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Probability of Detection PD
The received and demodulated echo signal is
processed by a threshold logic. This threshold shall be
balanced so that as of a certain amplitude wanted
signals being able to pass and noise will be removed.
Since in the mixed signal exist high noise tops which
lie in the range of small wanted signals the optimized
threshold level shall be a compromise. Wanted signals
shall, on the one hand , reach the indication as of a
minimal amplitude, on the other hand, the false alarm
rate may not increase.
probability of detection Pn is the ratio of detected aims
to the number of all possible blips on the radar screen,
i.e. all possible targets in a given direction.
pD = detected targets . 100%
sum of all possible blibs
The radar must detect, with greater than or equal to
80% probability at a defined range , a one square
meter radar cross section. This relatively bad result is
a compromise between the probability of detection and
the false alarm rate. This means: One of five targets
won't be detected by radar with analog signal
.
processing.
The older term "Blip Scan Ratio" was renamed to as
"Probability of Detection".
 False Alarm

False Alarm Rate

A false alarm is “an erroneous radar target detection decision caused by noise or other interfering signals exceeding the detection threshold”. In general, it is an indication of
the presence of radar target when there is no valid aim. The False Alarm Rate (FAR) is calculated using the following formula:
false targets per PRT real aims
FAR =
Number of rangecells (1)
False alarms are generated when thermal noise exceeds a pre-set threshold level, by the presence of spurious signals (either internal
to the radar receiver or from sources external to the radar), or by equipment malfunction. A false alarm may be manifested as a
momentary blip on a cathode ray tube (CRT) display, a digital signal processor output, an audio signal, or by all of these means. If the
detection threshold is set too high, there will be very few false alarms but the signal-to-noise ratio required will inhibit detection of
valid targets. If the threshold is set too low, the large number of false alarms will mask detection of valid targets.

a. threshold is set too high: Probability of Detection = 66%

b. threshold is set optimal: Probability of Detection = 83%
But one false alarm arises! Figure 1: Different threshold levels

False alarm rate = 1 / 666 = 1,5 ·10-3 ¹)

c. threshold is set too low: a large number of false alarms arises!
d. threshold is set variabel: constant false-alarm rate

The false alarm rate depends on the level of all interferences, like noise, clutter or jamming. Near the radar site the influence of the fixed clutter is higher than the noise level.
At large distances the influence of the noise level is higher. This has the effect, that the false alarm rate depends on the range. But the equation doesn't give any range
dependences. To achieve a higher probability of detection in large distances by using a lower threshold level, the false alarm rate rises at close range.
¹) for a Radar set with the maximum range of 100 km and a pulse width of 1,5 microseconds = 666 Rangecells

Constant False-Alarm Rate (CFAR)

The principle of a circuit for a constant false alarm rate was first described in 1968 by H. M. Finn and R. S. Johnson. range cell under test
[1]
Tapped digital delay line RUT Tapped digital delay line
Solutions to the false-alarm problem involve implementation of constant false-alarm rate (CFAR) schemes that
vary the detection threshold as a function of the sensed environment. Whilst there are a large number of types of
CFAR circuit, they are usually based around the ‘background averager’ (sometimes referred to as cell averaging
CFAR). A simplified block diagram is shown in Figure 2.
This circuit estimates the level of interference (noise or clutter) in radar range cells on either side of a range cell and sampled
uses this estimate to decide if there is a target in the cell of interest in the center. The process steps out one cell in video input
range and is repeated until all range cells have been investigated.
Threshold
The basis of the circuit is that when noise is present, the cells around the cell of interest will contain a good estimate arithmetic logic unit
of the noise in the tested cell, i.e. it assumes that the noise or interference is spatially or temporarily homogeneous. a) Cell Average: CA-CFAR, or
b) Greatest Of: CAGO-CFAR CFAR
Theoretically the circuit will produce a constant false alarm rate, which is independent of the noise or clutter level so c) Smallest Of: CASO-CFAR outpu
long as the noise has a Rayleigh distribution in all range cells investigated by the circuitry.
Figure 2: Principle of a “Cell-averaging CFAR”- wiring
Cell-Averaging Constant False Alarm Rate (CA-CFAR)

In Figure 1 the graph d) denotes a customized profile of the threshold to the level of the noise floor. The interference at the beginning of the deflection, which would cause for
the threshold a) a false alarm, also reaches a critical level here. However, the third echo signal, which is so weak that it would be lost even under the optimal threshold b),
will be detected in the CFAR.
The circuit in Figure 2 shows a very simplified schematic. The sum-signs stand for the function as per the equation:
CAGO-CFAR CA-CFAR

(2) OS-CFAR

In the CA-CFAR method this averaging is carried out in the device "arithmetic logic unit" too.
The CA-CFAR graph in Figure 3 shows strong values left and right of the target but at the target itself it has got a relatively low value. This can
be quite easily explained by the schematic diagram. Shortly before and shortly after the range cell under test (RUT, sometimes called cell under
test, CUT), the strong amplitude of the echo signal has an impact on the average. Therefore this one raises to its maximum. During the target
itself, the average is made without the amplitude of the target. The threshold will be relatively low. The CFAR thus makes for strong targets a
Figure 3: Comparing the
contrast enhancement. In a noise environment, very weak echo signals may be lost rather than in the case of a fixed threshold. One way to
thresholds of various CFAR
reduce these losses is, the both close to the RUT located cells not to include in the evaluation (in the circuit in Figure 2 indicated as dashed method for the situation of two
lines). These unused cells are then called guard cells. The remaining cells are called reference window cells. adjacent targets: the weaker
target is hidden by the stronger
CAGO-CFAR one at the cell-averaging
methods.[2]
In the case of Cell-Averaging Greatest Of-CFAR (CAGO-CFAR) the average power of clutter Z is estimated differently where both sides of the sliding window are analyzed
separately. The threshold value is then defined by maximum selection between these two results. The value of Z for CAGO-CFAR is estimated as:

