17 Mihaela Ionita Niculescu PDF

Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria Litere i tiine Sociale, Nr.
1/2010
NICCOLO MACHIAVELLI OM AL NICCOL MACHIAVELLI A MAN OF

RENATERII RENAISSANCE
Profesor asociat Mihaela IONI- Mihaela IONITA - NICULESCU

NICULESCU "Constantin Brncusi University" of Trgu
- Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Jiu
Trgu Jiu
Rezumat Abstract
Renaterea ca fundal istoric i cultural The Renaissance, as historical background
explic apariia ideii de stat modern, prin Niccolo and cultural revival, explains the emergence of the idea
Machiavelli i ntemeierea unei noi tiine, politica, of a modern state by Niccolo Machiavelli and the
guvernat de alte legi dect cele specifice simplei establishment of a new science, policy, governed by
conduite umane. Fondator al realismului politic i filosof specific laws, other than the simple human behavior.
al istoriei, Machiavelli este el nsui om al Renaterii ca Founder of political realism and philosopher of
i Michelangelo, Dante, Guicciardini, Lorenzo de Medici history, Machiavelli is himself a man of the
i Galileo Galilei, prin opera sa teoretic i experiena Renaissance like Michelangelo, Dante, Guicciardini,
politic n care se regsesc trsturile umanismului Lorenzo de Medici and Galileo Galilei, through his
florentin. Realismul politic denumit de P. Manent i A. work in theoretical and political experience, where
Gorun fecunditatea rului a reprezentat descrierea could be found out the features of the Florentine
faptelor aa cum sunt ele n realitate i nu cum ar trebui humanism. The political realism named by P. Manent
s fie, recunoaterea i acceptarea rului ca element and A. Gorun "fecundity of evil" was the description
firesc al naturii umane, cultivarea sa n viaa politic of the facts as they really are and not as they should be,
pentru instituirea binelui ca finalitate n guvernarea the recognition and acceptance of evil as a natural
statului. Astfel, fiinarea i susinerea binelui prin ru a element of human nature, its growing in political life
determinat, n viziunea lui Machiavelli, separarea for the sake of establishing the good, as a purpose in
politicii de moral. governing the state. Thus, the existence and support of
Fr a rezolva problema puterii i a the good through evil determined, in Machiavelli's
legitimrii ei, Machiavelli este adeptul statului nou, view, the separation of policy from morality.
separat de biseric i n acelai timp eliberat de Without solving the problem of power and its
concepia medieval tributar ereditii ca legitimare a legitimacy, Machiavelli advocates new state, separated
exercitrii puterii. Dezideratul su, aa cum rezult din from the church and at the same time liberated from
capitolul XXVI al Principelui, l-a reprezentat crearea the medieval conception dependent of heredity, as
monarhiei naionale italiene. De asemenea nu poate fi legitimacy of exercising the power. His desire, as
omis pendularea filosofului ntre tradiiile republicane reflected in Chapter XXVI of the Prince, was the
i statul monarhic, grija sa pentru ca poporul s nu fie creation of the Italian national monarchy. It also
oprimat, pornind de la ideea c niciuna dintre cele dou cannot be omitted the philosopher swinging between
forme de guvernare nu poate fi considerat bun sau rea the republics and the monarchical traditions, his care
n toate timpurile i mprejurrile. for not oppressing the people, starting from the idea
that neither of the two forms of government can be
Termeni cheie: Renatere, imperativ necesar, considered good or bad in all times and circumstances.
realism politic, desacralizare, Republic, Principat.
Key terms: Renaissance, necessary imperative,
1. Introducere political realism, desacralization, Republic, the
Principality.
Ca i Renaterea, gndirea lui
Machiavelli reflectat n ntreaga sa oper
1. Introduction
atrage i fascineaz prin realismul i
Like the Renaissance, Machiavelli's
diversitatea abordrii problematicii umane n
thinking reflected in all his work attracts and
toat complexitatea sa, prin proiectarea unor
fascinates thank to the realism and tackle
noi utopii n ncercarea de renunare la miturile
human diversity in all its complexity,
medievale i de rezolvare a neajunsurilor vieii
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Letters and Social Sciences Series, Issue 1/2010
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria Litere i tiine Sociale, Nr. 1/2010
individului i a popoarelor. Dac se poate vorbi designing new utopias in an attempt to

