Transformarea Bisericii din Occident : nceputul marilor reforme (secolele X-XI) de Georgescu-Tnase Ioana

ncepnd cu primii regi carolingieni i cu apariia imperiului lui Carol cel Mare (ncoronat la Roma n anul 800), o noua civilizaie cretin se nate n partea occidental a fostului imperiu roman, iar Biserica de aici n frunte cu papa ia un drum aparte. O serie de reforme succesive transform n profunzime Biserica roman, care va sfri prin a se despri de Biserica de la Constantinopol (marea schism are loc n 1054). Cum se explic aceast evoluie care n dou secole a dus la o asemenea ndeprtare? Este oare suficient s invocm preteniile papale la primatul absolut sau inovaiile teologice de origine germanic precum faimosul filioque (n privina cruia de altfel Roma a ezitat ndelung pn s-l adopte, aa cum vom arta ntr-un articol urmtor)? ntre Roma i Constantinopol mai avuseser deja loc controverse teologice i politice, pn la urm ns comuniunea dintre cele dou patriarhii fusese restabilit, cum s-a vzut n cazul rupturii din vremea papei Nicolae I i a Sfntului Patriarh Fotie al Constantinopolului (sec. IX). Dar n afara acestor probleme, Biserica occidental a cunoscut din vremea lui Carol cel Mare i pn n secolul schismei o profund transformare a structurilor sale eseniale (episcopi, preoi, mnstiri), nsoite de o schimbare a nelegerii fa de ceea ce este trupul Bisericii. Aceste schimbri fr precedent nu puteau s nu afecteze comuniunea cu ansamblul Bisericii.

I. Episcopi i starei pui n slujba suveranilor carolingieni i a familiilor feudale

Ierarhii i stareii marilor mnstiri sunt stlpii organizrii Bisericii. Transformarea lor n feudali supui mpratului sau regelui i ndeprteaz de la misiunea lor definit de tradiia Bisericii. Cum s-a ajuns la acest lucru n vremea carolingienilor? Spre deosebire de imperiul bizantin care motenise o solid administraie roman, una din problemele imperiului carolingian consta n slbiciunea mijloacelor de guvernare. Pentru a consolida construcia statului, mpratul i-a supus pe episcopi i pe starei n serviciul su direct, acordndu-le ceea ce am numi prerogative publice: justiia civil, colectarea impozitelor pentru stat i chiar atribuii militare, ceea ce era cel mai exagerat dintre toate. Aceste prerogative constituiau o surs important de venituri, dar erau n acelai timp obligaii foarte apstoare, aa nct muli episcopi se plngeau c sunt mpiedicai n lucrarea lor bisericeasc. ns puin cte puin ei s-au transformat n adevrai mari feudali, integrai n sistemul complex de relaii de

vasalitate, avndu-l n frunte pe suveran. Suveranii carolingieni au nceput chiar s cear n schimbul acordrii unei episcopii jurmntul de vasalitate (aa cum era obiceiul pentru prini i cavaleri), practic la care s-a renunat n secolul XI. Cu timpul, majoritatea episcopilor proveneau din familia suveranului sau din marile familii aristocratice, fr s fi primit o educaie religioas pregtitoare. Ei continuau s duc o via asemntoare cu cea a frailor i rudeniilor lor. Aceasta a dus la o mare decdere a moravurilor n rndul clerului. Simonia, n sensul comerului cu tainele Bisericii, ndeosebi cu taina hirotoniei, devenise o practic generalizat. Suveranii dobndeau venituri considerabile din vnzarea scaunelor episcopale, iar episcopii la rndul lor recuperau mai departe averea cheltuit. n acest context se simea nevoia unei mari schimbri. Ea a nceput prin fondarea unei mnstiri, Cluny, care va deveni centrul unei mari reforme a mnstirilor n Occident i mai apoi a unei reforme generale a Bisericii occidentale i a papalitii.

