Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
INGINERIE ELECTRICĂ
SI ELECTRONICĂ
Marian GRECONICI
- 2016 / 2017 -
Science and Engineering
(Albert Einstein)
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 2
NOTIUNI INTRODUCTIVE
Q dQ [C ]
e - i lim [ A]
v
E t 0 t dt [ s]
i
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 11
Potenţialul electric. Tensiunea electrică
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 13
Legea lui Ohm
Fie o porţiune de conductă de lungime l, secţiune constantă ΔS,
parcursă de curentul i sub acţiunea tensiunii U=V1-V2.
i
i
J i J dS J S J
E S
dS V2 S
dl J - densitatea curentului
(C) U J E legea conducţiei
σ- conductivitatea [S/m]
i
V1 1
rezistivitatea [Ωm]
J dl
U V1 V 2 E dl dl i iR
C C
C
S
l
dl l
R rezistenţa conductei [Ω] R
S S S
C
1 conductanţa [S]
G
R
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 15
Variaţia rezistivităţii cu temperatura
La conductoare variaţia rezistivităţii cu temperatura poate fi exprimată într-o
primă aproximare în forma:
0 1 0
MATERIAL [ m] MATERIAL [ m]
Aluminiu (0,028-0,03) 10-6 Plumb 0,21 10-6
Rezolvare:
U d 2
l
RS
d 2R
1.4 Km
R 1 S
I 4 4
Rezolvare:
Rezistorul ideal
Rezistorul ideal este un element ideal de circuit, caracterizat prin rezistenţa R,
la bornele căruia este valabilă legea lui Ohm:
1 1
i i
UR iR
R
R R R
uR uR
2 2
Rezistenţa corpului omenesc la atingerea unui corp sub tensiune este între 40-
100 KΩ, dar poate să ajungă până la 500 KΩ.
Electrocutarea, numită şi şocul electric, reprezintă trecerea unui curent electric
prin corpul omului când acesta este supus unei diferenţe de potenţial (unei
tensiuni electrice).
Gravitatea electrocutării depinde în cea mai mare parte de valoarea curentului
electric Iom ce se stabileşte prin organismul uman.
În cazul electrocutării, corpul omului se comportă ca o rezistenţă electrică supusă
unei tensiuni electrice în urma căreia se stabileşte curentul Iom:
U om
I om
R om
S Conductor de fază
Conductor de nul
Siguranţe calibrate
Conductor de
nul de lucru
Ua
Priză cu
Conductor de protecţie
nul de protecţie
Ip
Priză de
pământ de 4 Ω
VA i R2 VA i
R3
Ub R4 R5 Ub Re
R1 Ub V A V B
Re
R6 i i
VB R7 VB
UR1 UR2
u b u R1 u R 2 i R1 R2 i Re
u R1 i R1 Ub Ub
u R2 i R2
u b i R1 R2 u b i Re
Re R1 R 2
R
n
Generalizând:: R e R1 R 2 ... R n k
k 1
Dacă:: R1 R2 ... Rn R Re n R
Rezistența echivalentă în cazul conectării serie este mai mare decât cea mai
mare dintre rezistențele înseriate.
n
1 1 1 1 1
Generalizând:: ...
R e R1 R 2 Rn k 1 Rk
Dacă:: R1 R2 ... Rn R Re
R
n
Rezistența echivalentă în cazul conectării paralel este mai mică decât cea
mai mică dintre rezistențele conectate în paralel.
i1
i R1 R2 i R1 Rp i Re
i2
Ub Ub Ub
R3
R 2 R3 R 2 R3
Rp R e R1 R p R1
R 2 R3 R 2 R3
i i2 R2 i i2 i
i1 i1
Ub R1 R3 Ub R1 Rs Ub Re
R1 R s R R R3
R s R 2 R3 Re 1 2
R1 R s R1 R 2 R3
+Q -Q Q Q
V1 V2 S C
V1 V 2 U
ee0er +Q
+Q -Q uC
-Q
U
d
+Q -Q
eS
S C
d
ee0er e e0er permitivitatea electrică a mediului
1
e0 F m permitivitatea electrică a vidului
U 4 S 10 3
MATERIAL Ed [KV/cm] εr
Aer 30 1.0006
Polistiren 50 – 70 2.5
Rășină 20 - 70 2.5 - 8
d uc
i i iC
dt
uC 1
t
uc t i d t uc 0
C0
uC t
uc 0 0
1
uc t id t
C0
1 1 2 1 Q2
Wc Q u c u c C
2 2 2 C
A C1 C3 A
C2 C4
UAB C5 UAB +Qe Ce
C6 C8 -Qe
C7
B C9 B
Q1 C 1 U +Q1 Ce
C1 +Q2 C2 +Qe
U U
Q2 C 2 U -Q1 -Q2 -Qe
Q Q1 Q 2
Q e U C1 C 2 Qe U C e
C e C1 C 2
C
n
Generalizând:: C e C 1 C 2 ... C n k
k 1
Dacă:: C1 C 2 ... C n C Ce nC
Qe Qe U1 U2 U
C1 U1 +Q1 -Q1 +Q2 -Q2 +Qe -Qe
U1 C1
U C1 C2 U Ce
Qe Qe
C2 U2
U2 C2
U U 1 U 2 1 1 Qe
U Qe U
C1 C 2
1 1 1
Ce
C1 C 2
Ce C e C1 C 2
C1 C 2
C
n
1 1 1 1 1
...
