lphu ric a cid com bin a tion t a ke s
 A L KAL I ME T R Y . 39

place su lph a tes of the a lk a li

,
m et a ls bein g form ed accordin g
to the followin g equ a tions
K OH K ,so,
figs
o, 2
Su l u ri c P ota ssi u m P ota ss i u m
h yd r oxi d e su lpha te
= x,so, CO2
P otassi u m
ca r bo na te
H so 2 N a OH 80 2 H, o
, ,
S od i u m 3 331
t y d r o xi d e su lph a te
N mi) N a,so (302
ai um
ca r bona te

which show the a ction of the a cid on the fo u r a lk a li n e c om

p o u nds which a r e o f i m po r t a n ce i n so a p m a ki n g - .

F ro m these eq u a tion s it is seen th a t one m olec u l a r propor

tion 98 p a rts by wei ght of s u lphu r ic a cid is equ a l to two
molecu l a r proportio n s 1 1 2 p a rts by wei ght o f pot a ssi u m
hydr oxide or to on e m olec u l a r proportio n 1 38 p a r ts by wei ght
,

of pot a ssi u m c a rbo n a te or to two m olec u l a r proportio n s 80

,

p arts by wei g ht o f sodi u m hydro x ide or to o n e m olec u l a r pro

,

p ortio n 1 06 p a rts by wei ght o f sodi u m c a rbo n a te .

T a ki n g one m olec u l a r or on e equ iv a lent proportion 40 ,

p arts by wei g ht ,
o f sodi u m hydroxide a s a st a n d a rd then ,

49 f
o sul p h i i d = 5 6 f p t i m h yd i d
u r c ac o o a ss u r ox e .

—69 f p t i m ob t o a ss u car on a e .
—40 f d i m h yd i d o so u r ox e .

—5 3 f d i m b t
o so u car on a e .

K nowi n g then the proportions in wh ich s u lph u ric a cid

an d the alk a lies re a ct with one a n other it follows th a t to a s ,

cert a in the q u a ntity of a ct u al a lk a li in a co m m erci a l s a m ple ,

it"su ffi ces to a scert a in the q u a ntity of a cid requ i red to n eu

tr ali se a known wei ght o f the a lk a li n e body This is m ost .

easily a n d S i m ply done by the u se o f a sol u tion o f s u lph u ric acid

of known stre n th to a solu tion of the a lk a li u n til ne u tr a lity

g
i s att a ined. The l a tter point is re a dily a scert ained by m ak
ing u se of cert a in bodies which a r e a lter ed i n colo u r a ccor d
ing a s they a r e i n the presen ce of a lk a lies or a cids ; so m e of
these bodies are excessively sen sitive a n d will rea dily show ,
40 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

the presen ce of the m i n u test trace of either a cid or a lk a li .

These i n dic a tors a s they a r e c a lled will be dea lt with in

, ,

det a il shortly .

This system of a n a lysis is kn own a s vol u m etric a n a lysis ,

bec a u se its essenti a l fea t u re is the m ea s u r em ent of the volu m e

o f cert a i n sol u tio n s o f k n ow n stre n gth .

These solu tion s a r e c a lled st a n d a rd solu tions a n d m a y be ,

m a de o f a n y st r en gth bu t ther e h a s gr ow n u p with the de

,

v e lop m e n t of vol u m etric a n a lysis a syste m of m a kin g the

v a r io u s st a n d a r d solu tio n s of r eco gn ised stren gths what a r e ,

c a lled n or m a l sol u tio n s ; these ar e s u pposed to co n t a i n a n

equ iv a len t wei ght i n gr a m m es i n e a ch litre or 1 000 cu bic
cen ti m etr es of the re a gen t Thu s n orm a l s u lphu ric a cid
.

co n t ai n s 49 gra m m es a ct u a l H 2 SO 4 per litr e N or m a l so di u m .

hydroxide con t a i n s 40 gr a m m es a ct u a l N a O H per litre .

N o r m a l sodi u m c a rbo n a te 5 3 gr a m m es a ct u a l N a gC O 3 per

litre. N orm a l pot a ssi u m hyd r oxide 56 gr a m m es per litre o f
a ct u a l K O H N orm a l pot a ssi u m c a rbo n a te 69 gr a m m es o f
.

a ct u a l K 2 CO per lit r e a n d so o n with other re a e n ts It

3 ,
g .

therefore follows th a t 1 c c of a n y on e of these norm a l st a n

. .

d a rd solu tion s is equ a l to 1 c c of a n y other . . .

F or the pu rpose of m ea s u ri n g the vol u m e of the st a nd a rd

solu tio n s there a r e u sed m ea s u rin g gl a sses k n own a s bu r ettes ,

o f which t best for m 1 th a t known a s M ohr s

O
’

cock a n d on e or tw o v 1 0 °
°

a
0

to hold 50 c c a n d gradu
. .
ted I n ten ths of a c c T h es e a r e su p . .

ported lIl s u it a ble st a n ds a n d the vol u m e of liqu id In them I s

,

n oted wher e the botto m o f the m e ni sc u s of the u pper s u rfa c e

o f the fl u id a ppe a rs to be a dj a ce n t to a m a r k o n the b u rett e .

This is don e before a n d a fter u sin g the solu tion a n d th e ,

di ffer e n ce between the fig u r es gives the volu m e or n u m ber

of c c s o f sol u tio n u sed To fa cilit a te the re a di n g of th e
’
. . .

— —
b u r ette sm a ll gl a ss fl oa ts E rd m a n n s fl oa ts m a y be u sed
,
’

a li n e ro u n d these co m es u p close to the sides of the

 AL KAL I ME T RY . 41

bu rette , an d the re a di n g is m u ch e a sier an d m ore acc u rately

m ade .

Besides the bu rette there is u sed in vol u m etric a n a lysis

p ipettes fo r m e a s u r in g o fl de fi n ite vol u m es o f li q u ids a n d
flasks m ar ked to hold a de fin ite qu a ntity of liqu id when filled
up to certai n m a rks on the neck .

The st a n d ar d solu tio n m ost i n u se i n a lk a li m etry is one

of su lph u r ic a cid o f n orm a l stre n th th a t is 1 000 c c s of it
’

g ,
. .

con t a i n 4 9 r m m es f p re H SO It n be bo u ght fro m

g a o u 2
c a 4
.

all de a lers in a n a lytic a l che m ic a ls re a dy prep a red ; th a t is a ,

conve n ient b u t m ost ex pensive m a nner of proc u rin it The

g .

best a n d che a pest pl a n is to m a ke it for one s ow n u se

’
.

To do thi s proc u re a s u pply of pu re bic a rbon a te of soda

,

or pu re c a rbon a te of sod a ; pl a ce a q u a n tity in a cr u cible a n d

heat to redness a llow to cool in a desicc a to r wei gh ou t

, ,

exactly 5 3 r a m m es o f the dried c a rbon a te dissolve in w a ter

g , ,

p l ace the sol u tio n i n a litre m e a s u ri n g flask a n d

- fil l u
p to
the m a rk with w a ter There wi ll be n ow prep a red a norm a l
.

stan da r d sol u tion o f sodi u m c a rbon a te e a c h c c of whi ch ,

. .

c ont a ins 00 5 3 g r a m m e o f N a ,C O8 a n d is equ a l to 00 49 ,

H2 804 .

M e a s u re c c s of pu re stron g s u lphu ric a cid a n d

’
ou t 55 . .

di ssolve i n two litres of water This solu tion will be a little .

str on er th a n norm a l stren th b u t m u ch depe n ds u po n the

g g ,

act u a l stre n th o f the a cid u sed

g .

P l a ce the s u lph u ric a cid sol u tio n which h a s been m a de

-

in a b u r ette a n d n ote the re a di n g

,
Then m e a s ure with a .

N9 pipette 1 0 c c s of the n orm a l sod a solu tion i n to a be a ker a dd

’
. .
,

a few drops of m ethyl or a n e sol u tion the n t u r n in - n the

g g o , ,

f the b u rette a llow the a cid to drop i n to the sod a sol u

ti on const a ntly sti r r in g the l a tter
, W h e n the colo u r of the .

soda sol u tio n ch a n es fro m yellow to red the O per a tion or

g , ,

titr atio n a s it is c a lled is finished I f the a cid sol u tio n is o f

,
.

the ri ght stre n th 1 0 c c s of it o u ht to h a ve bee n u sed ’

I f
g g . . .
 42 SO AP MA NUFAC T URE .

less is requ ired it is too stron g ; i f m ore it is too weak , .

F rom th e qu a n tity of acid solu tion requi red m ake a calc u l a ,

tion a s to how m u ch water or h ow m u ch acid is requ ired to

brin g it u p to the ri gh t st r en gth Then test it ag ain a n d .
, ,

i f n ecessary a g a in with 1 0 c c s of the soda sol u tion and

’
.
, , .
,

a d d w a ter or a cid a s req u i r ed u ntil y ou h a ve prep a red a stan

d ar d acid solu tion 1 0 c c s of wh ich will j u st n eu tra lise 1 0

, . .
’

c c s of the sod a solu tio n T h e acid solu tion will then be of

. .
’
.

norm a l stre n gth a n d will cont ai n 49 gra m m es of a ct u a l H 2 SO4

per litre .

T h e m ethyl ora n ge which has been directed to be added

to the sod a solu tion is wh a t is ter m ed a n indic a tor ; it is very
sen sitive to acids th e m erest trace of which tu rns it pink
, .

It m ay be co n venient her e before proceedin g to describ e ,

fu lly the vario u s a lkali m etric a l processes to briefly n ote th e ,

v a riou s indic a tors wh ich ar e u sed in thi s branch o f ch em ic a l

a n a lysi s .

O n e of the oldest indic a tors is li t m u s T h is body form s .

a violet blu e solu tion which tu rns red on th e a ddition o f

,

acids whi le a lk a lies cha n ge th e sh a de a li ttle bl u er It i s

,
.

a good indi ca tor to u se when t estin g a lkaline liqu ors wit h

acid ; it has however one drawback when u sin g it in t h e
, ,

testing O f alkaline ca rb on a tes a n d th a t is th e c a rbonic a c id ,

whi ch i s evolved from the c a rbonates by the action of th e

st a n d a rd a cid an d wh ich tends by its sol u bility in w a ter to
, , ,

rem a i n in sol u tion in the liqu id h a s the property of t u r n ,

i n g the litm u s red and co n seq u ently there is a tendency to

,

O bt a in too low res u lts whe n testin g c a rbo n ates with lit m u s .

This tro u ble c a n only be got over by boili n g the solu ti o n s

before titratin g so a s to preven t th e c a rbonic acid fro m b e
,

com i n g dissolved i n th e solu tion This boilin g is rath e r .

O bjection a ble a n d i n convenien t a lt h o u gh excellent res u lts a r e ,

obt a i n ed when it is resorted to .

L itm u s is h owever bei n g rapidly replaced by m et h y l

, ,
 AL KAL I ME T RY . 43

r e M ethyl orang e is one of the co a l tar az o ora n g es ; i t

o ang .
- -

dissolves freely in water form in g a n or a ng e solu tion which

, ,

is turned yellow by a lk a lies a n d red by the m erest presenc e

,

of acids s u ch a s s u lph u r ic nitric hydroc h loric a cz A

, , ti c
o li c , ,

acids bu t not with c a rbonic a n d so m e we a k or a nic a ids

, g c .

This wa n t o f sensitiveness to carbonic a cid en a bles it to be

used in the a n a lysis of a lkaline c a rbon a tes in cold solu tions ,

which ar e m ore convenient to work with th a n hot sol u tions .

P henol phth a lein is a prep a ra tion of phenol a n d phthali c

acid it is a yellowish powder insolu ble in water bu t solu bl e ,

in alcohol or m ethyl a ted spi r its to a colo u rless solu tion It .

has the property of prod u ci n g a n intense red colo u r with the

cau stic a lk a lies a n d a we a ker red with the a lk a line c a rbon
,

ates. Its sensiti ven ess is gr ea t ; it c a n be u sed with a dv an

tage in the testing of a cids with st a nd ard sol u tions of s odi u m
or pot a ssi u mhydro xide the m e r est excess o f the l a tter pro
,

dacin g a pink color a tion or it m a y be u sed i n the testin g

,

of pu re pot a ssi u m or sodi u m hydroxides ( c a u stic a lk a lies )

with st a nd a rd a cid It does n ot work well with the a lk a line

.

car bon a tes it shows the norm a l c a rbonates to be a lk a line bu t

, ,

the acid c a rbon a tes a r e n eu tr a l to it It does n ot work well

.

in amm onia A we a k solu tio n in m ethyl at ed spirit is u sed i n

.

analysis .

L a cm oid is a prep a ration of resorci n a n d beh a ves like lit ,

mus O ver wh ich it h as the a dv a nt a g e o f bei n g a little m or e

,

sensitive to acids .

There ar e other in dic a tors whi ch m ay be u sed b u t th e ,

above are s u ffi cient fo r a ll p u rposes i n a lk a li m et r y M ethyl .

oran e is the i n dic a tor which the a u tho r pre fers to u se

g .

The opera tio n of testi n g th e a lk a li n e c a rbon a tes a n d

hydroxides is pr a ctic a lly a like for a ll so th a t on e descriptio n
,

will s u ffi ce .

Testi ng S odi u m or P o ta ssi u m C a r bon a te — W ei gh ou t fiv e

gr am m es of the a lk a li tr a ns fer
,
to a 2 5 0 c c m eas u r i n g fl a
. sk .
,
44 S O AP MANUFAC T UR E .

fill thi s to th e cont aining m ark with wa ter It is not

up .

a dvis a ble to h e a t a s the vol u m e of th e liq u id m a y thereby be

,

a ffected for alt h o u h it m i ht m e a s u re 2 5 0 c c when m a de it

, g g . .
,

will m ea su re less on becom i n g cold d u e to the con tra ction in ,

vol u m e that will occ u r an d then th e resu lts will not com e out
,

ri ght All volu m etric a pp a ra tu s is u nderstood to be correct

.

a t a u n i form tem per a t u r e of 60 E which is not the best ;

°

7 0 F is m u ch m ore n e a r ly the aver a ge worki n g te m peratu re

°
.

o f a l a boratory a n d is m u ch e a sier to obt a i n i n p r a ctice

,
.

F ill th e bu rette with the n orm a l s u lphu ric a cid m eas u re ,

b y a pipette 2 5 c c s of the a lk a li solu tion i n to a be a ker add

’
. .
,

a little m eth yl oran e solu tio n j u st eno u h to give a faint

-
g g ,

yellow tint to th e liqu id then drop in ( titra te) from the ,

b u rette th e a cid u ntil the colo u r of the liqu id ch a n ges from

y ellow to pink To be
. a ble to O bserve the colo u r c h an ge

m ore qu ickly it is best to pl a ce a wh ite tile or pl a te u nder

,

t h e be a ker a n d to c a rry ou t the work in a good li ght

,
M ethyl .

o r a n g e does not work well i n a sli gh t th e chan ge is not so

g ,

e a si ly perceptible ; when worki n g by ga sli ght it is best to u se

litm u s or lac m oid then the a lk a li sol u tion m u st be boiled pre
,

vion s to titratin g N ote the n u m ber of c c s of a cid u sed

. . .
’
.

R epe a t th e test two or t h ree ti m es ; th e v a rio u s re a dings

s ho uld n ot di ffer m ore th a n c c fro m one a n other If an . . .

E rd m a nn s float is not u sed a sheet of w h ite p a per hel d

’
,

behi n d th e bu rette en a bles the re a din gs to be m ore ea sily

t a ken .

H a vin g ascert ained the n u m ber of c c s O f a cid u sed these

’
. .
,

c a n be c a lc u lated to the equ iv a lent of alkali by m u ltiplyin g

by 00 5 3 i f sodi u m c a rbon a te is taken or by 0069 i f p otas ,

s i u m c a rbon a te is bei n tested ; t h is gives the wei gh t in

g
g r a m m es o f th e alkali i n th e q u a ntit y t aken for tit r a tion an d ,

fr o m the figu res O bt a i n ed the perce n tage c an be c a lcu l a ted .

Tes ti n g S odi u m or P o ta ssi u m H y dr ox i de ( C a u s ti c Soda

or Ca u s ti c P ota sh ) — The p r ocess is exactly identic al

. with
 AL KAL I ME T RY . 45

the bove In c a lc u l a ti n g the res u lts th e fa ctors

a .
,
for
cau stic sod a a n d 00 5 6 fo r c a u stic pot a s h are m a de u se o f .

Ca u sti c S od a Ash or T h es e
Commer ci a l Ca u sti c S oda .
—
articles ar e r a r ely p u re ; sod a a sh is or S ho u ld be sodi u m

carbon a te b u t it i n vari a bly co n t a ins som e c a u stic sod a

, .

Then co m m erci a l c au stics especi a lly the lower gra des i n

, ,

vari ably co n t a in so m e c a rbo n a te in a ddition to the c a u stic .

In th e c a se O f the c a u stic a lk a lies it is a dvis a ble th a t whe n

used i n so a p m a ki n t h ey sho ld cont a i n a s little c a rbon a t e
g
-
u

as possible Since this t a kes ve r y little i f a n y p a rt i n th e

.
, ,

actual rocess f s poni fyi the f ts it is there fore f

p o a n g a r e ,

qu en tly n ecess a r y to ex a m ine s a m ples o f sod a a sh f o r the

pres en c e a n d a m o u n t o f hy d roxide a n d c a u stic f o r th,e p r esenc e
and am o u n t o f c a r bo n a te The m et h o d is the s a m e i n both
.

cases .

Five gr a m m es wei ghed ou t a n d disso lved in 2 50

ar e

s of a n e u t r a l sol u tio n o f b a r i u m chlo r ide ; this gives a

’
cc
. .

p r ec ipit a te o f b a r i u m c a rbo n a te ; t h e vol u m e o f the m ixt u r e

is ma de u p to 1 00 th e n it is filte r ed a s r a pidly a s
p o s si ble .F i fty c c s
. o
. f
’
the fi lt r a t e which eq u a l 2
, 5 c c of . .

the or i gi n a l s ol u tio n a r e t a k en a n d tit r a ted a s be fore

,
This .

ti tr ati o n gives the a lk a li p r e se nt a s c a u stic ( hydroxide ) Th e .

differ en ce i n th e a m o u nts of n o r m a l a cid u sed i n the two

titratio n s r epresen ts the a m o u n t o f c a r bo n a te i n the s a m p le .

To m a ke t h e c a lc u l a tio n s th e c c s o f a cid u sed i n the two

’
. .

titr atio n s a r e m u ltiplied by 00 5 3 whe n c a u stic sod a or sod a

ashes a r e bei n tested r by 00 6 9 w h e n c a u stic pot a sh or

g o ,

p o t as hes a r e bei n
g te s ted .

It is cu stom a r y i n the a lk a li tr a de to repr esen t the

stren th o f sod a n o t by th e pe r ce n t a e of a ct u a l c a rbon a te
g g
or hydroxide they m a cont in b t by the perce n t a ge o f
y a u ,

sodi u m oxide N a O they co n t a i n There is n o difle r en c e

z
.
, ,

in the m ode o f testi n g bu t whe n the a m o u n t of sodi u m oxide

,

onl is req ired t h f ctor f m ltiplyin the a cid is 0 0 3 1

y u e a o r u g .
46 S O AP M ANUFAC T URE .

The am ou nt of sodi u m oxide so c a lc u l a ted m ay be expressed

as tot a l a lk a li a lk a li a s c a rbon a te
”
, or a lk a li a s c a u stic ”
,

The s am e c a n be done with th epot a sh co m pou nds the fa ctor ,

in th a t c a se bei n g 00 47 .

In a lk a li works it is c u stom a ry to a dopt a m ethod of

wor kin g the tests by m e a ns of which the re a din g of the
n u m ber o f c c s o f n orm al a cid u sed gives a t o n ce the per
’
. .

cent a ge of a lk a li present This is done by wei ghin g ou t .

g r a m m es of the alk a li dissolvi n

g i n 2 5 0 c c s water titr a tin g
,
. .
’

with the alk a li a s before ; the nu m ber of c c s u sed m u ltiplied . .

’

by 1 0 gives a t once the percent a ge of N a gO present Thi s .

s a ves a g ood de a l of ti m e by a voidin g the tro u ble o f m a ki n g

elabora t e c a lc u l a tio n s .

In th e c a se of pot a shes gr a m m es sho u ld be wei ghed

,

o u t wh e n the percent a ge of c a rbonate E gC O s is gi ven at

, , ,

o n ce by the a cid .

The followin g t a ble of fa ctors m ay be fo u nd u se fu l for

r e ference in a lk a li m etry

1 c c
. . n or m a l lp h
su u r i c ac i d c on ta i n s 0049 grm . H QS O4 .

eq u a ls 0031 N a zo .

0040 N aOH .

00 5 3 N a zc oa .

0047 K2 0 .

005 6 K OH .

n n 11 R2 003 °

sodi u m c a r b on a te c on ta i n s 005 3 N aQ CO S .

sod i u m h yd i dr ox e 00 40 N a OH .

p o ta ssi u m h yd id r ox e 0056 K OH .

sod i u m c a r bo n a te l
eq u a s 00 49
sodi u m h yd rox i d e 0049 HQ SO4 .

B O RAX .

This s a lt has fr om ti m e to tim e been added to soaps of

vario u s qu alities for the p u rpose of increasi n g their detergent
properties borax is a bora te of sodi u m ha vin g th e form ula ,

N a2 B 02 1 0H 2 0 a n d o cc u rs in fin e cryst a ls cont a inin g 47

4 ,

per c ent of wa ter It occ u r s n a t u ra lly in vario u s form s an d

. .
,
 I I T
S L CA E S . 47

from this n a t u r a l bora x or tinc a l the co m m ercial article

i s n ow l a r g ely m a n u fa ct u r ed In T u sc a ny boracic acid is
.

found a n d fro m this bora x is m ade by co m bi n in g it with

,

soda. Bor a x cryst a ls are r a ther effi oresc en t ar e solu ble in ,

abou t h a lf their wei ht of boilin w ter and abo u t 1 2 p rts

g g a a

of col d w a te r ; it h a s a feebly a lk a line t a ste a n d reaction

when hydrochlo r ic a cid is a dded to st r on g boilin g sol u tions

of bora x ; o n coolin g boracic acid crystalli ses o u t It is .

owing to the feebly a lk a line prope r ties o f borax th a t it is

used in so a p m a kin -
g .

P H OSP HAT E OF SO DA .

Thi s su bst a n ce is o ften a dded to so a ps with a view a lso

of incre a si n its det r e n t properties ; it h a s the co m posi
g e g
ti on shown i n the form ula N a zH P O4 1 2 H 2 O a n d form s lar g e
transp are n t so m ewh a t e fflor e sce n t cry stals sol u ble in abo u t
, ,

four parts o f cold w a ter and in boilin g wa ter to an u nli m ited

,

extent the sol u tion h a vi n faint lka line reactio n

, g a a .

SO D IU M AN D P O TASSIU M SI L I CAT E S .

Th e the silic a tes of pot a ssi u m and sodi u m or a s they

u se o f ,

are frequ e n tly c a lled w a ter l a ss or sol u ble g l a ss on acco u n t

g , ,

of their lassy p ea a ce whe in the solid state a n d bein

g a p r n n g ,

soluble in w a ter was su ggested by Sherid a n i n 1 838 si n ce

, ,

which ti m e t h ey h a ve been l a r gely u sed by so a p m a kers in -

the prepar a tion of the che a per qu a lities of so a ps The soap .

maker also kn ows these produ cts by the n a m e of ru nnin g s

They ar e m ade by fusi n g san d or powdered qu a rtz of good
qu a lity with pot a sh or with sod a a sh a ccordi n
g
, as either
silicate of pot a s h or S ilic a te of sod a is requ ired ; the ope r ation

bei ng con d u cted a t a hi gh tem per a t u re i n a s u itable furn a ce .

They m ay be m a de by he a ti n g s a n d with a qu eo u s sol u tio n of

the alk alies The silic a te of soda is by far the m ore im por t a nt
.

of the two bodies .

 48 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

Silic a te soda is
of O ffered
to soap m akers i n two form s -
,

solid an d liqu id .

S olid S ilicate of sod a occ u rs in the form of gl a ssy looking -

m a sses o f a brownish or gree n ish colo u r This colo u r is du e .

to m et allic i m p u rities u su a lly iron which are present in the

, ,

s a n d from which the prod u ct is m ade It is brittle break .

,

i n g with a conchoidal fr a ct u re a n d closely rese m bles g l a ss ,

in appe ara nce and it is this body that is ge n er a lly u nder

,

stood when s ol u ble gl a ss or wa ter glass 1 s spoke n of .

T h e li q u i d a u stic sod a I s the form m ostly p a tro n ised by

k
so ap m akers It I s a visco u s liqu id whose speci fic gra vit y
“ ,

r a n ges fro m 1 5 00 to ( 1 0 0 to 1 0 9 G e °
n e r a lly it
°

is of a n a lk a line chara cter a n d cont a ins 1 5 9 p er cent of , .

sodi u m ox ide N azO ; 2 9 3 per cent silica Si O z ; 54 8 per

, .
,

cen t of w ater The form u l a of the dr y silic a te co n t ai n ed in

. .

this solu tion wou ld be N azO 2 Si O so th a t a ltho u gh n om i n ally Z,

a lk a li n e it is re a lly a n a cid silic a te in character N or m a l

”
.
,

silic a te of sod a in which the b a se a n d a cid ar e ex a ctly eq u i v a

len t to on e a not h er h a s the for m u l a N a zO Si O z .

A n eu tr a l silic a te co n t a i n i n g a sm a ller prop ortion of

sod a is o ften m a de It is a dvis a ble th a t the r a tio between
.

the silic a and the sod a sho u ld be kept a s 2 to 1 shown i n the ,

fir st o f the for m u l a give n a bove ; i f the silic a is i n gre a ter

p r oportion then it c a n n ot be co n centra ted to so str on g a
sol u tio n as 1 00 T w witho u t deco m position W h en it is less
°
. .

th a n 2 to 1 it becom es o f too c a u stic a ch a r a cte r fo r soap

,

m a ki n g U s u a lly a bo u t 5 per cent is the qu a n tity e m ployed

. .

in m a ki n g pale so a ps a n d s u ch a qu a ntity will h a rden a s o a p

, .

If however the proportio n l a r g ely exceeds this then the

, , ,

ten den cy is for the soa p to becom e pasty a n d very w a st e ful

in u se Silic a te of sod a is n ot u sed now as O ften i n so ap
.

m a ki n g a s it form erly w a s .

Silicate of potash is sold a s a ne u tral solu tio n which ,

h a s u s u a l ly a speci fic gravity of w ) and contai n s

°

( 7 6 T .
 CO MMO N SAL T . 49

per cent potassi u m oxide K 2 O

. of per cent of , , . .

silic a Si O 2
,
per cen t of wa ter
, . .

Th e p r oportions of a lk a li and silica in this a pproxi m a te to

”
the form u l a It is a lso sold a s neu tral silic a te
in a solid form this u s u a lly cont a inin g ,
per cen t of .

p ot assi u m oxide K zO per cent ,

o f si lica
,
S i O whic h .
,

correspo n ds a pproxi m a t e ly to the for m u l a K O - l Si O r i

z

While S ilic a te of soda is u sed for m ixi n g with h a rd soaps ,

Silicate o f pot a s h is u sed fo r m ixin g with soft soaps .

Th e effect of em ployi n g the silic a tes i n so a p m a ki n g will -

be di sc u ssed i n a n other pl a ce .

CO M M O N S AL T .

One the m a teri a ls wh ich fin d extensive u se i n soap

of

making is s a lt sodi u m chloride This is a com pou n d of the

,
.

metal sodi u m a n d the ga seo u s ele m ent chlori n e in the pro ,

porti on s
p er c en t . Sodi u m
C hl or i n e

an d h avin g the form u l a N a Cl .

It occ u rs i n se a w a t e r to the extent of 2 7 per ce n t a n d

-
.
,

it is to this s u bst a n ce a n d the m a gn esi u m chloride th a t sea

water owes i ts s a line t a ste Salt occ u rs i n l a rge deposits in
a solid form — rock s a lt— i n m a n y places i n this co u n try :

at N or th wi c h M i ddle vvi c h W i n s ford and other loc a lities i n

, , ,

the Cou nty of C heshire a t D roitwich i n W orceste r shire , ,

Fleetwood in L a n c a shire M iddlesbo r o u g h i n Y orkshire a n d

, ,

in other pl a ces a t a ll of which it is either m i n ed or p u m ped

,

up i n th e form of bri n e R ock s a lt cont a ins a fe w i m .

p uritie s as ,
shown i n the follow i n g a nalysis o f a C heshir e

sample

Sod i u m c hl o r i de

M a gn esi u m c hl i d or e

Ca l ciu m su l ph t a e
50 soAP MANUFA C T URE .

while the br i n e u s u a lly h a s the com positio n

S d i m hl i d
o u c or e

C l i m
a c u l ph t su a e

S di m
o u lph t su a e

M ga i m
n es u b t car on a e

bu t v a r ies co n sider a b ly .

Sa lt is p u ri fied fo r dom estic a n d i n d u stri a l p u rp oses by

dissolvi n g the r ock sa lt i n wa ter or t a ki n g the br i n e a s it ,

is p u m ped cl a r i fyi n g by filtr a tio n or settlem en t fr o m a n y

,

insolu ble m a tter s boili n g down in l a r ge p a n s a n d fishi n g ou t

,

the s a lt which deposits a s the boilin g conti n u es U po n the .

r a pidity of the boili n g depen ds the for m of s a lt which is

O bt a i n ed A ra pid boil gives the fin e gra i n ed s a lt u sed for
.
-

dom estic pu r poses while a slow boil gives r ise to the l a r ge

,

g rai n ed s a lt u sed fo r othe r p u r poses I n th e so a p ind u s try .

the l a tter is the for m u s u a lly em ployed .

S a lt th u s p r ep a red is a l m ost p u r e a n d co n t a i n s b u t s m all ,

t r a ces o f other s u bst an ces .

P u r e s a lt is a colo u r less a n d t r a n sp a r e n t solid cr yst a lli sin g ,

i n c u bes These ar e Sli ghtly hygroscopic on expos u r e to the

.

a ir . They ar e sol u ble i n wa ter The sol u bility is n ot gr e a t .

,

n or does it i n c r e a se to a n y m a rked exte n t with the r ise of

t e m pe r a t u r e a s is the c a se with m ost other solu ble bodies

,
.

At 0 C 1 00 p a r ts o f w a te r will di s solve 35 5 p a rts o f s a lt a t

°
.
,

2 5 C 36 1 p a rt s a n d a t 1 1 0 C (the bo ili n g point o f s a lt

° °
. .
,

s ol u tio n s ) 40 3 p a r ts o f s a lt .

The followi n g t a ble gives the speci fic gr a vity a n d p er

cen t a ge co n ten ts of s a lt of s a li n e solu tion s a t 1 5 C °

Sp i fi ec P c t er ce n
g i ty
.

ra v f. lt o sa .

1 007 2 5 1
1 0 1 450 2
3
1 0 2 899 4
1 0 36 2 4 5
1 04336 6
1 0 5 1 08 7
1 0 58 5 1 8
 CO MM O N SAL T . 51

Salt is u sed in the soap tr a de for freei n g th e soap form ed

by the sa p o n i fic a ti on of the fa ts with a lkali from the excess
of alk a li u sed in the m a n u fa ct u re a n d fro m the lycerine
, g
formed in the oper a tion .Its u se depe n d s u pon the fa ct th a t
while so a p is sol u ble in p u re w a ter or in water cont ai n i n g a
,

small qu a ntity o f c a u stic sod a etc i n solu tion it is not

, .
, ,

soluble i n w a ter cont a i n in m ch s lt i n sol u tion hen ce whe n

g u a ,

salt is a dded to the soap pan a n d beco m es dissolved i n the

-
,

lye or brine is a dded the s oap is th r ow n ou t in c u rds whe n

, ,

sufficien t s a lt or bri n e is added for the p u r p o se The qu a n tity

.

cannot be de fin itely fixed as it v a ries w ith th e ch a r a cter o f

,

the so a p a n d the fats it is m a de fr o m C ocon u t oil so a p

.
-

takes m u ch m ore s a lt than a cotton oil so a p a n d this m ore-

,

than either a t a llow or pal m oil so a p - Then the excess of

.

alkali em plo yed h a s so m e i n fl u ence by red u cin the q a n tity

g u

of salt requ ired wh ile a lso the proportion o f w a ter to so a p i n

,

the p a n c au ses a v a riation in the q u a ntity of s a lt accordi n g

as it is m u ch or little .

The s alt m a y be recovered from the spent lyes by a p r o

cess of ev a po r a tion .
52 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

L IME .

L i m e or q u ick li m e or c a u stic li m e as it is i n di ffe r e n tly

,
-
, ,

c a lled is the oxide of the m et a l c a lci u m a n d h a s the for m u l a

, ,

CaO . It is u sed i n so a p m a ki n g o n ly for the p u r pose o f -

c a u sti c i si n
g the sod a o r pot a sh lyes to m a ke the n ecess a r y

c a u stic lyes for so a p m a ki n g Qu ick li m e is a white bod y

- .
-

which when exposed to the ai r absorbs m oist u r e r a pidly a n d ,

fa lls to a white powder Ai r sl a ked li m e a s it is c a lled whe n

.
-
, ,

m ixed with w a te r co m bi n es e n e r getic a lly therewith givi n g ,

r ise to the p r od u ctio n o f co n sider a ble he a t a n d prod u ci n

g a ,

white p a sty m a ss c a lled sl a ked li m e This sl a ked li m e is .

u sed for a v a r iety of p u r poses chiefly for m a ki n g m ort a r a n d ,

cem en t a n d a lso is the form em ployed i n c a u sti c i si n g the

,

a lk a li n e lyes M ixed with a qu a n tity of w a te r it fo r m s w h a t

.

i s k n own a s m ilk o f li m e The followi n g t a ble t a ke n fr o m

.

L u n g e a n d H u rte r s A lka li ma ker s H an d book shows the

’ ’
-

am o u n t of c a lci u m oxide in m ilk of li m e of di ffer e n t

st r en gths
TA BL E SH O W I N G AM OU N T OF L I ME IN M L I K OF L IME .

(C l l t d f a cu a e ro m Bl tt a n er .
)
D g C m C O Lb C b p
e r ee s t s a a er D g e r ees G r ms C a O Lb Ca O p e r
f f
. . . .

T wa dd e l l . l
p er i tre . cu bi c oo t . Tw a dd e l l .
p er i t r e l . cu bi c oo t .

2 O7 °
2 8 1 77
4 30 1 90 11 0
6 32 2 03
8 49 0 31 34 2 16
10 30 36 2 29
12 38 2 42
14 87 0 40 2 55 150
16 1 00 42 2 68
18 113 44 2 81 17 0
2C 12 6 70 46 2 94
2 2 1 38 48 307
2 4 152 50 32 1 2 CC °

2 6 1 64

W hen m ilk
li m e is boiled with fa tty a cids com bin a ti o n
of ,

t a kes pl a ce a n d wh a t a r e k n ow n a s li m e so a ps a r e form ed
,

which a r e i n sol u ble i n w a ter a n d li m e is a lso when b o th , ,

 L I ME . 53

h ea t press u re ar e applied c a p a ble of saponi fyin g fa ts a n d

an d , ,

is therefor e u sed in th e Au toc lav e n pr ocess o f decom po sing

fa ts
. The qu a lity of qu ick lim e a n d slaked li m e m a y be de
-

ter m i n ed i n the followin g m a n ner

1 F r ee Ca O —W ei gh 1 00 gr m s of an avera ge s am ple
. . .

care fu lly t a ken sla ke it com pletely p u t the m ilk i n to a

, ,

h a lf litr e fl a sk fill u p to the m a rk sh a ke well ; take 1 00 c c

-
, ,
. .

of the co n tents equ al to 1 grm qu ick li m e for the test

,
- .
,
.

Titr a t e with n orm a l oxalic a cid a n d phenolp h t h a lei n as a n

indic a tor The colou r is ch a n ged wh en all free li m e h a s
.

been s atu r a ted and be fore the C a CO3 is att a cked

,
.

2 .C a r bon x i
D i o de — Titr a te C a O a n d C a CO3 to gether by
disso l v i n g i n an excess of st a n d a rd hydrochloric a cid a n d
titra ti n g b a ck with st a nd a rd a lka li By ded u ctin g the C a O
.

esti m a ted a s i n No 1 the qu a n tity of C a C O8 is obt a i n ed

.
,
.

For ver y a cc u ra te estim ations the C O2 is expelled by H C l ,

absorbed i n sod a lim e and wei ghed a s described .

 CHA P T E R III .

FAT S AN D O L S I U SE D IN SO AP MAK IN G T H E I R
- : PR E P AR A TI ON
AN D P R O P E R TI E S
.

T H E fa ts a oilsnd u sed by the so a p m a n u fa ct u r er a r e de

-

r ived fro m both ve et a ble a n d a n i m a l so u rces none so far

g ,

known a r e derived fro m the petroleu m oils or p ar a ffin Sh ales

, .

There is n o very essen ti a l di fference between an oil a n d a

fa t it is p u rely a qu estio n of cli m a te or ra ther of tem p era ,

t u re a s to whether a p ar tic u l a r body m a kes its appe a r a nce

,

— —
in a solid fo r m a fa t or whether it is liqu id an Oi l a t the
, ,

ordi n a ry tem pera tu re of the pl a ce i n which it is P alm oil .

is her e a fat i a solid ; in Afric a it is a n O i l i e liqu id

, . .
, , . .
, .

C ocon u t O i l is in this co u n try a white solid in I n dia it is a

wa ter white liqu id O live oil is here a n oil ; in G reenl a nd
-
.

it is a fat Th a t it is si m ply a qu estion of tem perat ur e is

.

proved by the fa ct th a t i f t a llow or p a lm oil or co con u t oil

c a n be kept i n a s u ffi cie n tly w a rm pl a ce they are converted

i n to liqu ids while on the other h an d by a rti fici a lly cooling

, ,

o live oil or cotton seed oil or l a r d oil they a r e solidi fied an d

,
-
, , ,

a r e the n i n no wise distin gu ish a ble fro m a solid fa t .

These few ex a m ples wil l s u ffi ce to Show the relation be

tween fa ts a n d oils a n d i n these p a ges when these bodies
,

a r e g ener a lly re ferred to the te r m fa t m a y be t a ken to i n

,

c lu d e oils a n d v i ce v er sd
, .

The oils a n d fa t s a r e ch ar a cterised by bei n g li ghter tha n

wa ter their speci fic gr a vity r a n gi n g fr o m 0 87 8 wh ich is
, ,

tha t of sper m oi l the li ghtest of n a t u ral oils to 0 964 tha t

, , ,

o f c a stor oil the he a viest o f n a t u r a l oils

,
In w a ter they ar e .
 SO AP FA T S AN D O IL S . 55

q u ite in solu ble ; on sh a ki n g u p with it they form a n em u l

si on i n which the O i l is di st r ib u ted t h r o u ho u t the body o f
g
the wat er i n the fo r m o f m i n u te glob u les ; on st a n di n g the ,

oil r ad u a lly sep a r a t es o u t a n d rises to the s u r fa ce They

g .

impart a gre a sy st a i n to p a per c a u si n g it to beco m e m ore

,

or l ess tr a n sp a r e n t ; thi s st a i n is perm an en t They a r e .

readi ly sol u ble i n ethe r chlo r o form

,
c a r bo n bis u lphide tu r
, ,

p en ti n e petrole
,
u m spi r it be n zol
, ; i n a lcohol thei r sol u bility

vari es ve r y m u ch ; c a sto r oil is r e a dily sol u ble ; li n seed oil

is solu ble i n a bo u t te n ti m es its vol u m e o f st r o n g a lcohol ,

whil e th e sol u bility o f t a llow oil is bu t sli ght ; a gre a t de a l

depen ds u po n the fr eedo m o f the O i l fr o m a cidity which i n ,

crease s its s o lu bi li tv i n a lcohol .

On bei n g he a ted to 5 00 to 600 F a hr they decom pose

° °
.
,

and u n der or di n a ry a t m osphe r ic press u r e they c a n n ot be dis

tilled u n ch a n ged a t a r ed u ced p r es s u re a n d with the a i r o f

su er he a ted ste a m they m a be d istille d The p od cts f

p y r . u o

decom positio n a r e r a the r v a r i a ble b u t i n cl u de w a te r c a r

, ,

bonic a cid a crolei n a cetic a cid seb a cic a cid etc

, , , , .

Th e O ils a r e co m po u n ds o f t h e th r ee ele m e n ts c ar b on ( C ) , ,

hydrogen ( H ) a n d oxy ge n
,
the propor tio n s v ar yi n g in
differ en t oils ; fo r li n seed O i l t hese a r e — c a r bo n per ,

cent hydro gen r ce n t n d oxy e n ce t

.
, p e a .
, g p e r n , .

When boiled with c a u stic sod a c a u stic pot a sh or li m e , , ,

they ar e decom po sed a n d two bodies ar e for m ed one gly c e ,

rine the other the fam ili a r a r ticle so a p ; this oper a tio n is
,

—
known a s s a p on i fic a ti on bu t o f this m o r e her e a fte r .

On expos u r e to a i r a ll oils beco m e m o r e or less oxidised

some s u ch a s O live oil a n d l a r d oil a r e bu t sli htly a ffected ;
, , g
these a r e kn own a s the n o n d r yi n g oils
-
while li n seed oil
and so m e other oils o n expos u r e to the a i r d lly beco m e
.
g r a u a

hard dr y a s it i s c a lled ; the s e a r e k n ow n a s the dr yi n g

oils Ther e is n o h a r d or sh a r p li n e between the s e two
cl asses of oi ls ; the t r a n sitio n is ve r y r a d u a l betwee n s a y
g , ,
 56 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

S pe rm an d olive oils which a r e types of

,
d yi n g oils no n - r ,

t hr o u gh cotton seed oil a n d n i ger seed oil p a r ti a lly dryin g

- -
,

oils to linseed oil a n d poppy seed oils types o f the dryi n g

,
-
,

oils This p r operty of dr yin g has a m a teri a l i n fl u en ce o n the

.

u ses to which the O ils a r e u t i n pr a ctice : the n on dryin g -

p .

oils fin d extensive u se i n l u bric a tin g m ach i n ery the p a rti a lly ,

d r yi n g oils a r e u sed a s food oils while the dr yi n g oils a r e

,

u sed p r i m a r ily a s i n ti n oils E ven in so a p m a kin g th e -

p a g .

d r yi n g oils ar e th e be st for m a ki n g so ft soap while the n o n ,

dr yi n g o ils m a ke th e best h a r d so a ps .

Two other ki n ds o f oil a r e com m o n ly di stin gu ished in

co m m erce ; these only rese m ble the oils proper in their a p
e a r a n c e ; the esse n ti a l oils a r e a lm ost e n tirely derived fro m
p
veg eta ble so u rces a n d it m a y be m entioned i n p a ssi n g th at
,

a pl a n t m a y yield both a n esse n ti a l oil a n d a n o r di n a r y fa t

oil ; to the essenti a l O i l it owes its ch a r a c teristic odou r a n d

t a ste the essenti a l oil o n ly exists in s m a ll qu a ntities wh ile ,

the fa t oil m a y occu r in l a r ge propor tion T h e essenti a l O ils .

—
v a r y in speci fic gra vity very m u ch s o m e a r e li ghte r others ,

a r e he a vie r t h a n w a ter i n which so m e ar e sli g h tly sol u ble ;

,

they a r e solu ble in alcohol a n d other solvents a n d a s a ru le ,

they c a n be distilled w itho u t decom position ; a lk a lies h a ve

little or n o a ction on them they cont a in carbo n hydr o g en , ,

and oxy gen bu t the propo r tio n of the latter ele m e n t is less
,

th a n i n the fixed oils ; these a r e u sed in so ap m a kin g to -

i m p a r t a perfu m e to so a p .

The second cl a ss of oils re fe r r ed to above a r e the so called -

hydr oc a rbon or m i n er a l oil s derived fr om the S cotch p ar a ffi n

sh a le a n d Am eric a n or R u ssi a n petrole u m ; these oils ar e
li ghter th a n water h a ve an oily a ppea r a nce will give a p e r
, ,

m a nen t s t a in to p a per ; they a r e insol u ble i n w a ter a n d

a lcohol t h ey can be distilled witho u t deco m p ositi o n a r e n ot
, ,

a cted on by c a u stic a lk a lies a n d a r e co m posed onl y o f carbon

a n d hydro g en whence they ar e called hydroc a rbo n O ils ;

,
 GLY C E R I N E . 57

these sed in soap m a kin g

ar e n ot u -
, bu t fin d a m ost extensiv e
use in lu bri catin m achinery
g .

CO M P O SITI O N I
O F O L S AN D F AT S .

It h a s been m entioned a bove th a t oils when they a r e

—
boiled with c a u stic sod a form two bodies so a p and glycer ine .

G lyceri ne is a water whi te very viscid liqu id h a vi n g a

-

speci fic r a vity wh en p u re o f b u t it h a s s u ch a n
g
affin ity with w a ter th a t it is di ffi c u lt to ob tain absol u te ly a n

hydr ou s g lyceri ne and the ordi n a r y co m m ercial glycer i n e

,

g en erally has a speci fi c gravity o f to 1 2 6 3 and cont a i ns ,

a little w a ter It has a s weet t a ste a n d was ori ginally kn own

.
,

in co n sequ en ce a s the sweet spirit o f oils and in th e gly ,

cerine i n du st r y the cru de m a teri a l is k n own a s the sweet

water W ith water it m ixes in a ll proportions The fol .

lowing t a ble sho wi n g th e s peci fic gravities and stren gths of

vario u s m ixt u res of these two liq u ids will be fo u nd u sefu l

TABLE O F SP E C I FI C GR AV ITIE S AN D STR E NG T H S OF AQUE O U S

S O L UTI O N S O F G L YC E R I N E .

S p ec ifl g
ra v i ty P t f Sp i fi g i ty P t f er ce n o
1 5g
a
er ce n o ec c ra v
gly i gly i
. .

cer ne .I C 5° . cer ne .

1 2 650 1 00 1 1 990
°
75
1 2 62 5 99 70
98 1 17 15
°

65
97 60
96 1 1 4 3C
°
55
95 1 1 2 90
°
50
94 45
1 2 47 3 93 40
92 1 088 5 35
1 2 42 1 91 1 07 50 30
1 2 39 5 90 1 06 2 0 25
1 2 34 1 88 1 0490 20
86 1 0365 15
84 1 0 2 40 10
82 1012 0 5
80

G l y c e r ine
is a lso sol u ble in alcohol bu t only sli gh tly so in ,

ther
e . A mixtu re of equ al volu m es of chloro form and a lcohol
58 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

dissolves it bu t it is ins o l u ble i n chloroform ben zen e petro

, , ,

leu m spir it and Oils It is a powerfu l solvent for s a lts etc

.
,
.
,

bei n g n e arly equ al to w a ter i n this respect .

It is com posed of carbon hydro gen and oxygen in the, ,

proportions indicated by the form u la CsH BOs ; in its rel a tion

ships i t belon gs to th e a lcohol grou p of organ ic com po u n ds ,

h a s b a sic properties a n d with the m onoba sic a cids s u c h as

,

hy drochloric acid oleic a cid ste a ric acid it is c a p a ble of

, , ,

form i n g co m po u n d s co n t a i n i n g o n e two or thr ee eq u iv a lents

, ,

o f the a cids the co m po u n d co n t a inin g t h ree eq u iv a lents bein g

,

the n orm a l one ; hen ce glycer ine m u st be a trib a sic a lcohol

cont a ini n g th ree equ iva len ts o f the radicle hydroxyl O H an d , ,

therefore h avin g the form u l a

O,H , OH

an d is essential ly the h ydr oxide of the radicle glyceryl .

It m ay be m entio n ed th a t a lth o u gh by a looseness o f ex

pression which is very com m o n glycerine is often spoken of ,

a s th e b a se of the oils a n d fa ts yet glycerine a s s u ch doe s n ot

,

exist in the O ils bu t is form ed d u rin g the v ar io u s proces ses of

,

sa p o n ific a ti o n by the co m bi n a tion of the re a l b a se gly c eryl ,

C H s with the r a dicle hyd r oxyl

s ,
The oils a n d fa ts are s alts
.

o f this b a sic radicle glyceryl H eated with stron g s u lp h u ric

.

a cid or with acid pot a ssi u m s u lph a te it is dehydr a ted a nd ,

a crolein (a crylic aldehyde ) C H C O H is evolved reco gnis a ble

, 3 s , ,

by its pecu liar odo u r .

N itric acid a cts o n it energetically form in g a v a riety ,

o f prod u cts ,
nitro glycerine oxa lic a cid glyceric a cid etc
-
, , , .
,

bei n g form ed accor di n g to the stren gth Of the a cid u sed an d ,

th e m a n ner in which the oper ation is carried ou t H eated .

with pot a ssi u m perm a n ga n a te in the presence o f c a u stic

pot a sh glycerine is co n verted into oxalic acid a n d c arbonic
,

a cid ; a n d a s this re a ction t a kes pl a ce in a de finite m a nner ,

 S O AP . 59

it is taken a dv a nt a ge of for the qu an tit a tive estim a tion of

g lyc e ri ne .

When glycer i n e is he a ted with orga nic a cids com binatio n

takes pla ce a n d ethers ar e form ed kn own as glycerides and
, ,

these have the speci a l term i n a tion i n a s a ceti n olein stea rin , , , ,

and p alm iti n with the p r e fix es m on o di a n d tr i to S how how

, , , ,

many equ iv a len ts o f the a ci d ar e com bined w ith one equ i

valen t of the b a se C hemi sts to S how the a n a lo gy between
.
,

g l yc er i n e a n d the a lcohols h a
,
ve g iven to it the sy ste m a ti c

nam e
g lycerol b u t it h a s been tho u ht better to u se the m ore
, g
famili ar n a m e glycer i n e he r e .

S OAP .

Som e o f t h e p r operties o f this the seco n d body form ed by ,

the actio n o f a lk a l i es o n the fa ts have been g iven a n d m or e

, ,

wi ll be give n a fter the fa ts the m selves h a ve been fu lly de

scribed .

So ap is to a m o r e or less de gree dependen t on the n a t u re o f

, ,

the fat s a n d on th a t o f the alk a li u sed sol u ble i n boilin g w a ter ; ,

if this sol u tio n be a llowed to cool it sets i n to a jelly like m a s s -

p r o vided th a t there be s u ffi cient so a p dissolved in the w a ter .

If the so a p be i gn ited it le a ves behi n d a bo u t 7 p er ce n t o f .

a white a sh co n sistin entirely o f c r bon a te o f the alk a li

g a a ,

soda or pot a sh u sed i n m a ki n the so p th u s provi n th t

g a
g ,a

soa is a n a lk a line co m po u n d
p .

If to a boilin g a qu eo u s sol u tion of s o a p a sli ght excess of

dilute s u lph u ric a cid be a dded the so a p is decom posed a n d
, ,

there is obt a i n ed a n a qu eo u s sol u tio n o f the s u lphate o f th e

alkali a n d a fa tty o r oily m a tte r r ises t o a n d form s a l a yer on
,

the su rfa ce of the liq u o r ; the ch a r a cter o f this l ayer of fa t

depen ds a gre a t de a l o n the fa t u sed i n the p r ep a r a tio n o f th e
soa
p, b u t is a s a r u le m ore solid
, ,
.

This fa tty m a tter a ltho u gh r e se m bli n g the fa t or oi l

,

from which the so a p h a s bee n m a de possesses very di ffer en t ,

p p
r o e r ties In
. speci fi c g r a vity it is li g hter th a n w a te r I t .
 60 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

is S ol u ble in petroleu m spirit ethe r ben zene a n d is dis

, , ,

ti n gu i sh e d fr o m fa t by bei n g sol u ble in a lcohol and glaci a l

a cetic a cid .

It is c a p a ble of com bi n ing with a n d neu tra li sin g c a u stic

s od a or c a u stic pot a sh r e fo r m i n g so a p which it will do i n
,
-
,

the cold It is a lso on he a ti n g c a p ab le of decom posi n g th e

.

c a r bon a tes of the a lka lies with the e volu tio n of carbonic
a cid
g a s a very ch a ra cte r istic fe a t u r e o f a cids
,
The fa tt y .

m a tter libe r a ted fr o m so a p by the a ctio n of s u lphu ric a cid is

th ere fore a cid in ch a ra cter a n d is the fa tty a cids of so a p .

A s so a p is form ed by the u n ion of a n a cid or a cids

with a b a se ( the a lka li ) it belo n gs to th e cl a ss of c o m
p o u nds k n own a s s a lts fo r the s a m e re a so n a s oils a n d fa ts ,

a r e co m po u n ds of a b a se g lycery l with these acid bodies

-
,

they m u st be s a lts too .

The a cid body obt a ined by the decom posi t io n of the s o a p

i s not a si m ple body bu t is a m ore or less co m plex m ixt u re
,

o f several fa tty a cids showi n g that the oils a r e co m po u n ds

,

o f two or m o r e glycer i des The resea rches of Chevreu l a n d

.

o thers on the oils h a ve reve a led the existence o f a l a r g e

n u m ber of fa tty acids ; so m e of these oleic ste aric pal m itic , , , ,

a r e presen t i n v a r io u s proportions in m ost oils ; as for e x ,

a m ple ricinoleic a cid in c a stor O i l a r a chidic a cid i n ar a c h is

, ,

(g ro u n d n u t
-
) O i l doe g lic a
,
cid in sper m oil brassic a ci d in ,

r a pe oil etc , These fa tty a cids are m onoba sic a cids and t he
.
,

g lyce rides p r esent in the O ils co n t a in on e equ iv a lent o f the

b a se to three eq u iv a lents o f the fa tty a cids .

The fa tty a cids so far known belon g to fiv e gro u ps ; w h i ch

fro m th a t o f the m ost i m port a n t m em ber o f the se ri es m a y
be c a lled the ste a ric oleic li n olic linolen ic an d rici n ol e ic
, , ,

g ro u ps .The v a r io u s m e m be r s o f these gr o u ps while di ff e r ,

i n g fro m o n e a n other i n the proportion o f c a rbon hydro ge n , ,

a n d oxy en they contai n i n their speci fic gr a vities m elti n

g , g ,

p oi n ts , co m bini n g eq u iv a le n ts yet possess a fa m i l

,
y r ese m
 FA TT Y AC ID S . 61

blance i nthe m a nner i n which they u ndergo decom positio n

and com bi n e with v a r io u s o t her bodies in a si m il a r w a y .

T R I C SE R I E S OF FATT Y AC I D S
TH E S E A .

C 1
G l f m l 000
e n era or u a
u .

Form ula g
C om b i n i n Oils a nd fa ts in w ic h h
Name . .

l
eq u i va en ts . f ou nd .

B u t te r .

W ha l e o il, o i l va e l
ri a n r o o t .

°
2 00 C .

2 12 C
°
.

V l ti l i d f
ggm
o a e ac s ou n d
M g i n t c oc on u O i l,

p l m k a l er n e o il,
H 08H 1 502 °
15 O e tc
C
.

H C,H ,,O2
°
12 5 .

H CmH mO2 3C C
°
.

G er a n i u m o il, o i l o f
c h a u lm u gr a
Coc1mc H O 1H
1 2 1 O 2
35 0
0
°
ru e ,
O i l, o i l o f Ca li for
n i an
ba y -t r e e .

Coc o n u t o i l, p a m l
k
er n e o i l, a u re l l l
Oil .

N u tm eg O i l, c oc o
n u t o i l, pa lm - k er
n e l oi l .

l
P a m oi l,J a p a n w a x .

l
O i v e oi l .

T ll
a o w , c ott on -see d

oi l .

G r ou n d -n u t o il .

B f
e e m a rr o w .

B e n o i l, ac mus bl k
t a r d oi l .

B h
eec w oo d t ar
ll
D i s ti a t e
b row n c oa l .

B ee s wa x , S p er m a
’

c e ti .

B ee s
’
wa x .

Th is series is a lso kn own a s the a cetic ser ies a cetic a cid ,

being,
perh a ps th e m o st i m port a n t m em ber of th e series
, ,
62 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

a lt h o u gh it is not known to be present in oils a n d fa ts bu t is ,

o ften a produ ct of their decom position They a r e s a tu r a ted .

a cids a n d will not co m bi n e directly with iodine or bro m ine ;

a disti n gu ishin g fe a t u re fro m the other series o f fa tty a cids .

—
The lower m em bers form ic a cetic propionic —a r e liqu ids
, , ,

vol a tile wi thou t decom position m iscible with wa ter a n d h a ve

, ,

a p u n gen t , a crid odo u r ; the next fe w m e m bers a r e m ore or

less oily in appea r a n ce ; those below th e eleve n th m e m ber ,

c o c i n i c a cid, a r e sol u ble i n w a ter a n d are h en ce k n own a s

,

th e sol u ble fa tty a cids a n d c a n be distilled witho u t ch a n ge

,

i n the presence of w a ter The hi gher m em bers of the series

.

a r e solid bodies whose h a r d n ess a n d m eltin g point i n c r e a se

,
-

with th e com plexity of their m olec u le t h ey ar e i n sol u ble in

w a ter a n d th ey c a nnot be disti lled in its presen ce H e a ted
, .

with solid c au stic a lk a lies they u n dergo no ch a n ge .

These a cids are m ore fl u id tha n th e correspo n din g a cids of

t h e ste a ric series W ith br o m ine or iodine they form a ddi
.

tive co m po u nds on e eq u iv a lent o f a cid t a kin g u p two

,

equ iv a len ts of brom in e or iodi n e form in g com po u n ds of the

,

type of br om o oleic a cid H C ISH 34B r Z O2 H e a ted with c a u stic

-
,

pot a sh to a tem pera tu re of 300 C they u ndergo deco m posi °

tio n pota ssi u m a cet a te a n d a pota ssi u m salt of a fa tty a cid

,

o f the ste a ric series bei n g for m ed This acid h a s two a to m s

.
_

o f c a r bon less th a n the ori g i n a l a cid th u s oleic a cid is con ,

verted into potassi u m a cet a te a n d p ota ssi u m p a lm i ta te

U n der cert a in con ditio n s som e of the acids give seb a cic
a cid the form a tio n o f which serves a s a disti n u is h i n test
, g g
fo r o leic a cid a n d the hi gher a cids of this series .

O n e very ch a r a cteristi c r e a ctio n o f the oleic series is the

con version by m e a ns of n it r o u s a cid into a m ore solid b u t
isom eric com po u nd : th u s oleic gives el a idic a cid ; hypog aeic
a cid g a i di c a cid
, This r e a ctio n a lso occ u rs with the glyc eri d es
.
,
 FATTY AC ID S . 63

and isvery u sefu l m e an s of detectin g the presence

a of m u ch
olei n a n d its ho m olo g u es in oils .

OL E C SE I RIE S OF F ATT Y AC IDS .

C n H, n 1
G en e r a lf o r m u la
CO O H .
.

For mu la M e l ti n g C om bi n i n g h h fou nd
.
poi n t . l
eq ui va en ts .
O i ls i n w i c .

P r od u c ed y d e c om po si b
ti on of O i s l .

C ro t on o il
l
An ge i c a O 1 I .

Oil O f ben .

h
E a rt n u t O il .

P r od u c ed r om yp go ae i f
c h
aci d b
y n i t r ou s ac i d .

Sp er m oi l .

P r od u c ed fr o m p h y setolei c
ac i d b
y n i t r ou s a c i d .

l
All oi s a n d a ts f .

P r od u ced r om o ei c ac i d f l
b
y t h e a c t i on o f n i tr o u s
a c id .

B ttl o en ose O il .

P r od u ce d ro m d o eg i c f l
a cid b
y th e ac ti o n o f
n i tr ou s a c i d .

M u st a r d oi s , g pr a e l
se ed O il .

P r od u c e d r om e ru c i c f
aci d b
y t h e a c ti o n o f
n i tr ou s a c i d .

11 02 2 3 0
R a p e a n d c o z a oi s l l .

B r a s sa i d i c 11 2
P rod u c ed r om r assi c f b
ac i d b
y th e ac ti on O f
n i tr o u s ac i d .

The lea d s a lts of th e oleic fa tty a cids a r e sol u ble i n ether ,

W h ile the lea d s a lts of the ste a ric fa tty a cids a r e i n sol u ble in

t h a t s olvent .

L I N O L I C S E R I E S O F F ATTY AC I D S .

C H 3
G l f m l CO O II
en e ra or u a
n n
z .
.

This series o f fa tty a cids a r e few i n n u m ber : they a r e

c h a r a c te r ised by re a dily co m bi n in g with bro m i n e or iodi n e i n
64 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

the proportion o f either two or six equ iv a lents of th e h a lo g e n

ele m en t to on e equ iv a len t of the fa tty a cid .

N am e . F orm u l a .

They a re n ot a ffected by n itrou s a cid ; their lea d s a lts a r e

sol u ble i n ether .

M y r isto li c a cid H C I 3H 2 302 p a lm i to li c a cid H C 1 6H 2 7 0 2 ;

, ,

ste a r olic a cid H C I SH mO z a r e isolo gou s a cids for m ed by th e

, ,

a ctio n o f c a u stic pot a sh o n th e di br om o der iv a tives of th e -

correspon di n g a cids of the s te a ric ser ies

H C ISIE
I 33 B r2 02 2 K OH H CISH SI O, 2 11 2 0 2 KBR .

L I N O L E N I C SE R I E S OF FATTY AC IDS .

Cn H 6
G lf m l
en er a or u a
GO C
n
T
I .
.

Ac i d . For mu la .

O c c u r s i n i n se ed l Oi l a n d
h
ot e r d r yi n g o i s l .

These a cids a r e ch a ra cter istic o f d r yi n g oils h a ve a gre a t ,

a ffin ity for iodi n e a n d bro m i n e a n d a r e re a dily a cted o n by

hyd r olytic a gen ts s u ch a s a lka li n e per m a n gan a te of pot a sh

, ,

bei n g con verted i n to hydroxy a cids .

R I C I N OL E I C S E R I E S O F FATTY AC I D S .

C H 1 OH
G l f m l CO O H n n
°

2
.

en e r a or u a
.

N am e . For m ula .

HC mO H O2
H C,8H 3,O H O2
P r e sen t i n c a st o r oi l.

II CJmH SQ O H O2 F ou n d in r a p e an d co z a O i s l l .
 FA TTY A C ID S . 65

These a cids a r e h ydroxy a cids m onob a sic e a sily com bi n e, ,

w i th b a ses to fo r m very sol u ble so a ps co m bine re a dily with ,

bro m i n e a n d iodi n e a r e sol uble i n a lcohol a n d ether bu t

, ,

n o t i n petrole u m oils Nitro u s a cid co n ver ts the m into el a idic

.

a cids .

H a vi n g so fa r de a lt with the fa tty a cids a n d the b a se ,

g lyceryl the
, g ener a l co m positio n o f the oils a n d fa ts m a y now

be de a lt with i n det a il a n d thei r deco m position by a lka lies

,

fu lly poi n ted ou t .

G lycer i n e bei n g a tr ib a sic r a di cle a n d the fa tty a cids ,

W itho u t exception m onob a sic a cids it follows th a t the ,

n o r m a l com po u nd o f these bodies m u st cont a i n on e equ i

valen t of th e b a se with t h ree eq u iv a lents of the a cid Th u s .

olein ste a rin p a lm iti n la u r i n a n d li n olein to t a ke the fiv e

, , , , ,

m o s t c o m m on a n d im port a n t glycerides u sed in so a p m a ki n g .

-
,

h a v e the followi n g form u l ae

0
O l ei n , 03H 5 C
C
C
Stea r i n , 03H 5 C
C

l
P a m i ti n , C,,H ,s

L a u r i n , O,,H 5

Lino l ein , O3H 5

O il s and fa ts ar e m ixt u res

t hese a n d other g lycerides
of .

S o m e cont a i n only two othe r s a m u ch l a rger n u m ber

, It .

w i ll b e m ore convenien t to st a te the co m positio n when deal

i n g wi th e a ch i n divid u a l oil a n d fa t .

W h en th e glycerides ar e boiled with c au stic sod a or c a u stic

t a sh ( so di u m or pot a ssi u m hydroxide ) the stro n ger b a se
p o ,

c o m bi n e s with th e fa tty a cid to form a so a p while the ,

l c e r yl co m bi n es with the hydrox y l to fo r m glycerine as

g y ,

i llu s tr a ted by the followi n g equ a tions

5
 SO AP MANUFA C T URE
OH
3N a O H

S od i u m
C3H 5 OH
OH
G lyce ri n e
} 3N a CIBH 3302

S odi u m l
o ea te
.

p)
.

O lei n . h y d ro x i d e .
( ha rd soa .

18
H 0
31 2

18 31 2
P o tassi u m .

Li no lei n . h
yd rox id e .

These two equ a tions with o f co u r se a n y necess a r y a ltera , , ,

tio n s represe n t the a ction o f sodi u m a n d pot a ssi u m hydroxides

,

on a ll fa ts a n d oils The process is ter m ed sap on i fic a ti on

.
,

a n d on the principle here ive n the O per a tio n o f so a p m a ki n g -

g
is b a sed .

C hem ists pe r ceive in th ese re a ctio n s the p r i n ciple o f th e

sep a ra tio n of a glyceride into its two a pproxi m a te com po n ent s ,

g lycerine a n d a cid a n d a s this c a n be bro u h t a bo u t by other

, g
m e a n s a s by the a ge n cy o f s u perhe a ted s t e a m whe n th e
,

bodies a r e directly form ed they i n cl u de u n der the term ,

sa p o n i fic a ti o n a n y process which splits a n oil u i n to lyceri ne

p g
a n d fa tty a cid .

O CC U RRE N CE O F AN I M AL AN D VE GE TABL E I
O L S AN D FAT S .

1 AN I MAL FAT S
. .

In the a n i m a l body ar e co m p ar a tively l a r ge deposits of

fa tty m a tter N e a r ly a ll the i n ter n a l o r ga n s a r e cove r ed
.

with a co a t of fa t I n a n d a bo u t the joi n ts of th e bo n es

.

deposits of fa t occ u r The m u scles a r e a lso sep a ra ted from

.

o n e a n other by l a yer s o f fa t I n so m e c a ses these deposits .

o f fa t ar e o f p a r tic u l a r n ote T his is t h e c a se with w h a t is .

kn o w n to a n a to m ists a s om en tu m o f a n i m a ls a l a yer o f fa tty

'

m a tter which covers the i n testi n es k n own com m only by ,

v a rio u s n a m es le a f i n the c a se of the pi g skin i n th e ,

c a se o f sheep a n d oxen Th e bodies o f whales a n d se a ls a r e

.

covered w ith a thick l a yer o f fa t k n ow n a s the bl u bber ”

.

T h e fa t occ u rs i n the a ni m a l body en closed i n s m a ll ce ll s of

a n i m a l tiss u e i n a liq u id co n ditio n so th a t it does n ot i n ter ,
 OCC URRE N C E OF FAT S AN D I
O LS . 67

fere wi th the m otions of th e body It is m aintained i n this .

liquid conditio n by th e nat u ra l hea t of the body W h en the .

ani mal di es the body beco m es cold a n d the fa tt y m atter sets ,

into a solid m a ss to wh ic h circu m st a nce is du e the sti ffness

,

or ri gor m or ti s o f de a d bodies .

The pu r pose of fa tty deposits in th e anim a l kin gdom i s

threefold F irst it preserves , especi a lly in the case of th e
.

omen tu m the intern a l orga ns fro m inj u ry and serves to lu b r i

,

cate th em i n th eir vario u s m otions It serves as a s tore of .

warmth for the bod y ; also a s a store o f food .

2 . VE G E TABL E O I L S AN D F AT S .

In the veget a ble kin gdom oils a n d fa ts occ u r in a v a riety

of ways .A ll seeds cont a in Oi l to a greater or less extent ,

some as m u c h a s 60 per ce n t This oil a cts as a food for .

the you n g pl a nt u nti l it re a ches s u ch a period o f its gr owth

that it c an extr a ct its s u sten a nce fro m the earth The pu lp .

of cert ai n fru i t s e lives oil p l n ts contai s oo

g O ,
a m .u .
, ,
n a g d-
,

deal of oil The veget a ble oils here referred to ar e th os e

.

fixed or fa tty O ils and not the essenti a l oils to which in

, ,

many ca ses a n y p a rtic u l a r odo u r or t a ste of the pl a nt is du e .

EX T RAC TI O N AN D P U R I F I CATI O N O F AN I M AL AN D
VE GE TABL E O I L S AN D FAT S .

It is obviou s that a s the circu m st a n ces u n der which a n y

pa rtic ula r a n i m al or ve g et a ble oil occ u r s are so v a ried th e

methods a dopted for the p u r pose o f extracti n g t h em m u st be

varied also A process which will work well with say the
.
, ,

fat of the p i g wo u ld not s u it the bl u bber o f the wh a le or the

,

oil fro m the O live Sp a ce will n o t per m it of a very exten ded

.

description of a ll the processes which h a ve b een devised for

the extr a ctio n of a ni m a l a n d veget a ble oils a n d fa ts ; bu t o f
those w hi ch ar e in co m m on u se a fu ll description will be
g iven , w h ile other processes o f o n ly speci a l interest will be
not ed in o u t li n e .
 68 S O AP MANUFAC T URE .

I MAL FAT S AN D OI L S
1 . AN .

T h e opera tio n of extr a cti n g the ani m al oils a n d fat s ,

s u ch a s t a llow a n d l ar d is gen era lly known a s ren der i n g

,
“ ”
.

It m a y be c a r ried on i n v a rio u s w a ys T h e principle which .

u n derlies a ll the m ethods is th a t o f liber a ti n the f tty

g a

m a tter from th e a ni m a l tiss u e in which it is en veloped by

m ean s of h eat This c a u ses the fatty m atter to swell an d
.
,

in so doin g it b u rsts the en velope of tiss u e a n d is th en

re a dy to flow a way W e m a y c a rry this opera tion ou t by :
.

l st di r ect h eat ; 2 n d boili n g in water ; 3r d ste am u n der

, , ,

press u re .

R E N DE R I NG B Y D I RE C T H E A T — T h e h o u sewi fe renders
.

her l a rd or su et b y pl a ci n g the ro u gh fa t in a tra y or di sh

i n the oven It is sc a rcely possible to a dopt qu ite so si m ple
.

a system on th e lar e sc a le lt h o h one or two pl s

g a u g , a n

which will be described very closely resem ble the h ou s e

wi fe s pri m itive m ethod
’
.

A si m ple m eth od occ asion a ll y a dopted is to hea t the

ro u gh fa t in a large boiler over th e fir e The contents of .

th e boiler a r e kept co n ti n u a lly stirred and whe n it is con ,

si der e d that th e fa t h a s bee n freed fro m the tiss u e the fir e ,

is withdra wn a n d the fa t dra w n O fl into a sep a ra te recepta cle

’
.

This m eth od tho u gh sim ple is open to severa l objections

, , .

If gre a t care be not t a ken there is a liability to ch a r th e fa t

or tissu e th e fat th ereby a cqu iri n g a discolou red a ppeara nce
,

an d a b u rnt odo u r N ot o n ly so b u t bad odo u rs a r e li a ble

.
,

to be given off du ri n g the O pera tion w h ich are a lso objection

able .

A m u ch better pl a n of rendering fats by dry or direc t

he a t is ill u strated in figu re 3 A large ch am ber is bu ilt of
.

su ch a size that a workm a n c a n conveniently enter it In .

this are a r ran ged on ea ch side rac kwork shelves pl a ced in

a n i n clined position tow a rds the c entre of th e ch a m ber On .

th e floo r of the ch am ber ar e a n u m ber of ste a m pipes for

 RE NDE R I NG AN I MAL FA T S . 69

the pur pose hea tin g the ch am ber to any requi red degree
of .

The fat is cu t u p into s m all fra gm ents by m e a n s of a m in c

ing machine a n ,d spread in lay ers o n m etallic tra ys wh ich in ,

turn are placed on th e s h elves i n the c h a m ber A t th e lower .

end of ea ch tr a y is a n openin to per m it f f t r nnin

g o a n
y a u g
out in to t ters which are arr n ed for the pu rpose th ese
gu , a g ,

gutters c on v e yi m g the fa t in to a stora g e t a n k placed in a

F IG . 3
. T ll
a ow R e n d er i n g h
C am b er.

t ble position W h en all the S helves are filled with trays

sui a .

of fat th e door of the ch a m ber is closed and ste a m sent into

,

the pipes wh ereby the cham ber is he a ted to fro m 1 30 to

°

140 F At th is h e a t th e fa t m elts a n d ru ns ou t W h en it
°
. .

is Seen th a t no m ore fa t is bein g obtained the steam is

8to ped the m elted fa t in the tr a ys is a llowed to ru n ou t
p ,

and the resid u a l tiss u e re m oved a n d the trays filled u fo r

, p
anoth er renderin
g A s the
. resid u a l tiss u e s till co n t a ins so m e
70 SO AP M ANUFA C T URE .

7 or 8 per cen t of fa t it is sen t to a nother p a n for the p u r

.
,

pose oi extra cti n g this resid u al fa t The a dv an ta ge o f this .

process which h a s been devised by M e ssrs C ook

, H a ll .

o f the E a s t L ondon S o a p W orks is th a t it yields a fa t o f ,

very pu r e qu a lity O n the other h an d it is ra ther m ore

.
,

costly to work th a n so m e other processes There i s th e .

l a bo u r of m i n ci n g th e ro u gh fa t a n d filli n g it i n to the tr a ys .

The cost of hea ti n g the ch a m ber is ra ther hi gh while the ,

yield is n ot so grea t better price is however obt a i n a ble

.

fo r the fa t.

F IG 4 . . Merr ywe a th er s F at ’
Re n d e ri n g P l an t .

M essrs M e r ry we a th er
. Sons h a ve d evised
pl a n t fo r a

th e dry r en deri n g o f ro u gh fa ts b y s u perhe a ted ste a m wher e

by the over hea ti n g of the fa ts is a voided This co n sists o f .

three p a rts F irst a do u bl éc a sed or j a cketed boiler i n whic h

,
-

the fat is he a ted th e ste a m bei n g sent i n to the sp a ce b e

,

tween th e two p a n s ; seco n d a s u perhea ter which is h e a ted ,

in a s u it a ble fu rn a ce for su perhe a ti n g th e ste a m a n d third , ,

a ste a m boiler .This a pp a ra t u s is very e ffi cient i n u se It .

is shown i n figu re 4 w her e H represe n ts the fa t p a n ; B

,
 I N IV E R S IT ‘

h
OF
4

RE ND E R I NG A 71

th e steam boiler A th e s u perhe a ter co n sistin g of a num ber

, ,

of n sh aped pipes i n a fu rn ace ; D i s th e ste a m pipe ; C ,

ch im n ey I n a ll the dry system s of renderin g fa t s th ere is

.

left behi n d the a ni m a l tissu e or as it is c a lled the gre av es

, , ,

or cra c kli n gs W ith the best system of rend eri n g th e fa t ,

these a lwa ys cont ain a cert ain proportion of fa t which it is

desira ble fro m eco n o m ic a l m o tives to recover T h is m ay .

be done i n severa l w a ys .

O n e of the m ost com m o n m ethods o f recoveri n g the fa t

fr om grea ves is by s u bjecti n g t h e m to p r ess u r e i n a press .

On e ver y co n ve n ient press for this p u rpose is the Boom er

Screw J oi n t P ress .

A con ven ient for m of this p r ess is m a de for fat renderers .

It consists of a rou n d table with corru gations and provide d ,

with a lip fro m wh ich the pr essed fa t c a n flow This is su p .

ported ou a stron g iro n ca st in g O n the t a ble is fitted a c a sk

.

m a de i n two h a lves workin g o n a h in ge with the object o f

,

ena bli n g it to be rea dily dis c ha r e d

g A pl u n er co n n ected
g
with the screw ge a r fits th e c a sk The Boo m er pr ess h a s a
.

right a n d left h a nded scre w the n u ts wo r kin g on which a r e

-
,

co n n ected with th e p r ess pl u n er ; the revol u tion o f the sc r ew

g
c au ses the n u ts to t r a vel inw ar ds a n d thu s by a kn u ckle joi n t
,

for ce the pl u n ger downw a rds with So m e force T h e gre a ves

.

or cra cklin g s while still hot a r e pl a ced in the c a sk a n d the

press brou ght i n to a ctio n T h e fa t is pressed ou t while th e

.
,

residu al gre a ves a r e collected a n d sold for do gs food or for ’

man u re .

RE ND E R I NG B Y B O I L I NG W A T E R — A very old pl a n of
renderin g t a llow is to boil it i n a n O pen boiler set in a fir epl a ce
like an ordin a ry ho u se h old wa sh in g boiler a lo n g with w a ter .

Th e h ea t o f the boili n g wa ter c a u ses the fa t to exp a nd a n d

melt an d flow fro m the greaves Bei n g li ghter th a n w a ter
.
,

it collects o n th e top of the boili n g water a n d shou ld be ,

ski mm ed O S fro m ti m e to ti m e The gre a ves fa ll to the

.
72 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

botto m of the boiler Som e of the a ni m a l tiss u e p a ss e s i n to

.

sol u tio n h owever an d a little tends to ge t into the t a ll o w

, ,
.

This process is si m ple bu t it h a s the dis a dv a nt a g e o f

,

lea din g to the prod u ctio n of evil odou rs which ar e obj e c ti o n

a ble so th a t except fo r t r e a tin g s m a ll lots of fa t it is r a rely
,

resorted to h a vi n g been largely s u perseded by process e s fo r

,

renderi n g fa t with stea m u n der pressu r e .

Su ch a boi ler is s h ow n i n fig u r e 5 wh ich represen t s a n ,

F IG . 5 . F at B oi l e r .

i m proved form of constru ction The bottom 18 dou ble a n d

.
,

the Sp a ce thu s form ed is in co m m u nic a t i o n with the ou ter a i r .

By this m e ans the tem pera t u re of the bottom of the p an nev e r

g e t s too hi gh . The boiler is covered wi th a lid fro m one
p o r ,

tion of which a pipe co n veyin g the stea m etc p a sses i n t o , .

,

the chi m ney th u s car ryi n g ofi a ll v a pou r s a n d preventi n g

,

n u is a n ce
.

R E N D E R I N G F A T S UN D E R P RE S SUR E B Y STE AM —A ve r y
“

co n ven ient for m of pl a n t for this p u rp ose is shown in figur e 6 .

 RE N DE R I NG AN I MAL FA T S . 73

Th i s c o n s ists of a stea m boiler pl a ced vertic a lly a s shown ,

an d s u r ted n fl a n es n e a r its u pper po r tion The ro u gh

pp o o g .

fa t i s fe d i n thro u gh a m a n hole M pl aced on the top of th e

, ,

boiler o n w hich a lso is a safety v a lve S In the bottom is

, ,
.

pla ce d a p erfora ted stea m coil C connected with a steam pipe

, ,
-

an d v a l v e , V In the side of the boiler ar e pl a ced two ga u ge

.

F IG . 6 . F at B oi l e r .

or fl o w -o u tta ps T
, K,
lower
,
dow n is pl a ced a l a r g e v a lve R , ,

for r u n n i g
n o fl the m elted t a llow while a t the,
botto m o f the
boi l e r i s a nother v a lve T for r u nni n g off the w a ter etc
, , ,
.

Th s i boiler is u sed in the followi n

g m a nner : The cr u d e

fa t i s b r o ke n u
p i n to s m a ll pieces a n d fe d into, the boile r

th r o u g h t h e m an hole which is then closed W a ter is then

,
.
74 SO A P MANUFA C T URE .

run in ste am a t 60 lb press u re sent in throu gh t h e

, an d .

ste a m coil ; th is bei n g conti n u ed for fiv e to six ho u rs t h e ,

len gth of ti m e bein g re gu l a ted a cco r di n g to the a m o u n t o f

c h a rg e W hen th e opera tio n is fin ished the ste am is s h u t
.

F IG . 7 . Fat B il
o er .

o ff, co n tents a llowed to set tle t h en before the fa t h a s ti m e

th e ,

to get solid it is r u n O S fr o m the flow o u t t a ps I f necess a ry-

.
,

w a ter is r u n in to th r o w the fa t u p to the leve l o f the r u n

n i n g o ff t a ps
-
S o m e r en de r e r s will a fter t u r ni n g off th e
.
,
 RE ND E R ING AN I MA L FAT S . 75

s te a m ru n off all th e contents of th e boiler into a tank a n d

, ,

t h ere a llo w the fat to settle o u t and solidi fy when it can be ,

r em o v ed .

By u si n g s u ch a pl a n t a larger q u antity of fa t can be

,

rendered i n a given ti m e ; there is less ch a n ce of objection

a ble odo u rs a risi n g a n d th e yield o f rendered fa t fro m t h e
,

c r u de m a teri a l is better .

The a ppara t u s previou sly described is constru cted to

re n der the fats a t the o r din a ry press u re or a t a ll events a t ,

b u t sli ghtly i n c r e a sed press u re By em ployin g boilers which

.

a r e constru cted to work a t a hi gher press u re so m e a dvant a ges ,

a r e s e c u red the nitro geno u s tiss u e is m ore com pletely gel a

ti n i se d th ere fore the fa t is better sep a r a ted fro m the tiss u e
, ,

a n d so a gre a ter yield o f better q u a lity is obt a ined F i gu re .

7 represe n ts s u ch a n app a r a t u s wh ich m a y be b u ilt of a n y,

r e u ired size ; in so m e c a ses they ar e constru cted of a c a

q
p a c i ty o f ga llons A s will be.seen fro m the d r a wi n
g ,

it c on sists of an u pright boiler fitted on the top with a s a fety

,

v a lve m a nhole for ch a rgi n g a n d a st u ffi n g box thr o u gh

, , ,

w h i ch p a sses the rod o f th e disch argin g ori fice or v a lve .

T h ere is a fa lse botto m Between th e two bottom s is a steam

.

c o il con n ected by v a lve a n d pipe with a n ordin a ry ste am

b o iler .In the botto m is a disc h a rgi n g ori fice which is kept ,

c l o sed by a pl a te valve worked by a r od p a ssin g thro u gh the

t o p o f the boiler In th e side of the boiler is pl a ced a n u m ber

.

o f draw off cocks exte n di n g from n e a r the botto m to a bo u t

-
,

h a l f w a y u p while ne a r the top is a testi n g cock

-
,
.

The app ar at u s is u sed i n the followi n g m a n ner : The

d i s ch a rgi n g v a lve is closed a n d ro u gh fa t is thrown i n thro u gh
,

t h e m a n hole u ntil the boiler i s filled to wit h i n a bo u t 2 ; feet

fr o m the top T h e m a n h ole is the n closed a n d ste a m sent
.
,

i n u ntil a press u re of 4 5 to 69 lb is a tt a i n ed G enera lly a

. .

o o d deal of condens a tio n o f the ste a m occ u rs an d m u ch

g ,

w a ter is form ed wh ich collects a t the botto m o f the boi ler

,
.
76 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

F rom ti m e to ti m e th e top cock is Ope n ed I f live steam .

esc apes th e boiler is workin g ri gh t ; i f h owever fa t com e s

ou t then it s h ows th a t t h e boiler is too fu ll and th a t w a te r
, ,

m u st be drawn off from the lowest cock This is done from

.

ti m e to tim e du rin g the pro gress of the opera tion After .

abo u t t welv e to fift een hou rs ste am in g th e steam su ppl y i s

’

c u t off th e press u re i s relieved b y openin g the safety v a lve

, ,

and the contents of th e boiler allowed to settle W hen well .

FIG 8 . . Bon e Boi l er .

settled the water is r u n off while th e tallow is ru n into

,

storage tanks Th e aq u eou s li qu or contains a good deal of

.

nitro gen ou s m atter a n d it m a y be collected an d u se d as

,

m a n ur e W orkin g with this apparat u s there is a fa irly

.
,

g ood yield o f fa t or tallow fro m the c r u de m ateri a l .

TAL L O W
BO N E .

Bone s contain a good deal of fatty m att er whi c h it is ,

neces sary to extract be fore the bones can be u sed for other
 B O NE T AL L O W . 77

p u rp oses T h is bo n e fa t or a s it is com m only c a lled bone

.
, , ,

t a llow is ver y lar gely u sed i n m a king so a ps especially soaps

, . ,

wh ich ar e to be u sed for i n du stri a l p u rposes The si m plest .

p l a n is to a dopt a boili n
g process i n ope n vessels b u t s u c h ,

a pl a n is ope n to r e a t O bjectio n on a cco u n t o f the n a u seo u s

g
odo u r s which a r e developed there fore it is better to re n der
,

bo n e fe llow i n closed vessels by ste a m .

S u ch a n app ar a t u s for th e p ur pose is shown i n figu re 8 ,

a n d is co n stru cted by M r W M F uller It co n sists of

. . . .

a boiler m e a s u ri n a bo u t 6 fe e t by 3 feet 6 inches fitted

g ,

with hi n ged cover s a t bot h ends both of wh ich can be ,

ti gh tly closed by m e a n s of s u it a ble n u ts a n d bolts There .

a r e a lso provided steam con n ectio n s an d dra w O ff cocks - .

A ch arge of abou t 46 cwt of bones is pu t into the boiler

.

th r o u gh the u pper door w h ich is then closed

,
S te a m at .

abou t 50 to 60 lb . pressu re is th en i n trodu ced and kept ,

u p for a bo u t fort y mi n u tes whe n it is sh u t off

,
the excess
steam bein i n to a co n denser The co n te n ts o f the
g r u n .

boiler ar e now allowed to settle for h al f an ho u r when the ,

fat is r u n off thro u gh a c ook a t the botto m of the boiler .

T h e bo n es are dra wn ou t by O peni n g th e botto m of the

b oiler an d a llowi n g the m to drop on the floor This boiler .

e xtracts m or e fatty a n d el ti n o u s m a tter ou t of the bones

g a

th an do m ost oth er m odes of trea t m ent while the bon e s ,

ar e in a better con ditio n for bei n g converted i n to m an u re ,

being freer a n d therefor e m ore fri a ble .

In figu re 9 is sho w n a co m plete pl a n t for the boili n g a n d

c ru shin
g o f b ones
,
as co n stru cted by M r F u ller B is .a .

c r ushi n m ill to bre a k u p the bo n es prior to their bein g

g
p l ac ed in the bo n e boilers
,
E E ,
the cr
, u shed bo n es bei n
g c o n

veyed to the m by m e a n s o f elev a tors ; d d are the t a n ks to ,

r eceive th e liqu or fro m the bo n es which are p a ssed o n to the

,

crushin
g a n d sievi n g m ill ,
F where, they are cr u shed a n d

si eved prior to bein sent t bo n e m eal

g o u a s
78 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .
 EX TRAC TI O N OF VE GE T ABL E I
O LS . 79

O ther pl a n s of treati n g bones have bee n devi sed It i s .

quit e possible that no two bone boilin g est a bli shm ent s ar e -

arra n ged a like in t h eir pl a nt for extractin the f t a n d

g a

ge l a ti n e fro m bones .

I n one work s t h ey boil the bones i n p a n s over a fir e .

Th e p a ns ar e fitted with covers E a ch p a n co m m u n icates

.

by a flu e with a l a rge iro n condenser in which a ll th e m atter ,

whi c h is c a p a ble of conden sin g collects a n d flows away int o

su it a ble recept a cles A nythi n g which is u nco n densed p a sses
.

into a fin e a n d aw a y i n to the a t m osphere It wou ld be .

bette r to con d u ct a ll ga ses to th e firepla ces to bu r n u p all

tha t is com b u stible .

I n a n ot h er works they u se a bottle sh a ped boiler a n d ,

he ated by ste am both the fa t a n d the gela tine bei n g

,

recovered .

The processes described a bove a r e a pplic a ble for th e

extraction of a ll kinds of a n i m al fats an d ar e those u su ally ,

worked In som e cases a special pro c ess m a y be adopted

.

for speci a l fats ; a n y s u c h will be fo u n d described u nder their

respecti ve fats .

2 . VE G E TA B L E O IL S AN D FAT S .

There is a greater va riety in the m ethods O f extracti n g

O ils an d fa t s fro m ve get a ble so u rces th a n fro m ani m al
so u rces. The m et h od g e n e r a lly followed is to extract th e
oi ls by press u re i n so m e c a ses at the or di n ary tem per a tu re
, ,

i n oth ers a t a hi gher one S o m e ve get a ble fa ts a r e ex

.

tra cted by a process of boili n g with w a ter a s in th e case ,

o f ani m a l fat s , while the property o f su c h bo di es a s car

,

bo n bis u lphide be n zoline be n zol of readily dissolvin g oils i s

, , , ,

t a ken a dva nt a ge o f for O bt a ini n g ve get a ble O ils by a solvent

r oces s
p .

E XTRA C TI O N O F VE GE T AB L E O I L S B Y P RE S S UR E — The

p r oces s of extr a cti n

g ve g et a ble O ils by press u re is a very
80 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

a ncient on e a n d it is th e one co m m only followed by pe o ple

,

in a low st a te of civilis a tion L ike m a ny other m eth o d s .

i t has u n der go n e m a ny ch a n ges a n d develop m en ts fr o m

th e earliest ti m es to th e prese n t It is not intended h e re .

to enter i n to a disc u ssio n of th e Ch a n ges whi ch h a v e

taken place ; attention will ra ther be given to th e m et h o d s
now in u se i n this co u ntry I f any reader desires to kn ow .

s om eth i n g of the older m ethods h e is re ferred to C h a m b e r s s

’

E ncyc lop aedi a or to Sp on s D i c ti on a r y of E n gi n eer i n g

’
.

T h ere ar e two ch ie f m ethods O f pressi n g oils in u se in ‘

th is co u n try ; the oldest is gen erally known as the E n gli s h

s y stem the n ewest as the An glo Am erican system
,
- .

The E NGL I SH SY ST E M of oil pr essm g t akes place i n

s ever a l st a g es a s follows

F irst C ru sh in g
,
.

Seco n d G ri n din g
, .

Third H ea tin g
, .

F ou rth P ressi n g
, .

F i fth R efinin g
,
.

T h e re fin i n g of the O i l obt a i n ed b y carryin g ou t th e first fo u r

O peratio n s is the sa m e a s i n oth er processes O f extracti n g

O ils and wi ll be considered l a ter on

, .

F i r s t Cr us hi n g
,
— P rior to bein g s u b m itted to th e vari o u s
.

o peratio n s e n u m erated a bove the seed or o ther m ater i a l

,

is first su bjected to a cle an i n g process to free it from di r t ,

forei gn seeds etc which h a ve got into it a n d whi ch m i g h t

, .
,

interfere with the proper c a rr yi n g ou t of th e variou s (Oper a

tions or wi th the qu ality O f the oil wh ich is obtained The s e .

cleansin g processes co n sist essentiall y O f vvi n n ovvi n gs a n d

sievi n gs th ro u gh vario u s si z es of sieves E ven with all th e .

c are t h a t m a y be taken it is i m possible to co m pletel y free O i l

seeds from a ll oth er forei gn seeds so th a t com m ercially i t i s ,

dou bt fu l whether an absol u tely p u re oil exists .

T h e cru shin g m ills co n sist of an hori z ontal fr am e i n

 P RE SSING VE GE T AB L E I
O LS . 81

w h i ch are fixed two rolls one O f these is a bo u t fo u r feet in

d i a m eter the other one foot in di a m eter
, The larger roll i s.

th e dr ivi n g roll the s m a ller one revolvi n g by fr iction a ga in st

,

it The two r olls ar e c a u sed to press against one a nother

.

w ith so m e force by m e a ns O f screws a nd sprin gs workin g

a g a inst the be a r i n gs o f the rolls The seed is fed into a
.

hopper which delivers it between the p air O f rolls in i ts ,

F IG 10
. . h
O i l S ee d C r u s i n g M i ll .

p a s s a ge throu gh which it becom es cru shed A m ill will .

cr u sh abo u t 4 ton s of seed in a worki n g d a y of ten ho u rs It .

is o bvi ou s however th a t the qu a n tity a m ill will do will

, ,

v a r y with the ki n d of seed a n d other circ u m st a n ces It is .

u s u a l to r u n the m ill a t s u ch a speed th a t the l a r e roll m a ke s

g
fi fty six revol u tio n s per m i n u te
-
O n e o f these cr u shi n g m ills
.

w ill kee p two ordi n a r y sized press e s a t work

-
.

6
82 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

F i gu re 1 0 is a dr a wi n g of s u ch a m ill as described a b o v e ,

m ade by M essrs R ose D o w n s

.
,
Thom pson of th e O ld
F ou ndry H u ll to w hom the a u thor is i n debted for th e c n
, ,

r a vin g o f this a n d other O i l m a chi n e r y

g .

S eco n d ,Gr i n di n gr
—After bei n g cru sh ed the seed i s t h r o w n
i n to the h opper of a n edge r u nn er gri n di n g m ill a s s e e n in
-

F IG 1.
1
O il See d G r i n di n g M i ll .

fig u re 1 1 , which shows the con str u ctio n of s u ch m ills v e r y

well An oi l cr u shi n g m ill di ffer s from m ost other ed g e
.

ru n n er m ills i n h a vi n g a sh a llo w hopper T h e u s u a l si z e .

for the r u n n e r s is 7 feet i n d i a m eter a n d 1 6 i n ches thick a n d ,

they will weigh 6 to 7 to n s T h e drivi n g sh a ft m a kes sev e n

.

—
tee n r evolu tio n s p er m i n u te O n e of the se ed ge r u nn er mi ll s
.
 P RE S S I NG VE GE TAB LE I
O LS . 83

wi ll keep two presse s a t work T h e seed is grou nd for a period

.

o f twenty to twenty fiv e m in u t e s
- D u r in g the opera tion c a re i s
.

t a ken th a t every p a rt of the seed get s efli cien tly grou nd a n d it ,

is u s u a l to add fro m 2 to 3 per cent of wa ter du ring the gr ind

.

F IG 1 2 . . O i l S ee d H e a ti n g K ttl
e e.

in g to m oisten it a n d p u t the seed i n th e best con dition for

t h e s u cceedi n g oper a tio n s .

T hi r d H ea ti n g
,
— .After bei n g cru shed a n d gr o u n d the
s eed n ext u n dergoes a he a ti n g oper a tio n T his is n ow do n e .

i n a l a rge copper ste a m kettle show n i n figu r e 1 2 ,

T hi s .

k ettle v a ries i n size a cco r di n g to circ u m st a n ces q u a n tity of ,

s eed to be tre a ted etc,

I n a l a r g e oil m ill the kettle will be
.
84 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

5 feet in di a m eter a n d 2 feet 6 i n ches deep They ar e u s u a lly

'
.

jacketed so th a t they c a n be he a ted by stea m u p to a tem .

p e r a tu r e o f 1 6
°
0 to There is a lso a n a rr a n ge m e n t for

sen di n g stea m into the inside of the kettle a m on g the see d

which is being treated T his is very i m port a n t as th e
.
,

hea ti n g in the kettle ten ds to dry the seed a n d dry seed does ,

not give a good yi eld of oil The ti m e of he a ti n g v a rie s

.

som ewh a t a ccordi n g to circu m st a n ces bu t u s u a lly is a bo u t ,

twen ty to twen ty fi ve m i n u tes T h e kettle is a lw a ys fitted

-
.

with a n a git a ti n g app a r a t u s to en su re th a t every portio n of

the seed is u ni form ly he a ted O n e kettle of the di m en sion s
.

g ive n a bo ve will keep fo u r presses a t wo r k c a p a ble of t u r n

i n g ou t 6 tons of c a ke i n a d a y .

T h e previo u s O pera tions are p u r ely m ech a n ic a l i n their

effects bein g desi gn ed to get the seed i n to the be st possible
,

co n dition for yi eldi n g a ll the oil it con ta i n s The hea ti n g in .

the kettle h a s a com bined m echan ical a n d ch em ic a l e ffect .

The he a ti n g m or e com pletely bre aks u p the cells a n d t h u s ,

res u lts i n a m ore ready separ a tio n of the oil ; while a t the
s a m e tim e it le a ds to the co a g u l a tion of the a lb u m i n ou s a n d
other m a tters presen t i n the seed a n d so prevents the m fr o m
,

bein g pressed ou t a lon g with th e oil It is the gre a t object .

i n oil pressi n g to O bt a i n a n oil a s free a s possible fro m ex

tr a n e ou s ve getable m a tters the presence of which in oil
,

b r in gs a bou t its deco m position soo n er than wo u ld otherwise

be th e case .

F ou r th P r essi n g
,
— After bei n g he a ted the hot seeds are ,

pl a ced i n stro n g b a gs m a de of c a n v a s the u su al am o u n t i n ,

e a ch b a g bein g 8 lb or su fficien t seed th a t a fter pressi n g

.
,

the oil ou t there rem a i n s a c ake wei ghin g 8 lb The b a gs

'
.

a r e next e n c lo se d i n woollen covers a n d a r e the n wr a pped

,

agai n i n wh a t a r e c a lled h a i r s which ar e str o n g cloths

,

m a de of horse h a ir The c a kes of seed a r e n ow pl a ced be

.

tween the pla tes of th e press a n d s u bjected to press u re .

 P RE SSI N G VE GE TAB LE O LSI . 85

Beyond s u ch prim itive m eth o ds of pressi n g O i l as have

been in existence a n d still ar e in u se by u ncivili sed people ,

there h a ve been three ki n ds of press in u se

First S t a m per a n d W ed ge P ress
, .

Seco n d S crew P ress

, .

Third H ydr au lic P ress

, .

The fir st and seco n d have a l m ost gone ou t O f u se whi le n ow ,

only hydr a u lic oil presses a r e m ade A few words descriptive .

of t h em will however be u se fu l .

Th e S ta mp er a n d Wedge P r ess —This old form o f oil

p r e ss consists o f two por t io n s A c a st iron . box lon g

-
, ,

narrow , b u t deep is p r ovided ,

At one end is pl a ced a
.

p e rf or a ted iro n press plate ; a g a i n st this is p u t the b a g O f

seed ; n ext co m es a n other press pl a te followed by a piece O f ,

wood thicker a t the botto m th a n a t the top the n co m es th e

wed ge followed by a si m il a r piece o f wood to the foregoi n g
,
.

