Istoria evreilor
Istoria evreilor este istoria evreilor, religiei i culturii po-
porului evreu, cum s-a dezvoltat i a interacionat cu alte
popoare, religii i culturi. Istoria evreilor are o vechime
de peste 4000 de ani.[1]
1 Perioade n istoria evreilor
2 Istoria veche a evreilor (nainte
de 37 .Hr.)
2.1 Conform Bibliei
Moise cu Tablele de piatr (pictur din 1659 de Rembrandt)
Pentru primele dou perioade al istoriei evreilor este n
principal legat de Semiluna Fertil. Acest istorie ncepe
cu acei oameni, care au ocupat zona situat ntre rurile
Nil, Tigru i Eufrat. nconjurat de vechi culturi n Egipt
i Babilon, prin deerturile Arabiei, i mrginit de dealu-
rile Asiei Minor, Canaanul (aproximativ corespunztoa-
re Israelului modern, teritoriilor palestiniene, Iordaniei
i Libanului), a fost un punct de ntlnire a civilizaiilor.
Terenul a fost traversat de rute comerciale vechi, stabili-
ARAM
M
ARA
Regatul Israelului i al Iudeii n 926 . Hr.
te i porturi importante n Golful Akaba (Eilat) i coasta
Mrii Mediterane, acesta din urm artnd inuena altor
culturi ale Semilunii Fertile.
Conform Bibliei, evreii sunt descendenii poporului antic
al Israelului care s-a stabilit n Canaan, situat ntre coasta
de est a Mrii Mediterane i rul Iordan (1451 .Hr.). De-
plasrile nomade ale evreilor s-au situat n jurul localitii
Hebron undeva ntre 1991 i 1706 .Hr.
Fii lui Israel mprtesc liaie, prin strmoii lor co-
muni: Abraham, ul lui, Isaac, i ul lui Isaac, Iacov (Ya-
akov). Iacob a primit numele de Israel, iar cei doispreze-
ce i au fost strmoii celor doisprezece triburi cunoscute
ca ii lui Israel: Ruben, Simeon, Levi, Iuda, Isahar,
Zabulon, Dan, Gad, Neftali, Aer, Iosif, i Beniamin.
Iacob i cei doisprezece i n timpul unei foamete mari
au prsit Canaanul i s-a stabilit n Goshen din nordul
1
2 2 ISTORIA VECHE A EVREILOR (NAINTE DE 37 .HR.)

Egiptului. n Egipt urmaii celor 12 triburi au fost fcui
sclavi de egipteni, condui de Faraon. Dup 400 de ani
de sclavie, YHWH, Dumnezeul lui Israel, a trimis profe-
tul Moise, un om din seminia lui Levi, s elibereze Fii
lui Israel din robia egiptean. Conform Bibliei evreii au
scpat n mod miraculos din Egipt (eveniment cunoscut
ca Exodul) i s-au ntors n patria lor ancestral, Canaa-
nul. Acest eveniment marcheaz formarea Israelului ca
naiune politic n Canaan, n 1400 .Hr.
2.2 Conform tiinei empirice
The Egyptian Empire Black
XVth century BC
HITTITE
EMPIRE
Sardes
ani prin deert, conform lui William Dever.[4] Consen-
sul modern al istoricilor este c nu a existat vreun exod
de proporiile descrise n Biblie[5] i c relatarea trebuie
privit ca teologie i nu ca istorie, teologie care ilustreaz
cum Dumnezeul lui Israel a acionat pentru a-i salva i
ntri propriul popor.[6]
ntr-un documentar al BBC dr. Francesca Stavrakopou-
lou, lector principal la Universitatea din Exeter, specia-
lizat n studii biblice ebraice declara: Biblia nu era o
surs de ncredere, ea nu ne spune adevrul despre aceti
oameni din antichitate [evreii n.n.].[7] ntrebat n ace-
lai documentar dac evreii au fost monoteiti, lucru care
i-ar distins fa de religia canaanit, prof. dr. Herbert
Niehr de la Universitatea din Tbingen declara c evreii
Sea C
as
pi
an
au fost politeiti din sec. al X-lea .e.n. pn cel puin n
Se
586, dup care lucrurile au nceput s se schimbe foarte
a

Mycenae A
lent, evreii ind covritor monoteiti ncepnd cu peri-
CI ASSYRIA
CI
LI
Carchemish
Nineveh oada Macabeilor (secolul al II-lea .e.n.).[8]
SYRIA Assur
ME
Citium
SO
Mediteranean Sea Byblos PO
Kadesh
TA
Sidon
Tyre
Damascus MIA
AAN

Babylon
Gaza
Nippur
2.3 Regatul Unit
CAN

Tanis
Avaris Ur
SINAI Pe
r
Memphis Heliopolis Gu sian
lf
LIBYA
e
Nil

Herakleopolis
ARABIA
EGYPTIAN
Abydos
Re

THEBES
d

Syene
Elephantine I
Se

Abu Simbel
a

II
EMPIRE
III
KUSH
IV

V
Napata

VI
PUNT
(under Egyptian influence)

