Supliment 2012

ABORDAREA CALITII
MRTURII DIN TRECUT

ANS PENTRU VIITOR

Sintez bibliografic de
Dr. ing. Traian Teodoru

Partea 1*

Sumar
Introducere. Prezentarea conceptelor 2
Mrturii din

REPORTS OF STATISTICAL APPLICATION RESEARCH,
Editor: Union of Japanese Scientists and Engineers,
JUSE (apariii din anii 1959 1965) 8

Industrial Quality Control (Quality Progress)
Editor: The American Society for Quality (Control), ASQ(C)
(din 1964) 80

*Continuarea este programat pentru un supliment viitor

Acest Supliment se distribuie gratuit, odat cu numrul 6 al Revistei, celor care au fcut abonament
pentru un an direct n contul Redaciei.
CALITATE I MANAGEMENT Supliment 2012

1

Calitate
Anii la care ne referim n continuare marcau o strpungere dinspre tiine ctre practica
industrial, iar mijlocul de locomoie al acestei strpungeri era un concept a crui nelegere a
ajuns la noi ntr-att de trunchiat nct nu ne servete la nimic, mai mult, ne face s ne ndoim
i de ceea ce pruse a fi pur, simplu, exact i precis; crystal clear. Calitate.
Citit prin prisma industrial, calitate rmne un concept sterp, care nu ncurajeaz spiritul.
Considerat drept ceea ce a fost la origine, concept fundamental n cadrul primului sistem
filosofic al actualului ciclu de civilizaie european, Logica aristotelic, calitatea deschide poarta
spiritualitii.
n traducere la noi, dat de ctre Dimitrie Cantemir FELDEIN, n Istoria hieroglific
calitate devine fel-de-a-fi.
Fel-de-a-fi al procesului, al produsului, al autorului i unuia i altuia. Cutarea calitii devine,
astfel, cutarea felului-de-a-fi, cutarea-de-sine.
Cine se cunoate pe sine poate nvinge orice piedici, poate mpinge orice sarcin pe cel mai
abrupt urcu; pentru c prin cunoaterea de sine dobndeti armonia cu ritmurile Universului,
ceea ce te aaz n focar de echilibru absolut, te face s descoperi fericirea n pielea ta.
Aceasta se ntmpla n acele decenii din care am cules mrturiile prezentate n continuare:
folosind conceptul calitate drept ramp de lansare, oameni de geniu strpungeau zidul care
desprea (pentru spectatori, zidul desparte i acum) industria de spirit, civilizaia de cultur.
Metodele gsite i folosite de ei erau din Statistic i Matematic, lecii la care noi tocmai
lipseam.
Fr a le nelege rdcinile imediate, abordrile deceniilor 6, 7 ale secolului trecut (oare,
pentru noi chiar a trecut?) pot s par s.f..
Mai nainte de cele dou decenii la care ne referim n continuare, au fost deceniile pregtitoare,
la care unele contribuii fundamentale au purtat nume de romni.
Deceniile pregtitoare ale inteligenei prin care teoria (matematic) trecea strada n practica
militar i de aici n cea industrial (managementul, controlul i verificarea calitii).
Civilizaia celor dou rzboaie mondiale a furnizat provocarea pentru elitele creative, angajate
n laboratoare pltite imperial prin comenzi militare.

Pentru a menine coeziunea fiinei i pentru a asigura ordinea viului n opoziie cu dezordinea
materiei nensufleite, este necesar o for de o calitate aparte, este necesar ceea ce Kant numea
principiu interior de aciune; este necesar viaa.
Ea este fora obscur care le confer corpurilor organizate atributele lor, care menine
mpreun moleculele lor n pofida forelor exterioare ce tind s le separe.
Corpul viu este supus aciunii unor influene variate care vin de la lucruri ca i de la fiine i
care tind s-l distrug. Pentru rezista acestei aciuni, este necesar un principiu de reaciune.
Viaa nu este altceva decr acest principiu de lupt contra destruciei. Viaa este () ansamblul
funciilor care se opun morii (Bichat), fora care rezist legilor ce guverneaz corpurile
brute (Cuvier), fora productoare contra aciunii elementelor exterioare (Goethe), fora
motrice care neutralizeaz forele chimice, coeziunea i afinitatea dintre molecule (Liebig).
Franois JACOB, Laureat Nobel 1965, n Logica viului. Eseu despre ereditate, Editura
enciclopedic romn, Bucureti, 1972 (La logique du vivant. Une histoire
de lhrdit, Editions Gallimard, 1970)

2

Deceniile pregtitoare au fost (sunt) militare

Dou cuvinte par cheie pentru cel de al doilea rzboi mondial: comunicare, informaii.
Rzboiul este, n fond, un instrument de comunicare.
Comunicare = strdania de a schimba dinuntrul lui cultura adversarului, furndu-i valorile i
punndu-i n loc propriile-i valori, pe care l faci s i le plteasc, cu recunotin, fcndu-l s
uite de sine, s i ias din fire.
Pentru c, vorba (nescris a) lui Sun-Tse (mileniul 3 .Ch.), comandantul nelept i face
oamenii s ctige nainte ca lupta s se dea.
Prin comunicare (spiritual) i aduci adversarul s regrete c a atentat la bunul tu, ajungi i tu
s crezi c nu te poate nvinge.
Rezultatul strdaniei acelor decenii de comunicare, fie nu-l sesizm, fericii sraci duhul, fie l
contientizm din cale afar de dureros, sunt metodele a cror experimentare la scar planetar au
modelat spiritele noastre.
Rzboiul, n fond, se servete de informaii pentru a i ascunde mesajele de adversar.
Marile invenii ale acelor decenii sunt legate de tehnica rzboiului. Ceea ce a urmat i nu am
observat a fost schimbarea naturii armelor de persuasiune, de comunicare: de la muniiile mecanice,
matematica (boolean) scotea pe pia circuitele electr(on)ice.
Artileria era domeniul militar cel mai matematizat; geniile tehnice au ales-o pentru a-i
exprima tehnicile de comunicare, de informare. Artileria comunica obuze, a asocia traiectoria
acestora cu circuitul de comunicare era chestiune de civa pai.
Militar, secolul a fost i al inteligenei: interdisciplinaritatea sprgea barierele ntre tiine,
reunindu-le n totul unitar care fuseser n primele clipe ale (re)naterii lor.
Gogu Constantinescu (1881-1965) a inventat printre altele
- SONICITATEA prin care comunicarea (transmiterea energiei) se produce prin medii de naturi
noi lichide, gaze folosindu-le compresibilitatea. Urma ca mediile s se rafineze n continuare
ctre cele spirituale;
- sistemul de tragere cu mitraliera din carling printre palele elicei indiferent de turaia acesteia.
Ludwig von Bertalanffy (1901-1972), biolog, a preluat conceptele termodinamicii (mijlocul
secolului precedent; Clausius, Boltzmann; aplicabile iniial sistemelor nchise) i s-a ntrebat de ca
nu le-ar putea aplica sistemelor deschise (lumea tiinific devenea contient de relaiile dintre
componente):
1936 teoria general a sistemelor (deschise); de la organ la organism, de la separat la integrat
(totalizat; abordrile moderne ale managementului, calitii urmeaz i ele un curs totalizant,
integrativ). Specialul devenea caz particular al unui special mai extins.
Claude Shannon (1916-2001) produce, printru-un masterat genial (cum unde, la MIT), duce
strpungerea nc mai departe, ctre spirit:
1937 de la matematic (algebra boolean) - prin proiectarea circuitelor electrice/ computerelor
digitale - la construirea i rezolvarea de relaii logice, numerice. O inovaie de importana, poate a,
inventrii aritmeticii;
1948 A Mathematical Theory of Communication (teoria informaiei, m rog, informaiilor) n care
folosete instrumente ale teoriei probabilitii dezvoltate de ctre Norbert Wiener.


3

Legile termodinamicii, ndeosebi cea a entropiei - inventate n experimente cu gaze, erau cel
mai aproape de a descrie fenomenele din eterice/ haotice - l-au atras i pe el pentru a-i funda
strpungerea.
Entropia informaiei o msur pentru nivelul de incertitudine dintr-un mesaj (o carte, o
procedur, o literatur, un mesaj cifrat, ).
John von Neumann (1903-1957), implicat i el n cercetrile militare (nucleare, la Los
Alamos), a murit scriind Computer and the Brain
1928 - inventeaz TEORIA JOCULUI/ deciziei interactive (principala caracteristic a jocului fiind
interactivitatea) ca disciplin matematic; teorema minimax privitoare la jocurile de sum-zero cu
informaie perfect (= n care juctorii cunosc de fiecare dat toate micrile care s-au fcut pn
atunci); strategii (decizii de ce micri/ mutri s fac) optimale (minimizeaz pierderea maxim
pentru fiecare juctor); trebuie s-i fi plcut mult ahul.
1944 n Theory of Games and Economic Behavior extinde teorema minimax i la jocurile care
implic informaie imperfect i la jocurile cu mai mult dect doi juctori.
A fost primul care a folosit instrumente matematice n economie; metodele matematice au fost cele
ale analiticii funcionale, preferate calculului diferenial tradiional.
Un savant SUA de origine romn, Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen (Roegen = Ne Geor citit de la
coad), urma s i foloseasc geniul inteligent la strpungerea Legea entropiei - Economie (The
Entropy Law and the Economic Progress, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachussetts,
1971, traducerea romneasc a aprut la Editura Politic n 1979).
Norbert Wiener (1894-1964), atras insistent de haina militar, inspirat i el de dirijarea tirului
artileriei, a rafinat n continuare comunicarea i informaia militar; strpungerea de data aceasta
este una special (ntre specii):
1943 inventeaz CIBERNETICA; 1948 Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the
Animal and the Machine (MIT Press, mai sus nu se putea); 1954, completarea lanului de
comunicare cu veriga uman: The Human Use of Human Beings Cybernetics and Society (natural,
la MIT Press); n fine, la final, strpungerea ctre spirit cu God & Golem, Inc.: A Comment on
certain Points where Cybernetics Impinges on Religion (1964, MIT Press).

Ca s rmnem n nota militar(ist), observm c jocul este doar o form rafinat de rzboi; l
faci pe unul s plng dup ce a avut i a pierdut, cu mulumirea c mcar, a minimizat pierderea;
tot rul spre bine.
Jocurile sportive, scorurile (riscurile) jocurilor celor mai rspndite n SUA fotbalul SUA,
jocurile de noroc (noroc = risc; gambling), pariurile, sunt aa de mari nct parc invit la
aplicarea tehnicilor statistico-matematice; ceea ce nu este cazul cu fotbalul la noi, care abia dac
trece de unul-dou goluri; ct despre urca popular a copilriei, nu este dect oin/ fotbal SUA mai
de balt, cartier, . Nu se pune.
Ca s nu rmn un joc fr finalitate, teoria informaiilor s-a asociat cu teoria jocurilor ntr-o
practic foarte lucrativ; savani de Nobel constituiau MIT Blackjack Team al cror rzboi era cu
casinourile.
Nimic nou sub Soare, ce a fost va mai fi (Biblia); pentru a prevedea cum va fi abordarea
(calitii, managementului) nu rmne dect s scotocim prin trecutul adecvat.
Ce fceau elitele anterioare devine popular, banal pentru generaiile actuale.
Cu condiia ca acestea s gseasc bucuria pe care au gsit-o naintaii n codificarea
(statistico-matematic, aici, a) lumii pe care a transmis-o.

4

Mrturii
Prezentm informaii care s ajute la prinderea sensului evoluiei,
culese din publicaii de maxim recunoatere n domeniu,
din deceniile 6 i 7 ale secolului trecut,
momentul n care s-a produs desprinderea noastr din poza de grup a Europei civilizate
industrial,
dintr-un pluton a crui traiectorie o urmrim astzi de la grupa mic.
Contribuiile noastre sunt pe romnete, cum este i aceasta.
Informaiile (mrturiile) sunt n limba n care au fost publicate, cele mai multe n englez, mai
puin cele sintetizate de noi, pentru a nu atinge n vreun fel corectitudinea mesajului lor.
i din recunotin pentru civilizaie (cea SUA) care a marcat preponderent abordarea calitii.
Sursele sunt indicate fr putin de confuzie.
Cuvntul de ordine al acestei perioade pentru japonezi i SUA ei conduceau abordarea calitii
n acei ani era implementarea larg a metodelor statistico-matematice n practica industrial
prin intermediul controlului calitii.
n aceeai vreme, programele noastre ministeriale (economie planificat centralizat) strbteau
epoca asigurrii cu maini-unelte i procedee de precizie.
Era, pentru noi, epoca marilor cumprturi din Occident:
nu era delegaie de partid i de Stat s nu raporteze n Scnteia btrn (mai era i Scnteia
Tineretului, tnr, citibil ntru ctva, mai ales prin Suplimentul ei literar i artistic, de-a
dreptul normal) cu mndrie patriotic achiziiile fcute, miliardele ce urmau s fie pltite cu
nfometarea orenilor; miliardele cu care se pltea, cred, frecventarea Dictatotului de ctre
Regina celei mai vechi democraii i de ctre Preedini ai celei mai puternice.
Pentru cei mari, epoca marca trecerea ctre post industrialism, n care trebuiau s scape de
exponentele tehnologiei industriale maini unelte cu comenzi i materiale din cele mai
sofisticate, imposibil de relevant, reprodus de economiile emergente, dark horses din Rsritul
Europei;
aa nct trebuia s cumprm; ne nglodam nu numai n datorii i dobnzi, dar i ntr-o
anumit cultur, deja revolut, ghiulea care ne atrn acum de spirit.
Nici nu mai tii, crimele satrapilor comuniti cu descprea de elite urbane i rurale a rii, s
fi fost mai condamnabile dect cele comise n aceste decenii de nrobire la carul marilor
civilizaii a celor care ncercau s ridice din nou steagul culturii i civilizaiei.
Suntem, de atunci, acesta este meritul istoriei noastre moderne i contemporane, cu una-dou
ture de civilizaie n urma celor care ne trimit n continuare mrgelue din sticl colorat i noi li
le pltim cu recunotin.
i gap-ul se face tot mai profund nuntrul fiecruia dintre cei care nu ne putem smulge
cntecului lor de siren, al nostru de lebd.

Ploaie de Nobeli
Autorii din care pomenim n continuare sunt laureai Nobel, au studiat/ predat/ publicat
la MIT, Harvard, Princeton, au lucrat la Bell Telephone Labs, General Electric (printre
fondatori, n sec. 19, Thomas Alva Edison), .
Devine de neles .

5

Din viitor
Ce vedem (citim) n publicaiile extrem de onorabile la care ne referim n cele ce urmeaz, sunt
lucruri care li se ntmplau celor dezvoltai n urm cu ase-apte decenii i care, dat fiind
decalajul pomenit mai sus, ar trebui s ni se ntmple n deceniile imediat urmtoare, dac ar fi
s nnodm filmul de unde s-a rupt; dac nu, nu.
Nu altfel se ntmpl i cu crizele; crizele lor ajung la noi exclusiv prin canalele de comunicare,
prin marketing; aa cum am cumprat odat cu mainile automate i criza lor precedent ( a
trecerii de la civilizaia indistrial la cea post industrial) tot astfel, suntem adui, cu o
amploare fr precedent, chiar i pentru dictatura anterioar, la statutul de pia de desfacere i
nu cumprm, pltim criza lor de acum.
Pltim, nu cumprm, pentru c a cumpra presupune s transferi n spirit entitile
achiziionate; or, noi nu dispunem nici pe de parte de spiritul compatibil cu criza generat
pentru ei de trecerea mai departe, de la post industrial la cine tie ce.
Lucrul bun, impulsul care ne-a determinat s culegem mrturiile care urmeaz, const n aceea
c mentalitatea statistic-matematic (statistic i matematic) de care suntem lipsii n industrie
trebuie asimilat pentru a putea consuma i noi etapa industrial.
Consumare care nu se poate realiza altfel, cu att mai puin prin ruinarea industriei; care,
ignorat, ne interzice accesul la civilizaia post industrial.
Cei care, ca noi, i refuz dreptul de a-i valorifica geniul i geniile, vor rmne aici s strng
lumina pe care alii o vor fi stins n urma lor.

Statistico-matematica industrial,
statistic i matematic pentru angajai
Matematic, Statistica i teoria jocurilor.
Teoria jocurilor i pariurile pe scorurile jocurilor sportive.
Pariurile i spiritul de afacere.
Managementul are rdcini n spiritul afacerist, de a pune banii, nu muchii, s munceasc
pentru tine. Spiritul de afacere presupune inerea sub control a riscului (i ceilali i bag banii,
dar o fac la cacealma, fr s socoteasc riscurile).
Este tiin, nu numai fler, n spiritul afaceristului; decurge mult tiin din acest spirit.
Capital = resurse prevzute s aduc profit prin ele nsele. Capitalismul este un joc
piramidal. Este pentru cei puini i funcioneaz ct vreme cei muli accept s i vnd pe mai
nimic fora de munc. Relocalizrile ctre, n principal, orizonturi cu for de munc mai ieftin,
conteaz pentru 300 miliarde USD anual.
For de munc include creativitate.
Cauza fundamental a marilor descoperiri geografice (a progresului uman, pn la urm)
este cutarea profitului investind banii altuia, ai fazanului care accept s intre n joc fr s
cunoasc regulile i partenerii. Parteneri care tiu s fac bani din piatr seac (din banii noului

6

intrat n joc). Cucerirea de imperii coloniale n cosmos, debarcarea pe noi planete, asocierea
spaiului cosmic, este forat de perpetuarea jocului piramidal n care omenirea a intrat ca ntr-
un vrtej de care nu se mai poate desprinde.
Marx a crezut c fora muncitorilor produce valoarea adugat. Muncitorii, cei muli, sunt
numai pretextul.
Din gambleri (juctori la noroc, la risc) s-au ntrupat managerii. Riscul este trstura de
unire; atitudinea fa de risc este marea motenire.
Conceptele asociate managementului risc, politic, proces, optimizare (mbuntire
continu), ... - de acolo vin, de la jocul la risc (jocul de noroc, gambling).
Tratndu-l drept risc, Managerul (nu-i bate) Joc de noroc. Jocul (gambling) este un proces.
Management este cnd Jocul la noroc devine joc la risc, jocul desemnnd o abordare extrem
de serioas.
Din pcate pentru noi, limba romn nu ne ofer prea multe anse n aceast privin:
gamblerul este doar un juctor, jocul doar un joc; ne este greu astfel s lum n serios ce ne-ar
putea aduce metodele statistico-matematice.
Entropia (evoluia)
Dei am fost nscui-crescui i materialiti i dialectici, chiar i ideologia am primit-o n
glum, neprofesional; nu credem n metodele lor tiinifice, nu credem, de exemplu, n
termodinamic, sediul entropiei.
inerea sub control a dezordinii (riscului asociat gazelor sub presiune) a condus la
inventarea/descoperirea entropiei, legii ei instrumentelor asociate lor.
Totul se poate formaliza, se poate asocia matematicii.
Ce nu se poate scrie ntr-o formul matematic nu este tiin. Controlul calitii ne ajut, n
oricare domeniu de activitate unde producia este n serie/ mas, repetitiv, i trebuie s fie
consecvent, s facem tiin, prin intermediul metodelor sale statistico-matematice.
O confuzie n concepte reflect confuzia n metode: spunem controlul calitii, dar nelegem
inspecia calitii; controlul ar trebui s includ utilizarea de metode statistice, nu numai de
ctre specialitii compartimentului CTC, dar i de ctre toi cei implicai n desfurarea
procesului tehnologic.
Etapa inere sub control calitate se ocup cu implementarea de metode statistico-matematice
la inerea sub control a parametrilor procesului astfel nct rezultatele acestuia (produsele) s se
ncadreze continuu n cmpurile de toleran pescrise, iar cnd tind s ias din acestea s fie
emise semnale nc nainte ca abaterea s se produc, pentru aputea ntreprinde aciunile de
reglare a mainilor i instalaiilor din cadrul procesului tehnologic.
Trecuse peste un sfert de secol de la inventarea, de ctre statisticianul SUA Walter Shewhart
a, instrumentului specific n aceast privin - fia de inere sub control a proceselor; o
reprezentare grafic n timp a unor parametri statistici ai mulimii de numere mari care este
ansamblul datelor referitoare la caracteristicilor realizate asemenea parametri statistico-
matematici (relativi) sunt media i amplitudinea; meritul lor, fa de valorile absolute, deriv
din sensibilitatea la tendina procesului.
Reprezentat grafic n diagrama Shewhart, evoluia n timp a parametrilor statistico-
matematici, cum sunt i cei artai aici, trdeaz ncotro se ndreapt procesul nainte de a fi
ajuns n zona roie, a produselor neconforme.
Atingerea limitelor de inere sub control/ atenionare semnific ultimul moment cnd mai
putem ezita n re-reglarea parametrilor procesului.

7

Viaa nsi genereaz produsul evenimente, rezultat al activitilor i proceselor derulate
de ctre proprietarii/ titularii vieii n cauz, fiecare dintre noi.
Viaa poate fi definit, prin aceast prism i similar cu definiia sistemelor de management
sistem de procese corelate i n interdependen ale cror rezultate sunt evenimente i ele
corelate i n interdependen dup cum au fost i cauzele lor procesele.
Prin urmare, am putea aplica vieii metodele dezvoltate pentru inerea sub control a
produselor folosind metode statistico-matematice.
Cnd o vom face este semn c am adoptat statistico-matematica n cultur.
TRECERE DE LA
VALORI ABSOLUTE LA PARAMETRI STATISTICO-MATEMATICI,
INSPECIA NUMAI A PRODUSULUI LA INEREA SUB CONTROL A
PROCESULUI DE REALIZARE (cauza produsului)
reflect intrarea produciei industriale n sfera tiinei
Se poate i fr matematic i fr statistic; mai la coad. Se poate, dar este pcat.

Strpungerea dintre (cultura) statistico-
matematic i (cultura) verificarea/ controlul
calitii industriale

1924 statisticianul SUA Walter A. Shewhart (lucra la Western electric Co.) i comunic efului
su prima fi de inere sub control (folosind parametri statistico-matematici) PROCESE DE
PRODUCIE;
inerea sub control era statistico-matematic pentru c nlocuia parametrii tehnologici (valorile
absolute) cu parametri statistico-matematici (valori relative, cum ar fi medii, amplitudini, mai
sensibile la a prevedea evoluia n timp a procesului; cu alte cuvinte, aceste valori ajutau la a stabili
cu o clip mai devreme momentul n care procesul va ncepe s produc produse neconforme;
pentru ca instrumentul statistico-matematic (adreseaz evenimente aleatoare, nu deterministe) s
devin panaceul mult ateptat trebuie ndeplinite o serie de condiii, ntre care asigurarea c
procesul din care provin eantioanele este stabilizat (inut sub control) din punct de vedere statistic.
1937 verificarea prin eantionare statistico-matematic a calitii loturilor de PRODUSE (se
cutau repartiii statistice, deja bine formularizate matematic care s descrie ct mai fidel
fenomenul produciei industriale); predecesori - la Bell Telephone Laboratories, cele mai mari ale
vremii planuri de verificare prin eantionare statistico-matematic a loturilor de produse B.C.
Molina (1900, repartiia Poisson); 1920 H.F. Dodge i H.G. Romig.
1939 W.E. Deming editeaz (gsete o editur binevoitoare la aceast noutate care nu aducea bani
cum este aplicarea teoriilor statistico-matematice la practica industrial, U.S. Department of
Agriculture) carte mentorului su W. A. Shewhart, Statistical Methods from the Viewpoint of
Quality Control. Controlul statistic intrase n cultura industrial.


8

Din REPORTS OF STATISTICAL APPLICATION RESEARCH,
editor: UNION OF JAPANESE SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS, JUSE

Martie 1959
Un joc multi-stadiu de o structur simpl analizat prin tehica programrii dinamice
1
.
Politica optimal a juctorului maximiznd are o oarecare natur staionar.
Problema acadelei (the candy problem pus de ctre Steinhaus): s presupunem c o acadea
urmeaz a fi mprit la doi copii. O procedur optimal este s l lai pe unul dintre copii s mpart
acadeaua, cellalt urmnd s ia bucata pe care i-o dorete. Formaliznd (transformnd n limbajul
matematic al funciilor, probabilitilor, )
Procese de alocare multi-stadiu care apar n teoria comunicrii statistice.
S considerm un sistem de evenimente aleatoare guvernat de probabilitile respective p
i
(i=1...n). Un juctor (gambler), cunoscnd aceste probabiliti, are de plasat pariuri pe evenimentele pe
care el crede c se va ntmpla s aib loc. Are alocat pentru a o paria cantitatea z
i
ca evenimentul i s
se realizeze (happen to occur), supus restriciilor ca z
i
= x, capitalul su iniial. Dac pariaz corect,
urmeaz s primeasc r
i
z
i ,
n caz contrar nimic. Factorii de ctig (interest) r
i
(>0) se presupun
cunoscui de ctre juctor. Acest proces continu pentru N stadii cu o plat parial (payoff) la sfritul
fiecrui stadium. Presupunnd c evenimentele au loc n mod independent unul de fiecare dintre
celelalte la fiecare stadium i c juctorul dorete s maximizeze valoarea ateptat (expected value) a
logaritmului pentru totalul final la sfritul procesului, se pune problema de a determina o politic
optimal de alocare.
Definirea secvenei de funcii.
f
N
(x) = valoarea ateptat a logaritmului totalului final obinut folosind o politic N-stadii optimal,
pornind de la un capital de x, cu N = 1, 2, i x > 0, i = 0 pentru x 0. Cu aceste condiii, devine
evident c, pentru x > 0
f
1
(x) = max p
i
log (r
i
z
i
) .... o formul similar cu cea a entropiei.