The other end is fitted u p i n the s a m e w ay Between the .

two sets is what is k n ow n a s a key a rr a n gem ent c o n sisti n g ,

of three pieces two pieces thicker a t the botto m th a n th e

,

top with a n inter m ediate piece the key s h a ped like a n i n

, , ,

verted wed ge The whole of this a rra n gem en t co n stit u tes

.

one p a rt The oth er portio n consists of two h ar dwood

.

st ampers w hich c a n be m a de to a lter n a tely fa ll u po n the

,

wedges with som e fo r ce th u s drivi n g the m fa rth e

,
r in an d
causi n the m to press the seed with so m e m o u n t o f press u re
g a ,

forcing ou t the O i l it co n t a i n s After fa lli n g on the wed ge

.

the st am per is r a ised u p re a dy for a n o ther drop W hen it .

is considered th a t a ll th e O i l h as bee n extr a cted a st a m per ,

is allo wed to fa ll u po n the key which loose n s the whole ,

arran em ent so th a t the b a s o f pressed seed the oil c a ke

g g ,

as it is n o w c a lled c a n be withdr a w n
,
T h e oil flows i n to .

a recept a cle i n the lo w er portio n of the box fro m w h e n ce ,

it i s trans ferred to a stora ge t a n k It is ob viou s of co u rse .

that th e prod u ctio n of oil i n a st am per pr ess is a lim ited

86 S O AP MAN UFA C T URE .

one Abo u t 1 2 cwt per day is a fa ir qu antity for a stam per

. .

press to tu rn ou t .

T he S cr ew P r ess — The screw press for oil has practically

.

g one ou t o f u se partly, beca u se it co u ld not be m ade stron g

enou gh for th e work a n d it wa s awkwa rd to work It , .

u s u a lly consisted o f a circ u l a r vessel in which a piston

w or ked u p a n d down To the piston was att a ched a stron g

.

screw worked by a lever The bags of seed were plac ed .

between the botto m of the vessel a n d the piston a n d the ,

scre w bei n g worked th e l a tter w as forced down there by ,

pressin g ou t the oil .

T he H y dr a u li c P r ess — All other for m s of oil presses h a ve .

been v irt u a lly su perseded by the hydrau lic oil press of which ,

there are several m a kers The det a ils of the con str u ction of .

the press h ave u ndergon e m a n y changes since it w a s first

a dopted for oil pressin g an d the m ost m odern form is ,

cap a ble o f t u rnin g ou t m o r e work and obt a ining better .

produ cts th an th e older ones It will be m ore convenie n t .

to defer a descriptio n of the hydrau lic O i l press u ntil a n .

a cco u n t o f the An glo A m eric a n s y ste m is given - .

The ANGL o A M E R I CAN S YSTE M of oil pressing w as i n tro

-

du c ed into this co u ntry by M essrs R ose D owns T hom p .

,

son who h ave since its introd u ction greatly developed it

, , , ,

a n d m a de m a ny im pro vem ents o n the m achinery .

T h e A n glo Am eric a n system requ ires five O per a tions

-

First C ru sh in g
,
.

S eco n d H eatin g
, .

Third M o u ldin g
,
.

F o u rth P ressin g
,
.

F i fth R efinin g
,
.

F i r st Cr u shi n g
,
— After the seed has been cle an sed as
.
,

m e n tioned a bove p 80 it is s u bjected to a cru shin g O p e ra

,
.
,

tio n which is given by p a ssin g it throu gh a series of h e a v y

,

chilled iron rolls placed i n a s u i table fra m e ( see figu re

 P RE SSI NG VE GE TAB L E I
O LS . 87

The size a n d n u m ber O f these rolls depend u pon the qu a n tity

o f s e ed to be de a lt with So m e m ills h a v e three rolls other s
.
,

fo ur and ot h ers fiv e
,
A very co m m o n size is a m ill with fiv e
.

ro ll s e ac h 3 ft 6 i n lo n g by 1 6 i n in di a m eter Su ch a m ill
,
. . . .

w i ll p a ss thro u gh s u ffi cie n t seed to keep a set O f presses at

w ork capable o f t u rn i n g ou t 5 5 to 6 to n s o f c a ke i n a worki n g
d ay .

A t the top of the m ill is a feedin g hopper i n to which th e

see d to be cru sh ed is pl a ced . F ro m t his hopper it is p a ssed

F IG 1 3 . . O i l S e ed C ru s i n g h R ll o s .

b e t w een the first p air of rolls where it receives its first cr u sh

,

in g. By a dheri n g to th e seco n d roll th e seed is c arr ied

t h ro u gh between rolls N os 2 a n d 3 a n d su ccessively between
.
,

N o s 3 and 4 and 4 a n d 5 receivi n g a gre a ter cr u s h i n g e a ch

.
,

t im e G u ides are att a ched to e a ch roll to e n s u re t h at the

.

s e ed is carried b etwee n e a ch p a ir o f rolls .

S econ d H ea ti n g
,
— T h is oper a tio n is iden tic a l with the
s i mi lar O per a tion i n the E n glis h p r ocess desc r ibed on p 83 . .

T hi r d M ou ldi ng
,
— After the seed h a s been hea ted i n th e
88 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

kettle it is sent into a m o u ldi n g m ach i n e T h is m ach in e is

, .

shown in figu re 1 4 The m o u ldin g m ac h ine is one of th e

.

novel fea t u res of the An glo Am er ican syste m I ts O bjec t is

-
.

to ens u re u ni form it y i n th e size of th e cakes of seed to m o u l d ,

it by a gentle press u re into a level cake so t h a t the pres s is ,

not su bj ect to a n y u nd u e str a i n d u e to inequ alities i n th e

cakes while t h ere are sec u red a gre a ter o u tp u t fro m the pre s ses
,

a n d a better y ield o f oil The hot seed is a llowed to fa ll

.

fro m the kettle into a m e a s u ri n g box which a lw a ys ens u r e s

,

F IG 1 4
. . O i l Ca k M ld i
e ou ng M hi
ac ne .

a u ni form q u antity o f seed bei n g u sed A tra y covered .

with a sheet of Woollen clot h is next pl a ced on th e t a ble o f

the m o u ldin g m achi n e a n d su rro u n ded b y a fr a m e In to .

the m ou ld th u s form ed th e seed is pl a ced a n d form ed i n t o ,

a s m ooth cake . The tra y a n d i ts con tents a r e then pu sh e d

u n der the die of t h e m o u ldi n g m a chi n e whe n a c a m is bro u h t
,
g
i n to a ctio n and the die c a u sed to fa ll u pon the seed a n d c o m
,

pr ess it to a thick n ess of 3 i n ches or even less ; the pr e s

,

s u re bei n g m ai n tai n ed for a bou t h a l f a m i n u te w hen the d i e ,

rises a n d the c a ke o f seed is rem oved a n d sen t i n to t h e

 P RE SS I NG VE GE TAB L E I
O LS . 89

h ydr a u li c p r e ss
. By th e u se of the m o u lding m ac h ine a larger
nu m ber o f c a kes c a n be dealt with in the pres s at one ti m e .

A ca ke o f u n pressed seed h a s a thickness of abou t 8 inches ,

wh ile th e m o u lded seed h a s a thick n e ss of a bo u t 3 inches a n d ,

so a pre s s w ill t a ke rather m ore th an twice a s m u ch m ou lded

seed a s u n m o u lded seed .

F IG 1 5
. . Hyd rau li c O il P r ess .

F ou r th P r essi n g
,
— This is the fin a l opera tion of eith er
th e A n g lo Am eric a n or the E n glish system a ltho u gh in either
-
,

c a s e the oil a fter it flows fr om the press h a s to u n dergo a

re fi n i n g opera tion be fore it c a n be sen t i n to the m arket for
s a le The hydr a u lic press h a s u n dergo n e som e ch a n ges i n
.
90 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

detail since it was first a pplied t o the pressing of O i l b u t i t

is not intended h ere to give a n y histo r ic a l sketch of th es e
changes a s spa ce does n o t adm it of it
, .

F i gu re 1 5 sh ows the l a test form of hydra u lic press fo r o il

pressin g short of the pu m ps which are necessar y to w o r k
the press The hy drau lic press consists of a very st r o n g
.

cast iron fou nd a tion in which works a r a m con nection w ith

-
,

a strong iron m ovable pl a te T h is pl a te m oves u p and d o w n

.

between sto u t iron stand a rds wh i ch also form s u pport s for

,

a very stro n iron casti Between the m ovable bott m

g n g . o

F IG 1 6
. . O i l Ca k M ld
e ou s.

plate a n d the top are arr a n ge d a n u m ber of cor ru gated i r o n

plates which receive the c a kes of seed to be pressed .

The c a kes of seed a s th e y com e fro m the m ou ldi n g

m ach i n e ar e pl a ced in a p a ir o f iron covers like a book b a c k
( see fig u re and into the press T h is does
. a way with t h e

hairs which were u sed in the old system wh i ch are ve r y ,

expensive to u se owing to the d am a ge which the press d o es

to them i n breakin g them T h e press m a y be m a de in
.

va riou s sizes to s u it the p a rtic u lar requ irem ents of th e oil

m iller fr o m a s m a ll press c a p a ble of pressi n g fo u r cakes a t
,

once to on e t akin g twelve to fo u rteen c a kes .

 P R E SS I N G VE GE T AB L E O LSI . 91

sets o f p u m ps are u su ally s u ppli ed wi th e ac h

Two
ress on e to ive press re f a b o t 7 00 t 800 lb
p ,g a u o u o p e r .

squar e i n ch w h ile th e ot h er set will give a pre ss u r e of 2

,

tons .

At first the lower pr essu r e is applied for abou t fifteen to

.

twenty m in u t e s du rin g whi ch the great b u lk of the oil wi ll

,

flow ou t Then th e hi gh er press u re is p u t to com plete th e

.

extractio n of th e oil w h ic h will take a fu rt h er five to te n

,

mi nutes The O i l flows ou t of the sides of the seed into the

.

corru ation s on th e iron plates a n d into channels which a r e

g
pr ov ided fo r it to flow away to a stora g e or recei v in g tan k
p la ce d abo u t the base of the press .

Usu a lly fr o m two to fo u r pres ses ar e incl u ded in one oi l

p la n t a s the
, ot h er portions o f the pl a n t are q u ite capable o f
keeping m ore th a n one press a t work .

It is obvio u s of co u rse tha t the o u tp u t fro m th e oil pres s

, ,

Will vary ver y considerably owin to th e varyin g si z e O f the

°

g
p sses a n d al so of the seed which is bein g pressed
r e F or .

Whil e a press c a n work th ro u h fiv e c h a r es per ho u r of

g g
linseed i t will only do th ree of ra pe see d a n d fo u r O f cotton
,

seed in sm a ll si z ed presses-
L arger press e s workin g perhap s
.
,

2 50 to 32 0 lb o f seed a t one ch a r e will work thro u gh

.
g ,

three to fo u r c har es in thr ee ho u rs T h e si z e of the cak e

g .

of seed a lso v a ries with th e size o f th e pre ss .

As a ru le seeds ar e on ly p a ssed once thr o u gh th e press ,

but there a r e a fe w su ch as rape a n d i n ell y seed which

, g g ,

are cru shed t wice th e cake obt a i n ed in the first pressin g

,

being regro u nd a n d reheated with a little additional w a te r

before bein g a gain pressed F u rther what was ori gi n a lly
.
,

p ssed in two presses is spr ea d i n the second pressin g over

re

thr ee presses .

Some oil seeds castor seeds cotton seeds a rachis seeds

, , , ,

etc have a v e r h d hell besides bei f l r e size It i s

.
,
y a r S
.
n
g o a g,
.

necessar y fo r the better extraction o f the oil that the shell or

92 SO AP MANUF A C T UR E .

h u sk be rem oved ; this is effected by m ean s of a m ac h ine

k n own as a decorticator the oper a tio n bei n g k n ow n a s
,

decorticatin g Su ch a m ill adapted fo r the trea t m e n t o f

c astor oil seeds by hand altho u gh they m ay be m ad e to
,

w ork by steam is show n in figu re 1 7

,
These m ills h a v e a.

pair of revolv i n g cylinders c a rryi n g bl a des fixed at a par ti c u l a r

d istance a part t h is dist a n ce bei n g depende n t u pon th e s e e d
,

which is bein g treated c a stor oil seed requ iri n g a di ffe r e nt

,

F IG . 17 . C a sto r See d D e c o r t i c a to r .

d ist a nce th a n a ra chis n u ts a n d so on The k n ives j u st c u t

.

th e seed a n d a llow the ker n els to fa ll ou t then by wi n n o w ,

in g the h u sks m ay readily be sep a ra ted I n fig u re 1 8 .

a re shown a t A c a stor oil seeds be fore trea tm ent at B t h e ,

 DE CO R TI CATING O IL SE E DS . 93

hu sks a n d a t C the whi te kernels re a dy for the cru shing

,

mi lls .

There is of co u rse a gre at di fference in th e qu antity of

, ,

oil whi ch is yielded by di fferen t seeds It is fo u nd prefer .

abl e i n the c a se O f seeds which give b u t poor yields to u se a

sm aller qu a n tity of seed i n eac h char g e t h a n is done with

se e ds which are rich i n O i l .

I n so m e cases s u ch a s c a stor a n d olive O ils th e see d i s

, ,

su bjected to two or three disti n ct c r u sh i n s yieldin i l f

g g O o ,

several qu a lities . F irs t th e se ed is cr ushed cold when wh a t ,

is known as cold dra wn or virg i n oil is obtained then

the seed is h e a ted a n d regro u nd when wh a t is c a lled second
,

F IG 18
. . Ca sto r Se ed s .

pres su re O i l is obt a i n ed ; fin a lly the seed is w a r m ed with

,

water an d agai n pre ssed when a t h ird q u ality of oil is o h

,

tai n e d .

In the case of oils which like cocon u t a n d p a lm n u t oils

,
-
,

ar e s olid a t the ordin a ry tem pe r a t u re it I s c u sto m a ry to he a t

,

the p r esses so a s to m a ke th e oils flu id I n win te r too it is .

, ,

desi ra b le to work wit h heated presses .

T h e O i l c a ke a fter co m in g fro m the press is p a ssed to a

pari n g m a chi n e where th e edges ar e tri m m ed to m a ke the
,

cake r a t h er m ore p r esent a ble a n d the r e fore m ore m a rket a ble .

Th e par i n gs a r e sent back to the cr u shi n g rolls to be worked

th r o u g h with th e next b a tch o f seed .
94 S O AP MANUFAC T URE .

P R IN CI PAL V E G E TAB L E O I L S AN D FAT S .

N a me of O il, etc . Nati ve Coun tr y .

l
A m on d Am ygd a u s c om l M di t
e erran ea n 48 to 50
munis C ou n tr i es
h
Ara c i s (E a rt h h
Arac i s h yp ogma I din a, W estern 4 3 to 4 5 ( )
50
n u t ,P ea -n u t , or Afr i ca
G
r o u n d -n u t )
B en M or i n ga Ol if
e er a I ndi a , E gyp t 35 to 36
Ca sto r Ri c i n u s c om m u n i s E ast I n d i es Am er i ca n ,4 6 t o 49
I
n di a n , 5 1 t o 5 3

C oc o n u t Coco s f
n u c i era Tr opi ca l Co u n 40 to 45
tr i e s
Co l za ( R ap e
) B rassi c a c am p est r i s ; E u r op e 33 to 43
B n ap u s ; B r a p a ;
. .

B . n a po b r a ssi c a

C otto n Se e d G o ss yp i u m h b er a Asi a , Afr i c a , 2 4 to 2 6

c eu m Am er i c a
L a u re lB
u t ter L a u r u s n ob i i s l h
Sou t E u ro pe 2 4 to 2 6
L i n se ed L i n u m u si ta ti ssi m u m E u r ope , Asi a 38 to 40
M a i ze Z ea m a i s Am eri c a 6 to 1 0
M u st a r d S eed Si n a p i s a a lb E u rop e 2 5 to 2 6
(W i h
t e)

N u t (W a n u t) l Ju gla n s regi a P ersi a ,H i m a la ya 63 t o 65

Ni ger ( a m til) R G u i t i a o ei er a l f b I
A y ssi n i a , n di a 40 t o 45
l
O i ve l
O ea E u r op ea h
Sou t ern E u r o p e P ulp , 40 t o 60
K
e r n e s , 1 2 to 15 l
Pa m l El ai s g u i n ee n si s W est A ri c a f l
P u p o r P e r i c a rp ,
6 5 to 7 2
E m ela n o c oc c a
. h
So u t Am er i c a K
e r n e s , 45 t o 5C l
P opp y Se ed P a p a v er som n i e ru m f Asi a Mi n or Bl
u e , 4 8 to 50
W i t e , 4 1 t o 45 h
S esa m e ( G i n gelly ) Sesa m u m i n d i c u m In dia , L ev a n t , 50 to 5 7
An ti es, e tc ll .

S u n fl owe r Se ed H li e an t h u s an n u u s M ex i c o , P er u 2 1 to 2 2

R E F I N I NG AN D C L AR I F Y I NG O I L S
they — The oils as

c o m e fro m the oil p r e ss a r e u s u a lly clo u dy i n a ppearan ce ,

cont a in m u ch colo u ri n g m a tter m oist u re a n d extra neo u s ,

v e g et a ble tiss u e fro m which it is d esira ble th ey sho u ld be

,

freed .

The oil as it com es fr om th e press sho u ld be r u n i n to

l a r ge t a n ks which ar e kept a t a bo u t 1 00 F in whic h it
,
°
.
,

is a llowed to rem a i n fo r som e ti m e The wa ter a n d solid .

veget a ble m atter settle down leavi n g the oil bri ght an d ,

c le a r This process is however a slow one a n d th e oil

.
,
 C LA R IFYING O I L S . 95

presser o ften does n ot c a re to keep h i s oils so lo n g a n d t h ere ,

fore mu st adopt a qu icker process .

Fi gu re 1 9 is a drawin g o f a n O i l cl ar i fyi n g tan k m ad e by

-

Messrs W m O xley
. . C o of M anch ester It co n sists as. ,

wi ll be seen o f a lo n g cyli n der t a n k m a de of ti n n ed iron th e

,

bottom is m a de conical with the a pex to th e botto m fro m ,

FIG 19
. . O C
i l-
l i fyi
ar ng T k an .

which protru des to the side of the t a n k a pipe for drawi n g

—
off th e foots a n d i m p u rities which settle there D ra w O E .
-

and testi n cocks pl ced the ide f the t nk The

g a r e a o n S o a .

oil is pl a ced i n the t a n k a n d a llowed to st a nd for so m e

time The i m p u r ities collect a t the botto m of the ta nk

.
,

th e pec u li a r constr u ctio n o f which is s u ch a s to co n cen t r a te

th em in a s m a ll sp a ce th u s eco n om i si n the q n tity o f
, g u a
96 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

foots obt ained F rom ti m e to ti m e the testi n g a n d draw Off

.
-

cocks ar e opened a n d when th e oil a ppears clea r eno u g h the

,

bottom draw Ofl cock is opened an d th e cle ar oil r u n off th e

'
-
,

foots bein g then r u n into a sep a rate vessel a n d the tank is ,

ready for anoth er ba tch of oil Th ese tanks are m ad e to .

hold 2 5 0 or 500 gallons of oil .

So m eti m es oils are cl a ri fied by addin g to them fro m 5 to

1 0 per cent of t h eir wei ght of fu ller s e a rth h ea tin g the
’
.
,

mi xt u re to abo u t 1 50 F a n d m a int a i n in g it at th a t heat for

°

h a lf a n hou r to an ho ur s tir ri n g well all the tim e Then th e

, .

oil is a llowed to stand for abou t twent y fo u r to thi rty ho u rs -

to settle ou t The fu ller s ear th carries down with it a ll th e

.
’

i m pu rities in s u spen sio n an d a t the sam e ti m e exerts a m ore

,

or less bleachi ng action on t h e oil The sa m e qu a ntity of .

fu ller s earth m ay be u sed several times especi a lly i f its

’

fu n ction is si m pl y t h at o f a cl a ri fyin g a gent W here h o w .

ever it is em plo y ed as a ble achin g agent it m u st be repl ac ed ,

with fr es h m aterial fro m tim e to ti m e The fu ller s e a rth .

’

a bsorbs a l a rg e proportion o f oil which s h o u ld be re m oved by ,

treatm ent with benzoli n e or ben z i n e before it is thro wn

a way .

W here large qu a ntities of oil ar e to be dea lt with it i s a ,

g ood pl a n to u se fu ller s earth co m bined with a filter press

’
.

T h e oil is heated with 2 to 3 per cent of its wei ght o f fu ller s

’
.

e a rth a s described abo ve ; t h en the oil is sen t thro u gh a

,

filter pre ss wh ich re m oves the e a rt h a n d the solid i m p u rities

,

in the oil Special form s of filter press ar e m ade for de a ling

.

with o i ls .

F i g u re 2 0 represents a filter press m a de by D eh n e Of

H alle which is well a da pted for pressi n g oils
,
These .

filter presses are e a sy to u se w h ile t h ey a r e e ffi cient in ,

opera tion .

It is qu ite possible when u sin g a filter press to render

oils whi le not qu ite perfect yet s u ffi ciently so to be m arket
, ,
 R E F I NI NG O IL S . 97

l very qu ickly b y sending the oil a s it com es fro m the

ab e, ,

hydr au lic press thro u gh the filter p r ess T h e O i l co m es ou t of

.

the la tter fairly bri ght an d cle a r an d will fin d a re a dy s a le

,
.

The solid m a tter which is filtered ou t i s ret u rned to the

kettle to be worked u p with the n ex t b a tch of seed B y this .

meth od of working there is prod u ced no t hin g bu t oil and

cake no foots o f an y kind bein for m ed
, g .

Besides fu ller s ear th th ere h a ve been u sed in clari fyi n g

’

oil s other solid m a tters s u c h a s chin a clay

, in fu sori a l eart h , ,

etc. which ac t m echanically by c a rryin g down th e solid

,

F IG 2 0
. . Oi l Fi l t er P r e ss .

matter i n s u spen sion and a b so r b the m oist u re in the oil a n d ,

so leave the l a tter clear and bri ht

g .

Vario u s processes have been devised for re fin in g oils by

chemic a l m e a n s ; the two a ents m ost co m m only u sed bei n g
g
su lph u ric a cid and c au stic sod a The gener a l m ethod of
.

using these bo di es will be det a iled .

RE FI N I NG O I L S B Y S U L P HUR I C A C I D — Su lph u r ic a cid .

h as a power fu l a ction on all o r ga nic bodies chiefly owi n g to ,

its grea t a ffi nity for w a ter wh ic h i m p a r ts to it dehydra ti n g

,

p p
ro er ties . A S re ga rds its e m ploym ent i n re fin i n g oils i t s ,

7
98 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

virt u e depends on th e fa ct th a t the extra n e ou s veget able

m a tters fo u n d in cru de oils a r e m or e e a sily a cted u po n by
the a cid th a n is the oil itself Too m u ch a cid m u st n ot .

however be u sed or otherwise there is risk of it a cti n g on

,

the oil a n d th u s le a di n g to loss The u s u a l plan o f tre a ti n g.

oils is to pl a ce the oil i n a s u it a ble r ecept a cle a coppe r t a nk ,

or iro n p a n which shou ld either co n t ai n a stea m coil or

, ,

better still be j a cketed m e a n s of a git a ti n g the oil a n d a cid

,

to gether shou ld be provided which m a y t ake the form of a ,

m ech a n ic a l a git a tor or a c u rr en t o f air m a y be blown in

,

d u ri n g the opera tion It i s a dvis a ble for the bottom of th e

.

t a n k to be m a de co n ic a l fo r the p u rpose o f a m ore efiec tu al

sep a r a tio n of the oil a n d a cid a n d a ta p provided a t th e ,

bottom of the co n e for the p u rpose of r u n n in g off the aci d

which collects M a n y m odi fic a tion s of the process have
.

been p u blished from ti m e to tim e I t will however be fou n d .

th a t the det a ils will h a ve to be v ar ied a ccor di n g to the oil

which is bei n g tre a ted Som e oils com e from th e pres ses
.

m u ch p u r er th a n others Su ch oils will r eq u ire a less severe

.

tre a tm en t th a n those which con t a i n a la rg e proportion of

v e get a ble m a tter S tro n g s u lph u r ic a cid sho u ld n ever be
.

u sed its a ctio n is too sever e a n d c an n ot well be con tr olled

, .

I t is a lw a ys a dvis a ble to u se a m i xt u r e o f s u lph u ric a cid a n d

wa ter — th e proportio n m a y v a ry a cco r di n g to the oil which is
—
b ei n g t r e a ted 1 of a cid to 1 o f w a ter is a very good r a tio ,
,

w hile so m e oils m a y requ i r e a n eve n we a ker a cid th a n this .

H a r tley reco m m e n ds for l i n seed oil 1 o f a cid to 2 of w a ter ;

i f the oil be very i m p u r e the n the r a tio 2 of a cid to 1 of
,

w a ter m a y be u sed .

The oil to be tre a ted is r u n i n to the t a n k a n d he a ted to

a bo u t 1 1 0 to 1 1 5 F the l a tter tem per a t u re sho u ld n ever
° °
.

be exceeded while it m a y h a ppe n t h a t lower tem per a tu res

,

th a n 1 1 0 F m a y be u sed Then the m ixt u re of oil a cid

°
. .
, ,

a n d w a ter is a dded with const a nt a git a tion a n d in a slo w

 R E F I N I NG O I L S . 99

s tream to the oil T h e proportion u sed m u st vary a ccordi n g

.

to circ u m st a n ces a n d so m etim es 1 per ce n t o f str on g a cid

, .

will be s u ffi cie n t i n other c a ses 3 per cent m a y be u sed

,
. .

The la st n a m ed q u a n tity sho u ld however not be exceeded

-
.

It wou ld be better to give the oil two tre a tm en ts wit h a

smaller p r oportio n o f a cid The oil a n d a cid a r e thorou ghly
.

stirred to ether fo r a bo u t h a l f a n ho u r then the m ss is

g a ,

allowed to rest for twenty fo u r ho u rs At the end of this

-
.

time 6 or 7 g a llons o f w a rm w a te r a t 1 5 0 F for every 1 0

°
.

g allons o f O i l treated a r e m ixed with the oil a n d t h e n the ,

mass is a llowed to st a n d for so m e d a ys u ntil a perfect sep a r

ati on o f oil a n d a cid liq u or t a kes pl a ce The oil is dr a wn .

off a n d w a shed a a in w ith w a ter to free it from all tr a ces o f

g
acid The a cid foots a s they ar e c a lled a r e r u n a way
“ ”
.
, ,

This m ethod of re fin i n g is a pplic a ble to a lm ost a ll seed

oils a n d is l a r ely u sed in co n n ection with linseed oil r a pe
, g ,

oil colz a oil n u t oil a n d a lso wi t h fish oi lS

, , , I f it be u sed .

wi th a n y oils int ended for l u bric a ti n g m a chiner y it is neces ,

sary th a t the oil sho u ld be well w a shed with w a ter to free

it from a ll tra ces of the a cid u sed in re fin in g which i f le ft ,

in mi ght h a ve a deleterio u s a ctio n on the m et a l of the be a r

ings to which it is a pplied .

The a cid trea tm en t will not a ffect a n y fr ee fa tty a cid .

which the oil m a y co n ta in a n y s u ch will be le ft i n the oil

after the t re a t m ent is fi n ished .

It h as been reco m m ended to u se a stron g solu tion ( 1 00 °

to 1 30 Tw a ddell ) of zi n c chloride u si n g fro m 1 4 to 2 per

°

cent of the oil . This h a s no a ctio n on the oil itsel f bu t it

.
,

dehydra tes it a n d co a gu l a tes a ll a lb u m ino u s a n d ve get a ble

matter the oil cont a ins I t costs m ore to re fin e oils by zi n c
.

chloride th a n by s u lph u r ic a cid .

RE F I N I NG O I L S B Y C AU S TI C S O DA — A good m a ny oils .

ar e re fin ed by u si n c a u stic sod a i n fa ct so m e cotton seed -

g , ,

oil for exam ple c a n n ot well be r e fin ed by o ther m e a ns while

, ,
100 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

to obtain cert a in qu a lities of oil a n a lk a li n e tre a tm ent to

free the oil co m pletely fro m a cid co n stit u e n ts is n ecess a ry .

C olz a oil for inst a n ce is m u c h u sed for ill u m i n a tin g p u r

, ,

poses ; i f it conta ins a n y n ot a ble proportion of free a cid it

is rendered u ns u it a ble for this pu rpose he n ce a n alk a li n e ,

refini n g process is need fu l to be u sed with colz a a n d other

b u rni n g oils .

Al k a line processes not only free t h e oil fro m extr a neo u s

ve get a ble m a tter bu t they rem ove a n y tra ces of resi n a cid
, ,

a n d colo u rin g m a tters which the oil m a y cont a i n le a vi n g a ,

pe r fectly n e u tra l a n d p u re oil G r e a ter c a re is req u ired in

.

carryi n g ou t a n a lk a line proces s th a n is req u ired for a n acid

process T hi s is du e to the fa ct th a t wh ile the acid h a s n o
.
,

m a terial a ction on the oil itsel f a n d there fore little loss is ,

likely to t a ke place the a lk a li h as so m e a ction in the di r ec

,

tion of s a poni fyi n g the oil and thereby a loss m a y occ u r ,

.

O n the ot h er h a n d while the foots obt a i n ed with the a cid

,

tre a tm ent a r e u seless those obt a i n ed fro m the a lk a line pro

,

cess m a y be m a de u se of .

The process is com p a r a tively sim ple The oil t o be .

tre a ted is r u n i n to a su it a ble ves sel ; a n iron t a n k serves very

well The requ isite qu a n tity of c a u stic sod a lye is a dded
.
,

and th e whole thor o u ghly a git a ted to gether for so m e ti m e

a n d the n a llowed to sett le a n operation which m a y t ake
,

som e ti m e wh en two l ayer s will form o n e of a w a ter y fl ui d

, ,

co n ta i n in g m u ch so a py foots the other o f clear oil Th e , .

w a tery fl u id i s dr a wn ofi i n to a t a n k fr es h we a k a lk a li i s ,

r u n in a n d the m a ss tre a ted a s be fo r e a fter which the p u ri

, ,

fie d oil is well w a shed with w a ter to fr ee it fr o m a lk a li .

The str ength a n d proportio n of a lk a li n e solu tion u sed

will depe n d u po n th e ch a r a cter of th e oil to be tre a ted .

W ith a ll ord i n a ry O ils a lye of 8 to 1 2 Tw a ddell m a y be

° °

u sed . C ru de cotto n seed oil req u ires a s tro n ge r lye o n e of

-
,

fr om 1 5 to 2 0 Tw a ddell wh il e cocon u t oil c a n be re fin ed

° °

,
 RE FI N I NG O I L S . 101

with lye o f a bo u t 5 to 6 Tw a ddell The qu a ntity u sed will

° °
a .

depend u pon the a m o u n t of acidity of the O i l wh ich is bein g

treated th e qu a n tity of resino u s m atter it m ay co n ta i n a n d
, ,

the am o u n t o f colo u r in g m a tter H e n ce fe w ru les c a n be

.

gi v en a s re g ards q u a n tity o f alkali to be u sed G ener a lly .

l to l per cent o f c.a u stic so d a will s u ffi ce .

Occasio n a lly tro u ble a rises fro m the form a tio n of e m u l

sion s which prevent the proper sep a r a tion of the oil fro m the

alkali n e liq u or .W h en this h appe n s it is best to add a little

solu tio n o f s a lt s u ffi cient to throw ou t th e oil
, 1 .

In so m e c a ses the oil has bee n t r eated with sod a c r y st a ls

melted by he a t i n their w a ter of cryst a llis a tion After bei n g .

well m i x ed the m ass is a llowed to st a n d whe n as a ru le it , , ,

easily se a r ates i n to three l a yers one o f oil the second of

p , ,

soapy m a tter a n d the third of w a tery liq u id

, .

W h en the oil is fairly free fro m m u cilagino u s m a tters ,

and is o f poor q u ality in co n seq u ence of its co n t a i n in m ch

g u

free fa t t y a cid t h is m a y be rem oved by a gitatin g the oils

,

with a we a k sol u tio n of cau stic soda or of carbon a te of sod a ,

bu t u s u a lly it wi ll be fo u nd e a sier to t re a t t h e m with m ilk

of li m e or wit h m a gnes i a foll o wed by filteri n fro m th li m e
, g e

or m a nesi a so a ps which a r e form ed

g .

Oi l F oo ts.
— I n the a lk a li m ethod of re fi n i n g O ils a l a rg e

q u a n tity o f foots is for m ed T h ese .m a y be u til i sed in

vario u s w a ys accor di n g to their ch a r a cter O n e very good .

method is to work the m u p fo r so a p m a ki n g i n co n j u nction -

with other fa ts C a ses however occ u r where owi n g to their

.
,

bei n g stron gly colo ur ed a s in the c a se o f cotton O i l foots this ,

can n ot be do n e T h e best pl a n of de a li n g with s u c h is to

.

decom pose the foots by we a k s u lph u ric a cid a n d distil the

libera ted fa tty acids etc There is then obt a ined a distil
, .

late co n t ainin g glyceri n e (from a n y u ndeco m posed glyce r ide

wh ich m ay be presen t in the foots ) a n d fa tty a cid The r esi .

du e i n th e retort t a kes the fo r m of pitch a n d will co n sist ,

1 02 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

of the resinou s m a tter presen t i n the foots The fa tty a cid s .

which ar e obt a i n ed a r e n ot qu ite p u r e bu t co n t a i n s m a ll

,

qu an tities of hyd r oc a rbo n bodies prod u ced by decom position

of the fa tty m a tter by the he a t em ploy ed in distilli n g .

O the r p r ocesses for re fin i n g oi ls h a ve been devised b u t ,

those j u st descr ibed a r e wh a t a r e in com m on u se in oil

re fin eries .

B L E AC H I NG O F F AT S AN D O I L S .

AS obt a ined by the processes described a bove the oil s ,

a n d fa ts a r e o ften m ore or less colo u red I n veget a ble O il s

.

th is colo u r is necess a rily du e to the presen ce of n a t u r a l

orga nic colo u rin g m a tters chlorophyll erythroph yll etc
, , ,
.
.
,

presen t i n solu tion i n the oil L inseed O i l brown ra pe O i l

.
, ,

p a lm oil a r e exam ples of s u ch oils which a r e stro n gly

colo u red Very o ften i n the processes of refin i n g su ch a s
.
,

have bee n described a bove a la r ge proportion of the colo u r

,

i n g m a tters is re m oved bu t tr a ces of the m will rem a i n in

,

the re fined oils Ani m a l oils a n d fa ts ar e u s u a lly free from

.

colou r An y s u ch th a t m ay be present is gen era lly du e to

.

x cep ti o n a l circ u m stances .

There ar e a n u m ber of w a ys by which th e colo u r c a n be

rem oved from oils A process which m a y give good res u l ts
.

with on e oil m a y not do so with a nother In som e c a ses it .

is s u ffi cient to a gita te the oil at a tem per a tu re of 1 2 0 F wi th °

.

a ni m a l ch a rco a l followed by filtr a tion

, Blowing h ot a i r
.

throu gh will i n som e c a ses ( p a lm O i l) destroy the colou r .

Air a n d li ght ble a chi n g ar e som eti m es resorted to bu t in ,

som e c a ses it is necess a ry to m a ke u se of chem ic a l reactions .

—
B L E AC HI NG B Y H O T AIR B y blowi n g a c u rr ent o f hot
a i r a t a bo u t 1 30 F m a ny fa ts a n d oils c a n be decolorised
°
. .

T a llow l a rd a n d p a lm oil m a y be tre a ted in this w ay It i s

, , .

not desir a ble th a t the a ction shou ld be prolon ged or other ,

w ise there is so m e risk o f the o xid a tion of the oi l It i s .

i m por t a n t th a t the a i r sho u l d be dry .

 B L E A CH ING O IL S . 1 03

Fi gu re 2 1
is a dra win g of a n a ppa ra t u s m a de for ble a ch
‘

ing ipa lm oil by a ir devised by M essr s K or ti n g B r os . Thi s .

con si sts o f a cylind r ic a l vessel o f a n c o nve n ie n t size to s u it

y
the qu a ntity o f fa t th a t is bei n g tre a te d K is a closed .

steam coil by m e a n s o f which th e fa t c a n be he a ted u to

p
any requ ired de ree E is t be open a t the top a n d ter
g . a u

min ati n g i n a ri n g a t the botto m inside the vessel this ri n g ,

havi n g per for a tio n s

. H is a dr a w o ff v a lve -
C is a n injector .

worked by ste a m which e n ters a t A B is the re gu l a ti n g v a lve

,
.

Ap p a r a t u s for Bl e ac hi ng l
P a m Oi l.

By the action of the injector a ir is d r a wn fr om the u pper

p a rt o f th e vessel a n d therei n c r e a tes a v a c u u m which is

filled by a i r bei n g dr a wn i n thro u gh E fr o m the o u ter a t m o

sph ere a n d which r ises in b u bbles th r o u h the fa t ble a chin
g g ,

it The oper a tio n is com p a r a tively si m ple a n d is co n ti n u ed

.

until a s a m ple o f the oil dr a w n fr o m H shows th a t the

blea chi n g h a s been c ar r ied fa r en o u gh It m a y be m en tio n ed

.

tha t th e top o f the vessel is fitted with a ti ght fitti n g cover -

so th at it m a y be her m etic a lly sea l e d u p .

—
B I C HRO MAT E O F P O T A SH P R O C E ss W a tts h a s devised a .
1 04 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

process for the ble a chi n g of oils by m ea ns of bichrom a te of

pot a sh which is la rgely u sed e speci a lly for ble a ch i n g p alm
, ,

Oil. It is c a r ried ou t i n the followi n g m a n ner : The oil to be

ble a ch ed is h e a ted a t a bou t 1 2 0 to 1 30 F then a q u a n tity
° °

o f bichro m a te o f pot a sh a bo u t 2 2 to 2 8 lb per ton o f fat

,
.
,

previo u sly dissolved i n a little w a ter a n d thorou ghly m ixed

with th e fa t th en hyd r ochloric a cid to the extent of a bou t 2
,
‘

or 2 § per ce n t of fa t is a dded a n d a lso thor ou ghly m i xed

.

wi th the m a teri a l I n the c a se of blea chin g p a lm oil th e

.

red dish or a n ge colo ur ch a n ges fir st to a br own ish green a n d ,

fin a lly to a li ght green the e n ti r e oper a tio n o n ly t a ki n g a

,

fe w m i n u tes W e t ste a m is n o w blown th r o u gh for a few

.

m i n u tes a n d the n it is a llowed to st a n d for so m e ho u rs

,
.

The blea ched oil is sep a r a ted o u t a n d is ski m m ed off an d ,

t h en w a shed with cle a n w a ter to ta ke o u t a ll t r a ces o f ac i d

a n d chro m e I n stea d of hyd r ochloric a cid s u lph u ric acid
.
,

m a y be u sed bu t it does n ot give good r es u lts

, This proces s .

c a n a lso be u sed for other fa ts a n d oi ls .

CHL R IN
O E P R O CE S S — C hlori n e is a powerfu l blea chi n g
a e n t which m a y be e m ployed for the p u rpose of ble a chi n g
g
fa ts a n d oils It is necess a r y however th a t gre a t car e
.
, ,

s h o u ld be t a ke n i n u si n g it on a cco u nt o f th e fact that

chlorine is a colo u ri n g a gen t in oi ls a n d fa ts excess result ,

i n g in the form a tio n o f prod u cts which h a v e deleteriou s

effects u po n them The m ost conven ien t pl a n of workin g
“

is to m i x th e fa t with a solu tio n of b le a c h i n g powder u sing ,

a bo u t 2 lb to 1 ton of fa t or oil then a bo u t th ree ti m es

.
,

the qu a ntity of hydrochlor ic a cid is a dded a n d the whole ,

stirred to gether ; the n the m ixt u re is allowed to settle the ,

fa t t a ke n O E a n d the a cid liq u o r r u n a w a y

, O n e adv a n tage .

o f the chlori n e process i s th a t it a cts a s a deodoriser to r an

cid fa ts In th e c a se of fa ts a n d oils which a r e strongly

.

colo u r ed it is a d v is a ble to give the m two tre a t m ents rather

,

th an to a ttem pt to b le a ch the m a t on e oper a tio n .

 EX T RA C TING O IL B Y So L VE N T s
. 1 05

In place o f u sing ble a chi n g powder there m ay be em

p l oyed p o t a ssi u m chlor a te a t the r a te o f 2 to 4 lb per ton .

of fa t ; a bo u t twice the qu an tity o f h ydroc h loric a cid is

added a n d the oper a tio n done a t a tem per a t u re of 1 50 F

°
.
,

SUN B L E A C H I NG — This is co m m on ly c a rried ou t by ex

.

p o s in g th e oils a n d fa ts i n colo u rless g l a ss bottles to sun

light F rom ti m e to ti m e the oil or fa t is po u red fro m on e

.

bott le to a n other with a V iew to exposi n g fresh portio n s to

the ac tio n o f the s u n li ght This m ethod is slow bu t is
.

often em ployed especi a lly fo r c a stor a n d other oils u sed for

,

medi ci n a l o r food p ur poses .

The processes a bove desc r ibed a r e those whi ch ar e

comm o n ly e m ployed i n ble a chi n oils a n d fa ts D i ffe r en t
g .

r efin ers however h a ve v a rio u s m odi fic a tion s of di fferent

, ,

p r o ce sses which
,
they h a ve fo u nd to wo r k well with the
p l an t a n d a ppli a nces they h a ve i n u se S u ch m odi fi c a tions
are o fte n re a rde d as tr de sec r ets
“

g a

SOL VE N T EX T R ACTI O N P R OC E S SE S .

oils a n d fa ts ar e solu ble i n su ch bodies as ether

All ,

carbon bis u lphide ben zoli n e ben zol c a r bon tetrachloride

, , , ,

etc . This proper ty is taken a dv a n ta ge of in both the l a bor

story a n d on the l a r e sc a le for the p u rpose o f extracti n
g g
fats a n d oils fro m s u bst a nces co n t a i n i n g them The .

pri n ciple o n which a ll s u ch a pp a r a t u s works is th a t o f

treati n g the fa t co n t a ini n g s u bst a n ce with the s olve n t i n a
-

suit able vessel then to r u n th e sol u tio n i n to a still or retort

,

and distil O ff the solvent by a n m e a n s The f t re m i s

y a a n .

behi n d in the still while th e solve n t is r ecover ed a n d u sed

,

over a a in Th e best possi b le solvent is one th t h re t

g . a as g a

solvent properties for oils c a n be distilled co m pletely by

,

means of ste a m is free fr om odo u r a n d non i n fl a m m a ble

,
-
.

Th e o n ly s u bst a n ce a m o n g those n a m ed a bove which

answers these c onditio n s e n ti r ely is c a rbo n tetr a chloride ,

but u nfort u n a tely it is expensive .

1 06 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

Benzoli n e is co m m only u sed for this pu rpose It i s .

li ght h a s stron g sol ven t a ction o n oils a n d is che a p It

, , .

h a s one dis a d v ant a ge it does not entirely vol a tilise by m e a n s

,

o f steam conseq u ently there is a te n dency for a little o f th e

,

ben zoline to rem ain behind in the oil ; a ga i n it is very i n ,

fla m m a ble a n d gre a t car e is n eeded in the workin g with t hi s

,

solvent C a rbon bis u lphide is one of the best solve n ts to

.

u se . It is vol a tile a t the tem pera tu re of boilin g w a ter .

.

Bei n g he a vier th a n w a ter it c a n be kept i n t a nks u nder

wa ter thereby re du cin g th e risk of d a n ge r from explosio n
,

or fir e It h a s u n for t u n a tely r a ther a n oxi o u s odo u r which

.
,

m a kes it u n ple a s a n t to work w ith T hi s odo u r is however

.

l ar gely du e to im pu ri ties th at com e fro m th e m aterials from

whi ch th e c a rbon bis u lphide is m a de By repe a ted u se th i s .

O do u r beco m es less ofien si v e a n d u n ple a s a n t .

Benzol is a hydroc a rbon obt a i n ed du rin g the distill a tion

of coal t ar It is freely vol a tile a t the tem pera tu re O f boil
.

i n g w a te r a n d h as stro n g solvent p r operties

,
It is hi ghly .

i n fl am m a ble a n d therefore grea t c a re m u st be t a ken i n

,

worki n g wi th it .

D IE T Z AP P ARA T U S — A very co n venient form o f a ppara

tu s for the extra ctio n o f oil by bis u lphide is t h a t of D ietz a s ,

shown in figu re 2 2 This con sists of a n extra ction t a n k B

.
,

in which is pl a ced between perforated pl a tes a t top a n d

,

botto m the m a teri a l from whi ch the O i l is to be extra cted ;

,

by m e a n s of a pu m p carbon bis u lp h ide co n tained u nder

, ,

wa te r i n th e t a n k A is passed thro u gh the extr a ctor a n d so

,

a bstr a cts the O i l fro m the m a teri a l ; fro m the extr a ctor th e ,

car bon bisu lphide cont a i n i n g the oil flows into the s till or
retort D where the c a r bo n bis u lphide is distilled off by
,

ste a m a n d is con den sed i n the coil co n denser a n d flow s bac k

,

i n to t a n k A to be u sed over a ga in R esid u a l oil left i n th e

.

still D is ru n O S fro m ti m e to tim e by m e a ns o f a di sch a rge

pipe This pl a nt is s m a ll a n d e a sy to work
. .
 EX T RA C TI NG O IL BY SO L VE N T S . 1 07

Fi g ure 2 3 is a dr a wi n g o f a s m a ll pl a nt which c a n be
made i n a n y co n ve n ien t size a n d u sed with a n y kind of sol
ven t . I t co n sists o f th r ee po r tio n s F i r st the centr e vessel
.
,

whi ch form s the extr a ctor The m a ter i a l is p u t in a t th e

.

top whi ch is fitted with a lid which c a n be herm etic a lly

,

cl osed . I n this ext r a ctor ther e is a lso a per for a ted fa lse
bottom o n which the fa tty m a ter i a ls a r e pl a ced
, U nder .

F IG . 2 2 . App a r a tu s for E x tr a c ti n g O i l s.

this is a retort or still which c a n be he a ted by ste a m Thi s .

still co m m u nic a t es with the ext r a cto r by m e a n s o f a t u be ,

which proceed s fr o m the botto m o f the extr a ctor a n d rises

up alon side it to n e a rly three fo u r ths o f its hei h t - d
g g a n ,

th en tu rn s down a n d en ter s i n to the still en din g n e a r the ,

bottom F ro m the top o f the still a pipe p a sses to a c on

.

denser pl a ced a bove the ext r a cto r the e n d oi the condenser ,

worm p a ssin g into the top o f the e x t r a ctor This pl a n t i s .

108 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

us ed in the followin g way : The fatty m aterial is pl a ced in

t h e extractor and the requ ired qu antity of solve n t i n the
still ; b y m eans of a ste a m coil the solvent is volatili sed and
p a sses i n to th e conden ser where it is condensed a nd flows
, ,

a s a liqu id into the ext r a c tor ; here it r d lly cc m lates

g a u a a u u ,

O i l E x tr a c ti n g P l a n t.

d issolvin g the fa t u n til its level rises above the level of

ou t

t h e bend in th e s ypho n t u be when it flows i n to the still

,

here it gets vol a tilised a g ai n a n d p a sses throu gh the s am e

c ycle o f chan es The f tty m tter which it h d in sol tion
g . a a a u ,

h owever is left behind i n the still and can be ru n off from

,
 EX T RA C TI NG O IL B Y SO L VE N T S . 1 09

time to tim e a s req u i r ed thro u gh a di scharge pipe placed

, ,

on the botto m o f the sti ll .

An other m ethod of extra cti n g u sin g ben z oline is to , ,

have two l a r ge u pri ght boilers side by side E a ch is divided

.

into th ree portion s by partitions — the m iddle portion is the

extr actor a n d is p r ovided with two m a n holes o n e a t th e top ,

for cha rgin g the other at the botto m fo r disch a rgin g ; the
,

lower portion form s the still a n d is fitted with ste a m pipes

the top portion cont a i n s a condensin g a rr a n gem en t This .

a
pp ar a t u s is u sed in the followin g m a nner The extr ac tor s
.

are filled with the oily m a teri a l Ben zoline 1 s pla ced in the
.

still of on e a n d is v a po r ised by m e a ns o f a ste a m coil ; the

va our
p ,
p a ssin g u pw a rds i n to the condenser o f th e other
boiler is there co n densed to a liq u id a n d flows down
,
°

throu gh the oily m a teri a l i n to th e still c a rr y i n g with it th e ,

oil. W he n a ll the benzoline h a s been v a porised off from

the or i gi n a l still the a ctio n is rever sed a n d the benzoline
,

di stilled back a ga in ; the oil it held in sol u tion is however , ,

left behind in the still The a ction is a llowed to go on

.

until all the oil is re m oved fr o m the r a w m a teri a l This i s .

then r u n off from the still to a sto r a ge t a n k .

The ext r a ction of oils by m e a n s of vol a tile solven ts is

in itsel f very si m ple . The cr u shed see d or other oil be a rin g -

materi a l (d r ied fish etc ) is pl a ced in a closed vessel Benzine

,
. .
,

pe tr ole u m spi r
, it bis u lphide o f c a r bon ether or a n
, y other
suit able solve n t is p a ssed th r o u h it d llowed to flow
g a n a ,

into a r etort c a rryin g with it the oil in solu tion a n d lea vin g
,

the exh a u sted s u bst a n ces in the extr a ctor or m a cera tor
'

The solvent i n the r etort is now distilled off a n d condensed

for reu se while th e p u re oil is left behi n d i n the retort
, .

So far the process is ve r y si m ple bu t ther e a r e m a n y ,

di fficu lties : one consists i n recover in g the solvent from the

waste pr od u c t i n the ext r a ctor This p a r t of the app a r a tu s
.

consists essenti a lly o f a l a r e t a n k with i let d o tlet

g n, a n u
1 10 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

pipes for th e circu l a tion of the solvent a n d steam con n ec ,

tion s to drive off the r esidu a l solvent a fter the m a teri al

i n it h a s been exh a u sted .

These extr actors m u st necessarily be of a con sider able

size ,
a n d wh en ext r a ction h a s been co m pleted there is ,

left behind a la rge bu lk of residu a l m ateri a l st a rch an d ,

h u sks ( in th e c a se of seeds ) s a t u r a ted with solve n t which

,

o u ght to be distilled o ff be fo r e the extractor is em ptied .

This is necess a ry for two r e a sons F irst bec a u se th e

.
,

m a n u fa ct u rer co u ld not a ffor d to lose a ll this solvent ;

secondly bec au se its v apo u r s a r e infl a m m a ble a n d mi ght
, ,

if a llowed to esc a pe fr eely becom e a sou rce of d a n g er An d .

herein lies the chief di fficu lty : the m a ter i a l left in the
extr a ctor is a ba d con du ctor of h e a t a n d therefore it is v ery
,
.

di ffi c u lt to he a t the m a ss when in l a rge b u lk s u ffi ciently

, ,

thr o u ghou t to ensu re com plete vol a tilis a tion To t hi s a .

secon d di ffic u lty is a dded by the fa ct th a t the vol a tilis ation

,

o f the solvent h a s the tendency of gre a tly depressin g the

tem per a tu re i n those pa rts which ar e not e a sily re a ched by

the he a t of the steam .

This di ffi cu lty is on ly p a rti a lly overco m e by a dm itting

s te a m i n to th e extr a cto r a s wh a t vol a tilises in the lower
,

p a rt con denses a gai n i n the u pper l a yers u n til the whole ,

m a ss is s u ffi ciently he a ted th r o u gho u t which on a cco unt

, ,

o f the n o n co n d u cti n g p r oper tie s of th e m a teri a l is a c hi eved

-
,

a fter m a n y h o u rs only B u t when th e solvent h a s to be

.

thu s dr iven ofi by live ste a m the m a terial is bei n g cooked at

,

the s a m e tim e a n d when ta ken ou t is i n a m oist st a te whi ch

'

, ,

i n m a n y c a ses is detri m en t a l to wh a t oth erwise wo u ld be a

v alu a ble produ ct .

The r esid u a l m e al c a n n ot be stored in this condition as ,

it soon spoils a n d is o n ly fit for m anu ri a l pu r poses

,
.

The a pp ar a t u s sho wn in figu r e 2 4 w a s desi gn ed to over

com e a ll these defects T h e di ffi cu lty a risi n g ou t of the
.
EX T RA C TI N G O IL B Y SO L VEN T S . 111
 112 SO A P MANUFA C T URE .

u n m an a
g e a bleness o f the m a teri a l while in b u lk h a s su c

c essfu ll
y been co n q u ered by tre a ti n
g s m a ll a n d s u ccessi v e

qu a ntiti es a t one tim e This is bein g don e by pra ctic ally

.

rever si n g the ol d er process Th a t is instea d of p a ssi n g th e

.
,

solvent thro u gh a l a rge m a ss of m a teri a l here th e m a teri al ,

to be ext r a cted is p a ssed throu gh the solvent the latter ,

flowin g a t the s a m e tim e i n the opposite direction .

In wh a t m a nn er this is effected will be best u n ders tood

by a refer ence to the a ccom p a nyi n g dr a wi n g C C 2 C4 .
, , ,

C 5 a n d C 6 a r e cyli n ders a ltern a tely co m m u n ic a ti n g with

,

ea ch other a t top a n d bottom in whi ch a r e workin g screw

,

carrie r s The m a teri a l is fe d in a t A ( which when not at

.
,

work is herm etic a lly closed by a wa ter sea l ) a n d ca rried

,

forw a rd by a screw wo r ki n g in B a n d fa lls dow n the vertical

,

shoot i n to C H er e it is c a rried u pw a rds by a screw to 01

.
,

where th e first cylinder com m u nic a tes with the second an d

fa lls on to the screw worki n g in C 2 is c a rried downw ards ,

a n d fa lls t h ro u g h co mm u nic a tin g ch a n n el 03 on to the ne xt

screw .This a ga in c a rr ies the m a teri a l in a n u pward

direction a n d to C 4 when ce it is c a rried downwa rds i n 05
, ,

u p ag a i n i n 06 i n the u pper p a rt of which the r e is a

,

squ eezi n g a rra n gem e n t t o express th e excess of solvent ,

a n d fa lls then th r o u gh D into kil n E which is provided wi t h ,

a ste am jacket a n d forw a rd sc r ew where the exh au st ed ,

m ateri a l is dep r ived of the resid u a l solvent This is ea si ly .

e ffected a s the m a teri a l is spr ea d ou t i n a t h in l a yer ov er

,

a l a r e he a ted a re a The v a po u rs w h ich a r e consider abl y

g .
,

he a vier th a n th e a i r an d hence h a ve a downwa rd tend enc y

, ,

a r e a llowed to esc a pe a t the lower en d o f the kil n ar e con ,

den se d i n their p a s s a ge thro u gh the co n de n se r 1 1 collected in ,

receiver 1 2 a n d pu m ped b a ck in to the m a chine a t 1 W hile

,
.

the m a ter i a l t h u s tra vels fr om le ft to ri ght the solve n t flows ,

in a n opposite direction whereby the p a rti a lly ext rac ted

,

m e a l etc m eets i n e a ch s u ccessive cell with a p u rer stre am

, .
,
 T AL L OW . 113

of s olvent th u s ens u rin g nea rly com plete exh au stion On

,
.

the oth er h a n d the solvent com es s u ccessively in co n t a ct

with m a teri a l ric h e r i n oil fin ally p a ssi n g i n to the first cell
,

(th e l a st a s r e g a r ds the di r ectio n o f the solvent ) where ,

it m eets the la r g est qu a ntity of oil p a sses th ro u gh a filter ,

H an d t h e n ce i n to a r etort
, This la tter p a rt of th e ap
.

p ar at u s is p r ovided w i t h sever a l tr a ys e a c h ste a,

m j a cketed -
,

over which the m ixt u r e o f oil a n d solve n t flows in a thin

stream ; the solvent being vol a tilised a n d condensed in

9 wh ile the oil flows o u t in a conti n u o u s stre a m a t 1 0
, .

The app a r a t u s is se a led by w a ter thro u gho u t .

AN I MAL V E G E TA B L E S O AP O I L S
AN D .

TA L L O W .

Tallow is or shou ld be derived fro m the fa t of cows oxen

, , , ,

shee o ts and si m il r ni m ls th best f t bei t ken

p g a , , a a a e ,
a n
g a

from the thicke r deposits which s u rr o u nd the a bdom en ,

known gen era lly a m o n g b u tch e r s a s the ski n a ltho u gh it ,

is (

known by other n a m es i n so m e pl a ces An a tom ists c a ll it

.

the om en tu m T a llow is a lso obt a i n ed from the fa t su r

.

roun din the l a r e m u scles the kidneys d t h ot h er

g g , a n e
,

or an s of the body
g F a
. tty m a tter c a n b e a n d is obt a i n ed
from othe r p a r ts o f the a n i m a l s u ch a s the i n testines bo n es
, , ,

etc an d s u ch fa t is o ft e n s old a s t a llow ; so m eti m e s with a

.
,

q u ali fyi n g distinctio n a s bo n e t a llow ; a t other ti m es a n d ,

this wherever possible witho u t s u ch a qu a li fyi n g desc r iptio n

, .

Wh enever t a llow is de a lt in a s t a llow it i s a lw a ys u n der stood

,

to be th e fa t obt a ined fro m the p a r ts a bove n a m ed a n d the -

,

sal e of a n other ki d f f t sho ld be r e a rded a s a fr a u d

y n o a u g
upon the b u yer .

The deposit of t a llow as it e x ists i n the a n i m a l body is

found to be co n t a i n ed in sm a ll cells o r bl a dde r s of a n i m a l
tissu e The re a so n for its bein g i n this con ditio n is th a t bei n g
.

a liquid a n d ther e fore a ble to m ove with eve r y m otio n o f th e

8
114 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

p a rts yet it is not a ble to flow fro m the spot i n wh ich it is

,

fo u n d As it is t a ken fr om the body the cr u de fa t is kn own

.
,

a s b u tche r s fa t a n d is u s u a lly p u rch a sed fr o m the b u tchers

’

by the t a llow r e fin er who i f he be loc a ted in a l a rge town

, , ,

o ften di stin g m sh e s between town fa t a n d co u n try fa t ,

”

the for m er bei n g u s u a lly fr esher a n d ther e fore yieldi n g a ,

better qu a lity of t a llo w th a n the l a tter The ide a or p r in .

c i p le wh ich u nderlies a ll p r ocesses fo r t h e extr a ctio n o f the

t a llow fr o m this r o u gh fa t is to sep a r a te o u t by so m e

m e a ns the a n i m a l tiss u e fr o m t h e a ct u a l fa tty m a t te r a ,

p r ocess which is k n own a s re n d er i n g The v a rio u s m e an s .

which h a ve been a dopted to do this h a ve been desc r ibed ,

p 68 et seq
. .

O f fa tty m a tte r s obt a i n ed fro m oth er p a r t s of th e a n i m al

bod y the i n te stines give wh a t is c a lled t r ipe t a llow the
,
“
,
”

feet yieldin g n e a tsfo ot oi l T h e p r ocesses fo r ext r a cti n g

“

these gre a ses or fa ts do not diffe r essen ti a lly fro m those

de scr ibed a bove bu t a s a r u le t h ey a r e obt ai n ed by si m ply
, , ,

boili n g the v a r io u s p a r ts of the a n i m a l i n wa ter a n d skim ,

m in g the fa t which is obt a i n ed fr o m the top o f the w a ter

whe r e it collects whilst the tr ipe a n d feet a r e u sed as
,

food .

A gr e a t de a l o f fa t l a r gel y u sed i n m a kin g so a p is now

ext r a cted fr o m bones a n d sold a s bon e gr e a se
,
bon e “
,
”

fa t ,
”
bo n e t a llow a n d n ot seldom wher ever po ssible as
”
, , ,

t a llow All bo n es do n ot co n t a i n t a llow or fa t ; the be st

.

a r e cows a n d b u llocks sh a nk bo n es which a r e hollow a n d

’

, ,

con t a i n a fa i r ly l a r ge pr oportion of go o d fa t o ften sep ar a tely ,

extra cted a n d sold a s m a rr ow t a llow The m ore soli d

bo n es fo u nd i n the a n i m a ls do n ot cont a i n m u ch fat an d ,

sc a r cely p a y for its extra ctio n H o r ses bones con t ai n so .

’

little fa t they a r e n o t wor th the p r ocess of tre a t m en t In .

de a li n g with bo n es it is there fore worth while to sort them

into those which a r e worth tre a ti n g for the fa t a n d those
 T AL L ow . 115

which not worth so tre a ti n g The m et h od of extra ctio n

ar e .

is given on p 7 6 . .

Tallow co m es into this cou n try fr om all p a rts of the

world . N ow it is a well k n own fa ct with re ga rd to n a t u r a l
-

p rod u cts obt a i n ed f ro m v a rio u s loc a lities th a t t h ey v a r y

som e wh a t i n a ppe a r a n ce colo u r odo u r a n d consiste n ce etc , , , , .
,

to say n othi n g of m i n or di fferences in che m ical co m positio n .

Tallow is n o exception to this ru le hence in th e t a llows ,

which ar e se n t into E n gl a n d fr om N orth Am eric a Au str a li a , ,

Ru ssi a I n di a etc there ar e cert a i n m i n o r di ffer e n c e s by wh ich

, , .
,

exper ts c a n tell the loc a lity fro m w h ich th e t a llow c a m e .

Ther e c a n sc a r cely be a n y do u bt bu t wh a t these di ffer e n ces

are c a u sed by the ch a r a cter o f the food on whic h the c a ttle

feed i n the v a rio u s loc a lities a n d which m u st v a ry to a gre a t ,

exten t .C o m m ercially t a llow s a r e distin g u ished a ccor di n g

,

to their co u n try o f ori g in a n d o f the c a ttle— oxen o r sheep , ,

or i n to bee f or m u tto n — fr o m w h ich they ar e obt a i n ed .

Russi a n t a llow co m es chiefly fr o m C r o n st a dt O dess a T a ga n , ,

ro
g , an d S t P ete
. r sb u r
g It is de r ived chiefly fro m o x e n
.
,

and is a h a rd yellowish t a llow better s u ited for c a n dle m a ke r s

, ,
-

than for s o a p m a ker s A l a rge pr oportion o f the R u ssi a n

- .

tallo w fin ds its w a y fro m Siberi a bu t n o disti n ctio n is m a de ,

betwe en this t a llo w an d th a t fr o m other p a rts of R u ssi a .

South Am er ic a sends both beef a n d m u tto n t a llow “ ”

.

It i s chiefly s hi pped fro m the R ive r P l a te ports It i s of a .

stron yellow colo r n d s lly o f f ir q lity n d se r vice

g u a u u a ,
a u a a ,

abl e for a ll u ses N orth Am eric a n t a llow is of very good

.

qu ality r a ther
,
p a ler in colo u r th a n S o u th A m eric a n a n d is ,

the fa vo u rite t a llow o f so a p m a kers It is m ostly beef -

.
”

tallow th a t co m es from N orth A m eric a bu t m u tton ,

tallow is a lso sen t over Au str a li a a lso sends l arge qu a n tities

.

of both beef a n d m u tton t a llow to E n gl an d of fa irly

”

go od colo u r a n d q ri a li ty T h e v a l u e o f the
. t a llow depe n ds
on its consiste n ce —the h a rder the t a llow a n d hi her i ts
g
116 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

m elti n g poi n t the m or e v a lu a ble it is These poi n ts v a ry

,
.

ver y m u ch withi n cert a i n li mi ts which will be presen tly ,

poi n ted o u t .

The chem ic a l com position of t a llow v a r ies som ewh a t a o

cordi n g to the m ethod of feedin g a n d the loc a lity a s well a s
the ki n d of t a llo w T a llow consists essen ti a lly of the two
.

g lyce r ides ,
olei n a n d ste a ri n the l a tter predo m i n a ti n g , ,

form i n g fro m 60 i n so ft to 80 per ce n t i n h a r d t a llows . .

M a rg a ri n e is a lso prob a bly p r esen t i n so m e t a llows w h ile ,

there ar e a l so nea rly a lwa y s s m a ll qu a ntities of a ni m a l ti s s u e ,

colo u rin g m a tter w a ter ; bu t these should n ot a lto gether

,

a m o u n t to m o r e th a n fro m " y to 1 p e r ce n t o f the tot a l . .

Beef t a llow co n t ai n s m ore olein th a n m u tto n t a llo w so ,

th a t it is ra ther so fter i n co n sisten ce a n d therefore be tter ,

a d a pted for so a p m a ki n g a n d l u bric a ti n g a n d for m a k i n g

-

t a llow oil where a s m u tton t a llow is m o r e s u it a ble for the

,

c a n dle m a ker
- The speci fic gra vity of beef t allow r a n g es
.

fro m 09 35 to 0 9 39 while th a t o f m u tto n t a llow ra n g es

,

fro m 0 937 to 0 9 40 a t 60 F ( 1 5 while a t 2 1 2 F ° ° °

. .

( 1 0
°
0 the speci fi c gr a vity is fro m 0 8 6 0 to 0 8 6 2 T h e .

m elti n g point of t a llow v a r ies ve r y co n sidera bly u s u a lly ,

r a n gi n g fro m 36
°
—
to 49 0 (9 7 to 1 2 0 F ) the lower li m it
°
.
° °
.

is th a t o f a so ft t a llow while the hi gher li m it is a h a rd ,

t a llow . 39 0 ( 1 02
°
F ) is the a ver a ge m eltin g poi n t o f
.
°
.

t a llow After bein g m elted it be gi n s to solidi fy a t rather

.

lo wer tem pera t u r es fro m 33 to 46 0 ( 1 1 5 E ) bu t a t

,
° °
.
°

th e m o m e n t o f solidi fyin g the tem per a t u re rises a fe w

de grees . W hen p u re t a llow sho u ld be white fa i r ly , ,

fir m a n d witho u t m u ch odo u r a n d t a ste

,
It i s sol u ble .

i n fro m 40 to 44 ti m es its vol u m e o f a lcohol G en er a lly .

,

it co n t a i n s a s m a ll qu a n tity of free a cid ra n gi n g fr o m ,

to 7 p e r cen t a lthou gh occ a sion a lly s a m ples wi th

.
,

l a r ger qu a n tities a r e m et with F or so a p m a ki n g t h e .

-
,

presen ce of free fa tty a cid is not detri m ent a l bu t ra ther ,

 T AL L O W . 117

otherwise ; bu t for l u bric a ti n g m a chi n ery it is decidedly

di sadv an t a g eo u s .

Wh en m elted t a llow is a llowed to cool very slowly a t

a tem per a t u r e o f n o t less th a n 2 7 to 30 C (80 to 86 ° ° ° °
.

it form s a gr a n u l a r m a ss the stea ri n cryst a llisin g ,

ou t i n the form o f s m a ll nod u les which c a n be sep a r a ted

out fro m th e m ore fl u id m a ss by press ur e The process .

is known a s seedi n g a n d is l a rgely a pplied to the

,

se ara tio n of the ste a r i n o f the t a llow fo r u se i n m aki n

p g
candles while the liq u id which p a sses thro u h the press is
, g
known a s t a llow oil a n d is u sed for lu b r ic a tin g m a chi n er y
”
,

and so a p m a ki n
-
g .

When boiled with c a u stic a lk a lies t a llow is co n verted ,

into soap O f c a u stic sod a tallow u s u ally t a kes a bou t

.
,

to per cent to com pletely s a po n i fy it while of c au stic

.
,

po t a sh it req u i r es to per cent The a lk a lies .

being i n both c a ses t a ke n a s che m ic a lly p u re o f the ordin a ry ,

comm er ci a l prod u cts m ore will be req u ired a ccordin to the

g ,

stren th o f the a rticle which v a r ies very m u ch

g , W hen the .

soa
p form ed by boi li n
g tallo w a n d a lk a li to g ether is tre a t ed
with acid th e fa tty a cids of the t a llow a r e sep a r a ted a n d
,

usually a r e fo u nd to a m o u n t to 9 5 per cent o f the t a llow .

used . The m eltin g poi n t a n d speci fic gra vity of these fatty

aci ds vary wi th the q u a lity o f the t a llow .

Tallow i s frequ en tly a d u lterated A m o n g other bodies .

have been u sed so ft fats from other p a rts of the a ni m a l s u ch ,

as bone or tripe t a llows cotto n seed oil se a l oil ste a ri n fro m

,
-
, ,

wool gre a se a m on g fa tty m a tte r s to sa y n othi n g o f chi n a

, ,

clay st a rch a n d si m il a r prod u cts

, It is by n o m ea ns a n .

easy m a tter to detect so m e of these a d u lter a nts cotton seed -

oil ste arin i s very di ffi c u lt to detect The speci fic gra vity of .

the fa t a t 1 00 the m eltin g poi n t is a lso som e gu ide while

°

, ,

the l arge propor tio n o f solid fa tty a cid wo u ld be a cl u e to it s

‘

addition . C otto n seed oil c a n be detected by its red u ci n g the

-
1 18 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

speci fic gr a vity m elti n g point a n d i n cre a si n g the proportio n

, ,

o f liqu id fa tty a cids a s well a s by the silver nit r a te a n d iodi n e

,

test Ste a ri n from wool gr ea se c a n be detected by the t a llow

.

co n t a i n i n g a l a rge propo r tion of fa tty a cid a s well a s by the ,

silver n itra te test Bo n e gre a se c a n be detected by the tallow

.

con t a i n i n g phosph a te o f li m e which is a ch a racteristic i n

,

e di e n t o f bone r e a se T h a dditio n o f s u ch m a tters a s

g r g e .

c h i n a cl ay a n d st a rch c a n be de tected by m eltin g the t a llo w

a n d a llo wi n these i n sol ble m tters to s et tle ou t S u ch
g u a .

form s o f a d u lter a tio n a r e n o w r a r e a n d Show u nskil fu l wo r k

,

o n the p a rt o f the a d u ltera tor P a ra ffi n w a x a n d sc a le a n d

.

m iner a l oil ar e so m eti m es a dded ; these m a y be detected by

their red u ci n g the pe r cent a ge of pot a sh r eq u ired to s a po n i fy
the t a ll o w a n d by the s a m ple h a vi n g a low fl a sh point
( u n de r 4 00
°

T a llow is n ow r a r ely u sed fo r lu bric a ti n g m a chi n ery At .

one ti m e it w a s l a r gely u sed for l u bricati n g ste am en g i n e

cyli n ders bu t it h a s been s u perseded by th e petrole u m
,

cyli n der oils It is u sed n o w in sm a ll qu a ntity for lu b r i

.

—
c a tin g he a vy en gine bea r i gs be a rin gs o f r olli n g m ills
n

— a n d for m a ki n g l u bric a ti n g gr e a ses .

T a llow is m ore l a r gely u sed for so a p m a ki n g th a n a n y -

other fa t th a t is kn own it gives a good so a p h a rd a n d o f a —

g ood white col o u r T h. is however is m,

odi fi ed ,
by the colo u r
o f the t a llow a n d the c a r e t a ken i n m a ki n g th e so a p
,
T he .

g r a i n o f t a llow so a p is g ood a n d u n i form ; it is n o t r e a dily

solu ble i n w a ter a n d on th a t a cco u n t it does n ot la ther so
,

freely a s so m e so a ps do O n th e ot h er h a n d it is n o t so w a ste
.
,

fu l i n u se : i ts cle a n si n g powers a r e excelle n t a n d it keeps we ll , ,

n o t a cq u iri n a n y objectio n a ble odo u r or beco m in g r a n cid o n

g
keepi n g It is a little bit tro u blesom e to s a po n i fy bu t by the
.
,

exercise o f a little c a re on the p a r t of the so a p m a ker this c a n -

be ea sily got over .

 L AR D . 1 19

CON S TAN TS OF T AL L O W .

Speci fi G
c r avit y at 15
°
C .
(60 F) °
.

50 F) .

1 00 0
°
.
(2 1 2 F )
°
.

l
M e ti n g P o i n t 42 ,
°
to 46
°
0 .
(1 07
°
to 1 1 5
°

l fyi g P i t 36 0 (98 F
So i d i n o n ,
°
.
°
.

I l bl F tty A i d (B h V l ) 95 t 96 p
n so u e a c s e n er a ue , o e r c en t .

S p i fi ti
a onV l (K tt t f T t ) 1 9 3 t 2 0 p
ca on a ue oe s or er es , o er c en t . K OH .

I di b b d (H bl T t) 39 t 44 p
o ne a so r e t u es , o er c en .

Rih tV l
e c er
— K OH a u e, c c .

Vi i t y t 1 2 0 F
sc o s a
°
.

°
1 50 -F .

2 12
°
F .

CO N ST AN T S O F FATT Y ACI D S FR O M TAL L OW .

Spe c ifi Gc i t y t 1 00 0 (2 1 2
r av 08 69 8
a
°
.
°
.

M l ti g P i t 43 t 44 0 (1 08 t 1 1 0
e n o n ,
°
o
°
.
°
o
°

S li d i fyi g P i t 42 t 4 3 0 ( 1 07 t 1 08
° ° ° °
o n o n , o . o

M l l W i gh t (C m b i i g W i gh t) 2 84
o ec u a r e o n n e , .

I d i b b d (H bl T t) 40 p
o ne a sor e t u es ,
e r c en .

RD LA .

L ard a s is well know n is the fa t obt a i n ed fro m the le a f

, ,

and othe r p a rts o f th e i I t is l m ost e n tirely u sed for

p g a .

culi nary p u r poses a n d b u t r a r ely for ind u stri a l u ses It is .

used to a li m ited exte n t i n so a p m a ki n a n d then only in -

g ,

making the best gr a des of toilet so a ps where a good white

col ou r is desired la r d i n re a rd to these poi n ts r a n kin with
g , g .

coc on u t oil L a r d is a so ft fa t of a co n siste n cy equ a l to or

.

sli htly h a rder th a n b u tte r m elti n to cle w ter white oil -

g g a a r a , ,

its consistency v a ries sli ghtly i n differen t s a m ples I t is white .

in colo ur a ltho ugh so m eti m es it m a y h a ve a fa i n t yellowish

,

or cream y tint ; its odo u r a n d t a s te a r e sweet a n d ple a s a n t ,

and i f well re fin ed it keeps well it sa p on i fie s fr eely form i n g ,

a ood white h a r d so a p with sod a a n d a white so ft so a p with

g ,

p o t ash. It co n sists e s se n ti a lly o f a m ixt u r e o f ste a ri n a n d

ol ei n i n so m ewh a t v a r yi n p r opor t io n s fro m 60 to 6 5 per cen t
g ,
.

of olei n a n d 35 to 40 e r ce n t o f ste a r in the r e a r e a lso s m a ll

p .

q u a n tities o f p a l m itin p r ese n t L a r d is s u bject to a d u lte ra .

 12 0 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

tion ,
su a l i n gredien ts a dded bei
th e u cotto s ed ng fa t a n d n- e

Oi l. L a r d so a p h a s a good white colo u r u n i fo r m text u re a n d , ,

l a thers freely in w a ter bei n g su per ior i n th is respect to t a llow

,

so a p it is fre e fro m a n y str o n g sm ell a n d does n ot go r a n c id .

CO N STAN T S O F LA RD .

fi G y t 1 5 0 (60 F )
° °
Sp ec i c r a vi t a . .

(
°
50 0
°
. 1 2 2
1 00 0
°
.
( 2 12 °
F).

Soli d i fyi ng P o i n t, to 2 9
°
0 .
(80 t o 84
° °

M l ti g P i
e n o n t,
°
40 t o 4 2
°
0 .
(1 04
°
t o 1 08
°

I l bl F
n so u e a tt y Ac i d s (H e h n er Vl a ue ) 96 , p e r c e n t .

Sa p on i fi c a ti o n V l (Ka ue o et tsto r fe r T e st) , 1 9 5 p e r c en t K O H . .

I odi n e Vl a ue ( H bl Tut ) es , 5 9 per c en t .

CO N STAN T S OF F ATT Y ACI D S FR O M L ARD .

Sp i fi G i ty t 1 00 0 (2 1 2
° °
ec c rav a .

S l i d i fyi g P i t 39 0 ( 1 02
° °
o n o n , .

M l ti g P i t 4 3 0 (1 07
e n o n ,
°
.
°

C m b i i g E q i l t (M l
o n n l W i ght ) 2 80
u v a en o ec u ar e , .

I d i V l (H bl T t) 64 2 p
o ne a ue t u es , e r c en .

B O N E GR E ASE .

This fa t is l a rgely u sed i n th e m a n u fact u r e of the c h ea p

sorts of so aps both do m estic an d m a n u fa ct u rers soaps eith e r
,
’

a lo n e or in a d m ixt u re with other fa ts a n d oils Its prep a r a .

tion h a s a lr ea dy been described As u su a lly sold it is in th e .

for m o f a greyish c olo u r ed gr a n u l a r so ft fa t its co n sisten c e

-
, ,

bei n g betwee n t allow an d l ard It h as a sli ght odo u r wh e n .

fres h which o fte n develops into a n u nple a s a n t one if t h e fa t

,

becom es r a ncid It c o nt a ins som e wa ter the a m ou nt v a ryi n g

.
,

fro m 2 to 6 per ce n t s m a ll qu a n tities o f a ni m al tiss u e fr o m ,

05 to 1 per cen t the l a tter bei n g r a th er an excessive pro

.
,

portion ; the proportion of free a cid in bo n e grease is ra ther

h i ghe r th a n i n t a llow th e a m o u n t r a n gi n g fro m 7 to 2 1 p er
,

cen t then s m a ll qu a ntities of phosph a te of li m e ar e prese n t

.

t h is co n stit u tes a c h ar a cteristic te st for the pre sence of bo n e

g r ease Two . s a m ples o f s u ch a
gre a se ex a m i n ed by th e a u th o r

h a d th e co m positio n
 B O NE G RE A S E . 12 ]

NO 1 . .

W a ter pe r c e n t .

F r ee ac i d

U n sa pon ifi a b le Oi l

Sapon i fi a ble O il

P h osp h a t e of li m e T r ac e s

1 0000 1 0000

Owi n g to the variable qu a lity of bone fa t it is advisabl e

to t est it for m oist u re etc before bu yin g
, .
,
.

The w a ter it contains m a y i f tho u ght necessary be got rid

of by m elti n the f t and keepin it in a m elted condition for
g a g
some ho u rs .

The colou r of bone fat varies a grea t deal bu t as a ru le ,

this is of little detrim en t to its soap m aking pro perties a s -

,

the colo u r g en era lly finds its w a y into the soap lyes a n d a ,

ale so a p rather so fter th a n a t a llow soap and a little m ore

p ,

sol uble in water is obtained Bo n e fa t soap sti ll ret a in s

, .
-

some of the odo u r of the fa t an d so i f u sed for do m estic so a p s

,

some scent is requ ired to dis uise this odo u r ; i f u sed for
g
manu fact u rin g soap th e odo u r is o f little con sequ ence .

A N I M AL SO AP FAT S .

Besides t a llow and bone gre a se which are regu lar a rticles
of co mm erce there are other solid re a ses of ani m al ori gi n
g
which a r e o ffered i n occasio n al p a rcels to soap m akers ; s u c h -

ar e : tripe t a llow h orse fa t skin fa t etc

, , ,
.

These a r e only fit to be u sed to m a ke the com m onest cl a s s

of so aps s u ch a s sco u rin soaps ro h m ill soap s ; they are
, g u g ,

u su a lly o f a so ft consistency a n d v a r y in colo u r 3 gre a t deal

, ,

som e are a s h ade darker t h a n t a llow or bone fat bu t others -

,

ar e of a brown ish tint their odo ur likewise varies consider

ably, fr Om bein g co m p a ratively sweet to h a vin g a r a ncid
odo ur . They m ake soaps of a consiste n ce and qu a lity ra ther
softer a n d poorer than tallo w I f a n ythin g they a r e r a ther
.

easier th a n tallow or bo ne fa t to sapo n i fy They are ver y

-
.
12 2 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

v a r i a ble com positio n som e co n t a i n w a ter others tra ces of

in , ,

u n sap o n i fia ble fa ts so m e co n t a i n l a rge qu a n tities of fr ee a cid

,
.

T h e a u thor h a s h a d occ a sio n to ex a m i n e m a n y sri c h so a p

g re a ses d u ri n
g the l a st fe w ye a r s a n d the followi n g a r e the
r es u lts of so m e o f t h ese a n a lyses

No 1
. .

W a ter , an im a l ti ssu e

F r ee f a tt y acid

Sa p on i fi a b le fa t
U n sa p on i fia b le oil

The l a rge p r opor tion o f free a cid i n N os 1 a n d 3 is to .

b e a cco u n ted for by the fa ct th a t so m e distilled ste a ri n h a s

been a dded to th em .

TAL L OW OI L .

T a llow oil is obta i n ed fr om t allow by m elti n g a n d keepin g

th e t a llow i n a w a rm roo m a t a bo u t 80 to 90 F for so m e
° °
.

h o u r s the ste a ri n it co n t a i n s cry st a llises ou t i n the form o f

s m a ll r a n u l a r p a r ticles he n ce this p r ocess is k n own a s seed
g ,

in g . The seeded t a llow is then placed i n c a n v a s cloths a n d

t n der hydr a u lic p r ess u r e whe n the olei n it co n t a ins
p u u ,

c o m es o u t to ethe r with a little of the ste a rin a n d form s

, g ,

th e t a llow oil of com m er ce It is a lso sold u nder the n a m es

.

O f ox oil a n i m a l oil etc

,
Its chief u se is for l u bric a tin g m a
,
.

chi n er y bu t it is u sed for m a ki n g so ap when a white so a p

, ,

r a ther so fte r a n d m ore sol u ble th a n a t a llow so a p is req u i red , .

T a llow oil v a ries m u ch i n co n siste n ce so m e s a m ples a r e ,

m o r e fl u id th a n othe r s ; this depen ds u po n the proportio n of

ste a ri n which the oil con ta i n s ; i f ther e is m u ch then the ,

O i l is solid ; i f little the n it is liqu id,

The speci fic gr a vity .

v a r ies for the s a m e r e a so n fr o m 09 1 1 to 0 91 5 T a llow oil .

c o n t a i n s a v a ryi n g proportio n o f fr ee a cid fr o m n i l i n well

r ep a r ed s a m ples to (1 5 0 1 1 6 per ce n t i n other s T a llo w

°

p . .

O i l sho u ld be qui te white wh e n cold or h a ve a t the m ost a ,

fa i n t yellow tin t W h en m elted it o u ght to be qu ite cle a r

.
 P AL M O IL . 12 3

a nd br i ght free from a n y clo u di n ess or flo a ti n g p a r ticles

,
of

a ny ki n d It h a s on ly a sli ght odo u r of a n a n i m a l fa t

. .

ARD O I L L .

L a rd oil like t a llow oil is n o t m u ch u sed i n so a p m a ki n g

, ,
-
,

findi n g its pri n cip a l u se i n l u b r ic a ti n g m a chinery It is pre .

p ar ed f r o m l a rd by the s a m e p r ocess a s t a llow oil is m a de

from t a llow It resem bles the l a st oil i n its proper ties a n d
.

uses . It is i f a n ythi n g r a ther li ghter i n colo u r a n d h a s less

O dou r which r ese m bles th a t o f l a r d
,
.

V E G E T A B L E S O AP O I L S AN D FAT S .

P AL M OI L .

Next to t a llow p a lm oil u sed to be the fa t m ost u sed fo r

maki n g so a ps b u t of l a te it h a s been displ a ced by cotto n oil
, ,

which is che a per a n d gives a better so a p for the gen er a l r u n

of dom estic p u rposes .

P a lm oil is O bt a i n ed fro m the fr u it o f v a rio u s species o f

p al m t r ee s n a tives o,f the oil re g io n s o f th e w est co a st o f

Africa The t r ee which yields the l a r gest propor tio n of the
.

p al m oil o f co m m e r ce is the E la i i s G u i n e n si s The fr u it o f .

the p al m is a bo u t the S ize o f a s m a ll pl u m a n d h a n g s i n ,

bunches fro m the t r ees L ike the pl u m it co n t a i n s a n o u ter

.

p ulpy m a ss a n d a n i n n er ke r n el F ro m the o u ter p u lp is

.

obtai n ed the p a l m oil while the ker n el yields p a l m n u t or

,
-

p al m ke -
r n el O i l a lso u sed ,
i n so a p m a ki n g b u t which h -
a s ,

differ ent p r operti e s to p a l m O i l .

The n a tives o f the oil re gio n s em ploy a v a rie ty of m ethods

for the p u r pose o f ext r a cti n g the oil fr o m the fr u it The .

c om mo n est pl a n co n sist s i n st a cki n the n u ts a s they a r e

g
taken fr om the tree i n he a ps for fr om jse ven to te n d a y s whe n ,

by th e deco m positio n of so m e o f the ve get a ble ti ss u es su r

roundi n g the hu sk of the n u ts the h u sk c a n be r e a dily r e
moved le a vi n g the i n ter n a l p u lp a n d ker n el
, The p u lp is of .
12 4 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

a r a ther h ard n a t u re a n d to so ften it the n u ts a fter bein g

, ,

h u sked ar e thr own i n to pit s a n d cover ed over with pl a n t a i n

,

le a ves then with e a rth a n d p a lm le a ves ; i n this co n ditio n

,

they r em a i n for a per iod v a r yi n g fr o m thr ee weeks to th r ee

m o n ths a ccor di n g to the fa n cy or p r a ctice of the p a r tic u l a r
,

tribe of Afric a n s who ar e m a ki n g the oil A t the en d of the .

period n a m ed the p u lp will h a ve been co n ver ted i n to a so ft

m a ss it is n o w th r own i n to pits li n ed with sto n es wher e i t ,

is s u bjected to a po u n di n g process wher eby the p u lp is sep a

r a ted fr o m the ker nels the for m er is n o w th r own i n to boil
i n g pots a n d boiled with w a ter whe n the oil rises to the top
,

a n d is ski m m ed off a n y ve et a ble tiss u e wh ich m a y a c c o m

, g
p a n y the p u lp p a ssi n g i n to the w a ter or the oil m a y be sep a
,

r a ted fro m the ve et a ble p u lp b v he a ti n it with w a ter so a s

g g
to m elt the oil a n d then sq u eezi n g the m a ss i n b a gs when
, ,

the oil flows ou t .

The qu a lity a n d co n sisten ce o f the pr od u ct d epen d p a r tly

on the p a rtic u l a r species o f p a l m fr o m which it is m a de b u t ,

a s to this poi n t de fin ite i n fo r m a tio n is req u ired bu t m ore ,

p a rtic u l a rly u pon the c a r e with which th e pr ocess of extr ac

tio n h a s been c a rried ou t a n d the len gth of tim e the fru it is
,

allowed to r em a i n in the pits .

A lo n g steepi n g res u lts i n the oil bei n g h a rder bu t a t th e ,

s a m e ti m e its qu a lity is m a teri a lly decr ea sed ; it a cqu ires a

ra n cid odo u r its colou r is n ot a s bri ght a n d it co n t a i n s m ore
, ,

free acid i n dic a tin g th a t a deco m positio n i n to a cid a n d gly

,

ceri n e h a s t aken pl a ce ; a short steep gives a soft oil of a

sweet odou r a n d a bri ght colo u r The p r ocess of ext r a cting
.

p a lm oil bei n g a s cr u de a s it c a n well be it is evide n t that ,

the co m m erci a l a rticle is fa r from bei n g a ll p u r e fa t it m ay

co n t a i n som e tr a ces of ve get a ble tiss u e etc which bei n g ,
.
, ,

ver y li a ble to fer m en t will i n co u rse of ti m e gra du a lly bri n g

,

a bo u t the deco m positio n o f the oil r es u lti n i n its beco m in g

g ,

m o r e or less r a n cid a n d losin g its odo u r a n d Colo u r

,
.
 P AL M O IL . 12 5

P alm oil is a solid fa t of a bo u t the consistence of b u tter ;

i t h as a n o r a n ge to golde n yellow colo u r which is hi ghly -
,

c haracteristic bu t is liable to v a ry ve r y m u ch
, Sa lt P ond .

an d Br a ss oils h a ve u s u ally a brow n ish yellow colo u r L a gos -

,

O il i s a bri ght ora n g e Sierra L eo n e is rather redder , New ,

Calab ar oil is a golden yellow ; the colo u r is probably p a rtly

depen den t u po n the Species o f p a l m fr o m wh ich th e oil is
obt ained in the first instance a n d p a rtly on th e process o f ,

extractio n L a gos oil is th e best a n d m ost ne u tral qu a lity

.
,

the proportion of free acid it cont a ins r a rely exceedin g 1 0 per

c en t. a n d the a m o u nt of w a ter a n d other i m p u rities n ot
,

more th a n 2 per cent and in consistence it is th e so ftest o f

.
,
'

the palm oils Brass so far a s freedom fro m i m pur ities is

.
,

concerned co m es next to L a os oil it is the h ardest f the

, g o

p al m oils a n d on
, t h at acco u nt is the q u a lit y m ost in fa vo u r
with c andle m a kers it u s u ally co n t a i n s a large percent a ge
-
,

53 to 65 of free fatty acid and by fa r th e lar gest propor tion

, ,

of p almi tic a cid of any variety hence its h ardness , .

Sa lt P on d oil is one of the wo r st qu a lities of p a l m oil to

be fou nd in the E n glish m a rket the a m o u n t o f i m pu rities ,

Often bein fo nd to a m o nt to 2 0 per cent w h ile the fr ee

g u u .
,

acid h as bee n recorded by N orm a n T a te to be as hi h a s

g
80 per cent indicatin g th at b u t little a ct u a l oil is present
.
, .

The colo u r a n d odo ur are u s u a lly poor H a l f J ack Bo n n y .

, ,

New C a l a b a r O ils occ u py i n term edi a te positions between

thes e O ils i n h a rdness a n d qu a lity gen er a lly P a l m oil h a s .

a pecu li a r V iolet like odo u r which is co m m u nic a ted to the

-
,

soap which is m ade fro m it .

Chem ic a lly pal m oil co n sists o f a m ixt u re of p a lm itin

and olein in v a rio u s proportio n s w ith varyin q u a ntities o f
g ,

free p a l m itic a n d oleic acids The speci fic gravity of p a l m .

oil at 1 5 C v a ries fro m 0 9 2 0 to 09 2 6 T h e speci fic gr a vity

°
. .

at 1 00 0 r a n es fro m to 0 85 9 the m elti poi t is

0
g. n
g n

exceedi n ly v a ri a ble r a n in fr o m 2 5 to 36 C ( 7 7 to 9 7
° ° ° °

g g g ,
.
12 6 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

the setti n g poi n t bei n g a fe w degr ees lower W hen s a p o ni .

fie d p a l m O i l yield s fr o m 9 4 to 9 7 p er ce n t o f fa tty a cids the .

,

setti n g poi n ts of which r a n ge fr o m 4 1 to 46 0 (1 06 to 1 1 3 ° °

.
° °

the com bi n i n g equ iv a len t fr om 2 7 3 to 2 7 4 P a l m oil t a kes .

fr o m 1 9 6 to 2 0 2 p e r cen t of c au s tic pot a sh K O H or fr om .

, ,

1 4 to 1 4 4 p e r ce n t o f c a u stic sod a N a O H to s a po n i fy it
.
, ,
.

P a l m oil so a p h a s a n o r a n ge yellow to yellow colo u r de

-
,

pen di n g u po n the qu a lity O f the oil from which it is m a d e ;

it a lso possesse s the ch a r a cter istic odo u r of the oil which
h a s a l r e a dy bee n r e fe r r ed to It is h a r d n ot li a ble to go .
,

ra ncid a n d will keep well i m pr ovi n g i n qu a li ty i n so doi n g ;

, ,

it l a th er s fa ir ly well a n d is a good clea n ser a lto gether bei n g

, ,

a fir st cl a ss so a p
- P a l m oil m a y be ble a ched which m ust
.
,

be do n e i f the oil is to be u sed for m a ki n g a white soap .

Ther e ar e m a n y p r ocesses a v a il a ble for t h is wo r k the best

is W a tts s by m e a n s of bich r o m a te of pot a sh then it m ay be
’

ble a ched by blowi n g a ir thr o u gh it a n d by othe r m ean s .

The se processes h a ve bee n a l r e a dy desc r ibed A d u lterated .

s am ples of p a l m oil a r e sc a r cely kn own ; the a u tho r h a s not

m e t with on e i n the co u r se of h i s p r a ctice n or is the fact ,

t h a t it is a d u lter a ted r efer r ed to i n the text books on oil s -

.

CO N STAN T S OF P AL M OIL .

S p ec i fi G c ra vi t y at 15 F)
°
C .
(60
°
. 09 2 0 to 09 2 4 .

50 0 ( 1 2 0 F )
° °
. . 0 893 .

1 00 0 (2 1 2 F )
° °
. .

M lti g P i
e n o nt, f r om 2 7
°
to 42
°
0 .
(8 0 t o
°
1 07
°

I l bl F
n so u eA i d (H h V l ) 9 6 5 p
a tt y c t s e n er a ue , e r c en .

S p
a ifi ti
on V l ( K tt t f T t) 2 0 2 p
ca on a ue t oe s or e r es , er c en . K OH .

R i h t V l 05
e c er
—
a u e,K OH c c
10
. . .

I di V l (H bl T t) 5 1 t 5 2 p
o ne a ue u t es , o er c e n .

CO N STAN T S O F FATT Y A CI D S F R O M P A L M O IL .

Sp i fi G i ty t 1 00 0 (2 1 2
° °
ec c rav 0 8369
a . .

M lti g P i t 50 0 (1 2 2
e n o n ,
°
.
°

S l i d i fy i g P i t 45 5 C
° °
o n o n , .

S p
a onifi ti V l 2 00 p
ca on t K OH
a u e, e r c en . .

C m b i i g E q i l t (M l
o n n l W i gh t) 2 7 0
u v a en o ec u a r e , .
 P A L M NU T -
O IL . 12 7

P AL M N UT
- OR P AL M K E RN E L
- OIL .

The n u ts or kern els of the p a l m fr u it a r e collected an d

imported i n l a r ge qu a ntities i n to this co u n try for the pu r pose
of pressi n the oil f ro m the m which is do n e i n m ills si m il a r
g ,

to those p r evio u sly described I n so m e pl a ces a ve r y cr u de

.

method is i n u se fo r ext r a ctin g th e oil ; the n u t s a r e p u t

into a p a n over a fir e an d ch a rred sli ghtly som e of the oi l ,

exu des a n d is po u red off th e ro a sted n u t s a r e n ow gro u n d

up an d boiled with w a te r the oil they co n t a i n rises to the ,

top an d is ski m m ed o ff a fter a shor t boil th e m a ss of ker n el

meal is r e gro u n d u p m i xed with a li ttle w a ter a n d a ga in
‘

boiled u p whe n m o r e oil is obt a i n ed

,
This is ski m m ed .

off as be fo r e The oil ob ta i n ed by this process is of a d a r k

.

colou r an d is u n s u it a ble for m a ki n ood so p

g g a .

P al m n u t O i l is o f white or fa i n tly yellowish colo u r of

-
,

a con siste n ce si m il a r t o b u tter ; i n odo u r it rese m bles coco

nut oil , fr o m which it c a n h a r dly be disti n gu ished The .

melti n g point r a n ges fr o m 2 6 to 30 C ( 7 8 to 8 6

° ° ° °

M u ch depen ds u po n the p r opo r tio n of oil ex tr a cted fro m

the ker n e l ; the fir st po r tio n s which a r e p r essed ou t a r e the
soft est a n d h a ve th e lowe st m elti n poi nt the l a st portio n s
g
are h a r de r a n d h a ve the h i g hest m elti n p i nt I t t kes
g o a .

from 2 2 to 2 4 p er ce n t of c a u stic pot a sh or fr o m 1 5 5 to 1 7

.
,

p er ce n t o.f c a u stic sod a to s a po n i fy it I n this r espect i t .

resem ble s coco n u t oil to which a lso it a p roxi m a tes i n c o m

, p
p o sitio n co
,
n t a i n i n
g a l a r
g e p r opo r tio n o f the lower fa tty
aci ds l a u ric
,
c a pric c a p r ylli c a n d c a p r oic a cids bu t n ot to
, , , ,

so
g re a t a n exte n t a s does coco n u t oil O u d em an s
g i ve s .

the followi n g a n a lysis of p a lm n u t oil -

Gly i d f O l i A i d
c er e o e c c

Gly i d f St i P lm i ti d M y i ti A i d
c er es o ea r c , a c an 33 C r s c c s
°
.

Gly id f L i C p i C p ylli d C p i A i d
c er es o au r e , a r c, a r c an a ro c c s

P alm -n u t oil is fa irly cle a r of fr ee a cid an d is n ot li a bl e

to go rancid .
 12 8 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

In its speci fic gravity a t both 60 an d 2 1 2 F it r esem bles ° °

.

c lo s ely cocon u t oil .

P a l m n u t oil is l a r gely u sed in so a p m a ki n g in the pl ace

- -

of coco n u t oil ; it gives a so a p o f si m ilar proper ties .

P a l m n u t O i l is s a id to be a d u lterated with l a rd t all ow

-
,

a n d other c h e a per fa ts a n d O ils Su ch ad u lter a tion c a n be .

detected by m e a ns of the sap on i fic a ti on v a l u e the distill ati on

t est will s u ffi ce to detect a n y a du lteration .

CO N STAN T S OF P AL M N U T -
OI L .

S p ec i fi G c r avi t y at 15
°
F) 0 .
(60
°
. 00 5 2 .

40 0 (1 05 F )
° °
. 09 1 1 9 .

1 00 0 (2 1 2 F )
° °
. . 09 7 31 .

l fyi g P i t 2 0 5 0 (7 1
S o idi n o n ,
°
.
°

M lti g P i t 2 7 t 2 8 C (7 9 t 80
e n o n ,
°
o
°
.
°
o
°

I l bl F tty A i d (H h V l )
n so u e a p t c s e n er a ue , er c e n .

