GEORG.

ANA GALATEANU-FARNOAGA

ECATER.NA COM.EL

c?
/

pentru 'z colar

Gramatica limbii engleze

OMEGAPRES Bucureti 1992

perla: Dana Crucerii

Sanda Retinschi asistent universitar afereni: Alexandra Vasiliu profesoar Anca Iliescu profesoar

Contribuia autoarelor la elaborarea lucrrii a fost urmtoarea: }. Gleanu-Frnoag^: cap. I.O.; 1-2.3.; 3.1.-3.6.; 7-10; H.O.; 13; 18; 19; 22; 23; III.O.; 24-26. 3. Comiel: cap. 2.4.-2.5.; 3.7.-3.10.; 4-6; 11; 12: 14-17; 20; 21.

Redactor: Simona Eosetti Tehnoredactor: Constantina Velcovici ISBN 973-9143-01-6

CUVNT NAINTE
Lucrarea de fa a fost conceput ca un material de referin pentru elevi, profesori i alte categorii de persoane interesate de studiul limbii engleze. In tratarea problemelor, s-a avut n vedere modul n care acestea snt prezentate n majoritatea manualelor i gramaticilor de limb englez din ara noastr. Au fost de asemenea n atenia autorilor progresele nregistrate n analiza fenomenului lingvistic ,n general, nu numai n Romnia, dar i n rile unde se vorbete limba englez, precum i caracteristica limbii engleze contemporane de a aplica regulile flexibil i nuanat, n funcie de scopul comunicrii, de interlocutor (limbaj oficial sau familiar) i de aspectul limbii (scris sau oral). Lund n consideraie toate, aceste aspecte, Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz colar prezint fenomenele gramaticale n mod descriptiv. In cadrul prii I, Morfologia, snt studiate regulile privitoare la forma cuvintelor. Aceast prim parte este considerat ca deosebit de important pentru cel care studiaz limba englez, deoarece primul lucru care se nva n gramatica unei limbi strine este cum se formeaz categoriile gramaticale de baz: timpurile verbului, pluralul substantivelor, comparaia adjective lor etc. Partea a Il-a i partea a IlI-a, Sintaxa propoziiei i-Sintaxa frazei, cuprind regulile privitoare la mbinarea cuvintelor in propoziii i a propozi iilor n fraze. Aceast parte este considerat de asemenea important, deoa rece ea arat celui care studiaz limba englez cum s foloseasc formele gramaticale pe care le-a nvat, n descrierea formei cuvintelor (n cadrul mor fologiei,) i a funcionrii lor n comunicare (in cadrul sintaxei), lucrarea reia afirmaiile coninute n manualele colare n vigoare. Ceea ce aduce n plus Gramatica limbii engleze pentru uz colar este o imagine funcional, de ansamblu, asupra fenomenului gramatical contemporan, prin specificarea att a unor posibile abateri de la reguli, cit i a situaiilor n care se folosesc formele gramaticale: n vorbirea curent sau n limba scris, n stilul oficial sau n literatur, n varianta britanic sau cea american a limbii engleze. In elaborarea lucrrii, s-a pornit de la explicaiile gramaticale i compendiile de gramatic cuprinse n manualele de limb, englez actualmente in uz n colile din ara-noastr i de la experiena personal i a altor, cadre didac tice n predarea limbii engleze. In primul rnd, autoarele s-au bazat pe tradiia creat de gramaticile elaborate de: Leon Levichi, loan Preda Gramatic^, limbii engleze, Ed. tiinific 1987; Alice Bdescu Gramatica limb'ii engleze, Ed. tiinific, 1963; Catedra de limb i literatur englez. Universitatea din Bucureti Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. tiinific, 1962; Ioana tefnescu Lectures in English Morphology, Univ. din Buc., 1978. Avnd in vedere tendinele recente din limba englez contemporan, au fost folosite i lucrri publicate ,

n Marea Britanie i n alte ri (vezi cap. Bibliografie); iar pentru a oferi cititorului un cadru de referin familiar i posibilitatea de a face compa raii cu structura limbii romne, definiiile generale, structura lucrrii i terminologia au fost elaborate pe baza unor gramatici ale limbii romne: Academia RomnieiGramatica limbii romne, Ed. Academiei, Romniei, 1966; C. Dimitriu Gramatica limbii romne explicat. Morfologia, Junimea,' 1979; I. Iordan, VI. Robu Limba romn contemporan, E.D.P., 1978. Trimiterile la sursele folosite romneti sau strine nu au fost de regul menionate pe parcursul lucrrii pentru a nu ngreuia lectura, mate rialele de referin fiind specificate la sfritul lucrrii. Datorit caracterului practic al lucrrii, faptele de teorie gramatical coninute n Gramatic au fost expuse succint i nsoite de numeroase exemplificri. Exemplele prezente n lucrare snt dintre cele mai simple, aa cum snt ele folosite n vorbirea curent sau prezentate n alte gramatici ale limbii engleze, fiind construite pe baza unui vocabular redus i accesibil, uor de neles pentru elevi. Situaiile In care deosebirile dintre cele dou limbi prezint dificulti pentru elevul romn au fost subliniate n lucrare i practicate in exerciiile care urmeaz fiecrui capitol. Rezolvarea unui mare numr de exerciii a fost inclus la sfritul volumului. Autoarele doresc s-i exprime gratitudinea fa de autorii gramaticilor limbii engleze menionai anterior, care au pus bazele unei solide tradiii de anglistic n Romnia; mulumirile noastre se ndreapt de asemenea ctre asist. univ. Sanda Retinschi de la Universitatea din Bucureti, prof. Alexandra Vasiliu, de la liceul de art George Enescu" i prof. Anca Iliescu, de la coala general nr. 50 din Bucureti, pentru competena i rbdarea cu care au par curs lucrarea n stadiul de elaborare, oferind binevenite sugestii critice.

G. O. *i E. C.

Partea I MORFOLOGIA
(M or p h ol o g y}

I,Oi GENERALITI 0.1, Morfologia i sintaxa

Cele dou pri constitutive ale gramaticii tradiionale snt morfologia i sintaxa. M o r f o l o g i a cuprinde regulile privitoare la forma cuvintelor i la modificrile formale ale cuvintelor studiate pe pri de vorbire; s i n t a x.a, cuprinde regulile privitoare la mbinarea cuvintelor n propoziii i fraze*.

0.2. Criterii utilizate n definirea prilor de vorbire

Unitatei de analiz n gramatica tradiional este c u v n t u 1. Gramatica tradiional grupeaz cuvintele n zece clase mari, numite pri de vorbire: substantivul, articolul, adjectivul, pronumele, n,umeralul, verbul, adverbul, prepoziia, conjuncia i interjecia. mprirea cuvintelor n zece pri de vorbire se bazeaz pe folosirea concomitent a trei c r i t e r i i : "a) c r i t e r i u l semantic = sensul lexical cel mai general al claselor de cuvinte; 2) criteriul m.orfologic = schimb rile ce au loc n forma cuvintelor pentru exprimarea categoriilor gramatjcale de gen, numr, caz, persoan, comparaie, mod, timp, aspect i diatez; 3) c r i t e r i u l s i n t a c t i c = posibilitatea cuvintelor de a ndeplini funcii sintactice n cadrul propoziiei. Definirea prilor de vorbire se bazeaz pe toate cele trei criterii, un singur criteriu fiind insuficient. , 0,2,1, Din punct de vedere se m a n t i c , prile de vorbire se disting dup ceea ce exprim ele: numele unui obiect (substantivul, indirect i pronumele, care ine locul unui substantiv), o nsuire a unui obiect (adjecti* Gramatica limbii romne, voi. I, Ed. Acad. R.S.R., Bucureti, 1966, p. 11.

ui), un numr sau o determinare numerica (numeralul), o aciune sau o stare verbul), o caracteristic a unei aciuni, stri sau nsuiri (adverbul), exteriorizarea unui sentiment, a unei stri fizice, a unui act de voin sau imitarea unui sunet (interjecia)"*. Din punct de vedere al criteriului semantic, p rile de vorbire se mpart n: 4) pri de vorbire cu sens lexical de sine stttor, i care pot fi. pri de propoziie: substantivul, adjectivul, pronumele, numeralul, verbul, adverbul i interjecia; 5) pri de vorbire cate nu au ntotdeauna sens lexical de sine stttor, exprimnd raporturi ntre noiuni, i care nu pot fi pri de propoziie: prepoziia, conjuncia i articolul. 0.2.2. n funcie de c r i t e r i u l morfologic, cuvintele din limba. englez i modific forma pentru exprimarea categoriilor gramaticale de gen, numr, caz, persoan, comparaie, timp, mod, aspect i diatez. Schimbrile in forma cuvintelor care exprim categoriile gramaticale alctuiesc flex iunea. ' In funcie de prezena sau absena flexiunii, cuvintele se mpart n: 6) cuvinte flexibile, care au cel puin o categorie gramatical, pentru exprimarea creia i modific forma; 7) cuvinte neflexibile, care nu snt marcate pentru categorii gramaticale. 0.2.3. n funcie de c r i t e r i u l s i n t a c t i c, cuvintele se mpart n: 8) cuvinte' ca r e ndeplinesc o funcie sintactic n propoziie, puind fi o parte principal (subiect, predicat) sau secun dar (atribut, complement, element predicativ suplimentar) de pro poziie ; 9) cuvinte care nu au o funcie sinta c t i c , dar care marcheaz funcii sintactice : Pve bought this book OP Mary. She received the parcei ater pqying for it.

1. VERBUL (The Verb)

1.1. Definiie
Verbul este partea de vorbir care: . ' ex .

10)
prim aciuni, procese sau stri; 11) are categorii gramaticale de persoan i numr comune cu alte pri de vorbire i categoriile specifice de timp, mod, aspect i diatez; 12) ndeplinete funcia sintactic de predicat. * ibid., p. 12

1.2. Clasificare
Verbele pot i clasificate din punct de vedere al structurii morfologice sau din punct de vedere al sensului lexical i al funciei. 1.2.1. Din punct de vedere al structurii morfologice, verbele pot fi clasi ficate n: a) verbe simple: go; b)'verbe compuse: spotlight; 13) verbe cu particul adverbial: put on, put off, put away; 14) verbe cu prepoziie obligatorie: look at, listen to, wait for, succeed in; 15) locuiuni verbale: take care of, make use of. Grupele a), b) i e) nu prezint particulariti deosebite. Pentru c) vezi 8.7, iar pentru d) vezi 8.2.5. 1.2.2. Seiisul lexical al verbelor. Verbele n limba englez se mpart n: 16) verbe cu sens lexical plin, numite de obicei verbe noionale; 17) verbe cu sens lexical redus, care snt folosite mai mult cu funcii gramati cale, n clasa verbelor cu sens lexical redus intr verbele copulati v e, verbele auxiliare i verbele modale. .2.8. Funcia sintactic a verbelor. Pe plan sintactic, verbele cu sens lexical plin snt predicative, adic pot forma singure predicatul unei propoziii, pe cnd verbele cu sens lexical redus snt nepredicative, au nevoie de o complinire (verb noional, nume predicativ) pentru a deveni predicate: The child ,is clever. In schimb ele marcheaz anumite categorii gramaticale. In: The film was seen by millions of people. Fimul a fost vzut de milioane de oameni. was are funcia de marc* a diatezei pasive, timpul Post Tense, persoana a IlI-a singular pentru verbul see. 1.2.4, Verbele cu sens lexical redus se mpart n: 18) verbe copulative (be, i, conform gramaticii tradiionale: appear, seem, look, twn, become, get, grow, remain, stay, etc.): He seems itt. Pare bolnav. 19) verbe auxiliare (be, have, shalllshould, willlwould, maylmight, canjcould, do) care ndeplinesc funcia de marc a categoriilor gramaticale de diatez, mod, timp, aspect, persoan i numr, a formei interogative i negative la verbele pe care le nsoesc: He was told a lie. I s-a spus o minciun. Diateza pasiv. He was trying to catch the ball when he fell. ncerca s prind mingea cnd a czut. Aspectul continuu, etc. c) verbe, semiauxiliare sau modale (canjcould, must, have to, maylmight, shalljshould, willlwould, ought to, etc.) care arat atitudinea vorbitorului fa de enun: posibilitate: Ii might rain later. S-ar putea s plou mai trziu. necesitate: Y ou must finish before noon. Trebuie s termini nainte de prnz, etc.

!.) ltegi.-l6 gr
In limba englez, verbul are forme gramaticale determinate de categoriile specifice de timp, aspect, diatez i mod i de categoriile nespecifice de persoan i numr. In funcie de prezena sau absena categoriilor de timp persoan i numr, formele verbale n limba englez se mpart n forme per. sonale i nepersonale. 'ForniHc i'Hvfeaimle ut \whnhii (Finite Forms of the Verb) snt modurile indicativ i subjonctiv. La aceste forme, verbul este marcat pentru a exprima categoriile de timp, mod, diatez, aspect, persoan i numr, iar din punct de vedere sintactic, ele pot forma singure predicatul i se acord n numr i persoan cu subiectul. Frmle MpftfsoHak ale verbului (Non-Finite Forms of the Verb) snt infinitivul, Gerund-ul (Gerunziul), participiul prezent i participiul trecut. Aceste forme nu au categoriile de timp, persoan i numr i nu pot forma singure predicatul propoziiei.

1.4. Tirapnl (Tense)

%

Categoria gramatical a timpului (Tense), categorie specific verbelor, se refer la ordinea evenimentelor n timp, aa cum este perceput aceasta de vorbitor n momentul vorbirii. Momentul n care are loc actul de vorbire este momentul prezent (nove). Fa de acest moment, care constituie axa de referin a prezentului, unele evenimente snt: 20) anterioare, cnd ele au loc nainte de momentul vorbirii (evenimen tele snt amintite de vorbitor): Present Perfect; 21) posterioare fa de momentul vorbirii (evenimentele fiind anticipate de vorbitor, deoarece vor avea loc dup momentul vorbirii): Future; 22) simultane cu momentul vorbirii (avnd loc n acelai timp) Present. Considernd momentul vorbirii punctul prezent, vorbitorul i poate aminti un eveniment care a avut loc la un moment anterior momentului vorbirii (then). In raport cu acest moment' amintit then, care d natere axei de referin a trecutului, alte evenimente pot fi: 23) anterioare momentului trecut then: Pai Perfect; 24) simultane cu then: Post Tense; 25) posterioare: Future in the Post. De asemenea, n momentul vorbirii (now), vorbitorul poatfr anticipa anumite evenimente (posterioare momentului vorbirii). In raport cu un anume eveniment ( posterior momentului prezent (axa de referin a viitorului), alte evenimente pot fi: 26) anterioare: Future Perfect; 27) simultane: Future; 28) posterioare: engleza nu are marc formal pentru aceste evenimente.

n analiza timpului, trebuie astfel luate n consideraie trei elemente: momentul vorbirii; 30) momentul (svririi) aciunii; 31) axa sau momentul de referin.

29)

32)

Momentul v o r b i r i i este nxpmentul n care enunul este pronunat de vorbitor: no w. 33) Momentul aciunii este momentul n care a avut loc aciunea sau starea: now, then, tomorrow, etc. 34) Momentul de r e f e r i n reprezint axa pe care se plaseaz vorbitorul n perceperea evenimentului: axa prezentului, axa trecutului, axa viitorului. In funcie de cele trei elemente momentul vorbirii, momentul aciunii i momentul de referin limba englez cunoate urmtorul sistem de timpuri: pe axa prezentului: Present, Present Perfect, Future; pe axa trecutului: Post Tense, Post Perfect, Future in the Post; pe axa viitorului: Future, Future Perfect*

1.5. Timpul prezent simplu {Present Teu se Simple)

35) Definiie, prezentul simplu desemneaz un eveniment (o aciune sau stare) care se ntmpl simultan cu momentul vorbirii (prezentul instan taneu) sau care include momentul vorbirii (prezentul generic i habitual). 36) Form. Din punct de vedere al formei, prezentul simplu este identic cu infinitivul, la toate persoanele singular i plural, cu excepia persoanei a III-a singular, care adaug -(e)s:
I ) \ swim SWim We ' They ]
You

Eu TujVoi Noi Eijele

j not. [noi, notai. *f,e ) S he notm. f n J noat. '

El i Ea l T,nota swims n at ' El/Ea ' (neutru) J

1.5.3. Pronunarea i ortografierea terminaiei -(e)s la persoana a III-a, singular ptezmia aceleai caracteristici ca i terminaia de,plural -(e)s a sub stantivelor: -(e)s se pronun: [s] dup consoane surde: He thinks [6igks]; [z] dup consoane sonore i vocale: He studiea ['stAdizj. He rum [rAnz]; fiz] dup consoane sibilante: She woshes [ 'wojiz]. Verbele say i do au la persoana a III-a' singular o pronunare deosebit fa de celelalte persoane: I say [ei] he says [sez]; J do [du:] he dofes [dAz],
* Vezi: Ioana tefnescu, Lectures in English Morphology, T.U.B., Bucureti, 1978( pp. 201-208.

i
Din punct de vedere al ortografiei,' majoritatea verbelor adaug -s la persoana a IlI-a singular: H e walks. She sees. Desinena devine -es clnd verbul se termin in 8, x, z, sh, eh, teh sau o: She veatches, It fruzzes. He goes. Verbele terminate in -y precedat de consoan, schimb y in i i adaug -es: / try he tries. * 1.5.4. ntrebuinare. Prezentul simplu are mai multe ntrebuinri: 1) Prezentul generic (Generic Simple Present) exprim aciuni generale care au loc ntr-un interval de timp nespecificat, dar care include momentul vorbirii: The Earth moves round the Sun. Birds fly. Three and three make six. Adverbele de frecven tipice pentru propoziiile generice sint: always, never, regularly, ever: Wood always floats on water. 2) Prezentul simplu este folosit pentru aciuni obinuite, repetate (Hdbitual Simple Present), care au loc ntr-o perioad de timp general sau specific, menionat prin adverbe sau locuiuni adverbiale de timp ca: on Mondays, in summer, every day sau adverbe sau locuiuni adverbiale de frecven ca: often, frequently, seldom, rarely, occasionatty ', sometimes, once a wetklmonthj year: I go to school every day. I usually watch TV in the evening.
Prezentul simplu desemnnd aciuni repetate este apropiat de prezentul generic deoarece nici el nu individualizeaz evenimentele sau specific momentul aciunii. Deosebirea ntre cele dou folosiri ale prezentului simplu este urmtoarea: n propoziiile care conin aciuni repetate subiectul este individualizat, pe c!nd n cele generice Subiectul este general: I go skiing in winter. Water boils at 100 Centigrade. A doctor works hard.

3) Prezentul instantaneu (Instantaneous Simple Present) se refer la aciuni care snt vzute ca aylnd loc n ntregime in momentul vorbirii. Aceast ntrebuinare a prezentului simplu se ntlneste n: 37) comentarii: The goal-keeper misses the ball and one more goal is scored. Portarul nu prinde mingea i se marcheaz nc un gol. 38) demonstraii: / now mix the butter with the cocoa. Acum amestec untul cu cacao. 39) exclamaii: Here comes our teacher l Iat (c) vine profesorul nostru l 4) Folosirea prezentului simplu cu alte valori temporale A) Prezentul cu valoare de viitor este ntrebuinat n propoziii principale: 40) pentru exprimarea datei: Tomorrow is December 21st. Mine este 21 de cembrie.' Tomorrow is Saturday. Mine este smbt.

41) pentru red are a uno r aci uni pla nifi cat e, uno r ara nja me nte pen tru viit or, con for m unu i orar sau prd gra m stab ilit '(de e*e mpl u n exc ursi i org aniz ate) , mai al^s cu ver be de mi care ea: go, co me, toac e, retu rn, sau

verbe ca begin, start, feiwi, finVsh: W e leave Bmharest ai eight. W e arrive in Predeal at ten. Plecm din Bucureti la ora 8. Sosim n Predeal la or 10, 10

B) Prezentul cu valoare de viitor este intreDinni'nn piupu.y _,_______

nate: a) de timp, introduse de when, after, before, as soon as: We'll get home beore it geta dark. Vom ajunge acas nainte s se ntunece. b) condiionale, introduse de if, unless, provided, in case: H it rains on Sunday, Pil repair my bicycle. Dac o s plou duminic, am s-mi repar bicicleta. 42) In naraiuni, pentru nviorarea povestirii (prezentul istoric): One day, the Utile boy goes to the woods. There he liads a buried-treasure. 43) cu verbe ca teii, hear, learn, write, pentru a sublima efectul prezent al unei comunicri trecute: t He tells me that you have won the competition. mi spune c ai ctigat concursul. .
C) Prezentul cu valoare de trecut se folosete:

1.6. Timpul trecut simplu (Past Tense Simple)*

44) Definiie. Post Tense, aspectul simplu, desemneaz un eveniment definit care a avut loc pe axa trecutului (evenimentul este amintit n momentul prezent). 45) Form. Marca timpului Past Tense simplu este, la verbele regulate, -ed: We listeneA to the concert last night. Am ascultat concertul asear. 46) Pronunarea i ortografierea terminaiei ~ed este n funcie de ter minaia infinitivului. -ed se pronun; 47) [d] cnd verbele se termin n vocal sau consoan sonor [b, g, l, m, n, v, z, dz, 3]: play playeA. [pleid]; arrive arriced [a'raivd]; 48) [t] cnd verbele se termin n consoan surd [f, k, p, s, J, tj] like like [laikt], cross erossed [krast]; 49) [id] cnd verbele se termin n -t sau -d: want wanteiA ['wontid]; nod nodded ['nadid]. Particulariti ortografice ale terminaiei -ed: a) consoana final a formei de infinitiv se dubleaz cnd vocala care o precede este scurt i accentuat: stop stopped; prefer preferted. ffots 50) Consoana final se dubleaz, la cteva verbe, dei silaba final nu este
accen tuat: kidnap kidnapped; handicap handicayyed; worihip worshiyed; iar la verbe terminate n -ic, -e se dubleaz, n -ck: picnic picnicked. 51) n engleza britanic, verbele terminate n -l dubleaz aceast consoan, indi ferent de' accent: control controVLed; travel traveHed.

* In aceast lucrare se utilizeaz termenul englezesc de Past Tense (timp trecut) pentru a denumi echivalentul din limba englez al timpului romnesc Perfectul compus, cu scopul de. a nu se crea confuzii. Timpul verbal din limba romn, este un, timp compus, asemntor ca form cu Present Perfect din limba englez, pe ctnd Past Tense englezesc este o form verbal simpl, asemntoare cu perfectul simplu din limba romn: He finished' classes at l o'clock. El a terminat cursurile la ora unu.
11

3. n varianta american a limbii engleze, -l se dubleaz numai dac ultima silab este accentuat: controlled, dar: traveled,

52) i: stucly ~~ studied;

verbele terminate n -y precedat de consoan l schimb In.-

2. creep crept crept -d: move moveA, leave left left buy 1.6.4, n ceea ce privete verbele neregulate, bought bought acestea au fost mprite n apte grupe, n funcie catch caught caught

53)

verbele terminate n -e adaug doar

de pronunarea infinitivului, a formei de Pai Tense i a participiului trecut: 1. verbe de tipul: bum burnt burnt
learn learnt learnt lend lent lent spend spent spent

3. cast cast cast hit h it hit shut shut shut wet wet wet 5. mow mowed mownlmowed sow sowed sownjsowed swell swelled swoUenjswelled
7.

4. meet met met hang liung hung win won won sit sat sat 6. wear wore worn grow grew grown give gave given write vorote written

in began begun sing sang sung come came come go went gone

Hot s n funcie de formele pe care le au verbele la Post Tense i la participiul trecut, ele se mpart tn verbe regulate i verbe neregulate. Verbele regulate formeaz Past Tense i participiul trecut prin adugarea terminaiei ~(e)d la forma de infinitiv: listen (a asculta) listened (a ascultat) listened (ascultat). Verbele neregulate stnt cele care au forme deosebite pentru infinitiv, Post Tense i participiul trecut, care trebuie nvate pe dinafar. Urmeaz o list a principalelor verbe neregulate din limba englez, cu traducerea n limba romn a sensului lor de baz. Notaia B, indica existena i a unor forme regulate.

Verbe neregulate
'
Infinitiv Paet Tense Traducerea inlimtivulul

arise (a)wake(n ) . le beor j

arose fajwofce, (a)wak(en)ed

arisen (a)woken, (a)wak(en)ed leen borne

Participiu trecut

Obaerva(U

a se ridica a se tiezi a ii a purta

aru w|/H wasjwere ~"

ffi~i tore

ttiafee e de obicei 'neregulat: woke, woken; awaken e regulat: awakened She has borne , ehildren. Ea a nscut trei Dai-. He was born 1 970. S-a nscut n

12
Infinitiv Past Tense Participiu trecut Traducerea infinitivului Observaii

bectt become begi n ben

beai became bega n bent

beaten become begu n bent

a bate a deveni a ncepe a (se) ndoi a ruga, a porunci

i: bid, bade, bidden

bin d bite
hlfftf
UiWUr , j^

boin d bit blew broke bred broughl buill burn burst bought cast caugh i chose ciung came cost crept

bound biilen bled blown broken bred brought bmlt burn burst bought cast caught chose n ciung come cost crept
Cili

a lega a muca a sngera a sufla, a bate a (se) sparge a crete, a educa a aduce a construi a arde a izbucni, a nvli, a crap a cumpra a prinde arunca a a alege a se aga a veni a costa a se tr, a se a tia a trata, a se ocupa de a spa a face a trage, a desena a visa a bea a mina, a ofa a locui a mrtca ' a cdea a hrni a (se) simi a (se) lupta a gsi a fugi; a se refugia a arunca a zbura a interzice a uita a ierta a nghea a primi, a obine a da a merge a macin \ a crete

Uneori, participiul trecut: bit

Ued

breed

buil d
huTst

R. burned n engleza american

buy
cctst catch choos e ding come cosi creep

cut

deal

cut

dealt

dealt

dig do dream
drink drive dwell

dug did

dug

drew dreaml drank drove dweli

done drawn dreamt drunk driven dwelt eaten

drunken adj.

R. dreamed lr\ special n engleza american R. dwelled (rar) engleza american engl. britanic: ae engl. american: (eit)

eat fatt
feed feel fight find flee fling

ale
fett

fed

felt foughl found fled . flung flew forbad(e) forgot forgave froze got gave went ground

felt foitgh found .fled

fallen fed

fty

f orbii forgei

ftung fiown

<

iorgive freeze get give grind grow

orbidden forgolten forgiven frozen got given gone ground

engl. american: get,

got,gotten

yew

grown

13
IniniUv Fast Teme Participiu .. tieout Tradnoerea infinitivului Observaii

hang have hear hide

hung hd heard hid hit held hurl kept Icnel i knit Jtnew laid led
leant

hung hd heard hidden hit held hurt kept knel t knit known laid led leant leapt learnt

a atrna a avea a auzi a (se) ascunde' a lovi a ine a lovi, a rni, a durea a ine, a pstra a ngeminchia a tricota a ti, a cunoate a pune, a aeza a conduce a se apleca, a se sprijini a sri nva

R. hanged = a spnzura Participiul trecut i hid (rar)

hit

hold hurt keep knee l knit know

R. Teneeled engleza american de obicei R.

lay

leailean leap learn

leaptlearnl

R. leaned n special n engleza american R. leaped n special n engleza R. learned american; adj.:

leave lend Ugh f lie lose tnofo mean meef

f< let

lent M la lott made meant

kft lent let Uf lai lost made meant met mown, movied paid put read rid riddm rung risen run sawn, sawed said seen sought sold sent set sewn, sewed shaken shorn, sheared shed shone

lei

mow ,?<*<! puf reai rid

met pui

mowed .paid reaA

rid -

rie \ ring rise , ru

sa w

rode rang rose ran sawed said

say
see .seefc sell sen set sew shake ' shear shed shine

a pleca, a lsa a da cu mprumut a lsa, a permite a aprinde a zcea, a se afla a pierde a face a nsemna a (se) ntlni a1cosi a plti a pun a citi a scpa de, a se descotorosi a clri a suna a rsri, a se ridica a fugi a tia cu fierstrul a spune a vedea a cuta a vinde a trimite a pune a coase a scutura, a tremura a tunde oi a vrsa (lacrimi, snge) a strluci

a learned [la.-nid]

R. lighted R. l ie, l ied = a mi n i

R. ridded

saw

pers. III singular [sez]

sougM sold seni set sewed shook sheared shed sftone

R . s h e dd e d = a n ha mb a r i R . thined a trui (n special n gleza american)

infinitiv

Past Tense

Participiu trecut

Traducerea infinitivului

Observaii

shoe
shoot shot shrink 'shut sing sink

shod shot showe shrank, shrunk shut sang san

shod shot shown shrunk shut surig sun

a potcovi a mpuca a arta a se stringe, a se scoroji a nchide a cnta a (se) scufunda a edea a ucide a dormi a arunca a (se) crpa a mirosi a a a a a semna vorbi grbi, accelera ortografia Uneori ortografiat shew, shewed, shrunken adj.

sunkcn adj.

sil

slay sleep sling slit smell speak speed speli spend spill spin ipil split ipoil tpread spring stand steal stick stin g

sat

slew slept slung slit smelt sowed spok e sped speli spenl spill spun spat split spoil spread sprang stood stole stucfe stung stun

sat

slain slept slung slit smelt sown, sowed spoken sped spelt spenl spill spun spat . split spoil t spread * sprung stood stolen stuck slung stunk

sow

R. smellcd engleza american i R.: speeded R. spelled engleza amefieart R. spilled engleza american Past Tense: spn arhaic R. spoiled engleza american

a cheltui; a petrece a vrsa (lapte, ete) a 'toarce a scuipa a despica a rsfa a (se) ntinde a izvor; a sri a sta (n picioare) a futa, a se furia a lipi a nepa a mirosi urit

Uneori Past Tense -

strew slride strike

strewed strode slruek

.strewn, slrewed strode struck

a presra a merge eu pai mari a lovi

stank Part. trecut slridden rar Participiul trecut stricken doar pasiv i ca cu sens metaforic: nic- stricken; stricken by gout i R. strivea ' i R. stteated a swollen head (He is a swelled head (He s conceited)

atring strive sweat swear weep swell

strung

strove sweat swore swept swelled

strung striven sweat sworn sweyt swollen, swelled swum stoung taken

a nira (pe o ai) a nzui a transpira a jura; a njura a mtura a se umfla

ill)

swim iake

swing

swam

swttng took

a nota a legna a lua

15
Infinitiv Fast Tense Participiu trecut Traducerea infinitivului Observaii

leach tear teii think thrive throto thrust iread understand tvear weave

taufjht tore told thought throve threw thrusl Irod underslood wore wove

taughi* lorn told thought thriven thrown thrust trodden understood worri woven

a nva (pe altul), a preda a rupe, a sfia a spune, a povesti a (se) gndi a prospera a arunca a nfige a clca a nelege a purta a ese a, (se) cununa a plnge a uda a ctiga a rsuci a stoarce a scrie

i R. : thrived, n special n engleza

wed

wind, wring write

wet win

weep

wed

wept

wed

wet won

wept

i R. wedded i R. wetted

wound wrung wrote

wet won

teound wrung wrilten

.6.5. ntrebuinare. Post Tense simplu este folosit pentru a exprima: 1) o aciune svrit i ncheiat ntr-un moment trecut: a) Momentul n care a avut loc aciunea este de obicei menionat prin adverbe de timp ca: two hours ago (acum dou ore), yesterday (ieri), last week (sptmna trecut), in 1970 (n 1970) etc.: / went to the opera last night. Am fost la oper asear. *" . . Despre acest moment se pot cere informaii prin ntrebri ncepnd cu when, what time, how long ago: ai trecut pe did yoic caii on him? Cmd la Lael? ce or Cu ct vreme n urm Am trecut pe la el N When What time How long ago

ieri. yesterday. I called on. him at la five ora o'clock: 5. 54) Aciunea este svrit i ncheiat ntr-un a few days ago. acum cteva anume moment trecut, zile. chiar dac acesta nu este menionat, el puind fi dedus din context. (In schimb se poate specifica locul aciunii): He shook his head and said no. Ddu din cap dezaprobator i spuse nu. / met him outside the museum. M-am ntlnit cu el In -faa muzeului. 55) Aciunea este svrit i ncheiat ntr-un moment trecut care este precizat ca rezultat al unei ntrebri i unui rspuns la Present Perfect. A: H ace you seen this film? B. Yes, I have. l saw it last week. A: Ai vzut acest film? B: Da, 1-am vzut. L-am vzut sptmna trecut.
Not? n acest conext(c), Past Tense are o funcie anaforic, referindu-se la un eveniment deja introdus n vorbire i deci cunoscut: / have been to Constana. I visited the Aquarium and walked doivn the pier.

16'

2) o aciune repetat n trec iuce de obicei prin imperfect n limba romn: / oten visited him. l vizitam adesea.
Not: 1. O aciune repetat In trefcut se mai poate exprima i cu ajutorul verbului modal ivould (cu valoare frecventativ") + infinitiv, aceast, construcie fiind caracteristic limbii literare: He would si for hours in front of his house, looking at the stars. Sttea / obinuia s stea ore n ir n faa casei privind stelele, n vorbirea curent se folosete used io + infinitiv: He used to st for hours in froni of his house. Obinuia s stea ore n ir n faa casei. 2. Past Tense simplu nu se folosete niciodat cu valoare generic sau instantanee, ca Present Tense simplu.

3) Post Tense simplu poate fi folosit- i cu alte valori temporale: a) cu valoare de mai-mult-ca-perfect (Past Perfect), pentru redarea unor aciuni succesive n trecut, n special n propoziii circumstaniale de timp introduse de when, after, etc.:
He went out to play after he inished his homework.I saW him before he saw me. Aceast folosire a lui Past Tense este caracteristic verbelor care exprim aciuni (activity verbs): He addressed and sealed the envelopes. 56) cu valoare de prezent, pentru a exprima o rugminte politicoas prin verbe ca wish, want, wonder, like, intend: I wondered if y ou could lend me this book. M ntrebam dac ai putea s-mi mprumutai cartea. 57) cu valoare de prezent, n vo*rbirea indirect, dac verbul din propoziia principal este la un timp trecut: He told me he was UI. d) cu.valoare de viitor, n propoziii circumstaniale de timp, dac verbul din propoziia principal este la un timp trecut: He told me he would show me the photos when he came. Mi-a spus c-mi va arta fotografiile cnd va veni. 1.6.6. Traducerea lui Past Tense In limba romn, Past Tense se traduce: 1) n propoziiile principale sau independente, prin: a) perfectul compus (de obicei la persoana I i a Il-a) i p e rf e c t u l s i m p l u (aproape exclusiv la persoana a III-a), cnd Past Tense exprim o aciune trecut ncheiat, nsoit sau nu de perioada de timp: ieri. yesterday. Mi.am ierdut acum cteva zile. sptmna trecut. J lost my umbrela a few days ago. u mb r e l last week.

He said goodbye and let. Spuse Ia revedere i plec. b) imperfect, cnd Past Tense exprim o aciune repetat n trecut, de obicei nsoit de adverbe de frecven: She often let her English textbook at home. Deseori i uita manualul de englez acas. 2) n propoziiile subordonate, prin r 58) prezent, n voibirea indirect (dup un verb trecut): He told me he was UI. Mi-a spus c este bolnav. 59) v i i t o r, n propoziiile temporale, cnd verbul din principal este la ua timp trecut: He said he would bring me the book 'when he came to my place. Mia spus c-mi va aduce cartea-cnd m va vizita. 17
2 Gramatica limbii engleze

1.7. Perfectul prezent (Kesent Perfect)

1.7.1. Definiie. Present Perfect desemneaz un eveniment vzut din perspectiva axei prezentului, anterior momentului vorbirii, dar a crui ante rioritate nu este fixat, avnd un caracter nedefinit: Pve painted a pictare. heard a noise. A Am/Ai/Au auzit un zgomot. auzit un zgomot. 1.7.2. Form, n structura formei Present Perfect intr verbul auxiliar have la prezent i participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat:

I \ You 1 have
n

\ We j 've J They 1 He has 1 She '8 f 1.7.3. ntrebuinare. 1) Present Perfect este folosit, la fel ca i Post Tense, pentru a desemna un eveniment anterior momentului vorbirii. Deosebirea Intre cele .dou timpuri este n axa pe care se plaseaz vorbitorul: axa prezentului (Present Perfect) sau axa trecutului fPast Tense); i n natura evenimentului descris: a) nedefinit (Present Perfect) i b) definit, unic (Post Tense )i 60) Pve seen Mary. , 61) /. saw her at the conference. 2) Folosirea lui Present Perfect este asociat cu adverbe oare exprim o perioad de timp deschis, neterminatt today, this week, this month, etc. /'ce been to the theatre this week. pe cnd folosirea lui Past Tense este asociat cu adverbe care exprim o perioad de timp nchis, terminat: / went to the theatre last week. 3) Present Perfect este uneori folosit cu valoare de Past Tense, pentru a exprima o aciune svrit n trecut i terminat recent sau chiar naintea momentului vorbirii: He has come. A sosit. , Aceast ntrebuinare a lui Present Perfect este adeseori marcat de adverbe de timp Q&just (tocmai), already (deja), up to now, so far (pin acum), lately, recently (n ultima vreme): He has Just phoned. Tocmai a telefonat. Atenie Cu adverbe ca today, this morning, this month, this year, recenUy, se poate .folosi fie Past Tense, fie Present Perfect, n funcie de: a) caracterul aciunii (definit/nedefinit) i b) al perioadei de timp (ncheiat/ /nencheiat): 62) Did you hear Ion Voicu play recently? (on a certain occasion). Have yo heard Ion Voicu play recently? (in the near past, not a long time ago). 63) Did you see him this morning? (Now it's five o'clock p.m.), Have you seen him this morning? (Now it's 11 a.m.). 4) Past Tense este folosit pentru evenimente care au avut loc n trecut i ai cror autori nu mai exist n prezent, pe cnd la Present Perfect, evenimen tele au avut loc n trecut, dar autorii sau efectele evenimentelor mai exist i n prezent: PastTense Marin Preda wrote several novels Present Perfect Eugtn and short stories. Barbu has written several novels and Preda is dead.) short stories, (Eugen Barbu is alive.) 18

Did you see ihe exhibition f (The exhibition is closed now.) (The exhibition is still open.) John injured his arm. John has injured his arm. (li doec not hurt- him any longer.) (It still hurts him.) 5) Present Perfect este folosit i pentru a exprima o aciune nceput n trecut i care continu i n momentul vorbirii. Complinirile adverbiale de timp caracteristice pentru aceast ntrebuinare snt cele indicnd: a) lungimea perioadei de timp: for along time (de mult vreme), for ten minntes (de 10 minute), for two days (de dou zile), etc. He has been here for half an hour.
Not: Prepoziia for poate fi omis tn vorbire: He has lived in Bucharest ten years.

b) nceputul perioadei de timp: since yesterday (de ieri), since December (din Decembrie), since you came (de cnd ai venit), etc. He has studied English since ihe beginning of ihe school year. Studiaz engleza de la nceputul anului colar. Perioada de timp redat printr-o propoziie temporal introdus de since poate fi exprimat: a) printr-un verb la Post Tense, clnd se specific momentul iniial al perioadei: I was born. my parents came to live here. I last met you. b) printr-un verb la Present Perfect, cnd ceJe dou aciuni slnt paralele: It hasrit stopped raining since I've been in this town. I have never come acrosx my friends since 've stayed in this hotel. Atenie. Determinarea for .../since... este obligatorie pentru aceast ntrebuinare a perfectului prezent. Folosirea lui Present Perfect Simple fr determinare temporal cu forjsince... se refer la o aciune ncheiat (vezi ntrebuinrile l, 2,4, 6) i nu la una care continu i n momentul vorbirii: He has lived in Bucharest (some time in his Uf e; he may live there again, but he is not living there novv). A locuit n Bucureti (cndva n viaa lui; poate va mai locui acolo, dar nu locuiete n Bucureti n momentul de fa). He has studied English (some time in the post, so he knows it, but he is not studying it nove). A studiat engleza (cndva n trecut, aa c o tie, dar nu studiaz engleza acum).
Nota; Diferena ntre cele dou'ntrebuinri reiese i din modul n care se traduc n limba romn: aciunea care continu i n momentul vorbirii prin prezent, iar cea ncheiat, petrecuta n trecut ntr-un moment de timp nedefinit, deci nespe cificat prin perfectul compus: He has stayed in this hotel. A stat n acest hotel. He has stayed in this hotel for a tveek. St n acest hotel de o sptmn.

6) Present Perfect poate exprima o aciune caracteristic, repetat n trecut, prezent i poate i In viitor: He has perormed in public. A interpretat n public. Aceast ntrebuinare este marcat de adverbe de frecven ca: often (adesea), always (totdeauna), never (niciodat), sometimes. (uneori), etc.: He has oten performed in public. 7) n propoziii subordonate temporale sau condiionale, Present Perfect este folosit pentru a reda o aciune anterioar aciunii din propoziia princi-

19 z*

il, cnd aceasta este exprimat printr-un verb la imperativ, indicativ prefent sau viitor: Ring me up when you. have inislxed. Teiefoneaz-mi cnd ai ferminat. He will help me i he has inisbed his own work. M va ajuta dac-i a fi terminat treaba lui.

1.8. Mai-mult-ea-perectul (Past Perfect Tense Simple)

1,8.1. Definiie. Past Perfect este un timp folosit cnd vorbitorul se plaleaz psihologic pe o ax a trecutului, pentru a desemna un eveniment anterior mui moment sau unui eveniment trecut, care este amintit n momentul vor birii: T i. i .< -u j ,1. i. 7 \ *>y ten o'clock yesterday. I hd mished the book '
by the time yo u

'f n;:: , Mai-mult-ca-perfectul se formeaz din forma de Past Tense a verbului have -f- participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat:
I -j j^ J- inished the book before you came.

Terminasem cartea nainte s vii tu. He hd already let by ten o'clock. El plecase deja la ora 10. l.P,.;^. \;nv,? :-,:!hv;ari, Mai-mult-ca-perfectul este ntrebuinat pentru a exprima: 64) o aciune trecut, ncheiat naintea unui moment trecut : I hd inished my lessons by ten o'clock yesterday. mi terminasem leciile nainte de ora 10 ieri. 65) o aciune trecut, ncheiat naintea altei aciuni trecute: When Doris got to the theatre, the show hd (already) started. Cnd a ajuns Doris le teatru, spectacolul (deja) ncepuse. Mother hd cooked the dinner by the time father arrived home. Mama gtise deja cina cnd a ajuns tata acas. 66) o aciune trecut, ncheiat imediat naintea unei alte aciuni trecute:
I hd haj.fliy r got into the classroom whenthe beli rang'. No sooner hd I got

into the classroom than the beli rang. Tocmai /de-abia intrasem n clas cnd a sunat clopoelul. . 4) o aciune trecut, svrit ntr-o perioad de timp anterioar unei alte aciuni trecute, dar ajungnd pln la aceasta (cu compliniri adverbiale ncepnd cu for sau since): He hd been in the classroom or two minutes when the teacher came in. Era n clas de dou minute cnd a intrat profesorul. He hd lived in Bucharest since 1975 when I met him. Locuia n Bucureti din 1975 cnd 1-am cunoscut.