Egiptul n secolul al XV-lea .e.n., perioada Exodului i a cuceri-

rii Canaanului descris n Cartea lui Iosua conform cronologiei Templul mitic al lui Solomon din Ierusalim. Ilustraie bazat pe
biblice. Aa cum arat harta, Canaanul era ocupat de Egipt n imaginaie i pe detalii biblice
acel timp, fapt pe care Biblia a uitat s-l menioneze.
Dup tradiia evreiasc 12 triburi de evrei, formate din
Istoria evreilor, din perioada antic, e descris n Biblia descendenii celor 12 i ai lui Israel (tribul lui Iosif s-a
evreiasc i cunoscut prin ea n toat lumea. Descope- divizat n dou triburi, dup ii lui, Menae i Efraim),
riri arheologice au ntrit diverse date care apar n Biblie, au cucerit ara Israel, au colonizat-o i, dup o perioad
dar perioada mai veche, a primului Templu, nu are nc n care nu aveau o conducere central, au format un regat
destule dovezi arheologice i sunt istorici care cred c o condus de regele aul. Lui aul i-a urmat regele David.
parte din naraiunea istoric biblic, ar avea mai mult un Acesta a cucerit oraul Salem (n ebraic alem), cru-
caracter mitologic. ia i-a fost schimbat numele n Ierusalim i care a devenit
De exemplu, istoricii consider c exodul evreilor din capitala evreilor. Fiul lui David, Solomon, a construit la
Egipt este un eveniment mitologic.[2] Peter Enns, un cer- Ierusalim Templul, care urma s e unic n religia evrei-
cettor evanghelic, profesor la Seminarul Teologic West- lor. Nu a fost gsit nicio urm a Templului lui Solomon,
minster, dei crede c Biblia este infailibil, recunoate de aceea muli arheologi cred c acesta nu ar existat n
urmtoarele: pentru poziia c relatarea biblic a Exodu- mod real.[9]
lui s-ar petrecut n mod real nu exist dovezi, iar pen- Israel Finkelstein, profesor la Universitatea Tel-Aviv a
tru poziia c relatarea ar putea plauzibil (nu dovedi- lansat controversata teorie a decalajului de timp (a para-
t) exist crile unora ca Homeier i Kitchen.[3] Pen- trsnetului, n englez lightning rod, cum este poreclit
tru poziia c evreii au provenit din populaia canaanit Finkelstein) conform creia, din punct de vedere istoric,
exist dovezi copleitoare, ceea ce elimin posibilitatea aceast prezentare a regatului unit este o ciune, David
exodului din Egipt sau a unui pelerinaj de patruzeci de i Solomon au fost un fel de cpitani de plai, iar regatul
2.3 Regatul Unit 3

iudeu a aprut cu un secol mai trziu.[10] ele de-abia acum intr n contiina publicului israelian,
[16]
Din punct de vedere arheologic i istoric, redatarea aces- afectndu-l puternic.
tor orae de la epoca lui Solomon la perioada omrid are Laura Miller, King David was a nebbish
implicaii enorme. Ea nltur singura dovad arheolo-
gic dup care ar existat vreodat o monarhie unit cu
n disputa care se poart ntre taberele minimalitilor i
capitala n Ierusalim i arat c David i Solomon erau, n maximalitilor, unii negnd complet istoricitatea Bibliei,
termeni politici, nimic altceva dect cpitani ai inutului
ceilali armnd-o complet[17] , Finkelstein respinge cata-
deluros, a cror raz administrativ era limitat la nivelul logarea sa ca minimalist, prefernd s se considere cen-
local, adic la inutul deluros.[10] trist: el recunoate c David i Solomon au fost persoane
Israel Finkelstein i Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible istorice reale i nu respinge n bloc Biblia ebraic, precum
Unearthed. Archaeologys New Vision of Ancient Israel minimalitii, dar nici nu o accept n totalitate[17] .
and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts. Punctul de vedere al lui Amihai Mazar este urmtorul:
Cu ct ne ndeprtm de ceea ce Mazar vede drept pe-
Dar excavrile din oraul lui David au oferit descoperiri
rioada cheie de scriere a Bibliei, adic secolele VIII-VII
impresionante din Epoca mijlocie a bronzului i din se- .e.n., cu att mai imaginativ, mai simbolic, mai distor-
colele ulterioare ale Epocii erului - dar nu din secolul al
sionat i mai neclar devine trecutul. n plus, trebuie s
X-lea .e.n. Cea mai optimist evaluare a acestei dovezi avem n vedere impactul unor factori precum deforma-
negative este c Ierusalimul din secolul a X-lea era limi-
rea, selectivitatea, pierderea amintirilor, cenzura i lipsa
tat ca suprafa, probabil nu mai mare dect un sat tipic de imparialitate cu caracter ideologic sau personal asu-
pentru inutul deluros.[11]
pra compunerii tradiiilor biblice astfel alctuite.[18]
Israel Finkelstein i Neil Asher Silberman, The Bible Brian B. Schmidt, The quest for the historical Israel:
Unearthed. Archaeologys New Vision of Ancient Israel debating archaeology and the history of early Israel :
and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts. invited lectures delivered at the Sixth Biennial Colloquium
of the International Institute for Secular Humanistic
Aceast teorie a lightning rod (paratrsnet, care es- Judaism, Detroit, October 2005
te porecla lui Finkelstein) a fost respins de majoritatea
specialitilor,[12] lucru negat de o alt surs.[13] n ediia Biblia arm c Iehoafat, un contemporan al lui Ahab, a
din iulie-august 2006 a revistei Biblical Archaeology Re- oferit for de munc i cai pentru rzboaiele regatului de
view, Michael Coogan de la Stonehill College, considera
nord contra arameilor. El i-a ntrit legtura cu regatul
c Finkelstein i Silberman basculeaz de la ipotetic, la de nord prin a aranja o cstorie diplomatic: prinesa
improbabil i absurd (n englez move from the hypo-
israelit Ataliah, sora sau ica Regelui Ahab s-a csto-
thetical to the improbable to the absurd). Coogan recu- rit cu Iehoram, ul lui Iehoafat (2 Imparati 8:18). Casa
noate ns c Ierusalimul de pe vremea lui David avea
lui David din Ierusalim era direct legat (i se pare do-
n jur de cteva mii de locuitori, neind un ora, ci doar minat) de regii israelii din Samaria. De fapt, am putea
un sat, conform standardelor de azi.[14] n documentarul
sugera c aceasta a reprezentat cucerirea de ctre nord
History Channel The Bible Unearthed (Biblia dezgropa- a Iudei prin cstorire. Astfel, n secolul al IX-lea .e.n.
t) Amihai Mazar arm c Ierusalimul de pe vremea lui - la un secol dup presupusa domnie a lui David - pu-
David era un ora foarte mic, dar era un orel puternic tem n sfrit descrie existena unei mari monarhii unite
n vacuumul politic din ar.[15] n Israel, ntinzndu-se de la Dan n nord pn la Beer-
Ziarista Laura Miller popularizeaz teoriile lui Herzog, eba n sud, cu teritorii semnicative cucerite n Siria i
Finkelstein i Silberman n web site-ul ei: Transiordania. Dar aceast monarhie unit - o monarhie
Herzog a emis i formulat multe din teoriile pe care Fin- unit real - era condus de casa lui Omri, nu de [19]casa lui
kelstein i Silberman le prezint n cartea lor: Israelienii David, iar capitala ei era Samaria nu Ierusalimul.
nu au fost niciodat n Egipt, nu au rtcit prin deert, nu Israel Finkelstein i Neil Asher Silberman, David and
au cucerit ara [Canaan] ntr-o campanie militar i nu au Solomon. In Search of the Bibles Sacred Kings and the
lsat-o motenire celor dousprezece triburi ale lui Isra- Roots of the Western Tradition.
el. Probabil cel mai greu de acceptat este faptul c regatul
unit al lui David i Solomon, descris n Biblie ca putere
Conform renumitului istoric Philip Davies, minimalitii
regional, era cel mult un mic regat tribal. Noile teorii reprezint tiina (arheologia) fcut aa cum trebuie ea
vd acest modest cpitnie de plai bazat n Ierusalim fcut, iar maximalitii sunt aprtorii fundamentaliti ai
drept un ora de vcari, dar nu drept capital glorioas a adevrului literal al Bibliei, care de fapt fac apologetic,
unui imperiu. nu tiin empiric.[20] El arm c aproape toi istoricii
Dei, cum susine Herzog, unele din aceste descoperiri sunt de fapt minimaliti, cu excepia fundamentalitilor
au fost acceptate de ani de zile sau chiar de decenii religioi, stare de fapt care este o consecin a faptului
de ctre majoritatea arheologilor i cercettorilor Bibliei, c fundamentalitii religioi au pierdut controlul asupra
4 2 ISTORIA VECHE A EVREILOR (NAINTE DE 37 .HR.)