Valori ale informaiei strategice pentru cazuri de diverse patternuri
informaionale ale unui joc matrice
Informaia (informaiile, dificil de fcut distincia) este
- selectiv dup Wiener
2
i Shannon
3

- strategic dup Neumann
4

Teoria jocurilor (the theory of games
5
) model formal alctuit din:
- preferinele juctorilor (players) unui joc

1
Extrase din articolul semnat Minoru Sakaguchi (University of Electro-Communications)
2
Norbert Wiener Cibernetica (v. insert de la pagina 4)
3
Claude Shannon Teoria matematic a comunicrii/ informaiilor (v. insert de la pagina 3)
4
John von Neumann - Teoria jocului (v. insert de la pagina 4)
5
Jocurile (v. de exemplu, la tenis) sunt games; game = fiecare punct ctigat n cadrul unui set;
participanii la joc (juctorii) sunt players, gamblers, gambling,

zi = x
zi0
i

9

- alegerile sau deciziile care le sunt deschise la fiecare micare
- informaiile pe care le au privind alegerile fcute de ctre juctorul oponent la micri precedente
Informaia strategic ntr-o situaie de joc = partiii ntr-un ansamblu finit de posibiliti sau
plays (moduri de a juca cartea).
Alegerea raional a unui plan de aciune i existena de situaii echilibru sunt ambele legate de
natura modelului (pattern-ului) informaional al jocului.
Nu dispunem de msuri ale informaiei strategice (asociate cu teoria jocurilor) deoarece, n teoria
jocurilor, n general, alegerilor juctorilor nu le sunt asociate probabiliti a priori. n unele aplicaii,
totui, decidentul dispune de o vag informaie parial privind starea adevrat a Naturii (Natures
true state). Orict de vag ar fi aceasta, el poate s nu doreasc s o abandoneze n favoarea completei
ignorane, i astfel trebuie s i formuleze i msoare vaga informaie parial i s o foloseasc n
elaborarea deciziei.
Informaia strategic a jocurilor matrice: n cazul unui joc matrice n forma normalizat a jocurilor
de sum zero ntre dou persoane arborele jocului este ca n figura 1.
Modelul informaiei jocului este ncorporat n ansamblurile (sets; seturile) de informaii,
ansambluri de vertices nscrise n linii ntrerupte.
Un juctor (P
1
) care urmeaz la mutare (move) poate fi pus n situaia de a face o alegere fr s
cunoasc cu precizie la care vertex din ansamblul (set-ul) de informaii este situat. Al doilea juctor
(P
2
) i face alegerea fr s tie alegerea fcut anterior de ctre primul juctor.

Ca la executarea (portarilor prin tragerea) loviturilor de la 11 m

Fig. 1

o De la (ncercri) pe bjbite la proiectarea statistic a experimentelor (metoda inventat de ctre
inginerul japonez Genichi Taguchi n 1954); aplicaie: sinteza 5-etil-2-metilpiridin (acetaldehid)
prin reacia chimic dintre paraldehid i amoniac.
o A proiecta statistic experimentul (aici): gsirea pe baza unui numr considerabil redus de ncercri
(experimente) a condiiilor de reacie care conduc n modul cel mai eficient la obinerea de
acetaldehid din paraldehid i amoniac.
o Factorii utilizai pentru a proiecta statistic experimentul: temperatura reaciei, cantitatea de amoniac,
durata reaciei, cantitatea de acetat de amoniu, concentraia de amoniac, fiecare dintre acetia
considerai cu 3 niveluri (0 2).
o Prin acest mod de a proiecta experimentul se reuete gsirea condiiilor optime de realizare a
reaciei chimice fcnd un numr mult mai mic de ncercri dect cel pe care logica vulgar
(nestatistico-matematic) l calculeaz la ordinul miilor.
P
1
P
2

10

o Avantajele economice furnizate de aplicarea metodelor statistico-matematice sunt de necontestat i
au fcut s creasc interesul pentru ele:
- Recepia (inspecia) prin eantionare statistico-matematic a loturilor de produse (bazat pe
Admissible Quality Level, AQL) reduce semnificativ volumul verificrilor (n loc s fie
inspectate, ncercate toate unitile de produs din lot, sunt verificate numai cele (mult
mai puine) din eantion; inspecia bazat pe (planuri de) eantionare statistico-
matematic are, ns, contraindicaii pe care lobby-ul fcut de avantajele economice
le trece sub tcere;
- inerea sub control (cu mijloacele) statistico-matematic a proceslor permite prevederea
momentului n care procesul va iei de sub control (riscul de apariie de neconformiti
devine inacceptabil), deci prevenirea abaterilor, cu consecine, de asemenea,
semnificative asupra costurilor (se reduc costurile cu non-calitatea); ignorarea i aici a
contraindicaiilor (procesele ar trebui s fie stabilizate statistic pentru a li se putea aplica
metodele statistico-matematice rezultatelor lor produselor) face s fie trecute cu
vederea costurile cu implementarea acestei metode;
- Proiectarea statistic (factorial) a experimentelor (statistical = factorial Design of Experiments,
DoE), iat, reduce cu mai multe ordine de mrime numrul experimentelor (deci
costurile) cerute pentru a stabili parametrii optimali ai unui proces (aici este vorba de o
reacie chimic).
- Dup stabilirea factorilor de considerat, efectul fiecruia dintre factori asupra desfurrii reaciei a
fost studiat prin efectuarea de experimente (fiecare experiment este o combinaie anumit de valori ale
factorilor considerai) specifice, al cror numr, cum am artat, a fost considerabil redus (prin
comparaie cu abordarea clasic, nestatistic, care avusese loc cu decenii n urm) valorificnd DoE.
- Pe baza acestor experimente a fost stabilit influena fiecrui factor i de aici procedura de urmat
pentru realizarea optimal a reaciei chimice n cauz.
- Exemple de asmenea constatri, date n articol: este de preferat ca temperatura reaciei s fie >
220
0
C, durata adecvat a reaciei difer de la o temperatur la alta (este de cca. patru ore pentru
temperatura de 220
0
C i de o or la 250
0
C; cantitatea de amoniac are o mare influen asupra
rezultatului i sunt necesare cel puin ase moli de amoniac pentru unul de paraldehid; cantitatea de
acetat de amoniu drept catalizator i concentraia amoniacului nu au efecte semnificative; rezultatul nu
scade aa de mult chiar dac autoclava nu este scuturat, totui o autoclav mare, nescuturat, poate fi
utilizat ntr-un proces comercial.
- Bibliografia include: Taguchi, G.: Textbook on the Design of Experiments, p. 46, Nippon Kikaku
Kyokai (1954).
Influena culorii mediului vizual
6
(faciliti, spaii de lucru, panouri de comutare canale)
n eficiena centralistelor studiu efectuat de Color Control Committee de la Nippon Telegraph and
Telephone Public Corporation.
A fost cutat, prin experimente, influena reciproc a factorilor: culoarea tabloului de comutare,
culoare i strlucirea lmpilor de semnalizare, frecvena apelurilor, media duratei apelului pn la
rspuns.
Pe aceast baz a fost reproiectat ergonomia locurilor de munc pentru a contribui la optimizarea
eficienei centralistelor msurat prin caracteristici cum ar fi durata pn la rspuns, ntreruperi ale
convorbirilor.

6
Extrase din articolul semnat de Shiro Kudo

11

- Studierea unei metode de analiz prin aplicarea DoE.
- Din cauza numrului mare de factori care influeneaz rezultatele unei analize i al puternicelor
interaciuni dintre acetia, pn la apariia DoE a fost dificil evaluarea unei metode de analiz.
- Pe baza experimentelor efectuate a fost stabilit procedura optimal pentru efectuarea analizei As n
oel descris n standardul japonez JIS G 1225.
- Metoda a constat n: determinarea factorilor de eroare - concentraia de acid hidrocloric, volumul
soluiei SnCl
2
, temperatura de reducere, durata de reducere, - determinarea (factorial, prin DoE) i
efectuarea experimentelor (au fost 3 combinaii de valori ale factorilor de risc); estimarea valorilor
analizei i a intervalului lor de ncredere; compararea cu metoda existent; stabilirea modificrilor de
introdus la revizuirea metodei (standardului).
Traducerea problemelor din cele mai variate domenii n termenii statisticii matematice: gsirea
modelelor matematice adecvate i aplicarea acestora.

SEPTEMBRIE 1959
The meteorological and climatic factors and biological responses
7

- the meteorological signal, say the passage of front, is supposed to arrive discretely;
- the biological response, say the concentration of certain hormone or hormonelike substance in the
blood which is released by a stressor at t = a is denoted by f(t-a);
- to be realistic, we assume that f(t) is one-valued bounded function of finite range. In other words,
there are two positive constants M and T such that f(x) M and f(x) = 0 for x T which
correspond to the facts that the concentration is finite and the substance disappears outside certain
range of time in normal case for a single stressor;
- let us study the simplest case in which only two signals arrive at t = a and t = b(>a);
- we observe (2.3) F(t) = f(t-a) + f(t-b), from which we want to know the single response pattern (2.4)
y = f(t);
- that ist o say, our problem ist o solve the functional equation (2.3) under the condition that F(t), a
and b are known and the solution (2.4) is bounded and of finite range;
- we note that according to our studies on meteorological diseases the biological response occurs
frequently before the passage of depression.

Relaii reciproc avantajoase cu furnizorii
8

Publicaii
- How to control Subcontractors n Statistical QC (SQC), 1957;
- The Method of Surveying QC (Survey of Subcontractors), n SQC, 1958;
- On the Relationship with Subcontractors and some examples, n SQC, 1957;
- Control of Raw Materials Under the Cooperation Between the Supplier and User, SQC, 1957.

7
Din articolul semnat de Motosaburo Masuyama de la Meteorological Research Institute, Tokyo;
Institute of Physical Therapy & Internal Medicine, Tokyo University
8
Din articolul semnat de M. Ozasa de la Matsushita Electronics Corporation

12

Opinii
- without QC no process experiment is possible;
- great success can be expected if QC is enforced;
- since the quality requirements are very high, it is utterly impoossible to rely on the skill of each
individual for good quality; efforts should be made, therefore, to try to make the factory
capable of controlling the manufacturing technology to meet such requirements; the quickest
way to realize ist o enforce QC;
- by enforcing QC, it will become easier to obtain workers who are capable enough and t ogive
them training in a much more progressive manner;
- standardization, maintenance, improvement;
- the factory people started preparing operation standards in the order of the of the manufacturing
process;
- about one-half of the total employees attended the lecture, not only engineers, but also clerks,
on QC, control charts;
- sampling inspection: white and black beans were used to explain the realation between samples
and the population and to give a simple explanation on the reason why the statistical method
must be employed; it was explained that as samples cannot be taken from the product at
random, normal sampling inspection cannot be done on product; this makes it necessary to
confirm the uniformity and spread from time to time;
- test of significance, estimating, DoE briefly explained;
- it was vitally important to ensure the easy and convenient communication between people in
order to assure the proper functioning of the organization structure formed; for this purpose, a
simple telephone system was installed;
Pai pentru aplicarea controlului statistic al calitii la inerea sub control a procesului tehnologic (un
exemplu din metalurgie)
- we observed our process for a period of two years (1957-1959) using an accredited system of
statistical QC;
- in order to rigidly control the quality of ammonium sulfate, both the inputs (ammonium coke-
oven gas, ammonium gas liquor, and the mother-liquor concentration recycking into the
saturator) and the outputs (% of nitrogen, acid, and water contained in the ammonium sukfate
crystals) had to be controlled.
- the following control chart show the figures we used to statistically analyse the ammonium
sulfate process.
Control factors NH
3
% in coke
oven gas
Acidity of mother
liquor
Water % of
(NH
4
)
2
SO
4
Stratified factor
Condition of
coke oven
State of pump and
hours washing
Temperature of
sample after dryer
Value of control factors before/
after stratification
X
R
A
2
R
D
4
R
CV
6.95/ 7.20

0.78/ 0.68

1.46/ 1.28
2.55/ 2.22
8.99/ 7.56
4.16/ 3.70

1.29/ 1.14

1.32/ 1.17
3.32/ 2.96
10.00/ 10.60
0.093/ 0.152

0.03/ 0.03
0.05/ 0.06
0.09/ 0.09
25.87/ 17.70

13

In practical application, we found that we could not control % of ammonium absorbed in the coke-
oven gas.
However, since the ammonium absorption was a function of our control factors (see Table), we
were able to calculate % absorbed and add those figures to our analysis using the following formula:

The calculated values are shown in the following diagrams. The coefficient of variation is 22.6%.

By observing the foregoing charts we found that the % of ammonium absorbed was directly
related to the pumping state. Further evaluation indicated that washing time had a direct relationship
with acidity content.
Ce nelegem de aici: c procesul de controlul calitii este unul de cercetare a eficacitii
procesului folosind analiza statistico-matematic a unor date culese cu rbdare n ani de observare-
msurare a procesului.
Hence it was concluded that washing time, pumping state, and acidity content of the mother liquor
were directly related to each other. If a controller could not accurately measure the absorption, then a
system of reliable inspection and operating standards could be imposed based upon observations by the
operator.
Absorption %
=
(Ammonia % in coke-oven gas before saturator - Ammonia
% in coke-oven gas after saturator)
Ammonia % in coke-oven gas before saturator
x 100

X
100.0
99.8
99.6
99.4
99.2
99.0
98.8
%
C.L.=99.50
U.C.L. = 99.98
L.C.L. = 99.01
0
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
R
U.C.L. = 1.10
C.L. = 0.26
C
o
n
t
r
o
l

C
h
a
r
t

o
n

A
b
s
o
r
p
t
i
o
n

%

o
f

N
H
3

G
a
s


14

From the established relationships, it was observed that the mother liquor varied in concentration
three times as compared to the variance of the absorption %.
It was easy to presume from these figures that recovery of ammonia in the coke-oven gas plant
exceeded capacity as was indicated by the slight variation of absorption in spite of the variation in the
mother liquor.
We now realized that the present demanded state of absorption was sufficient, and that no further
control or analysis in this particular phase of the operation was needed. The ammonium content in the
gaseous liquor has small variance amounting to 1.0% with a coefficient of variation of 40%.
In our analysis we agreed that the cost of controlling this phase of the process was prohibitively
high compared to the positive results that we could achieve by implementing these controls.
The control of % of water in ammonium sulphate, we found through experiments thet the use of
an automatic temperature recorder regulating the hot air temperature of the ammonium sulfate dryer
hepled our control analyses.
We further experimented by designing two-way layouts from which it was determined that ammonium
sulfate acidity, water, and nitrogen content had a relation to each other. See Table 2, 3, and 4.
Table 2. Regression Analysis of Cyclon Temperature and Ammonium Sulfate Water
Factor s.s. d.f. m.s. F
o
F()
Regression between temperature and water
Residue
Total .
928.96
93.10
1,022.06
1
28
29
928.96
3.33
27.8 7.64 (1
%)
Table 3. Regression Analysis of Ammonium Sulfate Water and Nitrogen
o
F()
Regression between water and N
2
%

Residue
Total .
54.22
1,517.47
1,571.69
1
153
154
54.22
9.92
5.47 6.63 (1
%)
3.84 (5
%)
Table 4. Regression Analysis of Ammonium Sulfate Acidity and Nitrogen
o
F()
Regression between acid and N
2
%
Residue
Total .
980.6
951.1
1,931.7
1
153
154
980.50
3.86
253.8 6.63 (1
%)
In addition to this conclusion, on-the-spot analysis of water and acidity of the ammonium sulfate
was put into daily practice for complete quality assurance against the effects of humidity conditions.
Products from the crude benzol tower were checked by measuring its specific gravity, temperature
of the first drop and temperature of the end point.
Since these variances were small, it can be concluded that the relation between the first drop (
0
C)
and the end point of crude benzol is a key to the control.
The measurement of specific gravity is a very suitable method for the control of this process. As a
result of the regression analysis we found that specific gravity is a very suitable factor to control the
quality of the process.
n acelai mod s-a procedat cu fiecare dintre procesele tehnologice i anume, n sintez:

15

- au fost determinai factorii de (inere sub) control;
- factorii de control astfel determinai au fost analizai folosind fie de control (control charts) i s-au
gsit corelaiile dintre ei;
- s-a aplicat analiza corelaiei stabilindu-se pe baza acesteia msuri pentru operarea adecvat a
procesului tehnologic; n acest scop s-a folosit tabela (matricea) de corelare cum ar fi cea prezentat
mai jos
Specific
gravity of rich
oil
Specific
gravity of lean
oil
300
0
C fraction
of lean oil
Naphtaline%
of lean oil
Naphtaline %
of heavy oil
Specific gravity
of rich oil
Specific gravity
of lean oil
300
0
C fraction of
lean oil
Naphtaline % of
lean oil
Naphtaline % of
heavy oil

**

**

**

*

**

*

*

Asteriscurile simbolizeaz tria interaciunilor dintre factorii (parametrii procesului tehnologic) de
control.
Matricea se citete astfel: de exemplu** arat o corelare puternic, i anume, dac greutatea
specific a uleiului bogat crete, atunci va trebui s cretem (relativ) puternic i greutatea specific a
uleiului slab .a.m.d. pentru a menine sub control parametrii procesului.
Corelaiile dintre factorii (parametrii tehnologici) de inut sub control se stabilesc pe baza unor
experimente proiectate statistic (conform metodologiei DoE, abordat n continuare).
Asemenea matrice de corelare valorific datele de msurare obinute n ani de experimente;
reducerea numrului acestor experimente se poate realiza aplicnd DoE.
- stabilirea cu claritate a corelaiilor ntre parametrii (factorii de control ai) procesului ne arat ce
parametri i ce corelaii trebuie inui sub control astfel nct calitatea produsului s poat fi obinut n
mod economic prin meninerea parametrilor pe valorile (limitele) de control i a corelaiilor ntre
acetia.
Matrice asemntoare sunt folosite n documentarea interaciunilor dintre procesele sistemelor de
management (v. SR EN ISO 9001:2008, 4.1 lit. b).
Planificarea proceselor folosind metode statistico-matematice;
a planifica un proces =
- stabilire obiecte (produse) i obiective de realizat (eficacitate, caracteristici produs, eficien,
economicitate);
- stabilire factori de control (parametri care trebuie inui sub control pentru a realiza obiectele i
obiectivele procesului, cu alte cuvinte, pentru a realiza calitatea procesului) i valori optimale pentru
acetia astfel nct obiectele i obiectivele s fie realizate conform planificrii procesului; prin
stabilirea de valori pentru parametrii si, procesul devine msurabil;

16

- documentare n proceduri procesul astfel planificat (standardizare mod de lucru): fie tehnologice,
proceduri de lucru, programe de inspecie (control), .
The factor table shows that this proces has many control factors, and the data of the control factors
indicates greater variation than other process data..
As first step, we choose to control the specific gravity of the products.
After much consideration and designed experiments, it was calculated that the naphtaline oil
specific gravity and its naphtaline content has a close mutual relation .
From the above discussion it may be seen that, by the application of simple statistical quality
control methods and designed experiments, we have unexpectedly obtained much useful information
and results.
Using past daily data having close mutual relation to each other the above analyses show the way
to select the best controlling factor and quality standard.
The results will be explained in our quality standard defining each technical information
concerning the process.
Moreover, the controlling cost was cut down to one third as compared to the past. I suppose this is
of much significance to management.

Acte. Fapte. Date. Decizii

Obinerea datelor
evidena datelor
din trecutul
procesului; metoda
DoE ieftinete
experimentele noi
de efectuat pentru
a obine date de
msurare=intrri;
adecvate pentru
a planifica
procesul
Standardizarea
modului de lucru
prin
documentarea n
proceduri
(standarde) a
proceselor astfel
planificate
Parametrii
optimi i
condiiile
pentru
derularea
proceselor
Analiza datelor
folosind metode
statistico-matematice,
cum ar fi analiza
factorial, analiza
regresional, analiza
varianei,
identificarea
corelaiilor, diagrame
de control, (pentru alte
metode v. insertul care
urmeaz)
Acte specificaii
tehnice (referitoare
la produs),
referitoare la
procesele
tehnologice fac s
poat fi msurate
procesele i
produsele, iar datele
de msurare s
poat fi evaluate
(prin raportare la
aceste criterii)
Date numerice
culese din msurare
procese i produse
prin metode pentru
generare date
Decizii pentru
mbuntire
obinute prin
valorificare
informaii
Fapte
procese
derulate,
produse
realizate
conform
actelor
tehnice
sau
tehnolo-
gice
Informaii
idei, opinii,
preri,
diferene,
tendine,
modificri,
sinteze,
oportuniti,
, obinute
prelucrnd
date/ situaii
Date nenumerice
(situaii)monitorizate
nu msurate

17

Statistica matematic tehnologia prelucrrii datelor pentru elaborarea
deciziilor
Date = numere (mari, adic multe).
O prim condiie pentru a putea aplica metodele statistico-matematice este de a le furniza materia
prim (intrrile) de prelucrat = datele.

Pentru a nu fi art pentru art, aplicate pentru simbolistica i frumuseea soluiilor lor, n joac, a
fost nevoie s li se gseasc un debueu, o pia; acest debueu, aceast pia pentru aplicarea
metodelor-tehnicilor-instrumentelor statistico-matematice a fost gsit:
Managementul tehnologia elaborrii deciziilor prin valorificarea
semnificaiilor (informaiilor, interpretrilor) purtate n date.
Informaiile = rezultatele prelucrrii datelor (o adevrat distilare fracionat).
Metodele statistico-matematice au capacitatea de a scoate la suprafa filonul valoros ascuns n
date.
Aceast capacitate le este conferit de utilizarea:
- parametrilor statistico-matematici (caracteristicile datelor, valori relative, cum ar fi valoarea
central media, mprtierea/ dispersia msurat n general, prin amplitudine sau deviaie
standard) i a
- formelor distribuiilor statistice a datelor (modele de comportament al datelor prestabilite; nu
rmne dect s stabilim crui asemenea model i aparin mulimile de date culese, pentru a avea
de gata parametrii lor statistici i de aici interpretrile tehnice privind procesul din care provin
datele.

Astfel,

Statistica matematic = tehnologia prelucrrii datelor pentru elaborarea
deciziilor.

Cnd deciziile se refer la mbuntirea eficacitii, eficienei,
economicitii vorbim de MANAGEMENT.

PROCESELE -
cauza pentru
Produse, performane
Date despre procese
(In)Satisfacie pri interesate
Decizii pentru mbuntire proces,
deci cretere satisfacie

18

SR ISO 9004-4+A1:1998 MANAGEMENTUL CALITII I ELEMENTE
ALE SISTEMULUI CALITII. Partea 4: Ghid pentru mbuntirea calitii
(standard anulat); la Capitolul 7:
INSTRUMENTE I TEHNICI DE BAZ Deciziile luate pe baza analizei situaiilor i a datelor
joac un rol principal n proiectele i activitile de mbuntire a calitii. Succesul proiectelor i
al activitilor de mbuntire a calitii este sporit prin aplicarea corect a instrumentelor i a
tehnicilor stabilite n acest scop.
Instrumente pentru date numerice: atunci cnd este posibil, deciziile de mbuntire a calitii ar
trebui s se bazeze pe date numerice. Deciziile referitoare la diferene, tendine i modificri ale
datelor numerice ar trebui s se bazeze pe interpretri statistice.
Instrumente pentru date care nu sunt exprimate numeric: unele decizii de mbuntire a calitii
se pot baza pe date care nu sunt exprimate numeric. Astfel de date joac un rol important n
marketing, n cercetare i n dezvoltare precum i n deciziile managementului. Ar trebui utilizate
instrumente corespunztoare pentru prelucrarea corect a acestui tip de date, n scopul
transformrii lor n informaii utile pentru luarea deciziilor.
Instruire n aplicarea instrumentelor i tehnicilor. Toi membrii organizaiei ar trebui instruii
(subl.ns.) n ceea ce privete aplicarea instrumentelor i a tehnicilor de mbuntire a calitii n
vederea mbuntirii propriilor procese de lucru. Instruirea rupt de practic este rareori eficace.
Anexa B descrie cteva din instrumentele i tehnicile multiple elaborate. Tabelul prezint aceste
instrumente i tehnici precum i aplicaiile lor n mbuntirea calitii. Pentru aplicaii specifice
pot fi adecvate alte instrumente i tehnici.
Instrumente i tehnici Aplicaii
Formulare colectare date - colectare sistematic date pentru a obine o imagine clar a faptelor
Pentru date care nu sunt exprimate numeric
Diagram de afinitate
- organizare pe grupe a unui numr mare de idei, opinii, considerente
referitoare la un anumit subiect
Benchmarking
- comparare proces cu procese similare sau ale unor lideri recunoscui,
pentru a identifica posibiliti de mbuntire a calitii
Brainstorming
- identificare soluii posibile ale problemelor i posibiliti de
mbuntire a calitii
Diagram cauze-efect
- analiz i comunicare relaii de cauzalitate; nlesnire rezolvare
probleme, de la simptomele cauzelor la soluii
Diagram de flux - descriere proces existent; - proiectare proces nou
Diagram arbore - indicare relaii dintre subiect i elementele sale componente
Pentru date care sunt exprimate numeric
Fi de control
(Shewhart)
- diagnostic: evaluare stabilitate proces
- control: determinare moment n care un proces necesit ajustri
(reglaje) i a momentului n care acesta trebuie lsat aa cum
este
- confirmare: a unei mbuntiri a unui proces
Histogram
- reprezentare grafic configuraie de dispersie a datelor
- comunicare vizual informaii privind comportarea procesului
- luare decizii privind punctele de concentrare eforturi
mbuntire
Diagram Pareto
- reprezentare grafic, n ordinea importanei, contribuiei fiecrei
entiti la efectul total
- clasificare posibiliti mbuntire
Diagram de dispersie
- identificare i confirmare relaii dintre dou ansambluri de date
asociate
- confirmare relaii anticipate dintre dou ansambluri de date asociate


19

METODE PENTRU MBUNTIREA CONTINU
9

(asociate lucrului n echip); specificul acestor metode l constituie accentul pus pe reprezentrile
grafice (matrice, diagrame, tabele): se asigur prin aceasta accesul prompt i egal la informaii
pentru fiecare dintre membrii echipei.