de o anumit originalitate n abordarea acestei abandon the medieval myths and resolve the
teme, ea const n tratarea interdisciplinar, din shortcomings of the individual life and
peoples. If one can speak of certain
perspectiva istoriei, filosofiei, tiinelor politice
a momentului Machiavelli raportat la ntreaga originality in tackling this issue, it is
perioad a Renaterii. n acest sens, alturi de interdisciplinary treatment in terms of history,
lucrri consacrate din domeniul filosofiei i philosophy, political science of Machiavelli's
tiinelor politice elaborate de A. Gorun, P. time reported to the whole period of the
Manent, A. Marga i E. Cassirer, extrem de Renaissance. In this respect, besides the
utile au fost operele istoricilor Renaterii works belonging to different historiographical
aparinnd unor curente istoriografice diferite: current: J. Burckhardt, F. Braudel, J.
J. Burckhardt, F. Braudel, J. Delumeau i E. Delumeau and E. Garin, the works devoted to
Garin. the field of philosophy and political science
developed by A. Gorun, P. Manent, A. Marga
2. Renaterea. O nou viziune and E. Cassirer, were extremely useful to the
asupra lumii historians of the Renaissance.
Definit de Jacob Burckhardt la
sfritul secolului al XIX lea ca fenomen 2. Renaissance. A new world view
preponderent cultural specific Italiei ntre Defined by Jacob Burckhardt in the
secolele XIV-XVI, sau ca perioad istoric late nineteenth century as a specific cultural
privit n ansamblu, de ctre Jules Michelet, phenomenon, mainly from Italy XIV-XVI
Renaterea continu s fie terenul unor vii centuries, or historical period as a whole, by
dispute n ceea ce privete originile, limitele Jules Michelet, the Renaissance is still a
cronologice, coninuturile i caracteristicile living land of disputes regarding its origins,
sale, conceptul nsui. n ncercarea de chronological limits, contents and
clarificare a raportului dintre Renaterea characteristics and the concept itself. In an
secolelor XIV-XVI i Evul Mediu: dac ntre attempt to clarify the relationship between
ele exist o ruptur evident sau o continuitate XIV-XVI century about Renaissance and
de substan sau dac hotarele cronologice sunt Middle Ages: wether between them there is a
suficient de delimitate, istorici ca J. Huizinga i clear break or a continuity of substance, or
J. Delumeau au argumentat n operele lor chronological boundaries are sufficiently
legtura direct ntre fenomenele de natur defined, historians as J. Huizinga and J.
economic, social i politic, contrar Delumeau argued in works their direct link
concepiei tradiionale despre antinomia between the phenomena of economic, social
arbitrar, fr temei, a celor dou segmente and political activities contrary to the
conexe ale timpului istoric. traditional conception about groundless,
Sugestiv n acest sens este afirmaia arbitrary antinomy, of the two related
lui Jean Delumeau, reprezentant al Noii Istorii: segments of historical time.
Dac s-ar putea nltura din crile de istorie Suggestive in this regard is the statement of
cei doi termini solidari, i solidari inexaci: Ev Jean Delumeau, representative of the new
Mediu i Renatere, nelegerea perioadei care history: "If you could remove from the
se ntinde de la Filip cel Frumos i Henric al history books two complete inaccurate
IV-lea ne-ar fi uurat. Dintr-un singur condei solidarities: Middle Ages and the
s-ar lsa deoparte o serie ntreag de Renaissance - the understanding of the
prejudeci. Am scpa, n primul rnd, de period extending from Philip the Handsome
convingerea c o ruptur brutal a desprit o and Henry IV would be relieved to us. From a
vreme a ntunericului de o alta a luminii1. single writer they would leave out a whole
Dei termenul de Renatere a fost creat n range of prejudices. We escape, first, from
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secolul al XIX-lea, erudiii epocii au trit cu the belief that an abrupt break separated a
convingerea c timpul lor era o er nou, la fel time of darkness to a light another1. Although
de diferit de trecutul medieval precum acesta the term Renaissance was created in the
fusese fa de Antichitatea clasic. nineteenth century, scholars believe that time
Revivere (a retri) i Reviviscere (a was a new era, "as distinct from medieval
reveni la via) sunt cuvinte omniprezente n times as it was to classical antiquity.
operele epocii2. Asemenea tuturor imaginilor Revivere (to revive) and Reviviscere
despre sine, cea a erudiilor i a artitilor (return to life) are ubiquitous words in the
Renaterii a fost revelatoare i n acelai timp works of this period1. Like all self image, that
neltoare. Ei datoreaz foarte mult Evului of Renaissance scholars and artists was both
Mediu, chiar nfierat pe nedrept, subestimat ca revealing and misleading. They are in debt a
trecut apropiat n favoarea antichitii, ca trecut lot to the Middle Ages, even branded unjustly
ndeprtat supraestimat. Relatarea regenerrii to be underestimated as a recent past in favor
lor era un mit, n sensul c reprezenta o of antiquity, the distant overestimated past.
expunere neltoare a trecutului: fie c era un Their regeneration story was a myth in the
vis sau mplinirea unei dorine, fie c era o sense that it was a misleading statement of
reconstituire sau o reprezentare a mitului antic the past: whether it was a dream or fulfilling
al eternei rentoarceri3. Astfel, Erasmus i a desire, whether it was a reconstitution or a
declara Papei Leon al X-lea c epoca noastr representation of the ancient myth of "eternal
fgduiete a fi o vrst de aur, datorit return"1. Thus, Erasmus stated to the Pope
erudiiei i a pietii, n timp ce Giorgio Vasari Leon X that "our time promises to be a
i organiza Vieile artitilor n jurul unei golden age" because erudition and piety,
regenerri a artelor n trei stadii: de la while Giorgio Vasari organized his "Lives of
nceputuri, Giotto, i pn n punctul the Artists' about a regeneration of art in three
culminant, reprezentat de Leonardo, Rafael i stages: from the beginning, Giotto, and by the
mai presus de toi, propriul su maestru climax represented by Leonardo, Raphael
Michelangelo4. and, above all, his own master -
Ceea ce renate, se reafirm i se Michelangelo1.
glorific nu este n primul rnd lumea valorilor What was reborn, reaffirmed and
clasice, greco-romane, fa de care exist o glorified is not at first the values of classical
ntoarcere programatic, Renaterea reprezint, Greco-Roman world, against which there is a
nc de la nceput i nainte de toate, o rennoit return to the programmatic; the Renaissance
afirmare a omului, a valorilor umane, n is, from the beginning and above all, a
domenii multiple, de la arte, tiine, filosofie la renewed affirmation of human values, human
viaa civil5. n consecin omul este msura multiple fields, from arts, science, philosophy
tuturor lucrurilor, aa cum afirmase n to civilian life1. Therefore "man is the
antichitatea greac Protagoras. measure of all things" as stated in the ancient
Individualismul i modernitatea Greek Protagoras.
ntregesc, n opera lui J. Burckhardt, conceptul Individualism and modernity
de Renatere: n Evul Mediu, contiina complete in the work of J. Burkhart the
uman se afla n stare de reverie sau pe concept of Renaissance: "in the Middle Ages,
jumtate treaz, sub un vl comun. Omul era human consciousness was in a state of
contient de sine nsui doar n calitate de dreaming or half awake, in a common veil.
membru al unei rase, al unui popor, al unui The man was conscious of himself only as a
partid, al unei familii sau al unei noi corporaii member of a race, a people, a party, a family
doar prin intermediul vreunei categorii or a new corporation, only through any
generale. n Italia Renaterii ns acest vl s-a general category. In Renaissance Italy, this
topit pentru prima dat n aer Omul a devenit veil first melted into air ... man became a
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un individ spiritual i s-a recunoscut ca atare. spiritual individual, and was recognized as
Renaterea nseamn modernitate, italianul such. Renaissance means modernity, the
fiind primul nscut printre fiii Europei Italian being the first born among the children
moderne6. of modern Europe1.
Debutul i mplinirea Renaterii n The onset and fulfillment of the
Italia, prin marea rennoire a artei i a ideilor la Renaissance in Italy is the vast renewal of art
care se raporteaz cercettorii acestui fenomen, and ideas to which reported the researchers of
nu este deloc ntmpltoare. Emanciparea this phenomenon and is not coincidental.
filosofic i politic a italienilor n-ar fi fost Philosophical and political empowerment of
posibil n absena motenirii greco - latine, Italians would have not been possible without
corelat cu efectele cruciadelor i renaterea the Greek and Latin heritage - correlated with
cetilor italiene, autoguvernate dup moartea the effects of the Crusades and the revival of
lui Frederic al II-lea, la jumtatea secolului al Italian cities, self governed after the death of
XIII-lea7. n ceea ce privete cruciadele, Frederick II, in the middle of the thirteenth
consecinele lor cu totul altele dect cele century1. As regards the Crusades, with all
scontate: recucerirea teritoriilor sfinte ale their consequences, other than those
cretinismului n Asia i contracararea expected: the reconquest of the holy territory
Islamului, au favorizat strngerea legturilor de of Christianity in Asia and countering the
natur economic i interferenele culturale n Islam favored closer links and economic and
zona Mediteranei Orientale. Ulterior, noile cultural interference in the Eastern
atitudini, forme artistice i direcii ale gndirii Mediterranean. Subsequently, new attitudes,
filosofice s-au manifestat n ntreaga Europ, artistic forms and directions of philosophical
inclusiv n rile Romne pn la nceputul thought occurred throughout Europe,
secolului al XVIII-lea i interferena cu including Romanian Countries until the early
iluminismul. eighteenth century and interference with
Florenei i prin extensie ntregii enlightenment.
Toscane, i-a revenit rolul de avangard a Tuscany Florence and by extension all
umanismului renascentist, ca urmare a Tuscany, had the vanguard role of
organizrii sale moderne n plan instituional, Renaissance humanism, following its
puterii economice i nu n ultimul rnd organization in modern institutional level,
mecenatului promovat de familia Medici. economic power and not least promoted by
William Fleming a grupat ideile dominante ale the Medici family sponsorship. William
Renaterii Florentine n jurul a trei concepte: Fleming grouped the dominant ideas of the
umanismul clasic, realismul tiinific i Renaissance Florentine around three
individualismul existent deja n secolul al XIII- concepts: classical humanism, scientific
lea, aflate n interdependen8. realism and individualism already existing in
Cu toate criticile i polemicile generate the XIII century, in interdependence1.
de conceptul de Renatere, ceea ce domin n With all the criticism and polemics
mod special aceast micare spiritual, este generated by the concept of the Renaissance,
ncercarea sincer de a rensuflei o alt cultur which dominates the spiritual movement in
i de a concilia pgnismul cu valorile cretine. particular, there is the sincere attempt to
Din aceast admiraie i totodat imitaie a revive another culture and to reconcile
culturii greco - latine, fiecare dintre domeniile paganism with Christian values. From this
creaiei a realizat prin originalitate, propria sa came the admiration and imitation of Greek
mplinire. Termenul Renatere ne trimite n Latin culture - each made by creative
primul rnd cu gndul la artele vizuale. Pe la originality, on its own fulfillment. The term
1500, printre italienii cunosctori ai artei a Renaissance sent us first to think of visual
aprut moda colecionrii sculpturilor clasice arts. By 1500, among the Italians knowing
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de marmur, a inscripiilor, unul dintre cei mai the art of fashion emerged the habit of
entuziati fiind papa IuliusII, cel care afirm, n collecting classical marble sculptures,
consonan cu specificul creaiei lui inscriptions, one of the most enthusiastic
Michelangelo, c nudul este la fel de being Iulius II Pope, who says, in line with
democratic ca i moartea9. the specific creation of Michelangelo, that
Respingnd goticul, pe care l "nude is as democratic as death1.
considerau barbar i grotesc, generaii de Rejecting the Gothic, which he
arhiteci ncepnd cu Brunelleschi, Bramante, considered barbaric and grotesque,
Andrea Palladio i Michelangelo, mbinnd generations of architects from Brunelleschi,
tradiiile i principiile arhitecturii romane cu Bramante, Andrea Palladio, and
funcionalitatea edificiilor i noua viziune Michelangelo, combining the traditions and
estetic, au repus n valoare bolta i cupola. principles of Roman architecture with the
Geniul arhitectural se va manifesta i n plan functionality of buildings and new aesthetic
militar, prin adaptarea arhitecturii urbane, a vision, have restored as a value the vault and
planului cetii, la noile tipuri de arme i reguli dome. Architectural genius will continue in
de desfurare a rzboaielor. n pictur, fr a the military, by adapting urban architecture,
avea o legtur direct cu antichitatea, city plan, new types of weapons and rules of
evenimentul crucial l-au reprezentat conducting the war. In the painting, without a
descoperirea regulilor perspectivei liniare. Ca direct link with antiquity, they represented a
i pictura, sculptura devine art de sine crucial event: the detection rules of linear
stttoare, depind statutul de element perspective. Like painting, sculpture is an art
auxiliar, decorativ al marilor catedrale sau in its own right, beyond the status of auxiliary
locuine princiare. Prin David i Moise, elements, decoration of great cathedrals or
Michelangelo nu numai c a depit tehnica princely houses. In "David" and "Moses,
artitilor greci, dar a adus n acelai timp Michelangelo not only exceeded the technical
expresia artistic a neoplatonismului la Greek artists, but has both bona litteraire,
apogeu10. good points", ie language, literature and
n noua epoc, au renscut bona scholarship1.
litterae, literele bune, cu alte cuvinte limba, The home language became the
literatura i erudiia. Principala limb specific promoter of ancient Rome literary
promotoare a genurilor literare specifice vechii genres: epic, ode, pastoral, not Italian or
Rome: epopeea, oda, pastorala, nu a fost Medieval Latin which was considered
italiana sau latina medieval considerat barbaric by vocabulary, spelling, syntax, but
barbar prin vocabular, ortografie, sintax, ci classical Latin1.
latina clasic11. Latin translation of Aristotle's work
Traducerea n latin a operei lui around 1300, followed by multiplication with
Aristotel n jurul anului 1300, urmat de the printing press was the favored end of
multiplicarea cu ajutorul tiparului, a favorizat absolute intellectual domination of the
sfritul dominaiei intelectuale absolute a Church1. Florence and Tuscany in all cities,
Bisericii12. La Florena i n toate oraele with the ciceronian adoption of Latin, Greek
Toscanei, alturi de adoptarea latinei and preference for the study of Plato's
ciceroniene, studiul limbii greceti i preferina philosophy, was founded in the Florentine
pentru filosofia lui Platon, au pus bazele Neoplatonism, essentially antiscolastic and
neoplatonismului florentin n esen less anti-Christian. Marsilio Ficino, the leader
antiscolastic i mai puin anticretin. Marsilio of "Platonic Academy", attended Lorenzo de
Ficino, conductorul Academiei Medici, Pico della Mirandola, and
platoniciene, frecventat de Lorenzo de Michelangelo, Plato called it a "Moses" Attic,
Medici, Pico della Mirandola i Michelangelo, in its comments to the "State" and "laws". To
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l numea pe Platon un Moise atic, n him was due in an atmosphere dominated by

comentariile sale la Statuli Legile. Lui i s- older mixture between Christianity and
a datorat ntr-o atmosfer dominat de melanjul paganism, the introduction of "Saint"
mai vechi ntre cretinism i pgnism, Socrates, where the the candle lit at the bust
introducerea Sfntului Socrate la litanie i of Plato. Lorenzo de Medici, influenced by
lumnarea aprins la bustul lui Platon. Lorenzo Platon, has found a new focus for secular
de Medici, influenat de Platon, a gsit o nou government in the great philosopher, favorite
orientare pentru crmuirea secular n statul throughout the elite Florentine. In the
marelui filosof, preferat de ntreaga elit Florentine Academy, and in all cities of
florentin. n Academia florentin, ca i n Tuscany, humanism can not be reduced to a
toate cetile Toscanei, umanismul nu mai mere literary phenomenon, following the
poate fi redus la un simplu fenomen literar, ca glory will, but to freedom and human labor to
urmare a preamririi voinei, libertii i forei flourish in the city. The Dream Academy, but
omului care nfloresc n cetate. Visul also the entire civilization Florentine, is
Academiei, dar i al ntregii civilizaii summarized in the formula: "free people in a
florentine, se rezum n formula: Oameni free city.
liberi ntr-o cetate liber. With the revival of a crisis the people
Odat cu Renaterea apare nu numai were not only aware of the idea of religion,
contientizarea unei crize a ideii de religie, ci i but also of the loss of moral values. The XVI-
a pierderii valorilor morale. Secolul al XVI-lea th century gave birth to a new kind of ethics,
astfel nu o dat marcat de teama de moarte i based on the dignity and person. For Pico
de timp, a dat natere unui nou tip de etic, della Mirandola, author of "The Digne
ntemeiat pe demnitate i persoan. Pentru hominis" man is born perfect, he became so
Pico della Mirandola, autorul lucrrii De having as model Christ proving his
dignitate hominis, omul nu se nate greatness. The idea of ethics is so
desvrit, el devine astfel, avndu-l ca model circumscribed to that an orderly selection of
pe Christos, fcnd dovada mreiei sale. Ideea good, whether individual or community, that
de etic este astfel circumscris ca o alegere respect the dignity and other rights of others.
metodic a Binelui, fie c este vorba de individ Renaissance ethics is not without optimism,
sau de colectivitate, ca respectare a demnitii although the reform has focused on the
celuilalt i a drepturilor celorlali. Etica original sin and the rigor of early Christianity,
Renaterii nu este lipsit de optimism, cu toate while human reason is to live under.
c reforma a pus accentul pe pcatul originar i Consequently, both art and thought
pe rigoarea cretinismului timpuriu, n timp ce throughout the whole ceases to be "ancilla
raiunea uman se afla n temeiul de a tri. n Theologiae. Starting from differences
consecin, att arta ct i ntreaga gndire n between religious writings and especially the
ansamblul su nceteaz s mai fie ancilla inconsistencies among the Hebrew, Greek
theologiae. Pornind de la diferenele existente and Latin versions of the "Bible" in the
ntre scrierile religioase i mai ales a fifteenth century, Lorenzo Valla proved that
inadvertenelor existente ntre versiunile the so called "Donation of Constantine", a
ebraic, greac i latin ale Bibliei n secolul document through the agency of which the
al XV-lea, Lorenzo Valla a demonstrat c aa - Emperor Constantine handed over the central
numita Donaie a lui Constantin, document Italy to the Great Pope and his successors,
prin care mpratul Constantin cel Mare i had nothing in common with the promoter of
nmna Italia central papei i succesorilor si, Edict of Milan, but was written several
nu avea nimic n comun cu promotorul centuries later to reinforce the legitimacy of
Edictului de la Milano, ci a fost scris cu cteva spiritual and temporal pontifical state.
secole mai trziu pentru a ntri legitimitatea Moreover, in spite of the differences
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spiritual i temporal a statului pontifical. of opinions of historians and philosophers of