arheologiei Levantului antic, lucru care s-a ntmplat n
SUA cu 50 de ani mai trziu dect n Europa.[20] El arm
c minimalitii nu au inventat dovezile arheologice care
contrazic Biblia ebraic, ci doar au dedus din ele con-
cluzia reasc, anume c relatrile Bibliei sunt ctive.[20]
Dup el, Finkelstein ar i el tot un minimalist, deoarece
a pstrat ideea c ele sunt n mare parte ctive, dei a con-
chis c a Bibliei compunere nu s-a ntmplat n Persia, ci
n Regatul Iuda, n timpul domniei lui Iozia.[20]
Permitei-mi s ntresc aceast susinere referitoare la
operele mele. Opinia majoritar a cercettorilor critici
ai Bibliei accept faptul c de la Genez pn la Iosua
(eventual i n Judectori) ea este lipsit n mod substan-
ial de istorie de ncredere i c grosul literaturii Bibliei
ebraice a fost compus sau i-a dobndit forma canonic
n perioada persan. Sunt astfel de prere c ncercrile
de a m plasa la periferia cercetrii sunt ridicole.[21]
Philip Davies, Minimalism, Ancient Israel, and
Anti-Semitism
ne de un imperiu, vorbind de perioada lui David i
Solomon;
Nu exist dovezi despre un regat din oraele pe care
Biblia arm c Solomon le-ar recldit n secolul
al X-lea .e.n.;
Rzboaiele de cucerire ale lui David sunt extrem de
improbabile, dat ind populaia redus din Iuda n
sec. al X-lea .e.n.;
Fortreaa din Khirbet Qeiyafa (valea Elah) este
ntr-adevr impresionant, ar putut eventual lo-
cuit de evrei i ar putut apra un centru adminis-
trativ, dar nu au fost gsite dovezi c Ierusalimul ar
fost centrul unui imperiu n secolul al X-lea .e.n.;
Descoperirea din parcul arheologic numit oraul lui
David nu a fost datat corespunztor, deoarece ol-
ria a fost amestecat din neglijen, iar o datare la
secolul al IX-lea este mai probabil;

Jack Cargill remarc diversitatea de opinii publicate asu- Iuda i Israelul n-au fost unite, ci se aau n rivalitate,
pra istoriei Israelului, i c n general manualele de civili- aceasta explic menionarea n treact a lui Omri i
zaie occidental redau un punct de vedere literalist, care defimarea regilor Israelului de ctre autorii Bibliei;
este rmas probabil cu douzeci de ani n urm din punct
de vedere universitar.[22] Exist deci i puncte de vede- Stela de la Tel-Dan: scris la un secol i jumtate
re maximaliste n aceast disput, dei maximalismul n dup David, ceea ce ar putea indica faptul c exis-
sens literal este destul de rar printre cercettorii profesi- tena lui David era o legend, iar casa lui David s-ar
oniti ai istoriei.[23] n aceast privin Lester L. Grabbe putut revendica de la un erou imaginar; n orice
arm c singura istorie literal maximalist a Israelului caz acest lucru rmne controversat, sunt destui is-
de la Wellhausen ncoace este cea publicat de Provan, torici care consider ca David a existat n mod real;
Long i Longman n 2003, nici mcar John Bright neind n cel mai bun caz stela ne poate spune c David a
pe de-a-ntregul maximalist, n sensul de a accepta veridi- existat n mod real, dar nu dovedete existena im-
citatea textului Bibliei pn la dovada contrarie.[23] Tot periului su;
Grabbe arm c pe vremea cnd studia pentru doctorat
(cu mai bine de trei decenii n urm), istoricitatea sub- Baruch Halpern arm c David a existat n mod
stanial a povestirilor Bibliei despre patriarhi i despre real, cci dac ar fost un erou imaginar cei care i-
cucerirea Canaanului era acceptat pe larg, dar n zilele ar compus legenda n-ar inventat alibiuri pentru
noastre cu greu se mai poate gsi un istoric care s mai omorurile sale; el consider ns c David cel istoric
cread n ea.[23] era foarte diferit de imaginea despre el pe care o are
publicul larg.
n documentarul BBC Secretele ngropate ale Bibliei
din 2011, dr. Stavrakopoulou arma, dup ce se consulta-
se cu Baruch Halpern, Yosef Garnkel i Doron Spielman Sigur, Garnkel i Spielman erau de prere c siturile ale
cror excavaii le conduc ei demonstreaz existena rega-
(ultimii doi ind e de excavaii ale unor situri pretinse
davidico-solomonice), c dei unele descoperiri recente tului lui David i Solomon,[24] dar ei reprezint o opinie
minoritar n lumea academic.[25] Conform unui articol
ar putea pune la ndoial teoriile lui Finkelstein, teza im-
periului unit sub domnia lui David rmne nesusinut de din National Geographic, Eilat Mazar pretinde c ar
dovezi arheologice, e i pe motivul menionrii doar n descoperit vestigiile palatului lui David, dar un fost stu-
dent al ei care este ghid turistic le explic celor care vizi-
treact de ctre Biblie a realizrilor politice ale regelui
teaz locul c Mazar n-a descoperit palatul lui David.[26]
Omri, asupra existenei i puterii cruia exist dovezi ar-
heologice de netgduit.[24] Dup ea, acest lucru indic David Ilan, de la Hebrew Union College este de acord cu
ghidul, considernd depit metoda d-nei Mazar de a lu-
resentimentele fa de regatul Israel ale autorilor din re-
gatul Iuda.[24] cra cu mistria ntr-o mn i Biblia n cealalt, cum f-
ceau precedentele generaii de arheologi biblici.[26] Ami-
Conform acestui documentar BBC:
hai Mazar, o somitate a arheologiei israeliene i vrul
descoperitoarei, consider c ar probabil vorba de for-
Finkelstein arm c un secol i jumtate de esca- treaa Sionului, cucerit de David, dar ar putea orice
vri n oraul lui David n-au descoperit lucruri dem- altceva.[27]
 5