Metode pentru prelucrare
date nenumerice (idei,
sugestii, informaii, sinteze,
puncte de vedere)
Metode pentru date numerice (generate
de procesul de verificare performane)
Metode pentru
eficacitatea
lucrului n echip
Diagrama de afinitate
Benchmarking
Brainstorming
Diagram cauze-efect (schelet-de-
pete; Ishikawa)
Diagram arbore de decizie
List de verificare cu bifare (check-
list)
Matrice: de responsabilitate, de
interaciune (influen)
procese, de relaii,
Quality Function Deployment
(QFD; House of Quality)
Quality Policy Deployment
Diagrama cmpuri de for
Diagram de flux/ scheme bloc
Tabele. Formulare
Fie de control/ verificare/ msurare
Proiectare statistic a experimentelor
Analiz arbore cderi
Histograme
Diagrama Pareto
(20-80; Analiza ABC)
Fi de eantionare statistico-matematic (pentru
inspecia bazat pe AQL a loturilor de
produse)
Diagram de mprtiere (dispersie)
Diagram de corelaie
Diagrame de control capabilitate (variabilitate)
proces (Fie Shewhart)
Diagram frecven-timp
Tolerare statistico-matematic
Construire echip
(autoalegere,
autoinstruire,
autoorganizare, )
Iniiere-meninere-
desfiinare echip
Fi de lucru
Agend (Ordine de zi)
reuniune
Reuniuni eficace/
eficiente
Raport reuniune de
lucru
Management timp
Controlling
Analiza SWOT
Analiza modurilor de defectare (poteniale = riscurilor) i a efectelor lor (poteniale), AMDE(C) = FME(C)A
Implementarea principiilor managementului (cultura managerial face ca mbuntirea continu s fie o
necesitate pentru fiecare angajat, pas cu pas). Auditare. Certificare de conformitate produse/ sisteme/ persoane.
Acreditare. Managementul proiectului. Excelena (premiile naionale/ European calitate)
Tehnica grupului nominal
Multivotare
Stratificare date
Diagram program decizie
Sondaje
Analiza/ Ingineria valorii
PDCA
(Ciclul/ Roata Shewhart-
Deming)
Elaborare politici, obiective,
Business Plan, bugete,
procedurilor SMI
Simulare
5 S
TQM
Analiza transacional
Punctare n timp (o fi Shewhart fr limite de
control)
Gestiunea costurilor. Funcia Pierdere
(Taguchi)
Testare ipoteze
Analiz msurrii
Analiza regresiei
Exeperimentele i Analiza fiabilitii
Analiza seriilor periodice
Analiza diferenelor (varianei; ANOVA)
Fia de tendine (Fi de mar run chart)
Grafic de distribuie a dou variabile
ase Sigma
Diagrame fir, cu bare, plcint (circular cu
sectoare), a casetelor,
Reele de probabilitate
Activitatea cercurilor
pentru controlul/
mbuntirea
calitii
Management riscuri
pentru eficacitatea
echipei

Calitate = eficacitate (proces/ performan, produs/ performane) n realizarea obiectivelor
stabilite.
Metodele comunic, nu doar aduc la cunotin (fac vizibile, ); pentru a realiza comunicarea -
= modificarea modului de a gndi, a culturii - , metodele trebuie s devin rutin fireasc a
fiecrui om, aplicate prin lucru n echip.

9
Detalierea subiectului poate fi gsit n colecia revistei lunare Calitate i Management, precum i n cartea
Metode de mbuntire n managementul calitii, de acelai autor. Editor CONTECA 94, 2007.


20

Metodele sunt pretextul prin (motivul pentru) care se implementeaz n cultura (fiecrui om
al) organizaiei principiile (culturii) pe care metodele le servesc, pentru c au fost n acest scop
concepute.
Aplicarea metodelor este un mijloc pentru a educa n organizaie.
Chestionarele (de sondare a opiniei, pentru autoevaluarea maturitii principiilor culturii
manageriale/ elementelor ISO 9004 viznd dezvoltarea durabil a afacerii instrumente pentru
generarea datelor care nu sunt msurabile idei (de mbuntire), opinii, preri, .
Instrument obiect de lucru cum ar fi: tabel; formular, n general; list de verificri (check
list; sondare a opiniei; conine ntrebri nchise) pe care se bifeaz; chestionar (conine ntrebri
deschise) n care se completeaz (narativ) informaii, .
Metod procedeu; a crui aplicare poate face necesar utilizarea de instrumente.
Tehnic = Metod (termenii tehnici statistice i metode statistice sunt adesea utilizai
interschimbabili, SR ISO/TR 10017:2005, Nota 1).
Cultura statistico-matematic (atitudinea fa de variabilitate i risc) impune respect pentru:
- date exprimate (ne)numeric, deci pentru
- metodele-instrumentele de culegerea datelor - completarea de formulare, pentru
- procedurile de inere sub control a documentelor (formularele de completat sunt documente
pn ce nu sunt completate)
- procedurile de inere sub control a nregistrrilor (odat completate, formularele devin
nregistrri)
- metodele de prelucrare a datelor
- elaborarea deciziilor viznd mbuntirea eficacitii, eficienei, economicitii, modului de
lucru (performanei, proceselor, activitilor, ).
Astfel, cultura statistico-matematic devine o premis i prin urmare, o component a
culturii manageriale.
inere sub control
- = scrii cum trebuie s faci faci cum ai scris;
- documente se descrie i se respect procedeul (procesul) de elaborare, fluxul de
circulaie a informaiilor( datelor transportate, .
- nregistrrilor se descrie i se respect circuitul (fluxul), cine ce completeaz/
analizeaz,
Generarea documentaiei nu ar trebui s fie un scop n sine dar ar trebui s fie o activitate care
adaug valoare (SR EN ISO 9000:2006; 2.7.1).
Cultura managerial (statistico-matematic): generarea documentaiei (documentelor +
nregistrrilor) trebuie s adauge valoare i o face prin asigurarea c datele de intrare n
analizele pentru elaborarea deciziilor viznd mbuntirea proceselor sunt fiabile (corecte,
complete).

Documentaie = Adaug valoare prin furnizarea bazei incontestabile pentru
Documente - evaluarea performanei i a performanelor; - instruire; - repetabilitate,
trasabilitate
nregistrri - a dovedi (prin dovezi obiectuale = palpabile); - evaluarea eficacitii
performanei


21

Alte surse pentru metode de management
SR ISO 10014:2007 Managementul calitii. Linii directoare pentru realizarea
beneficiilor economice i financiare prezint
- 78 de metode i instrumente pentru obinerea acestor beneficii;
- chestionare pentru autoevaluarea iniial/ cuprinztoare a nivelului de maturitate a culturii
manageriale (prin cele opt principii de baz ale managementului, care o structureaz).
SR EN ISO 9004:2010 privind Managementul unei organizaii ctre un succes
durabil. O abordare bazat pe managementul calitii prezint un model de maturitate
(instrument, chestionar, tabel) pentru autoevaluarea gradului de maturitate al sistemului de
management valorificnd ndrumrile standardului.
Ambele aceste standarde utilizeaz, pentru prezentarea rezultatelor autoevalurilor, reprezentare
grafic RADAR.
O organizaie ar trebui s utilizeze autoevaluarea pentru a identifica posibilitile de mbuntire
i inovare, pentru a fixa prioritile i a stabili planuri de aciune avnd ca obiectiv succesul durabil.
Elementele de ieire ale autoevalurii vor arta punctele tari/ slabe, nivelul de maturitate al
organizaiei i, dac autoevaluarea este repetat, progresul n timp al organizaiei.
Rezultatele autoevalurii unei organizaii pot fi un element de intrare valoros pentru analizele
efectuate de ctre Management.
Autoevaluarea poate de asemenea constitui un instrument de nvare, care poate oferi o viziune
mbuntit asupra organizaiei i poate promova implicarea prilor interesate. (din ISO 9004, A.1).
Cerinele standardelor de referin pentru sistemele de management, ca i metodele manageriale (la
drept vorbind, implementarea cerinelor este un proiect, deci se abordeaz prin metode specifice
lucrului n echip, cum ar fi managementul proiectului) sunt n aa fel concepute nct utilizarea lor s
conduc la implementarea culturii manageriale (a celor opt principii de baz ale managementului).

SR EN 60812:2006 Tehnici de analiz a fiabilitii sistemelor
10
Procedura de
analiz a modurilor de defectare i a efectelor lor (AMDE)
Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is a systematic procedure for the analysis of a system to
identify the potential failure modes, their causes and effects on system performance (performance of
the immediate assembly and the entire system or a process). The analysis is successfully performed
preferably early in the development cycle so that removal or mitigation of the failure mode ism ost cost
effective. This analysis can be initiated as soon as the system is defined enough to be presented as a
functional block diagram where performance of its elements can be defined. (Standardul. 4.1)

SR ISO 10006:2005 Sisteme de management al calitii Linii directoare pentru
managementul calitii n proiecte
11

Interesul pentru statistic-matematic sau management, ca i pentru orice altceva, vine
nvnd i practicnd metodele specifice culturilor respective.

10
n fond, sistemele de management sunt o submulime a sistemelor
11
Conceperea, documentarea, implementarea, meninerea, mbuntirea continu a unui sistem de
management fac obiectul unui proiect a crui abordare (procese, obiecte, obiective) sunt, iat, descrise
ntr-un standard internaional. Nu trebuie pierdut din vedere (de ctre avansai) PMBOK (Project
Management Book of Knowledge) al PMInstitute i toat biografia asociat.

22

SR ISO/ TR 10017 ndrumri referitoare la utilizarea tehnicilor statistice pentru
ISO 9001:2000.
Sunt furnizate ndrumri pentru selectarea tehnicilor statistice adecvate, care pot fi utile unei
organizaii la dezvoltarea, implementarea, meninerea i mbuntirea unui sistem de management al
calitii n conformitate cu ISO 9001. Acesta a fost elaborat prin examinarea acelor cerine ale ISO
9001 care implic utilizarea datelor cantitative i dup aceea identificarea i descrierea tehnicilor
statistice care pot fi utile cnd se utilizeaz astfel de date.
Justificarea utilizrii tehnicilor statistice este aceea c aplicarea acestora va ajuta la creterea
eficacitii sistemului de management al calitii.
Tehnicile statistice recomandate de acest standard: statistici descriptive (includ metode grafice);
proiectarea experimentelor; testarea ipotezelor; analiza msurrii; analiza capabilitii proceselor;
analiza regresiei; analiza fiabilitii; eantionare; simulare; fia de control statistic al proceselor
(SPC); tolerare statistic; analiza seriilor periodice.
DoE:
- se refer la investigarea fcut planificat i bazat pe o evaluare statistic a rezultatelor pentru a
obine concluzii la nivelul de ncredere stabilit;
- implic, n mod normal, inducerea schimbrii (schimbrilor) sistemului investigat i evaluarea
statistic a efectului acestor schimbri asupra sistemului. Obiectivele sale pot fi s valideze anumite
caracteristici ale unui sistem sau s investigheze influena unuia sau a mai multor factori asupra
anumitor caracteristici ale unui sistem.
Tehnici utilizate pentru analiza datelor experimentului: analitice (analiza diferenelor, varianei,
ANOVA, de la Analysis of Variance), .

SR ISO 31000:2010 Managementul riscului. Principii i linii directoare
Riscurile
- se refer la realizarea obiectivelor;
- sunt generate de activiti (atomii de mod de lucru/ performan); probabil i mbolnvirea
organismului uman se instaleaz de la nivelul molecular.
Ca orice este management, i managementul riscului presupune elaborarea i implementarea unei
politici referitoare la risc prin elaborarea i realizarea de obiective pentru aceast politic.
Aa cum exist proprietar de proces (concept introdus la noi prin SR EN ISO 9000-1:1996, anulat
acum: pentru clarificarea interfeelor, a responsabilitilor i a autoritilor, un proces ar trebui s
aib ca persoan responsabil un proprietar) exist i proprietar al riscului
Pe ct de solitar este statisticianul, pe att este managerul deschis relaionrii, lucrului n echip.
Metodele manageriale, cele mai multe sunt destinate lucrului n echip. Lucru n echip:
constituire-iniiere-meninere-ncheiere echip, management reuniuni de lucru eficace/ eficiente,
management timp, brainstorming, raportare, .
Reprezentri grafice: diagrama de afinitate, diagrama arbore de decizie, diagrama cauze-efect
(schelet-de-pete, Ishikawa), diagrama Pareto (economist, 20-80 de la 20% din populaie deine
80% din proprieti, devenit vital few trivial many n managementul calitii la J.M. Juran;
ABC), histograme, fie de control statistic (Shewhart), Quality Function Deployment (QFD),
schema bloc, diagrama de flux, diagrame fir/ plcint, diagram program decizie, RADAR, formulare
(tabele), diagram mprtiere, diagram frecven-timp, liste de verificare cu bifare (check-lists),
matrice de responsabilitate/ interaciuni, . Analiza/ ingineria valorii. Auditare. Management
costuri. Funcia pierdere (Taguchi). Controlling. PDCA (Ciclul Shewhart-Deming, metodologia
pentru mbuntirea continu a proceselor). Proiectare statistic experimente (DoE). Tolerare
statistic. Control statistic procese.


23

Planificarea este aplicarea organizat a gndirii sistematice la soluionarea problemelor
practice. O alternativ la planificare este metoda ncercrilor succesive (bjbiala, ghicitul; n.n.).
Cu mult nainte ca Charles Darwin s fi descris aceast alternativ ca o selecie natural, Adam
Smith a relevat-o ca fiind creatorul principal al progresului economic.
Departe de a fi incompatibile sau de a se exclude reciproc, att mecanismul automat al liberei
concurene, ct i principiul acionrii contiente, pe baz de decizii raionale, joac roluri diferite,
dar la fel de importante, n funcionarea sistemului nostru economic.
Locul principal unde se iau deciziile raionale () este ntreprinderea individual particular.
O metod de atenuare a riscului este asigurarea. n cadrul tipului general de incertitudine ,
guvernul, cu capacitatea sa de a crea cererea adic de a tipri bani - , este evident cheza. Dei
asigurarea de acest gen este util i, n anumite condiii chiar indispensabil, totui pn la urm
cheltuielile economice i sociale legate de aceasta se pot dovedi foarte ridicate.
Cealalt soluie const n a elimina sau cel puin n a reduce riscul nsui. Abordarea n acest
fel a problemei este n interesul oamenilor de afaceri. Ea cere eforturi de cercetare a pieei, care s
fie coordonate, proiectate pentru obinerea de previziuni fundamentate cu privire la vnzri i
mbinate cu planurile de producie pe termen scurt i lung pentru toate ramurile industriilor
prelucrtoare, extractive, de transport i servicii. Aceasta este singura cale prin care circulaie
dintre diversele ramuri ale unei economii n cretere poate fi adaptat cerinelor noilor tehnologii
i ale ntreprinderii moderne.
Amploarea i complexitatea sarcinii analitice de descoperire a fenomenelor printr-o asemenea
abordare sunt desigur foarte mari. Noile metode de investigare economic i statistic dezvoltate n
cursul ultimilor 20 de ani sunt, totui, perfect capabile s rezolve problemele tehnice implicate de
un asemenea proiect.
n Statele Unite, metoda ncercrilor succesive a avut att de mult succes, un timp att de
ndelungat, nct pentru unii din noi ea a devenit o profesiune de credin. Aceasta pn la slbirea
ritmului de dezvoltare economic din ultimul deceniu, cnd s-au ridicat prea multe probleme
dificile. n prezent, politica fiscal n care la fel ca n asigurri guvernul ndeplinete rolul de
cheza general reprezint principalul instrument de planificare. Dar el nu este singurul. Au fost
deja ntreprinse pe o scar larg analize statistice sistematice, care indic o alt cale pe care se
poate nainta.
O alt abordare matriceal, ca i DoE,
Tabele intrri-ieiri (analiza input-output; analiza interdependenei ramurilor)
Primul tabel intrri-ieiri al economiei SUA, alctuit n mod oficial, a fost elaborat pentru
anul 1947.
n esen, aceasta este o metod de analiz care profit de fluxul relativ stabil al bunurilor i
serviciilor dintre elementele economiei noastre pentru a schia un tablou statistic mai amnunit al
sistemului i a-l aduce n situaia de a fi folosit de teoria economic.
Ca atare, metoda a trebuit s atepte maina modern de calcul de mare vitez, precum i
tendina actual a ageniilor guvernamentale i particulare de a acumula muni de date. Noiunea
principal a analizei intrri-ieiri: exist o relaie fundamental ntre volumul produciei (outputul,
ieirile; n.n.) unei ramuri i dimensiunea intrrilor (resurselor; n.n.) pe care le absoarbe. Fiecare
numr din grafic este dependent de celelalte.
Rndurile de numere arat cum este distribuit producia fiecrui sector al economiei ntre
celelalte sectoare; coloanele arat, dimpotriv, cum obine fiecare sector de la celelalte intrrile
necesare de bunuri i servicii.
Wassily Leontief, Teoria interdependenei ramurilor n economie (1951)


24

DECEMBRIE 1959
Un eveniment editorial, ntreg numrul este consacrat unui articol de Genichi Taguchi (lucra la
Electric Communication Lab. of Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Public Corporation
12
): Linear
Graphs for Orthogonal Arrays and Their Applications to Experimental Design with
the Aid of Various Techniques
Un fel de SUDOKU. Nu este de mirare c ideea cu aranjarea (array) ortogonal (alctuit din
coloane i linii perpendiculare) i cu studierea regulilor de completare a spaiilor de la intersecii i-a
venit unui japonez; ei au sudoku n snge.
Aceste aranjri sunt instrumente grafice cu ajutorul crora DoE elaboreaz experimentele.
Primul paragraf al articolului este aproape istoric pentru nelegerea DoE:
Let me explain through an example.
The following table is made up of 2 classes of numbers, 1 and 2, arranged in 7 columns.
This table has the special characteristic that, if any 2 columns are taken, the combinations of the
numbers 1 an 2 of these 2 columns, (1, 1), (1, 2), (2, 1), (2, 2) appear exactly twice each.
Such a table may be used effectively in designing experiments.
The method of designing experiments is called layout.
Table 1. L
8
(2
7
).
13

Un Orthogonal array (o aranjare pe linii i coloane perpendiculare)
14

Col. no.
No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
Componente
a b a
b
c a
c
b
c
a
b
c
Grupri

1 2 3

12
i n SUA tot o firm de telecomunicaii ITT (International Telegraph and Telephone) se evidenia
n acest gen de cercetri
13
De unde i factorial; numrul de experimente (redus statistico-matematic) este stabilit folosind
combinaii de factori de risc (eec, eroare).
14
8 pentru c sunt opt numere (cifre). 2 pentru c se combin cte dou. 2
7
(= 128) este numrul de
combinaii posibile, deci de experimente care ar trebui efectuate pentru a dobndi informaia suficient
n condiiile clasice de determinare a numrului de experimente.

25

Fig. 1. Grafuri lineare pentru L
8

15

- For instance, lets say that the number of factors is 7 or less and that each has 2 levels. If we name
these 7 factors A, B, C, D, E, F, and G, we may let them correspond to the columns 1-7 of Table 1, and
then conduct the following 8 experiments successively, randomizing the order of these 8 experiments.

- Experimentul
- - Valori observate n
experiment
- 1
- 2
- 3
- 4
- 5
- 6
- 7
- 8
-
A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1
E
1
F
1
G
1
-
A
1
B
1
C
1
D
2
E
2
F
2
G
2
-
A
1
B
2
C
2
D
1
E
1
F
2
G
2
-
A
1
B
2
C
2
D
2
E
2
F
1
G
1
-
A
2
B
1
C
2
D
1
E
2
F
1
G
2
-
A
2
B
1
C
2
D
2
E
1
F
2
G
1
-
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
1
E
2
F
2
G
1
-
A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2
E
1
F
1
G
2
-
y
1
-
y
2
-
y
3
-
y
4
-
y
5
-
y
6
-
y
7
-
y
8
- Having obtained the observed values y
1
, y
2 , .
y
8
, the comparison between A
1
and A
2
is given by the
difference between the average over y
1
, y
2, ,
y
3,
y
4
and the average of y
5
, y
6, ,
y
7,
y
8
.
-
Since each level of all the factors A, C, , G

is combined with A
1
, A
2
exactly twice, even if, for
instance, there is a difference between B
1
and B
2
, A
1
and A
2
is each combined with B
1
and B
2
the same
number of times so there is no handicap in the comparison between A
1
and A
2
.

- The same can be said for all other factors, and to see if there is a difference between F
1
and F
2
it is
only necessary to compare the mean value of the experimental values of 1, 4, 5 and 8 which include
F
1
with the mean value of the experimental values of 2, 3, 6 and 7.
- Of course, if the number of factors is less than 7, some of the columns may be skipped, or some of
the factors may be made to correspond to the columns so as to make it possible to obtain the desired 2-
factor interactions.
16
It is not difficult to obtain the interaction column. For instance, if the 2-factor

15
n anii aceia, 1950-1960, se elaborau i metodele pentru programare prin prezentarea grafic a
relaiilor (paralele, secveniale) ntre activiti (diagrame reea: arrow diagrams) Critical Path Method
(CPM), Performance Evaluation & Review Technique (PERT; spre deosebire de CPM, face uz de
tehnici probabilistice).
n DoE, locul activitilor de aici este luat de factorii care influeneaz rezultatul experimentului.
16
O reprezentare grafic similar, de tip matrice, este folosit de asemenea, la stabilirea influenelor
reciproce ntre procesele unui Sistem de management matricea interaciunilor.
1
5
2 4
3
6
7
1
2
4
7
6
5
3

26

interaction between A and B is to be obtained, it is only necessary to find the product column of
columns 1 and 2, which correspond to A and B respectively, and let no other factorial effects
correspond to this column.
- The product column of column 1 and column 2 may be found by the following multiplication rule
concerning the component symbols.
Component of Column 1 Component of Column 2 Product
a b a b
The column, therefore, is the one having the component ab, that is, column 3.
Linear Graphs for L
8
(2
7
)
Let L
n
(k
r
) represent an orthogonal array of size n comprised of r columns with k levels. No.
Represents the experimental numbers while Col. no. Shows the column numbers or the orthogonal
array.
For L
8
(2
7
), there are only 2 types of Linear Graph as shown in Fig. 1, that is, Linear Graph (1)
shows that
The interaction between column 1 and column 2 goes to column 3
column 1 and column 4 column 5
column 2 and column 4 column 6.
Therefore, in a 2
4
-type experiment with A, B, C, and D as the factors, if the 3 factors A, B, and C
are important and we want to obtain the 2-factor interactions between these 3 main factors, we may,
for instance, assign A to column 1, B to column 2, and C to column 4 and not assign any other factor
(in this case D) to column 3 which corresponds to the A and B interaction, to column 6 which
corresponds to the B and C interaction.

Tabel 2.
8 Combinations to be Conducted
No. Combinri
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
A
1
B
1
C
1
D
1

A
1
B
1
C
2
D
2

A
1
B
2
C
1
D
2

A
1
B
2
C
2
D
1

A
2
B
1
C
1
D
2

A
2
B
1
C
2
D
1

A
2
B
2
C
1
D
1

A
2
B
2
C
2
D
2

Col.
no.
Factorial Effects to be Assigned
1 Assign A
2 Assign B
3 To obtain the interaction A X B
4 Assign C
5 To obtain the interaction A X C
6 To obtain the interaction B X C
7 Assign D
This shows that the following 8 experiments should
be conducted for obtaining 7 effects, 4 main effects
and 3 interactions.
Of course, when the interaction B X C is guessed to be small
(for example, when A is the major important factor, B and C of
ordinary importance, and D is not so important, it is sufficient to
make it possible to obtain only A X B and B X C because B X C is
the 2-factor interaction between minor factors and is usually
unnecessary), it is possible to assign to column 6, corresponding to
B X C, another 2-level factor (if there is any).
In some cases, i tis also possible to carry out the whole
experiment requiring 8 measurements in 2 parts at different periods,
the first 4 and the other 4 corresponding to each of the 2 levels of
column 6, or two different material lots may be assigned to these
levels. That is, i tis not always necessary to use all the interactions
included in type 1.

27

When the number of 2-level factors is 6 or less and the main factors are A and B, we may assign
A and B to columns 1 and 2, skip column 3, and assign the other factors to column 4 and after so as to
obtain only
A X B.
The layout type (2) (din Fig. 1) is used when the interactions between 1 factor and all the other
factors are important, for instance, when A
1
and A
2
are temperature and time of some process.
This is because the optimum conditions for temperature and time may be considered to be
different in these two cases.
Also, it is possible to introduce a factor with 4 levels by using a line with black dots on both ends.
For example, from layout type (1), in order to assign a 4-level factor by using a line, we remove
columns 1, 2, and 3 from L
8
(2
7
) and replace the 4 combinations of levels of columns 1 and 2, that is
11, 12, 21, and 22, by 1, 2, 3, and 4, as shown in

Table 3. Making a Multi-level Column

It is easily done by finding a line from a linear graph.
The layout of the 4 X 2
3
type, letting A take 4 levels, may be designed as shown in the following Table
4 where e means an error.

