(Journal of Psychology)
Vol. 57 , Nr. 3, p. 195–284, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
STUDII ŞI CERCETĂRI
ŞTEFAN VLĂDUŢESCU
Subliminal perception and subliminal communication
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 201–213, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
ŞTEFAN C. LIŢĂ
The impact of theoretical construct validity on cauzal structure model within baking industry – a study of applied multivariate data analysis
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 214–226, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
BRÎNDUŞA ORĂŞEANU
Memories and triangulation in interpretative psychoanalytical work. I
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 227–236, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
VIRGINIA ROTĂRESCU
Profilul familiei cu un părinte cu SNC afectat acut. II. Studiu experimental
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 251–264, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
CRITICĂ ŞI BIBLIOGRAFIE
MIHAI IOAN MICLE, DOINA-ŞTEFANA SĂUCAN, Motivarea personalului – Ghid pentru manageri, Bucureşti, Editura Tribuna Economică, 2010,
309 p. (Anca Mădălina Dogar)
LAURA GRÜNBERG (coord.), Introducere în sociologia corpului. Teme, perspective şi experienţe întrupate, Iaşi, Editura Polirom, 2010, 308 p.
(Constantin-Ovidiu Craiu)
IN MEMORIAM
TATIANA SLAMA-CAZACU TATIANA SLAMA-CAZACU TATIANA SLAMA-CAZACU (25 ianuarie 1920 – 6 aprilie 2011) (C. Voicu, Maria
Moţescu, Grigore Nicola)
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REZUMATE
Abstract The study joins to general psychology. It refers to the elucidation of the status of "subliminal perception" concept, on the
epistemological side, and to the delimitation of the content of the perceptive phenomenon which this appoints to, on the pragmatic side. The
existence of the subliminal human "consumption" is tested by using logical, psycho- logical, and "of law" arguments and thus the phenomenon is
taken out from the shape of any doubt. Subliminal perception does exist. It is not a perceptive act (intentional act), but a perceptive fact (it happens
with no implication of the preceptor subject's volition, but sometimes against his will). If the reality of the subliminal perceptive experience, as a
whole, in the psychological sphere of the "common sense", was theoretically long refused as a whole, forms of which, such as: the semantic
non-conscious primarity (Marcel, 1983), the subliminal sensibilization (Colin Cherry), the non-conscious affective preferences (Bornstein, Leone,
Galley, 1987), the semantic processing (Miclea, 1999), were easily assimilated among the gains of the applied psychology. It was necessary only
one step in order to reach from "forms" to "type". As a realization of this thinking and above it, as a delimitation (with a separate justification)
subliminal perception is chosen to be characterized as being a "type of perception" (Ciofu, 1994) and not a "special form" (Zlate, 1999). It is shown
that this type of perception is a communication chanel. On the other hand, after analysing the factors of the subliminal perception (the perceptor
subject, the context and the perceptive object), some effects of the subliminal processing of some messages upon behavior are presented. Thus it is
concluded that the changes, the alterations that may occur by subliminal perception way are superficial and of short duration but they could become
cognitive schedules by consolidating them in other ways. The human behavior cannot be controlled using subliminal messages, but it can accept
directing influences. We can talk about general classes, but not specific behaviors (Miclea, 1999).
REZUMAT Studiul se înscrie în domeniul psihologiei generale. El vizează, pe linie epistemologică, clarificarea statutului conceptului de „percepţie
subliminală" în structura aparatului conceptual al psihologiei, iar pe linie pragmatică, delimitarea conţinutului fenomenului perceptiv pe care acesta îl
desemnează. Prin argumente logice, psihologice şi „de autoritate" se probează existenţa unui „consum" uman subliminal şi se scoate fenomenul în
afara câmpului oricărei îndoieli. Percepţia subliminală există. Ea nu este un act perceptiv (act intenţional), ci un fapt perceptiv (se produce fără
implicarea voinţei subiectului perceptor, uneori chiar împotriva voinţei acestuia). Dacă realitatea experienţei perceptive subliminale, ca atare, în
cadrul psihologic al „bunului simţ", a fost ca întreg din punct de vedere teoretic îndelung refuzată, forme ale acesteia precum: primaritatea
semantică non-conştientă (A. Marcel), sensibilizarea subliminală (Colin Cherry), pre- ferinţele afective non-conştiente (R.F. Bornstein, D.R. Leone,
D.J. Galley), procesarea semantică (M. Miclea), au fost cu uşurinţă înglobate între câştigurile psihologiei aplicate. De la „forme" la „tip" nu era de
făcut decât un pas. Ca un câştig al acestui raţionament şi în plus, ca o delimitare (cu o justificare separată) se optează pentru caracterizarea
percepţiei subliminale ca „tip de percepţie" (I. Ciofu) şi nu ca „formă specială" (M. Zlate). Acest tip de percepţie, se arată, constituie un canal de
comunicare. Pe de altă parte, după ce se analizează factorii percepţiei subliminale (subiectul perceptor, contextul şi obiectul perceptiv), se evocă
unele efecte ale procesării subliminale a unor mesaje asupra comportamentului. Se concluzionează, în acest sens, că schimbările, modificările ce se
pot produce pe calea percepţiei subliminale sunt de suprafaţă şi de scurtă durată şi că întărite, consolidate pe alte căi, ele se pot instala ca scheme
cognitive. Comportamentul uman nu poate fi controlat pe calea mesajelor subliminale, dar el poate primi influenţe de direcţionare. Se pot induce
clase generale şi nu comportamente specifice (M. Miclea).
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Abstract The current analysis is based on Hopkins' data (1997) used to investigated the causal relations between strategic planning and financial
performance within banking industry. The correlation matrix for the seven items developed to capture the construct of strategic planning intensity
was used to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis and then, a structural model was fitted to data in order to replicate the model used in the original
paper. The results of confirmatory factor analysis showed that: (a) the 7 original items do not measure the specified latent variable, but two
separated factors that explain 49% of the variance, (b) the latent variable "strategic planning intensity" might be regarded as one-factor structure
measured by 5 items (V1 – determining banks' mission, V2 – developing major long term objectives, V5 – evaluating strategic options, V6 –
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implementing strategic options, V7 – controlling the implemented strategic option). Although the results of structural equation modelling were not
very clear, the general impression was that strategic planning intensity could be indeed regarded as a mediator between institutional factors
(managerial and organisational) and financial performance, because: (a) managerial factors have a strong direct effect (0,82) on strategic planning
intensity, and also an indirect effect (0,41) on financial performance, mediated by planning intensity, (b) organisational factors have a direct effect on
financial performance (0,77) and also an indirect effect (0,086) mediated by planning intensity. The paper ends with few recommendations regarding
alternative strategies that might be used to improve the structural model.
Keywords: confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation modelling, strategic planning, managerial and organisational factors, financial
performance.
REZUMAT Analiza realizată se bazează pe datele obţinute din studiul lui Hopkins (1997) în care s-au investigat relaţiile cauzale dintre planificarea
strategică şi performanţa financiară în domeniul bancar. Matricea corelaţiilor pentru cei 7 itemi dezvoltaţi să măsoare conceptul de „intensitate a
planificării strategice" a fost utilizată pentru a realiza o analiză factorială confirmatorie şi apoi un model structural a fost testat cu scopul de a replica
analiza din articolul original. Rezultatele analizei factoriale confir- matorii au arătat că: (a) cei 7 itemi originali nu măsoară variabila latentă
specificată, ci doi factori separaţi care explică 49% din varianţă, (b) variabila „intensitatea planificării strategice" poate fi privită ca un factor măsurat
de 5 itemi (V1 – determinarea misiunii băncii, V2 – dezvoltarea obiectivelor pe termen lung, V5 – evaluarea opţiunilor strategice, V6 – implementarea
opţiunilor strategice, V7 – controlul implementării). Deşi rezultatele modelării cu ajutorul ecuaţiilor structurale nu au fost foarte clare, impresia
generală a fost totuşi aceea că intensitatea planificării poate fi considerată un factor care mediază relaţia dintre factorii instituţionali şi performanţa
financiară, deoarece: (a) factorii manageriali au un efect direct (0,82) asupra planificării şi un efect indirect (0,41) asupra performanţei financiare,
mediat de planificare; (b) factorii organizaţionali au un efect direct (0,77) asupra performanţei financiare şi un efect indirect (0,086), mediat de
planificare. Lucrarea se încheie cu câteva recomandări referitoare la strategii alternative care ar putea fi utilizate pentru a optimiza modelul
structural.
Cuvinte-cheie: analiză factorială confirmatorie, modelare prin ecuaţii structurale, planificare strategică, factori manageriali şi organizaţionali,
performanţa financiară.
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Abstract This paper discusses the relation between procedural memory and declarative memory, from the perspective of the triangulation in
psychoanalysis. The patient's explicit reference to his past, even when it procedurally is a defence, it is also, declaratively, a step towards assuming
the origin of a certain psychic content. This step would correspond to a „witness": within the framework of the judiciary metaphor, the side in the
patient which „declares" the reconstruction of his past „gives witness" about something which can only belong to himself. The author underlines the
importance of the active contribution by the patient to the birth of interpretation in the here and now. The patient's explicit discourse upon his past
may constitute itself as a necessary "third" in the differentiation between transference and countertransference, valid for both protagonists of the
analytical session. This hypothesis is discusses and illustrated by a clinical fragment.
REZUMAT Lucrarea discută raportul dintre memoria procedurală şi memoria declarativă, din perspectiva operaţiei de triangulare în psihanaliză.
Referinţa explicită a pacientului la trecutul său, chiar dacă este o apărare din punct de vedere procedural, constituie, în mod declarativ, şi un pas
spre asumarea originii unui anumit conţinut psihic. Acest pas ar corespunde cu un „martor": dacă utilizăm metafora judiciară, partea din pacient care
„declară" reconstrucţia trecutului lui „stă drept mărturie" că un anumit lucru nu poate să-i aparţină decât lui. Autoarea pune în evidenţă importanţa
contribuţiei active a pacientului la formarea interpretării în aici-şi-acum. Discursul explicit al pacientului asupra trecutului său poate constitui, în sine,
un „terţ" necesar în diferenţierea dintre transfer şi contra- transfer, valid pentru ambii protagonişti ai şedinţei de analiză. Această ipoteză este
ilustrată cu un fragment clinic.
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Abstract This paper aims to answer the question "What is emotional intelligence and which is its role in the organization, at work?" It points out that
emotional intelligence helps to promote a better performance at work. Emotional intelligence includes skills involving emotions self control,
perception and recognition of others' emotions, which are predictive for a superior performance. The past 25 years, research has revealed also a
consistent set of skills, self-confidence, initiative and teamwork which assure performance in organization.Keywords: emotional intelligence,
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organization, group, social skills, relationships managing.
REZUMAT Articolul de faţă îşi propune să răspundă la întrebarea „ce este inteligenţa emoţională şi care ar fi rolul ei în organizaţii, la locul de
muncă?" Se subliniază faptul că inteligenţa emoţională ajută la promovarea unei performanţe superioare în muncă. Inteligenţa emoţională înglobează
abilităţi care implică controlul propriilor emoţii dar şi perceperea, recunoaşterea emoţiilor altora, fiind predictivă pentru o performanţă superioară la
locul de muncă. Cercetarea ultimilor 25 de ani a reliefat consecvent un set de competenţe, precum încrederea în sine, iniţiativa şi lucrul în echipă
care pot asigura perfor- manţa în organizaţii.
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VIRGINIA ROTĂRESCU
Abstract The study aims theoretically the special needs of families with a spinal cord/traumatic brain injured parent through the identification of the
post-traumatic changes in the family system. The practical objective describes the pilot degree of functioning of the precocious prevention on
psycho- pathology as a long term effect for the children in these families. Unlike the normal families, the injured patient families express the suffering
of a troubled system. The children in these families have a psychiatric risk through a grown tendency towards internalization/externalization and total
problems. The effects of the stressing event can decrease through psychological counseling, the coping strategies become more efficient and the
family's functionality and health get better.
Keywords: CNS injury, family functioning, children, long term health, precocious prevention.