De altfel, cu toate diferenele de opinii the Renaissance, it was claimed that the
ale istoricilor i filosofilor Renaterii, s-a Renaissance itself is not an expression of
afirmat c Renaterea n sine nu este o revolt rebellion against God and a desire to return to
mpotriva lui Dumnezeu i manifestarea the old pagan religions, by the elite erudite of
dorinei de revenire la vechile culte pgne, de Italy or other countries. Etienne Gilson's
ctre aceast elit erudit a Italiei sau din afara statement - "Renaissance as we described was
ei. Afirmaia lui Etienne Gilson Renaterea not the Middle Ages plus man, but Middle
aa cum ne-a fost descris n-a fost Evul Mediu Ages minus God and the tragedy is that
plus Omul, ci Evul Mediu minus Dumnezeu i losing God, the Renaissance lost man
tragedia e c, pierznd pe Dumnezeu, himself" expressed in "Medieval and
Renaterea a pierdut omul nsui, exprimat n Renaissance Humanism" (1932), must be
Umanismul medieval i Renaterea (1932), understood in a broader sense, nuanced, in
trebuie neleas ntr-un sens mai larg, nuanat, terms of tendencies to exaggerate what Jean
prin prisma tendinelor de a exagera ceea ce Delumeau and Eugenio Garin highlighted as
subliniau Jean Delumeau i Eugenio Garin, differences between the Middle Ages and
deosebirile ntre Evul Mediu i Renatere13. Renaissance1.
Umanismul din vremea Renaterii nu The Humanism in the Renaissance
era n primul rnd nclinat spre religie ori was not primarily inclined towards religion or
tiin; n dorina de a reconcilia formele science, but the desire to reconcile the pagan
pgne cu practicile cretine, de reabilitare a forms of Christian practice, rehabilitation of
filosofiei lui Platon i de reinterpretare a celei Plato's philosophy and interpretation of the
aristotelice, a manifestat tendina de a nlocui Aristotelian, the tendency to replace the
autoritatea Bisericii i a dogmelor sale cu cea a Church and dogma with the classic writers1.
scriitorilor clasici14. Cunosctori i admiratori Connoisseurs and admirers of Roman history
ai istoriei romane, prin intermediul lui Titus through his Livy, Tacitus or Polybios, the
Livius, Tacitus sau Polybios, erudiii italieni au Italian scholars have also developed their
elaborat la rndul lor istorii ale trecutului sau histories of past or present. Petrarca wrote
prezentului. Petrarca i scria scrisori lui Cicero, letters to Cicero, while describing himself as
n timp ce Machiavelli se descria pe sine Machiavelli making dialogues with the
conversnd cu anticii. Istoriile Florenei, ancients. Histories of Florence, Venice and
Veneiei i a altor state italiene au avut drept other Italian states were modeled by Livy's
model Istoria Romei a lui Titus Livius. Istoria Roman History. History of the Florentine
poporului florentin, scris de Leonardo Bruni people, written by Leonardo Bruni in the first
n prima jumtate a secolului al XV-lea fost half of the fifteenth century was succeeded in
succedat n secolul urmtor, de Istoria Italiei the next century by the "History of Italy by
a lui Francesco Guicciardini prima lucrare de Francesco Guicciardini - the first work of this
acest gen n italian, de operele lui N. kind in Italy, the works of N. Machiavelli -"
Machiavelli Istoriile florentine, History Florentine" and the Discourses on
Discursurile asupra primei decade a lui Titus Livy's first decade.
Livius. Beyond the rigorous design of their
Dincolo de rigurozitatea elaborrii own works, and how interpretative reflection
propriilor opere, de diferenele interpretative i of differences that "verre effetuale" for all
de modul de reflectare a acelui verrita these authors accounts arises from a history
effetuale, pentru toi aceti autori relatarea of human conscience bearing effect. Human
istoriei ia natere dintr-o contiin uman history is made by men and narrated by
purttoare de sens. Istoria omului este fcut de people asserting themselves. At the same
oameni i narat de oameni contieni de ei time, reporting the history of Rome is not
207
nii. n acelai timp, raportarea la istoria coincidental, says Peter Burke, disinterested
Romei nu este ntmpltoare, aa acum afirma in a context where, on the one hand, in Italy
Peter Burke, dezinteresat n contextul n care, and abroad, has been a shift in the concepts of
pe de o parte, n Italia i n afara ei, are loc o state power, of other humanists like Petrarch
schimbare radical a conceptelor de stat i and Machiavelli wanting the revival virtue of
putere, pe de alt parte umaniti ca Petrarca i Latin origin.
Machiavelli doresc renaterea virtuii de Regarding how to accomplish the fulfillment
sorginte latin. n ceea ce privete modalitatea of man, there was a consensus among
de mplinire a omului, nu a existat un consens humanists. Leonardo Bruni, chancellor of the
n rndurile umanitilor. Leonardo Bruni, Florentine Republic, suggested that a man
cancelar al Republicii florentine, sugera faptul can accomplish just as a citizen, while
c un om se poate mplini doar ca cetean, n preferring Marsilio Ficino, Neoplatonism in
timp ce Marsilio Ficino prefera, n spiritul the spirit of study and contemplation,
neoplatonismului, studiul i contemplarea, Leonardo da Vinci the "universal man"
Leonardo da Vinci omul universal active by fulfillment, by creations of the
mplinirea activ prin creaiile minii. Erasmus mind. Erasmus defends their freedom to
i apra libertatea de a studia i de a scrie, study and write, refusing to be bound by
refuznd s fie legate de angajamente politice, political commitments, while Th. Morus
n timp ce Th. Morus oscila ntre aciune i oscillate between action and contemplativity.
contemplativitate. ncepnd din secolul al XV- Since the fifteenth century, the West is going
lea, Occidentul trece printr-o criz fr through an unprecedented crisis of
precedent a cretinismului. Umanismul, Christianity. Humanism, reform, transition
Reforma, trecerea de la o lume nchis, la from a closed world, the scientific world,
universul tiinific, ndrzneala spiritului daring scientific spirit, these ruptures cause a
tiinific, toate aceste rupturi i metamorfoze metamorphosis original vision of reality.
determin apariia unei viziuni inedite asupra In the Renaissance, the feudal state
realului. structures are built up progressively - the
n perioada Renaterii, din structurile nation, with stable institutions through which
statului feudal se constituie treptat statul it exercises sovereignty both within its
naiune, cu instituii stabile prin intermediul borders and in foreign policy. The central
crora i exercit suveranitatea att ntre state has tended instead to return to Roman
graniele sale, ct i n politica extern. n law, based on the universality of law, in that
cadrul statului centralizat are loc tendina de the monarch - at least in principle, impose a
revenire la dreptul roman, bazat pe common law for all subjects. This historical
universalitatea legilor, prin faptul c monarhul and cultural background explains the
cel puin n principiu, va impune o lege emergence of the idea of a modern state, by
comun pentru toi supuii. Acest fundal istoric N. Machiavelli and the establishment of a
i cultural explic apariia ideii de Stat modern, new science, policy, governed by specific
prin N. Machiavelli i ntemeierea unei noi laws other than the simple human behavior.
tiine, politica, guvernat de alte legi dect Founder of political realism and philosopher
cele specifice simplei conduite umane. of history, a "city man" above all,
Fondator al realismului politic i filosof al Machiavelli is the Renaissance man himself,
istoriei, om al cetii nainte de toate, along with Prince, Artist, Banker, Courtier
Machiavelli este el nsui om al Renaterii, and Condottiere interfering in his work or in
alturi de Principe, Artist, Bancher, Curtean i the daily life of the city1.
Condotier, cu care interfereaz in opera sa sau What made the scientist Galileo and
n viaa de zi cu zi a cetii15. Copernicus, Machiavelli opens by affirming
Ceea ce Galilei i Copernic realizeaz modern idea of the state.
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n tiin, Machiavelli inaugureaz prin The importance of Renaissance humanism,