Col.
No.
A
1, 2, 3
B
4
C
5
D
6
e
7
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1

L
12
(2
11
) also exists, but since we cannot obtain any interactions with this type (if we try to obtai an
interaction, we must sacrifice all of the remaining 9 columns), we may as well say that i tis never used;
the same may be said of L
20
(2
19
), L
24
(2
23
), an so forth;
That is, if L
16
(2
15
) is not enough we recommend the use of L
32
(2
31
) or the use of the partially
supplementing design, which allows the size of the experiment to remain 20 or 24.

Levels Column
1 2 (3)
A
1
1 2 (1)
A
2
1 2 (2)
A
3
2 1 (2)
A
4
2 2 (1)
We must also eliminate column 3. The number of
degrees of freedom for a 4-level main effect is 3, but since
only 1 unknown can be estimated from each column of
L
8
(2
7
), 3 columns become necessary. The 3 columns cannot
be chosen arbitrarily; two of them may be chosen at random,
but the 3rd column to be removed must be the product of
these 2 columns.
L
16
(2
15
) the orthogonal array of the 2-level series of
size 16 is most frequently used as well as L
27
(3
13
) and
L
32
(2
31
).
This has 15 2-level columns and the size of the
experiment is 16, and so the variety of layout types is
fairly numerous;

28

Table 5. Orthogonal Array L
16
(2
15
)
Un Orthogonal array (o aranjare pe linii i coloane perpendiculare)
Col.
no.
No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
2
2
1
Componen
te
a b a
b
c a
c
b
c
a
b
c
d a
d
b
d
a
b
d
c
d
a
c
d
b
c
d
a
b
c
d
Grupri

1 2 3 4

Sunt prezentate, apoi diferite tipuri de Grafuri liniare pentru L
16
(2
15
) cu domeniile (de
experimente) la care se folosesc.
Relum n insertul care urmeaz exemplul dat de Taguchi cu durabilitatea anvelopelor. Exemplul
istoric pe care s-a construit DoE i proiectarea tehnologic robust a fost cel cu iglele.


29

Un exemplu DoE prezentat de G. Taguchi: Un experiment privind durabilitatea anvelopelor
To improve the durability of tires, five factors A, B, C, D and E, having two levels each, were
picked up for conducting an experiment. Design the experiment under the assumption that all the
interactions except A X B and A X C may be neglected.
[Solution] In this case, the condition for the life test should be taken into consideration. That is,
to make the life test easier, any car being picked up for testing the durability of tires should not be
asked any special driving schedule. Any car for testing the tires should be driven according to their
own program, otherwise, the cost needed for specified test driving becomes quite high.
If we do not ask for any specified driving schedule, the testing condition varies from car to
car, but we can solve the difficulty by taking two factors, cars R and four positions of tires V, under
the assumption that any car driven under a worse condition during the experimental period shortens
the life of all of its four tires, V
1
(front-right wheel), V
2
(front-left wheel), V
3
(back/right wheel), V
4
(
back/ left wheel) proportionally with the degree of severity of the condition.
That is, if we take into consideration 2 factors R and V besides the five factors from production,
we can get the information of the factorial effects with as high a precision as if the life of the tires
were compared at the same position of the same car.
When the number of available cars is four, the level of R must be 4 and our problem may be
stated as follows:
Design the experiment so as to be able to obtain intra-block information of all five main effects
of A, B, C, D, E, and two interactions A X B, A X C under the condition that there are two-way
blocks having a block size of four each.
To solve the problem, we should draw the desired linear graph for this problem. In this case, the
linear graph becomes as follows:

The Requested Linear Graph
If we can find the above type from the set of linear graphs for L
16
, it may be used as solution. In
this case it is easy to find the suitable type from the linear graph. (n articol sunt date, la Figura 2,
nereprodus aici, Various types of Linear Graphs for L
16
(2
15
); dintre acestea sunt alese):

Linear Graph and the Fitting for the Requested Linear Graph
A
B
C
D E
V R
13
12
10
V
8
2
3
E
9
D
R
6
7
1
C
5
A
11
15
B 4

30

That is
R 1, 6, 7, V 2, 8, 10
A 11 B 4, A X B 15
C 5 A X C 14, D 3, E
e 12, 13

and the layout of the experiment becomes as follows.

Instruction for the Experiment (the layout of the experiment)
Columns

No.
Factors Testing Condition
A B C D E
A
C
A
B
R V e e
11 4 5 3 9 14 15 1,6,7 2,8,10 12 13
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2 2
3 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 2 2
4 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1
5 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 3 1 1
6 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 4 2 2
7 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 2 2
8 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 4 1 1
9 2 1 2 2 2 1 2 3 1 1 2
10 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 3 2 2 1
11 2 2 1 2 2 2 1 4 1 2 1
12 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 4 2 1 2
13 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 4 3 1 2
14 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 4 4 2 1
15 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 3 3 2 1
16 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 3 4 1 2

Layout of Factorial Effects

Sources d.f. Columns No.
General mean
A
B
C
D
E
A X B
A X C
R
V
e(error)
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
3
2
0
11
4
5
3
9
15
14
7, 1, 6
2, 8, 10
12, 13
Total 16

[Note]
(a) when the number of available cars is more than 4, the design may be changed to
Number of available cars Procedure
8, 12, 16, .
Other numbers, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11,
Replicate the above layout
Use the partially supplementing technique


31

n articol sunt prezentate, apoi
Linear graphs for other arrays, a cror utilizare nu este explicitat, apreciindu-se c, dei au fost
artate numai dou exemple foarte simple, it is not so difficult to guess how to use linear graphs of
any other array for designing experiments. Here, I will give only rough recommendations for special
types of linear graphs;
Various useful techniques for Experimental Designs using Orthogonal Arrays:
- making a multi-level column;
- dummy factor technique este dat a simple but typical example from the production process of
a carbon resistor; let us suppose that the following 9 factors have been picked up from the
beginning up to the carbon depositing proces son the surface of a ceramic pipe in a crystal
furnace: A cleaning method having 2 levels, concentration of fluoric acid having 2 levels,
sealing time in fluoric acid having 2 levels, type of ceramic having 2 levels, different oil to be
carbonized having 2 levels, flow of E having 2 leves, flowing time having 2 levels,
carbonizing temperature having 4 levels, carbonizing time having 2 levels;
- combining technique;
- partially supplementing technique let us take a simple example: in order to decrease the noise
caused by ball-bearings, the following factors have been picked up: type of ball-bearing (3
levels), size of ball-bearing (3), kind of lubricating oil (4), amount of lubricating oil (3), testing
temperature (2), number of revolutions (3); let us consider a suitable layout supposing that the
information on all the main effects and three interactions AXC, AXD, CXD are being wanted
.;
- partially expanding technique;
- compounding;
- making direct product;
- making direct sum;
- randomly combined design;
- split unit technique.
Split-Unit Design in Orthogonal Arrays: one of the most important role of statistical theory is to
suggest the suitable size of any given experiment taking into consideration the loss caused by wrong
decision, the probability of which will be decreased by increasing the size of the experiment, and the
loss consisting of the cost needed for conducting the experiment and of the loss duet o delayed
decision.
(b) When the number of wheels is different from 4, the design must be changed to
Number of wheels Procedure
2
3
5
6
8
10
12
Consult the direct sum technique with L
8
Use L
27
or consult the partially expanding or the direct sum technique of L
8
Use the partially supplementing technique with L
16
do.
Use L
32
Use L
32
with partially supplementing technique
Direct sum of L
16

(c) When the number of factors is more than 5, say 15, a similar layout can be made by using L
32
.
(d) When there are many factors having different number of levels, we can make a suitable layout
by using the dummy factor technique and direct sum though it is not explained here.


32

The present writer suggested [ Taguchi, G.: Design of Experiments, I, II, 1957 & 1958, Maruzen,
Tokyo (in Japanese)] that 10 replications would usually be nearly the best for selecting the best level
of a factor having k levels and that less than 10 replications would be more economical for those
factors causing a big loss by changing levels for replication . .
Alte titluri n Bibliografie:
- Taguchi, G., Konishi, S.: Orthogonal Arrays and Linear Graphs with Examples, 1959, JUSE, Tokyo
(in Japanese);
- Taguchi, G.: Notes on Design of Experiments, Journal of Statistical Quality Control, 10, No. 3 No.
12, 1959, JUSE, Tokyo (in Japanese).

MARTIE 1960
nc un numr istoric, consecutiv celui din decembrie 1959, al publicaiei JUSE editor Kaoru
Ishikawa , integral consacrat unei contribuii a lui Genichi Taguchi
Tables of Orthogonal Array and Linear Graphs; o colecie de
- various types of linear graphs which can be used for designing experiments using orthogonal
arrays.
A Number shown in the linear graphs are the columns numbers corresponding to the array.
Columns were classified into several classes for one-way split unit design, and were marked in the
linear graphs as follows.

L
32
(2
31
) L
64
(2
31
) All other arrays
Mark Group Mark Group Mark Group

1st, 2nd

3 rd

4th

5th
1st, 2nd, 3 rd
4th

5th

6th

1st,
2nd

3 rd

4th
Sunt date 52 pagini format A5 mrit sute de exemple de Tables of Orthogonal Array and Linear
Graphs.

MARTIE 1961
Improvement of Operating Performance of Sulphuric acid plant by the DoE
17
:
- this experiment was carried out to find the optimum condition of operation of the renewed
sulphuric acid plant, which includes all the apparatus from roaster to absorption tower;
- the most important purpose of this experiment is to find the optimum condition of operation; all
the chracteristics (parametrii procesului tehnologic) which were thought to be effective
(influeneaz rezultatele procesului) in the leaching of calcine and conversion were taken up to
decide the best condition; but, in this report only three characteristics, the residual sulphate

17
Extrase din articolul omonim semnat de Yuji Tateishi

33

sulphur in the mixed calcine, the leaching efficiency of mixed calcine, and conversion were
selected to explain the design and the result of the experiment;
- in this report, the design of the experiment and the results of the analysis are described;
- pasul 1Definire proces de optimizat - narativ, cu diagram de flux, ; descriere influene
reciproce (interdependene) ntre parametrii procesului tehnologic analizat;
- pasul 2 Stabilire parametri proces: all the characteristics which were thought to be effective in
the leaching of calcine and conversion were taken up to decide the best condition; but, in this
report, only three characteristics, the residual sulphate sulphur in the mixed calcine, the
leaching efficiency of mixed calcine, and conversion were selected to explain the design and
the result of the experiment;
- pasul 3 Stabilire surse de efecte factoriale (factorii de control i nivelurile lor);
Code Factors
Order
of
factor
No. of
levels
Levels
Roasting
Plant
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Roasting temperature
Charge rate of total feed
Excess air factor
Charge rate of the concentrate
Pressure in freeboard
Charge rate of dust
Boiler N. running
Days after boiler start
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
4
4
2
2
2
2
2
2
955 1020 1045 1070
0
C
110 123 136 149 t/d
1.20 1.30
0 8 t/d

0 2 t/d
No. 1 No. 2
The first half The latter half
Sulphuric
Acid
Plant
A

B

C

D

E

F
G

H

I

J
Gas concentration at inlet of
contact acid plant
Temperature at inlet of 1 st path of
converter
Temperature at inlet of 2nd path of
converter
Temperature at inlet of 3rd path of
converter
Concentration of circulating acid in
drying tower
Temperature of circulating acid in
drying tower
Depth of contributing dish in
drying tower
Concentration of circulating acid in
absorption tower
Temperature of circulating acid in
absorption tower
Depth of contributing dish in
absorption tower
3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

4

4

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2
5.6 6.0 6.5 7.0 %

420 427 433 440
0
C

420 430 440 450
0
C

420
430 0
C

95.0 96.0 %

35 45
0
C

230 240 m/m

98.8 99.0 %

55 62
0
C

230 240 m/m
Among these factors, factor D and F must be designed so as to be feeded into the roaster only once
during four days, because of qualtity.
The levels of the third order factors may be changed every day, those of the second order may be
changed every two days, because the influence of the experiment of the previous day may remain
during the first day of level change.
- pasul 4 Stabilire interaciuni ntre factorii de control (= parametrii procesului de optimizat);
the interactions among these factors to be taken into consideration are as follows:

34

AxB AxC BxC AxB AxB AxC AxD BxB BxC BxD BxC BxD CxD HxI Hx J
IxJ
- pasul 5 Proiectare experiment; a large experiment is necessary if the interactions between two
four/level factors are to be obtained. Such an experiment is so difficult to conduct that the
number of degrees of freedom of the interactions must be decreased to one in order to design
the experiment can be designed in L
32
. The factors dealing with the roasting plant except the
charge rate do not affect conversion so much, so these were neglected in this design.
The first order factors which are most difficult to change the level were assigned the first to third
columns, the second order factors were laid aut in the fourth to fifteenth columns, the other factors
were laid out in the sixteenth to thirty first column in the orthogonal array by G. Taguchi.
5.1 elaborare linear graph pentru fiecare dintre cele dou uniti prin transformarea tabelului cu
factori (parametri ai procesului) de inut sub control i a interaciunilor determinate pe baza lui i a
cunoaterii tehnologiei n cauz ntr-o reprezentare grafic cu linii (ca i n cazul metodelor de
programare, aceste linii nu sunt vectori, nu arat un sens, iar lungimea lor nu exprim vreun ordin de
mrime) i noduri; astfel, datele prezentate la paii 3 i 4 pentru factorii referitoari la procesul
tehnologic din fabrica (linia, instalaia) de acid sulfuric, dau reprezentarea grafic de mai jos.

31
3
B
28
19
10
24
21
A
13
18
BxA
B
23
BxD
12
6
29
D
26
9
15
BxC
25
BxC

14
CxD
11
AxC
1
BxD

5
AxD
H 30
7
HxJ
5

HxI
IxJ 2
27 25
J
I
Linear graph for the sulphuric acid plant factors

35

5.2 prezentare rezultate proiectare
Colu
mn
No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
1
5
1
6
1
7
1
8
1
9
2
0
2
1
2
2
2
3
2
4
2
5
2
6
2
7
2
8
2
9
3
0
3
1
R
o
a
s
t
i
n
g

P
l
a
n
t

G
A
x
B

H

B
x
C

A
x
C

A
J

E

B

A
x
C

C

J

(
A
)

(
B
)

B
a
x
C

(
J
)

A
.

S
u
l
p
h
u
r
i
c

A
c
i
d

P
l
a
n
t

B
x
D
x
J
X
B
.
.
C

A

-
C

5.3 analiza varianei i rezultatele analizei
5.3.1 Residual suplphate sulphur in mixed calcine: the sample to be analized was collected at intervals
of two hours, then the sample collected for eight hour was reduced. Three samples were made for one
experimentation. The results of the analysis of these samples are analysed as three replicates. The
result of the analysis of the first half of the data are shown in the Table.
0
A
B
C
J
D
F
E
AxC
e
T
9.969
1.579
12
392
186
80
850
422
1.415
14.584
3
3
1
2
1
1
1
3
36
47
3,323
526
12
196
186
80
850
141
39
85.21
13.49

5.03
4.77
2.05
21.80
3.62
Note: The sum of squares (s.s.) of the fourth and twelfth columns were 8 and 18 respectively and thus were very
small, so they were added to both of the factors confounded
From the Table it can be concluded that the purpose of this experimentation was accomplished
sufficiently by the first half of the experimentation and i tis not necessary to conduct the latter half,
because the factors took up in this experimentation were significant and these relations which are
shown in Figure 4 can be understood technically
5.3.2 Pentru Zinc solubility of mixed calcine analiza varianei se desfoar la fel
5.3.3 Conversia i analiza varianei conversiei. Prezentarea relaiilor ntre conversie i factori
- pasul 6 Estimare medie proces la ce ami bun condiie
It is so difficult to conduct an experiment which continues over one month, that the confounding
of the main effects were considered especially to decrease the size of the experiment; the purpose of
this experiment was accomplished by this design in only one month. By operating under the best
condition, sulphate sulphur in the mixed calcine decreased about 0.2%, conversion increased about
0.5%, and zinc solubility in the electrolytic plant increased to above 95%.

36

Sampling Inspection Slide Rule with Adjustement by Attributes & Variables

(Rigla de calcul pentru inspecia prin eantionare cu ajustare pe baz de atribute i
variabile). Autori: K. Fukao i M. Ogawa de la Matsushita
The concept quality is not made by inspection impaired the authority of inspection. But, this
phrase should be interpreted and undestood as a warning or criticism to inspection still being in the
stage of a loss with nothing to gain.
We believe that inspection may be carried aut to the profit of the manufacturer by making full
use of the information obtained by inspection.
It is no exaggeration to say that the above criticism is partly due to the complexity of the system
of present-day sampling inspection tables.

Metodele statistico-matematice i manageriale sunt concepute pentru a funciona n
condiii de prosperitate, fie i dac lum n considerare numai faptul c pentru a putea fi
aplicate ca metode tiinifice, metodele statistico-matematice trebuie s abordeze produse:
- care provin din procese stabilizate din punct de vedere statistic adic derulate n bogie,
acolo unde nu se pune problema existenei unor cauze deterministe (determinabile cu
mijloace inginereti) de variabilitate materie prim de mna a doua, maini nvechite (nu ar
conta prea mult c sunt vechi, dac ar fi bine ntreinute i cu mentenana la zi), personal
nemotivat, slab calificat (pentru c nu sunt bani s angajezi meseriai cu calificare nalt, ori
s i recompensezi ca lumea pe cei de care de-bine-de-ru dispui), furnizori de nivel calitativ
sczut (este de preferat un furnizor care lucreaz prost dar tii asta, dect unul pe care nu l
cunoti);
- executate n serie cu ct mai mare cu att mai bine pentru c furnizeaz numere mari
(multe) de date, deci iari este vorba despre un productor de mare valoare, bogat i n
segment de pia i n cifr de afaceri.
Nevoia de (a aplica metodele de) Management decurge din cultura managerial.
Cultura managerial este cerut de mediul capitalist, de libera concuren, de goana
dup profit; n acest context, cultura managerial, prin metodele ei, servete drept surs
pentru (a gsi idei de) difereniere.
La noi, managementul nu a avut aceast ans n ultimii ani, pentru c intervenia
Statului, mai pe fa sau mai voalat, n competiia dintre agenii economici a anulat
capitalismul.
Lumea de astzi, se ndreapt ctre comunismul proslvit nc de marii gnditori Antici
i testat pe pielea umanitii n a doua jumtate a secolului ORORI (XX); comunism este o
consecin utopic al amestecului exagerat al Statului n compoziia societii, o ntoarcere a
umanitii la stadiul primar.
Ca urmare, ansa managementului n lumea de astzi este nc i mai redus dect a fost
la noi; intrm n lumea bun ntr-un moment cnd aceasta nu tie nici ea prea bine ctre ce
se ndreapt, nu dispune de o contiin de sine stabilizat.
Cu alte cuvinte, implementm (sisteme de) management, cnd de ele nu mai are nevoie,
practic, nimeni.

37

Sampling
Inspection
Tables
Attributes
With Screening
Single
Dodge-Romig (1944), JIS Z 9006
(1956)
Double
Dodge-Romig (1944)
Based on
Operating
Chracteristics
Single
Kitagawa (1943), Paul Peach
(1947), Grubs (1947), SSS
(1950), JIS
18
Z 9002 (1953)
Double
Kitagawa (1943), Paul Peach
(1947), SSS (1950), JIS Z 9002
(1953)
Multiple, Sequential
Paul Peach (1947)
With Adjustment
Single
QMC (1944), SRG (Columbia
1948), MIL-105A
19
(1950),
Hamaker, 1958
Double
SRG (1948), MIL-105A (1950),
Hamaker, 1958
MIL-105A (1950)
Variables
Based on
Operating
Chracteristics
Single
cunoscut
JIS Z 9003 (1953), SSS (1955)
necunoscut
JIS Z 9004 (1955), SSS (1955)
Double
cunoscut
Bowker-Goode (1952)
necunoscut
SSS (1955), JIS (draft) (1959)
With Adjustment
Single
cunoscut
QMC (1944), Bowker-Goode
(1952), Dendenkosha (1952),
MIL-414 (1957)
necunoscut
NAVORD-80 (1952), Bowker-
Goode (1952), MIL-414 (1957)
Double
cunoscut
Bowker-Goode (1952)
cunoscut
List of main Sampling Inspection Tables
Others: Continuous Type [Dodge (1951), JIS Z 9008 (1957)]; Lot Plot Method [Dorian Shainin
(1950)]
20
.
It is a matter of great decision to adopt a certain table. Now, that sampling inspection has become
one of the conditions of commercial contract, such a difficulty will also affect the decision on correct
pricing. It is impracticable to ask the man in charge to get fully acquainted with all these tables.
Choice between single sampling inspection plan or double; by attributes or variables; based on
operating characteristics or wth adjustment / these alternatives are really not mutually contracdictory.
We think that the plan with adjustment is a plan based on operating characteristics more
productive from the view of full utilization of the information obtained by inspection.
Theoretically speaking, there is no limit to the number of OC
21
curves made by an infinite
combination of n and c, but practically speaking, there are only a certain number of OC curves which
are on interest for practical application.
The single sampling inspection system of MIL-105A was made by selecting and arranging some
OC curves out of an infinite number of OC curves. (...)

18
Japan Industrial Standard. Exist colecii n englez. n general, standardele naionale ale rilor
dezvoltate industrial ar putea fi consultate la ASRO.
19
MIL de la Military; A prima ediie.
20
Istoric vorbind, primele planuri (scheme) de verificare calitativ (bazate pe repartiia Poisson) loturi
de produse fuseser elaborate de ctre B.C. Molina n 1900, iar H.G. Dodge elaborase (n 1920)
(amndoi la Bell Telephone Laboratories) primul set de planuri de verificare a calitii loturilor de
produse pe baza caracteristicilor acestora
21
Operating characteristic

38

SEPTEMBRIE 1961
Demand forecasting of polyvinil chloride in Japan; autor: Yasuo Matsushima
gsirea metodelor statistico-matematice de utilizat (asocierea, traducerea fenomenului analizat cu
metodele statistico-matematice care se potrivesc cel mai bine cu datele culese din observarea derulrii
procesului real; aceasta presupune alegerea din inventarul metodelor):
- forecasts by Rate of Change of the demand from year to year this is a simple forecast by supposing
that the average of the rates of increase from the months of 1958 to the same months of 1959 will be
available for 1959 throughout. Since the data of the time from January 1959 to June 1959, when
general business was getting better towards prosperity (which is now called Iwado-keiki Boom), was
used, there was a danger of overestimation resulting from this particular economic situation. But
looking back at it now, there is nothing to worry about, because business seems to be still going on
(this ia a posteriori evaluation);
- forecasts by Estimation procedure of missing data in the analysis of variance this is also the same
as the predeing technique in the point that it is in principle a simple projecting of the past into the
future. The only point differing from the preceding one will be the fact that the period of data used in
this analysis extends over several years and the precision is increased over the common least squares
method according to the principle of analysis of variance in DoE;
- forecasts by Statistical analysis of the time series fluctuation by polynomials summing up the past
data of the overall demand every three minths, it will be seen to be periodic every two years ...; in case
of fitting polynomials for the trend of the overall demand, it seems to be rational that we use a
quadratic curve or a linear curve respectivelly, depending upon whether the forecast is of a short-term
type or a long-range one. We calculated the ratio of actual values for two cycles to the corresponding
trend valuaes by the above curve-fitting. We shall call them cyclic indices, and from the product of
these indices and trend values for each period in the future we obtained forecasted values of the overall
demand.

Metodele statistico-matematice furnizeaz singurul mijloc tiinific pentru predicie.
Nu rmne dect s traducem limbajul narativ vulgar n limbajul variabilelor,
formulelor statistico-matematice i apoi s ne lsm purtai de automatismul procedurii
statistic-matematice a metodei n cauz.
Un inventar (list cu numere de ordine) similar cu inventarul echipamentelor (hardware)
ar putea fi fcut i pentru echipamentele software, cum sunt procedurile/ metodele (tehnicile)/
instrumentele statistico-matematice, manageriale i de alt natur.
Pentru fiecare dintre aceste metode ar putea fi stabilite, ca i pentru echipamentele hard,
convenionale, reguli de ntreinere i programe de mentenan, conforme cu instruciunile de
utilizare specifice.
Lucrul cu metode ar trebui s devin la fel de important ca i lucrul cu echipamente
palpabile; produsul pe care l mijlocete utilizarea metodelor (procedurilor) este unul de
natur spiritual.
n primul rnd, (nu aplicarea ci) utilizarea ca o rutin (fr de care nu se poate; zi de zi,
clip de clip) a metodelor induce n mentalitatea (cultura, starea de spirit, atitudinea)
fiecrui utilizator a principiilor (culturii) pentru a crei implementare au fost concepute
metodele n cauz.
Cultura statistico-matematic se refer la nelegerea i abordarea variabilitii. Dup cum,
cultura managerial de refer la demonstrarea strdaniei de a mbunti continuu modul n
care lucrezi, gndeti, trieti (stabilindu-i politici, obiective, moduri de lucru/ trai, aplicnd
metode de mbuntire pentru acestea).