67) Mai-mult-ca-perfectul este un timp utilizat mai .frecvent ri limba englez dect n limba romn, pentru exprimarea anterioritii, (n limba romn se folosete, adeseori perfectul compus cu valoare de mai-mult-ca-perfect: The passengers got oul as soon as the train hd stopped. Pasagerii au coborit de ndat ce s-a oprit trenul). 68) n limba englez se poate folosi Past Tense n loc de Past Perfect n urmtoarele situaii: a) dup conjuncia after, care indic prin sensul ei raportul de anterioritate, nemaif iind necesar i o form verbal special : The driver started the car ater he cheoked the engine. oferul porni maina dup ce verific motorul.
' 2 0

verbul din principalOsW*la" u he was in the mountains. Mi-a spus c a vzut un urs ctnd a fost la munte. 8. n propoziiile subordonate introduse de after sau until, folosirea mai-mult-ca-per-fectului, prin contrast cu folosirea lui Post Tense, subliniaz raportul de anterioritate, faptul c aciunea din principal nu a avut loc dect dup ce aciunea din subordonat a fost ncheiat: The pupil on duty lefi the dassroom AFTER she hd turned otf the lights. Eleva de servici a prsit clasa (numai) dup ce a stins lumina. The tvaiter didn't take the plates away UNUL ihey hd finished their dinner. Chelnerul n-a strtns farfuriile pn n-au terminat masa.

Mai-mult-ca-perfectul mai poate fi folosit: 5) n vorbirea indirect, pentru a nlocui Present Perfect sau Post Tense, cnd verbul din propoziia principal este la un timp trecut: Tom: I have spoken to Mary about U. I spoke to her last w.eek. Toni said he hd spoken to Mary about it. He added he hd spoken to her the week before.

1.9. Mijloace de exprimare a viitorului

Exist mai multe posibiliti de redare a ideii de timp viitor n limba englez: . Viitorul simplu (ShalllWUl Futurc) ' 1,9.1. Definiie. Viitorul simplu desemneaz un eveniment posterior fa de momentul vorbirii.

1.9,2. Form
n structura viitorului simplu intr verbul auxiliar shatt la persoana I singular i plural, will la persoana a. II-a i a IlI-a singular i plural, i infinitivul scurt al verbului de conjugat: ye j shall go to the seaside tomorrow. yom \ merge la mare mline. Yo.u j fmer e la munte He wUl go to the mountains next week. Vei/Vei/Va/Vor \ "Sl^^^ m . i ney , n engleza britanic vorbit i n engleza american n general se folosete will i la persoana I singular i plural, fr nici o schimbare de sens:
/ f y 0j i

ye \ will go the seaside tomorrow. yom \ merge la. mare miine. Forma contras a viitorului este '# + infinitiv la toate persoanele: Ml go, He'll go, etc. . Aceast form este ntrebuinat cu precdere n engleza vorbit, mai cnd subiectul este exprimat printr-un pronume personal. 21

1.9.3. Intrebuinii i) Viitorul simplu eate un viitor pur, indiclnd doar c aciunea are loc Intr-un moment viitor, mai apropiat sau adeseori mai ndeprtat, de momentul vorbirii: ,
Hel1 come back

, , f tomorrow. Se { next year.

va

_ ^toarce j

f mine.
anul yiitor

2) Viitorul simplu nu este de obicei ntrebuinat n propoziiile subordo nate, fiind nlocuit de prezentul simplu: He will come when he has time. Va veni cnd va avea timp. Viitorul simplu apare numai n propoziiile subor donate completive directe sau prepoziionale, dup verbele think, suppose, expect, believe, doubt, assume, hope, wonder, be sure, be afraid, pentru a exprima opiniile sau presupunerile vorbitorului despre--o aciune viitoare: I'm sure you'll feel better tomorrow. Snt sigur c te vei simi mai bine mine. 3) Viitorul simplu poate i folosit i cu valori modale (pct. 37). Viitorul simplu reprezentat prin will -f infinitiv, de exemplu, poate fi folosit, la persoana I singular i plural, pentru a exprima: 69) neaccentuat, o intenie nepremeditat, spontan, aprut n momentul' vorbirii: .4: Ifs ho in here. B: /'li open the window. A: E cald aici. B: Am s/M duc s deschid fereastra. 70) accentuat, hotrrea, determinarea de a svri aciunea: A: Don"t sell that dictionary. 11 is very good. B: I will sell it, no matter what you are saying. A: Nu vinde dicionarul, e foarte bun. B: Am s-1 vnd/snt hotrt s-1 vnd, indiferent ce spui. 4) Will -f- infinitivul poate fi folosit i cu valoare de prezent habitual (frecventativ"): Every Sunday they will go to the seaside. In fiecare duminic se duc obinuiesc l g se duc f k mare> f au obiceiul J [ Children will be, children. Copiii tot copii. 5) La forma negativ, la persoana I i a IlI-a singular i plural, wori't -finfinitiv exprim: 71) neaccentuat, refuzul: 7<won'tgo there. Nu vreau s m duc acolo. 72) accentuat, refuzul absolut: / won'tgo there. Nici nu m gndesc s.m duc acolo. 6) Will + infinitiv este folosit, la forma interogativ, pentru a exprima: 73) o ntrebare despre o aciune viitoare: Will they open the exhibition tomorrow? Vor deschide ei expoziia mine? 74) o invitaie (la persoana, a Il-a): Will you come in, please? Vrei s intrai, v rog? ' . 75) o rugminte (de asemenea la persoana a.II-a): Willyow help me? Te rog s m ajui. 7) La interogativ, Shall -(- infinitiv exprim: 76) viitorul simplu: Shall I find them at homeif I go now? Am s-i gsesc acas dac m duc acum? 77) solicitarea unei opinii: Shall I buy this watch? S cumpr acest ceas? Datorit, n mare parte, implicaiilor modale pe care le prezint, viitorul simplu nu este frecvent folosit n vorbirea curent, fiind o form caracteris tic limbii scrise (limbajul jurnalistic, emisiuni de tiri, anunuri oficiale, limbajul literar, etc.). n vorbire, se prefer viitorul ou going to pentru exprimarea ideii de viitor apropiat sau viitorul continuu pentru redarea ideii de aciune neutr, obinuit, n desfurarea normal a evenimentelor viitoare. 22

'B) Be 1.9.4..Be dbout to + infinitiv exprim un viitor imediat: We are about to leave. Sntem pe punctul de a pleca. C) Beto-j- infinitiv 1.9.6. Be to -(-infinitiv exprim: 78) un aranjament: / am to move house soon. Urmeaz s m mut n ! curnd. i 79) un ordin: You are to return before nightfall. Trebuie s v ntoarcei nainte de cderea nopii. D) Viitorul cu going to (\Coing to futurej 1.9.6. Viitorul cu going to se formeaz cu ajutorul formei be going to la prezent, urmat de infinitivul scurt al verbului de conjugat: I am going to write letters tomorrow. Voi scrie scrisori mine. We" f are going8 to see a film tomorrow. g? / k going to play tennis The y ( ' She ( tomorrow. 1.9.7. ntrebuinare. Viitorul cu going ta este ntrebuinat pentru a exprima: l)o aciune viitoare a.propiat de momentul vorbirii (vezi exemplele de mai sus).
Not: Verbele go i come nu pot fi precedate de going to. Pentru a reda ideea de viitor apropiat, ele snt ntrebuinate la prezentul continuu: Where are you going? Unde te duci? He is coming tonight. El vine disear:

2) o aciune viitoare ce va avea l o c ca urmare a unei intenii prezente: We are going to spend our holiday in the mountains. (We've already booked a room in Poiana Braov). Avem de gnd/ Intenionm s ne petrecem vacana la munte. (Am rezervat deja o camer la Poiana Braov).
Not; O intenie spontan, nepremeditat, se exprim cu ajutorul verbului auxiliar (vili + infinitiv: A: Vm thirsty. (Mi-e sete). P: I ivill fetch you a glass of tvater. (M duc s-i aduc un pahar de ap), (vezi 1.9.3. pct. 3a.)

80) o ac iune v i i t o a r e c a r e va avea l o c ca. rezultat al unei cauze prezente: ICs going to rain. Look at the douds. Cred c o s plou./Are s plou. Uit-te la nori. 81) Viitorul cu going to nu este folosit de regul n propoziiile principale, cnd ete snt urmate de o propoziie subordonat condiional sau temporal (se folosete infinitivul cu shall/will). Totui, aceast form poate aprea n propoziii temporale, cnd vrem s subliniem intenia vorbitorului: He is going to be a pilot when he grows up. Are de gmd/intenioneaz s se fac pilot cnd va crete. E) Prezentul continuu (Present Teme Continuous) 82) Prezentul continuu, format din verbul be la prezent i participiul prezent (forma n -ing) a verbului de conjugat, este folosit pentru a exprima o aciune viitoare care a fost planificat sau proiectat ntr-un moment prezent: We are leaving tomorrow. (This is our plan.) Plecm mine. (Acesta este planul nostru.) 83) Prezentul continuu exprimnd o aciune viitoare este de obicei nsoit de un adverb de timp viitor: We are having o- meeting at 3 o'clock/ths afternoon/later. Avem/Vom avea edin 'la ora 3/dup amiaz/mai trziu.
%

1.9.10. Prezentul simpla exprima: 84) o aciune viitoare definit, care va avea loc ca parte a unui program oficial, orar stabilit, etc.: The plane takes off at 7 p-m. Avionul decoleaz la ora 19.00. Term starts in September. coala ncepe in septembrie. 85) o aciune viitoare n propoziii subordonate temporale i condiionale (vezi 1.5.4. pct. 4b). 1.9.11. Atenie! Alt prezentul continuu ct i cel simplu exprim o aciune viitoare conform unui plan sau aranjament cnd snt folosite cu verbe de micare ca go, leave, arrive, come, etc. Deosebirea este urmtoarea: We are leanng tonight. Plecm disear. (Acesta este planul nostru personal). We leave tonigkt. Plecm disear. (Acesta este programul oficial, stabilit (al excursiei, etc.)). () Viitorul perfect (Future Perfect Simple) 1.9.12. Definiie. Viitorul perfect desemneaz un eveniment anterior unui moment sau eveniment care este la rndul su posterior momentului vorbirii. .1.9.13. Form. Viitorul perfect conine n structura sa viitorul simplu al verbului have^ urmat, de participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat: / snall/ will have don'e my homework by the time you return. mi voi fi fcut leciile pn te ntorci tu. 1,9.14. ntrebuinare. Viitorul perfect este folosit pentru a exprima: 86) o aciune viitoare care va avea loc naintea unui moment viitor: He will have finished the book by Monday. El va fi terminat cartea pin luni. 87) o aciune viitoare care va avea loc naintea unei alte aciuni viitoare: fie will have finished the book by the time you come back nome. El va fi termi nat cartea pn cnd te ntorci tu acas. 88) o aciune viitoare care va avea loc ntr-o perioad de timp anterioar unei aciuni viitoare, dar ajungnd pn la aceasta: He will have worked in this factory for forty years when he retires. Va fi lucrat n aceast fabric timp de 40 de ani cnd se va pensiona. 1.9.15, Aciuni^viitoare dintr-o perspectiv trecut. Evenimentele viitoare snt posterioare momentului vorbirii, car este now. Dar evenimentele pot fi posterioare i unui moment trecut then, care este amintit 'n momentul vorbirii. De pe aceast ax a trecutului, posibilitile de exprimare a ideii de viitor snt urmtoarele: 89) would-4- i n f i n i t i v. (Construcie puin frecvent n vorbirea curent, caracteristic stilului narativ literar): The time &as not far off when he would realize his mistake. Nu era departe momentul cnd i va da seama de greeal. 90) be going to la Post Tense + i n f i n i t i v, adesea cu sensul de intenie nerealizat: You were going to invite me to the cinema. (But you didn't). Urma/Trebuia s m invii la cinema. (Dar n-ai fcut-o). 91) Post Tense a s p e c t u l c o n t i n u u (aciune conform unui plan, aranjament): 7 was meeting them in Tulcea the next day. i ntlneam/urma s-i ntlnesc n Tulcea a doua zi.
Not: viitorul perfect este o form verbal caracteristic limbii scrise, fiind rar folosit n vorbirea curent.

92) Be to la Post Tense + i n f i n i t i v (construcie folosit n engleza literar, cu sensul de urma s"; era aranjat"): He was to change his mind later. The festival was to be held at the end of term. 93) be about to la Post tense + i n f i n i t i v (a fi pe punctul de"): She was about to cry.
24

1.10. Aspectul (Aspect)

94) Definiie, n limba englez, aspectul este categoria gramatical specific verbului care se refer la felul n care este reprezentat aciunea exprimat de verb: ca avnd durat sau nu, ca fiind terminat sau nu. 95) Exist dou contraste n limba englez: durativ non-durativ (denumit de obicei continuu non-continuu) i perfectiv non-perfectiv. n primul, opoziia este ntre o aciune care are o anumit durat, este n' desfurare.ntr-un anumit moment sau ntr-o anumit perioad de timp i este raportat la momentul de referin nove, then etc., i ntre o aciune pentru care o asemenea informaie nu este important. Cpmparai: . John is reading an English newspaper (now). John_ citete un ziar englezesc (acum), cu: John reads ah English newspaper (every day). John citete un ziar englezesc (n fiecare zi). n al doilea, opoziia este ntre aciuni vzute ca* terminat/e n momentul vorbirii: / have read an interesting arlide on pollution. Am citit un articol interesant despre poluare. i ntre aciuni despre care nu se d o asemenea informaie: I have been reading since 10 o clock. . L10.S, Pentru a analiza contrastul durativ non-durativ i perfectiv non-perfectiv n limba englez, trebuie pornit de la sensul lexical al verbelor:* A) Verbele care exprim a c t i v i t i n limba englez (activity verbs) snt de dou feluri: verbe de activitate durativ (exprimnd aciuni a cror svirsire necesit o anumit durat n timp): eat, dress, drink, read, walk, etc. verbe de activitate non-durativ, care exprim aciuni momentane, fr durat, fiind ncheiate aproape n acelai timp cu efectuarea lor: catsh, hit, kick, slam, slap, snap, etc.
'.''u;?;*!,. Adeseori sensul non-durativ al unor verbe este semnalat de prezena unor particule adverbiale ca down, out, up, care le deosebesc de verbele de activitate durativ. Comparai:
sit sil- dotvn stand stand up drink drink up pick pick up

La rndul lor, verbele de activitate durativ se mpart n: verbe care nu implic nici un scop: rub, run, walk, etc. verbe care implic atingerea unui scop: iron a hirt, make a dress, read a book, write an essay. B) Pe lng verbele care denumesc activiti (durative sau non-durative) exist i verbe care denumesc stri. Acestea snt durative, deoarece exprim existena unor fapte pe o perioad ndelungat de timp: be dever, be oble, 'know how, exist, live. Aspectul Continuu (The Cntinnous Aspefl} 1.10.4. Form. Timpurile aspectului continuu se formeaz dintr-un timp al verbului be i participiul prezent (forma n -ing) a verbului de conjugat: Presen tC o n t i n u o u s : / a m reading ast Continuous :/ was reading r e s e n t Perfect Continuous :/ have been reading ast Perfect Continuous :/ hd been reading ^uture Continuous :/ will be reading ^_U^UJ e Per f e c t G o n t i n u o u s : / . will have been reading * Ibid, pp. 21-243 25

1.10.5 ..,-.., ; : ,;;ipi depinde de forma verbului la infinitiv: a) consoana final se dubleaz dac vocala care o precede e scurt i accentuat: stop stoyping; refer refening.
Sot: n engleza britanic, -l final se dubleaz, indiferent de accent: control conIroHing; travel travetting. n engleza american,-l final se dubleaz numai dac accentul cade pe ultima silab: controUing; dar: traveling;

b) -y final se pstreaz, indiferent dac este precedat de consoan sau de vocal: study studying; play playing, iar -ie final se transform n -y: lie lying; die dying\
a) -e final se omite: have. Aacing. Excepii: agree ogreeing; be fteing; sec seeing; dye tfyeing (a vopsi). * l,H, ", ) >^i "'tarea aspectului continuu 96) Folosirea aspectului continuu cu verbele de activitate durativ fr scop arat c aciunile denumite de verbe snt n desfurare pe axa pre zentului, a trecutului, sau a viitorului: They are walking in the park now. He was swimming in the lake at this time yesterday. ' 97) Cu verbele de activitate durativ care implic atingerea unui scop, folo sirea aspectului continuu arat c scopul nu a fost atins, aciunea nu a fost terminat: He is reading a book now* Citete o carte acum (Nu a terminat-o). She was ironing a shirt, Ea clca o cma. 98) Verbele de activitate non-durativ arat o aciune repetat atunci cnd snt folosite la aspectul continuu: He is kicking. D din picioare. ' d) Verbele care exprim o stare arat c aceast stare este limitat, atunci clnd snt folosite la aspectul continuu: I live in Braov (thaCs where my house is). Vm living in Bucharest this year. Anul acesta locuiesc n Bucureti. ntrebuinrile aspectului continuu la diverse timpuri snt cele enumerate la 1.10.6. Diferenele de la un timp la altul constau n momentul n c vare are ion aciunea i n momentul de referin. l.lf - este utilizat pentru a exprima: 1) cu verbe de activitate durativ fr scop: a) o aciune n desfurare n momentul vorbirii: Listen! He is singing in the bathroom l Ascult! Cnt n baie Aceast'ntrebuinare este marcat de obicei de adverbe de timp ca: now (acum), right now (chiar acum), at this moment (n acest moment): A: WAoi is Dan doing? B: He is shaving right now, dar poate aprea i fr ele, momentul de fa al aciunii reieind din forma continu a verbului: A: What is Dan doing? B: He is shaving. A: Ce face Dan (acurn)? B. Se brbierete. b) o aciune obinuit, repetat, prezentat n desfurarea ei n anumite circumstane: / always take my umbrella when it is rainiug. Totdeauna mi iau umbrela cnd plou. I never read while I am eating. Niciodat nu citesc n timp ce mnnc. I meet him whenever I am walking in the Botanical Gardens. li ntlnesc ori de cte ori m plimb n Grdina botanic. 99) cu verbele de activitate durativ implicind un scop, o aciune care nu a fost terminat la momentul vorbirii: H e is doing his homework. i face temele. 100) cu verbe de activitate -non-durativ, o aciune repetat n momentul vorbirii: He is knocking on the door sau o aciune repetat n mod frecvent,

26

ire deranjeaz sau irit pe vorbitor: My neghbour is always starting his car when I want to have a rest. Vecinul meu totdeauna i pornete maina cind vreau s m odihnesc. Aceast folosire a prezentului continuu este obligatoriu nsoit de adverbe de frecven ca: always, forever (totdeauna), continually, all the time (tot timpul). Acestea se aaz ntre auxiliarul be i forma n -ing, cu excepia lui all the time care ocup poziie final n propoziie: That Utile child s continually crying. dar: He is crying all the time. 4) cu verbe care denumesc o stare, o aciune cu caracter temporar, care are loc pentru o perioad limitat de timp, (incluznd i momentul vorbirii): Arin is attending the Poly. Ana urmeaz politehnica (studiaz politehnica). Complinirile adverbiale pentru aceast ntrebuinare a prezentului continuu snt: today (astzi), this week (sptmna aceasta), these days (zilele acestea). this month (luna aceasta), this year (anul acesta), etc. : My father usually teaches geometry , but he is teaching algebra this year. Tatl meu pred geometria de obicei, dar anul acesta pred algebra. 5) Prezentul continuu, este de asemenea, folosit pentru a desemna o aci une viitoare planificat din prezent (vezi 1.9.8.): We are leaving tomorrow. Plecm mine. ' 1.10.8. Past Tense Continuous exprim: 1) cu verbe de activitate durativ fr scop: a) o aciune n desfurare ntr-un moment trecut, amintit n momentul vorbirii: f at two o'clock yesterday. / was walkmg ' at this time last
Not; Aceast form verbal este frecvent folosit n descrieri, pentru redarea unor activiti durative; n desfurare, care contrasteaz cu activiti, non-durative, succesive i terminate, pentru redarea crora se folosete- Pst Tense simplu (forma caracteristic naraiunilor) : // was a cold winter evening. Outside, the ivind was blowing and ii was gelling colder- and colder. Yet the drawing room was warm and comfortable. A big fire was burning in the fireplace. The old woman. came in and went near the fire. She warmed her hands and sa down.

b), o aciune durativ n desfurare, ntrerupt de o aciune non-durativ, momentan: TT . f when l , ,. . f cnd ] ie came in j w h i l e j / was eating. A intrat j f l t i m o \ ce mmcam.
When he rang up I was (just) going out. Cnd a telefonat (tocmai) ieeam. He called me just as I was leaving. M-a strigat exact ciad plecam. c ) dou aciuni paralele n desfurare n trecut: She was eating while I was washing. Ea mnca n timp ce eu m splam.
Not: Dac nu ne interese.az aspectul de desfurare, de durat al aciunilor, ci doar c aciunile au avut loc ntr-un moment din trecut putem spune: She Ae while I washed. sau; She ae while I was washing. (ae aciunea a fost mai scurt, terminat; ivas washing aciune mai de durat, nencheiat n momentul n care cealalt a fost ncheiat).

2) cu verbe de activitate durativ care implic atingerea unui scop : ~ o aciune trecut, dar nencheiat: He was reading a book last night. Citea o arte asear. (Comparai cu: He read a book last night. A citit o carte asear. A terrninat-o).
27

101) cu verbe de activitate non-durativ, o aciune repetat n trecui, iritanta pentru ceilali, (-\-always, forever, continually, all the time): He was always coming late to the English lesson. Totdeauna ntrzia la ora de englez. 102) cu verbe care exprim o stare, o aciune trecut cu caracter temporar: He was living in Braov when I met him. 103) Post Tense aspectul continuu mai poate exprimai o aciune viitoare, planificat intr-un moment trecut, fiind subneleas nendeplinirea ei (Vezi 1.9.15. pct. 3.): We were leaving the next day.

1.10.9. Viitorul continuu (Futture Continuous)

1) cu verbe de activitate durativ fr scop, viitorul continuu exprim: a) o aciune n desfurare nr-un moment viitor, posterior momentului vorbirii : shall l , . f at two o'clock tomorrow. will } be walkmS | atthistime next week. . , f mine la ora dou. M voi plimba sp-tmma viitoare la ora asta. 104) o aciune n desfurare n viitor ntrerupt de o aciune momentan: When ke comes, I will be eating. Cnd va veni, eu voi fi n mijlocul mesei. 105) o aciune n desfurare n viitor, n paralel cu o alt aciune n desfurare, de asemenea n viitor: She will be walking while I am sleeping. Ea se va plimba n timp ce eu voi dormi. Atenie! A doua aciune viitoare n desfurare nu poate fi pus tot la viitorul continuu deoarece face parte dintr-o propoziie subordonat temporal (n care nu se folosete viitorul n limba englez). 106) cu verbe de activitate durativ care implic atingerea unui scop, o aciune nencheiat: She will be hiaving her piano lesson when you come. 107) Viitorul continuu exprim i ideea de aciune viitoare care va avea loc n desfurarea fireasc a evenimentelor: /'li be seeing him tomorrow morning. (This happens every morning). l vd mine diminea, (l vd n fiecare dimi nea). /'l be passing the grocer's on my way to school. Trec prin faa bcniei n drum spre coal. 1.10.10. Traducerea formelor aspectului continuu n limba romn: Verbul romnesc nu are o categorie marcat formal, pentru redarea contrastului aspectual continuu/non-continuu. Ideea de desfurare sau durat limitat a aciunii este redat n limba romn cu ajutorul adverbelor de timp: He is teaching now. Pred/Are or acum. He is teachnig arithmetic this year. Pred aritmetica anul acesta. Singura form verbal din limba romn care exprim, ca i aspectul continuu din limba englez, o aciune neterminat la un moment dat, sau de durat limitat, este imperfectul i acesta este folosit de obicei pentru traducerea lui Past Tense continuu n limba romn: She was working in the garden when I arrived. Muncea n gradin cnd am sosit. Mai dificil ns este traducerea imperfectului n limba englez, deoarece exist tendina de a folosi Past Tense Continuous i atunci cnd imperfectul romnesc are alt valoare, cea de aciune repetat n trecut, pentru care limba englez folosete Past Tense Simple: Romn: Munceam n grdin cnd m duceam la bunici. Englez : / worked the garden when I went to my grandparents.
28

...10,1;-, ', ;;!*.,e eai'e uirpirt; ii Moite la aspectul continuu. Exist mai multe clase de verbe, care, datorit sensului lor lexical, nu pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu. Acestea snt: A) verbe de activitate n 6 n-d u r a t i v , care snt conside rate a fi ncheiate n momentul n care au fost iniiate: He kicks, slams, bangs the door. B) verbe care exprim aciuni desfurate att de rapid sub ochii vorbitorului, nct pot fi considerate non-durative: score, skoot, place in .the oven. Aceasta se ntmpl de obicei n comentarii sportive sau demonstraii practice (aa numitul prezent simplu instantaneu vezi 1.5.4. pct. 3.) 108) verbele care exprim un adevr universal sau o carac t e r i s t i c general: Fish swim. Cows gire milk. The Danube flows into the Black ea. 109) verbe care exprim o p e r c e p i e senzorial (Verbs of inert perception): see, hear, smell, feel, sound, The flower smells nice. Floarea are un miros plcut. A \ fi n. i Verbele de percepie se folosesc cu verbul modal can pentru a reda o aciune unic, concret, n desfurare: / can seehim now. l vd acum. / see him every*day. l vd n fiecare zi. Verbele care redau percepia senzorial pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu dac ele indic o folosire contient a simurilor: a) prin folosirea unor perechi sinonimice: listen to, look at, watch: Aspectul simplu: Aspectul continuu: / (can) hear music. I am listening to music. I (can) see him. I am looking at him. I (can) see the TV set. I am watching TV. 110) prin folosirea tranzitiv (ca activiti) a unor verbe care exprim o calitate permanent (folosite intranzitiv): The cake tastes good. I am tasting the cake. 111) verbele de percepie pot avea forme ale aspectului continuu cnd snt folo site cu alte sensuri: Fve been hearing att about her exams. Am auzit (Mi s-a spus totul) despre examenele ei. (hear = a primi veti). I'm seeing him tonight. M ntlnesc cu el disear. He is seeing the sights. Viziteaz obiecti vele turistice, (see a ntlni, a vizita locuri turistice). E) verbele care exprim o activitate mintal (Verbs of cognition): believe, know, think, imagine, mean, mind, remember, recoliect, recall, suppose, forget, suspect, guess, presuppose, realize, understand. Aceste verbe snt urmate de obicei de o propoziie subordonat introdus ae that sau de un cuvnt relativ ncepnd cu wh-: J think (that) you are right. vred c ai dreptate. / dodt remember what he said. Nu-mi amintesc ce a spus. Unele din ele pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu dac snt folosite ca verbe A ] > D e***81 A ' What V he doing? B:Heis thinking of his future A: Ce face 61 <" B: Se gndete la viitor. ;- L F ^ v e r b e care exprim sentimente, stri sufleteti: Iove, ' care f r, adore, hote, dislike, detest, regret, prefer, wish. I like my job. mi 29

place serviciul meu. / detest lazy people. Detest oamenii lenei, dar i: How are you liking the trip? Cum Ii place cltoria/Cum te distrezi? G) verbe exprimnd o relaie: apply to, be, belong to, concern, consist of, contain, cost, depend on, deserve, include, involve, lack, matter, need, owe, 6wn,possess, have, require, resemble, seem: This book belongs to him. Aceast carte i aparine lui. He owns this house. Aceast cas e proprietatea lui. Helen resembles her mother. Elena seamn cu mama ei. Aceste verbe nu pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu, cu excepia lui be i have cnd ele nu exprim starea, respectiv posesia: He is kind. El este amabil (In general). Why, he is being kind today'l Ei, se poart cu amabilitate (este amabil astzi!) (este o situaie necaracteristic, temporar). H e has a new bike.\Ax& o biciclet nou. H e is having a ride now. Se plimb cu bicicleta acum. In vorbirea curent, verbe ca resemble, cost, etc. snt uneori ntrebuinate la aspectul continuu, dac exprim o intensificare treptat a aciunii: Peter is resembling his father more and more. Petre seamn din ce in ce mai mult cu , tatl su. Groceries in Britain are costing so much more these days! n Anglia, preul articolelor de bcnie a crescut aa de mult n zilele noastre! H) verbe care exprim o senzaie f i z i c (Verbs of bodily sensation). Aceste verbe pof fi folosite la aspectul continuu sau simplu, cu mici diferene de sens:
te

do you feel are you fe& Aspectul perectiv (The- Perfective Aspect)

astzi?

112) Definiie. Aspectul perfectiv arat c un eveniment (o aciune sau stare) este reprezentat ca ncbeiat de ctre vorbitor n momentul n capei este discutat, 113) ntrebuinare, n funcie de sensul lexical al verbelor i de adver-| bele care le nsoesc, aspectul perfectiv are tradiional mai multe valori: 1) aspectul perfectiv rezult a tiv (Resultative Perfect) apare cu verbe de activitate durativ care implic un scop i arat c acest scop a fost atins: 114) / have broken the vase. Am spart vaza. 115) He hd read the book. (El) citise cartea. n consecin, vorbitorul simte efectul sau rezultatul unei aciuni anterioare: 116) The vase is broken now. Vaza este spart acum. 117) He knew what the book was about. tia despre ce este vorba n carte. 118) aspectul perfec i v cont in u ativ (Continuative Perfect) este folosit cu verbe care exprim o stare i slnt nsoite de adverbe de durat, pentru a exprima o aciune nceput nainte i care continu i n momentul prezent, amintit sau anticipat: We have lived in Bucharest for ten years. Locuim n Bucureti de 10 ani. London has stood on the Thames for thousands of years. Londra este situat pe Tamisa de mii de ani. 119) -aspectul perle c.ti v al experien ei (The Perfect of Experience) arat c aciunea a avut loc odat sau de mai multe ori n expe riena vorbitorului: They hd lived in several towns in Romnia. Locuiser in mai multe orae din Romnia. Whenever I have asked my father a question\
30

jiiii-e received a straightforward answer. Ori de cte ori i-am pus tatlui meu o ntrebare, am primit un rspuns fr ocoliuri. 1.10.14. Aspectul perfectiv i aspectul continuu s nt combinate n urmtoarele forme verbale: perfectul prezent continuu, mai-mult-ca-perfectul continuu i viitorul perfect continuu. Perfectul prezent continuu (Present Perfect Continuous) este alctuit din forma de Present Perfect a verbului be urmata de participiul prezent (n -ing) a l verbului de conjugat: f have l k een He\>
rea(

ij ng f or ih ree hours. Citesc de trei ore.

r b een reding for three hours. Citete de trei ore.

Aceast form verbal exprim: 1) o aciune nceput ntr-un moment trecut, care continu n prezent i poate i n viitor: They have been playing Zen/Ui for. fialf an hour. Joac tenis de jumtate de or (= They began playing tennis half an hour ago, They are still playing tennis and they may continue duing .w). ( Aceast ntrebuinare a lui Present Perfect continuu poate fi redat i cu ajutorul lui Present Perfect simplu *n cazul unor verbe ca live, stay, work, study, etc. Folosirea aspectului continuu, prin contrast cu cea a aspectului simplu, scoate n eviden continuitatea, caracterul nentrerupt al aciunii: He has lived in Bucharest for ten years. He has been living in Bucharest for ten years. Un alt contrast poate fi cel de aciune tocmai ncheiat aciune nen cheiat: /'ve worked on this composition since five o'clock. (I've just finished it). /'ve been working on this composition since five o'clock. (and I'm still working). . ' 2) o aciune repetat frecvent, ntr-o perioad de timp care se ntinde din trecut pn n prezent: /'ve been ridng a bicycle for three years. Merg cu bici cleta de trei ani. He has been writing poems since ne was a child. Scrie poezii de cnd era copil. : In aceast situaie (2) se folosete Present Perfect simplu (i nu continuu) dac se specific de cte ori a fost svrit-aciunea repetat: /'ve ridden my bicycle hundreds of times. Am mers cu bicicleta de sute de ori. He has written fifty poems. A scris 50 de poezii. ntrebuinrile 1) i 2) ale lui Present Perfect snt marcate de compliniri adverbiale indicnd: 120) lungimea perioadei de timp: for ages (de mult vreme), for a few minutes (de cteva minute), for three hours (de trei ore), etc. 121) nceputul perioadei de timp: since December 26th (de la 25 decembrie), since last year (de anul trecut), since Monday (de luni), etc. 3) o aciune trecut, ncheiat recent, care este cauza unui efect simit n prezent: 4: Why are your hands dirty? B: /'ve been repairing my bike. A: De e ai minile murdare? B: Mi-am reparat bicicleta. 1 10 1 form ' - ^' Mai - mult 'ca -Pe rf ectul continuu (Past Perfect Continuous) se lui ri Za n verjt)ul Oe a ^ niai-mult-ca-perfect i din participiul n -ing al verbu-, de conjugat. El are aceleai valori ca i Present Perfect continuu, momentul ue referin fiind ns axa trecutului. 31
l

Aceast form verbal exprim: 1) o aciune trecut, nceput naintea altei aciuni trecute i oontinulnd pn la ea:

/ M ta. wlttng for m,

l atepta^m pe prietenul meu

{. UV }
de or J
cnd n a Bos

it.

2) o aciune trecut nceput naintea unui moment sau a unei aciuni trecute, continund pn n acel moment sau pn la acea aciune i poate i dup aceea : The boys were still playing football at noon. \ . ,, , . . , f all mornmg. They hd been playmg football j gince ten 0%loek Bieii mai jucau fotbal la ora prnzului. Ei jucaser fotbal toat di mineaa. / Ei jucau fotbal de la ora 10. 3) o aciune repetat frecvent ntr-o perioad de timp trecut, anterioar . unui moment sau unei aciuni de asemenea trecute : He hd been writing poems for two years when I met him. Scria poezii de doi ani cnd 1-am cunoscut. Atenie! Dac se face o precizare numeric, se folosete Post Perfect simplu: He hd written ity poems when I met him. Scrisese 50 de poezii cnd 1-am eunoscut. 122) o aciune anterioar unei alte aciuni, de asemenea trecut, terminat cu puin naintea ei, i fiind cauza acesteia: He was carrying a hammer and nails because he hd been mending the fence. Avea n mn un ciocan i cuie pentru c reparase gardul. 123) Present Perfect i Post Tense continuu devin mai-mult-caperfect con tinuu n vorbirea indirect, dup un verb trecut n propoziia principal: "/'ve been reading for three hours.n She said she hd been reading for three hours. Atenie! Timpul Post Tense continuu devine Post Perfect continuu numai dac se refer la o aciune ncheiat (Vezi 26.3.9.) : "J was thinking of going away, bat I have ckanged my mind." He said he hd been thinking of going away, but he hd changed his mind. Altminteri, Post Tense aspectul continuu rmne neschimbat n vorbirea indirect, mai ales dac el apare ntr-o propoziie subordonat temporal (Vezi | 26.3.8. pct. f): "When I was attending the secondary. school in Craiova, I often met Dan." He said that when he was 'attending the secondary school in Craiova, he f hd) often met Dan. 1.10.16. Viitorul perfect continuu (Future Perfect Continuous) se formeaz din viitorul perfect al verbului be i din participiul n -ing al verbului de conjugat. Viitorul perfect continuu exprim o aciune n desfurare n viitofi nainte i pn la o alta aciune viitoare (i poate i dup aceea) : When the beli rings, we shall/will have been writing for fifty minutes. Cnd va suna clopoelul, noi vom fi fost ocupai cu scrisul / noi vom fi scris de 50 de minute.
32

ie Aciunea svrit n aceast perioad de timp viitoare, anterioar unui moment sau unei aciuni de asemenea viitoare, este la viitorul perfect continuu dac se specific lungimea perioadei de timp sau nceputul ei: By six o'dock p.m. she will have been seUing blouses lor eight hours. Pn Ja'ora 18 ea va fi vndut bluze timp de opt ore; i la viitorul perfect simplu dac este prezent o precizare numeric n legtur cu aciunea: By six o'dock p.m. she will have sold eighty blouses. Pn la ora 18 ea va fi vndut 80 de bluze.
Not: Viitorul perfect continuu .este rar folosit n vorbire, fiind o form caracteristic limbii scrise.

141. Diateza (Voice)

1.11.1. Definiie. Diateza este categoria gramatical specific verbului care exprim raportul dintre verbul predicat, pe de o parte, i subiectul i obiectul (complementul direct sau de agent) al verbului predicat, pe de alt parte. In limba englez exist dou diateze marcate formal: diateza activ i diateza pasiv. .L2. Diateza activ (Active Voice). Verbul este la diateza activ cnd subiectul gramatical svrsete aciunea, care, la verbele tranzitive, se rsfringe asupra obiectului: Luey (subiect) has written (predicat) a letter (obiect). Lucia a scris o scrisoare.
Not: Pentru clasificarea verbelor din punct de vedere al tranzitivitii, vezi

1.11.3. Diateza pasiv (Passive Voice). Verbul este la diateza pasiv cnd subiectul gramatical sufer aciunea svrit de obiect: This letter (subiect) tas been written (predicat) by Lucy (obiect). Aceast scrisoare a fost scris de Lucia. 1.11.4. Be + participiul trecut, indicii formali ai diatezei pasive snt: 124) verbul be sau uneori get, 125) complementul de agent introdus de prepoziia by. a) Verbul be marcheaz categoriile de mod, timp, persoan i numr la diateza pasiv. El este urmat de un verb noional la participiul trecut: She was met at the station by my brother. Ea a fost ateptat la gar de fratele meu. (Was modul indicativ, Post Tense, persoana a IlI-a singular). l 11,5. Conjugarea unui verb la diateza pasiv, modul indicativ este: Past P/esent Perfect Aspectul simplu: ast Perfect "resent I am seen. He is seen. We f u ture are seen. Future Perfect / was seen. We were seen. I have been seen. He has been seen. I hd been seen. I shall be seen. H e will be seen. I shall have been seen. He will have been seen. continuu este folosit la diateza pasiv doar la Present i Past /^ateza Pasiv are n structura sa verbul be la aspectul (timpul Present sau Past) i participiul trecut al verbului de conjuOO

14,5. - 14.8.

Gram
3

lca limbii engleze

~~

;at: The dassrooms are being cleaned now. Se face curenie n clase acum. school was being cleaned when we wanted to visit it. Se fcea curenie n coal ctnd am vrut s-o vizitm. 1.11.6. G et/become + participiul trecut. In afar de verbul be se mai poate folosi i verbul set pentru formarea diatezei pasive. Verbul get + participiul trecut este utilizat, mai ales n vorbirea curent, entru a indica trecerea dintr-o stare n alta: Her skirt got caught in the door. s-a prins fusta n u. AU our glasses got broken when we moved. S-au spart toate paharele cnd ne-am mutat. Un sinonim al verbului get cu sensul de schimbare treptat este verbul become, nsoit deseori de more and more, increasingly: The production. of this factory is becoming increasingly specialized. Producia acestei fabrici devine din ce n ce mai specializat. 1.11.7. Complementul de agent. Complementul de agent introdus de pre poziia by indic cine a svrit aciunea suferit de subiectul gramatical al propoziiei: The poem was recited by Mary (not by Lucy or Ann). Poezia a fost; recitat de Mria (nu de Lucia sau Ana).

Not: Complementul de agent este considerat subiectul logic sau real al' propoziiei, deoarece el svrete aciunea.

Complementul de agent nu este menionat n majoritatea 'propoziiilor pasive. El se omite cnd: 126) nu se cunoate subiectul real, cel care a svrit aciunea: AU villages in Romnia are supplied with electricity. Toate satele din Romnia snt alimentate cu curent electric. A doctor has been sent or. Au/s-a trimis dup doctor. 127) vorbitorul nu dorete s menioneze subiectul real al aciunii: This subject wll be treated fully in the next chapter. Aceast problem va fi tratat pe larg n urmtorul capitol. 128) subiectul real al aciunii se poate deduce din context: He was elected President of the Teacher-Parent-Association. A fost ales preedinte al comitetului de prini. n aceste cazuri, subiectul verbului la diateza activ este de obicei expri mat printr-un pronume personal cu valoare generic: /OM, they, one, printr-un pronume nehotrt: everybody, somebody, all, sau printr-un substantiv ca people: They \ Activ: pe0pie f speak English all over the world.

Pasiv: English is spoken all over the world. Atenie! Complementul de agent se omite i cnd forma pasiv este get -f participiul trecut: The Utile boy got hurt on his way to school. Bieelul s-a lovit n drum spre coal. 1.11.8. ntrebuinarea diatezei pasive, n limba englez, ca i n limba romn, se folosesc construcii pasive i nu active cnd intenia vorbitorului este de a se sublinia aciunea i nu pe cel care a svrit-o: Activ: Millions o people have seen this film. (Accentul cade pe subiect: Milioane de oameni au v zut acest film)' Pasiv: This film has been seen by millions of people. (Accentul cade pe verb: Acest film a fost vzut de milioane de oameni)' 1 % Construciile pasive snt ntrebuinate mai frecvent n limbajul tiin^ ' i n cel jurnalistic, caracterizate printr-o exprimare impersonal,-obiectiva
34

Diateza, pasiv se folosete cu majoritatea verbelor tranzitive i cu unele verbe intranzitive cu prepoziie obligatorie n care verbul formeaz o unitate pmantic cu prepoziia, devenind practic echivalent cu un verb tranzitiv. 8 Verbele cel mai frecvent folosite din aceast categorie snt : care forflook fler = tend, come to = reach, deal with analyse, laugh at = ridicule, listen to = hear, look upon = regard, rely on = trust, send for = caii, talk of = diseuss, think of = consider. This matter will be dealt with at ance. Ne vom ocupa ndat de aceast oroblem. An alternative was not thpught o. La o alternativ nu s-au gndit. Pe plan sintactic, trecerea unei propoziii de la diateza activ la cea pasiv aduce cu sine mai multe schimbri: Diateza activ: Our form teacher has lent me this book. Diateza pasiv: / 129) subiectul activ al aciunii devine complement de agent pasiv (care poate fi omis n cazurile de la 1.11.7.): This book has been lent to me by our orm teacher. 130) obiectul activ (complementul direct sau indirect) devine subiectul verbului pasiv: This book has been lent to me by our, form teacher, sau: I have been lent this book by our form teacher. 131) prepoziia by este introdus naintea agentului: / have been lent this book BY our form teacher.
Not: Pentru descrierea transformrilor pasive, vezi 14.8.

1.11.9. Traducerea construciilor pasive n limba romn. Un verb englezesc la diateza pasiv se traduce de obicei tot pnntr-o construcie pasiv: The car was repaired yesterday. Maina a fost reparat ieri. In cazul verbelor urmate de un complement direct i unul indirect, se pot folosi i construcii reflexive cu valoare pasiv cnd complementul indirect al persoanei devine subiect: The teacher was offered flowers by her pupils. Profesoarei i s-au oferit flori de ctre elevi. Verbele intranzitive cu prepoziie obligatorie se traduc prin diateza pasiv, diateza activ sau prin forme reflexiv-pasive, de la caz la caz: The children. were well looked after. Copiii au fost bine ngrijii. A doctor has been sent for. Au trimis/S-a trimis dup un doctor.
Not: n limba englez exist o categorie aparte de verbe intranzitive folosite la diateza activ cu valoare pasiv i care se traduc n limba romn fie prin construcii reflexive pasive, fie prin verbe la diateza pasiv: The book has sold very well. Cartea s-a vlndut foarte bine. The cake cuts easily. Prjitura se taie uor. The dauserens both ways. Clatiza poate fi interpretat n .dou feluri.

1-12. Persoana i numrul (Person and Number)

x6 deosebire de verbul romnesc, verbul englez are puini indici formali sa marcheze persoana i numrul. 1 11 ( es nen ^ ^ * * t' specific este -s pentru persoana a IlI-a singular, indiPrezent > adugat la forma de infinitiv a verbelor noionale. (Verbele nu primesc -s) : He plays the piano. El cnt la pian. -r^ a^sen^ei Armelor flexionare, persoana i numrul n limba englez . ate de obicei cu ajutorul subiectului, mai ales cnd acesta este prmtr-un pronume personal.
35

In consecin, subiectul este de regul exprimat n limba englez, mai ales cnd este un pronume personal, spre deosebire de limba romn: I work. .very hard. (Eu) muncesc foarte mult. We work,very hard. (Noi) muncim foarte mult.