Generalizând:: C e C1 C 2 Cn k 1 k
Dacă:: C1 C 2 ... C n C Ce
C
n
C1 C1 Cp Ce
U U U
C3
C1 C p C1 C 2 C 3
C p C2 C3 Ce
C1 C p C1 C 2 C 3
C2
U C1 C3 U U Ce
C1 Cs
C2 C3 C2 C3
Cs C e C1 C s C1
C2 C3 C2 C3
C3 C1 Cp
U Qe Ce
U U
UC3
C4 C4
Q4 Q4
I I
H H B
2 r
dS α
dS
B 0 H
H 0 4 10 7 H m
B dS
S
B d S cos [Wb]
S
S
BS
L [H ]
B i
B S
i
N N
I
H S
H
I I l
Ni
H
l
Ni
BH
l
L LN
i i
N2S N2S
L 0 r
l l
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 39
Daca exprimăm curentul în funcție de tensiunea bobinei:
1
i
L
u L dt
di
p u L i Li [W ]
dt
di 1
W C p dt L i dt L i di L i 2 [ J ]
dt 2
F E
A D
A D
B C
B C
1
i=is ub
is
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 46
Prima teoremă a lui Kirchhoff
Prima teoremă a lui Kirchhoff se referă la nodurile unei reţele electrice.
i1 i1
i2 i2
dS
i5
i3
i5 i3
i 0 i4
i4
i
n
Generalize: k 0
k 1
i
n
Generalize: k 0
k 1
i1 i 4 i 2 i 3 i 5
2
R1 U2 U1 U 2 U 3 U 4 U 5 0
U1 ui1 i1
i2
1 R2 O primă formă a celei de a doua teoreme a
U5 ui2 lui Kirchhoff se enunță astfel: suma
algebrică a tensiunilor la borne ale laturilor
R5
ug3 3 unui ochi de reţea este zero.
i5
5
U3 Tensiunea la bornele laturilor este pozitivă
R4
ui4
i4 is3 dacă are acelaşi sens cu sensul de referinţă
U4 4 al ochiului considerat de-a lungul curbei
închise, şi negativ în caz contrar.
U5 ui2
U
k( O )
k 0
R5 3
ug3 U1 U 2 U 3 U 4 U 5 0
i5
U3
5
i4 is3
R4
U4 ui4
4
N=3, l=5
i 1 i 2 i 3 i 4 0
i3
R2=2Ω i 3 i 4 i 5 0
ui3 R3
III R3=3Ω i 2 R 2 u i 1
i1 i4 R4=4Ω i R i R i R u
A 2 2 4 4 5 5
C i5
R4 R5=5Ω i 3 R 3 i 4 R 4 u i 3
I R2 II
R5 ui1=20V
ui1
i2
ui3=12V
ui5=5V i1=11.213A
B ui5 i5 i2=-10A
i3=-1.021A
i4=2.234A
i5=-1.213A
iλ
Ubλ
LATURA LATURA
i ACTIVA i PASIVA Rλ
Ub Ub
R R uiλ
the direction for Ub the direction for Ub
is opposite with the is the same with the Ubλ
direction for i direction for i
ui ui k+1
A : u b u i i R
P : u b u i i R
i i i i 2
R
( A i ) ( Pi ) 1
i R
U ui r i R
U ui
rR
Cu cât rezistența internă a sursei este mai mică, sursa de tensiune este mai
bună.