S p
a onifi ti V l (K tt t f T t) 2 4 p
ca on a ue t K OH oe s or e r es , er c e n . .

N
R i h t V l 2 4 K OH
1W
e c er a ue, c c . . .

I di
o ne V l (H bl T t) 1 0 t 1 3 p
a ue t
u es , o er c en .

CO N S T AN T S OF F ATT Y AC I D S FR O M P AL M N U T O I L -
°

S l i d i fyi g P i t 2 0 t 2 3 0 ( 7 1 t 7 6
° ° ° °
o n o n ,
o . o

M l ti g P i t 2 5 t 2 8 0 (7 7 t 80
e n o n ,
°
o
°
.
°
o
°

C m b i i g E q i l t (M l
o n n la W i ght) 2 1 1
u v a en o ec u r e ,
.

I di V l
o ne p t
a u e, e r c en .

N U T OIL COC O .

The next so ap oil which cl a i m s notice is th a t Obtained

from the cocon u t or coco a n u t as it is so m eti m es Spelt
, ,

the fr u it of th e coco p a l m cocos n ucifer a ,

.

The fru it of this p a lm is a very u sefu l produ ct It i s of .

l a rge size T h e ou ter portio n co n sists of a fibro u s m a ss which

.
,

is m a de i n to ropes m a ts a n d c a rpets Insid e th is is the nut

, .

proper c onsistin g o f a h a rd o u ter portion u sefu l a s fuel ;

, ,

i n side thi sis a layer of p u lpy m a tter of a white colou r which ,

is th a t po r tion of the fru it p a tronised by th e yo u n g idea at

fa ir ti m es The centra l portio n of th e n u t is occ u pied by a
‘

m ilky fl u id The p u lp is of a very oily n a t u re the p r oportion

.
,

o f O i l u su a lly a ver a i n g ove r 5 0 er cent

g p .
 CO CO NU T O IL . 12 9

Thi s p u lp is d r ied by expos u re to a i r a n d in th a t c on ,

ditio n is k n ow n a s copr a h a n d is expor ted into this co u n try

”
,

in l a r ge qu a ntities for the p u rpose of ext r a cti n g th e O i l o u t

of it . The n a tive m ethod of extra cti n g the oil co n sists i n
hea ti n g th e p u lp with w a ter wh en the oil ri ses to the top
,

an d i s collected An other m ethod com m o n ly follo wed when

.

inferi or q u a lities of oil o n ly a r e w a n ted is to he a t th e p u lp ,

with a little w a te r so as to re n der the oil m ore fl u id a n d ,

then to s u bject the m a ss to p r e ss u r e i n a ru de ki n d of oil

p r e ss w o
, r ked by oxe n I
. n so m e pl a ces t h e p u l p is d r i ed
and t h en g r a ted by m ea n s o f c u tti n m c h i n es an d t h is
g a , ,

after bei n m ixed or h e a ted with w a t er is pressed yieldi n g a

g , ,

large qu a ntity o f a good q u a lit y of oil .

Coco n u t oil co m es i n to this co u n try fro m m a n y pl a ces

in Sou th e a ste r n A si a th e best is t h a t fro m Ceylo n
-
C ochi n .

Chin a Ol l r a n ks very clo se behin d M a l a b a r oil is of very ,

g o o d q u a lity M a n ill
, a oil is g ood s o m e co m es f r o m M a u r i ti u s

and the F iji Isles .

In this co u n try coco n u t oil is pressed fro m cop r a h by th e

machi n e r y w h ich h a s bee n described i n p r evio u s s e cti o n s ,

the on ly di ffe r ence bei n g th a t the ope r a t io n is c a rried ou t i n

ei ther a w a rm er pl a ce o r i n he a ted presses .

Coco n u t oil m a kes i t s a p p e a r a n ce i n this co u n t r y i n th e

form of a white b u t so ft fa t In Asi a tic co u n t r ie s it is a
.

water white r a ther li m pid oil It m elt s at fr o m 2 0 to 2 5 C ° °

, . .

(68 to 77 F ) its speci fic gr a vi ty a t 60 F is

° ° ° °
. at 2 1 2 .

F it is
. Its odo u r i s ple a s a n t a n d ch a r a cter istic ,

resembli n th a t of the coco n u t It is li ble to beco m e

g .a

rancid when its odo u r beco m es m o r e prono u n ced

, .

It is fai r ly e a sily sa p o n i fie d a n d on th a t a cco u n t it i s

,

much em ployed i n the m an u fa ct u r e o f so a ps by the cold

p cess
r o I t gives a w hite so a p possessi n g good la ther in g
.
,

p per tie s a n d on e th a t fo r r e a so n s w h ich will be poi n ted

r o ,

out rese n tly w orks well i n - h a rd w a ters or i n w a ter s which

p ,

9
1 30 SO AP MANUFA CT URE .

co n t a i n a good de a l of s a li n e m a tter i n solu tio n It t a kes .

fro m 2 4 5 to 2 6 p e r ce n t o f c a u stic pot a sh or fr o m

. to ,

1 8 7 p e r ce n t of c a u stic s o d a to co m pletely s a po n i fy coco n u t

.

O i l a l a r g er a m o u n t t h a n is r eq u i r ed fo r a n y other k n own
,

fa t .

C oco n u t
oil is on e o f the m ost co m plex oils k n own a s far
a s r e a r ds its che m ic a l co m positio n The pri n cip a l fa tty a cid
g .

p r ese n t is l a u r ic a ci d H C H O ; ther e is a lso p r esen t

, ,2 23 2

c a pr oic a cid H C H O ; c a p r ylli c a cid H C H s ; c a p r ic

, G n g , g

a cid H C n O
, lo These a cids a r e a ll sol u ble in w a te r a n d ar e
a

vol a tile whe n distilled with ste a m or wa ter .

It is the p r esen ce of these lower solu ble fa tty a cids which

c a u ses coco n u t O il to r equ i r e so m u ch a lk a li to s a po n i fy it
a n d to fo r m a so a p which wo r ks with h a r d w a ter for the ,

li m e s al t s of t h ese fa tty a cids a r e co m p a r a tively spe aki n g

, ,

solu ble I n w a ter an d the a lk a li so a ps a r e m u ch m ore fr eely

,

sol u ble i n s a li n e sol u tio n s th a n is the c a se with the a lk ali

s a lts of oleic or ste a r ic a cids for ex a m ple T her e ar e a lso .

r ese n t i n coc o n u t oil ste a r ic a cid H 0 H 0 ; p a l m itic a cid

p , , 18 35 2 ,

H C mH l with sm a ller qu a n tities of ot h e r a cids o f the s am e

g,

s eries ther e a r e bu t com p a r a tively s m a ll q u a n tities of acids of

t h e oleic series O f co u rse it sho u ld be u nder stood in spe a k
.

i n g o f fa tty a cids i n coco n u t O i l th a t these do n o t exist

i n it a s free a cids bu t i n the fo r m o f glycer ides
,
.

L a u ric a cid h a s a com bi n i n g wei ght o f 2 00 The c om .

bi n i n g o f the fa tty a cids which c a n be extr a cted fro m coco

n u t oil by s a po n i fyi n g a n d libe r a ti n g the a cids with s u lph u r ic

acid ran ges fr o m 1 96 to 2 04 W hen these fa tty a cid s a r e

, .

distilled with wa ter the di still a te possesses an a cid r eaction

du e to the vol a tile or sol u ble a cids co m i n g ove r ; the a cidity
fr o m 1 00 p a rts of oil is eq u a l to to of c a u stic

pot a sh B u tter a n d p a lm n u t oil h a ve a si m il a r com posi

.

tio n .

C oco n u t O i l h a s ver y little power of a bsor bi n g iodi n e or

 CO C O NU T O IL . 1 31

bromi n e ; o f th e it t akes u p 8 9 to 9 per cen t of the

form er .
,

latter per c en t It yields fr om 1 2 to 1 3 per ce n t of

. .

g lyc er ine a n d fro m 9 4 to 96

, p e r ce n t o f fa t ty a cids . .

In so a p m a ki n g cocon u t oil is l a rgely u sed for m a kin g

-
,

white so ft so a p i n co n j u n ctio n with t a llow for m a kin g cold ,

p r oc ess so a ps a n d fo r m a ,ki n g m a r i n e a n d h a rd w a ter so a ps .

When it is k n own th a t soap is g oin g to be u sed in dist r icts

where h a rd w a ter prev a ils it is a good policy to u se a little
of this oil i n m a ki n g the so a p for th en a l a ther is m or e ,

readi ly obt a i ned a n d the r e is not so m u ch waste of so a p by

the actio n o f li m e i n the water .

Coco n u t oil is co m p a ra tively e a sily sa p o n i fie d a n d will ,

take a stro n ger a lk a li th a n a n y other fa t ; thu s while wi th

tallow a stro n ger alkali than 1 0 T w ca n not sa fely be u sed °
.
,

with coco n u t oil the lye m ay be 2 0 to 2 2 T w stro n g It ° °

. .

is t his fe a t u re o f coco n u t oil th a t m a kes it so u se ful for cold

p ro cess so a ps It a lso r eq u
. ires m ore s a lt n e a rly tw i ce a s ,

much th a n does t a llow or other oil so a ps to s a lt o u t

, , .

Cocon u t oil is ra rely a d u ltera ted a n d then chiefly with ,

ani m a l fa ts a n d re a ses a n d with solid ve get a ble fa ts a n d

g ,

steari n s .An y s u ch a d u lte r a tio n wo u ld n o t be v ery di ffi c u lt

Of detectio n The odo u r a ltera tio n of the sap on i fic ati on v a lu e
.
, ,

r edu ctio n of the speci fic ravity a n d red u ctio n

°

g a t 2 1 2 F .
,

of the a m o u nt of vol a tile a cids w ill s u ffi ce to detect s u ch

a du lteratio n .

CO N ST AN T S O F CO C O N UT OIL .

Spec i fi G c r a vi t y at 15
°
C .
(60
°
F) .

40 C
°
(1 05
°
. F
1 00
°
0 (2 1 2.
°
F) .

l ifyi g P i t 1 6 t 2 C C (6C t 7 0 F
So i d n o n ,
°
o
°
.
°
o
°
.

M l ti g P i t 2 0 t 2 8 C (7 0 t 80 F
e n o n ,
°
o
°
.
°
o
°
.

S p ifi ti
a on V l (K tt t f T t ) 2 5 t 2 6 p
ca on a ue oe s or e r es , o er c en t . K OH .

I l bl F tty A i d (B h V l ) 83 t 88 p
n so u e a c s e n er a ue ,
o er c e n t .

N
R i h t V l 35
e c er
E
K OH a u e, c c
. . .

I di V l (H bl T t) 8 9 t
o ne a ue
p t u es ,
°
o e r c en .
 1 32 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

CO N ST AN T S OF FATT Y A CI D S FR O M C O CO N UT O IL .

Sp i fi G i ty t 1 00 0 (2 1 2 ° °
ec c rav 0 835 4 a . .

S li di fyi g P i t 2 0 C ( 7 0 F
° °
o n o n , . .

M l ti g P i t 2 4 t 2 5 C (7 5 t 7 7
e n o n ,
°
o
°
.
°
o
°

C m bi i g E q i l t ( M l
o n n l W i ght) 1 96 t 2 06
u v a en o ec u a r e , o .

I d i V l (H bl T t)
o ne a ue p t u es , e r c en .

I VE OIL OL .

The olive is the fr uit of th e olive tr ee C lea E u r op ea whi ch , ,

rows very a b u n d a n tly i n those co u n tries of E u rope A si a

g , ,

a n d A fric a t h a t border o n the M editerra n ea n It is ex .

te n si v ely c u ltiv a ted i n It a ly N o r th A fric a G reci a n Arc h i , ,

pel a go Sp a i n a n d A si a M inor fro m a ll which pl a ces O live

, , ,

oil i s expor ted The olive is a fru it re se m bli n g the pl u m a n d

.

o f a bo u t the s a m e size T h ere a r e cer t ai n v a ri a tions of th e

.

olive grown i n v a rio u s loc a lities du e to cli m a tic a l di fferences

a n d to the m ode o f c u ltiv a tion The fr u it is collected wh en .

j u st ripe a n d i n th a t con ditio n it yields the fin est q u ality

,

of oil O live oil is yielded by the peric a rp or p u lp which

.

s u rro u n d s the ker n el The kernel is a lso c ap a ble o f yieldi ng .

O i l b u t it is i n te r esti n g to n ote th a t the oil yielded by th e

,

kern el is di fferent to th a t given by the p u lp T h e olive oil is .

obt a i n ed fro m the fru it by press u r e ; so m e portio n i s al so

sep a r a ted by u se of so lven ts The si m plest m ethod whi ch .

h a s be e n i n u se for a lo n g ti m e co n si sts i n p r es si n g i n a
pri m itive m ort a r a n d sep ar a ti n g the oil which flows ou t
, .

G en e r a lly the p u lp is p u t i n to a l a r ge tu b or t a n k a n d su b
e c te d to p r ess u r e The oil which flows u t is k n own as
j o .

v ir i n oil It is o f fin e q u a lity a n d u sed chiefly for

“
g
edible p u rpo ses There is a co n sider a ble p r oport ion of oil
.

le ft i n the p u lp a n d this i s u s u a lly ext r a cted by boiling

,

the p u lp with w a ter then s u bjecti n g th e residu a l p u lp to a ,

second p r e ssu re A ra ther poorer qu a lity of oil is thereby

.

O bt a i n ed This qu a lity o f oil is chiefly u sed for l u br ic ati ng

.
,

so a p m a ki n g a n d gen era l i n du str ies A p oor er qu ality is

-
, .

o ften go t by su bjecti n g the r esid u a l c a ke from this second

 OL IVE O IL . 1 33

p re s si n
g to extr a ctio n by m e a ns o f bis u lphide o f carbo n .

Thi s gives a lower gr a de o f oil u sed for the co m m o n est ,

purposes a n d ge n era lly k n own as s u lph u r olive oil

, .

Olive oil v a r ies co n sidera bly i n its q u a lity The best O ils .

have a yellowish colo u r while so m e o f the i n ferior qu a lities ,

ar e of a r ee n is h b r own ti n t I-
so m e c ses the oil h
g n a . a s

a
g r e e n ish ti n t The speci .fi c g r a vity r a n
g es fro m 0 9 1 6
t h e prese n ce of m u ch free a cid lower
°
to 0 9 1 9 a t 60
ing it . The best qu a lity of olive oil co n t ains u s u a lly a bo u t
2 per ce n t o f fr ee a cid. C er t a i n gra des O f wh a t a r e k n o wn
.

as hu iles to u rn a n t s prep a r ed fr o m very r ipe an d ferm en ted

”
,

fru its whic h a r e l ar gely u sed i n dyei n g co n t a in a s m u ch a s ,

2 5 per cen t of fr ee a cid . The odo u r of olive oil is ple a sa n t

.

and pec uli a r ; the t a ste is sweet a n d bl a n d W h en cooled .

down olive oil deposits ste a ri n a n d beco m es solid a t 6 C

°
.

( 3
2
°
It r equ ires fr o m 1 9 1 to p e r ce n t o f K O H
,
°

to sapo n i fy it It a bso r bs iodin e a n d when m ixed with

.
,

sulphu ric a cid ives rise to incre se i n te m per a t u re o f 4 1

°

g a n a

O n e property o f olive oil is th a t when m ixed with

°
to 45 0 .

nitr ou s a cid or n i tr a te of m e r c u r y it beco m es solidi fied , ,

bei ng conver ted i n t o el a idi n This property is n ot possessed

.

to the s a m e d e gree by a n y othe r oil O live oil is l a r gely .

adu lt er a te d the u s u a l a d u lter a n ts bei n g cotton seed oil a n d

,

miner a l oils bu t the c h a r a cter o f th e a d u lter a tio n v a ries

,

fr om ti m e to ti m e The p r esen ce of cot to n seed oil ten ds to

.

increa se the speci fic gr a vity while th a t o f m i n er a l oil ten ds ,

to red u ce it while a t th e s a m e ti m e thei r a ddition r ed u ces

,

the fl a shi n g poi n t of the oil T o deter m i n e the p u r ity of

.

olive oil re a r d m u st be p a id to the speci fic r vity fl a shi n g

, g g a ,

p o i nt, K o e tt st o r fer test H u bl iodi n e v a l

, u e a n d the M au m e n e ,

sul hu ric a cid test a n d el a idi n test

p .

Oli ve O i l with c au stic sod a yields a so a p of a s m ooth

texture h a rd a n d so m ewh a t brittle when d ry br e a ki n g with
, ,

a conchoid a l fr a ct ur e The colo u r v a ries with the ch a ra cter

.
1 34 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

of the oil ; good oil yields a white to crea m colo u r ed soap -

,

th e poorer qu a lities yellow to g ree n ish so a ps These so ap s .

keep well h a ve fai r ly good l a theri n g a n d clea n si n g properties

, .

Th ey a r e m u ch u sed in the c a lico p r i n ti n g t r a de a n d for

boili n g off of silk owi n g to thei r fr eedo m fro m sm ell a n d
-
,

co m p a ra tively e a sy sol u bility The ori gin a l M ar seilles or .

C a stile so a p w a s m a de from olive oil A so ft so a p is o ften .

m a de fro m olive oil fo r u se in so m e tra des .

CO N STAN T S OF OL I VE O IL .

S pec i fi G c r a vi t y at 15 C (60 °
.
°
F) . 00 1 6 to 00 1 9 .

°
1 00 0 (2 1 2 . F) °
.

l fyi g P i t 6 C (2 3
S o i di n o n ,
°
.
°

I l bl F tty A id (H h V l )
n so u e a c s e n er a ue , p e r c en t .

N
R i h t V l 0 3 i bK O H
e c er a u e, c c. .
-
.

S p ifi ti
a on V l ( K tt t f T t)
ca on a ue oe s o r er es , t o 1 90 p e r ce n t . K OH .

I di V l 80 t 83 p
o ne t
a u e, o e r c en .

M m au T t en et 45 C es ,
o
°
.

CO N S TAN T S OF FATT Y ACI D S F R O M OL I VE OI L .

Spec i fi G i ty t 1 00 0 (2 1 2 F
c r av a
°
.
°
.

S li di fyi g P i t 2 1 C ( 7 0
° °
o n o n , .

M lt i g P i t 2 6 C (7 9
e n o n ,
°
.
°

M l l W i ght (C m bi i g E q
o ecu ar e o n n u i vale n t ) ,
2 83 .

I di V l 86 t 88 p
o ne a u e, t o er c en .

CO TTO N SE E D OIL .

l ater ye a rs the oil obt a i n ed fr o m the seeds of the c otton

Of
plant Gossyp i u m sp ori gi n a lly a lways k n own a s cotto n seed
,
.
,

oil b u t n o w si m ply a s cotton oil finds its w ay into m ost of

, ,

the co m m o n ho u sehold soa ps which are now the fa shi on .

C otton is obt a i n a ble fr o m sever a l species of trees belon g

i n g to the genera Gossyp i u m of which the m ost i m portant is ,

th a t grown i n Am eric a the Gossyp i u m B a r ba den se b u t th e , ,

cotton tree grows in E gypt I n di a Si a m Chi n a the tropical , , , ,

portio n of So u th Am eric a a n d in other loc a lities The seeds .

o f the cotto n a r e o f co m p a r a tively l a r g e si z e a ver a gin g fro m ,

 CO TT O N SE E D O IL .

i to i
of a nn ch i n len g th by i o f ,a n i n ch bro a d a n d ,

of an i n ch i n thick n ess m o r e or less r o u n ded a n d of a

, ,

g ree n ish grey

- colo u r To. the seeds a r e a tt a ched t h e fi b r es
which give the co t to n t r ee its v a l u e a n d which a r e i m por ted
,

into thi s co u n try i n la r ge qu a n tities a n d woven into calico ,

and oth e r te x tile fa bric s

. These fibr es ar e sep ar a ted fr om
.

the seed by a proces s k n ow n a s i n n in

”
g g .

To extr a ct the oil fr om the seeds they a r e fir st dec or ti ,

cated th a t is they a r e p a s sed thro u h a m ill whose a ctio n is

, g ,

to br ea k O pe n the h u ll o f the seed a n d so liber a te the ker n el

,

which co n t a i n s th e oil o f the seed W ith cle a n seed fr ee

.

from m u ch a tt a ched cotto n fibr e ther e is n o necessity to

,

decortic a te the seed b u t so m e v a rieties of cotto n seed r et a i n

,

the fibr e with gre a t ten a ci ty a n d s u ch seeds m u st be de c or ti

,

cated . The decor tic a ti n g m a chine co n sists of a hollow

cylinder i n which r evolves a n other cyli n der the s u r fa ce of ,

whic h does n ot to u ch the s u r fa ce o f the o u ter cyli n der The .

in side s u r fa ce of the o u ter cylinder h a s a nu m ber of kn ives

arran ed ro u n d i t while the s u r fa ce o f the in n er c li n der h a s
g , y
a sim il a r set o f k n ives These a r e so a r ra n ged th a t when a
.

seed p a sses betwee n t h e two sets o f kn ives it is c u t the h u ll ,

falli n g i n t wo p a r ts while the kern el fa lls dow n whole or in

, ,

som e mi lls it is c u t i n two By wi n n owi n g the he a vy ker

.
,

nels c a n be sep a r a t ed fro m the li ght h u lls which a r e either ,

used a s fu el or as m a n u r e .

T h e cottonseed oil as it co m es fro m the press i n either

system of c r u shi n is o f a d a rk wi n e r e d colo u r owin g to its
-
g ,

cont a inin a r a ther l a r ge pr opo r tion o f r e d colo u ri n g m atter

g ,

am ou n tin ccordi n to L o n gm o r e to 1 0 to 1 5 lb p e r ton

g a , g ,
.

of oi l . Before the oil c an be u sed for a n y p u r pose thi s

colourin g m a tter m u st be r em oved This is effected by .

tr eati n g the oil with c a u stic sod a which dissolve s ou t the

,

colo ur i n m tter while h vi o ly sli ht ctio n o n the

g a , a n
g n a g a

oil. The qu a ntity of c a u stic sod a u sed v a r ies i n di ffer en t

1 36 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

re fin er ies b u t a m ou nts to from

, lb to 1 lb of 77 per cen t . . .

solid c a u stic sod a p er 100 lb o f oil It is u sed in the form . .

of sol u tio n o f v a r yi n g st r e n gth a t di ffer e n t wo r ks fro m 1 0 to ,

a s m u ch a s 40 T w a ddell P e r h a ps the best pl a n is to u se a

.

lye o f fro m 1 0 to 1 2 Tw a ddell str o n g O f th is a bo u t 1 0 lb . .

a r e r eq u ired fo r 1 1 cwt o f oil T h e c a u stic a n d t h e cr u de oil

. .

a r e m ixed to g ether i n wooden t u bs a n d i f t h o u ght n ecess a ry , , ,

they c a n be he a ted a little by m e a n s o f ste a m bei n g a gi t a ted ,

thoro u ghly a ll the tim e This is be st e ffected by m e a ns of

.

a i r p u m ped i n by a fo r ce p u m p the a i r n ot o n ly t h oro u ghly

,

a gi t a ti n g the oil a n d s o d a bu t to som e exte n t it p r ob a bly

,

a cts a s a ble a chi n g a ge n t o n the oil After a fe w m i n u tes of .

s u ch tr e a tm en t the oil is a llowed to st a n d for som e tim e ,

when a c u rdy m a ss of sod a an d col ou r i n g m a tter with som e

so a p wh ich h a s been for m ed by the a ction of the sod a on
th e oil will settle o u t T h e ch a r a cter of the oil is then
.

noted I f n o t br i ght en o u gh or free from colo u r m or e soda

.
,

ly e is a dded a n d the t r e a t m ent r es u m ed

, A s a r u le n ot .

m or e th a n o n e s u ch a ddi tio n is req u i r ed The wh ole m ass is .

a llowed to st a n d to settle T h e cle a r bri gh t O i l is sold a s

.
,

cotto n seed oil while th e colo u red m a ss of sod a colou r in g

, ,

m a tter a n d so a p is tr e a ted i n v a rio u s w a ys O n e pl a n is to .

tre a t it w it h a cid w h en it is deco m posed a n d a d a r k greasy

, ,

m a ss co m es u p to the top whic h c a n be u sed for m a ki n g

,

v ery co m m o n d a rk colo u r ed so a ps o r by s u it a ble m e a n s th e

-
,

colou r i n g m a tter c a n be t a ken o u t a n d u sed a s a dy e B u t .

for this p u rpose it c a n n ot co m pete with the co a l ta r colo u r s -

,

while the fa tty m a tter pr es en t is r ecover ed i n a form s u it able

for u se i n so a p m a ki n g o r c a n dle m a ki n g
-
The loss in r efin
-
.

i n g c r u de cotto n seed oil a m o u n ts to fr o m 4 to 5 p er ce n t .

The r e fin ed cotto n seed O i l so obt a i n ed co n t a i n s a l a r ge

a m o u n t o f ste a r i n a n d he n ce will i n cold we a the r set a l m o st
, , ,

solid B y a p r oces s o f r efr i ger a ti n g a n d p r essi n g this steari n

.
,

m a y be r em oved a n d is sold a s c otto n ste a r in or oleo m ar

,
-
 CO TT O N SE E D OIL . 13:
P

gar i n e v a riou s pu r poses wh ile the liqu id oil is often sold

for ,

u n der the n a m e o f n o n co n e a l a ble cotton oil -

g .

Th e cr u de cotton oil h a s a speci fic gr a vity of fro m 09 2 8

to 0930 R e fined cotto n oil is a cle a r br i ght oil of a p a le
.

y ell ow colo u r b u t it, c a n be obt a ined a l m ost i f not q u ite ,

colou rless It h a s a ple a s a n t sweet t a ste som ew h a t ch a r a c

.
, ,

teri stic while its odo u r is bu t s li ght a n d yet ch a r a cter istic

, ,
.

Its speci fic gr a vity v a ries fr o m 09 2 2 to 0 92 6 a t 1 5 C m u ch

°
.
,

depen di n g u po n the a m o u n t o f ste a r i n i n the oil which ,

increa ses its gr a vity It solidi fies a t from 0 to 2 C (32

.
° °
.
°

to 35
°
the m or e co m m o n q u a lities a t even hi gher tem
r atur es v a r yi n with the m o t f ste r in they con
p e
g a u n o a

tai n . C otto n oil con t a i n s olei n ste a r i n p a l m iti n with sm a ll , , ,

q u a n tities o f li n olein I n its .

g e n e r a l p r ope r ties it lies between
th e tr u e n on d r yi n g oils like olive a n d the tru e dr yi n g oils
-
, , ,

like li n se ed oil beco m in g vi scid on exposu re to the a i r by

"

absor ptio n o f oxy ge n F ox i n a for m er n u m ber of the Oi l

.
,

an d Co lo u r m a n s J ou r n a l st a tes th a t o n e r a m m e o f cotto n
’

, g
oil will a bsorb 2 6 4 c u bic ce n ti m et r es o f oxy e n m o re
g g a s ,

th an o live oil will bu t n ot so m u ch a s li n seed oil

,
C o u se .

q u en tly cotto n oil c a n n ot well be u s ed a s a l u bric a ti n

g oil ,

n or as a dr yin oil f r p a i n ti n b t a s a food oil a n d fo r

g o g u ,

soa m a ki n
-
it h co m e i to the exte sive
p g as n r a r n u s e .

It t akes 1 9 5 p er ce n t of c a u stic pot a sh K O H or 1 4 per

.
, ,

cent of c a u stic sod a N a O H

. to s apo n i fy it givi n g a r a ther
, , ,

cu r dy so a p It is m or e di fficu lt to s a po n i fy th a n t a llow a n d
.

som e othe r O ils a n d the so a ret a i n s the lyes very m u ch so

, p ,

that it is di ffit to sep ar a te the so a p a n d lye s co m pletely

and to obt a i n a per fectly n e u tr a l so a p C otto n oil so a p is .

mu ch d a r ker i n colo u r th a n t a llow so a p the s m a ll qu a n tity ,

of the colo u ri n m tte f the seed which is still le ft i n

g a r o

seem in to develop d k colo with the lk li The so p

g a a r u r a a a .

made fr om this oil is co m p a r a tively e a sily sol u ble i n w a ter ,

an d there fore l a the r s freel d does t l st lo

y a n n o a a s ng as a
1 38 SO A P MANUFA C T URE .

soap m a de fro m t a llow a n d so m e ot h er fa ts An other .

fe a t u re o f cotto n oil S oap is t h a t when kept for som e ti m e

it goes ra n cid a n d a cqu ires a pec u li a r odou r bu t it t a kes ,

som e m on ths for this odou r to develop itsel f T h e fa tty .

a cids obt a i n a ble fro m cotto n oil a r e solid a cids i n solu ble ,

in w a ter ; a t 1 00 0 they h a ve a speci fic gr a vity of 0 8494

°
.
,

a n d m elt a t fr o m 35 t o 44 C (9 3 to 1 1 1
° ° ° °
.

C otto n oil is r a rely i f ever a d u lter a ted ther e bein g n o , , ,

che a per fa t oil a n d so an y possible a du lter a n t m u st be on e

,

of the m ine r a l oils the p r esence o f which c a n be detected by

,

th e low fl a sh poi n t which wi ll be a bo u t or less th a n 400 F

°

, .
,

while cotton oil does n ot fl a sh below 47 5 F The qu an tity °

.

o f s u ch a d u lter a n t c a n o f co u rse be deter m i n ed by the u s u al

tests .

C O N S TAN T S OF C O TT O N O IL .

Sp i fi G i ty t 1 5 C (60 F ) ° °
ec c ra v a 00 2 2 t 00 2 5 . . o .

1 00 0 ( 2 1 2 F )
° °
C 87 2 5 . .
°
.

S li d i fyi g P i t 0 t 1 C (32 t 33
° ° ° °
o n o n , o . o

I l bl F tty A i d (H b V l ) 96 p
n so u e a c t s e n er a ue ,
er c e n .

S p a i fi ti
on V l ( K tt t f T t ) 1 9 t 1 9 0 p
ca on a ue t K OH oe s o r er es , o er c e n . .

I di V l (H bl T t) 1 06 p
o ne a ue t
u es , e r c en .

C O N S TAN T S OF FA TTY AC I D S FR O M C O TT O N O I L .

Sp i fi G i ty t 1 00 0 ( 2 1 2 ° °
ec c ra v 0 880
a . .

S l i d i fyi g P i t 32 C (89
° °
o n o n , .

M l ti g P i t 35 C (95
e n o n ,
°
.
°

C m bi i g E q i l t (M l
o n n l W i gh t) 2 86
u v a en o ec u a r e , .

I di V l (H bl T t) 1 1 5
o ne a ue u es , .

L I N SE E D OIL .

There is sc ar cely a m ore u se ful pl a nt grown than the flax

pl a nt k n own to bot a n ists as L i nu m u si ta ti ssi m u m Its fibres
, .

a r e conve r ted i n to the textile fabric know n fro m the e arli est

tim es u nder the n am e of li n en one of the oldest i f indeed , ,

n o t the O ldest o f the textiles while i ts seed is u s a ble i n a

, ,

var iety of w a ys I n m edicine it h a s wide a pp li c a tions It

. .

yi elds a n oil th a t h a s m a n y u sefu l prope r ties so m e of which ,

will be con sider ed i n the present a rticle whi le a fter the oil
 L I N SE E D O IL . 1 39

has been extr a cted there rem ai n s wh a t w a s a t on e ti m e qu it e

a u seless bye prod u ct
- . H u n dreds o f tons o f it were a t on e
time an n u a lly thrown i n to the r iver H u ll ; it is now the v a lu
able well known oilcake o f co m m erce l a rgely u sed for feed
-
,

in g ca ttle. The poorer seeds gi ve a bo u t thr ee p a rts of c a ke

and one o f O i l a n d the richer two p a rts of c a ke a n d on e of oil
,
.

The v a lu e of th e c a kes is so m eti m es g re a ter th a n the v a l u e

of th e O i l a s oil is O fte n n o t th r ee ti m es the price o f c a ke
,
.

In ear lier ti m es this co u n t r y w a s p r a ctically depen de n t on

Ru ssi a for its s u pply of seed bu t a t the present d a y li n see d
,

is exten sively g rown i n m a n y p ar ts o f the world The gr e a tes t .

bu lk is grown i n Indi a R u ssia now h Olds the seco n d pl a ce

.
,

an d the district o f the R iver P l a te the third The seed is .

flatti sh in sh a pe som ewh a t oval a n d v ar ies m u ch i n colo u r

, , ,

some bei n p le re n others p a le b r ow n so m e reddis h

g a g e , ,

brown w h ilst so m e others a r e ne a rly white ; a ll of it i s

,

somewh a t l u st r o u s i n a ppe a r a n ce E xperts c a n tell on .

,

looking a t a s a m ple whether it h a s been g rown on th e

,

border s of t h e Bl a ck Se a the B a ltic in C a lc u tt a Bom b a y

, , , ,

or on the R iver P l a te a n d fr o m the a ppear a n ce of e a c h

,

sample c a n esti m a te pretty co r rectly wh a t qu antity O f O i l

each s a m ple will p r od u ce B a ltic seed is often m ixed very

.

largely with oth er seeds sever a l Of which do not yield Oi l

, ,

whilst others yield oil with q u ite di fferent q u a lities fr om

linseed .

Wh en linseed oil O f a hi gh a n d p u re qu ali ty is desired ,

seeds of a di fferent kind h a ve to be rem oved fro m the li nseed

before it is cru shed . These a dm ixt u res of forei gn seed with

linseed are som etim es n a tu ra l th a t is they a ll grow in th e , ,

same field to ether ; bu t they a r e a s o ften c a u sed t h ro u h

g g
wilfu l a du lteratio n S o m e low cl a ss B a ltic seed does n o t yield
.
-

more th a n 2 0 per ce n t o f oil whilst the hi ghest cl a ss see d

.
,

(Bomb ay) occ a sionally yields 40 per cen t A ll the li n seed .

grow n in I n dia yields m ore oil th a n a n y o f the seed grow n

1 40 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

i n R u ssi a The di fferen ce i n tem peratu re is su pposed to

.

a ffect the yield o f oil the w a rm er cli m a te m a ki n the se ed

, g
r icher i n oil whilst the colder one m a kes it poo r er
, L i n seed .

is m a n ipu l a ted i n v ario u s w a ys a n d is a fter wards s u bj ected

,

t o press u re to expel the oil fr o m it .

L i n seed oil is a li m pid oil of a gree n ish yellow colou r -

,

v a r yi n g a ood de l in sh a de which depen ds p a r tly on the

g a ,

c a r e exer cised in the p r essi n f the oil n d a lso on its r e

g o a

fi n in g . E a st I n di a oil is u s u a lly p a ler th a n othe r v a rieties ,

while B la ck Se a oil is the d a r kest a ltho u gh poor s a m ples of ,

B a ltic r u n very close i n colou r The odo u r a n d t a ste of .

li n seed oil ar e pec u li ar a n d ch ar a cter istic n ot to be m ist aken ,

for a n y other oil In speci fic gr a vity li n seed oil v aries som e

.

w h a t the a v er a g e bein g
, bu t th e r a n ge is fr o m 09 32
a t the st a n d a rd tem per a t u r e o f 60 F a t the boilin g
°
to
poi n t 2 1 2 F the speci fic gra vity is a bo u t
,
°
It i s
s ol u ble i n a bo u t forty ti m es its o w n vol u m e of a lcohol at

t h e ordi n a ry te m per a t u r e a n d i n a bo u t fiv e ti m es its vol u m e

,

a t the boili n g p oi n t W hen exposed to cold it does not begin

.

t o beco m e solid u n til a te m per a t u re of 2 7 C is re a ched . .

I t is sol u ble i n a l m ost a ll solve n ts like ether petrole u m , ,

s pi r it t u r pe n ti n e be n zol etc
, , ,
.

Su lph u ric a cid h a s a power fu l ch a rri n g a ction on th is Oi l ,

g re a t he a t is evolved the te m per a t u re o ften risi n

, g consider
a bly a bove the boili n g poi n t o f w a ter while a O O p i o u s ev olu ,

tion of s u lphu r dioxide t a kes pl a ce a n d a tr e a cly m ass of a

d ar k r e d brown colou r is obt a i n ed N itric a cid oxidis es it
- .

r e a dily ; m u ch depe n ds u pon the stren gth of the acid which

i s u sed .

Iodi n e a n d bro m i n e h a ve a stro n g a ffinity for li n seed oi l ;

i t will a bsorb 1 5 6 p e r cen t o f its wei ght o f iodine an d 98
.

per cen t o f its wei ght of br o m i n e I n thi s respect linseed oil

. .

h a s m ore e n er getic p r oper ties th a n a n y other oil .

L i n seed O il is e a sily sa p on i fie d by boilin g with either

 L I N SE E D OIL . 1 41

cau s tic pot a sh or c a u stic sod a ; it requ ires for com plete sa
o n i fica ti o n 1 8 9 p er ce n t o f i ts wei ght o f c a u stic pot a sh or
p .

per cen t of its wei ght of c a u stic sod a W ith pot a sh

. .

it yi elds a so ft so a p clea r a n d tra n sp a ren t of a br own ish

, ,

yellow colou r possessin g a pec u li a r sm ell a n d h a vi n g good

, ,

deter gent properties W hen the pr oportio n s o f a lk a li a n d oil

.

ar e c are fu lly re gu l a ted the so a p m a y be obt a ined o f n e u tr a l

p r op e r ties W. ith c a u stic sod a li n seed oil for m s a r

, eddish
col our ed so a p o f a b u ttery co n sistency ; o n this a cco u n t li n

seed O i l is r a rely i f eve r u sed i n m a ki n g a n y o f the o r di n a ry

dom estic h a rd so a ps a ltho u gh it does fin d its w a y i n to a fe w

,

of th e S peci a l so a ps .

L i n seed oil is the b a sis fro m which n e a rly a ll the so ft

soaps o f co m m erce a r e m a de a n d for this p u rpose no better
,

oil can be u sed a li n seed oil so ft so a p is o f a ood bri ht a

g g p
p ea r a n c e ple
,
a si n g i n colo u r a n d f ree fro m a n y obj ectio n a ble
odou r which is not the c a se with so m e other oils which a r e
,

used for m a ki n g so ft so a p s The so a p ret a i n s its con sist

.

ency for a co n sider a ble e r iod which is a poi n t o f so m e little

p ,

advan ta e i n so ft so a ps
g .

W h en a li n seed oil so a p i s tre a ted w ith dil u te s u lphu ric

aci d the fa tty a cids ar e sep a r a ted o u t ; these a cids a r e o f a

but ter y co n siste n cy m elti n g a t fr om 2 2 C to 2 5 C

, At the °
.
°
.

ordin a r y te m per a t u re they h a ve a s p eci fic g r a vity of 0 92 4 to

092 7 while a t the boilin g poi n t their gr a vity i s 0 861 to

,

0864 .

They i n sol u ble i n wa ter bu t dissolve re a dily i n a lco

ar e ,

hol gl a cial a cetic a cid ether a n d other solve n ts

, ,
Thei r, .

combi n in equ iv a le n t is very hi gh v i z 306 which poi n ts to

g ,
.
, ,

the pr ese n ce o f a cids o f hi gh m olec u l a r wei ght .

Som e recent r ese a rches ten d to Show th a t the r e is present

in lin seed oil a n a cid n a m ed li n olic a cid h a vi n g the s a m e
formula as h om oli n ole i c a cid whi ch yields s a t i vi c a cid whe n
,

acted u pon by a n a lk a li n e sol u tio n o f pot a s si u m perm a n

1 42 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

g a n a te the other is n a m ed li n olen ic a cid a n d di fier s fr om

; ,

t h e l a st a cid in co n t a i n in g two a to m s les s hyd r o gen P er .

h a ps the m ost im port an t property of li n seed O i l is t h at of

dryi n g u po n expos u re to the a tm osphere ; this m a kes it very
v a lu a ble i n p ai n ti n g bu t has no be a ri n g on its u se in soap
,

m a ki n g .

CO N ST AN TS O F L I N S E E D O I L .

Sp i fi G i ty t 1 5 C (60 F ) ° °
ec c ra v a 00 32 t 09 35 . . o .

50 0 (1 2 2 F )
° °
00 2 0 . . .

1 00 0 (2 1 2 F )
° °
0 88 1 . . .

S li di fyi g P i t 20 C
°
16 t
°
o n o n ,
o .

S p ifi ti
a on V l (K tt t f T t) 1 8 0 t
ca on a ue p t K O Hoe s o r er es , o e r c en . .

I di V l (H bl T t) 1 7 0 t 1 7 5 p
o ne a ue u t es ,
o e r c en .

CO N ST AN T S O F FATTY ACI D S FR O M L I N SE E D OI L .

S p ec ifi G i ty t 1 5 C (60
° °
c r av 00 2 3
a . .

1 00 0 (
° °
. 2 1 2 0 89 2 .

l f
So i d i yi n g P oi n t , 1 6 C (62
°
.
°

Mle ti n g P oi n t , 2 0 C (68
° °
.

C m b i i g E q i l t (M l
o n n l u v a en o ec u a r W e i ght) , 307 .

I di V l (H bl T t) 1 7 9 p
o ne a ue u es , er c en t .

T R OI L CAS O .

The n ext oil which cl a i m s notice is c a stor oil This is .

O bt a ined fro m the seeds of the c a stor oil pl a n t Ri ci n u s com ,

m u n i s a n a tive o f I n di a where it grows l u xu ri a n tly ; th e

, ,

pl a nt is a pretty com m o n one i n E n glish conserv a tories a n d

s o is fa m i li a r to m ost perso n s The see d s ar e of com p ar a .

ti v e ly l a rge size of a greyish g

,
ree n colo u r a n d o f a -

lu stro u s a ppea r a n ce ; they contain a l ar ge proportion of oil ,

ne ar ly 50 p er cen t which is extra cted by pressu re i n the

.
,

u s u a l w a y or by boili n g the seeds in w a ter Sever a l qu a liti es .

a r e reco gnised ; th a t extr a cted by p r ess u r e is the best an d

sold chiefly for ph a rm a ceu tic a l p u r poses ; the avera ge com

m er c i a l qu a lities a r e i m ported fro m C a lc u tt a M a dr a s B om , ,

bay a n d F r a n ce .

W h a t i s k n own a s fir st pre ss u re F r e n ch is a bo u t equ al

i n qu a lity to wh a t is k n own a s seconds C a lc u tta C a stor oil .
 C A ST O R O IL .

is athick viscid oil ; i n colou r i t v a ries fro m colo u rless in

,

the ph a r m a ce u tic a l prod u ct to a gree n ish yellow in th e

p o or e r sorts its speci fic g r a vity r a n g es fr o m 0 960 to 09 7 0 ,

the aver a g e bei n g — O cc a sion a lly sa m ples a r e m e t with

havi ng a speci fic gr a vity below 00 6 0 bu t s u ch a r e r are , .

The Odo u r v a ries considerably ; the best q u a lities a r e fa irly

free bu t the poorer sorts h a ve a n a u seo u s odo u r
,
The t a ste .

also v a ries i n the s a m e w a y ; the co m m on qu a lities have a

p ec u li a r n au seo u s t a ste fro m which the best kinds a r e fr ee .

It does not be gi n to becom e solid u ntil a te m pera t u re of

8 0 (0 F ) is re a ched a n d eve n the n o n ly a fe w fl a kes are
° °
- 1 . .
,

deposited T h is oil is disti n gu is h ed fro m other fa tty oils by

.

i ts pec u li a r physic a l and c h em ic a l properties ; it h a s a very

hi gh speci fic g ra vity a hi gh viscosity The rel a tive v iscosities
, .

of ca stor a n d sper m a r e 1 2 48 a n d 5 8 5 respectively which ,

fig ur es will co n vey som e ide a o f the viscid ch a ra cter o f this

Oil . I t is re a dily sol u ble i n alcohol 1 p a rt in 4 of recti fied ,

spirit a t 1 5 C ( 60
°
. this en a bles an y addition of other
°

Oil s to be detected It is insolu ble in petrole u m spirit or in

.

minera l oil tho u gh this is only corr ect a t ordi n a ry tem per a
,

tures ; on bei n g he a ted c a stor oil will m i x with or beco m e

soluble i n the petrole u m spi r it or m ine r a l oil bu t a s the ,

temperat u re cools down ag a in the two liqui ds se par a te ou t .

Ca sto r oil consists of a little p a l m itin which sep a r a tes

ou t whe n the oil is cooled down and the lyce ri de o f a
g
p ec u li a r a cid r icinoleic
, a cid which h a s hitherto
,
been fo u n d
only in c a stor oil This a cid h a s the co m position shown in
.

the form u l a 0 7 H 0H C O O H , 33 it differs fro m th e other fa tty

acid s in co n t a inin three a to m s o f oxy en a n d there is re a s on
g g ,

for thi n ki n g th a t this ext r a a to m o f oxy en is co m bi n ed with

g
a n at om of hydro e n i n the for m o f hyd r oxyl a s shown i n
g ,

the fo r m u l a ive n bove r ici n o leic cid is th e fore

g a ; a e r a n

hydrox y fa tt y a cid The prese n ce o f this hy dr oxyl ro u p ives

-
.
g g
to ricinoleic a cid the property o f form i n with s u lph u r ic a cid
g
 1 44 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

ether s on th is proper ty is b a sed the u se of c a stor oil in the

pr ep a r a tio n s o f olei n e oil for c a lico printers u se ’
.

C a stor oil yie lds a bo u t 9 1 per ce n t o f glyceri n e a n d 96 1 .

per cen t of fa tty a cids these h a ve a co m bi n i n g wei ght of

.
,

306 to 307 a n d a speci fic gr a vity of 09 50 to 09 5 1 a t 60 F

°
.

they ar e t h ick vi scid an d o f a n oily a ppe a ra nce a n d besides

, ,

co n t a i n i n g r ici n oleic a cid cont a i n p a lm itic acid .

It yield s a very solu ble so a p with c a u stic sod a a n d i s ea sily

sa p o n i fie d . By c ar efu l t r e a tm en t a liqu id so a p m a y be
O bt a i n ed which a t o n e ti m e w a s la r ely i n u se by dyer s an d
g
cotton fin ish e rs u n der the n am e of solu ble oil c a stor oil soap
is very cle a r a n d tr a n sp a r en t therefor e it is l a rgely u sed in
,

prep a r i n g the c h e a per ki n ds of tra n sp a r en t so aps bu t bein g ,

very solu ble i n w a ter s u ch so a ps ar e ver y w a ste fu l in u se a n d

while thi s m a y be a very good thi n g for the so a p m a ker it -

is n ot for the so a p u ser -

.

C a stor oil so a p h a s o fte n a fa i n t odo u r o f the oil a n d is

-

a p t to o r a n cid o n keepi n I t m a kes a ood so f t so ap bu t

g g .
g ,

is n ot m u ch u sed for this pu r pose I t t a kes from 1 7 5 to 1 8 p er.

°

ce n t o f c a u stic pot a sh fr dm 1 2 5 to 1 33 per ce n t o f c au sti c

.
,
.

sod a to s a po n i fy it r a ther less th a n the m ajor ity o f fat s a n d

,

oils ; a str o n ger lye fr om 1 5 to 1 8 T w c a n be u sed an d it

,
° °
.
, ,

i s e a sily boiled u p a n d len ds itsel f to the cold p r ocess of so ap .

m a ki n g with gre a t fa cili t y .

A ltho u gh n ot a p a r t of the su bject the u se of c a stor Oi l in ,

m a ki n g wh a t i s v ar io u sly kn own a s olei n e sol u ble oil T u r key , ,

red oil or a liz a r i n e oil m a y be t ou ched u pon T his is a n oily .

looki n g pr odu ct l ar gely i ri u se a m on g dyer s a n d c a li co prin ters

'

a s a m o r d a n t fo r m a n y colo u r s a n d is o f gre a t i m port a n c e

,

i n the dyei n g a n d pri n ti n g of T u rkey a n d a liz a r i n e r eds ; i t

m ixes fr eely with w a ter i n a ll propo r tio n s a n d th u s p r e sents
m a n y a dv a n t a g es ove r the r a n cid oli v e oils which were
fo r m erly u sed for this p u r pose This pr odu ct i s m ade by
.

t a ki n g a t the r a te of 4 lb of c a sto r oil an d m ixi n g with it 1 lb

. .
 C A ST OR O IL . 1 45

of or din a r y co m m e rci a l s u lph u r ic a ci d with con st a nt stirr i n g , ,

the object bei n g to a void a n y r i se i n te m per a t u r e ; the m ixt u re is

then allowed to st a n d for n ot les s th a n t w e n ty fo u r ho u r s bu t -
,

longer do e s n ot m a tter ; to it is a dded h a lf a gallon of w a ter ,

thi s bei n g well sti r red i n u n til the m a ss h a s a cream y a ppe a r

anc e ; thi s m ixt u r e is a lso a llowed to st a n d fo r twenty fo u r or -

more ho u rs whe n it wi ll be fo u n d to h a ve sepa r a ted i n to two

,

layer s a n u pper on e o f oil a n d a lower on e o f a cid wa te r this

,

is n ow r u n o ff a n d i f a g ood q u a ntity of O i l is w a nted a

,

stron
g sol u tio n a bo ut h a l f a ga,llo n o f s a lt is sti r red i n a n d the ,

mi xtu r e a ga i n a llotve d to st a n d for twenty fo u r ho u rs ; the -

bottom l a yer of s a lt w a ter is ne xt r u n ofi a lye o f c au stic

soda of a bo u t 5 0 T w is then prep a red a n d t h is is slowly ru n
°
.
,

in with co n st a nt stirr i n g u n til a cle a r tr a nsp a ren t liqu id is

, ,

obt ai n ed T h e oil is n o w finished a n d re a dy for u se

. .

C oN sTAN Ts O F CAS O T R OIL .

Sp ec i fi G c ra v i t y at 15
°
C .
( 60 F)°
. 0 960 to 0 966 .

1 00 0 (2 1 2 F )
° °
. .

Soli di f yi ng P oi n t , 17
°
to 18
°
C to 3
°

N
Rih e c er t V l a u e, 10 c c
. .

TO
K OH '

Sa p on ifi c a ti on V l (K a ue o et tsto r fer T e st ) ,
to 1 8 p er c en t . K OH .

I o di n e Vl a ue ( H bl T t
u ) es 830 to 84 p er
,
c en t .

Ac e ty l V l a u e, p e r c en t .

N STAN T S O F F ATTY AC I D S FR O M CAST O R OIL

CO .

Sp i fi G i ty t 1 5 C 60 F )
(
° °
ec c rav a . .

1 00 0 (2 1 2 F )
° °

S li difyi g P i t 3 C
. .

° °
o n 5 o n ,

M l ti g P i t 1 S C ( 5 7 F )
e n o n
°
.
°
.

C m b i i g E q i l i t (M l
,

o n n l W i ght) 2 92
u va e i o ec u ar e , .

I di V l (H bl T St) 90 p
o ne a ue t u e , e r c en .

SO fa r h ave been desc ri bed a ll the fa ts a n d oils which e n ter

most l a r gely into the com po sitio n o f the ordi n a ry r u n o f so a ps ,

both so ft a n d h a r d there still r em a i n for desc r iptio n a fe w

.

fats a n d oils which a r e occ a sio na lly u sed for this p u r pose ,

bu t owin g to s u ch ci r cu mst a n ces a s li m ited s u pply hi gher

‘

'
p ric e ba d colo u r etc a r e bu t ra rely a pplied i n so a p m a ki n g
, , .
,
-
.

10
 A s a n a dj u nct a n d to m a ke this series
,
of a rticles com plet e ,

a fe w wor ds w ill be s a id a bo u t r osin .

CO RN OI L .

T his oil h a s O f l a te com e i n to con sidera ble prom inence

as a so ap oil It is obt ai n ed fr om the seed s of the m aize
.

plan t ( Z ea M a ys) a n d is exten sively prod u ced i n Am er ic a ,

bei n g l a rgely m a de a s a bye produ ct i n the m an u fa ct u r e of -

st arch an d glu cose fro m I n di a n cor n It is a viscid liqu i d .

o f a bri ght a m be r yellow colo u r h a s a fa i n t a n d pec u li ar

-
,

odo u r a n d sweetish t a ste r ec a lli n g th a t o f corn fl our ; it

, ,
-

h a s a co m p a r a tively hi gh speci fic gr a vity bei n g co m p a r abl e ,

with cotto n seed oil in this r espec t it is com p a ra tively ea sily

sa p o n i fie d t a kin fr om to 1 9 e r ce n t o f c a u stic sod a to
,g p .

s a pon i fy it yieldi n g a so ap o f yellowish colo u r ver y h om o

, ,

g e n eou s a n d of
g ood co n sistency ve r y closely r ese m bli n
g a ,

cotto n oil so a p i n its g en era l pr oper ties W ith c a u stic potash

-
.

it gives a so ft so a p o f a good br i ght tr a n sp a re n t appear , ,

a n ce a n d good deter ge n t prope r ties a n d it is for m a ki n g so ft

, ,

so a ps th a t it will be fo u n d of m o st ser vice The O i l yields .

o n sa p o n i fic a ti o n a n d a cidi fic a tio n fa tty a cids m elti n t from

g a

1 6 to 1 8 C a n d solidi fyi n g a t fr o m 1 3 to 1 4 C
° ° ° °
.
, .

CO N ST AN T S OF C O R N ( MA I Z E ) OI L .

Sp ec i fi G c ra v i t y at C (60
15
°
.
°
F) . 00 2 03 .

°
1 00 0 (2 1 2
°
. F) . 0 8694 .

I l bl F tty A i d (H h
n so u e a) 96 p c s e n er Vl a ue , e r c en t .

S l i d i fyi g P i t 1 0 C (1 4
° °
o n o n ,
.

I di V l (H bl T t ) 1 1 6 p
o ne a ue t u es , e r c en .

S p a i fi ti
on V l (K tt t f T t )
ca on a ue oe s o r er es ,
to 1 9 p e r c en t . K OH .

CACAO BUTT E R .

Inthe m a n u fa ct u re o f th e fam ili a r bevera ge cocoa ,

there is obt ai n ed a qu an tity of fa tty m a tter com m only

kn own a s c a c a o or coco a bu tter This is O f a whi te or .

yello wish white colo u r of a co n sistency som ewhat like

-
,

bu tter bu t per h a ps a trifle h a rde r ; it possesses a n odour of

,
 RAPE O IL .

cocoa an d h a s a ple a s a nt and a gree a ble t a ste By expos u re .

to li ght an d a i r it beco m es ble a ched bu t ther e is little ,

tendency to beco m e ra n cid It m elt s a t a bou t 30 C (86 .

°
.
°

Cacao bu tter h a s a very co m plex com positio n cont a ini n g ,

th e glycerides o f stearic oleic l a u r ic p a l m itic m yr istic and

, , , ,

ot her a cids while so m e a u tho r ities s a y th a t it owes its odo ur

,

to the p r esence of sm a ll qu a n tities o f theobro m ine It is .

rarely u sed in so a p m a kin ltho -

h it co ld be so with
g a u g u ,

od res u lts o n ly its price is r a ther a a inst it ; it yields a

g o , g
g oo d so a p fa irl y sol u ble i n wate r l a theri n g well a n d possess ,

ing good deter gent prope r ties it sa p on i fies fa i r ly e a sily bu t ,

takes a little m ore a lk a li th a n t a llo w .

RAP E OI L .

This oil is pr e ssed fr o m th e seeds of v a rio u s sp ecie s o f

rap e pl a n t s B r a ssi ere N a u s B r a ss i c a C a m p es t r i s etc It
, p , ,
.

is a br own ish gree n oil ( b r ow n r a pe oil ) or i n t h e r e fin ed

-
,

vari eties a yellowish oil h avi n g a g reenish tone I t h a s a .

p ec u li a r a n d ch a r a cteri s tic odo u r I t s S peci fi c g r a vity . v a r ie s

a little bu t u s u a lly r a n g es fro m 09 1 3 to 09 1 6 e er lly bei

, g n a n g ,

091 4 a t 60 F By blowi n g a i r t h r o u g h it it is co n ver te d

°
.
,

into wh a t is k n own a s thicken ed r a pe oil a ver y viscid oil , ,

of sp eci fic r a vi ty 0 a n d a pec u li a r odo u r R a pe oil t a kes

g .

abou t r ce n t f c au stic pot a sh or 1 2 5 r ce n t o f

p e o .
p e .

cau stic sod a to s a po n i f it In e ch c a se s o a p s a r e obt a i n ed

y a .

which a r e o f a gree n ish yellow colo u r a n d s m ell st r o n gly o f

-

the oil . It is in con sequ en ce r a rely u sed i n so a p m a ki n g -

th en it is a costly oil F u r ther the sod a so a ps a r e bu t o f

.
,

a
p a sty consistency too so,
ft fo r h a rd so a ps This oil i s .

frequ ently a d u lter a ted chiefly with cotto n a n d m i n er a l oil s

, ,

both of which a r e com p a r a tively e a sy to detect R ape O i l .

cont ai n s th r ee pec u li a r a n d ch a r a cte r istic a cids — br a ssi c r a i c

p ,

and er u cic a cids which belo n g to the oleic a n d linolen i c

,

seri es o f fa tty acids a n d th e h h i h m olec l r wei h t

g g
°

a e a u a
, y v .
 SO AP MANUFA C T URE

W HAL E OI L OR T RAI N OI L .

T his oil used a t o n e ti m e to be l a r gely e m ployed in

the m a n u fa ct u re of so ft so a p especi a lly i n Scotl a n d th e
, ,

hom e o f the fish oils bu t of la te its u se e ven for th is

,

p u rpose h a s dec r e a sed con sider a bly W h a le oil or a s it .

, ,

is o fte n c a lled tr ai n oil i s obt a i n ed fr om the bl u bber of

, ,

v a rio u s S pecies o f wh a les It v a r ies ver y consider a bly n ot

.
,

o n ly i n co m position bu t i n qu a lity Ther e a r e m a n y species .

o f w h a les a n d e a ch o f these m a y be re a so n a bly s u spected of

,

yieldi n g a n oil which di ffer s i n so m e r e spects fr o m the oil

o f o ther wh a les G e n e r a lly however the wh a lers m i x the
.
, ,

prod u cts o f di ffer e n t wh a les to gethe r i n disc r im i n a tely cou se ,

qu ently the oil from di fferen t wh a li n g ships c apt u r i n g a ,

v a riety of wh a les will di ffe r so m ewh a t T he n a ga in the

, .
, ,

m e t hods of ext r a cti n g the oil fr o m the bl u bber v a ry very

m u ch a n d this h a s a very con side r a ble i n fl u en ce o n th e
,

qu a lity of the oil O f l a te ye ar s there h a s been m ore c are

.

exer cised i n the ext r a ctio n of the oil a n d co n sequ en tly ,

the qu a lity of the produ ct h a s m u c h i m proved Th e old .

m ethod u sed to be to sto r e the bl u bber in t a n ks a n d extract ,

t h e oils either on so m e l a n d or o fte n er th a n n o t whe n the, ,

s h ip a r r ived ho m e whe n the blu bber w a s eithe r boiled in

,

—
w a ter the oil risi g to the top a n d bei n g collected or
n —
a llowed to dr a i n o n r a cks the form e r givi n g the best O i l th e
, ,

l a tter process the wo r st This m eth o d of keepi n g the bl u bber

.

for so m e ti m e be fo r e ext r a cti n g the oil res u lted in its de

com position a n d the p r odu cts thereby for m ed fo u n d their
,

w a y i n to the O i l a n d decr e a sed its q u a lity by m a ki n g it of a

d a rker colo u r a n d im p a r ti n g to it a m o r e power fu l O d our .

A s a ru le wh a le oil is ext r a cted fro m the blu bber by the

process of boilin g it in w a ter whereby a bet ter qu ali ty of ,

O i l is obt a i n ed on e a dv a n t a e o f the process bei n th t the

, g g a

S hips c a n sto r e m ore o i l W h a le oil is a r eddish colo ur e d oil

.
-
 RE C O VE RE D G RE ASE S . 1 49

havin g fishy
odo u r a n d t a ste the colo u r odo u r a n d t a ste
'

a , ,

varyi n i d i fi t oils Its speci fic r avity is abo t 0 9 2 5

g n e r e n
g . u .

Wh en cooled dow n m a ny s a m ples O f wh a le oil deposit

som e ste a r i n a s a b r ow n ish colo u r ed m a ss s m e lli n o f fish
-
g .

It t akes a bo u t 1 8 to 1 9 per cen t o f c a u stic pot a sh a n d .

,

abou t 1 35 to 1 4 per cent of c a u stic sod a to s a poni fy it . .

The pot a sh so a ps a r e O f a br ow i sh red colo u r a n d h a ve a -

fishy odo u r ; they a r e ve r y sol u ble in w a ter The sod a so a ps .

have a d a rk red colo u r a n d fishy odo u r ar e r a ther so ft in

-
,

con siste n cy a n d o wi n g to this fa ct wh a le oil c a n n ot well be

,

used i n the prep a r a tio n o f h a rd so a ps W h a le oil co n t a ins .

not able q u a ntities o f v a ler ic a cid which is one o f th e vol a tile ,

mem bers of the ste a r ic series of fa tty a cids .

R E C OVE R E D GR E ASE S .

In vario u s i n d u stri a l oper a tions fa ts a n d oils a n d so a ps

are u sed fo r a v a r iety of p u r poses In c u rryi n g lea ther cod .
,

oi l t a llow c a stor oil etc

, , a r e u sed for the p u rpose of so ften
, .
,

ing it . S o m e o f this gre a se is a fterw a rds r ecovered and sold

as cu rrier s re se I wool w shin sco in d f llin
’

g n
g a n a . u r
g a u g ,

soap is u sed in the process a n d fro m the w a ste so a py liqu or s

,

the fa tty m a tter they cont a in is recovered by v a rio u s pro

cesses After r a w wool h a s been w a shed a n d sco u r ed it i s
.

necess a ry to oil it for the p u rpose o f en a bli n it to spi n an d

g
wea ve easily This oil c a n be a n d is t a ken ou t of th e wool
.

a ain S o m e of the gr e a s es which a r e th u s r ecovered m a y

g .

be a pplied in the prep a r a tion o f so a p bu t a word of cau tio n is ,

requ isite These grea ses r eq u ire v ery co n sidera ble c a re in

.

buyi n g a n d it wo uld be advis a ble to bu y o n ly a fte r a s a m ple

,

has been tested in th e chem ic a l l a bor a tory to a sce r t a in its

fitness for soap m a kin g a n d the n o n ly bo u ght on co n dition
-
,

th at the b u lk wa s equ a l to s a m ple F or these grea ses a r e of .

a m ost v a ri a ble co m positio n a s will be seen present ly a n d , ,

even pr o fessedly the sam e ki n d of gr e a se m a y v a r y so m u ch

 1 50 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

that on e lot will m a ke a fa ir so ap the n ext lot m ay n ot ,

.

The n ecessity for the so a p m a ker bei n g c a u tiou s in his bu y

-

i n g s will be rea dily seen A few o f these grea ses which m ay

.

fin d t h eir w a y i n to th e so a p m a ker s b a n ds will be b r i efly

’
-

described .

Ca r r i er s Gr ea se —’
T his g re a se is O bt a i n ed in the c a r r yi ng
o f le a ther w ith oil fo r w h ich p u r pose cod oil is chiefly u s ed
, ,

b u t t a llow c a stor a n d ot h er oils a r e a lso em ployed

,
T he .

r e a se a s u s u a lly sold is o f a so ft co n sis t e n cy a n d v a ries in

g , ,

colo u r fr om a p a le brown to n e a r ly bl a ck It h a s a str on g .

a n d u s u a lly fi shy odo u r m ixed with th a t o f le a ther

, It vari es .

ver y co n sider a bly in com position cont a i n in g m or e or l ess ,

w a ter a n i m a l oil fish oil t a llow a n i m a l tissu e bits of

, , , , ,

le a ther h a i r S ki n etc Its v a l u e a s a so a p fa t will vary

, , ,
.

very m u ch I n a dditio n to th e fa tty m a tter which is pr esent

.

t h er e m ay a lso be som e u n sa p on i fiable m a tter a n d pos sibly

a s m a ll proportio n of m i n e r a l oil ; by itsel f it gives a s oft ,

d a rk colo u r ed so a p a n d it is ra rely u sed a lo n e i n so a p m aking

-
,
-

bu t a lw a ys m ixed wit h othe r fa ts B efo r e u si n g it should

.

be m elted over hot w a ter a n d a llowed to st a n d for som e time

for the i m p u r ities to settle o u t ; i f these do n ot do so r eadily
it is best to p a ss the m elted fa t t h r o u gh a sieve I n testing .

s u ch gre a ses the q u a n tity o f a ct u a l fa tty m a tter they con tain

s ho u ld be a scert a i n ed by extr a ctio n wit h pet r ole u m et her ,

a n d this sho u ld be tested a s to whe the r it is a ll s a on i fiable

p
or wheth er it co n t a i n s a n y u n sa p on i fia ble fa t a n d as to what ,

ki n d o f so a p it gives .

F u ller s Gr ea se — The n ext recove r ed gre a se which is

’

so m eti m es ofier e d for so a p m a ki n g is fu ller s gre a se an d in

-
’

co n n ectio n with it m e n tio n m a y be m a de of wh a t is kn own

a s Y o r kshi r e o r wool re se
g a .

I n the p r ocess of m a n u fa ct u r i n g woolle n cloth the m ateri al ,

h a s to u n de r go two sco u r i n g ope r a tio n s in the fir st i n st an ce ,

the r a w wool j u st a s it is r em oved fr om the sheep s back i s

,
’

,
 YO RKSH IR E GRE A SE . 1 51

scour e d u su a lly with so ap or with soap a n d sod a to rem ove

, , ,

the n at u ra l gr e a se so a py m a tt ers and dirt it cont a ins ; a fter

,

thi s it is d r ied a n d to fa cili tate a n y spi n nin g O p er a tions

,

it is oiled with olive oil O leic a cid or so m e other oil

, .

After bei n g sp u n into y a r n a n d woven i n to cloth the wool ,

has a ga i n to be sco u r ed to r em ove fro m it the O i l a n d dirt

whi ch h a d bee n a dded to or got i n to it i n the process of
manu fa ct u r e : thi s sco u rin g is n ecess a r y a s other wise the ,

oil etc
, . wo uld i n terfere with the O per a tio n of dyei n g to a
,

very m a teri a l de gree T hese sco u r i n g oper a tions a r e i n v a r i

.

ably do n e with the a i d o f so a p so m eti m es b u t not a lw a ys

, , ,

ai ded by a li t tle sod a bu t too m u ch a lk a li m u s t be a voided

, ,

as it w i ll a c t detri m ent a lly on the wool fibre A t on e ti m e

.

the liqu o r s cont a i n i n g a ll the so a p u sed i n the oper a tion s ,

together with the gre a se a n d oil of the wool were sent i n to ,

the r iver s to w a ste the resu lt bein g th a t the Y or kshire river s

wer e n ot a ble o n a cco u n t o f thei r poll u ted st a te Then som e .

bri ght g eni u s — w e do n o t thi n k th a t histor y h a s r eco r ded his

nam e a t a ll events we h a ve n ever co m e a c r oss i t —co n ceived
,

a
p l a n to recover the fa t a n d g r e a se i n a u s a ble f o r m a n d ,

since then m a n y tho u s a nds o f tons o f re se h a ve bee

g a n

recovered fr om the so a p li qu o r s of the wool sco u rer a n d ,

many tho u s a n ds m o r e will be so i n the fu t u r e The pr ocess .

g e n e r a lly fo llowed is to r u n the so a p liq u o r s i n to l a r

g e t a n ks ,

wher e a ll the dirt is a llowed to settle ou t I n these t a n ks the

.

liq u or is first he a ted by ste a m a n d then hydrochloric a cid is

,

ru n i n ; this deco m poses the so a p i n the liq u ors a n d c au ses

the fatty m a tter to r ise to th e top whence it is r em oved , ,

p r es s e d a
, n d se n t i n to co m m e r ce A so
. m ewh a t bette r
p r o

cess is to t r e a t the w a ste so a py liqu o r s with j u st s u ffi cie n t

calci u m chloride to decom pose a n y so a p pr ese n t an d for m ,

thereby li m e so a p which wi th a n y fa tt y m a tter wi ll col

,

leet in c u rd s on the top o f the l iqu or ; thi s li m e so a p is

collected while the liqu or wi ll gen er a lly be of su ffici en tly
,
1 52 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

cle a r a n d good qu a lity to be r u n into the river T h e .

li m e so a p is now h e a ted with s u ffi cient dilu te hydroc h l o r i c

a cid ,
whereby it is deco m posed the fatt y m a tter liber a t e d ,

a n d collected wh ile the li m e disso lves in th e fo r m o f calci u m

,

chlor ide rea dy to be u sed for precipit a tin g ou t m ore li m e

,

soap in a new lot of liqu ors .

It m a y be obvio u s to m ost persons th a t a t le a st two ki n d s

o f gre a ses are recover a ble fro m the w a ste liqu ors of t h e
woollen m ills The first i s th a t obt a ined fro m the sco u ri n g
.

—
liq ors ofi r a w wool this is wh a t is genera lly n a m ed Y ork
u

shire or wool gre a se the l a tter n am e o ftenest The sec o n d

,
.

g re a se is t h a t obt a ined fro m sco u rin g the cloth a fter m a n u

—
fact ur e and a fter it h a s been fu lled this is kn own a s
fu ller s grease Thi s l a tter will be considered first
’
. .

F u ller s grease in a ppe a r a nce v a ries considera bly fro m a

’

dirty yellowis h brown to a d a rk red gre a se of a bo u t the con

- -
,

sistency of bu tter p a sty in feel a n d o ften sticky a n d viscid

,
.

I f prep a red from th e w a ste liqu ors of the fu lli n g m il ls it will

co n sist si m ply of th e oil u sed in the b a tchin g of the wool free ,

fa tty acid liber a ted fro m the sco u rin g soap and som e colo ur
i n g m atter ; m u ch however depends u po n the c a re with
, ,

which the v a rio u s opera tions of ha tch i n g and sco u rin g h a ve

been c arried ou t wh ile the qu ality of th e b a tchi n g oil a n d of
,

the scou rin g so a p u sed h a s a m a terial i n fl u ence If these .

are o f poor q u ality then the recovered gre a se m u st be of

,

poor qu a lity too T h e follo win g are two analyses of fu ller s

.
’

g re a se
Mit o s ure

F f tty i d
r ee a ac

S a pon i fia ble oil

U n sa poni fia b le oi l

The first one i s of very g ood qu a lity while the second ,

con t a i n s too m u ch u n sa p on i fiable m atter to m a ke it service

a ble a s a soap fa t .
 I A C ID
OL E C . 1 53

It ca n o n ly be u sed in m a kin g very com m on so ft a n d

cheap h a rd so a ps a n d even the n m u st be m ixed with rosin
,

or ot h er fa t s in not too l a r e q u a ntity

g .

—
Wool Gr ea se The grea se which is O btained from th e
liqu ors of the first scou rin g oper a tion is of v a riable q u ality ,

as th e followin lyses by the thor will how

g a n a a u S

W a ter
F a tty a ci d

S a p on i fi a b le oi l

U n sa p o n ifi ab le oi l

Ash

The u n sa p on i fia ble m a tter i n this grease co n sists chiefly

of a pec u li a r body present i n the r a w wool a n d k n own a s

ch olester i n e T h is body p art a kes som ewh at of a w a xlike

.

cha racter bu t is not a cted u pon by a lk a lies a lthou gh it i s

, ,

more or less sol u ble in so a p liq u ors a n d hence is fo u n d in the

wa ste liqu ors a n d i n the grea ses recovered from them It .

im p arts to the gre a se cert ain u ndesira ble properties a m on g ,

oth er s th a t of form i n re a sy lookin n d r a ther sticky

-
g a
g g a

so a p so t h a t it is n o t to be reco m m en ded eve n i f a fa irly

, ,

large proportio n of som e other fa ts be m ixed with it .

A com m on m ethod of dea lin g with this gre a se is to su b

j ec t it to distill a tion with th e a i d o f s u perhe a ted ste a m whe n ,

a p a le colo u red so m ewh a t gr a n u l a r g re a se distils ove r

-
Thi s .

ha s been u sed for so a p m a ki n g ; it h a s a bo u t 1 5 per cent of

-
.

un sa p on i fia ble m atter a n d h a s a pec u li a r a n d r a ther u n p le a s

’

an t odo u r ; it does not give a n y s a tis fa ctory resu lt .

O lei c A ci d — This produ ct is obta i n ed a s a bye prod u ct in -

the m a nu fa ctu re of c a n dlem a ker s stea ri n by distilli n g fa t s

’

with the ai d of s u perhe a ted ste a m a s in the p r ocess i n ve n ted

,

by M r W ilson of P rice s C a n dle C o or by sa p o n i fic a ti on

’
. .
, ,

with li m e u n der press u re in th e a u tocl a ve a s it is u s u a lly ,

car ried on n o w with s u bsequ ent tre a t m ent of th e li m e so a

, p
so form ed w ith a cid .
 SO A P MANUFA C T UR E
In either c a se the m ixtu re of fa tty a cids which is O bt a i n ed
.

is pressed by m e a n s o f an h ydra u lic press ; the O leic acid c o m es

ou t while the solid ste a ric a cid r e m a i n s i n th e press
,
The .

O leic a cid a s it co m es fro m the press is a d a rk colo u red 0 i -

liqu id which c a n be re fin ed into a p a le yellowish colo u red

,
-
,

O ily lookin g fl u id
- It is sold com m erci a lly as p a le oleic a cid
.
,

br own oleic a cid c r u de oleic a cid In colo u r it v a ries fr om

,
.

a p a le yellow to a d a rk red a s will h a ve bee n ga thered fr o m

,

w h a t h a s p r evio u sly been s a id ; so m eti m e s it m a y cont a i n

s m a ll q u a n tities o f solid p a r ticles I n speci fic gr a vity it .

v a ries fro m a bo u t 0 889 to T h e followi n g a n a lyses

w ill give so m e ide a o f its co m position
F id
r ee a c

Sa p on ifi a ble oi l 2 5
U n sa p o n i fi a b le oi l

The free a cid consists m ostly o f oleic a cid bu t there is ,

u s u a lly prese n t so m e ste a ric a c id a n d ge n er a lly a cetic s u beric

, ,

a n d seb a cic a cids wh ich h a ve been form ed by the dec om

,

position of the fa t d u rin g th e process of m a nu fa ct u re thi s ,

decom positio n bein g gre a test i n th e distill a tion T h e hydro .

c a r bo n s o r u n sa p on i fia b le m a tter h a ve been prod u ced by th e

deco m position of the fa tty m a tter a t the s a m e ti m e ; th e

hydroc a r bo n s form ed a r e prob a bly m em bers of the p a ra ffin
s e r ies.

O leic a cid co m bi n es re a dily with c a u stic sod a bu t u n l ess ,

c o n sider a ble c a re is t a ke n i n m ixi n the liq i ds a n d u si n g a

g u ,

dil u te solu tion of the a lk a li a very gra n u l a r m a ss is obt ain ed

, ,

w hich will requ ire a p r olo n ged boili n g to co n vert it i n to an

h o m o gen eo u s so a p O leic a cid will a lso co m bine with the
.

c a r bo n a te of sod a to fo r m so a p a n d a ood de a l o f m an u
g ,

fa c tu r e r s so a p is m a de i n this w a y
’
.

There is du r i n g the op er a tio n ev olved a l a rge qu antity

o f c ar bo n ic a cid wh ich c a u ses th e m a ss to fo b u very con
,
p
s i d er a bl
y hence , a c a p a cio u s boiler is req u ired whe n so ap i s
 R O SI N . 1 55

made from oleic a cid and carbon a te o f soda By u sing pale .

oleic acid a n d soda a sh a fa irly ood so a p can be m a de

g .

In th e distill a tion o f Y o r kshire or wool gre a se the r e is

obt ai n ed a n a n a lo o u s body k n ow n a s O lei e this co n t a ins
g n

a lar e proportio n o f O leic a c id b u t there a r e u s u a lly present

g ,

larger q u a n tities o f u n sap on i fia ble oils a n d o f sap on i fiable oi ls

than ar e cont a i n ed in ordi n a ry co m m erci a l oleic a cid a s the ,

followi n g a n a lyses by the a u thor will Show

W a te r
F r ee fa tt y ac i d

U n sa p o n ifia b le oi l

S a p on i fi a ble oi l

These ar e m ostly
sed for b a tc h i n g wool ; they a r e ra rely
u

u se d in m a kin so ap the l r e n d v a ri a ble q u an tity o f

g a g ,
a

un sapo n i fia ble oils w hic h they co n t a in re n derin t h e m r a ther

g
un s ui t a ble fo r this p u rpose .

W h en b u yi n g the v a rio u s ki n ds o f recovered gre a ses a n d

Oleic a cid a n d oleines so a p m a kers Sho u ld a lw a ys bu
- f ro m
y
sam ple a n d h a ve this tested by a n an a lyst to see th a t it is

su it able for their p u r pose O c u l a r i n spectio n will n ot distin

.

g u is h between a grease which will m a ke a fa irl y

g ood so a p
an d one which cont a ins so m u ch u n sa o n ifia ble m a tter a s to
p
r en der it u seless for so a p m a ki n -
g .

R O SI N .

Rosin is the resid u a l body le ft behi n d in th e distill a tion of

tu rpen ti n e fro m the r esin o f pi n e tree s ; this r osin is r u n
int o ba rrels a n d se n t i n to co m m er ce W h a t c om es i n to t h is .

co u ntr y is a l m ost p u rely of Am eric a n ori gi n It is m a de of .

,

co urse i n both F r a n ce a n d R u ssi a wh ich ar e gr ea t t u rpen

, ,

tine p r odu ci n g cou ntries bu t wh a t r osi n th ey prod u ce is

-
,

u sed loc a lly b u t li tt le i f a n co m i n i to E li sh co m m erce

, y g n n
g .

Rosi n is a brittle m ore Or less t r a n sp a ren t resi n o u s

, ,

bo dy var yi n g in colo u r fro m p a le yellow to bl a ck Th e

, .

colou r of bl ack rosi n is re a lly a d a rk red whe n looked thr o u gh ,

1 56 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

bu t it a ppears bl ack on looki n g a t it Som eti m es the rosi n .

is not tr a nsp arent ; this is du e to th e presen c e

o f w a ter wh ic h m a be t rid f by keepin g i n a w a rm pl a c e
, y g o o

for a short ti m e S everal q u a li ties o f rosin are disti n g u ishe d

.

i n trade window gl a ss am ber com m on bla ck etc

” ” ” ”
.
, , , ,

T h is difler e n c e i n qu a lity is du e p ar tly to the qu a lity of t h e

'

cru de t u rpentine from wh ich the rosin is obta ined p ar tly t o ,

the a m ou nt of ca re exercised in its extraction The bes t .

virgin gi v es window gl a ss rosin yellq w dip gives a m ber

-
,

rosin a n d scrapings the bl a ck rosin R osin h a s a fa in t

, .

bu t ch a ra cteristic odou r wh ich beco m es m ore hi ghly develope d

,

on warm ing I t is u su a lly hom o gen eou s in stru ctu re qu it e

.
,

a m orp h o u s and very fri a ble

, re a dily breaking u p i n to sm a ll
,

fragm ents or into fin e powder wh ich h a s a r a the r rou gh a n d ,

pec u li ar feel Its speci fic gr avity varies bu t is abou t

. to ,

I t begins to so ften at a tem pera t u re of 80 C an d

°
.
,

m elts into a li m pid flu id a t 1 00 C It is qu ite i n sol u ble i n

°
.

w a ter bu t it is sol u ble in a cetone h ot a lcohol ( on coolin g

, ,

crystals of sylvic acid deposit ) ben z ene et h er petrole u m O il s , , ,

an d m ost fa tty oils R osin m a y be distilled in a v a c u u m

.

alm ost u nch anged bu t i f distilled u nder ordin a ry conditi on s

,

it is decom posed a n d yields a cid a qu eou s liqu ors a li m pi d ,

spirit an d a viscid oil with s m a ller qu a n tities of other bodie s

, .

The chem ical co m position of rosin h a s not yet bee n

thoro u ghly worked o u t a n d a u thorities di ffer som ewh a t o n
,

this su bject T h is perhaps is du e to the fact that ther e

.
, ,

will be several varieties of rosin prepared from di fferen t

v a rieties o f pine resi n s an d those ch em ists who have i n vesti
,

g a ted rosi n h a ve n o t m a de s u ffi cie n t a llowa n ce fo r this fa ct .

S o m e a u t h orities consider rosin to be co m posed o f t w o

isom eric rosin acids n am ed pi n ic a n d sylvic acids th e for m er
, ,

o f which is sol u ble both i n hot a n d cold alcohol th e l a tter ,

o n ly i n hot a lcoh ol .

To these a cids is assi gn ed the form u l a H Cm ow whil e

 R O SI N . 1 57

o th er che m ists consider th a t rosin co n t a i n s a s its essenti a l

c on stit u e nt a bietic a nhydride . This body when a cted on by
,

a lk a lies is co n ver ted into a bietic a cid

,
.

R osi n is e a sily dissolved by sol u tio n s of either th e c a u stic

or c a rb o n a te a lk a lies fo r m in g rosin so a p s These have stron g
.

deter g e n t properties bu t have a d ar k colo u r a n d a r e so ft a n d

,

sticky i n consiste n cy . A s the so ap m a ker s ays they h a ve no

-
,

body h e n ce rosi n is never u sed a lone to m a ke so a ps bu t it

, ,

en te r s i n to the co m position of m ost do m estic hard so a ps a n d

soft so a p s o f co m m erce . The qu a ntity o f c a u stic sod a or

p ot a sh r equ ired to s a po n i fy rosin is ve r y vari a ble r a n gin g fr o m
,

1 7 to 1 9 per ce n t o f c au stic potash a n d from 1 2 to 1 35 per

.
,

cen t o f c a u stic sod a

. .
 CH A P T E R IV

PE R FU ME S .

IN the scen tin g of so a ps etc a n d i n th e pr ep ar a tion of per

, .
,

fu m es there a r e e m ployed esse n ti a l oils a n d other s u bst an ces

,

derived fr om a gre a t v ar iety o f prod u cts The prep a ration .

of th e essen ti a l oils is a co m p a ra tively si m ple process al ,

tho u gh to obt a i n the best produ ct grea t care h a s to be t aken

in the selection of m a teri a ls a n d i n c a rryi n g ou t the Oper a
,

tion s involved i n extra ctin g the oil or essen ce ; th u s it is im

possible to obt a i n a fin e O i l of violet s fro m fa ded flower s otto ,

of r oses o f the fin est fr a gr a n ce c a n o n ly be obt a ined fr om

flowers which a r e j u st ripe G en er a lly the oils a r e obt a i n ed

.

either by press u re i n a screw pres s or by distill a tion with

stea m the oils i n ge n er a l po sse ssin g th e s am e property as
,

t u rpentine of bei n g distilled over boili n g w a ter or i n a c ur

ren t oi ste a m .

Those O il s which a r e m o stly in u se for perfu m ery p u rp o ses

a r e described i n the followi n g brief n otes which for th e s ake ,

o f conve n ience a r e a r r a n ged a lph a betic a lly

I —
AN SE This is obt ai n ed from the seed of P i mp i n ella
.

a n i su m a p la n t which grows over a wide exten t a n d is e x

, ,

ported from R u s si a Th u ringi a M ora vi a C hili Spain L e

, , , , ,

v a n t etc The yield of oil ra n ges from

, . per cen t to 3 per .

cent L ev an t givi n g the s m a llest a n d Sp a n ish a n ise the

.
, ,

l a rgest yield Sli ght di ffe r ences a r e obser v a ble in th e odour

.

of the oil fro m seed gr o w n i n di ffere n t loc a lities It is .

colo u rless or a t m ost a fa i n tly ye llow oil when fresh On .

keeping esp e ci a lly when exposed to th e a ir it becom es dark

, ,
 PE RFUME S . 1 59

ye llow in colo u r B a dly m a de a n d infe r ior oils m a y also

.

osse ss this d a rk colo u r It h a s a plea sa n t odo u r a n d a n ar o

p .
,

matic sweet taste It solidi fies a t 5 0 to 59 F on a cco u nt

.
° °
.

of its co n t a inin g a ste a roptene k n o w n as a n e thol O n ex .

o su re to a i r a nethol is conver ted i n to a nisic a ldehyde wit h

p
som e r e si n ific a ti o n oxid a tion t a ki n pl a ce Its speci fic ravity
g , g .

i s 0 980 a n d it is sol u ble in a n eq u a l vol u m e of alcohol

, .

This oil m u s t not be co n fo u n ded with oil of st a r a n ise with ,

which it is o fte n a d u lter a ted S o m eti m es other oils a r e .

added to g ether with a little p a r a ffi n or sperm a ce ti to bri n g

, ,

abo ut the solidi fyin f the a d u l tera ted oil a t lower te m

g o

per a tu r es .

—
BE RGAM O T This is obtai n ed fr om the ri n d o f the fr u it
.

of th e Ci tr u s li me tta a species o f le m on which yi e lds a bo u t

, ,

3; pe r ce n t o f the oil
. W h e n fr es h it h a s a p a le yellow
.

colou r bu t m a y o ften be m e t with o f a reenish ti t which

, g n ,

is due to its h a vi n g been kep t i n a c o pper vessel It has a .

st r o n d ee ble odo ur Its speci fic r a vity v a ries fro m

g a n a
gr a g .

0 850 to 09 80 ; it boi ls a t 1 1 8 C a n d solidi fies a t 1 1 F It ° °

. .

diss olves fr eely i n a lcohol Be r ga m ot oil co n t a i n s terpen es

.
,

lin al ool a ce ta te an d a s m a ll qu a n tity of li n a lool The lin a lool

,
.

ace tate is the o d or i fic p r i n ciple a n d is prese n t to t h e exte n t ,

of 40 per ce n t a n d u pw a rds
. It c a n be esti m a ted by m e a n s
.

of K oettst o r fer s sa o n i fic a ti o n tes t

’

p .

As a d u ltera n ts ar e u sed re fin ed t u r pe n ti n e oils or O ils ,

derived fro m ora n ges a n d le m o n s with ro si n ,

.

It is a dvis a ble to keep it ou t of co n t a ct with a ir a s i t ,

absorbs oxy en a n d thereby loses its odo u r a cq u iri n th t

g , g a ,

of t ur pe n tine O i l o f ber ga m ot is lar gely em ployed in the

.

p u m i n g or scenti n g of so a p
er f .

OIL O F B ITT E R AL M O N D s — This O il is obt a ined from th e .

fr uit of the Am yg da lc a m a r e or bitter a l m onds The fru it , .

is pressed to separa te o u t a ll the oil it co n t a ins t h e n the ,

meal is m ixed with w a ter a n d wa rm ed to 1 06 to 1 1 3 F ,

° °
.
1 60 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

for som e ho u rs a fer m en t a tive a ction sets i n a n d a ve get a ble ,

p ri n ciple a m y d a li n presen t in the m e a l re a cts with othe r

,g , ,

constit u en ts a n d form s the oil together with so m e s u ga r an d

r u s sic (hyd r ocy a n ic ) a cid To obt a i n the oil the ferm en ted
p .

m e a l is distilled 1 p er cen t bei n g the u s u a l a m o u nt obt a i n ed

,
. .

W h e n p u r e it is a colou rless ver y re fra ctive liqu id h a vi n g

'

, ,

a speci fic gr a vity o f so th a t it is sli ghtly he a vier th an

w a te r It boils a t 1 80 0 ( 350 O n expos u re to th e
° °
. .

a i r the oil g r a d u a lly u n der goes deco m positio n a n d is ch a n ge d ,

i n to ben zoic a cid h en ce it m u st be kept i n ai r ti ght ves sel s -

.

Bi tter a l m o n d oil is em ployed to a li m ited ex ten t in th e

m aki n g o f perfu m es bu t n o t in scenti n g so a ps the a lm ond
, ,

like odou r of which is co m m only obt a i n ed by u si n g wh at i s

kn ow n a s m y r b a n e (n itro ben zol ) -
.

O I L O F C ARAW A Y — This is obt a ined from c a ra w a y seeds

.
,

w hich ar e well k n ow n to cooks a n d co n fectio n ers who de ,

li ght to a dd them to thei r c a kes These ar e th e seeds o f the .

tree C a r u m ca r u i which is c u ltiv a ted in variou s p a rts of

,

G erm a n y a n d H oll a nd while it is fo u n d wild in N orw a y and

,

R u ssi a The a ver a ge a m ou nt o f the oil wh ich c a n be ob

.

t a i n e d is 5 per c en tl bu t it is c u rio u s th a t the seeds fro m the

,

wild v a riety yield 1 to 2 per cen t m ore oil th a n the seeds .

fro m the c u ltiv a ted v a rieties C a r a w a y oil h a s a li ght yellow

.

c olo u r an d a n a r o m a tic od o u r a n d b u rn i n g t a ste ; its speci fic

,

r a vity is 0 9 60 a n d it boils a t 1 9 5 i
° °

g , 0 ( 38 3 I t s .

l a r gely em ployed i n the scentin g of so aps both a lo n e an d in ,

com bi n atio n wi th other essen ti a l oils Its odo u r is dUe to .

a n a ldehyde k n o w n a s c a rvol .

T his oil is obt a i n ed fr o m both flowers a n d the

-

wood of the tree Ci n n a m om u m ca ssi a the fo r m er yieldi ng ,

a bo u t 2 5 per ce n t o f the oil the l a tter o n ly a bo u t 5 per cent

.
,
.

O i l o f c a ssi a whe n fresh is o f a yellow colo u r bu t on keepi n g ,

it beco m es of a d a r k br own colou r It h a s a speci fic gr avity

-
.

a n d boil s a t 2 52 It h a s a pleasant
°
of
°
0 (48 5 .
 PE RFU M E S .

odou r like th a t of ci n n a m o n bu t by n o m e a n s so
n ot un ,

p l ea sa n t It .h a s a sh a rp t a ste a n d is e m ployed i n the sce nt ,

ing of so a p a n d i n th e prep a ratio n of m a ny p er fu m es .

CINNAM O N — This oil is obt a i n ed fr o m the wood of the c in

.

nam o n lau rel Ci n n a momu m z cy la n i cu m which grows very

, ,

exte n sively in C hi n a a n d C eylon T h e wood yields fro m 1 .

to 1 5 per ce n t o f oil Three v a r ieties are reco gn ised in

. .

comm erce — C eylon oil o f ci n n a m on C hi n ese O i l o f ci n n a m o n ,

(w hich is a lso kno w n u n de r the n a m e o f c a ssi a oil ) a n d oil o f ,

cinn am o n le a ves th e fir st bei n re rded a s the tru e oil of

g g a
,

ci n n am on This oil is r a ther viscid of a golde n yellow or ,

-

a olden brown colo u r a cco r din to the a n d h a s a b u rnin g

g g a
ge
-
, ,

bu t sweet t a ste The speci fic gr a vi ty is 1 030 a n d it boils a t

.
,

°
2 40 C (464 . wh i le a t 2 1 0
°
— 6 F ) it solidi fies O n ex
°
.
°
. .

p o su r e to the a i r it a bso r bs oxy g e n beco m i n g thicker d a rker , ,

in colou r wh ile i ts fl a v ou r deterio r a tes

, The pri n cip a l c on .

stitu en t is cin n a m yl a lde h yde .

Chi n ese oil of ci n n a m o n h a s a speci fic gr a vity o f 1 0 65 ,

and co n t a i n s a b ou t 7 5 per ce n t o f th e a ldehyde It u sed to . .

come ove r er y l ar gely a du ltera ted with rosi n etc bu t n ow i t

v , .
,

is sen t over fa irly p u re It is n o t eq u a l i n qu a lity to C eylon

.

oi l
.

Oi l cin n a m o n le a ve s is a very i n ferior ar ticle u sed for

of ,

adulter a ti n the be t ter r a des of oil a n d in sce n ti n so ps

g g g a , .

This O il is r a t h er he a vier (its speci fic gr a vity bei n g 1 05 3)

than C eylon O i l alt h ou gh n ot so hea vy a s the C hi n ese oil s
, .

Oi l o f ci n n a m o n is l a rg ely em ployed i n th e prep a r a tio n o f

perfu m es a n d in scenti
,
n
g so a ps etc ,
.

CI TR O N E L L E — I n I n di a a n d C eylo n a r e grow n m a n y
.

Species of g ra ss like pl a n ts which yield oils h av i n g a n

-
,

arom a tic odo u r T h e oils from t h ese ar e co m m o n ly known

.

as r a ss oils o f which th e follo w i n r e th e chie f citro elle

g , g a n ,

lemon gra ss vetiv e r gi n ger gra ss Cit r o n elle is obt a i n ed

, ,
.

from th e gr a ss An dr op og a n n a r d u s l a r gely grow n i n C eylo n , ,

1 62 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

wh ere the oil i s extra cted i n l a rge qu a n titie s a n d expo r ted to ,

thi s cou n try It h a s a p a le yellow colou r a pecu li a r plea s a n t

.
,

odou r It is very la r gel y e m ployed i n th e prep a r a tio n of

.

pe r fu m e s a n d the scen ti n g o f so a ps .

CL O VE S — T his is obt a i n ed fr o m the fru it b u ds of th e

.

clove tree Ca r y op hy llu s a r om a ti cu s whic h c om es fr o m Am

, ,

boi n a Bou r bo n a n d Z a n zib a r T h ese c on t a i n a bo u t 1 8 p er

, .

ce n t of o il W h e n fr esh this oil is colo u r less bu t so on

. .
,

beco m es yellowish to br own It is r a th e r hea vier th a n w a ter . ,

its speci fic gra vity bei n g 1 0 30 a n d it boils a t 2 68 0 (4 7 8 ,

°
.
°

It h a s a n exceedi n gly st r o n g bu rn i n g t a ste a n d a

ple a s a n t spicy odou r it is l a r gely em ployed i n th e scen ti n g
o f so a ps eit h er a lo n e o r i n co m m o n with ot h e r oils
,
.

C O R I AN D E R — T h is O i l is obt ai n ed fro m the seeds o f th e

.

cor i a n de r pl a n t Cor i a n du m sa tr i u m which yield from i to 1

, ,

per cent o f th e oil T h e t r ee is gr own i n R u ssi a H oll a n d

. .
, ,

It a ly In di a N orth Afr ic a a n d other loc a liti es It is of a

, ,
.

p a le yellow colo u r s h ar p a rom atic t a ste a n d ple a s an t odo ur

, ,
.

It i s r a ther li gh t er t h a n wa te r i ts speci fic gr a vity bei n g 0 875 , ,

while it boil s a t fr om 1 5 0 to 2 00 C It is ver y l argely ° °

.

e m ployed i n the s cen ti n f s o a ps

g o .

L E M O N G RA S S — T his o i l i s prep a red fr o m the le m on

g r a s s A n d r op og on ci tr a tu s a n a tive o f C eylo n
,
while
, it i s ,

a lso c u ltiv a ted i n I n di a F r o m these co u n t r ie s a r e exported

.

l a rge qu a n titie s o f the se oils It is a colou r less oil pos ses sing .
,

a ple a si n g odo u r o f le m on with a S li ght re m i n isce n ce of t h at

,

o f roses or ge r a n i u m s ; o n this a cco u n t it is o fte n su bstit u t ed

fo r th e o i l o f r o se g e r a n i u m It is r a ther li ghter th a n water

. ,

its speci fic gr a vity bei n g 08 7 0 to 0 898 ; it boils a t 2 2 0 0 ( 42 8 ° °

.

F ) a n d solidi fie s a t 2 2 0
.
— 8 I t i s very m u ch u sed
°
.
°

in the sc e n tn of so a ps a n d i n the prep ar a tio n o f so aps of

v ar io u s ki n ds .

G E RA N I U M O R R O SE G E RAN I U M — I n S o u ther n F r an ce
a n d A l gi e r s th e P e la r g on i u m r oseu m or ger an i u m is very , ,
 PE RFUME S .

largely c u lti v a ted a n d from its le a ves is obt ai n ed abo u t i per

,

cent of a n odori fe r o u s oil whic h h a s a n odo u r n o t u n like th a t

.

of roses h e n ce th e r e a son why this oil is sold a s oil o f

, rose
g er a n i u m to r epl a ce the t r u e oil o f roses w here the
, cost o f
the l a tte r oil is a ba r to i ts u se O i l o f gera n i u m has a
.

s eci fic r vity boili poi t °

p g a o f 0 8 9 5 a n d a
,
n
g n o f 2 2 0 0 .

( 48 0
°
It i s ve r y l a r
g ely u sed i n the m a ki n
g o f per fu m es
and i n the scen ti n f so ps
g o a .

L AVE N D E R — P rob a bly no per fu m e is bette r kn ow n th a n

that of th e l a vender the flowers of L a v a n du la v er a which is
, ,

g r own ver y extensively a t M itch a m i n S u r rey , a n d i n other ,

localities The flowers yield a bou t 3 per c e n t of their wei ght

. .

of oil The M itc h am oil is co n side r ed the best h a vi n g the

.
,

most delic a te per fu m e a n d the r efore co m m a n d s the best

,

ric e G er m l ve n de r oil is o f ood q lity d is che pe

p . a n a
g u a a n a r, .

An oi l is a l so obt a i n ed fr o m th e spike l a ve n der L a v en d a r a ,

s i kum ; this however i s n o t so ood the tr e l ve n der oil

p g a s u a ,

althou h it is so m eti m es s u pplied i n its ste a d O il f l a ve n der

g o .

has a li ght yellow colo u r a n d a sh a r p b u r ni n g t a ste ; it m u st

be kept i n a i r ti gh t vessels a s othe r wise it u n dergoe s d e c o m
-
,

p o s itio n lo si n
, g its fi n e odo u r o f l a ve n de r a n d a cq u
,
i r i n
g th a t
of t u r p e n ti n e O i l of l a ve n de r is li ghte r th a n w a ter b u t i ts
.
,

speci fic r a vi ty is ve r y v a r i a ble r a n gi n g fr o m 0 8 7 0 to 0 9 40
g , ,

an d its boilin poi t v a r ies fr o m to ° °

g n 1 8 6 1 9 2 0 O i l o f .

laven der is m u ch u sed i n the prep a r a tio n o f pe r fu m es a n d ,

in th e sce n ti n g o f so a ps etc , .