REZUMAT Studiul îşi propune, la nivel teoretic, să surprindă nevoile specifice apărute în familiile cu un părinte traumatizat vertebro-medular/cranio-
cerebral prin identificarea modificărilor survenite în sistemul familial după intervenţia evenimentului traumatic. Obiectivul practic descrie stadiul pilot
de funcţionare a intervenţiei de prevenţie precoce asupra psihopatologiei, ca efect pe termen lung, la care sunt expuşi copiii acestor familii. Familiile
pacienţilor traumatizaţi exprimă suferinţele unui sistem tulburat cu tendinţa către redresare. Copiii acestor familii prezintă un risc psihiatric printr-o
psihopatologie. Prin consilierea psihologică se diminuează efectele evenimentului stresant, strategiile de coping devin mai eficiente, funcţionalitatea
şi sănătatea familiilor sunt îmbunătăţite iar evoluţia pacientului este către diminuarea solicitării în exces a serviciilor medicale.
Cuvinte-cheie: traumatism al sistemului nervos central, funcţionarea familiei, copii, sănătate pe termen lung, prevenţie precoce.
↑ Inapoi la Cuprins
Abstract Depressive disorder is prevalent in pacients with somatical diseases as cancer. In fact, any chronic disease or long-drawn recuperation
can develop depressive disorders, just as some medication or treatments. Studies has shown that when depressive disorder is treated in an efficient
way on pacients with serious somatical disease, this impoves the prognostic of the others diseases and the pacient adaptation to the treatment.
Somatical diseases could predispose to the appearance of depression and vice versa, also common causes, genetics or of environment, could
predispose the individual to both of them. Pacients with serious somatical diseases have additional risc factors for the appearance of depression
which comes from the period of necessary treatment of the somatical disease, the severity of this being directly proportional to the intensity of
depression. Consequences of cancer and medical treatment could appear in time on medical side, psychological, social, occupational and sexual.
After the initial adaptation to diagnosis and treatment, women psychosocialy shake down to new conditions better in the first or second year after
the finish of the medical cure. Still, there are cases of anxiety and depression generated of fear or disease supposed to be awful, or about the
prevalent fear of the appearance of a new tumor or reappearance of one.
REZUMAT Tulburarea depresivă este prevalentă la pacienţii cu boli somatice de tipul cancerului. De fapt, orice boală cronică sau recuperare
prelungită poate precipita tulburări depresive, la fel ca şi unele medicamente sau tratamente. Studiile au arătat că atunci când tulburarea depresivă
e tratată eficient la pacienţii cu boală somatică gravă, acest lucru îmbunătăţeste pronosticul celorlalte boli şi complianţa pacientului la tratament.
Bolile somatice pot predispune la apariţia depresiei şi viceversa iar cauze comune, genetice ori de mediu, pot predispune individul la amândouă.
Pacienţii cu boli somatice grave au factori de risc suplimentari pentru apariţia depresiei ce derivă din timpul de tratament necesar bolii somatice,
severitatea acesteia fiind direct proporţională cu intensitatea depresiei. Consecinţele cancerului şi tratamentului pot să apară în timp pe latura
medicală, dar şi psihologică, socială, ocupaţională, sexuală. După adaptarea iniţială la diagnostic şi tratament, femeile se adaptează psihosocial în
general bine, în primul sau al doilea an după terminarea tratamentului. Sunt totuşi cazuri de anxietate şi depresie generate de frica de boală socotită
înspăimântătoare sau de teama predominantă de apariţie a unei noi tumori sau recidive.
↑ Inapoi la Cuprins
CRITICĂ ŞI BIBLIOGRAFIE
MIHAI IOAN MICLE, DOINA-ŞTEFANA SĂUCAN, Motivarea personalului − Ghid pentru manageri, Bucureşti, Editura Tribuna Economică, 2010, 309
p.
↑ Inapoi la Cuprins
IN MEMORIAM
TATIANA SLAMA-CAZACU (25 ianuarie 1920 – 6 aprilie 2011)
↑ Inapoi la Cuprins
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 195–284, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
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STUDII ŞI CERCETĂRI
ŞTEFAN VLĂDUŢESCU∗
Abstract
The study joins to general psychology. It refers to the elucidation of the status of “subliminal
perception” concept, on the epistemological side, and to the delimitation of the content of the perceptive
phenomenon which this appoints to, on the pragmatic side.
The existence of the subliminal human “consumption” is tested by using logical, psycho-
logical, and “of law” arguments and thus the phenomenon is taken out from the shape of any doubt.
Subliminal perception does exist. It is not a perceptive act (intentional act), but a perceptive
fact (it happens with no implication of the preceptor subject’s volition, but sometimes against his will).
If the reality of the subliminal perceptive experience, as a whole, in the psychological sphere
of the “common sense”, was theoretically long refused as a whole, forms of which, such as: the
semantic non-conscious primarity (Marcel, 1983), the subliminal sensibilization (Colin Cherry), the
non-conscious affective preferences (Bornstein, Leone, Galley, 1987), the semantic processing
(Miclea, 1999), were easily assimilated among the gains of the applied psychology.
It was necessary only one step in order to reach from “forms” to “type”. As a realization of this
thinking and above it, as a delimitation (with a separate justification) subliminal perception is chosen
to be characterized as being a “type of perception” (Ciofu, 1994) and not a “special form” (Zlate, 1999).
It is shown that this type of perception is a communication chanel.
On the other hand, after analysing the factors of the subliminal perception (the perceptor
subject, the context and the perceptive object), some effects of the subliminal processing of some
messages upon behavior are presented. Thus it is concluded that the changes, the alterations that may
occur by subliminal perception way are superficial and of short duration but they could become
cognitive schedules by consolidating them in other ways.
The human behavior cannot be controlled using subliminal messages, but it can accept
directing influences. We can talk about general classes, but not specific behaviors (Miclea, 1999).
Cuvinte-cheie: percepţie subliminală, comunicare subliminală, canal subliminal.
Keywords: subliminal perception, subliminal communication, subliminal channel.
1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of subliminal perception is among the few concepts that have a
history relatively well established.
∗
Universitatea din Craiova, Facultatea de Litere.
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 201–213, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
202 Ştefan Vlăduţescu 2
Emerged at the middle of the century, it has been imposed especially by the
resonance of the double targetted experiments: the phycho-teoretical one and the
commercial-practical one, the latter being prevalent.
“Subliminal” is a neologism which exceeds, relatively unusual, a well trained
man’s lexical horizon. Maybe because of that, as an astonishment, the subliminal
perception remains a perceptive approach amenable to doubt.
In Latin, “sub-liminal” means under-threshold. A stimulus (perceptive object)
is subliminal when its action period upon the analizors is smaller than the action
necessary for its conscious recognition or when its intensity is so feeble that it can’t
become consciously consistent. Its adaptive consciouly-intentional features (element of
the perceptor subject) and of the threshold ones (element of the perceptive object)
are the main factors of any perceptive activity.
Therefore, even when it comes to subliminal perception, they must be cleared
first.
The perceptive act and the perceptive fact have as elements: a preceptor
subject, a perceptive object and a percept, the result of the perceptive process.
The concepts of perceptive act and of perceptive fact are not new. They have
been used by the specialists of the general psychology, but with no imputable rigor,
because it comes to the maturity the science itself has got to, to its critical stage.
The object “appears” and its perception takes place, when the material signal
it produces fits the receptor’s sensibility range. The sensation is determined by an
objective “excitation” which overcomes the receptor’s noise, the absolute inferior
threshold. If this limit is overstepped, the excitation will not be consciously
recorded, as an act.
Our contact with the external sources of information, as M. Golu shows
(Golu, 1975, p. 131), may be established in two ways: passively, when the infor-
mation issued by source “falls” itself within our reception field, and actively, when
we intentionally look ourselves or purposely come across a certain source’s action.
In both cases a conformation of the corresponding communication channels develops:
the oriented mobilization of one and the relative disconnection of the others.
In our opinion, the passive contact represents a fact of perception in a
restricted acceptance, and the active one, an act of perception.
The concept of “fact”, meaning the reality which asserts itself, has appeared
rather late in the history of psychology. Even so, it’s defining idea, as a gesture of
the mind’s coherence, preceded it by the connotative articulation, the conscience of
the difference between act and fact existed before it: “the acquired operational
characteristics make the man not only to see, but to notice, not only to hear, but to
listen, not only to feel the touch of the objects, but to touch those exploratory etc.”
(Rubinstein, 1960, p. 39).
In the category of the perceptive facts are included not only those operations
and involuntary perceptive actions, but more accurate, those which happen right
outside the conscience space. Among the latter are the facts of subliminal
perception which develop in the process of subliminal perception.
It may be emphasized that the subliminal perception is not an act, but a
perceptive fact, and by procedure – rather an automatic mechanism than an
algorithmic or heuristic strategy.
The acquired operational characteristics make the men not only to “see”
(perceptive fact), but to “notice” (perceptive act), not only “to hear” (fact), but also
to “listen” (act), not only “to feel the touch of the objects” (fact), but to “touch
them exploratory” (act) etc.
In fact, the stimulus duration is often shorter than the awareness duration, and
because of that the phenomenon is called subception. M. Reuchlin uses the term to
designate the sensorial processes of the stimulus recognition, which take place
before the proper perception.
The subliminal perception is the result of the capacity of human reception
devices to record, process and respond to the stimuli that can’t reach the minimal
absolute limit.
When it comes to this “special type of perception”, as I. Ciofu (Ciofu, 1994,
p. 8–9) qualifies it, the second element that must be considered as defining, after
the character of fact, is the character of threshold.
It is necessary to make the difference, the same well-known psychologist
asserts, between the perceptive threshold and the physiological threshold, situated
beneath the first, in order to go beyond it, the stimulus needs less energy. Between
the two thresholds there is an active reception area that provides more information
than we are aware of. In this case the phenomenon of subliminal dynamic activation
happens: sensorial physiological received information tend to be transformed in
conscience psychical acts. They don’t become conscious; they only remain to the
stage of psychical facts (unconscious). The words, the visual or auditory presented
images can trigger the phenomenon, the subliminal perceptive fact.
The difference between the physiological limit (the limit beginning which the
stimulus intensity awakens the sensorial analyzers and produces a brain processing
that goes beyond the conscious control) and the perceptive limit (the limit
beginning which the subject consciously perceives) has been integrated to the
conceptual device of psychology by R. Plotnik and S. Mollenauer.
On the other hand, it must be said that between the physiological threshold
and the perceptive one there is another threshold: the affective one. Before
rationally responding (cognitively, conceptually), M. Golu asserted (Golu, 1975,
p. 251), to some external influence or another, the subject responds affectively, the
affective perception limit being significantly lower than of the cognitive one.
Both the physiological threshold and the affective one is under the perceptive
threshold, namely in the subliminal perception area.
“The subliminal limit” is variable, depending on the stimulus (perceptive
object), preceptor and context.
5.1. EXPERIENCES
The problem of subliminal perception has been raised, for the first time
practically, in relation to a marketing study, conducted by James Vicary on
September-October 1956 (Moldoveanu, Marin, 1995, p. 111), who, in a cinema
situated in New Jersey, integrated into the full-length film (“Picnic”) subliminal
imperative advertisement messages: “Drink Coca-Cola!” and “Eat Pop Corn!”.
The duration of each was of 1/3000 of a second, namely more under the human
threshold of visual perception, subsequently stated at 0.1–0.2 seconds (Ibidem,
p. 113). The messages would repeat every 5 seconds.
Obviously, the spectators have not been warned, they haven’t seen them and
they have never suspected they were on the screen. They weren’t able to perceive
those messages on the conscience level; they have received them in the sub-
conscious.
In six weeks, 45.000 spectators were exposed to the messages. In this time,
the sales increased at the shops situated at the cinema exit: 58% at pop-corn and
18% at coca-cola.
5.2. EXPERIMENTS
After they evoke (already became a model) the fact of subliminal perception,
of the “pop-corn” and the “coca-cola” consumption, J.G. Seamon and D.T. Kenrick
(Seamon, Kenrick, 1992, p. 139), considering the phenomenon as an unconcealed
reality, they argue: “The effects of subliminal perception have been noticed in
studies of priority, semantic primarity and in research on the affective preferences”.
206 Ştefan Vlăduţescu 6
Their task was to decide whether the second item was a word (“child”) or a non-
word (“glayer”). They had to say yes, if the second word had been a non-word. A.
Marcel noticed that when the first stimulus was connected to the second, the
semantic primarity phenomenon would occur; the subjects were faster answering
“child” was the word, if it would have been preceded by a connected word
“teenager”, then if it would have been preceded by the word “street”.