2016/2017 Fundamente de Inginerie Electrica 56
Sursă reală de curent
O sursă reală de tensiune cu o rezistență internă foarte mare, satisface:
ui u
i i
rR r
i R I s i r
r
real source i is
Rr
U R
U r
i Is i is
r Rr
ui
r rg
U ui i r U I s rg i rg
u i I s rg
i i i
i1 i2
R1 R2 R1 R2 R
U U R U U
Is1 Is2 Is
ui1 ui2 ui
u i1 ui2 I s I s1 I s 2 u i ( I s1 I s 2 ) R
n I s1 I s2
Ge G
R1 R2
R 1 2
R R
1 R1 R 2
n
u i G u i1 u i 2 R1 R 2
u i ( I s1 I s 2 ) R
u i1 R 2 u i 2 R1 u i1G1 u i 2G 2
ui 1
R1 R 2 R1 R 2 R R G1 G 2
Ge 1 2
G G1 G2 1 1
G1 G2
R1 R2
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 60
Alessandro Antonio Volta (1745–1827), an Italian
physicist, invented the electric battery—which
provided the first continuous flow of electricity—
and the capacitor.
Born into a noble family in Como, Italy, Volta was
performing electrical experiments at age 18. His
invention of the battery in 1796 revolutionized the
use of electricity. The publication of his work in
1800 marked the beginning of electric circuit
The Burndy Library Collection
at The Huntington Library,
theory. Volta received many honors during his
San Marino, California. lifetime. The unit of voltage or potential difference,
the volt, was named in his honor.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 61
Karl Ferdinand Braun and Vladimir K. Zworykin
Karl Ferdinand Braun (1850–1918), of the
University of Strasbourg, invented the Braun
cathode-ray tube in 1879. This then became the
basis for the picture tube used for so many years for
televisions. It is still the most economical device
today, although the price of flat-screen systems is
rapidly becoming competitive. Before the Braun
tube could be used in television, it took the
inventiveness of Vladimir K. Zworykin (1889–
1982) to develop the iconoscope so that the modern
Zworykin with an iconoscope.
© Bettmann/Corbis. television would become a reality. The iconoscope
developed into the orthicon and the image orthicon,
which allowed images to be captured and converted
into signals that could be sent to the television
receiver. Thus, the television camera was born.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 62
Georg Simon Ohm (1787–1854), a German
physicist, in 1826 experimentally determined the
most basic law relating voltage and current for a
resistor. Ohm’s work was initially denied by
critics.
Born of humble beginnings in Erlangen, Bavaria,
Ohm threw himself into electrical research. His
efforts resulted in his famous law. He was awarded
the Copley Medal in 1841 by the Royal Society of
London. In 1849, he was given the Professor of
Physics chair by the University of Munich. To
honor him, the unit of resistance was named the
ohm.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 63
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887), a
German physicist, stated two basic laws in 1847
concerning the relationship between the currents
and voltages in an electrical network. Kirchhoff’s
laws, along with Ohm’s law, form the basis of
circuit theory. Born the son of a lawyer in
Konigsberg, East Prussia, Kirchhoff entered the
University of Konigsberg at age 18 and later
became a lecturer in Berlin. His collaborative
work in spectroscopy with German chemist
Robert Bunsen led to the discovery of cesium in
1860 and rubidium in 1861. Kirchhoff was also
credited with the Kirchhoff law of radiation. Thus
Kirchhoff is famous among engineers, chemists,
and physicists.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 64
Thomas Alva Edison (1847–1931) was perhaps the greatest American inventor. He
patented 1093 inventions, including such history-making inventions as the
incandescent electric bulb, the phonograph, and the first commercial motion pictures.
Most of his inventions came out of this laboratory. His laboratory served as a model
for modern research organizations. Because of his diverse interests and the
overwhelming number of his inventions and patents, Edison began to establish
manufacturing companies for making the devices he invented. He designed the first
electric power station to supply electric light. Formal electrical engineering
education began in the mid-1880s with Edison as a role model and leader.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 65
William Schockley (1910–1989), John Bardeen (1908–1991), and Walter Brattain
(1902–1987) co-invented the transistor.
Nothing has had a greater impact on the transition from the “Industrial Age” to the
“Age of the Engineer” than the transistor. I am sure that Dr. Shockley, Dr. Bardeen,
and Dr. Brattain had no idea they would have this incredible effect on our history.
While working at Bell Laboratories, they successfully demonstrated the point-contact
transistor, invented by Bardeen and Brattain in 1947, and the junction transistor,
which Shockley conceived in 1948 and successfully produced in 1951.