1.13. Modul (Mood)

1.13.1. Definiie. Modul este categoria gramatical specific verbului care arat felul n care vorbitorul consider aciunea din punctul de vedere al posibilitii de ndeplinire a ei n realitate. Pentru redarea acestui raport al aciunii cu realitatea, limba englez dispune de dou moduri marcate formal: indicativul (aciune real) i subjoncti vul (aciune posibil sau presupus).
Not&: Unele gramatici men ioneaz i modurile condiional i imperativ. In aceast lucrare, formele de condiional (prezent i trecut) snt tratate n cadrul modului subjonctiv (vezi 1.13:10, 1.13.12.) datorit formei identice cu unele forme ale subjonctivului analitic i funciei similare (aciune posibil sau presupus, n acest caz condiionat de ndeplinirea unei alte aciuni), iar folosirea condiiona lului este tratat n cadrul Sintaxei frazei: 25.14.4. Formele folosite pentru exprimarea unei aciuni poruncite (aa-numitul mod imperativ) snt analizate n cadrul capitolului Felurile propoziiilor, Bropoziia imperativ, 23.4.

Dup categoria gramatical a persoanei i a posibilitii de a forma predicatul unei propoziii, formele verbale n limba englez se mpart n per sonale (indicativul i subjonctivul)-i nepersonale (infinitivul, participiul i Gerund-u\). FORMELE PERSONALE ALE VERBULUI (TheFinitfe Forma of the Y-rb) 1.13.2. Modul Indicativ (The Indicative Mood) Modul indicativ prezint aciunea, starea, etc. exprimat de verb ca real, ndeplinit chiar. Modul indicativ are urmtoarele timpuri, n nvecinarea" lor cronologic: Pe axa trecutului: Pe axa prezentului: Pe axa viitorului: Post Present Future Post Perfect Present Perfect ' Future Perfect Future in the Post Future ' He returned the book to the library after he hd read it. A. napoiat cartea la bibliotec dup ce a citit-o. / can return the book to the library now. I have read it. Pot s napoiez cartea la bibliotec (acum). Am citit-o. He will returo the book to the library next Monday. He will have read it by then. Va napoi* cartea la bibliotec lunea viitoare. O va i citit pn atunci. 1.13.3. Modul subjonctiv (The Snbjunctive Mood). Modul subjonctiv j prezint aciunea ca posibil, cnd aciunea este proiectat n viitor, sa ca virtual, nereaizat, deci ireal, cnd aciunea trebuia s aib loc l trecut. Modul subjonctiv n limba englez are forme sintetice i analitice. 1.13.4. Subjonctivul sintetic (The Synthrtical Snbjunctive). Subjonctiv^ sintetic are forme de prezent i trecut. w
Not:
:

pentru analiza folosirii timpurilor, vezi: 1.5. 1.9.

1,13.5. Subjonctivul prezent (The Present Subjunctive) este identic ca l\o Jiprf* come in time. f s fie aici. Este necesar ca el j g vin contrar realitii la timp_

Subjonctivul prezent exprim o aciune considerat posibil, deci nu Subjonctivul prezent este puin folosit n engleza contemporan, fiind de hicei nlocuit de alte construcii: subjonctivul analitic, infinitivul, ntrebuin rile lui sin t limitate la: \ 1) propoziii principale coninnd: 132) u r r i : Long live peace ! Triasc pacea! 133) anumite e x p r e s i i , n construcii fixe (Formulate Subjunctive) : So be it thenl Aa s fie! Suffice it to say that... Este de ajuns s spun c... 2) propoziii subordonate introduse de that, cnd propoziia principal exprim o recomandare, decizie, rugminte, speran sau intenie pentru viitor ori un sentiment de surprindere (Mandatice Subjunctive)., Astfel, subjonctivul sintetic este folosit n urmtoarele tipuri de propoziii subordonate : 134) n propoziii subiective : It is necessary that the chairman inform the committee of the deeision. Este necesar ca preedintele s informeze comitetul asupra deciziei. 135) n propoziii atributive apofiionale : There was a proposal that he be elected chairman. Exista o propunere ca el s fie ales preedinte. 136) n propoziii completive diecte : They suggested that steps be taken to con solidate peace and security in Europe. S-a propus luarea de msuri pentru consolidarea pcii i securitii n Europa. 137) n propoziii condiionale sau concesive introduse de o conjuncie : If this rumour be true, we cannot stay here. Dac acest zvon e cumva adevrat, nu putem rmne aii. Though everyone desert you, / will not. Chiar dac toat lumea te va prsi, eu nu o voi face. Folosirea subjonctivului prezent este caracteristic stilului oficial, fiind ntlnit n tratate, rezoluii, regulamente sau n stilul tehnico-tiinific. Subjonctivul prezent este mai frecvent folosit n engleza american (literar i vorbit). Engleza britanic curent prefer construcii cu: ?) infinitivul : It is necessary for him to come in time. o) should + infinitiv: They suggested that steps should be taken. . !-13,6. Subjonctivul trecut (The Past Subjunctive). Subjonctivul trecut /TJ, * ca form cu Pa# Tense simplu, modul indicativ: / wish he told the A dori s spun adevrul. / erbul be are o form unic pentru toate persoanele : were : I wish j ,/ here. l V n vorbirea curent ns, exist tendina de a-1 nlocui pe were cu was la i a m_a singuiar:
aC c If he

iUj

j wmld

send for the doctor

Fo fl ^,olnav'. a trimite dup doctor. nine n t su^onctiv trecut poate fi folosit i la aspectul continuu. Ea structura sa forma were urmat de participiul n -ing al verbului de
37

conjugat: / wish he. *;^ -evis:;^.;, , . fiis t;.... :, . . _ A d- s repete pcntr examen acum. Subjonctivul trecut este folosit n propoziii subordonate, pentru a exprima o aciune contrar realitii: x a) in propcrziii subiective, dup it's (higk) time: It's time you went to bed. E de mult timpul s v ducei la culcare (Este foarte trziu).
Nota:Comparai cu: It's time + infinitiv: It's lirne far you, to go to bed. E timpul s v ducei la culcare. (E ora de culcare).

138)

n completive directe, dup verbul wish: I wish you were telling the truth. | A dori s spui adevrul. 139) n propoziii condiionale: l I saw Mm, / would give him your message. Dac 1-a vedea, i-a transmite mesajul tu. 140) n circumstaiale de mod comparative: She talked as ishe wereill. Vorbea de parc era bolnav. 141) n propoziii concesive: Even though he were ill, he would noi miss school, Chiar dac ar fi bolnav, n-ar lipsi de la coal. Subjonctivul trecut este utilizat att n stilul literar ct i n limba vorbit. El este cronfundat de obicei cu Post Tense, cu care este identic ca form.
Not n capitolele de sintax a frazei s-a folosit termenul de Post Tense i nu de subjonctiv trecut n discuia propoziiilor subordonate n care apare aceast, form, pentru simplificare i uurarea memorrii.

1.13.7. Subjonctivul II trecut. Forma de mai-mult-ca-perfect a indicativu lui are i valoare de subjonctiv perfect; cnd exprim o aciune contrar unei realiti trecute, deci ireal, n unele propoziii subordonate: 142) n propoziii completive directe, dup verbul wish: I wish I hd been there too. (but I wasn't). A fi dorit s fiu i eu acolo. 143) n circumstaniale de mod comparative: He talked as if he hd secn her. Vorbea de parc ar fi vzut-o. 144) n propoziii condiionale: I he hd read the book, he would have written a better term paper. Dac ar fi citit cartea, ar fi scris o tez mai bun. 1.13.8. Subjonctivul analitic (The Analytical Subjunctivc), In limba englez contemporan exist tendina de a folosi subjonctivul analitic, mai frecvent dect subjonctivul sintetic, pentru a exprima fapte sau aciuni ipote tice, sub forma unor presupuneri, ndoieli, urri, condiii, concesii sau a unui scop. Formele subjonctivului analitic conin n structura lor verbe modale urmate de verbe noionale la infinitiv (prezent sau perfect). Exist mai multe posibiliti de exprimare a subjonctivului analitic (cu o form unic pentru toate persoanele):

should -f- infinitiv should + infinitivul perfect would -j- infimtiv would -j- infinitivul perfect jnay -{- infinitiv may -j- infinitivul perfect might -f- infinitiv might + infinitivul perfect could -f- infinitiv could -\- infinitivul perfect
38

should leave should have left would leave would have let may leave may have left might leave might have left could leave could have left

..iele de subjonctiv alctuite din verbe modale urmate de infinitivul orezent se refer la o aciune simultan sau posterioar aciunii din propoziia orincipaJ, pe cnd cele urmate de infinitivul perfect redau o aciune ante rioar aciunii din- propoziia principal. A te n t i c! Dei conin verbe modale, formele subjonctivului analitic gi-au pierdut n multe cazuri nelesul modal, verbele modale devenind simple verbe auxiliare : He left early so tkat he might arrive in time. A. plecat devreme ca s ajung la timp. . 13.9. ntrebuinarea subjonctivului analitic. Formele de subjonctiv analitic snt folosite ^tt n propoziiile principale, ct i n propoziiile subordonate. Folosirea acestor forme n propoziiile principale este limitat de obicei la exprimarea unor urri, n expresii fixe, sau pentru exprimarea ideii de condiional: May he live long! should like to go now. > Formele subjonctivului analitic (mai ales should -f- infinitiv) snt mai frecvente n propoziiile subordonate (n special cele introduse de that), pentru a exprima o aciune posibil, presupus, pentru a sublinia ideea de aciune i nu aciunea propriu-zis sau ndeplinirea ei, care snt redate prin indicativ. Comparai: The idea is that sport facilities should be improved. Ideea este s se mbunteasc baza material pentru sport. (Aceasta se .poate ntmpla sau nu.) The f act is that sport facilities will be improved. Faptul este c baza material' pentru sport va fi mbuntit. (Aceasta se va ntmpla). l, 13. 10. Should .-f- infinitivul. Should +in f in i t i v ui este folosit: 1) n propoziii principale, n alctuirea formelor de condiional prezent i trecut: a) Should -j-infinitiv ui prezent este utilizat pentru a reda condi-

ionalul prezent n limba englez, la persoana I singular i plural : m- r As ] should like to see him. ? dori s-1 vedem.
Not: n vorbirea curent exist tendina de a folosi would n loc de should: L, l would like to see him.

Should +infinitivul perfect este folosit cu func ie de condi ional trecut la persoana I singular i plural : should have liked to see

him. i aici este prezent tendina de a nlocui vhould cu would: -mWould have liked to see him. Tot n propoziii principale, should + infinitivul este folosit pentru exprimarea unei atitudini emoionale, n ntrebri ncepnd cu why sau how: Why should we quarrel about such a trifle? De ce s ne certm pentru un asemenea fleac? 2) n propoziii subordonate: a propoziii subiective introduse it is/was necessary, strnge, unusual, l niportant, impossible, natural, (unjfortunate, remarkable, surprising, etc. : 39

11 is necessary that the chairman should inform the committee o the dec sion taken. Este necesar ca preedintele s informeze comitetul desp?! decizia luat. 145) n propoziii subiective introduse de it is/was apity, shdne, surprise, wonde It is a wonder that they should eome so early. E o minune ca ei s vin a, devreme. 146) n propoziiile atributive apoziionale, dup substantivele reason, supposition, thought, idea, hint: This is no reason why he should be late. Aceasta nu este un motiv pentru care s ntrzie. 147) n propoziiile completive directe dup verbe care exprim un ordin, 0 sugestie, o hotrre: order, command, demand, request, insist, suggest, propose offer, arrange, agree, settle: They demanded that the meeting should be held without delay. Au cerut ca edina s fie inut fr ntrziere. 148) n propoziii completive prepoziionale, dup adjective ca: / am glad, pleased, anxious, sorry etc., care redau sentimentele vorbitorului: She was anxious that they should see her dancing. Era nerbdtoare ca ei s o vad dansnd. 149) n propoziii condiionale, pentru exprimarea unei condiii puin probabile: l he should come, teii him to wait in the sitting room. Dac vine cumva/se ntmpl s vin, spune-i s atepte n camera de zi. g) n propoziii circumstaniale de scop negative introduse de lest, for fear (that), in case (that), urmate de un verb la forma afirmativ: He hurried for ear he should Ibe late. Se grbea de fric s nu ntrzie. h) n propoziii concesive introduse de though, although, whatever pentru a exprima o aciune ipotetic: Whatever he should do, he is not likely to succeed. Orice ar face, nu are anse s reueasc. i) n propoziii subordonate temporale (rar): He was advised to keep a diet till he should eel better. A fost sftuit s in regim pn se va simi mai bine, . 13. 11. May/might-f infinitivul. Subjonctivul analitic exprimat prin mayjmight + infinitivul prezent sau perfect este folosit: 150) in propoziii principale, pentru a exprima o urare, dorin: May you Uve longt S trieti muli ani! Oh, that he might recover soon! O, de s-ar nsntoi repede! . 151) n propoziii subordonate. Atenie! Dac verbul din propoziia principal este la un timp pr e ' zent, n propoziia subordonat se poate folosi may sau might + infinitiv (perfect). Utilizarea lui might + infinitiv indic o nesiguran mai mare dec may: It is possible that he may come later. Este posibil/Se poate s vin mai trziu. It is possible that he might come later. S-ar putea s vin mai trziu. Might + infinitivul este ntrebuinat ntotdeauna dup un verb trecut fl propoziia principal: He spoke loudly so that everybody might hear him- * vorbit tare ca s-1 aud toat lumea. Maylmight -f- infinitivul (prezent sau perfect) este folosit n urmtoare' 6 tipuri de propoziii subordonate:
40
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, jn propoziii subiective introduse de it isjwas possible, probable, likely, la forma afirmativ : It was possible that they might have visited the Exhibition the day before. Era posibil ca ei s fi vizitat expoziia cu o zi nainte.
NotLa forma interogativ sau negativ, aceste construcii snt urmate de should + + infinitiv: Was it possible that they should have visited the Exhibition already Era posibil ca ei s fi vizitat deja expoziia?

b) n propoziii completive prepoziionale dup be afraid: He was afraid I might turn down his offer. Se temea s nu-i resping oferta. n propoziii circumstaniale de scop introduse de conjunciile that, so that, in order that: She repeated the explanation so that the pupils might understand the lesson better. A repetat explicaia ca elevii s neleag mai bine lecia. d) n propoziii concesive introduse de though, although, whatever, however, no matter etc., pentru a reda o aciune nesigur, presupus: However tired he might be, he must come down and talk to us. Orict de obosit ar fi, trebuie s coboare s vorbeasc cu noi. 1.13.12. \Yould -+- infinitivul. Subjonctivul analitic exprimat prin would-f infinitivul prezent sau perfect este utilizat: 1) n propoziii principale, pentru construirea formelor de condiional: 152) c o n d i i o n a lu l p r e z e n t , la t o a te p e rs o a n e l e , e s t e fo rm a t din would + infinitivul prezent: They wpuld like to come now. Ei ar dori s vin acum. 153) would + infinitivul perfect este ntrebuinat pentru formarea condi ionalului trecut la toate persoanele : They would have liked to come now. Ei ar fi dorit s vin. acum. 2) n propoziii subordenate: 154) n propoziii completive directe, dup verbul wish, pentru a exprima o aciune dorit, dar avnd puine anse ide realizare n viftor: / wish he would lend me his book. (but I don1 1 think he will). A dori s-mi mprumute cartea. (dar nu cred c o va face). 155) n propoziii circumstaniale de scop introduse de so that: She kept the food in the dven so that they would eat t ho. A inut mncarea n cuptor ca s-o mnnce cald. 1-13.13. Could -\- infinitivul. Could -f infinitivul este folosit de obicei n propoziiile circumstaniale de scop, ca o alternativ a lui maylmight -finfiniivul. Deosebirea dintre cele dou construcii este urmtoarea: maylmight este mai formal i indic un grad mai mare de nesiguran; could este utilizat n orbire Hndic de obicei o aciune real: She senthim money so that he could e si n a CSte ut^ zat de obicei cnd aciunea este menionat ca un fapt real p Ji c ^ .Presupunere : IC s a pity you have missed s'uch an opportunity. E shonld h al pie.rdut asemenea ocazie (faptul s-a petrecut). It's a pity you cazie K 6 mi s< d sucn an ? ? opportunity. E pcat s fi pierdut o asemenea loe subliniaz ideea de a pierde o asemenea ocazie).

y the dictionary. I-a trimis bani ca s poat cumpra/s cumpere dicionarul.

1

ot; Pentru analiza mai detaliat a folosirii modurilor i timpurilor fn propoziiile 41

1.14. Formele nepersonale ale verbului (The N'on-Finte Fonn of the Verb)
1.14.1. Formele nepersonale ale verbului n limba englez snt infinitivul, participiul in -mg, forma Geruna (gerunziul) i participiul trecut. Formele nepersonale ale verbului nu au categoriile gramaticale de mod persoan i numr i nu pot ndeplini n propoziie funcia de predicat. n' unele situaii ns, ele pot forma construcii cu caracter predicativ, in care forma verbal se afl ntr-un raport predicativ implicit fa de elementul nominal: Father coming home early, we went for a walk. Tata venind devreme acas, ne-am dus la plimbare. The preparations or the exam completed, the candidates were aHovved to enter the examination room. Pregtirile pentru examen (fiind) terminate, li s-a permis candhiailor s intre n sala de examen. Formele nepersonale ale verbului au att caracteristici verbale, ct i caracteristici nominale. -< 1.14.2. CaracteristicUo verbale, comune cu cele ale, formelor personale, snt: a) Formele nepersonale ale verbului au tradiional categoria de timp, diatez, . iar infinitivul are si categoria de aspect. b) pe plan sintactic, pot avea; subiect (formnd construcii predicative impli cite), complement direct (dup verbe tranzitive) sau complemente circum staniale, ca i formele personale: / can imagine them worrying about it. mi imaginez c-i fac probleme despre acest lucru. Having read the foook, she returned it to the library. Dup ce a citit cartea, a napoiat-o la bibliotec. We noticed some pupils running in the playground. Am observat civa elevi alergnd n curtea colii. 1.14.3. Pe lng aceste caracteristici verbale, infinitivul i Gerund-ul au i caracteristici substantivale, datorit crora ele pot ndeplini n propoziie i funcii specifice substantivului, iar participiul are i caracteristici adjecti vale, datorit crora se poate comporta ca un adjectiv n propoziie: To see her again was his only deire. S-o vad din nou era singura lui dorin. Bunning is good for you. Grosul i face bine. He would d stamp after stamp to his growing collection of old Romanian stamps. Aduga timbru dup timbru la colecia lui n cretere, de vechi mrci potale romneti. There is the Lost Property Office. Acolo este Biroul de obiectevgsite. ,

1.15. Infinitivul (The infinitive) ,

1.15.1. Formele Infinitivului. Infinitivul are dou forme: infinitivul lung (The Long Infinitive), marcat de particula to i infinitivul scurt (The Short Infinitive), fr particula to.
Not: Infinitivul cu adverb intercalat (The Split Infinitive). Gramaticile mai menioneaz i infinitivul cu adverb intercalat, o construcie destul de frecvent n englez 8 contemporan, alctuit dintr-un infinitiv lung i un adverb de mod, aezat ntre to i verbul principal. De exemplu: to clearly understand = a nelege clar to fully appreciate = a aprecia cum trebuie to flatly refuse = a refuza categoric etc. They came to ully realize the importance of the event. Au ajuns s-i dea pe deplin de importana evenimentului,

42

fl

i.15.2. u.i. etersticile verbiii,, ale infiniavului ) Infinitivul are categoriile gramaticale de timp (prezent i perfect), aspect (simplu i continuu) i diatez (activ i pasiv).

Infinitivul (timp, aspect, diatez)

Timpul Aspectul sirnpu Diateza activ Diateza paeiv Aspectul continuu Diateza cetiri

Prezent Perfect

wash a spla
have washed a fi splat

be washed a fi splat

be washing a spla have been washing a fi splat

have been washed a fi fost splat

1.15.3. Caracteristicile substantivale ale infinitivului, n propoziie, infinitivul ndeplinete de regul funciile unui substantiv. Infinitivul este folosit: 1) la nceputul propoziiei: a) cu funcie de subiect: To err is human. A grei este omenesc.
Not: n vorbirea curent, subiectul exprimat printr-un infinitiv este anticipat de pronumele it: It is quite easy to leara English, Este destul de uor s nvei englezete.

b) ca element independent n propoziie, n construcii parentetice: to be sure, to put it mildly, to speak frankly, to teii the truth etc.: To teii the truth, / dorit like him. 2) dup substantive, ndeplinind funcia do alribut: He is not the mn to do it. El nu este omul (care) s fac acest lucru. New houses will be built in this area in the years to come. n anii ce vor veni se vor construi case noi n aceast zon. \

Notft: Unele dintre aceste substantive provin din verbele de la 1.15.3., pct. 6: attempt, decision, intention, wish etc.: He announced his .DECISION to resiga, i-a anunat hotrrea de a demisiona.

3) dup verbe modale, ca parte a predicatului: a) infinitivul lung', dup: ought (to), have (to), be (to), used (to) i uneori dup dare i need (vezi 1.20.5. i 1.20.11.), ca parte a predicatului: We HAYE TO get \npearlyeveryddy. Trebuie's ne sculm Devreme n fiecare zi. o) infinitivul scurt, dup can, may, must, need, dare, shaUjshould, willlwould: You SHOULD see a doctor. Ar trebui s mergi la doctor. *) dup verbe copulative (n special be), ndeplinind funcia de nume predicativ: To see her IS to like her. A o vedea nseamn a o plcea. J) ca o complinire a unor adjective care exprim stri sufleteti, folosite predicativ: afraid, certain, content, eager, glad, pleased, sorry, sure, wrong etc.: fie is EAGER to help you. Este dornic s te ajute. Fm very ULAD to. have seen them. 'Snt foarte bucuros c i-am vzut. ) dup verbe tranzitive: arrange, attempt, decide, learn, offer, promise, rtfuse, want, wish etc. ndeplinind funcia de complement direct. a) singure: They HAVE DECIDED to repeat the experiment. Au hotrlt s ^. Repete experiena. to c onstruc ia Ac uz ativ cu i n f i n i t i v , dup ver be e xpr imnd 0 activitate mintal,, (believe, consider, think etc.), permisiunea (allow, Permit), un ordin sau o rugminte (order, command, request, beg, ask etc.): We requested them to complete the survey. Le-am cerut s termine ancheta.
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1.14. Formele nepersonalc ale verbului(The Non-Finite FOIT of the Verb)

1.14.1. Formele nepersonale ale verbului n limba englez snt infinitivul participiul in -ing, forma Geruna (gerunziul) i participiul trecut. Formele nepersonale ale verbului nu au categoriile gramaticale de mod persoan i numr i nu pot ndeplini n propoziie funcia de predicat. Q unele situaii ns, ele pot forma construcii cu caracter predicativ, in care forma verbal se afl ntr-un raport predicativ implicit fa de elementul nominal: Father coming home early, we went for a walk. Tata venind devreme acas, ne-am dus la plimbare. The preparatioas or the exam completed, the candidates were allowed to enter the examination room. Pregtirile pentru examen (fiind) terminate, li s-a permis candhiailor s intre n sala de examen. Formele ne personale ale verbului au att caracteristici verbale, ct i caracteristici nominale. -> 1.14.2. Caracteristicii?) vfirhale, comune cu cele ale formelor personale, snt: a) Formele nepersonale ale verbului au tradiional categoria de timp, diatez, . iar infinitivul are i categoria de aspect. b) pe plan sintactic, pot avea; subiect (formnd construcii predicative impli cite), complement direct (dup verbe tranzitive) sau complemente circum staniale, ca i formele personale: / can imagine them worrying about it. mi imaginez c-i fac probleme despre acest lucru. Having read the l>ook, she returned it to the library. Dup ce a citit cartea, a napoiat-o la bibliotec. We noticed some pupils running in the playground. Am observat civa elevi alergnd n curtea colii. 1.14.3. Pe lng aceste caracteristici verbale, infinitivul i Gerund-ul au i caracteristici substantivale, datorit crora ele pot ndeplini n propoziie i funcii specifice substantivului, iar participiul are i caracteristici adjecti vale, datorit crora se poate comporta ca un adjectiv n propoziie: To see her again was his only deire. S-o vad din nou era singura lui dorin. Running is good for you. Crosul i face bine. He would <d stamp after stamp to his growing collection of old Romanian stamps. Aduga timbru dup timbru la colecia lui n cretere, de vechi mrci potale romneti. There is the Lost Property Office. Acolo este Biroul de obiecteVgsite. i

1.15. Infinitivul (The Infinitive)

1.15.1. Formele Ininitivnlm. Infinitivul are dou forme: i n f i n i t i v u l lung (The Long Infinitive), marcat de particula to i infinitivul scurt (The Short Infinitive), fr particula to.
Not: Infinitivul cu adverb intercalat (The Split Infinitive). Gramaticile mai menioneaz i infinitivul cu adverb intercalat, o construcie destul de frecvent n englez 8 contemporan, alctuit dintr-un infinitiv lung i un adverb de mod, aezat ntre v> i verbul principal. De exemplu: to clearly understand = a nelege clar to fully appreciate = a aprecia cum trebuie to flatly refuse = a refuza categoric etc. They came to ully realize the importance of the event. Au ajuns s-i dea pe deplin de importana evenimentului,

42

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) Infinitivul are categoriile gramaticale de timp (prezent i perfect), aspect (simplu i continuu) i diatez (activ i pasiv). Infinitivul (timp, aspect, diatez)

,...,..-.f.2. Caracteristicile verbale ale infinitivului

.
Timpul

Aspectul simplu Diateza activ j Diateza pasiv

Aspectul continuu Diateza aotiv*

Prezent Perfect

wash a spla
kave washed

be washed a fi splat
have leen washed

be washing a spla have leen washing

a fi splat

a fi fost splat

a fi splat

1.15.3. Caracteristicile substantivale ale infinitivului, n propoziie, infinitivul ndeplinete de regul funciile unui substantiv. Infinitivul este folosit: 1) la nceputul propoziiei: a) cu funcie de subiect: To err is human. A grei este omenesc.
Not: n vorbirea curent, subiectul exprimat printr-un infinitiv este anticipat de pronumele it: It is quiie easy to learn English. Este destul de uor s nvei englezete.

b) ca element independent n propoziie, n construcii parentetice: to be sure, to put it mildly, to speak frankly, to teii the truth etc.: To tel the truth, I dorit like him. 2) dup substantive, ndeplinind funcia de- atribut: He is not the mn to do it. El nu este omul (care) s fac acest lucru. New hoases will be built in this area in the years to come. n anii ce vor veni se vor construi case noi n aceast zon. \

Nota: Unele dintre aceste substantive provin din verbele de la 1.15.3., pct. 6: attempt, decision, intention, ivish etc.: He announced his DECISION to resiga. i-a anunat hotrrea de a demisiona.

wililwould: You SHOULD see a doctor. Ar trebui s mergi la doctor. 6) dup verbe copulative (n special be), ndeplinind funcia de nume predicativ: To see her IS to like her. A o vedea nseamn a o plcea. ) c& o complinire a unor adjective care exprim stri sufleteti, folosite predicativ: afraid, certain, content, eager, glad, pleased, sorry, sure, wrong etc.: He is EAGER to help you. Este dornic s te ajute. Fm very ULAD ta have seen them. 'Snt foarte bucuros c i-am vzut. ) dup verbe tranzitive: arrange, attempt, decide, learn, offer, promise, rrfuse, want, wish etc. ndeplinind funcia de complement direct. a ) singure: They HAVE DECIDED to repeat the experiment. Au hotrtt s , ^ repete experiena. n construcia Acuzativ cu i n f i n i t i v , dup verbe exprimnd 0 activitate mintal,, (beliece, consider, think etc.), permisiunea (allow, Permit), un ordin sau o rugminte (order, command, request, beg, ask etc.): We requested them to complete the survey. Le-am cerut s termine ancheta.
43

3) dup verbe modale, ca parte a predicatului: 156) infinitivul lung', dup: ought (to), have (to), be (to), used (io) i uneori dup dare i need (vezi 1.20.5. i 1.20.11.), ca parte a predicatului: We HAVE TO get up early every dcty. Trebuie's ne sculm devreme n fiecare zi. 157) infinitivul scurt, dup can, may, must, need, dare, shalljshould,

c) Atenie! Dup verbele de percepie: hear, see, watch, notice, 'observe perceive i dup have, lei i make n construcia Acuzativ cu infinitiv (Vez t 18.3.1.) se folosete infinitivul scurt: / HEARD them come. I-am auzit venind. / MADE her work harder. Am fcut-o s munceasc mai mult.
Not:! Verbul notice poate fi urmat i de infinitivul cu to: I noticed them (to) come. Iam observat venind. 2. Verbele de la pct. .6.c) snt urmate de infinitivul cu to n transformarea pasiv a construciei Acuzativ cu infinitiv Nominativ cu infinitiv: They were heard to corne She was mode to work harder.

158) n construcia I n f i n i t i v u l cu for to: They were anxious for her to begin her song. Erau nerbdtori ca ea s-i nceap cntecul. 159) n construcia Nominativ cu i n f i n i t i v : They were fequested to complete the survey. Li s-a cerut s termine ancheta. 160) dup verbe tranzitive sau intranzitive, ndeplinind funcia de comph ment circumstanial de scop: / came to talk to you. Am venit (ca) s stau ' vorb cu tine.
Notslnfinitivul cu funcie de complement circumstanial de scop poate fi precedat' de in order to, so as to: He repeated the neiv ivords everyday (in order) not to orget them. Repeta cuvintele noi n fiecare zi ca s nu le uite.

10) pentru a nlocui o propoziie subordonat, precedat de un pronume/ adverb interogativ, sau de o conjuncie: where to go, bnow me He has told me what to ba y. how to do ii (= where I must go). (= what I must buy). (= how I should do it).

Not ii. Verbul know cu sensul de a ti cum s"... este urmat de how + infinitiv: She knows how to captivate her audience. tie cum s-i captiveze auditoriul. 2. Forget, learn i teac'h snt folosite n mod similar: She laught me how to catch butterflies. M-a nvat cum s prind fluturi.

11) Particula to poate fi folosit pentru a nlocui un verb care a fost deja menionat: A: Lei1 s go. B: / dan11 want to. A: Hai s mergem. B: Nu vreau (s mergem). She bought the book although I hd told her not to. Ea a cumprat cartea dei i-am spus s n-o cumpere. .15.4. Traducere, Infinitivul se traduce de obicei n limba romna printr-o propoziie subordonat: / want to see her. Vreau s-o vd. He coud come. A putut s vin.

1.16. Forma n -ing (The -ing Form)

1.16.1. Forma n -ing reprezint dou forme verbale distincte: participi 0! n -mg i Gerund-ul. Acestea au form identic, putnd fi difereniate nurna' dup funciile pe care le ndeplinesc n propoziie, pe baza determinrilor p e care le au. Forma n -ing se construiete din infinitivul verbului de conjugat, la ca^ se adaug terminaia -ing: read .+ -ing = reading; write + -ing writingi cry -\--ing =- crying; lie +-ing = lying; sit +-ing = sitting. (Pentru grafierea acestei forme verbale, vezi 1.10.5.)
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Funcii! 6 ndeplinite de cele dou forme verbale deriv din caracteristi-1 r participiul n -ing are caracteristici verbale i adjectivale: He is sleeping. ci e i j9rme The sleeping child. Copilul care doarme. rrund-ul, caracteristici verbale i substantivale: We hd the advantage of * af t ns in a factory near our school. Am avut avantajul s, lucrm ntr-o W if lng coala noastr. Working in a factory is useful for our future careers. l "ca n fabric este folositoare pentru viitoarea noastr profesiune. ,, o Participiul n -ing sau participiul prezent (the -ing Participle, Pres'ent Participle) exprim o aciune n desfurare sau o stare nelegate de un agent prin categoriile de persoan sau numr. i i f, 3 Caracteristicile .verbale ale participiului n -ing. -t? are categoriile gramaticale de timp i diateza: Participiul ncing (timp, diatez)
Diatez Timp activ pasiv
a

) Participiul n

Present Pariiciple Participiul Prezent Perfect Participle Participiul Perfect

reading citind having read citind

being read fiind citit having teen read fiind citit

Participiul prezent exprim o aciune simultan cu verbul la mod personal din propoziie: Running across the park, he heard somebody caii his name. In timp CP traversa parcul n fug, a auzit pe Cineva strigndu-1 pe nume. Participiul perfect* se formeaz din participiul prezent al verbului have i din participiul trecut al verbului de conjugat. El exprim o aciune ante rioar verbului predicativ 'din propoziie: Having run across the park, he felt tired. Dup ce a traversat parcul n fug s-a simit obosit. b) Participiul n -ing este folosit pentru formarea aspectului continuu al verbelor: They are going home. Se duc acas. / was playing chess when the telephone rang. Jucam ah cnd a sunat telefonul. c ) Pe plan sintactic, participiul n -ing poate avea subiect, complement direct (dup verbe tranzitive) i complemente circumstaniale, ca i formele personale: / saw Mm reading an English foook in the library. L-am vzut citind o carte englezeasc la bibliotec. n H fil4 -^l^cteriticile adjectivale ale participiului n -in. Participiul t-ng poate li folosit i ca adjectiv. El se aaz naintea substantivului, dac
* Participiul perfect (Perfect Participle) i participiul trecut (Past Participle) nu una i aovai form verbal. ' . . a r t i c i p i u l p e r f e c t reprezint forma perfect a participiului n -ing, " ac tiune svrit anterior aciunii exprimate de verbul predicativ: Having the book, he tvent to led. Deoarece / Dup ce a terminat cartea, s-a dus la culcare, timp . a r t l c i P i u l t r e c u t reprezint alt form verbal, lipsit de categoria de *' Care denume te aciunea ca rezultat: The furniture made in. Romnia is exported countries. Mobila fabricat n Romnia este exportat n- multe ri. us e f ul artlc 'P' ul trecut intr n structura formei de participiu perfect: Having made a ---Sgestlon' ^e ^a^ our support. Deoarece a fcut 6 propunere util, (el) s-a bucurat nostru.
45

se accentueaz latura sa adjectival i aup substantiv, dac latura ver este mai evident: AU sleeping children are beautiful (sleeping = not awake) Toi copiii adormii snt frumoi. The chil sleeping in the next room is my baby brother (sleeping = who is sleeping) Copilul care doarme n camera altura^ este friorul meu. 1.16.5. Funciile sintactice ale participiului in.-ing. Participiul n -ing este folosit (singur sau precedat de conjuncii, n special wfien sau while): 1) n expresii parentetice: generally speaking = n general, judging by appearances = judecind dup aparene; beginning with September 15 = nce. pnd cu 15 septembrie, considering the circumstances = lund n considerare condiiile. Judging by appearances, nobody is to blame. Judecind dup aparene nimeni nu este vinovat. 2) ca nume predicativ, dup verbele stand, sit, lie: She STOOD gazing . at the brightly Ut shop windows. Se uita cu, admiraie la vitrinele viu luminate 3) ca nlocuitor al unor propoziii subordonate, ndeplinind n propoziie funcia de: 161) atribut: She looked at the children playing in the garden (= who were playing...) Se uita la copiii care se jucau in grdin. 162) parte dintr-un complement direct complex (AcuzatW cu participiu n -ing): She heard somebody knoeking at the door^ (= that somebody was knocking). A auzit pe cineva btnd la u. 163) complement circumstanial, mai ales de:

timp: Arriving at the station, he started looking for his friend ( when he arrived...) Sosind la gar, a nceput s-i caute prietenul. cauz: Having read the fooo'k, he was able to comment on it. (= As he hd read the, book...) Deoarece citise cartea, a putut s o comenteze. mprejurri nsoitoare: She came out of the room wearing a long evening dress. (She came out... She was wearing...) A ieit din camer puHnd o rochie lung de sear.
Not: Exprimarea complementului circumstanial printr-un participiu n -ing este o trstur caracteristic englezei literare, n vorbire se prefer propoziiile subordonate (Vezi parantezele).

1.16.6. Traducere. Participiul n -ing se traduce n limba romn printr-un gerunziu sau printr-o propoziie subordonat: Passing the skop, he saw his mother inside. Trecnd/n timp ce trecea prin faa magazinului, o vzu pe mama sa nuntru.

1.17. Forma -ing ea Gerund (The Gerund)

1.17.1. Caracteristicile verbale ale formei Gerund. Gerund are, la fel ca i participiul n -ing, caracteristici verbale: a) are categoriile gramaticale de timp i diatez: Diateza activ: Gerund: I enjoy learning English. mi place s nv engleza. Perfect Gerund: He denies having taken the books. Neag c a luat cart6' 46

Diateza pasiv: He can't stan being interrupted. Nu poate suferi s fie ntrerupt. perfect Gerund: He denies having been invited io the party. Neag c a fost invitat la petrecere. Gerund denumete de regul o aciune simultan cu aciunea verbului dicativ (cu excepia situaiilor n care Gerund-u\ este precedat de prepo-Sa before sau after). The teacher enjoyed taking the children to the museum last Sunday. Profesolui i-a fcut plcere s-i duc pe copii la muzeu duminica trecut. Forma perfect (Perfect Gerund) denumete o aciune anterioar verbului redicativ. Aceast form este mai rar folosit dect Gerund i ea apare mai jes dup verbul deny: He PENIES having seen her. Neag c a vzut-o. n cazul altor verbe, mai ales remember, excuse, forgice, thank i dup prepoziiile on, after, witliout, raportul" de anterioritate poate fi exprimat fi de Gerund: ferund:
'

/ can't remember { h ^ g

done

} this exercise before. Nu-mi amintesc s

me

mai fi fcut acest exerciiu. / thanked him for j hving ?helped mulumit c m- a ajutat.

- -am

Not: Sensul pasiy al Gerund-ulul este redat -de obicei prin forma pasiv: The children enjoyed being taken to the museum. Copiilor le-a fcut plcere s fie dui la muzeu. Dup verbele want, need, require, deserve, i dup adjectivul ivorlh se folosete ns Gerund-ul activ pentru redarea sensului pasiv: Your shoes NEED mending. Trebuie s-i repari pantofii / Pantofii ti trebuie reparai; What is WORTH doing is WORTH doing iveli. Ce merit fcut merit fcut bine.

b) Pe plan sintactic, Gerund poate avea subiect, complement direct n cazul verbelor tranzitive, complemente circumstaniale: / carit imagine him driving a car in this weather. Nu mi-1 imaginez conducnd maina pe o asemenea vreme. 1.17.2. Caracteristicile substantivale ale formei Gerund. Spre deosebire de participiul in -ing, care are i caracteristici adjectivale, Gerund are i caracteristici substantivale: ft) poate fi determinat de articole, adjective, substantive la cazul genitiv sintetic:

sound

a loud kuocking on the door a loud KiiGciang on the door \ her coming in | interrupted their discussion. a baby's crying >

Not: Dac un verb tranzitiv + complementul su direct este folosit la Gerund precedat de un articol, complementul direct se transform ntr-un atribut prepozi ional cu of. Comparai: The strengthening o peace and security in Europe is an essential prerequisite for strengthening peace and security throughout the worid. ntrirea pcii i securitii n_Europa este o condiie esenial pentru ntrirea pcii i securitii n 'urnea ntreag.
47

WHtinf Bl? b kS } *" *~" ** of time. Scrierea crilor ia foarte mult timp.

164) este ntrebuinat dup prepoziii: AFTER walking for an hour, we went to the cinema. Dup ce ne-am plimbat o or, ne-am dus la cinema. He is in the habit OF going fishing every week. Are obiceiul/Obinuiete s mearg la pescuit n fiecare sptmn. 165) pe plan sintactic, Gerund-\d ndeplinete funcii proprii substantivului: 1) subiect: Camping is the ideal way to spend a holiday.
jfot: Subiectul exprimat printr-un Girund este adeseori introdus de un it anticipativ: It's no good worrylng. It's hopeless trying to get this car going.

2) parte dintr-un predicat verbal, dup verbele indicnd nceputul: begin, start; continuarea: continue, go on, keep (on) i sfrtul aciunii: stop, end, finish, cease:
rBEGAN ) He j WENT ON } searching for the document. l FINISHE * . .

166) nume predicativ (rar): Seeing is belteving. 167) complement direct: Fancy meeting you here! 168) parte dintr-un complement prepoziional: Hehas succeeded in collecting all the material. 169) parte dintr-un complement complex: . f her \ ... can imagine i jfary-g r gettmg upset:
7) parte dintr-un complement circumstanial (precedat de o prepoziie, care i ndic i felul complementului: de timp: Ater cycling down the acenue, he turned right. de mod: He won the competition by guessing all the answers. 8) parte dintr-un atribut prepoziional: / hd the pleasure of travelling wiih tiem. 1.17.3. -ntrebuinarea formei Gerund 1) Forma Gerund este folosit: a) dup prepoziii ca after, before, by, for, from, on, ele. care indic relaii tem porale, cauzale, de mod, de scop, etc.: ON waking up, he found himself in a hospital ward. Cnd s-a trezit, s-a vzut ntr-un salon de spital. Read yoiir paper again BEFORE handing it in. Citete nc o-dat lucrarea nainte s o predai. You'll get a tichet FOR parking here. Ai s primeti amend pentru c ai parcat aici. She keeps healthy BY keeping a strict diet. i men ine sntatea innd un regim strict.' b) dup pri de vorbire urmate n mod obligatoriu de anumite prepoziii substantive cu p r e p o z i i e o b l i g a t o r i e : doubt + about; cue, reason -f for; belief, confidence, delight, difficulty, experience, faith, interest, luck, pride -fin; charge, favour, habit, hope, intefttion, opportunity, point +of; coniribution, objection, opposition -f-to;etc. He has a lot of EXPERIENCE IN foreign language teaching. Are mult expe rien n predarea limbilor strine. adjective i participii trecute cu p r e p o z i ' 6 obligatorie (vezi 8.2.5): angry, anxious, certain, enthusiasti<
48

havpy optimistic, pleased, sure, worried + about; angry,, astonished, hd clet>er, delighted, expert, good, pleased, skilful, surprised + ai; ~ excelleni famous, responsible, sorry, suitable, useful +for; consistent, correct, diligent experienced, expert, fortunate, helpful, interested, late, prompt, quick, right slow, successful +in; afraid, ashamed, aware, capable, certain, conscious, convinced, fond, guilty, proud, tired +o; based, dependent, intent, keen -f-on; accustomed, equal, 'equivalcnt, opposed, used + to; annoyed, bored, content, delighted, furious, disappointed, happy, pleased, satisfied, sick, upset + with. 7 am DELIGHTED AT her winning th'e first prize. Snt ncntat c a ctigat premiul nti.

/ am

USED T

} getting up early.