The experiment became more interesting when the first word has been
subliminal presented. Apparently (as subliminal), the first stimulus (word) was
non-consciously recorded, due to the projection speed which has overcame the
processing capacity. In any case, he was “consciously” connected semantically to
the second.
A. Marcel noticed that the semantic primarity occurred again. An experiment
conducted by Ghevrin (apud Zlate, 1999, p. 159) proved that those initially sub-
liminal displayed words are easily recognized when they are subsequently
supraliminal presented.
R.B. Zajonc (1980) submitted subliminal to some subject different forms of
polygons. Subsequently, he submitted those supraliminal, mixed with others. He
noticed that the subjects recognized and named easier and more rapidly the
polygons which represented the exercise of subliminal perception, although they
couldn’t say if these were part of the subliminal range or just part of the
supraliminal one.
5.2.3. Subliminal sensitization
Colin Cherry, in his experiments regarding the audio technique of tracking,
has demonstrated that the subjects to whom two messages were submitted by
headphones (one message to an ear and the other message to the other ear), if they
pay attention to one of them, they can’t really say anything about the other one, as
if they couldn’t heard it at all (apud Eysenck and Eysenck, 1999, p. 158). Related
to that an experiment conducted by Corteen and Dunn (apud Zlate, 1999, p. 159) is
to be mentioned: after sensitizing subliminal the subjects to some words by electric
shock, they presented them a set of words to one ear and another set to the other
ear, asking them to pay attention to what they have been hearing with only one ear.
According to C. Cherry’s supraliminal perception theory, the words they
haven’t paid attention to they wouldn’t have to have heard. The discovery has been
that “the careless ear” had processed subliminal what it had been assigned to.
5.2.4. The non-conscious affective preferences
“Even our inclination to some stimulus – J.G. Seamon and D.T. Kenrick state –
may be influenced by subliminal processes” (Seamon, Kenrick, 1992, p. 140).
The results of R.F. Bornstein, D.R. Leone and D.J. Galley’s experiments
stand for arguments. Irregular geometric figures were presented subliminal for a
millionth of a second to some subjects. At this extremely short duration, they have
said that they had seen only flashes of light. After five exposures to these flashes,
208 Ştefan Vlăduţescu 8
they have been given a recognition test consisting of figures belonging to the
“flashes” and new ones, asking them to select the figures they “liked”. Their
tendency was to choose as “likable” more figures belonging to the ones submitted
subliminal. In other words, they “have liked” more the pre-watched figures, even
they were incapable of recognizing them.
Other experiments have proved that subliminal exposure of a stranger might
influence our opinion on that particular person when, subsequently, we will meet
her on a social situation.
We tend to like people we have already met, even though we don’t recall
seeing them (Bornstein, Leone and Galley, 1987, p. 1070–1079).
6. SUBLIMINAL CHANNEL?
The subject’s life and behavior of the subliminal perceptive fact, M. Zlate
asserts (Zlate, 1999, p. 162), “may be influenced in a subtle manner”, even without
him realizing it.
So the human behavior can’t be controlled by subliminal messages, but it
may be induced a guiding behavior of general type (Hoka, 1998, p. 36–40).
Some of the components of the verbal messages are linked with subliminal
messages. As professor Emilia Parpală asserts: “the fatherly tone, with a subliminal
message of trust, competence, experience and order, induces an automatic reaction
of listening and obedience” (2009, p. 76).
In what the object of the perceptive subliminal fact concerns to, it is formed
especially by one-channel, simple stimuli, addressed to one sensorial analyzer
(audio, video).
At a closer look we realize that the subliminal perceptions occur only to our
most developed and intellectualized senses (hearing and seeing) which have very
elevated absolute sensitivities, a wide access range and well delimited absolute
minimal thresholds (Channouf, 2000, p. 14).
It is difficult, if not impossible to achieve, a subliminal tactile, gustatory,
smelling perception. These senses are less conceptually evolved, and their influence,
though deep, as in the case of smell, it is really reduced, these being less sensitive
channels.
Without having experimental arguments, we can, on the other hand, state that
the subliminal processing of some complex stimuli can be achieved, but with
difficulty and no significant effects.
In I. Ciofu’s opinion the subliminal perception object must comply with the
condition of placing itself as intensity between the physiological limit and the
perceptive limit (Ciofu, 1994, p. 9).
In what the supraliminal perception concerns to, the perceiving subject has a
perceptive defense behavior, in exchange, in the subliminal perception’s case, it
looks completely unprotected.
Even so, the J.R. Vokey’s research evinced that the perceptive subject’s
expectations by involving some descendent processing can cancel the impact of the
subliminal messages (apud Miclea, 1999, p. 127).
The expectations form a real self surveillance system; they are part of the
individual’s system of hopes and presences, is the representational instance with
which the subject faces reality.
The main form of defense is in the subliminal field the positive system of
expectations, the positive thinking.
To believe we are positively influenced by any thing which happens to us is
to cancel three quarters of the subliminal messages effects which have the target of
affecting us negatively.
Accepting reality as it is, with a conscience beyond the doubt regarding the
existence of the subliminal perception, The Federal Communication Commission
of the United States of America has prohibited his own members the use of the
subliminal messages. Provisions of this kind have been subsequently adopted in
England and Australia.
Thus the subliminal perception acquired a birth certificate and a note book; it
has already become a practical issue, implicitly theoretically indisputable.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Niestle, 2000.
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18. KUNST-WILSON, W.R., ZAJONC, R.B., Affective discrimination of stimuli that connot be
recognized, Science, 207, 1980.
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13 Subliminal perception and subliminal communication 213
REZUMAT
ŞTEFAN C. LIŢĂ*
Abstract
The current analysis is based on Hopkins’ data (1997) used to investigated the causal relations
between strategic planning and financial performance within banking industry. The correlation matrix
for the seven items developed to capture the construct of strategic planning intensity was used to
conduct a confirmatory factor analysis and then, a structural model was fitted to data in order to
replicate the model used in the original paper. The results of confirmatory factor analysis showed that:
(a) the 7 original items do not measure the specified latent variable, but two separated factors that
explain 49% of the variance, (b) the latent variable “strategic planning intensity” might be regarded as
one-factor structure measured by 5 items (V1 – determining banks’ mission, V2 – developing major
long term objectives, V5 – evaluating strategic options, V6 – implementing strategic options, V7 –
controlling the implemented strategic option). Although the results of structural equation modelling
were not very clear, the general impression was that strategic planning intensity could be indeed
regarded as a mediator between institutional factors (managerial and organisational) and financial
performance, because: (a) managerial factors have a strong direct effect (0,82) on strategic planning
intensity, and also an indirect effect (0,41) on financial performance, mediated by planning intensity,
(b) organisational factors have a direct effect on financial performance (0,77) and also an indirect
effect (0,086) mediated by planning intensity. The paper ends with few recommendations regarding
alternative strategies that might be used to improve the structural model.
Cuvinte-cheie: analiză factorială confirmatorie, modelare prin ecuaţii structurale, planificare
strategică, factori manageriali şi organizaţionali, performanţa financiară.
Keywords: confirmatory factor analysis, structural equation modelling, strategic planning,
managerial and organisational factors, financial performance.
1. INTRODUCTION
*
The paper was written in 2009 while I was affiliated to the Operational Research Group,
Department of Management, London School of Economics and Political Science.
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 214–226, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
2 The impact of construct validity on structural model 215
In the last 15 years, CFA and SEM have been used for analysing a variety of
topics in social and behavioural sciences, such as ability growth and decline
(Raykov, 2000), academic self concept and achievement (March, Hau & Kong,
2002), achievement tests (Muraishi & Toyoda, 1998), child vocabulary competence
(Bornstein & Haynes, 1998), cognitive abilities (Carlstedt, 2001), cognitive screening
(Anderson, Burton, Parker & Godding, 2001), cross-cultural measurement equi-
valence (Byrne & Campbell, 1999), differential item functioning (Chan, 2000).
However, there have been errors in using these techniques, because some authors
used structural models without paying too much attention to the measurement
models. For example, according to Byrne (1994) it is critical that the measurement
of each latent variable be psychometrically sound, because the structural portion of
a standard full structural equation model involves relations among latent variables
and the primary concern in working with a standard full model is to assess the
extend to which these relations are valid. Thus, an important preliminary step in the
analysis of such models is to test for the validity of the measurement model before
making any attempt to evaluate the structural model. Once it is known that the
measurement model is operating adequately, one can then have more confidence in
findings related to the assessment of the hypothesised structural model.
2. METHOD
This analysis is based on data from a study of Hopkins and Hopkins (1997).
The authors investigated the causal relations between strategic planning and
financial performance within banking industry and concluded that the intensity with
which banks engage in the strategic planning process has a direct, positive effect
on banks’ financial performance, and mediates the effects of managerial and
organizational factors on banks’ performance. However, the authors did not provide
any information about the validity of strategic planning intensity or the coherence
of financial performance, although these 2 dependent variables should be regarded
as latent constructs.
2.1. OBJECTIVE
The chief executive officers (CEOs) of 112 banks completed a survey about
strategic planning. The survey included items about: strategic planning intensity,
financial performance, managerial factors, and organizational factors.
• Strategic planning intensity. On a scale ranging from 1 (a weak emphasis)
to 10 (a strong emphasis), the CEOs were asked to indicate how much emphasis
their bank placed on each component of the strategic planning process. The
components included (1) determining banks’ mission, (2) developing major long
term objectives, (3) assessing the external environment, (4) assessing the internal
environment, (5) evaluating strategic options, (6) implementing strategic options,
and (7) controlling the implemented strategic option.
• Financial performance. The performance of banks has been measured by
three variables: profit, return on equity, deposit growth.
• Organisational factors. Bank size and bank structural complexity were the
two observed variables used to measure the organisational factors latent variable.
• Managerial factors. Beliefs about planning–performance relationships were
measured by asking the CEOs to evaluate how critical they feel strategic planning
is (or can be) to a bank’s financial success. Strategic planning expertise was
measured by asking the CEOs to indicate the level of expertise that exists in their
bank to perform strategic planning. The CEOs indicated their beliefs on a 10-point
scale ranging from not critical/low (1 point) to very critical/high (10 points).
3. RESULTS
In this section the main results of both measurement and structural models
will be provided and analysed.
V1 0.62 E1*
V2 0.96 E2*
0.78
0.27*
V3 0.99 E3*
0.13*
0.84*
V5 0.54 E5*
0.93*
0.87*
V6 0.38 E6*
V7 0.49 E7*
Table 1
STANDARDISED RESIDUAL MATRIX (model 1)
V1 V2 V3 V4 V5 V6 V7
V1 0,000
V2 0,096 0,000
V3 –0,145 0,404 0,000
V4 –0,029 0,216 0,297 0,000
V5 –0,001 0,000 –0,043 –0,066 0,000
V6 0,024 0,008 0,066 0,040 –0,020 0,000
V7 –0,045 –0,068 –0,017 –0,030 0,033 0,002 0,000
AVERAGE ABSOLUTE STANDARDIZED RESIDUAL = 0,0590
AVERAGE OFF-DIAGONAL ABSOLUTE STANDARDIZED RESIDUAL = 0,0786
218 Ştefan C. Liţă 5
Table 2
GOODNESS OF FIT SUMMARY FOR METHOD = ML (model 1)
FIT INDICES
BENTLER-BONETT NORMED FIT INDEX = 0,832
BENTLER-BONETT NON-NORMED FIT INDEX = 0,789
COMPARATIVE FIT INDEX (CFI) = 0,859
BOLLEN'S (IFI) FIT INDEX = 0,862
MCDONALD'S (MFI) FIT INDEX = 0,785
JORESKOG-SORBOM'S GFI FIT INDEX = 0,862
JORESKOG-SORBOM'S AGFI FIT INDEX = 0,724
ROOT MEAN-SQUARE RESIDUAL (RMR) = 0,112
STANDARDIZED RMR = 0,112
ROOT MEAN-SQUARE ERROR OF APPROXIMATION (RMSEA) = 0,187
90% CONFIDENCE INTERVAL OF RMSEA (0,143–0,231)
V1 0.62 E1*
0.78
V5 0.54 E5*
0.84*
F1*
0.93*
V6 0.37 E6*
0.87*
V7 0.49 E7*
0.26*
V2 0.70 E2*
0.71
0.26*
V4 0.97 E4*
V1 0.62 E1*
D1*
0.79*
0.96
V5 0.54 E5*
0.84*
F1
0.93*
V6 0.38 E6*
0.28*
0.87*
F3*
V7 0.49 E7*
1.00*
V2 0.27 E2*
0.96*
F2
0.46*
V3 0.89 E3*
0.00
D2*
V1 0.62 E1*
0.79
V2 0.96 E2*
0.27*
0.93*
V6 0.38 E6*
0.87*
V7 0.49 E7*
Figure 4. EQS diagram for measurement model 4 (one-factor structure with 5 items).