II. Cluny , centrul unei ample reforme a mnstirilor din Occident

De ce aceast mnstire a avut atta importan n Evul Mediu occidental? nc de la fondarea sa n 909, Cluny a primit privilegiul de a fi liber de orice autoritate laic sau episcopal, cu excepia papei. Aceasta a protejat-o fa de orice influen a suveranilor sau a marilor familii feudale. Ea a putut s pun n micare o ampl reform a vieii monahale, dup vechea regul a Sfntului Benedict de Nursia. Papa de la Roma a mputernicit pe stareii de la Cluny s reformeze orice mnstire care va cere acest lucru i care va primi s intre sub ascultarea lui. Astfel stareii de la Cluny, personaliti foarte puternice i deosebit de respectate n epoc, mergeau neobosii din mnstire n mnstire pentru a rspndi modelul de via de la Cluny i pentru a fonda noi comuniti. Vechi mnstiri precum Fleury-sur-Loire (unde erau cinstite moatele Sfntului Benedict), Lerins (fondat de Sfntul Ioan Cassian), Saint Denis de la Paris sunt reformate, iar printre noile fundaii amintim Vzelay n Burgundia (dedicat sfintei Maria Magdalena) sau Moissac n Aquitania. n cursul secolului XI, Cluny devine mama unei mari familii de mnstiri fiice: aproape 2000 de comuniti sunt reformate i puse n subordinea centrului de la Cluny pe o vast ntindere din cuprinsul actual al Franei, Germaniei, Spaniei, Italiei, Elveiei, Marii Britanii. Astfel s-a format o adevrat federaie multinaional, dotat cu o organizare administrativ foarte ingenioas pentru epoca respectiv, care-i avea splendida capital la Cluny. Marea biseric de la Cluny, capodoper a arhitecturii romane, era de o grandoare fr egal, rmnnd cel mai mare edificiu al cretintii pn la construirea catedralei Sfntul Petru de la Roma n secolul XVI (ns nu o mai putem vedea, pentru c a fost distrus la Revoluia francez). Aceast nou form de organizare monastic, nentlnit la aceste dimensiuni n Orient, constituie nceputul dezvoltrii diferitelor ordine mnstireti universale care vor marca istoria Bisericii catolice (cistercienii, n jurul mnstirii Citeaux, care vor reface ntr-un spirit mai ascetic modelul de la Cluny, apoi sub o nou form dominicanii i franciscanii, mai trziu, iezuiii, etc).

Care a fost folosul acestei reforme fr precedent? Cluny a avut meritul a de contribui la eliberarea Bisericii de sub stpnirea puterii laice a suveranilor i a feudalilor. Prin reforma rspndit cu zelul i priceperea stareilor si remarcabili, disciplina monastic a fost restabilit, iar viaa spiritual a cunoscut o noua dezvoltare n tot Occidentul; aceast spiritualitate a urmat ns o cale diferit de cea a mnstirilor din Orient, la fel ca i evoluia intelectual, care s-a ndeprtat din ce n ce mai mult de teologia Sfinilor Prini. Dar privind din punctul de vedere al naterii unei noi civilizaii, care va influena n curnd ntreaga lume, mnstirile clunisiene au fost centre spirituale i intelectuale marcante. Ele au avut de asemenea un rol pacificator n contextul luptelor nesfrite dintre feudali, contribuind la respectarea de ctre laici a ceea ce se numea atunci pacea lui Dumnezeu. ns toate acestea au fost umbrite de imensa bogie i putere dobndite de Cluny, n pofida regulii sfntului Benedict, ca i cum Biserica nu ar fi fcut dect s ia locul stpnilor laici. Vom vedea n continuare c opera clunisian a pregtit o mare reform a Bisericii i a papalitii, decisiv pentru viitorul Occidentului.

Ioana Georgescu-Tnase Originile Reformei religioase Reforma isi gsete originile n atmosfera de nelinite religioas care caracterizeaz sfritul Evului Mediu i n incapacitatea Bisericii de a-i gsi o rezolvare. Spectacolul morii, care provoac un viu sentiment al riscului pe care l prezint pcatul, stimuleaz dorina mntuirii. Or, papalitatea pare a fi incapabil s arate credincioilor drumul de urmat. Mulimea ascult mai degrab pe predicatorii populari, care anun apocalipsul i pe cei ce se flageleaz, care ncearc s obin o garanie a lumii de dincolo producndu-i n lumea de aici suferinele i pedeapsa pe care o merit pcatele lor. Pentru a scpa de Iad, sau pentru a scurta perioada de Purgatoriu, cretinii se adreseaz intermediarilor (Fecioara sau Sfinii), i nmulesc operele de caritate (donaii, rugciuni pentru sraci, pelerinaje), poart talismane sau ncearc s adune indulgene. Practica religioas alunec n felul acesta spre superstiie fr s micoreze frmntarea cretinilor.