afirmarea ideii moderne de stat. pioneer in all areas to modernity was
Importana umanismului renascentist, evidenced by d'Alembert, which presented in
deschiztor de drumuri n toate domeniile 1751 the "Encyclopedia", to thank the Italian
pentru modernitate, a fost evideniat de ctre Renaissance for having given to humanity
dAlembert, care prezentnd n 1751 sciences, fine arts and good taste, and many
Enciclopedia, aducea mulumiri Renaterii models of unparalleled perfection1.
italiene pentru a fi druit umanitii tiinele,
artele frumoase i bunul gust, i nenumrate 3. "Political Realism" and
modele de o inegalabil perfeciune16. "Imperative Need" the works of
Niccolo Machiavelli (1469 -1527)
3. Realismul politic i By his theoretical work and his vast
imperativul necesar n opera lui Niccolo political experience - which transcends the
Machiavelli (1469 -1527 ) diplomatic space of Florentine fortress - N.
Prin vasta sa oper teoretic i prin Machiavelli is himself a man of the
experiena politico diplomatic care Renaissance. Prince (1513), Art of War,
transcende spaiul cetii florentine, N. Speeches, Florentine Histories, letters and
Machiavelli este el nsui om al Renaterii. reports produced during his long service
Principele (1513), Arta rzboiului, activities in Florence is truly innovative
Discursurile, Istoriile florentine, scrisorile i directions in science and political philosophy,
rapoartele elaborate n perioada ndelungatei history and philosophy of history that
sale activiti n serviciul Florenei reprezint specialists can not ignore. Nicknamed Galileo
adevrate direcii inovatoare n tiina i of policy, the Secretary of the two
filosofia politic, istoria i filosofia istoriei de Chancellors and of the Council of 10 has
care specialitii nu pot face abstracie n transformed a pure policy interpretation and
prezentul att de diferit de Cinquento. purely theoretical approach in a key area of
Supranumit Galilei al politicii, secretarul celei real-life subject to rigor of developing the art
de-a doua Cancelarii i al Consiliului celor 10 a of governing, to drive and developing states1.
transformat politica dintr-o simpl interpretare The purpose of Machiavellian politics as
i abordare pur teoretic ntr-un domeniu science and art also was the establishment, at
esenial al vieii reale, supus rigurozitii n least theoretically, of the modern state,
scopul elaborrii artei de a guverna, a conduce secular, liberated from the domination of the
i dezvolta statele17. Scopul politicii church and Christian morality invoice, whose
machiavelice, ca tiin i art totodat l-a existence should be guided by the criterion of
reprezentat constituirea cel puin n plan reason of state.
teoretic a statului modern, laic, eliberat de sub This concept, reason of state,
dominaia bisericii i a moralei de factur dedicated to the specialists in history and
cretin, a crui existen s se cluzeasc political science, is attributed to the
dup criteriul raiunii de stat. Florentine philosopher by famous
n cea ce privete acest concept: contemporaries in the sixteenth century.
raiunea de stat, specialiti consacrai n istorie Fernand Braudel associated the specific
i n tiinele politice l atribuie unor celebri expression of the modern state diplomacy to
contemporani ai filosofului florentin din Cardinal della Casa's Charles V, in the
secolul al XVI lea. Fernand Braudel asociaz context of Mantua conquest by Spain in
aceast expresie specific statului modern cu 15521. For A. Criuu, the famous doctrine of
diplomaia Cardinalului della Casa al lui Carol reason of state was made not by Machiavelli
Quintul, n contextul cuceririi Mantovei de in The Prince, but Fr. Guicciardini in his
ctre Spania n anul 155218. Pentru A. Criuu, lesser-known Dialogue on Florentine
209
celebra doctrin a raiunii de stat a fost Government, developed between 1521 -

formulat nu de Machiavelli n Principele, ci 1524, as raggione degli Stati1.
de Fr. Guicciardini n lucrarea sa mai puin By Machiavelli, Jean Bodin's
cunoscut, Dialog despre guvernarea precursor, another famous theorist of the
Floren ei, elaborat ntre anii 1521 1524, modern secular state, the Renaissance is
sub forma raggione degli stati19. separated from both the ideas of the natural
Prin Machiavelli, precursor al lui Jean foundation of society and theological
Bodin, un alt teoretician celebru al statului teaching. Concepts and the political order
modern secularizat, Renaterea se desparte n cannot be any longer found by either physis
acelai timp de ideile privind ntemeierea or in revelation, politics is no longer any
natural a societii i de nvtura teologic. natural human trait, nor order set up in the
Conceptele i ordinea politic nu-i mai gsesc world by the greatness of God's law1.
temeiul nici n physis, nici n revelaie, politica Adrian Gorun, in the work previously
nu mai este nicio nsuire natural a omului, cited as Freedom. Concept and Reality, too,
nicio ordine instaurat n lume de mreia legii agrees with Pierre Manent opinion expressed
lui Dumnezeu20. in intellectual history of liberalism and the
Adrian Gorun, n lucrarea anterior origins of modern political thinking, with
citat ca i n Libertatea. Concept i realitate, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Rousseau, about the
mprtete opinia lui Pierre Manent fact that Machiavelli's project is
exprimat n Istoria Intelectual a simultaneously a description of political
Liberalismului i n originile Gndirii politice reality and an imperative necessity of
moderne. Machiavelli. Hobbes. Rousseau, obedience to the translation described in the
conform creia proiectul lui Machiavelli este following precepts1.
concomitent un realism politic, o descriere a His realism is the exacerbation of evil from
realitii politice i un imperativ al supunerii the direct observation of human factor
fa de necesitate ca urmare a traducerii considered in political terms as suggestive
descrierii n precepte21. Realismul lui const n and more real than good. Machiavelli's
exacerbarea rului pornind de la observaia realism has the purpose to promote evil for
direct asupra factorului uman, considerat din good in the city, changing the status of good,
punct de vedere politic mai sugestiv i mai real considered himself the first master of
dect binele. Realismul lui Machiavelli are suspicion1. In essence, the good is based on
drept finalitate promovarea rului pentru a fi evil, from the belief that evil is an intrinsic
bine n cetate, schimbarea statutului binelui, el phenomenon of political phenomenon, the
nsui fiind considerat primul maestru al foundation of cities, changes of regime and
suspiciunii22. n esen, binele este fundamentat conspiracy these, in the last two centuries,
n ru, pornind de la convingerea c rul este commonly found in Italy XV - XVI.
un fenomen intrinsec al fenomenului politic, ca As for Leo Strauss and the Jacques
ntemeierea cetilor, schimbrile de regim i Maritain, Machiavelli was a true "teacher of
conspiraiile ultimele dou frecvent ntlnite evil" which, through the dissociation of moral
n Italia secolelor XV XVI. from policy inaugurated the first wave of
Att pentru Leo Strauss, ct i pentru modernity, thus giving up the radical political
Jacques Maritain, Machiavelli a fost un tradition of ancient and medieval age, fair to
adevrat profesor al rului care prin the priority of the religion and morality
disocierea politicii de moral a inaugurat against the values of the policy1.
primul val al modernitii, renunnd astfel n Moreover, the ancients and especially
mod radical la tradiia politic antic i Aristotle have emphasized the human falls
medieval fidel prioritii religiei i moralitii through the manifestation of evil in the life of
fa de valorile politicii23. the individual and the city. The Renaissance
210
De altfel, anticii i n mod deosebit philosophers do not ignore common aspects

Aristotel au scos n eviden scderile of city life, and accept that there may reign
umanului, prin manifestarea rului n viaa peace based on justice and freedom. This
natural morality should not be generalized
individului i a cetii. Filosoful renascentist nu
ignor aspectele obinuite din viaa cetii, ibecause it is subject to unusual immorality.
accept faptul c aici poate domni linitea Thus, good cannot exist and be supported
fondat pe dreptate i pe libertate. Aceast than by the bad, in other words one can speak
moralitate fireasc nu trebuie absolutizat of what Manent called "fecundity of evil"1.
pentru c ea este condiionat de imoralitatea Chapter XV of The Prince is highly
neobinuit. Astfel, binele nu fiineaz i nu se
relevant in terms of Machiavelli's project by
susine dect prin ru, cu alte cuvinte se poatedeclaring the intention "to write useful things
vorbi de ceea ce Manent numete fecunditatea for those who understand, I found it more
rului.24 appropriate to seek the truth of the facts than
Capitolul XV din Principele este the mere fancy. For many are those who have
extrem de relevant n ceea ce privete proiectulimagined republics and principalities that
lui Machiavelli prin declararea inteniei de a nobody has ever seen and nobody knew that
scrie lucruri folositoare pentru cei care le there are actually. Indeed, the difference is so
neleg, mi s-a prut c este mai potrivit s great between how people live and how they
urmresc adevrul concret al faptelor dect should live, that he who leaves aside what is
simpla nchipuire. Cci muli sunt aceia care i-
for what should be, rather learns how to get
au imaginat republici i principate pe care people to perdition than how to succeed"1.
nimeni nu le-a vzut vreodat i nimeni nu le-a Far from limited to describe the way
cunoscut ca existnd n realitate. ntr-adevr, people behave in reality, Machiavelli is the
deosebirea este att de mare ntre felul n carepromoter of obedience to the imperative
oamenii triesc i felul n care ar trebui s necessity by transforming the imperative call
triasc, nct acela care las la o parte ceea ce
as interpretation offered by P. Manent: "new
este pentru ceea ce ar trebui s fie, mai curndimperative orders, in fact, the adequacy of the
afl cum ajung oamenii la pieire dect cum s indicative, prosecution must tally so happens
izbuteasc25. ... sphere need to be called just one
Departe de a se limita la a descrie appearance, it does not overlap entirely with
oamenii aa cum se comport n realitate, its contents, since people commit acts that
Machiavelli este promotorul imperativului cannot avoid, but also things you can avoid
supunerii fa de necesitate, prin transformareathem1.
indicativului n imperativ conform interpretrii That is why the new imperative need
oferite de P. Manent: noul imperativ ordon, would be an equivalent call. Based on this
n fapt, adecvarea la indicativ, urmrirea "new indication" that coincides with "new
imperative", Machiavelli developed his
concordanei dintre trebuie i aa se ntmpl ...
sfera necesitii este doar o nfiare a political advice by forcing political action to
indicativului, nu se suprapune n ntregime cu seek a generalization of the need to always be
coninutul su, ntruct oamenii nu svresc effective and to complete successfully1. The
doar fapte pe care nu le pot evita, ci i lucruri
origins of this "new imperative" to be found
pe care pot s le evite. Tocmai de aceea, este in the political development of the Italian
nevoie de noul imperativ care se dorete a fi Renaissance, the multitude of principalities
echivalentul indicativului26. and republics disputed by the Church and
Empire in the wars and conspiracies of the
n funcie de acest nou indicativ care time, but also personal experience in one of
coincide cu noul imperativ, Machiavelli the most modern states in Europe - Florence.
elaboreaz sfaturile sale politice prin care Thus, unlike its predecessors: Platon,
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foreaz aciunea politic s caute o Aristotel and TomaAquino Polybios who