8 The impact of construct validity on structural model 221
Table 3
STANDARDIZED RESIDUAL MATRIX (model 4)
V1 V2 V5 V6 V7
V1 0,000
V2 0,096 0,000
V5 –0,002 0,000 0,000
V6 0,022 0,008 –0,019 0,000
V7 –0,046 –0,068 0,035 0,002 0,000
AVERAGE ABSOLUTE STANDARDIZED RESIDUAL = 0,0199
AVERAGE OFF-DIAGONAL ABSOLUTE STANDARDIZED RESIDUAL = 0,0298
The results of goodness of fit summary (Table 4) show that the chi-square
has a value of 11,49 with 5 degrees of freedom, all the fit indexes agree NFI (0,96),
CFI (0,98), IFI (0,98) and GFI (0,95), with a RMSEA of 0,10. As a consequence,
we have now evidence that the theoretical construct “strategic planning intensity”
can be measured in a valid way by 5 items out of 7, and the Cronbach’s alpha for
this measure is 0,85.
Table 4
GOODNESS OF FIT SUMMARY FOR METHOD = ML (model 4)
INDEPENDENCE MODEL CHI-SQUARE = 343,406 ON 10 DEGREES OF FREEDOM
INDEPENDENCE AIC = 323,406 INDEPENDENCE CAIC = 286,221
MODEL AIC = 1,496 MODEL CAIC = –17,097
FIT INDICES
BENTLER-BONETT NORMED FIT INDEX = 0,967
BENTLER-BONETT NON-NORMED FIT INDEX = 0,961
COMPARATIVE FIT INDEX (CFI) = 0,981
BOLLEN'S (IFI) FIT INDEX = 0,981
MCDONALD'S (MFI) FIT INDEX = 0,971
JORESKOG-SORBOM'S GFI FIT INDEX = 0,959
JORESKOG-SORBOM'S AGFI FIT INDEX = 0,877
ROOT MEAN-SQUARE RESIDUAL (RMR) = 0,035
STANDARDIZED RMR = 0,035
ROOT MEAN-SQUARE ERROR OF APPROXIMATION (RMSEA) = 0,108
90% CONFIDENCE INTERVAL OF RMSEA (0,019–0,191)
V4 0.58 E4*
D2*
0.81* V5 0.96 E5*
0.55
0.28*
V8 0.56 E8*
0.83*
Planning Intensity
E11* 0.85 V11
0.52* 0.82*
0.94*
Man.Fact.*
0.90*
0.00
V3 0.43 E3*
D4*
However, apart from these comments, we can certify that strategic planning
intensity play a mediating role between managerial and organisational factors, on
one side, and financial performance, on other side. So, we can notice:
• a very strong relation between managerial factors and SPInt (0,82),
organisational factors and FPerf (0,77), SPI and FP (0,51);
• a week relation (0,17) between organisational factors and SPI.
10 The impact of construct validity on structural model 223
Table 5
GOODNESS OF FIT SUMMARY FOR STRUCTURAL MODEL 1
FIT INDICES
BENTLER-BONETT NORMED FIT INDEX = 0,859
BENTLER-BONETT NON-NORMED FIT INDEX = 0,876
COMPARATIVE FIT INDEX (CFI) = 0,914
BOLLEN'S (IFI) FIT INDEX = 0,916
MCDONALD'S (MFI) FIT INDEX = 0,771
JORESKOG-SORBOM'S GFI FIT INDEX = 0,875
JORESKOG-SORBOM'S AGFI FIT INDEX = 0,788
ROOT MEAN-SQUARE RESIDUAL (RMR) = 0,078
STANDARDIZED RMR = 0,078
ROOT MEAN-SQUARE ERROR OF APPROXIMATION (RMSEA) = 0,107
90% CONFIDENCE INTERVAL OF RMSEA (0,079–0,133)
V4 0.61 E4*
D2*
0.79* V5 0.97 E5*
0.00
0.26*
V8 0.59 E8*
0.80*
Planning Intensity
E11* 0.84 V11
0.54* 0.76*
Man.Fact.* 0.93*
0.87
V3 0.41 E3*
D4*
Table 6
GOODNESS OF FIT SUMMARY FOR STRUCTURAL MODEL 2
INDEPENDENCE MODEL CHI-SQUARE = 740,209 ON 66 DEGREES OF FREEDOM
INDEPENDENCE AIC = 608,209 INDEPENDENCE CAIC = 362,788
MODEL AIC = 12,040 MODEL CAIC = –159,010
FIT INDICES
BENTLER-BONETT NORMED FIT INDEX = 0,859
BENTLER-BONETT NON-NORMED FIT INDEX = 0,876
COMPARATIVE FIT INDEX (CFI) = 0,914
BOLLEN'S (IFI) FIT INDEX = 0,916
MCDONALD'S (MFI) FIT INDEX = 0,772
JORESKOG-SORBOM'S GFI FIT INDEX = 0,877
JORESKOG-SORBOM'S AGFI FIT INDEX = 0,791
ROOT MEAN-SQUARE RESIDUAL (RMR) = 0,120
STANDARDIZED RMR = 0,120
ROOT MEAN-SQUARE ERROR OF APPROXIMATION (RMSEA) = 0,107
90% CONFIDENCE INTERVAL OF RMSEA (0,079–0,133)
4. CONCLUDING REMARKS
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REZUMAT
Analiza realizată se bazează pe datele obţinute din studiul lui Hopkins (1997) în care s-au
investigat relaţiile cauzale dintre planificarea strategică şi performanţa financiară în domeniul bancar.
Matricea corelaţiilor pentru cei 7 itemi dezvoltaţi să măsoare conceptul de „intensitate a planificării
strategice” a fost utilizată pentru a realiza o analiză factorială confirmatorie şi apoi un model structural a
fost testat cu scopul de a replica analiza din articolul original. Rezultatele analizei factoriale confir-
matorii au arătat că: (a) cei 7 itemi originali nu măsoară variabila latentă specificată, ci doi factori
separaţi care explică 49% din varianţă, (b) variabila „intensitatea planificării strategice” poate fi
privită ca un factor măsurat de 5 itemi (V1 – determinarea misiunii băncii, V2 – dezvoltarea obiectivelor pe
termen lung, V5 – evaluarea opţiunilor strategice, V6 – implementarea opţiunilor strategice, V7 –
controlul implementării). Deşi rezultatele modelării cu ajutorul ecuaţiilor structurale nu au fost foarte
clare, impresia generală a fost totuşi aceea că intensitatea planificării poate fi considerată un factor
care mediază relaţia dintre factorii instituţionali şi performanţa financiară, deoarece: (a) factorii
manageriali au un efect direct (0,82) asupra planificării şi un efect indirect (0,41) asupra performanţei
financiare, mediat de planificare; (b) factorii organizaţionali au un efect direct (0,77) asupra
performanţei financiare şi un efect indirect (0,086), mediat de planificare. Lucrarea se încheie cu
câteva recomandări referitoare la strategii alternative care ar putea fi utilizate pentru a optimiza
modelul structural.
MEMORIES AND TRIANGULATION IN INTERPRETIVE
PSYCHOANALYTICAL WORK. I
BRÎNDUŞA ORĂŞANU∗
Abstract
This paper discusses the relation between procedural memory and declarative memory, from
the perspective of the triangulation in psychoanalysis. The patient’s explicit reference to his past, even
when it procedurally is a defence, it is also, declaratively, a step towards assuming the origin of a
certain psychic content. This step would correspond to a „witness”: within the framework of the
judiciary metaphor, the side in the patient which „declares” the reconstruction of his past „gives
witness” about something which can only belong to himself. The author underlines the importance of
the active contribution by the patient to the birth of interpretation in the here and now.
The patient’s explicit discourse upon his past may constitute itself as a necessary “third” in the
differentiation between transference and countertransference, valid for both protagonists of the
analytical session. This hypothesis is discusses and illustrated by a clinical fragment.
Cuvinte-cheie: memorie explicită, diferenţiere, triangulare, martor.
Keywords: explicit memory, differentiation, triangulation, witness.
1. INTRODUCTION
∗
Facultatea de Psihologie, Universitatea Titu Maiorescu, Bucureşti; Laboratorul de cercetare
în psihanaliză şi psihopatologie de la Universitatea Paris 7; Laboratorul de cercetare în psihogeneza şi
psihopatologie de la Universitatea Paris 13.
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 227–236, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
228 Brînduşa Orăşanu 2
had nothing to do with the repression phenomenon, whereas the second kind of
memory corresponds to the dynamics of the unconscious, or pre-conscious, which
is to say, with repression. As a consequence, it is the bringing into question of the
subject’s actual manner of thinking and being in the presence of the other which is
therapeutic, and not memory recover, which inevitably implies the former.
The psychoanalytical community does not hurry to adopt this view, not so
much because of its “explicit” or “declarative” contents, as because its unclear
implications. This view is in fact challenged, as it is considered an exaggeration.
Harold Blum (2003) reproaches it with neglecting the pathological significance of
infantile unconscious and the influence of this latter on the present. He does agree
with the fact that transference does not mean a literal recapitulation of the past, as it
also has a defensive dimension. He also agrees with the fact that any patient or any
analyst can defend himself from an interpretation of the present by insisting on the
past, and vice versa (Blum, 2003, p. 510).
Blum on the other hand shows that one cannot ignore the past. According to
him, if we admit that even illusion, of any kind, contains a kernel of truth, as well
as any dream, we cannot deny this aspect of memory. He demands from Fonagy to
clarify his position towards the role of words and images in the patient’s auto-
biographical, declarative memory. In general, Blum maintains that, though P.
Fonagy admits the importance of the patient’s history in a “declarative” way, his
theory on analytical technique marginalizes history (Blum, 2003, p. 512). Also, the
observation occurs that primary processes in dreams and symptoms couldn’t be
attributed to procedural memory. Finally, Blum shows that a patient benefits more
from “implicit” analytical experience especially when his capacity for insight and
integration is limited (such as in the borderline personality).
Other authors tend to have a more balanced attitude between Freud’s archaeo-
logical metaphor on one side, and the working-through of the psychoanalytical
experience on the other side. Thus, F. Petrella (2004, p. 1568) shows that any
analytical process comprises two aspects: 1) the cognitive, intellectual (evidenced
by Freud as the “archaeological”, or, the aspect of repression) and 2) the emotional,
relational. Before the archaeological aspect (having to do with an unconscious
event from the past) is recognized as such by the patient, it is manifested as
present, with reference to the analyst.
Petrella illustrates this issue with the dream of a patient, in which she and the
analyst were together climbing up a road leading to some ruins, which they meant
to visit. He remarks on the interest of the patient towards the walk with her analyst,
but notices that what establishes the hierarchy of its importance is the patient’s
wish. The aim of the walk in the dream was in fact reaching the destination: the
visiting of the ruins. Using the superb mythological-narrative metaphor, the same
author shows how child, just like the neurotic, comes to the psychoanalytical
session with some enigmas to be solved. The role of the Sphinx-analyst is to make
possible the enunciation of these enigmas, and the role of the analyst is to enable
and promote new meanings of the myth, favouring the best variants (Petrella, 2004).
3 Memories and triangulation in psychoanalytical work. I 229
We need now to reflect upon the importance of the memories recovery in the
analytical process and in the change of psychic functioning.
Before discussing this issue in more detail, let us remark parenthetically that,
at the beginnings of his research, Freud emphasized the cognitive side of the
analytical process. Freud gave up his first topic – which mainly relied upon the
dream pattern and the relationship between “thing presentation” and “word presen-
tation” – because of clinical reasons, to develop a second topographical model,
relied upon motion and act (Green, 1999, p. 52). S. Botella (2005, p. 721) made the
observation that according to the second Freudian topographical model, a theory
upon the psyche ceases to focus on the notion of “representation”, given that Freud
begins to favour phrases such as “experiences of the id” (Freud, 1923, p. 38).