It is interesting to note that the idea of the field-effect
transistor, the most commonly used one today, was first
conceived in 1925–1928 by J. E. Lilienfeld, a German
immigrant to the United States. This is evident from his patents
of what appears to be a field-effect transistor. Unfortunately,
the technology to realize this device had to wait until 1954
when Shockley’s field-effect transistor became a reality. Just
think what today would be like if we had this transistor 30
Courtesy of Lucent
Technologies/Bell Labs years earlier!
For their contributions to the creation of the transistor, Dr. Shockley, Dr. Bardeen, and
Dr. Brattain received, in 1956, the Nobel Prize in physics. It should be noted that Dr.
Bardeen is the only individual to win two Nobel prizes in physics; the second came
later for work in superconductivity at the University of Illinois.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 66
Michael Faraday (1791–1867), an English
chemist and physicist, was probably the greatest
experimentalist who ever lived.
Born near London, Faraday realized his boyhood
dream by working with the great chemist Sir
Humphry Davy at the Royal Institution, where he
worked for 54 years. He made several
contributions in all areas of physical science and
coined such words as electrolysis, anode, and
cathode. His discovery of electromagnetic
induction in 1831 was a major breakthrough in
The Burndy Library Collection
at The Huntington Library, engineering because it provided a way of
San Marino, California.
generating electricity. The electric motor and
generator operate on this principle. The unit of
capacitance, the farad, was named
in his honor.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 67
Joseph Henry (1797–1878), an American
physicist, discovered inductance and constructed an
electric motor.
Born in Albany, New York, Henry graduated from
Albany Academy and taught philosophy at
Princeton University from 1832 to 1846. He was
the first secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. He
conducted several experiments on
electromagnetism and developed powerful
electromagnets that could lift objects weighing
thousands of pounds. Interestingly, Joseph Henry
discovered electromagnetic induction before
Faraday but failed to publish his findings. The unit
of inductance, the
henry, was named after him.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 68
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943) and George Westinghouse (1846–
1914) helped establish alternating current as the primary mode
of electricity transmission and distribution.
Today it is obvious that ac generation is well established as the
form of electric power that makes widespread distribution of
electric power efficient and economical. However, at the end
of the 19th century, which was the better—ac or dc—was hotly
debated and had extremely outspoken supporters on both sides.
The dc side was lead by Thomas Edison, who had earned a lot
of respect for his many contributions. Power generation using
ac really began to build after the successful contributions of
Tesla. The real commercial success in ac came from George
George Westinghouse. Photo
© Bettmann/Corbis Westinghouse and the outstanding team, including Tesla, he
assembled. In addition, two other big names were C. F. Scott
and B. G. Lamme.
The most significant contribution to the early success of ac
was the patenting of the polyphase ac motor by Tesla in 1888.
The induction motor and polyphase generation and distribution
systems doomed the use of dc as the prime energy source.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 69
Heinrich Rudorf Hertz (1857–1894), a German experimental
physicist, demonstrated that electromagnetic waves obey the
same fundamental laws as light. His work confirmed James
Clerk Maxwell’s celebrated 1864 theory and prediction that
such waves existed.
Hertz was born into a prosperous family in Hamburg,
Germany.
He attended the University of Berlin and did his doctorate
under the prominent physicist Hermann von Helmholtz. He
became a professor at Karlsruhe, where he began his quest for
electromagnetic waves. Hertz successfully generated and
detected electromagnetic waves; he was the first to show that
The Burndy Library Collection
at The Huntington Library, light is electromagnetic energy. In 1887, Hertz noted for the
San Marino, California.
first time the photoelectric effect of electrons in a molecular
structure. Although Hertz only lived to the age of 37, his
discovery of electromagnetic waves paved the way for the
practical use of such waves in radio, television, and other
communication systems. The unit of frequency, the hertz, bears
his name.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 70
Charles Proteus Steinmetz (1865–1923), a German-Austrian
mathematician and engineer, introduced the phasor method
(covered in this chapter) in ac circuit analysis. He is also noted for
his work on the theory of hysteresis.