2.4 Captivitatea babilonian 3 Cucerirea roman a Israelului

(63 .Hr. - 324 d.Hr.)
n anul 605 .Hr. regatul lui Iuda, care ocupa sudul Pales-
tinei avnd capitala la Ierusalim, cade sub dominaia re-
gatului Babilonului. Pentru c evreii nu vor s plteasc 3.1 Diaspora
tributurile cerute de cuceritori, Nabucodonosor, suvera-
nul din Babilon, se ndreapt cu armata sa spre Palestina 3.2 Perioada roman trzie n Israel
i oblig Ierusalimul s capituleze dup un scurt asediu.
Ca s-i pedepseasc pe supuii rebeli, Nabucodonosor i
duce n Babilon pe suveranul nvins, pe familia acestu- 4 Epoca Medieval
ia, pe oeri, soldai, oameni bogai i cunosctorii unor
tehnici rare n metal. Mai mult de 10.000 de oameni au 4.1 Perioada bizantin n Israel (324 - 638)
prsit atunci Ierusalimul. Nabucodonosor instaleaz pe
tronul lui Iuda un membru al familiei regale evreieti, Se-
decias, care revoltndu-se i el dup civa ani, face ca 4.2 Perioada islamic n Israel (638 - 1099)
Ierusalimul s e din nou asediat de babilonieni. n 587,
dup un asediu de mai bine de un an de zile, Ierusalimul 4.3 Perioada cruciailor n Israel (1099 -
se pred. Conform Bibliei, eful trupelor babiloniene a 1260)
ars casa Domnului (Templul din Ierusalim), casa regelui
i alte case ale locuitorilor de vaz. Regatul lui Iuda a
4.4 Perioada mamelucilor n Israel (1260 -
ncetat s existe. O mare parte din populaie era n exil.
Pentru prima dat n istoria lor, evreii nu mai au ar. 1517)
Evreii din antichitate consider c acest dezastru care s-
a abtut peste ei este consecina neascultrii lor fa de 4.4.1 Spania, Africa de Nord, i Orientul Mijlociu
legea dictat de Dumnezeu, fa de recomandrile legate
de cultul i de elul su. Conform Bibliei, Dumnezeu i-a 4.5 Europa
avertizat prin profei, mesagerii Si, dar ei i-au luat n rs.
Abia acum cnd sunt pui la grea ncercare ascult de tri-
miii lui Dumnezeu i a c suferinele lor vor lua sfrit, 5 Perioada modern timpurie
dac vor respecta poruncile Domnului. De acum nainte
vor respecta practica sabatului, zi de odihn i consacra- 5.1 Peninsula Iberic
t Domnului, vor organiza cu regularitate posturi come-
mornd pierderea Templului i a regatului lor, spernd s
se mpace cu Dumnezeu. 5.2 Imperiul Otoman
n 539 .Hr., Cirus, suveranul persan, cucerete imperiul
babilonian. Acesta, printr-un edict, autorizeaz pe evrei
5.3 Polonia i Lituania
s se ntoarc n ara lor i s-i reconstruiasc Templul cu
ajutorul visteriei persane. n 515, Templul este terminat 5.4 Iluminarea European i Haskalah
i se reia cultul n mod resc. (sec. al 18-lea)
Dar abia dup un secol i jumtate, dup interveniile
babilonienilor, urmele materiale ale dramei se estom- 5.5 Iudaismul Hasidic
peaz o dat cu reconstrucia treptat a Ierusalimului i
cu repopularea lui[28]
6 Secolul al 19-lea
Contribuii recente la istoria Levantului antic pun la n-
doial realitatea exilului babilonian i/sau acurateea re- 7 Secolul al 20-lea
latrii biblice asupra acestuia.[2]