On the other hand, another author, P. Aulagnier, made an analogy between
representational activity and cognitive activity. She showed that the aim of the
work of the psychic apparatus is to process information coming from the outside,
so as to obtain an image coherent with its own structure, intelligible for the subject
(1975, p. 28, p. 46–47). We may say that Freud began by underlining the cognitive
side of the psyche, only to continue by shifting the weight to “driving towards the
act” – which suggests both a notion of “bodily experience” and of “psychic affect”.
Finally, F. Petrella showed that Freud, in his early conception on the analytic cure,
put into evidence the cognitive, intellectual aspect (2004, p. 1568).
Theoreticians who emphasize the relational reprocessing side of clinical
experience thus emphasize the affective side of the analytical process, yet support
their priority by recourse to cognitive psychology. This must mean that there is
only too close a connection between the two sides... This is one of the aspects that
account for the spiral evolution of psychoanalytic theory: one leaves behind a
certain register then returns to it, but from a much more subtle perspective.
2. CLINICAL APPROACH
Sequence 1 – Analysis 1
Patient: – I had a dream last night. A serpent-headed monster was heading
towards me. I broke his head. [silence; then the patient anticipates analyst’s question
and is proud of being able to interpret himself] I think the serpent was you.
Analyst: [silence]
P: [remembers something and changes the subject]
Sequence 2 – Analysis 2
P: – I remember something. Once, during my analysis with “Analyst 1”, I told
him a dream I had had. In it I was breaking the head of a serpent-like monster.
I told him I thought that the serpent was him. A heavy silence ensued. [silence; then,
lively] I mean to say, heavy for me!
A: – You are telling me this so that I am not getting frightened...
Allow me now to discuss this material in further detail. As we have no data
on what happened before and after each sequence, I shall treat this fragment as if it
were just one “cell”, in the hope that the details observed here may enable us have
a picture of the “tissue”. It is clear that this kind of reflection cannot be confirmed,
neither by the patient, nor by the analyst, which situation qualifies it for the status
of a “theoretical exercise”.
I shall consider that S2 constitutes the present time (the “here and now”, as
the patient sits in his second analysis) and that S1 constitutes a moment of his past.
Let us suppose that during Analysis 1 the subject had had a dream about his
own destructiveness. He related that dream in the hope that he would discuss it
with his analyst, given that he, as a patient, was not afraid to identify his analyst,
declaratively, with the dangerous monster he had destroyed. But the analyst kept
silent. For the moment, we shall ignore what significance the patient ascribed to the
silence of Analyst 1 in S1. In fact, the question is: has had that silence any
significance for him, as long as John says that, after the silence, he changed to
another topic? He thus leads us to understand that something happened which made
him abandon the initial topic. This aspect touches upon the pragmatic side of the
two protagonists’ discourses – namely, the extent to which verbal communication
is intermingled with act intentions, that each of them tries to decipher. Thus, each
of them, while they communicate, unconsciously asks himself – What does he say
to me? – How shall I take it? – What does he do to me? (Récanati, 1981; Labov
and Fanshel, 1977, cf. Blanchet, 1994).
We are now in S2. In the second analysis, the patient remembers S1, which is
an indication that the story has remained unfinished. This means that the silence of
Analyst 1 was not satisfactory for the subject, although he, at that moment, had not
insisted on it. Why didn’t he insist on it, though it was important for him?
We may find out why in S2. In S2, the patient relates S1, that is the dream,
and his own interpretation of it, to which he adds not that Analyst 1 said nothing,
nor that he, John, kept silent (while probably waiting for an answer), but that a
heavy silence ensued – which is a formulation in the impersonal mood – after
5 Memories and triangulation in psychoanalytical work. I 231
which he keeps silent. The silence in S2 is a repetition of the silence in S1, which
now appears to John as being heavy for himself and for A1 (“ensued”). In other
words, the silence then takes on now, and now only, a characteristic, i.e., a possible
beginning of meaning. This thing presupposes the mingling of two phenomena: one
is the fact that the patient interprets the interventions or the silences of the analyst,
and the other is what Freud calls Nachträglichkeit. I shall stop here a moment for a
theoretical excursus thereon.
3. NACHTRÄGLICHKEIT
anticipated the danger that the second silence could have re-enacted the first,
creating a “heaviness” for the other, A2. The nachträglich silence signification process
continues. As silence 1 acquires meaning in S2, it acts upon the manner in which
John perceives silence 2. He begins to assume (“heavy for me!”) the “heaviness” of
the silence in the past S1 exactly as he interprets (in silence) the silence of analyst
A2. And how does he interpret it?
Given that he specifies: “for me”, it is obvious that he wishes to put away the
possibility that the silence be understood as heavy “for us” or “for you (A2)”. At
the same moment John deploys a psychic work in two temporal directions: a. He
initiates the nachträglich, retrospective, signification of silence 1, and b. He acts in
an anticipatory manner, in a preventive manner, upon A2, so that the silence of this
latter should not overtake the “heaviness” which he had newly allocated to silence 1.
In other words, the patient recalls a scene, and, anticipating its possible
signification, tries to modify it by dividing the “us” in “you” and “me”. He feels
that while he recounts the dream scene and the silence in S1, a repetition is about to
happen which, then, had brought nothing new. The specification “heavy for me”
not only initiates a subjectivizing process, but it also draws a line of demarcation in
time: it separates between past and present: scene 2 is not identical with scene 1,
and what is more, John intimates that he is one to know for whom that silence had
been heavy. This element draws attention upon the fact that the past S1 belongs to
him, while he finds himself in the midst of a moment in which the contrary was
about to be anticipated: a re-enactment of the “heavy for us”.
Therefore, I took the dream theme, reactivated in S2, to mean destruct-
tiveness. The patient has learned from his analytical past that he is able to
“paralyze” the other, therefore, that he must take precautions: he declares that he
had been dangerous there and then, and also that he no longer is here and now, in
the presence of this object (A2).
And yet, he still hopes for a change. This change appears by means of the
interpretation furnished by A2. This latter, who might have commented that
sequence (1), with reference to that object (A1), chooses to comment upon the
present. He implicitly conveys to his patient: “You mean to protect me against your
destructiveness, which frightens me – I realize this because I experienced fear at
identifying myself with your first analyst, yet I am not frightened to the point of not
being able to thing and talk about it”. The interpretation: “You tell me this so that I
do not get frightened” points both to the patient’s hatred and to his love. In the ex-
patient’s own words, it constituted the solution to the problem of his
destructiveness.
What would this problem be? Let us revert to silence S2, which was
interrupted by John’s specification “heavy for me”. The problem receives contours,
in the negative, partly at this moment, and partly as a result of A2’s interpretation.
A destructiveness “heavy for us” theoretically presupposes two combined aspects:
on one hand, the subject is afraid that the object wouldn’t survive his destruct-
tiveness (Winnicott, 1974), and on the other the subject doesn’t feel himself as
234 Brînduşa Orăşanu 8
separate from his object in this respect. In principle, I think we can express both
aspects by means of the latter: the non-differentiation self-object concerning
destructiveness. For that matter, this is prefigured in John’s dream, where the other
appears to him as a monster, but it is him the subject who destroys. The scene
appears as if in a mirror, and so does silence S1: it ensues for both, in a non-
differentiated manner.
As I have shown so far, it is the patient who initializes differentiation, at the
very moment S2, when the non-differentiated scene risks repeating itself. It is A2
who continues and finalizes this micro-process, for he achieves a closure of the
nachträglich signification, not only of the S2 sequence, but also of what had
happened in S1, the dream including. We could envisage this unfolding of events
as a Nachträglichkeit chain – retrospective significations, on behalf of both
protagonists, regarding S1 and S2.
The question appears here: would things have unfolded in the same manner
during S2 had S1 never been recovered? I personally doubt it. Let us only remark
that A2 could offer the “saving” interpretation only after the patient talked about
him own self [the patient’s] from the present moment in relation with his analyst
from that moment in the past.
Yet, what would hamper us from imagining that A2 could have offered a
similar interpretation, just as benefice, no matter how different the circumstances in
which John’s destructiveness were expressed? What is there to stop us from
thinking that the efficacy of this interpretation relies exclusively on A2’s capacity
to listen to the “theme”, even in the absence of S1 memory recovery and even in
the absence of a first cure? To answer this, I shall refer to a passage in R. Britton,
where he writes about a situation in which patient and analyst cannot break out
from an intersubjective interaction because the patient fears a mental connection of
the analyst with a “third object”, but imagines that the analyst too fears the same
thing. Thus, the two „move along a single line and meet a single point without any
lateral movement”. The analytic space is regained only by means of an “increasing
distance” between the two with respect to that mental third, a process that the
patient takes as hard to bear unless he initiates it (Britton, 1998, p. 47).
Of course, the possibility subsides that A2 might have offered just as good an
interpretation even when memory recover S1, and even when the first cure itself,
had not existed – under circumstances in which, for example, John would have had
the same dream, and would have told it during analysis 2. But the analyst couldn’t
have offered this interpretation.
When we follow the unfolding of S2 from end to beginning, we notice that
each sentence gives certain significance to the preceding one. Even the state of the
patient (“the liveliness” marked by John) and the “silence” participate in this chain.
On the other hand, S2 cannot exist without S1 and in a certain way neither can S1
exist without S2 (as moment in the past which acquires a meaning that the subject
can integrate). From this point of view, this bi-sequential clinical fragment seems
9 Memories and triangulation in psychoanalytical work. I 235
to me useful because it displays two characteristics: it is real and, at the same time,
by its combining the bi-directionality of the two temporal parts, as well as by their
partial superposition by means of the dream, it can be viewed as a theoretical
model of “intersubjective cell” for a specific kind of problem, in which memory
recover plays a role.
The problem, therefore, for John, is the non-differentiation self-object as far
as his destructiveness is concerned, and for the analyst, the non-differentiation
transference-countertransference as regards John’s destructiveness. Even when
the problem of the analyst only exists in John’s mind, anyway it exists in the
session, given that the patient is the one who “opens the conversation”.
4. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
REZUMAT
Lucrarea discută raportul dintre memoria procedurală şi memoria declarativă, din perspectiva
operaţiei de triangulare în psihanaliză. Referinţa explicită a pacientului la trecutul său, chiar dacă este
o apărare din punct de vedere procedural, constituie, în mod declarativ, şi un pas spre asumarea
originii unui anumit conţinut psihic. Acest pas ar corespunde cu un „martor”: dacă utilizăm metafora
judiciară, partea din pacient care „declară” reconstrucţia trecutului lui „stă drept mărturie” că un
anumit lucru nu poate să-i aparţină decât lui. Autoarea pune în evidenţă importanţa contribuţiei active
a pacientului la formarea interpretării în aici-şi-acum. Discursul explicit al pacientului asupra
trecutului său poate constitui, în sine, un „terţ” necesar în diferenţierea dintre transfer şi contra-
transfer, valid pentru ambii protagonişti ai şedinţei de analiză. Această ipoteză este ilustrată cu un
fragment clinic.
UN SUBIECT NEGLIJAT ÎN PSIHOLOGIA
ORGANIZAŢIONALĂ: EMOŢIA
Abstract
This paper aims to answer the question “What is emotional intelligence and which is its role in
the organization, at work?” It points out that emotional intelligence helps to promote a better
performance at work. Emotional intelligence includes skills involving emotions self control,
perception and recognition of others’ emotions, which are predictive for a superior performance. The
past 25 years, research has revealed also a consistent set of skills, self-confidence, initiative and
teamwork which assure performance in organization.
Cuvinte-cheie: inteligenţă emoţională, organizaţie, grup, abilitate socială, managerizarea relaţiilor.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, organization, group, social skills, relationships managing.
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 237–250, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
238 Doina-Ştefana Săucan, Mihai Ioan Micle 2
dezastruos pentru o organizaţie. Atât Mayer şi colab. (2000), cât şi Reuven Bar-On
(2000), folosind instrumentele proprii de măsurare a inteligenţei emoţionale, nu au
găsit nicio corelaţie între aceste două variabile (primul) sau au găsit o corelaţie, dar
nesemnificativă (cel de-al doilea).
În urma analizei mai multor feluri de posturi, Goleman a susţinut că, în ceea
ce priveşte competenţele emoţionale, acestea au fost de două ori mai întâlnite decât
cele ce ţin de abilităţile tehnice sau/şi de abilităţi cognitive (1998). În general, cu
cât este mai înaltă poziţia în ierarhia unei organizaţii, cu atât contează mai mult
inteligenţa emoţională (EI): pentru persoanele aflate în poziţia de lider, 85% din
competenţele lor ţineau de domeniul EI.