Snt obinuit s m scol devreme.

o b l i g a t o r i e : complain, dream, learn, worry + about; aim, hesitate + at; fight, strugglc -f against; begin, conclude, emZ+by; apologize, care +for; preveni, recocer, refrain, retire + f rom ; believe, consist, delight, participate, succeed -)-in; accuse, approve, boast, complain, consist, hear, think -f- of; agree, concentrate, congratulate, count, decide, focus, insist, live, rely +on; agree, contribuie, look forward, abject , resort +to; agree '-f- with.

verbe cu p r e p o z i i e

7 tfonV AGREE TO J , . , r. , i I OBJECT TO l yur * eavin S earlier mn ine others. Nu sRt de acord s pleci mai devreme dect ceilali. 7 won't HEAR OF buying a new T V set. Nu vreau s aud s cumpram un televizor nou. 7'w LOOK1NG FORWARD TO seeing you again. Atept cu nerbdare s te vd din nou. These measures CONTRIBUTE TO strcngthening peace and security. Aceste msuri contribuie la ntrirea pcii i securitii. 170) Gerund este ntrebuinat dup substantivul usc n construcia ii is no use sau there is no use i dup adjectivul worth: This book is WORTH reading. Aceast carte merit citit; IT'S JVO USE trying io mend ihe vacuum-clcaner. Degeaba ncerci s repari aspiratorul. 171) dup verbe tranzitive: admit, avoid, consider, dcny, detest, di.slike, escape, fancy, finish, give up, cannot help, kccp (on), don't mind, miss, postpone, practise, put of f, resent, resist, risk, cannot 'stand, stop, suggest, etc. You must AVOID being late in future. Trebuie s evii s ntrzii n viitor. He HAS 6IVEN UP smoking. S-a lsat de fumat. 7 CANNt)T HELP laughing athisjokes. Nu pot s nu rid la glumele lui. 7 CANNOT STAND being interrupted in my work. Nu pot suferi s fiu ntrerupt din lucru. 172) dup verbe exprimnd o activitate mintal: forgel, rcmember, unde.rstand, etc. Sau o stare sufleteasc: cannot bear, dread, hate, like, Iove, neglect, Prefer, regret, etc. n alternan cu infinitivul (vezi i 1.17. 8.): 7 remember oemgdisappointed. mi amintesc c am fost dezamgit, 7 HATE their arriving late. Nu-mi place c ntrzie. 173) dup verbe indicnd un proces:: plan, try, undertake; nceputul: begin, a; continuarea: continue sau sfiritul aciunii: cease, n alternan cu infi nitivul (vezi 1.17.8.)
They

f STARTED j CONTINUED compar ins notes. 1 CEASED J

; .17.4,, ^raducere, ^ o m Gerund nu are un corespondent perfect In limba romn. Ea se traduce de obicei, n funcie de context, prin: 174) un gerunziu: He ended his speech by thanking everybody for tkeir attention. i-a ncheiat cuvlntarea mulumind tuturor pentru atenie. 175) un substantiv: Swimming keeps you fit. notul te menine n form. 176) o p r o p o z i i e subordonat: He is fond o reading aloud. i place s citeasc cu glas tare. 1.17.5. Infinitivul cu io si forma Gerund. Infinitivul cu to i forma Gerund au unele caracteristici substantivale i verbale comune, datorit crora: a) pot avea: subiect: / want you to go first. I cart t stand Tom interrupting mc all the time; complement d i r e c t : / intend to read this tomorrow. I remember spending a holiday with them. complement circumstanial: We wanted to go to the ,theatre. He hd the benefit of studying at a Romanian university. b) pot ndeplini aceleai funcii n propoziie: subiect, nume predicativ: To see her is to like her. Seeing-w believiug. complement direct: / Iove to swim in the ea. I Iove swimming. atribut prepoziional: He has no .deire to'go. H e has no intention of going etc. n alte cazuri ns, numai una din cele dou forme este posibil. Vom ana liza deci cazurile: 177) cnd se folosete numai'infinitivul; 178) cnd se folosete numai forma Gerund; 179) cnd se poate folosi sau infinitivul su Gerund-u] i care snt diferenele de sens. .
1:17.6, Folosirea infinitivului cu to este obligatorie: a) dup verbele enumerate la f. 1.15.3. pct. 6: arrange, ask, attempt, choose, decide, demand, etc. -f- agree, aim. consent, determine, hope, manage, etc.: DECIDED j They \ AGREED [ to make another attempt. l CONSENTED > .

b) dup verbe, substantive sau adjective, pentru a exprima scopul:

r hurried j We l hd no time J to explore the cave. l found it exciting '

- c) n construcia Acuzativ cu infinitiv, dup verbe care exprim un ordin sau o rugminte: i ORDERED j H e \ REQUESTED [ us to leave immediately. l ASKED J * 1<17.7. Folosirea formei Gerund este obligatorie: 180) dup verbele enumerate la 1.17.3. pct. 3: He A'VOIDS mentioning the subject. Why do you PUT OFF telling her the truth? I DON'T MIND doing it agin. 181) dup prepoziii: BEFORE going out, switch off the lights please. He is keen ON reading poetry. 182) dup adjectivele worlh, ifre i dup there is no: It's WORTH listening to him. THERE S NO aecounting for tastes. 50

... n alte situaii, se poate folosi , ? i formaGerund osebirile principale ntre cele dou forme, n anumite situaii, snt urmtoarele: . s: erund indic aciunea n general, infinitivul svrirea aciunii n amifl mite circumstane: Ifs no use to deny that I was frightened ai first. Nu are rost s neg c mi-a fost team la nceput. ICs no use crying over spilt milk. , , Gerund indic o aciune anterioar verbului la mod personal, infinitivul o aciune viitoare: / remember giving her the parcei, mi amintesc c i-am dat pachetul. / must remember to give -her the parcei. Trebuie s nu uit s-i dau pachetul. 183) Gerund indic o aciune anteripar, infinitivul -scopul aciunii exprimate de verbul predicativ: He stopped readinf. S-a oprit din citit. He stopped to read the advertisement. S-a oprit s citeasc reclama. 184) Gerund-u\ se refer la o aciune deliberat, infinitivul, la o aciune involun tar: She began speaking. A nceput s vorbeasc. She began to weep. A nceput s plng, etc. Deosebirile de ntrebuinare dintre infinitiv i forma Gerund, detaliate pe verbe, snt urmtoarele: 1.17.8. Deosebirile de ntrebuinare dintre infinitiv i Gerund
Verb, Substantiv, Adjectiv, + infinitiv Sens j Exemplu Sens . 4 (jerund | i-xemplu

hate, like, dislike, prefer

cu referire la o anumit ocazie:

remember forget

aciune pos-terioar: aciune simultan cu regretul: aciune involuntar :

regret

I hate to get up aciunea vedrly on zut n geMondays. I like to neral: go to con-certs conducted by Ian Voicu. I must remember aciune anto post the terioar : letter. I forgot to phone her last night. I regret to say i t aciune anwasn't irue. terioar: U began to rata while they' were tvalking. He began to tealzc his mistake.

I hate getting up early. I like going to concerts. I remember posting the letter. FU never forget seeing her dance. I regret saytng U wasn't true. He began wrlting when he was

begi n cease

aciune deliberat:

fiftyHe stopped talking. (He became silent). I intend speading my holidays at the seaside.

3 top

scopul aciunii: frecvent n vorbire i n exprimarea scris familiar: + infinitiv pasiv:

He stopped to talk ncetarea ac-/ i to her. (= in order-to unii: talk) / intend to spend n"limba scris, the holidays at the literar: seaside.

continue, dread, fear, intend, negkct

deserve, need, require, want

His statement needs construcia cu Gerund mai to be checked.

frecvent dect cu infinitivul pasiv :

Your shoes need mending.

Verb, Substantiv, Adjectiv

51
-f- infinitiv: Sens Exemplu Sens-

+ Geruni:
Exemplu

try

a ncerpa, a face un efort:

Try to write wiih yow left hand. (your rght hand is in plaster)

a trece prin, a experimenta:

/ Med writing with my left handwhen I wag a chil.

mean

a inteniona:

1 meant to teii you, but I forgot.

a nsemna:

allow, permit opportunity . afraid

+ complement indirect al persoanei: + verbul le= un moment convenabil, ocazie: ntr-o anumit situaie:

He doesn't allowj permit pupili to talk uring tets. This will be a good opportunity -(for you) to meet him. I'm afraid to dlsturb him at this late hour.

fr complement indirect: posibilitate :

His coming to-morrow mean s mother's work-ing extra hard today. He doesn'l allowjpermit talkIng uring tests. I hd the opportunity of meetlng him. I can't play reeords here as Pm afraid ol disturb-ing him.

n general:

1.17.9. Exist i situaii n care . folosirea, infinitivului cu to sau a Gernnd-ului nu implic diferene mari de sens: a) Unele substantive, ca ambition, chance, charge, honour, .interttion, poSsibility, pot fi urmate fie de infinitiv, fie de of + Gerund: We hd the HONOUK OP meeting the great singer. Am avut onoarea de a fi prezentai marei cntree. ./ do noi have the HONOUR to belong to this association. Nu am onoarea de a fi membru al acestei asociaii. She hd no 1NTENTION OF going on the trip. Nu avea nici o intenie s mearg n excursie. She left at eight, with the 1NTENTION to go io bed eafly. A plecat la 8 cu intenia s se culce devreme. b) Unele substantive, adjective sau verbe pot fi folosite uneori fr prepo ziie, i atunci snt urmate de un infinitiv, iar alteori cu prepoziie i atunci snt, urmate de un Gerund: She AGEEED to come. A fost de acord s vin. / AGBEE TO ier coming. Snt de acord s vin. We DECIDED to \isit the exhibition. Am hotrt s vizitm expoziia. We DECIBED OJV ^isiting the exhibition. You were guie RIGHT to re'fuse his offer. Ai avut dreptate s-i refuzi oferta. She was BIGHT IN refusing him. (Ea) a fcut bine c 1-a refuzat. A t e n j; i e ^a urmtoarele situaii care prezint deseori dificulti pentru elevii romni: 185) manage -f infinitiv; succeed +in + Gerund: He MANAGED to set eoerytking rigkt, dar: He SUCCEEDED IN setting evrything right. 186) aim -f- infinitiv; aim -{-at ^-Gerun:

c)

\ This book ^

AT~giving J a des<>ription of the structure of present

day English. occasion + infinitiv; opportunity-f of + Gerund: / hope I won't have OCCASON -(= reason for/need to) to punish you. Sper c nu voi avea motive s te pedepsesc. If I have OCCASION to meet him, Pllgive him your 52

Dac am motiv s-1 intlnesc, am s-i transmit mesajul tu. ffSIhave an OPPORTUNITY OF meeting him, Pil give him. your message. J > ge ivete vreo ocazie/Dac am posibilitatea s-1 ntinesc am s-i transmit mesajul tu. \ahlp -f infinitiv; (un)eapable 4 of +Gerund: Hc was (UN)ABLE to do *(Va7(UN)CAPABLE OF doing U.

1.18. Participiul ireeoi (The Pa;?i ParUcipIe)

l 18.1. Participiul trecut este forma nepersonal a verbului care denu mete aciunea ca rezultat. _ _ ' Participiul trecut al verbelor regulate se formeaz de la infinitiv, la care se adaug terminaia -ed: lisien UstenzA, move mo cea, carry cam'ed, stop stoppeA, ele. (Pentru particularitile fonetice i ortografice ale formei n -ed, vezi 1.6.3.) Pentru forma de participiu trecut a verbelor neregulate, vezi lista princi palelor verbe neregulate, pp. 12 1(5. I ' '. rjjsvterihitf l 3 v'^ai g k ii vi k' i p KI l *>. l ";^z\\i187) Participiul trecut este folosit la formarea diatezei pasive, mpreun cu verbul be: Fresh fruil and vegetables are sold Aere. Aici se vrid fructe i legume proaspete. 188) Participiul trecut este ntrebuinat la formarea, timpurilor penecte ale verbelor, mpreun cu verbul auxiliar have: Present Perfect Past P e r f e c t Future Perfect : He has read the book. El a citit cartea. : He hd read the book. E] citise cartea. : He will have read the book. El va fi citit cartea. Past C o n d i i o n a l : : He would have read the book. El ar fi citit cartea.
i'fot.;Verbul go i mai rar come pot. reda ideea de perfect prezent i respectiv de maimult-ca-perfecl, cu ajutorul verbului be la prezent sau Past Tense (n loc de auxiliarul hai>c): The plumber is come. A sosit instalatorul. The guests were gone Musafirii plecaser.

38.3, n&rad,eris[k-0e adjectivale sie pavkpHilai .<XT>.-, Participiul trecut are i caracteristici adjectivale, putnd funciona ca un adjectiv n propoziie. Sublinierea, fie a naturii verbale a participiului trecut, fie a celei adjecti vale, reiese din poziia acestuia. Cnd se accentueaz caracterul verbal, participiul urmeaz substantivul, uncionnd ca un nlocuitor al unei propoziii relative: The things not wanted We re gi9en away (= which were not wanted). Cnd es'* accentuat aspectul adjectival al participiului, el se aaz nain- ea substantivului: These are portraits of wanted persons. _ '.''" -* ''e n !:J e- Unele vprbe au forme speciale pentru participiile J lr ecute fqlor =! adjectival: a ) participiile unor verbe regulate ('aged, beloved, learned, cursed, blessed) J i schimb pronunia, adugind un [id] silabic:

Participiu trecut: H e has aged. [eidsd] He was belored [bi 'lAvd] by his siudents. He has learned [la:nd] this lesson.

Adjectiv din participiu: H e is an aged [ 'eidjid] mn. Our beloved [bi 'lAvidJ country. He is a learned [ 'la:nidj mn. b) Unele verbe neregulate au dou forme la, participiul trecut: una foJositg ca participiu, cealalt ca adjectiv (care poate aprea fie singur, fie n anumite combinaii):
Par tici piu tre cut : Adjecti y in purtkap fu:

The liltle child was beaten by Ihe Mgger 1wys. We have. drunk loo rnuch coffee,

The steel has melted. The tree was strncb by lightning. The lawn was mowa/mowed yeslerday. She has sewa/sewed a Aress. He has just shaved. They have shorn/sheatei the sheep. The shirt has shrank. The ship has sunk. He, has sown/sowed the field. He has spHt/gpUIed Ihe milk. They have spoilt/spolled the ehiU. / They have worked here. '

He was deadbcat (mort de oboseal) after the day's work. ''A drunken mn is unpleasant to look al. (folosirea atributiv a adjectivului) dar i: Re was half dSrnnk. (folosirea predicativ a adjectivului) Molten steel/gold/lava (atribafciv), penfcn metale, dar: melted butfer/sno'tii* (grief I He was t pante 5 stricken (folosit predicai v). j terror l He was gtricken with fever: Mpwn grags/hay (doar atributiv) A handsem dress.' A cleansbwen mn. A ahora Iamb. Shrunkcn clothes. Siinten eyes. Sown seeds. Sfiit milk A spoilt child Wtought iron; irought-np nerves.

1.18.5. Funciile sintactice ale participiului trecut. Participiul trecut ndeplinete funciile sintactice de: ' 189) atribut: There is the Lost

Property Office. Acolo este biroul de obiecte gsite. 190) nume predicativ: He wa*,impressed by her kindness. A fost impresionat de buntatea ei. 191) parte dintr-un complement direct complex (Acuzativ cu participiu trecut): / want ii done immediately. Vreau ca aceasta s fie fcut imediat. 192) parte dintr-un complement circumstanial (de timp, cauz, condiie, comparaie), deseori precedat de conjunciile when,' if, as if/as thongh, etc.: Struck with the emotion in his tone, she turned and looked at him. Impresio nat de emoia care se simea n vocea lui, (ea) se ntoarse i-1 privi. She kept silenAS IFpuzzled by my words. Tcea ca i cnd cuvintele mele i-ar fi strnit nedumerirea. 1.18.6. Traducere. Participiul trecut se traduce de obicei in ?imba romn printr-un participiu sau printr-o propoziie subordonat: He Io, ~ at the clerk bent over the papers. Privi la funcionarul aplecat peste hrtii. 7 preparations for the birthday party compieted, / went out to buy a birthday cake: Dup ce am jerminat pregtirile pentru aniversare, am ieit s cumpr un -'>rt.-

.18.7. Conjugarea verbului caii

Diateza activ Aspectul continuu Diateza pasivi Aspectul Aspectu simplu continuu

Aspectul , siropiu Timpul

Indicativu l prezent Perfectu l prezent

Pai Tense

/ call I have called I called I hd called

/ am caling I have been caling I was caling I hd been caling

I am called I have been called I was called I hd been called

I am being called . I was being called

Mai mult ca perfect

Viitorul apropiat Viitorul simplu Viitorul perfect Subjonctivul

I am going io call I shaUjmll call t shalllwill have called 1 call I should call etc. / shouldf would call I' should/ would have called Let me call ! Calif call have called caling

I am going (o be caling I shalllwill be caling J shall/will have been caling I be caling l should be caling etc. shouldjwould be caling I should[would have been caling Let me be caling ! Se caling ! be caling have been caling

I am going 1o be called I shalllwill. be called I shall/will have been called I be called I should be called etc. / shouldjwould be called, I shouldjwould have been called Let me be called! Be called l be called have been called being called

Condiionalul prezent Condiionalul trecut Imperativul Infinitivul prezent Infinitivul perfect Participiul prezent i Gerund Participiul ?' Gerund-u] perfect Participiul trecut

'

having called called

having been called called

i.iy. venicie auxiliare (Auxiiia-ry Verb s)

1.19.1. Verbele auxiliare au urmtoarele caracteristici: 1) snt golite de sens lexical: / shal leave after he comes. Voi pleca dup ce vine el.
Not: Unele .verbe auxiliare (will / would, shall.j should,- may / might) pot fi folosite i ca verbe modale: You should see this film. Trebuie s vezi filmul acesta. Alte verbe auxiliare pot f i folosite i ca verbe Moionale, avnd un sens lexical propriu n anumite contexte: / have a book. Am o carte. Do this translation, please, will you. F te'rog aceast traducere.

193) ndeplinesc funcia de marc a categoriilor .gramaticale de diatez, mod, timp, persoan i nunir la verbele pe care le nsoesc: She was offered flowers. I s-u oferit flori. 194) nlocuiesc verbele noionale n rspunsurile scurte i ntrebrile dis junctive (la fel ca i verbele-modale): A: Do you like this book? B: Yes, I do. He has writen a good composition^ liasn't he? 195) din.punct de "vedere al pronunrii i ortografiei, verbele auxiliare apar adesea sub forme reduse, contrase, ele fiind de obicei neaccentuate n vorbire. Folosirea formelor contrase este caracteristic vorbirii curente i exprimrii familiare n scris.
Not: Unele forme contrase snt caracteristice exprimrii dialectale sau vorbirii necuitivate: He ain't no fool (= He is no fool) El nu e:prost deloc. Ele apar ca forme incorecte din 'punct de vedere gramatical n raport cu limba standard.

1.19.2. Formele cont rase constau n scurtarea verbelor auxiliare la forma afirmativ i a negaiei not la forma negativ: P ce got a book: I haven't got a book. O form contras poate avea mai multe valori: He's eome = He has come. He's/zeT-e = Heis here. Formele contrase ale verbelor auxiliare i modale (la afirmativ i la negativ cu adverbul no't contras) snt urmtoarele: 1.19.2. Forme verbale contrase
Forma contras n Ioc de Forma contras In Ioc de

've (I've, you've .etc.)

's (he's etc.)

'd

'm ( P m ) Ve (iou're etc.) 'U (Pil, you'll etc.) don 't doesn'l didn't

have 1) has 2) is 1) hd 2) should 3) would am, ar'e Ishall 2) will do not does not did not

haven't hadn '1 isn't aren't tvasn't wereh'l shan't shouldn't won't ' laouldn't daren't needn't let's "lemme" "ain'i"

have noi hd nctl is not are not was not were noi shall noi should noi will not would not dare not need noi let us let me 1) am not 2) is not

can't couldn 'f mustn'l

cannot could no.L must noi

58

Formele contrase ale verbelor auxiliare la afirmativ nu pot fi folosite: . ,Q rspunsurile scurte: H as he got a new bicycle? Yes, he has. M In propoziii interogative:, Shall we go to the cinema? Where did he go? ) In partea final a ntrebrilor disjunctive: He wasn't there, was he ? A) clnd slnt accentuate, pentru subliniere: He was at the conference. I did see him there. ' j.19.3. Be,was/were,been (a fi)-Verbul be, Post Tense: was, were, participiul trecut been, apare n structura-. a) aspectului continuu (be + participiul prezent):
Diateza activ: Diateza pasiv: Infinitive: be reading Present: He is reading. U is being read. Post: He was reading. It was being read. Future: He will be reading. Condiional: He woold be reading. Infinitive Perfect: Have been reading Present Perfect: He has been'readmg. Past Perfect: He hd been reading. Future Perfect: He will have been reading. Condiional Perfect: He would have been reading

b) a diatezei pasive (be -f participiul trecut): Infinitive: be read Perfect Infinitive: have been read Gerund: being read. Perfect Gerund: having been read. Present: It is read. Present Perfect: It has been read. Past: It was read. Past Perfect: It hd been read. ' Future: It will be read. Future Perfect: It will have been read. Condiional: It would be read. Condiional Perfect: 11 would have been
read.

1.19.4. Have,hd,liad (aacea). Verbul have, Past Tense: hd, participiul trecut: hd, apare, att la diateza activ, ct i la cea pasiv, n structura for melor perfecte:
Diateza activ: Diateza pasiv: Perfect Infinitive: have read have been read. Perfect Gerund: having read. having been read. Present Perfect: He has read. It has been read. rost Perfect: He hd read. It hd been read. Perfect: H e will have read. 11 will have been'read. Perfect: We would have read. It would have been read. 1.19.5. Shall, should Shall, should apare : a ambele diateze, n structura timpurilor viitoare, modul indicativ i ale mpunlor modului condiional, la persoana I singular i plural:

Perfect:

D,

Diateza activa:

7 shai1

I shall have given

ive
57

s h a u b eDiateza pasiv:
I shall have been given .

Condiional: Condiional Perfect:

I shonld give I shonld have given

/ should be given I should have been given

Not: Should + infinitiv este folosit i ca v ii t o r-n-t re cu t (Future in th K fast): I said I should do it. Am spus c am s-o fac.

b) la toate persoanele, pentru formarea subjonctivului analitic: r 7 / should be here nove. T.

I?s strnge that they j
g b (m l d h a y e b e e n

1.19.6. Will, would intr n componena acelorai forme verbale ca i shall, should (viitor i condiional), la persoanele a Il-a i a IlI-a singular i plura', iar n vorbire, i la persoana I singular i plural:
*

Diateza activ.: Future: He will give Future Perfett: He will have given Condiional: He would give Condiional Perfect: He would have given
Not: Would + infinitiv este folosit i ca would do it. A spus c o s-o fac.

Diateza pasiv: He will be given. He will have been given He would be given He would have been given
v i i t or-n-t r e cu t: He said he

196) May, might apare n structura subjonctivului analitic, folosit mai ales n propoziiile circumstaniale de scop: Hurry up, so that we may arrive in time. Grbete-te ca s ajungem la timp. They hurried so that they might arrive in time. S-au grbit ca s ajung la timp. 197) Let apare n structura imperativului, persoana I i a IlI-a singular i plural: Let
me us him them

think !
1.19.9. a) Do, does, forma .de Post Tense did, intr n alctuirea formei interogative i negative a verbelor noionale la timpul Present Simple, respectiv Post Tense Simple: Do you live in this town? Locuieti n acest ora? Does he work here? Lucreaz aici? Did he attendthis school? A urmat aceast coal? /don't like it. He doesn't understand. They didn't go. fot: I. Verbul auxiliar be primete auxiliarul do la imperativul negativ: Don't be silly ! Nu fi prost(u)!
2. Verbul have formeaz interogativul i negativul cu ajutorul lui do n engleza vorbit i n varianta american a limbii engleze: / don't have enough time to do this. N-am destul timp ca s fac asta.-

b) Do apare n structura formei negative a modului imperativ:

Don't

Don't let's 1 ' lsien to tnat nonsense. c) Do este ntrebuinat pentru sublinierea predicatului la forma afirmativ a indicativului, timpurile prezent i Past Tense i a imperativului, n care situaie este accentuat: She does make all her dresses herself- Intradevr i face toate rochiile singur. Do read this letter to me. Citete-n, te rog, scrisoarea.
58

20. Verbele modale (Moclal Verbs)

1 20 l Verbele modale exprim atitudinea vorbitorului fa de enun, . "din cadrul acestuia fiind vzut ca posibil, probabil, necesar, aC retoric, de dorit, etc. : h might fain later. S-ar putea s plou mai trziu. '* must meet him t the station. Trebuie s-1 atepi la gar. U punct de vedere al caracteristicilor formale, verbele modale englezeti se mpart n: 1) verbe n o i o n a l e e x primnd modalitatea (want, h order, oblige, advise, iritend, mean, prefer, ele.) care se comport ca celeTlte' verbe noionale: He wants to see the play. Vrea s vad piesa. Don't oblige him to do this. Nu-1 obliga s fac asta. . 2) v e r b e modale d e f e c t i v e (Defective Modal Verbs) (cni could, mayjmight, must, have to, shall j should, willj would, ought to, be to, used to, need 'dare), care exprim de asemenea modalitatea, dar care din punct de vede're formal, prezint anumite caracteristici.
Not: Termenul de v e r b e modale folosit pe parcursul lucrrii se refer la verbele modale defective.

1.20.2. Caracteristicile verbelor modale. Verbele modale au urmtoarele caracteristici: ' a) snt defective, adic le lipsesc anumite forme verbale, n consecin, nu pot fi conjugate la toate modurile i timpurile. Formele pe care le au verbele modale pot fi folosite pentru redarea mai multor timpuri i moduri. Can, may, must, need si dare, de exemplu, exprim indicativul prezent: / can help. you. Dac ele snt ns urmate de un adverb de timp viitor, aciunea exprimat de verbul la infinitiv se refer la un moment viitor: / can only help you next week. Am s te pot ajuta ab, r t sptmna viitoare. Formele

apa dac ai dori. She lent him the rent camera so that he could take trec photos on the trip. I-a mprumutat ute aparatul de fotografiat ca s fac ale fotografii n excursie. ver Not: Might poate fi folosit cu bel valoare, de Fast 'Tense doar, n or vorbirea indirect: mo SVie said you might go. dal , e ~ de condiional i subjonctiv au (should): I should like to come val tomorrow if you dorit mind. A ori: dori s vin mine. dac nu te de deranjeaz. He demandcd we Pos should come the next day. A t cerut s venim a doua zi. Ten ~ la unele forme care le lipsesc, se, verbele modale snt nlocuite de con p e r i f raze modale, de dii anumite, construcii cu sens ona l i modal (Modal Equi-valenls): can subj be able to; must ~- have to; may allowed iojpennitted to: onc be P r e z e n t : You may o nou 1 . tiv (co Poi/Ai voie s pleci acum. P a s t uld, T e n s e : He was allowed to o. wou l s-a permis/dat voie s~ plece-. | ld. s t P e r f e c t : He hd been mig allowed to oo oui and plai/ ht): before' they le ft- I se permisese s I ias afar s se joace nainte ca ei cou s plece. ' n u p r i m e s c -s la ld p e r s o a n a a I I I -a s i n g u l skat a r (cu excepia lui be to i have e to): He must see this play. Trebuie whe s vad aceast pies, ormeaz n I interogativul i negativul fr was ajutorul auxiliarului dojdid \cu a chil excepia lui have to): Must y mi do this? Trebuie s faci . tia asta? m 59 ' s pati nez cnd era m copi l. / coul d hel p you if you wan ted me to. A pute a s te ajut

She cannot swim. Nu tie s noate, dar: Do you have to type that report '> Trebuie s dactilografiez! raportul? d) snt urmate de infinitivul scurt al verbelor noionale (cu excepia lui j e to, have to, ought to): She can cook. tie s gteasc, dar: He has to get up early every d "y. Trebuie s se scoale devreme n fiecare zi. Cnd snt urmate de infinitivul prezent, verbele modale se refer la o aciune prezent sau viitoare: He might be there now. S-ar putea ca el s fie acolo acum. She might come later. Ea s-ar putea s vin mai rziu. Cnd snt urmate de infinitivul perfect, aciunea exprimat de verbul no- ional are un caracter trecut, dfe anterioritate: He might have bcen herc before we arrived. S-ar putea s fi fost aici nainte s sosim noi, e) pe plan sintactic, verbele modale defective alc tuiesc un predicat verbal compus mpreun cu un alt verb la infinitiv: Fowcanbuy a T V-set in instalments. Poi s cumperi un televizor n rate. n cadrul predicatului verbal compus, verbele modale ndeplinesc o funcie dubl: funcia gramatical de marc a timpului: He can skate now. tie s patineze acum. He could skate when he was a child. tia s patineze cnd era copil. funcia lexical de exprimare a modalitii: She can type. tie s bata la main. You needn't type this. Nu este nevoie s bai asta la main. j .y V;;. 'uA.>( /COI..1 LI). Can este folosit pentru toate persoanele la indicativ prezent. Could este folosit pentru toate persoanele la Past Tense i subjonctivcondiional. Can j could poate exprima: 1) c a p a c i t a t e a ( f i z i c s a u i n t e l e c t u a l ) de efectuare a unei aciuni: Tom can speak,three foreign languages. Tom tie trei limbi strine. / could run faster than you last year. Puteam s alerg mai repede dect tine anul trecut.
- ' Can urmat de un verb de percepie senzorial (see, hear, etc.) corespunde aspectului continuu al verbului respectiv: / can see the car now. I can hear footsteps. (vezi i 1.10.11. pct. D.)

Can exprimnd capacitatea fizic sau intelectual (ability) este nlocuit de be able tolbe capable ofjknow how to: Prezent: / can ski nowjl am able to ski now. (mai puin frecvent) Past Tense: / could skate when I was a child. tiam s patinez cnd eram copil, (capacitatea de a patina n general). Although it was very cold yesterda , we were able to skate for an hour. Dei a fost foarte frig ieri, am reuit sa patinm o or. (capacitatea de a patina manifestat n anumite condiii, n special nefavorabile). Viitor: /'li be able to skate next year. r j 4. i Could you \ , ,. ., .. n . C o n d i i o n a l : WouJd you be able to f mana Se bV yourself if it was necessary? Te-ai putea descurca singur dac ar fi nevoie? l t e n f. el Diferena de sens ntre could i was l were able to se pierde la negativ sau cu verbe de percepie:

, / couldn't ) .. , , 1 \ Wasn't able to f skl y^terday as the , f couldn't \ , . . , , 71 \ wasn't able to / see him m the dark60

weather was very bad.

2) C a n e s t e f o l o s i t p e n t r u a e x p r i m a p e r m i s i u n e a , c a o a l t e r n a a lui may n exprimarea familiar: A: Can / barrovv your umbrella? B: Of * r#e yu can ' ^ot s *au um^ re^a ta^ Desigur. < C Could este folosit pentru a exprima permisiunea n trecut: On Sundays rould stay in bed unil ten o'clock. Duminic aveam voie s stm n pat
(^ \.r\

Pnajn acest sens, canjcould poate fi nlocuit de be allowed to, be permitted to: n Sundays we were allowed to stay in bed until ten o'tlock. 3) P o s i b i l i t a t e a datorit circumstanelor se exprim astfel : P r e z e n t : You can ski at Predeal now>. There is enough snow. P a s t Tense: We could ski at Predeal last year. There was enough snow. It will be possible for you \ to skl , . p n , , V i i t o r : yow wm be able } deal, there will be plenty of snow in December. Forme de e o n d i i o n a l : IC s foggy. The airport could be closed. Jf he hd enough money he could buy a bicycle. 4) Can/could snt folosite pentru a exprima: o c e r e r e , rugminte p o l i t i c o a s : Can you wait a few moments? Could este mai politicos dect can. 5) Could + i n f i n i t i v u l p e r f e c t este folosit pentru a exprima capacitatea. nerealizat de efectuare a unei aciuni n trecut: She could have helped me. (But she didn't). Ar fi putut s m ajute. 6) Can't/couldn't - ( - i n f i n i t i v u l prezent al verbului be exprim o deducie negativ despre un eveniment prezent: A: Pm hungry. B: You can't be hungry. You've just hd your dinner. CaritlCoiildrit + i n f i n i t i v u l p e r f e c t exprim, o deducie negativ despre un eveniment trecut: A: Did Ann type the report? B: She can't/couldn't have typed it.'She hasn't learned to type yet. t.20.4. MAY/MKtHT. May egte f0iosit ia toate persoanele cu valoare de indicativ prezent i viitor. Might este folosit pentru toate persoanele cu valoare de condiional i subjonctiv. . Might este ntrebuinat cu valoare de Past Tense doar n vorbirea indirect. "/ may rain later.", he said. He said it might rain later. May este folosit: 1) pentru a c e r e (a) s a u a a c o r d a (b) p e r m i s i u n e a (mai f mcial dect can): 198) May / go? Pot s plec? 199) You may go. Poi s pleci. . ^ or ma -negativ de neacordare a permisiunii este may not, rar mayn't:' *' May / go out ? B : No, you may not. / Must not (mustn't) este folosit pentru a exprima interdic ia, mai ales re ulamente, instruciuni: You mustn't walk on the grass. Nu clcai
Echivalentul modal pentru exprimarea permisiunii este be allowed toi Permitted to:
was
t>e

permitted J to %' ^ s'a permis/I s-a dat voie s plecle. 61

2) Maylmight poate exprima o cerere, o rug minte p o l ; t i c o as (-may este mai politicos i oficial dect canfcould): May / 1>S y oui' phone? mi dai voie s dau un telefon? Folosirea lui might-in acest sens indic un grad de nesiguran mai mar dect may (cu privire la rspuns): Might / use your phone? A putea s dau un telefon? * 3) Mayjmight -f-infinitivul prezent exprim o p o s i b i l i t a t e pre zent sau viitoare (n sau dup momentul vorbirii): f may l / today \ Se poate l . f azi j might / come t tomorrow. } S-ar putea j sa vma | mine. Might este folosit: 200) pentru a exprima o posibilitate mai ndeprtat (s-ar putea...) 201) dup un verb trecut, n vorbirea indirect: He said he might come. 202) n frazele coninrid subordonate condiionale: If you shouted, he might hear you. Dac ai striga, s-ar putea s te aud. La forma interogativ i negativ, 'may exprimnd posibilitatea este nlocuit de construciile do you think -f- prezent/viitor sau be likely + infinitiv:
He

Do you think he'll come today ? ] . - . . - - * s he likely to come today? } Crezi ca sa vma astazl? Maylmight + infinitivul perfect este folosit pentru a exprima o specula ie despre o aciune trecut: f may l Se poate l j might } have arrived - S-ar putea } sa fl sosit ' 4) Might mai este folosit: 203) n c e r e r i i n s i s t e n t e sau atunci cnd vorbitorul este iritat de nendeplinirea unei aciuni (might -f-infinitivul prezent): You might give me a copy of that paper. (Please give me a copy. Fm annoyed that you haven't given me one.) 204) pentru a exprima i r i t a r e a , r e p r o u l n legtur cu neefectuarea unei aciuni trecute (might -j-infinitivul perfect): You might have told me what hd happened. Ai fi putut s-mi spui ce s-a ntmplat. 1.20.5. BLUST/HAVE TO/KEED. Must este folosit la toate persoanele, la indicativul prezent i viitor. Have to este folosit ca nlocuitor al lui must exprimnd obligaia, iar neea este folosit cu valoare de prez.ent i viitor, mai ales n propoziii negative i interogative. Must se folosete pentru a exprima: 1) o b l i g a i a : They must stop because the traffic light is red now. Must exprimnd obligaia poate fi nlocuit de have to sau Ve got to. HAVE TO. ntre must i have to exist urmtoarele diferene de sens: 205) M ust exprim o obligaie impus de ctre vorbitor, pe cnd have to exprima o obligaie impus din exterior: / must go. (Ii1 s my decision). We have to go. (The shop is closing).
He

Must exprim o obligaie important, urgent: / must be at the hospi^ at two. 111 s most important. Have to exprim o obligaie obinuit, repetat (habitual obligationj-I have to be at the hospital at seven o'clock every morning. I begin work at sevenPrezent: Youmuststayinbedforafewdays.You'vegotflu.Youbtf to stay in bed when you have fiu.
62

206)

p a s t Tense: H e hd to stay in bed last week. H e was guie UI. y i i t o r : You must stay in bed tomorrow if yoU don't feel better. You'll to stay in bed when you feel fcverish again. ha HAVE GOT TO J n vorbirea familiar, se adaug got la have to, iar have se contrage, Minndu-se /'ve got// haven't got to phone her. Aceast form exprim de obicei obligaia mplinirii unei singure aciuni. Forma must not (mustn't) exprim in te r dici a, sau un sfat la ent sau viitor: You must not move. You mustn't walk on the grass. You mustn't miss that film, it is very good. Lipsa o b l i g a t i v i t i i se exprim cu ajutorul lui needn t, sau not \iave to/not need to; needn't l don't have to f come Forma negativ a lui have to exprim o obligaie extern sau repetat, habitual: W e don't f ] early on Sundays. (W e don't go to school won't j h a y e t o ^ " P } on Sundays). Need poate fi folosit la mai multe timpuri (ca i not have to): P r e z e n t : A: Need / go there now? B: No, you needn't. A: Do 7 need to come here every day ? B: You don't need to. P a s t Tense: Did you need to go there yesterday ? I didn't need to go. V i i t o r : You needn't/won't need to go there tomorrow.
Not: n propoziiile interogative, folosirea lui need in locul lui must arat c vorbitorul se ateapt la un rspuns negativ: A: Need / wash the dishes? (I hope not.)

Atenie! Need i needn't snt urmate de infinitivul scurt. Celelalte i'ornie snt urmate de infinitivul lung: You needn't come. He didn't need TO -.ome. She won't need TO come. Needn't - ( - i n f i n i t i v u l p e r f e c t exprim o aciune care a fost fcctuat n trecut, dei nu era necesar: You needn't have bought two loaves of '<rcad. J've bought a loaf myself.
Not: Need poate fi folosit i ca verb principal, insemnnd: He needs help. Are nevoie de ajutor. Did sile need the dictionary ? A avut nevoie de dicionar?

2) Must poate exprima i d e d u c i a l o g i c : She must be at home. w left an hour ago. Deducia negativ se exprim cu ajutorul lui cannotjcan't -f infinitivul !)r ezent al verbului to be: She left ten minutes ago, she can't be at home now. Must + i n f i n i t i v u l p e r f e c t exprim o deducie logic (n ; rezent) despre o aciune trecut: She's got a ren in her term paner. She must la?e Worked very hard. Deducia logic negativ se exprim cu ajutorul lui can'ijcouldn't -fut 'n i t i v u l p e r f e c t : c; f can't | l couidn't f " ave baked this pie. She can't cook. ' |er] n Vorbirea indirect se folosete must sau have to dup caz, dup un verb iorn- v la un timp trecut: She said she wauld have to leave early in the f lpdt"r ^ obli ? a t' e )We thought she must be .iii. Am crezut c este bolnav. Uc 'ie logic). "
63
r-v j <~<

:SHC ' S hali este folosit: 1) pentru a exprima o b l i g a i a , n stilul oficial ~ acte, regulamente etc. la persoana a Il-a i a IlI-a: The seller shall supply the spare parts in diie time. ,-, . , / va furniza ] , .. , Vmzatorul j e s te o b l ig a t s f u m iz e z e j piesele de schimb m timp util. 2) Shall este folosit n propoziii interogative, la persoana I sineaIar sau plural: 207) pentru a cere un sfat, o sugestie, un ordin: Where shall we put the flowers ~> Unde s punem florile? Shall we go to the cinema tonight? (Ce spui), mergem la cinema disear? What shall / do? Ce trebuie s fac? 208) pentru a face o ofert: Shall / help you? S te ajut? Should este folosit pentru a exprima: 209) o b l i g a i a, n e c e s i t a t e a l o g i c de nfptuire a unei aciuni, de obicei sub form de sfat dat de ctre vorbitor: The baok is very interesting. You should read it. Cartea e foarte interesant. Ar trebui s-o citeti. He shouldn't teii lies. N-ar trebui s mint. 210) o p r e s u p u n e r e (indicnd un grad de nesiguran mai mare dect will): He should be ihere by naw. Ar trebui s fi ajuns acolo deja. He should have left by now. Ar trebui.sA-fi^pJeoat. deja: 211) Should este frecvent folosit n propoziii subordonate (vezi cap. 25): a) n propoziii subiective: It's strnge that he should behave like that. ! b) n propoziii completive directe: / suggest we should leave at once. 212) n propoziiile condiionale pentru a exprima o condiie mai puin proba bil ( 1.13.10. pct. f): If she should come, teii her to wait for me. Dac se ntmpl s vin, spune-i s m atepte. 213) n propoziii de scop, n paralel cu would: She put on her sun glasses so that no one should/would see her tears. i puse ochelarii de soare ca s nu-i vad nimeni lacrimile. 214) n propoziiile de scop negative, dup lest i uneori dup m case: She was afraid in case she should slip on the icy road. li era team s nu- alunece pe drumul ngheat. Should -j- infinitivul perfect exprim n en de plini re a unei obligaii sau a unei aciuni n trecut: You should have sent her a telegram. Why didn't you? Ar fi trebuit s-i trimii o telegram. De ce n-ai fcut-o? ; ; . : - , yt<JR '.*- " i :0 Ought to indic obligaia sau datoria, d e obicei sub form de s t a t dat de ctre vorbitor (la fel ca should): A: You ought to finish the book before going on holiday. A: Ar trebui s termini cartea nainte s pleci n vacan. B: / know I should: B: tiu c-ar trebui. Exprimarea unui sfat, a unei: recomandri, sugestii, prin ought tolshoul este mai puin puternic dect prin must: Comparai: \' oueht to l
see a

doctor. Ar trebui s te duci la doctor.

You must see a doctor. Trebuie s te duci la doctor. ., Ought. to -f-infinitivul perfect exprim o datorie nendeplin l ta ' o aciune care ar fi trebuit efectuat (la fel ca should): i should f have crosse'd when the lights were green. 64

y^r fi trebuit s traversez? cnd lumina semaforului era verde.

You | ^ouldn't

f ^ ave

crosse

d when the lights were red.

Af-ar fi trebuit s traversezi pe lumina roie a semaforului. Ought tofshould rmne neschimbat n vorbirea indirect, dup un verb j a un timp trecut: f ought to ) . , , , ffe told me you i g j,ould / attend the conference. Mi-a spus c ar trebui s vii la conferin. l.;>0,8. WILL/WOUID. wm este folosit pentru a exprima: l ) o comand impersonal (similar cu must, be to): You will come here al once. Vino ncoace imediat. 215) i n s i s t e n t d, hotrrea de a efectua o aciune: ffe will study chemistry whatever his father says. Va studia / e/te decis ,s stu dieze chimia, indiferent de prerea tatlui su. 216) o aciune repetat, un obicei al unei persoane (will frecven tai v"): He will sit on.the bench for hours and gaze at the stars. Obinuiete s stea ore-n ir pe banc i s se uite la stele (vezi 1.9.3. pct. 5)). 217) o invitaie, n propoziii interogative, la persoana a Ila: Will you have another sandwich ? Mai vrei / ia te rog un sandvi. 218) o cerere sau rugminte (pe un ton politicos, dar mai autori tar dect would): Will you sign the register? V rog s semnai n registru. 219) o intenie spontan, nepremeditat, n momentul vorbirii (Vezi 1.9.3. pct. 3 a)), la persoana I (de obicei contras n 'U): A: J'm thirsty. B: FUfetch you a glass of water. A: Mi-e sete. B: S-i aduc un pahar de ap. Will devine would sau infinitiv n vorbirea indirect, n funcie de sens (vezi 26.3/7; 26.3.10; 26.3.11): Would este folosit: 1 ) p e n t r u a e x p r i m a o cerere, o rugminte politicoas: jf| Would you do me a favour? yg r 0 f s-mi facei un serviciu?
' Would like este de obicei folosit n locul lui want, fiind o form de exprimare mai politicoas: r / wonld like l to .to . ,, . , ] . * f *" to t'le manager. A dori s vorbesc cu directorul. WonJd yen like to talk to him. now? Dorit,! s vorbii cu el acum?

2)' Ca forma de Post Tense a lui will, would este folosit pentru a exprima: *> i n t e n i a (n vorbire indirect): / said, "I will help her". I said I would , lp her.