7.1 Sionismul modern

2.5 Perioada post-exilic 7.2 Holocaustul

2.5.1 Perioada elenist 7.3 ninarea statului Israel

2.5.2 Regatul Hasmonean 8 Secolul 21

6 10
9 Istoria evreilor dup ar sau re-
giune
Pentru a vedea mprirea populaiei evreieti pe ri n
istorie i n contemporaneitate, vezi Evrei dup ri. Pen- Davies,
tru a vedea populaiile evreieti istorice i contemporane Introduction to the Pentateuch.
pe ri, vezi Evrei dup ri.
10 Bibliograe
Aharoni, Yohanan (1982). The Ar-
chaeology of the Land of Israel.
Westminster Press. ISBN 0-664-
21384-7
Assman, Jan (1997). Moses the
Egyptian. First Harvard University
Press. ISBN 0-664-21384-7
Beitzel, Barry (Spring 1980).
Exodus 3:14 and the divine
Name: A Case of Biblical Paro-
nomasia. Trinity Journal (Trinity
Divinity School) Vol.1: 5-20.
https://docs.google.com/viewer?
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Case+of+Biblical+Paronomasia&
hl=en&gl=au&pid=bl&srcid=
ADGEEShjZngDYT4Ccemm_
XRLzWtlYI-xOV37wqv7eG2UGNLaqGC9KMd1Copiregje1GKSmXGchkPiaBc6sTagW3vqB37I439Wz9W5T5sOXCri
sig=
AHIEtbQVm4MLKDynPGGAX8BjdJYZg_
kmwg.
Bimson, John J. (1981). Redating
the Exodus. Sheeld Academic
Press. ISBN 0-907459-04-8
Butzer, Karl W. (1999).
Demographics. n Bard,
Kathryn A.; Shubert, Steven.
Encyclopedia of the archaeology
of ancient Egypt. Routledge.
ISBN 0-907459-04-8. http:
//books.google.com.au/books?id=
XNdgScxtirYC&dq=population+
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De Moor, Johannes C. (1996).
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Dever, William (2001). What
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Feldman, Louis H. (1998).
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Guillaume, Philippe. Tracing the
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brew Scriptures Vol.5, article 13,
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UMJeFqxwWh0J:www.arts.
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43.pdf+Tracing+the+origin+
of+the+sabbatical+calendar&
hl=en&gl=au&pid=bl&srcid=
ADGEESghhlL-vGGEQttylpUuQmMP2J4rzDi-LUAs44h8y-iN
sig=
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Hayes, John Haralson; Miller,
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2C&f=false
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%28Yisrael%29+left+Egypt&
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Biblical Peoples and Ethnicity. So-
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oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=
%22Killebrew%22+%22Biblical+
peoples+and+ethnicity:
+an+archaeological+study+..
.%22+&ots=ZaJvmpgnzk&sig=
CzIY1aStY7SWB4f1uc9NWTUJocY#
v=onepage&q=&f=false
Kitchen, Kenneth (2006).
Egyptology and the traditions
of early Hebrew antiquity (Gene-
sis and Exodus). n Rogerson,
John William; Lieu, Judith.
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pg=PA90&dq=Egyptology+and+
the+traditions+of+early+Hebrew+
antiquity+%28Genesis+and+
Exodus%29&hl=en&sa=X&ei=
7CNfT-6UIOqNiAfk5-nGBw&
ved=0CEwQ6AEwBA#v=
onepage&q=Egyptology%
20and%20the%20traditions%
20of%20early%20Hebrew%
20antiquity%20%28Genesis%
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id=crA3AAAAIAAJ&printsec=
frontcover&dq=Lemche+Early+
Israel:+anthropological+and+
historical+studies&source=
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lpg=PA58&dq=the+apotropaic+
origin+of+the+passover&source=
bl&ots=BfaGijqP-p&sig=
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false
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books?id=Dkr7rVd3hAQC&
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sig=34MiohXpIkBpdL0HUxFfn_
6ouT4&hl=en&ei=
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result&resnum=3&ved=
0CB0Q6AEwAg#v=onepage&
q=McDermott%2C%20John.
 9

%20Reading%20the% dq=Bitter+Lives:+Israel+in+and+
20Pentateuch%3A%20A% out+of+Egypt&hl=en&sa=X&ei=
20Historical%20Introduction. LlVZT7DlDaOciAfh3dG9DQ&
%20Paulist%20Press%2C% ved=0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=
202002&f=false onepage&q=Bitter%20Lives%
McEntire, Mark (2008). 3A%20Israel%20in%20and%
Struggling with God: An In- 20out%20of%20Egypt&f=false
troduction to the Pentateuch. Russell, Stephen C. (2009).
Mercer University Press. http: Images of Egypt in early biblical
//books.google.com.au/books? literature. Walter de Gruyter.
id=VwOs9f1FpmsC&printsec= http://books.google.com.au/
frontcover&dq=Struggling+ books?id=OMISLh2ZC08C&
with+God:+An+Introduction+ printsec=frontcover&dq=
to+the+Pentateuch&hl=en& Images+of+Egypt+in+early+
sa=X&ei=XLdAT8zqCI_ biblical+literature&source=
HmQW-zqTRBw&ved= bl&ots=pcFRmhj8cB&sig=
0CDQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& FsAKzE4DxCrLGYYtp7C9h6JHXlU&
q=Struggling%20with%20God% hl=en&ei=
3A%20An%20Introduction% Uw0bTZWIBoqsvgOYltiTDg&
20to%20the%20Pentateuch&f= sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
false result&resnum=2&ved=
Meyers, Carol (2005). Exodus. 0CCYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&
Cambridge University Press. http: q&f=false
//books.google.com.au/books?id= Soggin, John (1998 [tr.1999]).
0QHHITXsyskC&pg=PA7&lpg= An Introduction to the Histo-
PP1&dq=Meyers+Exodus ry of Israel and Judah. SCM
Noll, K.L. (2001). Canaan and Press. http://books.google.com.au/
Israel in Antiquity: An Introduction. books?id=Dzw_H5GhkfYC&
Sheeld Academic Press. http: printsec=frontcover&dq=
//books.google.com.au/books?id= Alberto+Soggin,+%22An+
2rnyjxLHy-QC&pg=PA15&lpg= Introduction+to+the+History+
PA15&dq=Canaan+and+Israel+ of+Israel+and+Judah&source=
in+antiquity:+an+introduction+ bl&ots=PtGxhrMcXu&sig=
+By+K.+L.+Noll&source= jvBk1SfRjrcsuqicovT9mqZ3qc4&
bl&ots=bGxbh3KarI&sig= hl=en&ei=
IVBitHijVMSXHXcpSZ7dBbyWyEo& QptGTPiDH8jMcNKC_
hl=en&ei= I0B&sa=X&oi=book_result&
Lc39S-zvOcOHccqL8YYK& ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
sa=X&oi=book_result& 0CBQQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
ct=result&resnum=1&ved= q&f=false
0CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& Tigay, Jerey H. (2004). Exodus.
q&f=false n Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc
Practico, Gary D. (Summer 1985). Zvi. The Jewish study Bi-
Nelson Gluecks 1938-1940 ble. Oxford University Press.
Excavations at Tell el-Kheleifeh: http://books.google.com.au/
A Reappraisal. Bulletin of the books?id=aDuy3p5QvEYC&
American Schools of Oriental printsec=frontcover&dq=The+
Research (BASOR) No. 259: 1-32. Jewish+study+Bible&hl=en&ei=
http://www.bible.ca/archeology/ unbbTonKMZGQiQejvpjdDQ&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
bible-archeology-exodus-kadesh-barnea-ezion-geber-nelson-gluecks-1938-1940-excavations-tell-el-kheleifeh-reappraisa
htm. result&resnum=1&ved=
Redmount, Carol A. (1998). 0CDsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=
Bitter Lives: Israel In And Out Exodus&f=false
of Egypt. n Coogan, Micha- Van Seters, John (1997). The
el D.. The Oxford History of Geography of the Exodus. n Sil-
the Biblical World. OUP. http: berman, Neil Ash. The land that I
//books.google.com.au/books? will show you. Sheeld Academic
id=lIrbaEzoCZMC&pg=PT97& Press. ISBN 978-1850756507.
10 11 VEZI I