generalizare a necesitii pentru a fi qualified political regimes in a dichotomy, as
ntotdeauna eficient i a se finaliza cu pure and corrupt acts or non - normative, the
succes27. Originile acestui nou imperativ se author of Florentine policies legitimated non -
regsesc n evoluia politic a Italiei normative as inevitable, related to survival in
Renascentiste, n multitudinea de principate i a given reality. A main problem when not
republici disputate de Biseric i Imperiu, n using means necessary for survival, will be
rzboaiele i n conspiraiile vremii dar i n unable to do good where he can1.
experiena personal ntr-unul dintre cele mai Approaching the issue from another
moderne state ale Europei momentului perspective, state and its sovereignty in
Florena. Astfel, spre deosebire de predecesorii relation to church and other state entities,
si: Platon, Aristotel, Polybios i Toma Machiavelli failed to justify any political
dAquino, care au calificat regimurile politice institution, but opened the way for such
n mod dihotomic, ca pure i corupte, action to Thomas Hobbes in the seventeenth
normative sau non normative, autorul century. If Machiavelli legitimated order,
florentin a legitimat politicile non normative Hobbes has legitimized the action, both as a
ca inevitabile, legate de supravieuirea ntr-o foundation of legitimacy with which moral
realitate dat. Un Principe care nu utilizeaz language is called "bad". The idea of fear, the
mijloace problematice atunci cnd este necesar city, is building the foundation of both
pentru supravieuire, va fi incapabil s fac philosophers. The people inclined to
binele cnd poate28. Machiavelli to a certain type of "kindness", in
Abordnd problematica statului dintr-o Hobbes since he is the bearer of legitimate
alt perspectiv i a suveranitii sale n relaia political institutions, foundations, and the
cu biserica i cu alte entiti statale, need for each other, security, and desired
Machiavelli nu a reuit ns s legitimeze nicio social peace1. Hobbes's political art has the
instituie politic, dar a deschis calea acestui foundation which exceeds any opinion or any
demers pentru Thomas Hobbes n secolul al model, feel the fear of death derived from
XVII - lea. Dac Machiavelli a legitimat "bellum omnium contra omenes . Later,
scopul, Hobbes a legitimat aciunea, ambele John Locke legitimizes private property as
tipuri de legitimare avnd drept fundament the foundation of freedom and individual
ceea ce n limbajul moral este denumit ru. conservation.
Ideea de fric, fundament al construciei cetii Turning to the relationship between
apare la ambii filosofi. Poporul nclinat la the Castle and Church, hostile attitude of the
Machiavelli spre un anumit tip de buntate, church, in keeping with the secular spirit of
la Hobbes reprezint purttorul fundamentelor Renaissance humanism and republican
instituiei politice legitime, prin nevoile traditions of Florence, Machiavelli makes the
fiecruia, securitatea, pacea social dorit29. need for empowerment of state temporal
Arta politic a lui Hobbes are drept fundament power of the clergy. Leo Strauss, Pierre
ceea ce depete orice opinie i orice model, Manent and Adrian Gorun explain this model
sentimentul fricii de moarte derivat din to tackle the theological-political in Italy and
bellum omnium contra omnes. Ulterior, John Catholic Europe by overcoming the powers
Locke, legitimeaz proprietatea privat ca of natural, spiritual nature of the church
fundament al libertii i conservrii during the disintegration of the Roman
individului. Empire because of the need for legitimating
Revenind la relaia dintre Cetate i of power, situation seen during training but
Biseric, atitudinea potrivnic bisericii, n anachronistic national monarchical states. In
consonan cu spiritul laic al umanismului the Italian states, the two "universals":
renascentist i cu tradiiile republicane ale Church and Empire have played for centuries
212
Florenei, Machiavelli formuleaz necesitatea the rule, otherwise hindering unified state.
emanciprii statului de puterea temporal a More than any of the Western States,
clerului. Leo Strauss, Pierre Manent i Adrian Italian Renaissance led to the renewal of the
Gorun explic acest model de abordare a idea of history, by reference to ancient Greek
problemei teologico-politice n Italia i n and Roman models which, where
Europa catolic prin depirea atribuiilor appropriated, it imitated or avoided for the
fireti, de natur spiritual ale bisericii n formation of new political structures or
perioada de dezagregare a Imperiului Roman behavioral attitudes. The history becomes a
ca urmare a nevoii de legitimare a puterii, necessary theory and a political practice, a
situaie considerat ns anacronic n perioada major tool for evaluation and action. It is not
formrii statelor monarhice naionale. n cazul reduced in size past, and this includes,
statelor italiene, cele dou universalii: without reducing the immediacy of the
Biserica i Imperiul i-au disputat timp de ephemeral, to help understand, explain and
secole supremaia, mpiedicnd altfel decipher the political actions required by the
constituirea statului unificat. state or individuals to realize their intended
Mai mult dect n oricare dintre statele purpose1. In other words, it is not only a form
apusene, Renaterea italian a determinat of scholarship or "daughter of memory" To a
nnoirea ideii de istorie, prin raportarea la great extent it is a "Magistra vitae" by
modelele antice greceti i romane care, dup anchoring the desired transformation of
caz, trebuie imitate sau evitate, pentru formarea communities and individual destinies. The
noilor structuri politice sau, a atitudinilor history of what has been of what is, can shine
comportamentale. Istoria devine astfel necesar and contribute to a fair understanding of
pentru teoria i practica politic, un instrument human nature, the phenomena of power, the
major de evaluare i aciune. Ea nu este redus actual conduct necessary for rulers and the
la dimensiunea trecutului, include i prezentul, ruled ones.
fr a-l reduce la imediatul efemer, pentru a To achieve success or avoid failure,
contribui la nelegerea, explicarea i we must impregnate ourselves by old models,
descifrarea aciunilor politice, necesare statului, "to imitate their beautiful actions" and
ale indivizilor, n scopul nfptuirii scopului "wonders of wisdom and virtue in the
propus30. Cu alte cuvinte, ea nu este numai o history of ancient kingdoms and republics,
form de erudiie sau fiic a memoriei, ntr-o said Machiavelli1. The Florentina Republic
mai mare msur devine magistra vitae prin found in the Roman Republic power and
ancorarea n transformarea dorit a dynamism. The historical paradigm does not
colectivitilor i destinelor individuale. Istoria make us forget that the people remain, in
a ceea ce a fost, a cea ce este, numai ea poate time, always the same, the world remains in
s lumineze i s contribuie la o nelegere just the state in which it was always, there is
a naturii omului, a fenomenelor puterii, a always the same amount of good, the same
conduitei concrete, necesare pentru guvernani amount of bad, but the good and the do
i guvernai. nothing bad shall go through different places,
Pentru a obine succesul sau a evita different regions. A meditation on history is
eecul, trebuie s ne impregnm de modelele substituted in time by a reflection on human
vechi, s imitm frumoasele lor aciuni i nature and their passions, limited by fate.
minunile de nelepciune i virtute cuprinse The history of Discourses on Livy's
n istoria regatelor i a republicilor vechi, first decade and the Florentine histories was
afirma Machiavelli31. Republica Florentin substituted by the philosophy of history in
gsete n Republica Roman, sursa i Prince. Thus, history was dealt with facts,
dinamismul su. Paradigma istoric nu trebuie occurrence, but is given insufficient rigor and
ns s ne fac s uitm c oamenii rmn, n accuracy, in a strong involvement of
213
decursul timpului, mereu aceiai, lumea se subjective point of view in the selection of
menine n aceeai stare n care a fost state and leaders of ancient models, to
dintotdeauna, exist mereu aceeai cantitate de compare with the realities of his time. The
bine, aceeai cantitate de ru; dar acest bine i Florentine Histories, the conflict between two
acest ru nu fac dect s parcurg locuri universals, the papacy and the German
diferite, regiuni diferite. Unei meditaii asupra Empire, settled temporarily in 1077 to
istoriei i se substituie n timp reflecia asupra Canossa by humility Emperor was placed
naturii oamenilor i a pasiunilor lor, limitate de chronologically in 1082.
soart. The trap history by exalting the
Istoricului din Discursuri asupra virtues of legendary, mythical and real
primei decade a lui Titus Livius i din Istoriile figures, invoked throughout Prince,
Florentine i s-a substituit filosoful istoriei n contributed to shaping the utopia revival of
Principele. Astfel, istoria a fost abordat n ancient Roman glory. Along with the worship
mod factual, evenimenial, fr a se acorda of these idols, the utopia of the new Prince
suficient importan rigorii i exactitii, n and inconsistencies relationship between
condiiile unei implicri puternice din punct de State and Church are the Machiavellian
vedere subiectiv n selectarea modelelor antice project vulnerability.
de state i conductori, pentru a le compara cu
realiti ale epocii sale. n Istoriile Florentine, 4. Nicollo Machiavelli State
conflictul dintre cele dou universalii, Hypostasis: Principality and
Papalitatea i Imperiul German, soluionat Republic
temporar n 1077 la Canossa prin umilina The state problem is the essence of
mpratului, a fost plasat cronologic n anul political thinking of the Florentine humanist,
1082. who first used the term "State" as
Capcana istoriei, prin exaltarea institutionalization of power in his work,
virtuilor unor personaje legendare, mitologice Prince1. Rightly, Fr. De Sanctis appointed
i reale, invocate pe tot parcursul Principelui, a Machiavelli as the architect of the modern
contribuit la conturarea utopiei renvierii gloriei state ", following the conceptualization of a
romane din antichitate. Alturi de nchinarea la new type of state, held throughout Italy and
aceti idoli, utopia noului Principe i subordinated internally to pragmatism.
inconsecvenele relaiei dintre Stat i Biseric Investigating the origins of modern
constituie vulnerabilitatea proiectului liberalism, Adrian Gorun recognizes the merit
machiavellian. of the Florentine secretary in surprising the
characteristics expressed by the assertion of
4. Ipostazele statului la Nicollo secular state policy, a state empty of religious
Machiavelli: Republica i Principatul content and the vicissitudes of ethics,
Problematica statului reprezint esena representing politics as an activity subject to
gndirii politice a umanistului florentin, care a rigor: the art of governing, leading and
utilizat pentru prima dat termenul stat ca developing states1.
instituionalizare a puterii n lucrarea Italy accounted for historians,
Principele32. Pe bun dreptate, Fr. de Sanctis l- sociologists and philosophers, an urban
a numit pe Machiavelli arhitectul statului nationalist area, where the territorial state has
modern, ca urmare a conceptualizrii unui no place for the fact that Italian cities have
nou tip de stat, organizat la nivelul ntregii Italii resisted the political unity of the peninsula,
i subordonat pragmatismului n plan intern. which strong families such as made-Sforza
Analiznd originile liberalismului modern, one would realize1. The living frame of the
Adrian Gorun i recunoate secretarului medieval and postmedievale society is made
florentin meritul de a fi surprins caracteristicile up, as written by J. Dhont, by the "regional
214
politicii exprimate prin afirmarea statului laic, principality, not the stretched kingdom or
un stat golit de coninutul religios i very small Lordship1.
vicisitudinile eticii, reprezentnd politica drept In that time, Italy was the land on
o activitate subordonat rigorii: arta de a resolving conflicts between papal curia,
guverna, a conduce i dezvolta statele33. France, Spain and the German Empire. In this
Italia a reprezentat, pentru istorici, context the interest of Florentine philosopher
sociologi i filosofi, o zon a naionalismelor for geopolitical architecture of the modern
urbane, n care statul teritorial nu-i are locul state, national army and state reason is very
pentru c oraele italiene s-au mpotrivit naturally. To experience things and people
unitii politice a peninsulei, pe care familii has been the foundation of the history and an
puternice de tipul Sforza ar fi realizat-o34. art to govern. The central issue of "Prince" is
Cadrul viu al societii medievale i the issue of training and strengthening the
postmedievale este, aa cum scrie J. Dhont unitary state, the only salvation and shield of
principatul regional, nu regatul ntins i nici independence and freedom1.
senioria de dimensiuni foarte mici35. Outside the state, viewed as living
n epoc, Italia a reprezentat terenul pe organism, rather than abstract entity, there is
care se rezolvau conflictele dintre Curia papal, nothing: to save him is the supreme law, as
Frana, Spania i Imperiul German. n acest the Romans did, and the prince as the
context interesul filosofului florentin pentru personification of the state, must devote all
geopolitic, arhitectura statului modern, armata his concerns to it, even personal morality.
naional i raiunea de stat este ct se poate de The highest moral ideal is the existence of the
firesc. Experiena lucrurilor i a oamenilor a state welfare, his safety against which the
reprezentat alturi de cunoaterea istoriei current, social and individual moral does not
temelia artei de a guverna. Problema central matter, has no value1.
din Principele este problema formrii i The policy goal is to create, preserve
consolidrii statului unitar, singura salvare i and strengthen the state. The state is thus a
pavz a independenei i libertii36. composite body or collectively identified
n afara statului, privit ca organism viu with living human body, the public living.
nu ca entitate abstract, nu exist nimic, legea Although he lived in an age dominated by
suprem este salvarea lui, ca la romani, iar individualism, the author of Prince
principele ca personificarea a statului trebuie subordinated all personal and group interests
s-i consacre toate preocuprile sale, chiar to the major interest circumscribing the state.
moralitatea personal. Idealul moral cel mai The machiavelian state is in this context both
nalt este existena statului, binele, sigurana lui end and means in itself for its citizens1.
n faa crora morala curent, individual i As modern is the combination of
social, nu conteaz, nu are nicio valoare37. solidarity of individuals in a state with their
Scopul politicii este acela de a crea, de political awareness, which fosters
a menine i de a consolida statul. Statul este responsibility in the conduct of their
astfel un organism compus sau colectiv, individual and collective behavior in order to
organism identificat cu trire uman, cu trirea ensure stability and state development. For
public. Dei a trit ntr-o epoc dominat de Dante Aligheri, the state ideal was the
individualism, autorul Principelui a subordonat universal monarchy of Ottoniens and
totdeauna interesul individual i de grup, Hohenstaufen, the Italian republics were
interesului major circumscris statului. Statul compared with true "nest of rebels" as a result
machiavelian este n acest context att scop ct of conspiracies, rebellions and institutions
i mijloc n sine pentru cetenii si38. increasingly depersonalized of their powers1.
La fel de modern este i asocierea The that age occurred in Italy new
solidaritii indivizilor dintr-un stat cu political bodies, very different to the ones of
215
contiina lor politic, care i responsabilizeaz the pre-Renaissance period. Valeriu Marcu
n conduita lor individual i n calls this period "time of Renaissance
comportamentul colectiv n scopul asigurrii tyrannies, created by great condottiere and
stabilitii statului i al dezvoltrii sale. Pentru illustrious aristocratic families as Visconti,
Dante Aligheri, idealul statal l-a reprezentat Sforza, Medici, Gonzaga or Borgia1. Unlike
monarhia universal a Ottonienilor i Machiavelli, for which the real state of
Hohenstaufenilor, republicile italiene fiind contemporary and desirable state, planned for
comparate cu adevrate cuiburi de rebeli ca the future, is a state of war, Erasmus of
urmare a conspiraiilor, revoltelor i instituiilor Rotterdam was the theorist of peaceful
din ce n ce mai depersonalizate de atribuiile policy, humanitarian, on the line of Plato,
lor39. Aristotle, Thomas d'Aquino. Politics is not
n Italia au aprut n epoc noi split by the moral, suggesting to the prince or
organisme politice cu totul diferite de cele din to the people to peaceably subordinate their
perioada premergtoare Renaterii. Valeriu personal interests, selfish, to the solidarity of
Marcu numete aceast perioad timpul all humanity.
tiraniilor Renaterii, create de mari condotieri Far from being purely descriptive, the
i de ilustre familii aristocratice ca Visconti, first part of "Prince" examines the types of
Sforza, Medici, Gonzaga sau Borgia40. Spre establishing the Italian states, those from
deosebire de Machiavelli, pentru care statul outside the Peninsular, showing us aspects of
real contemporan lui i statul dorit, preconizat governance and reflections on the prince,
pentru viitor, este un stat al rzboiului, presented in detail in the second part of the
Erasmus din Rotterdam a fost teoreticianul paper. The fact that the philosopher does not
politicii pacifiste, umanitariste, pe linia lui mention the empire in the first chapter among
Platon, Aristotel, Toma d Aquino. Politica nu republics and principalities is not surprising,
este desprit brutal de moral sugerndu-se because this form of organization was foreign
principelui sau popoarelor s-i subordoneze to Italy after the collapse of Roman rule.
panic interesele personale, egoiste, solidaritii Thus, "all states, all the powers which had or
ntregii omeniri. might have powers on humans were and are
Departe de a fi pur descriptiv, prima either republics or principalities1. The word
parte a lucrrii Principele analizeaz "principato" corresponds to the Italian model
modalitile de constituire a statelor italiene, a of monarchy with absolutist tendencies,
celor din afara spaiului peninsular, ne reduced in territorial size.
nfieaz aspecte ale guvernrii precum i The Republic of Machiavelli was
reflecii asupra principelui, prezentat pe larg n understood as a joint government as in the
a doua parte a lucrrii. Ca i Platon sau case of Polybios, in which all social
Aristotel, una dintre problemele majore ale structures exercise power to prevent abuse of
teoriei politice elaborate de Machiavelli a one of them and the prospect of establishing a
constat n descoperirea acelor instituii politice dictatorship. Freedom is in this context self
care produc cel mai bun tip de societate i de governance, because it is evident only in
individ. Faptul c filosoful nu menioneaz political action. Indifference of citizens to
imperiul alturi de republici i principate n public life precludes freedom of city life for a
primul capitol, nu ne surprinde, pentru c regime of tyranny. Therefore, freedom is a
aceast form de organizare a fost strin Italiei precondition for virtue and can be manifested
dup prbuirea statului roman. Astfel, toate through the free expression of thoughts and
statele, toate stpnirile care au avut i au meetings as a voice of city against
putere asupra oamenilor au fost i sunt fie corruption1. The city thus proves its
republici, fie principate41. Cuvntul vulnerability to corruption caused by internal
principato corespunde modelului italian de degradation and danger of subjecting easy
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monarhie cu tendine absolutiste, redus ca from the outside.