Acestei neliniti de care sufer majoritatea se adaug cea a elitei intelectuale. n acest mediu, dorina de a consolida credina prin experiena trit i prin gndirea luminat, o nsoete pe aceea de mntuire. Or, pe ruinele tomismului triumf nominalismul lui Wilhelm de Ockham. El afirm c este imposibil s-l cunoti pe Dumnezeu din cauza incompatibilitii dintre revelaia divin i raiunea uman. Religia nu mai apare de acum nainte dect ca un ir de afirmaii dogmatice i de ritualuri impuse.

Biserica de la sfritul Evului Mediu este slab pregtit pentru a da un rspuns acestor ateptri i repuneri n discuie. Abuzurile sale, nefiind o noutate, sunt denunate cu att mai mult patim cu ct timpurile noi le subliniaz dimensiunile. Delsarea i obiceiurile brutale caracterizeaz clerul secundar ca i pe clugri: beie, jafuri, concubinaj i gustul pentru profit sunt lucruri frecvente. Episcopii sunt mai

puin preocupai de diocezele lor dect de acumularea de funcii i de profituri. Ct despre Curia roman, aceasta se strduiete s exploateze bisericile locale n timp ce pontifii i aranjeaz familiile (Alexandru al VI-lea Borgia), se rzboiesc (Iulius al II-lea) sau devin constructori (Leon al X-lea). Lipsurile Bisericii se observ mai des n indiferena ei fa de ndatoririle pastorale, n formarea preoilor, fa de evanghelizare i fa de ndrumarea spiritual a credincioilor.

Dac abuzurile nu sunt noi, denunarea lor este mai vehement dect n trecut. ntr-o cretintate n care credincioii ateapt un rspuns la cerinele lor spirituale, neputina Bisericii provoac scandal. nc de la nceputul secolului al XV-lea, Jean Gerson, doctor al Universitii din Paris, someaz Biserica s-i asume rolul su pastoral. Cu i mai mare violen, fratele Jerome Savonarola arunc anatema asupra Curii de la Roma i asupra papei Alexandru al VI-lea Borgia. Dorind o rennoire a Bisericii, el realizeaz la Florena, o teocraie model dar efemer. Peste tot se aud voci care declar necesitatea urgent a unei reforme a Bisericii. Dar lipsete voina. Sinoadele generale de la Constanz i de la Ble promulg multe decrete reformatoare, dar papalitatea, care vrea s-i menin supremaia asupra sinoadelor, refuz s le aplice. Dac Iulius al II-lea convoac sinodul de la Latran (1512), o face doar pentru a le pune bee n roate lui Ludovic al XII-lea i lui Maximilian, care au convocat un sinod la Pisa. ncheiat n 1517, sinodul nu face dect s-i invite pe cardinali s duc o via de preoi i s-i limiteze acumularea de beneficii. n sfrit, ncercrile de reform ale Bisericilor naionale, fcute de suverani, sfresc ntr-un impas, n afar de Spania, unde cardinalul Cisneros reuete s reinstaureze disciplina i s transforme universitile.

Biserica instituional, fiind incapabil s se renoveze, iniiativa este luat de mici grupuri. Cretini i laici caut mpreun noile ci spirituale, n afara ierarhiei ecleziastice i pe baza unei religii individuale, purificate. Acesta este cazul gruprilor mistice, deosebit de active n Europa de nord (Flandra i Renania), care ncearc s ajung la divinitate prin rugciune i meditaie. Aceast form nou de evlavie pune accent pe credina trit individual. Ea d natere unor mici comuniti cum ar fi Fraii vieii comune. Dar aceste practici religioase rezervate unor grupuri restrnse nu puteau s se extind la ansamblul comunitii cretine.

n acelai timp, umanitii propun s se revin la Sfnta Scriptur, la Biblie, purificat de toate interpretrile adugate n Evul Mediu. Traducerea Noului Testament, fcut de Erasmus (1516) sau aceea a Epistolelor Sfntului Pavel, realizat de Lefevre d Etaples, ofer bazele unei noi spiritualiti. Lefevre d Etaples renun la dogme, la ritualuri i la ierarhie i preconizeaz o religie bazat doar pe cuvntului Domnului. Pentru el, orice cretin este i preot, iar meditaia clerului devine inutil. Dac aceti umaniti nu iau n consideraie nici un fel de ruptur cu Biserica instituional, ei deschid totui calea ctre zguduirile reformei pe care Luther o inaugureaz ntre 1517- 1520.