http://books.google.com.au/ onepage&q=Early%20Israel%
books?id=YzQe_4Waz34C& 20in%20recent%20biblical%
printsec=frontcover&dq=The+ 20scholarship%20Younger&f=
Land+That+I+Will+Show+You: false
+Essays+in+History+and+
Archaeology+of+the+Ancient+
Near+East&source=bl&ots= 11 Vezi i
Jjp2Y0h3Sz&sig=jauEX7cJJ8_
AIVgGe9KfjDjYQzg&
Antisemitism
hl=en&ei=
IQbxS-OzIpCTkAXp59HWBg& Cronologia antisemitismului
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=
result&resnum=1&ved= Afacerea Dreyfus
0CBgQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& Inchiziie
q&f=false
Walton, John W. (2003). Exodus, Criptoiudaism
date of. n Alexander, T.D.;
Istoria evreilor n timpul celui de-al Doilea rzboi
Baker, David W.. Dictionary
mondial
of the Old Testament: Pentate-
uch. InterVarsity Press. http: Sionism
//books.google.com.au/books?
id=Ao5ecZ0ZsG8C&printsec= Theodor Herzl
frontcover&dq=Dictionary+of+
Acordul SykesPicot
the+Old+Testament:+Pentateuch+
Alexander&hl=en&ei= Declaraia Balfour (1917)
YgfYTpGfB4bymAWw1dT5Cw&
sa=X&oi=book_result& Mandatul britanic pentru Palestina
ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
Conferina de Pace de la Paris din 1919
0CDEQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&
q=Exodus%2C%20date%20of& Istoria Israelului
f=false
Whitelam, Keith W. (2006). Istoria evreilor n Israel
General problems of studying Triburile israelite
the text of the bible.... n Roger-
son, John William; Lieu, Judith. Regatul Israel
The Oxford handbook of bibli-
cal studies. Oxford University Evrei
Press. http://books.google.com. Evrei sefarzi
au/books?id=HMkMeaijNT4C&
pg=PA255&dq=Introduction: Evrei akenazi
+General+Problems+text+
Hebrew+bible+reconstruct+ Steaua lui David
social+background&hl=en& Tora
sa=X&ei=P_dfT_S-OsKyiQf_
hszmBw&ved=0CDkQ6AEwAQ# Talmud
v=onepage&q&f=false
Palestina
Younger, K. Lawson, Jr. (2004).
Early Israel in recent biblical Revolta lui Bar Kohba
studies. n Arnold, Bill T.; Ba-
ker, David W.. The face of Old Rzboaiele romanilor cu evreii
Testament studies. Baker Acade- Diaspora evreiasc
mic. http://books.google.com.
au/books?id=vO8XRZyhvpMC& Populaia evreiasc
pg=PA176&dq=Early+Israel+
in+recent+biblical+scholarship+ Evrei dup ri
Younger&hl=en&sa=X&ei= tiina evreiasc
fLZAT-vcLeOXiAfjounnBA&
ved=0CDcQ6AEwAA#v= Diviziarea evreilor dup etnii
 11

Refugiai evrei [6] Redmount 1998, p. 64.

Exodul evreilor din lumea arab [7] Bibles Buried Secrets, Did God have A Wife, BBC, 2011.
Citat: The Bible was an unreliable source, its not telling
Josephus, un istoric evreu celebru din Imperiul Ro- us the truth about these ancient people.
man
[8] Ibidem. Citat: Between the 10th century and the begin-
Iudaism ning of their exile in 586 there was polytheism as normal
religion all throughout Israel; only afterwards things begin
Liste al evreilor faimoi to change and very slowly they begin to change. I would
say it is only correct for the last centuries, maybe only
Cronologie a istoriei evreilor from the period of the Maccabees, that means the second
century BC, so in the time of Jesus of Nazareth it is true,
Istoria evreilor n Romnia
but for the time before it, it is not true.