Unul dintre puţinele studii longitudinale care au comparat contribuţia la
performanţa în muncă (recunoscută prin promovare) a performanţelor cognitive şi a
celor emoţionale a fost realizat de Dulewicz şi Higgs (1998). Ei au reanalizat datele
dintr-un studiu de şapte ani asupra progresului în carieră al 58 de manageri generali
din Anglia şi Irlanda, evaluând trei domenii de abilitate – abilitate emoţională (EQ),
aptitudine intelectuală (IQ) şi competenţă managerială (MQ) – care contribuie la
performanţa în muncă. Categoria „abilitatea emoţională” includea abilităţi precum:
flexibilitate, influenţă, asertivitate (afirmare), integritate şi cele de lider. Dimen-
siunea „aptitudine intelectuală” nu a fost evaluată prin scoruri la teste de inteligenţă, ci
prin competenţe folosite ca măsuri surogat: capacitate de analiză, de raţionament,
de planificare, creativitate şi asumarea riscului. Cotientul de competenţă managerială
includea supervizarea, comunicarea orală, simţul afacerilor, controlul de sine,
iniţiativa şi independenţa. Autorii au găsit că inteligenţa emoţională a întrunit 36%,
aptitudinea intelectuală 27%, iar competenţa managerială 16%. Aceasta înseamnă
că inteligenţa emoţională contează puţin mai mult decât inteligenţa generală (apti-
tudinea intelectuală) la avansarea în carieră. Totuşi, trebuie menţionat că există mai
multe limite ale acestui studiu: măsurarea inteligenţei generale s-a făcut pe baza
unor măsuri surogat şi nu pe baza măsurilor standard ale inteligenţei; competenţele
clasificate în inteligenţa generală şi competenţa managerială aparţin mai degrabă
categoriei inteligenţei emoţionale, comparat cu modelul generic al inteligenţei
emoţionale, studiul prezentat aici nu reflectă întregul spectru al acesteia, omiţând
numeroase competenţe cheie, inclusiv conştiinţa de sine, un cluster al competenţelor pe
care unele cercetări îl numesc piatra de temelie a inteligenţei emoţionale (Boyatzis,
Goleman şi Rhee, 2000). Din această cauză s-ar putea spune că studiul în cauză
subestimează efectul inteligenţei emoţionale asupra succesului.
În studiul clasic al lui Boyatzis despre inteligenţa emoţională (1982), au fost
investigaţi mai mult de 200 de supervizori, manageri ai unor organizaţii de dimensiuni
medii şi personal cu funcţii executive din 12 organizaţii, ajungându-se la concluzia
că toate cele 16 abilităţi, dar mai cu seamă două dintre ele, aparţineau categoriei
„competenţă emoţională”. Iar o analiză a competenţelor pe post la 286 de organizaţii la
nivel mondial, dezvoltată de Spencer (1993) a indicat că 18 din cele 21 de
competenţe în modelul lor generic pentru deosebirea performerilor superiori de cei
de nivel mediu aparţineau aceleiaşi categorii.
5 Un subiect neglijat în psihologia organizaţională: emoţia 241
Prima dintre cele trei componente ale conştiinţei de sine, conştiinţa emoţională
de sine, reflectă importanţa recunoaşterii propriilor sentimente şi modul în care
acestea pot influenţa performanţa unei persoane. De exemplu, Goleman afirma într-
una din lucrările sale (1998) că, la serviciile financiare ale companiei, conştiinţa de
sine emoţională se dovedeşte a fi crucială în ceea ce priveşte performanţa în muncă
a celor care alcătuiesc planuri financiare. Interacţiunea dintre un planificator financiar
şi un client este delicată, primul preocupându-se nu numai de problemele dificile
legate de bani, dar şi de disconfortul sentimentului morţii, când se pune problema
asigurării de viaţă, conştiinţa de sine ajutându-i aparent să-şi gestioneze reacţiile
emoţionale mai bine.
La un alt nivel, conştiinţa de sine este un element cheie în conştientizarea
propriilor slăbiciuni sau a propriei forţe. Individul cu un simţ exact al conştiinţei de
sine este conştient de abilităţile şi limitele sale, caută feedback-ul şi învaţă din greşelile
personale, ştiind unde şi de ce este nevoie să fie îmbunătăţit şi când să se lucreze cu
alţii care au o forţă complementară.
Impactul pozitiv al încrederii în sine asupra performanţei a fost demonstrat
în mai multe studii. 112 contabili nou angajaţi, cei cu eficacitate de sine de nivel
înalt, o formă de încredere în sine, au fost evaluaţi de şefii lor zece luni mai târziu
ca având o performanţă superioară în muncă. Nivelul încrederii în sine a fost de
fapt un predictor mai puternic al performanţei decât nivelul abilităţilor sau un
training (formare) anterior (Saks, 1995). Într-un studiu longitudinal, întins pe mai
mult de 60 de ani, din copilărie şi până la ieşirea la pensie, pe mai mult de 1000 de
subiecţi bărbaţi şi femei cu un coeficient de inteligenţă mare, cei care aveau un
coeficient de încredere în sine mai mare în primii ani au avut şi un succes mai mare
în carieră (Holahan şi Sears, 1995).
242 Doina-Ştefana Săucan, Mihai Ioan Micle 6
Cum economia mondială devine tot mai globală şi mai bazată pe informaţie,
organizaţiile au ajuns să considere necesară adaptarea la schimbarea rapidă şi la o
piaţă din ce în ce mai competitivă. Organizaţiile inteligente emoţional sunt capabile
să influenţeze talentul membrilor lor de a face faţă cât mai eficient acestor provocări.
246 Doina-Ştefana Săucan, Mihai Ioan Micle 10
Richard Boyatzis (1999) a realizat patru grupări diferite ale relaţiilor care pot
exista între competenţele aparţinând unei dimensiuni: complementaritate, manifestări
alternative, compensatorii şi antagonice. Demonstrarea unei competenţe prezente la
o persoană nu interferează cu demonstrarea unei alte abilităţi. De exemplu, autorul
a explorat relaţia dintre adaptabilitate şi conştiinciozitate. O persoană poate da
dovadă de flexibilitate în adaptarea la situaţie. Faptul că demonstrează siguranţă şi
consistenţă nu ar interfera cu demonstrarea adaptabilităţii, dar, dacă persoana poate
folosi ambele competenţe, eficenţa ei ar creşte în mai multe situaţii. Dacă, de
exemplu, situaţia s-a schimbat, dar un răspuns sigur ar mai fi încă necesar, folosirea
adaptabilităţii şi conştiinciozităţii ar permite continuarea comportamentului potrivit
chiar şi în situaţii noi.
Cea de-a doua relaţie între competenţe, alternarea manifestărilor, are loc între
competenţe care reprezintă acelaşi set de capacităţi, chiar dacă fiecare competenţă
cuprinde comportamente specifice unei situaţii. De exemplu, a-i conduce pe alţii şi
a fi un catalizator al schimbării sunt manifestări alternative ale comportamentului
de lider. Capacitatea de a-i conduce pe alţii este mai generală şi este văzută ca un
rol tradiţional de lider, în vreme ce capacitatea de a fi catalizator al schimbării este
o manifestare a liderului specific organizaţiilor în curs de schimbare.
Când vorbim despre competenţe aflate în relaţii compensatorii, ne referim la
compensarea în ceea ce priveşte nefolosirea sau slăbiciunea uneia sau alteia,
rezultatele fiind aceleaşi dacă este folosită o competenţă sau alta. Orientarea spre
realizare şi inţiativa sunt exemple de competenţe compensatorii.
Ultimul tip de relaţii între competenţe este cel antagonic. Un nivel foarte înalt
al unei competenţe poate preveni folosirea sau manifestarea alteia. Persoanele care
prezintă abilitatea de echilibrare a competenţelor antagonice ajung adeseori la o
performanţă remarcabilă. În modelul competenţei de inteligenţă emoţională, auto-
controlul poate fi antagonic iniţiativei. Dacă cineva are un nivel mare al auto-
controlului, inhibându-şi impulsurile şi acţiunile, ar avea o dificultate crescândă în
timp în ceea ce priveşte iniţiativa.
Deşi selecţia de personal este calea relativ cea mai rapidă pentru a obţine
competenţe de inteligenţă emoţională în forţa de muncă, ea poate fi costisitoare.
Noii angajaţi au nevoie să fie antrenaţi pentru a fi aduşi în scurt timp la cunoaşterea
necesară postului, practicilor, proceselor etc. Costurile de angajare pot include şi
lucruri precum taxe de recrutare şi consumarea timpului de lucru în interviuri.
Adesea, este mai practic pentru o organizaţie să sporească nivelul inteligenţei
emoţionale la personalul deja angajat prin training şi dezvoltare. Totuşi, dezvoltarea
cere timp, implicare şi susţinere. Mai mult decât atât, adesea, organizaţiile mai mult
împiedică decât favorizează procesul de dezvoltare. Accentul pe rezultatele imediate
duce adesea la metode de dezvoltare coercitive sau neinteligente emoţional, care, la
rândul lor, întăresc comportamentele inadecvate şi influenţează negativ sănătatea
organizaţiei şi a membrilor ei.
248 Doina-Ştefana Săucan, Mihai Ioan Micle 12
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. AMABILE, T., The intrinsic motivation principle of creativity, în B. STAW şi L.L. CUMMINGS
(Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, 10, Greenwich, C.T.: JAI Press, 1988.
2. BARRICK, M.R., MOUNT, M.K., STRAUSS, J.P., Conscientiousness and performance of sales
representatives: Test of the mediating effects of goal setting, Journal of Applied Psychology, 78,
1993, p. 715–722.
3. BAR-ON, R., Emotional and social intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Quotient Inventory,
în R. BAR-ON şi J.D.A. PARKER (Eds.), The handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory,
development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in the workplace, San Francisco,
Jossey-Bas, 2000, p. 363–388.
4. BARSADE, S.G., GIBSON, D.E., Group emotion: A view from top and bottom, în D.H.
GRUENFELD, B. MANNIX şi M. NEALE (Eds.), Research on managing groups and teams:
Composition, 1, Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1998, p. 81–102.
5. BOYATZIS, R.E., GOLEMAN, D., RHEE, K., Clustering competence in emotional intelligence:
Insights from the Emotional Intelligence Inventory (ECI), în R. BAR-ON şi J.D.A. PARKER
(Eds.), The handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment and application
at home, school, and in the work place, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass, 2000, p. 343–362.
6. BOYATZIS, R.E., The competent manager: A model for effective performance, New York,
Wiley, 1982.
13 Un subiect neglijat în psihologia organizaţională: emoţia 249
32. STEELE, C.M., A rhreat in the air: How stereotypes shape intellectual identity and performance,
American Psychologist, 52, 1997, p. 613–629.
33. TJOSVOLD, D., TJOSVOLD, M., Cooperation, competition, and constructive controversy:
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1994, p. 119–144.
34. ZIPKIN, A., The wisdom of thoughtfulness, New York Times, p. C1, C10; 2000.
REZUMAT
Articolul de faţă îşi propune să răspundă la întrebarea „ce este inteligenţa emoţională şi care ar
fi rolul ei în organizaţii, la locul de muncă?” Se subliniază faptul că inteligenţa emoţională ajută la
promovarea unei performanţe superioare în muncă. Inteligenţa emoţională înglobează abilităţi care
implică controlul propriilor emoţii dar şi perceperea, recunoaşterea emoţiilor altora, fiind predictivă
pentru o performanţă superioară la locul de muncă. Cercetarea ultimilor 25 de ani a reliefat consecvent un
set de competenţe, precum încrederea în sine, iniţiativa şi lucrul în echipă care pot asigura perfor-
manţa în organizaţii.
PROFILUL FAMILIEI CU UN PĂRINTE CU SNC AFECTAT ACUT.
II. STUDIU EXPERIMENTAL
VIRGINIA ROTĂRESCU∗
Abstract
The study aims theoretically the special needs of families with a spinal cord/traumatic brain
injured parent through the identification of the post-traumatic changes in the family system. The
practical objective describes the pilot degree of functioning of the precocious prevention on psycho-
pathology as a long term effect for the children in these families.
Unlike the normal families, the injured patient families express the suffering of a troubled
system. The children in these families have a psychiatric risk through a grown tendency towards
internalization/externalization and total problems. The effects of the stressing event can decrease
through psychological counseling, the coping strategies become more efficient and the family’s
functionality and health get better.