'inten ia negativ (refuzul): Present: He won't help me. Nu vrea s m ajute. past Tense: He wouldn't help une. Nu voia s m ajute. 65
' Dramatica limbii

220) insistena, hotrrea de a efectua o aciune In trecut: He would silent for hours, no matter what argumenta I used. 221) o activitate repetat , un obicei n trecut (would frec tativ"): She would Wit for me in front of the school gates. 3) Would este folosit i pentru a exprima probabilitatea: i , t 4 . would be their cur. Probabil c aceea este maina lor. (Aceea trebuie sa fj e maina lor). A t e n f i e.' Would + raiher\sooner + infinitivul scurt este folosit pentru a exprima preferina: . / would rather l ,. , , , ... l 'd sooner f listen to t"6 concert than see the film.
A prefera s ascult concertul dect s vd filmul. 1.20.9. USED TO. Used toeste folosit doar la Post Tense, pentru a exprima: 222) o aciune repetat, un o b i c e i trecut, care nu mai e s t e p r a c t i c a t n prezent: / used to swim in the Olt river tvhen I was a ckild, but I dorit do this any longer. Obinuiam s not In Olt clnd eram copil, dar acum nu mai not. 223) o aciune repetat T un o b i c e i trecut, care mai este p r a c t i c a t - i n prezent: They used to spend ther holidays 'in the mountains. (Ifs very likely they still do it) A t e n i aJ 1. Used to poate fi nlocuit de would la sensul 2). Would este mai frecvent: They would spend their holidays in the mountains. i petreceau l Obinuiau s-i petreac / vacanele la munte. Atenie! Used to nu are form de pezent. Pentru a exprima n obicei n prezent, folosii prezentul simplu: / (usually) spend my holidays in the mountains. De obicei mi l , ., , , etrec Obinuiesc s-mi / P vacanele la munte. 1.20.10. BE TO.Be.to este folosit pentru a exprima: 1) o comand sau instruciuni ntr-un* mod impersonal obicei la persoan-a a IlI-a): He is to stay here till we return. Trebuie | ' . } tntn ^.om sa stea ntoarcem Urmeaz / I 224) o aciune p l a n i f i c a t (construcie des folosit In limbaj 1 " jurnalistic): The competition is to start in a week's tijnfi. 225) un ordin sau o comand , n vorbirea indirect : He sayii "Wait here till I come". He says that I am to waitJiere till he comes. La Post Tense, be poate fi urmat: 226) de un infinitiv prezent: He.yv&s to go. Urma s plece. propoziie din care nu aflm dac aciunea planificat a fost sau nu; 227) de un infinitiv perfect, pentru a exprima o aciune plnuit dar nit: He was to have gone (but he didn't). 66

1. BAW.S- Dare se folosete cu sensul de a n d r z n i , a c u r a j u l , n special n propoziii interogative i negative: How a v e * contradict me? Cum ndrzneti s m contrazici? The boy dared dare y n his father what he hd done. Biatul n-a ndrznit s-i spun tatlui Bot teu " sU La^afirmativ, dare se conjug ca un verb principal: , prezent: dare, dares; Q Past Tense: dared. La negativ i interogativ, dare poate fi conjugat ca un verb noional sau ' >~ verjj modal: Dare he speak? ndrznete s vorbeasc? Does he dare (to)
speak ?

Dare ca verb modal este urmat: ) de infinitivul fr to dup forma invariabil dare (persoana a III-a singular sau Past Tense): I wonder whether he DARE come. M ntreb dac va ndrzni s vin. He felt that he DAREN'T try. i-a dat seama c <-? n-are curajul s ncerce. ^ b) de infinitivul cu to, dup participiul prezent sau dup persoana a III-a 7\ singular: Now he dares to attack me ! Acum ndrznete s m atace I Q c) de infinitivul cu sau fr to dup forma de infinitiv a verbului, forma de -> Past Tense dared i participiul trecut: He wouldn't dare (to) teii me this. / N-ar ndrzni s-mi spun acest lucru. He dared (to) write upon the subject. i A avut curajul s scrie despre acea problem. He hd never dared (to) ask me. Nu ndrznise niciodat s m ntrebe. A t e n i e ; Verbul dare este urmat de infinitivul cu to cnd este folosit ^ ca verb principal: He dared me to compete with him. M-a provocat la ntrecere.

EXERCIII
I. Ortografiai urmtoarele verbe la persoana a III-a singular, Past Tense, forma tn -mg i participiul trecut: study, play, pay, write, stop, cut, travel, occur, die, dye, refer, wash, watch, go, do, begin, cry, see, regret, free, ie, lie, lay, saw, show, sew. II- Punei verbele din parantez la timpul potrivit. 1. Look! It (rain). Take your umbrella. 2. Why (he, drive) so fast today? e usually (drive) very carefully. 3. It (start) to rain while she (walk) in ne park yesterday. 4. The telephone (ring) just as he (go) out a few minutes go. 5. The weather (be) bad this week. 6. Last night the wind (blow) some ^ees down. 7. It (snow) for three days now. 8. (You, hear) f rom her lately? 10 ' T ave.n>t- ** I (just, speak) to her. I (speak) to her a few minutes ago. (b ) * n^nt sne (lend) me the book only after I (ask) her twice. 11. They (liv Tdeal for more tnan a week when we (arrive) last Saturday. 12. He (be) r aov for two ears when Y * (meet) him in 1970. 13. If the weather Rond ,!;e }07nior.row, we (go) on a trip to Poiana Braov. 14. If the snow (be) two hours by the tonight? I (have) time (the train.

leave)? It (leave) at 8 o'clock according to schedule. 18. What (you, $,1 there? I (look) at some photographs. How long (you, look) at them? (look) at them since I (come) back home. What time (you, come) back home? I (come) back home at 6 o'clock. in. Traducei n limba engleza: 1. Plou. Plou adesea toamna. 2. Plou de cnd ai venit. 3. A plouat 4. A plouat i ieri. 5. Ploua cnd m-am uitat pe fereastr. 6. Plouase clnd ani ieit afar. 7. Ploua de mult vreme. 8. St s plou. 9. Sigur o s plou azi 10. Va ploua cnd te vei ntoarce de la servici. 11. Vom face o plimbare dupj ce va fi stat ploaia. 12. Nu vom merge n parc dac nu va sta ploaia. IV. Trecei urmtoarele propoziii la diateza pasiv, transformtnd complementul persoanei n subiect. Exemplu: They offered her flowers. She was offered flowers. 1. The guide is showing them the museum. 2. They nave appointed him president. 3. The teacher asked the pnpils several questions. 4. The captain ordered the soldiers to stand to attention. 5. She has given me a good dictionary. 6. They will teii you what time the bus leaves. 7. FII pay the carpenter for his work. 8. He prbmised them new bicycles. 9. The form teacher has lent me this book. 10. We shall offer the singer flowers. V. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii in limba englez, folosind verbe la diateza pasiv: 1. Aceast problem trebuie analizat. 2. Nu s-a dormit n aeest pat. 3. Copiii au fost bine ngrijii. 4. Cinele a fost clcat de un autobuz. 6. Vor rde de tine dac vei purta rochia asta. 6. Sticlele goale nu trebuie aruncate. 7. Nu s-a but din acest pahar. 8. M-a pclit purtarea lui. 9. Trebuie s dai socoteal pentru fiecare moment. 10. Nu-i place s se holbeze lumea la ea. VI. In propoziiile de mai jos, nlocuii subjonctivul sintetic cu subjonctivul analitic cu should sau may: Exemplu: a) It is necessary that he send the letter at once. It is necessary that he should send the letter at once. b) Whoever the woman be, you must send for a doctor. Whoever. the woman may be, you must send for a doctor. 1. Father insisted that his son read books on Romanian history. 2. It s imperative that they exceed production. 3. The doctor recommended that the old woman keep to bsd for a fe vw days. 4. Long she be happy! 5. The chairman demanded that proposals be made. 6. They required that a solution be found to the problem. 7. It is important that all litigious issues between nations be settled by negotiations. 8. He suggested that they do the exercise in writing. 9. It is right that the best pupil be given a prize. VII. Traducei in limba englez folosind forme ale subjonctivului sintetic sau analitic: 1. Este recomandabil s fii acolo la ora 8 fix. 2. Ei cer ca trupele inamice s fie retrase de pe teritoriul lor. 3. De ce s facem noi asta? 4. Dorina lui c noi s devenim profesori s-a ndeplinit. 5. Fie ce-o fi, voi porni motorul, o. W dori s fii mai linitit. 7. A dori ca ei s fie acum aici. 8. A fi dorit ca ei sa prezeni la conferin. 9. Ce-ai face dac i-ar oferi aceast slujb? 10. D flC
68

s-o caute cineva, spune-le c este plecat. 11. Mama rai-a dat nite ? nj ca s cumpr dicionarul de care aveam nevoie. 12. Am s-i dau numrul ii de telefon ca s-1 suni. 13. A muncit foarte mult de team s nu cad la xamen. 14- Orict de trziu ar fi, telefoneaz-mi. 15. Oricte greeli ar fi r'cut, lucrarea lui este cea mai bun din clas. . Punei verbele din paranteze la infinitivul lung (cu to) sau scurt (fr to). Exemplu: You must (help) him. , They want (come) riow. a ' You must help him. ' They want to come now. 1. He has decided (become) a mechanic. 2. Will you (come) to the theatre with me? 3. You ought (revise) for your exams this week. 4. We can (wait) f or you here. 5. I saw them (cross) the street. 6. I asked her (repeat) the auestion. 7. I'd rather f (wait) for you outside. 8. He is (return) tomorrow. 9 They were seen (compare) notes. 10. This book is too difficult for her (understand). 11. He dared me (compete) with him. 12. He looked at her not daring (say) anything. 13. Pm sure that he daren't (try). 14. I'm sorry (hear) this. IX. Completai spaiile libere cu prepoziiile necesare. Punei verbele din paran teze la forma Gerund. Exemplu: He finally succeeded ... (sell) his old car. He finally succeeded in selling his old car. 1. The bad weather prevented him . . . (leave) last Monday. 2. Our teacher doesn't approve . . . (study) late at night. 3. He worries . . . (lose) hisi position. 4. He finally succeeded . . . (post) the letter. 5. She insists . . . (do) everything herself. 6. This research aims . . . (find) a more efficient method. 7. I'm looking forward . . . (receive) your answer. 8. You can't rely . . . (get) help from him. 9. They congratulated the pianist . . . (play ) so beautifully. 10. The policeman accused the driver . . . (drive) carelessly.
X. Punei verbele din paranteze la forma Gerund. Punei pronumele personale la acuzativ (pentru o exprimare familiar), sau transformai-le n pronume posesive (pentru o exprimare mai literar). Exemplu: I can't understand (he, forget) to come to the meeting.

I can't understand j ^-

\ for'getting to come to the meeting.

1. My ? mother haes (I, read) while I'm eating. 2. I don't remember (he, come) late before. 3. Excuse (I, interrupt) you. 4. I don't like (she, wear) "?y dresses. 5. I object to (they, make) so much noise. 6. He doesn't agree to f *e, come) late to school. 7. I don't like (you, go out) alone at night. 8. Can 10U l^116 (she' act) on tne stage? 9. I don't mind (they, pldy) in the garden. It's no use (he, pretend) to be asleep. 11. It's no good (you, try) to find *cuses. all the time. 12. He is surprised at (we, work) so late.
VT

sens:

Punei verbele din paranteze la infinitivul cu to sau forma Gerund n funcie

n J- wil1 remember -(give) vour mother your message. 2. I remember at y Ur birth da y last y ear - 3 - Please stop (interrupt) me in the ou f f a s en t en ce. 4. He stopped (talk) to his former pupils. 5. Did C0at ?0rget (give) him that message? 6. I definitely recall (leave) my ] n this room. 7. I like (cycle). 8. 1 like (walk) in the rain. 9. I, don t like
69

(wake) him up so early. 10. l meant (teii) you, but I forgot. ll.The being under repair means (walk) to work every day. 12. He tried (sell) ne ^ papers, (work) in a cafe and various other jobs before he took up (write). 13 t,*' tried (make) himself understood. 14. Why don 't you try (write) more clear) 15. I've always loved (sing). 16. I'd Iove (hear) you sing this ari a ag 17. Your hair wants (cut). 18. l \yant (g 0 ) to the hairdresser's with y 19. I prefer (walk) to (tracei) by bus. 20. I prefer (go) by bus today if v don't mind. 21. I hate (see) little Tom dirty. 22. I hate (see).dirly chiidre 23. The regulations don't allow (smoke) in school. 24. The headmaster doesn"t the teachers (smoke) in the teachers' room. XII. Punei cuvintele din paranteze la forma corect: participiu n -ing Sa participiu trecut. Exemplu: a) We saw an (entertain) programme on TV last night. We saw an entertaining programme on TV last night. b) The carpenter repaired the (break) chair. The oarpenter repaired the broken chair. 1. We'll have to work hard the (follow) weeks. 2. The police were on the tracks of the (follow) mn. 3. That was a very (interest) book. 4. The (interest) parties signed the agreement. 5. They sell (freeze) goods here. 6. The temperatura is below (freeze) point. 7. Where is the (ride) school? 8. AII (export) goods are of high quality. 9. Romnia is both an (import) and (export) country. 10. The (tire) woman set down to rest for a minute. 11. This has been (tire) work indeed. 12. The (accuse) mn was found not guilty. 13. He cast me an (accuse) look. 14. I like (bake) apples. 16. The (expect) arrival time of this train is> 8.15. 16. He made some (astonish) remarks. 17. The (lose) child ws crying for his mother. 18. (Frighten) horses may be dangerous. 19. It was a (frighlen) sight. 20. Raisins are (dry) grapes. 21. They got on a (crowd) bus. XIII. Traducei in limba englez: 1. Crile mprumutate de la bibliotec trebuie napoiate la timp. 2. Ferestrele salonului se deschideau spre o teras cu privire la mare. 3. Auzind pai, se ntoarse tresrind. 4. Toate lucrurile pe care le tim de mult ne snt dragi. 5. Tcu, prnd mirat de purtarea mea. 6. Dup ce terminat ce-avea de fcut, se ridiq s opreasc maina. 7. Apoi pleca, cinele urmndu-1. 228) Exersa n fiecare zi, principiul lui fiind c exerciiul duce la perfeciune. 229) Copilul s-a oprit din plns. 10. S-a oprit s-o ajute pe btrn. 11. Unul din motivele pentru care citise cartea de attea ori fusese s nvee cuvintele noi. 12. Tui pentru a atrage atenia auditoriului. 13. mi pare ru c te-am deran jat n timp ce lucrai. 14. ncepu s-i tremure vocea de emoie. 15. Am promis s-mi ascult prinii. 16. Am vzut-o plngnd. 17. mi pare ru. N^am vrut s te jignesc. 18. Nimeni nu este de vin. 19. Aceast problem este prea difi cil ca s-o putem rezolva. 20. Neag c a fost acolo. XIV. nlocuii cuvintele scrise cursiv cu verbe modale potrivite ca sens si v er naionale la infinitivul prezent sau perfect. Exemplu: We are obliged to do our homework every day. We have to do our homework every .day. 1. You are given permission to Leave. 2. Perhaps they have heard the ne'*"' 3. He probably went to Oradea on business. 4. Children are forbidden to
70 ,

, piatches. 5. She didn't forget about the appointment; U is impossible. 6AS

va

yu don't feel well it's good for you to see a doctor. 7. Peter hd the ability

'" T saYs IS most Prbably true. 9. Although your obligation was to write a letter

ir his bicycle himself but he didn't; he took it to a mechanic. 8. What

e as soon as you arrived, you didn't even write a postcard. 10. AH the k dents were obliged to take a test last week.
tfV Traducei in limba englez, folosind verbe modale potrivite ca sens:

1. Vrei s-mi aduci ziarul, te rog? 2. S cumpr nite banane? A prefera x cumperi nite portocale. 3. Vrei s semnai n registru, v rog? 4. Putei * m ajutai la bagaje? 5. Dorii o ceac de cafea? Nu, mulumesc. A dori S& ceac de ceai. 6. Ea nu tie nc englezete dar va ti aceast limb peste tiva ani. 7. Ar fi putut nva poezia, dar n-a vrut. 8. S-ar putea s se nsenineze mai triiu. 9. Pot s mprumut aceast carte ? Da, poi. 10. Obinuiam s merg la not n fiecare zi cnd eram mai tnr. 11. Se poate s fi ctigat meciul, dar nu snt sigur. 12. Ar fi trebuit s plece mai devreme. Atunci ar fi prins trenul. 13. E un concert bun la televizor. N-ar trebui s-1 pierzi. '14. Petre e absent azi. Cred c e bolnav. 15. Nu avei voie s v jucai n mijlocul strzii. 16. Nu cred c a fost plecat din ora sptmna trecut. L-am ntlnit de mai multe ori. 17. S-a dus la culcare la ora 8 asear. Cred c era foarte obosit. 18. Copiilor li s-a dat voie s ias afar cnd a stat ploaia. 19. Cum ndrznete s spun aa ceva? 20. Nu era neyoie s-i iei umbrela; a stat ploaia.

2. SUBSTANTIVUL (The N mm)

2J.. Definiie
Substantivul: a) denumete obiecte n sens foarte larg, adic fiine, lucruri, fenomene (mn, chair, snow, walk, wisdom); ") are categoriile gramaticale de gen, numr i caz; C J poate ndeplini n propoziie funciile de subiect, nume predicativ, atribut, apoziie, complement, element predicativ suplimentar, sau poate fi echivalentul unei propoziii sau fraze. 22, Clasificare de S^stantivele din limba englez pot fi clasificate din mai multe puncte
Din x , P^ct de vedere al lor, substantivele se mpart n: 'substantive simple: boy, meal, day; substantive formate prin derivare cu sufixe sau prefixe: childhood, ^ ^gust, unhappiness-, bn, Staltive formate prin compunere (substantive compuse) : school* " classroom; a

71

d) substantive formate prin conversiune, din alte p ri de vorbire. adjective: the good, the evil, the rich, the poor; verbe la infinitiv: cook, fli; verbe la Gerund: reading, boxing; verbe la participiul trecut: the injured; e) substantive formate prin contragere: ad (advertisement), fridge (refrigerator), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium), lob (laboratory), liv (livingroom), poly (polytechnic), pram (perambulator), pub (public house); ) abrevieri: MP (Member of Parliament), Dr (doctor), Mr Brown (Dl Brown), Mrs Brown (dna Brown), Miss Brown (dra Brown), Ms Bro\vn (apelativ pentru femei, cstorite sau necstorite). 2.2.2. Din punct de vedere al gradului de individualizare, substantivele n limba englez se mpart n dou clase mari: substantive comune i substantive proprii. A. S ubs t an ti vel e' co m u ne s nt l i p sit e de p os ibi l i t at ea d e a individualiza prin ele insele. Ele denumesc un element dintr-o categoria de obiecte de acelai fel: table, school. Substantivele comune se subclasific n: 230) substantive apelative, care denumesc un element dintr-o categorie: table, school; 231) s u b stantive colective, care denumesc obiecte const nd din mai multe elemente de acelai fel: family, people; 232) substantive concrete, care denumesc obiecte sau substana constitutiv a unor obiecte: table, wood, steel; 233) substantive abstracte, care denumesc abstrac iuni: difficulty, worry, peace, Iove, music. B. Substantivele (numele) proprii au capacitatea de a individualiza un obiect dintr-o categorie de obiecte de acelai fel, denumind n principiu un singur element dintr-o categorie. In limba englez, substanti vele proprii denumesc: 234) nume de persoane: Churchill; 235) d e n u m i r i g e o g r a f i c e :

Lake Michigan, the Carpathians; c)diviziunitemporale: lunile anului: January; zilele sptmnii: Sunday; srbtori: Independence Day;

nume de localiti: London, Bucharest; nume de ri i continente: Romnia, Britain, the United States, Europe; nume? de ape i muni: the Danube, the Black ea, the Suez Canal,

nume de cri, ziare, reviste: Ha/d Times, The Times, The Sunday Times; 237) n u m e de i n s t i t u i i : The Grand Hotel, the National Theatre, the British Museum. Ortografia substantivelor proprii. In limba englez, substantivele proprij se scriu cu liter mare, ca i n limba romn: Helen Elena; Rome Great Britain Marea (Britanie. Exist ns unele situaii n care In limba englez este diferit de cel n limba romn: 72

236)

lunilor anului i ale zilelor sptmnii se scriu cu liter mare n glez,- fiind considerate substantive proprii: April aprilie, Sun -duminic; te cuvintele (cu excepia articolelor, prepoziiilor i conjunciilor) Irtr-un substantiv propriu exprimat printr-o perifraz substantival se scriu cu liter mare n limba englez: titluri de cri: Dombey and Son Dombey i fiul; __ titluri de ziare: The Daily Minor; titluri de reviste: English Language Teaching Journal; titluri de capitole, articole, lucrri, instituii, etc.: The Conference for Peace and Security in Europe Conferina pentru pace i securitate In Europa; the United Nations Organization Organizaia Naiunilor Unite, . nuniele de naionaliti i limbi se scriu de asemenea cu liter mare n limba englez: He speaks English. (El) Vorbete englezete; W e are Romanians. Noi sntem romni.
en

2.3. Numrul substantivelor (Numbwi' o! Nouns)

Substantivele n limba englez au categoriile gramaticale de gen, numr i caz. Numrul este categoria gramatical care se recunoate cel mai uor, datorit desinenei -s, specific pentru forma de plural a substantivelor. Din punct de vedere al ideii de numr, substantivele n limba englez se mpart n numrabile (Count nouns) i nenumrabile (Mass nouns). Substantivele numrabile snt de obicei v a r i a b i l e ca form (Variable nouns), avnd att singular ct i plural, iar cele nenumrabile snt de regul i n v a r i a b i l e ca form (Invariable nouns), avnd form numai de singular sau numai de plural. -'.3.1. Substantivele numrabile (Count Noitn f). Substantivele numrabile denumesc noiunile ca uniti separate, care pot fi numrate: a boy, two boys, a few boys, etc. Substantivele numrabile au urmtoarele caracteristici: a) snt variabile ca form, avnd att numrul singular, ct i numrul plural: museum museums, chil .children; "} pot fi precedate de numerale cardinale sau cuantificatori: one book, itiree books, sever al apples, a lot ofbrushes; c) la numrul singular se acord cu verbe la singular: The book is on the table.

iar la numrul plural, cu verbe la plural: The apples are in the basket. -3.2. Clasificarea substantivelor aumrabile. Substantivele numrabile aud ' a P e l a l v e : garden, pencil; sau c o l e c t i v e: committee, uience; concrete: child, school; sau abstracte: difficutty, question. nn~ u,b. s't a n t i v e l e c o l e c t i v e snt o subdiviziune a substantivelor numarabile. Ele se comport: con 'H a su^stantive numrabile propriu-zise cnd denumesc o colectivitate s iderat ca un ntreg.: The two football teams are in the field now. Cele dou ect Pe de fotbal smt acum pe teren. verb ^ aC-6St CaZl ele au numrul singular i numrul plural i ee acord cu *a singular sau la plural: His amily is larger than mine. Familia lui este
73

mai numeroas decit a mea. On each floor live two families. La fiecare et locuiesc dou familii. ^ 2) Clnd aceste substantive se refer la membrii componeni ai colectiv' taii, ele se comport ca substantive colective propriu-zise. In aceast situat'' substantivele colective se folosesc cu forma de singular, referirea fiind la colectivitate : family, team, care se acord cu verbul la plural, referirea fijuj la membrii colectivitii : My family are jit home. Familia mea este acas (= AU the members of my family,.. ). Din grupa substantivelor colective fac parte substantivele : army, assernblt, audience, class, club, committee, company, crew, crOwd, family, government jury, party, press, public, regiment, troop, flight (of birds, insects, planes)' flock (of sheep), herd (of cattle), pack (of wolves), poultry, shoal (of fish), swarm (of bees). ;-:,3,o, A. -:i\ ' plus-. ivelw BiiinraMle. Substantivele numrabile au dou forme: o form de singular i o form de plural. Forma de singular este nemarcat: book, box, child. Formele de plural snt de dou feluri: A. regulate, cnd pluralul se formeaz prin adugarea desinenei -s la forma de singular: book books. B. n e r e g u l a,t e, cnd pluralul se formeaz n alte moduri. - ; u r- a : ; > j ,; ,; ;-., ,.: i fi L a s u b s t a n t i y e I o r se formeaz prin adugarea desinenei -s, la forma de singular a substantivului, . ii- 4. Piwa ;} tarife ifluraislal regulat este urmtoarea: 238) [-s] dup consoane surde [k], [f],, [p], [t] i [8]: books, proofs, lamps, carpets, months; " 239) [-z] dup consoane sonore i vocale : gloves, tables, boys, trees; 240) [iz] dup sunetele [s], [z], [J], [tj], [ds]: dasses, noses, brushes, matches, cillages.
'n^,

241) Desinena -s se scrie -s dup majoritatea substantivelor, incluznd substantivele terminate n -e mut: book> books, table _ tables. 242) E x c e p i i r Exist unele situaii care fac excepie de la aceast regul general: 243)
Substantivele terminate n -s; -z; -s; -eh; -sh adaug es : bus busM; glass glasses; buzz buzzes; box boxes; watch watchw, brush brushes ; 244) La cteva dintre substantivele din acest grup se dubleaz consoana finalfez fezzes, quiz quizzes. 245) Substantivele terminate n -o : adaug desinena -s :

cnd -o e precedat de o vocal: cuckoos; kangaroos; radios;

studios: zoos; la substantive proprii: Filipinos; Eskimos; Neros; Romeos; -in abrevieri: kilos (kilogrammes), photos (photographs), pros (professionals); la unele substantive strine : concertos, dynamos, pianos, soios, tangos, tobaccos; adaug -es la substantive ca: echoes. heroes, mosquitoes, Negroes, poiato ' tomatoes;
74

avi dou fprrae de plural : banjos banjoes; buffalos buffaloes; cargof earooes; mementos mementoes; mottos mottoes; volcanos vol-''anoes; &ros - zeroes etc.; bstantivele terminate n -y precedat de o consoan transforma pe y ^ I ni adaug -es : city cities; factory _ factories. Transformarea nu are loc: __dup vocale: boy boys, play plays; _ln substantive proprii: the Kennedys; _ln substantive compuse: stand-bys; Li te re l e, n u m e r a l e l e i a b r e v i e r i l e formeaz pluralul Drin adugarea unui apostrof i -s:.A's, 1920's; MP's: There are two A's aid three 2's in the number of that English car. There are two MP' 1 s in the In engleza contemporan exist tendina ".a numeralele i abrevierile g& formeze pluralul i prin adugarea doar a unui -s la singular: in the 1930s; Mp (Member of Parliament) MPs; , Mt (Mountain) Mts; col. (folame) vols; Ib. (pound) ~lbs; PO (Post Office, Postai Order) POs. Forma de plural fr apostrof este mai frecvent folosit dect cea cu apostrof. 3) Pluralul substantivelor compuse 246) Majoritatea substantivelor compuse adaug -s -la ultimul element: classroom classrooms( forget-me-not forget-me-nots ; grown-up grownups; horse race (curs de cai) horse races; race horse (cal de curse) race korses; merry-go-ronnd merry-go-rounds ; 247) Unele substantive compuse, de obicei cele alctuite dintr-un substantiv i o construcie prepoziional, adaug -s la primul element: looker-on lookers-on; mother-in-law - mothers-in-law; passer-by passers-by; 248) substantivele compuse n care primul element este mn sau woman trans form la plural ambele elemente: mn singer men singers; woman doctor

lobby.

women doetors.

Not; CHd substantivul compus este alctuit din dou substantive, substantivul cu rol de adjectiv este de obicei la singular: o car-race; a flower show; a five-pound note; a shop-assistant; a ten-minule film; a tooth-brush; a two-piece suit; a vegetable gafdm. Adeseori Ins aceste substantive i pstreaz forma de plural, fie cnd el are numai form de plural, fie cnd este folosit cu sens de plural: a customs ojficer; <* games mistress; a goods train; a siveets vendor; The Public Relations Department; Tiu United Nations Organization ; The United States Congress. 2. 3, (i. B. p l u r a I u l n e t; e g u l a t al s u h s t a n t i v e. i o r
Cons

n mai multe feluri: oana surd [6], [f] sau [s] n care se termin substantivul se transform perechea ei sonor: [5], [v,] sau [z] (voicing) la unele substantive: ths[tiz]: bath baths; mouth mouths ; path paths; youth

) -f (e) [f] -* ves[vz]: calf calves; elf elves; half haloes; knife sju"6*' ^eaf ~~leaves! life live; loaf "loaves; seif selves; shelf *es; thief thieves; wife wives; wolf woloes; t -se [s] -* se$ [z'\z] : house houses.

75

A 1 1 u .s. Acest fenomen de sonorizare a consoanei finale nu se prod u la toate substantivele terminate n [6], [f] sau [s]. Exist i forme de regulat i oscilaie Intre cele dou forme: Plural regulat (1): consoan + -tk : vocal + -th : berth berths elolh cloths earth earths death deaths length lengths faith faiths Forme duble (1):

oath oaths truth truths

Plural regulat (2): Forme duble (2): belief beliefs dwarf dwarfs dwarves chief chiefs handkerchief handkerchiefs handkerchieves cliff cliffs hoof hoofs hooves proof proofs scarf scarfs scarves roof roofs wharf wharfs wharves safe safes Sonorizarea lui [s] se produce numai la substantivul house. b) vocala sau diftongul final se schimb n alt vocal sau diftong (mutation): mn men; woman women; foot feet; goose geese; tooth teeth; moae mice; louse Uce.
Not: Compuii cu sufastaativul mn au aceeai pronunie la singular i plural, #ei ortografia difer : a postman[ 'paustman] twojposmen['p8ustmen], on Englishmn ['ijglijraan] two Englishmen ['ty

c) Trei substantive adaug desinena -en (cu sau fr mutaie vocalic): ox 0:eeii; chil c/w'Wren; brother brethreo.. ,
\ot: Brother (frate) are plural regulat: brothers (frai). Pluralul neregulat brethren este folosit doar cu sensul de membru al unei societi religioase".

d) Unele substantive numrabile au aceeai form la singular i p.ural (primesc desinena zero plural zero).
Not,- Substantivele cu desinena zero la plural se deosebesc de substantivele invariabile care au numai singular (music) sau numai plural (cattle) prin faptul c se acord attt cu un verb la singular ct i cu un verb la plural: There is a sfray sheep on the road. E o oaie rtcit pe drum. There are some stray sheep on the road. Snt citeva oi rtcite pe drum.

Pluralul zero este folosit: cu unele substantive In -s: barracks barac; headquarters sediu > means mijloc; series serie; species specie; works uzin: This is an army barracks. These are army barracks. The bus, and the underground are modern means of transport. Autobuzul, trolei metroul snt mijloace moderne de transport; cu numele de naionaliti terminate n -ese : the Chinese, the the Portuguese, the Vietnamese: He is speaking to a Portuguese. El vorbete cu un portughez. The P r guese lice in Europe. Portughezii triesc n Europa;

cu substantivele denumind animale. Acestea pot avea: > doar pluralul zero: carp carp; deer deer; game game; grouse >' sheep sheep; pike pike; plaice plaice; salmon salmon; trout

. troutv <ii- Substantivele carp, deer, pike, trout au i forme de plural regulat: carps,deers, pikes, trouts, care snt folosite rar.

2) pluralul zero (folosit mai ales n limbajul vntoresc) i pluralul regulat folosit pentru indicarea unor varieti: antelope antelope antelopes; ^j i.cod cods; duck duck (rae slbatice) ducks (rae de ferm); Cf i, fish fishes; herring herring herrings; mackerel mackerel mackerels; 3) doar pluralul regulat: cow cows; dog dogs; hen hens; horse horses; monkey monkeys; sparrow sparrows etce) Plurale strine (Foreign Pltirals). Exist mai multe desinene de plural de origine strin care snt folosite n limba englez, mai ales n limbajul tiinific:

Plurale strine
Singular Terminaia j Exemple Terminaia f'
1

Plural
j Exemple

-ns -a -am -exl -iz} -s -on -eau

zero
0

slimulns corpus genus alga, larvA stratnm. codex thesis criterion, phenomenon tablvau chamois, chassis, corps graffito

{-ora . l-era -ae -a -iees -es -a -eaux

siimull corpon' genera. oijae

larvae strin theses

codliceg criteria, phenomenn tabieaux ' chamois, chassis, corps graffiti (de obicei plural)

zero -i

en

Unele dintre aceste desinene snt mai bine reprezentate n limba glez:

'us -i: stimulus stimuli; bacillus bacilli. "Um : addendwa addenda; datvm data.; agendvun. agend; erratum errat&; bacteriwaa. bacteria,; stratnm strata. 'es: analysis analysvs; ellipsis ellipsts; axis ax6S; hypothesis hypothes&s; basis bases; emis cres; paralysis paralyses; diagnosis diagnoses; parenthesis parentheses; synthesh synthesvs; thesis theses.
77

Aas t e E i ?, Diferena dintre forma de singular i eea de plural a a tivelor terminate n -is (sg.) i -es (pi), se observ i n pronunare: axis [ n -um ums axes ['seksi:z]; basis [ beisis] bases [>beisi:z]; emis [ kraisis] __' -on ons etc. f'kraisi:z], n ceea ce privete pluralele strine, exist mai multe situaii; 2) Unele substantive de origine strin i-au pstrat forma de din limba din care au fost mprumutate (vezi tabelul de pe pag. 77) 3) Unele substantive au numai plural cu -s: iis uses

: bonus bonu&e>s campnses campus choru&QS chorns ct'rcus drcuses ignoramns ignoramnSQS drams : aren& arenas dram encydopedm dilemma dilemmas encyclopedi ers diplom diplomas er : album a^ums gymnasinm. gymnasirans geranium geraninms musenm mwseums : demon demons .electron electrons lexicon lexicons duhuri) -o os : soprano sopranos -um -us 3. Alte substantive de origine strin au dou forme de plural: pluralul regulat cu -s i pluralul de origine strin: -uses : cactus cactuses -i gereius geniuses (oameni de geniu) syllabns syllabnses terminus terminmes antennas : formulas autom vertebra aton "<* aquarinms curriculmas -eau medinms eaus: sanatorinms burea symposiwns n appendi's.fis -eaux (n anatomie) plte mrfexes au -as antenna (cuprinsuri) f -os : -ae formula : o < f vertebra libretto -ums: aquarinm i aulomatons 1 -a curriculu m [ virtuoso bureans -ixes : medivaa. plateaus sanatoriu librettos m symposiu virtuosos -e x l -ices.

-on
-ons

 eacti genii (spirite, syllabi termini antennas formulae vertebrae

aquaria curricula media. sanatoria symposia appen

divQS (n cri); indiees

(indici n matematic)

automata iwreaux jstoeaux libretti virtuoi

78

jt,a*u -----

in limbajul tehnic, iar pluralul n -s esie tntflnit in vorbirea curent. sini, rare, ^ de obiwi

. Formele de plural n -i bslantivele cu dou forme de plural, formele strine de plural snt
. .

^ PB^ ^

ra . e .. SUgar^ Coal, steel sau ,~ e,jl.staiitivele p b s t r a c t e : beauty, kindness. a nennmrabile o (MassNouns). Substantivele nenum3 ! 2. -'- ' m e s c noiuni vzute ca un ntreg. Substantivele nenumrabile hile den . t 1 P atrl bs t, antivele nenumrabile au urmtoarele c a r a c t e r i s t i c i : * * - v a r i a b i l e ca form: tea, Information, cattle, scissors; \ st n t 11 tea. information. scissors.

folosite

vind contrastul singular plural, ele nu pot fi numrate cu ajutorul

numeralelor sau al altor cuantificatori: 7 need (some)

. gg acord cu verbul la singular: Chinese tea is very good. Ceaiul chinezesc este foarte bun. sau Ia plural: The scissors are on the table. Foarfec este pe mas. d) Unele substantive englezeti fac parte att din clasa substantivelor numrabile, ct i din a celor nenumrabile, cu diferene de sens:

Substantive nnmftrabile

Traducere

Substantive nenumrabile

.
Traducere

Ske ii a beauty. j The main eharacter of ; Ihe ttory ii an fiiherman.

(Ea) este o frumusee. Eroul/personajul principal al nuvelei este un btrn pescar. Mi s-a ntmplat ceva interesant cnd am cltorit n nordul rii. D-mi o ngheat, te rog. Are un nou fier de clcat. Nu mai are dect doil fire de pr pe cap. Am cumprat zia-j nil de diminea.) A scris o lucrare! bun. 1 Am auzit un zgomot ciudat.

Beauty is io be admired. He is a mn of eharacter. This teacher has a great deal of experience. Thai block of ice is dangerous. very This tool is made o( iron.

Frumuseea

tre-

buie admirat. (El) este un om de caracter. Acest profesor are foarte mult experien. Acest bloc de ghea este foarte periculos. Aceast unealt este din fier. Are prul blond.

I hd an inleresling i xperience when telling in the North ' 0>e eounlry. Qive me an iee, pkase. fhe bas got a ew
ron e

f tas only two hairs on hu head,

NB*

She has blonde hair.

'*'

tte mofn n

^9

pe? M Wriilen a 9d
.
eard

The box is wrapped in while paper.

Cutia e mpachetat n hrtie alb.

a Hrange sound.

~ > ~^- - _

Light travels faster than sound.

Lumina se deplaseaz mai repede dect sunetul.

79

e) Uneori diferenele de sens rabile snt exprimate prin cuvinte diferite: dintre substantivele numrabile i cele no
TnVil stnt, Aimrimnt.o Tirin nnvint.o rlif oTif o "ft

1 Substantive num&rabile Traducere Substantive nenumarabile

Traduoeto

Pee bought iwo loaves. There are two ahcep in the field. This pif is very f ai. He does his lessons in ihe evening.

Am cumprat dou pSini. Snt dou oi pe cmpie. Porcul acesta (animalul) este foarte gras. i face leciile seara.

I'll buy bread at the supermarket. I like.muiton. I've bought some pork for dinner. He does his homework in the evening.

Am s cumpit M . la autoservire. *"* mi place carne. , a oaie. 4 Am cumprat .j. carne de porc .T mas. "i i face leciile (tem, seara. *

f) n limba englez fac parte din clasa substantivelor invariabile la unele substantive care snt numrabile sau invariabile la plural limba romn: advice, business, furniture, homework, income, i knowledge, luggage, nierchandise, money, nonsense, produce naturale, agricole), progress, strength, work.
Limba engleza Limba romn

He always gives me goo advice. Yow must do your bomewotk carefullg. I need further Information. JEft knowledge of English is poor. Where'g yow luggage? The money is in your wallet. You are talking nonsense. This pupil ii making fast progress in learning English. He felt his strength was failing.

Totdeauna mi d sfaturi bune. Trebuie s'-i faci cu atenie leciile (temelt; Am nevoie de informaii suplimentare, Cunotinek lui de englez snt slabe. Unde-i snt bagajele? Banii snt n portofelul tu. Vorbeti prostii. Acest elev face progrese mari n nvarea limbii engleze. Simea c-1 Ias puterile.

2.3.8. Numrul substantivelor invariabile. Substantivele au opoziia singular plural. Ele au numai singular: gold, sau numai p tke police, cattle, etc. A. Substantivele invariabile la singular Un numr de substantive invariabile au numai form de singule wisdom, news, measles, phonetics, the good, W ales. ^ Acestea se acord cu verbul la singular: Phoneties is abranch of ti Folosirea lor cu form de plural i/sau cu un verb la plural se iac<-J situaii speciale. Din clasa substantivelor invariabile la singular fac parte: a) Substantive nenumarabile concrete: bread, butter, chalk, food, Jrtt jam, ilver, etc.: Fruit is good to eat. Este bine s mnnci fructe.
*

80

sau

sirea acestor substantive ca substantive numrabile (ou forma de plural >-(>tS'- (juctori) este posibil doar cu schimbarea sensului: l

ua

, t- What \ meats \ do you have today ? fiind o}, r J frultg J

a)

jam ] f gemuri j meat } Ce { feluri de carne } avei astzi? fruit ] l fructe J

jama ]
a

cup l g'"0 f:

' AA y* t s-6 Jfor " ^e- {P? S ssr} pentru mine te *

tru a exprima intensitatea sau cantiti mari: The sands of the desert nisipu'' rile deertului. The waters of the lake apa lacului.

h tantive nenumrabile abstracte: advice, cleanliness, homework, rformation, justice, knowledge, nonsense, etc.; le substantive terminate n -s, care exprim urmtoarele noiuni: ;n g u bstantivul news: Here is the 9 o'clock news. Acestea snt tirile ,je )a ora 9. n nume de b o l i : measles pojar; mumps creion; nekets rahi-

tfeasles is a catching disease. Pojarul este o boal contagioas. i) nume de t i i n e i obiecte de s t u d i u terminate n ies: acoustics, aesthetics, cybernetics, economics, electronics, linguistics, phonetics, physics. Acoustics is the science of sound. Acustica este tiina sunetelor. De asemenea: athletics, ethics, gymnastics, politics. 4) Unele nume de jocuri: bittiards, bowls, cards, darts, dominoes, draughts, marbles, ninepins, skittles. Dominoes is a game for children. Dar: a billiard-table, a bowling-alley, a dart-board, a draught-board. 5) Unele substantive proprii: Athens, Brussels, Naples, W des, the Thames: Wales is in the south-westtf Great Britain. ara Galilor se afl n partea de sud-vest a Marii Britanii Adjectivele abstracte substantivizate: the beautiful, the sublime, the good,
In f ' '

con cake JP
""

r r,iece } ^J. } of chalk '

; iry-stones the good always wins. In" basme binele nvinge totdeauna.

substantivelor invariabile la singular se poate realiza cu cuvinte ca: a piece of, an item of, a bar of,a concrete:

an

of

l Puce ) fl iiap } of { I P'ece l roast \ of j mefl , [ of ^ ( ciocolate

f p i ec e

soap
Ilmb

a | J A ee <
81

f of paper

engle2e

'-cr,

Substantive abstracte :
informatio of inter est n news
P

word

of advice

a pie.ce. an item an item a bit of business

a bit an amount luck a piece of j evidence research a word of abuse a fit of passion an attack of fever
p! vs rai

Substantivele invariabile la plural au numai form de plural i se acords de regul cu un verb la plural: The binoculars are on the table. Binoclul este n mas. . Din clasa substantivelor se numesc summation plurals n limDa invariabile la plural fac unelte: binoculars, compasses, glasses parte: a) substantivele oare denumesc obiecte'formate din dou pri egale. Aceste substantive "" -- -" -' 7- * - engleza. Ele denumesc: 1) pincers, pliers, scales, scissors, spectacles, tongs. Where are the seissors? Unde este foarfec? 2) a r t i c o l e de mbrcminte: braces, clothes flannels, j'eans, overalls, pants, -pyjamas, shorts, trousers:
These trousers are too long for you. Aceti pantaloni snt prea lungi pentru tine.
1. Observai forma de singular a unora dintre aceste substantive cnd slnt folosite atributiv: a spectade case toc de ochelari, a pyjama cord cordon de pijama, a suspender belt portjartier, a trouser leg crac de pantalon. 2. Substantivele care denumesc obiecte din dou. pri se numr cu ajutorul cuvintului pair: a pair of scissors, a pair of trousers.; livo pair (s) of glasses; three pair(s) of skis, etc.

b) alte substantive f o l o s i t e numai la plural (pluralia tantum), terminate de regul n -s: He lives on the outskirts of the town. Lo cuiete la periferia oraului. Exremplele de pluralia tantum n limba englez snt numeroase: v.u;uin in -s
Exemplu Traducere Exemplu Traducere

annals the antipodes arms auspices lowels colours ihe Commons dccmages earnings effects fireworks
erop'u
^ ---~" '

anale antipozi arme auspicii intestine steag, drapel Camera Comunelor despgubiri ctig efecte, mbrcminte. foc de artificii

funds grounds letlers the Lords manners particulare proeeedings (of the conference) regards remains

fonduri (bneti) za, drojdie; .?>; teren (la unei cldi") litere, literatur Camera Lorzilor purtare, maniere date particulare lucrrile (conferinei; salutri resturi

82
Traducere
Exemplu Traducere

economii resturi de mncare, deeuri de metal scri clbuc de spun

aurroundings ihanka troops tropies valuables

mprejurimi mulumiri trupe tropice obiecte de valoare

T T ele substantive fac parte din clasa pluralia tantnm doar n limba englez, ,- ha romn ele fiind substantive variabile sau invariabile la singular:

Exemplu

Traducere

Exemplu

Traducere

archives brain(s) conlenis (coffee) dregs goods graunds

arhiv cenu intelect coninut vam zaf; (de cafea) marf parc n jurul unei i cldiri i

holiday s minutes gats outskirts pains prermses sands spirits wages

vacan (engl. brit.) proces-verbal ovz periferie osteneal local, imobil (stil oficial) plaj dispoziie (bun sau rea) salariu

Nota: Unele din substantivele pluralia, tantum apar fr -s cnd snt folosite adjectival sau n coiripui: ash-tray, a holiday cmp, staircase, a wage-earnen, a (vage-packet.