39

We did not compute the sampling error of this forecast, because the error resulting from the
synthetic forecasting work, which we shall call the working error, was more important than the error
peculiar to each specific technique, but naturally it is necessary to consider the bias of each technique
apart from the statistical sampling error.
In this forecast the a posteriori evaluation will be more important than the a priori one. That is, we
have do improve our forecasting work by comparing forecasted values with actual ones and
eliminating many sources of guessing work.
Aplicarea modelelor (formulelor, curbelor de distribuie) statistico-matematice descrise de metodele
alese pentru abordare. Efectuarea calculelor, ncadrarea n curbele de distribuie (a datelor culese);
obinerea valorilor de calcul. Prin aplicarea metodelor statistice, datele culese din procesul (fenomenul
real) n prezent/ trecut pot fi extinse asupra comportamentului n viitor, aezndu-le dup curbele
distribuiilor statistice gsite ca aplicabile la punctul precedent.
Elaborarea i raportarea concluziilor analizei previziunilor fcute statistic.

Control of cone moisture content
22

Se refer la procesul tehnologic de fabricarea firelor de viscoz.
Definirea i prezentarea (inclusiv grafic a) procesului care face obiectul analizei o schem bloc,
prezentare narativ.
Scopul obiectivele studiului.
Determinarea i elaborarea schemei cauze i efect ale factorilor (parametrilor procesului
tehnologic semnificativi pentru realizarea obiectivelor procesului).

22
Elemente din articolul omonim semnat Takahisa Taji
8 5 6 7
1 4 3 2
9
10 11
12
13
14
16
15
17
41
19
18
20
22
21
26, 27, 28
23, 24 30
31
39 40
38
34
33
32
3
5
,

3
6
,

3
7

42

40

1 Cake Moisture Content; 2- Moisture Absorbency of Cake; 3 Humidity and Winding Room; 4
Measurement variation; 5 Cake Moisture Content on Removing from Dryer; 6 Cake Moisture
Content on Receiving; 7 Cake Moisture Content during Use; 8 Cone Moisture Content; 9 Change
in Cake Moisture Content suring Transportation; 10 Moisture Adjustment Time; 11 Sampling
variation; 12 Degree of viscose aging; 13 Dehydrating property; 14 Cake compactness; 15
Cake moisture content when putting into dryer; 16 Drying condition; 17 Dressing Process; 18
Degree of viscose aging; 19 Cake compactness; 20 Winding Process; 21 Atmospheric
temperature and humidity; 22 Temperature & Humidity Distribution Group; 23 Balance accuracy;
24 Person in charge; 25 Measurement of initial quality; 26 Balance 2 accuracy; 27 Person 2 in
charge; 28 Drying condition; 29 Measurement of completely dried weight; 30 Calculation; 31
Effect of loose filaments; 32 Atmospheric temperature & Humidity; 33 Received weight; 34
Quantity of waste produced; 35 Finess; 36 Filament speed; 37 Hardness; 38 Quantity used; 39
Time required; 40 Room temperature; 41 Change in Moisture Content during preparation of
sample; 43 Selection of sample
Factorii (-cauze) care sunt considerai n cadrul experimentului ca avnd efect asupra
obiectivului

Investigarea
- Sampling and determination of cone moisture content of the sample: 5 samplins were made at
random for each brand each working day; samples were prepared from these and used for moisture
measurement tests (made by a ventilation type moisture meter); rezultatele (valorile msurate) sunt
reprezentate grafic.
Se aplic testul Bartlett pentru a testa semnificaia (varianei) ntre mrci. Se reprezint parametrii
statistici ai mulimilor de date culese n fie de control statistic Shewhart medie-amplitudine X-R.
- Investigation of sampling variation and measurement variation.
- Analysis of deviation factors of cone moisture content - correlation analysis of each cause of
deviation of cone mositure content; a list of factors was made from which those factors having close
relation with cone moisture content were picked up to make a Relationshi List.
- Discussion.
- Actions taken, future plan.

Consumers preference test
23

- on the method of paired comparisons (utilizat de exemplu, i la determinarea preferinelor clienilor
n cadrul metodei Quality Function Deployment, QFD);
- methods based on sampling survey theory;
- the member of the test panel is not a specialist who measures sensory properties well;
therefore, in order to carry the test out as well as possible, sensory properties must be as simple as
possible, unless a professional assistant helps effectively the judgments of the members of the test
panel;
- the method of paired comparisons is generally applied to laboratory preference tests which must be
performed by a panel having a certain degree of experience;
- items proposed on the test were pharmaceuticals of granular form for children manufactured and
were under plan for sale as a new product;

23
Autor: Setsuo Nakagami

41

- in the consumer test, the number of sampled members was sixty; therefore the test panel consisted of
sixty children and their mothers; the number of each test pairs was twenty; test pair class (A, B), (B, C)
i (C, A) has twenty pairs respectively;
- culegerea datelor i prezentarea (tabelar a) scorurilor pentru fiecare caracteristic supus testului de
preferin: gust, miros, culoare, general.
Un exemplu: pentru gust este dat n continuare.
Grupul copii Grupul mame
Item A B C A B C
A - 5 (2) 9 - 7 10
B 8 (2) - 9 (1) 8 - 11
C 4 6 (1) - 3 5 -
...
Metoda de analiz statistic (trecerea de la valorile absolute la parametrii statistici, astfel nct s
putem aplica modelele/ formulele/ formele de distribuie pe care statistica-matematic le pune la
dispoziie pentru a previziona, estima, extrage din datele absolute esenele, nvturile, sintezele
referitoare la subiectul analizei; este vorba s gsim un parametru care s mpace i (compatibil att
cu) valorile absolute, ct i valorile statistice. Acesta este definit, de ctre autor, astfel
- we denote
ij
(i, j = 1, 2, 3; i j) the probability that the i-th item is preferred when comparing the i-th
item and the j-item.

( ), n
ij
is the number of comparisons of the i-th and the
j-th item; x
ij
is the number of preferences for the i-th items in comparing the i-th and j-th item; has for
large values of n
ij
a normal distribution, which has mean 0 and variance 1. Therefore,

( ) has, for large values of n
ij
, the
2

distribution

with ( ) = 3 degrees of freedom.

Since the null hypothesis, which is there is no difference in preference, is represented as
ij
= (i,j = 1,
2, 3; i j), has for large (...) we can test statistically thenull hypothesis by calculating
2
0
derived
from the results.

Nu am prezentat ntreg raionamentul i calculele statistice din articol ele fiind logice; ceea ce am vrut
s artm este cum a trecut autorul pragul ce desparte tehnica de statistica-matematic.

n
ij

ij
ji

x
ij
n
ij
ij

n
ij

ij
ji

x
ij
n
ij
ij

2
i<j
3
2

42

MARTIE 1962

Adjoinable designs in factory experiments
24

- the application of statistical technique to estimate the extremal point on a response surface was made
at first theoretically by H. Hotelling (1941);
- G. Taguchi (1945) applied a similar technique to find out the optimal combination of ingredients of
culture medium of Penicillium for the maximal yield of Penicillium but it was not published offically,
because the data were supplied by a private laboratory;
- in 1957 G. E. P. Box and J. S. Hunter published a paper in which this kind of technique was
discussed from the view point of optimal designs;
- in the same year a simplified method was presented by G. E. P. Box as an evolutionary operation.
SEPTEMBRIE 1962
A randomly combined design
- articol scris de G. Taguchi;
- When the number of factors (or number of unknows) is very big (or more than a size of an
experiment), a randomly combined design makes it possible to use the theory of probability to design
the layout so that the factorial effects are on the average uniformly comfounded with each other, and
the data are analysed by successive analysis;
- The first large scale experiments in which the new method was used is the one concerning a wire
spring relay experiment with 30 factors main effects and nearly 20 interactions in Jan. 1956. These 50
sources of factorial effects are divided into two groups and are respectively designed in the orthogonal
array L
81
(3
40
) twice each.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Odat fcut intrarea pe filiera deja statornicit a experimentelor factoriale (DoE) al cror autor
recunoscut este chiar autorul articolului de fa, nu trebuie dect s mergem pe firul apei, cu formulele
i raionamentele respective.
Avem de gsit
- aranjarea ortogonal care se potrivete factorilor tehnologici, apoi
- interaciunile dintre factori (parametrii ale cror valori sunt cutate prin experiment, pentru
nceput necunoscute), s le reprezentm grafic,
- s calculm ce este de calculat, cu aplicarea de tehnici statistice cum ar fi analiza varianei
(ANOVA),
2
(chi square), cu valorificarea parametrilor (deja calculai n literatura de
specialitate) distribuiilor statistice pe care le apreciem c aproximeaz (traduc n limbaj
statistico-matematic) cel mai bine natura fenomenului studiat i valorile culese din urmrirea
controlat a derulrii procesului tehnologic n cauz;
- s analizm rezultatele i pe aceast baz s stabilim procedura (tehnologia) optim din punctul
de vedere al obiectivelor experimentului (standardizm noul mod de lucru n procedura
procesului).
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

24
Extrase din articolul lui Motosaburo Masuyama

43

DECEMBRIE 1962
Analysis of close adhesion of rubber in rubber insulated cables
25

- the manufactured products were classified in various manners, and anlysis was conducted by
2
testing or testing by binomial probability papers, thereby to carry out improvements by conducting
experiments with three-factor arrangements;
- the results thus obtained were consolidated into manufacturing standards, whereby it was made
possible to carry out manufacturing operation on a stable basis (without trouble);
- after every 30-40 trials, results were collected and classified in accordance with the conditions
considered significant from the empirical or technical viewpoint, and a review was made by using
binomial probability papers, using the differences noted; thus, the data were gradually accumulated
until a total of 233 check sheets of the results of investigation were obtained.
-- --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Aplicarea acestor metode statistico-matematice vizeaz s aduc procesul n starea de stabilitate
statistic, adic s asigure inerea sub control a variabilitii procesului cauzate de cauze aleatoare.t
Prin urmare, premisa aplicrii metodei statistico-matematice este abordarea tehnic (tehnologic,
inginereasc), anume cea care const din a stabili cauzele deterministe (determinabile tehnic) de
variabilite a procesului i a le elimina.
Nu poate fi vorba de a aplica metode statistico-matematice ca tiin ct vreme n proces mai
funcioneaz cauze deterministe de variabilitate (procesul nu este stabilizat statistic); statistica-
matematic trateaz exclusiv evenimente (variabilitate cauzat de cauze) aleatoare.
Cultura statistico-matematic, a variabilitii intrinseci a proceselor, este pentru controlul statistic,
ceea ce este pentru sistemele de management cultura managerial (a mbuntirii continui prin
valorificarea creativitii, contientizare, .
Dup cum cultura statistico-matematic se dobndete mai ales din aplicarea ca o rutin zi de zi,
clip de clip, a metodelor statistico-matematice, tot astfel i cultura managerial se instituie n spirite
prin lucrul n echip aplicnd metode manageriale. Sunt, am artat mai sus, attea.
Statisticianul SUA W. Shewhart a fost vrful unui aisberg din care cutm s prezentm aici i
fragmente, desigur, pe nemeritate ignorate.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Improvement of press process for spectacle lenses
26

- was the first result obtained after the introduction of quality control in our company; it gave us, from
top management to employees, firm confidence and strong encouragement to put more emphasis
upon quality control;
- taking this opportunity, several full-time engineers were newly appointed for q.c., by decreasing the
number of foremen, in spite of the small scale of our company (< 150 workers);
- enthusiasm for better quality has since been getting hotter among our staff and workers in the whole
company;
- in the statistical analysis for process improvement, no complex method has been used at all, but a
rather simple method of stratisfication adopted in most cases;

25
Dintr-un articol de Koichi Okayama
26
Dintr-un articol de Isamu Bando i Mitsuru Arakawa

44

Planning of process analysis:
o for the purpose of reducing the chronic rejects in the press process, the first to do was to arrange and
stratify the past data, thereby to collect as much information as possible; with the records of 100%
inspection, describing the causes of defects, being available for our disposal, statistical procedures for
that above were operated in the following order:
- preparation of Pareto diagrams as classified by defect for each month; defects were classified in:
that can be reclaimed by hand work; caused by inferior material; that cannot be reclaimed due to
wrong processing (a, and B);
- investigation into main defects by preparing characteristics factor diagrams; an investigation on the
basis of available data revealed that factors responsible for deform (similari cu cei pentru
wrong pressing A/ B) could be stratified into four kinds namely the diopter of lens, operator,
type of melting furnace, type of annealing furnace; research efforts have since been concentrated
on these factors (analiza Pareto a ajutat la separarea celor multe i triviale/ nensemnate, de cele
puine i vitale, astfel nct resursele de creativitate s nu fie consumate pe cauze care nu produc
cine tie ce efect asupra calitii, deci costurilor afacerii; rezultatele astfel obinute au fost
sistematizate ntr-o diagram Ishikawa; cum se poate citi pe coperta fiecrei reviste din care
prezentm studii de caz aici, Kaoru Ishikawa era i editorul acesteia n acei ani, urmndu-i tatlui
su; n.n.);
- significance test by stratification of data; sunt repezentate grafic fraciunile defective;
- making graphs as classified by defect, and correlation analysis between defects; results of
stratification as to the defects of pressed articles were reported every day by the inspectors of the
process; based on these data, one-point-per-day fraction defective graphs were made concerning the
defects due to deform, wrong pressing A, wrong pressing B, blister, wrong processing A,
wrong processing B; these graphs were intended, if need be, to be used for control charts for
process analysis; on the other hand, from these graphs correlation between two of these defects were
obtained:
a) Chip-off and wrong pressing ............................. 1% significant negative correlation
b) Chip-off and deform ........................................... 5% significant negative correlation
c) Wrong pressing A and Wrong pressing B ......... 5% significant negative
correlation
d) Blister and Wrong processing A .................... 1% significant positive correlation
27

- planning of experimental procedure by means of information thus obtained.
o To summarize, important factors responsible for our unexpectedly good results in q.c. are as follow:
- staff have been enthusiastic in practicing q.c.
28
; quality efforts and rationalizing our production
processes.
- the atmosphere in which all the employees should carry out q.c. has been brought up step by step
without compulsion;
- ideas and methods of q.c. have been taught to all the employees without using difficult and complex
statistical methods;

27
Pozitiv/ Negativ variaia unuia determin o variaie de acelai sens a celuilalt.
O asemenea analiz poate fi aplicat i la stabilirea interdependenelor dintre procesele care
alctuiesc sistemele de management
28
Cum se nelege lesne, aici i peste tot n aceast publicaie, controlul calitii = inerea sub control a
calitii folosind mijloace statistico-matematice, iar cnd spun ingineri, ei neleg i competen n
metodele statistico-matematice

45

- employees have all been cooperating with management.
Beacuse spectacle lenses are manufactured on a minor cottage industry scale or at a small plant, it
will be impossible for Japanese lens makers to cope with the forthcoming free trade without
modernizing their management; this may be full of difficulties; but we are going to tackle with the
hard situation by strenghtening our better quality efforts.

IUNIE 1962
Factorial Experiment on the Breakage of Electronic Tube Grid Winding Wire
29

- Analysis of past records: we made a p-chart by taking one day as a subgroup from data collected for
the past 1 month, in an effort to get a picture of how rejects occured during the period

- from the chart we learned that n varied considerably from 3,200 to 7,700;
- we drew control limits on the basis of n = 5,180 and from the dots near the limits were,
whenever deemed necessary, recalculated in comparison with n. The chart shown here is totally
out of control, and a run was prominent from group number 17 to 23, but this was not enough
for us to get information we were looking for;

29
Dintr-un articol de Tsutomu Saegusa de la Matsushita Electronics Corporation
Metodele statistico-matematice, nu numai prin ele nsele, dar mai ales prin formarea/ educarea
n aplicarea lor i aplicarea lor ca parte a rutinei de fiecare zi, constituie modul cel mai eficace-
eficient-economic pentru a implementa cultura statistic, a teoriei probabilitilor n cultura fiecruia
dintre oamenii afacerii, n cultura afacerii.
Cultura statistico-matematic, atitudinea fa de variabilitatea intrinsec a procesului
(performanei, modului de lucru), este ultimul stop naintea culturii manageriale; msura pericolelor
= riscurile de a se ntmpla ceva nedorit/ ansele schimbrii n bine, cu care opereaz aceasta din
urm, sunt probabilitile de la cealalt.
Parc inspirndu-se din colectarea selectiv a deeurilor, nc de la strngerea lor, datele
sunt aranjate pe cprrii, stratificate.
Ca i cum ai culege fructele: cele czute pe jos, deja intrate n putrefacie sunt puse n
butoiul pentru uic, cele de pe ramurile cele mai accesibile, dar mai puin coapte (pentru c
au fost expuse mai puin energiei solare) n altul, cele mai din vrf, ne ciugulite de psrile
Cerului, de o parte, cele perfecte, situate pe ramurile cele mai puin accesibile, rmn, poate,
s cad singure.
Valoarea (fiabilitatea, ncrederea) datelor (intrrilor) procesului de analiza parametrilor
este fundamental pentru succesul acestuia, adic pentru eficacitatea-eficiena-economicitatea
deciziilor elaborate n acest cadru, prin prelucrarea lor.
Iar, deciziile sunt perla coroanei managementului.
De aceea, atitudinea (corect, de dorit) fa de statistic se reflect n atitudinea fa de
date, de aici, n atitudinea fa de culegerea lor i n cea fa de (procedura pentru) inerea
sub control a nregistrrilor (formularelor odat completate cu date; fluxurile lor sunt
derulate conform celor documentate n procedura de inere sub control a nregistrrilor;
procesarea datelor pe care le transport, conform cu procedura de analiza datelor i cu
procedurile care descriu fiecare metod statistico-matematic n parte).

46

- in such processes as are found in the electrical appliance industry or electronics industry were
assembling work is the main part, it is very important to closely observe and study the rejected
samples and manufacturing processes, to get a hint to the solution of the problem;
- we checked the operation standard, process control regulation, material specification, parts
specification, etc.;
- we checked the manufacturing processes themselves by referring to such specifications and
instructions;
- we had discussions with the people in charge in the workshop on the various causes of wire breakage
and compiled it into a variation factor chart (o diagram cauze-efect; v. figura de mai jos);
- with such information in mind, we then analyzed past records to obtain information;
- we drew, for this purpose, p-charts by stratifying per jig since there were four people for shaping,
using four jigs; p-charts stratified per jig, taking 1 lot as a subgroup (n = 1,160 constant);
- se realizeaz apoi analiza graficelor astfel elaborate, valorificnd procesarea statistico-matematic
(folosind formule adecvate luate de la distribuiile statistice, paramterii statistici potrivite
fenomenului/ procesului studiat) a datelor colectate;

U.C.L. = 1.97
L.C.L. = 0.97
C.L. = 1.47
n = 5,180
p
(%)
2.0
1.0
3.0
0
Subgroup number
p-Chart
Fia de control statistic al procesului dat descrie un proces total scpat de sub control,
statistic vorbind: nici o valoare a parametrului statistic nu intr n domeniul tolerat pentru
Limita de control, CL: Limita superioar de control, Upper Control Limit, Limita inferioar
de control Lower Control Limit
Aceasta este una dintre fiele de inere sub control a procesului inventate de statisticianul
SUA Walter Shewhart.

47

- action on the basis of the results and outline of the effect - we decided a policy: to solve the
problem promptly with the Inspection Section working as a center, with the assistance of all
technical sectors concerned (reduction furnace was changed); to have a meeting with the
subcontrcator and despatch engineers whenever necessary to promote improvement there (raw
materials were changed; switchover from one material supplier to another);

Conclusion:
- the above mentioned analysis was carried out while studying q.c. at the JUSE QC Seminar
18BC;
- the methods employed were of a simple nature p-chart, histogramm, simplified correlation
analysis etc.;
- we realized how important the history of a lot and data were, when we attempted the analysis
of past data; fortunately, in our factory these were already standardized by our seniors, thanks
to their hard efforts, and this made our analysis much easier;
- various problems that happen in the work shops may be analysed with ease by employing
simple statistical methods, and we should like to try to get these methods popularized among
ourselves.

IUNIE 1963

Various approaches to automatic diagnosis by discrete variates
30

- articol elaborat de Motosaburo Masuyama;

30
Este vorba de a transfera diagnosticarea medical n domeniul statistic-matematic; n aa fel nct
computerul s poat elabora, pe baza datelor de intrare, diagnostice; computerul nu are fler, nu tie
dect de formulele n care a fost setat.
Forming Side rods
Winding
Winding
wire
Breakage of
winding wire
H
S
C, D
H, S
D, S E
U
A
D, R
B, Sh
S, R
Variation Factor Chart

48

- the i-th random variable X
i
is defined such that
X
i
= {
- not only a symptom of the all-or-none type but also a quantitative characteristic can be represented
by X
i
by setting X
i
=1, if its numerical value is outside of its normal range and X
i
=0,
otherwise; then a k-dimensional binomial vector
X () = (X
1
, X
2
, , X
k
), corresponds to a patient ;
- the following approaches can be easily extended to a k-dimensional multinomial population, by
setting
p
1
x
1, p
2
x
2, , p
l
x
l with x
1
+ x
2
+ + x
l
= 1 and p
1
+ p
2
++p
l
= 1 in place of p
x
(1 p)
1-x
.
- next suppose m diseases

D

for = 1, 2, , m, which are characterized by 2
k
parameters:
d
p
00 0
= Pr.{S
1
S
2
.S
k
D
},
p
10 0
= Pr.{S
1
S
2
.S
k
D
},
p
01 0
= Pr.{S
1
S
2
.S
k
D
},
p
11 0
= Pr.{S
1
S
2
.S
k
D
},
.
p
11 1
= Pr.{S
1
S
2
.S
k
D
},
the sum of which is equal to 1.
We may say defect of the -th part of an industrial product instead of disease.
Our main problem is how to select one of diseases
31
under consideration for a given having
observed
X (). The observed vector is denoted by r();
Abordarea statistico-matematic const din a selecta din inventarul cunoscut metoda pe care o
considerm c se potrivete cel mai bine fenomenului (procesului) studiat i valorilor aflate la
dispoziie; autorul a abordat problema prin
- The Bayesian procedure is used in decision, assuming the prior distribution ...., and selecting D

which maximizes .; punctele slabe ale acestei abordri: (a) we need a fairly large electronic
computer, because there are mx(2
k
1) independent parameters; (b) a patient with typia!
symptoms is sometimes wrongly diagnosed, because of small
; from the clinical viewpoint

the stratification by age, sex, area, hospital, season, etc. seems to be better than the use of
;
(c) actuallywe do not know both and p, we can have only their estimates;
- utilizare model logaritmic;
- The maximum likelihood procedure is used;
- ...

31
n fond defectul produsului industrial este un simptom al bolii de care sufer procesul care l-a
produs; iar analiza inginereasc a datelor tot un fel de diagnosticare.
1, if the i-th symptom or symptom complex S
i
is present
0, otherwise (the absence of S
i
is denoted by S
i
)
d

49

Concluzii

o although the diagnosis given by the objective method is by far the best, we must note that our check
is internal, i.e. whole data were used both in estimation and in decision; the external check will be
done in the near future;
o there are several reasons why the machine is better than the expert in diagnosing . the human beings
inferior points are:
- the sudden failure of memory
- the inappropriate weighting
- the secular change of memory
- the improvement of estimates being done less frequently
- the occasional influence or emotion or fatigue
- the neglection of symptoms of low frequencies
- etc.

Titluri din Bibliografie: probleme ale efecturii procesului de diagnosticare cu ajutorul mainilor
matematice (n limba rus), An electric diagnostic machine, A mathematical approach to medical
diagnosis. Application to congenital heart diseases, Diagnostic symptom scores based on Bayes
theorem.

Un alt articol: Application of queuing theory to stockyard control (de Y. Shimomura, A.
Suzawa, M. Umebayashi)

SEPTEMBRIE 1963

Evaluation of the reliability of visual inspection
32

- for pharmaceuticals (ampoules containing injectable solutions);
- some non-parametric method might be applicable to this statistical analysis "
2
test of Cochrans Q
test; may particularly encounter difficulty in the selection of a method for maximizing the
effect of education;
- modelul statistico-matematic ales: the method of evaluation may be applied to cases in which
indefinite or erroneous results may be encountered in the judgment of non-defective when
defective preparations are permitted to some extent and when a definite standard for judging

32
Dintr-un articol de Setsuo Nakagami
Limitele de control superioar/ inferioar sunt de regul, situate nuntrul limitelor
de toleran inginereti (absolute), aa nct, chiar dac toate punctele reprezentate ies din
domeniu, nu este obligatoriu ca i produsele s fie neconforme.
Limitele de (inere sub) control sunt calculate folosind modelele (distribuiile) statistico-
matematice.
Mai exist i limite de atenionare (Warning Limits), nc i mai strnse dect limitele de
control.
Teoria limitelor de control/ atenionare constituie unul dintre elementele specifice
statistico-matematice, pentru c se bazeaz pe elemente statistico-matematice.
Statistico-matematica transfer valorile absolute (datele de msurare) n parametri statistico-
matematici; valorile acestora, n timp, sunt reprezentate n fiele de control.


50

between a non-defective and defective preparation is not established so that the work is pursued
only in accordance with an indefinite standard based on the inspectors experience;
- information concerning the variation in the reliability can not be obtained practically;
- caracteristici examinate: foreign particles in the injectable solutions, cloudy solutions;
- experimentul: 11 well-experienced workers (standardized workers) were selected to conduct the
evaluation; from one lot, 120 ampoules were sampled and independently judged by these
workers whether the ampoules were non-defective or defective; the following numbers were
obtained:..;
- considering these data, the effort of estimation and the amount of information for future work, the
author estimated the reliability of visual inspection from the data under the model as shown in
Figure.