Cuvinte-cheie: traumatism al sistemului nervos central, funcţionarea familiei, copii, sănătate
pe termen lung, prevenţie precoce.
Keywords: CNS injury, family functioning, children, long term health, precocious prevention.
∗
Spitalul Clinic de Urgenţă „Bagdasar-Arseni”, Secţia de Neurochirurgie I, Bucureşti.
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 251–264, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
252 Virginia Rotărescu 2
1.4. SUBIECŢII
Un număr de 116 familii, cu copii între 6–17 ani, se constituie în două loturi:
– lotul experimental – format din 58 de familii ale pacientului traumatizat
cranio-cerebral sau/şi vertebro-medular este concretizat în 58 de părinţi de suport şi
58 de copii.
254 Virginia Rotărescu 4
2. PREZENTAREA REZULTATELOR
Din punct de vedere al studiilor (χ2 = 62,69; p < 0,01), 7% dintre părinţi
aveau un nivel primar (1–4 clase), 12,1% nivel elementar (5–8 clase +/– şcoala
profesională), 69% un nivel mediu (liceu +/– studii postliceale) şi 17,2% nivel
superior (universitar +/– postuniversitar).
Copiii acestor familii au avut ca medie de vârstă 11,9 ani (DS = 3,47). După
poziţia în fratrie, 62,8% au reprezentat primul născut, 27,6% al doilea născut şi
8,6% al treilea născut din familie (χ2 = 30.72; p < 0.01). Toţi copiii locuiau împreună şi
erau îngrijiţi de către părinţii lor.
După traumatizarea unuia dintre părinţi, 31,2% dintre copii au fost preluaţi
de bunici, 18,6% de rude, 10,8 de către vecini şi prieteni iar 21,3% dintre copii
s-au îngrijit singuri de ei şi de fraţii lor.
2.1.2. Lotul de control
Lotul de control este format din 58 de familii normale (conform criteriilor de
clasificare), a însumat un număr de 174 de subiecţi: 116 părinţi şi 58 de copii.
Distribuţia în funcţie de gen a fost de 49% pentru masculin şi 51% pentru
feminin. Media de vârstă a lotului a fost de 29,7 ani (DS = 14,08), 30,7 ani pentru
masculin şi 28,8 ani pentru feminin. Taţii au avut media de vârstă de 40 de ani iar
mamele de 38 de ani. Pentru copii, „primul” şi „al doilea născut” au avut o medie
de vârstă de 11 ani iar „al treilea născut” de 12 ani. Distribuţia pe roluri a fost de
33% pentru taţi, 33% pentru mame şi 33% pentru copii din care, după poziţia în
fratrie, 66% „primul născut”, 24% „al doilea născut” şi 10% „al treilea născut” (χ2 =
67,49; p < 0,01). Din perspectiva educaţiei (χ2 = 9,43; p < 0,01), 21,6% dintre părinţii
de suport aveau un nivel elementar (5–8 clase +/– şcoală profesională), 33,6%
mediu (liceu +/– şcoală postliceală) şi 44,8% superior (universitar +/– post-
universitar). Angajaţi integral erau 85,3%, part-time 3,5%, privaţi 5,2%, neangajaţi/
pensionari 4,3% şi casnice 1,7% (χ2 = 479,48; p < 0,01).
Diferenţele între grupuri sunt notate pentru aspectele „rol în familie”, „nivel
de educaţie” şi „poziţia în muncă”. În lotul experimental sunt modificate aspectele
„rolul în familie” şi „poziţia în muncă”.
2.1.3. Psihodinamica traumatismului acut asupra SNC declanşată în
cadrul sistemului familial
Traumatizarea acută asupra SNC, a unuia dintre părinţi, determină o serie de
modificări care reorganizează, într-o manieră surprinzătoare, sistemul familial.
Curiozitatea care l-a determinat pe Cameron (Long Term, 2006) să facă
metaanaliza asupra efectelor pe termen lung a leziunilor SNC a fost formulată în
întrebarea „De ce persistă, şi după 50 de ani, folosirea în exces a serviciilor
medicale de către populaţia traumatizată faţă de cea generală?” argumentată prin
statistica prezentată.
Considerăm că studiul nostru ar putea să stea la baza răspunsului astfel încât
să ofere explicarea acestei nevoi excesive de servicii medicale.
258 Virginia Rotărescu 8
3. CONCLUZII
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London, Harcourt Brace & Co., 1996 (Second ed.).
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Cermaprint, 2005.
6. CONSTANTINOVICI, A., ADAM, D., Examinarea neurologică, Bucureşti, Holding Reporter,
1997, p. 9.
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82, 1988, p. 415–424.
13 Profilul familiei cu un părinte cu SNC afectat acut. II 263
8. EPSTEIN, M.H., NELSON, C.M., POLSGROVE, L., COUTINHO, M., CUMBLAD, C. &
QUINN, K., A comprehensive community-based aproach to serving students with emotional and
behavioral disorders, Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 1, 1993, p. 127–133.
9. EPSTEIN, N.B., BISHOP, D.S. & LEVIN, S., The McMaster Model of Family Functioning,
Journal of Marriage and Family Counseling, 1978.
10. EPSTEIN, N.B., BALDWIN, L.M., & BISHOP, D.S., The McMaster Family Assessment Device,
Journal of Family and Marital Therapy, 9, 1983, p. 171–180.
11. FREEMAN, C. & TYRER, P., Metode de cercetare în psihiatrie, Ghid pentru începători,
Bucureşti, Editura Fundaţiei PRO, 2001 (ediţia a II-a).
12. GORGOS, C., Dicţionar enciclopedic de psihiatrie, Bucureşti, Editura Medicală, I, 1987.
13. GRIGORIU-ŞERBĂNESCU, M., JOST, L., CHRISTODORESCU, D., NEDELCU, H., CANTILLI, L.,
Epidemiologia tulburărilor psihice şi neurologice la copii şi adolescenţi în România (Proiectul
CENTAUR), Revista română de psihiatrie, 1998.
14. HAGGERTY, R.J., Child health 2000: New pediatrics in the changing environment of children's
needs in the 21st century, Pediatrics, 96, 1995, p. 804– 812.
15. HAGGERTY, R.J., ROGHMANN, K. & PLESS, I.B., Child health and the community, New
York, Wiley and Sons, 1975.
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of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 7, 2000, p. 29–39.
17. KABACOFF, R.I., MILLER, I.W., BISHOP, D.S., EPSTEIN, N.B. & KEITNER, G.I., A psycho-
metric study of the McMaster Family Assessment Device in psychiatric, medical, and nonclinical
samples, Journal of Family Psychology, 3, 4, 1990, p. 431–439.
18. KELLEHER, K.J., MCINERNY, T.K., GARDNER, W.P., CHILDS, G.E. & WASSERMAN, R.C.,
Increasing identification of psychosocial problems: 1979–1996. Pediatrics, 105, 2000, p. 1313–1321.
19. LUNGU, O., Ghid introductiv pentru SPSS 10.0. Seria psihologie experimentală şi aplicată, Iaşi,
S.C. „EROTA TIPO” S.R.L., 2001.
20. McCUBBIN, H.I., OLSON, D.H., LARSEN, A.S., CORCORAN, K. & FISCHER, J., Measures
for clinical practice: A sourcebook, N.Y., 2000 (3rd ed).
21. ONOSE, G., ROTĂRESCU, V., ANGHELESCU, A., ONOSE, L., CHENDREANU, C., CIUREA,
A.V., Aspects of psychomorbidity and outcomes of precocious psychological prophylactic
intervention in families of patients with post nevraxial traumatic severe status, Infomedica, 144,
2, 2008, anul XV, p. 35–41.
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system: A public health perspective, Archives of General Psychiatry, 35, 1978, p. 685–693.
23. ROTĂRESCU, V., MILEA, ŞT., OANCEA, C., POPA-MIHALACHE, E., The profile of the
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de psihologie, 3–4, 2006 a, p. 123–134.
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Study), în ANIŢEI, M., POPA, M., MINCU, C.L., PAP, A.M. (editori coord.), Lucrările Conferinţei
Centenarul psihologiei la Universitatea din Bucureşti, 26–29 octombrie 2006, Bucureşti, Editura
Universităţii din Bucureşti, 2006 b, p. 891–903.
25. ROTĂRESCU, V., MILEA, ŞT., CIUREA, A.V., Quality of Life in Family with a Parent Central
Nervous Sistem Injured, în ANIŢEI, M., POPA, M., MINCU, C.L., PAP, A.M. (editori coord.),
Lucrările Conferinţei Centenarul psihologiei la Universitatea din Bucureşti, 26–29 octombrie
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26. ROTARIU, T. (coord.), BĂDESCU, G., CULIC, I., MEZEI, E., MUREŞAN, C., Metode
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Napoca, Editura ASCR, 2004.
264 Virginia Rotărescu 14
REZUMAT
Studiul îşi propune, la nivel teoretic, să surprindă nevoile specifice apărute în familiile cu un
părinte traumatizat vertebro-medular/cranio-cerebral prin identificarea modificărilor survenite în
sistemul familial după intervenţia evenimentului traumatic. Obiectivul practic descrie stadiul pilot de
funcţionare a intervenţiei de prevenţie precoce asupra psihopatologiei, ca efect pe termen lung, la care
sunt expuşi copiii acestor familii.
Familiile pacienţilor traumatizaţi exprimă suferinţele unui sistem tulburat cu tendinţa către
redresare. Copiii acestor familii prezintă un risc psihiatric printr-o psihopatologie. Prin consilierea
psihologică se diminuează efectele evenimentului stresant, strategiile de coping devin mai eficiente,
funcţionalitatea şi sănătatea familiilor sunt îmbunătăţite iar evoluţia pacientului este către diminuarea
solicitării în exces a serviciilor medicale.
IMPLICAŢIILE STĂRILOR DEPRESIVE
ASUPRA PATOLOGIEI SOMATICE
Abstract
Depressive disorder is prevalent in pacients with somatical diseases as cancer. In fact, any
chronic disease or long-drawn recuperation can develop depressive disorders, just as some medication
or treatments.
Studies has shown that when depressive disorder is treated in an efficient way on pacients with
serious somatical disease, this impoves the prognostic of the others diseases and the pacient adaptation to
the treatment.
Somatical diseases could predispose to the appearance of depression and vice versa, also
common causes, genetics or of environment, could predispose the individual to both of them.
Pacients with serious somatical diseases have additional risc factors for the appearance of
depression which comes from the period of necessary treatment of the somatical disease, the severity
of this being directly proportional to the intensity of depression.
Consequences of cancer and medical treatment could appear in time on medical side,
psychological, social, occupational and sexual. After the initial adaptation to diagnosis and treatment,
women psychosocialy shake down to new conditions better in the first or second year after the finish
of the medical cure. Still, there are cases of anxiety and depression generated of fear or disease
supposed to be awful, or about the prevalent fear of the appearance of a new tumor or reappearance of
one.
Cuvinte-cheie: depresie, cancer, stres, terapie, tratament.
Keywords: depression, cancer, stress, therapy, treatment (cure).
1. INTRODUCERE
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 265–272, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
266 Loreta Magdalena Popa 2
Frica de durere este aproape printre cele mai comune temeri ale pacienţilor cu
cancer şi este probabil cel mai important factor în declanşarea simptomelor depresive.
15% din pacienţii cu durere au avut simptome de tulburare depresivă gravă.
La pacienţii cu cancer, durerea acută este adesea asociată cu tratamentul, în
timp ce durerea cronică tinde să fie asociată cu studiul final al bolii. Simptomele
psihice la aceşti pacienţi trebuie să fie considerate mai întâi ca şi consecinţă a
durerii necontrolate. Anumiţi pacienţi cu cancer au anumite simptome de depresie
care totuşi nu se încadrează în criteriul de tulburare cu depresie majoră.
active ale bolii, boală avansată, handicap sau disconfort mediu spre grav, izolare
socială, pierderi recente/experienţe traumatizante recente, tendinţa de pesimism
exagerat, prezenţa durerii necontrolate, alcoolism sau abuz de substanţe/droguri,
istoric de schimbări bruşte de dispoziţie, tentative de suicid.