A o n f e! Exist unele substantive care au dou forme, cu nelesuri diferite: o form invariabil la singular i o form invariabil la plural:*)
Substantive invariabile la plural

Substantive invariabile la lingular

Traducere

Traducere

advic e oir

ash
JHJ

sfaturi aer scrum de igar; cenu (chimie, geologie) conduit, inut pereche (de potrnichi) coninut (capacitate, substan) cost fond, baz (de cunotine, de bani) pmnt, teren onoare

advices airs ashe s learings braees contente cost s funda grounds honours

ntiinri, avize / aere (figurat) cenu (n general) aspecte (ale unei uni), coordonate bretele coninut (al unei cri, al unui vas) cheltuieli resurse bneti, fonduri za, sediment, teren, parc (al unei cldiri) onoruri; distincie la examene

broce content

fvnd Io nour " - ------p

P- 52-5'3

de

scu

Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti, 1963, 83

Substantive invariabile Ia singular

Traducere

Substantive invariabile la plural

Traducere

middle age regard , respect 1. spirit 2. spirit

vrst mijlocie privire, consideraie stim, consideraie spirit, fire, atitudine spirt; alcool pur

the Middle Ages regards respeets (high, low) spirits spirits

Evul mediu salutri omagii dispoziie (bun/n buturi alcoolice tan S*"* tilate) (4

Substantivele pluralia tantum i summation plurals se confund cu forma de plural a unor substantive numrabile: colour = culoare; pi. colours damage = avarie; pi. damages colours (pi. tantum) = drapel damages (pi. tantum) = compass = busol; pi. compasses despgubiri effect = efect; pi. compasses (pi. tantum) = compas effects effects (pi. tantum) = custom = obicei: pi. customs efecte, haine glass pahar; pi. oustoms' (pi. tantum) = vam glasses glasses (pi. tantum) =

ochelari ground = motiv, cauz; pi. gfounds grounds (pi. tantum) = za, teren, parc n jurul unei cldiri letter = scrisoare; pi. letters letters(pl. tan turn)=Iiteratur, litere manner = mod; pi. manners manners (pi, tantum) = maniere, purtare minute = minut; pi. minutes minutes (pi. tantum)=proces-verbal

pain = durere; p], pains pains (pi. tantum) =* ostenealg premise = premis; pi. premis premises (pl.tantum)=local, in^, quarter == sfert, cartier; pi. quartn quarters (pi. tantum) '= locuing cantonament ' receipt = chitan; pi. receipts receipts (pi. tantum) = ncasri scale gam muzical, solz; pi scales scales (pi. tantum) = balan ser ap = bucic, fragment; pi ser ap s scraps (pi. tantum) = resturi mncare, deeuri de metal spectacle = spectacol; pi. spectadti spectacles (pi. tantum) = ochelari term = perioad, termen, trimestru; pi. terms terms (pi. tantum) = termeni, reia ii, raporturi, condiii* c) Substantive nemarcate la p tu r al. n clasa substantive!^ invariabile la plural intr i unele substantive folosite numai la pi 0' dar ne marcate formal pentru acest numr. Aceste substantive snt: cau clergy, gentry, people, police, vermin, youth: ' The cattle are in the field. Vitele snt pe cmp. There are a lot of popl" the street. Snt muli oameni pe strad.
Not: People i youth pot i folosite i ca substantive numrabile variabile. peoples of the world are struggling for peace. Popoarele lumii lupt pentru pace-youths saw the accident happen. Aceti tineri au vzut cum s-a ntmplat ace'

d) Adjectivele participiile personale The injured were takensau io hospital. Rniii au fost dui la spital- s t i v i z a wounded:

i ,. n*

s i e sau participiile personale su ^ t i v i z a t e: the handicapped, the injured, the poor, the rich, the sw i
*) Ibid, pp. 4749.

84 fe

aubstantiye proprii: the Alps, the East / West Indies, the Highlands, the Netheriands, the United States jof America: are a mountdinoas region. Regiunea Highlands este o regiune
Numrul substantivelor Substantive variabile
F.I; .
ptor!"!"1 . -------- -----------

Formam plnrlntal

' Singular

Exemple Plani

plurale t&* Plnnl* ifttuUte

+ Mf + 8 [?] + s [iz]

6oofc penni, ioy wafcA

0] - [] + M gon6ri2area consfoariei sj mutaie vocalic

q -M + H
-W+[i]

lath knife hous e mn foot mouse

book peneils, boys uatchet laths tmivet houses men feei mic e oxen ehiUre theep work the Japaneie stimuli eorpora genera larme desiderata codic s anahses phenomena ehassis tempi

plural n -en mutaie vocalic)

ox ehild theep works the Japaneie siimulus corpus genus larva detideratum codex analysis phenomenon ehassis tempo

Zero
*

Plurale strine
'

- MS - 1 -era

1 -oro

r-,'

-a - " -oe -om -> -a ^ h - -f -> -e -on - -a eero o -f -i

Substantive invariabile
Felul substantivelor Eximple

') nenum&rabile concrete 249) nenumrabile abstracte 250) substantive Jn -s 251) adjective abstracte substantivizate e ) substantive proprii J) MMnnaon plural;

gold, miile, honey ari, patriotism news the beavtiful, the good Helen, Brown, Antarctica

) plwalia tantum tn -s c) tubstantive ev plural nemareat a) adjective personale *vbstantivisote nele substantive proprii

smsors customs, good cattle, police the rich, fhe poor the Carpathian, the United States Hebridet, the

85

l ;Uui.i,Sy

Genul este categoria gramatical caracteristic In substantivelor, adic cuvintelor care indic numele obiectelor. Conin categoriei gramaticale a genului const n aceea c obiectele din lumea in"'''' 1111* S f .n 17*0 riQ/iQ T'onpQTir* t fiin-fa c$Ti-f iivkaT a* r\A anv 1% XnltX-t n ei n / _ _ ~ ""Oii jurtoare, dac reprezint fiine, snt unele' de sex brbtesc (masculi , altele de sex femeiesc (feminin), iar dac reprezint lucruri, snt n afara ! e lui (neutre). , *t Spre deosebire de limba rom n, n care partea final a substantiv) constituie marca categoriei gramaticale a genului: mas&, frate, etc., In ]j i; engle'z genul substantivelor este rareori marcat formal. In afara cazuri! n care genul este marcat formal: boygirl, lionlioness, genul subst tivelor n limba englez se identific de obicei cu ajutorul prenumelor care refer la substantive i care au forme diferite dup gen: " The librarian is at his desk. He is writing something. Bibliotecarul este ] a i: roul su. El scrie ceva. The librarian is at her desk. She is writing somethi Bibliotecara este la biroul ei. Ea scrie ceva. : : . ' !, '^>(i^tir^-^l;^u:.i!vf^T <luv:ulM.a de gen. Din punct de vedere t apartenenei la genul masculin, feminin sau neutru, substantivele din limt; englez se mpart n trei grupe mari: A. substantive nume de persoane B, substantive nume de animale i C. substantive nume de obiecte. i * ' "t; (t? ]w/'M}aiie (Ccndcr of Personal Noi- ns). n limba englez, substantivele care denumesc persoane de sex brbtesc slut de gen masculin: mn, brother, iar substantivele care denumesc persoane di sex femeiesc snt de genul feminin: woman, sister. La substantivele nume de persoane, categoria gramatical a genului poate fi marcat: 1) lexical;'2) morfologic; 3) identificat cu ajutorul unor cuvinte care marcheaz genul, la substantivele nemarcate pentru gen (genul comun). 1) La unele substantive nume de persoane genul este marcat lexicii. prin cuvinte diferite: brother sister king queen monk nun earl countess Iad lass Mr Miss, Mrs father mother lord lady nephew niece gentleman lady mn woman unde aunt 2) La alte substantive nume de persoane, genul este marcat morfologi1 prin adugarea unui sufix la forma de masculin: a) ess: actor actress host hostess count countess mater mistress duke duchess negro negress _ god goddess prince princess heir heiress waiter waitress b) -ine: hero heroine; " sau prin adugarea unui sufix la forma de feminin: 252) -er: widow widower 253) -groom: bride bridegroom 3) Alte substantive nume de persoane au o singur form a ti* P masculin ct i pentru feminin. Ele aparin genului comun. Ex.: artist, ^, t cook, cousin, doctor, foreigner, friend, guest, inhabitant, muscian, w*

arent, professor, person, pupil, relative, speaker, student, teacher, artenena la genul masculin sau feminin se precizeaz n context: r cu ajutorul prenumelor: ~~ asked the pupil a few more questions as she wanted to gice him a

bctter f* 1 ^ a | u torul unor cuvinte la care genul este marcat lexical, ca boy, j f fernalt'171 friend girl-friend pohceman pohcewoman ae-stadent female-student chairman chairwoman a ju t orul u no r ad jec tiv e fo lo si te doa r pent ru un si ng ur s ex: My hbour is pregnant. " '' o 4 4 (?nul substantivelor nume de animale (Gender o Animate Nouns) ntivele nume de animale se subclasific n: 1) nume de animale mari i . 7)Unume de animale mici. n Sub sta nti vel e nu me de animale mari s nt consi derate d e ob icei d e l masculin, fiind nlocuite de pronumele he: The horse was rather restive irf/i'rrf but he soon become more manageable. ' La unele dintre aceste animale, distinc ia de sex masculin-feminin este' marcat formal, situaie n care substantivele snt nlocuite de pronumele he sau she'. The mare whinnied when she saw her mater. Iapa a nechezat cnd i-a vzut stpnul. Marca genului poate fi realizat : a) lexical: horse: stallion mare ox: bull cow sheep: ram ewe pig: boar sow deer: stag hind b) morfologic: Hon lioness, tiger tigress. 2) Substantivele nume de animale mici snt considerate de obicei neutre, fiind nlocuite prin pronumele it: I saw a frog by the lake. It was big and ugly. In unele cazuri ns se pot indica diferenele de sex: /lexical: b) prin cuvinte marc ale genului: wc hen cock sparrow hen sparrow y g bitch he go at she goat ara/ce - duck Tom cat she cat gander ~ g00se J ac k- a ss - Je nn y- a ss male f rog female f rog Uemi1 Sub t'"'''' substantivelor nume de obiecte (Gender of Inanimate Nouns) nli ve e K ;.? l nume de obiecte snt de genul neutru: Where's your umbrella? n ny bag. y " n t ^ F o l "sirea stilistic a categoriei gramaticale a genului. A. Unele 1 '.neol' 6 n u m e .^ e obiecte care snt de regul neutre n vorbirea curent culine personific t a e n literatur, unde ele pot fi tratate ca substantive sau feminine. 3 a s j u . . a sc u line substantivele care denumesc: ' e no n iene nse ^ ac t m ni violente: anger, fear, murder, terror; \ n um e HP f, na t u r al e puternice: ocean, ricer, sun, thunder, wind. death; the Danube " de > the Thames; mu ni: the Carpathians, the Checiot.
87'

Snt .feminine: substantivele care sugereaz o caracteristic feminin, un caracter ; afectuos, cele care indic fertilitatea: affection, devotion, faith, hope, /u 255) substantivele care denumesc trsturi negative de caracter: ambition jealousy, revenge, vanity; , '' -, 256) substantive abstracte ca: fortune, liberty, mercy, nature, peace, scien B. Substantivele nume de obiecte, de animale sau persoane se pot i j prta de la folosirea lor obinuit, la genul neutru, masculin sau feminin' vorbirea curent . ' 'i Exist dou tendine: 1) substantivele inanimate snt personificate, devenind she sau he nt exprimare afectuoas, iar substantivelor animate folosite de obicei la g e '\ u| neutru li se atribuie genul masculin sau feminin. n aceast categorie intr: denumirile de vehicule, maini, ambarcaiuni: boat, bus, car, enein locomotive, motor, ship, submarine. Persoanele care manipuleaz aceste vehi cule le consider de genul feminin ntr-o exprimare afectuoas: / am v(n fond of my car and I wash her every day. --numele de ri, inuturi, localiti, cnd snt privite ca uniti politice/ economice: 'Romnia has greatly developed her tonrism.

254)

jVoiii; Numele de ri snt tratate ca substantive neutre cnd snt privite ca uniti din punct de vedere geografic: This is Romnia. H lies in the south-east of Europe.

animalele domestice snt n general de genul neutru, dar cnd intervin considerente de ordin afectiv li se atribuie genul masculin sau feminin: Wkere is the cat? She is on the bed. Have you seen the dog? / don't know where he is. substantivele baby, infant, child, care snt de obicei neutre, pot fi folosite i la genul masculin sau feminin, ntr-o exprimare afectuoas: The child hasn'l eaten his breakfast. Fetch the baby f rom her cot; she is crying. 2) Exist i o alt situaie, opus celei menionate anterior, referitoare la substantive nume de persoane. Cnd o persoan este tratat cu dispre, aceasta poate fi considerat un obiect nensufleit, referirea la ea fcndu-se cu pro numele it: So you've found the girl at last, Where did you find it

2.5. Cazul substantivelor (Case of Nouns)

2.S.I. Cazul este categoria gramatical care indic raporturile obiecte sau dintre obiecte i aciuni. Sistemul cazului este folosit pentru a funciile sintactice ale substantivelor. . Astfel, n limba englez, ca i n limba romn, raporturile stabilit obiecte i ntre obiecte i aciuni se pot reda prin cinci cazuri, fiecare ele fhnd folosit mai ales pentru exprimarea unui anumit raport. j Nominativul este mai ales cazul subiectului, a c u za .^t, cazul complementului direct, dativul, cazul complementului ' jjjtff genitivul, Cazul atributului, iar vocativul este in afara sintactice. , Ol>icfl n limba romn, categoria gramatical a cazului este marcat a prin desinene (crile copiilor), i prepoziii (pe mas).
88

jpl"8?

jimba englez, categoria gramatical a cazului este marcat prin: desinene: the child's book t pic' The mn (NJ opened the window (Ac). ^prepoziii: / bought it for Mary. -f Cazul nominativ (The Nominative Case). Cazul nominativ este "'" listantivelor care ndeplinesc funcia de subiect, nume predicativ i

apoz't16 sujjstantiv n cazul nominativ n limba englez se poate identifica cu ajutorul topicii. Observai exemplele: fhe audience liked the play. These women are nurses. Mii neighbour, a very experienced engineer, helped me to mend the car. Funciile sintactice ale cazului nominativ snt: \ s u b i e c t al propoziiei: The boy is waiting for his friend. h) n u rn e predicativ: He is a teaeher. , l a p o z i i e, sau parte a unei apoziii: Charles, a friend of mine, tvill help you to do it. 15.3. Ca.v-? acusativ (The Accusative Case). Cazul acuzativ este,,cazul omplementului direct: / ae an icecream an hour ago. Cazul acuzativ nu este marcat prin desinene n engleza modern. De aceea el este identificat cu ajutorul topicii: 257) Dac exist numai un complement n propoziie, acesta este, n majoritatea cazurilor, un complement direct n cazul acuzativ i este aezat imediat dup verbul tranzitiv: Shut the window, please. 258) Dac n propoziie exist dou complemente, unul este n cazul acuzativ, iar cellalt este tot n cazul acuzativ, sau n cazul dativ, n funcie de verbele dup care urmeaz: / asked him (Ac) a question (Ac). I lent her (D) my nmbrella (Ac). Urmtoarele verbe snt urmate de dou acuzative: ask, envy, excuse, forgive, sace, strike: The teaeher asked the pupils severa! questions. / envy you your garden. J hat saved us a lot of trouble. Verbe ca: deny u ate de un ' Sive,hand, Iwd, pay, read, teii, throw, write, wish t cazul acuz complement indirect n cazul dativ i un complement ativ: C an you lend me this book She told the ehiMren an g story. / wish you a good journey. a) v h J a cu z t iv es t e fo ] osit dup: drint tranzitive> pentru a denumi obiectul care sufer aciunea verbului: Shfi 6at '- meet> need' P lant > seek> etc. : b) du eat m S a eake. 7 need your advice. *een / U n e l e v e *be intranzitive, transformndu-le n verbe tranzitive: c) pr . Prepoziii. Majoritatea prepoziiilor n limba englez snt urmate de du \. ars > look compassion.
ant

>ve/ pr0nume n cazul acuzativ: Pm looking at { ln Acuzat'6 7ert>e intranzitive Cire au aceeai rdcin ca i substantivul Kght *f 1V form ' nd aa-numitul acuzativ intern: fight a terrible 89

Funciile n propoziie ale unui substantiv n cazul acu * 259) co mplement direct: She met my brother in the street. ' 260) parte dintr-un complement prepoziional: The boys were talki n the match. S -^ 261) parte dintr-un atribut: / know him to be a mn ol honour. 262) parte dintr-,un complement circumstanial: They arrived in the A
2.5.4. Cazul dativ (The Dative Case). Un substantiv n cazul dat' plinete funcia de complement indirect i arat ctre cine sau ctre V ^ ce ndreptat aciunea exprimat de verb. ty In limba englez, cazul dativ este marcat de prepoziia to sau for s8 topic: She gave some sweets to the ehildren. / bought a present for m v in^ / lent her (D) a book (Ac.). ' * motk!' Cazul d ativ este fo losit: a) dup unele verbe intranzitive, .urmate de un complement indirect al j., soanei: come, happen, occur, propose, submit, surrender, yield:

He came to me. It happened to my mpther. He proposed to her. b) dup verbe tranzitive urmate de complement direct i complement indirsprecedat de prepoziia to: deny, give, hand, lend, offer, pay, read, teii, thn'i write, wish: f paid the money to the cashier. F m wiriting a postcard to my'friendj, Atenie! Substantivele n cazul dativ dup aceste verbe snt prcedate de prepoziia to dac dativul urmeaz acuzativul. Dac substantiv. n dativ urmeaz imediat verbul, prepoziia to se omite: I paid the cti? the money. Pm writing my Iriends a postcard. Exist ns un numr de verbe urmate n mod obligatoriu de cazul dativ -prepoziia to: address, announce, communicate, describe, explain, intndw mention, reiate, repeat: I introducea him to my friends. c) dup verbe tranzitive urmate de complement Direct i complement indire precedat de prepoziia for: buy, choose, do, leave, make, order, restv save, spare: She made a new dress tor her daughter.
Not: Prepoziia for se omite cnd substantivul n cazul dativ este aezat nau acuzativului: She made her daughter a new dresa.

dup unele substantive: attitude ] cruelty J to animols -surprise us. kindess J e) dup unele adjective: Don't be cruel to animals. She advised me to <>e to the Utile boy. f)dup adjective de comparaie ca: adequate, corresponding, equal, ' similar, inferior, superior: The result was noi equal to his effort. Mn is superior to animals 2.5.5. Cazul genitiv (The Genitive Casc). Substantivul n exprim n principal ideea de posesiune i ndeplinete funcia propoziie: Ann's bag is new. . t A -s,f' In limba englez, cazul genitiv este marcat de regul de desinena j V , cedat de un apostrof. De aceea genitivul cu 's se mai numete gen l n 's sau genitivul sin.t etic.

d)

precedat de un apostrof se adaug: .nta " , g gingular a substantivului: thegirVs dress; the pupiVs question. forfl18 gykstantive cu form neregulat de plural : Men's clothes are ]fl cteya > ^an Women5s. We keep tne children's toi/s here. Ore cxpen j)stantive comune terminate n sunetul -s i urmate de cuvn-jacteva u goodness1 sake; for convenience1 sake.
stroful nu este obligatoriu n acest caz, construciile de mai sus ntrebuin.Votforma: for goodness sake; for convenience sake.

tndu-se i
s

troful singur, fr desinena -s se adaug: f rma de plural a substantivelor regulate : the boys' bicycles; the drivers'

^"'substantivele nume de persoane terminate n -s: Dickens'' Uf e; Charles'.

inoks.

Vei-"' :1. La numele proprii terminate n -s se poate ntlni i genitivul cu 's: Dickens's
novels.

Tendina n limba englez contemporan favorizeaz ns scrierea fr -s dar pronunarea cu [iz], ca^i n cazul scrierii cu 's: Burns' ['ba.-nzizj poems. 2. La unele nume proprii care nu se termin n -s se observ tendina de dispariie i apostrofului i uneori i a substantivului determinat: Earls Court; Harrods; ti. Davids; St. Albans. (Earl's Court; St. David's; St. Alban's)

i,;u'.'i sn-ciile Grupurile de cuvinte i titulaturile compuse au marca genitivului adugat la ultimul cuvnt: a year and a half s delay ; my sister-in-la^s job ; the day before's paper; Henry the V IIP s court. dou substantive legate prin and care reprezint posesorii aceluiai obiect adaug marca genitivului la ultimul- cuvnt: Tom and Mary's parents (Tom i Mary snt frai). With Mr and Mrs Brown's compliments. Dac obiectul nu aparine amndorura, marca genitivului o primete fiecare substantiv n parte : Torn1 s and Mary's friends. Apoziia primete de obicei semnul genitivului la ultimul cuvnt; nave you met my brother Jimmy's son? de n ronun area desinenei genitivului sintetic se realizeaz dup regulile pronunare a desinenei de plural a substantivelor: the boy's
ecs
I(]/i
the te cher s

the judee's
j Bm ce

,/

Henry' s Alice1 s 'ri'vnhii n c?\nil genitiv: n cazul enitiv g ' determinantul, precede substantivul deter-antf losit atributiv: This is m y sister's schoolbag. iv n m ^ enitiv urmeaz verbul to be cnd este folosit ca nume pre-aiitiv i f r ls Our orm teacher ' s - The book is John's. jUo ? enitiv Poate aprea singur, substantivul determinat fiind enea 8itua ii a ar: ad s T * P Jfft^Sta-nt'lvul detei>minat a fost menionat anterior: This is Tom' s S antivul determinat este cuvntul shop, house, place, museum: at the groeer's (shop). / was at the Browns' (house) yesterday. ,
U!

d) Substantivul In cazul genitiv poate urma substantivul determinat este desprit de acesta prin prepoziia of (genitiv dublu): a book of teacher's; those skates of Peter'g. Folosirea genitivului sintetic Genitivul sintetic este folosit cu: 263) nume proprii: Tom's car 264) substantive nume de persoane: the boy's new shirt 265) substantive colective: the nation's security 266) substantive care denumesc animale mari: the lion's mane;

267)

enumiri geografice i ale unor instituii: Europe's future; Rom ail j > foreign policy; the school's programme. *8

268)

s ubstantive care denumesc uniti de timp, spaiu, msur: today'g w 0 L a moment's talk; a day's journey; a mile's distance; a ponnd's worth 't sugar. "'
o':ri; Unele dintre formele de genitiv de la f) .pot fi nlocuite de forme adjectival compuse: a two-hour lesson; a three-mile walk.

g) cteva substantive comune urmate de cuvntul sake: for pity's sake; f or mercy's sake; for order's sake. h) substantive nume de obiecte care pot deveni masculine sau feminine prin personificare, n literatur: truth's victory, Love's Labour's Lost; the ocean'j roar; life'sjoys; the wind's whip; i) unele pronume nehotrte ca: another, either, neither, one i compuii some, any, no, every precum i adverbul else; somebody's advice; nobod fault; everyone's wish; another's claim; somebody else's hat. j) n unele expresii: a needle's eye; her heart's deire; to a hair's breadt the journey's end; at one's wit's end. k) cnd substantivul determinat este omis: St Panl's (Cathedral) s one the sights ofLondon. I bought this bag at Selfridge's (store).-Lefs go to Mada Tussaud's (museum). Construcia cu OF (The OF Construction) Construcia cu prepoziia oneste uneori folosit ca un echivalent al gen tivului sintetic: Shakespeare's plays the plays of Shakespeare.
No-5'i-; Prepoziia of cere cazul acuzativ, dar ntreaga construcie of + substantiv acuzativ poate fi folosit n locul unei construcii genitivale: my father's carcar ol my father. De aceea, aceast construcie este numit n unele grama genitivul analitic sau genitivul prepoziional.

Locul construciei cu of este dup substantivul determinat: the W the great writer; the roof of the house.
,' -,-' , .-'. ,<;>, " of

Construcia cu of se folosete:

269)

cu substantivele nume de obiecte: the title of the book; ,$ 270) cu denumiri geografice urmate de un nume propriu: the City of the Gulf of Mexico. 271) cu nume proprii, n locul genitivului sintetic: j te:

cnd numele proprii slnt exprimate prin substantive coordona

teacher of Peter and Mar'y . . ther cnd numele propriu const dintr-un substantiv cu apoziie' of Queen Elisabeth 92

dorim s subliniem numele propriu: the sonnets~ot WiHiam Sha, tantive nume de persoan: "" s j substantivul determinat este precedat de articolul nehotrt sau demonstrativ: I am a great admirer of tftis wriier. ntrire: The arrival. of his grandfather surprised -Mm. de animale mici: the tail of the mouse; the wings of a butterfly. ,-,;s-io'i (The hiipiic.u : ./.'Vv,-tivul implicit este o construcie genitival n care substantivului deterr linseste desinena de genitiv: audience participation, student hostel, jniri'i' 1 " J * J " aflfrnaon tea. cu _ _cin de u"
otU: Genitivul implicit este frecvent folosit In engjeza contemporan, mai ales n limbajul jurnalistic.
kespe

niiivul rfn'ilu (The Douhh Gcmf.:-,-r} Genitivul dublu const din genitivul sintetic +-construcia cu of. Aceast structie este folosit cu. substantive /nume de persoane: Thisjoke of Peter's. A threat of our teacher's. Genitivul dublu difer ca sens de construcia cu of folosit singur. a description ol Galsworthy's = o descriere fcut de Galsworthy; a description of Galsworthy = o descriere a lui Gasworthy. (fcut de altcineva) ;''; , -KUJ Vocativ (The VocativeCa.se) -(vezi 21.4)

EXERCJT
I. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii in limba englez, folosind substantive proprii i abrevieri: l- coala ncepe n septembrie. 2. Noi mergem la not duminica. 3. Dl. n este membru al parlamentului. 4. n fiecare an la data de 4 iulie, ame-ii srbtoresc Ziua Independenei. 5. Dunrea se vars n Marea Neagr. tl Ionescu consult elevii n fiecare luni. 7. Spania se nvecineaz cu coni Chinez din "' vietnamezii i japonezii triesc n Asia. 9. Hotelul Inter-1. u Bucure t 0 d e Dickens 1L ? i se afl ling Teatru] Naional. 10. Timpuri Grele" u ' Studiem engleza i rusa la coal. 12. In 1976 Helsinki Conferina pentru pace i securitate n Europa. 1. u *vut urmtoarele substantive compuse la numrul plural: schoolboy; 606 brother in ' - -kw; father-in-law; headmaster; milkman; woman OStman .n^ ' ^lacfeboard > son-in-law; p^sser-by; bedroom; car. race; f tsten- Vman sin^er'' merry-go-round; horse-race; forget-me-not; ^i nreman. r UI, p
J

- Th Ubstantivele din paranteze la numrul plural: f'18 ro0m jre J""6 hundreds of (book) on the (shelf). 2. AH his (toy) are in '.lnose (mn) are (tourist). 4. (Child) like (story)&. They left

their (watch) on the .table. 6. (Louse) are (insect). 7. Have you ever White (Cliff) of Dover? 8. (Leaf).lsXL in autumn. 9. There are lots J'r on that farm. 10. Did you buy any (potato) yesterday? 11. Wipe v0 '^ here. 12. Those (woman) are (housewife). 13. There are some / (k > the barn. N J
IV. Alegei forma potrivit a substantivelor pentru a completa prot> 0p 2l l mai jos: . / fle hundred / hundreds 1.. . . of pupils attend this school. 2. Six . . . pup ls attend the !c rou nd t he c or ne r. tc million / millions 3. Romnia has a population of twenty-two .. . people. 4. Two live in Bucharest. ' P*op thousand l thousands 5. . . . of young people participate n sport competitions. 6 new blocks of flats have been built in this town. dozen / dozens 7. I bought three . . . eggs yesterday. 8. She broke two . . . plates y e!t<, day. 9. There are . . . of peiicils in that box. foot l feet 10. Mary is five . . . tall. 11. Her brother is five . . . three. V. Trecei la plural urmtoarele substantive de origine strin: a) stimulus; phenomenon; desideratum; addendum; larva; basis; anal sis; crisis; criterion. b) campus; virus; encyclopedia; villa; museum; albui gymnasium; electron; soprano, c) syllabus; genius; formula; curriculuz symposium; index; automaton; plteau; tempo. VI. Completai propoziiile urmtoare cu cuantificatori potrivii ca sens: fia bit, item, pair, head, etc. 1. I need white ... of paper. 2. She bought two ... of chocolate day. 3. I want a. . . of white bread and two ... of brown bread. 4. Give 3 a ... of chalk, will you? 5. What a ... of work is mn! 6. This is an importe ... of evidence. 7. I need a new . . . of trousers. 8. This is an interesting news. 9. This . . . of information may be useful some time. 10. HeJiad of luck. It didn't rain. 11. This is a beautiful. . . of furniture. 12. twenty... of cattle. VII. Traducei, urmtoarele propoziii In limba englez: 1. tirile pe care le-am primit snt interesante. 2. Mi-am fcut asear. 3. Vom publica toate informaiile care snt necesare cano' 4i Cunotinele lui de istorie sint remarcabile. 6. Am cumprat fructe ' prjituri. 6. i-ai fcut temele? VEI. Citii urmtoarele propoziii coninlnd pluralia tantum In -s itr
1

'!

in limba romn: 1. The standard of living in the Middle Ages was very low. " to make amends for her former behaviour. 3. AII Dacians rose in <""' the Romans invaded Dacia. 4. The letter burnt to ashes. 5. He's & brains, he'll manage. 6. Clothes do not make the mn. 7. Have a 1 94

8. They couldn't finish the project for Jack of funds. 9. Goos conlen 'Tte& in goods trains. 10. Where are you going to spend your W trft tre has good looks. 12. You are forgetting ycmr manners, young / l1'. a man Of mea5, he can afford it. 14. You'll find the information s | j3. He s mthe ^ jg nlltes Of the meeting. 15. We are all at pains to please her. need in fafang down the particulars of the witnesses. 17. There is ,rhepolicem w^e5 18> Qive her my jjest regards. 19. Fve put all my -pect on ving bank. 20. She is always in good spirits. 21. I can't drink ''"* '2 She is sitting oft the ' s sittin oft the stei>s. 23. He earns ' in limba high wages. engleza: , este detele? 2. Multe mulumiri. 3. S-au ncercat toate mijloa-!t rTrtierul general al armatei era lng Londra. 5. Fizica este obiectul t 6 Am prins trei pstrvi mari. 7. Tocmai s-a publicat o carte ^ ^stii de ap dulce din Romnia. 8. (El) are pr aten. 9. Ea are ctev a pr alb. 10. D-mi dou pini, te rog. 11. A fcut progrese mari n nv-l'mbii engleze. 12. Acesta este procesul-verbal al edinei.
V Traducei urmtoarele propoziii In limba romn: 1. There is a glass of miik on the table. 2. Does he wea'r glasses? 3. You hive to declare everything t the customs. 4. They want to get acquainted with this Romanian custom. 5. Are you writing a lefter? 6. He is a great man of Itlters. 7. 1 don't like her airs. 8. There is something in the air. " XI. Traducei In limba englez:

Dragul meu Mo Ghi, Mii de mulumiri pentru prietenoasa -ta felicitare. De ndat, ce voi primi exemplarele de autor de la Academie-, i voi trimite un volum din lucrarea mea despre Marea Neagr. Noi avem o iarn neplcut i eu i soia fiind bolnavi. Dragul nostru Tou este ns voinic i-mi face o mare plcere s aud su la telefon.
Gr. Antipa

ore sint corespondentele feminine ale urmtoarelor substantive masculine:

8

-bov.8iA' ?-lord; 3- nephew; 4. uncie; o. father; 6. brother; 7. cock; 8. stag-"oy, 10. husband; 11. man; 12. king. A!U f sint formele de masculin i feminin ale urmtoarelor substantive: ^ fiend; 2. goat; 3. student; 4. cat; 5. ass; 6. f rog.
^ii cu substantive la genitiv, conform modelului: John has ,
has ot a car 2 Lil has oi a do11 3 Dick fa ? " ' y S - as got a a. g* -r' y cousin tas got a new samp-book. 5. Mr White has got an an<}'vf'ence &nd Paul have got' an electric train. 7. Peter has got a iwy has got a bicycle too.

XV. Traducei n limba romn: at a mile's distance; yesterday's newspaper; in two years' time- a weightjxt a stone's throw; to my heart's content; art for art's sake XVI. Trecei urmtoarele substantive n cazul genitiv la numrul pi ur . 1. My cousin's house is large. 2. The girl's room is very prettv Q pupil's uniform is blue. 4. The woman's work is very much appre 5. The worker's life is much better today. 6. The teacher praised the stiH 3^'! work. 7. Where are the child's clothes? 8. The baby's food is in the XVII. Punei substantivele din paranteze la genitivul sintetic sau 1. Mary is (David) sister. 2. The (book) pages have numbers. 3. \Vh t your (broiher) hobby? 4. This is a (woman) hat. 5. What's (this boy) ^ K rite sport? 6. The (shed) roof was blown off by the wind. 7. That is (AR^ pencil-box. 8. (Ladies) hats are very pretty this year. 9. This is (mu brotLi and sister) room. 10. Where are the (girls) blouses? 11. (Dickens) novels are very interesting. 12. The house is at a (mile) distance. 13. Have you re. <\ (yesterday) paper? XVIII. Construii propoziii conform modelului: show Mike the building: I showed Mike the building. I showed the building to Mike. 1. give money her son. 2. teii secret Mary. 3. hand paper -the teacher. 4. lend umbrella my friend; 5. throw ball his friend; 6. write letter grandma; 7. of fer flowers teacher. XIX. Reformulai urmtoarele propoziii, folosind prepoziia to sau lor, dup ca:: 1.1 bought Mike a dog. 2,. He gave Tom some presents. 3.1 chose my sister a nice present. 4. Mary showed the teacher her composition. 5. They sent their parents a parcei. 6. Did you make Helen this ne w cardigan? 7. Did he give his mother a bunch of flowers? 8. I ordered my sister a lemonade. XX. Traducei n limba englez: a) 1. n Parlament s-au discutat probleme foarte importante pentru viitorul rii. 2. Ai citit ziarul de ieri? 3. Dup un moment de gndire, elevul a rspuns perfect la toate ntrebrile mele. 4. Juriul a nmnat premii cig" torilor ntrecerii. 5. Ne-am distrat foarte bine la petrecerea surorii P riet ^' nului meu. 6. Cred c am luat plria altcuiva. 7. Stilou] este al lui Boa 8. Ce tii despre clima acestei ri? 9. Profesorul a vorbit mai bine de o o despre progresul tiinei. 10. Elevii i-au oferit nvtoarei lor un bucfie. de flori. 11. Ar fi bine s ne ntlniii acas la Mria. 12. Publicarea acest cri a nsemnat un succes deosebit. 1. Cea mai modern poet a noastr a vorbit despre ultimul ei vo.^9e). poezii. 2. Vei fi nsoii de fiul i fiica mea. 3. Nu tiu cine joac rolul p" ^ ^ 4. Nu i-am vzut pe unchiul i mtua mea de citeva luni. 5. Nepoa a _ ^ ^ mai mic este motenitoarea casei. 6. Vecinul meu a lsat ua dese uitat de ea. 96

PN

I AT.I DETEItMlNANl (The Articlo aud u, Determiners)-

determinrii
i Categoria determinrii a aprut n limba englez, ca i n limba "' km necesitatea de a indica un element unic ('the Danube) sau specific a jintr-o categorie, sau de a denumi o ntreag categorie din elemente limba englez exist mai multe pri de vorbire care pot determina un i v. the irst two students. Ele formeaz n gramatica structuralist Determinanilor, care este subdivizat n- predeterminani, 1 S minani propriu-zii i postdeterminani. 6 Aceast terminologie a fost stabilit pe baza categoriei gramaticale pe o reprezint aceste cuvinte pe lng substantiv (determinarea) i baza poziiei pe care o ocup unul fa de altul: Half (predeterminant) the terminant propriu-zis) second (postdeterminant) chapter, 3.1.2. Determinanii propriu-zii.' n clasa determinanilor propriu-zii ntr articolul i alte pri de vorbire care pot nlocui articolul naintea unui substantiv: adjectivul demonstrativ (this, that, these, those), adjectivul posesiv (my, your, his, etc.), adjectivul nehotrt (each, every, either, etc.) i unele adjective interogative (what, which) i negative (no, neither.): a the no each book every eitker this my what Determinanii proprin-zii ai substantivului
1

Determinantul

Articolul f hotrt l nehotrt 1 zero

4

the mn

Exemple

a tree; an aiple men; trees, apples. this newspaper, that magazine these articlee, those papers my house; yout car; hls watch; her dress; its toii; our school; thelr classroom.

^iutivul demonstrativ iectiv,il posesiv

Afl

^ivul interogativ '

What ioofe 1 Vvilch looks \ do J/OM wani? TVhose book ]

Each pupil, every day, either side; Borne books; an y studenta; no children; neithei student.

Sct

'vul nehotrt

97

Articolul ocup un loc central n cadrul determinanilor, neavnd l ( funcie dect cea de determinare a .substantivului. Ali determinani p 0 t ^ & iona independent de substantivele pe care le preced, ca pronume: n ' I want this/some. What is this? Pe lng determinanii propriu-zii, substantivele mai pot fi precedat de alte clase de cuvinte: predeterminani, numerale cardinale i ordin i^' e cuantificatori (post determinani). / Aceste dou clase au fost stabilite pe baza poziiei lor fa de determins n i n relaie unul cu altul. >'

3.1.3. Predctorminanii. Predeterminanii se numesc astfel deoarece e apar naintea determinanilor: ' a) all j the | both J my book s hali j these b) double j the \ this twiee J j three timcs l

amount

c) one-third the Ume \ , three quarters }

Cnd snt urmai de substantive, predeterminanii pot aprea n trei construcii: all of the children all the children all' children both of the teachers both the teachers both teachers Cnd predeterminanii snt urmai de pronume, construcia cu of este obligatorie: all of them, both of them, half of it. Predeterminanii all, both i half pot fi folosii i ca pronume: AU j Both i understood the teadher's explanation. Half
Not: AU i both pot fi aezate i dup substantiv:
> the students revised the lesson. Both J The pupils < > revised the lesson. r ^ l both J sau:

n cazul determinrii unui pronume, postpoziia este obligatorie:

T he y l > revised the lesson.

[ b o th J
O alt construcie posibil este cea cu of:

Bot h All

f of them revised the lesson.

In cazul lui all, se folosete determinantul zero n cazul substanti numrabile la plural folosite generic: All the pupils went into the da^ sr dar: All soldiers must wear uniforms (generic).

. eo

te fi de asemenea folosit cu articolul zero in expresii ca: all (the) 1 r "^ a l night, n special ntr-un context negativ: / haven't seen her , JV j rflorn in i b ,11 d*y:determinant, all precede: bstantive (ne)numrabile concrete (rar) sau abstracte la singular, a) !vnd sensul de ntreg, tot: <?L interrupted him all the time. H ntrerupea tot timpul. He didn't spend all his money.. Nu i-a cheltuit toi banii. , f all the l He hasn't read j the whole J story. . substantive numrabile la plural, avind sensul de toi, toate: Wkere are all your books? Unde snt toate crile tale?
v s-Pronumele nehotrte everybody, everything snt preferate n vorbirea curent (n locul lui all, care este o form mai literar:
All the people l Everybody J
came

to the meeting. He knows \

l everything.

AU paate fi folosit att ca predeterminant ct i ca pronume nehotrt: lave you drunk all the milk? Ai but tot laptele? Have you seen all? Ai vzut it? All (the) people came in time. All (of them) were punctual. ' Both. Both nseamn amndoi, amindou, fiind folosit pentru -referire la ou persoane (accentuat): Both children are very quiet. Amndoi copiii snt : mrte tcui. (Two este neaccentuat: The two children were very quiet. Cei doi copii erau foarte tcui). Both poate fi folosit atlt ca predeterminant: Both (of) these features are very important. . . ' cit i ca pronume: Both are important. Half. Half (jumtate) este folosit atlt cu substantive nenumrabile: He didn't say a word half the time he stayed there: cit i ca substantive numrabile: Half the students in the student hostel were asleep. Half este folosit ca: predeterminant: half the book substantiv: Your half is bigger than mine. pronume nehotrt: Half (of them) left. Numeralele multiplicative (vezi 4.7.) snt incluse n clasa predeterminanilor deoarece ele pot fi aezate naintea determinanilor: twice the amount, double that price. La fel i numeralele fracionare (vezi 4.5.), care pot avea si construcii cu /. 'n mod similar cu all, both, i half: The vegetables boiled in oue third (of) the time the meat did. n an p 1 ? 9stdetennman{ii. Ordinalele (vezi 4.4.) snt postdetermi-ei urii 4.- urmeaz determinanii n grupul nominal, dar preced cuantificatorii ' ^ octivele: The igt three important events. ^ clasa ordinalelor intr: J numeralele ordinale: first, second, third, fourth, etc. l (an)other, next, last. a e ^ ctiveain * ^ i c.a * r i i urmeaz determinanii i ordinalele i preced Din ?: ftrst ^ree important events. i) nu clas a cuantificatorilor fac parte: er alele cardinale: one,-two, three, four, five, etc. (vezi 4.3.). ' ' 99

b) cuantificatorii, cuvintele care exprim numrul (many, few, sever sau cantitatea (much, little) n mod nedefinit. **) Cuantificatorii slnt folosii: a) numai cu substantive numrabile:
[

a few l children a j large | number -of children secerai J l gd b) numai cu substantive nenumrabile: f great \ , .
of money little a little i\ time

much ]

/ large l quantity small f amount a t good deal

}
a o ] , , . , , Iota \0f{ chlldren ' \ plenty
c) cu substantive numrabile sau nenumrabile (n exprimarea familiar): a lot ] lots

Much = mult, mult se folosete mai ales n propoziii interogative i negative: There isrft much sugar left. Nu a rmas mult zahr. n propoziiile afirmative se folosete: very much, a lot of, a great deal of, a large (small) amount of, plenty of:

There s { very much } suar l" the suar basin. Este (foarte) mult zahr plenty of l n zahami. Little nseamn puin, puin, indic o cantitate insuficient, implic o apreciere negativ: She eats little bread. Ea mnnc puin pine (aproape de loc). A little indic o cantitate mic, dar suficient i implic o apreciere pozitiv: / eat a little bread. Mnnc ceva pine. Many = muli, multe se folosete mai ales n propoziii interogative i negative: Did he read many English books? A citit multe cri englezeti. / have not invited many people to rny birthday party. N-am invitat mult lume la ziua mea de natere. In propoziii afirmative se folosete very many, a lot of, a great l Wl number, lots of:

a lot of

of
lots of

En

^h books.