dimensiuni teritoriale . Pleading for the Republic as a form of
Republica a fost neleas de government which is both longevive and free
Machiavelli ca un guvernmnt mixt ca i n is clearly expressed in Speeches, unlike the
cazul lui Polybios, n care toate structurile choice in favor of monarchy (Principality)
sociale exercit puterea pentru a se evita dominant in the Prince. Philosophers of the
abuzurile uneia dintre ele i perspectiva state, including Rousseau, have interpreted
instaurrii unei dictaturi. Libertatea este n the mentioned writings in a classic republican
acest context autoguvernare pentru c se manner of the Ciceronian origin, thank to the
manifest doar n aciunea politic. importance given to citizenship, laws and
Dezinteresul cetenilor pentru viaa public common good1.
exclude libertatea din viaa cetii n favoarea Less concerned about the republic as a
unui regim de tiranie. n consecin, libertatea state form, following the institutional crisis,
este o precondiie pentru virtute i se manifest the building schemes of tyranny and reduced
prin posibilitatea exprimrii libere a gndurilor capacity for defense, the author turned his
i a ntrunirilor ca o voce a cetii mpotriva attention to the principality, whose
corupiei42. Cetatea i dovedete astfel presentation is compared to "Threads of
vulnerabilitatea prin degradarea intern conspiracy thank to its complexity. The
provocat de corupie i pericolul unei supuneri political reality of Cinquento led him to
facile din exterior. classify the Italian principalities according to
Pledoaria pentru Republic ca form de their model of establishment, dividing them
guvernare, longeviv i liber apare clar in hereditary, mixed and new principalities.
formulat n Discursuri, spre deosebire de Although chronologically preceding the
opiunea n favoarea monarhiei (Principatului) mixed and newly formed states, the first
dominant n Principele. Filosofi ai statului, mentioned hereditary states have not attracted
printre care i Rousseau, au interpretat scrierile his particular attention because of the
amintite ntr-o manier republican clasic, de perpetuation of power in the same tradition of
sorginte ciceronian, prin importana acordat the medieval dynasties. "I say then, that in the
spiritului civic, legilor i binelui comun43. hereditary states and were they were
Mai puin preocupat de republic ca accustomed to their prince family, the
form statal, ca urmare a crizei instituionale, difficulties encountered in maintaining them
a instaurrii regimurilor de tiranie i a is much lower than in the new principalities
capacitii reduse de aprare, autorul i-a because it is enough not to get away from the
ndreptat atenia asupra principatului, a crui way of government of ancestors and act
prezentare este comparat cu firele unei slowly and according to needs that arise"1,
urzeli, datorit complexitii sale. Realitatea said Machiavelli.
politic din Cinquento l-a determinat s The new principalities specific to Italy
clasifice principatele italiene dup modul lor de in the centuries XIV - XVI are mixed
constituire, n principate ereditare, mixte i principalities formed by including to the
principate noi. Dei cronologic statele ereditare existing state new territories and
preced principatele mixte i cele nou formate, principalities as a result of the policy of
primele menionate nu i-au atras n mod conquest pursued by hereditary princes or
deosebit atenia, datorit perpeturii puterii n ambitious condottiere - as specified by Milan
cadrul aceleiai dinastii potrivit tradiiei after obtaining power by Francesco Sforza.
medievale. Spun deci, c n statele ereditare i The fact that the state is in constant dynamic
care s-au obinuit cu familia principelui lor, as a living organism, resulting from the
greutile ntmpinate n pstrarea lor sunt cu acceptance of change at the expense of
mult mai mici dect n principatele noi, political tradition, "because change is always
217
deoarece este de ajuns s nu te ndeprtezi de a starting point of a change following that