Steinmetz was born in Breslau, Germany, and lost his mother at
the age of one. As a youth, he was forced to leave Germany
because of his political activities just as he was about to complete
his doctoral dissertation in mathematics at the University of
Breslau. He migrated to Switzerland and later to the United States,
where he was employed by General Electric in 1893. That same
year, he published a paper in which complex numbers were used
to analyze ac circuits for the first time. This led to one of his many
textbooks, Theory and Calculation of ac Phenomena, published by
McGraw-Hill in 1897. In 1901, he became the president of the
American Institute of Electrical Engineers, which later became the
IEEE.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 71
Nikola Tesla (1856–1943) was a Croatian-American engineer
whose inventions—among them the induction motor and the
first polyphase ac power system—greatly influenced the
settlement of the ac versus dc debate in favor of ac. He was also
responsible for the adoption of 60 Hz as the standard for ac
power systems in the United States.
Born in Austria-Hungary (now Croatia), to a clergyman, Tesla
had an incredible memory and a keen affinity for mathematics.
He moved to the United States in 1884 and first worked for
Thomas Edison. At that time, the country was in the “battle of
the currents” with George Westinghouse (1846–1914)
promoting ac and Thomas Edison rigidly leading the dc forces.
Courtesy Smithsonian Institution Tesla left Edison and joined Westinghouse because of his
interest in ac. Through Westinghouse, Tesla gained the
reputation and acceptance of his polyphase ac generation,
transmission, and distribution system. He held 700 patents in
his lifetime. His other inventions include high-voltage
apparatus (the tesla coil) and a wireless transmission system.
The unit of magnetic flux density, the tesla, was named in
honor of him.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 72
James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879), a graduate in
mathematics from Cambridge University, in 1865
wrote a most remarkable paper in which he
mathematically unified the laws of Faraday and
Ampere. This relationship between the electric field
and magnetic field served as the basis for what was
later called electromagnetic fields and waves, a major
© Bettmann/Corbis
field of study in electrical engineering. The Institute
of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) uses a
graphical representation of this principle in its logo,
in which a straight arrow represents current and a
curved arrow represents the electromagnetic field.
This relationship is commonly known as the right-
hand rule. Maxwell was a very active theoretician
and scientist. He is best known for the “Maxwell
equations.” The maxwell, a unit of magnetic flux,
© Bettmann/Corbis
was named after him.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 73
Alexander Graham Bell (1847–1922) inventor of the
telephone, was a Scottish-American scientist.
Bell was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, a son of Alexander
Melville Bell, a well-known speech teacher. Alexander the
younger also became a speech teacher after graduating from
the University of Edinburgh and the University of London. In
1866 he became interested in transmitting speech electrically.
After his older brother died of tuberculosis, his father decided
to move to Canada. Alexander was asked to come to Boston
to work at the School for the Deaf. There he met Thomas A.
Watson, who became his assistant in his electromagnetic
transmitter experiment. On March 10, 1876, Alexander sent
the famous first telephone message: “Watson, come here I
want you.” The bel, the logarithmic unit introduced in Chapter
14, is named in his honor.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 74
Pierre Simon Laplace (1749–1827), a French
astronomer and mathematician, first presented the
transform that bears his name and its applications to
differential equations in 1779.
Born of humble origins in Beaumont-en-Auge,
Normandy, France, Laplace became a professor of
mathematics at the age of 20. His mathematical
abilities inspired the famous mathematician Simeon
Poisson, who called Laplace the Isaac Newton of
France. He made important contributions in
potential theory, probability theory, astronomy, and
celestial mechanics. He was widely known for his
work, Traite de Mecanique Celeste (Celestial
Mechanics), which supplemented the work of
Newton on astronomy. The Laplace transform, the
subject of this chapter, is named after him.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 75
Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier (1768–1830), a
French mathematician, first presented the series and
transform that bear his name. Fourier’s results were
not enthusiastically received by the scientific world.
He could not even get his work published as a paper.
Born in Auxerre, France, Fourier was orphaned at
age 8. He attended a local military college run by
Benedictine monks, where he demonstrated great
proficiency in mathematics. Like most of his
contemporaries, Fourier was swept into the politics
of the French Revolution. He played an important
role in Napoleon’s expeditions to Egypt in the later
1790s. Due to his political involvement, he narrowly
escaped death twice.
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 76
“For tomorrow belongs to the people who prepare for it today”
(African Proverb quotes)
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 77
Innovation, Knowledge and Relevance
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 78
“The reasonable man adapts himself to the world;
The unreasonable one persists in trying to adapt the
world to himself.
Therefore, all progress depends on the unreasonable
man”
(George Bernard Shaw, Irish Dramatist & Socialist, 1856 - 1950)
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 79
“Need is the cause of most innovations, but the best come from
desire”
(Guglielmo Marconi)
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 80
Creating a Future
Fundamente de Inginerie
2016/2017 Electrica 81