2.4. SIMPTOMATOLOGIE
3. CONSIDERAŢII DE MANAGEMENT
4. TRATAMENT PSIHOLOGIC
Tabelul nr. 1
Criterii Deloc Uneori Moderat Mult %
Descurajare 14 25 28 33 100
Stimă de sine scăzută 12 27 32 29 100
Culpă 5 20 52 23 100
Inferioritate 7 19 44 30 100
Indecizie 10 15 37 38 100
Pierderea interesului pentru viaţă 6 35 29 30 100
Iritabilitate 2 48 30 20 100
Scăderea motivaţiei 3 14 41 39 100
Modificarea negativă a imaginii de sine 5 11 62 22 100
Schimbări de apetit 10 26 47 17 100
Tulburări de somn 2 17 78 3 100
Probleme legate de sex 1 32 26 41 100
Preocupări privind starea de sănătate 0 23 48 29 100
Impulsuri suicidare 52 21 19 8 100
Punctaj total 129 333 573 362
Tabelul nr. 2
Scala nivelului de depresie
Scala de referinţă Procentaj
Absenţa depresiei 9%
Normal 4%
Depresie uşoară 20%
Depresie moderată 38%
Depresie severă 29%
Depresie moderată
38%
Tabelul nr. 3
Tulburare Procentaj
Depresie 38%
Anxietate 39%
Atac de panică 28%
6. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. BASSETT, L., From panic to power, London, Editura Harper Perennial, 1997.
2. BORDEA, C.I., Factori de agresivitate în cancerul glandei mamare, Bucureşti, Teză de doctorat,
Biblioteca Facultăţii de Medicină „Carol Davila”, 2005.
3. DUMITRAŞCU, D., Medicina psihosomatică, Bucureşti, Editura Universul, 1993.
4. IAMANDESCU, I.B., Elemente de psihosomatică generală şi aplicată, Bucureşti, Editura
Infomedica, 1999.
5. IAMANDESCU, I.B., Stresul psihic şi bolile interne, Bucureşti, Editura Infomedica, 2001.
6. IAMANDESCU, I.B., Stresul psihic din perspectivă psihologică şi psihosomatică, Bucureşti,
Editura Infomedica, 2000.
7. IAMANDESCU, I.B., Stresul psihic, Bucureşti, Editura Infomedica, 2002.
8. IAMANDESCU, I.B., Dimensiunile psihologice ale actului chirurgical, Editura Infomedica,
Bucureşti, 2000.
9. IAMANDESCU, I.B., Psihologia sănătăţii, Bucureşti, Editura Infomedica, 2005.
10. IONESCU, A., Factori de risc în cancerul mamar, Bucureşti, Teză de doctorat, Biblioteca
Facultăţii de Medicină „Carol Davila”, 2004.
11. IONESCU, G., Psihoterapia, Bucureşti, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 1990.
272 Loreta Magdalena Popa 8
12. MARIN, A., Tulburarea anxioasă generalizată – Aspecte clinice şi sociale. Implicaţii, Bucureşti,
Teză de doctorat, Biblioteca Facultăţii de Medicină „Carol Davila”, 2003.
13. MÂRSU PĂUN, C., Cum faci faţă, Tita Chiper de vorbă cu Coralia Mârsu, Bucureşti, Rev.
Avantaje, 1997.
14. PELTECU, GH. ş.a., Tratamentul conservator al cancerului mamar incipient, Bucureşti, Editura
Universitară „Carol Davila”, 2004.
15. PEURIFOY, R., Anxiety, Phobias and Panic, New York, Editura Warner Books, 1995.
16. POPA, P.L., Studiul implicaţiilor factorilor psihologici în etiopatogenia plurifactorială a cancerului
mamar. Contribuţii psihoterapeutice, Bucureşti, Teză de doctorat, Biblioteca Facultăţii de Medicină
„Carol Davila”, 2010.
17. ROMILĂ, A., Psihiatrie, Bucureşti, Editura Academică, 2004.
18. VELEA, S., Comorbidităţi somatice şi psihiatrice în depresie, Bucureşti, Teză de doctorat,
Biblioteca Facultăţii de Medicină „Carol Davila”, 2000.
REZUMAT
Tulburarea depresivă este prevalentă la pacienţii cu boli somatice de tipul cancerului. De fapt,
orice boală cronică sau recuperare prelungită poate precipita tulburări depresive, la fel ca şi unele
medicamente sau tratamente.
Studiile au arătat că atunci când tulburarea depresivă e tratată eficient la pacienţii cu boală
somatică gravă, acest lucru îmbunătăţeste pronosticul celorlalte boli şi complianţa pacientului la
tratament.
Bolile somatice pot predispune la apariţia depresiei şi viceversa iar cauze comune, genetice ori
de mediu, pot predispune individul la amândouă.
Pacienţii cu boli somatice grave au factori de risc suplimentari pentru apariţia depresiei ce
derivă din timpul de tratament necesar bolii somatice, severitatea acesteia fiind direct proporţională cu
intensitatea depresiei.
Consecinţele cancerului şi tratamentului pot să apară în timp pe latura medicală, dar şi
psihologică, socială, ocupaţională, sexuală. După adaptarea iniţială la diagnostic şi tratament, femeile
se adaptează psihosocial în general bine, în primul sau al doilea an după terminarea tratamentului.
Sunt totuşi cazuri de anxietate şi depresie generate de frica de boală socotită înspăimântătoare sau de
teama predominantă de apariţie a unei noi tumori sau recidive.
CRITICĂ ŞI BIBLIOGRAFIE
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 273–278, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
274 Critică şi bibliografie 2
însă perspectiva din care au fost abordate aceste subiecte, metaforic exprimată de
către autori ca „sociologie întrupată, sociologie în carne şi oase” (p. 39). Pe lângă
aceste subiecte atrag atenţia probleme etico-sociale precum transplantul sau tortura
deţinuţilor şi a prizonierilor de război.
Arta românească şi universală nu este nici ea neglijată. Ileana Pintilie şi
Costel Cioancă privesc arta ca fiind rezultatul influenţei societăţii şi a valorilor
sale. Producţiile culturale sunt pentru aceştia expresia acelui Zeitgeist – concept
creat de către Voltaire şi dezvoltat de către Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel. În
concepţiile lui Hegel şi Voltaire aceste producţii culturale nu pot transcende „spiritul
vremii”, ba chiar mai mult sunt în acord cu valorile şi cunoştinţele umanităţii la
momentul în care acestea au fost realizate.
Partea a doua a cărţii devine savuroasă şi mult mai uşoară de citit. Rigiditatea
primei părţi a lucrării este abandonată în favoarea unei scriituri plăcute. Theodora-
Eliza Văcărescu, în deschiderea celei de-a doua părţi, realizează un interviu cu
profesorul Zoltán Rostás. Tema interviului este cu totul inovatoare, la fel şi
gândurile exprimate de către intervievat în paginile lucrării. Avem de-a face cu un
Zoltán Rostás încorsetat de „rolul de bolnav”1 dar eliberat, în final, printr-o voinţă
aparent supraumană. Zoltán Rostás lasă să se înţeleagă că boala nu a fost numai un
eveniment tragic în viaţa sa, ci un moment de cotitură din care se pot extrage o
serie de învăţături. Optimismul intervievatului ar reabilita şi cel mai depresiv pacient şi
ar putea da imbold multor suferinzi de aceeaşi boală, aflaţi la limita răbdării.
Fotbalul feminin, o temă despre care s-a scris foarte puţin poate şi datorită
faptului că nu exista până la momentul apariţiei acestei lucrări o perspectivă de
explicare aşa cum a fost propusă de către sociologia corpului (practicantele
fotbalului văd acest sport ca pe o modalitate de dezvoltare a corpului şi a propriei
personalităţi spre deosebire de cei din jur care le privesc ca pe nişte „ciudate”, fără
a avea capacitatea de a înţelege fenomenul), apare în partea a doua a acestei lucrări.
Însă, considerăm că una dintre cele mai interesante cercetări introduse în cea de-a
doua parte a lucrării este „Primineli şi sulimanuri: despre igienă şi modernitate”.
Studiul acesta este realizat de către un istoric într-o manieră care nu lasă impresia
unei lipse de rigurozitate sociologică. Titlul capitolului poate fi greu de înţeles având în
vedere că are în compoziţie două arhaisme. O explicare a ceea ce conţine cercetarea
este absolut necesară. Constanţa Vintilă-Ghiţulescu, aşa se numeşte autoarea
cercetării, îşi propune să surprindă din punct de vedere sociologic care au fost
schimbările ce s-au produs în spaţiul social românesc în ceea ce priveşte igiena,
frumuseţea precum şi în „standardele etice” ce ţin de modurile de înfrumuseţare.
Veţi rămâne cu siguranţă captivaţi de modul în care se făcea curăţirea corpului în
secolele trecute, care era îmbrăcămintea boierilor români şi a oamenilor de rând, ce
1
Concept lansat de către Talcott Parsons în 1951 în lucrarea The Social System. Parsons spune
că boala implică o disfuncţionalitate fizică dar are şi numeroase implicaţii din perspectiva socială
(scutirea bolnavului de responsabiltăţile rolului lui social, acceptarea/respingerea de către cei din jur etc.).
278 Critică şi bibliografie 6
Constantin-Ovidiu Craiu
IN MEMORIAM
TATIANA SLAMA-CAZACU
(25 ianuarie 1920 – 6 aprilie 2011)
Miercuri, 6 aprilie 2011, în vârstă de 91 de ani, s-a stins din viaţă prof. univ.
dr. docent Tatiana Slama-Cazacu, personalitate de prim rang a ştiinţei şi psihologiei
româneşti. Dispariţia sa reprezintă o grea şi irecuperabilă pierdere pentru ştiinţă şi
pentru toţi cei care au cunoscut-o şi au apreciat-o pentru multiplele sale calităţi şi
trăsături umane inegalabile puse în slujba învăţământului şi cercetării româneşti.
Prof. dr. Tatiana Slama-Cazacu s-a născut în Bucureşti la data de 25 ianuarie
1920 din părinţii George Slama de profesie avocat şi Maria Constantinescu.
Studiile medii şi le-a făcut în Bucureşti la liceul „Domniţa Elena”, iar pe cele
superioare la Facultatea de Litere şi Filosofie a Universităţii din Bucureşti, unde a
obţinut licenţe în litere, filozofie, psihologie, filologie modernă. După o serie de
dificultăţi create de reprezentanţii regimului comunist a reuşit să susţină teza de
doctorat în psihologie cu tema Limbaj şi context în anul 1966. Câţiva ani mai târziu
a obţinut titlul de doctor docent în ştiinţe pentru activitate îndelungată de mare
valoare, cu contribuţii de seamă la progresul ştiinţei. În primii ani după absolvirea
facultăţii a lucrat în învăţământul mediu. Din anul 1949 până în 1952 a fost asistent
universitar la Facultatea de Psihologie a Universităţii din Bucureşti, de unde a fost
scoasă din motive politice: tatăl său, avocat liberal, fusese arestat.
Între anii 1954 şi 1968 a lucrat în cercetarea ştiinţifică la Institutul de Psihologie
al Academiei Române. A fost şef al laboratorului de psihologia limbajului şi apoi
şef al secţiei de psihologie generală. Din anul 1968 s-a transferat la Facultatea de
Litere a Universităţii din Bucureşti, unde, în calitate de profesor universitar, a
predat în premieră cursuri de psiholingvistică şi lingvistică aplicată, înfiinţând,
totodată, primul laborator de psiholingvistică din România. În anul 1969 a obţinut
dreptul de a conduce doctorate în psihologie şi ceva mai târziu în lingvistică.
Activitatea profesională a Tatianei Slama-Cazacu s-a împletit strâns cu
activitatea marilor personalităţi ale psihologiei româneşti în eforturile lor de a
reconstrui psihologia ştiinţifică în ţara noastră pe baza unor principii filozofice noi.
Împreună cu acad. Mihai Ralea, prof. univ. dr. Gh. Zapan, dr. C. Botez, dr. Traian
Herseni, prof. univ. dr. Ursula Şchiopu ş.a., Tatiana Slama-Cazacu a participat activ la
construirea şi fundamentarea sistemului de instituţii psihologice reprezentative pe plan
naţional, eforturile sale organizatorice fiind foarte importante. Tatiana Slama-Cazacu a
fost membră fondatoare a Asociaţiei Psihologilor din România, mulţi ani îndeplinind în
cadrul acesteia funcţia de secretar general. A contribuit, de asemenea, la înfiinţarea
Rev. Psih., vol. 57, nr. 3, p. 279–283, Bucureşti, iulie – septembrie 2011
280 In memoriam 2