Serge Bernstein, Pierre Milza, Istoria Europei, vol. III, Institutul European, 1997, pag. 139-141

+++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++ Manastirile in evul mediu au avut importante dimensiuni cultural. Manastirile medieval;e alaturi de functile lor spiritual sau impus de asemena in domeniul culturii scrise, a invatamintului si ca centre de activitate artistic. Un impuls substantial in dezvoltarea vietii monahale care in evul meidu a avut importante dimesiuni cultural se datoreaza carturarului nicodim , venit impreuna cu ucenici sai din Serbia in tara rom. Aici el desfasoara o intense activitate ctitoriceasca. Cu certitudine ii sunt atribuite intemeierea manastirilor Vodita, Tismana. Cultura scrisa , in slava veche, cunoaste o diversificare a genurilor si o extindere considerabila. Pe prim plan sa situate MD, unde inca din perioada domniei lui Alexandru cel Bun, se inregistreaza o activitate rodnica a scriptoriilor manastiresti in primul rind a celui de la Neamt. La aceste adevarate focare de cultura medieval au fost transcrise numeroase manuscrise religioase, juridice, istorice. La multe din manastirile moldovenesti sau creat biblioteci bogate, majoritatea risipite cu timpil. In Principatele Rom, invatamintul se concentra la manastiri. Aici invatau viitori clerici si cei meniti pt serviciul de stat. de la incep sec, de cea mai mare autoritate sau bucurat scolile de la manastirea Neamt si Putna. Initial, la scolile manastiresti se studiau discipline applicative: scrisul, aritmetica, muzica bisericeasca, care asigurau necesitatile functionarii aparatului de stat si a bisericii. Strins legata de activitatea scriptorilor manastiresti este si constituirea artei cartii manuscrise. In acest domeniu, se impune unul dintre cei mai talentati artisti din evul mediu rominesc- calugarul de la manastirea Neamt, Gavriil Uric. De asemena, la manastiri, in special la cele de maici, au fost lucrate o multime de piese de broderie liturgica, care prin inaltele calitati artistice sau impus in intreaga lume ortodoxa. Manastirile medieval prezinta si valoroase realizari in domeniul arhitecturii, a picturii murale si a celei de icoane. La unele ,manastiri existau ateliere de mesteri iconari, care majoritatea au ramas in anonimat. Catre sf sec XV, este cunoscut numele zugravului Gavriil Ieromonahul, autor al picturilor murale de la Balinesti, care prezinta una

dintre cele mai importante realizari in domeniul artistic din MD epocii lui St cel Mare. In sec XVII , in Tara Rom sa creat o importanta scoala de picture murala la manastirea Hurezi, care a influentat procesul artistic in intreg spatial rominesc.

+++++++++++++++++++++++++ Medieval Monastery

Medieval Monastery

Interesting Facts and information about Medieval Monastery in the Middle Ages

The Monastic community

The Medieval Monastery layout and buildings

Medieval Monastery Life

Uses of the Medieval monastery Middle Ages Religion Middle Ages Index

Medieval Monastery

Interesting facts and information about life and the lives of men and women in the Medieval period of the Middle Ages

Medieval Monastery The Medieval monastery was established during the Middle Ages. The first type of Medieval monastery adhered to the Benedictine Rule, established by St. Benedict in 529AD. Different orders of monks were also established during the Middle Ages. The major orders of Medieval monks were the Benedictines, the Cistercians and the Carthusians. These monastic orders differed mainly in the details of their religious observation and how strictly they applied their rules. In the twelfth century four hundred and eighteen monasteries were founded in England; in the next century, only about a third as many. In the fourteenth, only twenty-three monasteries were founded in England.

Benedictine Monks

The Monastic community Each monastery endeavoured to form an independent, self-supporting community whose monks had no need of going beyond its limits for anything. In course of time, as a monastery increased in wealth and number of inmates, it might come to form an enormous establishment, covering many acres and presenting within its massive walls the appearance of a fortified town.

Medieval Monastery Hierarchy - Another Feudal Pyramid of Power The pyramid of power which was prevalent in the Medieval feudalism of the Middle Ages also applied to the monasteries. The Medieval Monastery hierarchy. Men who entered a Medieval monastery could become both wealthy and successful. The abbey, the term used for a monastery, was under the

authority of an abbot. Abbeys often owed some form of feudal obligation to a lord or higher organization. They are normally self-contained. The prior ran the monastery in the absence of the abbot. Monks could rise to different positions within a monastery, tutors, archivists, cellarers and doctors. The pyramid of power within the Medieval Church was a follows:

The Pope

Bishop

Arch Bishop

Arch Deacon

Abbot

Prior

Dean

Monks

Claustral Prior - the abbot's second-in-command, responsible for the internal life of the monastery Dean - in early monastic use, a monk appointed by the abbot to supervise a group of ten brethren; in general ecclesastical use, the head of a cathedral chapter; also the senior priest and supervisor of a rural deanery.