NE O LR I — Th is i s O bt a i n ed fro m th e flowe r s o f the o r a n ge

.

tree an d co m e s fr o m the So u th o f F r a n ce whe r e th e o r a n ge ,

tree i s c u ltiva ted for t h is p ar tic u l a r p u rpose The oils oh .

tai n ed fro m di ffer en t species of or a n ge tree v a r y a little in

qu ality ; th a t from the Seville o r a n ge t r ee Ci tr u s v u lg a r u s is , ,

considered the best O n expo su r e to th e ai r th ey u n dergo

.

O xi da tion a n d beco m e o f a r e d co lo u r ; t h ey o u h t to be k e pt
g
i n a cool pl a ce i n wel l closed ves sel s -
O i l o f n er oli is colo u r
.
 1 64 SO A P MANUFA C T URE .

less havi n g an odou r of ora nge a n d possesses a bitter t aste

, ,
.

I t is li ghter th a n w a ter h a vi n g a speci fic gr a vity of 0 889 , ,

a n d a boili n poi t This oil is °

f 0 m
°

g n o 1 7 5 ( 3 3 7 e .

ployed i n the scen tin g o f so a ps a n d i n th e prep a r a tion of

v a rio u s per fu m es .

O R NGE
A — O i l o f or a n ge sho u ld not be con fo u n ded with
the oil of n eroli ; wh ile th e l a tter is obtai n ed fro m th e flowers ,

the form er is pre ssed from the ri n d o f the fru it O ra n ge oil .

h a s a golde n yellow colo u r wi t h a n odo u r a n d t a ste o f the

-
,

fr u it It has a speci fic gra vity of 0 830 to 08 60 a n d boils

.
,

a t 1 7 1 0 ( 330
°
. Two v a rieties a r e m e t with i n co m m e rce
°

th a t from the r i n d of th e bitter ora n ge and that from the

ri n d of the sweet ora n ge ; there is very little di ffer ence
between the m They ar e em ployed i n the prep ara tio n of
.

perfu m es m inera l w a ter s a n d i n scenti n g so a p s

, ,
.

S SS
A A F R A s — Th i s oil is extra cted fr o m th e wood of the
.

s a s sa fra s tree S a ssafr a s ofii ci n a li s which yields a bou t 2 5 per

, ,

ce n t o f th e oil ; it h a s a yello w colo u r a pecu li ar bu t ple asant

.
,

o d ou r a n d t a ste It is ra t h er he a vie r t h a n wa ter i ts speci fic

.
,

g r a vity bei n g 1 0 82 I t co n t a ins a pec u li a.r p r i n ciple n a m e d

s a frol which is a lso co n t a in ed i n oil o f c a m pho r Oi l of
,
.

s a ss afra s is l a r gely u sed for the scen ti n g o f so a p a n d other

ar ticles .

S T AR AN I S E — T h is oil is extr a cted fro m the seed pods

.
-

o f a C hi n ese tree ( I lli ci u m a n i sa tu m ) ; it closely rese m bles

o il o f a n ise i n a ll p a rtic u l a rs a n d is e n e r a lly p r e ferred by

g ,

perfum er s It is li gh ter th a n w a te r h av in g a speci fic gravity

.
,

o f 09 82 These pods yield a bo u t 2 per cen t of th e oil A

. . .

si m il a r oil bu t to a s m a lle r exte n t i s obt a i n ed fr om the seeds

, ,

o f a J a p a n ese t r ee (I lli ci u m r eli gi osu m ) th a t possesses fam ily

resem bl a n ce to the Chinese tree This oil is however not .

, ,

so
g ood i n q u a lity .

—
W I N T E R G RE E N This oil is ext r a cted from the leaves
a n d twi s o f the wi n te r reen G lth i m b T h i s
g g a u er a p r oc u en s ,
.
 PE RFUME S . 1 65

oil consists essenti a lly of m ethyl s a licylate ; it has a speci fic

g ra vity o f a n d boils a t 2 2 0 0 ( 4 2 8 I
°
t m ixes
.
°

freely with alcohol an d ot h er solvents It is l a rgely u sed .

i n the sce n tin g of soaps i m p a rtin g a pleasant fra g r a n t odo u r

, .

MU SK — O n e o f th e m ost delic a te perfu m es is th a t known

.

as m u sk ; q ui te a nu m ber o f pl a n ts and anim a ls h a ve t h is

odou r. A fa vo u rite window pl a n t is the com m on m u sk

( M i m u los a mo sc h a tu s) with its bri g,
h t y ellow flowers and
fragrant odo u r O t h ers ar e : E r odi u m mosc ha tu m
. Ador a
moscha telli n a the t u bero u s m oschatel N a r dosta c hy s j u ta
,

ma nsi the spiken a rd of th e a n cients ; E u r y bi a a r gop hy lla

'
, ,

the silver leaved m u sk tree o f T a s m ania ; M osc hoscy lu m

-

swa r tzi i ,
the m u sk wood o f J am a ic a ; Gu a r ea tr i choi li des
and oth er species of G u area th e m u sk woods of G u i a na ,

an d th e W est I n dies while the s eeds o f H i bi scu s a belm osc hu s

,

are v alu a ble for perfu m e a n d ar e co m m erci a lly kn ow n as

,

mu sk seed W ith the exception o f the last none of the

.
,

ot h er plants ar e c u ltivated fo r their odo u r .

Am o n g a ni m a ls wh ich h a ve a m u sk like odo u r first pl a ce -

,

m u st be a ccorded to th e m u sk deer ( M osc hu s moscha tus) ,

which is the sou rce of the m u sk of co m m erce There a r e .

th e m u sk ox ( O vi s moscha tu s) n oted fo r its Ski n , the m u sk

rat (Hi beo zi bethi c u s) al so v a lu a ble for its skin the Indi a n
°

mu sk rat ( S or es: i n di cus) the a lli ga tor of C entr a l Am erica

an d th e crocodile o f W est Africa a lso h ave m u sk glands ,

which are occasion a lly extracted a n d em ploy ed as a per fu m e .

Th e excre m ent o f th e g a z elle ( Ga z ella dor c a s) h a s a m u sk

like odou r a n d yields 7 per cen t o f a n odoro u s extra c t to
, .

alcohol .

T h e m u sk deer fro m w h ich n e a rly th e whole of the m u sk

,

of co m m erce is obtained is a n a tive o f the H i m al a y a s where

, ,

it m a y be fo u nd on ever y h ill h a vi n g a n a ltit u de of over

8000 feet a n d lives on th e u nderwood of th e forests a bo u nd
,

ing on the Hi m a l a yan range It is an a ni m al of a bou t th e

.
1 66 SO A P MANUFA C T URE .

size of a re
g y ho u nd shy
, b u t ve r y
, a g ile a n d so m e wh a t noc ,

tur n a l in its h a bits .The m u sk pod fro m which the odor

o u s secretion is obt a ined is fo u nd only in the m a les th e ,

fem a les bei n g devoid o f a n y odo u r ; the p od is fo u nd n e ar

the n a vel between th e flesh a n d the ski n a n d is com posed of ,

several l a yers of thin ski n in which the m u sk is fou nd in th e

for m of grai n s o f irre gu l a r s h a pe ro u n dish a n d ovoid v a ry
, , ,

i n g i n size T h e pod is developed be fore the a ni m a l is born

.

a t first a n d for two ye a rs a fter birth the conte n ts o f the pod

, ,

a r e so ft m ilky in a ppe a r a n ce a n d h a ve r a ther a n u nple a s a nt

, ,

odo u r a t the e n d of the two yea r s the conten ts ch a n ge into

m u sk a n d i n c r e a se i n qu a lity a fterwa rds a t first the wei ght
avera ges 5 o z a n d a t fu ll growth m ay re a ch 2 o z ; the
.
,
.

a ver a ge is however 1 to 1 5 oz I t v a r ies also with the

, , .

se a sons bei n g gr e a test in th e ru ttin g sea son

, .

The a n im a ls a r e u s u a lly sn a red in speci a lly constru c ted

sn a res of fences an d ropes then killed a n d the pod extracted
, ,

a n d dried in the su n a ltho u gh other m ethods a r e occ a sion ally

,

a dopted .

M u sk m a kes its a ppea ra nce in two for m s in co m m er ce

m u sk i n pod a n d m u sk in gr a in ; the form er is th e
” ”

m a teri a l in its nat u r a l receptacle while the l a tter is that ,

re m oved from the pod It is im ported from ( 1 ) To n qu i n

.
,

C hina a n d Tibet in s m a ll chests co n t a i n in g twent y five

, ,
-

p a ckets of m u sk enc a sed i n le a d This is co n sidered the best

.

qu a lity a n d comm a n ds th e hi ghest price b u t is m os t adul

, ,

te r a t e d .
( )
2 A ss a m w,
h ich co m es in b a g s packed in a bo x ,

con t a ini n g 2 00 pods ra ther ir re gu l a r in size a n d fo rm and

, ,

h a vi n g a stron g odo u r ( )
3 . K a n ar d i n or R u ssian w h ich i s ,

very i n ferior in q u a lity poor in odo u r ,

.

M u sk for u se i n perfu m in g is prep ared a s a n ex t r act or

tinctu re by m ea ns of alcohol it is r a rely u sed a lone b u t in ,

co n j u nction with other perfu m es I t is a n exceedi n gly per.

m a n ent perfu m e one gr a i n o f m u sk will em it I ts sce nt for

°
.
 PE RFUME S . 1 67

year s an d it appears to i m p a r t so m e of its pe r m a nence to

,

oth er per fu m es It c a n not be m ixed with a ll su bs tan ces

.

withou t dete r i ora tio n ; so m e su ch a s bitter a l m o n ds and ,

ergot dest r oy i t
, wh ile c a m phor a n d v a leri a n ch an ge its
,

ch ar a ct e r very m u ch .

Tm c tu r e o f m u sk is p r ep a r ed i n the fo llowi n g m an n er
Take 1 oz m u sk in gr a i n 1 0 oz a lc h oo l 5 oz a m m o n i a
.
, .
, . .

Gri nd the m u sk wi th a little o f t h e a lco h ol then m i x a ll ,

together a n d a llow to d i gest for sever a l d a y s sh a ki n g a t i n ,

terv als the n fil t e r

,
Add to the resid u e 5 oz a lcoh ol a n d
. .

di gest a g a i n for three d a y s the n st r a i n a n d a dd ti n ct u r e to ,

the fir st lot A dd a nother 1 0 oz a lc ohol to the r esidu e an d

. .

repeat the oper a tio n s The wea k tin ctu r e m ade with this
.

thi rd extra ctio n is i n pl a ce of a lcohol for extr a c tin g a fr esh

batch .

An other m et h od is to gri n d to gether 1 oz m u sk i n gr a in .

,

2 oz su ga r ; the n a dd 2 qu a r ts a lcoh ol 1 o z pe a r l a sh
.
, .
- .

All ow to st a n d for a week s h a ki n g at in t erv a ls the n filter , , ,

when th e ti n ct u r e will be r e a dy fo r u se T his will be ra ther .

weaker th a n th e a bove .

—
ART I F I C I AL M U SK U n der the n a m e o f M u sk B au r
.

there h a s been i n trod u ced into co m m e r ce si n ce a bo u t 1 89 0 , ,

a whi te powder which has a st r o n odo r o f m u sk a n d it

, g u ,

has bee n l a rgely em ployed i n i m p a r ti n g a m u sk odou r to soaps .

Th e p r od u ctio n of this h a s been p a te n t ed (N o 49 63 1 889 ) by .

,

the discoverer A l bert B au r , There c a n be isol a ted fr o m .

rosin spi r i t a h ydroc a r bo n b u tyl tolu e n e whic h h as th e , ,

for m u l a H
( 4 9)
C T h e si m plest m e thod for m a ki n g
.

arti fici a l m u sk fro m t h is is to a llo w th e hydroc a rbo n b u t l

y
tolu ene to drop slowly i n to fiv e ti m es i ts wei ght o f a m ixt u re
of on e p a rt o f nitric a cid o f S pec i fic gr a vity a n d t wo p a r ts ,

of fu m i n s lp h ric ci d con tain in 1 5 e r ce n t of a n h y dride

g u u a g p , .
,

and he a ti n the m i xt u re o n a w a t e r b a th for ei ht o r n i n e

g g
hour s O n po u ri n g t h e m a ss i n to wa ter a c r yst a lli n e m a ss o f
.
1 68 SO A P MANUFAC T URE .

i m p u re n itro co m pou nd is obt a i n ed This is r en i tr a te d a n d .

,

the produ c t recryst a llised fr om a lco h ol .

M u sk B au r the tri n itro iso bu ty l tol u ene occ u rs i n the

, ,

form o f a cream y cry st a lli n e powder which is i n solu ble in ,

w a ter bu t is e a sil y sol u ble i n a lco h ol ether chloro form

, , , ,

petroleu m Spirit be n zi n e It m elts at 96 to 9 7 C It h a s a

,
.
° °
.

m ost i n tense odo u r of m u sk a n d m a y be u sed in perfu m in g

,

so aps I t s odo u r is n o t q u ite so pleasant a s th a t of tru e

.

m u sk . I t m a y be a d ded di r ect to the so a p or pre fer a bly in

t h e fo r m o f a solu tio n i n m eth ylat ed spiri t .

Al th o u gh M u sk B au r is a t present the only form of a rti

fici a l m u sk to be m e t with in co m m erce yet oth er com po u nd s , ,

m ostly t r i n itro deriv a tive s o f arom atic orga nic com po u nds ,

are kn own whic h h a ve a m u sk like odou r an d m ay probably

,
-
,

be soo n er or l a ter pl a ced on the m a rket .

M Y RB AN E — Thi 8 prod u ct is largely u sed in the sce n ting

.

o f so a ps a n d o th er prod u cts which req u ire a che a p sce n ti ng

m a terial owin g t o its ple a s a n t odo u r of al m onds wh ile it is a

, ,

stron g a gent for perfu m i n g soaps e t c Ch e m ic ally it is n itro , .

ben ze n e h av ing the form u l a CGH 5 N 02 a n d is m a n u fact u r ed in

, ,

l a rg e qu a nti ties by treati n g ben zene the hen z ol of th e coa l tar ,

-

di stiller with a m ixtu re o f nitric and s u lp h u ric a cids

, The .

cru de produ ct is m ixed with w a ter to free it from excess of

a cids when dis t ill e d M y r b a n e or n itrobenze n e is a p ale
.
, ,

s tr a w colo u red liq u id havi n g a n odo u r of alm o n ds ; its sp e ci fic

-

g r a vity is 1 2 0 9 so th a t it is he a vier than w a ter in whic h it

, ,

is alm ost insol u ble It m ixes freely with oils fa t s spirits

.
, , ,

e tc. It boils a t 2 07 C while it c a n be cooled do wn u ntil it

°
.
,

form s a solid h a vi n g a m elti n g poi n t of 4 C

,
It is c apable °
.

o f bei n g distilled in a c u rr ent o f steam a property wh ich may ,

be t a k en a dvant a ge of to free the cr u de n itroben zene from

u n c h a n ged be n zene or ot h e r hydrocarbons A v alu a tion of .

the co m m erci a l prod u ct m a y be m ade by determ i n i n g its

speci fic
g r a vity which o,
u ght to be exact W hen tre a ted with .
 P E RF U ME S .

a mixt u re of zi n c a n d hydrochloric acid it ou ght to yield

nothing bu t a niline while n o hydroc a rbons sho uld be le ft
,

behi nd on distillin g som e i n a r etort with ste am . In the so a p

trade m yr b a n e is very l a rg ely u sed for sce n ti n g so a ps Bei n g
very stro n it t kes b t little to develop ple s n t a lm ond
g ,
a u a a a

odou r whi le it m ixes we ll wit h other perfu m es

,
. It retains
its odou r for a lo n g period .
 CH A P T E R V .

W AT E R AS A SO AP M ATE R I AL .

W A T E R is ch a u biqu ito u s su b st ance an d fi n ds so m any

su

applic a tio n s i n i n d u str i a l a n d dom estic u ses that m u ch m ay

be writte n a bo u t it of a very i n terestin g ch a ra cter a n d whi ch
wo u ld appe a l to a l m ost every perso n ; h owever h ere it is ,

si m ply proposed to con sider the m ost v a l u a ble che m ic al c om

po u n d which is kn own .

W a ter is a co m po u n d o f th e two ga seo u s n on m et allic ,

-

elem ents oxygen a n d hy dro gen i n the proportio n o f 1 6 parts

, ,

by wei ght o f the form er to 2 par ts by wei gh t of the latter ;

its ch e m ic a l form u la is H 2 O U n der ordi n a ry conditions it
.

is a colo u rless liqu id perfectly n eu tra l i n all its properties

,
.

W he n heated to a te m pera t u re o f 2 1 2 F ( 1 00 C ) it boil s

° °
. .
,

a n d p a sses O H i n the form o f a n i n visible The te m era

’

as
g p .

t u re at which wa ter boils is fou nd to be a co n stant on e and

hence is t aken a s one poi n t i n the gradu atio n of the ther
m o m e ter s the boilin g point 2 1 2 on the F ahrenheit sc ale
°

, , ,

1 00 on the C e n ti gra de sc a le a n d 80 o n the R e a u m u r sc ale

° °
.
,

W h en wa ter is cooled down it solidi fies in to a solid white ice ;

the tem peratu re a t which it solidi fies is a lso a consta n t one ,

and is t a ken a s the zero or st a rtin g point on the C e n ti gr ade

a n d th e R e a u m u r sc a les , a n d is 32 on th e F a hrenheit
°

sc a le W a ter is t a ken a s the stand a r d of speci fic gra vity of

.

so li ds an d li qu ids ; t h is is o n a cco u n t of the fa ct t h at it can

be obt ained a n ywhere in a st a te of p u rity its speci fic gravi ty
is 1 000 Ice i s li ghter th a n w a ter h a vi n g a speci fic gravity
.
,

o f 0 9 ; it will the r e fore flo a t u po n water a property of i m ,

 W AT E R . 171

mense t r a l i m port a n ce W he n wa ter is tra n s form ed int o

na u .

vapou r it exp a n ds so m e 1 5 00 ti m es i n vo lu m e W h e n w a ter .

is ch a n ged fro m solid ice it a bsorbs h e a t which is re n dered

latent or i m pe r ceptible n ot bei n g c a p a ble of m e a s u rem en t by
,

the ther m o m eter ; th e l a te n t he a t o f wa ter is 1 42 5 u nits o f

h eat I n a si m il a r m a n n er whe n liq u id w a ter is co n verte d
‘

by h ea ti n g i n to ga s it a lso t a kes u p a n d re n ders la tent a

large qu a n tity of hea t the l a te n t he a t o f w a ter gas bei n g 966
,

units . W he n w a ter ga s i s co n vert ed b a ck i n to liqu id w a ter ,

thi s l a tent he a t is give n o u t a property on wh ich depe n d s,

the em ploy m ent o f ste a m fo r he a ti n g so a p p a n s evapor a ti n g ,

li qui ds dryi n g stoves etc a n d when liqu id w a ter is ch a n ged

, ,
.
,

to solid ice i t s l a te n t he a t is dissip a ted These propertie s .

have a ve r y i m por tan t be a r in g i n rel a tion to w a ter a s a

moti v e power ; it is however n ot the i n te n tio n to disc u s s
, ,

this poi n t m ore fu lly here W he n p u re wa ter is exposed to

.

the a t m osphere or h e a ted it is converted i n to v apo u r a n d

p a s ses aw a y wi t ho u t le a vi n g a n y resid u e behi n d .

On e E n glish i m peri a l ga llo n o f w a ter wei gh s 1 0 lh wh ile .

,

one Un ited S t a tes llo n of w a ter wei hs 8 33 lb o n e c u bi c

g a g .

foot of water wei ghs 62 3 lb .

W hen w a ter is viewed i n l a rge m a sses a s i n deep t a n k s ,

an d l a kes it h a s a bl u e colo u r a n d the p u rer the w a ter th e

, ,

deeper a n d bri ghter is this colo u r .

The m os t i m port a n t fe a tu re a bo u t wa ter is its gr e a t

solven t properties ; there a r e fe w s u bst a nces indeed whic h
‘

will n ot di ssolve in this liqu id There is however m u ch v a ri a

.
, ,

tion in the degree of sol u bility ; there ar e so m e su bst a n ces

which will dissolve i n t hei r o w n wei gh t of w a ter s u ch a s ,

calci u m chloride c a u stic sod a while there a r e a fe w which

, ,

will form a sol u tio n with less th a n their own wei ght on the
other h a nd so m e bodies s u ch a s c a lci u m s u lph a t e stro n ti u m
, ,

su lph a te a m m on i u m
,
ox a l a t e a r e b u t sp a ri n gly solu ble
,
.

Tempera t u re h a s a n i m porta n t i n fl u en ce u pon the de gree of

1 72 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

s ol u bility the ru le bei n g th a t with a n i n cre a se O f tem per a ture

,

t here is a n incre a se i n the q u a n tity O f s u bst a n ces dissolved ;

t his is n ot a bly the c a se with s u ch bodies as a m m o n i u m oxa
l a te pot a s si u m bichrom a te boili n g wa ter dissolvi n g m u ch
, ,

m ore th a n cold w a ter ; o n coo li n g hot sol u tions O f th ese

bodies th e s a lt crysta llises ou t W hen a sol u tion co n t ai n s .

a s m u ch o f a s u bst a n ce dissolved i n it a s the w a ter will di s

solve it is s a id to be a s a t u r a ted sol u tion ; from s u ch solu

,

t io n s the s u bst a n ce will cryst a llise ou t on cooli n g to be

r e dissolved a g a i n
-
on the ori gi n al te m pera t u re bei n g t e
g a i n ed T h
. e followi ng t a ble g ives the stre n th
g O f a

s a t u r a ted sol u tio n O f so m e i m port a n t s u bst a n ces

TAB L E O F SA U T R ATE D SOL U TI O N S AT 15

°
O
.
°
(60

P er c en t o f
. p
S ec i fic
S u bsta n c e. G ra vi ty
.

Am m o n i u m c hl i d
or e 76
su l ph t a e

B a ri u m c hlor i d e

Ca l ci um c hl or i de

M a gn e si u m su lp h a te

P o ta ssi u m c hl or i d e 23
car b o n a te

n i t r a te

su l ph a te

S o di u m c hlori de

car b o n ate

n i t r a te

su lph a te

C a u st i c so d a

W a ter pl a ys very i m port a n t p a rt i n the m a n u fact u re of

a

s o a p ; it form s the m edi u m t h r o u h whose a ency the fa t on th e

g g
o n e h a n d a n d the a lk a li o n the other a r e en a bled to u n ite a nd

form so a p witho u t w a ter this co m bi n a tion or u n io n c an not

t a ke pl a ce I n a dditio n to th u s bei n g the m edi u m there can
.

be n o do u bt th a t w a ter h a s other i n fl u en ces i n so a p m aking -

d u e en tirely to i t s gr e a t solve n t properties It is a well kn o wn .

-

fa ct th a t the gr a in s or text u res O f so a ps m a de in d i fle r e n t works

fr o m the s a m e m a te r i a ls a n d by the s a m e process O ften di ffer
 W AT E R . 1 73

in a ra ther u n a cco u n t a ble m a nner ; this di fle r en c e is m os t

likely to be c a u sed by a di fler en c e in the ch a r a cter of th e
wat er which is u sed i n the v a rio u s wo r ks .

There is n o s u ch th i n g a s p u r e wa ter i n n at u r e The p u res t .

is rai n w a ter bu t this a lw a ys co n t a i n s so m e g a ses disso lved

,

in it derived fro m the a t m osphere d u ri n g i t s p a ss a ge thro u g h

,

that m edi u m ; the n ex t p u r est is sp r i n g wa ter then co m e ,

river w a ters l a stly the m ost im p u re n a t u r a l wa ter is sea

,

water .

Spr i n g rive r a n d se a w a ters cont a i n dissolved in them

, ,

varying am ou n ts o f i n o r g a n ic or m inera l a n d orga nic m a tters

derived fro m the r ocks over which o r thro u gh which they
may h a ve flowed It m a y be i n ferr ed th a t on th is acco u n t
.

such w a ters will v a ry co n side r a bly i n the ch a r a cter a n d

exten t o f the m a t ters which a r e co n t a i n ed i n the m F or ou r .

p re se n t p u rpose we m a y le a ve se a w a t e r e n tirely o u t O f c o n

si d er a tio n a s it is n o t u sed i n m a kin so a p a n d si m ply de a l

g ,

with sp r i n g a n d river w a ter s N o w it is fo u n d th a t w a te r s

.

that a r e deri v ed from a dist r ict in which the rocks co n sist

ch iefly O f r n ite or ot h e r silicio u s rock co n t a in bu t s m a l l
g a

q u a n tities O f m a tter dissolve d i n the m pe r h a,

ps n o t m o r e

tha n 4 to 5 gr a i n s per g a llo n a n d these chiefly o f a n a lk a li n e

,

cha ra cter . W a ters which flow thro u gh a r e gio n where li m e

sto n e O r m a n esi a n r ocks p r edo m i n a te a r e li a ble to co n t a i n
g
mo re li m e or m a gn esi a i n sol u ti o n so m eti m es i n r a the r large
,

p ro p o rtio n . The prese n ce O f the s e bodies i m p a r t s a q u a lity

kn own a s h a rd n e ss to th e w a te r a qu a lity which i s m ore
,

easily de m onstr a te d th a n descri bed ; a t a ll eve n ts s u ch w a ter s

are ver y di ffi c u lt to w a sh wi t h Besides li m e a n d m a gn esi a

.
,

wate r O fte n i n fa ct n e a r ly a lw a ys co n t a i n s sm a ll qu a n tities

, ,

of sa lt iro n silic a etc

, , It is n ot n eedfu l here to disc u ss i n
, .

det ail a ll t h a t m ay be fo u n d i n w a t er .

L i m e a n d m a gn esi a exi st i n w a ter i n two fo r m s c a rbon a te ,

and su lph a te ; the c a rbo n a tes O f these ar e a l m ost i n sol u bl e

1 74 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

bodies a n d will n ot dissolve in pu r e w a ter to a n y a pp r e ci

,

a ble exte n t ; O n th e ot h er h a n d they ar e sol u ble in w a te r

which co n t a i n s c a rbon ic a cid in sol u tio n in the form O f th e ,

bic a r bo n a te a n d a s a ll n a t u r a l w aters cont a in m o r e or less

,

c a r bon ic a cid it follows t h a t s u ch w a ters will t a ke u p th e

c a rbo n a tes o f li m e a n d m a g n e si a fro m r ocks a n d soils By .

boili n g s u ch wa ters the c a rbo n ic a cid is d riven O H a n d con

seq u e n tly th e lim e a n d m a gn esi a which ar e held i n sol u tion
will be t h rown do wn o u t O f t h e wa te r The l a tte r h a vin g lost .

its li m e beco m es so fte n ed “

any h a r d n ess which is du e to
the c a rbon a tes o f the two m et a ls i n qu estio n is there fore s aid
to be tem por a ry h a rdness
“
The s u lph a tes of li m e and
”
.

m a gn esi a a r e sol u ble i n w a ter of their own i n h e r ent pro

p e r ti e s ; t h ey there fore a r e not t h row n dow n when w a te r

is boiled ; hen ce a n y h a r d n ess wh ich is du e to th em is kn own

as perm a ne n t h a rdness
N ow it is these li m e a n d m a gnesi a co m po u nds which ar e
p r esent i n w a ter which will exert the gr e a test a m o u n t of i n
fl u e n ce i n the m a n u fa ct u re o f So a p This is du e to th e fact
.

th a t they h a ve the prop e rty O f en ter i n g i n to a ctio n with the

so a p a n d for m i n the ewith insol ble li m e d m a n e si a
g r u a n g
so a ps ; a ver y s m a ll a m o u n t o f these s u bst a nces i n w a ter will
re a ct with a l a r ge propor tion of so a p ; it is n o u n co m mon
thi n g to fin d w a ters con t a i n in g 30 gr a i n s per gallon of lime
c ar bo n a te a n d s u lph a te .

N ow a cco r di n g to the equ a tion

Ca C O 3 2 N a 01 8H 35 02 N 3 003 + 0&(013H 3502 )2

l
Ca ci u m S oa p 3m m e Soa p
C a r b on a t e C a r bona te

we th a t 1 00 p a rts O f c a lci u m c ar bon ate will react with

se e

61 2 p a r ts o f so a p to fo r m 606 p a r ts O f a n i n sol u ble lime

so a p ; this l a tt e r is the c u r dy m a sses which for m when soap
is m ixed with li m ey wa ter N o w s u pposi n g we h a ve water
.

th at co n t ai n s 30 gra i n s p e r ga llo n O f li m e then each gallon ,

 WAT E R . 1 75

of that wa ter will cau se the for m a tion O f 1 83 grains Of li m e

soap an d i f i n a boilin g O f s o a p we a r e de a lin g with 6000 to
,

7000 ga llo n s O f w a ter the n th e li m e i n that water will res u lt

in the form a tion of 1 6 to 1 7 lb O f li m e so a p which getti n g
.
,

into th e fin ished soap m u st h a ve som e i n fl u en ce on the tex

ture of th a t so ap .

F o r a ll pr a ctical p u rposes the s u lph a te m a y b eco n sidered

to have th e s a m e a ction a s th e c a rbon a te .

Th e so a p m a ker will desire to u se a water wh ich con

-

tains a s little li m e an d m a gnesi a a s he ca n get I n som e .

cases he c a n n ot help h i m sel f b u t m u st t a ke the wa ter a s it

,

comes to h i m H e c a n however a dopt som e m ethod o f

.
, ,

soften i n g or oth erwise rem o v i n g the li m e etc from th e , .

,

water . F or this p u rpose severa l m et h ods an d a ppli a nces ar e

avail a ble The ori ginal C lark process m ay be adopted wh ich
.
,

consists in first determ i n i n the te m por a ry hardness O f the

g
water a n d t h en a ddin g so m u ch qu ick li m e as will co m bi n e -

with th e c a rbonic acid in th e w a ter when both the c arbon a te ,

of li m e or O f m a nesia ori i n a lly prese n t in th e w a ter a n d

g g
the li m e a dded will precipitate o u t a n d on a llowin g the pre ,

ci i tate to settle in tanks the w a ter beco m es clear a n d is

p
soften ed . A m odi fic a tion O f this pl a n which is tediou s is , ,

the P orter C l a rk process where the w a ter a n d li m e are m ixed

-
,

together in proper proportions an d the m ixt u re sent th r o u gh

a filteri n
g a pp a r a t u s A better .m ethod is th e Ar c h bu tt

Deeley process in wh ich the w a ter is m ixed in a t a nk with

,

the requ isite a m o u nt of a m ixt u r e O f c a rbon a te O f sod a a n d

lime an d the m ixt u re blown with ai r for a short tim e a fter
, ,

which the p r ecipit a te is a llo wed to settle a n d th e cle a r liqu or

drawn O fl This process works well ; it will red u ce th e h a r d
’
.

ness of a w a ter from 1 6 to 1 7 down t o 3 with e a se a n d

° ° °

rapidity O ther m ethods h a ve a lso been devised for so ften

.

i n g wa ter a n d it wo u ld be wo r th while for the so a p m a ker

,
-

i f h e is workin g with a very h a r d w a ter to so ften it be fo r e

1 76 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

u sing It does not cost m u ch while th e opera tion O f m aking

.
,

the soa p wou ld be e a sier a n d a better qu ality o f so a p would

be t u r n ed ou t T h en where the water is a lso u sed i n the
.

ste am boiler for raising ste am anoth er a dvant a ge would

-

ac cru e and t h at is the red u ction O f sc a le in the boiler and a

,

n ecess ar y red u ctio n in the co a l bill

.
 CHA P T E R V I .

S O AP M ACH I N E RY .

THE plan on which the present ch a pter is b a sed will be that

of follo win t h m ater i ls the f ts d ils d alk li es sed
g e a , a a n O a n a u ,

in so ap m a ki n g thro u gh the v a rio u s oper a tions need fu l to

-
,
.

their tra ns form a tion in to a bar o f soap a n d describi n g the ,

vari ou s m a c h i n es th ey p a ss th rou gh du rin g that process .

Inciden tally a little m a y be s aid a bo u t so a p m aki n g bu t it

,
-
,

is not intended to describe the O per a tion o f so a p m akin g or -

the process O f m a kin g a n y kind of so a p in a n y detail r e ser v ,

ing that portion of the s u bject fo r a s u bseq u ent ch a pte r .

Care will be t a ken to p oint ou t the pri n ciples on which the

worki n g O f the m achi n ery is b a sed a n d to show the best
,

meth ods of wor kin g .

It is a di ffic u lt m atter to give general a dvice on the con

stru ction O f a so a p fa ctory so m u ch depends u pon loc a l
,

featu res su ch a s site rel a tions to r a ilw a ys a n d w a terwa y s

, , ,

p r oportion o f floor a re a to vertic a l hei g ht a ll o f which

, h a ve
a mat erial i n fl u ence o n the pl a n n i n O f e ffi cient so a p works
g .

It is a lways best to h a ve a s m u ch floor a rea a s possible so ,

that the great m ajority o f the fa ctory b ui ldin gs sh a ll be

one store y in hei h t O n e little point sho u ld be kept in
g .

mi n d a n d that is to so plan the v a rio u s portio n s O f the

,

works th at as th e O per a tion O f m a ki n g fa ts a n d a lk a lies into

soap pro resses t h ey will tr a vel fr o m roo m to roo m in a
g
stea dy wa y witho u t h a vi n to tr a verse a n y gro u nd prev io u sly
, g
g o n e over . A n other poi n t is to t a ke a s m u c h adv a nt a ge o f

g r avity as possible in the tr a ns fere n ce O f O ils f a ts a n d

,
a lk a lies
,

12
 1 78 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

fro m one pla ce to a n other it com es m u ch che a per th an

l a bo u r in c arryin g a bo u t .

T h e A lka li es — The so ap m a ker receives his c a u stic potash

-

or c au stic sod a i n l a r ge iro n dru m s con t ai n i n g the a lk a lies

,

i n a solid form ; this it is n eed fu l to red u ce to a liq u id fo r m

by dissolvi n g it in w a ter In m a n y so ap wo r ks this is don e
.

by bre a kin g ou t the c a u stic fro m the d r u m which by the bye ,

- -

is a m ost u n ple a s an t opera tio n for the workm en en ga ged ,

a n d throwi n the l m ps i n to a n iro n t a n k u s u a lly pl a ced

g u

som ewhere on the gro u n d floor ; wa ter is r u n i n a n d the

m a ss boiled with the a i d O f ste a m This is by n o m ea n s the
.

best m ethod o f worki n g An oth er de fect which is som eti m es

.

m e t with i n O ld soap works is h a vi n g the top o f the t an k

,

level or nea rly SO with the floo r This is a ba d fa u lt a s .

,

th ere is gre a t li a bility for a cciden ts to h a ppen In t h e w ay O f

O per a tives fa lli n i to the lye wit h dis stro s res lts I
g n a u u n .

the u s u a l pl a n O f dissolvi n g the c a u stic on e sou rce O f tro u bl e

,

is m et with that Of th e c au stic for m i n g i n to a solid c a ke

,

a t the botto m O f the t a n k a n d re fu si n g to dissolve th e ly e ,

thereby bei n g we aker tha n it wo u ld othe r wise be .

The best m ethod of m a kin g the sod a or pot a sh lyes is to

provide a t an k p u t in a r oom or pl a ce a bove the so a p b oi li n g -

kettles ; p art O f this t an k m a y be pl a ced belo w the floor ; a

swi n g sypho n t u be sho u ld be pla ced i n the t a n k for the p u r
pose O f r u n n in g O ff the lye F or this p u rpose a sypho n t u b e
.

h a s m a n y a dv a n t a ges over a Si m ple or fixed ta p pl a ced o n the

S ide O f the t a nk . A gr a ti n g shou ld be fixed i n the tO p of th e
ta nk j u st below the s u rfa ce O f the liq u o r co n t a i n ed i n t h e
t a nk ; this gra ting m a y be pl a ced on s u pports wh ich extend
from Side to side O f the t a n k O n t h is gr a ti n g the dr u m s
.

O f c a u stic which h a ve h a d the e n ds k n ocked ou t a r e pl a c ed

, ,
.

T h e wa ter penetr a ti n g i n to the dru m g r a d u a lly dissolve s o u t

the c au stic th e solu tio n bei n g he a vier th a n the wa te r s i n ks
, ,

to the botto m O f th e t a n k a co n st a n t ci r c u l a tion Of fr esh

,
 A L K AL I TAN KS . 1 79

water or we a k liqu or passin g thro u gh th e dru m becom in g

stron er in so doi n which t h e n goe s to the botto m O f th e
g g ,

tank This goes on u ntil all the c a u stic in the t a n k is di s

.

solved . This m ethod of worki n g m eans less l a bo u r in th e

handlin g of the c au stic which is o f som e a dv a nt a ge ; th ere
,

i s no u ndissolved c a u stic fo rm ed a t th e bottom O f the tank ,

while th e opera tio n is done so m ewh a t q u icke r .

Figur e 2 5 is a n ill u stratio n of a t an k constr u cted on thes e

p ri n ci p les .

F IG 2 5
. .

Th e followin g table gives som e idea of the m ost u sefu l

sizes of tanks with their cap a cities in llons when fi lled
, g a ,

to within one foot of the top an d the wei ht o f c au stic of

g ,

77 per cent stre n gt h co n tai n ed i n the n u m ber o f ga llons o f

.

lye of variou s stren gth s .

Si ze Of Ta nk s
W ei ght i n P ou nd s of S oli d C a usti c 7 7
p er cen t in Lye O f
.

De t ph . Lensta : W i dth . 1 0 Tw
°
. 2 0 Tw
°
. 30 T w
°
. 5 0 Tw
°
.

1 7 12 332 61 5 5 1 047
2 43 4 43 32 3 1 400
6 36 ; 1 1 605 2 1 5 61 3668
1 2 73 2 32 1 43 1 2 5
1 80 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

Som eti m es lye t a n ks O f a cylindrical form fitted with ,

m ech an ic a l stirrers a r e u sed bu t there is no a dv a n tage in

, ,

u si n g s u ch over the for m j u st described a n d the stirrer ,

ab sorbs power to drive it which it is desir a ble to avoid i f

,

possible .

F a t melti n g Ta n ks —A ltho u gh it is a c u stom with so m e

-
“

sm all so ap m akers to bre ak open the casks of t a llow oil or

-
, ,

oth er so a p stock as they receive them a n d throw th e con ten ts

-
,

i n to th e so ap kettle a s requ i r ed to m ake soap su ch a cou r s e is

-
,

not to be co m m ended a s the fa ts etc m ay co n t a i n m u ch di rt

, ,
.
, ,

all O f wh ich goes into th e so ap kettle T h en ag a i n the c a sks

- .
, ,

F IG . 2 6 .

ar e li a ble to be broken u p i n getti n g s u ch solids a s t a llow

a n d rosi n ou t The best co u r se to p u rs u e is to provide
.

a sh a llow t r o u gh a bo u t the width O f the len gth O f a c a sk

a n d s u fficie n tly lo n g to a cco m m od a te a n u m ber O f b ar rels

“

Alon g the top of this tr o u gh ar e pl a ced two stou t wooden

su pports on which the b a r rels a r e held in positio n over th e
,

trou gh b u n gh ole down w a r ds In to ea ch barrel thro u gh th e

,
.
,

b u n ghole is r u n a ste am pipe the steam fro m wh ich c a u ses

, ,

the t a llow or other so a p fa t to m elt and r u n into the

t r ou gh below fr om when ce the m elted fat flows i n to a l a r ge
settli n g t a nk In to which a ll dirt etc drop o u t while the cle ar
, ,
 F AT T AN K S . 1 81

melted fa t is ru n a s requ ired into the soap kettle F i gu re 2 6 - .

shows this arran e m e n t

g .

It is best wherever it is possib le to pl a ce the fa t tan ks

above the s o ap kettle so th at the fa t can flow by gravity into
-
,

the kettle Th is however is n ot a lwa ys possible a n d then

.
, , ,

so m e m e a n s m u st be fo u nd to t r an s fer th e m elted fa t fro m

th e t a n k to th e kettle a bove This m ay be done by m e an s O f

.

a p u m p s u ch as will be fou n d described later on bu t in m a ny

, ,

so a p works the tra n s ference is e ffected by m e a n s O f what is

often n am ed a stock blower -

.

F IG . 2 7 .

The stock blo wer is sh own i n figu re 2 7 It consists of a

- .

cyli n d r ical vessel which c a n be m a de a i r ti ght and pl a ced -

u p r i ght ; a little above the botto m is pl a ced a dished fa lse

bottom with a hole in the cen tre ; this is for the pu rpose of
allowin
g an y dirt a n d wate r to settle o u t u n der the fa lse

botto m which prevents them fr o m gettin g i n to th e soap

,

kettle A pipe p a sses from the botto m of the vessel to the

.

so ap kettle A ste a m pipe p a sses steam i n to the top of the

-
.

vessel and th e press u re O f th is forces the stock i n to th e so a p

,

kettle .
1 82 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

S oap boi li ng K ettles

- or P ans — I n the . m an u fa ct u re Of

so ap alka li a n d fa t are co m m o n ly boiled to gether This i s

,
.

c arried ou t i n wh a t a r e c a lle d so a p kettles These ar e a l - .

m ost i n v a ri a bly m a de O f iro n a ltho u gh they c a n be b u ilt O f

,

othe r m a te r i a ls The Size c an O f co u rse be propor tio n ed to

.
, ,

th e q u a n tity o f m a teri a l which h a s to be m ade a n d so m e ,

thi n g w ill be s a id on th is point Sho r tly I n O lde n tim es the s e .

so a p kettles were a lw ays he a ted by fir e b u t in m oder n

-
,

so a p w o r ks they ar e h ea ted by steam sen t i n to the kettl e ,

fro m a ste a m boiler .T his ste a m m a y or m a y be s u p e r

F IG . 2 8 .

he a ted . Ste a m he a ti n g h a s m a n y advan t a ges over fi r e

hea ti n g It is cle a n er ; then a g a i n less l a bo u r is r e q u lr e d to
.

m a a —
keep the teri ls n the p a n well m ixed to gether the p a ss a g e
i
O f the ste a m thro u gh the m a ss e n s u res this T he n i n a fi r e .

he a ted p an there is a r isk th a t those portio n s O f the k e ttle

n e a rest to or i n co n t a ct wit h the fir e o r hot fir e g a ses w ill

beco m e over h e a te d a n d a n y so a p co n ti gu o u s thereto w ill

,

becom e bu rn t o r ch a rred a n d the p a n O f S o a p thereby dis

,

colo ur ed T h e gre a t diffi c u lty there is i n keepi n g a pa n O f

.

p a sty so a p well stir red u p by h a nd a dds to t h is d a n ger wh ich ,

 SO AP KE TT L E S
-
. 1 83

is q u ite a bsen t from a ste a h eated p a n

m - Then there is .

a n other poi n t So a p is
. very li a ble to froth
over a n d fob the ,

o n ly rem edy for which is to dra w the fir e or Sh u t O ff steam

a n d a llow the kettle a n d its c o n te n ts to cool down In the .

c a se O f a fir e he a ted p a n this is by no m e a n s e a sy a n d sho u ld

-
,

a n y O f the so a p m a teri a ls boil over a n d t i to the fi

ge n r e ,

there is n o telling wh a t m i ght h a ppen W ith a ste a m he a ted .

-

p a n ,
sh u ttin g O ff the ste a m is a ll th a t n eed be do n e .

Fi gu re 2 8 is a dra wi n g O f a fir e he a ted kettle The kettle

-
.

F IG . 29 . S tea m Soa p -p a n .

A m a y be m a de of a n y size ; it is s u pported by brickwork B

B the u pper portion s P P of which ar e m a de to serve as the
,

workin g pl a tform from wh ich the contents O f the kettle ar e

m anip u l a ted The firepl a ce C is a t on e side a n d the he a t
. ,

an d
g a ses fro m the fi r e p a ss ro u n d the kettle i n fin es D D

E is the a s h pit .

A s fir e hea ti n g is goi n g ou t O f u se i n so a p m aki n g it is -

,

n o t need fu l to desc r ibe s u ch he a ted kettles i n m ore det a il .

Ste a m is n o w a l m ost u n iver s a lly u sed for he a ti n g so a p

pan s except perh a ps in sm a ll wo r ks F i gu r e 2 9 is a dra wi n g
,
.
 1 84 S O AP MANUFAC T UR E .

Of a steam hea ted s oa p p an m a de by M essr s W F ra s e r

- -
,
. .

Co . which s h ows the m a n n er i n which st e am p a ns a r e

,

u s u a lly constru cted .

T hi s p an is m ade circ ula r i n sh ape of sto u t boiler plates

, ,

riveted to gether ; a fl a n ge ru n n i n g rou n d the p a n a bo u t i ts

ce n tre serves to a c t a s its s u pport an d for co n stru cti n g a ,

pl a t form to work the p a n fro m It is fitted W i th both O pe n .

a n d closed ste a m coils This is a lm o st a bsol u tely necess a ry

.

i n so a p p a n s T h e open coil is em ploy ed d u ri n g the first

-
.

po r tio n s O f a boil while the closed coil is u sed a t the la st

,
.

The pipe fitted with a ch a i n on the left O f the figu re is a

dra w O ff pipe ( the ski m m e r pipe a s it is c a lled ) for the fin ished
-

so a p a n d is co n n ected with pipes o u tside the p a n which

, ,

co n vey the so a p to the fr am es or cru tchers a s m ay be r e

qu ired The O pen in g a t the bottom O f the p a n is for ru n
.

n in g O ff the lyes an d is for , th at p u rpose con n ected with

v a lves a n d pipes lea di n g to the Spen t lye t a n ks .

It is c u sto m ary with large p a ns to fix two open an d two

closed ste a m coils so th a t th e degree of boiling c a n be better
,

reg u l a ted a n d u nder control th an is possible i f a ll the steam

were sen t thro u gh one coil for it m u st be O bvio u s th a t a
,

cert ai n am o u nt O f press u re is requ ired to overcom e the back

pressu re of the m a teri a ls in the p a n ag a i n st th a t o f the
steam I f on e l a rge coil is t u rn ed fu ll on then the boili ng
.

m i ght be too stro n g ; i f the ste a m in s u ch a coil were t u r n ed

p artly O ff the press u re m i ght not be su fli c i en t to work the
m a teri a ls in the p an where a s by havin g on e l a rg e a n d one
,

s m a ll stea m coil when the v a lve is t u rne d fu ll on i n

,

either there is cer t a in to be s u ffi cie n t ste a m press u re to

,

overco m e tha t O f the so ap i n the p a n W ith the sm a ll coil .

a
g entle boil c a n be O bt a ined with the l a r
g e coil
, a s tro n g
boil A press u re O f 4 5 to 60 lb is a very good one to work
. .

at.

It is not c u stom a ry to en close th e so ap pans in

- an y way .
 -
SOAP P A NS . 1 85

but in one or two so ap works a wooden h ood h a s been fitted

above th e pan in p r olo n ation o f its sides ; t h is is co n tin u ed
g
u
p to a floor above the pan w h ile
, fro m t h is floor rises a

shaft pa ssi n thro u gh to th e o u tside a n d in co mm u nic a tion

, g ,

with the h ood below T h is chim ney s h a ft serves the p u r pose

.

of co n veyin th ste a m whic h rises fro m the boili n g soap

g e

away fro m th e a n d t h ere fo re a dds to the co m fort O f th e

p a n ,

workm en . T h e hood S e r ves also to preven t boilin g over

should th e so a p be i n to fob ve r y m u ch
g .

To prevent the loss O f h e a t fro m the Sides O f the pans ,

these m a y be co a ted wit h a n on co n d u ctin g com position a n d

-

wi th bo a rds . This is n ot alwa ys done still it is a very ,

desir able a ddition a n d facilit a tes the separ a tion O f the l y e

,

from the so a p by e n a bli n g the l a tter to ret a in its he a t and ,

so keep fl u id lon er
g .

In so m e soap works instead of bei n g m ade circula r the p a n s

are m a de sq u a re So fa r as pra ctic a l workin g is concerned
.

there is no m a te ri a l a dvan tage of on e form over a n other .

As reg ards the size of soap pa n s t h ese m ay be m a de O f

-
,

an
y di m ensions to s u it t h e q u a n tity O f soap which it is
desired to m ake G e n era lly l a rg e soap pans a r e e a sier to
.
-

mani pu l a te and de a l with t h an s m all p a ns th e yield of so a p i s

usu ally re ter while it is f be t ter q lity and freer fro m
g a , O u a

encl osed lye .There is a m a xi m u m Si z e h owe ver a pan of , ,

about 30 tons c a p a ci ty bey ond which it is not wise to o

, g .

It may be taken as a genera l r u le th a t 1 c w t of fa t requ ires

a an of abo u t 40 allons cap a city to boil to soap th a t pro
p g ,

p rtion bein g requ ired to give room for th e a q u eo u s lye

o

whi ch is a dded with the necess a ry r oom for boilin g

,
.

A pa n O f abou t 1 5 feet deep a n d O f the s a m e di a m eter

, ,

will be large eno u gh to m ake 2 6 to 2 8 tons of so a p in a t one

batch . A p a n O f 7 fee t in di a m eter a n d 6 5 feet i n depth wi l l ,

be l arge eno u gh to dea l wi th l l, to n s O f fa t givin g a bo u t 2 to ,

2 3 tons O f soap .T hese are b u t approxi m ate figu r es .

1 86 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

T he so a p pans sho u ld not be pl a ced too far from the

-

boilers su pplyin g the steam or otherwise t h ere is a great

,

r isk o f co n d en sation occ u r ri n in th o n nectin pipes and

g e c
g ,

t h is co n den sed w a ter fin ds its way i n to the pan a n d weakens

t h e lyes while increasin g to too gre a t a n extent the b u l k of
,

th e conte n ts . The m ai n O bj ection to the p an as co n stru cted

i n th e m a n n er s h own i n fig u re 2 8 is th a t th e v a rio u s Coils are
i n th e w a y O f the pan bein g cle a ned ou t T h is however i s not
.
, ,

FIG . 30
.

an insu pera ble Objectio n an d m u c h depends on the m anner

,

i n w h ich the coils are m a de a n d pl a ced in th e p a n ; besides it

i s not n eed fu l to cle a n o u t th e p a n every ti m e it is u sed as ,

whatever so ap rem a in s a dheri n g to the sides of the p an or on

t h e ste a m coils goes i n to the next b a tch a n d S O is n ot lost .

W hen a ch a n
g e is m a de fr o m o n e so a p to a nother th e pan

m u st be cle a n ed ou t .

T h e ste a m which is p a ssed t h ro u gh th e closed steam coil

 SO A P P AN S
- . 1 87

shoul d be passed throu gh conden sers a n d th e wa ter SO O h ,

tain ed a g ain ret u rn ed to th e boiler or e m plo y ed in m akin g ,

the c au stic lyes .

Stea m jacketed so a p p a ns h a ve bee n m ade and are

-

employe d in so a p m a ki n
-
g Su c h p a n s ar e
. however onl y , ,

suitable in s m a ll sizes sa to 5 00 llo s cap city l ar e

y pu , g a n a ; g
j acketed pans beco m e m u ch m ore expe n sive th an a si m ple
p an with a ste a m coil .

F IG . 31 .

Fi gu re 30 Shows D opp s seam less steam j a cketed p an

’
.

This p a n h a s the j a cket cast a lo n g with th e p a n proper and ,

hen ce is stro n ger th a n pan s i n whic h th e jacket is fa stened

to the pan with r i v ets It is m ade i n a ll si z es fro m 1 to
u ,

500 gallons cap a city .T h e stays which join the i n n er p a n

with the o u ter shell m a teri a lly stren gthen th e vessel wh ile ,

they ser ve as con du ctors O f he at to the inner p a n Th u s .

1 88 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

t h ese pa ns ar e m ore econo m ic a l in u se than pla in j acketed

pan s They c a n be fitted with a n a git a tor as shown in
.
,

figu re 31 a n d will be fo u n d very u sefu l to check fobbing and

,

to m i x the so a p i n gredien ts to gether .

O n e of the tro u bles O f th e so a p m a ker is th a t O f fobbing -

a s it is c a lled the te n dency O f the so a p m a ss a t the be gi n ning

,

o f O pe r a tions to froth or boil u p This defect is best r em edied

.

by t ur n ing O ff the ste a m a n d be ati n g down the froth by means

o f p a ddles ; better still a whi r li n g wheel m a y be e m pl oyed .

Su ch is sho wn i n figu r e 32 I t is a tt a ched to the sides of

.

the so a p p a n by m e a n s O f l o ose bra ckets a n d is t u r n ed by a

-

h a n dle a t on e e n d O f the a xle It a cts by brea ki n g up the

.

FIG . 32 .

fo a m or froth an d so preventi n g it i n cre a sin g in qu antity

, ,
.

So m eti m es a m ore elabor a te for m is em ployed co n si sti ng of ,

a p a ir of p a ddles revolvi n i n O pposite directions ; t h ese are

g
s u spended a t a su it able poi n t i n th e so a p p a n a n d by their -
,

revolu tion the froth is broken u p a n d preven ted from in

crea si n g The pa ddles ar e held in a Y Sh aped su pport the
.
-
,

leg s O f the Y for m i n g the he a r in g for the p a ddles a pu lley ,

con n ected with su it a ble ge a ri n g overhe a d com m u nicating

m otion to the p a ddles Alth o u gh m ore el a bora te it is doubt
.

fu whether they
l ar e m ore e ective th a n the reel des ri
ff c bed

a bove .

A gre t de O so ap is o w bei g m ade u n der pr

a a l f n n essure

i n a s u i ta ble boiler .
 SO AP P AN S
- . 1 89

Messrs . W F ra ser
. CO . m a ke
hi gh pressu re so a p a -

boiler which is Show n in fig u re 33

,
T h is boiler is 4 feet in .

diam eter a n d 8 feet hi gh a n d is m a de O f steel boiler pl a te ;

it is fitted with steel m a n hole a n d cover T h e fittin gs .

usu ally a ttached a r e chargi n g pipe a n d v a lve o u tlet pipe ,

and v a lve shown a t th e botto m O f the ill u str a tio n ther ,

mometer t u be a n d therm om eter a s a fety v a lve which is ,

usu ally set to blow off a t 6 5 or 7 0 lb press u re The boiler . .

is set in a brickwork firepl a ce th e fir e pl a yi n g a t th e bottom

,

F iG . 33 .

and a portio n O f the side Th e b r a ckets which ar e fitted

.

on th e side O f the boiler a r e for s u ppo r ti n i t on the brick

g
work .

These p a ns ar e w orked by p u tti n g i n th e ch a rge O f fa t the ,

ri ght qu a ntity O f a lk a li a n d w a ter the n hea ti n g a n d m a i n t a i n

,

ing th e press u re a t 60 to 6 5 lb for a bo u t fo u r to fiv e ho u rs

.
,

when a s a r u le the sa p on i fic a ti on will be com plete The .

soap m a n ext be r u n O ff i n to cr u tchers the ce t etc

y s n , , .
,

mixed with it a n d the n it i s fr a m ed

, The p a n is r e a dy for
.
1 90 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

a new ch arge wh ich is r u n in i m m ediately the O ld one is

,

ru n O ff . Two batches O f so a p m a y th u s be m ade i n one

n i n th e co u rse O f a d a y The wei h t f the ch r i
p a
g o a .
ge s

1 ton .

The soap a s m ade i n this m a n ner cont ains the whole of the
i n gredients added ; th ere is n o s a ltin g ou t nor ar e there an y lyes
to r u n a way A gre a t de a l o f the su ccess O f m a ki n g soap by
.

th is hi gh -press u re system depen ds u pon em ployin g the right

proportion of a lkali to fa t a n d the proper qu antity of water ;
i f too m u ch he u sed the so a p co m es ou t too so ft .

An analysis Of a s am ple of soap m a de by the h igh pres ‘

-

s u re system by th e au thor sh owed i t to cont a i n

p e r c e n t . of w a ter .

p er ce n t . o f c om bi d d i m
ne so u .

°
36 p er ce n t . o ffr ee a lk l i a .

p er ce n t . o fco m bi d f tne a .

°
2 0 p er c en t . O ffr ee f ta .

p e r c e n t . o f gl y i li b
c e r n e , sa ne od i e s .

The sam ple wa s fir m a n d O f excellent q u a lity which ,

shows th at th e hi gh press u re system ca n m a ke a s good soap

-

as the low press u re syste m co m m only in u se w hile a l arger

-
,

qu a n tit y O f soap c a n be t u rn ed ou t in a given ti m e .

So m e ot h er form s O f a pp a r a t u s for s a poni fyin g u nder

hi gh pressu re h ave been devised som e O f which practi cally ,

con si st O f a boiler fitted with a git ators th ese h a ve in practice

beco m e obsolete a s the a git a tors m a de th e boilers di fli cult
,

to clean ou t a n d were of no m aterial adva n t a ge .

SO AP FR AM E S .

The next kin d O f so a p pl a nt wh ich m erits description is

th e soap fram es a s they ar e called It is a ston ishin g how .

O ld n a m es still a dh ere to m odern for m s O f m a chinery h ow ,

ever m u ch th ey m ay di ffer fr o m th e ori gin a l for m to which

their first nam e wa s du e So ap fram es ar e a c a se in point
. .
 SO AP FRAME S . 1 91

In the rly d a ys they we r e a fr a m e like stru ctu re i n which

ea ,
-
,

the soap w a s a llowed to cool N o w they t a ke a box lik e

.
-

form a n d a m ore a ppropri a te n a m e wo u ld be so a p coolers

, .

Fig u r e 34 sho w s an old w ooden so a p fram e su ch a s w as

used in the O ld ti m e when a n excise d u ty h a d to be paid on

soap . These fram es a r e m a de 45 i n lon g by 1 5 i n wide A . . .

number o f the m were pl a ced on e o n to p of a n other pe gs in ,

one fitted i n to holes i n the other or rods were p a sse d thro u h

g,

the lot to form one l a rge box O f a bo u t 4 5 i n deep hol d i n g 9 .

to 11 cwts O f S o a p T h e di m e n sio n s here given were fixed

. .

by law These wooden so a p fra m es ar e n o w o n ly e m ployed

.

in a l im ited m a n n er chiefly fo r m a kin g m ottled so a ps or

, ,

soaps by the cold process .

F IG . 34 .

The m odern so a p fra m e u s u a lly con sists O f a wooden b a s e

board pl a ced on s m a ll wheels so th a t it m a y be m oved fro m
,

pl ac e to pl a ce a s m a y be co n ve n ie n t U po n this b a. se b o a rd
is built fo u r sides o f wro u ght or c a st iro n so a s to form a
box ; these sides a r e fa ste n ed to gether by bolts a n d n u ts so ,

that they c a n be t a ken a p a rt whe n ever requ i r ed .

F i gu re 35 is the dr a wi n g of a so a p fr a m e a s m a de by
Messrs E F orsh a w
. . Son the sides O f which a r e m a de
,

of c ast iron a n d h a ve di a o n a l stren t he n i n b a rs c a st

g g g
on th em The m ode of fa sten i n g the sides O f the fra m e
.

together di ffers i n di fferen t m a kes of the fr a m es som eti m e s

po r tio n s o f the sides a r e prolo n g ed i n to l u g s co n t a i n i n
g hole s

throu gh which r ods p a ss bi n di n g the en ds of the fr am es

,

a ainst the S ides the e n ds of th e rods bei n sec red by screw

g , g u
1 92 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

n u ts The e ds
. n the fra m e ar e gener a lly m a de to fit i nto
Of -

g rooves in the sides so a s to m a ke a s ti g ht a joi n t a s possibl e ,

t h u s preventi n g the lea k a ge O f so a p I n the fr a m e illu strated

.

the ends fit into grooves which ar e pl a n ed i n to the sides All .

e d ges a n d botto m s ar e pl a n ed so a s to e n su r e th e fr a m e bei n g o

perfectly ti ght when fitted to gether The bolts whic h fa sten .

t h e fr a m e to g ether h a ve sq u a re t h re a ds It c a n be swivelled .

rou n d on the two c en tre wheels a n d m oved i n a n y directi on .

T hese so a p fr a m es a r e m a de to hold from 5 to 1 0 cwts of .

F IG . 35 . I r on So a p F ram e .

o
s a p s ll
ma s ized r
f am es a llow the so a p to cool q u icker an d

ar e th u s o e dv
m r a an ag t eo u s th a n l a r g e fr a m es in whic h t he ,

c ooli ng is mu ch slowe r I n. the m a ki n g O f m ottled so a p s an d

s u n dry other speci a l kin ds slow cooli n g is a desideratu m and
, ,

therefore it is worth while to em ploy l ar ge fra m es .

The thick n ess O f th e m et a l o f which the sides ar e made

h as a lso a ma teri a l i fl
n u e n ce o n the r a pidity o f coo li n g I f .

the m et al be thick the ra te O f cooli n g is slow ; it is how ,

ever n ecess a r y to h a ve the m et a l O f a cert a in thickn ess to

,

withsta n d the press u re of the so a p in the fram e .

 SO AP FRAME S . 1 93

represents W hit a ker s p a ten t so a p fra m e This

F i gu re 36
’
.

fram e is m a de with a woode n botto m a n d sheet i ro n sides -

,

whi ch bein g thi n a llow the he a t to p a ss a w a y q u ic kly a n d ,

so th e so a p gets cold q u icker th a n in fr a m es with thick iro n

p l ates .T O give the n ecess a ry r i idity to the sides ribs O f

g
corru a ted iro n a r e fa stened to them a s S how n in the dr a w
g
ing . The en ds a r e m a de O f wooden pl a n ks a n d ar e ti ghtened
a ai n st the sides by m e a ns O f cl a m ps which a r e e a sily worked
g , ,

and perm it the fr a m e to be b u i lt u p or O pe n ed ou t i n a fe w

FIG . 36 . W hi ta ker ’
s So a p F r am e .

minu tes . s u ch fra m es so a p cools s u ffi cien tly i n from

In
thi r ty fiv e to fo r ty ei ght ho u rs a ccordi n g to the ti m e O f ye a r
- -
, ,

to strip an d S l a b . A good fr a m e m a y be m a de a s follows

Th e sides a r e m a de O f steel pl a te O f a bo u t i i n thick the .
,

ends a r e m a de O f wood o f l
l i n thick a lo
. n
g the e n ds o,
f the
si des a r e pl a ced 1 in le iro s the web th t projects
5 a n
g . n a
,

bein g t a pered fro m the top to the botto m S O th a t when the ,

fr am e is b u ilt u p the ben t cl a m p fo r ced dow n the t a pered

, ,

irons press the sides a n d ends to gether C lo se to the top .

and a lo n the sides f stened n le iro s which p r oject

g a r e a a g n

13
1 94 SO AP MAN UFAC T URE .

beyond these projectio n s servi n g a s h a n dles to m a n ipu l ate

,

the S ides with in b u ildi n g u p or t a ki n g a p a rt the fra m e be

sides these two other lo n git u din a l a n gle iro n s a r e fixed to
,

the sides for the p u rpose O f stre n g the n i n g them Th e .

bottom O f the fram e is m ade O f a piece O f wood of abou t I t

F I G 37
. . M ’
or ga n s S oa p F ram e .

to thick ; i n the cen tre O f this is fixed a n a xle carryi ng

2 in .

a p a ir of 9 in wheels o n which the fr a m e c a n be m oved at

.
,

will n e ar ea ch e n d a n d i n the centre a r e fixed a p air of 45

i n wheels a rr a n g ed to m ove on a swivel like a c a ster wh eel ;
.
,

these s m a ll en d wheels m u ch fa cilit a te the m ovin g to and

fr o O f th e fr a m e a n d t u rnin g it ro u n d i f desired Su ch a .
 S O AP FRAME S . 1 95

frame 5 5 in in length by 40 in in depth and 1 5 in wide

.
, . .
,

thes e m e a s u rem ents bein g inside will h old abo u t 1 0 cwts of , .

soap .

Fi gu re 37 is a dra win g of a soa p fram e m a de b y M r .

H D M orga n O f wro u gh t steel w hi ch is p a tented in th i s

. .
, ,

country a n d in th e U nited St a tes T h is fr a m e is m ade .

of Speci a l m ild steel pl a tes h am m ered flat

'

a n d stifle n e d ,

at th e u pper ed e by fl an i n nd a lon g the sides by

g g g a ,

a bea ded fl a n e to prevent w a rpi n T h be a ded flan e

g g e g .

is so form ed t h a t sho u ld a n y so a p le a k p a st the joint b e

,

tween the end and side it is cooled in th e c a vity be fore it,

can
g e t a w a y t h u s preventin
, g the le a ka g e The sides and .

ends fit i n to a cast iro n base iron pl a te -

rooved to receive
g
them .

Bolts a n d n u ts ar e entirely dispensed with The clam p .

ing b a rs a r e so s h a ped that th ey both bind the sides a ga inst

the ends a n d p u ll th e ends ti ghtly a gainst the be a ded
flan ges .

It is a good pl a n to h ave two bottom s to ea ch pai r of

sides a n d ends Then while one bottom is i n u se a n d th e
.

soap on it is bein l bbed and b r red th e other botto m is

g S a a ,

being fitted to th e sides a nd ends a n d m ade into a fram e to

be filled with soap .

I n som e factories they h ave tr a cks of r a ils to wh ich

the wheels O f the fr a m e fit SO th a t they can be m ore easily
moved a bo u t .

All iron fram es sho u ld be co a ted inside with lim e to

preven t ru stin g which wou ld discolou r th e so a p T h is de
, .

fec t of iron fr a m es is a bsent with wood ones these gradu

ally get their pores filled u p with so a p a n d th e sid es becom e
sm ooth wh ic h aids m u ch in the strippin g o f the so a p wh ile
, ,

leavi n g the sides of the soap s m ooth a n d glossy Ir on fram es .

m ade from en a m elled iron wo u ld be fo u nd O f service in so a p

making ; t h ere wo u ld be no te n dency to ru st w h ile the ,
1 96 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

s m ooth Sides of the en a m elled iron wo u ld i m pa rt a gloss to

the so a p bes ides a llowin g strippi n g to be done m ore ea sily
,
.

In fr a m in g so a ps it will be fou n d a n a dv a n t a ge i f when

the soa p has been r u n into the fra m es a n d h a s set on the
top a bo a rd which j u st fits the fra m e be pla ced o n the top
,

o f the so a p a n d then wei ghted ; thereby the soap is pres sed

a n d beco m es of a better gr a in This wei ghti n g O f the soap

.

is not a lways do n e .

ABBI NG SOAP
SL .

After the so ap h a s been fr a m ed a n d it h a s beco m e su ffi

c i e n tly cool for the p u r po se the next proceedi n g is to c u t it
,

FIG . 38 .

up i n to sl a bs O f a bo u t 2 i n ches thick or a s m a y be t e ,

qu ired for the p a rtic u l a r size O f t a blets which the so a p m aker -

p r oposes to se n d ou t .

Sl a bbi n g m a y be c a rried ou t eith er by h a n d or by .

m a chine . Fi gu re 38 is a dra win g showi n g the m ethod of

S labbin g so a p by h a nd The block O f so a p h a s its sides m arked
.

by m e a n s O f a sc r ibe a lo n g the lines O f which it h a s to be

cu t this scribe is a wooden rod con t a in i n g iro n points at the
proper dist a n ce ap a rt The work m an is provided with a long
.

piece of steel wire the en ds O f which are som etim es fastened

,

to two h a n dles or i n som e i n st a n ces to on e This wire

, .

is fitted to the m a r k m ade by the scr ibe a n d then drawn ,

 SL ABBI NG MAC H INE S . 197

throu gh th ereby dividin g a sl a b O f so a p fro m th e m ain

,

block . T h is O pera tion is repe a ted u ntil the whole block

has been so S l a bbe d . This m ethod O f workin g is very sim ple
but effective ; it is still l a rgely e m ployed i n pre fere n ce to
usi n g m a chines .

Ra lston s S l a bbin g m a c h ine is represented in th e di a

’

g r am m a tic ske tch whic h shows the principle O f the m a c h ine

(s ee fig u re It is a port a ble m a chine a n d c a n be wheeled
,

abou t fro m pl a ce to place a s occ a sion m a y dem a nd It con.

si sts O f fo u r pilla rs , e a ch corn er s u ch dis ta nces

,

F IG . 39 .

apart th a t a block O f so a p c a n be placed between th em or ,

rath er th a t th e m ac h ine c a n be pl a ced rou nd the block A t .

one end is a block of wood w h ic h t a kes u p th e press u r e on

th e b lock O f so a p while it is bein g c u t T h e c u ttin g a rra n ge

.

ment consist s o f a fra m e c a rryin g h ori zont a l wires pl a ced a t

th e proper d ist a nce a p a rt ; this is so m a de th a t it c a n by
means O f ch a ins a n d W ind la ss be dr a w n a lo n g the m a chine ,

an d th ere fore th e wires cu t the so a p u i n to sl a bs The

p .

action of the m a c h i n e is fa irly q u ick a n d is c ap a ble O f doi n g

,

a lar e am o u nt o f work
g A nother
. form o f S l a bbin g m a chine
 1 98 S O AP MANUFAC T URE .

sold by M essrs A Saa l feld

. C O consists O f two p arallel
.

be am s O f wood s u pported on t ressels ; on th is ru ns a

trolley provided with wheels on this trolley bei n g pl aced
,

the block O f so a p . In the ce n tre O f the m achine is

stretch ed a wire the hei ght o f which a bove the trolley can
,

be regu l a ted S O tha t sl a bs of v a rio u s thickn esses c a n be cut .

The block of so a p o n the tr olley is p u shed first in one direc

tion a n d then a fter r a isin g the wire to the ri ght exten t the
,

di r ectio n of the m a chine is r eve r sed a n d a nother s lab cut .

T h ese O pera tio n s ar e r epe a ted u ntil the block O f so ap is cut

into Sl a bs
.

A si m il a r m a chi n e to R a lsto n s h a s been m a de a n d sold

’

by so m e ot h er firm s O f so a p m a chi n ists The co n str ucti on .

o f this m a chi n e m a y be briefly described There is a bed .

form ed O f g rooved girders i n which a n u p r i g h t fra me

, ,

c a rr yin g wi r es tra vels b a ckw a rds a n d forw a rds

,
.

A t the O pposite en d is fixed a tri a n gu l a r a r ra n gem ent

form ed O f a n u pri ght block a ga inst which the s o a p is p r es sed
,

d u ri n g the worki n g O f th e m a chi n e There is a W i n dlass .

with a tt a ched ch a ins th a t p a ssi n g over p u lleys dra w th e wire

fr a m e th r o u gh the block o f so a p a n d so divide it i n to sl abs
,
.

The wor kin g of this m a chi n e is Si m ple The block O f soap .

fro m the fr a m e is pl a ced o n th e bed O f th e m a chi n e then ,

the tri a n gu la r windi n g gea r is pl a ced in position the chains ,

properly a dj u sted a n d the W indl a ss t u rned W h en the soap

,
.

h a s bee n Sl a bbed the W in d l a ss a n d ch a ins a r e rem oved th e ,

sl a bs of so ap t a ken a way to be b a rred when the m a chine ,

is re a dy for a n other block of so a p .

A n other m a chi n e which is sold by M essrs Adolphe .

Sa a l feld C O is constru cted to c u t a block of so ap u p

.

in to b a rs in on e Opera tion It co n sists O f a table n ear

.

one en d of which is a fram e c a rryin g two sets of wires ,

o n e vertic a l,
the o ther h orizo n t a l At the other en d of
.

the t a ble is a ra ck a n d pinion which on bein g worked ,

 SL ABBI NG MAC H I N E S . 1 99

a ses a block o f soap wh ich m a y be p u t on th e t a ble to be

c u

forced a ga i n st the wires a n d so c u t into bars

, S u ch a .

machine is n o t as a r u le fo u n d well a d a pted for larg e block s

, ,

of so ap , a s the power requ ired is then too great for h a nd

power .

In a ll m odern sl a bbin g m a chin es th e wires a r e m a de

mo vable so th a t th ey m a y b e se t a t a n y ga u ge a p a rt to c u t
,

up so a p i n to sl a bs or b a rs c on v enie n t size is i m .

F I G 40
. . Soa p W a ggo n .

portant th a t these wires sho u ld be ti ghtly stretch ed so th a t ,

wh en they co m e into cont a ct with the soap they will n ot

sag or bend in a n y w a y s u ch bendin g i f it occ u rs spoili n g
,

th e sl a b fo r c u ttin g into bars or t a b lets Sto u t piano wire.

is the best m a terial to m ake wires of .

F i gu r e 40 Sh ows a soap w a ggon for wh eelin g the sl a bs

of so a p to th e bar c u ttin g m a chi n es
-
T h e wheels a r e so
.

arr an ged th a t the tru ck swivels ro u n d on th e two l a rge

2 00 S O AP MANUFAC T URE .

wh eels in th e m iddle a n d a llows easy m ovem e n t in an y

,

direction a fea tu re O f no little im port a nce in th e constru e

,

tion Of so a p w a ggons .

B ARR I NG M ACH I N E S .

After bein g c u t into S l a bs th e next proceedin g is to cu t

’

t h em into b a rs T h e v a riety of m achin e s which h ave been

.

devised to c arry ou t t h is Opera tion is fa irly great ; g ener ally

h a nd power m a chi n es a r e u sed bu t m ech a n ic a l ones ar e
-
,

also m a de .

F I G 41
. .

F i gu res 41 a n d 42 Sh ow different m a kes O f what i s per

haps th e m ost co m m on form o f barri n g m a chine in u se in soap
works F i gu re 41 is th e form m a de b y M ess r s W J F ra ser
. . . .

C o while figu re 42 is th a t m ade by M essrs W illi am

.
,
.

N eill S on T h is m a chine consists of a table c a rryi n g

.

a n u pri ght fr a m e ; on the t a ble ne a r th e front is th e lo n g

rest with notch es a t abo u t 2 i n ch es ap a rt th a t bein g the ,

u s u a l thickness t h at a b a r is m a de F rom th e ba ck of
.

th e m a chine spri n gs a nother fr am ework which is h in ged ,

to the t a ble ; t h is in its n orm a l p osition rests agai n s t the

u pri ht fra m e previo u sly re ferr ed to form i ng as it wer e
g , , ,
 E ARR I N G MAC H I NE S . 2 01

an hypoten u se tri a n gle T h e sl a b O f so ap is placed

Of a .

with on e ed g e on the rest a t the front O f th e t a ble a n d the,

other a a inst the wire s T h e c u ttin fr m e i now rele sed

g .
g a s a

from the h ook or c a tch whic h keeps i t u p a n d pre ssed down

,

throu gh the soap wh ereby th e l a tter is c u t in to b ar s

, These.

bars fall u pon a r est which is fixed to the b a ck of the c u ttin g

frame a n d when the l a tter is ret u rned to its nor m a l position
,

are rem oved while a nother sl a b is bein pl ced in position

g a .

F I G 42 . .

G enerally these m ac h ines a r e provided with a dra wer pl a ced

un der th e t a ble to receive th e scra ps o f so a which are a lwa ys
p
m ade in c u ttin g u p so a p . T h ese sc ra ps a r e a fterw a rds
thro wn into the next boili n g o f so a p .

T hese m a chi n es work very well a n d a r e n o t very e xp en

sive and bein S i m ple i const ctio t li a ble to ge t
, g n r u n a r e n o

ou t O f order .

A L ondo n fir m su ppli es a b a rrin g m a c hine i n which the

wire fram e is m a de to tr a vel to a n d fr o so th a t whe n a sl a b
,
2 02 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

Of so a p is pl a ced in front of the fram e a n d h a s been c u t u p

,

into bars these m ay be rem oved a n d a nother sl ab p u t i n

,

t h eir pl a ce T h e n th e wire fr am e is m oved b a ck a ga in an d

.

cu ts this secon d sl ab i n to b a rs This m a chine s a ves a gre a t

.

de a l O f l a bour a n d is of com p a ra tively si m ple stru c tu re

,
.

A b a rri n g m a chi n e wh ich is i n u se i n som e soap work s

n o t only c u ts the sl a b u p i n to b a rs bu t sep a r a tes th em fr o m
,

one a n ot h er a fterw a rds thu s fa cilit a ti n g their rem ov a l T h i s

,
.

is effected by h a vin g the c u tti n g wires fixed in the centre O f

a t a ble O n on e h a l f the sl a b to be c u t is pl a ced by m e a n s
.
,

O f a wheel a n d ch a i n the sl a b is forced a ga i n st the wires a n d

cu t . The b ars a r e received on the other h a lf of the t a ble ,

which is m a de u p of wooden b a r s of th e width of a ba r O f

S o ap T h ese a r e co n nected to g ether by webbi n g
. W h il e .

receivin g the so ap they a r e close to gether bu t when the So a p ,

is in position the webbin g is stretched an d so the b a rs a r e ,

sep a ra ted .

After bein g c u t i n to b a r s the so a p is O ften cu t in to t a ble t s

,

this O per a tion is c a rried ou t in the b ar r in g m a c h ines describ e d

or which a r e a d a pted for the p u r pose the dist a nce a p a rt o f
,

t h e wires bei n g a ltered .

F i gu r e 43 rep r esents a m a chi n e worked by power whi c h ,

c u ts sl a bs of so a p u p i n to b ar s a n d t a blets It will b e .

noticed th a t it h a s two sets of wires pl a ced a t ri gh t

a n les to one a nother ; these wires a r e m a de m ov a ble s o
g
~

th a t their dist a nce ap a rt a n d therefore the size O f th e

,

b ars and tablets m a y be re gu l a ted a s requ ired

, A . .

sl a b of so a p is pl a ced a t on e end O f the m a chine an d

forced a ga i n st th e b a rrin g wires ; when it h a s tr a velled to
the fu ll len gth O f the m a chine i n th a t direction th e
b a rs of so a p a r e forced a ga inst the t a blet c u ttin g wi r e s -

by m ech a n ism worki n g a t ri ght a n gles By the ti m e th e .

tablets h a ve been c u t the m a chine is r e a dy to receive a noth er

sl a b This m a chi n e is c a p a ble O f t u rnin g ou t a very l a rg e
.
 E AR R I N G MAC H I NE S . 2 03

qu an tity O f so ap som ethi n g like 1 5 tons per day a n d saves

, ,

a gr e a t de a l O f tro u ble .

O t h er for m s O f t a ble t c u t ti n g m a chines h a ve been devised

-
,

bu t th e a bo ve will be fo u nd v e r y e ffi cie n t m a c h i n es a n d it is
not need fu l to describe a ny oth e r fo r m s .

F IG . 43.

A T MP I NG M AC H I N E RY
SO P S A
- .

Tim e wa s when so ap w a s sold by the m a kers to the

ret a iler in th e form of b a rs in boxes of 1 or 2 c wt an d the
, .
,

retailer c u t th e b a rs u p into pou nd pieces an d sold th em

either in th at form or in the b ar form i n wh ich he received
it O ften the cons u m er did not know the n am e of th e m a ker
.

of the so a p he u sed .N o w however m a tters h a ve a ltered in

, ,

th is respect for while a good t r a de is still done in ba r so a p

, ,

and those co n s u m ers who a r e a ble will fin d it the best to bu y

th e so a p in this w a y the c u stom h a s now gr own o f sellin g
,
2 04 SO AP MANU FA C T URE .

in p a ckets or tablets a n d th ese a r e inv a ri a bly st a m ped with

, ,

t h e nam e O f the m a ker of th e so a p a lt h o u gh so m e l a rge ,

ret a ilers by arra n ge m en t with the m aker have their own

n am es st a m ped on th e so a p This st a m pin g O f so a ps h a s
.

led to a great incre a se in the u se O f st a m pin g ma chines a n d ,

t h ese will n ow be described .

At first a n d even now a gre at deal O f so ap i s stam ped

, ,

by a ha nd st am p s u ch bei n g u su a lly m ade like a b r a ss box

,

with a h a nd le T h e letters are for m ed of sep a ra te pieces

.
,

a n d these by m e a n s o f th u m b sc r ews a r e fa stened i n th e box

, ,

in th e requ ired orde r This syste m is a slow one a lt h o u gh

.
,

an exper t st a m per will get thro u gh a l a rge nu m ber of tablets

i f h e a dopt s a good system O f worki n g B u t wh ere very .

l a rge qu antities of so a p h a ve to be de a l t with it is i m perative

to e m ploy a m echa n ic a l st am per O f whic h there ar e m an y
,

m a kes to be bo u gh t ; som e work by h a nd ot h ers by st ea m ,

po wer an d oth ers are co n str u cte d to work by stea m direct

,
.

A bri ef r é su me O f s u ch m a ch i n es will be given

’
.

O n e O f the m ost i m port a n t p a rts of the st a m p i n g pres s ,

so far a t a n y r a te a s the a ppe a rance o f th e finished t able t i s

c once r n e d is the m o u ld or die in which the soap i s p r e ssed

,
.

G ener a ll y in m ost m a chines this t a kes the form O f t wo pieces ,

to form the u pper an d lowe r su rfa ces of th e Soap t a blet ,

t o gether with a loose ri n g w h ich serves to form the body O f

th e tablet By a lter i n g th e form of the r i n g a n d by the
.
,

Sh a pe O f the u pper a n d lowe r dies the sh a pe O f th e t a blet ,

wh ich is form ed c a n be a ltere d to a n y extent Th is form of .

m o u ld with loose ri n g is perh a ps not the best th a t co u ld be

devi sed th e so ap tends to stick in the ri n g Th is is ov er .

c o m e by m oi steni n g it wi th a little s a lt w a ter fr o m ti m e to

ti m e The del ay however c a u sed by h a ving to rem ove th e

.
, ,

s o a p t a blets fro m them red u ces the workin g o u tp u t of the

presses This is a voided by m a kin g the ri n g an d bottom d ie

.

in on e piece a n d fitti n g the press with a n au to m ati c li ftin g

 S T AM P I NG MA C HI N E S . 2 05

ap ap ratu s which presses th e t a blet ou t O f th e m ou ld du ri n g

the u pstroke of the press This li fti n g a pp a ra t u s will be
.

shown l a ter on .

W ith so m e presses the tablet m o u lds ar e in separ ate

p i eces a n d the sides a r e h i n
g ed o n to the botto m pi e ce . The
action O f the ress on t h is is to pres s a ll th e sides u an d
p p ,

so form a m o u ld for the S o a p W hen the t a blet h a s bee n

.

form ed a n d the press ret u rned th e sides fa ll down le a vin g

,

F I G 44
. .

the t a bl e t to be rem oved W ith m o u lds m a de i n this way

.

a m u ch l a rger o u tp u t O f t a blets per m a ch ine is O btained .

H a n d S oap P r esses — Severa l for m s O f h a nd so a p presses

are m a de by v a rio u s firm s The pri n cip a l form s will be here
.

noted F i gu re 44 shows a form O f press m a de by M essrs

. .

W illi a m N eill S on . The a ction of this m ac h ine c a n be

gr a sped by a n i n spection o f the d r a wi n
g A pl u.n g er c a rryin g
the u pper s u rface die an d the ri n g o r m ou ld fo r the Sides O f
2 06 S O AP MANUFAC T UR E .

th e t a blet is connected with a p a ir of weighted levers th e ,

p u llin g down O f wh ic h on the piece of so a p pl a ced on t h e

bottom die presses th e tablet W ith this m a chi n e a l ar g e
.

qu antity of so a p m a y be got throu gh by a boy who wor k s ,

th e press wit h one h a nd wh ile with th e other he pl a ces t h e

,

F IG . 45 . S o a p Stam p er .

soap i n position a n d rem oves it when st am ped In t h i s .

m a chine there is no arr a n ge m ent for a u to m a tic a lly r em ov

i n g the t a blet of soap from th e press or m ou ld and a s , ,

st a ted the t a blets som etim es stick

,
.

M ess r s E F orshaw
. . Son m ake the so a p press show n
in figu re 45 In it the levers ar e replaced by a p a ir O f fly
.
 S T AMP ING MA CHI NE S . 2 07

w heels , the u se Of wh ich en a bles a gre a ter press u re to be

bro u ght to be a r u pon the so a p d u rin g the pressin g W ith .

t his m achi n e a fa irly large o u tpu t c a n be obt a ined It is e a sy.

a n d li h t to work Thi is a f vo u rite for m f so p st m p -

g . s a O a a

i n g press In so m e m a kes a n a rra n gem e n t is provided for

.

li ftin g the t a blets o u t of the m o u lds a fte r sta m p i rg .

The presses hitherto d escribed h a ve bee n worked by

han d bu t presses ar e a lso m a de which work by a foot
,

lever .F i gu re 46 Shows s u ch a press m a de by M essrs H . .

W m D opp
. Son the gener a l co n stru ction O f which c a n be
,

F IG . 46 .

rea dily gle a ned fro m the dra win g T h e press u re Of the .

fo o t on the lever bri n gs down the die on the c a ke O f so a p

o n the m o u ld thereby st a m pin g it while on releasin g the
, ,

p r ess u re the die rises a n d a t the sam e ti m e a c a m co m es

i n t o action a n d forces the so a p c a ke ou t O f the m ou ld this ,

a c tion bein g a noiseless o n e Si n ce it w a s first introd u ced

.

t h is m a chine h a s u n der gone som e i m provem ent in desi gn ;

th e workin g p a rts h a ve bee n stren gthened a n d the worki n g ,

o f the m a chi n e perfected .

2 08 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

The s a m e fir m s m a ke a press which is c a p a ble of t aking

a b a r o f so a p 1 4 i n lon g
. .

W e n ow com e to those st am ping presses which are

W orked by ste a m power Su ch presses a r e co m i n g m ore
.

i n to vo g u e th an form er ly bu t for re a sons which h ave j u st

,

S t e a m S o a p S ta m p e r .

bee n poi n ted ou t it is do u b tfu l whether they will su per

,

sede m a n u a l p resses O f ste a m st a m pin g presses there are at

.

least two t ypes : there is one i n which t h e stea m is a ppli ed

direct wh ile in the other the power is c a rried throu gh a
,

b a n d a n d p u lley O f these two types the l a tter will probably

.

be the one which will be m ost l a r gely a dopted not that ,

 T MP I NG MA CH I NE S
S A . 2 09

it is c apable O f doin g better or m ore a ble work th an c a n

be done with a di rect d r ive n press b u t t h at the n ec e s
,

sary prese n ce O f stea m pipes a n d th e possibilit y O f these

,

havi n g to be c a rried for so m e dist a n ce m ake th e form er ,

r ather O bj ectio n a ble fro m m a ny points O f view O ver lo n g .

di st an ces O f pipin g t h ere is a considerable loss O f power

throu gh co n dens a tion a gre a t de a l O f water bein g form ed
,

in the pipes wh ic h interferes s a dly with th e e fficient work

ing of the presses .

On e O f th e best of the ste a m presses now bein g m a de

is th a t o f M es srs E F orsh a w
. . Son a n d sho wn in fig u re
,

F IG . 48 .

47 . It is very well cons tr u cted a n d works au to m a tic a lly .

It requ ires the aid of two boys to work it ; one boy pl a ces
the pl a i n t a blet on the t able of t h e m a ch i ne the other ,

boy rem oves it a s it co m es fro m the m a chi ne st am ped T h e .

machi n e feeds and disc h a r ges itsel f it works noiselessly

,

and s m oothly a n d is c a p a ble O f t u r nin u t 1 500 t a blets o f

, g o

so ap per ho u r . Any kind of m o u lds m a y be u sed an d they

can be cha n ged very re a dily The m a chine is ri gidly con
.

stru cted a n d h a s been a dopted by m a ny l a r e soap m a n u

, g
factur er s who speak fa vo u r a bly o f it
, .

Fi gu re 48 shows a ste a m s o a p st a m per m a de by M ess r s .

Neill S on which is o f m ost s u b st a nti a l constr u ction

,
.

14
2 10 SO A P MANUFA C T UR E .

It works a u to m atically only needi n g the pl ain t ablets to

,

be pl a ced on a fee di n g t a ble a n d it disch a rges a t the ,

b a ck of the m a chine T his m a ch in e is c ap a ble O f t urning

.

ou t a l a rge qu a n tity O f work forty to fifty t a blets per m i n ute

,

bein g the ra te O f speed .

F i gu re 49 shows a belt d r iven revolvin g soap stamper -

m a de by M essrs W N eill
. .So n The so ap is delivered to .

F IG . 49 . R l
evo v i n g Soa p S ta m p er .

this m ach i n e a t the fr o n t by an a u tom a tic feedin g a pp aratus ,

p a sses t h rou gh the dies or m o u lds a n d is delivered a t the ,

b a ck st a m ped. It is e a sy to work a n d t u rn s ou t a large

qu a ntity of t a blets .

M o u lds u sed in st a m pin g so a p a r e m a de in gre a t variety

o f S hapes a n d sizes a n d to prod u ce desi gn s O f a ll ki nds .

S o m e a r e m a de with loose Sides which fa ll down a fter the

st am pi n g a n d perm it th e so ap t a blet to be re a dily r em oved ;
 SO A M I L L I NG MA CHI N E S
P - . 2 11

the m ost co m m on a r e solid a n d the t a blet is forc ed ou t O f

,

them by a su it a ble co n triv a nce .

So m e other form s o f p r esses ar e m a de b u t th e a bove will ,

be su fli ci e n t to serve as types .

T O I L E T S O AP M ACH I N E RY
- .

Tim e w as wh e n a ll ki n ds of S o a p whether for toilet ,

ordin a ry do m estic or ind u stri a l u ses were p r od u ced solely by ,

the ai d O f s u ch m a chi n e r y a s h a s hitherto been described .

Now however a gre a t de a l O f th e best qu a lity of toilet so a ps

, ,

is pr od u ced by the a i d of el a bor a te m a chi n e r y th e m a in ,

p ri n ciple u nderlyi n
g which see m s to be a
g rindin g o r m illin g

of the so a p S O a s to prod u ce a m o r e ho m o geneo u s m a ss

, ,

thereby O bt a ining a h a r der a n d m ore d u ra ble so a p a n d c om

p le t i n
g the sa p o n i fi c a t i o n O f th e fa ts so th a t a m ore ne u tr a l

soap is for m ed a t the s a m e ti m e .

This system of m illi n g so a ps w a s first developed i n

France where it is l a rgely a pplied a n d whe r e the constru o
, ,

tion of the n ecess a ry m a chi n ery h a s been bro u ght to a gre a t

p e r fe ction It w
. a s e a r ly i n t r od u ced into E n g l a n d T h e w r it er .

r emem bers seei n g a so ap m illi n g m a c h i n e a t on e o f the

-

ear ly L o n don E xhibitio n s b u t u n til l a tely it n ever O btai n ed

,

a
g re a t footin g i n t h is co u n t r y ; so a p m a ke r s a r e however -
, ,

beginnin g to give m ore a tte n tio n to th e system In Am eric a .

this system h a s been l a r gely u sed .

The m illi n g system st a r ts with a rea dy m a de so a p It -

.

need h a rdly be poi n ted ou t th a t t h e so a p sho u ld be n a y , ,

mu st be o f g ood qu a lity fo r it c a n h a rdly be expected that

, ,

fir st cl a ss toilet so a p c a n be m a de by its m e a ns fro m a poor

-

qu ality O f soap a ltho u gh the process m u ch i m proves it

,
.

At a fu t u re tim e so m e p a r ticu l a rs will be given a s to the

prepa ra tion O f soaps for m illin g .

Th e first opera tio n is to c u t the soap b a rs u p i n to s b a v

ings To e flec t this a c u ttin g m a chi n e is u sed on e form O f
.
,
2 12 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

which is sho w n in fig ure 50 a n d which is sold by M essrs .

W m N eill
. So n T h e wo r kin g po r tio n o f t h is cu tter
.

consists of a disc c a r ryi n g six steel blades placed again st

r a dial sli ts in the disc ; the ba r of soap presses agai n st th e
disc by its o wn wei ght the b a r s bein g fe d in the two
,

tro u ghs which a r e seen o n e a ch side of th e m achi n e .

The sh a vin gs ar e ne x t d r ied this m a y be do n e by pl acing

th em on trays i n a roo m he a ted by steam pipes th e room ,

F IG . 50 . S oa
p C u t t e r .

bei n g filled wi th r a cks on which to pl a ce the tr ays of

so ap sh a vi n g s In this room the so ap is left u ntil it gets
.

su ffi cien tly dry The am o u n t o f w a ter le ft in shou ld be

.

a bo u t 1 0 per cen t ; a t a ll eve n ts it o u ght n o t to exceed 1 5

per cen t .

M essrs Beyer F reres m a ke a conti n u o u s a u to m atic

.

dryi n g m a chi n e T his con sists of a closed ch a m ber h eated

.

by s te a m pipes O n the top of the m a chi n e a t o n e end

.

is fitted a m ill with two or m ore cyli n ders revolvi n g at

 T I
O LE T -
SO AP MA C H IN E R Y . 2 13

di fferent speeds an d above wh ich is a hopper Into the

, .

hopper is fe d th e soap T h e revol u tions of the cylinders

.

cau se the deposition o f the so a p in fin e s h avi n s into th e

g
dryi ng ch a m ber below H ere it is received on endless ban ds
.
,

pl aced o n e a bove th e ot h er and extendi n

g th e fu ll width o f
the m achi n e . These b a nds co n tin u ou sly tr a vel from one
en d of the m ac h ine to the other th e m otion bei n g in ,

op osite directio n s in e a ch pair O f b a n ds The so p s h avi s

p a n g .

drop on the t op m ost b a nd a n d are c a rried by it to the ,

opposite e n d o f the dryi n ch m ber w h ere the d rop o ff on

g a y ,

F IG . 51 . h
Soa p-Cr u s i n g M hi
ac ne .

to the ba n d below b y wh ich th ey are c a rried to th e other

,

en d of the m achi n e F r om b a n d n u m ber two they fa ll to

.

ban d nu m ber th r ee a n d SO on u n til the l a st ban d is re ach ed

, ,

when they will h a ve becom e dr y e n o u g h for the s u bsequ e n t

operatio n s .
This m a ch i n e works very we ll a n d with lit tle ,

attention its c ap a city bei n g on e ton of toilet so ap per da y ,

requ iring the atten da n ce O f o n e m an a n d a n assistant T h e .

 2 14 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

m a chine is rather costl y . M W a lloi s

. a lso m akes a si m i lar
m a chi n e .

The d ried so a p is next tran sferred to the cru shin g m i ll s ,

where it is passed between a n u m ber O f gra n ite rollers s u c h

a m a chine is shown in figu re 5 1 th a t bei n g the form so l d ,

by M essrs W m N eill Son This m a chine has fou r gran it e

. . .

rollers a n d two hoppers divided by a slide T h e dried s o a p .

sh a vi n g s are th rown i n to th e bottom hop per and tra vel ove r ,

th e fo u r rollers a n d fall a u to m a ticall y i n to the top h opp e r ,

a steel co m b which scra pes O ff th e top roller ; by d r awi n g

the slide the so a p is a llowed to fa ll into the bottom hop p e r

F IG . 52 .

and a ga in th ro u gh the roller s W h en the soap . th u s

p a ssed twice thro u gh th e rollers colo u r a n d perfu m e a r e ,

a dded to th e m a ss in the bot t o m hopper a n d th e soap e t c , .

,

worked three or fo u r ti m es thro u gh the m ill to thorou gh ly

am a lgam ate the m a teri a ls an d obtain a ho m o geneou s m a s s
of so a p .O n e cwt o f so a p req u i r es te n m i n u tes to r u n thro u g h
.

this m a chine T h e opera t io n m a y be repeated a s often a s

.

requi red Th e dr a wi n g sh ows th e ge a r i n g wh eel u ncovere d

.
-
,

bu t the m achi n e is provided with a cover to preve n t ac c i

den t s The m a chi n e ru n s a lm os t n oiselessly
. .

F i gu re 52 is a large so a p cru shi n g m ill m a de by M

-
.
 T O IL E T -
SO AP MACH I NE RY . 2 15

W alloi s with fo u r gr a nite rollers of 1 3 to 1 6 i n ches in

di a m eter a n d two h oppers ; fro m 1 } to 1 5 cwt of so a p .

c a n be dealt with at one ti m e A ton of soap per day c a n

.

b e tur ned ou t with s u ch a cru shin g m a c hi ne .

W hen th e soap h a s been thoro u gh ly worked in thi s

c r u shi n g m ill a new scr a per is c au sed to co m e i n to a ction ,

w hich tr a ns fers th e soap i n thi n sh a vin gs down a ti n

l i n ed shoot the ti n lining bei n g for th e p u rpose O f keepin g
,

F IG . 53
.

th e so a p cle a n i n to the hopper o f a squ eezin g or as it is

, , ,

o ften c a lled a ploddin g m a chi n e which is s h ow n i n figu re

, ,

5 3 The plodding m ac h ine is p r ovided with a n archi m ede a n

.

s c rew whereb y th e so a p is g r ad u a lly driven forw a rd a n d at

t h e sam e ti m e s u bjected to a co n sidera ble de gree O f c om

r essio n th e soap bein g th u s co n solidated and m a de fir m
p , ,

the parabolic form of th e com pression c ylinder br i n gi n g

abo u t this press u re The cyli n der of th e m achi n e is a t first
.

do u ble t h u s form in g a jacket i n whic h cold w a ter circu l ates

,
2 16 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

for the p u rpose of keepin g the soap cold the friction and ,

press u re cau sin g a gre a t de a l O f heat to be gener ated ; this

heat m i gh t i f allowed to a ccu m u late cau se a loss O f perfume
a n d colo u r in th e so a p T h e end of th e m a ch i n e is com
.

m on ly known as the c a n n on as fr o m it th e soap is di s

,

ch a rged The m ou thpiece is kept h ot by m e an s of a gas

.

jet which is u su a lly s u pplied with e a ch m a chi n e the put

, ,
~ ~

pose of h e a tin g bein g to i m p a rt a gloss a n d fin ish to the

so a p T h e soap tr a vels very fast t h ro u gh this m a chi ne
. ,

a bo u t 5 c wt per ho u r bei n g the o u tp u t of su ch a one

.