Few = puini, puine, indic un numr insuficient i implic * C negativ: Few people live to be a hundred. Pujini oameni triesc iw A few = cfyi;pa, dteva, indic un numr mic, dar suficient i ^ apreciere pozitiv: There are a ew flowers in the vase. Snt cteva " Several este folosit pentru mai mult de dou persoane :

He nod Mvent-bookson Dacia. El a citit

100

- } cri

Articol1 (The Articlp)

e- Artico lul este parte a de vorbire care: 't'tuie un mijloc de individualizare a obiectelor i fenomenelor ntr-un ) Cnjext lingvistic sau situational; re forme flexionare, fiind neflexibil din punct de vedere morfologic; ^ndeplinete funcia de determinant. A f olul ocupa un loc central n cadrul determinanilor, fiind considerat m in a n t u l p r o p r iu - z i s . A ce a s t a s e d a t o r e az f ap t u l u i c d e. e, j r C nu poate fi o parte de vorbire independent, el contribuind doar la ^ / minarea unic sau individual a substantivului pe care l nsoete. Articolul este redat prin articolul hotrt the, articolul nehotrt a an sau prin articolul zero. Aceste articole se folosesc pentru a realiza: l ) referina unic (uhique reference) i 2) referina individual (individual reference). ,1.2.2. !) Articolul se folosete pentru referin muic atunci cZnd se identific un membru anume al unei clase: The boy was running very fast. Biatul alerga foarte repede. .'t.i'.-'l- '-' Articolul se folosete pentru referin" individual cnd referirea se face la orice membru al unei clase, fr ca acesta s fie identificat n mod unic. Pentru referin unic, se folosete articolul hotrt pentru substantive numrabile i nenumrabile : i is the book j Wherel are the books J / gave y ou? l is the chalk ' Pentru referin l individual, l an ~'_ se folosesc :

articolul nehotrt afnj, cu substantive numrabile la singular: There is / a book orange \

on iame the tabje on me

-articolul zero sau some/any, cu substantive numrabile la plural i substantive nenumrabile :

Tkere

l ITfsom^jr" / on the table-

trib *'""'' Articolul se folosete generic cnd unei clase de elemente i se ^mbr 6 prP rietate; folosirea generic are n vedere clasa i nu anumii A b0y ' ai Clasei: Bys like to PlaV football Bieilor le place s joace fotbal. than a girl Un biat alear m ai ^ tieTT ^<1Ster ' ^ - repede dect o fat. ^ser ilves in the jungie_ Tigru] triete n jungjg, antiveJe folosite generic nu au distincia de numr doarece ele eea ce este tipic general pentru membrii unei clase. De aceea, generic apare cu cele trei articole :
St

101

a) articolul hotrt the, articolul nehotrlt a('n) sau articolul substantivele numrabile: The cow gives i A cow gives f MS Cows give > b) articolul zero pentru substantivele nenumrabile: Milk is good for ou r i 3.2.4. Numele proprii i referina unic. Numele proprii snt subst a Y cu referin unic pnn excelen, deoarece ele snt considerate membri ai clasei din care fac parte: Helen, Mount Everes, the Danube p' f| Monday. ^ Prin aceasta, numele proprii se deosebesc de substantivele comu 272) se scriu cu liter mare: Mr. Thomson, the English Channel, the ti 273) nu au contrastul articulat - nearticulat: unele nume proprii snt fo? cu articolul zero, altele snt folosite cu articolul the, fr s existe o OD' ntre ele: Australia, Italy, Bucharest, Windsor Castle; the Arctic, the vf (the) Lebanon, the Hague, the Albert Hali; .c) numele proprii nearticulate primesc articol cnd se intenioneaz res gerea referinei la un anumit timp sau loc care identifib, nm printr-o propoziie relativ restrictiv, o construcie prepoziionali sau una provenit dintr-o propoziie relativ restrictiv: in Romnia in the Romnia of today Bucharest ' the Bucharest I like Eminescu " the young Eminescu in Victorian England in the England of Queen Vide,

L/ W-*

ora: the townhall, the police station, the railway station, the hospital, i/ou teii me how to get to the townhall? Putei s-mi spunei cum s
J . v * "\

^ primrie? i a tar: the radio, the press, the telephone, the drama, the film, etc.: 'niT'-\n the radio at eight o'clock? Ce (program) este la radio la ora 8? rots: the sun, the moon, the earth, etc.: llfll * k in rth moces round the sun. Pmntul se nvrtete n jurul soarelui. ' U f u n c i a a n a f o r i c , cu substantive determinate definit prin 2) anterioar: / bought a book yesterday. The book is interesting. Am !i''? n ^ 0 ca rte ieri. Cartea este interesant. "'i 1 ' f u n c i a c a t a f o r i c , cnd determinarea definit apare dup tiv fiind exprimat printr-o propoziie relativ restrictiv sau printr-o '- 5tan ,j e ' prepoziional provenit dintr-o propoziie relativ restrictiv: ' " ' n who is driving the red car is our English teacher. Omul care conduce tm roie este profesorul nostru de englez. The mn (who is) in the red car 'm Enlish teacher. Omul din maina roie este profesorul nostru de englez. 4) f u n c i a generic, cnd substantivul este folosit n sensul su niai general, ca reprezentant al unei clase, n aceast funcie, the nsoete b i.antive numrabile la numrul singular: The horse is a useful animal. jul este un animal folositor. The wild elephant can be found in some parts Afric a . Ele fa ntu l s lb ati c po ate fi g sit n unel e zo ne din Africa . 5) cu nume p r o p r i i ' : Numele proprii snt precedate de obicei de articolul hotrt cnd n ructura lor intr i un adjectiv sau substantiv folosit adjectival: Ihe.U-nited insdom, the United States, the Art Gallery; i o construcie prepoziional postpus (cu of): The University of Bucha- /, the Houses of Parliament', 3.3. Articolul hotrt (The Definite Article) n aceste cazuri, articolul the este folosit chiar dac unul dintre cele dou mente este omis: the (river) Thames, the ae (Gallery), the Pacific (Ocean), 3.3.1. Forma articolului hotrt. Articolul hotrt are forma unici Mediterranean (ea), ihe Intercontinental (Hotel). The se pronun [5a]: Articolul hotrt se folosete cu urmtoarele clase de nume p r o p r i i : 274) naintea sunetelor consonantice: the pupil; the house; "bstantive la plural: the Browns familia Brown; the *NertherOlanda,- the Hebrides insulele Hebride; the Alps Alpii; the 'ans 275) naintea sunetelor semiconsonantice, reprezentante de obicei prin Carpatii li numiri g e o g r a f i c e : "junie de ruri: The Danube, u, y, w: the aniversity, the window, the year, the one. the Olt, the Thames nu T mri i oceane : the Black ea, the The se pronun [oi(:)]: Atlantic Ocean nump A canaluri: the Sue* Canal, the Panama 276) naintea sunetelor vocalice: the .artist; Canal 277) naintea lui h mut: the hour; the honest CaL *Good Deserturi, u mn; Pe of Hope golfuri, capuri: The Sahara, The Persian Gulf, *Umo J . the honour; the heir; hotel lnstitutii: 278) pronunarea [3i:] este de asemenea folosit pentru subliniere: u tVifl facts. 1 restaurant me en ''.' e : theLido (Hotel), the Berlin Restaurant, the Saooy; e' ra 3.3.2. Funciile articolului hotrt. Articolul hotrt este folosit F l ^at g fe, cluburi: the National Theatre, the Capitol Cinema; \ a exprima referina unic. El ndeplinete mai multe funcii*. Acest^ y,loteci' et&-: The British Museum, the National History Untral University 1) funcia d e i c t i c , cu substantive a cror referin este^ are Library; neleas de vorbitorii limbii, ea fiind definit specific n contextul si k de Ei , , e uaran. . a eviste u de obicei al comunicrii. t articolul zero: , Anumite substantive au determinare deictic n contexte Bit Life, English Language De exemplu: Va se: 103 The Transylvania. Times, The Daily "felegraph, The Guarfoan. j, 279) ntr-o ncpere: the door, the window, the table, the radiator, Close the window, will you? nchide fereastra, te rog. 280) ntr-o pdure: the wind, the sky, the ground, etc.:
r

fit-

. The ground is covered with dry leaves. Pmntul este acoperit cu frur'
e

* Vezi; Ioana tefnescu, op. eit., pp. 108113.

102

Jb'olosirea articolelor cu Ku:M.uan.ic care exprim uaio

' i a U;

ara

Adjectiv

insu

China J ap an Portugal Switzerland Vietnam Israel Pakistan Africa America Asia Australia Italy Belgium Brazii Europe Germany Greece Hungary Norway Denmark Finland Poland Spain Sweden Arabia England France Holland the Netherlands Ireland Wales Britain Scotland

Chinese Japanese Portuguese Swiss Vietnamese Israeli Pakistani African American Asian Australian Italian Belgian Brazilian European German Greek Hungarian Norwegian Danish Finnish Polish Spanish Swedish Arabic English French JDutcb. l Irish Welsh British 1 Scots iScottish ]( Scotch)

a Chinese Japanese

a Portugu a Swiss a Vietnam

an Israel a Pakista

an Africa an Ameri an Asian an Austr an Italia a Belgian Brazilian a Europe a Germa a Greek a Hunga a Norweg a Dane a Finn a Pole

a Spania a Swede an Arab an Engli

a French

a Dutchm

an Irishm

a Welshm

a Briton a Scotsm Scot (a Scotchm

*A cf. Gra R. mm Q ar uir of k et Con al tem -1 por 97 ary 2, pp Eng . lish, 15 115 2.

104

ljectivul Arabic este foosit n: the Arabic language, Arabic numerals:

Arabic

,tspea can folosit n: an Arabian camei, ari Arab (ian) horse. ^raftl0 ^ gcfttg i scottlsh snt preferate de scoieni i snt folosite n: the Scottish Adjec , tfe Scottish Universities, a Scottish accent.
Highlan *,
gcotoh apa'"

construcii ca: Scotch whisky, Scotch plaid, Scotch terrier, Scotch

Articolul hehotrt (The Indefinite Article)

(

l Forma articolului nehotfirt

Articolul nehotrt are dou forme : a i an. 2 pronun [a] (forma slab, cnd este neaccentuat) sau [ei] (forma tare, A te accentuat) i se folosete naintea cuvintelor care ncep cu un sunet cln antic sau semiconsonantic: a builder, a magazine; a water-melon, a 00 '.. a university. An se pronun [an] (forma slab) sau [aen] (forma ae) i se folosete intea cuvintelor care ncep cu un sunet vocalic sau h mut : an architect, an egg, orange, an hoar, an heir, an honest mn. 3.1.2, Funciile articolului nehotrt. Articolul nehotrt are mai multe )ri*. Acestea snt: 1) funcia epiforic, specific articolului nehotrt, folosit pentru introducerea n comunicare a unei noiuni care nu a fost menionat anterior: There is a young boy waiting for you. Te ateapt un biat. / read an interesting novei lai month. Am citit un roman interesant luna trecut. Funcia epiforic a articolului nehotrt este folosit n situaiile n care obiectul sau persoana menionat n comunicare este necunoscut ascult torului: A mn came and knocked at our door. A venit un om i a btut la u; sau In situaiile n care vorbitorul nu dorete s determine definit obiectul sau persoana respectiv ci se refer doar la un membru al unei clase : / saw a cat on the stairs. Am vzut o pisic pe scar. 2) funcia numeric, n situaiile n care forma a(n) are valoafa numeralului one. Pentru a reda, aceast idee de numr gramatical (singularul), arjtjpolul enotrt se -folosete: cu substantivele numrabile la singular, de obicei n serii numerice: She bought a dress, two blouses and an umbrella. A cumprat o rochie, dou bluze t o umbrel. num6ralele n locul lui one : a ne ( ) l hundred; ajone 'thonsand;
_ otS:l.Cnd articolul nehotrt este ntrebuinat cu valoare numeric, substantivul
1U
6Za ntr

, iar articolul nu: English cannot be learned in a, day. Nu poi s nvei ' zi- I didn't say a word about it. N-am spus un cuvnt despre acest

epiforic i cea numeric apar .deseori combinate, n propoziia: Thert "tai smgng down the road. (Un om venea ctntnd pe drum.) ne referim la nbru al unei clase i la faptul c era un singur om, i nu doi. * v ' . eil: Ioana tefnescu, op. cit., pp. 4-120.

105

Uncie Aunt(ie) Grandmother Grandlather Grandpa

is staying with tis. Dar: The father was the tallest in the family* b) div iziuni de tim p: zilele sptmnii : Monday, Friday lunile anului : April, May, June

srbtorile : Liberation Day c) denumiri geografice:

continente : Europe, Asia, America

ri : Romnia, Bulgaria, France

orae : Bucharest, Edinburgh

lacuri : Lake Ontario, Loch muni Lomond Nevis, Mount Everest

muna ; jottn i\evis, mouni z

A t e n i c! Numele de continente, ri i orae au articolul zero clnd snt precedate de

adjective : North j South \ America; ' Central ' i n d u s t r i a l m o d e r n n o r t h e r n Romni a; ancient Callatis, ' suburba n Buchare st.

avnd referin unic n anumite contexte situaionale, Intrup mod cu numele proprii. Majoritatea acestor cuvinte intr n componena expresii idiomatice, n care snt folosite cu articolul zero. Unele dintre ele pot fi folosite i cu articolul hotrt n alte contexte: Folos irea unor subst antive comu ne cu artico lul -zero *

d)numele proprii urmate de substan tive Ce denumeau comun Articolul zero substantivele e, denumin spring d cldiri, summer Anotimpuri (in, during) strzi, autumn winter poduri, etc.: Bran *) cf. R, Quirk Castle, et al - op. cit., Westmin pp. 157-159. ster Oxford 108 Street, Articolul zero Piccadill y Circus, led London hospital Bridge. (mai ales engleza B) le in j britanic) to Unele 9 class (mai ales substantiv engleza american) e comune prison mite instituii se f! >"> tt etC'^ school college . folosesc university cu ea articolul le atjgo home

Articolul botirtf

t spring j svmmef in the 1 au /flin 1 wifiter ____________

^^

Articolul hotirtt

lie down on the led modernize the hospital

walk rotind the prison walk past the school le al/go io/study atthe

(mai ales engleza americana)

'

- - ---Mijloace de trnsport

(by)

Momente ale zilei i

nopii (at, by, ifier, before)

-sie zilei ____ ____ ____ _ ^nme de boli ~~* - - - - - _____

'tr)..011 . Pwalele

109

3) Cu elementul p r e d i c a t i v s u p l i m e n t a r articolul zero, pentru referin unic: They appointed him chairman. (L- au numit preedinte), sau articolul hotrt, pentru referin unic:
They appointed him the chairman of the standing commission Not: Articolul zero mai este folosit: a) naintea denumirilor limbilor: We study English. Do you speak Fre
Cnd numele limbii este nsoit de cuvntul language se folosete arti
This book aims at a description of the English language.
' "'

l
"'WJ

con-'

b) cu substantive asociate cu numerale sau literele alfabetului: one; lesson five; act two; figure C,' position A; question B; c) n construcii fixe: by mistake == din greeal,; in conclusion = n for money = pentru bani, etc.

Funciile articolului
Articolul

Funcia o

Exemple l

Articolul hotrt
1. deictic 2. anaforic

Turn on the radio, pkasc. Walk past the hospital and y, \ get Io the railway statioh.
/ saw a play lai night. The fii was very. interesting. 1 have managcd io find the b*- ; on Romanticism. I toanted Io read. The family plays an imo'1'educaional role

3. catafojic

4. generic

5. cu unele nume proprii

The United Nations, the P*' the Rbcky Mountains (the ROCKI the Mississippi, the North the English Chaimel, the l" continental Hotel, the >' Theatre, the Acadcmy Liwarj. / saw a chimney sffeep "
way Io school.

1. epiforic

Articolul nehotrt i
2. numeric 3. generic 4. naintea unui nume predicativ :

Give me a pencil, a nbteboot a rubber, please.

A horse w a useful ani^He is a doctor.

110

Funcia

Exemple

281 ) cu

e)

su bs ta nt iv e ne nu m i ab ile (g en eri c):

c u e l e m e n t u l p r e d i c a t i v s u p l i m e n t a r :

282 ) cu

su bs ta nt iv e nu m & ra bi le la pl ur al (g en er ic ):

2 8 3 )
cu nu m e pr op rii :

d) n ex pr es ii id io m at ic e:

a) E e li k es [ b) We g o o n lo n g nv al ks in th e ev en in g. a) M at y B ro w n, Pr es id cn t K en ne dy , D ad dy , o n M o n d ay , in F

r a n c e , O x o r d S t r e e t . II ofl en sno ws in wl nte r. Go Io bed !I go io sch ool bij bus . Sec you at noo n. Th ey ele cie d hi m pre sid ent .

oi the Arti cle)

Exis t unele situaii n care articolu l hotrlt sau nehotrl t este omis. Aceste cazuri se deosebes c de cele n care se folosete articolul zero, deoarece omiterea articolul ui nu produce modific ri de sens ci are doar o valoare stilistic.
/

Com parai : a) 7 like honey . mi place miere a, (artic olul zero = funci e gener ic). / like the honey they

3.6. Om isiu nea arti colu lui (Th e Ely psis

sell here. mi place miere a pe care o vnd aici. (artico lul hotari t the = referi n defini t). ) Take the honey to the childr en at the corner table ! Du miere a copiil or de la masa din coli Takes honey to childr en at corne r table. Duce miere a copiil or de la masa dm col (indic aii scenic e). . A r

t i c o l u l

s e

o m i t e

u r m t o a r e l

s i t u a i i :

V r 6 f a m i 1 i a r : Ifs a Pity tjiey won f be there Pcat c5 ac

s t y0

l j u r n a l i s t i c : E m p l o y e e s h a v e t o o b e y s a f e t y r e g u l a i i t r e b u i e

'

^ olo. l (s the) Car still noi work ing? Tot nu merg e mai na? of mine told me abo ut it. Un priet en de-al meu mi-a spus desp re aj

s r e s p e c t e r e g u l i l e d e p r o t e c i e a m u n c i i . *a ^ s c e n i c e : ( T h e ) O l d w o m a n

g o e s t o (t h e ) s e tt e e ( o n t h e ) s e n d r e a p t s p r e c a n a p e a u a d i n d r e a p t a ( s c e n e

i) . 111

ALI JJEl'JbiKMliM'AJNI (Otker Detcrminers)

3.7. Adjectivul demonstrativ (The Demonstrative Adj!(t;

l
n af ar d e ar ti c ol , m ai p ot fu n c io n a ca d et er m in a n i ai su bs ta nt i a dj ec ti v ul d e m o ns tr at iv , p I

osesiv, interogativ i nehotrlt (vezi 3 l 2 \ Demonstrativul this/that, these/those este folosit ca determinant nsoete un substantiv: This book is more interesting than that one. ^ El poate fi Ins folosit i ca pronume: Whafs this Those are */>*, .1 c) these. . wurtha* f u 3.7.1. Dctinijie. Determinantul demonstrativ, n n terminologie trad'f c nal adjectivul demonstrativ, determin un substantiv, indicnd t i principal apropierea sau deprtarea de vorbitor. n a Adjectivul demonstrativ n limba englez are categoria c gramatical d a numr i ndeplinete funcia sintactic de atribut. e t a 284) Form, tn limba englez, adjectivul demonstrativ are f forme deose bite dup numr, dar nu dup gen, ca n limba romn : this girl o r these girk i aceast fat aceste fete ; this boy these boys, acest biat c aceti biei 285) futrobumare. Funciile demonstrativului thislthat, , thesejthose slnt: a) funcia deictic, de a indica orientarea n spaiu sau d e n timp ntr-un context situaional : These children, right here, are quieter r than those. e f Thisjthese snt folosite pentru a arta c obiectele se gsesc e n apropierea vorbitorului: This is my desk> These boys are my r brothers. i Thatlthose snt ntrebuinate pentru a indica obiecte r aflate la q mai mare deprtare de vorbitor: My father's picture is e on that wall. What are those children doing? That este utilizat pentru un obiect aflat la deprtare de l vorbitor, mai ales cnd acesta este n contrast cu alt obiect, a apropiat vorbitorului, care este identificat prin this: This is my seat and that is yours. I like these pictures much better than u those. n Cnd se refer la timp, demonstrativele this, these snt corelate cu prezentul, iar that, those cu trecutul sau viitorul: o She has been very busy these days-That storm destroyed b everything last year. i Notil: Deosebirea dintre apropiere i deprtare n limba englez este e mai stric dect n limba romn. c ^t
Deseori that/lhose se ntrebuineaz in situaii n care n limba romn se fo { demonstrativele acesta/aceasta: That accident happened a month ago. Acest acei a avut loc acum o lun. That is all. Asta-i tot.

som ethi ng^

b) funcia, anaforic , de referire la un obiect menionat c an

/ saw our English teacher in his new car. This car is really

a s u p , r r t a

ruia precizri ulterioare: These little children are very pretty. 112

r&}(

- , .. ^moional, de scoatere n eviden a substantivului *u11 minat: This Tom Brook is always playing the piano at night. Locked

ftt door? - , ctn d mai multe substantive unite prin conjunciile and sau but stnt deter-^ ae prin adjectiv demonstrativ, acesta nu.se repetjnaintea fiecruisybstaniv: Tbese men and ivomen are amateur actori;

Funciile demonstrativului;
Funcia Singular Plural

Y~^rtc(context situaional) These books over a) apropiere: here. Those books over b) deprtare:^ _________________ Thls book over here. That book over there. there. "^Tnforic (context lingvistic) Look at Mary's dress! This dress is really something. 3. CataforicS: ________ 4. Emoional: Those old women are always goesiping.
Thls neighbour of mine is always losing his key. Seen that film?

3.8. Adjectivul posesiv (The Possessive Adjective)

3.8.1. Definiie. Determinantul posesiv, n terminologie tradiional adjectivul posesiv, nlocuiete posesorul i determin numele obiectului Pete 'si f stamp collection is very valuoble. r His Adjectivul posesiv se acord n gen i numr cu numele obiectului posedat: Her book cartea ei; His bike bicicleta lui; Their toys jucriile lor. In propoziie, adjectivul posesiv ndeplinete funcia de atribut: My books are here on the table. 3A2. form. Adjectivul posesiv n limba englez are forme difereniate dup persoan, numr i gen:
Numr FeisoanS Singular Plur! Geif

posedat:

I II III l

my
your

our

masculin feminin neutru

your ttieir

his

her
'

its

persoana a Il-a singular i plural, adjectivul posesiv are aceeai i there is a fly in your soup. Privete, e o musc in supa ta. Tom you must obey your parents. Tom i Mary, trebuie s v ascultai

Wmbii engleze

Genul este marcat doar la persoana a IlI-a singular: tiis se refer substantive nume de persoan de sex brbtesc: John's l The raan's \ car is new. His j iar her se refer la substantive nume de persoan de sex femeiescMary's l The womsa's j umbrella is old.

Her

Its se refer la substantive animate (nume de animale) i inanimat? (nume de obiecte): . The cat 's ) .... t tu s long. , The door of the room Its docr open.

3.8.3. ntrebuinare. Adjectivul posesiv este folosit ca determinant al substantivului, nlocuinu numele posesorului i determinlnd numele obiectului posedat: , John's His eyes are blue. \ t e n t i el ^ n cazul ^n care se folosete posesivul ca determinant, nn se mai poate ntrebuina alt determinant, ca de exemplu articolul hotrlt sau nehotrt: He is in his car.
Not- Adjectivul own = propriu, proprie, proprii, folosit dup un adjectiv posesiv, accentueaz ideea de posesiune: It's m y own idea.That was her own watch. Spre deosebire de limba romn, n limba englez se folosete adjectivul own i cu prile corpului: My own head, her own hands.

Spre deosebire de demonstrativele thisjthat, thesefthose, care pot fi folosite atlt ca determinani (this book) ct i ca pronume (I want this) formele my, your, his, her, its, our, your, their nu pot fi folosite declt ca determinani: s this your brother? Formele posesive pronominale In limba englez snt diferite de cele adjectivale. Comparai:

This ii my Joofe. That ii your book. That ii ( her 1 food. hts 1 s j This ia onr clasiroom. That is their classroom.

Adjectiv posesiv

This book is mine. t That book yoon. That food is t hew. t his. This classroom ii OHM. That classmom i thelrs. ^^^^

Pronume posedv

114

jitie! O situaie particular n limba englez o prezint substantivele ind pri ale corpului (hand, head, body, leg, etc) i articole de mbr-/coat, umbrella, hat, shoes, etc.), care snt ntotdeauna precedate de l pOSesiv n limba englez, spre deosebire de limba romn, unde el obicei omis: He has a hat on his head. Are o plrie pe cap. Lend me umhrella, will you? mprumut-mi te rog umbrela (ta).

3.9. Adjectivul interogativ (The Interrogative Adjective)

3 9.1. Definiie. Determinantul interogativ, n terminologie tradiional cljec'tivul interogativ, determin numele obiectului asupra cruia se cer ^formaii: What English books have you read lately? Adjectivul interogativ are categoria gramatical de caz (G: whose) i poate ndeplini funcia sintactic de atribut: What joke did he teii you? sau de marc, introduclnd propoziii subordonate: / asked him what English books he hd read lately. 3.',].2. Form. Din punct de vedere al flexiunii, who are forme flexionare pentru caz, iar which i what snt invariabile.

Pronume

Caz who N.
what
whioh

who
whose f (o whom

what
\

which

G. D.

J (form literar)
J who ... to

Ac.

(vorbire curent)
what which

t whom

J (form literar)

-------------- : .

j who

(vorbire curent)

pe see

' ^ n t r e ' ) i a j n t a r ( '- Adjectivul interogativ este folosit ca determinant n mele y obiectului asupra cruia se cer informaii: What film did you
prive te

? obiectul respectiv fr referire la alte obiecte: What day

este selectiv: Which dress does she want?

- m!6 folose?te att cu nume de persoane cit i cu nume de animale i VVhose pen did you borrow? Whose walls did they paint? QQ m u c h s e refer la cantitate i se folosete cu substantive nenumra-crete: How much money did you spcnd? How much tice did you buy? 115

How many se folosete cu substantive numrabile: / don li mn y exercises he wrote. Unele interogative se folosesc i ca adjective i ca pronume : __ . , f book ] . Wmcn O f ^ se \ s more important? What (joke) did he teii y ou? Whose ( book) is this? Alte interogative se folosesc numai ca pronume : Who came first ? To didyouwritetheletter?
u

c\ '

3.10. Adjectivul nehotrt (The Indefinite Adjective)

286) Definiie. Determinantul nehotrt, in terminologie tradiionali adjectivul nehotrt, determin substantivul Intr-un mod global fli the books, every pupil) sau parial feach pupil, either side). 287) Form. Adjectivul nehotrt este invariabil ca form i Indeplinete funcia sintactic de atribut: Each pupil must do hs homework. 3.10.3. ntrebuinare. Some. Adjectivul nehotrt some = ceva, nite, puin, puin, unii, unele', civa, cteva, vreun, vreo, se ntrebuineaz In propoziii afirmative i indic existena unui numr restrns de lucruri, fiine, a unei cantiti restrnse. Este folosit cu substantive numrabile la plural i cu substantive nenumrabile la singular: There are some books on his desk. She bought some eheese. Some poate fi folosit n propoziii interogative n urmtoarele caiuri (Vezi i 5.11.2.): 288) In propoziu'le n care se ofer un lucru: Will y ou have some cake? 289) cnd ntrebarea nu se refer la some: Did she ask father to give me SOHW money? An y. Any '= vreun, vreo, nici un(ul), nici o, nici una, se ntrebuineaz. 290) n propoziii afirmative cu sensul: oricare, orice: Any pupil in your firm could answer this question. 291) n propoziii interogative i negative: Did y ou meet any? There isnt butter in the fridge. Adjectivele nehotrte each, every, either prezint deosebiri de sens. Every.. Every se refer la membrii unui grup fr a-i individualiza- ^^ word of it is true. Fiecare cuvnt este adevrat. The child engaged his thought. Toate gndurile lui erau la copil. 0 Eoery este folosit i cu substantive denumind uniti de timp sau pentru a indica caracterul repetat: every other day din dou n dou zile every three days din trei n trei zile
116

JpBw^
ow an* then din cnd in cin d 6 other mile din dou, in dou mile este folosit doar ca determinant, mpreun cu -body, -one, -thing, ^T^mea/ pronume i adverbe nehotrite: everybody, everyone, every- everywhere. Each se refer la membrii unui grup luai individual: Each member ^ ff was in the room. Fiecare membru al personalului era n ncpere.
n

el

h poate fi folosit i ca pronume: He talked with each of us. How much l hellpeaches?Ficepenseaeh. referire la dou persoane: Each of these (two) children is right.

F'fher. Either = fiecare (din doi): There is no light at either end of the eet Nu este lumin la nici unul din capetele strzii. Either poate fi folosit att ca determinant, ct i ca pronume nehotrt. Either este folosit curent cu substantivul side: There are trees on either side of the road. Snt copaci pe ambele pri ale drumului. In acest context, either este apropiat ca sens de both, diferena fiind urmtoarea: both = amndoi (mpreun); either =fiecare din doi (separat). Whatever was ridiculous in either character increased the aversion the reader hd for both. Tot ceea ce era ridicol n fiecare dintre cele dou personaje mrea aversiunea cititorului pentru amndou. 3.10.4. Adjectivul negativ (The Negative Adjective). Adjectivele negative slnt adjective nehotrte folosite in propoziii cu sens negativ i verbul la forma afirmativ. Ele sint o subdiviziune a adjectivelor nehotrte, care indic absena obiectelor sau a calitilor acestora: No = nici un(ul), nici una (din mai multe). No letter = nici o scrisoare. Sehasmade no mistakes. Nu a fcut nici o greeal. Neither nici unul din, nici un (din doi): / asked him two questions but aiwvered neither o them. Weither poate fi folosit ca determinant sau pronume: solution l (of these solutions) J
0
l5 acce

ptflble-

este folosit numai ca determinant, cu sensul de not any sau not a:

There l are n l l aren't any j kters today.

no } . not a J l1'
n

este preferat lui not any/not a n vorbirea curent.

117 *

Grupul nominal
Predeterminani Determinani (propriuztl) Postdeterminani Ordinale Cuantifiostori (cardinale, ouantifioatori) ' Sub8tantiv

both all

my the the first three

new

children Pupila Pageg amount

double

the a lot of Romanian

studenta time

one third

the the next four

chapterg

Exerciii

I. Formulai propoziii cu cuvintele din paranteze pentru a exersa funcia ana foric a articolului hotrtt. Exemplu: a) I have a letter and a postcard. (from my family) The letter is from my family. b) She bas some notebooks and a textbook. (on the table) The notebooks are on the table. 1. He bas a motorbike and a bicycle. (in the car-park) 2. She bas a tent and a sleeping bag. (in the car). 3. I have a camera and some films. (in my bag). 4. Auntie bas some bags and some parcels. (at the station). 5. I have some tennis shoes and some skiing boots. (in the rucksack). 6. Tom has sofltf coins and some stamps. (in that box). 7. Mary has a dress and a trouser sui (in her wardrobe). 8. I have some butter and some cheese. (in the fridgejII. Formulai propoziii cu cuvintele din paranteze pentru a exersa funcia cat foric a articolului hotrtt cu substantive nenumrabile i substantive nu rabile la plural: * ' Exemplu: a) History can be interesting (of Romnia). The history of Romnia is interesting. b) Some coins are valuable. (he has) The coins he has are valuable. ' A tt r< 1. Music may be beautiful. (composed by George Enescu) 2. Some ?f^r>j dangerous. (in the moUntains). 3. Stamps may be valuable. (in my co<- ^ 4. Some films are interesting. (about animals) 6. Poems can be bea ^ (he has written) 6. Some chil&ren are intelligent. (I know). 7. Honey l ^) cious. (I bought yesterday) 8. Wine can be very good. (made in Rorri

are usually fresh. (they sell here): 10. Architecture may be impres-/ Bran C'astle).
1

Trecei urmtoarele propoziii la plural, pentru a exersa funcia generic a articolului zero. Exemplu: The horse is a useful animal. Horses are useful animals. l The tiger is a wild animal. 2. The fly is an insect. 3. A chair is a piece niture. 4. A child likes sweets. 5. The elephant is a strong animal. 6. A h an swim. 7. A city is a big town. 8. A tulip is a beautiful flower.

'

IV Completai spaiile libere cu articole, acolo unde este cazul: l, Peter Hill, who is . . . Professor of History at . . . University of Chicago, 'zned' .'.- article. 2. They generally have . . . breakfast at 8 o'clock. 3. It is t visi'ble at . . . night. 4. ... beauty is skin deep. 5. .. . milk she bought was " ur 6. . . . Romnia lies in ... east of ... Europe. 7. He translated the book f rom. ' English into . . . Romanian. 8. Is . . . German language difficult to learn ? 9. . . . Washington DC is . . . capital of . . . United States of America. 10. Open . . . book at . . . page ten and read . . . question. B. 11. . . . foxes are not . . . domestic animals. 12. She goes to school in ... morning. 13. Is your father . . . worker? 14. . . . dog is . . . domestic animal. 15. . . . Mississippi is . . . largest river in . .. North America. 16. Do you know where . . . Lido hotel is? 17. It takes me . . . hour to get to Ploieti. 18. How many times . . . week do you have Physics? 19. Do you like . . . music? 20. Yes, and I can play both . . . piano and . . . violin. 21. What , . kind girl she is 22. What . . . joy she is for her family! 23. Byron, . . . English poet, was . . . important representative of ... Romanticism. V. Rspundei la urmtoarele ntrebri folosind articolul hotrit, nehotrt sau ?:ern' dun cum este ca.7.nl. : 1. What kind of state i s Romnia? 2. Where does Romnia lie, ? 3. What states dpes Romnia border on? 4. What is Bucharest? 5 What is Romania's population? 6. How many peqple live in BucharestP 7. How many counties 9 wiv' lan - a divided '- nto? 8 - Which is the highest mountain in Romnia? ' Which is the longest river in Romnia? 10 What ea is Romnia bordered 292) v^ h the . soutn - east? H. What lake or river is near to your town/village? 293) Wh ^ ^ e name ^ tne most important mountain range in Romnia? 8re the Car athian Tahl i A P s divided into? 14. Where does the Transylvanian you K V - Die? 15> Where is the Danube PIain? 16- What town/village do arc t K 6 in ' 17 - wh at street do you live in? 18 What important buildings nere n your town/village? V. nla urmtoarele ntrebri despre istoria Romniei, folosind hotrit, nehotrit sau zero, dup cum este necesar:

t)a ar-6 ^e ancestors of tfle Romanians? 2. Who was the most imporWer e the1*11 .S? 3. When did Dacia become a Roman province? 4. Which ost m i Portant princes in medieval Romnia? 5. What do we celeOn ? 7 \vUary 24tn? 6< When did Romnia win its independence from the ' haPPened on December 22a 1989? 8< When did Romnia World War? 119

VII. Traducei in limba englez: A. 1. Ce zi frumoas! 2. O duzin de ace cost un penny. 3. s vorbeti cu voce mai tare. 4. Ai venit cu autobuzul?'5. De cte ori tmn ai fizica? 6. Dunrea traverseaz mai multe ri europene. 7. este la sudul Romniei. 8. Mierea este dulce. 9. Prietena mea este n la mare. 10. Toi elevii erau prezeni la serbarea colar. 11. Copiilor le i foarte mult jocurile. B. 1. La papetrie se vnd stilouri, creioane, gume, past de lipit si neal. 2. Unde este stiloul pe care 1-am cumprat ieri? 3. mi place niuzi^ simfonic. 4. mi place muzica compus pentru pian. 5. La coal studie^ istoria poporului romn. 6. Studiem de asemenea istoria universal. 7 f 1 Canada snt dou limbi oficiale: engleza i franceza. 8. Limba romn este11 limb romanic. 9. Presa, radioul i televiziunea au un important rol educativ n Romnia. C. 1. Unde snt ai ti? Bunicul e in pat, bunica e n buctrie, mama e la coal i tata e la serviciu. 2. De obicei merg acas cu autobuzul, dar uneori merg cu tramvaiul. 3. Niciodat nu pot s dorm n main sau n tren. 4. Mama se trezete deseori noaptea s-i dea de mncare copilului. 5. Nu-mi place s ies n ora seara. 6. La ce or iei masa de prnz? 7. De obicei iau masa de prnz la ora 12. 8. Ai terminat de pregtit masa de prnz? 9. A trebuit sa stau n pat o sptmn anul trecut cnd am avut grip.
Vin. nlocuii substantivele la genitiv cu adjectivele posesive corespunztoare:

Exemplu: The man's bair is'white. His hair is white. 1. Thebay^s shoes are dirty. 2. The woman's hat is pretty. 3. The women's hats are pretty. 4. Where is the bircTs nest? 5. The girl's dress is new. 6. The man's eyes are blue. 7. The pupils'' books are on the desks. 8. The caCs tail s 'long. 9. Donkeys1 ears are lohg. 10. Mary's brother is a student.
IX. Rspundei la ntrebri conform modelului: 1. A: Which answer is right (wrong)? B: This one is. That one's wrong. ^2. Ai Which lessons are easy (difficult)1 B: These are. Those are difficult. 1; Which schoolbag is heavy? (light) 2. Which papers are (unimportant) 3. Which eggs are fresh? (bad) 4. Which glass is clean? 5. Which story is interesting? (boring) 6. Which dress is new? (old,) ? apples are good? (bad) 8. Which vases are cheap? (expensive) 9. Which p ' is out of order (in order)? 10. Which ideas are useful? (useless) X. Completai spaiile libere cu every, each sau either: 1. ... of the three lectures has a definite subject. 2. It is impossib 1 ^ predict the issue with these two candidates:... candidate mav win. 3.

120

sa w somethirig new to buy. 4. I'll be back in a minute, my dear veek8 s'jC uncle; he said and nodded coolly to . . . .5. They were all men of un -n his own way. 6.... guest hd a separate room. 7.1 go to work ... a un abil'^' W^js must be decided by the individual judgement of . . . reader. faV' end of the corridor was a door. 10. Whatever was odious in . . . 9. A* ' ^e scorn which the multitude felt for... 11. It was his ability to jncrease point. 12. He looked over me and at me and on . . . side of state c , eac her can contribute original research towards the building tne ' f 'educaional theory, for. , . child is unique. 14. . . . volume in the U P e ries is complete and independent. XI Traducei n limba englez: De ce dorm oamenii noaptea? Dar tu cnd dormi, Darie ? __ Tot noaptea. Ins, vara mai ales, n-a dormi deloc. Dar ce-ai face? M-a culca pe iarb. Ins cu faa n sus m-a culca. A ine ochii deschii. Daca s-ar putea s nu clipesc, n-a clipi. A privi stelele. i privindu-le, mi-a nchipui c snt liber. Culc-te n iarb acum. Uit-te la stele acum, Darie, i nchipuietei acum ceea ce vrei tu s-i nchipuieti. Aseult ce mi spune vntul. M culc pe iarb, mi pun amndou minile sub cap. Privesc cerul. Pare neclintit, Ins eu tiu c nu e neclintit. Nimic nu st neclintit, ntregul cer, ct se vede i ct nu se vede, cu stelele lui, care se vd i care nu se vd, vine de undeva. De unde ? Nu tiu. Am s ntreb iarba. Nu tie nici ea. ntind minile. Opresc din alergarea lui lin, vntul. l ntreb. Nu tiu, Darie. tie cineva pe lumea asta? Nu tie, Darie. Acum, mi spun, acum n-am s mai ntreb pe nimeni. Am s privesc cerul. ncep s-1 privesc.

(Zahqria .Swncit-Descul)

4. NUMERALUL (The Numeral)

4

-t. Definiie

alul este partea de vorbire care : n j )r im un numr, determinarea numeric a obiectelor (numeralul cardib) i d S - U rc * inea obiectelor prin numrare (numeralul ordinal); eph' n e te mai multe funcii sintactice, n funcie de folosirea lui subc) nu ant lv ai, adjectival sau adverbial; ^u^ 6 c fttegorii gramaticale dect n folosirea substantival (million
a

Numei>

121

4.2. Clasificare
4.2.1. Conform gramaticii structuraliste, numeralul intr In clasa mmanilor (vezi cap. 3.) Double, twice, three times, etc. la fel ca i fraciile one third, two , snt considerate predeterminani, fiind aezate naintea determin the/thislmy in cadrul grupului nominal: double the amount, one third A^''0' time. \ '> "i< Numeralul cardinal: one, two, three, etc. i numeralul ordinai; th e f . the second, etc. snt considerate postdeterminani, ele urmnd determin ' thejthislmy n cadrul grupului nominal n ordinea numeral ordinal num^ ral cardinal: the irst three children, the last two persons. 4.2.2. In cadrul gramaticii tradiionale, exist controverse cu privire numeral, numeralul nefiind o parte de vorbire omogen. Majoritatea gramat cilor tradiionale disting urmtoarele categorii de numerale: numeral 'i cardinal, numeralul ordinal, numeralul fracionar, numeralul colectiv numeralul multiplicativ, numeralul distributiv i numeralul adverbial. '

4.3. Numeralul cardinal (The Cardinal Numeral)

Numeralul cardinal exprim numrul f one, two, three) sau determinarea numeric a obiectelor (faur books, one hundred years). 4.3.1. Forma numeralului cardinal. Numeralele cardinale de la l la 12 n limba englez snt urmtoarele: 294) one 5 five 9 nine 295) two 6 sia; 10 teri 296) three 7 seven 11 eleven 297) four 8 eight 12 twelve Cifra O (zero) ocup un loc special n cadrul numeralelor cardinale. Ea se poate citi zero [ 'ziarau], oh [au], nil, nothing sau Iove. Zero este folosit pentru O n matematic i pentru indicarea temperaturii: It is ten degrees below zero. La numerele de telefon, O se pronun \3\i]: Dial 6070 ['siks 'au 'sevn 'sa] and ask for extension 90 ['nain 'au] Nil [nil] sau nothing snt folosite n exprimarea scorului la fotbal : United won 4.0 (four nil / four to nothing.) Love [ IAV ] este folosit n tenis: Nstase leads by 30.0 (thirty -v l Numeralele cardinale Intre 13 i 19 se formeaz cu ajutorul s -teen adugat la numerele 39: 298) thirteen 17 seventeen 299) fourteen 18 eighteen 300) fifteen 19 nineteen 301) sixt een. Numeralele 13 i 15 prezint deosebiri ortografice i de pronunie numeralele 3 i 5 de la care s-au format: 13 thirteen ['6a:'ti:n] 15 fifteen ['fif'tim] 122

numeralele n -teen au dou accente: ei^een['el'ti:n], rdar<5ndslnt foate ^-ecjjjve pstreaz numai primul accent; eventeen years [ 'sevnthn jjte "R i] eie zecilor se formeaz de la unitile 2 9, la care se adaug sufixul , 20 t*?M 30 thiry 60 sixty 70 seven
g(

ralele 20, 30, 40 i 50 prezint particulariti ortografice i de profata de numele unitilor de la care s-au format : ' . Wtwenty * 30 thirty L four ^O frty l} 50 fift,

Soi? Numele zecilor la plural: twenties, thirties, forties, fifties. etc., precedate de articolul tfte sau alt determinant, snt folosite pentru a exprima o perioad sau vrst:
7Vi literatura of the thirtles. Literatura anilor '30. She tvos a good-lookmg woman in

her tottleB. Era o femeie Inimoas, ntre 40 i 50 de ani.