- valorificarea modelului statistico-matematic: in this model, we have the following ecuations as the
expectation P
i
of Q
i
(........); prezentm numai liniile finale ale studiului, pentru a mai pstra ceva din
savoarea exprimrii i statistice i matematice
- looking at the estimates, it is clear that indefinite judgment in the 2 groups which were judged as
1

(or judged as defective with probability 0.155) and
3
(or judged as defective with probability 0.988)
could be eliminated by educating the workers in the standard for visual inspection; this is the part
which gives indefinite judgment might be decreased from about 70% to approximately 20% by the
practical education.

Non-defective

Defective

3
#
1
1
p
1
p
2
p
3

Model of reliability in visual inspection of ampoules
(Population) (Judgment) (1>p
1
>

p
2
>p
3
>0)


51

Relationship between measurement errors in inspections of parts and the
characteristics of finished products
33

- scanning time was the principal characteristic of the machine, and its dispersion had to be
minimized;
- the control chart of the scanning time;
- the outline of the manufacturing process;
o analysis:
- analysis I of information; it was inferred that the dispersion of the scanning time was due to the
motor system; the manufacturer said that a lateral pressure on the motor might bethe cause;
- analysis by the cause and effect diagram: principal factors are wow, output characteristic, frequency
characteristic, starting voltage; correlation between each of these characteristics and the scanning
time was examined, and the cause and effect diagrams of these characteristics were drawn and
compared with the cause and effect diagram for the scanning time to find common cause factors;
then, if it may be considered from a technical viewpoint that these common factors are at work and
that there is no interaction between any two factors one can find the factors affecting the
characteristic without undertaking a laborious experiment;
- factors at work by examining the correlation, the author judged, as Figure shows, that there was
correlation between any of the other three characteristics and the scanning time was not significant;
comparison between Figure giving the cause and effect diagram for starting voltage, and the cause

33
Dintr-un articol de Kennojo Nakamura (din Inspection Department Canon Camera Co., Inc.)
De la real la virtual
modelul real (fizic, procesul, fenomenul) este asociat unui model statistico-matematic pe
baza analizei fenomenului fizic, sau ncadrrii lui n clase (asocieri) prestabilite;
modelul statistico-matematic ne situeaz la frontiera dintre statistic i matematic:
- de la modelul fizic (al fenomenului/ procesului real) trecem, nti, la modelul statistic,
asociind modelul fizic cu o distribuie statistic ai crei parametri sunt deja cunoscui i
exprimai prin formule matematice;
- trecem, prin introducerea datelor de intrare n formulele matematice ale parametrilor
distribuiei (repartiiei) statistice, la modelul matematic; cu aceasta trecerea de la
fenomenul fizic (real) la modelul virtual (matematic) este complet;
- de aici nainte, odat intrai n imperiile statisticii i al matematicii ne supunem regulilor lor
de mult i bine statornicite - ipotezele statistice i calculele matematice i dau mna pentru
a ne conduce la constatri conforme cu obiectivele studiului, pe care le vom valorifica prin
documentarea/ revizuirea procedurii care descrie procesul.
De la virtual la real
trecerea se realizeaz prin implementarea constatrilor (estimrilor, prediciilor) obinute
prin procesarea datelor culese din real cu ajutorul formulelor matematice ale virtualului n
procedura care descrie modul de lucru (fenomenul real, fizic, procesul).
Conform cu De la lume (real) adunate i-napoi la lume (real) date.

52

and effect diagram for the scanning time shows that the motor and the driving unit are common
factors, and it is suspected that these two factors may be affecting the dispersion of the scanning
time; this may also be inferred from a technical viewpoint and coincides with the results of
adjustments of rejected parts as shown in the analysis II;
- analysis II data from factory experiments were analysed in order to find out which was at work in
causing the dispersion of the scanning time, the motor or the driving unit.
Data Description of the experiment
A 25 motors were attached to the same machine one by one, and the scanning time was
measured in the state of actual operation
B 25 motors were attached to 25 machines, each to each, and the scanning time of each
machine was measured in a like manner as in the case A
C The motors were taken off of the machines and were driven in a separate state and without
any load, and the number or revolutions of each motor was measured
D Each motor was driven in a separate state under a 40 g-cm load and a 500 g lateral pressure,
and its number of rotations was measured
F Each motor was attached to a machine, and the rotating unit was made to revolve. The
number of revolutions (rotaii) was measured
In order to detect whether the motor or the driving unit affects the scanning time to a greater
degree, one has to test whether there is difference in dispersion between Data A and Data B. If there is
no difference, the driving unit is acquitted, and vice versa.
Calculations made were as follow:
F
0
= V
A
/ V
B
= 1.66 F(24.24; 0.05) = 1.98>F
0
= 1.66
It was concluded that the difference in variance was not significant, and it was known that the
effect or the driving unit on the scanning time was almost nonexistent and the motor alone affected the
scanning time.
In order to find out how the characteristics of a motor in a separate state affects the dispersion of
the scanning time when the same motor is installed in the machine, the author drew a cause and effect
diagram for the number of revolutions of the motor . From this it seems unnecessary to take the
effect of the power source into account.
It was decided to conduct analysis with regard to the load and the lateral pressure only.
If, by operating the motor under a certain condition, the load and the lateral pressure can be
brought to the same condition as in the case where the motor is being actually driven in the machine,
and if they can be treated as substitute characteristics and controlled together with other factors, one
would be able to reduce the dispersion of the scanning time and bring it under control.
The significance of correlation between A and C, A and D, A and E, and A and F. As figures show,
the level of significance was 1% in every case, and it was concluded that correlation existed in each of
the above combinations. The coefficient of correlation is 0.81 for C and D, 0.84 for E and F. It is
desirable that the coefficient of correlation be as near to 1 as possible.
Using a contingency table it was examined whether there was a difference in the coefficient of
correlation between C, D and E, F, and ascertained that there was no difference.
- analysis III
Various factors are conceivable to explain the fact that the coefficient of correlation does not reach 1.
()


53

Postscript
- by drawing cause and effect diagrams and conducting simple analysis of correlation, examinations,
and inference, and by analysing data already available in the factory and without undertaking new
experiments, the author was able to obtain consideraly satisfactory results;
- there is a good deal of superior date in the factory, but in most cases such data are neglected or used
in a wrong way; for this reason, the cause of an abnormal dispersion cannot be detected;
- although the measurement errors are a very important factor, they are liable to be neglected; very
often one talks of the dispersion of a characteristic without taking notice of the measurement errors in
the dispersion; in inspecting parts and units, or in using a substitute characteristic, one should
sufficiently examine the measurement errors;
- in such a case as above, where one has to find out factors of a certain characteristic only by cause
and effect diagram and correlation analysis, one should always conduct the analysis by comparing the
of the characteristic value in the control chart and the of its factors and also by examining the
contribution ratios of the factors to the characteristic value. Otherwise, we will be led to a wrong
conclusion.

MARTIE 1964

Introduction of QUALITY CONTROL GAME
34

QC Game is a sort of decision game designed for training or studying experimental decision making
for the achievement of the quality goal in industrial management; here, a part of QC Game concerning
optimalization is described;
- the game is carried out by a referee group and a certain number of players;
- the referees and the rear model;
- the concept of variance;
- steps: organizing players (assigning duties); the referee announces to the players: existing conditions
and controlling factors, information on main effects and interactions; information on blocks;

34
Dintr-un articol de Y$k% Fujishiro (Japanese legal consultant engineer)
Totul n Univers este, statistic vorbind, repartizat (distribuit) normal
Anormalul apare cnd nu dispunem de date suficiente, ori le ignorm pe cele care sunt deja
disponibile.
Pentru c Statistica este tehnologia numerelor mari, adic multe.
Valorile absolute i dau arama pe fa, las s le scape esenele pe care le poart, prin
transformare n valori relative, parametri statistici.
Relaiile dintre valorile msurate sunt omologul relaiilor dintre procesele unui sistem. Mai
multe activiti/ procese alctuiesc un proces/ sistem numai dac ntre ele se stabilesc
(co)relaii, interdependene.
Managementul se ocup i cu aceste corelaii i interdependene ntre activiti/ procese.
Statistica o face cu valorile numerice (este tehnologia numerelor).

54

information on error in the experiment; purpose; conditions of conducting the experiment (number of
experiments - orthogonal arrays de anumite mrimi, recognizing the main effects and interactions
among factors, - to be made in a day and the number of days of experiment);
- the players will plan the experiments and give the designed plan to the referee; the referee, according
to the rear model, will figure out from the result of experiments planned by the players and give it back
to them;
- the players will analyse and judge the result of the experiment and plan as needed the next
experiment; the planning of experiments will be repeated till the time is up; the meeting for
announcement of results and for evaluation;
- through the use of a diagram map showing Results and process, the policy of selecting methods
and the methods employed (interpretation; designing, analysis, assumption and re-planning) are to be
studied, on the causes for failure in reaching the goal, or the reasons for the excessive number of
experiments;
o Lessons from the Effects of the QC Game
- the effect: training and research on a decision-making;
- the exercise on the DoE, in the past time, has been done only through variance analysis by the
results of of designed experiments;
- as for the exercise of designing itself, one could not fiind any better way than learning through long
experience at the shop;
- the development of the QC Game made it possible to practice how to plan, how to design a technique
and how to approach, for a given problem;
- still more it is quite instructive in that they can manage in quite a short time compared with the
experience at the shop, and in that they can get clear evaluation of the effect of the design;
- it has beean learned from experience that of the operational methods, there is no best way to solve
the various experiment problems;
- practice in calculation (statistical approach);
- the work is not a drill of calculation fitted to an established formula. It rather enables the participants
to understand, in a form akin to the actual occasion, the application of the rsult of calculation to the
case under the problem and prerequisites, and the faculty to choose proper methods;
- no reasonable conclusion can be obtained if a method is choosen wrong;
- any conclusion, neglected its variance (error, block) has no repetitiousness and can hardly have
optimal condition;
- the interpretation of effects obtained and the plan for th enext experiment (selection of methods) may
have to be changed by the degree of recognition and especially the method and the level used in
securing those effects.


55

o Construction of the experiment

(i) (ii) (iii)
(iv)

Empirical value = general mean + effects , , , , + blocks + error
accumulated effects

Deterministic Stochastic

Constructing the experiment
Situation of
experiment
which cannot
be stratified
Elements
Factors
(controllable)
Situation
(uncontrollable)
Experiment
Factors excluded
from experiment
Factors
tested
Situation of
experiment
which can be
stratified
=
+ + +
Operation Changing
significantly
or removing
Stratifying Randomization Unification of
basic condition
Stabilization and
development of
process and system
Improvement Standardization Control + + =
1951 J.M. Juran, Frank M. Gryna, Quality Control Handbook
The scope of quality has increasingly been broadened to include: manufacturing support
activities, business processes, the needs of internal customers.
Planning for quality has increasingly been evolving into a formalized, structured approach
involving extensive internal participation as well as joint planning with clients and suppliers.
Upper managers are increasingly taking charge of managing for quality. This trend is evident
from such movements as: evolution of the concept of companywide quality management (total
quality control, etc.), creation of high level quality councils, enlargement of the business plan to
include annual quality improvement, establishment of corporate quality goals, measures of
performance, and upper management reviews
Training in managing for quality has increasingly been extended into all functions, including
general management. (Din Prefaa la ediia IV, 1988)

56

The level of this system is determined by the degree how all the operational elements affecting the
product quality of factors distribute from (i) to (iv) respectively.
The degree of level referred to is the substantial possibility of operation based on the
determination. In the experiment, (i) and (ii) will be used as basis for analysis of (iii) and (iv).
Therefore, the richer the proper informations are, the greater will be the distribution of factors to
(iv) (i), the higher the degree of level of the structure of experiment and the more controllable the
experiment will be, resulting in attaining the goal to stabilize and to develop the process.

The exeperiment, therefore, should be planned towards this course.
From this point of view, the experimental design is defined as to promote the distribution of
factors (iv) (i) in the experiment system (It means that the experiment management, proper
technical research and standardization are also important parts of the experimental work).
o Selection of methods
- selection and determination of methods shoul be made in accordance with the actual conditions of
the degree of level of the experiment system;
- the experimental design method is not only a way by which results can be obtained economically and
reasonably therough the selection of methodes conforming to the dgree of level of experiment
system, but is a progressive process which by itself raises the degree of level and selects methods
suited to it;
Proper information
(factors) i, ii
Situation
of experiment
(error & block) iii, iv
Rich Poor

Small Uni-variate
Multi-variate
(fractional design with
interaction, or steepest
ascent)
Sequential
Large Block design
Block design
(interaction)
Replication
Detection of factors in
number
Main effects
(interaction removed)
few
Interactions many

- for example, when a few pieces of factors are taken up, they cannot always be handled in a fixed way
by a fixed method;
- in the case that adequate proper technical information on process are available by the experimenter
(that is for instant interaction is predicted) to remove the interaction and there is a goup of factors
without blocks, each factor can be separately deposed of by the uni-variate methods;
- in the case that only the main effects can be predicted and that the group of factors has no blocks, the
factors can be allocated as a whole by the orthogonal array and disposed of by the fractional design;
- although a sequential experiment may be performed to get information for the selection of the next
method, it sometimes happens that the secured effect information cannot be used, depending on the
space of experiment (number of factors level, interval between factors level and response surface(
for the next step with different space; care should be taken, therefore, in getting up such space of
experiment;

57

- it is suggested that the game shall be conducted, for better results, parallel to the lecture or the study
of production line problems;
- the referee is to be provided by the head office and the players chosen from the factories;
- QC Games tools: (for the referee) the map of large-sized response diagrams (10 kinds), the table of
response value for factors (the numerical value of the above maps), the table of random number
N(0,1)
2
; (for players) papare for DoE; (for orthers) the demo projective slide for introducing the
game.
Notes
- The QC Game was developed in Toyo Rayon Company at first; after a time, it has come to be
employed by various organizations in Japan for trening and studying the experimental decision
making;
- The writers original paper in Japanese, which appeared in Statistical QC (1960, 1961), was
awarded the QC Literature Pize for 1962 by the Deming Prize Committee;
- The writer is most grateful to Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa of University of Tokyo for his instructive
guidance.

Cele prezentate n aceste note bibliografice, pot prea o privire cu ochii n oglinda
retrovizoare; cum se scrie i n oglind lucrurile apar altfel dect n realitate.
Esenial mi se pare interesul pentru a lega firul (filmul) de acolo unde ni-l prezint
ideile de mai sus.
Nimic mai uor acolo unde exist dorina de a nu rmne i generaia aceasta repeteni.
Nimic mai dificil acolo unde cultura managerial, cultura n general, s-a stins ori nici
nu s-a aprins.

58

Cerina de statistic i matematic vine practicnd
metodele statistico-matematice

Nevoia de metode, n general, de metode statistice n cazul de fa, decurge din datoria
de a reduce costurile, de a spori profiturile.
Cnd aceste nevoi nu sunt contientizate, nimeni nu simte nevoia s caute (n literatura
de specialitate, inclusiv standardele internaionale din familiile pentru sistemele de
management), s nvee, s aplice i astfel s se ndoctrineze cu principiile (cultura)
statistico-matematic.
Metodele sunt n aa fel concepute nct, pe de o parte, s sprijine implementarea
principiilor (culturii) pe care o slujesc, iar pe de alt parte, s constituie un mod ieftin pentru
a gsi idei viznd mbuntirea eficacitii procesului (modului de a lucra, a gndi, a tri/
supravieui, a face afaceri).
Eficacitatea procesului = capacitatea (procesului, aici) de a satisface obiectivele care i-au
fost stabilite.
Cnd suntem n afaceri ne strduim s mbuntim nu de dragul de a mbunti sau
pentru a ne ine mintea n priz, ci focalizat pe mbuntirea profitului prin scderea
costurilor; atunci, unul dintre obiectivele procesului este eficiena (ISO 9001 se ocup numai
cu obiectivul eficacitate), iar unul dintre indicatorii de performan ai oricrui angajat se
refer la cu ct contribuie la profitul patronului.
n mentalitatea (cultura) capitalist, reducerea costurilor se face cu gndul la creterea
profiturilor; fiecare proces, fie i cea mai aparent lipsit de semnificaie activitate, trebuie
desfurat n modul optim din punct de vedere al atingerii obiectivelor, adic s coste cel mai
puin posibil.
Din pcate pentru noi, mbuntirea continu ai crei fani am devenit mpini de
certificarea de conformitate a sistemelor de management, aa cum este promovat de
standardele internaionale de cerine nu are nici o nclinaie ctre eficien, ctre scderea
costurilor, creterea profiturilor.
Prin aceasta, standardele internaionale, cum ar fi ISO 9001, care este explicit n
legtur cu introducerea tehnicilor statistice, nu este capitalist, nu ne nva de bine.
Contientizat, cel mai bun angajat
Contientizat = pe care nu trebuie s l mai convingi, este deja convins; o cerin n fiele
de post, titularul s vin deja contientizat.
Dac nu i poi permite (pentru c sunt prea scumpi) s angajezi persoane deja
contientizate existente pe piaa muncii, atunci organizezi aciuni de completare a gap-ului de
contientizare pe care l constai prin instruiri, dezbateri, ateliere, implicare, exemplu
personal,
Cea mai mare parte a eforturilor cu mbuntirea se consum cu contientizarea, cu
munca de convingere: unii trebuie pltii s vin/s se duc la cursuri, alii trebuie pltii s i
nvee pe acetia, alii trebuie pltii s i supravegheze pe unii c nva, pe ceilali c predau.
Cu angajai contientizai aceste costuri (nu numai bani, dar i timp, i nervi, ) se pot
redireciona ctre mbuntirea efectiv a modului de lucru.

59

Process capability studies in cutting processes
35

- A basis for quality planning, process planning, equipment planning, technique standards setting;
- the range expressed in figures or numerals of variance or irregularity appearing in the size of product
produced in a fully standardized process;
- the main factors that cause variance in the size of products the four Ms: machine, material,
method, man; unless these factors are standardized, the data obtained on the basis of these factors are
valueless;
- process capability shows quality standard produced upon the stabilized process;
- therefore, in order to grasp real process capability, it is necessary to further or enhance the
standardization
36
of process which aims finally at the perfection of quality control;

o how to study:
- examine first 50 to 100 pieces of product right after the regular production has been started;
variances are found;

35
Dintr-un articol de Yutaka &suga
36
Documentarea (baterea n cuie) formal (oficial) a procesului.
Variance
Appearing
in the size
Material
Machine Equipment
Man
Method
Method
Hardness
Nature
Elasticity
Lot
System
Adjustment

Interval
Check
Method
Volume of oil fed
Nr. times of oiling
Vibration
Rigidity
Spindles
Clearance of all parts
r.p.m.
Viscosity.
Thickness
Oil Slides
Cutting condition.
Legth. Speed
Tool
Sharpness
Chuck
Fix
Ilumination
Voltage
Air
condition
Humidity
Temp.
Coolant
Depth. Press.
Kind
Form
Characteristics (cause-and-effect) diagram

60

- recording data obtained; causes that influence variances produced in the size are described in the
cause-and-effect diagram; in analysing these data, it is necessary to record changes in these factors
as closely and minutely as possible; process capability chart is used.
o Process Capability: how to calculate it
- express the data thus obtained in a dot graph (or multi-vari chart),
- thereupon made analytical research into time series fluctuations,
- work out a histogram in which to make as much stratisfication as possible of the data obtained,
- whereby made the calculation of the value of ,
- formulas for calculation - for finding out whether the process capability is within the range of
tolerance or not, the following three formulas are resorted to:
1.Process capability = 6
p

2.Machine capability = 6
m

3.Process capability index C
p
= T/6
p
or T/6
m
; T stands for the range of tolerance.
a) When one of the to index numbers obtained is larger than the other, namely, T/6
p
> T/8
m
, it
means that variances between subgroups is small and production process is in good controlled state;
b) When one of the two index numbers obtained is smaller than the other, namely, T/6
p
< T/8
m
, it
means that variance between subgroups is large, and, therefore, furtherance of standardization of a
production process or processes may have to be carried out, bringing 6
p
down to come near 8
m
.
(Before handling in calculation these two values, about 6
p
and 8
m
, it is necessary to evaluate these
two values, comparing one with the other).
The process capability index is very useful, since it is used as a basis on which a decision can be upon
what action may have to be taken in the cutting process.
o Process Capability Index Numbers how to interpret them
- The values of C
p
may be group into four classes
C
p
Class Interpretare
C
p
> 1.33 1
Machining work requires higher precision than the work tested may be done
in the process, or machining work may be sped up, however, within the
range of variance allowable in specification limits
1.33' C
p
> 1 2
No other steps may be taken, letting the process go as it is or goes; however,
when C
p
comes near to 1, machining work must be controlled so that C
p
may not become 1 or less
1 ' C
p
> 0.67 3 Process capability is short; four steps may be taken: transfer the work to
other machine of the same function and type: take steps for raising process
capability; recheck the specifications regarding alowance if permissible; pay
special attention to carrying on machining work.
0.67 ' C
p
4

o Organization for Process Capability Studies
- A squad of seven persons named Process Capability Studies Squad is organized in the Production
Engineering Department: makes plans for process capability studies, collects data obtained in
investigations, submitts or collects data for the use of research and study in the squad.


61

Production
Department
Production Engineering Dept. Inspection Dept. Design Dept.

Histograms
Control charts
Proccess Capability Charts

Formation of processes
Examination of standards shown by
blue prints
Examination of jigs and tools
Examination af tooling layout
Examination of machine capabilities

Data collected
Analysis
Studies
Planning
Data collected
Actions
Work standards
Design of product Recording process
capabilities
Inspection program
Preparing table for process
capabilities by kind of
machine
Preparing table for process
capabilities by kind of
products

P
l
a
n
n
i
n
g

e
q
u
i
p
m
e
n
t

a
n
d

f
a
c
i
l
i
t
i
e
s

D
e
s
i
g
n
i
n
g

o
f

p
r
o
c
e
s
s

D
e
s
i
g
n
i
n
g

o
f

m
a
c
h
i
n
e

t
o
o
l
s

Initial studies
Newly-installed
machine to be
studied
Repaired
machine to be
studied
Conference
I
m
p
r
o
v
e
m
e
n
t

o
f

q
u
a
l
i
t
y
.

S
t
a
b
i
l
i
t
y

o
f

v
a
r
i
a
n
c
e
.

S
p
e
e
d
i
n
g

u
p

Controlling
process
capabilities

62

Sunt prezentate formulare pentru derularea procesului.
o Advantages Accruing from Investigation
- the studies made have shown variances appearing in production processes, and accordingly it has
been possible to carry aut analyses of variances;
- improvement of production processes, and standardization of production works have come to be
realized qwing to the analyses of the variances obtained;
- especially, the enhancement of productivity is an advantage coming out of this investigation system;
- thanks to such increase of productivity, in a production process whose index number is stabilized
over 1.33, it is possible to increase production volume by curtailing machining time for a piece of
work an dat the same time allowing tolerance in variance allowable within the limits of
specifications designed;
- process capability index numbers have been obtained for each of the production processes, and on
these process capability numbers, furtherance of rationalization of methodes by individual workers
for working on a machine tool is contemplated, especially as regards:
- how to obtain a target point for machining for economical sizing; the most economical
method in machining work is the use of material within the limits of tolerance in variance may be
attained by the following formula .;
- how to position tool adjustment limit within tolerance range and how to position tool setting
point within tolerance limits

Prevenirea abaterilor produsului de la specificaia tehnic aplicabil presupune s acionezi
asupra cauzei produsului, adic asupra procesului tehnologic de fabricaie (producie).
n acest scop, sunt prelevate, n ordinea executrii, la intervale de timp stabilite specific ( or,
) eantioane de repere asupra crora este msurat caracteristica fundamental realizat la
operaia n cauz.
Valorile absolute sunt transformate prin calcule aritmetice (adic relativ simple) n parametrii
unei distribuii statistice clasice.
Reprezentarea grafic n timp a acestor valori statistice d un grafic denumit Fi de control
proces, sau Fi Shewhart, dup numele inventatorului.
Sunt stabilite reguli pentru interpretarea mulimilor de puncte astfel reprezentate; pe baza
acestei interpretri se stabilesc informaii despre funcionarea sistemului n viitor.
Cnd aplicarea metodelor statistico-matematice rspunde unei necesiti culturale, aplicarea, de
exemplu, a fielor de control se poate aplica inclusiv la procesul vieii, la procesele biologice care
se desfoar n organismul fiecruia dintre noi.
Aplicate ca la carte (procese stabilizate statistic, distribuii/ modele statistice corect alese, )
aceste fie ar putea s ne ajute s prevenim mbolnviri, s zicem.
Statistica este unul dintre instrumentele tiinifice de predicie.
Pentru a fi tiinific, trebuie ndeplinite condiii printre care i stabilitatea (statistic vorbind)
procesului; cu alte cuvinte, pentru a prevedea comportamentul organismului nostru prin analiza
datelor msurate, ar trebui s ne asigurm c viaa noastr nu este perturbat dect de cauze
aleatoare (care pot fi listate prin semnale statistice) de variabilitate nu i cauze deterministe.
Cel puin aceti ani, cu crizele lor cauze de variabilite deterministe (nu naturale, ci induse de
aciunea oamenilor) crora nimeni nu li se poate sustrage, nu sunt proprii unei evoluii tihnite,
lipsite de stres.
Astfel nct, vieii noastre nu i putem aplica metodele tiinifice, statistico-matematice, de
predicie. Ar fi interesant de studiat paralela horoscop analiz statistico-matematic a datelor.
Control statistic al procesului = inerea sub control a procesului folosind mijloace statistico-
matematice.