F IG . 54 .

as is shown in figu re 53 wh ich is m ade b y M essrs W illi am

,
.

N eill 85 Son .

F i g u re 54 is a l a rg e ploddin g or squ ee z i n g m ill m ade by

M W a lloi s whic h will t u r n ou t 5 cwt of so a p per hou r
. . .

A s lon g a s soap is s u pplied to th e plodder th r ou gh the

hopper it will iss u e from th e m o u th piece O f the c a n n on in
the sh a pe of a contin u o u s rope th e form of which m ay be ,

— —
v a ried r o u n d ov a l or squ a r e by u sin g vario u s sh aped dies
,

o r m o u lds fixed in the m o u t h piece This enables t a bl ets of

.

a n y S h a pe to be form ed with th e m ini m u m of trouble .

F u r ther by m eans O f an a pp a r a tu s and gau ge fitted to the

,
 C RU T CH I NG MA CH I NE S . 2 17

t d pl a ced in front O f the c a n n on to receive the so ap the

s an ,

rope c a n be c u t i n to co n ven ien t le n gths for t a blets which ,

ar e n ext st a m ped by the st a m pin press v a rio u s for m s o f

g ,

whi ch h a ve a lre a dy bee n descr ibe d .

W hen the plodder h a s sto ppe d worki n g som e soap will

rem ai n i n the con e To rem ove this a s m a ll piece of a p
.

p ar a t u s is t u r n ed i n to the m o u thpiece th a t fo r ces o u t a ll

th at is le ft i n In som e form s O f these m a chines the cone

.

is m a de to t u rn down so as to be a ble to cle a n it a n d free

it from a n y a dher i n g so a p .

C o m bin a tio n s o f the cr u shi n g a n d ploddi n g m a chines

ar e co n str u cted so th a t n o l a bo u r n eed be expended in

trans ferri n g the cr u shed so ap fr o m on e m a chine to a n other .

FIG . 55 .

C R UTC H I NG M AC H I N E RY .

In the m a n u fa ct u r e O f m a n y v a rieties of so aps n otably i n ,

fillin g the co m m on so aps with silic a te of sod a a n d i n per

fumi n g a n d colou ri n g toilet so a ps there a r e u sed wh a t ,

ar e kn o wn as cr u tchi n m chi es the bject f which is

g a n O o ,

to thoro u ghly m i x th e v a rio u s i n redien ts of the so a p

g
together I n the ea r ly d a ys O f so a p m a ki n g this w a s a n
.
-

Operatio n u s u a lly perfo r m ed by h a n d with a n i n stru m en t

,

known a s th e cr u tch the O per a tio n bei n g te r m ed cru tch i n

, g ,

and the n a m e h a s co m e dow n to m ode r n ti m es a ltho u gh ,

now a d a ys the O per a tio n is do n e by m a c h i n ery

- -
T h e c om .

mon est form is a ci r c u l a r vessel m a de O f wro u ght iron or

,
2 18 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

boiler pla te In the centre O f th is is fixed a m ixi n g app aratus

.
,

which u su ally con sists of a central shaft which is m ade to

revolve by s u it a ble ge ari n g this S h a ft c a rr yin g a rm s an d in
,

som e c a ses a ch a in the m otio n of which throu gh the m ass

,

o f so a p c a u ses it to beco m e m ixed a n d form a ho m o geneou s

m a ss .

F i gu re 55 is a dra wi n g of a p a ir of so a p cru tchi n g m a -

chi n es m a de by M essr s W m N eill . S on These are

. .

driven by m e an s of a donkey e n gi n e fixed o n the side of

F IG . 56 .

one O f the m a chi n es this bein g i n co n nectio n with an

,

overhe a d sh a ft on which a r e bevel whee ls worki n g the

cen tral sh a ft O f the cru tchers An openi n g i n the bottom of
.

the m achi n e a n d which is ordi n a rily kept closed with a

,

valve a llows the so ap to r u n i n to the fra m es when it is

,

properly m ixed .

F i gu re 56 is a dra wi n g of a p a ir of cru tc h ers m ade

by M essrs E F orsh a w
. . Son These a r e fitted with a .

speci a l drivi n g e n gine friction clu tches for throwin g the

,
 C RU T C HING MA C H I NE S . 2 19

it tor s in a n d ou t of gear o u tlet v a lves etc G ener

ag a , , .

ally c ru tc h in m ac hi n es a r e m ade w itho u t ste a m j a ckets

, g ,

but occ a sionally s u ch a r e desir a ble to keep th e so ap w a rm

, ,

and en a ble it to m i x e a sily .

Cru tchi n g is a ve r y si m ple oper a tion a n d p u rely m e c h a n i

cal an d there sho u ld be no tro u ble i n cr u tchi n so a p ; th e
, g
only thi n is to a llow t h e m a c h i n e ple n ty o f ti m e to do i t s
g
work .

Som eti m es this O pe r a tio n is c a rried o n i n co n j u n ction

with th a t of r e m elti n g a n d a good m a n y m a kes O f m odern
,

mixi ng m a chi n es a r e re a lly co m bi n ed re m el ti n g a n d cr u tchi n g

machi n es .

D OP P S RE M E L TI NG
’
AN D C R U T CH I NG MACH I N E .

This consists O f a ste am j a cketed p a n The fir m M essrs .

,
.

H W m D opp
. . So n s h a ve a speci a l m ethod o f c a sti n g
,

the p a n a n d j a cket i n one piece The ste a m pipe s for.

supp lyi n th j cket a r e fixed to the fr o n t side of th e

g e a

machine while the r e a r e a lso s u it a ble o u tlet pipes for exh au st

,

stea m a n d conde n se w a ter The m ixi n g a r ra n gem e n t c on

.

si st s of a n a rchi m ede a n sc r ew worki n i n a cyli n der t h e

g ,

actio n bein to dr w th so p t h ro h this ce tr l li

g a e a u p u g n a c y n

der a n d c a u se it to flow over the top a n d b a ck i n to the m a i n

body a gai n ; this is a m ost e ffect u a l m a n n er O f wo r ki n g .

The drivi n g ge a r for the sc r ew is o n the top o f the m a chi n e ,

and is so a rr a n ed th a t the directio n o f m otio n o f the screw

g
can be reversed a n d in p la ce O f the so a p m ovin u it m ove s
, g p
down this a rr an ge m ent a lso brin gin g a bo u t a m ore per fect
,

admixt u re O f the so a There is a n othe r fe a t u re w i th t h is

p .

machine a n d th a t is it m a y be u sed for rem elti n g O ld scr a p s

,

of so a p a n d the screw worki n g i n co n j u n ctio n with th e

,
'

cyli n der which it m a be re m ked h pe sides i

( y , a r a s O n ) ,t a c t s ,

as a cu ttin pp a r a t u s a n d so e a sily red u ces the so a p to fr a g

g a ,

ments an d th u s facilit a tes the r em el ti n g a n d m ixin g o f the so a p

,
.
2 20 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

A nother for m of cru tcher wh ich is so m eti m es m ade with

a stea m j a cket a n d at others withou t a ccordin g to the requi re
, ,

m ents o f the u sers h as the cyli n der horizo n t a l ; the central

,

sh a ft is i n the ce n tre a n d is a lso hor izo n t a l F ro m it extends

,
.

a n u m ber o f a rm s which a r e a rr a n ged spir a lly their a cti on ,

a s they revolve bei n g to m i x u p the so a p a n d a t the s ame

t i m e to c au se it to tra vel tow a rds one e n d of the cru tcher ,

whence it flows b ack to the other e n d wh en it is ,

t horo u gh ly m ixed by openin g a v a lve a t o n e e n d of the

m a chi n e . The so ap is forced by the workin g of the arms
o u t i n to the fr a m es which a r e pl a ced re a dy to receive it .

C r u tchers requ i r e to be stro n gly m a de a s the m a terial ,

t hey h a ve to de a l with is very sti fl a n d by no m e a n s e a sy to

stir ; they r eq ui r e som e power to drive say a bo u t two horse ,
-
,

b u t o f co u rse this will v a ry a cco r di n g to the size of the

m a chi n e . S o m e O f th e m a ker s fix a n ei ght horse en gi n e to -

s o m e O f th e l a r g er m a chi n es they m a ke ; the power t hus

s u pplied is ra t h er i n excess of a ct u a l requ irem ents an d that ,

e xcess m a y be e m ployed in other directio n s i f need fu l .

R E M E L TI N G MACH IN E S .

In prep a ri n g toilet so a ps it is a com m on pl a n to prepare

t he m fro m so a p o f v a rio u s kinds a lready m a de by m elti ng ,

them by hea t a n d then m ixin g in the perfu m e and o ther

i n gredients which m a y be req u ired .

A very conven ient for m of r e m elter con sists O f a j a cketed

p a n in which the so a p which,
h a s been previo u sly c u t i n to

t hi n sh a vi n gs has been p u t
, The p a n shou ld be provided
.

with a sti r ri n g a rra n ge m en t so th a t the so aps etc c a n be , .

,

thoro u ghly m ixed together So a p is however a bad con

.
, ,

d u ctor O f he a t a n d i n a st ea m j a cketed p a n u nless the con

, ,

ten ts ar e kept well stirred the ou ter portion s m i ght be m elted

,

while the i n n er portion s a r e still cold a n d solid It is a d .

v is a ble there fo r e to bri n th e he t as soon possible to th e

, , g a a s
 S O AP P UMP S . 22 1

W ho le m a ss o f so a p This is e ffected in on e form o f r em elter

.

b y h avi n g a n u m ber o f u pri ght ste a m pipes or t u bes fixed in

t h e m a chi n e ; the he a t i s th u s bro u g ht very q u ickly to the
v ery centre o f the m a s s o f so a p a n d so the oper a tio n is soo n
,

d one .

Th e ti m e it t a kes to re m elt a b a tch o f so a p depends u pon

t he st a te O f dry n ess of th e so a p ; the m ore w a ter there is i n
i t th e qu icker is the operation over . Sho u ld the so a p be too
dr y it is O ften a dv a nt a geo u s to sen d i n a c u rre n t of ope n
.

stea m whereb y both he a t a n d m oist u re a r e s u pplied a t the

,

sam e ti m e .
2 2 2 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

m ay be do n e by h a n d labou r u sin g l a dles or Scoops bu t such

, ,

a pl a n is tedio u s a n d costly a n d i n l a r e so a p works 1 8 i n ad

,
g
m issible Th e best m ethod is to u se p u m ps which ar e m ade
.

speci a lly for the p u r pose .

So a p p u m ps a r e of the O rdin a ry direct acti n g pl u n ger

t ype s u ch a s is shown i n figu re 5 7 wh ich represents a s oap
,

p u m pi n
g en gine m a de by M essrs E F orsh aw
. S o.n T hi s .

i s a very co n ve n ie n t form a n d qu ite satis fa ctory i n u se

,
.

An other form of so a p p u m p wh ich is l a rgely adopted

F IG . 58 .

bec a u se it does n ot n ecessit ate the em ploym e n t of a sep arate

e n gi n e bu t m a y be a tt a ched to the ordi n a ry s h afti n g of the
,

works is o f the type k n own a s rot a ry p u m ps The fea t u re of

, .

this form O f p u m p is a circ u l a r c a st iro n box with a n inlet

-

a n d o u tlet I n the box rot a tes a bl a de O f a spir a l form whi ch

.
, ,

c a tch i n g the so ap as it flows i n by the i n let forces it ou t by ,

the o u tlet pipe a n d SO a s to pl a ce it where it is requ ired .

I n m a ki n g toilet so a p it is fo u n d very desir a ble th a t the

t a blets Sho u ld be dried a little before s tam pin g a s then a ,

better i m pr essio n is obt a i n ed a n i m por t a n t fe a t u re i n con

,

n e c ti o n with t a blets h a vi n f n cy desi ns on the m T h en

g a
g .
 SOA P - D R YI NG MA C H IN E S . 22 3

for ther rea sons t a blets m ay h a ve to be dried before bein g

o

sen t ou t A very co n ven ient m a chine for this p u r pose i s

.

one Shown i n fi u r e 5 8
g m a d
,
e by M essrs W J
. F
. raser .

00 .Its con stru ction is well shown i n the dra win g It .

c onsists o f a n u m ber o f s h allow tr a ys or dr a wers placed

in a dryi n g ch a m ber . At one end is a h e a tin g ch am ber

thr ou gh which by m e a ns o f a fa n air is dra wn from the
, ,

surrou n di n t m osphere d sent into the dryin c h m ber

g a a n g a

where the dr a wers ar e I n its pass a ge thro u gh the he a tin g

.

cham ber the a i r ets w rm n d its c p a city for holdin g

g a a ,
a

wat er bei n g t h ereby increased it t a kes u p water from the

soap a n d dries it d ur in its p ss e thro h the dryi
g a a g u
g n
g
cham ber This m a chi n e m a y be u sed for dryi n g a ll kinds
.

of so ap in t a blets b a rs or sh avin gs
, , .

So fa r h a s bee n described a ll the di fferen t fo r m s o f

machin es e m ployed i n th e m a n u fact u re O f so a p O f cou rse
.

the m a chines by di ffere n t m a kers will v a ry from on e a n other

in min or det a ils a ltho u gh th e for m s be a r a close resem bl a n ce
,
.

It i s pra c tic a lly i m possible to describe i n det a il the m a chi n es

of ever y m a ker S O wh a t h a s been do n e is to m e n tio n those
,

that m a y be re ga rded a s types .

 CH A P T E R V II .

T H E T E C HN O L OGY O F SO AP M AK IN G - .

A W I D E and yet only s u fficie n t cl a ssi ficatio n of soaps would

be into
A D om estic soaps
. .

B Toilet so a ps
. .

C Indu stri a l so a ps
. .

D Speci a l so a ps
. .

D o m estic so a ps are those u sed i n the h o u se fo r w a shi ng ,

, .
—
sco u ri n g etc T oilet so a ps those better qu a lities O f soaps
which a r e e m ployed solely i n the toilet I n du stri a l s oaps .

—those em ployed i n the tr a de a s in wool washing , ,

, .
—
calico printin g etc Speci a l so a ps those u sed for specific
p u rpo ses as for m edic a l p u rposes sh a vi n g p u rposes etc
, , ,
.

E ach o f these cl a sses m a y be e ve n fu rther divide d bu t the ,

writer does not believe i n system s of cl a ssi ficatio n int o a

re t v a riet y a s h a s bee n done by som e wr iters on so a p s
g a , .

A D O ME ST I C S O AP S
. .

So a p is prep a red by c a u sin g a n alk a li a n d a fa t or fats

to en ter i n to chem i ca l com bin a tio n ; th e alk a lies u sed are
solely S od a an d pot a sh Am m on i a has bu t little a ction on
.

fa ts while li m e is of n o u se bec a u se the soap it form s is

, ,

insol u ble i n wa ter .

W hen a fa t or O i l is bro u ght i n to cont a ct with a solu tion

of either c au stic soda or c a u stic pot a sh ( the c a rbo n a t es of

t h ese a lk a lies h a ve bu t a weak a ctio n an d c a nnot be u sed

in the ordin a r y process O f so a p m a kin g) the n sa p on i fication
-

begi n s to t a ke pl a ce ; the a cid co n sti tu ent O f th e O i l en ters

into co m binatio n with th e alk ali to form the so a p while ,

the b a sic constit u ent glycerine is set free T h is reaction

, , .
 D O ME STI C S O AP S .

is shown in the followin g equ atio n s wh ich show the action ,

of b oth cau stic sod a a n d ca u stic potash on t y pical O ils

SN a O H H ),
gn
C
Ca ust i c Sod a So ( ce ri ne .
( Sod i u m ?tea rate)
.

O 3K O H 3K C H O C H OH
: S33
31 2
o C a u sti c
P otas h .
( Pota ssi u m gi
n olea te) .

The first one represen ts th e action of cau stic sod a on tallow ,

the principal co n stit u ent of which is steari n while the ,

seco n d one s h ows the action o f c a u stic pot a sh o n linseed

oil th e princip a l co n stit u ent o f which is linolin

, I f t h ese .

e u a tions ar e st u died they will be fo u n d to be b u ilt u pon

q
comm on lines a n d fu rther t h a t there is a n exc h a n ge O f
,

constit u ents between th e bodies whic h t a ke pa rt in th e

re action ; th e a ci d portion O f the fa t t a kes the b a sic m et a l

of the alkali to form th e soap whi le the b a sic co n stit u ent ,

of the fa t the
, g lycer y l C n t a kes
, th e h ydroxyl H
, O o f , ,

the a lk a li to form the glycerine or a s the ch em ist prefers , ,

to Spea k of it the glycerol whi ch is set free

, , .

The reaction between the fa t a n d the alk a li is a chem ical

one a n d like a ll che m ic a l reactio n s t a kes pl a ce i n de finite
,

p r opo r tions ; th a t is a cer t a in

, q u a n tity o f fa t will a lw a ys
take a cert a in q u a n tity O f c a u stic sod a or c au stic pot ash to
sapon i fy it ; a n d a s O ils di ffer from o n e a nother i n their

com position one O i l or fa t will t a ke a d i fler e n t proportion

’
,

of a lka li th a n a nother th u s for i n st a nce c a stor O il t a kes

, , ,

1 8 per cent of c a u stic pot a s h to s a poni fy it while t a llow

. ,

takes 1 9 per cent a n d coco n u t O i l 2 6 per cen t It n u

.
,
.

for t u n ately h a ppe n s however a s is a lways the ca se with ,

nat u ra l prod u cts th a t th e s am e oil varies i n the a m ou nt

,

of alk a li it req u ires wit h differe n t s a m ples a ltho u gh the ,

am ou n t of v a ri a tio n is s m a ll T h e followin g t a ble co m piled

.

fr om sever a l so u rces gives the per ce n t a g e of c a u stic potash

a nd of c a u stic sod a r eq u ired to s a po n i fy v a rio u s O ils a n d fa ts :

15
 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

P er cen t . of Ca u sti c
P otash , K OH .

A s rega rds th e q u an ti ty of glyc eri n e which is form e d

dfir i n g the reaction A llen in his Com m er ci a l Or g a n i c A n
,

a ly si s vol ii
,
.
gives the
. f
,
ollowi n fi
g g u res a s to the proportio n

of g lycerine which m a y be O b tained fro m v a rio u s O ils

B ttl
o p m il
e n o se s er O p t er c e n .

N th wh l il
or er n a e o

P o r p oi se oil

M h en a d en O il

La rd
T ll w
a o

B tt f t
u er a

Oli il
ve O

R p il
a e o

S e sa m e oil

C o tton se ed O i l
L i n see d O i l
Castor Oi l

C oc o n u t oi l
P a lm n u t O i l
P al m O i l
 ME T HO D S OF SO AP M AK I NG
- . 2 2 7

It will be seen th a t th e proportion of glycerine which

c a n be obt a ined fro m t h ose fa ts a n d oils co m m o n ly u sed

in soap m a king is from 1 0 to 1 2 per cent

-
.

The m ethods e m ployed in the m an u fa ctu re of so a p of

an
y kind m a y be di v ided i n to t h ree g ro u ps
1 Boili n g th e fa ts a n d alk a lies to gether u nder ordin a ry
.

atm ospheric press u re in open boilers — the ordinary proces s

of soa p boi li n g
- .

.2 Boilin g the fa ts a n d alk a lies to gether u n der press u re

in closed boilers .

.3 By m ixi n g the a lk a li es an d fa ts at ordi n ar y tem pera

—
tu res the so called cold process
-

The first m ethod is by far th O ldest and m ost co mm only

em ployed .
e
In t h is m ethod the " is boiled with a solu tio n
Y

of the a lk a li ( cau stic so d a for h a rd so a ps c a u stic potash for ,

soft soaps) u n til it is sa p on i fie d ; th en in the case Of h a rd

soap s sa lt is a dded which t h rows ou t th e so ap in th e for m o f
,

cu rd s which a r e collected and a llowed to set i n to the form

,

with which the p u blic is fa m i li a r There is a lso O bt a i n ed .

wh a t is kn own as spent lye a n a qu eou s liqu or contai n i n g

,
”

the salt u sed a n y excess of alkali tha t m ay h a ve bee n u sed

, ,

an d a lso the lyceri e which was for m ed d rin th proces

g n u g e s

of sa o n i fic a ti on
p F orm erly
. this w a s t h row n a w a y b u t ,

n ow it is tre a ted for the recovery O f th e lycerine it

g c o n

t a i ns .

In the second m ethod the fa t a n d a lk a li are boiled toget h er

u nder pre s s u re in a closed v essel or boiler a n d when saponi ,

fic ati on is co m plete the so a p is set on one side to cool a n d

wh en cold it is read y for s a le .

In the third m ethod the fa t is j u st m elted a n d then m ixe d

wi th th e a lk a li i n the fo r m O f a stro n g sol u tion th e m ixt u r e ,

being pl a ced o n one side for so m e ti m e to a llow th e sap on i fi

c ation to beco m e co m plete wh e n the soap i s r e a dy for u se
,
.

In both the seco n d a n d third m ethods ther e is no s a lti n g

2 28 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

o u t, while th e glyceri ne th a t is form ed rem ains behind i n the

so a p .

E a ch these three m ethods will be disc u ssed i n detail

of .

H a r d Soap — I t is extre m ely di ffic u lt to a ttem pt any

cl a ssi fic a tion of h ard so a ps th e varieties ar e nu m ero u s and ,

m a n y a r e prod u ced by si m p le m odi fication s of the process of

m a kin g a n d of the m a teri a ls em ploye d Then a ga i n some
ki n ds o f soap grain or c u r d so a ps for i n st a n ce c a n o n ly be
, ,

—
m a de by one th e boili n g process — It will therefore be
.

bes t to describe in det a il the processes em ployed i n the

m a n u fa ct u re O f the v a r io u s gr a des of do m estic so a ps and ,

i n dic a te th e vario u s ki n ds o f so ap for which they ar e best

a d a pted .

M K NG B Y
SOAP - A I TH E BOIL I N G P ROCE S S .

P robably 90 per cen t of the soap whic h is m ade in this

.

cou n try is m ade by the boi li n g proces s in open p a n s su ch as ,

h a ve been described i n the l a st ch a pter h eated by fir e or by ,

ste am th e l a tter bei n g the m ost m odern pl a n In this

, .

m ethod o f boiling th e fa t and a lkali are bro u ght to gether in

the presence of w a ter i n su ch proportions a s exper ience has
s hown will en a ble the m to m a ke so a p bu t the qu a ntities are,

n o t de finitel y proportio n ed one to th e othe r ; the boili ng

b ri n gs abo u t th e sap o n i fic a ti o n of the fa ts a n d fo r m s th e soap ,

w hich can t h en be fin ished in any wa y th a t is desirable .

T here ar e three chie f v a r ieties of hard so a p prod u ced in this

w a y dependen t u po n cert a i n m odi fications i n the fin is hi ng
O per a tions ; t h ese a r e know n a s Cu rd fitted or i n Am erica
,
” “
,
”
, ,

settled a n d ru n so a ps T h ese of cou rse ar e i n dep endent

,
”
.

o f v a rieties O f so a ps prod u ced b y v a r y i n g th e m a teri a ls u sed .

In startin g a so ap boil it is advisable to see th a t the pan

is q u ite clean while the i n side sho u ld be well wh ite washed
,
-

o r li m e -was h ed this preve n ts th e iron of the p a n from affect

i n g the so a p i n a n y w a y a n d prevents its corrosio n Then .
 SO A B O I L I NG
P - . 2 2 9

a sm a ll qu a n tity of we a k lye of a bo u t 2 T w is r u n i n filli n g°

.
,

up the a n to bo t n -
te th f its depth this is h e a ted by
p a u o e n o

mean s of the closed ste a m coil to n e a r th e boil a n d the n ,

there is r u n i n a por tio n of the fa ts which a r e to be s a po n i

fied this fa t h a vin g been previo u sly m elted i n sep a ra te t a n ks
,

the qu a n tity is n ot o f m u ch co n sequ ence bu t a bo u t one thi r d ,

-

of the t ot a l ch a r e is a fa ir proportio n The r e is the n r u n

g .

in sod a lye a t 1 0 T w a stro n g er lye t h a n this s ho u ld n ot be

°
.

used . O n e o f the di ffi cu lties i n so a p boili n g is to st a rt the

-

sa on i fic a ti o n of the fa t i f the lye be too st on this st a r ti n g

p r
g
does n ot t a ke pl a ce re a dily e n o u gh a n d other d i fli c u lti e s a r e
,

intr odu ced By u si n g we a k lye however there is little i f a n y

.
, ,

di ffic u lty experien ced ; a bo u t 1 5 g a llo n s m a y be a llowed to

every 5 cwt of t a llow r u n into the n The ste a m is t u rn ed
.
p a .

on to bri n the m a ss to the boil The m a teri a l m a y rise u p

g .

in the for m o f froth very co n side r a bly this proceedin g bei n g ,

known to so a p m a ke r s as fobbi n g
- . This occ u rs only at the
starti n o f boil o whe n r u n n ing i n m ore fa t or a lk a li ; i f
g a r,

it happens the ste a m m u s t be t u rn ed O ff the m a ss O f fob ,

beaten dow n by the h a nd p a ddle or he a te r a n d the p a n le ft

to itsel f for a fe w ho u rs when the boili n g m a y be res u m ed
, .

It will pro ba bly be fo u n d th a t th e boili n g will now p r o

ceed very q u ietly a n d witho u t fu r t h er tro u ble du rin g the ti m e
the pa n h a s been st a n di n g the fa t a n d a lk a li h a ve been r e
acti n d enterin into co m bi n a tio n with one a nother I t
g a n g .

is this li a bility to fo b th a t re n ders it u n desi r a ble th a t a so a p

p a n sho u ld be fu lly c h a r g ed to st a r t wi th S o m eti m es

. there
a pe ar s ve r y lit tle di ffi c u lty i n st a r ti n the o n i fi a ti n a t
p g sa p c o ,

other ti m es the r e a ppe a rs

g re a t di ffi c u lty M u c h will depe n d
.

on the co n ditio n o f the fa t ; i f this be ve r y n e u tral then it

will n o t be e a sy to st a r t its s a po n i fyi n g ; on the other h a n d i f

it cont ain som e fr ee a cid this will a t on ce en ter i n to co m bi n a
tion with t h e a lk a li a n d fo r m so a p which by incre a sin g a n
,

em ulsi fyi n te n dency o f the fa t e n a bles the a lk a li a n d fa t to

g
 2 30 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

m ore t h orou ghly a m a l ga m a te together and therefore facili ,

t a te th e process of so a p form a tion W ith a V iew O f i m itating .

t h is a c tion it is the c u stom o f m a n y soap m a kers an d it is -

,

a c u sto m worth follo wm g to throw into the p a n O n i ts bei ng

,
.

first ch a rged a ll the scr a ps o f so a p which they m ay have

a bo u t ; s u ch scr aps dissolvi n g in the weak lye help forward

the s a po n i fyin g of the fa t to a great exten t Ther e are al .

w a ys plenty of so ap scr a ps a bo u t th at ar e pr od u ced in c utting

the blocks O f so ap u p in to Sl a bs and b ars ; these Sho u ld al
wa y s be pl a ced o n on e Side a n d sent into the so a p boiling -

ho u se for t h is p artic u l a r p u rpose .

W hen th e first lot of fa t a n d lye a ppe a rs to ha ve been

thoro u ghly a m a l ga m a ted to g ether then ther e m ay be run ,

i n a ton of oil the n or bette r si m u ltaneo u sly lye ; this may

, , ,

n o w be u sed stro n e r s a y 1 7 to 1 8 T w
g ,
t °
h a n w a s first em
°
.
,

ployed and of it 2 00 ga llo n s will be req u i r ed for one ton of

,

fa t. This lot is now boiled u p for two h ou rs F obbi n g will .

r a rely occ u r at t h is st a g e At th e end of th e ti m e gi v en the

.

rest O f the ch a rg e m a y be r u n in and th e boili n g conti n ued .

It is a dvis a ble to keep it well sti rred so as to bri n g the fat

a n d a lk a li into inti m a te u n io n I f the boilin g be d one with
.

O pe n steam then the ste a m itsel f p a ssin g thro u gh the s oap

,

is a lm ost s u fficient to do this In this c a se however .

, ,

there will be so m e co n sider a ble condensation of th e steam in

th e p a n this m u st be a llowed for a n d ra ther stronger ,

a lk a li 2 3 to 2 5 T w e m ployed in th e l a st st a ges I f a cl osed

°

,
.

ste a m coil be e m plo yed then the so a p m u st be kept stirred

,

by m e a n s of the han d p a ddle or m ech a nic a l stirrers At the .

e n d of the boil very little s ti r ri n will be req u ired ; the s oap

g
will boil u p ve r y n icely a n d ge n tly in wh a t a r e kn own as
.

roses a n d this gentle boil i s som e S i gn th a t th e en d is ap

p r oa c h i n
g. S o a p boili n
g
-i s o n e o f those thi n
g s th a t c an not

be t a u ght by books owi n g to the di ffi cu lty of describi n g all

the ch a n ges i n a ppe ara n ce of a ch arge of so a p du ri n g the
 SO AP-B O IL I NG . 2 31

p roc ess o f boili n

g it u p. T h e len g th o f ti m e a
p a n O f S o a p
takes to fin ish depe n ds e n tirely on the wei ght of so a p bein g
treated an d m a y v a ry fro m fiv e hou rs for a s m a ll ch a rge to
twelve or fifteen ho u rs for a l a rge one The e n d of th e .

oper ation is a scert a i n ed by t a ki n t s m ples fro m ti m e to

g o u a

time by m e a n s O f the p a ddle a n d ex a m ini n g them It sho u ld .

have a firm co n sisten cy be fr ee fr o m a n y oil or fa t wh ich

, ,

wou ld Show th a t m ore a lka li is r equ i r ed a n d whe n t a sted ,

has on ly a fa i n t biti n g sen sa tio n on the to n gu e ; t h is wo u ld

Sho w th a t the a lk a li w a s i n sli ht excess which it s h o u ld be
g , .

Then a ga i n the a ppe a rance o f the so a p is som e gu ide M en .

roperly s a o n i fie d it will h a ve a ho m o e n eo u s a n d se m i
p p g
tran sp ar en t look s m oo th a n d glossy a n d fa ll OHthe p a ddle i n
, ,

cl ea r fl a kes on th e other h a n d i f it be op a qu e i n looks a n d

rather gr a n u l a r i n a ppe a ra n ce the n it is a n i n dic a tio n th a t
,

there is either a n excess O f fa t or a n excess o f a lk a li which ,

will be shown by the other tests previo u sly a ll u ded to .

Someti m es ther e a r e si gns th a t there a r e fr ee a lk a li a n d free

fat pr esent i n the so a p p a n a t t h e s a m e ti m e wh ich shows
-
,

th at the sap on i fic a tion O f the fa t h a s n ot bee n proper ly con

du cted ; the rem edy in s u ch a c a se is to a dd so m e w a ter a n d

pr oceed with the boili n g .

It m a y be st a ted here th a t ro u ghly 1 00 lb of fa t requ ire .

100 lb o f lye a t 32 T w to co m plete sa p on i fic a ti on ; coco

°
. .

nu t oil t a kes a bo u t on e fo u r t h m ore

-
.

Sa ltt ng Ou t
'

— The n ex t opera tion is th a t of s a ltin g ou t or , ,

as it is so m eti m es c a lled r ain in g the so ap this is do ne

g ,

by thro wi n g i n to the p a n ei ther co m m o n s a lt o r a st r o n g

bri n e liq u or. This throws th e so ap ou t of sol u tion i n the
form O f gr a i n s or c u rds a n d th u s sep a r a tes the so a p fr o m
the wa ter em plo y ed i n the ope r a tio n o f boi li n g a n d fr o m
the excess o f a lk a li u sed a n d fro m the glyce r i n e fo r m ed
,

du ri n g the process of sa p on i fic a ti on This proper ty o f

.

salt of throwi n t the so a p fr o m th e sol u tio n in which

g o u
2 32 S O AP MANUFA C T URE .

it exists in th e so a p p a n depends u pon the fa ct th a t while

-

so a p is solu ble in w a ter yet it is i n sol u ble i n solu ti ons of

a lk a li n e sa lts ; whe n t h ere fore s u ch ar e a dded to a sol u ti on

o f so a p the l a tter is throw n o u t o f sol u tio n So m e s oap

.

m a ke r s pre fer to u se b r i n e bu t ordi n a ry co m m o n salt is

,

wh a t is com m on ly u sed The s a lt is throw n i n to the pan in

.

sm a ll qu a n tities a t a ti m e u n til the so a p for m s i n small

g r a i n s a n d a q u a ntity o f lye is cle a r ly visible whe n the p addle

is pl a ced in the so ap a n d then li fted o u t A ve r y little .

pra ctice soo n s h ows the so a p m a ker whe n this poi n t is

-

re a ched C a r e m u st however be t a ken n ot to a dd the s alt in

.

too l a rge a qu a n tity a t a tim e a n d to a llow e a ch portion to

dissolve be fore a ddi n g a n ot h er por tion othe r wise there is a
,

li a bility to ge t a n excess o f s a lt i n a n d this is u n desi r a ble for

,

—
two re a son s bec au se it is not eco n o m ic a l to u se m ore
m a teri a l th a n is necess a ry to do the re q u ired wo r k and ,

secon d excess of s a lt i n trod u ces di fficu lties to be overcome

,

in s u bsequ en t oper a tio n s . The so a p i n the p a n loses its

sm ooth n ess an d t r an sp a ren cy beco m es m ore O p a qu e and
,

g r a i ny ; the boili n
g a lso beco m es r a the r irre g u l a r a n d tends
,

to occu r in b u rsts a n d so m eti m es there is a ten den cy to boil

,

over .

W h en s u fficien t salt h a s been a dded a n d the co n ten ts of

the p a n sep a ra te o u t on the p a d dle i n to a gra iny so ap and
cle a r lye the ste am is sh u t off an d the p a n a llowed to re
,

m a i n a t r est fo r fo u r to fiv e h o u r s a ccordi n g to the si ze of

the b a tch I t m a y be men tioned here t h a t it i s i m possible
to st a te de fin itely the qu a n tity of s a lt which m ay be requ ired
to s a lt ou t a n y given b a tch of so a p This will be fou n d to
.

v a ry a n d is depen den t u pon the a ction of severa l fa cto r s the —

stren gt h of lye u sed i n th e sa p o n i fic a ti on whe ther there has ,
'

been m u ch or little co n dens a tion of w a ter fr o m the ste am in

t h e p a n whether a n y c o co n u t oil or p a lm n u t O i l h a s been
,

u sed i n m a ki n the so p d ll these f ctors liabl e

g a ; a n a s a a a r e
 SO A B I I NG
P- O L . 2 33

to v ary wi th every ba tch of so ap it is not possible to st a te

an y definite qu a ntities o f s a lt for s a ltin ou t
g .

On st a ndi n g for fo u r to fiv e ho u rs the m a ss in th e pan

se ar a tes into two l a yers or portions th pper one co sist s
p e u n

of the so a p holdin perh ps bo t per ce nt w te ’

g a a u 4 0 of a . r ,

whil e the lower l a yer is a liq u id k n own a s the spen t l ye

This is m ore or less d a rk i n colo u r a cco r di n g to the ch a r
acter o f the fa t u sed in m a ki n the so a p ; it co n t a ins a n y
g
excess of c a u stic sod a which m a h ve been sed the s a lt
y a u ,

added to sep a r a te o u t th e so a p sodi u m c a rbon a te

,
any i m ,

purities which m a y h a ve been present in the ori gin a l c a u sti c

soda a n d i n the fa t to geth er with the glyceri ne which h a s
,

been form ed d u rin g the sa p o n i fic a ti o n of the fa t This lye i s

.

now r u n O fi fro m the so a p i n to stora e t a n ks so as t o be re a dy

g
for su bseq u ent tre a t m en t with a view to the recovery o f th e

g lycerine a n d s a lt it cont a i n s .

This concl u des th e first stage i n the prep a r a tio n of a ll

soa s a n d it is fro m t h is point th a t di ffere n ces o f tre a t m ent
p ,

arise to prod u ce v a rio u s ki n ds O f so a p The Oper a tio n of

.

soap boilin
- req ires to be co d c t ed with c re a n d a tten
g u n u a

tion an d every eflor t sho u ld be m a de to see th a t the boilin g

,

is com plete This m a kes a co n sidera ble de m a n d on the Skill

.

an d experience O f the so a p boiler - .T O O stron g a n a lk a li

shou ld not be u sed or as st a ted a bo v e it will be di ffic u lt to
, , ,

start the sa on i fic a ti o n d yet di fferent f ts will req u ir e

p a ,
n a

different stren gths o f lye or will s a po n i fy with di fferen t

stren ths Th s while t llow p l m oil cottonseed oil d
g . u a a
, , a n

som e others will n o t work with lye stron er th a n 1 0 to 1 2

° °

g
Tw coco n u t oil a n d p a lm n u t O i l will t a ke ly e u p to 2 0 T w
°
.
, .
,

indeed s a poni fyi n g best with th e stron g lye ; linseed a n d

olive O ils u s u a lly work best with a l y e of i n ter m edi a te st r e n th
g .

The n o f co u rse so m e fa ts take m ore a lk a li tha n o thers a n d ,

this m u st be a llowed for or i m perfect sa p on i fic a ti on will t a k e

p lace ; a lit t le excess o f a lk a li sho u ld be u sed b u t too
, m u c h
2 34 SO A P MANUFAC T URE .

shou ld be a voi ded as su ch excess ten ds

, to ret ard sap on i fica

t io n ra ther than a ssist it .

B oi li n g on S tr eng th or C lea r B oi li n g — T h e so ap from

th e s a lti n g t O peration is now r un i n to the p a n a n d then a
-o u

Sm a ll qu a n tity o f c a u stic lye a t 2 0 T w ru n i n a n d the soap

°
.

boiled o n this for t h ree to fo u r hou rs D u ri n g th is boil th e soap .

S h o u ld re m a in open a n d a cle a r lye a lways visible ; i f it should

n o t th u s prese n t itsel f the n a little stro n g er lye s h ou ld be

,

a dded . S o m e so a p m a kers give a preli m i n a ry boil wit h a

-

little water a n d ther eby close u p th e so a p befo re they a dd the

c a u stic to open it agai n a n d there c a n be n o do u bt bu t that
,

th is is the p r efe r a ble co u r se The O bject of t h is boil on

.

stren gth is to com plete the sap on i fic a ti on a n d to ens u re that

t h e so a p is qu ite free fro m a n y u n sa p on i fie d fa t F or this .

p u rpose it is n o t a dvis a ble to u se a n

y stro n er lye than is
g
a bsol u tely necess a ry for the p u r pose of j u s t openi n g th e soap ;

any excess is h a rm fu l ra t h er th a n ot h erwise as it ten ds to ,

r et a rd r a th er th a n a ssist the r e a ctio n while the so a p exh i bits ,

a ten dency to be ra ther c a u stic S om e a ttentio n sho uld be .

p a id to this boil a s it h a s a m a teri a l infl u en ce on the grain

,

a n d qu a lity o f the fin is h ed S o a p .

After boilin g for th ree to fiv e ho u rs a ccordi n g to the si ze ,

O f the b a tch o f so a p bei n g m a de th e ste a m is S h u t O ff and , ,

th e p a n of so a p cove r e d u p a n d le ft to set tle t hi s t a kes from

t hirty S i x ho u rs to t h ree d a ys a ccordin g to the a m o u nt O f soap
-
,

in the p a n At the end of this ti m e th e con tents of th e pan

.

—
w i ll h a ve di v ided into two po r tio n s one o f so a p at th e top ,

the other o f lye h alf Spen t lye it is c a lled T h is still con

,
-
”
.

t a ins som e c a u stic sod a a ltho u gh possibly it m a y have a dark

,

colo u r especi a lly i f poor fa ts h a ve been u sed i n m aki n g the

,

s o ap . It shou ld be stored i n a sep a ra te t an k a n d u sed in

the fir st b oil O f a n e w b a tch o f so a p .

The so a p is t a ken a w a y fro m the lye by a n y co n venient

m e a n s a n d pl a ced i n the fra m es to cool a n d se t w h ich will ,
 SO AP -BO L I I NG . 2 35

take from th ree d a ys to a week a ccordin g to the se a son of th e

year and the rel a tive coolness o f th e fr am e roo m .

The soap a s so m a de is kn own a s c u rd so a p (see p “

.

It m a y be m a de fro m a n u m ber of fats bu t what is ,

sold a s c u rd so ap is gen era lly m a de from t a llow .

Cu rd so a p while it possesses excellent deter gen t proper

,

ties is ap t to be ra ther a lkaline a n d sh a rp and t h erefore does

,

not s u it everybody a s a toilet so a p .

F i tted Soap s — I n the m a n u fa ct u re of the m ost com m on

kinds of dom estic so a ps th e so a p a fter u ndergoi n g the process
, ,

of boili n g on st r e n gt h a n d salti n g ou t u nder goes a fu rther ,

treatm ent the exten t of which m a y be varied a ccordin g to

,

speci a l req u ire m e n ts a n d th e ide a s O f the so a p m a ker Th e - .

fir st treat m ent co n sists in givi n g wh a t is known a s a cle a ns

i n g boil ; t h is is do n e by ru n n i n g the so a p into a p a n a n d a dd
in g som e w a ter a n d sendin g ste a m thro u gh there is then ru n
in a stron g brine liq u or in j u st s u ffi cient am o u nt to O pen the
so ap an d the boili n g conti n u ed with either close or open
,

steam for three to fou r hou rs or even lon ger a ccordin g to

the size of the b a tch O f S o a p a fter whic h the p a n is allowed
,

to settle for a bo u t twelve h o u rs when th e so a p will be fo u nd

,

on the top and th e brine below this bein g r u n ofi when th e

,

so ap is re a dy fo r the finis h in per tion The cle a n sin boil

g O a g .

helps in th e com pletion of the sa p on ific a ti on a n d therefore ,

i n the prod u ction of a m ore per fect so a p while it tends to ,

wash ou t a n y excess of a lk a li th a t th e c u rd so a p m a y h old

fr om the boilin g on stre n gth a n d so m ake a m o r e ne u tr a l
,

soap So m e so a p m a kers will with t h eir best qu a lities give

'

-
.
, ,

even a second cle an sin g boil The bri n e liqu or m a y be u sed

.

sever a l tim es a ccor din g to the qu a lity O f the so a p which is

,

being m a de I f fro m good cle a n fa ts the liqu or m ay be u sed

.
,

s everal ti m es i f from poor di r ty fa ts it c a n n ot be u sed m ore

,

than once or twice a s it beco m es too hi ghly ch a r ged wi th

,

dirt to work s a ti sfa ctorily .

2 36 S O AP MANUFAC T UR E .

The next proceedi n g is to close u p the soap a ga i n This is .

do n e by pl a cin g th e so a p i n the pan spri n kli n g o n to it a ,

little wa ter and h eati n g by the close ste a m coil ; soo n the soap
loses its gr a n ular appe a ra n ce a n d becom es m ore tra n sp arent
a n d ho m o geneo u s W hen this happens th e boi li n g is dis
co n ti n u ed a n d th e p an a llo w
.
,

ed to cool or the so a p m ay be ,

r u n i n to the fra m es to set a fter w h ich it is c u t u p i n to sl ab s

,

a n d b a rs a n d tablets re a dy for s a le to the p u blic

,
.

S u ch is a genera l descriptio n of the ordi n a ry p r ocess of

so a p boilin g It is s u bject to a little m odi fic a tion here and
-
.

there a ccordin g to th e fa n cy o f the soap m a ker th e ki n d of

,
-
,

so a p bei n g m ade an d the fa ts u sed , .

4

W e m a y now proceed to discu ss the m eth ods of m a king

v a rio u s ki n ds of dom estic soa ps .

Com mon P a le S oap — The soap wh ich is m a de in this

co u n try in the largest qu a n tity is one m a de from t a llow an d
rosi n a n d is vario u sl y kn own a s pale so ap
,
X X p ale “
,
” “

so a p etc In m akin g this so a p the soap boiler h a s a choice

,
”
.
-

o f severa l m et h ods O f proced u re which we will briefly indi

c a te F irst h owever a fe w words as to the t a llow a n d rosi n

.
, ,

u se d F or t h is kind o f so a p the t a llow need not be of the

.

best qu a lit y and th e cost o f the so a p m ay be red u ced to some

extent by em ployin g a che a per gra de of t a llow A m edi u m .

qu a lity of rosin m ay be em plo yed T O O dark a rosi n should .

n ot be u sed as alt h o u gh m ost of the colo u r co m es ou t in

, ,

the process y et th e so a p is a p t to com e ou t of a d ark colo ur

,
.

The t allow is sap on i fie d i n th e m anner j u st described an d

s a lted ou t Th e so ap afte r ru n nin g off th e spe n t lye is n ow
.
, ,

rea dy for th e rosin ; this is a dded to the soap pa n alon g with

fresh a lk a li and th e boili n g contin u ed a s be fore u n ti l the
,

rosin beco m es sap on i fie d R osi n pra ctic a lly t a kes a s m u ch

.

lye to s aponi fy it as does t a llow ; it is h owever m ore easily , ,

sa
p o n i fie d .

T his boil is known as the rosin boil when it is

 SO A B O I L I NG
P- . 2 37

fini shed th e so a p is s a lted o u t a s be fore I n this c a se the .

spent lye does n ot cont a i n a n y lyce r i n e ; it will be O f a d a rk

g
c olou r for it will co n t a in m u ch of the colo u rin m tter o f
, g a

the rosin ; it m a y be thrown a w a y P lenty of ti m e should .

be allowed for it to settle o u t so th a t the l y e m a y be a s free

,

a s possible fro m a n y p a r ticles o f fa t rosi n o r so a p , W hen

, .

makin g so a p fr o m rosi n a n d a fter s a lti n g ou t the conte n ts of

, ,

the p a n u s u a lly sep a r a te i n to three l a y e r s so m eti m e s fo u r , ,

as follows a l a ye r O f li ght frothy so a p on the top —this is

,

collected a n d sent into the n ext boili n g of so a p ; seco n d a ,

layer of good so a p which is finished a s u s u a l ; third u nder

, ,

this a l a yer of a d a rk col ou r ed c u r dy m a ss the n i re

”
-
g a s, ,

—
it is c a lled this v a ries ve r y m u ch i n colou r co n sistency a n d ,

ext e n t a ccordi n g to the q u a lity o f the rosi n a n d fats u sed i n

makin g th e so a p . It is r a ther a tro u blesom e produ ct to dea l

with ; i f n o t too stro n gly colo u red it m a y be le ft in the p a n
and worked u p i n to the n ext b a tch o f S o a p fo r it co n sists ,

l argely of so a py m a tter ; i f it be too dark the n it m a y be u se d

a lon with othe r d a rk fa ts i n m a ki n g b r ow n so a p The
g .

lowest l a yer con sists O f the Spe n t lye ; this is de a lt with as

mentio n ed a bove .

After the rosi n boil the so a p is finished by boili n g on

,

st r en th and fitti n g a s p r evio u s ly described I n a ll these

g .

Opera tio n s the n i r e wi ll be m e t with ; i n r u n nin g O fi the

g
n e a t so a p or the spen t lye it is i m port a n t n ot to r u n a n y
”

of the n i re i n to the m a s it wo u ld a ffect th e grai n o f th e

g ,

finished so a p or i n te r fere with the t r e a t m e n t of the lye .

Som e so a p m a kers s a po n i fy the rosi n with lye be fore they

-

a dd it to the t a llow so a p U n less they a r e worki n g with

.

p oo r
g r a des o f r osi n a n d desire to p u r i fy it so m e w h a t be fo re

mixi n g with th e other co n stit u e n ts there is no a dv a n t a g e

,

in this co u rse of proced u r e .

Altho u gh the rosi n a n d the t a llow m ay be s a pon i fied

togeth er yet it is n ot a dvis a ble to do so a s th ereby the spe n t
, ,
2 38 S O AP MANUFAC T URE .

lye is incre a sed i n bu lk withou t increasi n g its a ct ua l conten ts

o f glyceri n e and th is incre a se in b u lk leads to extr a cost of
,

boilin g down ; then a gain the colo u rin g m a tt ers a n d im pu rities

of the rosin g ettin g i n to the lye add to th e d i fli c u lti e s of

re fini ng a n d ex t ractin g the glyceri ne and it is desirable th at ,

these di ffic u lties be m i n i m ised a s m u ch a s possible .

T h e followin g a r e so m e recipes for m a ki n g t h is cla ss of

soap :
W h i te
1 . 4 cw t oli v e oi l. O li ve o i l .

6 t ll
a ow . c o tton oi l .

2 . 3 oli ve oi l .
ta ll ow .

3 la r d . bl e ac h ed pa m l
4 p a lm n u t O i l . se sa m e Oi l .

ta l l ow .

15 c wt . m u tton ta ll ow . 5 c wt bl ea c h ed p a lm oil .

5 c oc on u t oi l . 6 wi n d ow g l a ss r osi n .

2 0 c wt ta . ll ow . 7 c wt . b l e ac h ed p a lm oi l.

7 c wt . wi n d ow g l ass r osi n .

1 0 c wt be e t a f ll w o . 5 cwt .
p a lm n u t o i l .

10 b on e t ll wa o . 5 b l e ac h ed p a lm oi l.

7 5 c wt . r osi n .

P r i m r ose S oap .

1 0 c wt bee ta
. f ll ow . 1 0 c wt m u tton ta
. ll ow .

6 c wt. ro si n .

Golden P r i m r ose S oap or C as ti le S oap .

1 0 c wt b ee ta
. f ll ow. 5 c wt . b l ea c h ed p a lm oil.

10 m u tton ta ll ow . 1 p a lm oil .

C otto n seed is now com in g largely to the fr ont for

O il

m aki n g p a le soaps for ordin a ry h ou sehold u se th e great ,

i m provem ents wh ich have been m a de of la te ye a rs in refining

the oil h a vi n g ren dered this possible C otton oil is fairly .

e a sily sa p on i fiable ; it is n ot S O easil y salted o u t a s tallow is ,

b u t on the other hand i t prod u ces a so a p w hic h lat hers

e a sily The followi n g a r e som e recipes for its u se
.
 D O ME STIC SO AP S . 2 39

X X Cr own P a le S oap .

1 0 c wt . c ot ton seed o il . 1 c wt .
pa lm Oi l .

5 ta l l ow . 4 r osi n .

Gold en S oap .

1 5 c wt . c o t ton O il. 75 lb b
. est r osi n .

18 lb . ta ll ow . 3 p a lm Oi l .

1 c wt . cotton oi l. } c wt
a . r o si n .

1 b on e gr e ase .
1 p a lm oi l .

B r own S oap s .

1 . 7 c wt ta ll ow . 2 . 4 cw t ta l l ow .

3 c o t t o n oi l . 4 p a lm n u t o i l .

6 r osi n . 2 co tto n o i l .

5 p a lm Oil . 6 r osi n .

}
1 p a lm oi l .

These recipes will prob a bly be s u ffi cien t for the ordin ary
m akes o f ho u sehold so a ps ; the pra ctic a l so a p m a ker will k n ow -

how to v a ry the m to s u it his speci a l req u ire m e n ts .

—
M o ttled S oap s There a r e two ki n ds of m ottled so a ps
kn own O n e is a very O ld ki n d h a v i n g a fai n t grey m ottle
.
,

sca ttered thro u gh its s u bst an ce ; th is m ottle wa s ori gin a lly

obt a i n ed by u si n g r a ther i m p u re fa ts a n d a lk a lies A m or e .

modern kind o f m ottled so a p is t h a t h a vin g a pro m i n en t

m ottle or gr a in of a bl u e r e d or other colo u r w h ich is , ,

arti fici a lly prod u ced W e will spe ak o f the grey ki n d first
. .

The m ottle is pr od u ced i n the followi n g m a n ner : The

fa ts a n d a lk a lies u sed in the e a rly d a ys were o fte n l a rgely
con t a m i n a ted with ear thy m a tter s a n d m et allic i m p u ri
ties ; these a cti n g u pon the fa ts form ed m et a llic so a ps ,

differi n g i n colo u r fr o m the m a i n body of so a p w hich w a s

form ed by the a lk a li These e arthy or m et a llic so a ps he
.

c a m e en t a n gled i n the so a p a s it cooled down i n the fra m e

an d im p a rt ed to it a m ottled a ppe a r a n ce the ch a r a cter a n d ,

extent of which depended u po n the ch a r a cter a n d a m o u n t

of the i m p u rities p r ese n t .

To prod u ce m ottled so a p O f a good gr ai n requ ir es so m e

experien ce i n so a p boilin g The m ethod u s u a lly followed
-
.
2 40 S OA P MANUFAC T URE .

is to m a ke a so a p ou t O f bone gre a se kitchen gre ase , ,

ble a ched p a lm O i l or co m m o n t allows u sing low gr ades of ,

c a u stic an d a ddi n g a la rge excess of this The so a p is well .

boiled a n d th e n it is well boiled down with so m e lye un til

,

it be gi n s to c u rd ou t it is a t o n ce ru n i n to the fra m es and ,

these a r e cove r ed over wi th cloths to keep th e h e a t in .

D u r in g the cooli n g the m et a llic so a ps ten d to a ggre gate

to gether a n d so prod u ce the m ottle On e O f the c hie f arts .

in m a kin g a m ottled so a p lies in the boili n g ; i f boiled too

lon g it sets too soon a n d the m ottli n g h a s not ti m e to form
pr operly while if n ot boiled lon g en o u gh then it is a pt to
, ,

cont a i n a n excess of lye a n d the m ottlin g settles ou t too

,

qu ickly .

It som eti m es h appens th a t the so ap will not m ottle

p r operly on a ccou nt o f the fa ct th a t there ar e not su fficient
i m p u rities prese n t I n s u ch a c a se the so a p m a ker i m itates
.
-

the m ottle by a ddi n g for a grey m ottle a little a n imal

bl a ck or even bl a ck oxide O f m a n ga nese W h a t is known as
, .

C a stile so a p a n d som e m a kes o f the M a r seilles so a ps h ave

,

a
g ree n m ottle which t u
,
r n s red on expos u re to the air ;

this is p r od u ced by a ddi n g n e a r to th e e n d of the boili ng

a little copper a s ( ferro u s s ulph a t e ) lb to 2 00 lb of soap
,
. .

will be s u fficient ; this prod u ces i n the so a p a deposit

O f gree n hydroxide of i r o n S o lo n g a s this rem ains nu
.

e xposed to the a i r it keeps its gr een colo u r b u t when ,

exposed by c u tti n g fresh s u rfa ces of the so a p it tu rn s red ,

which rem a i n s per m a nen t It m a y a lso be a dded that in.

m a ki n g these so a ps gr een olive O ils form the chie f basis

“

for them with occ a sio n a lly the u se of hem p seed poppy
, ,

seed n i ger a n d ses a m e O ils

,
.

Comm on B lu e M o ttled S oap — O f m ore r ece n t i n tr odu c

tion th a n t h e m ottled so a ps j u st described is a so ap with a
large blu e m ottle m u ch u se d i n ho u seholds for scr ubbing
,

floors a n d other r ou gh cle a n in g p u rposes These so aps are .

 C UR D SO AP S . 2 41

very stron gly deter gent a n d cont ain silic a te of sod a ; they
,

will be described l a ter on .

Ca r d S oap s —. C u rd so a ps ar e chiefly m a de fro m t a llow ,

with or witho u t the a dditio n of O liv e or other 0 113 wh ich ,

are em ployed to tone do wn the h a r d and di ffic u ltly l a ther

ing properties of a t a llow so a p F or a c u rd so ap the fa ts

.

are m elted i n the so a p a n d sa p o n i fie d with lye o f 1 0 to

°
-
p a n

12 T w stron g u si n g s m a ll q u a n ti ties a t a ti m e ; co n side r

°

,
.

able c are is to be t a ke n to prod u ce wh a t is known a s close

soap wh ich is a ho m o geneo u s p a sty m a ss free fro m a n y i n
, , ,

di c ati o n s O f fa tty m atter or sep a r a ted lye At th is st a ge t h ere .

is form ed a so a p cont a i n i n g a little fr ee fa t in a n e m u lsi fied

condition The so a p is next gra i n ed or c u t by s a lt a n d
“ ”
.
,

th e g r a i n so a p is a llowed to settle
”
The c u r di n g form s .

the fin a l opera tion The gra in so a p is first boiled u p with

.

a little we a k a lk a li a n d wet ste a m so as to agai n close ,

it an d co m plete th e sap on i fica ti on a fter which st r o n ger ly e ,

is a dded a n d the m ass he a ted with d r y ste a m whe n th e ,

so ap ope n s a n d the c u rd is form ed F rom ti m e to ti m e .

som e of the soap p a ste is t a ken o u t an d cooled a n d whe n ,

it sets properl y the s te a m is t u rn ed O ff the c u rd a llowed ,

to settle ou t a n d then r u n i n to the fra m es C u rd so a p s

, .

are m a de fro m a n y kind O f fa ts a n d the o n ly difier en ce ,

betwee n them a n d oth er so a ps lies si m pl y in the m ethod O f

boilin g a n d c u rdi n g ou t .

P a r aflln S oap s P etr o leu m S oap s

,
— These so a ps ar e m a d e .

by cru tchi n g i n to a so ap p a ste 1 0 to 2 0 per cen t of petro .

leum O i l The a dditio n of these pr od u cts to a la u ndry so a p

.

appe a rs to incre a se its de t er ge n t e ffect a n d in p a rtic u l ar ,

-

g r ea sy clothes a r e m ore re a di ly w a shed with a p a r a ffi n so a p

th an with a n ordi n a r y so ap S o m e m aker s of this cl a ss o f
.

so ap do n ot u se the oils bu t a so ft low cl a ss a n d so m ewh a t

, , ,

oily p ar a ffin w a x on a ccou n t o f the O do u r bei n g le ss

,
.

F i lled a n d S op hi s ti ca ted S oap s — Sever a l v a r ieties o f

16
2 42 SO AP MANUFACTURE .

so a ps are m a de
which sell a t a low price These a r e pro .

d u c e d by a ddin g to th e co m m on bu t p u re gr a des of s oaps

previo u sly described certai n bodies which che a pen their
cost of produ ction while not a ltering the a ppe a ra nce of
,

the so ap It is obvio u s that these fillers wh a tever their

.
,

n a t u r e m a y he m u st a n swer a fe w requ ire m ents before they

,

c a n be u sed In the first pl a ce they should not m a teri ally

.

interfere with th e so lidity a ppearan ce or keepin g properties , ,

of the so a p a ltho u h so m e do not a n swer a ll these requ ire

g ,

m e n ts then they sho u ld n o t interfere with the u ses of the

so a p in any way Am on g fillers there have been or a r e u sed
.
, ,

s u ch bodies as silic a te of soda Silicate of pot a sh st ar ch , , ,

F rench chalk kiesel gu hr siliciou s su bstances petroleum

, , ,

jelly or a s it is c a l led i n Am eric a m inera l so a p stock

, , , ,

G l a u ber s salt sod a cryst a ls S ilic a te of sod a is very l argely

’

, .

u sed ; it does not d etr a ct fro m the deter gent properties of

the so a p i f even it does n ot i n cre a se them ; it c an only

,

be u sed i n th e very cheapest of do m estic so a ps on a c count

of t h e fact th a t it m a kes the m stro n gly ca u stic ; it also

m a kes the so a ps rather wa ste fu l i n w a ter T O O m u ch .

c a n n ot be u sed or the soap is li a ble to be too thin

, St arch .

h a s been a dded to so a ps ; it form s with w a ter a n d in th e

p resence o f a lk a li a sti ff gel a tino u s m a ss which is freely

s ol u ble in w a ter It c a n therefore be a dded to S o a p without

.

a lterin g its a ppe a r a n ce The deterge n t properties ar e re

.
.

d u c ed by the em ploym ent O f starch .

The a dditio n of su ch m inera l su bst a nces a s French

ch a lk siliciou s m a tters kieselg u hr is n ot now pra ctised in
, , ,

this co u ntry a s su ch a sophistication is re a dily dete cted in

,

the appe a ra nce a n d u se of the so ap These bodies do not .

a d d to the cle a n sin g properties o f the so a p in an y respect ,

while they tend to brea k the gr a in of the so a p m a ke it more ,

w a stefu l in u se a n d so m eti m es u n plea s a n t to wa sh with .

G l au ber s s a lt a n d sod a cryst a ls are so m et im es a d ded to

’
 I I
S L CA E T D SO AP S. 2 43

s o aps to m a ke t h em h arder which th ey do b y t h eir property

,

of cr yst a llisin g . T h e form er red u ces the detergent properties

of th e S o a p ,the latter tends to increa se th em On e defect .

th ey h a ve is th a t th ey are li a ble to brin g abo u t the form a

tion O f a white saline efflor e sc en c e on th e su rface of the soap
wh ich is not a t a ll desirable while fu rt h er th ey m a ke th e,

soaps very w a stefu l in u se .

M iner a l so a p stock which is a kind o f i m pu re va se li n e or

,

petrole u m jelly affects th e so a p si m pl y by m akin g it m ore

,

pasty in consistency and m ore greasy to work with It i s .

rarely i f ever u sed in th is cou n try bu t in Am erica where , ,

th ey see m to h a ve a partic u la r p en cha n t for soph isticated

so aps it is O ften added t o com m on so a ps
,
.

H avi n g th u s brie fly dis cu ssed the v a riou s fillin g a gen ts

’

which a r e u sed we m ay proceed to describe th e m ethod s of

,

u sin g the m .

S i li c a ted S oap s — .These are frequ ently known a s r u n

so a ps a n d the sili c ate of sod a or potas h as ru n ni n gs
Their introdu ction is du e to M essrs T h om as M essrs . .

G oss a ge S ons have a lso m a de this class of so a p very

la rg ely .

S ilic a te of soda is sold u su a lly i n th e form o f a visco u s

liqu id h a vi n g a speci fic gra vi ty o f 1 00 T w althou gh som e °
.
,

g r a des reach 1 40
°
T w The m.ethod O f m ixi n
g a n d
the qu an tity u sed v a ry very greatly with different so a p
m a kers . There are som e who m a ke bu t little u se o f
r un n i n gs ; there are oth ers who m a ke great u se o f the m
“ ”
,

a ll their co m m on grades o f so a p co n t a inin g silic a te o f soda

in m ore or less qu antity .

The m ethod of u sin g thi s m a teri a l is very Sim ple The .

so a p to be filled is r u n i n to a cru tc h er he a ted by s t e a m ,

u ntil it is p a sty and then th e silic a te r u n in

, .

A g ood gr a de of silic a ted so a p is m ade b y takin g a n eat

s o a p m a de fro m rosin cottonseed oil an d t a llow in the
,
2 44 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

u su a l m a nner and a ddi n g to it in the cru tcher 1 cwt of

, .

silic a te at 1 00 T w to ea ch ton of so a p Su ch a soap

°
. .

will be sti fier a n d h a rder a fter the filli n g th a n before ; a n d is

a good qu ality fo r ordi n a ry u se .

W hen it is desired to m a ke a very we a k so a p then there ,

is t a ken 1 ton of ne a t so a p a n d there is cru tched in 5 cwt of .

sili cate a t 32 T w This so a p will be thin an d so ft an d

°
.

very waste fu l in u se A m ore li m ited u se is to a dd 1 5 cwt

. .

per ton of so ap of silic a te a t 1 0 T w A fe w m a kers °

.

u se 2 cwt o f S i lic a te a t 1 2 0 T w per t o n O f so a p

°
. . .

U s u a lly S ilic a ted so a ps are sold as pale pri m r ose ”

.
, ,

XX , etc ho u seh old so aps

.
, .

To m ake silic a ted so aps appe a r h a rder the y ar e O ft e n put ,

i n to a drying oven a n d dried qu ickly for a fe w ho u rs ; the

o u tside thereby beco m es covered with a ski n which m akes
the so a p keep better An other pl a n of obt a in ing the s am e
.

effect is to so a k the so ap in a stro n g solu tio n of soda cryst als

or of G l a u ber s s a lt O n e fau lt of s u ch m ethods is that the
’
.

so a p te n ds to becom e covered with a powdery co a t which ,

g ives it a n u nple a sa n t a p p e a r a n ce which the c u sto m er doe s

not like to see a s he t a kes it a s a n indic a tion of a n i n feri or

,

m a ke o f so ap .

S o m e a n a lyses o f silic a ted so a ps will be given l a te r on .

W e m a y now devote a fe w words to other m ethods which

h a ve been em ployed for filli n g so a ps .

S t a rch is so m eti m es a dded when hi ghly w a tered a n d

r a ther c a u stic S o aps a r e to be m a de It h a s the property .

when boiled with c au stic sod a o f for m in g a thick glu ti n ou s

m a ss which when prese n t i n so a p a cts a s a bindi n g m a terial
, ,

a n d helps to keep th e so a p to ether It dissolves freely i n

g .

w a ter a n d while it does not a dd to the deter gen t properties

,

o f the so a p i n a n y w a y detr a cts b u t little fro m the m

,
T wo .

per cent is a fa ir qu a ntity to u se

. .

F r e n ch ch a lk or gr o u n d t a lc a silic a te of m a gn esi a m ay
'

, ,
 COL D R O CE SS
-P S O AP S . 2 45

be a dded to the extent of 5 to 1 0 per cen t with o u t bein g .

readily detected b y si m ple inspectio n At on e ti m e it was .

largely u sed for this p u rpose bu t now it is ra rely m et with , .

It h as no bi n din g property an d sim ply acts m ech an ic a lly in

filli n g the so ap .

Soda cryst a ls—w a sh i n g sod a T h is s a lt is o ften a dded to

.

soap to the extent of 5 per cent of the so ap ; a l a r ger

, .

qu an tity c a n n ot be u sed a s it wou ld cau se m u ch efflor esc en c e

,

on th e so a p Th is m ater ial both che a pens the cost O f pro

.

du ction and a dds to the detergent properties of the g o a p .

‘

Th ere is one feat u re in con n ection with the u se o f soda

crysta ls i n So a p it so ftens h a rd wa ter a n d wh en this is
, ,

u sed for l a u n dry p u rposes its u se le a ds to a savi n of so a p

g
—
Glau ber s s a lt s u lphate of soda
’
T h is s u bstance h as a .

harden in g action on so a p It does not add to its detergent

.

properties n or does it soften h a rd wa ter .

Borax m a y be u sed a s a fillin g bu t it is ra ther an e x pen ,

sive o n e a n d t h ere fore c a nnot be u sed t o che a pen so a ps It .

i s an excellent a ddition to soap s a s it possesses good deter ,

g ent properties w h ile i t exercises

, sli gh t ble a chin g e fi ec ts on
th e clot h es w a s h ed with it .

—
P e a rl a sh c arbon a te of potas h This s u bst a nce i s .

som eti m es added to so a p s first fo r th e p u rpose of h a rdenin g

them second for givi n g th em a finer text u re T h is l a tter is

,
.

brou ght a bou t by do u ble decom position between the soap

and th e pea rl a sh res u ltin g in the form a tion of a pot a s h so a p
,

and sodi u m c a rbon ate ; th e form er im proves th e t e xt u re of

the soap renderin g it sm oother a n d m ore tran sparent wh ile
, ,

th e latter te n ds to h a rden it Too m u ch pe a rl a sh Sh o u ld not

.

be u sed or the so a p will beco m e too so ft a n d p a sty .

S OAP - M AR I NG BY I
S P E C AL P R O CE SSE S AN D FR OM SP E C AL I
M ATE R I AL S .

C old process a n d press u re process

“
.

In th ese two processes an a ttem pt is m a de , at a ll events

2 46 S O AP MANUFAC TURE .

in theory i f not in practice to em plo y the fa ts a n d alkali es

,

in the proportions in which they com bine to form soap ; the

g lycer i ne w h ic h is for m ed is n ot separated ou t b u t rem ai ns

i n the finished soap The cold process h a s been in u se for

.

m a n y ye a rs and bein g a co m paratively si m ple process re

, ,

qu iri n g n o speci a l pl an t is m u ch em ployed by sm a ll u sers of

,

so a p who desire to m a ke their own so a p The pressure .

process is of m ore m odern i n trodu ction an d requ ires special

pl a n t for it to be carried ou t .

W e m ay be fore describin g th e practic a l O pera tions devote

som e atten tion to the theory O f th e processes the employ ,

m ent o f whic h h a s been g r e a tly fa cilitated b y the im prove

m en t whi c h h a s take n pl a ce of l a te years in the m a n u facture
of c au stic sod a .

The idea of th e process wheth er it be cold process or

press u re is to brin g th e fa t i n to cont a ct with j u st th e amount
of alk a li th a t will ens u re co m plete sap o n i fic a ti on a n d produ ce

a neu tr a l soap a ltho u gh by u si n g a Sli ght excess of alkali an

,

alka li n e so a p m ay be m a de i f so desired .

Altho u gh equ a tions showi n g th e rea ctio n which takes

place du rin g the sapo n i flc a ti on of fats have been given pre
v i ou sly yet to save re ference it m a y be well to repeat them
,

here The first equ ation shows th e action of c a u stic soda

.

on the tri glyceride olei n which is ch iefly fou nd in oils

, , .

OH
3N a O H 3N a C,,H 02 H
" H
O
‘
C,
Sod i um O fda te
,
Cau st i c Sod a OH
p
.

( Soa ) .
Glyceri ne .

F rom this equ a tion it is e a sy to calc u late the proporti ons

of olein a n d alkali which t a ke par t in the re a ctio n These .

are 884 p a rts of olein to 1 2 0 p a rts of cau stic sod a th e ratio ,

being to 1 while there a r e form ed 9 1 2 p a rts of sodi um

,

ole a te (so a p ) a n d 92 p arts of glycerine .

I n the c a se o f stea rin the solid constitu ent of tallow an"

,

m a n y other fa ts th e equ a tio n beco m es

,
 COL D P -
RO CE S S SO AP S . 2 47

HO
C3H 5 01 8H 35 02 3N a O H 3N 3 01 8H 35 02 08H 5 HO
01311 35 02 Ca us ti c Sod a S od i u m Stea ra t e HO
p
.

S tea ri n .
( Soa ) G lycer i ne .

From this equ ation we c a n c a lcu l a te th a t 890 p a rts by

weight o f the glyceride requ ire 1 2 0 p a rts of c a u stic sod a to
s apon i fy it a n d prod u ce 91 8 p a r ts O f so a p a n d 92 p a rts of
,

g lyceri n e .

P a l m itin the g lyceride o f pal m oil sa p on i fie s with c a u stic

, ,

sod a a s shown i n the eq u a tion

,

01 611 81 02
O,H , 3N a O H SN a C O,H , O H
01 611 31 02 C a u sti c S oda . So d i u m a lmi ta te .

P a lm i ti n . G lyce r i n e .

From wh ich it m a y be c a lc u l a ted th a t 806 p a r ts of the

glyce r ide req u ire 1 2 0 p a rts O f c a u stic sod a a n d there will be ,

prod u ce d 8 34 p a rts o f so a p a n d 9 2 p a rts o f g ly c erine .

L au rin the principa l glycer ide of coco n u t O i l is s a po n i

, ,

fied a s shown in th e equ a tio n

12 H2 302

11 2 302 C a u sti c So da . So di u m La u ra te .

12
urin . G lyc e ri ne .

638 p a rts of l a u rin requ ire 1 2 0 p a rts of cau stic sod a and pro ,

du ce 66 6 p arts of so a p a n d 92 p a rts O f glycerine .

I f a ll fats a n d oils were co m posed Si m ply of one glyceri de

it wo u ld be a n easy m a tter to m ake the m a n u fa ct u re of s o a p
a tru ly scie n ti fic proceedin b t n fort u n a tely the oils a n d
g u u ,

fats h a ve not the si m ple co m positio n whic h h a s been a s

su m ed a bove they bei n g m ixt u res in va riou s proportions o f
,

two or m ore di fferent glycerides Th u s t a llow cont a i n s both .

stea ri n a n d olein p a lm O i l p a lm itin stear in a n d olei n coco

, ,

n u t O i l is eve n m or e co m plex it co n t a ins l a u ri n c a proin , , ,

c a pri n c a prylin O lein ste a ri n etc The n a ga in the p r opor

, , , , .

tions of these v a rio u s constit u en ts v a ry fro m ti m e to ti m e

hence the so ap m a ker c a n n ot a ss u m e th a t his fa ts wi ll
-
2 48 SO A P MANUFAC T URE .

a lwa ys h a ve a const a nt com position a n d b a se his m ethod of ,

worki n g on tha t a ss um ptio n .

AS the process o f so a p m a kin g u nder the cold a n d press u re

-

system s m u st or Shou ld be c a r ried O n i n su c h a w a y th a t an

, ,

ex cess o f a lk a li be a voided the so ap m a ker o u ght to be pl a ced

,
-

in a position to a scert a in the a m ou n t of a lk a li c au stic s oda ,

or c au stic pot a s h a n y lot or p a rcel o f fa t he is u sing will

t a ke t h is he c a n do by a scer t a ini n g by m e a n s O f the K o ett
storfer test the proportion of a lk a li r equ ired to s a poni fy any
g ive n fa t o r Oil The
. m et h od o f c a r r yi n
g o u t this test w e

will n ow describe .

T he K oettstorf er Test — T O c a rr y ou t this test there is

req u ired first a wide m o u thed gl a ss fl a sk O f a bo u t 4 to 6 oz
- .

c a p a city fit ted with a cork thro u gh which p a sses a piece of

, ,

g l a ss t u be a bo u t 3 feet lo n
g a n d } inch wide There will 1 .

also be r eq u ired a wa ter b a th he a ted by a bu n seri bu rner

fo r th e p u r pose o f he a ti n g u p the fl a sk when i n u se There .

a r e also req u i r ed a b u rette 2 5 c c pipette a n d b a l a n ce an d

,
. .

wei ghts . The chem ic a ls req u ired ar e a solu tion of 30

g r a m m es o f p u re c au stic pot a sh in 1 000 c c o f a lcohol and . .

a st a n d a rd sol u tio n o f s u lph u ric a cid or better wh a t is kn own ,

as sem inorm a l stren gth th a t is cont a i n in g 2 4 5 gra m m es of

, ,

p u re s u lph u ric a cid per litre .

W ei gh i n to the fl a sk 2 gr a m m es o f th e O i l or fa t to be
tested a dd 2 5 c c of the a lcoh olic sol u tion of c a u stic potash
, . .

a n d he a t on the w a ter b a th for h a l f a n ho u r S h a ki n g u p at ,

i n terv a ls A t the e n d of the ti m e st a ted the fat will h ave

.

bee n co m pletely sap on i fie d a n d wh a t rem a i n s to be don e is

,

to deter m ine the excess o f the a lk a li u sed This is do n e by .

dilu tin g the test solu tio n with a little wa ter a ddi n g a few ,

drops o f a n a l c oh olic solu tio n o f phen ol p h th alein which will ,

im p a rt a r e d color a tion then a ddin g c ar efu lly from the

,

b u rette the st a n d a rd a cid u ntil this r ed colo u r dis a ppears ,

n oti n g the n u m ber O f c c s o f a cid r equ ired The fl ask i s

’
. . .
 C OL D PRO CE SS
-
SO AP S . 2 49

ne xt well ri n sed ou t a n d a bl a n k test m a de by m e a s u ri n g

into it 2 5 c c of the potash solu tion boilin g u p on the wa ter
. .
,

bath a s be fore then dil u tin g with water a ddin g the phe n ol
, ,

p h t h a lei n sol u tio n a n d titr a ti n g fr o m t h e b u rette with the

st an d ard a cid The O bject of m akin g this bl a n k test is to
.

st an d ardise t h e pot a sh sol u tio n i n term s of the a cid sol u tion ,

a n d this is best do n e i n the m a nner j u st described a s the n ,

any error which m a be c u sed by i m p u r ities i n the a lcohol

y a

u sed a cti n on the a lk a li d u ri n g the boili n g is eli m in a ted

g .

To c a lc u l a te the percent a ge of c a u stic pot a sh requ ired to

sapon i fy the fa t fro m the dat a obt a i n ed the n u m ber of c c s
’
. .
,

of acid u sed in the test with the oil is s u btr a cted fr o m the

num ber u sed in the bl a nk test ; the di ffere n ce m u ltiplied

by 002 8 gives the wei ght of a lk a li K O H r e q u ired to s a po n i fy

, ,

th e 2 gr a m m es of fa t t a ken a n d this m u ltiplied by 5 0 gives

,

th e percen t a ge To ta ke a co n crete ex a m ple : 2 gram m es of

.

tallow were t aken an d tre a ted a s described the n u m ber of ,

c c s of a cid u sed bei n

. .
’

g 8 2 the bl
,
a nk test t a kin g 2 2 1 T hen .

we h a ve

x 00 2 8 03 89 2 .

03 892 is th e wei ght of K O H requ ired to saponi fy 2

gr a m m es o f t a llow M u ltiplyi
. n
g this by 5 0 we h a ve

the percenta ge of c au stic pot a sh K O H requ ired to s a po n i fy

, ,

ta llow .

Shou ld it be desired to a scert a i n the q u a n tity of c au stic

soda requ ired t hen the di fferen ce in the st a nd a rd acid u se
,

is m u ltipli e d by In the a bove c a se we sho u ld h a ve

1 39 x 0 02 02 78 0 2 7 8 x 50 gives 1 39 a s the per
.

centage of c a u stic soda requ ire d to sapo n i fy t a llow .

In the s a m e wa y the K oettstor fer v a l u e or sa p on i fica ti on

equ ivalen t of other fats an d oils m a y be obtained a n d h a vin g ,
 SO AP MANUFA C T URE

go t these and kn owin g the act u a l stre n gth in rea l c a u stic

,

o f the sam ple of co m m ercial c au stic sod a he is u si n g the ,

so a p m aker will be i n a positio n to c a lc u l a te the qu a n tity of

-

c au stic sod a or of c au stic pot a sh he m u st u se to co n vert a

g iven q u antity o f fa t or m ixt u re o f fats into soap by eit her

the cold process or the press u re process .

Thu s s u pposing the soap m a ker wishes to m a ke a soap

-

from
1 cwt kitchen fa t havi n g a K oe ttstor fe r v a l u e o f
.

l 2 c wt o f t a llow with a K oettstor fe r v a l u e of 1 39

.

2 c wt of coco n u t oil with a K oe ttstor fe r v a l u e O f

.

a n d is u sin 7 4 per cent co m m erci a l c a u stic which cont ain s

g .

per cent of rea l c au stic soda ; then we sh a ll h ave to

.

m a ke th e follo win g c a lcu l a tio n s

The kitchen fa t will ta ke
1 00 : 112 : lb o f cau stic sod a
. .

The t a llow will ta ke

1 00 : 1 1 2 : 1 5 5 6 lb o f c au stic sod a
. .

The coco n u t oil will t a ke

1 00 : 2 2 4: lb of c a u stic sod a
. .

Then we h a ve

A tota l of 7 08 9 lb of c au stic sod a requi red to s aponify the

.

weight of fa ts given .

N ext we h a ve to c a lc u late th e qu a n tity of com m erci al

sod a to be u sed F o r th is we h a ve the proportion 9 5 5
.

1 00 7 43 There wi ll ther efore be req u ired 7 4 3

.

lb o f 7 4 per ce n t c a u stic sod a to s a poni fy the fa ts t a ken

. . .

I n a S i m il a r w ay c a lc u latio n s m a y be m ade concerning

other m ixt u r es of fa t s an d oils .

The K oettstor fer v a lu es or sap on i fic a ti on equi va le n ts of

v a riou s oils have a l r e a dy been given ; th ese m a y be t aken
 -
C OL D P RO CE SS S O AP S . 2 51

withou t m u ch error bu t th e soap m a ker is recom m ended to

,
-

separately test eac h fres h batc h of fa ts t h at h e m a y be u sin g ,

as they O ften vary con sider a bly The m eth od of testi n g

.

comm erci a l c a u stics for t h eir real stren gt h h a s be en give n

when de a li n g wit h alkalie s .

There is a n oth er point wh ich requ ires at te ntion in m ak

ing soap s by eith e r o f th e two processes u nder co n sidera ti on ,

and that is the proportion O f w a ter the y m u st cont a i n whe n

finished ; for it m u st be hom e in m ind th a t wh atever water i s

add ed d u r i n g the process O f m a n u fa ct u re re m ains in the so a p

and c a n not be convenientl y re m oved i f a n excess h a s been

u sed or a dded to i f too little h a s been em ployed

, .

T he so a p m a ker m u st t h erefore i f he desires to prod u ce a

-
, ,

soap with a given proportion of w a ter u se o n ly that q u a n tity ,

which will give h i m this res u lt a n d t h is of co u rse he adds

,

alon with his ca u stic i the for m f lye T h u s s u pposin g

g n o .

that i n workin g u p th e fats give n in th e exam ple above h e

wish es to produ c e a soap wi th 30 per ce n t O f water h e wo u ld .
,

to ma ke his calc u latio n s add the wei gh t O f fa t e m ployed to

that of cau stic u sed and then work the proportion su m
70 30 446

he will therefore h ave to add 2 2 39 lb of water in m a ki n g .

hi s soap This water h e will of co u rse add to th e c a u sti c

.

soda .

TH E COL D P R O CE SS O F SO AP - MAK I N G .

The process n ow to be considered is perhaps the si m plest

of all processes o f m a kin so ap It consists essentially in
g .

j u st h eati n g the fa ts from whi ch the so a p is to be m a de

su fli ci en t l
y to m elt t h em then thoro u
, gh ly m ixin g th e -

mel ted fa t with stron g cau s tic l y e a n d th en allowin g th e ,

mixtu re to st a nd for a few d a y s The sa poni ficati on of th e

.

fat s proc ee d s an d a t the end of the ti m e stated is fa irly

,

complete an d the soap is m ade

, The pl a nt requ ired is of a
.
2 52 SO AP MAN UFAC T URE .

s i m ple ch ar a cter and is probably the indu cem ent for the
,

p rocess havi n g co m e i n to u se .

The a dv a n t ages of th e cold process of so a p m aki ng -

m a y th u s be s u m m ed u p .It is very sim ple an d ea sily

c arried ou t requ irin g little l a bo u r a n d pl an t Sm a ll qu an
,
.

tities c a n be m a de by its m ea ns which is not the c a se with

,

t h e boili n g process . T h e so a p too h a s a better appearan ce

th a n a boiled spap ; fu rther it keeps its form better a n d does
n o t cra ck so re a dily a s a boiled so ap It is there fore better
.

a d a pted for m a ki n g t a blets o f toilet soap for which p u rpose ,

the cold process is chiefly em ployed The yield of so a p fr om .

a n y given wei ht o f fa t is l a r er o n a cco u nt of the fact that

g g
a ll the m a teri a l u sed i n m a kin g the so a p re m a ins in .

The dis a dv a ntage of the cold process so a p is that it is

-

d i ffi c u lt indeed i m possible to sec u r e co m plete sap on i fic ati on

, ,

o f the wh ole of the fa t u sed . There a lways is present in

t hese so a ps a s m all bu t v a riable qu a ntity o f free fa t Then .

t hey a lso co n t a i n a little free a lk a li which cau ses th e so ap to

,

w ork h a rsh a n d feel sharp to m a n y ski n s The presence of .

the free fa t m a y som eti m es lead to the so ap becom i n g rancid .

C old process so a ps when exposed to the a i r a r e rat h er li able

-

t o S weat a n d they d r y u p m ore e a sily than a boil e d so ap ; it

therefore does not look well when O ld It however dissolves .

m ore freely i n w a ter a n d there fore l a thers better ; for h ard

w a ters it is better s u ited th a n a boiled soap .

A s a ll the i n gredients which a r e u sed re m ain in the soap ,

i t is eviden t th a t all the m a teri a ls u sed s h o uld be of th e best

q u a lity i f a g ood g r ade o f so a p is to be m a de .

The fa t m ost u sed a n d best a da pted for m a ki n g soap by

this process is coco n u t oil At on e ti m e it w a s considered
.

t h a t a cold
- proces s so a p co u ld not be m a de witho u t thi s oil
form i n g fu lly one h a l f O f the fa ts u sed This however was at
.

t h ti m e whe hi hly ti i d lyes were n ot m a de an d

e n g c au s c s e

w hen c a u stics of hi gh st r en gth were u n k n own N ow how .

 C OL D RO CE S S
-P
S O AP S . 2 53

vr
e e ki n d O f fa t m ay be em ployed still cocon u t oil
an y ,

remai n s the chie f one u sed Its m erit lies in the fact that
.

it sapon i fie s m ore rea dily with stron g a lka lies su ch a s

have to be u sed than an y other fa t It yields a so a p of a
.

fine colou r it dissolves easily in cold water a n d l a thers very

,

freel y ; on th e other h a nd it is a p t to be h a rs h an d feel

sharp to delic a te skins .

Tallow is a lso very l a rgely u sed for cold so a ps givi n g goo d ,

white so a ps of a fir m text u re d u ra ble in u se , .

P a lm O i l i s a lso l a rgely u sed as is a lso c a stor oil

, The .

soap m a ker i n deed m a

- se any fa t or a d m ixt u re f f t s
y u o a

when he wishes to prod u ce a so a p h a vi n g desired p r operties .

W hatever fa ts a r e u sed they Sho u ld be of a g ood qu a lity ,

free fro m a n y for ei g n m a tter an d be fresh It is advis a ble to .

subject the m to a clari fy i n process be fore sin the m t h i

g u g ; s

process m ay take the form of m elti n g a n d a llowi n g to settle ,

or the fa t m a y be m elted O ver a s a lt lye o f a bo u t 1 0 T w

°

,
.

an d i n each c a se u si n g o n ly the cle a r fa t which r ises to th e

top . It is of great i m port a nce to u se fresh fa ts a n d fa ts

free fr o m a n y great proportio n o f free fa tty a cid a s s u ch ,

tends to the form a tion of so a p which is not u ni for m i n gra in ,

the free fa tty a cids when the a lkali is m ixed with the fa t
, ,

im m edi a tely co m bini n g with it to fo r m so ap which sep a ra tes

from the rest O f the m a ss i n the form o f gr a ins a n d c u rd s ;
the presence of which destroys the hom o gen eo u s ch a r a cter
of the soap .I f it be s u spected th a t a n y p a rticu l a r b a tch of
fat cont ains too m u ch fr ee fa tty a cid s u ch m ay be r em oved ,

by he a ti n g the fa t to j u st a bou t its m elti n g poi n t then ,

thoro u ghly mixin g it with a little we a k lye m a de fro m sod a

ash O f a bo u t 2
°
to 3 T w stron g ; the alk a li t a kes ou t the
°
.

acid in th e form o f so a p w hi ch dis solves in lye

, By keeping .

the m a ss a t 1 30 to 1 50 F the p u r i fied fa t will rise to the

° °
.

top a n d m a y be ski m m ed O ff a n d u sed I f an y di ffi c u lty be

.

experie n ced i n sep ara ti n g the cle a r fa t a little bri n e a dded

2 54 SO AP MANUF AC TURE .

will rem ove it . It pays best to u se onl y th e best gra des of

fa t.

The a lkali u s e d m u st be the h i gh est grade of c a u stic that

c a n be bo u gh t either the 7 7 per cent
, solid cau stic sod a or .

t h e 1 00 T w li q u id cau stic soda Th e streng th of lye

°
. .

m ost co m m onl y u sed is 7 0 to 7 2 T w and c ont ai ni ng

° °
.

32 to 33 per cent of a ct u a l c a u stic . The alk a line lye shou ld .

be m a de wit h as so ft a wa ter a s can be got L o w grades of .

c au stic are not s u itable for m a kin g soap b y the cold p r ocess ,

i n a s m u ch a s th e forei gn salts and i m pu rities they contain

interfere with th e co m plete sap on i fic ati on of the fa t an d lead
to th e prod u ction of a so a p which contains a l a rge proportion
of free fa t a n d free a lk a li ; the n ag ain i f a very low grade

c au stic were u sed th e i m p u rities a n d salts wou ld be li able to

e fli or esc e n c e on t h e s u r fa ce a n d spoil the appe a ran c e of the

s o a p a n d of an y wrappers i n whic h it m ay be placed .

AS re ga rds th e q u a n tity of lye u sed a n d th e proper

s tre n gt h a t w h ic h to u se it this necessarily v ar ies wit h the,

kind of fa t em ployed C oco n u t oil for instan ce will require

.
, ,

m ore lye and a stron g er o n e m ay be u sed th a n is the case

,

with t a llow .

It h a s been fou nd th a t coc onu t oil and cotton O i l saponify

best with a lye a t 7 2 T w wh ile for t a llow p a lm oil °
.
, ,

and m ost ot h er fa ts the sa p on i ficati on proceeds best at 66 °

Tw . Too strong a lye sh ou ld be avoided a s then the ,

s o a p is m ade rather c u rdy in text u re and th e sa p on ificati on

b u t i m perfect th e so a p bein g hard and rou gh

, It is better .

to u se a l ye one or two degrees weaker than stro n ger .

AS re gards th e qu an tity of lye to be u sed coc o nu t Oil as , ,

before m e n tioned t a kes the m ost 1 00 lb of the Oil taking

, , .

5 0 lb of lye a t 7 2 T w m a de fro m 7 7 per cent c au stic

°
. . .

sod a If a lo wer gr a de o f c a u stic say 7 0 per cent then the

.
, .
,

lye m a y be m ade stron ger say 7 7 T w and the same ,

°
.
,

qu an tity u sed .
 C O L D P R O C E SS SO AP S . 2 55

T allow cotton O i l pal m O i l and other fa t s do not requ ire

, , ,

so m u ch a lk a li ; in t h eir case it i s be st to u se a lye of 66

°

Tw a n d o f this 5 0 lb will be requ ired for e a ch 100 lb . .

of fat .

Usi n g
the fats and oils an d lyes in th e proportions and
stren t hs give n the finished so a ps will co n tain abo u t 2 5 per
g ,

cen t of wa ter which is a fair avera ge qu antity I f a so ap

.
, .

contai n in g m ore w a ter h e desired then a we a ker lye m a y be ,

u sed w hile i f a st r on e r soap is w a n ted then a stron er lye

, g g ,

mu st be em ployed .

It m a y ag a in be stated th a t in the cold process the

sa on i fi c a ti o n
p is never co m plete ; there is a lw a y s in the
finished so a p a little free fa t an d a little free a lkali In m a k .

in g a t o ilet soap it is a dvis a ble to so proportion the fa te a n d

alkalie s a n d the stre n gt h of the lye u sed a s to lea ve as little

free alk a li a s possible .

H a vin g so far de a lt with the m a teri a ls and principle s

of the cold process of so a p m a kin g we m a y now proceed to -
,

describe in det a il the O peration itsel f .

—
Wor ki n g of the Cold P r ocess The fa ts a n d oils wh ich .

are to be u sed a r e pl a ced i n a p a n wh ich o u ght to be fitted ,

with a m ixi n g a rr a n ge m ent The fa ts are m elted by he a t .

in an y conven ient way either by ste a m or fir e A su it a ble ,

.

pan for th is pu r pose is th a t m ade by D opp of N e w Y ork

an d a lre a dy ill u str a ted fig u re 31 pa ge 1 8 7 T h e tem pera t u re
, , .

Sho u ld not be too hi gh si m p ly th a t which is su fli c i en t to

,

m elt the fa ts W h en cocon u t Oi l is u s ed t h is will be 80 to

°
.

90 F wit h a m ixt u re of cocon u t oil a n d t a llow abou t 1 00

° °
.
,

F with t a llow and other gre a ses fro m 1 1 0 to 1 2 0 F W hen

° °
.
, .

m elted the lye is r u n in with co n stant stirrin g which is ,

continu ed u ntil the m ass of fa t a n d lye be gi n s to thicken

a n d flo w fro m a paddle i n a u ni fo r m sl u ish stre m The

gg a .

tem pera tu re of the ly e m ay be th a t of a n avera ge su m m er

h eat 7 0 to 80 F There is no need to he a t or wa rm it in
° °
.
,
 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

su m m er bu t in winter it m ay be a d visable to heat the lye to

,

80 F be fore m ixin g it with th e oil After the lye an d oil

°
. .

h a ve been m ixed and it be gins to th icken the soap m a ss is

r u n i n to th e fr a m es which a r e then covered over with s ack
,

i n g to keep the h e a t in a s m u ch a s possible and le ft for fr om ,

three days to a week for the soap to fully form a fter whi ch ,

it m a y be c u t u p in the u s u a l way .

Altho u gh com pa r a tively Sim ple yet as wit h all processes , ,

o f so a p m a kin g -
th e cold proces s m u st be cond u cted with
,

care a n d a tten tio n to so m e poin ts of det a il or otherwi se the

produ ct will n ot be qu ite ri gh t S om e poi n ts of det a il have
.

a lre a dy been m entioned others m a y n ow be briefly re ferred

,

to To ensu re a perfectly good prod u ct the fats m u st be of

.
,

g ood q u ality and free fro m free fatty acid o r otherwise the ,

soap is liable to t u rn o u t c u rdy a n d n ot hom o geneo u s in

stru c tu re The fats sho u ld be a t the ri gh t tem pera t u re not
.
,

too cold or otherwise they m i ght set on a ddi n g the lye n or

, ,

too hot or then the sap on i fic a ti on of portions m ay t a ke place

,

too r a pidly an d a c u rdy or grainy so a p be produ ced T he .

stren gth o f the ly e h a s alre a dy been dea lt with a n d does not

need rep ea tin g here The mi xin g or cru tchi n g of the fat
.

and lye to gether Sh ou ld be thorou gh bu t not too prolon ged .

It is not desir a ble th a t an y a ctu al sa p on ific a ti on shou ld t ake

pl a ce du ri n g the m ixi n g oper a tio n bu t only in the fr a m es
,

a fter wa rds It is fou nd i n pra ctice t h a t i f the cru tch i n g be

.

too prolo n ged then there is a tendency for the m a teri a ls to

sep a r a te ou t i n the fr a m es an d an indi ffe r ent q u a lity o f so ap
,

produ ced with which only on e t h in g c a n be don e an d th a t is

,

to throw the m a ter i a ls i n to the Soap boiler an d boil the m u p - .

The fram es into which the soap is ru n fro m the cru tchers
shou ld n ot be t o o l a rge ; those holdin g fr om 2 to 2 } cwt a re 1 .

best a n d it is pre fer able t h a t these sho u ld be low a n d bro ad

,

r a ther th a n n a r row a n d hi gh The l a tter sh a pe of fram e s r e

.

t a ins th e he a t too lo n g a n d the so ap does n o t set pro p erly

, ,
 C O L D -P R O C E SS SO AP S . 2 57

while with the low flat fram es covered with sackin g th e heat
is ret ai n ed s u ffi cient to ens u re the proper sap on i fic a ti on takin g
,

p l ac e Too
. m u c h h eat sho u ld be avoided a s t h e n there is ,

a risk o f oil separatin o t In s m m er ti m e this is a risk

g u u .

speci a lly to be arded a ainst

g u g .

F i lli n g C old p r ocess S oap s —The cold process ad a p ts

- .

itself very well to th e perfu m i n g colou rin g and filli n g of th e ,

soap s m a de by it .

As re ga rds perfu m in g a n y kind of perfu m e m ay be added ,

and r ecipes fo r s u ch per fu m es will be fo u nd described u nder

the he a d o f Toilet Soaps The perfu m es sho u ld be added

.

aft er the stock h a s been mi xed in the cr u tch ers a n d be fore

th e cru tchin g is finished so th a t th e perfu m e h a s ti m e to

,

g e t i n tim a tely m ixed wit h the w h ole O f th e soap stock .

Cold process soaps m a y be colo u red to any exte n t a n d

-

with a n y kind of colo u ri n g m a teri a l In th e case o f em ploy .

ing su ch bodies as verm ilion u l tr a m a rine ch rom e gree n , , ,

etc .
,which ar e insol u ble i n water they m ay be added to the ,

fats be fo r e a ddin g th e alkali when t h ey will get thoro u ghly ,

incor pora ted wi th th e so a p O f cou rse c a re m u st be t a ken

.

not to e m ploy a n colo ri n m tter like P r ssi n bl e

y u g a u a u , ,

whi ch is a cted u pon by the a lk a li As rega rds solu ble .

colo u ri n m a tters like a nn a tto s a fr a n ine eosine a n d the

g , , ,

coal ta r dyes i n
- eneral t h best pl n is to dissolve these in
g e , a

water str a ini n g the sol u tion to free it fr o m any u n dissolved

,

p a rtic les which m i ght lead to the p r od u ction o f specks i n the

soap a n d a dd the sol u tion to th e l e u si n this rat h er stro e
, y g ,
n
g r ,

p e r h a ps to a llow
,
fo r th e dye sol u tio n we a kenin g it a ltho u g h ,

when there is b u t a s m all q u a n tity o f dye st u ff bei n g u sed

this poi n t do es not need m u ch a tten tion .

Fillin g m a terials su ch a s silic a te O f soda starch s u lph a te , ,

of sod a s a lt s u a r etc or co m bi n a tions o f t h ese m a y be

, g , , ,

added tow a rds th e last while i n the cru tchers to a n y r e

qu i red extent They . are best a dded j u st be fore f ra m in g ,

17
2 58 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

alt h ou gh the p r actice O f soap m akers varies very consi der -

ably on th is point .

In the c h apter on Toilet Soaps wi ll be fo u n d a n u m ber of

recipes for m aki n g t h ese soap s by the cold process we shall
here con fine attention to dom estic soap s .

H a r d Whi te Soap — 1 00 lb good W hite tallo w 50 lb .

, .

cau stic soda lye a t 68 T w °

.

W h i te H a r d W e S p
a t r oa — 1 00 lb coco n u t o i l 50 lb .
,
.

ca u stic soda lye at 7 2 T w °

.

Whi te S oap — 5 0 lb tallow 50 lb coco n u t O i l 50 lb

.
, .
,
.

cau stic sod a lye a t 7 0 T w °

.

D omes ti c S oa p Yello w — 50 lb cocon u t O i l [ 30 lb t allow

,
.
,
.
,

2 0 lb p a lm O i l 5 0 lb ca u stic soda lye at 7 0 T w

°
. . .
,

P a le S oap — 5 0 lb coco n u t O i l 2 5 lb tallow 2 5 lb

.
, .
,
.

p a lm oil 2 5 lb castor oil 63 lb c au stic soda lye at 7 0 T w

, .
, .
°
.