felul de guvernare al strmoilor i s acionezi link and that one supports.
n acelai timp fr grab i potrivit nevoilor In a mixed principality, setting a new
care se ivesc44, afirma Machiavelli. sovereign power created difficulties in
Principatele noi, specifice Italiei n governance, due to the instability associated
secolele XIV XVI sunt principatele mixte, with the abuses committed against the
constituite prin includerea unor teritorii noi population. Machiavelli speaks about evil
statului deja existent, i principate n totalitate particularly with reference to the prince
noi, ca rezultat al politicii de cuceriri attributes becomes normal and natural. The
promovat de principi ereditari sau condotieri vulnerability of the new reign, of the new
ambiioi aa cum este menionat Milano prince, "however strong as anyone can be by
dup obinerea puterii de ctre Francesco force, he can be removed only by its
Sforza. ntr-un principat mixt, instalarea la inhabitants1. As an example is presented the
putere a unui nou suveran genereaz dificulti King of France, Louis XII, in its twofold
de guvernare ca urmare a instabilitii asociate aspect: the conqueror of Milan defeated by
cu abuzurile comise mpotriva populaiei force of arms and defeated following the
supuse. Rul de care vorbete Machiavelli n people uprising.
mod deosebit prin raportare la nsuirile For such state stability is ensured, the
principelui devine firesc i natural. author considers necessary to remove the old
Vulnerabilitatea noii stpniri, a noului prince and family organization and to
principe, orict de puternic ar fi cineva prin maintain the internal law and tax as indicated
fora armelor lui, poate fi nlturat numai cu in Chapter III, p. 16 :"... is enough for people
ajutorul locuitorilor ei45. Ca exemplu este to turn off the old prince and the laws and
prezentat regele Franei, Ludovic XII, n dubla taxes do not undergo changes.
sa ipostaz: de cuceritor al oraului Milano prin The experience of political events and
fora armelor i de nfrnt ca urmare a revoltei military confrontations, can be summarized in
populaiei. the famous reply given at Nantes by the
Pentru ca stabilitatea unui astfel de stat Cardinal of Rouen, which he wished himself
s fie asigurat, autorul consider necesar as Pope after the death of Pope Alexander VI
nlturarea familiei vechiului principe i Borgia, "because when the Cardinal of Rouen
meninerea organizrii interne n plan legislativ told me that Italians are not good at war, I
i fiscal aa cum reiese din Capitolul III, replied that the French people are not skilled
p.16:... este de ajuns ca neamul vechiului in policy, because they would do, they would
principe s se sting, iar legile i drile s nu not have allowed to the church to become so
sufere schimbri. strong1. At the end of the chapter he
Experiena evenimentelor politice i a highlighted general ideas from particular
confruntrilor militare, poate fi sintetizat n cases and individual acts as "one who is the
celebra replic dat la Nantes Cardinalului de reason of someone power shall collapse
Rouen, pe care l-ar fi dorit el nsui Pap dup himself; because the power he did to the other
moartea lui Alexandru VI Borgia: cci atunci had been brought either by cunning or by
cnd Cardinalul de Rouen mi-a spus c italienii violence and both the first and the other is
nu se pricep la rzboi, eu i-am rspuns c dangerous for one who has become strong
francezii nu se pricep la politic, deoarece dac "(Chapter III, p21). These ideas find their
s-ar pricepe, nu ar fi lsat ca biserica s devin form in the attributes that a state leader
att de puternic46. n finalul capitolului, should possess, as will be presented in detail
desprinde idei generale pornind de la cazurile in another chapter of the present.
particulare i faptele individuale ca: acela care A larger space in its main opera
este cauza puterii cuiva se prbuete el nsui; "Prince" is assigned to the "new
218
n adevr, puterea celuilalt el a fcut-o fie prin principalities, in Chapters VI, VII, VIII.
viclenie, fie prin violen i att una ct i Chapter VI, calling back to the glorious
cealalt sunt primejdioase pentru cel ce a ancient models: Moses, Cyrus, Romulus and
devenit puternic (Cap. III, p21). Aceste idei le Teseu, is dedicated to the new principality, in
regsim sub forma nsuirilor pe care terms of territorial and institutional set up by
conductorul unui stat trebuie s le posede, aa the weapons of their own and not dissociating
cum vor fi prezentate pe larg ntr-un alt capitol the new state to the Prince.
al lucrrii de fa. Therefore, new active intervention is
Un spaiu mai larg n principala sa associated with Prince, which introduces a
oper Principele este alocat Principatelor criterion value. To the extent the new is
noi, n capitolele VI, VII, VIII. Capitolul al wanted by the prince, he will triumph over
VI-lea, apelnd din nou la modele glorioase ale opposition and to the extent the new will not
antichitii: Moise, Cirus, Romulus i Teseu, be imposed, it wont be compulsory superior
este dedicat principatului nou, din punct de to the old one, but the prince is not really
vedere teritorial i instituional, constituit prin necessary at that time. Example of
intermediul armelor proprii i a propriilor Savonarola in the tendency to establishing a
nsuiri nu disociaz statul nou de principe. theocratic Republic is significant. By their
n consecin, noul este asociat cu characteristics and their weapons is high
intervenia activ a principelui, n care Francesco Sforza.
introduce i criteriul valoric. n msura n care In Chapter VII - About the new
noul este voit de principe, el va triumfa asupra principalities which are conquered through
mpotrivirilor n msura n care nu se va the weapons and favor of another one, Cesare
impune, noul nu este n mod obligatoriu Borgia has acquired the high position thanks
superior vechiului, dar principele nu este cu to his father and lost it with the death of the
adevrat necesar n acel moment. Exemplul lui last, although he used all means and did all
Savonarola n tendina sa de instituire a unei which had to make a wise and able man who
Republici teocratice, este semnificativ. Prin wants to ensure mastery of the land which has
nsuirile proprii i armele proprii este ridicat been obtained through weapons and its high
Francesco Sforza. status (Chapter VII, p. 29). With all the
n Capitolul VII - Despre principatele qualities that he proved in ruling Romagna,
noi care se cuceresc prin armele i prin the Duke of Valentino lost the state just
favoarea altuia, Cesare Borgia i-a dobndit because of the dependence of the church,
statul mulumit situaiei nalte a tatlui su i whose authority was based more on power of
l-a pierdut odat cu moartea acestuia, cu toate excommunication and its effects than on a
c a folosit toate mijloacele i a fcut tot ceea major political influence and military power
ce trebuia s fac un om nelept i capabil care on its own. He became a real symbol of
vrea s-i asigure stpnirea n ara pe care a cruelty thank to his political opponents
obinut-o prin armele i prin situaia nalt a unduly; admired by Machiavelli, however, he
acestuia (Capitolul VII, p. 29). Cu toate was in lack of the foundation of power: "He
calitile de care a dat dovad n guvernarea who does not rise from the beginning the
Romagnei, Ducele de Valentino a pierdut statul foundations could have, if he enjoys of all the
tocmai datorit dependenei de statul bisericii, a necessary qualities, to rise them later,
crui autoritate se baza mai mult pe fora although in this case the manufacturer would
excomunicrii i a efectelor sale dect pe o have many difficulties, and the building itself
influen politic major sau putere militar would be in danger "(Chapter VII, p. 29).
proprie. Transformat n adevrat simbol al For Machiavelli, there is not a form of
cruzimii de ctre adversarii si politici n mod government which is absolutely good for all
exagerat, admirat de ctre Machiavelli, i places, all times and all peoples. However the
219
lipsete totui fundamentul puterii: Acela care two forms of state seem to be contradictory,
nu nal de la nceput temeliile ar putea dac each of them corresponds, even in the
are toate nsuirile necesare, s le nale mai development of the same people, to a
trziu, dei n cazul acesta constructorul ar avea particular historical moment. Intermediate
multe greuti, iar cldirea nsi ar fi n forms of government were considered the
primejdie. (Capitolul VII, p. 29) worst, due to their inability to guarantee
Pentru Machiavelli, nu exist o form internal stability, "for both the monarchy and
de guvernmnt care s fie bun n mod republic there is only one danger, for the
absolut, pentru toate locurile, toate timpurile i former to slide down the slope of democracy,
toate popoarele. Orict de contradictorii par the second to glide the slope to absolutism;
cele dou forme de stat, fiecare dintre ele but the interim governments are exposed to
corespunde, chiar i n evoluia aceluiai popor, double danger to bow in the same time in
unui anumit moment istoric. Formele front of democracy and absolutism - and here
intermediare de guvernare au fost considerate come the more revolutions1. The best
cele mai rele, datorit incapacitii lor de-a example was the Florence, whose political
garanta stabilitatea intern: pentru monarhie i evolution was the one of the pendulum
republic nu exist dect o singur primejdie; between Republic and Monarchy.
pentru cea dinti de a aluneca pe panta His Republican ties, influenced
democraiei, pentru cea de a doua de a aluneca largely by the Republican political traditions
pe panta absolutismului; guvernele of Rome exposed by Titus Livius and
intermediare sunt ns expuse la primejdia Polybios in their work, were transferred to the
ndoit de-a nclina n acelai timp ctre monarchy, regarded as the best state model
democraie i absolutism - i de-aici provin for the future organization of Italy. Moreover,
cele mai multe revoluii47. Cel mai bun the principles are most appropriate for
exemplu l-a reprezentat Florena, a crei establishing states and people governments
evoluie politic a pendulat ntre Republic i which enjoy of a more effective conservation.
Monarhie. As inferred from the Prince, the new
Afinitile sale republicane, influenate Principality, established as a result of
n mare msur de tradiiile politice ale Romei assimilation and its army, can only be the
Republicane expuse de Titus Livius i Polybios equivalent of the French monarchy,
n lucrrile lor, au fost transferate asupra considered a model thank to its territorial
monarhiei, considerat a fi modelul statal cel size, administrative structure and military
mai potrivit pentru organizarea viitoare a force.
Italiei. De altfel, principii sunt mai potrivii
pentru a ntemeia state i guvernmintele
populare mai eficiente pentru conservarea lor. 5. Conclusions
Aa cum deducem din Principele, Principatul
nou, constituit ca urmare a nsuirilor i a Niccol Machiavelli is a pioneer in
the philosophy of science and policy, thus
armatei proprii, nu poate fi dect echivalentul
monarhiei franceze, considerat model prin anticipating the entire modern political
dimensiunile teritoriale, thought, from Hobbes, Locke, to Rousseau,
structurile
administrative i fora militar. Voltaire and liberalism of the nineteenth
century. Continuing the concerns of classics
as regard the science of politics, the
5. Concluzii Florentine politician was also detached from
its predecessors Plato and Aristotle not only
Niccolo Machiavelli este un deschiztor by making policy in an area independent of
de drumuri n tiina i filosofia politicii, human activity, dominated by reason, but by
220
anticipnd astfel ntreaga gndire politic how it emerged as the theorist of the new
modern, de la Hobbes, Locke, la Rousseau, state, separated from under the Church and
Voltaire i liberalismul secolului al XIX lea. the hierarchy of ranks dominated by
Continund preocuprile clasicilor n ceea ce hereditary legitimacy and nobility in the
privete tiina politicii, omul politic florentin medieval sense.
s-a detaat totodat de predecesorii si Platon i Starting from the fact itself and
Aristotel nu numai prin transformarea politicii human character - prone to bad, to achieve
ntr-un domeniu autonom al activitii umane, the state of reason, Machiavelli turned the
dominat de raiune, dar i prin modul n care s- indicative into imperative call of the
a impus ca teoretician al statului nou, desprins translation described in the following
de sub tutela Bisericii i a ierarhiei de ranguri precepts. Depending on the new indicative
dominat de legitimitatea ereditii i a nobleei overlayed to the new imperative indication,
n sens medieval. were developed famous political advices,
Pornind de la concreteea faptului politic which are the support of the mainstream
i a caracterului uman nclinat spre ru, political action need to always be effective
pentru realizarea raiunii de stat, Machiavelli a and resulting in the success. Even those who
transformat indicativul n imperativ ca urmare formally have blamed the work, Frederick II,
a traducerii descrierii n precepte. n funcie de Talleyrand, people of the church - for which
noul indicativ suprapus noului imperativ, au Prince was written by the hand of Satan
fost elaborate celebrele sfaturi politice, prin himself, were convinced in reality that the
care aciunea politic este suport al famous Florentine Machiavelli enjoyed the
generalizrii necesitii, pentru a fi ntotdeauna natural meaning of the concept of personal
eficient i a se concretiza n succese. Chiar i interest or adapted according to
cei care n mod formal i-au blamat opera, circumstances.
Frederic al II-lea, Talleyrand, oameni ai What Machiavelli's contemporaries
bisericii pentru care Principele ar fi fost scris had failed to achieve: the secular, national
de nsui mna Diavolului, au fost n realitate army and the unification of Italy in a state,
mai machiavellici dect celebrul florentin, n managed and succeeded the promoters of
sensul firesc al conceptului sau adaptat Risorgimento in the second half of the
interesului personal, n funcie de conjunctur. nineteenth century under the influence of
Ceea ce contemporanii lui Machiavelli the romantic nationalism and of liberal ideas.
nu au reuit s realizeze: statul secularizat,
armata naional i unificarea Italiei ntr-un
stat, au reuit promotorii Risorgimento n a
doua jumtate a secolului al XIX lea sub Bibliography
influena naionalismului romantic i a ideilor
liberale. Braudel, Fernand - Grammar of Civilizations,
vol II, Ed Meridiane, Bucharest, 1994
Bibliografie Braudel, Fernand - The Mediterranean and
the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip
Braudel, Fernand - Gramatica II, Ed Meridiane, Bucharest, 1986, vol III,
civilizaiilor, vol. II, Editura Meridiane, Braudel, Fernand - Time world Meridiane
Bucureti, 1994 Publishing House, Bucharest, 1989, vol I
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1
Jean Delumeau, Civilizaia Renaterii, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, vol.I, 1995, p. 9
2
Jacqueline Russ, Aventura gndirii europene. O istorie a ideilor occidentale, Editura All, Bucureti, 2002, p.
101
3
Peter Burke, Renaterea, Editura All, Bucureti,1997, 1997, p.9
4
Ibidem
5
Eugenio Garin, Omul Renaterii, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2000, p. 13
6
J. Burckhardt, Cultura Renaterii n Italia, Editura Minerva, Bucureti, vol. I, p. 18
7
Adrian Gorun, Libertatea. Concept i realitate, Editura Argonaut, Cluj-Napoca, 2002, p. 58.
8
William Fleming, Arte i idei, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1983, Vol. I, p. 337
9
Titus Raveica, Istoria filosofiei moderne. Renaterea, Editura Institutul European, Iai, 2002, p. 37
10
W. Fleming, Op.cit., p. 339
11
Peter Burke, Op.cit, p. 23
12
Adrian Gorun, Op.cit, p. 58
13
Apud Andrei Oetea, Renaterea i Reforma, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1968, p. 34
14
W.Fleming, Op.cit, p. 370
15
Eugenio Garin, Op. cit, p. 9
16
J. Burckhardt, Op. cit, Vol.1, p. 23
17
A. Gorun, D. Mateiu, H. Gorun, Introducere n tiina politic. Regimurile politice. Participarea politic.
Elitele politice, Presa Universitar Clujean, Cluj Napoca, 2003, p. 34
18
Fernand Braudel, Gramatica civilizaiilor, vol. II, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1994, p. 25
19
A. Criuu, Elogiul moderaiei, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2006, p. 43
20
Jacqueline Russ, Op. cit, p. 18
21
A. Gorun, Op. cit, p. 37
22
Idem, Libertatea. Concept i realitate, Editura Argonaut, Cluj Napoca, 2002, p. 60
23
A. Criuu, Op. Cit., p. 42
24
A. Gorun, Op. cit, p. 59 61
25
N. Machiavelli, Principele, Editura Mondero, Bucureti, 2002, p. 56
26
P. Manent, Originile gndirii politice moderne. Machiavelli Hobbes Rousseau, Editura Nemira, Bucureti,
1998, p. 10
27
A. Gorun, Introducere n tiina politic, p.38
28
R. Goodin, H.-D. Klingemann, Manual de tiin politic, Editura Polirom, Iai, 2005, p. 66
29
A. Gorun, Libertatea concept i realitate, p. 70
30
Titus Raveica, Op. cit, p. 170
31
Ibidem, p. 171
32
A. Gorun, Fundamentele filosofice ale dreptului, Editura Bibliotheca, Trgovite, p 148
33
Idem, Libertatea. Concept i realitate, Editura Argonaut, Cluj Napoca, 2002, p. 59
34
F. Braudel, Timpul lumii, Editura Meridiane, Bucureti, 1989, vol. I, p. 327
35
Ibidem, p. 371
36
Titus Raveica, Op. cit., p.322
37
Vldescu Rcoasa, Machiavelli, n Filosofia, Editura Antet, Bucureti, 1996, p. 88
38
Andrei Oetea, Op. cit, p. 45
39
T. Raveica, op. cit., p50
40
Valeriu Marcu, Machiavelli, Editura Eminescu, Bucureti, 1993, p. 173
41
Principele,Capitolul I, p. 13
42
A. Gorun, Libertatea. Concept i realitate, p. 66-67
43
A. Criuu, Op. cit, p. 45
44
Principele,Capitolul I, p. 13
45
Ibidem, p.15
46
Ibidem,Capitolul III, p.21
47
Apud P.P. Negulescu, Op. cit, p. 786; fragment din Discursul asupra reformelor de introdus n Constituia
Florenei, adresat Cardinalului de Medici
1 Jean Delumeau, Civilization of the Renaissance, Publisher Meridiane, Bucharest, Vol 1995, p. 9
2 Jacqueline Russ, Adventure of European Mentality. A history of Western ideas, Editura All, Bucharest, 2002,
p. 101
3 Peter Burke, The Renaissance, Editura All, Bucharest, 1997, 1997, p.9
4 Ibidem
223
5 Eugenio Garin, Renaissance Man, Polirom, Iasi, 2000, p. 13