(3)
Advantages of CAGO CFAR are the small required computing power and relatively low target losses. Compared to the CA-CFAR the treatment of non-homogeneous clutter
environment is improved.
Disadvantages are: the overall still low effectiveness and the possibility (typical for all CA-CFAR variants) that two adjacent targets can cover each other (see Figure 3). There
are also problems during an abrupt change in the disturbance signals (for example, on the edges of fixed clutter areas).

CASO-CFAR

The Cell-Averaging Smallest Of-CFAR (CASO-CFAR) uses the same circuit as the CAGO-CFAR. The one and only difference is that instead of the higher value of the output
signal of both delay lines now the smaller one is used. The big level of the adjacent echo signal is thus usually not used for the threshold value calculation. The possibility that
two adjacent target sign can cover each other, is therefore slightly reduced.

CAOS-CFAR or OS-CFAR

Since the previous methods cannot treat equally both extremes of the interference environment (homogeneous and non-homogeneous interference environment), the
method of Ordered Statistic-CFAR (OS-CFAR) have been developed.[2] In the block diagram in Figure 2, the two logic symbols with the plus sign are replaced by a statistical
method. The amplitude values taken from the reference windows are first rank-ordered according to decreasing magnitude. A certain number of the highest values will be
excluded from further processing. It can be formed an average of the remaining values again (CAOS-CFAR), and/or additional weights are made, for example, depending on
the average noise level (OS-CFAR).
Here can be done also a separate division in preceding and subsequent reference window cells. Their individual results can be selected again as Greatest Of (OSGO-CFAR) or
Smallest Of (OSSO-CFAR) before further processing.[3]
Advantage of the OS-CFAR is the much better effectiveness of the preparation of the threshold. Adjacent echo signals can no longer cover each other. The major disadvantage
of the OS-CFAR is the high processing power required for performing the sorting algorithm. This processing power must be provided during the real-time part of radar signal
processing, since the threshold calculation is still ahead of target recognition.

CASH-CFAR

The so-called CASH CFAR (Cell Averaging Statistic Hofele) is also a statistical method which was developed by Franz Xaver Hofele, an employee of the former DASA (today
Cassidian electronics).[4] It is based on a series of summating elements associated with each range cell and a specific maximum-minimum detector.[5] The advantage of the
CASH-CFAR algorithm is that it avoids alternate covering and aggregation of objects. Their time sidelobes resulting from the pulse compression are thereby reliably hidden by
the threshold. The required processing power of the CASH-CFAR algorithm is also significantly less than that of the OS- and CAOS-CFAR algorithms with their rank-selection
methods.

MAMIS-CFAR
The MAMIS-CFAR (MAximum MInimum Statistic) is essentially the same as the CASH-CFAR, except that a special maximum-minimum circuit replaces the adders of the CASH-
CFAR (for example, as an FPGA chip). The characteristics of the MAMIS-CFAR are quite similar to those of the CASH-CFAR for the handling of block interference and of point-
and extended targets.

Inverse False Alarm Rate

The false alarm rate can be converted into an inverse false alarm rate (IFAR) trivially by taking the inverse. It can be calculated as in equation (1), and then inverted. Another
possibility of the calculation is over the time relation:
width: FAR = False Alarm Rate
1 T T = Average interval between two transmit pulses
IFAR = = = T·Btx Λ = Duration of the false alarm
FAR Λ Btx = Transmitters pulse bandwidth (4)
In the case of a simple keyed on/off modulated pulse radar, the duration of a false alarm Λ is equal to the length of the transmitted pulse τ. In the case of radar with
intrapulse modulation, the duration of a false alarm can only be measured after the pulse compression. For this reason, there are also calculations into which the bandwidth
Btx of the transmitters pulse is used as a measure for the pulse compression rate as well as for the possible range resolution.
Note: In the literature, sometimes instead of a constant false alarm rate (CFAR), the constant false alarm probability (CFAP) is called. Mathematically, these terms are identical but are used differently. CFAR is used when describing
circuit technology, and CFAP is used when considering the theoretical probability of detection. (Because two probabilities correspond better than a probability with a rate.)

Sources and ressorces:

1. H. M. Finn and R. S. Johnson, “Adaptive detection mode with threshold control as a function of spacially sampled clutter-level estimates;” RCA Rev., vol. 29, pp. 141-
464, September 1968.
2. Rohling, Hermann “Ordered statistic CFAR technique - an overview”, Radar Symposium (IRS), 2011 Proceedings International, On page(s): 631 - 638, Volume: Issue:,
7-9 Sept. 2011
3. Long Cai, Xiaochuan Ma, Qi Xu, Bin Li, Shiwei Ren “Performance Analysis of Some New CFAR Detectors under Clutter”, Journal of Computers, Vol 6, No 6 (2011), 1278-
1285, Jun 2011 (doi:10.4304)
4. F. X. Hofele, “An innovative CFAR algorithm,” in Proc. CIE Int. Conf. Radar, 2001, pp. 329–333.
5. Patent DE 19600779 A1 Verfahren zur Erzeugung einer Clutter-Schwelle und Anordnungen zur Durchführung des Verfahrens