The replacem en t O f a portio n of th e so d a lye say one ,

fo u rth by c a u stic pot a sh O f th e s a m e stre n gth m u c h im

, ,

proves both the a ppe a ra nce a n d qu a lity O f these so aps .

S o a p m a kers worki n g fro m the above recipe s c a n e a sily

-

recko n on the respective qu a n ti ties o f sod a an d pot a s h .

SO AP - MAKI NG U ND E R P RE SSU R E .

D u ri n g recen t ye a r s th ere has bee n i n tr od u ced a system

of m a ki n g so a p u n der press u re a n d in the ch a pter o n So ap ,

M a c h i n ery there h a s been described a pl a n t which is u sed

for this p u rpose The m a terials em ployed are those u sed in
.

the o r din ary cold p r oce ss a n d a n y recipe which has been ,

g iven u nde r th a t he a d m a y be e m ployed for m akin g so aps

u n der press u r e .

F or a good yellow so a p there m a y be u sed a ch a rge of

7 c w t of t a llow O i l 3 c wt o f r osi n 3 cwt of p a l m O i l a nd
.
, .
,
.

1 40 ga llons of c a u stic sod a lye a t 34 T w or there m ay be °

.

u sed 7 cwt t allow 2 c wt palm Oi l 4 c wt rosin with 140

.
, .
, .
,
 P RE S S UR -
E P RO C E SS SO AP S . 2 59

ga llons c au stic sod a lye a t 42 T w This will m ake a drier °

.

soap th a n the l a st fo r m u la .

Th e plant is m ade s u ffi ciently large to hold 1 ton of ch a rg e ,

i

bu t m a y however be bu ilt l a rger t o t a ke 2 to n s i n on e

ch ar ge . The m ethod is si m ple ; t he a pp a r atu s is ch a rged
thr o u gh the m a n hole provided for the p u r pose whic h i s ,

then closed a n d the fir e is li gh ted a n d m a i n t a ined to s u ch a

,

degree th a t the pressu re i n th e boiler st a n ds a t 50 to 60 lb .

,

as i n dic a ted by the stea m jet pro v ided fo r the p u rpose The .

len gth O f ti m e a llowed is fr om fiv e to six h o u rs a t the en d ,

of which ti m e the fin i sh ed so a p is r u n i n to the c ru tche r s

an d m ixed with a n y colo u ri n g m a t ter or sce n t that m a y be

requ i r ed a fter which it is r u n i n to the fra m es to set It is

,
.

quite possible when workin g a hi gh pre ssu r e system to u se

two ch a rg es a d a y The so ap m a de is gen er a lly excelle n t i n
.

q u a lity a n d q u ite eq u a l to t hat m a de by t h e o r di n a ry

p ro

ces se s . L ike the col d process so a p it will ret ai n a ll the

-

gyl ceri n e a n d other m a teri a ls which h a ve bee n a dded i n t h e

p r ocess o f m a ki n
g ( S e e a lso .Ben n et a n d G ibbs p r oces s
’

farth er o n ) .

O ei c A c i d Soap
l — O leic a ci d is prep a red i n fa irly l a r ge
q u a n ti t ies as a b y prod u c t in
- the m a n u fa ct u r e o f ste a ric acid
for c an dle m a ki n g a n d i s u sed for a v a riety O f p u r poses
-
, ,

amon
g which th a t o f so a p m a ki n
g m a y be- i n cl u ded It i s .

sold i n two pri n cip a l prod u c ts p a le O leic a cid o f a li ght

,

straw colo u r a n d b r ow n O leic a cid which h a s a reddish

,

amb er co lo u r both v a rieties h a vi n pec li a r O do u r w h ich

, g a u

is ra the r ch a ra cteristic The co m posi tion o f O leic a cid varie s

.

somewh a t fro m ti m e to ti m e a ccordi n to the proce sses by

g ,

mean s o f which i t is m a de I t s chie f con stit u e n t is O f co u r se

.
, ,

oleic a cid bu t it cont ains i n additio n s m all tr a ces o f hyd r o

,

car bon m a tter a n d tr a ces of fa t ty O i l which h a s esc a ped

,

sa on i fic a ti on
p The f.ollowin g a r e a nalyse s rece n tly m a de ,

by the writer o f two s a m ples of co mm erci a l O leic a cid fro m

, ,
2 60 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

which th e a vera ge com positio n of the co m m erci a l a r ti cle can

be rea dily gle a n ed The Speci fic gr a vity i s a l so gi ven at
.

60 F a n d the tem per a t u re a t which it be gi n s to set

°
.

There w ill be requ ired the propo r tio n O f O leic a cid actu
a lly p r ese n t to g ether with the a m o u n t O f sa p o n i fia b le oil;
,

these m a y be a scer t a i n ed by the u s u a l m ethods T aking .

a s a co n c r ete ex a m ple the a n a lysis o f the brow n O leic acid

g ive n a bove a n d a ss u m i n
, g th a t a c h a r
g e O f 1 t o n o f o leic

a cid is oi to be wo ked n d th a t 7 7 ce t c tic

g n g r a , p e r n a u s .

s od a is to be u sed we sh a ll h a ve the followi n g

,

2 82 40
1 00 2 2 40

which gives 2 5 7 lb of 7 7 p er cen t c a u stic a s bei n g r equ i red

. .

t o s a po n i fy on e ton of this b r ow n O leic a cid As there is

.

e r ce n t O f s a on i fia b le O i l i n the s a m ple the a dditi onal

p .
p ,

q u a ntity o f c a u stic to s a po n i fy this m a y be c a lc u l a ted t h us ,

a llowi n g 1 4 lb O f c a u stic fo r 1 00 lb o f the O i l

. .

1 00 14
1 00 2 2 40

w hic h g ives 2 9 5 lb a s the a dditio n a l q u a n tity to a dd

. .

O leic a cid co m bi n es i m m e di a t e ly o r a l m ost i m m edi ately

in the cold with c a u stic sod a a n d c au stic pot a sh a n d it will ,

re a ct also with the c a r bo n a tes o f sod a a n d po ta sh ; i n the

la tter c a se a co n sider a ble evol u tio n o f c a rbo n ic a cid t a king
pl a ce .

So a p m ay be m a de fro m O leic a cid by u si n g either

c a u stic sod a or c a r bon a te o f sod a fo r h a rd so a ps or by u si ng ,

c a u stic pot a sh or c a rbo n a te o f pot a sh i f so ft soaps ar e t e

i r ed A ood s m ple f leic cid t kes h al f its wei ht of

q u .
g a o O a a g
 O LE C I AC ID SO AP S . 2 61

cau stic sod a a t 66 T w for i ts com plete sap on i fic a ti on T h e

°
. .

two su bst a n ces m a y be bro u ght to gethe r either i n the cold

or boili n g ; whe n bro u ght to g ether he a ted the co m bi n a tion ,

i s ap t to t a ke pl a ce so ra pidly that the so a p sep a ra tes o u t in

the form o f gr a i n s wh ich a r e ap t to cont a in u n sap on i fied
oleic a cid . I n a so m ewh a t lesser de gree thi s is a lso a p t to
occu r w h en u si n g it cold The best m ethod O f wo r ki n g is
.

to r u n the fa tty a cid i n t o the ste a m j a cketed pa n which i s -

,

fit ted with a n a git a tor Ther e is the n a dded the requ i r ed

.

qu an tity O f c a u stic sod a a t 66 T w with a git a tio n At t h e

°
. .

sam e t i m e the he a t is t u rn ed o n so a s to he a t the m a ss The .

heati n g a n d a git a ti n g a r e co n ti n u ed u n til a u n i for m p a sty

m a ss is O bt a ined .To this m a y be a dded a n y requ i r ed scen t
or colo u r i n g m a tter a fter which it is r u n i n to fr a m es to set
,
.

The s a m e pl a n m a y be a do p ted i f c a u stic pot a sh be em ployed

in th e pl a ce o f c a u s tic sod a .

T h e theo r e tic a l equi v a le n t s betwee n O leic a cid a n d th e

alka l i es a r e : 2 82 O f O leic a cid to 40 of c a u stic S od a or 56 of ,

c au stic pot a sh these bei n g p a r ts by wei ght The so ap m a ker

,
.
-

will fin d it a s well to a sce r t a i n by che m ic a l a n a lysis the ex a ct

str en g th of the O leic a cid an d to c a lc u l a te from these p r O
,

por tio n s the qu a n tity O f c a u s tic sod a or c a u stic pot a sh which

he wil l co m bi n e with a n y given ch a r ge of O leic a cid As .

comm e r ci a l O leic a cid g e n er a lly co n t a i n s a s m a ll perce n t a ge

of u n s a o n i fia ble O i l a sli ht excess O f a lk a li m a y be a dded ;

p g
this w ill en s u re co m ple te sap on i fic a t i o n O f the fa tty m a tter .

In pl a ce o f em ployi n g the c au stic a lk a lies the che a per c a r ,

bon a t e s m ay be u sed ; bu t i n this c a se the so a p m a ker i s -

tro u bled with a co n side r a ble a m o u n t of frothi n g owi n g to ,

th e fo r m a tio n O f c a rbo n ic a cid ga s which n ecessit a tes the

,

em ploym en t of very l a rge vessels for the prod u ctio n o f th e

so a p which is i n m a n y c a ses r a ther i n co n ve n ie n t The
,
.

proportio n o f sod a a sh of 5 2 p er ce n t to oleic a cid m a y be .

take n a s 1 9 lb of sod a to 1 00 lb O f O leic a cid a n d 3}

. .
,
2 62 SOAP MANUFA C T UR E .

g allons o f w a ter will be req u ired to dissolve th a t q u a n tity of

s od a ash . I f n eed ful the better q u a li ties of a lkalies m a y be
e m ployed when a proportionately less qu a ntity will be u sed
, .

Theoretic a lly 2 82 lb of O leic a cid requ ire 5 3 lb o f sodiu m

. .

c arbo n a te or 69 lb o f potassi u m c a r bonate for sa p o n ific a ti on

. .

There is no di ffic u l ty in m a kin g a good so a p fro m O leic a cid ,

a n d t h e carbon a tes sho u ld be u sed w a rm a n d th e sol u tio n of

t h e sod a a sh a dded allowi n g ti m e for the su bside n ce of th e

,

fro t hi n g by wh ich m e a n s the process c a n be car r ied on with

,

m o r e e ffective con trol After all the alk a li has bee n a dded
.

t h e m a ss of so a p sho u ld be kept he a ted u n til it a ss u m e s the

form O f a s m oo th ho m o ge n eo u s p a ste when i t is re a dy for
, ,

ru n ni n g i n to the fr a m es for coolin g .

If tho u ght desir a ble the O leic a cid m a y be co m bi n ed w ith

o ther fa t s o r rosi n A good proportion wo u ld be 3 c w t of
. .

O leic a cid a n d l cwt O f rosi n or 3 c w t O f Oleic a cid 1 cwt

.
, .
, .

o f p a l m oil a n d 1 cwt o f rosin

, W he n these fa ts a r e u sed
. .

the m ixt u r e requ i r es boili n g rather lo n ger t h an when O leic

a cid is u sed by itsel f The so a ps th u s m a de ar e r a ther b e tter
.

in ta ste a n d s weeter i n odo ur t h a n so aps m a de from O leic a cid

a lo n e
. I t m a y be n oted t h a t the so a p m a de fro m bro w n
oleic a cid ten ds to beco m e d a rker i n colo u r by keepi n g wi th
p a le O leic a cid this defect is n ot m et with .

HYDRAT E D A
SO P S .

A si m il a r pl a n of wor ki n g is on e which has b ee n

e speci a lly follo wed i n m a ki n g wh a t a r e g en era lly k n own
a s m a ri n e so a ps ; it is pra ctic a lly a m odi fic a tio n of the
cold pr ocess bu t em ployed a t t h e boil the so ap not b ei n g
, ,

s a lted o u t a ft erw a r ds The m e thod o f work i n g i s as

.

follows
The fa t is m elted in the p an in the u su al way ; the a lkali
o f th e r eq u ired de ree o f st r en th is r u n in bu t not in s u fli
g g ,

c ient a m o u n t to co m pletely sapo n i fy a ll th e fa t T h e m i x t ur e .

 P R E SSURE P R O C E SS -
SO AP S . 2 63

is thoro u ghly boiled a n d when sa p oni fic a ti on is a s ne a rly

,

complete as pos sible m ore lye is added and th e boilin g con

tin ned a n d fresh lye a dded u ntil there is j u st a fai n t t a ste O f

,

a lkali. The soap is then r u n into the fr am es for coolin g .

Any kind of fa t m a y be u sed for t h i s p u rpose a n d it is known ,

as m arine soap E ach kind of fa t req u ires a certai n parti

.

onlar stren th o f a lk a li to e n s u re the bes t res u lt s th s tallo w

g u ,

is best sa p on i fied a t 1 6 T w c oc on irt O i l a t 32 T w p a l m O i l

° °
.
, .
,

°
at 2 8 T w .olive O i l a t 2 5 T w The q u an tities ar e given i n
,
°
.

th e fo llowin g table

1 00 lb f t ll w t k 2 31 lb t 1 6 Tw
°
. o af ly o a e . o e a .

1 00 lb t il t k 1 30 lb
°
f . o co c on u f ly o t 32 Tw a e . o e a .

1 00 lb f p lm i l t k 1 1 4 lb t 2 8 Tw
°
. o a f ly o a e . o e a .

1 00 lb f li il t k 1 2 0 lb t 2 5 Tw
°
. o o f ly
ve o a e . o e a .

H ydrated so a ps a r e n ot m ade to any great exten t n o w ,

o n a cco u nt o f the fa c t that they co n tai n the g lyceri n e fo r m ed

du rin g the process and it does not p a y to leave glycerine

,

in the soap H ydrated so a ps which are m ade fro m cheap

.

g rea ses a r e so m eti m es h a rde n ed by cr u tchin g i n sod a cryst a l s

o r G l a u ber s s a lt which m a kes them very m u ch h a rder a n d

’

, ,

in so m e c a ses incre a ses their detergent v a l u e .

N I F I CATI O N U ND E R P R E SS U R E
A
S PO .

(B t G i bb P )
enn e s
’
r oc e ss.

M any attem pts h ave been m a de to prod u ce so a p by other

th a n the ordin a ry boili n g an d cold processes befo r e described ,

a n d in which a it a tion o f the m a teri a ls per for m s the pre

g
li m i n a ry s ta ge of t h e oper a tion M essrs Be n n et G ibbs of . .

Ne w Y ork obtai n ed a patent i n 1 865 for a m ech a n ic a l process

which is said to possess the followin g a dv a n t a ges 1 R api dity ,

o f m an u fact u re ; 2 i m provem ent in qu a lity ; 3 i n cre a sed

, ,

q u a n tity of soap prod u ced 4 eco n o m y in labo u r ; 5 s a vi n

, g ,

in fu el ; 6 the u se of chea per m a terials ; 7 sap on ific ati on

, ,

o f all grease ; 8 savin f all the lycerine whi c h ente rs

g o, g
2 64 SO AP MANUFAC TURE .

i n to the so ap T h e l a st m ay h a ve been tho u ght a n adv an

.

t a ge th irty ye a rs ago bu t to da y when glyceri n e is so v a lu able

,
-

it is r a ther a dis a dva n t a ge The followi n g is a descripti on

.

o f the process

Their process consists i n a gitatin g the sa p o n i fiahle

m a teri a ls with c a u stic or c a r bo n a ted a lk a lies i n solu tion in
w a ter i n a closed vessel while u n de r he at a n d press u r e in
, ,

s u ch a m a n n er a s to c au se a thor o u gh m ixi n g of the fats

with the a lk a li n e sol u tio n a n d p r od u ci n g a n i n st a n t an eous
co m bi n a tio n of the fa tty a cids with the b a se o f the alkali ne
sol u tio n s I f a qu an tity O f fa tty m a tter be e n closed in a
.

vessel with a sol u tio n O f c a r bo n a te of sod a i n w a ter an d ,

.

he a t applied to pr od u ce a press u re O f 2 2 0 to 2 80 lb per .

squ a re i n ch a n d a tem pera tu re O f 35 0 to 400 F a com bin a

° °
.
,

tio n between the fa tty a cids a n d the sod a of the sol u tion
will t a ke p la ce o n ly a t the u pper s u r fa ce O f the sol u tio n when
i n co n t a ct with the u n de r s u rfa ce o f the grea se the heavy ,

lye occ u pyi n g the lower p a rt of the vessel an d so ap will be ,

prod u ced wher e the fa t a n d a lk a li u n ite .

I f the m a ss be a git a ted i n s u ch a m a n n er a s to stir

to gether a n d thoro u ghly m i x the co n ten ts of the vess el the ,

wh ole will be i n st a n tly co n ver ted i n to a ho m o g en eou s an d

eve n qu a lity o f so a p It is a dvis a ble to u se n o m ore wa ter
.

th a n is wa n ted in th e so a p The process is c a rried o n i n a

.

boiler or cyli n der si m ilar to a pl a i n cyli n de r ste a m boiler

resti n g ho r izo n t a lly a n d he a ted in a n y co n ven ie n t m a n n er
,
.

O n e o r both he a ds O f th e cyli n der a r e m a de so a s to be c on

v e n i e n tly r em ov a b le a n d a r e the fu ll size o f the i n n er
,

di a m eter of the cyli n der so a s to a d m it of the i n sertio n of

,

a revolvi n h ft which ho ld be lo the cyli n der

g S a, S u a s n g a s

itsel f The sh a ft which i s i n the ce n tr e o f this cyli n der is

.
, ,

c a r ried th r o u gh both e n ds a n d works i n stu fli n g boxes ;

power is a pplied to revolve the sh a ft O n the s h a ft are .

fa ste n ed a r m s with flo a ts or stirrers extendi n g ne a rly to the

,
 P R E SSUR E R O C E SS
-P
S O AP S . 2 65

s ides of the cyli n der ; the a rm s floats or a git a tors on on e

,

side of the sh a ft when revolved carryin g the fa t dow n int o

the a lk a li while the agit a tors on the other Side c a rry the
,

alk ali u i to the f a t th s while u nder h e a t a n d press u re

p n , u , ,

thor ou ghly m ixi n g the whole c a u sin g the co n versio n of the

,

whole co n te n ts o f the vessel i n st a n tly i n to a u n i fo r m even , ,

an d
g o od q u a l ity o f so a p .

At o n e e n d O f th e cyli n der a r e pl a ced two s a fety v a lves ,

on e a t the top o f th e cyli n der the othe r o n a n o u tlet pip e

,

inser ted i n the h e a d of the cyli n der There is a lso a m erc u ry

.

bath o f a bou t 4 i n ches i n len g th O f g a s pipe which is -

scr e w ed i n to the boiler or cyli n de r i n a n y co n ve n ie n t pl a c e

for th e i n ser tio n o f the therm o m eter b u lb At the opposit e .

en d O f t h e c yli n de r is a n O pe n i n g fo r the i n se r tio n o f a

su ply pipe ; a t th e other e n d is a lso a n ope n i n g for the

p
in ser tion o f a seco n d ou tlet pipe a n d which is i n ten ded to
,

be u sed o n ly when it is desi r ed to d r a w off the whole co n ten ts

of th e v e ssel . W hen th e m a chi n e is fir st p ut i n to O per a tio n ,

i f c ar bo n a te o f sod a is u sed it is n ecess a r y to a llow so m e c a r

,

bon i o a cid to esc a pe by on e of the s a fety v a lves i n order to

.
,

preve n t u n d u e pr essu re by the liber a tio n o f t h e c a r bo n ic

acid when com bi n a tio n of th e fa tty a cids with th e a lka li
takes pla ce . I f a n y o f the liq u ids be a llowed to esc a pe
befo r e the tem per a tu re re a ches 32 5 to 37 5 t h ey Sho u ld be ° °

ret u rn ed to the cyli n de r .

T h e s a fety v a lve o n the o u tlet pipe m a y be so lo a ded a s

to a llow a n esc a pe of so ap a t a p r ess u re o f 2 50 to 2 7 0 lb .

A q u a n tit y o f lye a n d oil m a y be p u m ped i n a t the opposit e

en ds the a gita tion bei n g kept u p a co n ti n u a l st r ea m of so a p
,

flo ws ou t a t the other end The p r od u ct m a y th en be pre

.

p ared for the m a rket by cooli n g m o u ldi n g (fra m i n g) a n d

, ,

cu tti n g processes i n ordi n a ry u se By this process the so a p is

.

m ade i n le ss th a n o n e ho u r fro m the ti m e the i n gredie n ts

are i n t r od u ced into the boiler bu t a u ni form thoro u gh
,
2 66 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

s a p on i fic a ti o nis O bt a ined a t the inst a n t th a t the heat and

pressu re a rrive a t the requ ired degree be the ti m e long or ,

s h or t ; i f this degree is re a ched in five m in u tes the soap is

m ade .

The proportions e m ployed ar e as follows : c a rbon ate of

s oda a t 48 2 7 lh wa ter 1 00 lh lard t a llow or oil 1 00 lb
°
.
,
. .
, ,

2 7 lb of c a rbon a te of sod a will it is s a id m a ke a n eutral

.
, ,

so ap for so ft wa ter ; th e qu antity obt a i n ed by the above

p rocess is 2 00 lb o f so
. a p fo r e very 1 00 lb o f g r e a se em .

p loyed .

The p r ocess is s ta ted to be a pplic a ble to m a ki n g a n y kind

o f soap incl u din g so ft soap which is prep a red with th e same
, ,

r a pidity witho u t requ irin g the u se of so m u ch po ta sh as in

,

t h e ordi n a ry process .

Altho u gh the ori gin a l invent ors reco m m end c a r bo n ate of

s oda it wo u ld be better to work with c a u stic sod a a s the ,

a nnoy a n ce an d tro u ble c a u sed by the evol u tion o f c arbonic

a cid wo u ld thereby be avoided .

B . T O IL E T SO A P S .

The v ar iety of n a m e sh a pe per fu m e colou r i n toilet soaps

, , , ,

is gre a t while the pr ice a t which they ar e ofler e d to the publi c

,

r a n ges fr o m on e pen n y to h a lf a crown the t a blet N eedless .

to say the for m er is th a t of a poor cl a ss of toilet so ap and —

y e t it is wo n der fu l wh a t a fa i r cl a ss o f so a p m a y be turned

o u t fo r t h e d e m oc r a tic pe n ny— while the hi he r p r ice i s a sked

g
for a so a p o f s u perb qu a li ty p a cked u p in a very arti stic
,

m a n n er a n d which a ppeals stro n gly to the ar istocra cy for

,

s u pport .

—
Toile t so a ps ar e of two k inds th e ordinary op a qu e kind
a n d tr a n sp a re n t so a ps .

Toilet so aps ar e m a de by two processes those k n o wn to ,

the so ap m a kers as the boili n g a n d the col d process Again

-
.

we m a y draw a fu rther distinction between t h ose which are

 T O IL E T S O AP S . 2 67

milled , an d those wh ich a r e m a de by cru tchi n g or rem elti n g .

The boili g process of so a p m a kin g h a s be en described in

n -

th e first p a rt o f this c h apter P ractic a lly it i s the s a m e .

,

for a ll ki n ds o f soap i f there be a n y di fference a t a ll it is that

it is m ore c arefu lly worked when the better qu a lities of soap
a re bei n g m ade The cold process is fa irly well known an d
.

is m u ch u sed ; it h a s bee n described In the prep a ra tion of .

toilet so a p s the m a ker re a lly st a r ts with a re a dy m a de so a p -

,

whether this h a s been m a de by the boili n g or the cold proces s

is i m m a t eri a l a n d by car ryin g ou t cert a i n finishin g O pera tion s
,

he co n v e r ts his so a p i n to a toilet soap .

C o mm on Toi le t S oap — A gre a t dea l of the co m m on toilet

so aps a r e very si m ply m a de An ordi n a ry so a p is t a ken .

when j u st hot an d before it is fra m ed it is p u t i n to a

,

cru tche r ; ther e is t h e n a dded a s m a ll qu a n tity o f p a lm oil

or of co c o n u t oil a ccordi n g a s a colo u red or white soap i s
,

bei n g m a de th e object o f this a dditio n bei n g to neu t r a lise th e

,

la st tr a ces of a lk a li which m a y be co n t a i n ed i n the so a p .

There is then a dded a li ttle scen ti n g m a ter i a l som e colo u ri n g ,

m a tter i f n eed fu l ; the so a p is the n fr a m ed allowed to cool , ,

t hen c u t u p i n to sla bs and b a rs st a cked u n til it gets fa irly ,

fir m the n c ut u p into t a blets a n d st am ped

,
The sce n ti ng .

m a t erials u s u a lly em ployed a r e m irb a n e or a rti fici a l oil of

a lm o n ds citro n elle a n d oil o f c a r a w a y
, The m ost com m on .

colo u r i n g m a tters to a dd ar e Bism arck bro wn chr ysoi di n e or ,

so a p yellow AS a n ex am ple to work u po n the follo win g

.
,

recipe for a
Brown W i n dsor so ap m ade i n this w ay m ay be t a ken
7 5 lb . f op m d f
soa m m i t f
a t ll w d
e p l m
ro i l a x u re o a o an a o .

2 lb f p l m il
. o a o .

1 lb . f mi b
o r an e .

1 f Bi m
ou n c e o kb w s a rc ro n.

A white W indsor so a p c a n be m ade fro m

7 5 lb f .whi t o a
p m d f m t ll
e soaw d t i l a e ro a o an c oc o n u o .

3 lb f . t il
o coc on u o .

1 lb f it
. ll
o c r on e e.
2 68 S O AP MANUFA C T UR E .

The recipes to be fou nd fu r ther on will a lso give the

m a n u fa ct u rer so m e ide a of how to m a ke other qu a liti es of
so ap i n this w ay .

Toi et S oap s by R em elti n g a n d C ru tc hi n g

l — A l a rge quan
tity of toilet so aps are m a de in th is co u n try fr o m stock soaps
by rem elti n g a n d th en s u bjecti n g them to a m ixi n g with the
per fu m e a n d colo u ri n g m a tter Th i s m eth od is c a rri ed out
.

in the follo wi n g m a n n er : The so a p or so a p s which are

em ployed ar e cu t u p i n to sh a vi n g s which ar e then pu t i nto
,

a r em elter which m a y t ake a n y form The best is however

, .

a ste a m j a cketed p an fitted with a n a git a to r which serves to

-
,

keep the so a p i n m otio n a n d m i x the ot h er i n gr edien ts wi th

it AS j u st hi n ted there a r e ofte n u sed severa l ki n ds of so ap ;
.

the toilet so a p m a ker will fin d it co n ven ien t to m ake his

-

stock so a ps from t a llow cocon u t O i l p a lm n u t O i l p alm oil

, ,
-
, ,

c a stor O i l These shou ld be c a re fu lly m a de a s fr ee fr om

.
,

excess o f c a u stic a lk a li a s possible a n d co n t ai n little or no

,

.
—
s a lt T h e so a p sho u ld not be too dry a bo u t 2 5 p e r cen t of .

—
wa te r is a g ood pr opo r tion for it to co n t i n the oper a tion of
a

rem elti n g r es u lts i n the so ap losi n g so m e o f its w a t er In .

the c a se of u si n g dr y so a p it m a y be a dvis a ble to s e n d a li ttle

O pen ste a m i n t o the r e m e lter to give the so a p the n eces sary

de gree of m oist u re .

I f the r em e lt er is fitted with a n a git a to r w h e n the s oap ,

is m elted the other i n gredients colo u ri n g m a t ter a n d pe r fu me

, ,

m a y be a dded a n d whe n a ll a r e m ixed th e so a p is r u n i nto

, ,

the fr a m es to set It will be fou n d best to t u rn O ff the steam

.

fro m th e r em e lter while c a r ryi n g o u t the l a st oper a tio n so as

to a void a s little loss of perfu m e a s possible I f the r em elter .

is n ot fitt ed with a n a git a tor then the so a p wh en m elted is

,

r u n i n to a c r u tcher a n d the perfu m e etc m ixed with it t h ere

,
.
,

befor e ru n n i n g i n to the fram es to set .

The followin g recipes for m a ki n g several ki nds o f toilet

so a ps will be fou n d u se fu l bu t of cou r se a n i n telli gent s oap
,
 T O I LE T SO AP S . 2 69

maker m a y u se them a s g u ide s a n d co n coct a recipe o f his ,

own u si n p a rtic u l a r perfu m e his fa n cy m ay direct a n d

, g a ny

a ny colo u r he likes The recipes a r e a d a pted for soaps to

.

be m a de by rem eltin g a s described i n the last sectio n , .

B r own Wi n d sor Soap .

T lla ow so a p

C oc o n u t o i l soa p

Pa m l O i l so a p

O l e i c a c i d soa p

O il of t hym e

O il o f c a ssi a

Oil of l a v en d e r

Bi sm a r c kb r own

a dar k er S hd a e be r e q u i r ed to a dd a l i ttl e n ew

H eli o tr op e S oap .

Bou q ue t S oap .

T lla o w soa p

C oc o n u t O i l soa p

Oil of b er ga m o t

O il o f r os e g e r a n i u m
Oi l of c ar a w a y
Oil o f c i t r on e ll e

Oil of l a v en d e r

S a n ta l S oap .

C i tr on S oap .

A lm ond S oap .

T lla o w soa
p
C o c o n u t oi l soa p
b
O i l o f i tt er a m on d s l
C i tr o n e ll e
2 70 SO AP MANUFACT UR E .

T ll
a ow soa p

Coc on u t oi l soa p
l
P a m oi l soa p
Oi l of c i n n a m o n

Oi l l
of c o v e s

Oi l of c a r aw a y
O i l of sa ssa r a s f
Oil of b e r ga m o t

B i sm a r c k b r o wn

T ll w
a o soa p

P lm i l
a o soa p

Oil of v er b en a

Oi l of l em on gr a ss

An other form u l a is
T ll w p
a o so a 50 lb .

P lm i l
a p o soa 2 5
O li ilve op so a 2 5
Oil f b o v er en a 6 oz .

Oi l f b g m to er a o 6
Oil f i t oll c r on e e 5
Ti t f m
nc ur e o k us 5

These will be fou n d s u ffi cien t rec ipes bu t oth er s will be .

prese n tly given u n der a n other he a d w h i ch th e so ap maker - .

m a y u tilise for this p r ocess i f he t h i n ks fit .

Toi let S oap s by th e Cold P r ocess — The cold proces s may

be em ployed for m aki n g som e of the che a per gra des of toilet
soaps The det a il s of thi s process will be fo u n d described in
.

another pl a ce ; here wi ll be given si m ply som e formula:

which m a y be u sed It m a y be pointed ou t that it i s not
.

every pe r fu m e which m a y be e m ployed on a ccou n t of the ,

presen ce of a lk a li i n the m a ter i a ls du rin g the process of

m a n u fa ct u re Still the so a p m aker m a y u se a la r ge n u mber
.
,
-

of form u l ae a n d prod u ce a gre a t v a r iety of toi let so a ps by the

cold process .

W hi te Wi n d sor S oap .

Coc on u t oi l

W hi te ta ll ow

C a u sti c so d a
°
ly e at 7 0 Tw
 TO IL E T soAP S . 2 71

f
Sti r th e a ts whi c av e hh b een p r e v i o u sly m lt d t
e e oget h er w i t h th e a lk li
a

h ll
w en we m i x ed a d d th e p er f mu es a s f ll
o ows

O i l of c a ra wa y
O i l of l a v e n d er

O il of t hym e

B r own Wi nd sor S oap .

C oc o n u t oi l

T ll w
a o .

P lm i l
a o

C a u sti c so d a 7 0 Tw
°
ly e at .

O i l of l a v en d e r

O i l of c assi a .

O i l of c ar a w a y
O il of n er o li
Bi sm a rc kb r own

Vi o le t S oa p .

C o co n u t oi l

T ll a ow .

C a u sti c so d a
°
lye at 7 0 Tw .

Did r e ora n g e p ee l
Vi l t
o e r oot

Ti t n c u r e of m us k
O i l of b e r ga m o t

O i l o f C i tr o n
Oi l of c a ssi a

Oi l o f n er o li
bl
P eru a sa m

Tl bl
o u a sa m

A nother form u l a 1 s
Coc on u t oi l

T ll
a ow .

sod a
°
Ca u sti c ly e at 7 0 Tw .

O i l of l
a v e n d er

Oi l o f b e r ga m o t

Oi l of c assi a

Ti n c t u r e of b en z o i n

B alsa m of P eru

Co con u t oi l

T ll
a ow

C a u sti c sod a lye

M ir b an e

O i l of b erga m ot
2 72 S O AP MANUFAC T UR E .

R ose S oa p .

C oc o n u t Oi l .

°
C a u sti c so d a ly e at 70 Tw .

Oi l Of rose g e r a n i u m
Oi l of b er g a m o t

Ti n c tu r e of mu s k
E o si n e

G lycer i ne S oap .

C oc o n u t Oi l .

Ca u sti c so d a
°
ly e at 7 0 Tw .

G ly c eri n e

Oi l o f r o se g er a n i u m
Oi l o f sassa r a s f
O i l of t hy m e

An other form u l a for glyceri n e Is

Coc on u t Oi l

Pa m l Oil
°
C a u sti c so d a ly e at 7 0 Tw
Gl y c eri n e

O r a n ge p ee l
V l
i o e t r oo t
Ca r a m e l
Oi l of l
a v en d e r

Oi l o fb er ga m o t

Oil o f c a ssi a

Oi l o f sa ssa r a s f
L emo n S oap .

Co c on u t oi l

T ll
a ow .

C a u sti c so d a
°
ly e at 7 0 Tw .

Oi l of lm e on

Oi l o fb g er a m ot

Oil o fl m e on gra ss
Oi l O f l
c o ve s _
n

C oc on u t oi l

T ll w
a o

P lm i l
a O

Oi l o f c i tr o n e ll e

Oi l Of b er ga m ot

Oi l o f c a r a wa y
C a u sti c sod a 7 0 Tw
°
ly e at .
 M IL L E D T O I L E T S O AP S .

B ou q u e t S oap .

C o c on u t oi l .

T ll w
a o

Bl h d p lm
.

ea c e a oil

Oi l f b g m t
o er a o

O il f as f
o s sa ra s

Oil f l eo c ov s

O i l f thym
O e

Oil f O li
n ero

C a u sti c so d a ly e at
°
70

Or a nge Soap .

C oc on u t oil

T ll a ow .

P a lm oi l

Oi l o f or a n
g e p e e l
O i l of c i n n am on .

Oi l of t h ym e

C a u sti c sod a ly e at
°
7 0 Tw .

If it be desired to produ ce colou red soaps by the cold

proc e ss the soap m aker will fin d a wide ran ge of the co ld
,
- < 0

tar c o lo u rs open to h i m E osine will give h i m a variety o f

.

tints fr o m the fa in test bl u sh rose to a deep pink Acid .

g r ee n m a
y be u sed fo r
green tints a cid bl u e fo r bl u e tints , ,

a cid violet for l a vender to violet shades Bis m a rck brown for ,

browns a cid yellow for yellow W ith these by com bi n in g

, .

the m to get h er a v a r iety o f pleasi n g e ffects m a y be obt a i n ed .

( Se e fa rther on a s to colo u ri n g so a ps )
. .

—
M i lled Toi let S oa p s W e m a y now proceed to consider
’

in so m e det a il the produ ction of toilet so a ps by a process of

c o m p a r a tively m odern o r i gi n b u t which pro m ises in the ,

fu t u r e to al m ost i f n ot q u ite en tirely r ep la ce the older

, ,

m ethods of prep a ri n g toilet so a ps The m illi n g system h a d .

its o ri gi n in F ra nce wh ere m ore a tten tion h a s bee n p a id to

,

toile t so aps th a n i n a n y other cou n try ; from ther e it h a s

g r a d u a lly spre a d to other co u n t r ie s I t is t o the credit o f .

th e F re n ch th a t the best m a ch i n es for c a rryi n g o u t the

m illi n g syste m a r e o f F r e n ch i n ve n tio n .

T her e is n o q u es tio n of the s u periority of m illed so a ps

18
2 74 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

over ot h er so a ps W ei ght for wei ght they ar e of m ore value

.
,

bec a u se t h ey con t a in less w a te r while it is a n a ck n owledged

,

fa ct th a t the reworki n g to which the soaps ar e s u bj ected

i m proves their qu ality Then a ga in m illed soap s a r e u s u ally
.
,

prepared from the best m ateri a ls a s it is h a rdly wor th while

,

to p u t the extra work a n d expe n se involved in m illi n g i nto a

soap m a de from cr u de m a teri a ls M illed so a ps a r e s uperi or
.

to other so a ps i n u se on acco u n t of the fa ct th a t their small

proportion of water a n d their dense text u re c a u se them to
w a ste a way less ra pidly tha n or di n a ry so a p T h e appear .

a n ce too o f m illed soap is m u ch s u perio r to a toilet soap

, ,

m a de by other processes .

The process of m illin g is a m erely m echanical on e to

whi ch a well boiled so a p is s u bj ected a n d it is carried ou t in
-
,

S peci a l m a chinery which h a s been previo u sly described in

,

the ch a pter on Soap M a chi n ery (see p W e shall.

n ot repe a t these descriptio n s here b u t si m ply spe a k of the

,

process itself pointin g ou t its Speci a l fea t u res a n d e m phasis

, ,

in g the points which requ ire a tte n tion fro m th e so a p m aker - .

Th e princip a l m a chines e m ployed in the m illi n g of toilet

soa ps a r e accordi n g to the order in which they are u sed : (1)
,

C u tti n g m achi n e (2 ) dryi n g m a chi n e ( 3) cru shi n g m ill with

, ,

fo u r gra n ite rollers ( 4) co n ti n u o u s squ eez in g m a chi n e or as

, , ,

it is so m eti m es k n own the ploddi n g m a chi n e (5 ) steam

, ,

st a m pin g process .

The so a p which is t o be trea ted is first cu t into strips by

m ea ns o f the cu tti n g m a chine fro m which they a r e trans
,

ferred to the dryi n g m a chi n e .The degree of finen ess of

cu ttin g the so a p h a s so m e i n fl u en ce on the speed of dryin g
it fin e chips dryi n g qu icker t h a n co a rse chips In some
, .

c a ses the d r yi n g m a chi n e is so co n stru cted th a t thi s pre

li m in a ry c u tti n g c a n be d ispen sed with an d the so ap dealt ,

with a s i t com es fr o m the so a p kettles T h is is do n e i n the

- .

c a se o f u si n g the co n ti n u ou s a u tom a tic dryi n g m a ch i n e ; the

 M IL L E D T O I L E T SO AP S . 2 75

so p p ste dr wn from a so a p p a n is fed i n to the h O pp er of

a a , a -
,

a m ill at o n e e n d o f th e m a chine with two or three cyli n ders

a n d receiver s o n e or two m illi n s a ccordi n to the m ber

, g ,g n u

o f cylinders a n d a t l a st fa lls i n extre m ely thin sh a vin s into

, g
the ch a m ber wh ich form s the re a l dr yi n g m a ch ine ; th e
sha v i n gs ar e received on en dless li n en ba n ds which are
so a rr a n ed th a t t h ey ar e o n e over the other an d occ u p y
g
th e fu ll width of the ch a m ber .These li n en b an ds a r e
p u t into m otio n a n d a r e a r r a n
ged so th a t th e so a p fa ll s

a t o n e e n d on th e top m ost b a nd o f the m a chi n e an d i s ,

car ried a lo n g to the other en d whence it drops on the next

,

li nen ban d ; t h is i n t u rn p a sses it to the thir d on e an d ,

so o n u ntil it co m es to the la st one or th e lo w es t which , ,

ca rr ies th e so a p ou t o f th e a pp a ra t u s In t h e lower p a rt
.

of the dryi n g m a chine is a hot a i r stove wh ich is pre fer

-

a bly he a ted by ste a m . The stove is fu rn ished w i th a p

p a ra t u s for dra win g the he a ted ai r a t a te m pera tu re of a bo u t
60 C thro u gh the ch a m ber This hot air m eets the so a p
°
. .

sha vi n gs a s they tra vel on the b a n ds gets sat u r a ted with the
,

m oist u re they co n ta i n a n d then esc a pes t h ro u gh the t op O f

,

the a pp a ra t u s by the ve n til a tor while the so a p dried to th e

, ,

desired exten t p a sses ou t a t the botto m o f the dryi n g stove

, .

Thi s stove w h ich dries th e so ap p a ste i n a n a u tom a tic an d

con ti n u o u s m a n n er sec u ring a good pro fit to the so ap m a ker
,
-

w h o u ses it h a s a n a re a a bo u t 45 feet sq u a re a n d ca n be
,

m a n ip u l a ted by one wo r k m a n a n d o n e a ssistant ; it gives a

yield of m ore th a n one to n of dried so a p T h e m otive power .

req u ired is a bo u t two horse power a n d the expe n se for heat

,

i n g is s m a ll
.

—
M a ki n g Colou r ed S oap s A ll colo u r i n g m a tter s wh ich a r e
—
proo f aga inst he a t m ineral colo u r s am on g other s c a n be —
m ixed with the liqu id so a p whe n it co m es ou t o f the boile r ,

bu t wh e n so ft a n d delic a te s h a des o f fin e so a ps a r e w a n ted ,

sh a des th a t c an o n ly be go t fro m delic a te colo u r s it is better ,

2 76 SO P A MANUFAC T URE .

to incorporate the colo u r a fter th e so a p sh avi n gs have been

dried and in th e cru sh in g m ill
, .

R eg a rdin g the incorpora tion of perfu m es into th e so ap in

a liqu id state as is necess a ry with the rem elted soaps thi s
, ,

m ethod is faulty . F irst of all th e so a p p a ste is heated to a

tem per a t u re of 1 00 C whi ch efiec ts a ch a n ge i n the perfumes
°
.
, ,

an d secondly a co n sider a ble portion o f the l a tter is wasted by

eva pora tion du rin g th e tre a tm ent in the d ryin g stove ; the
p er fu m es ar e better added to t h e so a p in eit h er the cru s h i n g
or the ploddin g m ill .

To ens u re the m ost perfect workin g of the s ucceedi ng

m achi n es it is essenti a l th a t th e dry in g of the stock soap
sh o u ld be do n e to a proper de gree The soap m u st not be too
.

dry or too dam p ; i f th e l a tter then the soap works pasty in

,

th e cru s h in g o r ploddin g m achines while i f too dry t hen a

, ,

soap of good text u re c a n n ot be m a de G enera ll y th e dried

.

soap sho u ld cont a in fro m 1 0 to 1 5 per cent of wa ter I t will . .

be fo u n d that in this respec t m u ch will depend on the m ake of

the m ill ; som e work best with a dry so ap wh ile others require ,

a so ap w ith a m odera te a m o u nt O f w a ter left in ‘

The cru sh in g m ach ines resti n g on a c a st iron fram e in one

,
-

p iece ,
ar e co m posed o f ra n ite rollers o f pro ressive di ameter
g g ,

t w o of wh ich lie u n derne a th h ori z o n t ally th e other two being ,

p l a ced a bove them the fo r m er s u pportin

, g the l a tter T h e .

d ried soap wit h a n y perfu m e and the colou ri n g m atter is fed

into the hopper of the cru shi n g m ill which h a s two compart
m en ts and is p a ssed o u t fro m the lower ones a n d carried
,

ro u n d by th e cyli n ders Thes e by revolvin g a t different

.

velocities c a u se t h e so a p to u ndergo a re a l progressive milling .

c a rryi n g it fro m the botto m to th e top a n d passi n g it i nto the

u ppe r p a r t o f the hopper fro m whe
,
n ce it u nder g oes th e sa m e

process til the soap is en tirely m ille d and pe ectly a lg

u n r f m a a

m a ted with the perfu m es a n d the colo u r The triple cru shing
.

cau sed by the p a ss a ge thr ou gh the fou r c yli n ders requi res only
 MI LL E D T O I L E T S O AP S . 2 77

fiv e m in u tes for bou t 66 lb It can be repeated two or '

a .

th ree ti m es a s m ay be requ ired th e soap not le a vi n g the

, ,

c r u sh i n g m ill u ntil a perfectly ho m o geneo u s m ass is obtai n ed .

The press u re between the rollers m ay be incre a sed as t h e

so ap passes th rou gh the m ill so a s to increase th e e fli c i en c y
a n d t u rn ou t a better so a p .

The ploddin g m ill is m ade so th a t the soap is forced a t a

con sidera ble pressu re thro u gh a n ar row openin g wh ereby it ,

is m a d e very de n se in text u re while th e friction which t a kes

,

pl a ce betwee n the soap an d a m o u thpiece i m parts a gloss to

the so a p which gives it a fin e a ppe a ra nce By v a r yi n g the .

for m o f th e nozz le fro m which th e so a p flows the bar o f

so a p m a y be m ade of a n y desired form re ad y to c u t u p i n to
cakes .

C ontin u o u s workin g o f th e plodder with th e friction which ,

occ u rs a s th e soap passes th r o u gh the m o u t h piece tends to ,

the he a tin g o f the latter This is ra th er detri m en ta l to the

.

worki n g of t h e m ill Th is tro u ble is a voided by keepin g the

.

m o u t h piece cool b y ru nnin g cold w a ter ro u nd it in a j a cket

provided for the pu rpose or i f th is is a bsent by allowi n g th e
, ,

m ill to rest a t intervals to cool down .

The work of the squ eezing m a chi n e or ploddin g m a chi n e , ,

is to collect the m a terial prep a r ed by th e cr u shin g m ill to ,

pre s s it i n to a solid m ass an d bri n g it o u t in u ni form com

, ,

pressed an d gloss y b a rs
, .

The hea ti n g of th e m ou thpiece especially in th e extrem e ,

e n d o f th e noz z le is good a s it incre a ses th e gloss o f the

, ,

soap T O O m u ch h eat will however c au se the so a p to be co m e

.
, ,

too so ft to t a ke a polish a n d the su rfa ce tends to becom e

,

stre a ky . I n any case it is a dvis a ble th a t th e first portio n s

,

of th e so a p which co m e from the m a chine be ret u rned to it ,

a s t h ese a r e not s u ffi ciently co m pressed a n d are the n li a ble

to c r a ck .

I f the soap goes i n to the plodder too dry th en it is ,

2 78 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

wa ntin g in pli a n cy This m ay be rem edied by a dding a

.

little glycerine or fr es h stock soap .

After com i n g from the plodder the bar of so a p is cu t up

into c a kes a n d these are then p a ssed on to the stamping
,

press for the fin a l sta m pi n g .

H a vin g desc r ibed the process o f m illin g so a ps we may ,

now give so m e recipes for prod u cin g t he m .

W h i te so a p

Oil of b er ga m o t

L a v en d er w a te r
Oi l of r ose g e ra n i u m
O i l of c a r a wa y
C i tron e ll e

S a n ta l S oap .

A lmo nd S oap .
 M I L L E D T O IL E T S O APS . 2 79

Vi ole t
T a llow soa p

Pa m l oi l so a p

O il of la v en d er

O il o fb er gam o t

Ti n c tu r e of b en z oi n

l
Pa m oi l soa p

T lla o w soa p

C i tr o n e ll e

Oi l o f sa ssa r a s f
Oi l of c ara wa y

T lla ow soa p

Coc on u t o i l soa p

O i l o f ger a n i u m
Oi l of r ose
E osi n e
Oi l of m on ci n n a

Oil o f ergam ot b
Oil o f l
c ov es

T lla o w soap

Coc on u t oi l so a p
b
Oi l of er ga m ot
O il o flav en der

Oi l o f c oves l
Oi l o f n u tm eg
Ti n c tu r e o f mus k

T allow oil soa p

Pa m l oi l so a p

Coc on u t oi l soa p

Oi l of c a r a wa y
O il o f b gm
er a ot

Oi l o fl d
a ve n er

Oil o f th y m e

Oi l o f l
c ov es
2 80 S O AP MANUFAC T URE .

E lder -flmver S oap .

T ll w
a o soa p

P lm i l
a
.
o so a p

C oco n u t oil soa p

Oi l of b er ga m ot

Oi l o fl a v en d er

O i l of c a ra wa y
O i l of pep p er m i n t
O i l of th y m e

T lla ow soa p

C oc on u t O i l so a p
O i l of c a ssi a
O i l of l a v e n d er

O i l of c a ra wa y

W h i te soa p

Pa m l O i l soa p

La no in l
F ari n a

P o wd ered orr i s

M k us

N lie ro Oil

G i eran u m oi l

P lma a r osa oi l

Ci tro n e ll e

B er ga m ot Oi l

M u sk S oap .

W h i te Soa p
Pa m l o i l so a p

P owd er ed o rr i s

M k us

Ca ssi a O il

L a v en d er oi l

B ergam ot Oi l

C i t ro n e ll e

V er m i li on

So a p b rown

F lower S oap .

W hi te So a p
Pa m l o i l soa
p
L a n o in l
F a ri n a

P owd e r e d orr i s root

P ow d er ed c a t ec h u

M k us
 MIL L E D T O I LE T SO AP S . 2 81

wO Z
w
w
w
w
w
w
3

These fe w rec ipes which h a ve been selected from a l a rge

,

n u m ber will perh a ps be s u ffi cient to S how the lines o n which

,

the so a p m a ke r c a n work i n m a kin g m i lled soaps ; fu r ther th e

-

recipe s wh ich h a ve a lrea dy been given fo r other kinds of

toilet so a ps m a y be consu lt ed with a dv a n t a ge .

The stock so a ps wh ich ar e u s ed in m a ki n g m illed so a ps

should be o f good qu ality m a de from fresh a n d p u re fa ts an d
,

oils w ell boiled with good c a u stic so a s to be thoro u ghly

,

sa p o n i fie d .R ancid a n d discolo u red fa ts a nd oils Sho u ld n o t

be u sed su ch tend to rob the perfu m es u sed in m a ki n g the
,

f m —
so a p o f m u ch o thei r a ro a a n d delic a cy a thi n g which i s
to be a voided The condition th a t th e fa t or oil shou ld be
.

thoro u gh ly sa p on i fie d h a s a n i m portan t be ari n g on th e keep

i n g qu a lities o f th e so a p An y u n sap on i fie d fa t or oil wil l
.

soon c a u se the soap to beco m e r a n cid t h ereby spoili n g the

,

per fu m e A de fect of th is kind cannot be re m edi ed en ti rely

.

by the m illi n g process a ltho u gh there is n o do u bt th a t th e

,

process co m pletes th e sap on i fica ti on of a so a p The so a p too .

m u st be free fro m any lye a n d too m u ch care c a n n ot be

,

exercised in settli n g it .

A st o ck so a p to be good i n condition for m illin g sho u l d

n ot be too short i n text u re a n d when fresh m a de o u ht to
, g
adh ere to gether whe n worked between the fin gers .

Tallow m a kes a good stock so a p for m illi n g Both u n .

blea ched a n d ble a ch ed p a lm O i l yield excellen t so ap for this

pu rpose a ltho u gh i t is im po r t an t to see th a t the oil is n ot
,

ra ncid a n d h a s the a greeable violet like odou r o f fr esh p a lm

-

oi l to perfectio n C ocon u t oil a lso m a kes a good so a p ; gre a t

.
2 82 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

c are ou ght to be taken with it to see th a t it is thoro u g hl y

s a p o n i fie d C ottonseed oil does n ot m ake a good st o ck so a p
.

for m illi n g C asto r oil yields a fair so a p ; other fa ts a n d O ils

.

a r e not a d m issible for v a rio u s re a so n s .

M illed so a ps m ay be colo u red to an y requ ired de gr ee the ,

best res u lts bein g obt ained by u sin g co a l tar colou rs There - .

is s u ch a variety of them that every i m agi n able tint c an be

obt ained with their a i d ; wh ile bein g e a sily sol u ble in so a p ,

t hey do not in a n y way affect the bri g ht n ess o f th a t a rticle

fu r ther bein g sol u ble they c a n be m ore e a sily m ixed wi th
, ,

the so a p to ge t a m ore u ni form di ffu sio n of the col ou r

t hro u gh o u t th e so a p m ass ; where a s with the old m iner a l ,

colou r in gs there w a s a lwa ys a te n dency on the p a rt of the

,

colou ri n g m aterials to separate fr om the so ap an d settle down

i n the fra m e in which th e so a p cools down .

I t is not eve r y colo u rin g m a tter that is a v a il a ble for tint

i n g soap .There are som e th a t a r e m ore or less a ffected or

a ltered in colo u r by a lk a lies s u c h for instance a s P ru ssi a n , ,

blu e chrom e yellow Alk a li bl u e M a gent a ; soap bein g u su

, , ,

a lly sli htly a lk a li n e s u ch prod u ct s c a nnot b sed f

g , e u o r

c olo u rin g it with a dvant a g e .

The co a l ta r colo u rs a r e u sed in a very si m ple m a nner

-
.

The colou rin g m a tter is dissolved in w a ter or in a few c as e s ,

a m ixt u re of w a ter a n d a lcohol ; the sol u tion sho u ld be

fi lter ed a n d then it is po u red i n to the m elted so a p p a ste a n d
,

t horo u ghly cru tc h ed i n The q u a ntity requ ired is very s m a ll

.

— 5 to 2 oz will colo u r 1 cwt of so a p in som e stron t i nts

. .
g .

I n a few inst an ces a little c a u stic sod a m a y be a dded to the

c olo u r sol u tion .

F or yellows there m a y be u sed F l u oresceine yellow So ap ,

y ellow , Q u i n oli n e yel low (o f which there ar e two ki n d s — one

s ol u ble in w a ter the other in spirit ) a n d M e ta n i l yellow
, , .

The followin g r ecipes will give som e ide a of the qu an ti ties to

b e u sed . E a ch is for 1 cwt o f so a p . .
 COL O UR I NG SO AP S . 2 83

Su lp hu r Yellow — U se 5 oz F l u oresceine yellow dissolved .

in 5 oz boi ling water or 5 oz Qu inoline yellow ( spirit

.
,
.

sol u ble) dissolved in 5 o z m e thylated spirit . .

L emon Yellow — U se 1 } oz F l u oresceine yellow dissolve d .

in 5 oz boilin g w a ter W h en u sed for tintin g tra nsp a rent

. .

soap this yellow shows a fin e reen fl orescence or bloo m

,
g u .

Yellow — U se 1 o z So a p y e llow dissolved in 5 pint boilin g

.

water or 1 oz M e t an i l yellow dissolved in 5 pint bo i lin g

, .

water .Both these y ellows give good resu lts in colou ri n g

soaps .

Red Colou r s —T h ere m a y be u sed a ll th e ran ge of E osine

.

and E ryt hr osine dy es wh ich ive bri h t pinks the R hod a

g g ,

min es which also give blu ish pinks to re ds ; P once au s and

,

Scarlets for roses C ardinal red for reds .

B r i g h t R osa — U se 1 % oz Brillian t rose di ssolved in 5 pin t .

boilin g water By u sin g 35 oz a deep sh ade of rose c a n be

. .

g ; 5
o t 1 oz R hoda m ine B. dissolved in Qp i n t wate r
give s a
fine rose .

B lu i sh P i n k — U se l o z Bl u ish pink N or Ao z Sa fra n ine .

,
.

prim a di ssolved in 3 o z boili n g w a ter . .

D eep P i n k — U se 1 o z E ry throsine B in 5 o z water . . .

Red — U se 2 o z Cardinal red B dissolved in l pi n t boil

.

i ng wa ter or 2 o z P oncea u 2 R dissolved in l pint bo ilin g

, .

water .

Sa mon
l — U se 3 o z M andari n e G extra dissolved in 5 oz . .

boili n g water Anot h er s h a de c a n be got by u sin g the s a m e

.

q u a ntit y o f C h rysoidi n e dissolved in w a ter .

S a Gr een
e — U se 2 o z F a st li ght green dissolved in l pint .

boilin g wa ter .

P ea Gr een —A fin e s h ade is got fro m 5 oz F a st li ght .

g re en a n d 5 o z F l u oresceine yellow
. dissolved in 5 pint boi lin g
water .

Or an g e — U se 2 o z Brilli a n t or a n ge G dissolved in 3 pint

.

boilin g w a ter .
2 84 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

D ar k B r own — Use 5 oz . So a p brow n S dissolved i n 1 pint

boili n g wa ter .

B lu e — U se 2 oz . M ethylen e bl u e 2 B disso lved in 5

» pi nt
boili n g w a ter .

Vi olet — U se 1 oz F orm yl violet

. S 4 B dissolved in Qp i n t
boili n g w a ter .

Ches tn u t B r own —U se 1 oz . So u d a n bro wn dissolved in

5
»
pi n t spirit .

By m ixi n g these di fferent colo u rs to gether a v ar iety of

tints c a n be obt a i n e d It is i m possible however to p ar ti cu
.
, ,

la r ly desc r ibe them on p a per Th u s by u si n g a m ixt u r e of

.
,

S a fran i n e a n d Qu i n oli n e yellow a fin e bri ght sc a rlet r ose is ,

obt a inable a m ixt u re of Sa fra ni n e a n d M ethylene blu e will

prod u ce violet a n d lila c sh a des M ethylen e bl u e a n d Q u ino
line yellow green s o f v a riou s to n es M et h ylen e blu e an d
C h rysoidi n e bronze green to olive sh a des a n d so o n The ,
. .

so ap m aker by exper im en t n c a n soo n becom e expe rt in

-

m ixin g colo u rs .

It m a y be pointed ou t th a t so m e o f the co a l tar c o lo ur s -

chan ge on bein g m ixed with th e hot so a p p a ste ; th u s th e

E osi n es a n d R hod a m i n es m a y t u rn yellow or som e o f the ,

yellows go brown bu t on cooli n g the ori gi n a l colou r c om es

,

back .

The m inera l colo u rs u sed for tinti n g so a ps a r e a s follows

C a dm i u m yellow for yellow so a ps 5 lb will colo u r 1 c wt . .

o f so a p a good yellow .

C a r a m el o r b u rnt s u ga r is a fin e colo u ri n g a gen t for

m a ki n g brow n so a ps 5 lb will colo u r 1 cwt of so ap . . .

O chres h a ve been u sed i n colo u rin g so a p yello w only th e

—
best a n d st r on gest in st a i n i n g powers th e so c alled g old -

—
ochre s h ou ld be u sed for this p u rpose U ltr a m a ri n e gr e en .

is s u it a ble for colo u ri n g so ap green givi n g with 4 lb of the , .

pi gm en t a good se a gree n to 1 cwt of so a p . .

Verm ilion is u sefu l for m a ki n g rose colo u red so aps bu t it -

,
 T RA N S P AR E N T SO AP S . 2 85
i

is ra ther he a vy a n d there fore tends to settle ou t u nless well

,

c ru tched in a n d the so a p q u ic kly cooled .

C hro m e gree n is very s u i t able for colo u rin g soaps green

i t h a s a fin e colo u r a n d re a dily m ixes with the so a p a n d is ,

qu ite perm a nent .

U m bers a r e u sed for m akin g brown so a ps ; 1 to 4 lb per .

c ent is u su a lly s u ffi cient

. .

U ltram a rine is u sed for m a kin g bl u e m ottled soaps ; 5 lb .

w ill colo ur 1 cwt of so a p . .

TRAN SP ARE N T SO AP S .

The m anu fa ct u re of tra nsp a rent so a ps is very largely

c ar r ied on both in this co u n t r y a n d a bro a d s u ch tr a nsp a re n t ,

toilet so a p s bein g grea t fa vo u rites with a large n u m ber of

p erso ns . It is by no m e a ns e a sy to m a ke tra n sparen t so a ps

it requ ires a good de al of pra ctice an d experience to en a ble

a so a p -m aker to t u rn ou t a perfect p r odu ct .

In m a kin g tr ansp a ren t so a ps the r e are a fe w points which

r e qu ire a tte n tion first i n re ga r d to the O ils a n d fa ts u sed .

There ar e so m e wh ich a d a pt them selves better th a n

o thers to the prod u ction o f tran s p a re n t so a ps C a stor O i l in .

a rt ic ula r gives rise m ore re a dily to tr a n sp a ren t so a ps th a n

p
a n y other oil perh a ps n ext co m es coco n u t oil the n the v a ri
, ,

o u s li q u id oils . Solid fa ts like t a llow a n d p a l m oil a r e m ost

, ,

d i fli cu lt to tr a n s form i n to tr a n sp a ren t soaps a n d they sho u ld ,

b e Spa ri n gly u sed .

The gre at bu lk o f the tra n sp a ren t so aps especi a ll y the ,

b e tter qu a lities a r e m a de with a lcohol or m ethyl a ted spirits

, ,

t h e u se of which of co u rse a dds to the cost of prod u ctio n .

T here a r e perh a ps two re a so n s fo r the u se o f spi r it th e first

i s to obt a i n a perfec t tr a nsp a re n t so a p the sa p on i fic a ti on o f
,

t h e fa ts m u st be co m plete A s every so a p m aker k n ows the

.
-
,

m ore p er fect a fa t is sa p on i fie d the m ore tr a n sp a re n t it is ;

t h e a lcohol pro m otes thi s sa p on i fic a ti o n a n d so helps to
 2 86 SO AP M ANUFA C T UR E .

brin g a bou t tran sp a re n cy of th e soap Then a ga i n a lcohol .

,

is a m ore perfect solve n t for so a p th an w a ter an d by its ,

m eans a cle a r tran sp a rent solu tio n is obt a i n ed which on

, ,

ev a p ora tion of the spirit le a ves the so a p behi nd a s a tran s

paren t m a ss .

The a ddition o f glyceri n e pro m otes t r a n sp a r e n cy bu t it ,

h a s to be u sed with c a re or otherwise a p a sty s ticky so a p is

, ,

obta i n ed which is not a t all s a tis fa ctor y .

Su ga r is o fte n a dded to tr a n sp a re n t so aps a s it incre a s es ,

their t r a n sp a re n cy .

G e n era lly these so a ps a re colo u red u s u a lly red the best , ,

colo u ri n g m a tter which c a n be u sed for this p u rpose bei n g

.

S a fr a ni n e o f w h ich a h a lf to o n e po u n d is requi red per h un

,

d r e dw ei gh t of so a p a ccordin g to th e depth o f ti n t re q u i r ed
, .

F or yellow wh a t is k n own a s B u tter yellow or So a p ye llow

,

is u sed ( Se e C olo u ri n g T o ilet So a ps p

.
, .

An y ki n d of per fu m e to the fa n cy o f the m a ker m a y be

em ployed .

E a ch m a ker h as possibly his o w n m ethod o f worki n g ;

those descr ibed below will be fo u n d very u se fu l .

Tr a n sp a r en t S oap by Cold P r oc ess — T a ke 5 0 lb of ste a ric .

a cid 1 1 0 lb o f coco n u t oil a nd 40 lb o f c a stor O i l he a t thes e

,
. .
,

to gether u n til they a r e m elted the n stir in 1 00 lb of c a u stic

, .

sod a lye m a de fr o m th e best qu a li ty o f solid c a u stic soda ,

th is lye h a vi n g a str en gth of 7 0 T w speci fic gra vity)

°
. .

The lye is well m ixed with the oils a n d the m ixt u re a llowed ,

to st a n d for a fe w d a ys .

N ext the so a p so m a de is m ixed with 1 2 0 lb m ethyl a t ed .

spirit the m ixt u re bei n g he a ted u n til a clea r tra n sp a rent li qu i d

,

is obt a i n ed .

F or the p u rpose o f s a vin g a lcohol it is best to co n du ct

this O pera tio n i n a still co n n ect e d with a con den ser so that ,

the a lcohol or S pirit which is vol a tilised dur in g the operation

c a n be recover ed a n d u sed fo r a n other b a tch o f so a p g e n er a lly
 T RAN SP ARE N T SO AP S . 2 87

abou t two thirds o f the spirit m a y be th u s recovered

- D ur .

ing this t r e a t m ent the sap o n ific ati o n of the fats is co m pleted .

W h en a tra n sp a rent m ass is obtained there is added to

the so a p a bou t 40 lb o f c r ystal s u gar m ade i n to a syr u p
.

with 4 ga llons of w a ter a n d 40 lb o f glycerine . .

The m a ss when a ll the i n gredi e n ts h a ve been i n c or por

,

ated ,
is read y to be fr a m ed ; when set it is c u t u p into
tablets these are pl a ced for som e ti m e in a cool d a rk room ,

du ri n g which ti m e the a lcohol gr a d u a lly pas ses awa y th e ,

soap h a r dens and the transpare n cy beco m es m ore per fect

, .

Tr a n sp a r en t S oap by B oi li n g — The pr ocess desc r ibed

above is necess a rily a slow o n e a n d m a ny so a p m a kers
,
-

would like to h a ve a q u icker m ethod Then the followi n g

.

pr ocess m a y be a dopted the m

, a teri a ls u sed bein g the s a m e

both in kind a n d qu a n tity .

The oi ls ar e m elted to ge ther a t a gen tle hea t then the

'

cau stic so d a lye a n d the spirit a r e m ixed to g et h er a n d a dded

to the oils a fter sti r r i n g well to ens u re thoro u gh ad m ixt u re ;

the m a ss is kept a t a gentle he a t u ntil the sa p o n i fic a ti o n is

complete a n d a tr a n sp a rent m a ss is obt a i n ed ; this m a t ke

y a

from thr ee to fo u r ho u rs Then th e other i n gredients a re

.

added a n d the so a p finished a s be fore C olo u r a n d perfu m e

.

may be a dded a s m a y be deem ed nec ess a r y .

The u se o f glycerine is n o t a bsol u tely necess a ry to the

p r od u ction o f tr a nsp a re n t so a p ; the f ollowi n g for m u l a shows
the m a teri a ls requ ired fo r a t r a nsp a rent so a p witho u t

gyl c erine

Tr a n sp a r en t

T ll
a o w or ste a ri c ac i d

Coc on u t oi l

Ca sto r o il
°
Ca u sti c so d a ly e a t 7 0 T w .

M thyl
e a t e d sp i r i t

C y t l
r s a su g a r

Wa ter
2 88 SO AP MANUF A C TURE .

The fa ts are m elted then treate d wi th the alk a li the , ,

whole be in g kept at abo u t 1 80 F u ntil th e soap is properly °

.

fo rm e d w h en th e alcohol is ad d ed t h en th e o ther i n gr edi

, ,

e n t s t o get h er wi th a n y c olo u rin m at t d per f m e t h t

, g er an u a

ar e r eq u ired when the so a p m ay be finish ed in the u su al

,

m an ner .

Ther e is j u st one point that is i m port a nt i n preparing

these soaps by h eat a n d that is th e tem pe rat u re m u st not
, ,

he a llowed to he too h igh or a ll th e spir it will be vol a tilised , ,

which is not desi rabl e for then a tran spar ent so a p ca nnot ,

be obt a ined .

Tr a n sp a r en t S oap wi tho u t Alcoho l .

P r ovi d e th e fo ll o wi n g m a te r i a l s

T ll a ow

Coc o n u t oi l

w
Castor o il

C a u sti c sod a y
l 0Te, 7
°
.

Crysta l su ga r

W a t er
G ly c er i n e

S od a cr ysta l s

M elt th e fats m i x with th e cau stic alka li a llow to st and

, ,

for twenty fo u r ho u rs the n boil for three or fou r ho u rs to

-
,

com plete the sapon ific a ti on whe n a clear tra n sp a rent m ass ,

is obt ained th e he a t is withdra wn a n d the so a p is a llowed

, ,

to st a n d for an ho u r or so u ntil it h a s a tem peratu re of

a bo u t 1 7 0 F a n d is m ore or less of a jelly i n a ppe a rance
°
.

There a r e now add ed with a brisk agitation the glycerine and

the s u ga r m ade into a syr u p with th e water then the soda ,

cry st a ls then any perfu m e a n d colo u ring m a tter a fter which

, ,

it is a llowed to st a nd u ntil cold E xercisi n g a ll ordinary .

c a re a tra nsparent soa p will be readily obt a i n ed of a su ffi ,

c i en tly
g ood q u ality fo r the che a per classes o f these so a ps .

B y u sin g a r a ther l ar ger proportion of s u ga r t r a n sparent ,

so a p m a y be m a de witho u t either a lcohol or glycerine ao

cor di n g to th e followi n g for m u l a
 I N D U ST R IAL SO AP S . 2 89

T ll
a ow

C oc on u t oi l

C astor oi l
°
C a u s ti c so d a lye , 7 0 Tw .

C r ysta l s u ga r

W a te r
W or ked as d esc ri b
ed a bove .

It will be su fli c i en t to a dd t h a t in a ll processes of m akin g

tran sp a re n t so a p witho u t a lcoh o l a n d glyce r ine c a re m u st ,

be t a ken t h a t the sa p on i fic a ti o n o f th e fats is co m ple te

before goi n g on wi th the fin ishi n g processes .

Another pl a n of m a king tr a n sp a rent so a ps is o ften

adopted in m a n y works A good ordin a ry sort o f so a p pre
.

pa r ed p r operly fro m g ood t a llow o r other oils best with ,

hi gh grade c a u stic i s take n dried a n d sh a ved

,
It is then
,
.

p u t i n to a p a n with s u ffi cient a lcohol or m ethyl a ted spiri t

to di ssolve it The p a n m a y be h e a ted bu t the tem pera t u re
.
,

shou ld n o t be a llowed to e t too hi g h ro o 1 60 F

° °

g f m 1 30 t .

will be fo u n d s u ffi cien t The sol u tion is best e ffecte d i n a

.

still fitted with a co n de n ser a s described a bove so a s to s a v e ,

as mu ch o f the a lcohol a s possible W hen a ll is dis solved .

,

the sol u tion is a llowed to st a n d to a llow an y insol u bl e

matters s u ch as sa lt c ar bon a te o f sod a a n d s u lph a te o f sod a
, , , ,

to settle o u t T he cle a r portion is the n trans fe r red to a

. .

still where three fo u r ths o f th e spiri t is distilled o ff a n d

,
-

conden sed a a in for fu rther u se The r esid u a l so p is

g a .

transferr ed to the fr a m es colo u r ed a n d scen ted i f n eed fu l , ,

all owed to cool then c u t u p i n to t a blets which ar e then

, ,

kept i n a w a rm r oom to set At first the t a blet is not tra n s

.

pa r ent , b u t g r a d u a lly beco m es so a s the excess o f a lcohol

and w a ter ev a por a tes .

IN D U ST R IAL S O AP S
C . .

I n m a n y t r a des so a p is l a r gely u sed fo r the perform a n ce

of ce r t a i n oper a tions The silk m a n u fa ctu rer u ses so a p
.

to fr ee the r a w silk fro m the gu m m y m a tter it n a t u r a lly

19
2 90 SO AP MANU F AC T UR E .

cont ai n s ; the woollen m a n u fa ctu r er fin ds so a p the best

thin g to u se for extr a cti n g th e dirt a n d grea se fro m the wool
p r ior to spin n i n g it ; the calico pri n ter u ses so a p fo r cleari ng
his pri n ted cloths fro m th e t h icken i n g he u ses a n d for
bri ghten in g the colo u rs To s u pply the u ser s fo r the pur .

poses indicated la rge qu a n tities a r e an n u a lly m a de .

G e n e r a lly i n d u stri a l so a ps a r e not m a de with the s ame

care a s ordin a r y do m estic or ho u sehold so a ps In m any .

c a ses the elem e n t O f price enters into the qu esti on of what

m a teri a ls a r e u sed a n d th e degree o f a ttention p a id to the
proce ss o f m a kin g The desi r e on the p a rt of m a ny u sers
.

for c h e a pness o fte n le a ds to m a ny o f the grades o f these

so aps bei n g m a de fro m very poor m a terials I n the follow .

i n g sections we sh a ll indic a te t h ose so a ps which a r e most

u sed i n m a n u fact ur in g oper a tions a n d the best m a teri al s to

m a ke the m fr o m .

—
Wool S oap a So a p is a very u se fu l agent i n the m anu
fa ct u re o f wool i n to cloth The fir st O pera tion with the r aw
.

w ool a s it co m es i n to the woollen m a n u fact u re r s h a n ds is

’

t o extra ct fr o m it the gr e a se a n d dirt it co n t a i n s It has .

bee n fo u n d th a t w a shin g in soap liq u ors or in a m ixtu re of ,

s o a p a n d sod a is on e o f the best ways o f effect n this

,

O per a tio n. This is k n own as wool scou ring T h ere is .

g e n er a lly u sed for this a r a ther poor gr a de of so a p c ol our ,

a n d qu a lity n o t bein g o f m u ch i m po r t a n ce Bo n e fat low .

,

g r a de t a llows che ap p a l m
,
O ils a n d oleic a cid a r e u sed ,

l argely These so a ps a r e a lways m a de by th e boili n g pro

.

cess a n d a r e s a lte d an d fr am ed a t once while hot The .

followi n g m ixt u r es a r e m u ch u sed

1 c wt . h o n e tall w g o , c wt . c o tt on oi l, 5 c wt . l
o ei c a c i d .

1 4 c wt . l w t ll w 4
o a o , c wt .
p a lm oi l
.

1} c wt . h t ll w
on e a o , c wt . c ot to n o i l .

A sli ght exce ss o f a lk a li does n ot m atter — i n fa ct is rather

ben efici a l to th e sco u ri n g qu a lities o f the so a p — b u t too great
 I N D U ST R IAL SO AP S . 2 91

an excess m u st be a voided a s it ten ds to cau se the wool to be

,

diffic u lt to ble a ch in the s u bseq u e n t O per a tio n s thro u gh wh ich

it is pa ssed G e n era lly these so aps a r e m ade to co n t a in 62
.

to 64 per cent of fa tty m atters 2 9 to 30 per cent of w a ter 6 5

.
, .
,

to 7 p er ce n t o f co m bined a lk a li with a b o u t 5 per cen t e a ch

.
,
.

of free fa t a n d fre e a lk a li They sho u ld not conta in m ore

.

than 1 per ce n t of th e l a tter i n gredie n t

. .

The best soa ps for this p u rpose a r e so ft so a ps m a de wi th

p ot a sh . They are however , m o r e expe n sive
,
th a n the hard
sod a so a ps a n d hence ar e not m a de to a n y exten t P ot a sh
,
.

so aps le a ve the wool m u ch so fter in feel a n d m ore silky in

appe a ra n ce ,
while they have n ot the yellowi n g tendency
of sod a so a ps It h a s a lso gre a ter sco ur in g properties
. .

The s a m e o ils a n d fa ts ar e u sed a s in m a kin g sod a so a ps .

A g ood pot a sh so a p will cont a in 50 to 52 per cen t o f .

wa ter 43 to 44 per cen t of fa tty m a tter 5 to 6 per cent

, .
,
.

of co m bi n ed a lk a li a n d 5 to ,
per cent of free a lk a li a n d .

fr ee fa t .

T h e so a p liq u ors fr o m the r a w wool sco u ri n g O per a tion

a r e u s u a lly collected a n d tre a ted with a cid o r other s u bst a n ce

to sep a ra te o u t the fa tty m atter they co n t ai n wh ich is sold ,

u nder the n a m e o f Y orkshire gre a se .

A fter being sco u red it is n ecess a r y for th e pur pose of ,

fa ci lit a tin g the spi n n i n g a n d we a vi n g o f the wool to oil it ; ,

this is done with v ar io u s kinds of oil b o th fa tty a n d m i n era l ,

.

After bein g sp u n a n d woven it is n eed fu l to extra ct th is oil

,

ou t o f the w ool be fore it c a n be s u bjected to the process of

dyei n g an d finishi n g This c an be done by tre a t m ent with

.

a so a p u s u a lly the s a m e ki n d o f so a p a s w a s e m ployed in the

,

ori g in al scou r i n g O per a tio n It is h owev er desi r able th a t

.

a sli ghtly better q u a lity sho u ld be u sed so th a t a n ythin g it ,

m i g ht c o n t a i n m a y n o t i n te r fere with th e p r oce ss o f d yei n g .

The so a p which is m ost u sed for thi s p u rpose is one m a de

fro m a m ixt u re of equ a l p a rts o f bo n e t a llow a n d cotto n seed
2 92 SO A P MANUF A C T U R E .

oil nother favou rite so ap is m a de from p a lm oil a n d cotton

a

oil . The latter is re a lly the better of the two for the pu rp ose ,

for th e so a p m a de fro m the bo n e t a llow is li a ble to co n t a i n li me

co m po u n ds wh ich i f they a r e left in the cloth h a ve a ten dency
, ,

to a ffect the dyeing by form i n g colo u r lakes with the dyes ,

a n d thereby res u lti n in poor s h des d d u ll colo u r s bei n g

g a a n

obt a ined So aps m a d e fro m r ecovered gre a ses a r e ver y u n

.

s a tis fa cto r y for this p u rpose a s they o ften cont a in sm all

,

q u a ntities of u n sa p on i fiable m a tter whic h gettin g on the ,

cloth form gre a se spots a n d preve n t the dye from goi n g on

,

the cloth properly .

W e m a y r e m a rk th a t fr o m a strictly scien ti fic poi n t of

,

view the m ethod of extracti n g oil fr om wool by m ean s of

,

so a p is n ot the m ost scie n ti fic .

After bei n g dyed the woollen cloth h a s o fte n to u nder go

the O per a tion k n own a s m illin g or fu lli n g the O bject of ,

wh ich is to c a u se the felti n g of the fibres to gether a n d to

pr od u ce a thicker an d fu ller cloth m ore i m pervio u s to th e
,

we a ther a n d th er efo r e m or e su ita ble for m a ki n g cloth es It .

is fo u n d th a t th is m illi n g is best do n e i n th e presen ce of a

so a p liq u o r ; i n this c a se the so a p h a s no actu a l chem ic al
work to do M il li n g so a ps m u st however be o f good qu ality
.
, ,

a n d well m a de ; they s h o u ld not co n t a i n a n free lk li as

y a a ,

this h a s a te n den cy to a c t u pon the dye c a u si n g it to r u n or

,

bleed a n d so m eti m es i t wo u ld a lter the sh a de therefore a

, ,

m illi n g so a p m u st be well settled a n d fitted The so ap ou ght

.

not to con t a i n a n y fr ee fa t a s this wo u ld settle on th e cloth

,

a n d fo r m re se spots The so p ho ld l ther freely d b e

g a . a S u a a n

sol u ble in wa ter The best m a ter i a ls to u se there fore will be

.
, ,

O live ,p a l m n u t cotton a n d si m il a r oils A t a llow so ap i s

,
.

n ot s u fficiently sol u ble n or i s a p a l m oil so a p

,
A good .

m ixt u r e is 5 0 p ar ts o f olive oil 40 p a rts o f cotto n oil and

, ,

1 0 p a rts o f p a lm n u t oil thoro u g hly s a poni fyin g the oils and

,

settli n g well .
 I ND U ST R IAL SO APS . 2 93

A pot a sh so ap i f it could be m a de q u ite n eu tral wo u ld be

the best bu t a su fi c i e n t de gree of ne u tralit y c a n not be
,

obt ai n ed in the potas h soap wi tho u t difii c u lty .

C a li c o P r i n ter s S oap
’
— The calico printer m a ke s grea t
u se o f so a p in h i s works a ltho u h th e writer h a s a n idea
g ,

that it is n ot n ecessary in all cases To enable h i m to pri nt .

on c a lico th e c a lico printer h a s to m i x th e vario u s colo u rin

, g
matters a n d m ordants with g u m dextrine starch and si m il a r
, , ,

bodies to thicken them and preven t the colo u r ru nni n g whe n

,

p rinti n
g o n t h e clot h T h e thicke
. n i n
g m aterial h a s su b se

qu ently t o h e rem oved and a so a p b a th has been fo u nd to be

,

a c on venient a n d si m ple m e a ns o f doi n so In so m e c ses

g a .

the soa p h a s a fu rt h er e ffect in e nteri n g into com bin a tion

with so m e of th e colo u rs a n d by so doin g m aki n g these ,

mu ch bri ghter .

A c a lico printer s soap m u st ha ve th e follo win g fe a tu r es

’

it shou ld be fairly sol u ble in w a ter it o u gh t to be qu i te ,

ne utr a l in its re a ctions for i f it cont ai n ed an y free a lk a li it

,

mi gh t a c t u pon so m e of th e colo u r s a n d c h a n ge t h eir ti n t .

Th e u t m ost a m ou nt of free a lk a li which is perm issible in a

calico pr i n ter s soap is 02 per cent It sh o u ld not le a ve or
’
.
,

have a n y tende n c y to leave a n y objection a ble odo u r beh i n d it

, .

It i s fo u n d by experience that th e two best m ateri als to m ake

such a so a p fro m are p a l m oil a n d olive O i l T h e u se o f .

rosin is not perm issible as rosi n so a ps are fou nd to re a ct

,

too alk a line for t h is p u rpose ; a t a llow soap is apt to con

tract a n odo u r a n d is scarcely sol u ble enou gh A little
,
.

tallow m a y however be u sed in co nj u nction with the other

, ,

oil s
.

Coco n u t oil a ltho u gh i t m a kes a very sol u ble so a p h a s

, ,

been fo u nd to be r a ther objectio n a ble on a cco u nt o f the r isk ,

of i m p ar ti n odo r to the oods n d the sam e thi n g

g a n u g a ,

a plies to c a stor oil

p .

The best c a lico printers never O bject to p a y a good p r ice

2 94 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

for their so a p a n d they fin d it to be in the en d the m ost

,

eco n om ic a l co u rse to pu r s u e Som e o f th e s m a ller pri n ters .

are however tem pted to bu y che a p gr a des of so a p w hich

, , ,

c a n n ot be prod u ced u n less low gr a des o f fa t be u sed or by

em ployin g rosi n .

In m aki n g a c a lico pr inter s so a p gr ea t c a re m u s t be ’

t a ken i n get tin g it n eu tra l This c a n only be don e by c a re .

fu l a n d co m plete sa p o n i fica ti o n i n the fir st i n stance an d ,

thorou ghly fitti n g the so ap a fterwa rds so a s to eli m i n a t e a ll ,

the alk ali possible .

The best so ap is m a de fro m blea ched p a lm O i l while m a ny ,

printers prefer a n olive Oi l so ap These so a ps a r e u s u a lly .

m ade to cont a in 64 to 6 5 per cent o f fa tty m a tter . .

An a n a lysis o f a good m a ke o f c a lico pri n t er s so a p m a de

’

by the writer ga ve the followi n g fig u res

F at
F r ee a lk l i a

Co m i n e d b a lk li a

F r ee fa t
W a t er

S i lk Soap the boili n g off o f silk to free it fro m th e

. In
-

g u m m y m a tter it n at u ra lly cont a ins a stron g so a p b a t h , ,

u sin g a s m u ch a s 2 0 to 2 5 per cent of the wei ght o f the s ilk .

,

is em ployed The so a p u sed for this pu rpose sho u ld be w ell

.

m a de be fa irly sol u ble i n w a ter a n d not too a lka li ne in c h a r

, ,

a cter Alk a linit y i n this so a p is n o t of so m u ch im port a n ce

.

a s in c a lico printer s so a p still it sho u ld not be t oo str o n g

’

, ,

a n d the a m o u n t of free a lk a li o u ght n o t to exceed 0 4 p e r

cen t The sol u bility is of m u ch i m port a nce i n a sm u ch as

.
,

then a s tr o n g a n d yet liqu id so a p b a th c a n be go t ; on t hi s

a cco u n t olive O i l is fo u n d to be the best m a teri a l to m a ke

silk so a p o f C ocon u t oil wo u ld m a ke a good so a p for t h is

.

rea so n bu t it is o pen to two defects : it is n ot ea sy to m a ke

,

a n e u tra l so a p fro m it a n d fu r ther there is the O bj ectio n t o, , ,

the ra n cid s m ell it is li a ble to le a ve behind it .

 SP E C IA L SO AP S . 2 95

An other fea t u r e which m akes it n eedfu l to h a ve a solu ble

so a p is t h a t it is n ecess a r y to tho r ou ghly wa sh the so a p ou t
of the silk a fter it h a s been boiled in it .

F o r a silk so a p olive O i l is the best

, G ro u n d n u t oil m a y
.
-

a lso be u sed with ood res lts little ble ched p l m oil m a y
g u ; a a a

be a dded The so a p o u ght to be well m a de the pri n cip a l

.
,

point bei n g to le a ve little or no fa t .

A n oth er wa y i n which t h e so a p is em ployed in the si lk i n

du str y is i n dyei n g m u ch o f t his bei n g do n e i n a ba th o f
,

so a p a m ethod wh ich see m s to the writer to be a r elic from

,

other d a ys a n d m i ght be a b a n do n ed There is n o pec u li

,
.

a r i ty a bo u t t h e so a p w h ich is u se d for t h is pu rpose a good ,

—
o live oil so a p works best the o n ly poi n t is to a void the
prese n ce of free fa t a n d h a v e a good sol u ble so a p
, .

D . SP E C I A L S O A P S .

We m ay now t u rn o u r a tt e n tion to the produ ction of a

cl a ss of so a ps m a de for speci a l pu rposes or perh a ps i n som e , , ,

c a ses s u ppos ed to be m a de for so m e speci a l pu rpose The se .

so a ps ar e r a ther n u m erou s an d a r e sold u nder a v a riety of

fa nc y n a m es a n d o ften a t equ a lly fa ncy prices which le a ve a
,

g ood m a r gi n o f pro fi t fo r the m a ker .

—
M edi ca ted S oap s A l a rge n u m ber o f so a ps a r e m a de
which a re su pposed to h a ve som e m edici n a l v a lu e Th a t .

som e of them h a ve there is n o do u bt bu t th at others h a v e ,

a n y s u ch v a l u e a t a ll is r a ther a n ope n q u estio n The pro .

cess of m a n u fa ct u re of these so aps is very si m ple F irst o f a ll .

there is m a de a n o r di n a r y so a p stock i n the u s u a l w ay a n d ,

i n to this is worked by m e a n s O f the cr u tcher or by the ,

m illi n g proce ss t h e l a tter pl a n pe r h a ps givi n g the best r e

, , ,

su lts the speci a l s u bst a n ce which ive s v a l u e to the so a p

, g .

M a kers w ill o f co u rse di ffer in th e ch a r a cter o f the so a p

, ,

stock which they will u se for wh a t is n orm a lly the s a m e

2 96 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

so ap bu t this is a s m a ll point which is of very li ttle m o

,

m ent .

C a r boli c S oap s — O f a ll the v a rio u s kinds o f m edic a ted

so aps those co n t a i n i n g c a r bolic a cid or a s the che m i st c a ll s
, , ,

it phen ol a r e perh aps the m ost i m porta n t for th ey ar e m a de

, , ,

i n l a rge qu a ntities a n d a r e u sed fo r co m m o n ho u sehold p u r

poses F or m a kin g c a rbolic so aps alm ost a n y good so ap
.

stock m a y be u sed b u t this is u su ally varied a cco r di n g to the

,

q u a lity or gra de of th e so ap Th u s the lowest gr a des of c ar

.
,

b oli c so a ps are m a de fro m the n i gr es of p ale so a ps m ixed

with fr esh so a p stock The best gra des of these so aps ar e
.

m a de fro m good pale so a ps o f t a llow ble a ch ed p a l m O il a n d , ,

r osi n A s c arbolic a cid h a s a sli ght a cid reaction it is a good

.
,

pl a n to le a ve the so ap stock sli ghtly alk a line for i f qu ite ,

neu tra l the acid m ay c u t the so a p while bein g m ixed The .

u s u a l q u a n tit y o f c a rbolic a cid is 1 0 per cent O cc a sion a lly .

so a ps a r e m ade containi n g 5 p er ce n t This is the m i n i m um .

qu a ntity which s h o u ld be a dded or th e m edicin a l v a l u e of th e

,

so a p will be red u ced to n il .

F or p ale c a rbolic so a ps the best cryst a l a cid should be

u sed . Before addin g to the so a p this m a y be m ixed with a
sm a ll q u a ntity of wa ter to m a ke it liq u id F or th e com .

m o n er cl a ss of c a rbolic so a ps which u s u ally a r e o f a d ark

,

brown colo u r the cru de c a r bolic a cid m ay be u sed The

, .

process is si m ple The so ap stock is m ade i n the or dinar y

.
,

w a y a n d a fter bein g r u n o ff a n d fitted i f r eq u i r ed the c a r

, , ,

b oli c a cid is cru tched i n i n the cr u tcher a ddi n g it littl e by ,

little After the cru tchi n g the so a p is fram ed a n d a llowed to

.

set a fter which it m a y be c u t u p into b a rs a n d s t a m ped in

,

t h e u su a l w a y .

N ap h thol Soap — An other disin fect a nt so a p wh ich is

s o m eti m es m a de is n a phthol so a p This is m a de by cr utch .

i n g 1 0 lb o f n a phthol i n to 1 cwt o f a g oo d so ap a n d fin ishing

. .

a s u su al In pl a ce of n a phthol n aphth a lene m ay be u s ed

.
, .
 ME DI C A T E D SO AP S . 2 97

The m a kers o f speci a l disi n fect a n ts e g G erm ol San i ta s , . .

, , ,

Iz al etc prod u ce them by m ixi n g thei r pr od u cts with

,
.
,

ordi n a ry so a ps in the m a n n er described a bove .

S p
u l h u r S ap
o — A so a p cont a i n i n g s u lph u r is l a rgely u sed
for wa shin g do gs a n d a lso fo r tre a ti n g v a rio u s form s o f ski n
,

disea se These so a ps are very si m ply m ade ; a good white

.

soap m a de fro m t a llow a n d coco n u t oil is em ployed a n d ,

i n to it while m elted a fter it h a s been fitted a r e sti rred flowers

, ,

of s u lph u r 1 0 to 2 0 lb to 1 cwt of so a p a little perfu m e

,
. .
,

bein g a dded to i m prove the odou r o f the so a p .

Ta r S oap — A bl a ck colo u red ta r so a p is m a de a n d u sed

-

i n fa irly l a rge q u a ntities F or it m a y be u sed either co a l.

tar or still better wood ta r

,
The l a tter h a s ra ther m ore
,
-
.

medicin a l v a l u e a n d is free fro m so m e of the objectio n a ble

,

feat u r es of co a l ta r An ordi n a ry so a p stock is t a ken i f

- .
—
sli htly a lk a li n e there is n o objection to i t
g
— a n d the t ar i n ,

the proportion of a bo u t 1 0 per cen t so m eti m es a s m a ller .

,

qu a ntity is cru tched i n W ood creosote is a lso u sed in

, .

m a kin g si m il a r soaps the a m o u nt u s u a lly a dded bein g 5

,

per cen t .

M er c u r i a l Soap — This is som eti m es prep a red for tre a ti n g

dogs a n d other an i m a ls an d for preservin g skins in t axiderm y
, .

It cont a ins corro sive s u blim a te O n e dr a chm of the l a tter .

co m pou n d is dis solved i n a m or t a r with 1 oz of recti fied .

spirit a n d 4 oz o f a good so ap c u t u p into fin e sh a vi n gs

, .
, ,

a r e a dded The whole is the n incorpo r a ted by c ar e fu l

.

g rindi n g .

A r sen i ca l S oap is a lso fr equ en tly u sed for w a shi n g do gs ,

c a ts a n d other a n i m a ls
, a n d i n p r eservin
g skins , A g ood .

form u l a for m a kin g t h is is to m i x i n a m o r t a r 4 oz white .

so a p 1 oz white a r se n ic 1 oz sod a cryst a ls a n d oz m

, .
5 , c a .
,
.

phor gri n din g the whole to geth er a ddi n g a little w a ter to

, ,

facilit a te the ea se of worki n g u n til a s m ooth m a ss is oh

ta i n e d .
2 98 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

Too th
S oap — Tooth so aps ar e m a de by takin g a well
m a de a n d n e u tr a l ta llow so a p a n d a ddi n g to it w hi le in , ,

a m olten condition finely si fted p u m ice powder prep ar ed

, ,

chalk a n d st a rch The followi n g q u a ntities m a y be t aken

.

as a gui de : 2 0 lb of so a p 1 lb of p u m ice powder 2 lb of

.
, .
, .

chalk a n d 5 lb of st a rch
,
. .

S a n d S oap s — O f l a te ye ars a cl a ss o f so ap h a s come

.

l a rgely into u se for th e pu rpose of cl e a n in g a n d polishin g

m et a ls They ar e m a nu fa ct u red by m a n y m a kers a n d sent
.

ou t u n der a g reat v a riety o f fancy n a m es W e m a y h ow .

,

ev e r i n cl u de the m all h ere u nder the n a m e of sand so ap

,
.

They co n sist of a so a p m a de in the ordi n a r y way which h as

been incorpora ted with fin e s a n d fin ely powdered p u mi ce ,
-

s tone kiesel g u hr and si m il a r bodies

,
the so a p is t a ken wh ile
in a m elted st a te and it sho u ld not be too dry The m ineral
, .

ingredie n ts are then grou nd in to the extent that th e fancy

of th e so a p m a ker m a y di r ect
- after wh ich the soap p a ste is ,

p u t i n to m o u lds a n d presse d to consolid a te it a n d form a ,

fir m block of soap .

The followin g form u lae will serve to S how of wh a t m ate

ri als s u ch soaps m ay b e m a de
1 T ll w
. a p o so a 2 0 lb
Fi dn e sa n 80

2 P lm i l
. a p o soa 2 0
Fi dn e sa n 40
G d p mi
r ou n u ce 40

3 T ll w
. a po so a 1 0
C oc o n u t o i l soa p 15
Fi p m i
ne u ce 40
Ki l g h
e se u r 35

4 . T ll w p
a o soa 15
P lm i l
a p O so a 10
Re d ox i d e 5
G rou n d p u m i c e 50
F llu e r s ea r t
’
h 2 5

S ha vi n g S oap s — Sh a vi n g soaps are requ i r ed to p rodu ce

a good an d pe r sis tent l a ther which when placed on th e face , ,
 S HAVI NG SO AP S . 2 99

will rem ai n witho u t d ryin g u p At the s a m e ti m e the so ap .

m u st n o t h a ve a n y a ctio n on the skin however te n de r th a t ,

m a y be To m a ke s u ch a so a p a co n sidera ble a m o u nt o f
.

c a re is req u i r ed The best fa ts th a t c a n be u sed a r e t a llow

.

a n d coco n u t O il a n d it is advis a ble to u se both sod a a n d

,

pot a sh in their prep a r a tion as the n better l a ther i n g so a p s ,

are obt a i n ed S h a vi n g so a ps c a n be m a de either by the

.

ordi n a ry boiling process or by the cold p r ocess I n som e .

m a kes of Sh a vi n g so a p a little gu m tra ga c a n t h h a s been

added to pr o m ote perm a n e n ce of the l a theri n g qu a lities .

Ver y little of the gu m is req u ired a bo u t 2 lb to 1 5 or 2 c w t , . . .

of so a p a n d it m a y be a dded a t a n y conve n ie n t point i n th e

,

pr ocess of m a ki n g .

.The followin g form u l ae m ay be followed in m a ki n g these

so a s
p f
C old -p r ocess S ha vi n g
1 . T ll a ow

C ocon u t oi l

Sod a ly e a t 7 2 Tw
°
.

h
P o tas ly e a t 7 2 Tw
°
.

2 . T ll a ow

L a rd
Coc on u t oil

S od a ly e a t 7 1 Tw °
.

h °
P otas ly e a t 60 T w .

3 . T ll a ow

Coc o n u t oi l
S od a ly e a t 7 1 Tw
°
.

h
P otas ly e a t 60 Tw°
.

These so aps m a y be scen ted in a n y w a y th a t the m a ke r

m ay app r ove a n d the r ecipes pre v io u sly give n for scen ti n g
,

toilet so aps m ay be followed a s a gu ide .

B oi led S h a vi ng S oap — I n m a ki n g s u ch so a p co n sider a bl e

care m u st be t aken to ensu re n eu t r a lity If pot a sh be e m .

ployed a lon g with the sod a a s give n i n the cold process ,

above then the so ap c a n not be s a lted ou t J u st en o u gh

, .

lye sho u ld be t a ke n to e n s u r e the so a p bei n g m a de ne a rly ,

300 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

if not qu ite n eu tra l the so a p well boiled so a s to free it

, ,

from excess of w a ter a n d then a n excess o f a lk a li is k i lled

,

by the a dditio n o f a little ste aric a cid or coco n u t oil T h e .

r ecipes j u st iven m be followed to the f ts e m pl yed

g a y a s a o .

E m olli en t S oap s These ar e toilet so a ps to wh i c h is

.

a dded s u ch bodies a s l a n olin v a seline sperm a ceti in a bo u t , ,

5 to 1 0 per ce n t o f the wei ght o f the so a p

. .

Co ld wa ter S oap s
- — These a re so a ps for which it is cl a i m ed
th a t they will yield a CO p i ou s l a th er with cold w a ter T hey .

a r e m a de c h iefly fro m coco n u t oil or p a l m n u t oil a n d ar e -

,

filled with sod a c r y st a ls T h ey co n t a i n a l a rge proporti o n of

.

w a ter 30 to 40 per ce n t a n d they ar e very w a ste fu l in u se

, .
,
.

A n ti m oni a l S oap — T ake 1 oz a n ti m ony ora n ge a n d dis .

s olve i n 3 oz c a u stic pot a sh lye the n l

. with 1 2 oz w hite ,
.

t a llow so a p to a s m ooth p a ste .

Ta n n i n S oap — 9 7 lb good white so a p a n d 3 lb t a n nic . .

a cid .

S a li cy l S oap — 9 8 lb good white so a p and 2 lb s a li c y lic

. .

a cid .

T hym ol S oap — 9 7 lb good wh ite so a p a n d 3 lb thy m o l

. . .

B en z oi c Soap — 98 lb good white so a p a n d 2 lb be n z o ic

. . .

a cid .

F loa ti n g Toi let S oap — The stock so a p is rem elted a n d

t hen st r on g ly stirred with a n agit a tor ; by this m e a ns th e
s o a p beco m e s ch a r ed w ith a i r b u bbles a n d there fore m o re
g
o r less spo n gy in text u r e ; it is n ow fr am ed c u t i n to b a r s , ,

d ri ed which m a kes it ra ther li ghter c u t into t ablets a n d

, ,

s t a m ped .