6 J. Burckhardt, Renaissance Culture in Italy, Editura Minerva, vol I, p. 18
7 Adrian Gorun, Freedom. Concept and Reality, Editura Argonaut, Cluj-Napoca, 2002, p. 58.
8 William Fleming, Arts & Ideas, Meridiane Publishing House, 1983, Vol I, p. 337
9 Titus Raveica, History of modern philosophy. Renaissance, European Institute Publishing House, Iasi, 2002, p.
37
10 W. Fleming, op.cit, P. 339
11 Peter Burke, op.cit, p. 23
12 Adrian Gorun, op.cit, p. 58
13 Apud Andrei Otetea, Renaissance and Reformation, Scientific Publishing House, Bucharest, 1968, p. 34
14 W. Fleming, op.cit, p. 370
15 Eugenio Garin, Op. cit, p. 9
16 J. Burckhardt, op. cit, Vol.1, p. 23
17 A. Gorun, D. Mateiu, H. Gorun, Introduction to political science. Political regimes. Political participation.
Political elites, University Press Cluj, Cluj Napoca, 2003, p. 34
18 Fernand Braudel, Grammar of Civilizations, vol II, Ed Meridiane, Bucharest, 1994, p. 25
20 A. Criuu, Elogy of moderation, Polirom, Iasi, 2006, p. 43
21 Jacqueline Russ, Op. cit, p. 18
22 A. Gorun, Op. cit, p. 37
23 Idem, Freedom. Concept and Reality, Editura Argonaut, Cluj Napoca, 2002, p. 60
24 A. Criuu, Op. Cit., P. 42
25 A. Gorun, Op. cit, p. 59 to 61
26 N. Machiavelli, Prince, Ed Mondero, Bucharest, 2002, p. 56
27 P. Manenti, Origins of modern political thought. Machiavelli Hobbes Rousseau Nemira Publishing,
Bucharest, 1998, p. 10
28 A. Gorun, Introduction to political science, p.38
29 R. Goodin, H.-D. Klingemann, Handbook of political science, Polirom, Iasi, 2005, p. 66
30 A. Gorun, Freedom concept and reality, p. 70
31 Titus Rave, Op. cit, p. 170
32 Ibidem, p. 171
33 A. Gorun, Philosophical foundations of law, Editura Bibliotheca, Targoviste, p 148
34 Idem, Freedom. Concept and Reality, Editura Argonaut, Cluj Napoca, 2002, p. 59
35 Fernand Braudel, The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean world in the age of Philip II, Ed Meridiane,
Bucharest, 1986, vol III, p. 304
36 Ibidem, p. 371
37 Titus Raveica, Op. cit., p. 322
38 Vladescu Racoasa, Machiavelli, inPhilosophy, Ed Header, Bucharest, 1996, p. 88
39 Andrei Otetea, Op. cit, p. 45
40 T. Raveica, op. cit., p50
41 Valeriu Marcu, Machiavelli, Eminescu, Bucharest, 1993, p. 173
42 Prince, Chapter I, p. 13
43 A. Gorun, Freedom. Concept and Reality, p. 66-67
44 A. Criuu, Op. cit, p. 45
45 Prince, Chapter I, p. 13
46 Ibidem, p.15
47 Ibidem, Chapter III, p. 21
48 Apud P.P. Negulescu, Op. cit, p. 786, excerpt from speech on reforms introduced in the Constitution of
Florence, sent Cardinal de 'Medici
224

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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria Litere i tiine Sociale, Nr.

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