[9] Golden, Jonathan Michael (2004) (n englez). Ancient

12 Note Canaan and Israel: new perspectives. Santa Barbara:
ABC-CLIO, Inc. p. 274. ISBN 1-57607-897-3. http://
books.google.com/?id=yTMzJAKowyEC&pg=PA274&
[1] en http://www.bible-history.com/maps/israel_judah_
dq=archaeological+proof+king+david#v=onepage&q=
kings.html
archaeological%20proof%20king%20david&f=false.
[2] Histricamente, no podemos hablar ms de un periodo Accesat la 14 ianuarie 2011
de los Patriarcas, del xodo de los israelitas de Egipto,
de la con quista de Canan, de un periodo de los Jueces [10] Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002) [2001].
en Palestina, ni de una Monarqua Unida dominando 8. In the Shadow of Empire (842-720 BCE) (n
desde el ufrates hasta el Arco de Egipto.31 Incluso englez). The Bible Unearthed. Archaeologys New
la historicidad del Exilio de los israelitas de Palestina Vision of Ancient Israel and The Origin of Its Sacred
hacia Babilonia como un evento nico ha sido puesta en Texts. (ed. First Touchstone Edition 2002). New York:
seria duda recientemente.32 31 Cf. Th. L. Thompson, Touchstone. pp. 189190. ISBN 978-0-684-86913-1.
Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written http://books.google.nl/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&
and Archaeological Sources, Studies in the History of pg=PA190&dq=david+and+solomon+%22little+
the Ancient Near East, 4, Leiden, E. J. Brill, 1992, pp. more+than+hill-country+chieftains&hl=nl&ei=
10-116, 146-158, 215-300, 401412; N. P. Lemche, 36DVTPbjG4ej4Qa7qoniBw&sa=X&oi=book_result&
Early Israel Revisited, Currents in Research: Biblical ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDcQ6AEwAw#v=
Studies, vol. 4, 1996, pp. 9-34, y The Israelites in History onepage&q=david%20and%20solomon%20%22little%
and Tradition, Library of Ancient Israel, Louisville, wjk, 20more%20than%20hill-country%20chieftains&f=
1998, pp. 35 85; I. Finkelstein y N. A. Silberman, The false. Archaeologically and historically, the redating of
Bible Unearthed: Archaeologys New Vision on Ancient these cities from Solomons era to the time of Omrides
Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts, Nueva York, Free has enormous implication. It removes the only archeo-
Press, 2001, pp. 27-96, 123-145. Vease tambien Live- logical evidence that there was ever a united monarchy
rani, Oltre la Bibbia. Storia antica di Israele, Roma-Bari, based in Jerusalem and suggests that David and Solomon
Laterza, 2003, y Recenti tendenze nella ricostruzione della were, in political terms, little more than hill country
storia antica d'Israele, Roma, Accademia Nazionale dei chieftains, whose administrative reach remained on a
Lincei, 2005. 32 L. L. Grabbe (ed.), Leading Captivity fairy local level, restricted to the hill country.
Captive: The Exile as History and Ideology, Journal for
[11] Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2002)
the Study of the Old Testament - Supplement Series, [2001]. 5. Memories of a Golden Age? (n engle-
278/European Seminar in Historical Methodology, 2, z). The Bible Unearthed. Archaeologys New Vision
Sheeld, Sheeld Academic Press, 1998. of Ancient Israel and The Origin of Its Sacred Texts.
Emanuel Pfoh, UNA DECONSTRUCCIN DEL (ed. First Touchstone Edition 2002). New York:
PASADO DE ISRAEL EN EL ANTIGUO ORIENTE: Touchstone. p. 133. ISBN 978-0-684-86913-1.
HACIA UNA NUEVA HISTORIA DE LA ANTIGUA http://books.google.nl/books?id=lu6ywyJr0CMC&pg=
PALESTINA, Estudios de Asia y frica, Vol. 45, No. 3 PA133&dq=bible+unearthed+jerusalem+country+
(143) (SEPTIEMBRE-DICIEMBRE, 2010), pp.669-697, village&hl=nl&ei=kd7VTMG0AY2Z4Aa685mhBw&
Published by: El Colegio De Mexico, Stable URL: sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
http://www.jstor.org/stable/25822403 0CCsQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false. Yet exca-
vations in the city of David revealed impressive nds
[3] http://peterennsonline.com/wordpress/ from the Middle Bronze Age and from later centuries of
wp-content/uploads/2007/12/ the Iron Agejust not from the tenth century BCE. The
most optimistic assessment of this negative evidence is
exodus-and-the-problem-of-historiography-rr-new-version-final-dec-05.
pdf that tenth century Jerusalem was rather limited in extent,
perhaps not more than a typical hill country village.
[4] Dever 2001, p. 99.
[12] Richard N. Ostling Was King David legend or ction? As-
[5] Walton 2003, p. 258. sociated Press.
12
[13] Vezi i Archaeological Debate about a Proposed Low
Chronology for Iron I-IIA (sursa nregistreaz articole
pro i contra).
[14] Coogan, Michael (octombrie 2010). 4. Thou Shalt
Not: Forbidden Sexual Relationships in the Bible (n
englez). God and Sex. What the Bible Really Says (ed.
1st). New York, Boston: Twelve. Hachette Book Group.
p. 105. ISBN 978-0-446-54525-9. http://books.google.
com/books?id=laM1AQAAQBAJ&pg=PT53. Accesat
la 5 mai 2011. Jerusalem was no exception, except that
it was barely a cityby our standards, just a village. In
Davids time, its population was only a few thousand, who
lived on about a dozen acres, roughly equal to two blocks
in Midtown Manhattan.
[15] Cf. http://icarusfilms.com/new2006/bib2.html
[16] Laura Miller King David was a nebbish. Salon.com. Ci-
tat: Herzog laid out many of the theories Finkelstein and
Silberman present in their book: the Israelites were never
in Egypt, did not wander in the desert, did not conquer the
land [of Canaan] in a military campaign and did not pass
it on to the twelve tribes of Israel. Perhaps even harder to
swallow is the fact that the united kingdom of David and
Solomon, described in the Bible as a regional power, was
at most a small tribal kingdom. The new theories envision
this modest chiefdom as based in a Jerusalem that was es-
sentially a cow town, not the glorious capital of an empire.
Although, as Herzog notes, some of these ndings have
been accepted by the majority of biblical scholars and ar-
chaeologists for years and even decades, they are just now
making a dent in the awareness of the Israeli publica
very painful dent.
[17] The Devil Is Not So Black as He Is Painted BAR intervi-
ews Israel Finkelstein
[18] Finkelstein, Israel; Mazar, Amihay (2007). A Su-
mmary Assessment for Part 1. The quest for the
historical Israel: debating archaeology and the his-
tory of early Israel : invited lectures delivered at the
Sixth Biennial Colloquium of the International Insti-
tute for Secular Humanistic Judaism, Detroit, October
2005. Brian B. Schmidt. Atlanta, GA: Society of
Biblical Literature. p. 8. ISBN 9-781589-832770.
http://books.google.nl/books?id=jpbngoKHg8gC&
pg=PA8&dq=The+Quest+for+the+Historical+Israel:
Debating+Archeology+and+the+History+of+Early+
Israel+resultant+biblical+traditions&hl=nl&ei=
E1P5TO2oLM6z8QPs3anECQ&sa=X&oi=book_
result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCYQ6AEwAA#
v=onepage&q&f=false. Accesat la 3 decembrie 2010.
The farther one goes from what Mazar views as the
pivotal period of biblical composition, that is, the eighth
to seventh centuries B.C.E., the more imaginative,
symbolic, distorted, and foggier that past becomes.
In addition, one must take into account the impact that
such factors as distortion, selectivity, memory loss,
censorship, and ideological or personal bias might have
brought to bear on the composition of the resultant
biblical traditions.
[19] Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2006). 3.
Murder, Lust, and Betrayal (n englez). David and
12 NOTE
Solomon. In Search of the Bibles Sacred Kings and
the Roots of the Western Tradition.. New York: Free
Press. p. 103. ISBN 978-0-7432-4363-6. http://books.
google.nl/books?id=uH7Kg9yEc7AC&pg=PA103&dq=
represented+the+north%27s+takeover+by+marriage+
of+Judah&hl=nl&ei=_d0TTY6EJsqyhAeL_aS4Dg&
sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=
0CCYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=represented%20the%
20north%27s%20takeover%20by%20marriage%20of%
20Judah&f=false. Accesat la 24 decembrie 2010.
The Bible reports that Jehoshaphat, a contemporary of
Ahab, oered manpower and horses for the northern
kingdoms wars against the Arameans. He strengthened
his relationship with the northern kingdom by arranging
a diplomatic marriage: the Israelite princess Athaliah,
sister or daughter of King Ahab, married Jehoram, the
son of Jehoshaphat (2 Kings 8:18). The house of David
in Jerusalem was now directly linked to (and apparently
dominated by) the Israelite royalty of Samaria. In
fact, we might suggest that this represented the norths
takeover by marriage of Judah. Thus in the ninth century
BCEnearly a century after the presumed time of
Davidwe can nally point to the historical existence of
a great united monarchy of Israel, stretching from Dan
in the north to Beer-sheba in the south, with signicant
conquered territories in Syria and Transjordan. But this
united monarchya real united monarchywas ruled
by the Omrides, not the Davidides, and its capital was
Samaria, not Jerusalem.
[20] Philip Davies The Bible and Interpretation Beyond Labels:
What Comes Next?
[21] Philip Davies Minimalism, Ancient Israel, and Anti-
Semitism. Citat: Let me reinforce this claim in respect
to my own work. The mainstream view of critical biblical
scholarship accepts that Genesis-Joshua (perhaps Judges)
is substantially devoid of reliable history and that it was in
the Persian period that the bulk of Hebrew Bible literatu-
re was either composed or achieved its canonical shape.
I thus nd attempts to push me out onto the margin of
scholarship laughable.
[22] Jack Cargill Ancient Israel in Western Civ Textbooks His-
torycooperative.org
[23] Lester L. Grabbe "Some Recent Issues in the Study of the
History of Israel" Proceedings of the British Academy,
143, 57-67, 2007.
[24] Bibles Buried Secrets, Did Kings David Empire Exist,
BBC, 2011.
[25] http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=169388
Citat: Nonetheless, other archeologists posit that the
biblical narrative reecting the existence of a powerful
monarchy in Jerusalem is largely mythical and that there
was no strong government to speak of in that era.
Aren Maeir, an archeology professor at Bar Ilan Univer-
sity, said he has yet to see evidence that the fortications
are as old as Mazar claims. There are remains from the
10th century in Jerusalem, he said, but proof of a strong,
centralized kingdom at that time remains tenuous."
[26] Robert Draper David and Solomon. Kings of Controver-
sy. National Geographic, decembrie 2010.
 13