S ki n S oap s — S o a ps m ixed w ith br a n o a t m e a l c or n fl o u r

.
, , ,

h a ve been sold u n de r the n a m e of ski n so aps .

L i q u i d Gly c er i n e S oap — M elt to gether 37 4 lb p a le O l eic .

a cid 66 lb coco n u t oil 2 2 8 lb c a u stic potash lye 60 T w

°
.
,
.
, , .
,

t hen a dd boil u p a n d when sa p on i fied a dd 2 0 lb glycer i n e

, ,
.

a n d e n o u gh m ethyl a ted spi r it to m a ke the liq u id cle ar .

 SO FT SO AP . 301

F u ller
’
s E a r th S oap — 7 0 lb so a p a n d 30 lb fu ller s ea rth
. .
’
.

Th e fu ller s ea rth is thoro u ghly d r ied be fore a ddi n g to t h e

’

so ap a n d the l a tter sho u ld not co n t a in less th a n 2 5 to 30 er

, p
cen t w a ter
. .

B or a x S oap — 90 lb good so a p a n d 1 0 lb borax

. . .

Sup erf a tt d S oap s

e — S o a ps m a de by the m illi n g process
.

ar e o ften sold as s u perfa tted they ha ve a dded to them

sm a ll q u a n tities o f l a n oli n re fin e d wool fa t l a rd etc
, , , .

T h e m ai n a dv a n t a ge of s u ch soaps lies i n th a t they ar e

more ag r ee a ble to u se by persons with tender skins a fa ct ,

du e to the a bsen ce o f free a lk a l i .

I odi n e Soap —9 8 lb n e u tra l whi te so a p a n d 2 lb iodi n e

. . .

This sho u ld be m a de fr esh a s requ ired a s it does n ot keep ,

th e iodi n e gr a d u a lly a cti n g on a n d com bi n i n g with the a lk a li

of the so a p the r eby losi n its m edicin l vi t es
, g a r u .

F a r r i er s S oap —A so ft so a p m a de fro m fish oil c a u stic

’

pot a sh a n d wood ta r - .

SO FT SO P A .

So ftso ap is a very im port a nt a rticle i n the so a p tra de ; in

som e distr icts i t is very extensively m a n u fa ct u red while i n ,

others it is m a de i n co m p a r a tively s m a ll q u a n tities So ft .

soap is a n a m ber colo u r ed to a r eddish brown m a teri a l of

- -

the co n sisten cy of bu tter It is m u ch m ore sol u ble in wa ter

.

tha n the ordin a ry h a rd so ap a n d u s u a lly ra ther m o r e a lk a line

,

in its n a t u re Its deterge n t a n d sco u ri n g p r oper ties a r e

.
,

therefo r e grea ter

,
.

The a lka li of so ft so a p is pot a sh a ltho u gh a little sod a is ,

also occ a sion a lly u sed i n co nj u nctio n therewith yet a so ft ,

'

so ap c a n n ot be m a d e with sod a o n ly i n the s a m e w a y a s ,

har d so a ps c a n not be m a de with pot a sh Soft so aps owe .

their co n sistency to the fa ct of the gre a ter sol u bility and

hygroscopicity o f pot a sh so a ps .

S o ft so a ps ar e m u ch m o r e S i m ply m a de th a n h a r d so a ps .
302 SO AP MAN UFAC T UR E .

The fa t s and oils ar e boiled with th e alkali till th e sa poni fica

tion is co m plete and then the so a p is m ade an d only wants
, ,

to be r u n into fir ki n s or tin c a nisters to be rea dy for sale .

Si m ple however a s it is i n principle so ft so a p is by n o m eans

, , ,

e a sy to m ake It is li a ble so m eti m es to go wron g i n the boil

.

i n g a n d then it beco m es a di fficu lt m a tter to set it ri ght

, .

The a i m of th e soft so ap m a ker s h ou ld be to prod u ce a clear

-
,

tra n sparent soap pale i n colou r fairly free fro m odo ur not
, , ,

too a lk a line in c h a ra cter a n d in som e cases figgi n g well ,

”
.

—
F i ggi n g in so ft so ap is a pec uliar a ppe arance st r eaks of
white u su ally fo u nd to stri ke from th e sides O f the vessel
holdin g th e soap inwa rds F i gging is u s u a lly considered to .

i n dic a te a good qu a lity o f so ft soap bu t s u ch is not really ,

the c a se A fir st cla ss soft so a p can be m a de whi ch will not

.
-

fig wh ile on th e other h a nd a poor so a p can be produ ced

,

which will fig T h e figgi n g is u s u ally ascribed to th e pres

.

ence of stearate of sod a i n the soap wh ic h crysta llises out ,

o n the so a p beco m in g cold the cry stals which are thereby ,

form ed givin g rise to the figgi n g F iggin g is m ostly met .

with in winter ti m e U nless the proportion of sod a and .

stea ric acid in th e so a p is very large it does not occu r in

s u m m er tim e .

The oils chiefly em ployed in m aking soft soaps ar e lin

see d oil whale oil a n d cotto n seed oil These fo r m the basis
, .

o f all so ft soaps L inseed oil is the one c h iefly u sed a s it

.
,

sa p o n i fie s easily and ives ood p le colo red tra sp a rent -

g a g a u n ,

so a p o f a good consistency fa irly free fro m odou r a n d which

, , ,

keeps well W h ale or other fish O ils a r e largely u sed being

.
,

chea p They h owever com m on ly prod u ce d a rk colou red

.
-

thou gh clear soaps bu t m u ch depends on th e qu ality of

”

th e oil wh ich is u sed F ish O i l so a ps h ave a fishy odour

. ,

which is not a ltogeth er O bjectio n a ble C otto n seed O il m akes .

a fa i r ly good so ft so a p p a le i n colo u r an d tr a nsp a rent fig

, ,

i
g g n well w h ic h is
, not the case wit h the other t w o oil s
 SO FT SO AP . 303

that h ave be en n am ed C otto n oil so aps a r e liable however

.
, ,

to acqu i r e a ra nc id O do u r on keepi n g The qu a lity of the

.

cott onseed oil h a s a m a teri a l i n fl u ence o n the q u a lity o f

the so ap . The best re fin ed O ils produ ce p a le colo u red -

,

tran sp arent so a ps ; the co m m oner grades a r e apt to give

darker colo u red so a ps wh ich owi n g to the l a rge propor tion
-
,

of ste a r in they co n t a in a r e a t to fi stron ly Tallow is

p g g .

occa sio n a lly a dded in m a ki n so ft so ps to c se the m to

g a a u ,

fig . O live oil so ft so a p is m a de for speci a l p u rposes s u ch ,

a s silk w a shi n etc b t olive i l o w in to its cost is

g , u O g , ,

not co m m o nly a dded to so ft so a ps So m etim es n u t O i l is

.

added .

W hen wh ite so ft so a ps a r e req u ired a s is so m eti m es the ,

c ase for sp ec i a l p u rposes i n th e cotto n tr a de s u ch m u st be ,

made fro m good white t a llow cocon u t O i l a n d perh a ps , ,

a sm all q u a ntity o f l a r d or other fa t a n d p a rtic u l a r a t ten ,

tion m u st be p a id to th e qu a lity o f c a u stic sod a u sed ,

wh ich sho u ld be of a good wh ite colo u r .

The c a u stic pot a sh u sed i n m aki n g so ft so a p w a s a t o n e

tim e prep a r ed by the so a p m a ker fo r his u se by c a u sti c i si n g
-
,

p e a r l a sh ( c a rbo n a te o f pot a sh ) with q u ickli m e N o w how .

,

ever it is the c u sto m for the s m a lle r m a ke r s to p u rch a se it

,

ready prep a r ed fr om the a lk a li m a ker i n ir o n dru m s The

- .

method O f m aki n g c a u stic pot a sh h a s a lre a dy been described

in the chapter on a lk a lies p a ge 36 an d n eed not be r epe a ted
, ,

h ere . W h en bo u ght re a dy m a de it is a dvis a ble to m a ke a n

,

exa m i n a tio n O f it to see th a t it is u to f ll stren th f ood

p u g o g ,

c olo u r fa ir ly fr ee fr o m c a rbon a te a n d does n o t co n t a in

, ,

m u ch i f an y oxide o f iron
, , M u ch o f the lower gra des of
.

cau stic pot a sh which a r e prod u ced ar e de fecti ve i n one or

o ther o f the se poi n ts .

It is a dvis a ble th a t the so a p m aker shou ld p r ep a r e a t

-

lea st two pot a sh lyes of di fferent stren gths on e of 1 4 T w — °

.
,

th e other of 2 5 T w So m e m a kers provide lyes o f th r ee

°
.
304 SO AP M ANUFAC T URE .

stren gths 1 4 T w 2 3 T w a n d 38 T w M u ch of course

,
°
.
,
°
.
°
.

depends on th e constru ction of the soap boiler in w h ich the

so ft so a p is bein g m a de I f the boiler be one which is .

he a ted by fir e only then a weak lye of 14 T w m ay be u sed

,
°
.

with a dva n tage while i f the boiler is fitted for stea m heat
,

i n g wit h ope n or closed coils t h en stron g er lyes m ay be

, ,

u sed sa y T w and 30 T w Becau se in the firs t c ase as

°
. .
,

the boili n g proceeds the lyes get stron ger wh ile when work ,

i n g w it h th e open steam the tendency is for them to get

we a ker It is h owever by far the best pla n to m a ke th e soap
.

in pans fitted with open an d close stea m coils .

In m a king so ft so a p o n ly a bo u t one h alf of the full

ch a rge of oil is ru n into the p an By m eans of the closed .

stea m coil or fir e it is hea ted u p th en a qu a ntity of lye at ,

°
14 T w equ al in v ol u m e to the oil is ru n in an d open
.
, , ,

ste a m sent in Ru n the lye i n slowly while the m ixing of

.
,

the lye a n d oil is c a refully wa tch ed P resently the O il will .

be gi n to saponi fy then it m u st be well stirred for it will

, ,

begin to swell and rise in the pan A s soon a s this is seen .

m ore lye eq u al to th e fir st q u an tity in vol u m e m ay be run

, ,

in a n d th e boilin g con tin u ed Two th ings m a y t a ke place .

in th e ea rly stage of so a p m akin g th e O il a n d lye m a y boil

-

over or it m ay set i n to a sti ff pasty m ass I n either case

, , .

trou ble m a y be looked for T h e rem edy in the first ca se is .

to t u rn off steam an d beat down th e bu bblin g so ap wi th

the paddle ; th at in the second case consists in a ddi n g more
lye in boilin g u p stirrin g well an d breakin g u p the m a ss as
, ,

m u ch a s po ssible b u t t h e process beco m es te dio u s bec au se

, ,

it is di ffic u lt to brea k u p the m asses of so a p a n d they are ,

n o t e a sily dissolved i n the boilin g soap in which they fl oat .

These tro u bles will be avoided i f a qu antity of finished soap

be le ft in the p a n from a pr ecedin g oper a tio n .

W h en th e oi l and lye h a ve am a l gam a ted t h en the rest ,

o f the charge of O i l m a y be r u n in and th e fu r ther qu a ntity

 S O FT S O AP . 305

of a lka li a t 32 T w m a y be a dded It m ay be m ention ed

°
. .

here th a t as a r u le 1 00 lb o f oil req u ire 2 00 lb of c a u stic

. .

p o t a sh lye a t 32 T w to
°
s a poni.fy so t h at t h e soap m a ker ,
-

may b a se his calc u lations as to th e qu antit y of a lk a li r e

q u ired on these data .

Th e so a p is now boiled either by fir e h eat or the clos ed

,

st eam coil G enerall y it is n ot need fu l to stir it the bo ilin g

.
,

keeps it in c o n ti n u al a git a tion ; it i s a good pl an now a n d

agai n to se n d a s h arp c u rre n t o f O pen stea m t h ro u h it or to
g
stir it u p with an iron paddle taki ng special note of a n y
,

har d l um ps o f soap t h at m a y settle down at the bottom of

the p a n .

Aft er a ti m e th e sap on i fic a ti on of th e O i l will be c om

p let e a n d the soap fo r m ed To a scertain
. t h i s take o u t a ,

sam ple o f the soap with a S p a t u la a n d place it on a piece ,

of glass a n d a llow it to cool when o n e o f three th i n s will

, g
be observed
1 The so a p m ay be cle a r a n d tr a nsl u cent : this i n
.

dicates that the soap is properly form ed and only needs

boiling d own to the proper stren gth .

2 The spot of cold so a p h a s a fa tty border I n this

’

. .

case m ore lye is req u ired a n d the so a p boiler sho u ld a dd

,
-

some of either or even a s str o n g a s 38 T w and boil °

.
,

Up a li ttle lo n er wh en another s a m ple m a y be drawn to see

g ,

how the so a p is pro gressi n g .

3 T h e spot o f so a p is o f a grey colo u r l u streless a n d

.
,

somewh a t r n l r in appe r ce In t h is case too m ch

g a u a a a n . u

lye has bee n added and to rem e dy this a q u antity of O il

,

which h a s been m ixed with a little we a k lye Sho u ld be

added a n d th e so a p boiled u p fu r the r
, The experien ced .

soap m a ker c a n tell by the m a n n er o f th e soap boilin

-
how
g
it is pro gressin g a n d wh ether it w a n ts m or e lye or oil The .

boili n g sho u ld go on q u ietly free fr o m a n y j u m pin g or b u m p

,

ing The boili n g down is c a rr ied on u ntil a sam ple t a ken

.

2 0
306 SO AP M ANUFAC T URE .

ou t and cool ed on a glass plate shows th e proper consi stency

a n d bri h tness of a ppe a r a nce
g .

So m e m akers a dd a little carbon a te of pot a s h which pro ,

m otes th e produ ctio n O f the bri gh tness bu t too m u ch must ,

not be added or th e so a p will becom e thin a n d a white

, ,

n ess will for m on it Too m u ch lye indu ces the sa m e de

.

fect . A little experience co u pled with th e h a bit o f careful

observa tion will soon en a ble th e soap m aker to tell when he -

h a s got h i s boilin g o f soft so a p q u ite ri gh t .

W h en finish ed th e so ft soa p is r u n into the fir ki ns or

ot h er p ac kages to cool when it i s ready for sale
, .

L i n seed oil yields a so a p o f a dark a m ber colo u r with a ,

plea sa nt odo u r .

W h ale oil yields a d a rk reddish soap v aryin g so m ewhat ,

in colo u r ac cordin g to th e qu a lity of th e so ap u sed bu t al ,

ways h a vin g a fishy sm ell Other fish Oi ls m a y be u sed with

.

a si m ilar res u lt .

C ottonseed oil yiel d s a so a p varyin g from a g olden to an

a m ber colo u r accordin to the de ree f re fi n e m ent of th e
, g g o

O il
. F resh l y m ade cotton oil so a ps are free from odo ur but
-
,

on bei n g kept are r a t h er a p t to beco m e ra ncid a n d d evelop

a n O do u r .

O live O i l yi elds a fin e so a p v a r yin g fro m am ber to greenish

,

in h u e .

H e m pseed oil gives a green colo u red so ap -

.

C ocon u t oil gives a fin e white soap .

T a llow gives a sti ff so a p ap t to fig so m ewh a t

,
.

The colou r of th e fini shed so a p m u ch depen ds on th e care

a n d a ttention given to the so a p d u rin g th e proces s of m aki ng .

and a lso on the m a nner of h ea ti n g the so a p p a n There is .

n o do u bt b u t th a t a fir e h e a ted p a n prod u ces a da r ker soap

-

t han te am -heated the e fore th e latte for m o f p an is

a s p a n r ,
r

to be pre ferred L i ght colo u red so aps a pre erred by

.
- r e f c on

su m e r s to d a rk colo u r ed so a ps a n d co m m and a re a dier s ale

-
,
.
 SO FT SO AP . 307

The followin g m ixt u res of oils m ay be u sed

A Wh l il
. a e o

L i n se ed oil

B . L i n seed oi l

Co tton see d oil

C . Co tto n see d oi l

L i n seed o il

D . Co tto n oi l

W ha le oi l

Li n see d oi l

T hese will yield soaps which will not fig m u ch the two ,

l a s t h a vi n g this propert y m u ch m ore fu lly developed th a n the

fi r s t two I f soaps a r e requ ired wh ich will fig then the fol
.
,

lo w i n g O ils m a y be u sed

E P lm i l . a o

T ll w a o

L i n se ed oi l

F . P alm oi l

L i n see d oi l

G . Co tton oi l

T ll a ow

L i n seed o il

H . T ll w a o

P l m ila o

L i n seed o il

C o tton oi l

M an y oth er m ixtu res m ay be us ed .

I . C oc o n u t oi l

T ll a ow o

L ar d

This will yield a soft white so a p .

S o m eti m es figgi n g is bro u ght a bou t by u sin g a litt le sod a

a lo n g with th e pot a sh as fo r i n st a n c e in the followi n g recipe
, , ,

1 000 1h o f oil a r e boile d with 535 lb ca u stic pot a sh lye a t

. .

3 2
°
T w to start the s
.a p o n,
i fic a ti o n Then t h e r e a r e a dded .

lb pot sh lye d 4 7 0 lb cau stic sod a lye a t

°

1 5 0 a a.t 42 T w a n .
, .

32 Tw .
308 SO A P MANUFA C T URE .

The fin is h ed so ft so a p is u su a lly fr om 2 5 to 2 5 ti m es the

W ei gh t o f the oil u sed .

G ood so ft so a p s h o u ld cont a in 42 5 per cent o f fa t with .

,

1 0 per ce n t of pot a sh a n d 4 7 5 per cen t of w a ter ; so m e

. .

s a m ples h ave a s low a s 40 per cen t of fa t while oth ers h a v e

.
,

as m u ch a s 5 0 p e r cent .

By u si n g a n y of th e a bove recipes a p u re so ft so a p i s
m a de bu t fo r the s a ke o f che a p n ess a n d co m pe tition s o m e
, ,

s am ples ar e filled an d m a de a t a che a per pr ice by u sin g s u c h

m a teri a ls a s rosi n s silic a tes of pot a sh a n d sod a starch I r ish
, , ,

m oss a n d c a u stic sod a

,
.

R osin is a good c h e a pe n in g a gen t for so ft so a ps owi n g to

its m aki n g a so a p h a vin g good deter g ent properties W h en .

u sin g rosin it is a g ood pl a n to s a poni fy by itsel f a n d t h en

add it to the so ap m ade fr o m the other O ils So m e m a k e rs .

e m ploy S od a to convert the r o si n i n to soap in which c a se t h e ,

rosi n is m elted over wa ter in a ste am j a cketed p a n wh il e in -

,

a nother p a n ordi n a ry sod a cryst a ls ar e dissolved in a s m a ll

q u a ntity of wa ter The p r opor tio n s are 5 6 lb of soda c r y s

. .

t a ls to 1 1 2 lb of r osin The sod a liq u or is a dded to the r o s i n

. .

in sm a ll qu a n tities a t a ti m e wa iti n g u n til a ll effervesc e n c e

,

c e a se s be fo r e a ddi n g e a ch s u cceedi n q n tity of sod a A f ter

g u a .

a ll is a dded th e so a p is boiled u fo s h ort ti m e to fin i h

p r a s

t h e sap on i fic a ti o n W h en this is co m pleted the so a p is r un

.

i nto the p an o f s oft soap .

Sh o u ld the colo u r o f the finis h ed so ap be a m a tter of i m .

port a n ce a n d a s r osi n of the u s u a l r u n of gr a des pr od u c e s

,

d a rkish colo u r ed so ap the n a n i m p r ovem en t m ay be effec te d

-
,

a n r f —
by dopti g eithe o the ollowi n g pl a ns u sin g a better gr a de
f
o f r osi n or p u ri fyi n g it by the followi n The ro in
,
g p u o c e s s s .

is sapon i fied by sod a a s de scr ibed a bove then the r osi n s o a p

, ,

is sa lted ou t by th e a dditio n of ordi n a r y s a lt a n d ti m e a llo w ed

for the so a p to settle ou t Then the lye is r u n off an d with
.
,

it a l a r ge proportion O f th e colou r i n g m a tter of the rosin

 SO FT SO AP . 309

Th e r osi n so a p t h u s p u ri fied m ay be added to the so ft

so a p .

The proportion of rosi n which m a y be added m a y be o n e

s e v enth to one t enth that of the other oils a n d fa ts u sed
- .

The followin g recipes m a y be followed in the ordi n a ry

W a y
A . L i n see d oi l 400 lb
T ll w
a o 1 35
R i os n 50
h
Ca u sti c p ot as lye , 32 Tw °
. 7 40
C a u s ti c so da ly e , 36 Tw
°
. 40
P ea r l h as 25

B . L i n see d 2 50
Cotto n seed oi l 2 50
R osi n 50
h
Ca u sti c po tas lye , 32 Tw °
. 500
Ca u sti c sod a ly e , 36 Tw
°
. 1 45
2 5

The colo u r of a so ft so a p i s a m atter of i m port a n ce a s

r e g a rds ts s a le
i — the p a ler this is the m ore readily it sells .

W h en rosin is u sed th ere is a very co n siderable darkenin g o f

t h e colo u r even i f th e plan o f p u ri fyin g described a bove be
,

a d o p t ed E ven when p u re oils a r e u sed it is di ffi c u lt to keep

.

t h e colo u r p a le especially whe n fir e h eat is em ployed

, Ste a m .

h e a t i s far pre fera ble on t h is a cco u nt T O O prolon ged boili n g .

a ls o le a ds to th e darkenin g o f the colo u r and sho uld be ,

a vo ided a s m u ch as possible .

S i li ca ted S of t S oap s — On e of the best fillin g a ge n ts for

s o ft so a p is silicate of pot a sh It h a s the advan t a ges of .

h a v i n g body or consistency is cle a r a n d transparent has , ,

s o m e w a shin g power and wh a t is m ore is easily u sed

,
.

S ilic a te of pot a s h is u sed by itsel f a n d a lso in conj u n ction

w i th fa r in a S o m e so a p m a kers a dd a t the s a m e ti m e so m e
.
-
.

c a u stic pot a sh b u t this is not necess a ry

,
.

The so a p wh ile still hot Sho u ld be r u n i n to th e cr u tcher

a n d allowed to cool down to a bo u t 1 80 F ; t h en the sili
°
.

c a te o f potash a t the rate o f 1 0 lb to the fir ki n o f so a p is

,
.
,
31 0 SO A P MANUFAC T UR E .

run in a n d cru tched into th e soap The qu ality of silicate .

u sed is th e ordin a ry ne u t r a l liq u id a t a bo u t 7 0 T w

°
.

Another p la n is to t a ke 2 cwt of c a u stic pot a sh lye at 38 .

°

T w a d d to this s u fficie n t c a rbon a te of pot a sh to b r in g the

.
,

g r a v i ty u p to 4 T w then a d d this liq u or°

to 1 0 c wt of .

silicate o f pot a sh a fter which it is re a dy to m i x with th e

,

so ap .

I f fa rin a is u sed in co nj u n ctio n with silic a te for filli n g ,

then 1 cwt o f farin a is t a ke n a n d sti rr ed into 1 2 ga llon s of

.

carbo n ate of pot a sh lye a t 7 T w u ntil a cle a r tra nsp arent °

.
,

m u cil a ge is obt a ined This is a dded to the silic a te of potash .

( 1 0 cwt ) a n d th e.m ixt u re to the so ft so a p i n the r equ i r ed

proportions which will be a t a bo u t the ra te of 2 0 lb to the

,
.

cwt of so a p
. .

Another m ethod o f filling so ft so a p which is m u ch on ,

the a bove li n es is to fir st c ru tch i n silic a te of potash at the

,

ra te of 7 lb to the fir kin then to prep a re a m ixt u re of st arch

.
,

a n d c a u stic sod a lye a n d cru tc h in 7 lb per fir ki n of thi s ,

.

m ixt u re The st a rch pr ep a ra tion is m a de by t a ki n g c au stic

.

sod a lye a t 40 T w he a ti n g to a bo u t 1 5 0 or 1 60 F then

°
.
,
°
.
,

a ddi n g fa r i n a i n s m a ll q u a ntities a t a ti m e waitin g un til ,

e a ch portio n is dissolved be for e a dding the n ext The farin a .

is a dded u ntil a m ass of th e consistency of so ft so a p is oh

t a i n e d when it is r e a dy to u se
, .

A wr iter in the Oi l a n d Colou r m a n s J ou r n a l 1 89 5 p 91 1 ’

, ,
.

r eco m m ends a m ixt u r e of o r di n a r y h a rd so a p silic a te o f sod a ,

a n d Irish m oss jelly The so a p m a y be th e O r di n ar y pale .

so a p o r better on e m a de fr o m bo n e or other che a p fa ts wi th

, , ,

o u t rosi n The silic a te is the ordin a ry neu t r a l Silic a te of soda

. .

a t 1 00 T w The I ri sh m oss jelly is m a de i n the followi ng

° '

m a n n er : 2 7 lb a r e steeped i n cold w a ter fo r h a l f a n ho u r to

.
,

softe n the m a ter i a l a n d wa sh a wa y dirt an d s a nd ; 65 ga llons

o f w a ter a r e pl a c ed in a woo d en tu b a n d he a ted to the b oil .

Then the cle an ed m oss is a dded a n d the whole boiled for h alf
 DRY SO AP S . 31 1

an hou r a fter which it is drained off a n d to en a ble it to kee p

, ,

for som e ti m e a s m a ll q u a ntity o f cau stic potash lye m a y be

added . Ir ish m oss jelly u n fort u n a tely does not keep an y
, ,

length of ti m e or otherwise i t m i ght fin d very m any m ore

,

uses t h a n it does at prese n t O n e c wt of the so a p is sliced

. .

an d m ixed w ith the jelly the n 1 5 c w t of silic a te of sod a is

, .

added a n d the m ixt u re kept ne a r the boil u n til a ll a r e

thorou ghly incorpora ted when the filli n g is re a dy for u se

, ,

an d it m a be dded to the so ft so p t the te f 8 to 1 0

y a a a r a o

lb to th e fir ki n
.
.

From ti m e to ti m e other fil li n g agen ts a r e O ffered bu t ,

ge n er a lly prove u ns a tis fa ctory and soo n er or later m

, ake the m
selves m a ni fest o ften to the detri m e n t o f the so a p m a ker a n d
,
-

inj ury to his tr a de The a u thor s experience sh ows t h a t i n

.
’

this a s i n m a ny other thin g s ther e is noth in g like su pplyin g

, ,

a en u ine a rticle to en a ble one to b u ild u and m i t in

g p a n a a

go od trade .

D RY SO AP S , A
SO P P OW DE R S .

D ry so a ps a s they a r e c alled h a ve d u rin g the l a st few

, ,

ye ars beco m e a n i m port a n t branch o f the so a p ind u stry .

They d o not v a ry m u ch in their com position the gre a ter ,

num ber of t h e m bein co m posed o f ordi n a ry so n d sodi u m

g a
p a

carbon a te ; som e a r e scented other s a r e n ot So m e m a kes

, .
,

sold u nder speci a l n a m es cont a i n other constit u ent s which

,

are s u pposed to ive so m e speci l v l e t the so p

g a a u o a .

Th e p r ocess of m a n u fa ct u re is ver y si m ple an d its si m ,

p li c i ty h a s ind u ced m a ny pe r sons to take u p the m a n u fa ct u re

of dry so a ps . Still even tho u gh si m ple so m e c a re m u st
, ,

needs be exercis e d to t u r n ou t a dry so a p O f

g ood q u a lity A .

fir st ra te dry so a p sho u ld be i n a fin e powder s m ooth n o t

-
, ,

gritty to the f eel n o t

, exhibit a n y te n de n cy to a re
gg g a te
together i n lu m p s n or st a in th e p a cki n g p a per i n a n y w a y
,
~

It is considered a si n e q u a n on of a good dr y so a p th a t it
31 2 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

sho u ld l a th er freely W e m a y proceed to m a ke a fe w obser

.

v a ti on s a s to the c h ara cter o f the m aterials w h ich a r e u se d in

m a ki n g dry soaps .

The Soap — Th is the speci a l in gredient in thi s cl ass of

,

g oods sho, u ld be present in fa ir proportion O n e o f the best .

known m a kes contains from 1 8 to 2 0 per c ent of a ct u a l soap .

,

anot h er has a s m u ch a s 30 per cen t som e get down a s low .

,

a s 5 per cent bu t su ch a r e dr y soaps onl y in n am e a n d more

.
,

or less frau ds on th e p u blic A fair qu antity to pu t in is .

fr o m 1 5 to 2 0 per ce n t The soap o u gh t to be well m ade

.

from g ood m a terials a s fr ee a s possible fro m free fat and

,

r .
—
co n t a i n in g bu t a s m a ll p oportion of wa ter 1 5 per cen t is a .

fa ir qu a n tit y bu t m ore th a n 2 0 per ce n t sho u ld be a voi ded

, . .

The so a p o u ght to be m a de from fa ts which like tallow

'

, , ,

p a lm oil or coconu t O il give h a rd soaps wh ile the a dditi on , ,

o f a s m a ll qu a n tity o f s u ch oils a s cotton oil linseed O i l rosi n , ,

or other oils or stock so a p wh ich give soft ki n ds of so ap is

, , ,

not objection able too m u ch sho u ld not be u sed a s then the ,

so ap beco m es so soft that it does not grind e a sily a n d it be

com es a l m ost i m possible to obt ain a fin e powder A good .

so a p for this pu rpose is m a de fro m 40 lb bleached p alm oil .

,

40 lb t a llow 1 0 lb cott o n O i l a n d 1 0 lb cocon u t oil

.
, . An other , . .

m ixt u re is 40 lb p a l m O i l 40 lb t a llow 1 0 lb li n seed oil and

.
, .
, .
,

1 0 lb cocon u t oil
. This will give a yellower colo u red soap
.
-

t h a n th e l a st th e fin ished dry soap wi ll be d a rker a n d thi s is

, ,

so m eti m es objected to by cu stom ers A nother m ixtu re is .

40 lb ble a ched p a l m oil 30 lb cocon u t Oi l 2 0 lb t a llow 10

.
, .
, .
,

lb linseed O i l B u t th e v ar iety of m ixt u res of fa t fro m which

. .

the so a p is m a de is gre a t a n d it will serve no good pu rpose ,

to en u m erate them i n det a il .

S odi u m Ca r bon a te — This is u sed in th e for m of soda

cr yst a ls Occasion a lly sho u ld th e dry so ap Show si gn s of
.
,

becom i n g p a sty d u rin g worki n g a s m all qu an tity in the form ,

o f 5 8 per cent a lk a li is O fte n a dded

. T h is appe a rs to combine .
 DRY S O AP S . 31 3

with th e exce ss of m ois tu re in the soap to which th e pasti ,

ness is u s u a lly d u e a n d m ake it wo r k properly

, .

Gla ber s S a lt
u
’
— T hi s prod u ct which is cryst a llised
.
,

sodi u m s u lp h a te i s O ften added to dry so a p In pl a ce o f sod a

,

cryst a ls with the O bject o f che a peni n the cost f prod u ction
g o ,

and so be a ble to t u rn o u t a n a rticle a t a lower price th a n th e

best grad e of dr y soaps Bora x is occasio n a lly a dded to dry

.

soaps a n d is a very ood m teri l to add the o n ly objectio n

, g a a

to it is th a t it is expensive .

P hosph a te o f sod a h a s bee n a d d ed to d r y so a ps bu t th e ,

writer sees no very m a teri a l a d v a nt a ge in i ts a d dition It i s .

a n e u tral s a lt witho u t a n deter ent p operties while it i

y g r s ,

rathe r e x p e n s1 v e .

P a raffin in th e for m of wa x or O i l is o ften a dded to dry

, ,

soa s The q antity added is b t s m ll r rely exceedin 2

p . u u a a g ,

p er cent a n d. o ftener not m ore than 5 per ce n t o f the d r

y .

soa p . It is gen era lly conceded t h a t p a ra ffin incre a ses th e

wa s h in g properties of so a p P erfu m es of v a rio u s ki n ds ar e
.

ofte n a dded bu t the best know n m a kes a r e not sce n ted a t a ll

, ,

an d s u ch odo u r a s they possess is du e to the fa ts u sed i n

making the so a p .

O th er bodies ar e so m eti m es a dded for v a r io u s re a sons to

dr y so a ps Su ch will be m e n tioned l a ter o n the a bove form
.

as it were th e ba sis o f a ll dry so a ps .

E very dry so a p m a ker h as his own m a nne r o f worki n g

- .

Th e gen era l p r i n c i p le w h i c h u nder lies the gre a t m ajority o f

th e processes is to gri n d the so a p a n d s a lts to gether This .

may be c a r ried o u t either by m e a ns o f the ed ge ru n n e r m ill ,

wh en th e sod a cryst als or G lau ber s s a lt ar e first grou n d ’

then the so a p is thrown in a n d gra d u a lly wor ked in W ith .

th is m a nner of worki n g there is so m eti m es a tende n cy to a

pastiness i f the so a p be too soft I n s u ch an even t it m a y.

be rem edied by throwin g i n a s m all qu a ntity of 58 p er ce n t .

alk ali .
3 14 SO P A MANUFAC T URE .

Th e di fficu lt y is th a t the edger u n n er does not gr in d fine .

e n ou h
g A . better pl a n is to u se a n e d ge ru n n e r to m ix

t h e in gredient s and grind in a devil disinte gr a tor

,
This .

i s ad m ira ble for gr in di n g dry soap a n d works better than

a n y other form o f rindi m ill yieldin prod ct o f great
g n
g g a u ,

fi neness which is a ver y i m portant fe a t u re in dry so a p and

, ,

s ho u ld alw a ys be ai m ed a t .

Another pl a n of worki n g whic h is som eti m es followed

is to m elt th e soda cryst a ls by h e a tin g them i n a pan .

The wa ter they cont a i n a s water of crystallisatio n i s suf , ,

fi c i e n t for this p u rpose then a dd the requ isite qu a ntity of,

so ap c u t u p into fin e sh a vin gs stir well a n d allow to cool , , ,

a nd
g rind u p i n th e u s u a l w a y T h ere is however n o a dv an .

t ag e in this process over the one described above .

H a vin g described the m a terials u sed and th e m ethod of

m a kin g so m e recipes m a y be given for m a kin g variou s dry
,

s oaps .

S a da r d D r y S oap
t n — 2 0 lb good so a p 7 0 lb sod a cry stals .
, . ,

1 0 lb re fined alkali
. .

E x tr a D r y S oap —30 lb soap 60 lb soda cryst a ls 1 0 lb .

, .
,
.

re fined a lkali .

C heap D r y S oap — 1 5 lb soap 5 0 lb soda crystals 5 lb .

, .
,
.

s od a ash 30 lb G l au ber s s a lt
’
. .
,

B or a x D r y S oa p —2 5 lb soap 60 lb soda c rystals 5 1h .

,
.
,
.

b orax 1 0 lb re fin ed a lk a li
, . A better qu a lity can be m ade .

from 2 5 lb so a p 1 0 lb r e fined alk a li ; 5 0 lb sod a cryst als

.
, . . ,

1 5 lb bor a x
. .

P a r afli n D r y Soap — 2 0 lb so a p 7 0 lb sod a cryst a ls 8 lb .

, .
,
.

r e fined a lk a li a n d 2 lb so ft fli n sc a le
, p ar a . .

Oa tm ea l D r y Soap — 1 5 lb soap 7 0 1h soda cryst a ls 8 1h .

,
.
,
.

r e fin ed a lkali a n d 7 lb o a t m e a l
, . .

P erfu m e m a y be added to an y extent a n d of a n y c h aracter

t h e soap m a ker desires
-

D i si nf ec ta n t D r y S oap s —D ry so a p m ay be th e m ean s of
.
 D RY SO AP S . 31 5

a pplyin g disinfect a n ts which a r e si m ply added i n the desired

,

q u a n tities to the m a teri a ls a s g iven

, in the a bove r ecipes I f .

th e disi n fect a nt is o n e whi ch is liqu id i n ch ara cter t h e n it is ,

desi r a ble to red u ce the propo r tio n of soda cryst a ls a n d i n ,

cre a se th a t of the re fin ed a lk a li to keep the so a p i n the form

o f r e fin ed powder or so m e a bsorbe n t like kieselgu hr or
, ,

Fre n c h ch a lk m ay be a dded to the so ap P erh a ps the l a tter

,
.

m ethod h a s so m e a dv a n t a g e over th e form er pl a n .

I t m i ght perhaps be a dded th a t wh a t is c a lled w a shi n g

c ryst a l is si m ply sod a cryst a ls ro u n d u p with a little so a p
g ,

a bo u t 3 e r ce n t S o m eti m es little lt r a m a r i n e bl u e is
p . a u

a dded to the dry so a p I n orde r to t a ke a w a y a n y yellowish

ti n ge it m i ght possess a n d so m a ke it a ppe a r whiter in colo u r
,
.

A bl u e dry so a p h a s bee n m a de which is n othi n g m or e

or less th a n ordi n a ry dr y so a p to which su fli c i en t u ltra
,

m ari ne h a s bee n a dded to give it a bl u e colo u r .

The followin g ar e a fe w a n alyses of dry so aps th a t ar e

n ow on the m arket

No 1
. . No 2 . . No 3 . . No 4 . . No 5
. .

W a te r -
50 2 3 47 35- -
52 1 7 59 1 6
- - -
S oa p . 19 2 5 3 50 2 5 50 3 50
N a2 003 - - -
37 3 4
So d a as 4 2 03 32 90 33 35 2 2 33

-
1 00 00 1 06 06 1 0000 -
1 00 00

These are m a de with sodi u m c ar bon a te .

The followin g a r e som e m a de wi th G l a u ber s s a lt ’

an d

s odi u m c a rbon a te
No 6 . . No 7 . .

W a t er
So ap
S od a a s N a2 003
l h
S o d i u m S u p a te

1 0000 1 0000
 CH A P T E R V III .

GL Y C E RIN E I N SO P L A YE S .

W HE N an Oil is by boili n g with c au stic alk a li

sa p o n i fie d ,

g lycerine i s for m ed a s one o f the prod u ct s o f the re a cti o n .

The proportio n of glycerine yielded by th e di fferen t O ils v ar ie s

considera bl y ; thu s the c h a ra cteristic i n gredient of b u tter fa t ,

b u tyrin will yield a s m u ch a s 30 per cent of glycerine wh ile

,
.
,

brassin the ch a ra cter istic constit u en t of rape O il will on l y

, ,

yield per cen t of glycerine The a verage percen t a ge o f

. .

g lycer i ne y ielded by th e O ils and fa ts is abo u t 1 0 A l l e

. n

gives the f ollowin g t a ble a s t o the yield o f g lycerine fro m t h e

v a rio u s O ils and fa ts

This glycerine p a sses into the so a p a n d on the l a tter ,

bei n g s a lted o u t in the so a p kettle rem a i n s in the spent lyes

-
,
.

F orm er ly it w a s throw n aw a y bu t of l a te ye ars the dem a nd

,

for gl yceri n e h a s cau sed a tten tio n to be p a id to p r ocesses for

 G L YC E R I N E IN S O AP L YE S . 31 7

th e ecovery of the glycerine from the spent lyes a sam ple

r , of

wh ich exam i n ed by the au thor had a speci fic gravity

, ,
of

1 1 5 48 T w ) and contained
.

p er c e n t .
g l y c eri n e .

w a te r .

36 c a u sti c so d a .

58 sodi u m c a r b on a te .

sodi u m su lph t a e.

sod i u m c hl i d or e .

G lyceri n e is a water wh ite ve r y v iscid liqu or h avi n g a

-
, ,

speci fic r vity when p ur e o f b u t it has s u c h an

g a

affin ity for water th a t it is di ffi c u lt to ob t ain a bsol u tely

anhydro u s lyceri n e a n d the ordi n a r y co mm ercial glycerine
g ,

g ener a lly h a s a speci fi c gravity o f 1 2 60 to a n d cont a ins

a little w a ter . It has a sweet t a ste a n d was ori ginally ,

known i n co n seq u en ce a s the sweet spirit of oils a n d in the ,

g lyceri n e i n d u stry the c ru de m a te r i a l is known as the sweet

water
”
W ith w a ter it m ixes in a ll proportions Th e follow
. .

i n g t a ble showin g the speci fic gra v ities a n d stren gths of

variou s m ixt u res of th ese two liqu ids will be fo u nd u se ful

TABL E O F S PE C I F I C GRAVITI E S AN D ST R E NG T H S O F AQUE O US

S O L UTI O N S O F G L Y C E R I N E .

v i ty P t
er cen f Sp ifi g
o i ty P ec c ra v e r cen t of
gly i gly
. .

5 C c e r i ne
°
ce r n e 1 . .

1 00 75
99 70
98 65
97 60
96 55
95 1 1 2 90 50
94 45
93 40
92 35
91 30
90 1 0 62 0 25
88 1 0 490 20
86 15
84 1 02 4O
°

10
82 5
80
31 8 S O AP MANUFAC T URE .

G lycerineis also sol u ble i n alcoh ol b u t on ly sli ghtly so ,

in ether A m ixt u re of eq u a l vol u m es of chloroform and

.

a lcohol dissolves it b u t it is i n sol u ble in chlo r o for m be n z ene

, , ,

petroleu m spirit and oils It is a powerfu l solvent for s alts

.
,

etc bei n g nearly equ a l to w a ter in this respect

.
, .

It is com posed of c a rbon hydro gen a n d oxygen in the

,

proportions indic a ted by the form u la CsHSO3 ; in its rel ati on

ships it belon gs to the a lc ohol gro u p of orga n ic com pou nds ,

it h as b a sic properties an d wit h th e m onob a sic a cids such

, ,

a s h ydrochloric a cid oleic acid ste ar ic a cid it is c apa ble of

, , ,

form i n g com po u nds co n t a ini n g one two or three equ ivale nts ,

of the r a dicle h y droxyl O H a n d t h ere fore h a vi n g the form ula

, ,

OH
C,H , OH
OH

an d is esse n ti a lly th e hydroxide of th e ra dicle glyceryl .

It m ay be m en tioned th a t alth o u gh by a loosen ess of

expression wh ic h is very co m m on gl y cerine is o ften spoken ,

o f as th e base o f th e oils a n d fats y et l y ceri n e a s s u ch does

g ,

n ot e x ist in th e oils b u t is form ed d u rin g the various

,

processes of sapon i fic a ti on by th e co m bin ation of the real base

lyceryl with the r a dicle hydrox yl The oils an d fats
g C,n , .

a r e s a lts of t h is ba si c r a dicle lyceryl H e a ted with strong

g .

s u lphu ric acid or with a cid pot a ssi u m su lph a te it is d ehydr ated
a n d a crolein ( acrylic a ldehyde ) C C O H is evolved r
s ,
ecog , ,

n i sa ble by its pec u li a r odo u r .

N itric a cid a cts on it e n er getically form i n g a v a riety of ,

prod u cts nitro glyceri n e ox a lic a cid gl ycer ic a cid etc being
,
-
, , , .
,

form ed a ccordin g to the st r e n gt h of the a cid u sed a n d the ,

m a n n er in wh ich th e oper a tion is c a rried o u t H eated .

with pot a ssi u m perm a nga n a te in th e presen ce of caustic

pot a sh glycerine is converted into ox a lic a cid a n d carbonic
,

a cid a n d as this re a ctio n t a kes pl a ce in a de finite m anner

, .

it is t a ken ad va nt a ge of for the qu antit a tive esti m a tion of

g lyce r in e .
 GL YC E R I N E . 31 9

W hen glycerine is h eated

with orga nic acids co m bination
ta k es p la c e h an d eth ers are form ed known as glyceri n e a n d ,

the s e h a ve the speci a l term ination i n a s acetin olein stea ri n , , ,

a n d p a l m iti n with th e prefix mon o di or tr i to sh ow how

, , ,

m a ny equ iv a lents of th e ac id are co m bined wit h one e q u i v a

len t of the ba se Ch e m ists to show th e analogy between
.
,
‘

g l y c eri n e a n d the alcohols h ave gi ven to it th e system ati c

,

na m e glycerol bu t it h as been tho u ght better to u se th e

,

m o re fam iliar ter m glycerine i n this ch a pter .

T h e fir st atte m pt to recover glycerine fro m th e u sed so a p

l y e s w a s m a de by Re ynolds in 1 858 whose process consisted ,

e ss e n ti a lly in evaporation a cco m p a nied b y distillation a n d ,

si n c e th a t ti m e a great m any processes h ave been devised .

A p r o cess which is to be s u ccess fu l m u st depend to a l arge

e xte n t u po n the c h aracter of the soap l y e s It i s l a rgely .

i n fl u enced by s u ch factors as the qu a lit y of the alk a li u sed

to m a ke the ca u stic l y es whether i t be from hi gh grade
,

c a u stic sod a low gra de cau stic sod a or b y c a u sti ci si n g sod a

, ,

ash o r black a sh lyes T h e ch a r a cter of th e fat s and rosin s

.

will a lso have som e effect on the m ethod of extra c tion to be

ado p t ed M e ssrs Thom as F u ller an d K in g s proc e ss devi sed
. .
,
’

in 1 8 7 9 con sists in first evapora tin g the lye so as to throw

,

a s m u ch o f th e s a lt o u t as possible ; it is then boiled with a

li t tle a cid a n d th e fatt y m a tter which rem ains ski m m ed off ,

a fter which the liq u or is a gain ev a por ated T h e s alt which .

c o m es ou t is collected wh ile the c ru de glycerine le ft behind

,

is su bj ected to distillation .

Y o u n g n e u tralises th e u sed lyes with a cid and boils down

b y m e a n s of steam filteri n g o ff an y fa tt y m a tter th a t sepa
,

r a tes o u t W hiting is n ext a dded a n d th e m ixtu re ev a pora ted

.

to a p a ste whic h is th en pl a ced in a h ydro extractor ; the

,
-

liq u or con t a i n in g the glycer i n e is collected and s u bjected to

distill a tion .

P a in adds a cid to ne u tra lise the lyes and sep a ra te a n y

32 0 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

fatty m a tter t h at m a y collect , th en a dds tannic a cid to pre

c i p i t a te th e alb u m ino u s a n d el tino s m atter thi is filt d
g a u ; s ere

03 , the liqu or ev a pora ted down and then distilled When .

th e c a u stic l y e s u sed to s a poni fy th e fat s a r e prepared from

'

bla ck a sh or cr u de sod a a sh they are very li a ble to produce

co m pou n ds s u ch as cyan ide com pou nds a n d s ulphu r com
po un ds wh ich h av e a m aterial i n flu ence u pon th e m ethod to
,

be a dopted in recoverin g the glycerine .

H a gem ann first a dds li m e a n d th en a little rosin and ,

boils to n eu tralise th e c a u stic a lkali wh ic h m a y be present in

the lyes To th e m ixt u re is next a dde d hydrochloric acid
.
,

which separates ou t the rosi n or fatt y m atters wh ich may

be prese n t ; th en th ere is a dded ferric c h loride which pr ecipi ,

t a tes a n y cyanogen co m pou n ds in th e form o f P ru s si an blue ;

these a r e filtered 0 3 Air i s n ow blown in for som e time
.
,

after whic h a sm all q u a ntity of bleac h in g powder is added ,

wh ich precipitates m ost of the s u lphu r com pou nds in the

form of free su lph u r wh ich is filtered ofl ; n ext th e liqu or is
,
’

neu tr alised by th e a ddition of soda and th en ev a porated down .

M essrs Allen and N icholl s proc e ss con sis t s essentially

’
.

i n a cid u l a tin g th e spen t lyes wit h hydroch lo ri c acid a n d then

a ddin g copper s u lph a te w h ic h ca u ses th e precipit a tio n of the
,

s u lphides su lph oc y a n i d es an d ferrocyanides

, tog eth er with
,

th e fa tty m atter which m a y be present T h e precipit at e is

.

re m oved b y filtration sod a is added to neu t r ali se the free

,

acid an d the liqu or boi led down and distilled .

These ar e bu t a fe w of the processes whi ch have been

p a ten ted for th e p u rpose o f sep a rating glycer i n e from soap lyes .

The O bjects to be a i m ed a t in a n y process wh ich is to be com

m e r c i a lly s u ccess fu l a r e the rem oval of a ll a lb u m inou s and
,

fa tty m a tters wh ich m a y be pre sent in th e lyes the removal

o f the s a lt w h ich is deposited - i n th e process a n d t hirdly , , .

the exercise of econo m y in concentra tio n an d tr e a t m ent

T h e followin g m ethod o f extractin g cru de g lycerine is in
 RE C O VE R I NG GL YC E RI N E .

u se . The lye is ev a po r a ted in a n iro n t an k to a speci fic

g r avity o f 4 0 to
°
5 0
°
T w t h
. is ev a por a tion m a y be cond u cted
in sh a llow p a ns h ea ted by a stea m coil from a n other ev a p o
r a tor o r by pl a cin the over fl le din fro m the
,
g p a n a u e a g
second boilin g pa n whic h will be refer red to present ly A fter .

th e conce n tr a tion th e lye is r u n i n to a tank a n d t h en allowed

to cool a n d a n y fa tty or so a py m a tter which m a y sep a ra te

,

ou t is collected a n d sent back to the so a p To th e liq u or

p an .

is next a dded a qu a ntity of c a u stic sod a a t 7 0 T w This °

.

cau ses the precipit a tio n of the a lbu m ino u s m a t t er which is ,

sep a r a ted in any co n venie n t w a To th liq or is n ext

y . e u

a dded s u fficient hydroc h loric acid to m a ke i t n e u tr a l whe n ,

it is se n t i n to th e boilin g p a n a n d boiled down .

O cc a sio n ally a nother plan is a dopted for sep a ratin g th e

so apy a n d fa tty m a tt er th a t the lye cont a ins A ser ies of .

fo u r to ei g ht t a nks either of iro n brickwork or stone a r e

, , ,

a rr a n ed o n e a bove th e other a n d betwee n the h i h est t o

g , g
th e next there is a n a rr a n ge m en t of sypho n pipe so t h a t the
lye c a n be ru n from th e bottom of th e top one to the on e
belo w it a n d a si m il a r a rra n gem ent is a dopted thro u gho u t
,

th e wh o le series . Th e r u n n in g O ff fro m th e bottom of th e

tanks p erm its of the collection on the s u r fa ce of a fa irl y
large proportion of th e soapy a n d fa tty m a tter wh ic h the lye
contai n s this is n e u tra lised a n d sen t b a ck to the soap p a n ,

the lye bei n g dealt with as desc r ibed above .

O n e o f th e ch ie f di ffi cu lties which a r e m e t with in pre

p a rin g cr u de glycer i n e is the fa ct th at on boilin g d own the ,

s a lt the lye cont a i n s cryst a llises ou t on the s u rface of th e

boilin g t a n ks an d on th e ste a m coils which m a y be u sed for
the p u rpose of heati n g these p a ns this le a ds to considerab le
loss o f he a t owi n g to the non con d u cti n g powers of the s a lt
-
,

a n d it beco m es n ecess a ry to t a ke steps to prevent this

cry st a lli sa tion of th e s a lt on to the kettle a n d ste a m coils ,

an d va r io u s m e a ns to t h is end a r e a dopted .

2 1
32 2 SO A P MANUFA C T URE .

F i gu re 59 is a sketch of a lye boili n g p a n i n this th e pan

-
,

a s will be see n 1 8 he a ted by fir e the a rr a n em e n t o f th e fines

, g ,

being s u ch th a t the h e a ti n g is pri n cip a lly done a t the sides

o f the p a n. This p an is m a de con ic al a n d it is fitted with a
co n ic a l vessel h a vi n g perfor a ted sides T h is is a tt a ched by
.

ch a i n s to the gr o u nd The s a lt a s it crys ta llises ou t falls

.

into this perfor a ted vessel which fr o m ti m e to tim e is li fted

,

F IG . 59 .

ou t a n d the s a lt e m ptied i n to a dra ini n g vessel the liquor ,

which dra ins off fr o m it bein g p u t b a ck i n to the boi li n g pan .

The liqu or is co n ce n t r a ted down u n til it re a ches a boilin g

poi n t of 300 F when it co n stit u tes cru de glycer ine
°
.
,
.

O n e O f the m ost s u cces sfu l processes which h a ve been

devised for the se p a r a tio n of cr u de glycerine i s t h a t of M essrs .

Thom a s a n d D o m ie r w hich is represen ted in figu res 60 and

,
 GL YCE RIN E PL AN T . 32 3

61 . The lye is first con ce n tra ted i n either a coil t an k or a flu e ,

boilin g p a n fro m when ce it is r u n i n to a t a nk The con e en

,
.

fr a tio n o f th e liqui d d u ri n g the boili n g h a s the effect of c a u s

i n g the precipit a tio n of m a ny i m p u rities fa tty a n d otherwise, ,

w h ich sep a ra te ou t on coolin g in the tank To th e lye is then .

S T OKE HO L E

WAI M NQ

P LA N
0

F IG . 60
.

a dded 1 or 2 per ce n t o.f hydroc h loric a cid w h ich c a u ses

,

the decom position of a n y so a p th a t m a y be p r esen t p r e c i p i ,

t a tes a n y a lbu m i n o u s a n d fa tty m a tter to gether with other

i m pu rities a n d these on the lye bei n g a llowed to st a n d for
, ,

twe n ty fo u r hou r s co m e u p to th e s u rfa ce an d a r e collected

-
,

T h e li q u or is n ext pl a ced i n a boili n

g p a n a n d boiled dow n ,
32 4 S O AP MANUFAC T UR E .
 RE CO VE R ING GL YC E R INE . 32 5

whi c h m ay be done over a flu e boilin g pan or by a conic a l

,

boil i n g p a n heated directly by a series of steam coils ; the

s a lt th a t crystallises o u t is sep a rated fro m ti m e to ti m e In .

thi s pr o c e ss a s will be seen the stea m which is genera ted

, ,

fro m t h e boilin g vessel is u sed for the p u rpose of c on c en

tr a t i n g the lye in a coil boili n g p a n . This process m a y be
vari e d to s u it the ch a ra cter o f the lyes m ade a t di fier en t
'

w or k s.

T h e s a lt cont a i n s a la rge proportion of the lye a n d it is sent

,

i n t o a tro u gh a n d washed with bri n e which rem oves a good

,

d e a l o f th e lye to gether wit h colo u rin g m a tter this bri n e

,

bei n g sen t i n to the t a n ks to be passed throu gh the process

th e s a lt is throw n into th e c a ge of a hydro extr a ctor a n d the n
-
,

a b r i ne lye extr a cted fr om it . The s a lt is then s u ffi ciently

r e to be u sed in s a lti n g ou t fr esh b a tc h es of soap
p u .

T h e cr u de glyce r ine O bt a ined in the above processes is

.

re fi n ed by a process of filteri n g throu gh ch a rco a l a n d distil

li n g i n a v a c u u m still bu t for the det a ils of this the re a der is
,

re fe rr ed to chem ic a l di c ti on a rles.
 CH A P T E R I X .

L AYI NG O U T A S O AP F ACTO RY .

IN the prod u ction of a n y a rticle of m a n u fa ct u re there

a lw a ys co m es i n the fin a n ci a l poi n t o f prod u cin it at the
g
lowest possible cost O n e h a s n ot only to conside r the cost
.

o f the m a ter i a ls e m ployed i n the prod u ction o f the goods ,

bu t a— n d the r e is m u ch in this bu t— other expenses co n nected

therewith works m a n a gem en t an d l a bo u r o ffice expenses
, , , ,

rent li ghti n g fu el etc W hile the cost of m aterials m ay not

, , ,
.

var y fro m place to pl a ce yet there m i ght be s u ch a di fier ence

,
'

in the other expenses th a t while on e works m ay be working

,

a t a good pro fit a n other m a y only be j u st p a yin g expe n ses

,

In th e first c a se prob a bly co n sider a ble a tten tion h a s been

, ,

p aid to the a rra n gem ent o f the works a n d the fixin g of the
m a ch inery a n d pl a nt ; the cost of l a bo u r a n d fu el is low ;
while there is also a l a rg e o u tp u t in rel a tion to other expenses .

In the other c a se the works is prob a bly a n old one an d ex ,

ten ded fro m ti m e to ti m e ; in su ch c a ses th e co st of l abour

and fu el is a p t to be h i gh while ren t is hi gh too In one
,
.

works the labo u r is al m ost en tirely con fined to that whi ch is

r eq u ired to a ttend the m a chinery a n d b u t little a n d th at the
, ,

m i n i m u m requ i r ed in the h a n dli n g of the r a w a n d finish ed

,

produ cts T h is is brou ght a bo u t by a j u diciou s pl a n nin g of

.

the works an d a rra n gem ent of the vario u s m a ch i n es that ,

the m ater i a ls tr a vel fro m one to the other ste a dily and regu
la r ly witho u t m u ch l a bo u r a t t a chi n g to the p r ocess In another
, .

c a se prob a bly the m a chines a r e sc a tter ed irregu la rly and

, , ,

ther e is m u ch l a bo u r involved i n tr a ns ferri n g the m ateri als

 PL ANN I NG A SO A P F AC T O R Y . 32 7

fro m one m a chine to the other this l a bo u r costs m oney a n d is ,

a m ost i m port a n t ite m i n the cos t of prod u ctio n .

There is a nother ite m to be co n sidered a n d tha t is the ,

p o s ition o f the works I n these .d a y s it is i m port a nt to get

th e m a teri a ls to the wo r ks a t th e lowest possible cost a n d ,

t o s e n d the finished prod u cts a w a y with the le a st expense .

T h e re fo r e the sit u a tion o f the wo r ks i n rega rd to the point

o f fa cilities for the delivery o f its r a w m a t e r i a ls fu el etc is , ,

an i m portant qu estion a n d requ ires c a r efu l co n sider a tio n

,
.

T h e best sit u a ted wo r ks is t h a t one w h ich will h a ve fa cilities

fo r fr ei ght a fforded by r a il c a n a l o r ri v er a n d ro a d
,
It shou ld .

b e b y the side of one o f these m e a n s o f tr a n spo r t i f close to

t h e r a il it is i n a n excelle n t po sitio n for se n di n g a w a y its
fi n i s hed p r od u cts while possibly a c a n a l or r ive r presents
,

t h e best m e a ns for the delivery o f the r a w m a teri a ls I f the .

w o rks is sit u a ted at so m e dist a n ce fro m either o f these

m e a n s then th e expe n se of c a r ti n g t o a n d fr o beco m es very
,

at a n d u nless ther e ar e other co m pe n s a tin a dv a nta ges

g r e , ,
g ,

w i ll tend to red u ce the pro fits ve r y m a teri a lly .

There is a lso a n other poi n t to co n sider a n d th a t is the ,

u e s tion o f wate r s u pply The so a p m a ker u ses a l a rg e -

q .

u a n tity o f w a ter hence he m u st h a ve a ple n ti fu l s u pply o f

q ,

t h i s a rticle a t needless to sa y th e lowest possible cost

, , The .

w a t er sho u l d also be of good qu a lity th e so fter a n d fr eer fro m ,

li m e a n d m a gnesi a th e bet ter At ever y so a p works there.

-

o u g ht to be a well fro m which the w a ter m a y be p u m ped ;

t h i s s u pply m a y i f th e works he in a l a rge tow n he s u pple

, ,

m e n te d fro m the town s u pply O n the q u estio n of w a ter

.

r e fe rence m a y be m a de to C h a pter V p 1 7 0 et seq .

, . .

I n selectin g a site for a so a p wo r ks there m u st a lso b e -

c o n sidered proxi m i ty to th e so u rces of s u pply of fu el a n d

r a w m a teri a ls which m e a n s che a p a n d low r a tes o f fr ei g ht

,

t o the works a n d a lso proxi m ity to the m a rkets o f s a le o f the

,

fi n ished a rticle These are qu estio n s of pro a n d c on which

.
32 8 S O AP M ANUFAC T UR E .

can h a rdly be considered i n a n a rticle like this a s circu m ,

stances will v a ry with ever y pl a ce A L ondon soap works will .

-

h a ve to pay m ore for its fu el th a n a M a n chester so a p wor ks -

,

on a cco u n t of its gre a ter di st an ce fro m the so u rce of su pply .

O n th e ot h er h a nd it is a ble to g et its r a w m a teri a ls rather

,

cheaper a n d it has a m u ch l a rger m a rket a t h and for its

,

prod u cts .

In pla n n in g a soap wo r ks m a n y poi n ts h a ve to be con

-

si der ed a n d a v a riety o f fa ctors t a ke n i n to a cco u nt

, which ,

infl u ence i n a m a rked m a n n er th e a rra ngem ent of th e

, ,

v a rio u s bu ildi n g s a n d m a chi n ery so m u ch so t h a t an ar ,

r a n gem ent which wo u ld be q u ite su it a ble a n d a n econo mi cal

o n e for one pl a ce wo u ld be q u ite u ns u it a ble and costly to
,

work a t a nother It m ay be pro fit a ble to disc u ss som e of

.

these factors before goi n g fa rth er I n the first pl ace it is .

a dvisable to c onsider th e m a n n er in which the fu el an d r aw

m a teri a ls etc r e a c h th e works wh e ther by can a l ra il river

,
.
, , , ,

or ro a d either by one or a ll th ese th e pl a n s bein g drawn so

,

th a t the lea st possible l abou r is requ ired in p u tti n g these into

position for u se Th en a g a in is the qu estion of se n din g a way
.

the finis h ed prod u cts with a view of keepi n g down the l abour
,

item of p uttin g th ese on bo a ts or on r ail for sendin g away to

the variou s destinations .

T h en co m es the a ll i m por ta nt qu estion of the size and

-

sh a pe of th e gro u n d on which the works is to be erected ,

whether fla t or slopin g rect a n gu l ar or i rr egu lar i n sh ape

,
.

A flat site is better than a slopin g site a n d in so m e respects ,

a r ect a n u l a r piece of g r o u nd is e a sier to plan o u t th an an

g
irreg u l a r piece .

N ext co m es the very i m port a nt s u bject o f th e o u tpu t or

q u a n tit y O f fin ished goods to be sent ou t a t a given ti me .

C om bi n ed with this is a lso the q u estio n of the c h aracter Of the

g oods m a de whether, o n e ki n d o f so a p o n ly or m a ny ki n d s ,

a n d the ch a r a cter a n d exte n t o f th e processes u sed Th us it .

 PL ANN I NG A S O AP FAC T O RY . 32 9

h as to be decided wh ether the soap m a ker shall m ake h i s -

lyes fro m bo u ght solid c a u stic by c a u sti c i si n g soda a sh or

,

al ka li o r by m a ki n the lk li o tri ht f ro m s lt U pon a ll

, g a a u g a .

th e se depe n d the ch a r a cter a n d exte n t of the m a chi n ery to

be fitted u p a n d ther efore th e size o f the b u ildi n gs
,
.

T here is a lso an other point S o a p h a s to be wr a pped in

.

p ackets a n d p a cked into boxes a n d l a belled The q u estion

.

a rises will the so a p m a ke r u ndert a ke the prod u ctio n o f a ll

,
-

prin ted m a tter a n d of the n eed fu l p a cki n g boxes ? This is

d on e i n m a n y l a r ge works with consider a ble a dv a n t a ge a s to
c o st fo r the se n ecess a ry item s .

O n e p ri n ciple i n the a r ra n ge m ent of a works o u ght to be

c arr ied o u t a s fa r a s possible th a t is to per form wor k i n a
,

r
p g o ressive m a n n er the g oods
,
tr a velli n
g fro m m a chine to
ma chi n e i n a n orderly m a n ner witho u t too m u ch han dli n g
an d witho u t tr a vellin b a ckw a rds a n d for w a rds over the
g
sam e ro n d i othe words th w m te i ls enter
g u o r , n, r e r a , a r a

i nto the works a t one e n d an d p a ss ou t a t the other end i n

the for m of finished p r od u cts .

A ss u m in g th a t a works is to be b u ilt to t u r n ou t so m e
1 00 to n s a week of v a rio u s ki n ds o f so a ps it m a y be fitted ,

up on the lines shown in fi u r e 62 which is o tli e pl

g , a n u n a n

of the works Ther e a r e fo u r blocks of bu ildin gs of two

.

storeys in hei ht The fro t block ( D E ) i the pl n is

g . n n a

sh o w n i n section a l elev a tio n in fi u re 6 3 This cont i s n

g . a n a

en tra nce a tew a y in t h e ce n tr e thro h w h i ch oods are

g u g , g
received a n d a r e passed ou t O n the ri ght side of the ga te
.

way is sit u a ted the ti m e or lod ge keeper s o ffi ce (E ) with

’
-
,

wei gh i n g m achine a n d s m a ll s u n dry a n d fitti n g s store roo m -

behi n d o v er these bein g the c h e m ic a l la bor a tory a n d C he m ist s

,
’

office these bei n m ost i m port t dj ncts to s o a p fa ctory

, g a n a u a .

On th e le ft h a nd si d e is pl a ced the m a n a g er s O ffice ( D ) with

’
-

g nera l o ffi ces over

e The ri gh t h a n d block ( B ) o n figu res 62
.
-

an d 63 is the so a p boili n -
ho se this block co n sists pr a ctic
g u
330 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

ally of two doors as sh own

, in B in fig ure 64 ; and i n fig u r e

63, which is a sectional elev a tion of this block ei g h t

, b o il e rs
 P LA NN I NG A SO A P FA CT O RY .

ar e s h o w n . wh i c h ma y be of a n v desi red form th at sho wn i n

. .

m ay b e fi tt e d t o th e pans or he a ter s su ch a s shown i n figu r e

,

32 .
C lose t o t h is is a w a ter tower this tower a lso a ctin g a s
,

a h ou s e fo r t h e hoist and for t h e p u m p O .n the top o f th e

 PL ANN I NG A SO A P FA C T O RY .

are show n which m a y be of any desired form th a t shown i n ,

figu r e 2 9 bein g a g ood one These ar e s u pported on pillar s as

.

Sh o wn a n d m a y be s u rro u nded by non cond u cti n g co m posi

,
-

tion to econo m ise the heat a s m u ch a s possible These p a n s .

a r e so pl a ced that the floor o f the seco n d storey form s a co n

v e n i e n t wo r kin
g pl a t form for the m A s show .n in the pl a n ,

fig u re 62 the p a ns a r e a r ra n g ed a lon g o n e side a n d a t the

,

en d s . The other side o f th e bu ildi n g is in the lower

po r tion a r ra n ged a s a fram e r oom a n d to hold the en gines
,

a n d the cr u tchers The fram es a r e shown in figu re 35 and

.
,

th e cr u tchers i n fig u re 5 5 m a de by M essrs W
,
N eil l . .

S on .O n the second floor the sp a ce n o t fille d with th e

p a n s form s a very co n v e n ient store for the s a lt which is ,

kept on the floor wooden Sides abou t a foot hi gh keepin g i t

,

withi n bo u nds Alon g on e side o f it r u n s a ga llery on which

.

is pl a ced the t a n ks (figu re 2 6) for m elti n g a n d storin g the fa ts ,

the b a rrels co n t a i n i n g the l a tter bei n g r u n u p i n cli n ed gan g

w a ys a t either e n d of the ga llery a s shown i n figu r e 64 T h e .

g a lle r y e n a bles the fa t t a n ks to be so pl a ced th a t the m elted

fa ts c an be r u n into the so a p p a n s direct Sho u ld however .

, ,

it be considered not desira ble th a t the fa ts be m elted i n t a nk s

S O pl a ced bu t m ore on a level with the so a p p a ns then i t
, ,

will be needfu l to either m elt them i n a blower su ch a s fig u re

2 7 or to p u m p the m elted fa t fro m the tan ks to the p a ns
, .

I f co n v enie n ce is desired fo r m a ki n g s m a ll lots of so a p the n ,

roo m m ay be fo u nd for a p a n like th a t shown i n figu re 30 ,

which is a s m a ll steam j a cketed p a n m a de by M essrs D opp .

S o n s while i f co n venience is a lso n eeded for m a ki n g so a p

,

by the cold p r ocess then roo m m ay a lso be fou n d for a fe w

,

pans like th a t shown in fig u re 31 A bove the so a p p a n s .

Sho u ld be a rr a n g ed sh a fti n to d r ive a n it tors which

g y ga a

m a y be fitted to the p a n s or h e a te r s s u ch a s Shown i n figu re

,

32 . C lose to this is a w a ter tower this tower a lso a cti n g a s

,

a ho u se fo r the hoist a n d for t h e p u m p O n the top of th e .

332 SOAP MANUFAC T UR E .

tower is pl a ced a water t an k from which pipes ar e laid to ,

t h e stea m boilers soap p a n s lye t a nks a n d whe r ever th e

, ,

w a ter is w an ted This t a nk is kept filled from a well or

.

S pri n
g b y m e a ns o f a p u m p A s t h ere w i ll be a g re a.t de al
o f co n de n sed water form ed in the ste a m pipes a tt a ched to

the v a riou s so a p p a ns m e an s ou ght to be taken to collect

,

t his w a ter a n d se n d it thr o u gh the p u m p to the tower while ,

it wo u ld be wor th while to a rran ge th a t a ll the ste am which

p a s ses thro u g h the closed ste a m coils a n d jack e ts o f the pan s

b e sent thro u gh conden se r s and the condensed wa ter so ,

form ed a lso sent eit h er to th e tower or preferably to the , ,

lye t a nks for bei n g p u re it is m u ch to be preferred to well

, , ,

or spri n g w a ter for dissolvi n g the a lk a lies .

A on the pl a n and in figu re 63 is a block of two storey s on

th e le ft hand side o f th e works
- In this bu ildin g is carried .

o n th e m aki n f toilet so p boxin l bellin a n d printing

g o a g a g , ,

o n th e top floor while in the botto m floor is the box m akin g

,
-

m a chinery a n d the packi n g a n d stori n g are a lso done h er e

,

I t is a ss u m ed that a works of t h is size will m a ke its own

boxes and do its own printin g as fa r a s possible Su rrou nd .

i n g this block is an open ya rd for the storin g of ti m ber etc ,

.

At th e back of the works between the two b u ildin g s is placed

t h e block C The lower floor of this is u sed a s a frame
.

r oo m a n d i n it are also pl a ced th e sl a bbin m chi n es figu res

, g a ,

3 8 a n d 39 th e soap cu tti n g m ac hi nes s u ch as s h own in figures

,
-

4 1 4 2 and 43
, The first is a b arri n g m ach ine m ade by
.

M essrs W J F r a ser
. . .C o the second is a b a rri n g m achin e
.
,

m a de by M essrs N eill Son while th e t h ird is a com bined

.
,

b a rrin g a n d t a blet c u tti n g m achine m a de b y a C ontinental

-

fir m . Sta m pi n g is a lso done h ere by s u ch m achi n es a s are

shown in figu re 44 O n th e top floor a r e pl aced the alkali
.

s tores a n d the a lk a li t a n ks fi u re 2 5 These m be pl aced

g a y ,
.

on a
g a llery a t the end n e a rest the boilin g ho u se in whic h ,

c a se the l y e is r u n direct into th e so a p p a ns or the t anks ,

 PL A NN I NG A SO AP FA C T O R Y . 333

m ay be pl a ced on th e floor in which c a se pu m ps m u st not

,

be u sed to send the lye into the so a p p ans The y a rd .

c o n t a i n s two boiler ho u ses one for the so a p -boili n g ho u se

, ,

t h e other to work the en gi n e for d r ivi n g the box m a ki n g -

m a c hiner y chi m ne y water t a nk tower hoists and glycer ine

, ,
-
,

re c overy hou se wh ile there is a lso room for th e stor age o f

,

t a n ks i f necess a ry .

It will be observed that th e r a w prod u cts are sent into th e

boilin g hou se B fro m thence the so ap whic h is m ade p a sse s
into C to be c u t u p and st am ped ; then to A where it is ,

p a cked a n d w a r ehou sed re a dy to be sen t a wa y T h e labou r .

of h a ndli n g the goods is red u ced to a m ini m u m wh ile it is ,

i m possible to e m ploy contin u ou s m ech a nic a l c ori veyer s to

c a rry the so a p fro m pl a ce to pla ce .

I n figu re 65 is give n a plan o f a s m a ller works consistin g ,

of two m a i n blocks o f b u ildin gs o n e for the soap boi li n g a n d

,
-

the other for the finish in g O per a tio n s T h e genera l desc r ip

.

tion given of the larger works m ore or less applies to this .

It h a s been pl a nned however so th a t a n enlargem en t co u ld

, ,

be c a rried ou t i f requ ired a t so m e fu t u re ti m e ; th u s a n e w

boili n g ho u se co u ld be b u ilt by th e side of the one shown ,

h avin g the boiler ho u se between .

The pl a n s a r e not i n tended to be p u t forward as finished

desi gn s b u t to indicate so m e of the gen er a l li n es which m ay
,

be wor ked u pon in the l a yin g o u t of a soap fa ctory Obv i .

ou sly t h ey m u st be altered a t v a rio u s ti m es to s u it loc a l

circ u m st a n ces a s w as indic a ted a bove wh ile of co u r se the

, ,

ch ara cter of the so aps m a de a n d therefore of the m a chi n er y

,

to be e m ployed m u st h a ve so m e m a teri a l infl u ence u pon the

,

carryi n g ou t of the de ta ils of a r r a n gem e n t of the pl a n t .

 CHA P T E R X .

SO AP A AL N Y SI S .

S O AP m a n u fact u rers O ften requ ire to know the a ctu a l contents

o f soap that any given s a m ple of t h eir own or of other m akers
’

prep a ra tion m ay co n t ain O cc a sionally t h ey m a y desire to

.

kn ow m ore particu larly the constit u ents of a particular

s a m ple O f soap Su ch i n form a tion as is here a llu ded to
.
,

n ecessitates fo its s pply

r u a a —
che ical an lysis m ore or less
m
fu lly — o f th e s a m ple bei n g m a de .

S oa p wh en p u re co n sists essentiall y of t h ree s u bstances

‘

, , ,

fa t a lk a li a n d water i n a st a te of m ore or less inti mate

, ,

u n io n . N o w as in a n y process of soap m akin g it is i m pos -

sible or ne a rly so to co m pletely saponi fy a ll the fa t which

, ,

is u sed so a p u s u a lly co n t a i n s th e fat in two co n ditions i e

, ,
. .
,

free a n d co m bined while the a lkali m ay be prese n t partly

, ,

free a n d partly co m bi n ed with the fa t In the gre a t m aj ority .

o f c a se s it s u ffi ces to determ i n e th e above constit u en ts to

a scert a i n the v a l u e o f a so a p .

I n so m e c a ses a m ore el a bor a te a n al y sis is req u ired and ,

o ther constit u ents silic a te o f soda salt a n d s u lph a t e of soda

, ,

a n d ot h er bodies which m a y h a ve been added for v ar i ous

re a sons Then aga in a so a p m a ker m ay desire to kno w the

.
-

n a t u r e o f the fa ts u sed i n m akin g th e sa m ple .

A co m plete an a lysis o f so ap will take co gn is a nce of the

followi n g co n stit u en ts :
F ft r ee a , S di m lp h t o u su a e,

C m bi d f t
o ne a S d i m ili
, t o u s ca e ,

F lk l i
re e a a , B or a x ,

C m b i d lk l i
o ne a M i l filli g
a , n era n s,

W t a er , G ly i c er n e ,

S di m o u b t car S g
on a e , u ar ,

S d i m hl i d
o u c or M di i l e, ti t t e c na c on s u en s .
 SO AP A NAL YS I S . 335

Notwithst a n din g the

g re a t a dv a n ce i n the pr a ctice o f
an alytic a l che m istry a s a pplied to oils fa ts a n d prod u cts
,

p re pa r ed fr o m the m still
,
m u ch re m a in s to be done be fore
the a n a lysi s o f so a p in every ph a se is bro u ght to a st a te O f

p e r fectio n , a n d th a t the a n alyst c a n bo a st th a t he h as

g ive n

a perfectly tru e report a s to the ex a ct co m position o f a n

y
p a rtic u l a r s a m ple o f so a p th a t m a y co m e u n der his notice .

Befo r e co m m enci n g an a n a lysis of a n y p a rticu lar piece

of so a p it is o f gre a t i m port a n ce to obt a i n a good s a m ple o f

it a n d herei n we m a y briefly to u ch u po n a point of di ffi cu lty

,

th at the so a p a n a lyst m u st gu a r d a ga i n st i f he desires to

o bt a in g ood res u lts

. I f a b ar o f so a p especi a lly
, o n e th a t h a s

been m a de fo r so m e ti m e be c u t a cross it wi ll be observed

, ,

tha t there is on the o u tside a ski n which is h a rder th a n the

cent r a l portion of the b a r N ow i f po r tio n s a r e t a ken
.
,

from the o u ter a n d i n n er p a r ts of the ba r a n d a n a lysed it , ,

will be fo u n d th a t di fferent r es u lts a r e obt a i n e d the o u ter ,

skin co n t a i n i n m ch less w a te r t h a n t h e i n n e r portio n

g u .

Now a s it is u s u a lly the c u sto m i n so a p a n a lysis to take severa l

p o r tio n s fo r the di ffere n t co n stit u e n ts it is O bvio
, u s that c o n

cor d an t res u lts will n ot be obt a i n ed u n less the a n a lyst is

exceedin ly c a re fu l i n selecti n his s m ple d i c tti it
g g a a n n u n g
up . In o r der to a void this di ffi cu lty m a n y a n a lysts h a ve
devised sche m es for the a n a lysis o f a s a m ple o f so a p fro m
only o n e wei hed portio n S o m e o f t h ese sche m es h a ve n o t
g .

been p u blished others h a ve a n d o n e or two of these will be

, ,

noticed . O n e dis a dv a n t a ge o f s u ch sche m es is that they

t ake a considera ble tim e to work thr o u gh a n d o ften ti m e is ,

an elem e n t . Then a gai n th e so a p is s u bjected to som e

, ,

O pera tio n s which m a have so m e e ff ect o n the ch a ra cter

y
of the other co n stit u e n ts th u s for i n st a n ce s u pposi n g th a t
, ,

a s a preli m in a r y the so a p is d r ied t h e n the he a t n ec e ssa r v

,

for this p u rpose m a y bri n g a bo u t the sa p o n i fic a ti o n o f so m e

fr ee fa t with the fr ee a lk a li prese n t a n d the so a p wo u ld be ,
336 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

ret u rned as neu t r a l whe n it m ay rea lly be a lk a li n e Again .

,

i f the soap be tre a ted fo r cert a in reaso n s with a lcohol the ,

latter m i ght a lso bri n g a bo u t the com plete sa p on i ficati on of

the l a st tra ces of free fa t a n d fr ee a lk a li .

O n the whole i f c a re be t a ke n i n s a m pli n g the so ap and

m aki n g a ll wei ghi n gs o f the testi n g s a m ples a t the s a m e time ,

it will be fo u nd better a n d qu ite a s good resu lts will be ,

obt a ined to u se di fferent sam ples of t h e so ap for the various

,

esti m a tio n s .

Wa ter i n Soap — C le a n thoro u ghly a n d heat for a short

ti m e over a n a ir b a th a porcel a i n ev a pora tin g b a sin then ,

a llow to cool a n d wei gh it The n scra pe the sam ple of soap

, .

i n to fin e shreds a n d wei gh 1 0 gram m es i n to the b a si n Next .

pl a ce the b a sin of so a p into a hot a ir oven he a ted to about -

1 1 0 to 1 2 0 C for a bo u t three to fo u r ho u rs t a ke the basin

° °
.

out , a llow to cool in a desicc a tor ; the n wei gh it Next .

replace it in the oven for a bo u t a n ho u r a ga in allow to ,

cool a n d wei gh it repe a t these O pera tions u n til there is no

,

fu r th er loss o f wei ght The loss of wei ght m ay be taken as

.

w a ter a lthou gh i f in tra n sp a r ent so a ps a little of the spirit

,

be left in it will a lso be vol a tilised a n d reckon ed with

,

the w a ter To t a ke a n exa m ple

.

W ei gh t of b a si n soa p

W ei gh t of b asi n
W ei gh t o f so a p ta k en

W e i gh t O f so a p a n d b a si n B
( )
W e i ght of soa p a n d ba si n (A)
L oss of wei g t h
2 09 2 x 10

In this so ap there is then p e r cen t o f w a ter . .

This a lthou gh the best m ethod of determ inin g the water

,

in so a p is a,
slow o n e t a ki n
g so m e h o u r
,
s to d o It h a s o n e .

a dv t
an ag e an d th a t ,
is the so a p is i n a s u it a ble conditi o n to

u se fo r fur ther tests .

A qu icker m ethod is th a t described by W a tson S m i t h .

 AL KAL I IN SO AP . 337

An ev a po r a ting b a sin with a sh ort len gth of gl a ss r od is

weighed a n d i n to it is wei ghed 5 gr am m es of the so a p to be
,

tested The basin and its contents a r e pl a ced on a s a nd

.

bath over a b u n sen b u rner an d he a ted with co n st a nt stirrin g , ,

until t h e so a p be gins to e m it a ch a rrin g or b u r nin g odo u r ,

which is re a dily perceptible The heatin g is then stopped .

,

an d th e b a si n a n d its co n tents a llowed to cool when they ,

ar e w ei g hed the loss bein the water in the soap

, g .

W e i gh t b
of a si n g l ass soa p

We i ght f bo asi n g l a ss

We i gh t f o soa p ta ken

We i gh t f o soa p , etc .
, b f h ti g
e or e ea n

We i gh t f o S oa p , etc .
, aft h t i g
er ea n

L o ss of wei g t h
x 20

In this s am ple of so ap there is per cent o f wa ter . .

This m ethod of worki n g c a re fu lly followed gives good , ,

res u lts .

A lka i n S oa p
li — The a l ka li in so ap m ay be presen t in
.

two form s fr ee a n d com bi n ed A g ood s am ple of well m a de

,
.
-

s o a p shou ld n ot co n t ain an y free a lk a li ; bu t it is very di ffi

c u lt to m a ke a so a p which sh a ll n ot cont ai n a n y a n d so th e ,

be st of so a ps h ave freq u en tly sm a ll tra ces present It i s .

on ly when speci a l m e a n s h a ve been t a ken to preven t its

being present th a t so a p is fr ee fro m this co n stit u ent The .

com bi n ed a lk a li is th a t which is co m bin ed with the fa t to

fo rm the so a p .

The free a lk a li m ay be presen t in the so a p a s hydr oxide

or as c a r bo n a te : the fo r m er is the excess O f the c au s ti c
a lk a li u sed in m a ki n the soap n o t re m oved i n the finishin
g g
O per a tio n s ; the l a tter whe n p r ese n t h a s u s u a lly bee n a dded
, ,

a s a filli n g m ateri a l It wi ll be co n venien t i f we first descr ibe

.

th e esti m a tio n o f the tot a l a lk a li i n the so a p then th e fre e ,

alk a li both a s hyd r oxi de a n d c a rbo n ate .

T o ta l A lka li i n S oap — Ten gra m m es of the so a p a r e

22
338 SO AP MA NUFAC T UR E .

wei ghed ou t and dissolved i n 1 00 to 1 50 c c of w a ter by . .

boili ng To the sol u tion a s m u ch m ethyl ora ng e is a dded

.

a s will j u st i m p a rt a yellow tin t to the liqu id ; then fr o m a

b u rette a nor m a l stand a rd sol u tio n o f su lph u ric a cid is r un

in (titra ted ) u ntil a per m a n en t pi n k colora tion is obt ain ed .

The sol u tion m ay be kept wa rm du ri n g the O peration with

adv an t a ge N ote is taken of the n u m ber of o c s o f st a nd ard
. . .
’

a cid u sed .

It Is c u sto m a ry to co n sider so a p a s a com bi n a tio n o f soda ,

N a O the oxide o f the m et a l sodi u m w ith the a n hydr ides of

g ,

the fatty acids ; in this view sodi u m ole a te wou ld have the
form u l a

H a vin g this view of th e com position of soap i n m ind it ,

is cu stom a ry on the p a rt of che m ists to c a lcu l a te the free

a n d co m bi n ed a lk a li i n so a p a s sod a ( sodi u m oxide N a2 0) , ,

a n d a ccordi n ly the n u m ber o f c c s of st a ndard u sed is m u lti

’

g . .

plied by which gives the a m o u nt of sod a in th e 10

g r a m m es o f so a p a n d this m u ltiplied by 1 0
, gi ves the p er

cent a ge of total a lkali (N a zO ) in the so a p A s an exam ple .

in testi n g a sam ple of so a p the re a din gs on the b ur ette were

,

a s follows

S ec on d r ea d i n g

F i rst r ea di n g

x 10 8 2 15 .

The so ap co n t ai n s 8 2 1 5 per cent of a lkali ( N a 2 0) . .

I n th e au t h or s O pi n io n the c u sto m a ry view of the c om

’

position of so ap a s gi ven a bove is wr o n g H e con siders it .

prefer a ble to view so a p a s bein g com posed of b a sic r adi cle

( which wo u ld be eithe r th e m et a l sodi u m or pot a ssi u m ao

cordi n g to the n a t u r e of the so a p ) with fa tty a cid radicle .

S odi u m ole a te wo u ld the n h a ve t h e fo r m ula

N a Cl sH aaOQ .
 FRE E AL KAL I IN SO AP . 339

This view of the co m position of so a p wou ld brin g the

m a tter i n a li n e with the cu rrently a ccepted view of the
com position or co n stit u tio n of s a lt s with which cl a ss O f ,

com po u n ds so a p m ay be grou ped I n co n son a n ce with this

.

view the a lk a li in soap shou ld be c a lc u l a ted to sodi u m N a by

u sin g th e fa ctor 0 02 3 to m u l tiply the n u m ber of c c s o f
’
. .

st a ndard ac id with a fa tty a cid radicle T h u s i n the exam ple

.

give n a bove we sh ou ld h a v e
‘

x 10 609 5 .

There is 6095 per cent of tot a l a lk a li (N a ) in this s am ple

.

o f So a p .

In the c a se of testin g soft so a ps the m ethod adopted is,

th e s a m e The fa ctors to be u sed in calc u l a tin g are 0 047

.

fo r p otash (K 2 0 ) or 0039 for potassi u m .

I n this ch a pter in a ll a n alyses of so a p the a lk a li will be

,

g i v e n a s sodi u m ( N a ) in the c a se of h a rd so a ps or a s pot a ssi u m ,

( K ) i n the c a se o f so ft so a ps .

F r ee A lka li i n S oap — T O ascert a in the a m o u nt of free

al k a li in so a p is ra ther a trou blesom e m a tter The sim plest .

pl a n is to wei gh ou t 1 0 gr a m m es of the so a p dissolve in ,

1 5 0 c c o f w a te r by boili n g a dd a fe w drops o f a n a lcoholic

. .
,

so l u tion o f phenol phth a lei n

- which will pro du ce a red
,

c o l o r a tion i f free a lk a li be presen t t h en titr a te with norm a l

,

s t a n d a r d s u lph u ric a cid u n til the red color a tio n di s a ppe a rs .

T h e a lk a li is c a lc u l a ted to N a O H by the fa ctor i n the

c a s e o f h a rd so a ps ; to c au stic pot a sh (K O H ) by the fa ctor

0 05 6 in the case of so ft so a ps A good m a ke o f h ar d soap

.

w i ll n ot t a ke m o r e th a n 0 7 5 to 1 c c o f the st a n d a rd a cid
. .

t o n e u tr a lise an y free a cid it m a y co n t a i n .

There ar e som e objectio n s perh a ps to this m ethod of

, ,

w o r ki n g in the first pl a ce it fa ils i f the so a p co n t ai n s a con

si d e r a b le a m o u nt o f c a rbon a te o f sod a o r pot a sh a s t hese ,

b o d ies a r e S li ghtly a lk a li n e to phen ol phth a lei n ; i f they a r e

-
340 S O AP MANUFA C T UR E .

present then another process m u st be a dop ted Then a ga i n .

, ,

it is st a ted b y m a ny ch em ists th a t on dissolvin g so a p in wa t e r

a cert a in a m o u nt o f deco m position occ u rs by h ydrolysis ; ther e

is form ed an a cid soap together wi t h a little fr ee sodi u m

hydroxide I f this action does re a lly occu r then for th e
. ,

p u rpose of detecti n g free a lka li in the soap a sol u tion i n ,

water is n ot a vail a ble The a u thor a s the res u lt of n u m ero u s

.
,

an a lyses of soap does not view this decom position theory o f

,

soap sol u tion with favou r a n d is very m u ch inclined to th e

,

O pinion that it does not occ u r So a ps h a ve p assed t h ro u g h

.

h i s b a n ds which did not with the p r ocesses a bove d e

.

scribed t a ke m ore th an
,
to c c of acid to neu trali s e . .

an y free a lkali they cont ai n ed and the deco m position theo r y

,

o f soap i f it is worth anythin g calls for the prod u ction o f

, ,

m ore free a lk a li th a n is represented by the q u a ntities of ac i d

wh ich ha ve been n am ed .

An other m ethod of determ inin g the fr ee alk a li in soap i s

to wei gh ou t 1 0 gram m es of the so a p an d dissol v e with th e
aid of a wa ter b a th in abo u t 2 00 c c of neu tr a l a lcohol It i s . . .

best to u se a bsol u te alcoh ol bu t as this is expensive th e

,

ordin a r y m et h yl a ted spirit m ay be u sed i f it is su bjected to a

'

p u ri fyi n g process the si m plest m etho d of cond u cti n g wh ich

,

c onsists in pl a ci n g in the Spirit so m e c a u stic sod a a llowi n g to ,

stand over a ni ght then redistillin g a bou t 90 to 9 5 per cent

, .
,

th e residu e which r e m a ins in the still o r r etort bei n g thrown

away Before u se the alcohol or spirit sho u ld be n eu tra lise d
.

b y ad di n g a little phenol phth a lein a n d s u fficient c au st i c

-

sod a to prod u ce a fai n t pi n k tin t .

W hen th e soap h a s been dissolved in th e a lcohol or th e

l a tter h a s dissolved a s mu ch a s it wil l the solu tion sh ou l d ,

be filtered thro u gh a dry filter t akin g c a re to expose the sol u

,

tion to the air a s lit tle a s possible The sol u tion Sho uld b e .

m a de i n a fl a sk a n d the filteri n g sho uld be do n e throu gh a

,

fu nnel i n to a fl a sk th e fu n n el bei n g kept cover ed by a

,
 FRE E AL KAL I IN S O AP . 341

g l a ss pl a te W h
. e n the liqu id h a s g one thro u
gh the filter ,

the r esidu e m ay be w a sh ed with a s m all qu a ntity of neu tra l

alcohol the w a shin bein dded to the m a i n body of the
, g g a

filtr a te .

To the a lcoholic sol u tion is now a dded phe n ol p h th a -

lein a s a n indic a tor when i f there be a n y free a lka li a red

, , ,

colo u r wi ll be O bt ai n ed The sol u tio n is now titr a ted

.

w it h the st an d a rd a cid a s be fore u ntil the red colo u r ,

is destroyed The am o u nt o f free a lk a li is calcu l a ted a s

.

be fo r e .

The a lcohol only dissolves the soap a n d a n y alk a li which

m a y be present a s hydrox ide ( c a u stic a lk a li ) ; a n y in the
for m of c a rbon a te bor a te or silic a te is u ndissolved a n d
,

re m a ins a s a n insolu ble resid u e on th e filter To thi s .

re ference will a gain be m a de .

The a lcohol m ethod like th e wa ter m ethod of dissolvi n g

th e so a p is O pen to objections O n e fe a t u re is the gre a t
.

li a bili ty th a t the m ere a c t of dissolvin g th e so ap in su ch a

m enstru u m will brin g a bo u t sa p on i fic a ti on between a n y free
fa t a n d free a lk a li which m a y be p r esent i n th e so a p thu s ,

le a din g to too lo w a qu antity of the l a tter constit u en t bein g

fo u nd. It is however in the case of c a rbon a ted so a ps the
, ,

on ly m eth od which c a n be e m ployed In eith er the wa ter

.

or a lcohol sol u tion the co m bined a lk a li m ay be determ ined

i f a fter titr a tin g with the sta n d a rd a cid a n d phe n ol
p h th a lei n of the free a lk a li m ethyl o r a n ge be added a n d ,

t h e titr a tion be contin u ed u n til the ch a r a cteristic pink

c o loration be obt a ined Thu s in ] a n a n a lysis of a s am ple
.

of pale so a p m a de by the a u thor em ployi n g a w a ter ,

s ol u tion a n d t a ki n g 1 0 gr a m m es of so a p the followin g ,

res u l ts were O bt a ined

 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

F re e a lk li
a , u si n g p h en o l p hth l
- a ei n a s i n di c a t or .

Sta n d a r d a ci d b ur e tte r ea di n gs

Sec on d rea d i n g

Fi r st r e a di ng

x 10 p er c e n t . of N a OH .

Th en a d d e d m et h yl ora n ge a n d f th
ur er t i trat ed .

Sec on d re a d in g

Fi rst r e a d i n g

x 10 p e r c e n t . of c om bi n ed so d a N
( 2 0)
3 .

x 10 p e r c e n t . of com bi n ed sod i u m N
( )a .

A lka li a s Ca r bon a te Si li ca te eta — I t is very di fli c ult to

, ,

g ive a n y g eneral sc h e m e which shall m eet every c a se t h at

m a y occ u r in th e ex a m inatio n o f so a p for a lk a li presen t i n

th e fo r m s of c a rbonate silic a te bor a te s u lph a te ch lori de
, , , , ,

etc ; the soap analy st m u st be prepared in dealin g with

.
,

so a ps wh ich contain a n y o f th e cons titu ents m entioned to ,

devise a special sch e m e of his own based on th e res u lts of a ,

qu a lit a tive test wh ich h e m ay h a ve applied to th e soap .

W h a t is stated i n the followin g rem arks shou ld be looked

u pon m ore in th e nat u re o f hi n ts t h a n as a c u t a n d dri ed

sche m e applicable to an y a n d every ki nd of so a p Ten or if .

,

the proportions of th e su bst a nces in qu estion a r e sm a ll 2 0 ,

g r a m m es of th e soap a r e dissolved in m eth ylated S pirit and ,

the solu tion filtered from a nythin g insolu ble th e filter which ,

i s u s ed h a vin g been previo u sly dried and wei ghed The in .

solu ble portion which rem a i n s on th e filter is w a shed with

fresh spirit wh en it is dried and wei gh ed the wei gh t thus
, ,

obt ained giving th e am o u nt of m a tters insol u ble in alcohol

in the so a p .

'

B oilin g w a te r is now po u red over the filter the con tents ,

o f w h ich a r e treated u ntil the y ar e thoro u hl y exh a u sted of

g
 AL KAL I IN SO AP . 343

a ll sol u ble m atter s The filter is n ext dried a n d wei ghed

.
,

when th e am ou nt of a n y i n solu ble m a tter will be obt a ined

’

This portionm a y co n sist of a dded san d silic a F rench cha lk , ,

a n d S i m il a r s u bst a n ces with m a y be so m e a dded or ga n ic

, , ,

m a tte r not dissolved by w a ter After wei ghi n g it th e filter .

,

p a per a n d its conten ts m a y he pl a ced in a wei ghed porcel a in

cru cible bu rn t o ve r a bu nsen bu rner then a llo wed to cool
, , ,

a n d wei ghed This l a st wei ghin g will give th e a m o u n t of

.

i n s ol u ble m inera l m a tter in the so a p an d is the n re a dy for ,

fu rthe r ex a m i n ation i f need be .

T h e a qu eo u s sol u t ion which h a s passed th r o u gh the filter

is n o w m a de u p to a know n vol u m e a n d divided i n to two
portio n s A and B . To A is a dded a little m ethyl or a n ge
, ,

a n d it is titr a ted with n orm a l h y d r ochloric a cid u n til the

ch a ra ct eristic pink colo u r is O bt a ined T h is tit r a tio n will .

g ive the a m o u nt o f a lk a li prese n t a s ca r bon a te bor a te a n d ,

sili c a te The presence of c a rbo n a te will be indic a ted by

.

effervescen ce occ u rri n g ; the other two su bst an ces do n ot

e ffervesce with a cid s The sol u tion which h a s been u sed i n
.

the titra tion is now he a ted to the boil a little hydrochlori c ,

a cid a dded a n d then a little b a ri u m chloride

,
i f a n y s u lphate
be presen t a white precipit a te of b a ri u m s u lph a te will be
obt a ined T hi s is filtered off well wa s h ed with hot w a te r
.
, ,

dried bu rn t in a porcel a i n cru cible over a b u nsen b u rner

,

a n d wei ghed T h e wei ght o f b a r i u m s u lph a te th u s obt a ined

.

m u ltiplied by 06 09 gives the wei ght o f sodi u m s u lph a te ,

N a 2 S 04 present,
Th u s the followin g figu res were obt ained
.

in a n a n a lysis of so a p for s u lph a te 1 0 gr am m es of so a p ,

bei n g u sed
W i gh t f
e i blo hcru c B sO e as a 4

W i gh t f
e i blo c ru c e

W ei gh t of a sh B a sO4
W ei gh t of a sh

x 06 09 00 56 .

00 56 x 10 p e r c en t . o f so di u m su lp h a te i n th e soa p .
 344 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

The secon d portion B of th e filtra te is divided into two

, ,

equ a l portio n s O n e portio n is a cidi fied with hydrochloric

.

'

a cid ev a porated to dry n ess the r esid u e treated wi th a littl e

'

we a k h ydrochloric acid filtered from the silic a which is ren

,

der ed insol u ble by this trea t m ent The silic a is wa shed .

,

dried bu rnt in a cru cible a n d wei ghed

, .

The p r esen ce of bora x m ay be detect ed by pl a ci n g a

,

piece of t u m eric p aper in the sol u tion a s it is boiled down

for th e silic a te ; i f b o r a x be p r ese n t th e p a per will t u rn a
red brown col ou r To determ in e the am ou nt of bora x present
-
.

is a m ost di ffic u lt m a tter an d no really sati sfa c tor v process

,

c an be described .

I f a n y silic a te or bor a te be pr esent a s well as c a rbon a te ,

the la tter is estim a ted by t a kin g the ot h er portion of th e

a q u eo u s sol u tion and determ inin t h m o u nt O f c a rb oni c
, g e a

a cid in t h is in speci a l a pp a r a t u s su ch a s is m a de for the

,

p u rpose F orty fo u r p a r ts of c a rbonic acid C C 2 correspond

.
-
, ,

to 1 06 p a rts of sodi u m c a r bon a te N a C Os ; or to 62 p arts of , z

sodi u m oxide N a O or to 94 p ar ts of potassi u m o xide E 0

, g , 2 .