63

Lapproche traditionnelle de la fabrication est de dpendre de la production pour faire
le produit et du contrle de la qualit pour contrler le produit fini et faire ressortir les units
ne rpondant pas aux spcifications.
Cette stratgie de dtection est souvent non conomique et cause de gaspillage car cela
entrane un contrle aprs les faits, lorsque la production non correcte existe dj. En fait, il
est beaucoup plus efficace dinstituer une stratgie de prvention pour viter, en premier lieu,
une production inutilisable. Ceci peut tre fait par la collecte et lanalyse de linformation sur
le processus, de faon agir sur le processus lui-mme.
La carte de contrle, comme moyen graphique dapplication des principes statistiques de
signification au contrle du processus de production, a dabord t propose par le Dr.
Walter Shewhart en 1924.
La carte de contrle identifie deux types de variabilit :
- alatoire - due des causes non assignables (galement connues sous le terme causes
ordinaires); celle-ci est la consquence de la grande varit de causes regulirement
prsentes mais non facilement identifiables, chacune dentre elles constituant une trs petite
composante de la variabilit totale, mais aucune ne contribuant dans une quantit
significative; nanmoins, la somme des contributions de totutes ces causes alatoires non
identifies este mesurable et est estime comme tant inhrente au processus ; llimination ou
la correction de causes non assignables ncessite une dcision de la direction pour lallocation
de ressources afun damliorer le processus et le systme;
- reprsentant une modification relle du processus; un tel changement peut tre attribu
des causes identifiables qui ne sont pas une partie inhrante au processus et qui peuvent, au
moins thoriquement, tre limines; ces causes identifiables sont appeles causes
assignables ou causes spciales de variation; elles peuvent tre attribuables au manque
duniformit dans le matriel, un outil cass, lquipe de travail, la procedure, ou la
performance irrgulire de la fabrication ou des essais dquipement.
Les cartes de contrle aident la dtection de facteurs non naturels de variation dans les
donnes rsultant de processus rptitifs et fournissent des critres de dtection pour le
manque de contrle statistique lorsque la variabilit rsulte uniquement de causes alatoires.
Une fois que ce niveau de variation acceptable est dtermin, toute dviation par rapport
ce niveau est stime tre le rsultat de causes assignables qui devraient tre identifies et
limines ou rduites.
Le but du contrle statistique du processus est dtablir et de maintenir un niveau
acceptable et stable de faon assurer la conformit des produits aux besoins spcifis.
Loutil statistique majeur utilis pour cela est la carte de contrle, qui este une mtode
graphique de prsentation et de comparaison de linformation base sur une squence
dchantillons reprsentant ltat actuel du processus par rapport des limites tablies aprs
considration de la variabilit inhrente du processus.
La mthode de la carte de contrle permet, premirement, dvaluer si un processus
atteint ou non, ou se trouve sous tat de contrle statistique pour un niveau exact spcifi, et
ensuite dobtenir et de maintenir le contrle et un haut degr duniformit pour des
caractres importants de produit en gardant un enregistrement continu de la qualit du
produit pendant le processus de production.
Lutilisation dune carte de contrle et une analyse attentionne de celle-ci conduisent
une meilleure comprhension et lmlioration du processus.
Dup introducerea la ISO 8258 :1991 Cartes de contrle de Shewhart (Shewhart control charts)

64

CONSIDERAII GENERALE ASUPRA INTRODUCERII CONTROLULUI
STATISTIC N TIMPUL PROCESULUI DE FABRICAIE

Introducerea controlului statistic al calitii ntr-o unitate industrial trebuie nceput
cu pregtirea tuturor acelor persoane care vor trebui s colaboreze la defurarea lui.
Cel puin un inginer ataat serviciului de control va fi nsrcinat s se ocupe numai de
aceast problem. El va trebui:
- s-i aleag controlorii cu care va lucra;
- s determine punctele unde va ncepe introducerea controlului statistic al calitii;
- s in legtura ntre proiectant i tehnolog pe de o parte, ntre executant i controlor pe de
alta;
- s urmreasc ntocmirea fielor de control, modul de nregistrare i interpretare i n fine,
s urmreasc periodic dac limitele stabilite nu ar trebui modificate;
- s informeze permanent conducerea unitii asupra rezultatelor i avantajelor economice
obinute.
Criteriile generale care trebuie s stea la baza alegerii punctelor unde va ncepe
aplicarea controlului statistic n timpul procesului de fabricaie sunt urmtoarele:
- produsul ales s aib pondere important n producia ntregii industrii;
- caracteristicile urmrite ale produsului s fie determinate pentru definirea calitii;
- produsul s fie fabricat n serie sau n producie de mas;
- maina sau instalaia aleas s execute o singur operaie (se vor alege de preferin maini
sau instalaii de fabricaie automate sau semiautomate);
- se vor evita, cel puin la nceput, operaiile cu un procent foarte mare de rebut; de cele mai
multe ori rebutul mare provine nu dintr-o dirijare neraional a procesului tehnologic, ci
mai curnd dintr-o defectare a mainii sau a instalaiei de fabricaie. n aceste cazuri,
premergtor introducerii controlului statistic n timpul procesului de fabricaie trebuie s se
execute revizuirea i repararea mainii sau instalaiei.
Din standardul de stat de recomandare (anulat, astzi) STAS R 1849-72 Controlul statistic al
calitii. Controlul n timpul procesului de fabricaie. Principii de baz (nlocuia standarde din
1957 i 1958).
Alte STAS-uri, de asemenea cu caracter de recomandare (toate celalte erau obligatorii prin Lege;
astzi STAS au fost nlocuite prin SR; care nu au murit de moarte bun) din aceeai familie
- STAS R 5997-72 Controlul statistic al calitii. Controlul n timpul procesului de fabricaie, prin
atribute i prin numr de defecte; nlocuia standarde din 1958 i 1960;
- STAS R 5880-72 Controlul statistic al calitii. Controlul n timpul procesului de fabricaie, prin
msurare; nlocuia standarde din 1960.
Controlul statistic al (mai corect, inspecia prin eantionare statistico-
matematic a) loturilor de produse; bazat pe Admissible Quality Level (AQL).
i pentru el
exist standarde internaionale;
sunt aplicabile principiile culturilor statistic i matematic, ale variabilitii, .


65

The question to ask about any observed variation is whether it is
- unstable, indicating the existence of a special cause, or
- simply chance variation within a stable system.
These two kinds of variation require different types of action, and i tis very important to
know which is right.
Unstable variation (special causes) - a point aut of control on a control-chart indicates
almost unerringly the existence of a special cause of variation, synonimous with unstable
variation. The production-worker or the group can usually fiind the cause and eliminate it.
There are other statistical signs for the existence of a special cause of variation such as a run-
chart, or a tell-tale pattern but this is not the place to explain them.
Stable variation (only common causes remain) as special causes are eliminated one after
another on statistical signals, the variation of quality characteristic approaches stability, no
special cause indicated; stable variation is synonimous with the existence of a system; a stable
system has a definite identity, a definite capability.
Stability, or the existence of a system, is not a natural state. It is an achievement, the
result of eliminating special causes indicated by statistical signals.
A stable process, one with no indication of a special cause of variation is said to be,
following Shewhart, in statistical control.
The range of variation that is possible and which ist o be expected in a controlled process
(the ideal state) is, in my experience, believable only by people that have had experience with
control-charts or with experimental results, or who know some statistical theory.
Anyone without experience, if he saw variation like this in a factory, woul djump to the
conclusion that the process has gone wild; that the operator is careless or incompetent, or that
the machine has broken down. Yet these results were produced under near ideal conditions.
Once the stability (statistical control) has been achieved, only faults o the system remain.
Management is now ready for action, improve the system. As Dr. Juran said, the difficult
problems of quality control commence, once you achieve statistical control.
A stable system shows variation, ups and downs, but the variation does not send to points
on a control-chart beyond the control limits. Control limits tell us about the system as it is,
not what we wish it to be. A system may be in statistical control, yet produce defective
product in abundance.
Some people suppose that a controlled process is one that shows no variation: 10, 10 ,10,
10, forever. Stable in the Shewhart sense means a constant distribution, predictable, hour
after hour, day after day, not constant measurement.
In contrast, the output and the distribution of a measured characteristic of an unstable
distribution is unpredictable. The reason ist hat in this state, one or more special causes may
show up at any time to bring trouble, necessitate hal for adjustment, and cause wild variation
(recognizable only by statistical signal).
A good first step in quality control is to achieve reasonably good statistical control of
some of the main operations, including inspection and use of instruments. The next step is for
the management to work on the common causes of variation, i.e. on the system. Removal of a
special cause of variation, to move toward statistical control, important though it be, is not
improvement of the system (Juran).
Din W. Edwards DEMING, Contributions to Management for Quality and Productivity, 1980


66

Mechanical feed-backs that hold dimensions and other quality-characteristics within
bounds are sometimes helpful but may be wasteful of material and of machine-time. They do
not achieve statistical control and do not improve the system. Better understanding of the
function of feed-back systems, so as to use them effectively, and to supplement them, is an
important statistical problem, which management should not overlook.
Job description should therefore, for best economy, require to achieve statistical control
iof his work, with a distribution of individual items that meet the specifications. Under this
system, his output will meet the specifications without the high cost of detailed inspection.
Workers that are in statistical control but whose output is unsatisfactory can be transferred
and trained in other work.
Statistical thinking
The concept and operational definitions of stable and unstable variation, come from
statistical thinking. Without statistical thinking, there would be no such classification. People
would continue to make the same mistakes in the administration of man and machine,
wondering why it is that productivity does not improve, and why the proportion of defective
product stays about the same year after year.
Advantages of achieving stability or statistical control. A process that is stable, in statistical
control, presents a number of advantages over instability. In statistical control,
1) The process has an identity, a known capability. Its performance is predictable.
Production and dimensions and other quality-characteristics, including the number of
defects, if any, remain nearly constant hour after hour, day after day.
2) Costs and quality are predictable. The management need not lose money on specifications
that can not be met economically.
3) Productivity is at a maximum (costs at a minimum) under the present system.
4) The effects of changes in the system (managements responsibility) can be measured with
greater speed and reliability.
Once you achieve statistical control, then you can move the system in any direction that you
wish to try out.
Without statistical control it is difficult to measure the effect of a change in the system. More
accurately, you can only measure catastrophic effects.
5) A stable process provides sound argument for altering specifications that can not be met
economically.
Dont blame everything on the system, either. It is as costly to declare the system at fault
when anything goes wrong as it is to blame the production-worker for everything. The only
safe indicator and measuring stick is statistical signals, coupled with statistical analysis,
usually as simple as a distribution.
Costly confusion. Confusion between common causes and special causes leads to
frustration at all levels, and leads to greater variability and to higher costs, exactly contrary
to what is needed. Unaided by statistical techniques, mans natural reaction to trouble of any
kind, such as an accident, high-rejection rate, stoppage of production, is to blame the
operators. Anything bad that happens, it might seem, is somebodys fault. The worker knows
what his job is, yet he turned out defectives. Sounds as if doesnt care.
The specific operator is powerless to act on a common cause. He is often not sure what
his job is, not sure of what constitutes good work nor what constitutes poor work. Right
yesterday, wrong today. What is his job, he wonders. The worker has no authority to sharpen
the definition and tests that determine what constitutes acceptable quality. He can not do
much about machines nor about test-equipment that is out of order. He can report these
things, but what happens to the report? Nothing so far. He can nor change the specification
and policy for procurement of incoming materials. He is not responsible for the design of the
product.
W. Edwards DEMING, op.cit.

67

DECEMBRIE, 1964

Researches on factors of Si variation contained in molten iron during blast furnace
operation
37

- Characteristic factors (prezentai n diagram cauze-efect);
- existing state of Si

(silicon, siliciu) variation;
- existing state of Si distribution; frequency histogram; The F-test of the ratio of Si variance between
furnaces No. 1, No. 2, No. 3 .

Increase of the current effciency in the electrolytic tin refining
- the basic flowsheet of the process of producing electrolytic tin;
- analysis of the processes: the causes of a decrease in current efficiency are as follows: short circuits
between electrodes (are considerable); leakage current from electrolytic tanks or circulation systems;
cathodic reactions without tin deposition; physical or mechanical losses
- the causes of a decrease in current effciency from short circuits between electrodes can be classified
as follows: current density; distance between electrodes; character of deposits.
- The correlations between current effciency and various current density was tested by stratifying
datum for last two and a half years under the constant conditions except current density; as its result
it became clear that they have negativa correlation r = 0.726;
- analysis of variances;
- The test of significance of each factor between well depositing tanks and badly ones the test of the
difference of mean value of Sn content in anodes; the test of significance in anode running days (no
significance was found); the test of significance in tank voltage; the analysis of the correlation
between anode running days and tank voltages; the test of significance in the coefficient of current
distribution; the test of significance between the temperature of upper and lower zone of electrolyte
both of well depositing tanks and badly ones; the test of significance of stannous ionconcentration in
the upper and lower zone of baths both of well depositing thanks and badly ones.

IUNIE, 1965
Foremans role in QC
38

To
- sufficiently supervise their subordinates and to prevent them from being out of operational standards;
- observe well to find minute changes, abnormal signs, improper practices, and modify such
inconveniencies;
- positively find possibilities of improvement and realize better operational standards;
- we have lots of long-term training courses for engineers, covering such subjects as statistical
techniques, operations research, DoE, market research, application of computer etc.; but there is
scarcely any outside training course for foremen;

37
Dintr-un articol de Shinjiri Wakuri
38
Dintr-un articol de Masumasa Imaizumi

68

- foremen in Japan are not blessed with chances of learning, but, q.c. meetings and activities, monthly
journal Quality Control for the Foreman, mutual visits of foremen between companies, and discussion
by foremen, etc. are very useful for improving foremens functions, particularly for awaking their
interest in q.c. and their positive will for the job;
- an example of foreman training course in factory: lecture by managers (3 hours), foremans power
and responsibilities (3), outline of company - general/ facilities/ sales (3, 3, 3), labor relation (4), steel
making technique (8), industrial engineering (9), q.c. technique (12), maintenance of factorz facilities
(3), cost accounting (4), test and exercise (12) (Total / 67 hrs.).

Quality Control for the Foreman
Publicaie japonez ncepnd din aprilie 1962, prezenta studii de caz, tehnici pentru mbuntirea
proceselor n fabric, cursuri de tehnici statistice, experiene ale unor maitri, ; la data articolului
avea apariie lunar; abonai n februarie 1965 21.000;
- comitetul editorial al acestei publicaii + JUSE au iniiat proiectul QC Circle: the QC Circle is a
circle composed of several subordinates with a foreman as its leader in a working site, which
constitutes a fraction or a nucleus of q.c. activities in each working site; this aims at carrying out
such activities as elimination of inconveniencies, realization of zero-defects and improvement
and at learning through the journal;
- la data articolului more than 3300 QC Circles are organized and registered throughout the
country, with more than 45,000 circle members;
- there are cases where 5 circles were composed in an enterprise of 70 employees, and where 150
circles in a factory of 5000 workers;
- QC Circle assists the circle meeting held outside the factory, and participates in report
presentation of members experience, lectures, discussion and plant visiting;
- some tens of foremen of a company visit another company for observing and discussing, and then
about a week afterward, a return visit is paid; this visit may be done between the manufacturer
and the user of a product, or between different industries;
- as a tool of communication among the company foremen, the editorial board of the QC for
Foremen publish and distribute the QC Circle News every month; the News are sent to each
leader of QCCircle in a company and are useful to know the meetings and schedules of section
functions;
- a team of foremen sponsored by the Japan Productivity Center, visited USA in November 1964.
Micarea cercurilor calitii s-a lansat i la noi din pcate, numai de sus (de tot) n jos, prin anii
1985 ; cu caiete, cu sigle, cu insigne, cu Congres naional, .
Nu a fost s fie pentru c nu de democraie participativ le ardea romnilor acelor ani, care nu
aveau la propriu ce mnca; ct despre autoriti, nici ele nu aveau nevoie de nc o btaie de cap cu
organizaii emanate din iniiativa sindical, dar care cine tie unde puteau ajunge; s-ar fi creat un
cadru formal (acceptat de autoritile timpului) n care oamenii s nu vorbeasc ideologie, ci
meserie; cum s-au nscut, peste noapte, peste zi au i disprut.
Profesional vorbind, cercurile calitii, ofereau maitrilor, oameni de meserie, mai puin
obinuii cu discursurile, cu schimbrile, doar cu discipina tehnologic, cadrul n care s i
perfecioneze talentul de convingere, de formare a oamenilor din subordine. Nu era (ne) voie de
lideri la fiecare cinci oameni, cnd ara avea deja o pereche.

69

Prima ediie a acestei lucrri a aprut n februarie 1960, doi ani naintea nceperii
activitii cercurilor pentru controlul de calitate din Japonia. Manualul este studiat de
numeroi maitri, precum i de conductorii i membrii cercurilor pentru controlul de
calitate din Japonia.
n 1962, att maitrii, ct i conductorii i membrii cercurilor pentru controlul de
calitate i-au nceput activitatea n cadrul acestor cercuri dup ce au acumulat n prealabil
suficiente cunotine n acest domeniu cu ajutorul Manualului.
Autorii acestei lucrri au deschis, astfel, calea unei gndiri constructive n acest
domeniu maitrilor din ntreprinderile industriale japoneze i, n special, celor mai vrstnici
care, n general, manifest o oarecare reinere la aplicarea metodelor controlului de calitate
(n mare parte aceste metode sunt statistico-matematice; clasa a 12-a s-a introdus la noi odat cu
materia statistic matematic i teoria probabilitilor, experimental; la facultate ne-au spus trecem
peste statistic, ai nvat-o la liceu; de aici i marele drag pentru statistica-matematic i teoria
probabilitilor al unor generaii, azi mature, de romni; n.n.).
Avnd n vedere c nsuirile procedeelor tehnice folosite la controalele de calitate sunt
tot aa de necesare ca i aceea a spiritului (culturii statistico-matematice, a inerii sub control a
riscurilor, a elaborrii deciziilor cnd datele nu sunt certe, sufer de incertitudine; chiar i ingineria,
tehnica certitudinii, admite cmpuri de toleran; n.n.) acestora, recomand nu numai
specialitilor, ci i maitrilor i lucrtorilor s activeze n acest domeniu, dup ce vor studia cu
atenie metodele folosite la controlul de calitate i se vor simi atrai de aceast activitate.
Autorii acestei lucrri ar fi foarte bucuroi dac, prin lucrarea lor, ar ajuta pe maitrii
i lucrtorii din Romnia s mbunteasc calitatea produselor i productivitatea muncii,
aducndu-i astfel, partea lor de contribuie la realizarea prosperitii i pcii nu att n
Romnia, ct i n lumea ntreag.
Septembrie 1972, Kaoru Ishikawa n Prefaa la ediia romn a lucrrii Controlul de calitate. Curs
pentru maitri i efi de echip Editura tehnic, Bucureti, 1973.
n acei ani, 1970 i 1972, J.M. Juran vizita Romnia i inea conferine n aula ASE pe tema
calitii.
La nceputul lunii aprilie 1972, dup ce am ncheiat ciclul de conferine inute n
Romnia, Editura tehnic mi-a adresat invitaia de a scrie prefaa la ediia romn a lucrrii
Calitatea produselor.
Momentul cnd am primit aceast invitaie nu putea fi mai bine ales. n cursul
sptmnii precedente fcusem o cltorie n locurile natale. Am vizitat oraul Brila unde
m-am nscut n 1904 . i mai de neuitat a fost vizita pe care am fcut-o n Bucovina, n
oraul Gura Humorului Aici am trit timp de cinci ani nainte de a emigra n America
Am trit destul de mult pentru a fi n msur s-mi dau seama ct de indestructibil
suntem marcai de anii timpurii ai formrii noastre.
Orict de important este participarea la elaborarea i ndeplinirea planului, ea nu
este suficient. Trebuie s se asigure i o mbuntire continu a planului, an de an, prin
eforturi continue i creatoare.
Activitatea de mbuntire nencetat a calitii implic inventivitate continu
ntreprinderea industrial posed un grad nalt de integrare, necesitnd o conducere atent a
eforturilor personale, pentru a se ajunge la o balan echilibrat ntre nevoile ntreprinderii
i cerinele individuale .
Mai 1972, J.M. Juran n Prefaa la ediia romn la Calitatea produselor (J.M. Juran and M.
Gryna, Jr. Quality Planning and Analysis from Product Development through to Usage) Editura
tehnic, 1973

70

Legea nr. 2/ 1970 privind asigurarea i controlul calitii produselor
Decretul nr. 282/1973 privind certificarea calitii
Legea nr. 6/ 1977, privind rolul i atribuiile maistrului n producie
ntre alte atribuii (responsabiliti; are obligaia s ) i rspunderi (pentru ce poate fi tras la
rspundere = sancionat; n acest scop, rspunde de: )
Art. 3 lit. e) introducerea i extinderea metodelor moderne de producie i de munc, aplicarea
n cadrul formaiei de lucru a inveniilor i inovaiilor, sprijinirea iniiativelor n domeniul
progresului tehnic i mecanizrii operaiilor manuale.
Art. 4 .. asigurarea calitii produselor/ lucrrilor executate n cadrul formaiei sale de lucru
b) verificarea i rezolvarea operativ a sesizrilor muncitorilor din subordine privind
caracteristicile calitative ale materiilor prime, materialelor i sculelor utilizate n fabricaie, ce
nu corespund standardelor, normelor tehnice sau caietelor de sarcini;
c) controlul permanent al calitii operaiilor, lucrrilor i produselor executate, ., n scopul
prevenirii abaterilor de la prescripii;
e) organizarea dezbaterii n cadrul colectivului de munc a cazurilor de nclcare a normelor de
calitate, a cauzelor rebuturilor i a msurilor pentru evitarea acestora (aciuni corective/
preventive nc de pe atunci; n.n.)
i colile de maitri
Legea nr. 7/ 1977 Legea calitii produselor i serviciilor
- perfecionarea calitii produselor i serviciilor constituie o obligaie permanent a tuturor
- calitatea produselor se realizeaz prin respectarea cerinelor tehnice, economice, constructiv-
funcionale, estetice i de fiabilitate, n continu perfecionare, care le confer acestora un grad
nalt de utilitate economic i social;
- pe lng organele colective de conducere din ntreprinderi, ministere, celelalte organe centrale i
comitetele executive ale consiliilor populare funcioneaz consilii tehnico-economice
- comisiile pentru calitate din uniti urmresc i analizeaz nivelul calitativ al produciei i sunt
obligate s propun soluii pentru mbuntirea continu a acestuia;
- introducerea n fabricaia de serie a produselor noi numai dup omologare i dup ce au fost luate
toate msurile tehnico-materiale i organizatorice pentru asigurarea calitii produselor;
- elaborarea programelor privind mbuntirea continu a calitii ,
- analizarea periodic a activitii desfurate pentru asigurarea calitii produselor;
- n scopul prevenirii unor asemenea deficiene, maitrii trebuie s analizeze cauzele abaterilor de la
normele de calitate, s ia msuri pentru eliminarea acestora i s organizeze dezbateri privind
realizarea parametrilor calitativi ;
- pentru stimularea fabricrii de produse de calitate superioar, cu un grad nalt de competitivitate,
se instituie marca de calitate un simbol care se aplic pe produse.
Sublinierile ne aparin i relev elemente ale asigurrii calitii cu aproape dou decenii nainte de
apariia standardelor internaionale n domeniu
Aceste acte normative nu mai sunt n vigoare.

71

Hotrrea Consiliului de Minitri (HCM) nr. 805/ 1951 introducere norme
interne obligatorii
HCM Nr. 1211/ 1955 privind activitatea de control tehnic al calitii (CTC)
HCM nr. 1164/ 1958 pentru aprobarea Regulamentului de organizare i funcionare al
Direciei Generale pentru Metrologie, Standarde i Invenii
HCM nr. 1899/ 1960 privind aciunea de standardizare
- care se desfoar prin:
- standarde se refer la produsele industriale i agricole importante sau cu o pondere mare
n economia naional, la produsele cu larg ntrebuinare n mas, precum i la
reglementri cu caracter general pentru tehnic i tiin;
- norme interne se refer la produsele pentru care nu s-au elaborat standarde, precum i la
detalierea sau completarea prescripiilor tehnice ale standardelor; fabricarea i punerea n
circulaie a produselor nestandardizate se fac pe baza normelor interne;
- prescripiile tehnice nscrise n standarde i norme interne sunt obligatorii;
- condiiile de calitate prevzute n prescripiile tehnice din standarde i norme interne sunt
minimale;
- proiectul de plan general de standardizare se avizeaz de Comitetul de Stat al Planificrii i de
celelalte organe centrale interesate i se aprob de Consiliul de Minitri;
- n vederea asigurrii unui nalt nivel tehnico-tiinific al standardelor i a aplicrii lor unitare, se
constituie Consiliul Tehnico-tiinific pentru Standardizare;
- funcia de preedinte al Consiliului Tehnico-tiinific pentru Standardizare este ndeplinit de
directorul general adjunct care are n conducerea sa Oficiul de Stat pentru Standarde (urma s
devin Institutul Romn pentru Standardizare, IRS; urma s se transforme n actuala Asociaia
Romn pentru Standardizare, ASRO)

Ordonana Guvernului nr. 19/1992 privind activitatea de standardizare
- n Romnia se elaboreaz urmtoarele categorii de standarde
- standarde romne SR se aplic la nivel naional;
- standarde profesionale se aplic n anumite domenii de activitate, n cadrul organizaiiloe
profesionale, legal constituite, care le-au elaborat;
- standarde de firm se aplic n cadrul regiilor autonome, societilor comerciale i al altor
persoane juridice care le-au elaborat;
- coordonarea i efectuarea activitii de standardizare se realizeaz de Institutul Romn de
Standardizare, organ de specialitate al administraiei publice centrale, n subordinea Guvernului.
Legea nr. 4/ 1989 Legea privind asigurarea i controlul calitii
produselor i serviciilor
- elaborarea i aplicarea programelor de msuri tehnice i organizatorice pentru asigurarea calitii,
a planurilor de examinri tehnice i de inspecii i a programelor de mbuntire continu a
nivelului tehnic i calitativ al produselor, .;
- prevenirea cauzelor care pot genera produse necorespunztoare calitativ;
- promovarea metodelor moderne de control;
- comisiile pentru calitatea produciei i eficien economic s propun msuri pentru
perfecionarea tehnologiilor i a activitii de asigurare i control ale calitii;
- elaborarea programelor pentru mbuntirea calitii, stabilirea indicatorilor de calitate ce se
includ n planurile cincinale i anuale.
Aceast Lege din urm, practic, nu a mai apucat s fie aplicat niciodat. Nici celelalte nu mai sunt
n vigoare.