[27] Steven Erlanger, King Davids Palace Is Found, Archa- en Under the Inuence: Hellenism in Ancient
eologist Says, New York Times International, Jerusalem Jewish Life Biblical Archaeology Society
Journal, 5 august 2005, http://www.nytimes.com/2005/
08/05/international/middleeast/05jerusalem.html?_r=1 . en Summary of Jewish History by Berel Wein
Citat: Amihai Mazar, a professor of archaeology at He-
brew University, calls the nd something of a miracle. en The Jews of Wyoming: Fringe of the Diaspora
He says he believes that the building may be the Fortress ISBN 978-0-9676357-0-5 by Penny Wolin, 2000
of Zion that David is said to have conquered, which he re-
named the City of David. What she found is fascinating,
whatever it is, he said.

[28] Larousse, Istoria lumii de la origini pn n anul 2000, ed.

Olimp, Bucureti, 2000, p. 91

13 Legturi externe
en The Jewish History Resource Center. Project of
the Dinur Center for Research in Jewish History,
The Hebrew University of Jerusalem.

en Resources> Modern Period> 20th Cent.> His-

tory of Israel> State of Israel The Jewish History
Resource Center, Project of the Dinur Center for
Research in Jewish History, The Hebrew University
of Jerusalem

en Jewish Virtual Library. Extremely comprehensi-

ve

en Jewish History and Culture Encyclopaedia O-

cial Site of the 22 Volume Encyclopaedia Judaica

en Internet Jewish History Sourcebook oering ho-

mework help and online texts

en Israelite Religion to Judaism: the Evolution of the

Religion of Israel.

en Greek Inuence on Judaism from the Hellenistic

Period Through the Middle Ages c. 300 BCE-1200
CE.

en Jewish Sects of the Second Temple Period.

en The Origin and Nature of the Samaritans and

their Relationship to Second Temple Jewish Sects.

en Jewish History Tables.

Articles on Australian Jewish history.

Articles on British Jewish history.

Barnavi, Eli (Ed.). A Historical Atlas of the Jewish

People. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. 1992.
ISBN 0-679-40332-9

en Crash Course in Jewish History

en Jewish History chabad.org

en Jewish families in Csics - Cicov (Slovakia) until

the Holocaust
14 14 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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