These proportio n s m ay be em ployed in m akin g the necessary

c a lcu la tions.

G ener a lly S pe a kin g sod a is th e onl y form o f a lkali

,

wh ich will be m et wi th in h a rd soaps and pot a sh the ,

o n ly form fo u nd in so ft so a ps ; rarely are both a lkalies

presen t i n a soap at on e ti m e Sh o u ld it be need fu l to .

a scert a in i f both be present the followin g co u rse of pro

,

c e d u r e m u st be a dO te d : A s a m ple of soap is ne u tr a li sed

p
by hydrochloric a cid the fa tty matter sep a ra ted a n d the
,

sol u tion boiled down t o a s m all b u lk ; a piece of pl a ti n u m

wire is dipped into th e solu tio n a n d held in the lower por
tio n of a b u n sen flam e wh ich t h en beco m es colo u r ed wi th
,

a yellow li ht i f sodi u m be p r esent with a p a le lil a c ti nt ed -

g ,

li gh t i f pot a ssi u m be prese n t The observer is a d vised to

.

tr y this experi m ent with p u re so di u m and pot a ssi u m s alts ,

 F AT IN SO AP . 34 5

to ga n i m ore experience of the resu lts like ly to be

O bt ai n ed .

The pr esen ce of sodi u m is rea di ly dem onst r a ted by the

flam e test a n d i f prese n t it will O bsc u re the ch a r a cteristic
,

flam e test fo r pot a ssi u m The presence of the l a tter m a y be

.

detected by a ddi n g to the a qu eo u s sol u tio n obt a i n ed a s j u st

descri bed a little pl a tin u m chloride a n d m ethyl a ted spirit ,

wh en i f it be prese n t a yellow precipitate o f the do u ble

, ,

p o t a ssi u m pl a ti -
n u m c h loride will be obt a i n ed S odi u m does .

n ot ive s ch a pre cipit a te I f it be desi r ed to a scer t a in the

g u .

a m o u nt o f b o th a lk a lies t h e n the tot a l a lk a li presen t is deter

,

min ed i n the u s u a l m a nner w ith th e sem inorm al hydro

c hloric a cid a fter which the pot a ssi u m is precipit a ted ou t a s
,

the dou ble ch loride O f pl a ti n u m a n d pot a ssi u m the am o u nt ,

of wh ich is a scert a ined by w ei hi n on wei hed dry filter

g g a
g
p aper , a n d fro m the d a t a th u s O bt a ined the a m o u nt o f both
pot ash a n d sod a m a y be c alc u l a ted F or det ails of this and .

other q u antit a tive m ethods which ar e described in t h is

c h apter th e re a der is r e ferred to sta n d a rd books on q u a nti
,

ta ti ve chem ic a l a n a lysis s u ch for instance a s t h ose of M ills

, , ,

an d N orth S exto n , Thorpe an d others

,
.
.

F a tty M a tter — The fa tty m a tter o f soap is presen t in

.

two form s free a n d com bi n ed ; the form er sho u ld in the

, ,

best gra des of soap be present only i n tri flin g am ou n t In

,
.

so m e so called s u per fa tted so a ps a n excess o f free fa t u s u a lly

-
, ,

p r esen t in th e form of wool fat or la n olin is p u rposely ,

a dded .

F r ee F a t — To a scer t ai n the a m o u nt O f free fa t in the

soap th e dried 1 0 gra m m es of so a p left a fter th e determ i n a
,

tion of the m oist u re (vi de sup r a ) ar e wr a pped i n a piece of

filter p a per a n d pl a ced in a So x h le tt fa t extr a ction a pp a r a t u s -

a n d extr a cted with pet r ole u m e t her The oper a tion m a y be

.

a llowed to t a ke one a n d a h a l f ho u r s t h e ethere a l liq u id is

r u n into a wei hed l a ss the ether ev a por a ted off i n a n a i r

g g ,
346 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

ba th an d the residu al free fa t wei gh ed The fa t so obt ained

.

will consist of th e portion of fa t which has resisted the

saponi fyin g process any sm a ll p r Op orjai on of u n sa p on i fiable
,

m atter which m a y h ave bee n present in the fa t or O ils u sed

to m ake th e so a p any fa tty m ateri a l added to s u perfat
,

the soap a n d a n y fatty m a tters s u ch a s m i neral so a p st ock

, , ,

wh ich m a y h a ve bee n a dded a s a filli n g to the soap .

T h e tot a l fa t whic h is present in the so a p is determi ned

in th e 1 0 gra m m es which h a ve been u sed for the titra tion of
free and com bi n ed alk a li (vi de sup ra ) After the titration
.

for the a lk a li a sli gh t excess of acid is a dded a n d the m ass is ,

heated o v er a b u nsen b u rner u ntil the fa t sep a ra tes ou t on

the top of the aqu eou s liqu or in a clea r tra nsparen t l ayer of
oi l
. T wo pl a ns m a y be followed for collectin g and wei ghing
this fat . The m ethod com m only recom m ended is with all ,

those so a ps which will give a solid fa t to allow the fa t to ,

cool and set into a solid c a ke the a qu eo u s liqu id is n ow run

o ff a n d clean water added The m ass is now h eated u ntil
.

the fat is o n ce m ore m elted when it is a gai n allowed to cool ;

,

th e c a ke of fa t is separa ted from th e was h water dried be ,

tween sh eets o f filter p a per a n d wei ghed .

W hen the soap is of s u c h a ch a ra cter a s to yi eld fat that

wi ll not sep a ra te ou t a s a solid cake bu t rem ains m ore or less
,

li qu id or paste 1 0 gram m es of w h ite w a x or of p ar a fli n wax

,

are added to th e fat m elted u p alon g with it and finally

, ,

wei gh ed with it F rom th e final wei ght t h at of the wa x is

.

ded u cted lea vin g th e wei ght of fa t present in the soap

,
.

There ar e som e objections to this m ethod of working ,

wh ich requ ires care in exec u tio n i f good a n d reli a ble results
a r e to be obt a ined . It is di fli cu lt to e n tirel y rem ove the
wh ole of the fa t from the sides of the gl a ss be a ker which is
u sed in c a rryi n t the peration this tends to red u ce the
g o u O

am o u nt O f fa t fo u n d Then it is di ffi cu lt to free the c ake of

.

fat fro m a ll tr a ces o f m oist u re a n d hence t h ere is a li ability

,
 F AT IN SO AP . 347

fro m this c au se to i n crease the apparent wei ght of fat T h e .

two so u rces of error thu s indic a ted actin g i n o pp osite dirco ,

°
~

tion s m a y tend to n eu t r a lise on e a nother A noth er objection

, .

to the m ethod is the ti m e it t a kes .

The au tho r reco m m ends the follo win g process which i n , ,

hi s h a nds gives g ood res u lts : After titr a ti n g with stan d a rd

,

acid fo r the a lk a li a n d m eltin t h f t described above a

, g e a a s ,

sm a ll q u a ntity o f petrole u m ether is a dded a n d the m ixt u re

pou red into a sep a r a ti n g fu nnel ; m ore w a rm bu t n ot hot , ,

water is a dded wi th if need fu l m ore petroleu m ether The

, , ,
.

con tents of the fu nnel a r e n o w well sh a ken a n d then a llowed

to stan d to settle when two l a yers will form the u pper on e
, ,

of ether with th e fa t th e lower of a cid u l a ted w a ter

,
The .

l atter is n o w nea rly bu t not qu ite ru n O ff a n d fresh w ar m

, , ,

wa ter a dded to w a sh the fa t this bein g rep eated i f requ ired

,
.

The ether l a yer is n ow r u n into a wei ghed gl a ss be aker ,

the ether eva po rated off a n d the resid u a l fatty m a tter

,

wei gh e d .

By a n y of the processes a bove described there is O btai n ed

th e total wei gh t of fa t in the so a p This fat will cont ai n th e.

fre e fa t as well a s th a t present in com bi n a tion with t h e

,

alk a li a s so a p ; the a m ou n t of the l a tter can be a scertained

by dedu ctin g the a m ou n t o f free fa t which h a s previo u sly
be en a scer ta i n ed The com bined fa t consists essentially of
.

fa tty and rosin a cids W e do not obt a in the m in the form

.

i n wh ich they are presen t in the so a p where they a r e ,

co m bined wit h sodi u m N a a s a cid ra dicles which m a y he ,

rep resented by R in the co m po u nds of which N a R is th e

ty pic a l form u l a bu t as fa tty a cids O f the type H R It there
, .

fo re follows t h a t the wei ght of fa tty a cids fo u nd is sli ghtl y

—1 i n 2 82 —in excess o f th e tr u th a n d th a t a well m a de ,
-

an a lysis of so a p t aki n g the wa ter and fa tty m a tter a s fou n d

, ,

th e free a lk a li a s N a O H the co m bi n ed a lk a li a s N a w ill

, ,

com e ou t S li ghtly i n excess of 1 00 t hi s excess will ra n ge

348 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

fro m 01 to
accordin g to the qu antity and ch ara ct er of
0 3,
th e fatt y m att er present .

I f the so a p contains m u ch cocon u t oil th e res u lts oh ,

t a i n ed i n determ ini n g the a m o u nt o f fa tty m atter by either

o f the m ethods given will be too low owi n g to the oil con ,

t a inin g fa tty a cids which a r e sol u ble in w a ter a n d th ese ,

pass into th e w a sh wa ters an d so a r e not collected and

,

W ei ghed .

M r J A W ilson recom m en ds the follo win g p r ocess : 10

. . .

g r a m m es o f the so a p a r e dissolved i n w a ter a n d decom posed

by a sli ght excess o f dilu te s u lphu r ic a cid ; the glass or flask

c o n tainin the so a p m a ss is then he a ted u ntil the fa tty m atter
g
collects in a cle a r l ayer on the s u r fa ce of t h e a qu eo u s liquid .

The vessel an d its contents a r e now cooled a n d the cake of

fatty a cids sep a ra ted ou t while the a qu eo u s l a yer is filtered
,

t hrou gh a wet filter p a per The c a ke of fatty a cids is

.

w a shed t hr ee ti m es with 2 5 0 c u bic centi m etres of b oili ng

water coolin g and filterin g e a ch ti m e The vario u s filtrates
, .

a r e col lected ; m ethyl ora n e is a dded a s an indicator and

g ,

th e liq u or titrated wit h decinor m a l c a u stic sod a u n til the

pink colou r chan g es to y ellow By th is m ean s the excess .

o f m ineral acid u sed in deco m posi n g the soap is g ot r id of .

T o the liqu id is added phenol phth a lein and the titr ati on -
,

continu ed u ntil the chara cteristic pink colou r is got ; the

a m o u nt of st a nd a rd soda sol u tion u sed corresponds to the

a m o u nt of sol u ble fa t a cids prese n t a n d these are c a lc u l ated ,

to c a pr ylli c a cid H CSH s by m u ltiplyin g by the factor

, ,

001 44 . The c a ke o f fa tty a cids m ay be dried an d weighed ,

th u s gi vin g the a m ou nt of insol u ble fatt y a cids .

It m ay be m en tio n ed here t h a t by collectin g the fatty

,

a cids, dissolv i n g t h em i n n eu tra l m ethyl a ted spi r it u sing ,

phenol phth alein a s a n indic a to r a n d titrating with st andard

-
,

c a u stic soda there is obt a i n ed the a m o u nt O

, f a lk a li req uired
t o co m bine wit h th e fatty a cids to form so a p ; i f in previous
 A T
S L IN SO AP . 349

tests m ore h a s bee n fo u n d then s u ch excess m u st be presen t

in other form s .

In c a se the so a p a n a l y st a dheres to the m et h od of cal cin

latin g the a lk a li a s sodi u m oxide N a O then he m u st reckon
, z ,

the fa tty a cids a s a n h ydrides ; the q u a lit y of t h ese he m a y

calcu l a te fro m the a m o u n t o f fa tty a cids fo u n d by m u ltiply

ing the factor 09 7 which while not a cc u r a te for every c a se

,

is su fficiently so for a ll the co m m on gra des of so a p .

Sodi u m C h lo r i de i n S oap — The a m o u n t of so di u m chloride

p resent in a s a m ple o f so a p m a y be deter m ined i n the a q u eo u s

liqu or wh ich is obt ained i n the titra tion for alkali with
st an d a rd s u lph u ric a cid This m a y be don e eith er vol u
.

metric a lly or gr a vi m etric a lly I n the vol u m etric process th e

.

liquid i s n e u tra lised with c a u stic sod a which is free from ,

chloride then a fe w drops O f a sol u tion o f p u re p ot a ssi u m c h r o

,

mate a r e a dded a n d the liq u id titr a ted with a norm a l sol u tio n
,

of silver nitr a te u n til a perm a n ent or a n ge or red dish colo u r i s

obt ai n e d The nu m ber O f c c s of silver sol u tion u sed ’

. . .
,

mu ltiplied by 005 85 gives the a m o u nt of sodi u m chloride

, .

presen t i n the so a p .

I f it he desired to deter m i n e the chlo r ide gr a v i m eti c a lly ,

then the a qu eou s sol u tion is he a ted to the boil a n d s u ffi cien t ,

of a S o l u tion o f silver nitr a te a dded to precipit a t e all th e

chlorid e a s silver ch loride ; the pr ecipit a te is collected on a

filter w ell w a shed dried b u rnt in a porcel ain cr u cible a n d
, , , ,

wei g he d The wei ght O f silver chloride so fo u n d m u ltip lied

.
,

by 0407 gives the wei ght of sodi u m ch lo r ide i n the so a p

, .

G ly c er i n e — This co n stit u en t m a y be looked for in so m e

m a kes O f toilet so a ps i n a ll so a ps m a de by the cold a n d
,

press u r e processes a n d in so ft so ap G en era lly its a m ou nt

, .

is t a ken by di fferen ce th a t is a ll the other constitu ents of

,

the so a p a r e determ i n ed a n d a n y di fference r equ ired to m a ke

,

u p the fu ll a m o u n t is t a ken a s lyceri n e N s a tis fa ctory

g o .

m etho d for its deter m i n a tio n in so a p h a s been devised ; th e

35 0 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

m ethod b a sed on its conversion in oxalic a cid by m ean s of an

a lkaline sol u tion o f pot a ssi u m per m a n ga nate is perh a ps the

best This test will he re ferred to a gain later on

. .

To det ect the presen ce of glyceri n e i n so a p th e followi ng

tests m ay be appli ed : D ecom pose the soap with a cid and
s ep a ra te o u t the fa tty m a tter eva por a te the aqu eo u s liquor
,

down to a s m all bu lk mi x it with som e borax di p a piece

, ,

o f pl a tin u m wire in the m ixt u re then hold it in th e fl ame

,

o f a b u n se n b u rne r ; i f g lyceri n e be present th e fla m e will

becom e tin ged with a deep green colou r By h eat i ng con .

c en tr a ted solu tion of glycerine with bis u lp h a te o f po tash ,

a cro lein distin gu ish ed by its powerfu l an d charac teristic

,

O do u r is obt a ined An oth er test is to boil the a qu eous

, .

s ol u tion do wn render it faintly alkaline w ith c a u stic soda

, ,

a n d add it to a di l u te sol u tion of borax wh ich h as been

c olo u red a fa int rose red by a d din -

phenol p h thalein T-he
g .

g lyce r ine sol u tion is a dded u ntil the red co lo u r dis a ppears .

O n boi lin g the liq u id the colo u r co m es b a ck b u t it again ,

disappea rs on a llowin g the liqu id to cool down It should .

be stated that th is test is n o t specially chara c teristic of

g lycerine as so m e
, other a lcoholic bodies and so m e ki n d s of

su gar give the sam e re a ctions ; bu t as s u ch bodies ar e not

u s u a lly prese n t in so a p they m ay be disre g a rded .

S u g a r is p r esen t o n ly in tra nsp a rent so a ps bu t in these ,

o ften to a l a rge a m o u nt Its presence m ay be detected by the

.

F eh ling test a s follo ws : T h e aqu eou s sol u tion of the soap ,

a fter the fa t h a s bee n sep a ra ted is boiled for h a l f a n hour

,

with a few drops o f s u lphu ric acid ; th e sol u tion is then

n e u tr a lised with ca u stic so d a som e F ehling test solu tion
,

is a dded a n d th e m ixt u re boiled when the pre sen ce of sugar

, ,

is i n dic a ted by the form a tion O f a r e d precipit a te o f c u preous

oxi de I f it be desi r ed t o determ ine the am ou nt of sugar
.

present the a qu eo u s solu t i o n is boiled wit h the aci d as

, ,

described a bove a sli gh t excess of c a u stic soda a dded and

, ,
 T R CH
S A IN SO AP . 35 1

the solu tio n heated to the boil ; F ehling test sol u tion is
added a s lo n g as a precipit a te fa lls dow n or u ntil the liqu or ,

a cquires a bl u e colo u r th e liqu id bein m int a ined a t the boil

, g a

the p r ecipitate is next filtered off well washed with water , ,

dried b u r n t i n a wei ghed porcel a in cru cible and wei ghed

, , .

The wei ght of copper oxide th u s fo u nd m u ltiplied by 0408 7 5 , ,

g i ve s the wei g ht o f c a ne s u ga r in the soap .

S ta r c h i n soap m a y be detecte d by m e a ns of th e iodine

test wh ich prod u ces a deep blu e to bl u e bl ac k colou r The
,
- .

soap sol u tion m u st be ne u tra lised be fore applyi n the test

g .

If the am o u n t is to be dete r m i n e d th e process is identical

with th a t for esti m ating the s u ga r the copper oxide O bt a ined
,

bein g m ultiplied by 04081 6 to obt a in the equ ivalent wei ght

o f st a rch It is O bviou s th a t i f both star ch and s u ga r be
.

p res e n t both
, wil l be fo u n d by the F ehli n g test a n d they ,

m u s t b e di fferenti a ted by ot h er tests ; b u t it is extre m ely

u nlikely th a t bot h will be presen t a t the sam e ti m e i n a

s a m pl e of soap .

W h e n both s u ga r a n d glyceri n e a r e prese n t in a so ap the ,

bes t m ethod of working consists i n ev a por a ting the a q u eou s

s ol u ti o n down then tre a tin the r esid u e with a m ixt u r e O f
, g
o n e v o l u m e of c h loro form with two vol u m es o f a lcohol ,

wh ich di ssolves ou t the glyceri n e ; the solu tio n is ev ap o

ra ted i n the water b ath a n d the residu a l glycerine wei ghed .

T h e su ga r m a y be esti m a ted in the resid u e le ft by the

alco h o l a n d chloro form ; it is dissolved in wa ter a n d the
s u a r de term i ned by the F ehlin test in the m a n n er de
g g
s c r ibe d a bove .

D r Albert R L eeds sche m e fo r the a nalysis o f a s a m ple

’
. .

o f s o a p with on ly one wei ghi n g first p u blished in T h e

,

C h em i ca l N ews is give n below m odi fied sli ghtly by the

’

, ,

p re s e n t writer .
 DR . AL B E R T R . LE E DS ’
SC HE ME O F SO AP A NAL Y S I S .

W ei gh 5 gra m m es o f the so a p a n d dr y a t 1 00 C
°
ou t .

The loss o f wei gh t corr esponds to the w a ter .

Treat the dried soap in a Soxh lett a ppar a t u s with petr o

leu m ether .

E there a l extr a ct co n t a i n s the free fa t ; ev a porate o ff th e

eth er a n d wei gh the resid u a l fa t .

R esid u e cont a i n s the so a p a n d m iner a l m a tter ; treat i t

with a lcohol .

Alcoholic solu tio n co n t ains the so a p a n d free c a u stic

a lk a li . Add a fe w drops O f phe n ol phthal e i n an d -

titra t e with norm a l s u lph u ric a cid T h e a m ou nt .

u sed corresponds to the free a lk a li which i s c a lc u ,

l at ed to N a O H (fa ctor Add wa ter an d boil

off th e a lcohol a dd a lit tle m et h yl or a n e an d
, g
titr a te with no r m a l s u lph u ric a cid Acid u s ed cor .

respon ds to com bi n ed a lka li c a lc u l a ted a s either ,

N a 0 or N a ( fa ctors
2 or Add sli ght
excess of a cid boil a n d sep a rate ou t th e fat
, .

Sol u tio n cont ai n s glyceri n e E v a porate to dry .

n ess a fter n e u tr a lis i n with sodi u m c a r b on a te ;

g
extra ct with a lcohol filter pl a ce the fil tr ate
, ,

i n a wei ghed b a sin a n d a fter ev a pora ti n g off ,

the a lcohol wei gh the resid u a l glycerine

,
.

R esid u e is th e fa tty m a tter D r y a n d wei gh i t . .

T a ke h a l f O f it a n d dissolve in alcohol add ,

phen ol phth a lein a n d titra te with n orm al al

-

c oh oli c sod a F rom the a m o u nt u sed the

.

m olec u l a r wei ght o f the fa tty a cids m a y be

.

c a lc u l a ted Add ether a n d dry powdered silver

.

nitr ate ( G l a ddin g test see fa r ther on ) sh a ke

,

well a n d a llow to settle .

P r ecipit a te co n sists of the olea te ste ar ate ,

 S CH E ME OF SO AP ANAL Y SI S . 35 3

and palm itate of silver with excess Of

n itr a te of silver It m ay be n eglected . .

Sol u tion contai n s r esinate of silver F ilter .

fro m the precipit a te w a sh the latter with ,

a little ether tra ns fer the fil trate to a ,

sep a r a tin g fu n n el a dd wa ter s u ffi cient , ,

dilu te s u lph u ric a cid to deco m pose the

resi n a te a n d som e pe trole u m ether i f
n ecess a ry Sep a ra te th e ether layer a n d
.

r u n it into a wei ghed l ss evaporate off

g a ,

the ether a n d wei gh the residu a l rosi n .

R esid u e fro m the alcohol contai n s N a C O N a C l z 3, ,

N a S O ,N a Si O (or correspo n di n g pot a ssi u m

, , Z 3

s alts ) st a rch a n d a n y m inera l m a tter s Treat

,
.

it with a lit t le w a ter a n d filter throu gh a

wei ghed filter .

Solu tio n — D ivide i n to fo u r equ a l portions ,

a b c a n d d a n d test e a ch a s follows
, , ,

a F or N a C O or K C C tit r a te with
.
g 3, 3,

norm a l H S O with m ethyl ora n ge z , ,

c a lc u l a ti n g the resu lt to N a C O or z 3,

K ZC O g .

F or N a C l or K C l tit r a te with st a n
b .

d a rd AgN O o r wei gh a s AgC l c a l 3 ,

c u la ti n
g to N a C l or K C l .

0 F or N a S O wei gh a s B a SO c alc u z 4,
.

l a ti n g to N a S O, or K SO4 , 2 .

d N a Si O o r K Si O
.
z D eco m pose with 3 Z 3
.

H C l a n d wei gh the residu a l silic a (see

a bove p , .

R esid u e co n t a ins st a rch a n d a dded m i n eral

m atter D r y the filt e r a n d wei gh
. This gives .

the am o u n t o f st a rch a n d m inera l m a tter .

D eterm ine the a m o u n t of st a rch by F ehlin g

23
 S O AP MANUFAC T UR E .

test The m iner a l m a tter m a y be deter m ined

.

by di fference .

S o m e di fli c u lty is o ften experienced in the proce ss of

di gestin g the so a p w ith alcoh ol i f a n ordi n a ry be aker be
em ployed To overcom e this Sp a et h proposes extra cti on in
.

a So xh lett extra ctor with a lcohol the so ap bei n g con tained

,

i n a n a rrow gl a ss vessel si m il a r to a wei ghi n g bottl e but ,

with perfor a tio n s a t the botto m a n d i n the lid The holes at .

t h e botto m a r e cover ed with i gn a te d asbe stos fibre over ,

which a l a yer of filter p a per a n d fin a lly a gl a ss disc with fine

per fora tio n s a r e pl a ced The bottle th u s prep a red is dried
.

a t 1 05 C for a n ho u r a n d wei hed The loss n wei h t gi ves

°
.
g i .
g
the a m o u nt of w a ter i n the so a p .

The bottle witho u t the lid is the n pl a ced i n th e Soxhlett

extra ctor a n d its co n tents extr a cted with n e u t r a l a lcoh ol for
a bo u t six ho u rs . After co m plete extr a ction the bottle an d its
co n te n ts a r e dried a t 1 50 C a n d wei ghed the res u lt givi ng
°
.
,

the a m o u n t o f filli n g m a ter i a l i n the so a p The deter .

m i n a tion O f m iner a l s u bst a n ces dextri n g el a ti n etc in

, , ,
.
,

thi s is c a rried o u t in a ccord a n ce with the u su a l m ethods .

Si n ce th e extr a ctio n is m a de with neu t r a l a lcohol the ,

a m o u n t o f free fa tty a cids o r a lk a lies in the a lcohol extract

c a n be di r ectly titr a ted wit h st a n d a rd a lk a li or a cid .

R E I CH E R T TE ST F O R COCO NU T OIL .

C oco n u t a n d p a lm n u t oils a r e n o w s u ch i m por ta n t in

g r e d i e n t s in so a ps th a t it is desir a ble to be a ble to a scert ain

whe n they a r e presen t These O i ls very closely resem bl e one

.

a n othe r a n d it is di fli c u lt i f i n deed n o t p r a ctic a lly i m pos si ble

, , ,
,

to di sti n g u ish between them by che m ic a l tests especially in ,

the pr esen ce of oth er Oils a n d fa ts T h ese Oils whe n present

.

i n a so a p te n d to m a ke it whiter i n a ppe a ra n ce to i n crease ,

the p r oportion of a lk a li p r e se n t the fa tty acids h a ve a dis

,

t i n c tly lower co m bi n i n g wei ght w h ile their odo u r is p eculi ar

,
 RE I C H E R T T E ST . 35 5

an d ch a ra cteristic There is on e fe a t u re wh ich serves to

.

disti n gu ish these two oils fr om a ll other kinds of so a p stock ,

an d th a t is they cont a i n a cids s u ch a s c a pri c a n d c a proi c

,

acids which a r e sol u ble i n w a ter a n d w h ich when distilled ,

with wa ter or ste a m a r e vol a tile ,

This property m a y be
.

t aken a d v a n t a ge O f for the p u rpose of a scert a inin g i f a n y a r e

pr esen t a n d a pp r oxi m a tely how m u ch the test bein g kn own ,

as the R eic h ert test fro m the n a m e of the che m ist who first
,

descr ibed it Si n ce the n others h a ve desc ribed m odi fic a tio n s

.

of it .The prope rty O f sol u bility of the lower a cid s O f these

oils in w a ter c a u ses the fa tty m a tter of so a p s co n t a i n i n
g
them to be lower th a n it a ct u a l ly is when ex a m i n ed by th e
ordi n a r y m e t h ods o f a n a lysis The R eichert te st as a pplied
.

to s oa p i s c a r r ied o u t i n the followi n g m a n n e r : F ive gr a m m es

of the so a p a r e boiled w it h a lit tle a lcoholic pot a sh or soda

sol u tio n i n a n ev a por a ti n b a si n to e n s u re the co m plete

g
sa on i fic a ti on o f the fa tty m a tte r cont a i n ed i n the so a p the
p ,

alcohol bei n co m ple tely d ive n ff The resid l so p i

g r o . u a a s

di ssolved i n w a ter a n d tr an s fe rred to a r eto r t s u ffi cie n t dil u t e ,

su lph u r ic a cid is a dded to deco m pose the s o a p a n d so m e s m a ll ,

pi eces O f p u m ice ston e or tob a cco pipe to pr even t b u m pi n g .

The c o n te n ts a r e n ow he a ted a n d two thirds O f the a m o u nt -

di stilled over the disti ll a te is collected filtered thro u gh a

, ,

dry filter p a per a n d the cle a r liqu id i s tit r a ted with deci
,

nor m a l s od a phe n ol phth a lei n bei n dded i dic tor

, g a a s a n n a ,

n ote bei n t ke f the m ber f c bic ce ti m etres f

g a n o n u o u n o

alka li u sed to n e u tra lise the a cid s wh i ch h a ve v o la ti sed

ov e r. F ive gra m m es of coco n u t O il requ ire u s u a lly fr om
7 to 8 c c p a lm n u t oil fr o m 48 to 6 c c
. .
, T h e test it m a y
. .
,

be poi n ted o u t is a p u rely a rbit r a r y one a n d r eq u i r es

, ,

al w a ys to be c a r ried o u t i n the s a m e m a n n er to en a ble

com p a r a tive resu lts to be O bt a i n ed an d the a n a lyst is ,

a dvised to m a ke his o w n st a n d a r ds by first wo r kin the

g o n

pu r e O ils a n d then with the so a p to h e tested It is owin g .

35 6 SO AP MANUFAC T URE .

to i ts arbitrary character th a t this test has been su bjected to

variou s m odi fications a t the h and of difler en t observers but ’
,

i t is at least qu estionable whether the alter a tions a r e an

i m pro ve m ent on the ori gi n a l m ethod The process does not .

y ield the whole o f th e vol a tile or sol u ble acids present i n th e

s oap or oil There is a n other m ethod of obt a i n i n g the

.

q u antity o f sol u ble fatty a cids present Take 5 gr a m m e s of .

the soap dissolve i n w a ter neu tralise exactly with semi

, ,

n orm a l acid po u r the liberated acids on a filter collect the

, ,

filtr a te was h th e acids with w a ter the wash in gs bein g a dded

, ,

to the filtra te and titrate with decinorm al a lk a li with phenol

phth a lein as an indicator The n u m ber of c u bic ce n tim etres .

u sed m a y be taken a s a n indic a tio n o f the R eic h ert value

S o far n o process w h ich is qu ite s a tis factory h a s been de

,

vised for the deter m i n a tion of the vol a tile a cids of coconut
and a lm n u t oils
p .

Testi ng for Gr ou n d N u t Oi l — The oil expressed from the

kern els of the m onkey n u t wh ich is placed on the m arket ,

u n der th e nam es of gro u nd n u t O i l or ar a chis O i l is O ften u sed , ,

i n so a p m aki ng- This oil is chara cterised by cont ai ning

.

a r a chidic a cid one o f the ste a ric series o f fa tty a cids h avi ng
,

the form u la H Co s T h e isolation of this a cid is a certain

.

indica tion of the presen ce of grou nd n u t oil This m ay be .

effected by R enard s process a s follows 1 0 gr am m es of the

’

s o a p are dissolved in water hydrochloric a cid a dded to decom ,

pose th e so a p ; th e fatty a cids which are sep a rated ou t are ,

c ollected w a s h ed well a n d di ssolved in alcohol

, A soluti on .

o f le a d acetate is a d d e d whe n insol u ble le a d so a ps a r e pre

,

c i p i ta t e d ou t ; t h ese ar e filtered off t h en di est ed w ith ether

g , ,

which dissolves ou t the lea d ole a te etc bu t le a ves th e lead ,

p a l m it a te a n d ara chid a te insolu ble R epe a t the treatment .

with the eth er to en s u re co m plete extractio n o f the s oluble

,

s a lts. C ollect the lead p a lm it a te and arachidate deco mpose ,

them by m eans o f dil u te hydroch loric acid by boi lin g t hen ,

 M I N E RAL MA TT E R IN SO AP . 35 7

allo w the separa ted fa tty acids to cool an d dissolve i n 50 c c of ,

. .

war m 90 per ce n t a lcoh ol This solu tio n is allowed to cool

. .
,

wh e n i f a n y a rachis oil is present a crop of crystals of

, ,

ar a c hidic a cid will be obt a i n ed ; these are collected on a

d r y w ei gh ed filter w a shed with a lcohol dried a n d wei ghed
, , , .

A s gr o u n d n u t oil co n tai n s on th e a vera ge 5 per cen t of

, ,
.

ar a c hidic a cid by m u ltiplyi n g the wei ght o f the cryst a l s

,

O bt a i n e d by twe n ty the a m o u n t o f gro u nd n u t O i l c a n be

ap p r oxim a tely a scert ai n ed I t m a y be a dded t h a t a r a chidic

.

a ci d h a s a m elti n g poi n t o f 7 1 to 7 2 C a n d the p u rity o f

° °
.
,

th e c r y st a ls go t m a y be tested by dete rm i n i n g their m elti n g

p o i n ts W ith care very good res u lts c a n be obt a i n ed
.
, .

C a s tor Oi l — The prese n ce of c a stor O i l i n th e fa tty m a tter

o f a so a p m a y be detected by th e hi gh speci fic gr a vity (0 9 509

a t 60 F ) o f th e fa tty a cids a n d m ore p a r tic u la rly by thei r

°
.
,

b e i n g i n sol u ble i n petrole u m et h er a ltho u gh i f o n ly a s m a ll, ,

u a ntity o f c a stor O i l is present the other fa tty m a tter m a y

q ,

t e n d to bri n g a bo u t sol u bility .

The a cetyl test c a n a lso be u sed I t is however di ffi c u l t .

, ,

t o determ i n e a cc u r a tely th e proportio n of c a sto r O i l which

m a y be presen t .

M i n er a l M a tter s i n S oap s h e m i n er a l a dditio n s to

s o a p t a ke two form s sol u ble s a lts like bora x sod a cryst a ls
, , , ,

s o d i u m s u lp h a te silic a te o f sod a ; a n d i n sol u ble bodies lik e

, ,

san d fu ller s e a rth chi n a cl a y etc T h e detectio n a n d

’
.
, , ,

d e term i n a tio n o f these co n stit u e n ts is n o t e a sy a n d n o ,

e n e r a l sc h e m e c a n be l a id dow n
g .

S od a C r y s ta ls — Sod a cryst a ls are so m eti m es a dded to

so a p fo r th e p u rpose o f h a r de n i n g it o r p u r posely i n the ,

m a n u fa ct u re o f dry so a p a n d so a p powde r s I n the ordi n ar y .

m ethod of testi n g so a p it wo u ld be esti m a ted a lo n g with the

c o m bined a lk a li o f the so a p — 1 0 gr am m es i n the c a se of ,

o rdinary so a ps 2 to 3 g r am m es i n the c a se o f dry so a ps

, ,
— an d

extr a ct the soap by m e a ns of a lcohol a n d filteri n g fro m th e

 358 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

u ndissolved sodi u m c arbonate The residu e is washed with .

a lcohol ,t h en dissolved i n w a ter and titrated with normal

s t a nd a rd a cid 1 c c o f which corresponds to 00 5 3 gr a m mes
, . .

o f a n h y dro u s sodi u m c a rbo n a te N a 00 S odi u m carbon ate , 2 3

.
,

w hen present is disti n g u ished by i ts efier v esc i n g with a cids

'

, ,

a n d givin g t h e c h a ra cteristic yellow sodi u m flam e Sodi um .

s u lph a te or G l a u ber s s a lt is so m eti m es a dded to so a p and

’

d r y so a p for th e p u rpose o f h ardenin g or che a pe n i n g the

,

cost of produ ction L ike sod a crystals it is le ft i n sol uble

.
,

o n di ge s ti n g the so a p w ith a lcohol b u t is disti n g u is h e d fr om ,

t h e m by not e ffervesci n g with acids a n d givi n g with b ari um ,

c hlo r i d e a white precipit a te o f bari u m s u lph a te W hen .

presen t in so a p the a m o u n t m a y be ascert a ined by ta ki ng a

,

k n ow n wei ght of the so a p di gestin g w ith a lcohol dis solvi ng

, ,

t h e re sid u e in w a ter a cidi fyi n g with hydrochloric a cid a ddi ng

, ,

b a r i u m c h loride co llecti n g the p r ecipitate of b a r i u m s u lphate

,

B a S O on a filter w a shi n g well with w a ter d r yin g b u r ni ng

4, , , ,

the filte r etc fro m the wei ght o f b a ri u m su lp h a te obtai ned

,
.

N a SO4 can be c a lc u l a ted by m u ltiplyin g by 0 609 or that of

2 ,

G l a u ber s salt N a SO 1 0H 0 by m u ltiplyi n g by 1 3 82 In the

’

, z 4 2 ,
.

c a se o f bot h so di u m c a rbo n a te a n d s u lphate the a n a lyst will

h a ve to exercise his o w n j u d gm en t a s to wheth er he reports

t h e a n h yd r o u s or th e cryst a l fo r m of these two co m po u nds
a s bei n p sent
g r e .

—
B or a x T h e presence o f bo r a x in so a p is by n o m e ans
e a sy to detect wh ile the determ in a tion o f th e q u an tity
,

presen t is r a ther di ffi cu lt I t is left insolu ble o n tr eati ng.

so a p with a lco h ol a n d a s it a ffects m ethyl or a n ge i n the

, ,

sam e wa as c rbon te it is esti m ted lon with the la tt er

y a a a a g ,

sa lt wi th th e stand a rd a cid To detect its presen ce and.

d ete r m i n e its am o u nt th e follo w in g proced u r e sho u ld be

,

a dopted : D i est the so a p with a lco h ol collect th e u ndissolved

g ,

s a lts on a filter wa sh i n g the m wit h a little a lcohol ; then

,

d issolve t h em i n w a ter a n d divide th e sol u tion i n to three

 I I AT E
S L C OF SO DA IN SO AP . 359

p arts . Titr a te o n e with sta n d a rd hydroc h loric a cid u si n

g ,

m e thyl ora n ge a s a n i n dic a tor ; t a ke a second portio n of th e

s ol u tio n a cidi fy with hydroc h loric acid a n d ev a por a te n e a rly
,

to d ryness the n dip a piece of t u m eric p a per in th e hot

,

s ol u tion ; i f bo r a x be p r ese n t it will t u rn a r eddish b r ow n .

As a fu r t h e r proo f ev a por a te to co m plete dry n ess a dd a little ,

m e thyl a ted spirit a n d set fir e to the spi r it i f bo r a x be presen t

t h e ed ges o f the fl a m e will be ti n g ed gr ee n I f bor a x be .

fo u n d prese n t to e sti m a te its a m o u nt t a ke the th i r d po r tio n

,

o f the sol u tio n a n d d ete r m i n e the c a r bonic a cid it co n t a i n s

by t h e a pp a r a t u s wh ich is s u pplied by ch em ic a l a pp a r a t u s
d e a le r s for th a t p u r pose T h e a m o u n t o f c a r bo n ic a cid C O
.
,

fo u n d s h o u ld be c a lc u l a ted t o sodi u m c a r bo n a te N a C O , 2 3 .

T h e a m o u n t of st a n d a r d a cid n ecess a r y to n e u t r a lise th a t

c a lc u l a ted a n d this ded u cted fro m th a t u sed i n the a ct u a l

tit r a tio n with th e first por tio n of th e a qu eo u s sol u tio n r e pr e

s e n ts t h e a m o u n t o f bor a x p r ese n t O n e c c o f st a n d a r d a cid
. . .

e q u a ls 02 2 1 g r a m m es o f bo r a x N a B O 7 1 0H O gO f co u r se
4
.
,

g re a t c a r e is n eeded i n c a rryi n
g o u t the v a r io u s oper a tio n s to

e n su r e a cc u r a cy o f res u lts .

S i li c a te Of S od a — Th e p r e se n ce of silic a te o f sod a i n c r e a ses

t h e a lk a li n ity o f a so a p a n d a ffects the tit r a tio n with th e
s t a n d a r d a cid the l a tte r showi n g m o r e co m bi n ed a lk a li t h a n
,

is a c tu a lly presen t a s so a p The p r esen ce of silic a te of sod a

.

o r pot a s h is show n by testi n g for silic a i n the followi n g

m a n ner . T h e i n s o l u ble r esid u e le ft o n t r e a ti n g the so a p

w i t h a lcohol is di s solved i n w a te r a n d a cidi fied with hyd r o
c hloric a cid ; the li q u id is n ext ev apo r a ted to dr y n ess a n d
he a ted st r o n gly for so m e ti m e ; by this m ea n s the silic a is
re n dered insolu ble T h e r esi du e is di gested with w a ter a n d
.

a little hydrochloric a cid whe n i f silica a n d t here fo r e sili

, , , ,

c a t e o f sod a or pot a sh be prese n t it will be le ft behi n d a s a n

,

insol u ble gritty m a ss By t a ki n g a k n own qu a n tity of the

.

s o ap and wei ghi n g the silic a te o f sod a i n th e so a p c a n be

,
360 SO AP MANUFAC T UR E .

approxim ately ascert ai n ed I t m ay be pointed ou t here that

.

soda c ry st a ls ( sodi u m c a rbo n a te ) sodi u m s u lphate bora x and

, ,

silic a te of sod a a r e a ll i n solu ble i n alcohol ; hence they are

left as i n solu ble on di gestin g th e so a p with that solven t and ,

m a y possibly be a ll present ; in which event the followi ng

m ode o f worki n g m a y be a dopted D issolve th e resid u e left
.

by the a lcoh ol i n w a ter a n d divide this sol u tio n into three

portion s A B a n d 0 T a ke A a dd m eth yl or a n ge and
, , .
,

titra te wit h norm a l hydrochloric a cid to a scert ain the total

a lk a li which w ill be the su m o f c a rbo n a te bor a x a n d Sili cate
, ,

prese n t ; a fterw ards u se the s a m e por tion for determ ining

th e s u lph a te with b a r i u m c h lo r ide a s desc r ibed above In B .

determ ine the c a rbon ic a cid T a ke 0 ne u tra lise with hy dro

.
,

ch loric a cid boil dow n to dryn ess an d while doi n g so test

, ,

for bor a x by m e a n s o f t u rm eric p a per di gest the dry residue ,

with w a ter a n d a little hydrochloric a cid filter O ff w a sh dry , , ,

a n d wei gh th e silic a .

S a n d a n d M i n er a l M a tter s — So m e soa ps cont a in su ch

.

bodies a s s a n d gro u n d p u m ice kiesel gu hr F ren ch ch a lk u ltra

, , , ,

m a r i n e oxide o f i r on a n d other m i n eral colo u ri n g m a tters It

,
.

is not possible to give here a schem e for the complete an alysis

o f s u ch bodies thei r isol a tion fro m the so a p is best effected
by fir st di gesti n g the so a p with a lcoh ol separa tin g ou t all ,

i n solu ble m a tter a n d tre a ti n g t h is with cold w a ter Anythi ng .

le ft i n solu ble on s u ch t r e a t m ent m u st be bodies s u ch as those

above n a m ed with st a rchy m a tters Their ex a m i n a tion m ust
, .

be co n d u cted accordin g to th e ordi n a ry ru les of chemical

a n a ly si s p lu s a m icroscopic a l ex a m i n atio n to detect kiesel u hr
,
g .

A s a ll the su bst a n ces n am ed a bove a r e su ch as are not a ltered

by he a t their a m o u n t m a y be ascert a in ed by b u rnin g a known
,

wei gh t O f the so a p i n a cr u cible di gesti n g th e resid u e with

,

hot wa ter filteri n g off a n y i n sol u ble m a tter dryi ng bu rning

, , ,

this i n a w ei ghed cru cible an d wei ghi n g .

C a r boli c Aci d i n S oap — S o m eti m es it is desired to as

 CA RB O L I C A C ID IN S O AP . 361

c ert a in the am ou nt O f carbolic acid present i n so a p T o .

e ffe c t t h is 5 g r a mm es of the soap are dissolved in water and

, ,

a s li g ht excess O f c au stic soda is a dded to m a ke the sol u tion

alk a li n e th e m ixt u re is n ow shaken u p with ether i n a

,

sep a r a ti n g fu n n el A fter allo win g to stand the a qu eo u s

.
,

liq u or is r u n off a n d s a lt is added to throw ou t th e so a p ;

,

thi s i s filtered off w a shed with s a lt bri n e the w a shi n g s

, ,

bei n g a dded to the filtrate It will be fou n d best to m a ke .

u p the vol u m e o f the filtra te to o n e litre F ive h u ndred c c . . .

a r e t a ke n a n d re n dered sli ghtly a cid w i t h dil u te s u lph u ric

ac i d a n d bro m ine w a ter a dded i n m e a s u r ed qu a n tities u ntil

,

t h e a ppe a r a n ce of a yellow colo u r i n the li q u id shows th a t

th e bro m ine is i n excess The q u a n tity a dded is n oted
. .

T h e n the brom i n e wa ter m u st be st a nd a rdised which is do n e

a s follows : 5 gra m m es o f good so a p a r e dissolved with 0 5

g r a m m es o f c a rbolic a cid I f p u re c a rbolic a cid h a s bee n u sed

.

i n the prep a r a tio n O f the o r i gin a l s a m p le the n C a lvert s N o

’
.
,

2 a cid m a y be u sed for st a n d a rdi si n g ; i f cru de c a rbolic a cid ,

t h e n C a l v er t s N o 5 sho u ld be u sed This prep a red so ap i s

’
. .

tre a ted a s w a s th e ori gin a l s a m ple shaken with et h er ,

re n dered a lk a li n e with c a u stic sod a thrown ou t with s a lt , ,

an d m a de a cid with s u l ph u r ic a cid fin a lly testi n g with ,

b ro m i n e w a ter The qu a n tity O f the l a tter u sed i n this c a se

.

r eprese n ts 0 5 gr a m m es o f p u re or cr u de c a rbolic a cid a s the ,

c a s e m a y be a n d fro m it the qu a ntity prese n t i n th e o r i gl n a l

,

s a m ple m a y be c a lc u l a ted .

—
M edi ci n a l a n d Colou r i n g M a tter s D irectio n s c a n n ot well
.

be given h ere for th e detectio n a n d deter m i n a tio n of these

bodies they a r e so nu m erou s a n d requ ire s u ch speci a l tests
, ,

th a t n o general i n stru ctions s u ch a s cou ld be give n here ,

wo u ld be of m u ch service .

R osi n i n S oa p — R osin is u sed so m u ch i n the m a n u fa c

t u re of so a p th a t it becom es of i m port a nce to be a ble to
a scert a in its prese n ce i n a n y partic u l a r s a m ple o f soap a n d ,
3 62 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

to determ ine the am ou nt This is by no m e an s e a sy a n d .

,

u nless co n siderable ca re be exercised e r roneo u s res u lts a r e

e asily O btained .

The o n ly s a tis factory direc t test for rosin in so a p is th a t

o f L ieber m ann S torch The fa tty and resi n ou s a cids a r e
-
.

s ep a ra ted from the so ap by m e a n s o f s u lph u r ic a cid Th e .

a cids are then dissolved i n a cetic a n hydride with the a i d o f

a g entle he a t the solu tio n bei n g cooled do wn

,
A littl e .

s u lph u ric a cid o f 1 5 3 speci fic r a vity is then a dded whe n

g , ,

i f a n y rosi n be prese n t a reddish violet color a t i o n a ppe ar s

,
.

This is not per m a n e n t b u t q u ickly dis a ppe ars I f th e

,
.

s ol u tion be w a rm the violet colo u r is n o t obt a i n ed bu t a ,

yellow colora tio n a ppe a rs A s m a ll qu a n tity of rosi n c a n .

be detected by it C holesterol or wool fa t is the o n ly su b

.
-

s t a n ce which viti a tes this tes t it m a y be r em oved fr o m th e

so a p by m ea n s o f ether .

F or the qu a n tit a tive determ in a tio n o f the a m o u n t o f

rosi n two m et h ods which give good r es u lts a r e a v a il a ble
, ,

v iz G la d di n g s an d T w i tc h e ll s
’ ’
.
, .

Gla d di ng
’
s R osi n T est — This
test depe n ds u pon the fa ct
th a t r esi n at e O f silver is sol u ble i n ether wh ile the ole a te , ,

ste a r a te p a l m it a te etc of silver a r e i n sol u ble or n e a r ly so

, , .
,

in th a t m edi u m This te st m a y be c a rried ou t i n the fol

.

lo wi n g m a n n er : F ive gr a m m es o f the so a p to be tested

a r e wei h ed a n d dissolved with the ai d o f he a t in a s littl e
g
a lcohol a s possible a s m a ll q u a n tity o f a n a lcoholic sol u tion
,

o f c a u stic sod a is a dded a n d the m ixt u r e e n tly he a ted o n

g ,

a w a ter b a th T h e object here is to e n s u re the c o m plete

.

s a p on i fic a t i o n o f a n fr ee fa t the so a p cont a ins a s i f this be

y ,

n o t done s u ch free fa t will be u lti m a tely ext r a cted a n d

wei gh ed a s r osi n To the a lcoholic solu tio n o f so a p a n

.

e qu a l vol u m e o f ether a n d the n a bo u t two gr a m m es of

po wdered silver nitra te a r e a dded a n d the m ixt u re well

sh aken By this m ean s the silver s alts of the vario u s fa tt y
.
 R O SI N IN SO AP . 363

a nd resinou s acids are form ed the for m er a r e insolu bl e a n d

a r e thrown o u t a s recipitates
~ while the resin a te o f silve r
p ,

p a sse s into solu tion i n the ether After st a n di n g a bou t an.

h o u r the m ixt u re is filtered direct i n to a sep a r a ti n g fu n n el

, ,

the resid u e in the fu n n el bei n g washed with a little ether .

T o the filtrate in th e fu n nel is a dded water a little su l ,

p h u r i c a cid a n d petrole u m ether By t h e a ctio.n o f the a ci d

t h e rosi n a cid is libera ted a n d p a sses i n to sol u tio n i n th e
ether The a qu eo u s l a yer is ru n o fl the et h ere a l l ayer i s
.
,

r u n i n to a wei g hed g las the ethe r ev a po r a ted off a n d th e

s ,

resid u a l rosin wei ghed A s Si lver o le a te is sli gh tly solu ble

.

in et h e r the res u lts when ole a tes a r e prese n t i n the so a p

, , ,

te n d to be too hi gh A ded u ction of 0 002 3 m a y be m a de

.

fr o m th e tot a l wei gh t of r osin O bt a i n e d for e a ch 1 0 c c o f . .

et h er u sed in the test .

Va rio u s m odi fic a tio n s of G la ddi n g s test h a ve been p u b ’

li sh e d fro m ti m e to ti m e bu t the writer co n side r s the a bove

,

t o be the si m plest m ethod a n d a s r eli a ble a s a n y It is n ot .

the m e thod or i gi n a lly p u blished by G l a ddin g bu t h a s been ,

m odi fied there fro m .

i
Tw tc hell s T est
’
.
— Th is tes t depe n ds u po n the fa c t th a t
whe n r osi n is dis solved in a lcohol hydrochlo r ic a cid h a s no ,

a ctio n on it while fa tt a cids u n der the s a m e co n ditio n s a r e

,
y
con verted i n to ethylic eth ers which a r e solu ble i n w a te r ,

Abo u t thr ee gr am m es of th e m ixed fa tty a n d rosi n a cid s a r e

acc u r a tely wei ghed a n d dissolved i n 5 0 c c of a bsol u te a lcohol . . .

T h e u se o f absol u te a lcohol is essen ti a l fo r i f ordin a ry r ecti ,

fie d spirit o f wine or m ethyl a ted S pi r it be u sed the fa tt y

’

a cids a r e b u t li t tle a cted on a n d erro n eo u s res u lts a r e

,

O bt a i n ed
. The vessel (best a fl a sk ) co n t a i n in g the solu tio n
is i m m ersed i n a m ixt u re of ice a n d w a ter to keep it cool ,

an d a c u rre n t o f dry hydrochloric a cid a s is p a ssed th r o u gh

g .

I n a bo u t forty fiv e to fifty m in u te s the opera tion is co m plete

-
,

th e m ixt u re is allowed to st a n d fo r on e ho u r lo n ger so a s to

364 SO AP MANUFA C T URE .

ensu re that the eth eri fica ti on of the O i l acids be co m pleted ;

2 5 0 c c of w a ter are added a n d the m ixt u re boiled for a short
. .
,

ti m e u n til it is cle a r The m ixt u re is r u n into a sep ar ating

.

fu n nel a n d som e petrole u m et h er a dded

, The m ixtu re is .

sh a ken u p a n d t h en th e co n tents of the fu n nel a r e a llowed

,

to sep a ra te the a cid a qu eo u s l ayer is r u n off the ether layer

,
-
,

is wa shed with h ot w ater N ext there is a dded a solu tion

.

o f h a l f a gr a m m e cau stic pot a sh in 5 c c alco h ol a n d 50 c c . . . .

w a ter This dissolves ou t the rosi n bu t le a ves a n y ethyli c

.
,

fatty ethers dissolved i n th e petrole u m ether The a q ueou s .

solu tion is separa ted from the eth er it is then decom posed ,

by a ddi n g a little su lph u ric a cid a n d the separa ted r osin ,

collected by m e a n s o f ether a n d a fter ev a pora tin g off the

,

la tter is wei ghed A volu m etric m odi fic a tion of T wi tch ell s

.
’

process h a s been described bu t it is best to u se the gravi

,

m etric m eth od j u st explained .

I t m a y be pointed ou t her e th a t to a scert a i n the char acter

of th e fats u sed i n m akin g a s a m ple o f so a p is rat h er di ffi

c u lt A tte n tio n s h o u ld be p aid to a n y p a rtic u l ar odou r the

.

sep a r a ted fa t a cids m a y h a ve T h en th e m eltin g poi nt

.
,

m olec u la r w ei gh t and io dine v a l u e S h o u ld be a scert ained ,

and from th e res u lts an O pi n io n c a n be form ed a s to the

fats p r ese n t .

Th e followi n g a r e so m e a n a lyses o f v a rio u s ki n ds o f so ap ,

m ost o f t h em bei n g th e work of th e writer In these a n alyses .

the com bi n ed a lk a li is given a s sodi u m (N a ) in h a rd s oaps ;

pot a ss i u m (K ) i n hard so a ps The free alk a li as c a u stic soda
.
-

( N a O H ) or c a,u stic pot a sh ( K O H ) a s th e case m a y be

,

Good C u r d S oap ( Ta llow) .

 N
A AL YSE S OF S O APS . 365

C as ti le

W a t er
F r ee a lk li
a

Com i n ed b a lk li
a

l
S a ts
F a tt y m a tter
F r ee f a tt y m a tter

C old Wa ter S oap .

W a te r
F r ee a lk li
a

C om i n edb a lk li
a

l
S a ts
R o si n

F a tt y m a t ter

Toi let S oap .

Ma r sei lles

W a ter
F r ee a lk li
a

C om i n edb a lk l i
a

Sa tsl
F r eef y m atter
a tt

Co m bi n ed f a tty m a t ter

M ottled Soap

W a te r
F r ee a lk l i
a

C om i n edb a lk l i
a

l
S a ts
F r ee fa t
b
C om i n ed fa t
366 SO AP MANUFA C TURE .

P a le Soap .

W a ter
F r ee a lk lia

C o m i n ed a b lk l i
a

F a t t y m a tter

S a ts l

M ottled S oap .

W a te r
l f
S i i c a te d o so a

S lta s

C l i g m tt
o ou r n a er

Alk l i f a , r ee

C m bi
o d lk l i ne a a

F tty m tt
a a er

M ottled S oap

W a ter
F r ee a lk l i
a

C o m i n ed b a lk l i
a

F a tt y m a tter

S of t S oap ( L ondon M a ke) .

W a ter gl y c er i n e

C o m i n edb a lk li
a

F r ee a lk lia

F a tt y m a tter

S oft S oap ( S co tch M a ke) .

W a ter gl yc e r i n e
F r ee a lk l i
a

b
C om i n e d a lk l i
a

F a tty m a tte r
 AP PE N DI C E S . 367

A PPE NDI X A .

D E N SI TI E s C O RR E S P O ND I NG T o RAU M ES HYDR O M E T E R
'
F OR
L I Q UI D S L I GH T E R T H AN W AT E R .

D e ns i t y . D e nsi t y B .
°

A PPE NDI X B .

CO M P A R I SO N O F HYDR O M E T E R SCAL E S RAUM E AN D ,

T W AD
D E L L F OR L I Q U I D S H E AVI E R T HAN W AT E R
, .

Tw .
°
368 SO AP MANUFAC T U R E .

A PPE ND I X C .

CO M P AR I SON OF D I FF E R E N T T H E RM O M E TRI C A
SC LE S .

Ce n t . Fa hr .
 APPE N DI C E S . 69

APPE ND I X I ) .

T AB L E OF S P E C I F I C G RAVITI E S OF FATTY O I L S AT 1 5
°
C .
(
°
60

g
W ei h t o f 1 gnu . Tr a d e w eig ht p er ga ll .

Alm d i l on o ,
0 9 19 9 lb . 3 oz .

A h i (g
ra c s r ou n d -n u t ) o i l,
C a s t or o i l,
C o c o n u t O i l, 09 2 5
C o t ton see d o i l ,

L i n se e d o i l, 09 32
l
O i v e o i l, 09 1 5

'
l
P a m o i l, 09 406
R a p e o i l,
S e s a m e O i l,
L a r d o i l,
T ll
a o w O i l,

N e a t s foo t o i l,
T ll
a ow, 09 40
S p e r m oi l, 0 8c 3
'

h l
W a e o i l, 0 92 5
l
M i n e r a o i l,
-
7
- 05
09

I n th e _
su m m a r i es of th e c o n s t a n ts g i v en u n d e r ea c h O i l, g r a v i t i es a t ot h er

t e m p e r a tu r e s are i
g ve n .
37 0 SO AP M AN U F AC T U R I:

A PPE ND I X E .

TA B L E OF T H E S P E C I F I C GR AVITI E S O F SOL U TI O N S OF
CAU S TI C SO DA .

Lb o f l N a O H con ta i ned
ac tu a
gh t gallon of lye mad e fr o m
.

Per ce n t . b y wei of in 1
com m erci a l ca u st i c o f

7 7 pe r 7 4 pe r
Na o H
c e nt . ce n t .
 A PP E N D IC E S . 37 1

Lb o f act ual Na O H co n ta i n e d
ght g f
.

P er ce nt . by wei of in 1 a llon o f lye ma d e r o m

l
c o m m e r c i a ca u sti c o f

Na g o Na O H
372 SO AP MA NUFA C T URE .

APPE NDI X F .

T AB LE OF S T RE N G T H OF CAU STIC P OTASH SOL UTI O N S AT 60 °

F .

S peci fic g
D e r ees P er cen t Lb of K O H p er
g
. .

ra vi t y T wa d d ell K OH ga l
.

A PPE NDI X G .

T AB L E OF A M O U N TS OF AL KAL I R E Q UI R E D TO S AP O N I F Y
OI L S .

P er c en t . of Na O H P er cen t . of K OH
 AP PE N D I C E S . 37 3

A PPE ND I X H .

T AB L E OF TH E SP E CI F I C GRAVITY AN D P E R CE N TAG E
C ON T NT
E S OF C O M M O N SA L T SO L UTI O N S AT 1 5 0
° °
37 4 SO AP MANUFA C T UR E .

A PPE NDI X I .

TABL E SH O W I NG AM O U N T O F L I M E IN MIL K OF L M E I .

( C l l t d f m B l t t
a cu a e ro a n er .
)

G r m s Ca O Lb Ca O p e r g
D e r ee s G r i ns C a O Lb p er
f f
. . . .

per li tre c u bi c oo t T wa dd e ll l
p e r i tre cu bi c oo t

A PPE NDI X K .

T AB L E OF SP E C I F I C GRAV ITI E S AN D S T R E NG T H S OF AQ U E O U S
S O L UTI O N S O F G L YCE RI N E .

S p
ec i fic g
r a vi t y S p
ec i fic
°
g ra vi ty
16 °
C . 15 C .
 A PP E N D IC E S .
37 5

A PPE NDI X L .

HADF I E L D S P AT E N T
’
A FR AM E
SO P AN D S L ABB E R .

T HE so a p fram e sl a bber recen tly devi sed a n d pa ten ted

an d

b y M r H y H a dfie ld o f W h a ley B r id ge is represen ted in

. .
, ,

fi gu re 66 I t co n sists esse n tially o f two p a rts the fram e or

.
,

F IG . 66 .

cooler a n d the sl a bber The l a tter is m ova ble a n d m ay be

.
,

tr a n s fer red fr o m o n e fr a m e to a n other The fr a m e or cooler

.

i s m a de with fixed i r o n sides a n d in th a t r espect di ffers

,

fro m a ll fr a m e s hitherto i n u se which have m ov a ble sides

, .
37 6 SO A P MANU F A C T UR E .

The bottom is m ade m ova ble i n side th e fr a m e a n d is fitt e d

,

with a screw a rran gem en t wo r ked by a ch a i n ge a r i n g fro m

one en d O f the fra m e by m e a ns of which it c a n be m o v e d
,

u p a n d dow n the fr a m e . In u se th e fr am e is filled with th e

soap paste a n d wh en this has beco m e cold a n d set by wor k
, ,

i n g the ch a i n a n d screw ge a ri n g th e block o f soap c a n b e

p u shed u p ou t o f the fr am e At this poi n t co m es in the u s e
.

o f the sl a bbi n g arr a n ge m ent This consists of a fram ewo r k

.

th a t c a n be secu rely fitted to th e sides of the fra m e Th i s .

fr a m ework c a rries fi rst a ga u ge which re gu l a tes the exte n t

to which the block of so a p is li fted u p an d seco n d two c u tti n g
,

wires that tra velli n g a lo n g c u t two slabs off the block o f

so a p th a t h a s been forced a bove th e ed ge of the fr a m e T h e .

block is the n forced u p to a cert ai n height a s m e a s u red b y

th e ga u ge re fe r red to then it is cu t by dr a wi n g the wi r e s
,

alon g ; th e slabs thu s cu t a r e rem oved ; the block fu rth e r

pu shed u p and n o w dra wi n g th e wires ba ck two m ore bloc k s
,

a r e c u t O ff
. These oper a tio n s a r e repe a ted u ntil the who le
of th e block o f so a p h a s been cu t i n to sl a bs By th e u se o f
.

this n ew fr am e the fram i n g and sl a bbi n g of so ap is m u c h

,

si m pli fied and carried on m ore econom ic a ll y and e ffici e n t l y

t h a n by the older m ethods .
 IND EX .

Ac i d , P a lm i to li c , 64 .

A c e t i c ac i d , 6 1 . l
P e a r go n i c , 6 1 ,
Ac i d , A ce ti c, 6 1 . P e n ta d e c a to i c , 61 .

A c r yl i c , 63 . P h y se to le i c , 63 .

A n ge l i c , 63 . P i n i c , 1 56 .

Ar a c h i d i c , 6 1 . p
Pr o i o ni c , 6 1 .

Be h e n i c, 6 1 . P y r o te r e b r i c , 6 3 .

B ra ssa i d i c , 6 3 . R a i c , 64 p .

B ra ssi c , 63 . R i c i n i so le i c , 64 .

B u ty r i c , 6 1 . Ri c i n o e i c , 64 l .

p
C a r i c , 61 . S te a r i c , 6 1 .

p
C a r o i c , 61 . S te a r o i c , 64 l .

C a p r y lli c , 6 1 . S y lv i e , 1 5 6 .

le r ot i c , 6 1 . T a r i r i c , 64 .

C i m i c i c , 63 . T r i d e c a to i c , 6 1 .

C o c i n i c , 61 . l
Va er i a n i c , 61 .

C r o to n i c , 6 3 . F
A c i d s, a tt , 60 y .

D a m a lu r i c , 6 3 . l
A c r o e i n , 55 , 58, 31 8 .

D a m o l i c , 63 .

y l
A c r i c ac i d , 63 .

D oe g la i d i c , 6 3 . i lk l
Ac t o n o f a a i e s o n a ts, 7 f .

D oe g l i c , 63 . of h
a r d w a te r s o n so a ps ,
l
E aeom a r ga r i c , 6 4 . 1 74 .

l
E a i d i c , 63 . A c ti o n o f so a p , 3 .

E n a n t h y li c , 6 1 . of wa te r o n so a p , 4 .

E r u c a i d i c , 63 . A i r b ea c l h i ng of O i ls ,
102 .

E r u c i c , 63 . lz
A i ar i n e O i l, 1 44 .

For m i c , 6 1 . lk l
A a i, 7 .

Ga i d i c , 63 . in so a p , An a ly si s o f ,
337 .

G eo c e r i c , 6 1 . F ree ,
339 .

o
y g c, ae i m e ta l s, 8 .

I SO i n o le n i c , 64 . A lk a l i e s a n d fa ts 2 25
, .

J e c o r i c , 64 on fa ts ,
A c ti o n o f, 7 .

La u r i e, 6 1 . lk l
A a i m e t r , 38 y .

Li g n oc e r i c , 6 1 . l
A m o n d oi l, 94 .

l
Li n o e n i c , 64 . p
so a , 2 69 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 8 .

Li n o i c , 64 l . A m m o n i a so d a , 1 7
M a rg a r i c , A n a s i s o f, 1 7 ly .

M e d u lli c , 6 1 . r o ce ss, 16 p .

l
M e i ssi c , 6 1 . ly
A n a se s o f d r y soa s, 31 5 p .

M o r i n gi c , 63 . o f soa s, 2 94 p .

y
M r i st i c , 6 1 . ly
A n a si s of a a i e s, 38 lk l .

M y r i s to li c 64 , . o f a m m o n i a so d a , 1 7
l
O e i c , 63, 1 5 3 . of b a c a sh , 1 2 l k .

l
Pa m i t i c 6 1 . . i u or , 1 3 lq .
37 8 IN D E x .

An a ly si s o f c a u st i c po ta sh , 44 . Br i n e ,
50 .

so d a , 2 1 , 44 . Str e n g t o f sa t 50 h l , .

of li m e , 5 3 . B r o w n soa , 2 39 p .

of p
o ta s , 4 3 h . W i n d so r s o a 2 67 , p , 2 69,
of p
o ta ss i u m c a r b o n a te , 2 70, 2 7 1 , 2 7 8 .

An a ly si s of p r essu r e soa p ,
190 .

C
o f so d a a s h ,
43
.

c r s ta s , 16 y l . C a c a o b u t te r , 1 46 .

o f so d i u m c a r b o n a te , 43 l p
C a i c o - r i n te r s so a , 2 9 3 ’
p .

l
A n ge i c ac i d , 63 . p
C a r i c a c i d , 61 .

l
A n g o-A m e r i c a n O i l p re ssi n g, 86 . p
C a r oi c a c i d , 6 1 .

lf
A n i m a a ts, R e n d e r i n g , 68 . C a p r y lli c a c i d , 6 1 .

oi s a nd l
a ts, O c c u r r e n c e f y
C a r a w a o i l, 1 60 .

o f, 6 6 . l
C a r b o i c a c i d i n soa 360 p , .

A n i m a s oa l a ts, 1 2 1 pf . soa ps , 2 96 .

A n i se , 1 58 . C a r bo n a te s i n so a p , A n a lvs i s of
A n ti m o n i a soa , 300 l p . 342 .

A pp a r a t u s fo r O i l e xt r a c t i n g, 1 06 . C a ssi a o i l, 1 60 .

h
Ar a c i d i c a c i d , 61 . l p
C a st i e soa , A n a s i s o f, 36 5 ly .

h
A r a c i s o i l, 94 . C a sto r O i l, 94, 1 42 .

l
A r se n i c a soa p , 2 9 7 . ac i d s , 1 4 5
l
A r ti fi c i a m u s , 1 67 k . C o m os i t o n o f, 1 4 3 p i .

C o n s ta n ts o f, 1 45 .

B
i n soa , 35 7 p .

soa , 1 44 p .

Ba r ri n g m a c h i n es ,
2 01 . C a u sti c i si n g sod a , 1 8 2 3 . .

Be h e n i c a c i d 61 ,
. C a u sti c ly e ta n s, C a ac i t i es, 1 7 9 k p .

Be n n e t G i b b s p ’
r oc e ss , 2 63 . ly
e s, 1 7 8 .

B en o i l, 94 . p
o ta s , 9 , 35 h .

B e n z o i c soa p 300 , . A n a si s o f, 36 4 4 ly , .

B e r ga m ot 1 59 ,
. a n d a ts , 38 f .

B i c a r b on a te o f sod a 1 0 , . e s , S t r e n gt o f, ly h
B i tte r a l m o n d o i l 1 59 , . 37 .

Bl a c k a sh 1 1 ,
. C a u sti c o ta s p hp p
r o e r ti e s, 35 .

A n a ly s i s o f 1 2 , . so d a , 9 , 1 8 .

li qu or 13 ,
. A n a se s o f, 2 1 , 44 ly .

Bl ea c h i n g o i l b y a i r 1 02 , . a n d a ts, 31 f .

o i l s 1 02 ,
. D i sso v i n g, 2 6 l .

o i l s b y b i c h r om e ,
1 03 . e s, 2 5 ly .

Bl u e m ott l e d soa p 2 40 , . S tr e n g t o f, 2 8 h .

B o i l i n g o n s t e n g t h 2 34 r ,
. m a n u a c tu r e , 1 8 , 2 2 f .

s oa p , 2 2 8 . P r o e r ti e s o f, 2 7 p .

B on e b oi le r, 77 .
Q u a i t i e s o f,
2 0 l .

g r e a se ,
12 0 . ta n s , 2 6 k .

ll
ta o w , 7 7 . C e r o t i c a c i d , 61 .

B o r a x, 4 6 . C i m i c i c a c i d , 63 .

d r y soa , 31 4 p . C i n n a m o n o i l, 1 6 1 .

i n soa , 35 8 p . C i tr o n e e , 1 6 1ll .

A n a si s o f, 342 ly . C i tr o n soa , 2 69 , 2 7 8 p .

so a , 301 p . l fy
C a r i i n g o i s, 95 l .

B q
o u u e t so a , 2 6 9 , 2 7 3 2 7 8
B r a s sa i d i c a c i d , 63
p , . l l
C e a r b o i i n g O f soa , p
. l
C o v e s oi l, 1 6 2 .

B r a s si c a c i d 6 3
,
. C oc i n i c a c id, 6 1 .
 I N DE X . 37 9

C o c o n u t o i l, 94, 1 2 8 . B ,

ac i d s, 1 32
'

'd
gli fi gfiféf
.
a ‘ 64
p
.

C o m o s i ti o n o f. 1 30 .

C o n sta ts o f, 1 31
n E ld fi wer p o e r soa
, 2 80 .

Sa p o m frc a ti o n o i , l 31 .
ll
E m o i e n t so a s 300 p
so a , 1 2 9 1 33 p E n a n th y li e a c i d , 6 1
y i
.

C o ld w a te r 303 9 , A n a l s s O f 365
-
l h y
E n g i s s ste m o f O i l r e ss i n g, 80 p .

3 03 133 300 E r u c a i d i c ac i d , 63
l p p k
.

Bo d r oc e s s of soa m a i n g, E r u e i e a c i d 63
2 45 q
E ss b ou u e t soa , 2 80 p
il p
.

Bo lo u r e d to e t soa s, 2 75 .
l
E sse n ti a o i s 5 5 l
0 &0“ n m a tte r s fo r so a s, 2 7 0 p E x tr a c ti n g o i l b y so v e n ts, 1 05 l .

30 1 9 8 , 2 32
5 E xtr a c t i o n o f o i s a n d a ts , 67 l f
il p
.

to e t so a s , 2 7 3 .

l
C o z a o i l, 94 .
P
p l p
.

C o m m o n a e soa , 2 36
l
sa t, 1 0‘ 49 .
.

Fac tor s fo r l
vo u m e tr c i ana ly si s ,

s o a p , 2 39
t o i le t so a , 2 6 7
.

p F a r r i e r s soa p 301
’
,
.

F a t b l o w e r 1 81
.

p
C o m os i t i o n o f O i s a n d a ts, 55 l f .

b oi l e r s 7 2
, .

o f s oa e s, 31 7 p ly .
, .

i n soa p A n a ly i s o f 34 5
C o n s ti tu e n ts o f s o a , 334 p .
,

m e l t i n g ta n k s 1 80
s , .

C o r i a n d e r O i l, 162 ,
.

Lo r n o i l, 1 46
'
.

Fa ts Ac ti o n of a lk a l i es on 7
, , .

a n d a lk a l e s 2 2 5
.

C o n sta n ts o f, 1 46 i ,

a n d c a u st i c p o ta s h 38
.

} o t t on se e d o i l, 1 34 ,
.

s o d a, 31
a c i d s, 1 38
.

. °

and 0 1 lS , 54
c o m osi t i o n , 1 37 p .

C o m p o s i ti o n , 5 5
.

t ‘ 1 38 f
gfif figi
t
.

o
e i gé j
.

F a tt y i
a c d s, 60 .

soa , 1 37
7
p l
L i n o e n i c se r i e s o f, 64 .

C r o t o n i c a c i d , 63
,

l
L i n o i c se r i es o f, 64 .

C r o w n a e so ap l 2 38 p
.

l
O e i c se r i e s o f, 63 .

h n g so a , 2 13, 2 7 6 p R i c i n o e i c se r i es o f, 6 4 l
/ C i
.
r u s
h
C r u tc i n g s o a , 2 1 5 p S te a r c se r e s o f, 6 1 i i .

y l m a tte r i n S oa , 345 p
go
C r ta te , 1 0
.

s gfia qg F ll p
i e d so a s , 2 4 1 .

L ur d p 2 41
so a
F ll l p
i i n g c o d - r oc e ss so a p s, 2 5 7 .

,
Fl l
i te r i n g o i s, 96 .

Fl p
i te r r e ss for o i s 96 l , .

D . F pk l
i r e soa e t t e s, 1 8 2 .

'

ld
F p
i tted soa s, 2 35
gggfili f fi fif
?’
.

lr
c c
Fl i l
oa t n g t o i e t s o a p, 300 .

D ti ti
e c or il ca ng o see d s , 92 .
Fl owe r 2 80
F o bb m g, 2 2
D i s i n fe c ta n t d ry s oa ps 31 4 ?
soa ps 2 97
, .

F o o t s ta mi pp ng r e ss e s, 2 07 .

D o e g la i d i c ac id , 63
, .

F i
o r m c “ Ed 6 1
;
F lk l i p
.

I n soa , 339
l
D o e g i c ac i d 63 re e a
F ll ’
a
h 301
.

u e r s ear t
D o m e sti c soa s 2 2 4 p 1 50
.

D r L ee d s sc e m e o f
.
’
h so a p a n a ly g r e a s e ,

s i s , 35 1 .

p
D r y soa s, 31 1 .
G .

D PYm g O HS , 5 5 . G a i d i e a c i d , 63 .

p
soa , 2 1 2 , 2 2 3 . G e o ee r i c a c i d , 6 1 .
380 IN DE X .

Ge r a n i u m o i l, 1 62 .

G la d d i n g s r osi n te s t, 362
’

La c m o id , 43
.

Gl ’
a u b e r s sa t i n soa , 358 l p .

La r d , 1 1 9
.

G ly c e r i d e s, 5 9 , 65 .
.

a c i d s , C o n sta n t s o f, 1 2 0
G ly c er i n e , 7 , 5 7 .

C o n sta n ts of, 1 2 0
.

C om osi ti o n o f, 31 8 p .

oi l, 1 2 3
.

i n a ts, 2 2 6 f .

l
La u r e b u tte r , 94
.

i n o i s a n d a ts, 31 6 l f .

O i l, 94
.

i n soa , An a si s of, p ly La u r i e a c i d , 6 1
.

349
.

La u r i n , 65 , 2 47
.

G ly c er i n e soa e s, 31 6 p ly .

La v e n d er o i l, 1 63
.

P r o e r ti e s of, 5 8 31 7 p .

y
La i n g o u t a s oa fa c to r v, 32 6
.

p
r ec ov e r y fr om soa p l
Le b a n c sod a r oc e ss, 1 1 p
.

ly es ,
31 9 .

Le e d s sc e m e of so a
’
h a na si s p
.

ly
G lyce r i n e so a 2 72 p , .

35 1
,

l
So u b i i t of, 5 7 l y .

Le m o n soa , 2 7 2
.

p
l
s o u t i o n s, S t r e n t
g h of,
L i g n oc e r i c a c i d , 61
.

31 7
.

L i m e , 52
.

G ly c e o l 5 9 31 8
r , , .
.

A n a si s of, 5 3 ly
G ly c er yl 58 31 8 , , .

l
Li n o e i n , 66
.

Go l d e n pa le soa p 2 38 ,
l
Li n o e n i c a c i d , 64
.

G ou n d t O i l 94
r -n u
,
.

se r i es O f a t t ac i d s 64
.

f y
in soa p , 35 6 .

l
L i n o i c a c i d , 64 .
, .

se r i e s o f a t t a c id s, 64 f y .

H . Li n se e d O i l, 94, 1 38 .

a c i d s, 1 4 2
H a d fi e l d s soa p f r am e 375
’ .

H a n d soa p p r ess 2 05 ,
.
, .

C o m o si ti o n of, 141 p .

H a r d soap 2 2 8 C o n sta n ts o f, 1 42 .

p
, .

w h i te soa p 2 58 s oa s, 1 41 .

,
q ly p
.

H a r d n ess O f wa ter 1 74 .
Li u i d g c e r i n e soa , 300 .

H e l i otr op e soa p 2 69 Li tm u s, 42 .

, .

H i stor y of soa p 1 , .

H on e y soa p 2 70 2 7 2 2 79 , , , .

Hy d r a ted soa ps 2 62 ,
.

M a i z e O i l, 94, 1 46
Hy d r a u l i c O i l pr esses 89 , .
M a n u f ac tu r e o f sod a , 1 1
.

Hy d roca r b o n oi l s 56 , .
M a n u fac tu r e r s soa ps, A n a lysis of,
’
.

Hy d r o ly si s o f soa p 4 , .

Hy pogaei c a c i d 63 , .

M a rg a r i e a c i d , 6 1 .

M a r se i ll e s so a p, A n a ly si s of, 365 .

M ed u lli e a c i d 6 1 , .

I n d i c a to rs, 4 2
M e l i ssi c a c i d 61 , .

M e l ti n g soa p fa t s 1 80
.

I n d u str i a so a s, 2 89l p .

M e r c u r i a l soa p, 2 97
, .

I od i n e soa , 301 p .

M e th od s o f soa p -m a k i n g 2 2 7
.

I r o n soa pf
r a m e , 1 92 .

M e thyl ora n ge 42
, .

l l
I so i n o e n i c a ci d , 64 .

M i lk of l i m e, 5 2
,

.
.

S tr e n gt h of , 52 .

J .
M i l l ed toi l e t soa p s 2 7 3 , .

J e c or i c ac i d , 64 M i lle fieu r so a p, 2 7 9 .

M i l l i n g soa p,
.

M i n e ra l m a tte r s i n soa p, 357, 360

K .

Oi s, l 56 .

K oe t tstor fe r test, 2 48 . so a p stoc k , 2 43 .

 IN DE X . 38 1

M orga n s soa p f r a m e, 1 94
’
. O i l, L a ve n d e r , 1 63 .

M or i n gi c ac i d, 63 . L i n se e d , 94 , 1 38 .

M ottl ed soa p, A n a ly si s of, M a i ze , 94 1 46 , .

so a ps ,
2 39 . M u sta r d -see d 94 , .

M u sk , 1 65 . Ne r o i , 1 63 l .

A r ti fi c i a l ,
167 . N i ge r , 94 .

Bau r
, 1 67 . l
O i ve , 94 , 1 32 .

o i l so a , 2 80 p . O ra n ge , 1 64 .

T i n c tu r e o f, 1 67 . l
P a m , 94 , 1 2 3 .

M u s ta r d -se e d o i l, 94 . n u t 12 7 , .

y
M r b a n e , 1 68 . Po pp y
-s e e d
, 9
4 .

y
M r i s ti c a c i d , 61 . p
Ra e , 94 , 1 47 .

M y r i s to li c a c i d , 64 . R o se g e r a n i u m 1 6 2 , .

S a ss a r a s 1 64 f , .

Se sa m e , 94 .

Sta r a n i se , 1 64 .

Na ph h l
t o soa , 2 96 p . Su n fl o w e r -see d 9 4 , .

l
N a t u r a w a te rs, 1 7 3 .
‘
l a llo w , 1 1 7 , 1 2 1
'
.

N a t u r e o f so a , 2 p . W a l n u t 94 , .

l
N e r o i O i l, 1 63 . W h a l e 1 49 , .

N i ge r O i l, 94 . W i n te r gr ee n
1 64 -
, .

Ni tr o b e n z e n e , 1 68 . O i l see d c r u s i n g , 8 0 h .

y
N o n -d r i n g o i s , 55 l .
g r i n d i n g , 8 2 .

N u t o i l, 94 . h
ea ti n g, 8 3 .

p
r e sse s , 84 .

0
O i ls a n d a ts , 5 4 f .

C om po si ti on ,
l
O a t m e a d r y soa , 314 p . G ly c e r i n e in
O c c u r r e n c e O f a n i m a oi l ls , Cla ri fyi ng
95 , .

o f v e g e ta b e l oi s l and
ll Ve ge ta b l e
,
9 4 .

fa ts, 67 . O e i c a c i d , 63, 15 3 .

l
O i l, A m o n d , 94 . so a , 2 5 9 p .

A n i se , 1 5 8 . l
O e i n , 7 , 6 5 , 2 46 .

A r a c i s , 94 h . l
O e i n e , 144 , 1 5 5 .

B e n , 94 . l
O i v e o i l, 94 , 1 32 .

B e r ga m o t, 1 5 9 . a c i d s, 134 .

B i t te r a m o n d , 1 5 9 l . C o n st a n ts o f, 1 34 .

C a r a w a y, 1 6 d . O r a n ge fl o w e r s o a , 2 7 9 p .

C a ssi a , 1 60 . O i l, 164 .

C a s to r , 94 , 1 42 . s oa , 2 7 3 p .

C i n n a m on , 1 6 1 .

C i tr o n e e 1 6 1 ll , .

P
l
C o v e s, 1 6 2 .
.

C o c o n u t , 94 , 1 2 8 . Pa l e h o u se h o l d s oa p ,
2 44 .

lz
C o a , 94 . s oa p ,
2 58 .

C o r i a n d e r , 1 62 . A n a si s o f, 366 ly .

C o r n , 1 46 . l
P a m i ti c a c i d , 6 1 .

C o tto n se e d , 94 1 34 , . l
P a m i ti n , 7 , 6 5 , 2 47 .

l
fi te r s , 96 . Pa lm i to li e a c i d , 64 .

f o o ts ,
1 01 . l k
Pa m - e r n e O i l, 1 2 7 l .

G a er ni u m ,
1 62 . l
Pa m -n u t O i l, 1 2 7 .

Go
r u n d -n u t, 9 4 . a c i d s, 1 2 8 .

La r d , 1 2 3 . C o m os i ti o n o f, 1 2 7 p .

La u r e , 94 l . C o n sta n ts o f, 1 2 8 .
382 IN D E x .

Pa m l O i l,
94, 1 2 3 . l
Refi n i n g oi s b y c a u s ti c sod a, 99 .

a c i d s, 1 2 6 h
Re i c e r t test for c oco n u t O i l, 354 .

C om o si t o n o f, 1 2 5 p i . l
Re m e ti n g so a , 2 1 9 p .

C o n s t a n ts O f, 1 2 6 . to i e t soa s, 2 68 l p .

so a , 1 2 6 p . Re n d e r i n g a n i m a a ts , 68 lf .

P a r a ffi n d r y s o a , 31 4 p . ta o w, 68 ll .

O i s, 5 6 l . l
Re v o v i n g soa r e ss, 2 1 0 pp .

soa , 2 4 1 p . Ri e i n i so le i c a c i d , 64 .

P ea r a s , 33l h . l
R i c i n o e i c a c i d , 64 .

A n a si s o f, 34 ly . se r i e s of a tt aci ds, f y
l
P e a r go n i c ac i d , 6 1 . 64 .

P e n ta d e c a to i c a c i d 6 1 . Roc k sa t, 49 l .

f
Pe r u m e s, 1 58 . Rose ge r a n i u m o i l, 1 62 .

l
Pe tr o e u m o i s, l so a , 2 7 2 , 2 7 9 p .

s oa , 2 4 1 p . Rosi n , 1 55 .

h l ph h l
P en o t a e i n , 43 . b o i , 2 36 l .

h ph
P os a te o f so d a , 47 C o m osi t i o n o f, 1 56 p .

Ph y se to le i c a c i d , 63 . Gl
a d d i n g tes t, 362 .

P i n i e a c i d , 1 56 . i n soa , 36 1 p .

l
P a n n i n g a so a a c to r , 32 6 pf y . L i e b e r m a n n S tor c h
l
P od d i n g m a c i n e s, 2 77 h . 362 .

Po pp y-se e d o i l 94
,
. R os i n , T w i tc h e ll s te s t, 363
’
.

P o ta s , 9 h . so a s, 1 5 7 p .

S i i c a te o f, 47 l . R u n n i n gs, 2 43 .

h
P o t a s e s, 32 .

A n a s i s o f, 34 ly .

S
Q u a i ti e s o f, 3 3 l .

P o ta s s i u m , 8, 31 . Sa i c l ylso a , 300 p .

c a r b o n a te , 9 , 32 . Sa l sod a , 10 .

An a si s ly o f, l
Sa t , 49 .

b r i n e , 50 .

P o ta ssi u m c a r b o n a te , P r o e r ti e s p ca ,ke
1 1 .

of, 35 . Sa l ti n g o u t, 2 31 .

P ota ssi u m c a r b on a te , So u b i i ty l l Sa l ly si s of 369

t i n soa , A n a p ,
.

O f, 35 . m aki ng 5 1 ,
.

P r e ssi n g v ege ta b e o i s, 7 9 l l . so l u ti o n s S tr e n g th o f 50 , ,
.

P r essu r e soa b o i e r s, 1 89 p l e m l i n g soa p fo r a n a ly si s 335

p
.
.
,

soa s, 2 58 p . Sa n ( 360
I n s oa p ,

P r i m r ose o u se o d so a s, 2 44 h h l p . so a s, 2 9 8 p .

so a , 2 38 p . Sa n ta ] soa , 2 69, 2 7 8 p .

A n a si s o f, 36 5 ly . p
Sa o n i fi ca ti o n , 66, 2 2 4 .

p
P r o i on i c a c i d , 61 . u n d er p r ess u re ,

P y r o te r e b r i c a c i d , 63 . 2 58 , 2 63 .

f
Sa ssa r as O i l, 1 64 .

R
Sa t u ra te d so u ti o n s, 1 72 l .

Sc r e w o i l r e ss , 86 p .

Ra l ston s sl a b b i n g m a c h i n e
’
,
19 7 . Se b ac i c a c i d , 55 .

Ra pe O i l ,
94, 1 47 . Sesa m e o i l, 94 .

soa ps ,
1 47 . h
S a v i n g soa s, 2 7 9, 2 98 p .

p
R a i c a c i d , 64 . l
Si i c a te o f ota s , 47 p h .

R e c o v e r e d gr e a se s, 1 49 . o f so d a , 47 .

R e fi n ed a a i , 10 lk l . i n soa , 35 9
p .

R e fi n i n g O i s, 94 l . l
S i i c a te d so a p ,
A n a s s o f,
366 ly i .

b y a c i d , 97 . so a p s, 2 43 .
 I N DE X . 383

l
Si i ca ted so t soa , 309 f p . S oa p d y i n g m ac h i
- r n e, 2 12 , 22 3 .

l
Si i ca tes i n soa , A n a si s of, 342 p ly . Eld e r fi o w e r , 2 80 .

Si lk soa , 2 9 5 p . ll
E m o i e n t, 300 .

k
S i n soa s, 300 p E ss-b ou u e t, 2 80 q .

l
S a bb i n g m a c h m e fo r soa , 1 9 7 p . f y
a c to r , La i n g o u t a , 32 6 y .

so a , 1 96 p . F
a r r i e r s, 301
’
.

p
Soa , A c ti o n o f, 3 . f
a ts a n d o i s, 54 l .

l
A m o n d , 2 69 , 2 7 1 , 2 7 8 . F ll
i ed , 2 4 1 .

ana se s, 364 ly . Floa ti n g to i e t, 300 l .

an a s i s , 334ly . Fl
ow e r , 2 80 .

A a i , 337 lk l . f
r a m e , H a d fi e ld s, 37 5
’
.

o r a x i n , 34 2 B . M o rga n s , 1 94 ’
.

C a r b o n a tes i n soa p ,
W i ta e r s, 1 9 3
’
h k .

f
r a m e s, 1 90 .

Soa p an a l y si s , D r Lee d s .
’
sc hem e , I r o n , 1 92 .

35 1 . VVo o d , 1 9 l .

Soa pa n a lv s i s, F a t i n , 345 . F ll ’
u e r s e a r t , 301 h .

F r ee fa t, 345 . G lyce r i n e , 2 7 2 .

G ly c e r i n e , 349 . G l
o d e n , 2 39 .

Sa t, 349 l . a le , 2 38 p .

Sa m i n g fo r , 335 pl . He li o t r o p e , 2 69 .

l
S i i c a t e o f so d a H i sto r v o f, 1 .

34 2 . H y
o n e , 2 7 0, 2 7 2 , 2 7 "
Soa p a a ly
n s i s,
S ta r c , 35 1 h . Hy ly
d r o s i s o f, 4 .

S u g a r , 350 . I od i n e , 301 .

Su a te s i n , 343 l ph . k
e tt le s, 1 82 .

W a te r i n , 336 . Le m o n , 2 7 2 .

A n t i m o n i a , 300 l . q
Li u i d g c e r i n e , 300 ly .

A r se n i c a , 2 9 7 l . ly
es, C o m o si t i o n o f, 31 7 p .

b a r r i n g m a c i n e s, 2 00 h . G ly
c e r i n e i n , 31 6 .

B e n z o i c 300 . . R e c o v e r i n g g ce r i n e , ly
l
B u e m o t t e d , 2 40 l . 31 9 .

l
bo i e r s, 1 82 .Soa pm ac i ne r h 1 79 i y . .

l
b o i i n g, 2 2 8 .
’
k
m a e r s a a i es , 6 lk l .

B o r a x, 301 . k
m a i n g u n d e r p r e ss u r e , 2 5 8 .

d r y , 31 4 . M e r c u r i a , 2 97 l .

B q
o u u e t, 2 69, 2 7 3, 2 7 8 . M i lle fi e u r , 2 7 9 .

B r o w n , 2 39 . ll
M i i n g , 2 92 .

B r ow n W i n d sor , 2 67 , 2 69, i l
M o tt e d , 2 39 .

2 7 0, 2 7 8 . l
m o u d s, 2 1 0 .

Soa p,
C a i c o l p
- r i n te r s 2 9 3
’
, . k
M u s o i l 2 80 . .

C a r boli c , 2 96 . Na ph h l
t o , 2 96 .

C a sti e , 2 38 l . N a t u r e o f, 2 .

C i tr o n , 2 69 , 2 7 8 . O a tm e a , d r y, 31 4 l .

l
C o d w a te r , 300 . l
O e i c ac i d , 2 5 9 .

l
c o o u r s, 2 7 5 , 2 82 . O r a n ge , 2 7 3 .

C o m m on , 2 39 . fl ow e r , 2 7 9 .

a e , 2 36 p l . P a e, 2 5 8l .

to i e t, 2 67 l . h
o u se h o d , 2 44 l .

C r ow n a e, 2 38 p l . P a r a ffi n , 2 4 1 .

h
c r u s i n g m ac i n e s, 2 1 4 h . d r y,
Cu rd , 2 4 1 . Pe tr o e u m , 2 4 1l .

c u tti n g m a c i n e , 2 1 2 h . pl
od d i n g m ac i n e , 2 1 5 h .

D r y , 31 1 . p
o w d e r s , 31 1 .
3 84 IN D E X .

S oa p , P r e s s u r e -m a d e 2 5 8
, . So t f soa,
30 1 p .

P r i m r ose , 2 38 . An a si s of, 366 ly .

o u se o d , 2 44 h h l . l l
So u b e O i l, 144 .

p
P r o e r t i e s o f, 59 . l
So u b i i t o f soa , 5l y p .

p m ps
u 2 2 1 , . l
So v e n t a c ti o n o f w a te r , 1 7 1 .

Ro se , 2 7 2 , 2 79 . l
S o v e n ts for O i s , 1 05 l .

Sa i c , 300l yl . q z
S u e e i n g so a , 2 7 7 p
Sa n d , 2 9 8 . p
Sta m e r O i l r e ss , 85 p .

Sa n ta , 2 69, 2 78 l . S ta n d a r d d r y soa , 31 4 p .

h
S av i n g, 2 7 9 , 2 98 . su l ph
u r i c a c i d so u t i o n , l
l
S i i c a te d , 2 4 3 . 41 .

Si , 2 95lk . S ta r a n i se O i l, 1 64 .

k
S i n , 300 . h
Sta r c i n soa , 35 1 p .

So t, 301 f . A n a si s o f, 35 1 ly .

l
So u b i i t o f, 5 l y . S te a m soa a n s, 1 83 pp .

q
s u ee z i n g m a c i n e , 2 1 5 h . sta m i n g r e ss , 2 08 p p .

Su l ph
u r , 2 97 . S te a r i c a c i d , 6 1 .

p f
Su e r a t te d , S te a r i n , 7 , 65 , 2 47 .

p
s ta m i n g m a c i n e s, 2 03 h . S tea r o li c a c i d , 64
‘
.

S t a n d a r d d r y , 31 4 . k
S to c toi e t so a s , 2 8 1 l p .

S toc , 2 8 1 k . S tr e n g t Of g h ly
c e r i n e s o u t i o n s, l
T a n n i n , 300 . 31 7
T a r , 2 97 . S u ga r i n so a , 35 0 p .

T hy
m o , 300 l . A n a s i s o f, 350 ly .

T oo t , 2 9 8 h . Su l ph
a te s i n s oa A n a s i s o f, 34 l p , ly '

T r a n s a r e n t, 2 87p . Su l ph
u r soa , 2 9 7 p .

l
V i o e t, 2 7 1 , 2 79 . S u n fl ow e r -se e d O i l, 94 .

w a ggo n , 1 99 . p f
S u e r a tte d soa s, 301 p .

h
W i te , 2 58 / .
f
p
S w e e t s i r i t o f o i s, 5 7 , 3 1 7 l -
.

C a s t i e , 2 38 l .

h
a r d w a te r , 2 58 .

T
W i n d sor , .

W 0 0 1, 2 90 . Ta b l e O f c a u sti c po ta sh l y e s 37 ,

XX c r o wn a e , 2 39 p l . sod a l y e s 2 8 ,
.

XX h o u se o d , 2 44 h l .
g ly c e r i n e s o l u t i o n s 57 ,
.

ll
Y e o w d o m e s ti c , 2 5 8 . s a l t so l u t i o n s 5 0 , .

S od a , 9 . s t r e n g th O f m i l k o f l i m e ,

a sh , 1 0 . 52 .

A n a si s of, 1 5 ly . Ta b l e t c u t ti n g m a c h i n e
- 2 03 ,
.

Q u a i t i es o f ,
1 4 l . s ta m pi ng p re sse s , 2 03 .

y
c r s ta s, 10, 1 5 , l Ta l l ow ,
1 13 .

A n a si s o f, 1 6 ly . a c i d s, 1 1 9 .

i n soa , 35 7 p . l
A d u te r a ti on s o f, 1 1 7 .

m a n u a c tu r e , 1 0 f . p
C o m osi ti on o f, 1 1 6 .

l
S i i ca te o f, 47 C o n s ta n ts of, 1 1 9 .

S od i u m , 8 . o i l, 1 1 7 , 1 2 2 .

b or a te, 46 . P r e sse d , 1 1 7 .

c a r b o n a te, 9 . Re n d e r i n g, 68 .

A n a si s o f, 4 3 ly . p so a , 1 1 8 .

P r o e r ti e s o f, p Ta i n soa p 300
nn ,
.

17 lT a soa p 2 9 7
r .
.
,

hl
S o d i u m c or i d e, 1 0, 49 . T a i i c a c i d 64
r r , .

i n soa , 349 p . T esti g c a n ti c p o ta sh us 44 , .

p os a h ph
t e ,
4 7 . so d a , 44 .
 IN D E x . 385

T e sti n g po ta sh 43 , . W a ter , Ac ti o n o n soa p ,

4 .

potassi u m c ar bo n a te , 43
as a soa m a te r i a l , 1 70
.
p .

sod a as h ,
43 . p i
Com os ti o n o f, 1 70 .

sod i u m c a r bo n a te, 43 . E ffec t o f h ar d n e ss on soa ps ,

T h ym e ] so a , 300 p . 1 74 .

T i n c tu r e of m u s , 1 67 k . W a ter i n soa , A n a si s o f, 336p ly .

l p
T o i e t soa , An a si s o f, 365 ly . p
P r o e r ti es o f, 1 7 1 .

2 11 . So fte n i n g, 1 75 .

l
So ve n t a c ti o n of, 1 7 1 .

H
W a ters , a r d n ess o f, 1 74 .

Na tu r a , 1 7 3 l .

T r a i n oi l, 1 68 . l
W h a e O i l, 1 48 .

p
T r a n s a r e n t soa p 2 87 , . soa s , 1 48 p .

soa ps 2 85 , .
’
k
W h i ta e r s soa r a m e , 1 93 pf .

T r i d ec a to i c ac i d , 61 . W h i te C a sti e soa , 2 38 l p .

k y
T u r e r ed oi l, 1 44 . h
a r d -w a te r soa , 2 58 p .

soa , 2 58 p .

V W i n d sor soa , 2 67 , 2 70, 2 80 p .

W i n ter -gr ee n oi l, 1 64
.

V a l eri a n i c ac i d , 6 1
.

.
W ood -a s e s 32 h
V ege tab le o i l s, 94
.
,
.
W ood e n soa r a m es, 19 1 pf
fa ts
.

and , O cc u r l
W oo g r ea se, 1 5 3 .

r e n ce o f, 67 .
oi l, 1 5 5
V i o l e t soa , p
.

2 7 1 , 2 79 .
soa s, 2 90 p
V o l u m e tr i c ly Fac tor s
.

a na si s, fo r ,
46 .

V ol u m e tr i c ana ly si s i n d i c a tors , X .

42 . XX c ow n pa l e soa p 2 39
r , .

V o l u m e tr i c an a ly si s solu ti on s ,
40 . XX h ou se h o l d soa p 2 44 , .

W Y .

W ash i n g c r y sta l ,
31 5 . Ye ll ow d om es ti c soa p ,
2 58 .

W a l n u t oi l 94 , . Y or k sh i r e gr ea se 1 50 , .
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