An abbot could be a landless noble, who used the church as a means of social advancement. Many 'second sons' of nobles were destined to life in the church. Other monks could advance in a monastery. there were a range of occupations for monks.

Daily Life of a Monk in the Middle Ages Medieval Monks

The Medieval Monastery layout and buildings The principal buildings of a Benedictine monastery of the larger sort were grouped around an inner court, called a cloister. These included a church, a refectory, or dining room, with the kitchen and buttery near it, a dormitory, where the monks slept, and a chapter house, where they transacted business. There was also a library, a school, a hospital, and a guest house for the reception of strangers, besides barns, bakeries, laundries, workshops, and storerooms for provisions. Beyond these buildings lay vegetable gardens, orchards, grain fields, and often a mill, if the monastery was built on a stream. The high wall and ditch, usually surrounding a monastery, shut it off from outsiders and in time of danger protected it against attack.

Buildings and Rooms in a Medieval Monastery The following rooms would be included in a plan of a Medieval monastery. The descriptions of the rooms are as follows:

Cellarium - store-house of a monastery

Chapter-house - The chapter house was a room in which monks met daily, to discuss business and to hear a chapter of the monastic rule

Cloister - the cloister was a covered walkway in a monastery often situated around an quadrangle A cloister often comprised of a plain wall or colonnade on the outer side and a series of windows on the inner side

Dorter - a dorter was a monastic dormitory. Sometimes the monks slept in isolated rooms called cells

Frater - a frater was another term for a refectory (dining room)

Garderobe - a garderobe was a lavatory in a medieval building

Granary - A monastery storehouse for threshed grain

Infirmary - the infirmary was the part of a monastery which housed the monks who were too sick or old to take part in the normal monastic life

Kitchen - The monastery kitchen where food was prepared and cooked

Lavatorium - the lavatorium was a room which contained a trough with running water where monks washed their hands before meals

Misericord - a misericord was the part of a monastery where monks were disciplined

Night Stair - A staircase used by the monks to enter a church directly from their dormitory in order to attend late night and early morning services

Refectory - the refectory was dining hall of a monastery

Sacristy - the sacristy was a small building, usually attached to the chancel in which vestments and sacred vessels were kept

Scriptorium - the scriptorium was the room in a monastery used by clerics or scribes copying manuscripts

Warming-house - the warming house was the only room in a monastery, apart from the infirmary and kitchen, where a fire was allowed. Also called a Calefactory

Medieval Monastery Life Medieval monastery life consisted of a regular round of worship, reading, and manual labor. Every day was divided into eight sacred offices, beginning and ending with services in the monastery church. The first service came usually about two o'clock in the morning; the last, just as evening set in, before the monks retired. In addition to their attendance at church, the monks spent several hours in reading from the Bible, private prayer, and meditation. For most of the day, however, they worked hard with their hands, doing the necessary washing and cooking for the monastery, raising the necessary supplies of vegetables and grain, and performing all the other tasks required to maintain a large establishment like the monastery.

Uses of the Medieval monastery A Medieval monastery was a farm, an inn, a hospital, a school and a library. The uses of a Medieval monastery included the following:

A Medieval monastery received pilgrims and travellers, at a period when western Europe was almost destitute of inns

A Medieval monastery performed many works of charity, feeding the hungry, healing the sick who were brought to their doors, and distributing their medicines

A Medieval monastery provided education for boys who wished to become priests and those who intended to lead active lives in the world

A Medieval monastery copied the manuscripts of classical authors preserving valuable books that would otherwise have been lost

A Medieval monastery kept records of the most striking events of their time and acted as chroniclers of the medieval history of the Middle Ages

Mendicant Orders Members of the mendicant orders ( Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites and Austins) were called Friars. The Mendicant Orders were begging orders of friars who depended upon organized begging for their support. Friars were more involved with the outside community as opposed to the Medieval monastery.

Medieval Monastery Each section of this Middle Ages website addresses all topics and provides interesting facts and information about these great people and events in bygone Medieval times including Medieval Monastery. The Sitemap provides full details of all of the information and facts provided about the fascinating subject of the Middle Ages!

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