72

Ordinul Ministerului Industriei Construciilor de Maini nr. 186/1962
Planul de msuri pentru mbuntirea calitii produselor (etapa I, etapa II)

- mbuntirea proceselor tehnologice existente;
- elaborare instruciuni-tip pentru procesele tehnologice de baz i n prima urgen operaiile de
prelucrri la cald (procesele speciale; n.n.);
- elaborare tehnologii de control tip pe diferite operaii i grupe de piese;
- introducere planuri de operaii pentru executarea sudurilor, cu indicarea fazelor, regimurilor de
lucru i a instruciunilor pentru control;
- introducere fie (Shewhart, eram sincroni n planuri cu japonezii; n.n.) pentru caracteristicile de
precizie ale mainilor-unelte (n primul rnd la mainile-cheie: maini orizontale de alezat, maini
de frezat i rectificat roi dinate, maini de rectificat rotund) pe baza crora se va stabili n mod
obiectiv (statistico-matematic; n.n.) gradul n care precizia real a (capabilitatea; n.n.) mainii-
unelte corespunde toleranelor fixate pentru produs;
- introducere registre speciale pentru consemnarea nclcrii disciplinei tehnologice
(neconformitilor; n.n.) i a msurilor luate pentru prevenirea lor (aciunile corective; n.n.)
conform instruciunilor (procedurilor; n.n.) care se vor difuza de Minister;
- analiz n consftuiri tehnice speciale reclamaiile din partea beneficiarilor, stabilindu-se cauzele
deficienelor, msurile pentru nlturarea deficienelor (coreciile; n.n.) i prevenirea lor n viitor
(aciunile corective; n.n.);
- analiza sistematic a calitii produselor; pe baza materialelor prezentate de eful serviciului CTC
i a observaiilor cuprinse n reclamaiile beneficiarilor se vor stabili msurile pentru mbuntirea
continu a calitii produselor (similar cu analiza actual efectuat de ctre Management; n.n.),
- ntocmire planuri separate de msuri pentru mbuntirea calitii produselor, reconsiderate
(revizuite; n.n.) periodic, trimestrial;
- schimburi de experien;
- mbuntire pe toate cile posibile (subl.ns.; prob c acest aspect era de importan crucial)
efective servicii CTC;
- ntrire eficacitate control n fabricaie prin organizarea activitii pe principiul controlului
preventiv (subl. ns.), efectuat periodic n toate fazele procesului tehnologic;
- ntocmire instruciuni privind analiza sistematic a calitii produselor n condiii de exploatare,
pe baza chestionarelor speciale distribuite consumatorilor odat cu produsul (monitorizarea
satisfaciei clientului; subl.ns.);
- introducere fie de control pentru piesele i subansamblurile importante ale produselor;
- organizare i folosire resurse laboratoare de uzin pentru analizarea cauzelor (caracterul preventiv
n aciune! subl.ns.) deficienelor i elaborarea msurilor pentru mbuntirea (concept drag
managementului i azi; subl.ns.) calitii produselor;
- elaborare un nou regulament pentru organizarea i funcionarea serviciilor CTC privind
asigurarea calitii produciei;
- introducere meserie Controlor tehnic de calitate, prevzut deja n indicatoarele tarifare
aprobate prin avizul CSMS nr. 5381/431-1958, n noul nomenclator care l va completa pe cel
aprobat prin HCM nr. 1566/ 1956.

73

A Quality-up Drive in Watch Industry
39

o flow system of operation and quality improvement the belt conveyor system; since 1956;
o Quality-up Drive since 1961:
- the manager now studies and learns about what the policy, project or control should be, and put his
studies or what he has learned into practice; the manager who was in our mind in the past was a type
of man who came to the office simply to be there and worked as he did just as he happened to have
been in the office; if he held good connection with his subordinates and kept them in good humour,
the work seemed to progress satisfactorily; the situation like this was in fact not far from having been
the truth and something vital had been missing;
- coaching all of our top and middle management attended the seminars held by JUSE and they
were tought about the QC; the seminar exceeded 150 hours and the number of engineers coached by
the seminar now exceed 100; these seminared engineers tought in turn the remaining engineers,
foremen and workers; we prepared textbooks with examples from our own company; there has been
an appreciable effect in using common terms or languages in regard to the statistical methods of q.c.;
- guidance by consultants (who were working for JUSE or JSA
40
) - top management always attended
these meetings;
- mutual diagnosis of sections;
- recommendations of suggestions;
- giving opportunity to publish the quality improvement comes aut of the accumulation of many
small efforts, and, even if the effort is trifle in itself, when such is published and appreciated, some
new efforts will come forth; the publicity meeting is usually held toward the evening, and in each of
these meetings 3 to 5 suggestions are published; no material remuneration is paid to the contributors;
when one or more suggestions are approved as excellent by the company, they are brought to the
meeting of the QC Circles where these are published;
- results of Quality-up Drive improvements in the quality of products and in our reputation; increase
of productivity and cost reduction; elevation of morales of the staff and enhancement in the
understanding of the duties on the part of the manager.
An application of computer for process control in steel industry
Examples of computer application for scientific use:
1 Statistical Methods:
1.1 Multiple regression analysis
- Analysis of blast furnace operation
- Prediction of chemical composition of steel from open heart furnace
- Relation between life of casting mould and casting conditions
- Analysis of causes of heat crack occuring on rolls
- Influence of operation conditions on coke ratio of blast furnace operation
- Analysis of operational conditions of basi oxygen converter for computer control
- Establishment of equations to predict chemical composition of pig iron
- Estimation of boiler efficiency
- Control method of heating furnaces

39
Dintr-un articol de Tatsuya Ishiwara
40
Japan Standard Association

74

- Factorial analysis on the efficiency of deoxydizing materials in steelmaking
- Estimation of the mechanical properties of steel products
- Analytical method of some chemical component when the other components coexist
- Analysis of causes of surface defects appearing on steel slabs and billets
- Adjustment of the clearance between rolls in plate mill
- Life of vessel wall of basic oxygen converter
- Cost control by modified cost
1.2 DoE
- Amount of defective products
- Control of chemical compositions of sintered ores
- Experiment of grinding raw materials
- Operating conditions of basic oxygen converter
- Study on the basis of design in new product development
- Decision of the optimum temperature of heating furnaces in a rolling mill
- Sampling method of molten steel
- Prevention of products defects
- Welding conditions of the welded structural steel products
1.3 Other
- Long-range demand prediction (by quantitative economic model and analysis of industrial
relations)
- Heat transmission in a steel ingot
- Design of weight of steel ingot
- Cutting schedule of rolled steel product
- Capacity and efficiency of an annealing furnace
- Checking method on the product inspection
- Designing the fuel gas supply
- Cutting schedule of slabs and blooms rolled by blooming mill
- Calculation of merit of new product
- Designing the schedule of roll speed
- Design calculation in shipbuilding
2. Operations Research Techniques
2.1 Linear programming
- Production scheduling and its oprimization
- Optimum transportation method of steel ingot
- Raw materials (iron ores, coals, etc.) purchasing and blending schedule
- Planning of sales of products
2.2 Simulation method
- Capacity of iron ore and coal yards
- Transportation schedule in a factory
- Amount of inventory of scrap
- Simulation study of new factory and facilities
- Operating condition of a hot stove and blast furnace
- Handling capacity of bulk materials
- Checking the production schedule by simulation
2.3 Inventory
- Raw material, product and materials under process

75

- Decision of number of spare parts and rolls
2.4 Queuing theory
- Capacity of transportation facilities
- Decision of number of barges and trucks
- Number of chemical analysis devices
- Investigation of design of new facilities (such as soaking pit, heating furnace, cranes, etc.)
2.5 Replacement problem
- Replacement and repair schedule of rolling mill
- Decision of repair interval of facilities (such as air preheater, heating furnace)
- Standardization of criteria for checking the results of construction of new facilities.
Table gives cases in the computing center, with times in % of computer operation for each of
practices as referring criteria
Job % Job %
Scientific purpose
Production order
Shipping of products
Sales statistics
Billing
Production statistics
10

34

16
Material purchasing
Maintenance
Financial accounting
Payroll
17
5
9
9
Total
100
(ab. 300 hrs/ month)

- QC and the PC: processing, recording, and communication of data on product quality in and outside
factory; processing of inspection data; processing, analysis and statistical arrangement of
complaints; process analysis for process control; process control by means of on-line computer;
development of new products and techniques; development of new designs and designing of
new facilities; grasp and analysis of factors affecting product quality; analysis of industrial
experiments.
- Process control and PC: a good control of process as to keep it balanced leads to a balanced product
quality and a production free of defects and wasteful materials and man-hour; it is necessary to
clearly understand how to control such many factors as man, machine, materials and methods
having relation with the process, and to quantitatively grasp causes thereof and relations
between these factors and such proposed items as product quality;
- data logging (accumulate information from many measuring points in the course of the process and
to out put in a suitable form),
- monitoring (as to various measured values),
- program control (as to facilities and materials),
- sequence control (as to facilities and materials),
- computer control (process control),
- optimalization control
- Development of Computer Control:


76

Preparation of theoretical formula for the process: on the basis of heat balance, material
balance, formulation of metallurgical reaction, etc;

Data collection: including when necessary, improvement and development of
measuring methods

Data analysis: statistical technique by off-line electronic computer (IBM 7070)

Preparation of mathematical model and modification thereof: theoretical formulae are
modified through analysis of operational data

Simulation analysis made as to process model
Industrial test: trial application of mathematical models of the process

Deciding design and specifications of process computer and surrounding equipments

Arrangement of control system of working site, and trening of operators

Installation of computer; improvement of facilities

Computer operation

Modification of computer operation
The most essential points in promoting computer control:
- the mathematical models; it is necessary to make analysis and prepare models for ones own
equipment; where an add-libbed operation is carried on, it is impossible to express process in
mathematical models; it is the primary necessity to carry on systematic operations capable of
being expressed in models; in the course of making analysis for computer control, many
technical problems were found and improvements were made on this basis;
- the standardization of operations the computer itself is considered a tool for highly standardized
operations;
- the utilization of off-line computer in making analysis mathematical models will not be completed
unless employees concerned are capable of freely operating it;
- the harmonious team work
It would happen some day in the future that we find ourselves deprived of our own job by the
computer, unless we make utmost efforts to fully keep it in our service.

77

Legea nr. 6/1982 privind asigurarea calitii obiectivelor i instalaiilor nucleare
Ordinul Comitetului de Stat pentru Energia Nuclear Nr. 17/ 1983
privind stabilirea Normelor republicane de asigurarea calitii pentru produsele i serviciile
destinate obiectivelor i instalaiilor nucleare
- Manualele de asigurarea calitii (MAC) s fie nsoite de hotrrea Conducerii (ccea ce avea
s devin n ISO 9001 decizia strategic pentru implementarea SMC) cu privire la adoptarea
programului de asigurarea calitii i obligativitatea respectrii tuturor prevederilor sale la toate
nivelurile;
- Inclusiv nivelurile cu responsabiliti privind ndeplinirea sarcinilor de plan i costurile;
- Program de asigurarea calitii (PAC) - elaborat i aplicat prin care se asigur ndeplinirea
pentru fiecare produs/ serviciu (pleonasm, produs include serviciu) n parte, cerinele specifice
minime pentru categoria de asigurarea calitii la care este ncadrat produsul/ serviciul respectiv;
- Documentele programului de asigurarea calitii = MAC, procedurile, Planul de control de
calitate, verificri i ncercri (PCCVI ntlnim i n legislaia pentru construcii);
- Dovezi obiective = rezultate nregistrate (deci palpabile, pentru c sunt pe hrtie, de unde obiectiv
= obiectual, palpabil) ale ccvi ;
- Examinarea tehnic de asigurarea calitii (ETAC) planificat;
- Procedurile funciunilor sistemului de asigurarea calitii (SAC) sunt cele pe care urma s le
gsim i n ISO 9001; fiecare procedur conine n scris: scop i obiect, responsabiliti, pai,
materiale, echipamente, documente, i modul n care se controleaz toate acestea; toate tipurile de
formulare, etichete, poansoane etc., la care se face referire n proceduri, se vor anexa, ca model
()
19721974, la Editura tehnic din Bucureti apare ediia n limba romn a lucrrii
H.B. Maynard, Editor-in-Chief
HANDBOOK OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
sub titlul CONDUCEREA ACTIVITII ECONOMICE
Ediia originar a lucrrii era din 1967; eram racordai cu promptitudine la managementul mondial
Volumul I (Seciunile IIV): introducere n conducerea activitii economice (= Business
Administration); organizarea activitii economice; probleme generale ale conducerii; probleme
comune tuturor conductorilor
Volumul II (VVII): conducerea activitii de cercetare i dezvoltare; conducerea asigurrii i
manipulrii materialelor i produselor; conducerea funciunii de producie
Volumul III (VIII): administrarea resurselor umane
Volumul IV (IXXI): conducerea activitii de marketing, precum i a ntreprinderii n relaiile
sale externe/ internaionale
Volumul V (XII XVII): sisteme de conducere integrate i de prelucrarea datelor; metode i
mijloace tiinifice i tehnice pentru luarea deciziilor n activitatea de conducere; conducerea i
organizarea activitii de birou; conducerea activitii financiare; conducerea activitii contabile;
conducerea activitilor de secretariat i juridice.

78

IAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency). Safety Standards
The Management System for Facilities ans Activities.
Safety Requirements No. GS-R-3:1996 (publicaie la elaborarea creia au fost considerate
standardele ISO privind SMM i SMC)
o The two general aims of the management system:
- To improve the safety performance of the organization through the planning, control and
supervision of safety related activities in normal, transient and emergency situations;
- To foster and to support a strong safety culture through the development and reinformcement of
good safety attitudes and behaviour in individuals and teams so as to allow them to carry out their
tasks safely;
o A management system shall be aligned with the goals of the organization and shall contribute to
their achievement;
o The main aim of the management system shall be to achieve and enhance safety by:
- Bringing together in a coherent manner all the requirements for managing the organization (cum
vedem este vorba despre un sistem de management integrat, nu splituit n attea sisteme cte
standarde de referin au aprut, cu tot attea rnduri de documentaie, audituri, certificate, ;
n.n.);
- Describing the planned and systematic actions necessary to provide adequate confidence that all
these requirements are satisfied (produsul pe care l fabric managementul este ncrederea c ;
ncrederea este ctigat prin dovezi de eficacitate, eficien, pe care le produce sistemul de
management; aceste dovezi, concret, sunt nregistrrile care, la rndul lor, se obin prin
completarea formularelor descrise n procedurile sistemului; n.n.);
- Ensuring that health, environmental, security, quality and economic requirements are not
considered separately from safety requirements, to help preclude their possible negative impact
on safety.
Safety culture (accentul pus n management, aici, pe aspectele culturale, este semnificativ; l
putem valorifica i la sistemele de management civile, seculare, normale, unde riscurile nu
sunt de amplitudinea celor din domeniul nuclear; n.n.)
o The management system shall be used to promote and support a stong safety culture by:
- Ensuring a common understanding of the key aspects of safety culture within the organization;
- Providing the means by which the organization supports individuals and teams in carrying aut
their tasks safely and successfully, taking into account the interaction between individual,
technology and the organization;
- Reinforcing a learning and questionning attitude at all levels of the organization;
- Providing the means by which the organization continually seeks to develop and improve its
safety culture.
Senior management shall
- develop individual values, institutional values and behavioural expectations for the organization to
support the implementation of the management system and shall act as role models in the
promulgation of these values and expectations;
- establish goals, strategies, plans and objectives sometimes collectively referred to as a business
plan that are consistent with the policies of the organization;
- ensure that measurable objectives for implementing the goals, strategies and plans are established
through appropriate processes at various levels in the organization. (.)

79

Industrial Quality Control
(din 1968 urma s devin Quality Progress. The Monthly News Magazine of the ASQC)
Banii se fac din produse. Produsele sunt rezultatele proceselor. Procesele sunt cauzele
produselor.
inerea sub control, deci, a produselor nu poate fi separat de inerea sub control a proceselor
care le-au realizat.
Pe de alt parte, producia de caracter industrial nu mai este meteugreasc (n ateliere), ori
individual (productorul solitar): se caracterizeaz prin producia de loturi numeroase, numere
mari (producie de serie, mas); produsele trebuie verificate pentru a te asigura c sunt bune (orict
ar fi de omologate procesele tehnologice i produsele); verificrile produc date, adic numere,
foarte numeroase (pentru c se refer la numeroase uniti de produs), deci numere mari (multe).
Pentru c statistica matematic este tehnologia de prelucrare a numerelor mari, nu putea s nu
gseasc un debueu n asocierea cu producia de tip industrial; dup ce se dezvoltase din alte
domenii productoare de numere mari i de riscuri agricultura (cte boabe sunt acolo ),
societatea (cte persoane ), jocurile de noroc (gambling; ci bani i patim sunt acolo ).
De la populaiile numeroase de produse i de numere mari asociate acestora la populaii
statistice nu a fost astfel, dect un pas.
Pas pe care l-au fcut statisticienii (am artat mai sus o eviden a planurilor de eantionare
statistic ale nceputurilor); drumul n sens invers a fcut celebru i un inginer Genichi Taguchi.
Cele dou instrumente statistico-matematice de inere sub control referitoare la procesele
tehnologice i respectiv la loturile de produse sunt:
- inspecia prin eantionare statistico-matematic bazat pe AQL (a se deosebi de eantionarea
empiric, exprimat prin % din total lot, i care nu se bazeaz pe evaluri statistico-matematice,
deci nu este tiinific, este bazat predominant pe experien, pe fler);
- inerea sub control (pentru a vorbi statistic, ar trebui ca n loc de control s punem inere sub
control) a proceselor de fabricaie (de producie, tehnologice).
Producia industrial a ridicat capacul de pe cutia Pandorei i a dat drumul riscurilor
produsele (industriale) devin tot mai complexe, deci mai scumpe, cu riscuri pentru performane,
inclusiv pentru siguran i costuri, tot mai importante; i n privina riscurilor, statistica-
matematic s-a dovedit instrumentul potrivit la momentul potrivit fiind tiina elaborrii deciziilor
n condiii de incertitudine; decizii privind acceptarea loturilor de produse pe baza rezultatelor
obinutre la verificarea efectiv doar a unor eantioane relativ puin numeroase; deci, metodele
statistico-matematice furnizau soluii pentru scderea costurilor cu verificarea i nu numai (G.
Taguchi, prin DoE/ tehnologiile robuste, tot instrumente statistice, va urma s ieftineasc
proiectarea constructiv/ tehnologic).
1924 moment istoric, statisticianul Walter A. Shewhart (la Western Electric Co., avea s
devin IT&T) elaboreaz prima fi de inere sub control cu mijloace statistico-mateamtice a
proceselor industriale; n acei ani i n acele colective, lucra i J.M.Juran, nscut la Brila n 1904,
emigrat n SUA n 1912.
1939 apare, prin strdania lui W.E. Deming, care gsise nelegere pentru editare la
Departamentul SUA pentru Agricultur, cartea lui Shewhart, Statistical Methods from the
Viewpoint of Quality Control.
Anii 1960-1970 aplicaii statistico-matematice n industrie sub auspiciile Institutului de
Matematic al Academiei/ IGSCCP (Inspectoratului General de Stat pentru Controlul Calitii
Produselor, care, odat desfiinat Institutul, a angajat specialitii n control statistic industrial;
unul dintre aceti specialiti de prim mrime, coleg de serviciu, deci, mi spunea, cu
amrciune cnd Lopold Sedar Senghor creea institutul de matematic n Senegal, pe al nostru l
desfiinau). LSS urma s devin Director General UNESCO, la ncheierea misiunii de Preedinte al
Snegalului.

80

JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR QUALITY CONTROL
(ASQC; urma s devin ASQ)
Quality Through Scientific Methods

Pentru a avea o imagine a preocuprilor Fratelui mai mare n (mai ales teoria
41
privind) controlul
calitii SUA din acei ani, prezentm succint apariii din acei ani ai publicaiei lor de referin n
domeniu (aici este numai nceputul)
IULIE 1964
A Cumulative- Results Plan for Small-Sample Inspection
42

- the set of procedures assumes certain conditions:
(1) that production is essentially continuous, or, if not, that the product-generating process is subject to
systematic and continuing controls (a single process may produce intermittently several different
products of similar character);
(2) that material is submitted for inspection substantially in the order of production so that, in general,
observed variations in quality of product reflect process performance;
(3) that inspection is performed close to the production source so that inspection information can be
made available promptly;
(4) that quality is measured in terms of some statistic for which results are easily summed and
cumulated, e.g., fraction defective, p; defects-per-unit, u; demerits-per-unit, U; arithmetic mean, X;
- individual lots are submitted in the order of production; each lot is subject to a standard inspection
plan with acceptance dependent on a sample from the lot meeting an acceptance criterion; if a sampled
lot then fails to meet this criterion, it is judged to be nonconforming and the cumulative provisions are
initiated for subsequently submitted material .
Quality Information Equipment: The Tools That Make Total Quality Control
Work
43

- test and inspection equipment of the past, where the primary purpose was to accept or reject, is
inadequate;
- the application of TQC makes it essential that equipment not only do more work but also be an
integral part of the manufacturing process; in essence todays devices must control the process by not
only measuring characteristics, but also by analyzing functional data and making decisions as well;
accurate and timely;
- Quality Information Equipment seems more appropriate than simply the term test and inspection
equipment: the physical apparatus concerned with the activity of process control and product
appraisal, involving the elements of measurement, analysis, and feed-back in order to evaluate the

41
Nimeni nu este profet n ara lui se potrivete foarte bine i acestui domeniu n care marile evoluii
teoretice au rsrit n SUA, dar au germinat n solul mai ospitalier al contiinei japoneze educate n
mileniul de dictatur militar a samurailor.
42
Din articolul scris de A.F. Cone (Manager, Quality Assurance Department) i H.F. Dodge
(Consultant) de la Sandia Corporation, Albuquerque, New Mexico
43
Din articolul scris de Bernard Sussman (Manager Quality Control, General Electric Company
Specialty Control Department Waynesboro, Virginia

81

effectiveness of manufacturings capability to meet consistently the planned performance of a
product;
- Characteristics: automation and Mechanization; New Methods of Measurement; Data Processing,
Analysis, and Feedback; Flexibility; Integration with the Product Manufacturing Cycle;
- Preproduction quality planning must be accomplished with the other functions of a business so that
optimum use is made of inputs to the quality system such as customer specifications, engineering
design, and information from existing data processing systems;
- The outputs from the equipment such as statistical data can then be fed back to shop operations,
manufacturing engineering, and engineering in a form more useful for them;
- The quality plan thus determines the kinds of integrated quality information equipments necessary to
do the total quality job.
The Pursuit of Perfection
44

- the consumer has put the heat on the quality control experts; equally he has put it on the
marketing researcher who is his advocate and who must find ways to measure and predict his
wants with more precision and speed;
- in the final sense, the new consumer has put the heat on American business management; and
Mr. Harry Truman (fost Preedinte al SUA; n.n.) said it for all of us If you cant stand the
heat, get out of the kitchen!
Inspection&Testing As A Problem In Man-Machine Systems Control Engineering
(Howard A. Thompson, Edward A. Reynolds)
- System = a connected arrangement of different things to form a unity of purpose and result;
- Engineering = the skilled application of science to betterment of mans environment
Management Methods of Inspection Control (Henry J. Jacobson)
- the most we can hope for is the assurance that we have produced as closely as possible to the
goal of perfection, within the economic limits we have to work; we measure this closeness to
the goal of perfection in many ways and arrive at a statistic, that is our measurement.

A. V. Feigenbaum Manager, Manufacturing Operations and Quality Control, General Electric
Company, NY, Jr. Past Chairman of the Board ASQC
TOTAL QUALITY CONTROL. Engineering and Management: Business Quality Management;
Quality-control Management; Engineering Technology of Quality Control; Statistical Technology of
Quality Control; Applying Total Quality Control in the Company; Quality-control Education and
Training

J.M. Juran era editorul rubricii Managements Corner: if we read the signs correctly, the market
for seminars and cousrses in Management of Quality Control is becoming brisk, and may develop into
a boom. In 1946 we first launched such seminars from a base in New York University.

44
Din articolul scris de Blaine Cooke, Vice President, Marketing, United Air Lines, Chicago, Illinois

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