In limba englez, numele zecilor se leag de uniti direct, cu ajutorul unei liniue de unire : 68 sixty-eight 79 sepenty-nine
Hotis n limba englez, scris, numeralele scurte se redau de obicei cu litere, iar cele mai lungi cu cifre: / have ten lei in my pocket. There are 250 people in the conference hali. Bucharest has a population o/two million inhabitants. Romnia has a populat ion of ofcout 22,000,000 people.

Numeralele care denumesc sute, mii sau milioane snt legate prin and de cele care denumesc zeci i uniti: 115 = a/one hundred and fifteen; 3,005 dvee thousand and fice. Intre clasele unui numr ntreg se pune virgul n limba englez i nu punct ca In limba romn: 4,000; 3,140. (Punctul indic zecimale: 3.05). >otis In exprimarea curent, miile se transform, n sute: How much money have you got? Sixteen hundred iei (= 1,600). Ciad slut folosite la singular, numeralele hundred, thousand i million *nt ntotdeauna precedate de articolul nehotrt sau de un numeral: 100 t l a hundred books, 141 a hundred and forty-one; 1,200 a thousand and 8 *<> nundred; 1,500,000 a million and five hundred-thousand. num ^ precedate de numrul unitilor i acesta este mai mare dect l, 5rw\r^e hundred i thousand nu primesc s la plural: 300 three hundred; *m five thoiisand. a) ' *' nt J ' .1. Aceste numerale primesc terminaia s clnd snt folosite: h) CM ^stantive: Thousands have readthis book. . 1 snt urmate de prepoziia of: The number of young people studying "*' schpols amounts to hundreds OP thousands. n\i p ' MjlliQi are form de plural cnd este urmat de prepoziia of sau clnd * numeral: fioe millions of people. This work oj art is worth five l i o n '.ne billion nseamn b i l i o n n Statele Unite ale Americii i t r i-i Marea Britanic. 123

iul cardinn)

302) 303) tweniy-i^ 304) tfiirty 305)

fourteen 6 five

one two three four 60 forty 16 fifteen stas seven

11 eleven 12 twelve , 13 thirteen 14 50 fjffy 16 sizteen 17 sewnteen

21 22 30

ninety 10 /en

306) sixty 307) seventy 308) eighty 309)

60 70

e<//i<
ntne 20 <we>% 101 a/one ftundrerf and one 112 a/one AunaVed and twelve 136 a/one TwndYe' and thirty-five 200 <wo TjtmoVea1 300 three hundred 400 four hundred 846 eioTii hundred and forty-five 1,000 a/one thousand

18 eighteen
19 nineteen

80
90

100 a/one hundrej "nared

t___________

1,253 a/one thousand two hundred and fifty-three 2,000 <w thousand 3,006 ttree thousand and five 10,000 ten thousand 1,000,000 a/one miKion 2,600,020 two million -five hundred thousand and twenty ____ i ______

4.3,2. ntrebuinarea numeralului cardinal, n limba englez, numeralul cardinal este folosit: 310) pentru exprimarea numelor numerelor abstracte: one, two, three, four, five, etc. sau a determinrii numerice a obiectelor: three apples, one hundred pupils 311) pentru exprimarea datei (anilor). Anii se citesc: 1980 one thousand nii hundred and eighty sau nineteen hundred and eighty n stilul oficia 1980 nineteen eighty n engleza vorbit. 312) pentru indicarea numrului unui anumit obiect (pagin, lecie, capitt cas, autobuz, etc.): Lesson 10, ChapterS, Fiat 11, bus no. 31; I live at No. - Eminescu Street. 313) n exprimarea timpului cronologic, n acest caz, propoziia ncepe de obic cu pronumele it: It is two o'dock. It is five o'clock sharp. Este ora cinci fi Cfclock se folosete numai cu ora fix i se poate omite: Whafs the tim Five. Pentru a indica fraciunile de ore pn la i jumtate" se menionea numrul minutelor urmat de prepoziia past i de ora respectiv: 11 ^ (minutes) past nine. Este (ora) 9 i 10 (minute). It is a quarter past three. & (ora) 3 i un sfert. It is hal past seven. Este 7 i jumtate. Fraciunile ntre jumtate i ora urmtoare se redau in limba eng^ spunnd numrul minutelor, prepoziia to i apoi ora: It is twenty (n" to six. Este ase fr 20 (de minute). It is a quarter to eight. Este opt sfert. /( is five to eleven. Este 11 fr cinci.
Not: 1. Se practic exprimarea orei i n felul urmtor:-2:75 two ftfteZn'\c thirty, mai ales cnd este vorba de orarul trenurilor, ora exact la BBC, e ^ 2. n limba englez, orele de la 13:00 pn la 24:00 se exprim tot cu numra lt la l la 12 i abrevierea p.m. (post meridiem): It is 4 o'dock p.m. Este . ,^m (Orele 1.00 12.00 dimineaa snt urmate de abrevierea a.m. ante mer 124

n engleza american se folosesc i prepoziiile afer i before In loc i t o : B : 10 It is ten (minutes) ater 5.8 :.40 It is twenty fminntes) Q iar pentru i jumtate" se menioneaz ora i thiriy: 8 : 30 tru a indica un numr de telefon de telefon se citesc cifr cu cifr: 597216 five nine seven two = four eight one oh three nine. - primele sau ultimele dou cifre snt la fel, se folosete cuvin tul double: nie L double two three eight; 5555 double five double five. ~ e folosete cuvntul double dac cifrele din mijloc slnt aceleai: 3002 oh oh one. in exprimarea operaiilor aritmetice : n acest caz verbul poate fi folosit la singular sau plural: , j __ 7 Two plus five isjare seven. j __ 3 _ 4 Seven minus three makesjmake four. g x 5 = 30 Six multiplied by 5 is/are thirty. $ : J = 8 Forty divided by 5 is\are 8. e\ pentru exprimarea vrstei: How old are y ou? Ci ani ai? / am ten years old. Am zece ani. Atenie! In exprimarea vrstei n limba englez, se poate omite partea final: 7 am ten (years old), dar este incorect meninerea cuvntului years, ca n limba romn.
s

4.4. Numeralul ordinal (The, Ordinal Numeral)

Numeralul ordinal indic ordinea n timp sau In spaiu a obiectelor sau a aciunilor: He was the irst to come. The second house round the corner is mine. 4.4.1. Forma numeralului ordinal. Numeralele ordinale snt alctuite din urmtoarele elemente: numeralul cardinal, care poate fi considerat radicalul, articolul hotrt the, care precede radicalul, i sufixul -th, care se adaug la radical: 4 four the fourth; 7 seven the seventh. Numeralele ordinale de la l la 3 au forme care se abat par ial de la aceast re gula: the first, the second, the third. Ctev.a numerale ordinale prezint dificulti ortografice: - the fifth 12 the twelfth -the eighth 30 -the thirtieth -the ninth 40 the fortietha nU! ralele 'en(j/ ?^ compuse, numai ultimul numr primete ~th: 27 the ^ se e tn; 236 the two hundred and thirty-sixth. Pot fi precr n'6)6 ordinale cuprinznd cuvintele hundred, thousand, million '** i" >., j , numai de one, nu i de a, iar articolul hotrt poate fi omis: Ab nun <lred and thirty-second. lltfi fe ]ar!T/e5ea numeralelor ordinale se face prin adugarea ultimelor dou : ist; 2nd; 3rd; 4th; 21st; 32nd; 43rd; 54th; lOth; lOOth.

125

se citete la plural cnd numrtorul exprim o unitate mai

the Ha, Ist the 2nd Ut, the the the 3rd the 19th 4th the theZOth 5th the the 21$t 6th the 30th 7th the 3lst 8th the 32nd 9th the the 40th Wth the thelOOth llth the 12th lOhi the the 1,0 13th the 14th fifteenth sixleenth : seventeenth i eighteenth ', nineteenth twentieth 3 iwenty-first 3 thirlieth s thirty-first ethirty-second e fortieth (one) hundredth i hundred and first i one thousandth

jthree-fourths; ~ eight-thirtieths. ~ three quarters ntivul determinat de o fracie ordinar este la singular: * l, ur = AflJ/" aw A0ur; ion = zAree quarters ton. 2 ' t ntivul determinat de numeralul l (one) mpreun cu o fracie - S ste folosit la plural n scris, dar se citete la singular dup ntreg i urdinara nn fracie: lT |a plurali uupd r 4 miles . one mile and three . quarters sau one and .L.,, Morter "7<w. S bstantivul determinat de un numeral mai mare dect l, mpreun cu t> ordinar se afl ntotdeauna la plural: 4 1/2 tons --= four and one half nnTw four and a half tons. n cazul fraciilor zecimale, ntregul se desparte de zecimale pnntr-un punct: 3.25 = three point two five. Numeralele nainte de punct se citesc ca un singur numr, iar cele care rrmeaz punctului, cifr cu cifr: 18.75 eighteen point seven five. In cazul fraciilor zecimale, zero se citete nought n Anglia i zero n S.U.A.: 1.05 = one point nought five (n'pronunarea britanic); 1.05 = one point zero five (n pronunarea american). ' Substantivul determinat de o fracie zecimal se afl la singular cnd partea ntreag este zero i la plural n toate celelalte cazuri: 0.75 metre = nought point seven five of a metre; 4.25 metres four point two five metres.

X.-X.M

A..-----------

esie iolosit: a) la exprimarea datei: April 25th, the 25th of April. n exprimarea datei, numeralul ordinal poate fi aezat nainte sau d numele lunii. Dac numeralul ordinal precede denumirea lunii, acesta este urmat de of / was born on the 28th o April 1965. Dac numeralul ordinal este aezat dup denumirea lunii, of este orni; Arm was born on April (the) 28th.. Aceast exprimare este mai frecvent n scris.
Notft: Exprimarea datei difer n varianta britanic i american a limbii engte n engleza britanic, ordinea este data luna anul: 05.02. 1981 the Sili. February 1981.

n engleza american, ordinea este luna data anul: 05.02.19S1 May the 2nd 1981. b) pentru a indica ordinea ntr-o serie: the Second World War the tenth floor the third act Henry the Eighth
Not s Cnd unele dintre aceste denumiri snt urmate de numeral; se folosete nu ralul cardinal: Act Thrse; World War I; page five.

4.6. Numeralul colectiv (The Colective Numeral)

Numeralul colectiv arat c obiectele snt considerate n ogrup izolat. > .si nu 4.11. Forma numeralului colectiv. Numeralele colective snt: couplc, Lr, team, dozen, score, yoke.

umeralele couple, pair, team, yoke numesc grupe de doi: a couple of c) pentru a exprima repetarea la intervale regulate: every second da5/=c Catll __= ^ou secunde; a pair of shoes = o pereche de pantofi; two team of dou n dou zile/la fiecare dou zile; every third month din 3 n 3 ! (40 6~ P e r echi de vite; four yoke of oxen = patru perechi de boi; o dat la 3 luni. Pair( S) Of horses = dou perechi de cai_ n aceste expresii, articolul the este omis. u do'emeralele dozeni score numesc grupe mai mari de doi: dozen = duzin fc Oam . ss> score = 20; half a score = 10; a score of people douzeci *

4.5. Numeralul fracionar (The Fractional Numeral)

Numeralul fracionar arat una sau mai multe pri ale ntregul 111' third. three tenths. 4.5.1. Forma numeralului racionar. Numeralele fracionare snt f* sub forma unor fracii. _ .v Numrtorul fraciei este exprimat printr-un numeral cardinal, i ft^ torul printr-un numeral ordinal: 1/2 = a/one half = o jumtate, 1/3 = aj.one third o treime.
126

e sint'fo]ntlPebula*araa. numeralului colectiv.Majoritatea numeralelor colecJ e Ca NU substantive: / bought a new pair of shoes yesterday. 'Utnerai c Ac lectiye se folosesc la singular cnd snt precedate do un "lai sau nehotrt: two dozen of eggs, several pair (s) of shoes. 127

Cnd numeralele colective nu sint precedate de un numei.a r , . daca stau singure sau snt urmate de prepoziia of, ele se folosesc h *r The pupils entered the classroom in couples. / have asked him aboui ;* j U of limes.

4.7. Numeralul multiplicativ (The Multiplicative Numerv

Numeralul multiplicativ arat msura n care crete o cantitate IA the amount) &au o aciune ( Agricultural output has increased ive tini U'' 4.7.1. Forma numeralului multiplicativ. Numeralul multiplicativ are f diferite, n funcie de stilul familiar, tehnic, oficial, etc. n care el rn es folosit. ^ In vorbirea curent, numeralele multiplicative de la l la 3 au urmat forme: once odat; twice de dou ori; thrice de trei ori (Forma ^ rc a tltri este nvechit). ' De la numrul 4 n continuare, numeralele multiplicative conin n str tura lor un numeral cardinal urmat de substantivul times (ori, dai)- / times, fivd times, six times, etc. Forma eu times este folosit i n locul !u; thrice: three times. In stilul literar, tehnic sau oficial, se folosete numeralul multiplicat format din numeralul cardinal i sufixul -fold: twofold, threefold, a hundredfold-a threefold guantity o cantitate tripl. Pentru unitatea l, forma numeralului multiplicativ este single, iar pentru 2 se folosete pe ling twofold i forma double. 4.7.2. ntrebuinarea numeralului multiplicativ. Numeralul multiplicativ se folosete ca predeterminant: double the amount sau ca adverb: The rate of industrial development has risen three times. Ritmul dezvoltrii industriale a crescut de trei ori. (vezi i 4.9.)
\

4.8. Numeralul distributiv (The Distributive Numeral)

Numeralul distributiv exprim gruparea numeric a obiectelor. Obser vai cteva modaliti de a exprima aceeai idee: two at a time; two by '" by twos; two and two; in twos (in pairs): . ... The pupils left the classroom two by two/in twos. Elevii au prsit cia> cte doi. He ran down three steps at a time. A cobort scrile clte trei oda <

4.9. ^Numeralul adverbial (The Adverbial Numeral)

Numeralul adverbial arat: _ r a) de cte ori are loc o aciune: orace, twtce, three times (thrice); <- en hundred times; bis; once more; once again; twice as fast etc. They have English twice afweek. Au engleza de dou ori pe / told you a hundred times not to lie to me. i-am spus de o suta d e m mini. ~^
Hot; Thrice este nvechit, se folosete n stilul literar, n vorbirea cu nlocuit cu three times.

^c-

128

a t ntr-o serie: first; firstly; secondly; thirdly; fifthiy; eighthly; ui Ciisecond place. I asked hima few questions: lirst who he was, secondly
V tiv pste considerat pre,ios i nu este des folosit n vorbirea curent.

Exerciii /
,. in limba englez urmtoarele: ' ' L- 195- 248; 352; 2934; 6855; 5420; 41,173; 75,862; J ai:'l82l'; 1848; 1453; 1066; 1918; 1944; 1981; 1648; ,1900; 1240; \ ore- U 5; 12.10; 1.30; 2.45; 3.25; 8.35; 5.20; 4.15; 9.40; 6,00; 7.55; d numere de telefon: 91.95.61; 47.18.03; 66.16.44; 39.88.51; 16.40.03;. -435- 77-88; 13,45; e) numerale ordinale i fracionare: 3*; 8*; 20">; 37'"; 40'"; 59"-; ;001h ; 1 )062 nd ; A. 1. l ; li ; 2| ; 0.18; 2.38; 0.85 ton; 2.75 metres. , l\. Scriei urmtoarele date: .: - / 20.X.1949; 10.11.1958; 1.V.1953; 30.XII.1947: 15.IV.1933; 23.VIII.1944. III. Traducei n limba englez: 1. 24 Ianuarie i l Decembrie snt srbtori naionale ale poporului nostru. 2. Deschidei cartea la pagina 48 i citii capitolul 15 nc o dat. 3. Locuiesc pe strada Spiru Haret nr. 48. 4. C'i ani ai? Am 12 ani. 5. La ora dou i jumtate iau autobuzul 331 i m duc s vizitez expoziia. 6. Cit cost o pereche de pantofi? 7. Am cumprat unt, o duzin de ou i l kg de fin. 9. Te atept de mai mult de o jumtate de or. 10. Am format 5o.79.34 i apoi am ateptat. 11. Cred c au plecat cu trenul de 6.30. 12. n martie 1977 a avut loc un puternic cutremur.
19 7 6

5. PRONUMELE (The Pronoun)

Pronumele: z * clas eterogen, unele pronume pot nlocui substantive n c niunicarp fTne man \ 7 l to i l HG f IS nere\] alte pronume desemneaz direct vorbi/ ' yu) sau desemneaz global sau parial obiecte sau ' 6aCh)'' de persoan, gen, numr i caz; funciile sintactice de subiect, nume predicativ, atribut, 129

:-. .Rol -; i de substitut al

'.numelui
c

In gramatica tradiional, pronumele este partea de vorbire locul unui substantiv sau grup nominal: John l . \ jj e t , r s a student. ^^-^ Peter and Mary j Those young people j are studeuts. They j

'

"

Pronumele reprezint Ins o clas eterogen. Unele pronume congf un substitut al substantivului (he, she, it, they), altele desemneaz d vorbitorul i interlocutorul (I, y ou); iar pronume ca all, every, each dea?'' neaz global sau parial obiecte sau fenomene. " n gramatica structuralist, se folosete termenul de substitut peni cuvintele care pot aprea n locul n care apar substantivele sau termenul l' pro-form pentru toate acele cuvinte care nlocuiesc alte pri de vorbire '

Categoria de persoan este specific pronumelui i verbului: persoana I, a II-a, a IlI-a: / am/You arejHe is. Categoriile de gen, numr i caz se ntlnesc i la substantiv, dar la pronume ele prezint anumite particulariti. Spre deosebire de substantiv, pronumele are: ' 314) genul marcat doar la persoana a II-a singular: masculin/feminin neutru: he/she/it. 315) numrul marcat prin supletivism (cuvinte diferite): //cve, hejthey, 316) contrastul ntre czui nominativ i acuzativ/dativ: ///ne, hejhim, wk. wkom. , Pt-.;.' fm ; Pronumele personale, reflexive i posesive au distincte pentru persoan i numr:
sin ular: I Persoana ^p^j.^. T/ weg ourse i ves m sei ours

caz.

Unele pronume au categoriile gramaticale de persoan, gen, numr >.

y f

mine

rersoana

Persoana a II
he himself singular: she herself it itself his hers ^

* plural: they themselves theirs -tui Pronumele personale/reflexive i posesive snt marcate pentru gen la persoana a I II-a singular: Masculin: he/him himself his Feminin: shejher herself hers Neutru: it itself
130

nume le relative exist o distincie ntre pronumele pentru pr nU , .j whom) i pentru nume de obiecte sau animate (which). a6 fostantivele i majoritatea pronumelor n limba englez au dou cazul comun (nominativ, acuzativ/dativ) i t e formal: The postman un: ;ul j is at the door. Somebody
me

the postman / can see { ^mebody *

at

The postman's l Cazul genitiv: g o m e body 's } ba8 mele personal i pronumele who au trei cazuri marcate formal: Sivul, dativ/acuzativul i genitivul: ominativu, ^ he she they who we me us him her them who (m) .... mu our his her their wkose nitiv. ^ Conform tradiiei gramaticale, pronumele personal la cazul genitiv este a os c ut s u b n um e l e de a dj e c t i v p os e s i v.

Pronumele formeaz o clas eterogen, deoarece nu toate pronumele au forme flexionare pentru aceleai categorii gramaticale. Pronumele personale, reflexive i posesive snt considerate centrale clasei de pronume, ele avnd forme distincte pentr'u persoan, gen, numr i caz. Clasificarea pronumelor*'
Pro. 'numele

 personal reflexiv posesiv relativ interogativ demonstrativ / f each universal { all l afirmativ . seria every many, much few, Utile several, enough one seria some

nehotrlt

pozitiv

negativ
Quirk

.. .. . f seria any ( neafirmativ | _ e uher f seria no \ neither

al, op. cit., p. 207.

131

b .

v . i^ * , , -

d proniu:i.elor

De regul pronumele nlocuiesc substantivele. Uneori ns ele d ete substantivele. ntii Cnd pronumele nlocuiete un substantiv, se vorbete de v a l substantival (sau pronominal) a pronumelui, iar cnd acest a r "' min un substantiv, se vorbete despre valoarea de d e t e r m ^ ^^' (sau adjectival) a pronumelui. * n an \ Din punct de vedere al valorii substantivale sau de determina numele n limba englez pot avea: ' P'o317) n umai valoare substantival: /, y ou, he; mine, yours; somebody, som t)>etc. "f, 318) numai valoare de determinant: every, my, no, etc. 319) valoare substantival i de .determinant: thisjthat, these/those, somel etc. / ' '""V, Valoarea substantival i cea determinativ condiioneaz funciile ' tactice ale pronumelui. Pronumele folosite ca determinani nu pot ndec]"*' plni ^""* funcia sintactic de atribut: book is "new. pe cnd pronumele folosite cu valoare substantival (pronumele propriu-zise) pot ndeplini diverse funcii sintactice: subiect: / am a member of the committee^ nume predicativ: He is always himsel. complement indirect: Show me your stamp collectipn, please. complement direct: He taught us a lesson. complement prepoziional: He will talk about himsel. etc. Pronumele relative i interogative ndeplinesc i funcia de marc a unor raporturi sintactice, introducnd propoziii secundare n fraz: The mn who is speaking is our teacher. I wondered what he meant.

5.6. Pronumele personal (The Personal Pronoun)

Pronumele personal desemneaz persoanele ce pot aprea ntr-un dialog (vorbitorul, interlocutorul) sau nlocuiete obiectul despre care se vorbe , are categoriile gramaticale de persoan, gen, numr i caz i poate ndep in funciile sintactice de subiect, nume predicativ, atribut, apoziie i comp ment. . ^ Pronumele personal are forme supletive pentru categoriile grama i de persoan, gen, numr i caz. me]Uj Aceste categorii gramaticale nu apar ns la toate formele pronu personal. ?,$." ' : .^ : :f\;.::^A pwaoa^! la prommeie p^rioua!, n limba e numele i verbul snt singurele pri de vorbire care au categoria n l . a persoanei: I am a teacher. Eu snt profesor. He is a chemist. El este c aI18 Deoarece verb.ul este marcat de regul.pentru persoan numai la p an e . a IlI-a singular, pronumele rmne singurul indicator al celorlalte pe 132 ^

numele personal este de obicei menionat n comunicare n limba ea, za, , P r^eoS ebire de limba romn: I speak English. (Eu) vorbesc engleP
e S
He

spea

limba englez, pronumele / se scrie ntotdeauna cu liter mare: Its English better than I do.

definiiei tradiionale, persoana I desemneaz persoana care Cn ersoana a H-a, persoana cu care se vorbete, iar persoana a IH-a vorbet^ Pgl despre care se vorbete.
'C ta- Aceast definiie este incomplet.* Pronumele / desemneaz pe cel care vorbte i care face'actul de vorbire posibil. urnele de persoana a Il-a you este persoana care recepteaz discursul, ^""urnele de persoana a IlI-a he/they reprezint membrul nemarcat al corelaiei. A t pronume nu face posibil nceperea actului de vorbire, ci desfurarea lui 'c Helthey ndeplinete o funcie anaforic n discurs, cea de referire la elemente d ia introduse n discurs: Peter was very tired as he hd worked hard all day. tn acest fel, pronumele hejthey nu se refer la o persoan n acelai mod ca i pronumele / i you.

pronumele personale n limba englez snt folosite i cu valoare generic (generic person). Pronumele hejshe este folosit cu valoare generic n propoziii care exprim un adevr universal: He who laughs last laughs best. Cine rde la urrif rde mai bine. n asemenea contexte, valoarea lui he este cea a unui determinant demonstrativ: That one who... Pronumele you este folosit i cu sensul nedefinit de one: You can never teU. Nu se tie niciodat iar they, cu sensul de oameni n general": They make bicycles in this factory. Yn.2, > =- --^ovin ;r';;i'i;ui s. pr'^.uvtde personale;, Pronumele personal are categoria gramaticala a genului numai la persoana a IlI-a singular: He este folosit pentru a nlocui nume de persoane de sex brbtesc: Tom Brown / He is the centre forward. She este ntrebuinat pentru nume de persoane de sex femeiesc: Barbara/ Site is my sister. li nlocuiete nume de obiecte sau de animale: The dog/It barked when " guests came.
" HejShe snt folosite pentru a nlocui i unele substantive animate sau inanimate, care snt de obicei neutre (vezi 2.4.6.): The ship/She has already arrived.

form n ,,. in ^a englez, pronumele pentru persoana a/II-a plural they nu are Ql stmcte pentru gen, ca in limba romn: ' \ Fetele They } are here. g^ eie \ snt aici. They j haoen't come yet.
F1
Vez

g*

/ nu au venit nc. '" are very pretty.

A.CGsti6 t) s ari \. ) snt foarte frumoase.

>: Ioana tefnescu, op. cit., pp. 180-183. 133

Pronumele pentru persoana I plural we nu reprezint mai muli l +he:

{we

) l heandl f come

at

Aceast ntrebuinare a lui we estecunoscut sub denumirea dp we". ' "^usit t O alt funcie a pronumelui we este de a include i pe asculttor (incj . Usi , ^ )i(V e" = 7 + you): Well, how are we feeling today? Ei, cum he mai simim astzi?
We poate fi folosit astfel de ctre un doctor, o profesoar sau o sor cal care se adreseaz unui copil, pentru a crea un sentiment de solidaritate t K vorbitor i asculttor.

Forma you este folosit att pentru persoana a Il-a singular, cit i p ent, persoana a Il-a plural: 7 told you to sit down. V-am / i-am spus s stai io" Plu ralul per soan ei a Il -a est e de asem enea un plu ral in clusiv ca i la persoana I: vorbitorul, reprezentat prin 7 sau interlocutorul, reprezentat prin you i asociaz celelalte persoane ale dialogului: we = I -L^ ( + you) you = you + he (-\-you). Doar pluralul persoanei a IlI-a reprezint un plural propriu-zis: they = = he + he:,-\-he.
n limba englez nu exist pronume de politee ca n limba romn. You poate nsemna att tu, voi, ct i dumneata, dumneavoastr, n funcie de context La fel he, she pot nsemna e^ ea sau dumnealui, dumneaei.

5.6.4. Ca: - . - <,"<'.'"' -mi.. ; : ) , Pronumele personal are forme pentru cazul nominativ i pentru dativ/acuzativ (cu excepia lui you i ii): Nominativ: Dativ/Acuzativ: _, T f singular: 7 Persoana I | plural: we Persoana a Il-a singular/plural: singular: / Persoana a IlI-a / \plural: you he , she it they me
us

you him her u them

, ,:/-, iK- . Pronumele personjeste folosit ntotdeauna cu valoare substantival. Pronumele personal n plinete mai multe funcii sintactice, dup cazul n care se afl: a) nominativ: subiect He is a student. nume predicativ It is he who did it. 320) dativ: complement indirect Con you teii ine a story? 321) acuzativ: complement direct 7 like her. complement prepoziional Look at them!
Dup than i as se pot folosi i pronume personale n cazul nomina
H e is i Saller than l she(is)' \ as tall as J her. 134

PrUn*

mele reflexiv nlocuiete obiectul asupra cruia se exercit aciunea pronun\re e&te identic cu subiectul verbului; are categoriile gramaticale 1 numr i caz i ndeplinete n propoziie funcia de compleerbului ^ e PerS uS predicativ sau apoziie. >en ' . ,...-; ;rr;;ivs^ :'..<;.;"- , : . , Pronumele reflexiv - urmtoarele particulariti n ceea ce privete categoriile gramaticale re oan, gen, numr i caz: e pe rS soana If a n a a m a Ca i ronuinele per "' ~' P Personal 1 cel posesiv; ' ^ f rme e distincte de gen numai la persoana a IlI-a singular: masculin: himself feminin: herself neutru: itself are terminaia -seif la singular i -selves la plural.

Numrul
Persoana

Singular

Plural

Persoana . I Persoana a II-a Persoana a IlI-a: masculin feminin neutru

myself yourself himself herself ilself

ourselves yourselves themselves

Pronumele reflexiv este folosit mai ales m propoziii n care complementul direct sau prepoziional este identic cu subiectul. A) Astfel, pronumele reflexiv ndeplinete n principal funcia de complement d i r e c t al unor verbe tranzitive. Din punct de vedere al reflexivitii, verbele n limba englez se mpart n : a) verbe urmate n mod obligatoriu de pronume reflexive, ca: absent oneself (from), avail oneself (of), behave oneself, busy oneself (with), pride oneself (on):

busied himself with his papers. I pride mysel on mii cooking. Behave yoursel!
? 0t ^ urm ate sau nu de un pronume reflexiv, ntre cele dou ri existnd diferene de sens: apply (oneself), avail (oneself), (oneself), depart (oneself): himself to the task. A depus toate eforturile pentru ndeplinirea He applied for a job. A fcut o cerere de serviciu. dnn-ficri , Pa are pronumele reflexiv se poate omite fr a se produce modie sens: adjust, comb, dress, qualify, shace, wash:
Oi

Care

"e w

"

j, t ,1. j i washed herself. the bathroom and

f

135

B) Pronumele reflexiv este folosit ca parte a unui complement ri ional, cnd complementul prepoziionel este aceai persoan cu subst Look after yourself, will you. Take care of yourself. She looked at '' the mirror; l dorit know what to do with myself. 'f-'-- ''' n construciile prepoziionale care exprim relaii, ntre elemente concrete, se folosete pronumele personal n cazul chiar dac complementul prepoziionat~este aceeai persoan cu I have no books on me. We have the whole week before us. She lootceri her. mele reflexiv este folosit n asemenea cazuri doar cu valoar ional: She was beside hersel with rage.

al)

322)

u Pronu
emfj

323) Exist i situaii n care uzajul oscileaz ntre pronumele reflexiv ' personal: He closed the door behind him(sel). She gathered the children , e| round her(sel). Pronumele reflexiv are numai valoare substantival . El poate n H plini urmtoarele funcii sintactice: complement direct: She helped herself to another piece of cake. complement indirect: He allowed himself a break. complement prepoziional: / looked at myself in the mirror. nume predicativ: She is always herself. 5.7.3, .P^T.:.nmele v'.c ntrire (The Empkati?- Pronoun). Pronumele reflexive se folosesc: 324) ca pronume reflexive (non-emphatic use): Help yoursel! Servetete. 325) ca pronume de ntrire (emphatic use): Help her yourself. Ajut-o tu nsui. Pronumele de ntrire subliniaz participarea la aciune a vorbitorului, a interlocutorului sau a obiectului despre care se vorbete, are categoriile gra maticale de persoan, gen, numr i caz i ndeplinete funcia sintactic de apoziie. Pronumele de ntrire se subordoneaz direct unui pronume personal sau unui substantiv: He l . , , ., The scientist l mms e " answered me pupils questions.
Poziia nemarcat a prenumelor de ntrire este i mediat dup (pro)numele pe care-1 subliniaz: The pupils themselves worked in the schoc garden. Cnd (pro)numele nsoit de un pronume de ntrire este subiectul pro poziiei, pronumele de ntrire se poate aeza: . la nceputul propoziiei: The boy himself drew the map. la sfiritul propoziiei: The boy drew the map himself. Pronumele de ntrire este accentuat n vorbire. .y Faptul c pronumele de ntrire depinde ntotdeauna de un substan sau pronume i' confer acestuia valoare adjectival. Pronumele de ntrire ndeplinete funcia sintactic de headmaster himsel helped the pupils. . are Cnd este precedat de prepoziia by, of sau for, pronumele de ntnr sensul de singur", singur", singuri", singure": jor / mode the dress by mysel. The glass cracked of itsel. / wani to mysel. 136 / ^

-mele posesiv nlocuiete att numele obiectului posedat cit i al j- are categoriile gramaticale de persoan, gen, numr i caz i poate funciile sintactice de subiect, nume predicativ, atribut, apoziie, pronumelui posesiv snt:
persoana Singular Numrul

Plural ours yours

Persoana I: Persoana a Il-a: Persoana a IlI-a: masculin: feminin :

mine

his hers

theirs

Is this your pencil? No, it's not mine. Ask Mary if it is hers. s it yours, tary? ' A t e n i e ' Pronumele posesive (vezi exemplele de mai sus) nu determ substantive ca adjectivele posesive, ci le nlocuiesc. Observai mai jos ierena dintre adjectivul i pronumele posesiv i pronumele personal n izul dativ/acuzativ: Pronume personal djective posesive Pronume posesive It to me. It's mine. It's Itsbelongs my car. It's It belongs you. your car. It'sto his yours. I?s his. It belongs to him. car. It's her car. It's hers. It It'sbelongs its food. to It'sher. It'belongs to it. It our car. It's your It's ours. belongs to us. car. Ifs their car. It It's yours. belongs to you. It It's theirs. belongs to them.

9, Pronumele interogata? (Tlie lui^ > ;- >"

~-;^)

Pronumele interogativ ine locul, n propoziii interogative, cuvintelor yieptate ca rspuns la ntrebare, poate avea categoria gramatical de caz ^naeplmete funcia sintactic de subiect, complement sau funcia de marc, j,P;-Ucln. Propoziii subordonate n fraz. (Vezi capitolul 26: Vorbirea "ecta i indirect). ' Pronumele interogative pot fi folosite: j ^mai ca pronume: Who is he? ) U ai ca determinani: What kind of mn is he? ^pronume sau ca Ca determinani: What do you want? What books do you
r

onumele interogative snt specializate: te folosit pentru fiine, Pentru lucruri, Pentru fiine i lucruri, ttc pentru cantiti, .: l,any pentru numr,' ind of pentru caliti, etc. 137

Din punct de vedere al flexiunii, who are forme deosebite'pentru fiec^ Celelalte pronume interogative snt invariabile. WHO are urmtoarele forme: N.: Who? = cine; D: (to) whom Ac: Whom? Who? (fam.) = pe cine? G: Whose? = al, a, ai, ale cui? ^ cui"< Who se refer numai la persoane: Who did you meet ? Forma whose se poate referi i la lucruri i animale: A: Whose food is this? -.____ B: ICs the dog's food. Whom este folosit mai ales dup prepoziii: By whom was the poem vvr 't In vorbirea curent, who este folosit n locul lui whom, iar prepozit aaz la sfritul propoziiei: *la 8e Who was the "poem written toy?
Atunci cnd who ndeplinete funcia de subiect, el este urmat de un ve h singular: Who is speaking? dar atunci cnd ndeplinete funcia de complem acordul cu verbul se face n numr: Who is she waiting lor Who are they Wa- lor '" *

WHAT c& pronume interogativ se refer la substantive sau nlocuitori ai acestora de orice gen, precum i la propoziii ntregi: What is she? What is the meaning of'this word? What did he teii you?
Atunci cnd what ndeplinete funcia sintactic de subiect, verbul este U singular: What is happening here? (Ce se ntmpl aici?) dar cnd ndeplinete funcia de complement, acordul cu verbul se face n numr: What are they doin! (Ce face ei?)

What se traduce n limba romn prin: 326) CE, atunci cnd presupune un rspuns prin care se arat profesiunea sau funcia: What is your father? What are you? 327) CARE: What are the days of the week? What is your favourite game? 328) CT: What time is it? What implic o selecie dintr-un num'r nedefinit de obiecte: What booJa do you like bet? WHICH ca pronume interogativ este un nominativ: Whieh is shorter, Betty or Jane?, sau un acuzativ: Whieh of these books do you prefer? Whieh implic selecia dintr-un numr limitat de obiecte: Whieh of w two dresses will you take? Whieh of the girls do you like? .^ Cnd pronumele sau adjectivul interogativ este nsoit de o prepoo aceasta l precede n limba scris: From what country does she come? n vorbirea curent, prepoziia se aaz la sfritul propoziiei: What country does she come from?

5,10. Prouwffl^le r^ay-' T>X!-- nelatiy-e Pror "

5,10,1 Pronumele relativ se refer la un substantiv sau nlocuitor ^ ( tuia oare a fost deja menionat i el face legtura intre propoziia W w i cea pe care o nsoete: / know people \ ^^ t dorit like this W 1 138
1 AC'

relative snt: who, which i that. '"D /Ac- who (m), G. whose se refer la un substantiv sau nlocuitor ^masculin sau feminin: de Sc -j wjio sang w rrty cousin. A carpenter s a mn who makes ctiairs jj He is o, writer whose works are very well-known. and w ' w hose se refer la substantive de genul neutru: Tom is wearing T which is too large for him. 3 rh trees, whose leaves are yellow and red... Copacii, ale cror frunze slnt i roii... . se refer la substantive, indiferent de gen i caz:

that

l which J ran across the street IS mine-

The mn j W h 0 } showed you the way is very old.

Pronumele relative i pronumele interogative who, which i what se pot asocia cu adverbele ever i soever pentru a forma pronume relative, respectiv pronume interogative compuse: whoever = (pe) oricine. Whoever comes must ivait here. Oricine vine trebuie s atepte aici. whichever (pe) oricare. He will tafce whlchevcr is his. O/l va lua pe oricare este a/al lui.

(vezi i 25.8.4). Who, whom, introduc ndeosebi propoziii relative descriptive (propoziii care aduc informaii suplimentare, neeseniale, despre antecedent): My wife, to whom you were speaking just now, wants you to come to dinner. Soia mea, creia li vorbeai acum, dorete s vii la noi la mas. Aceste pronume relative pot introduce i propoziii relative restrictive (propoziii care aduc informaii absolut necesare pentru clarificarea sensului): The boy who threw the stone will be punished. Which introduce att propoziii relative descriptive (a) cit i restrictive (b): a) Swimming, which is an enjoyable sport, makes people strong and healthy. ") The glass which you are drinking qut of has just been washed. That se folosete numai n propoziii restrictive: The chair that was broken VMerday has been mended. II , ronurrre relative who, which, th se omit In propoziiile restrictive (n nut a Vorblt ) cnd se gsesc n cazul acuzativ: Thegirl (who(m)) you have just y niece. The magazine (that) you lent me is very interesting. 't POS'KPronumele relativ trebuie aezat, pe e la U'f ^ antecedentul su. Nerespectarea acestei reguli poate da naslr da p^Vi2"'' are ^e met tfie &rl in l^e slreet that yu ^rao;- A ntlnit fata pe pe pe cur>oti. In the street, he met the girl that you know. A ntlnit Cunoti Cind a ezafr<Jnu.mele re]ativ n acuzativ este nsoit de o prepoziie, aceasta pronu naintea pronumelui relativ In limba scris. In exprimarea fami- rjtT>ple 6 re^at^v ge omite de obicei, iar prepoziia se aaz dup verb 1.9 ffte entul direct: This is the mn to whom 7 gave the parcei (scris). man (whom) / gave the parcei to (familiar).
ter r

139 fe,

'aci

l
ve

5 ,11. J L >

, .e n-

5.11.1. Pronumele nehotrt desemneaz global (al) sau prtia] fe , either) obiecte sau fenomene. Pronumele nehotrte . snt folosite: a) numai ca pronume: ._^_______ _,, .J f somebody l There s { 80metb.in g } here. None of them w as in time. b) ca determinani sau pronume: f some.

Z ot \

some English books. _,, , , , , . , [ each parent. Theteacher talked with j each o/1 i/iem. (N)either boy \ , . (N)either of you \ c a n d o I L [ are Aere. AU the children AH of them (Vezi i 3.10). ; '-. 11,2, Htfibuinare pi-onumelor nehctrte, K^siir = ceva, nite, puin, puin, unii, unele, civa, cteva, vreun, vreo, se ntrebuineaz n propoziii afirmative i indic existena unui numr restrins de lucruri, fiine, a unei cantiti restrnse. Este folosit cu substantive numrabile la plural i cu sub stantive nenumrabile la singular: There are some on his desk. She bought some. Some poate fi folosit n propoziii interogative: 329) cnd se pune accentul pe o parte din obiectul sau obiectele menionate: Did you read some of the books the teacher recommended? 330) n propoziiile n care se ofer ceva: Will you have some? 331) cnd ntrebarea nu se refer la some: Did you ask father to give me some = vreun, vreo, nici un(ul), nici o, nici una se ntrebuineaz: 332) n propoziii afirmative cu sensul: oricare, orice: Any of you could answer this question. 333) n propoziii interogative i negative: Have you got any? / haven't got any. Compuii lui some, any i no (no este folosit doar ca determinant vezi 3.10) snt pronumele nehotrte: somebody l someone anybody / anyone nobody / no one non something anything nothing Acestea snt folosite numai ca pronume. Nu pot fi folosite i ca deterin nani: something I saw somebody in your room. nobody nothing Pentru ntrebuinarea compuilor lui some, any, no, n propoziii a ' tive, interogative i negative, vezi 23.1. 23.3. ,([.,; Et'h se refer la membrii unui grup luai individual: Each of them *' to try. Fiecare (dintre ei) dorea s ncerce.

140

(forma negativ = fiecare (nici unul) din doi este folosit "''ies n propoziii interogative i negative: H ave y ou seen either ofthem? t1. yzut pe vreunul dintre ei (doi)? k' al propoziii afirmative, either are sensul de oricine, oricare": Either of an do it. Oricare dintre voi (doi) poate face acest lucru. yu , , este folosit doar ca determinant: Every pupil must do his homework. Compuii l u i ever y ns snt fol 08^ doar ca pronume nehotrte: Every- is present. Toi snt prezeni. / have everything / need. Am tot ce-mi trebuie- ^ ^^ toat, toi, toate, exprim totalitatea lucrurilor sau fiinelor locuiete substantivele numrabile la plural: Pve read them all. Le-am tit P" toate. sau substantive nenumrabile la singular: Pve read all about this subject. Am citit tot n legtur cu acest subiect. AU poate fi folosit i ca predeterminant (vezi 3.1.3): Give me all the books n vorbirea curent, all este nlocuit de obicei cu everybody sau everything, In funcie de sens :^ All are here Everyfoody is here. Teii me all about it = Teii me everything about it. ( l . = un, unul, una, cineva, are o singur form, indiferent de gen, numr i caz: There were two vvomen in the room: one was young and one was old. One cu valoare impersonal se ntrebuineaz n sens foarte general: One should always perform his duty. Trebuie ntotdeauna s-i faci datoria. One se acord cu he, she, it i cu formele corespunztoare: his, him, her etc.: One of the boys said he would stay at home.

5.12. Pronumele negativ (Negative -Pronouhs)

Pronumele nehotrte cu sens negativ snt considerate de unii autori o clas aparte de pronume pronumele negative. Pronumele negative desemneaz lipsa obiectelor sau a fenomenelor.. Folosirea lor exclude existenta altor negaii n propoziie. Pronumelo negative snt: nobody, no one (nimeni), none (nici unul), neither (nici unul din doi), nothing (nimic) : Neither of them is right. Nici unul dintre ei (doi) nu are dreptate .What have you bought? Nothing. Ce-ai cumprat? Nimic. Pronumele negativ none = nici unul, nici una, se ntrebuineaz att pen-ni f ime cit i pentru lucruri: None is so blind as those who will not see. Nimeni f l ^ ^ ei ce nu vor s vad - None of the things he needed was in its lace. Nici unul dintre lucrurile de care.avea nevoie nu era la locul lui.

Exercises

ompletai punctele cu adjectivul sau pronumele posesiv necesar: it's. ' Be o% c an >t e at - -birthday cake alone. 2. This is not my book;. must BO p eter, . . . room is on the left, . . . is on the right. 4. Jane, you Vei7 br1 1+ WaS ^ ' ' face- 6- classroom is sunny; we like it. 6. Jack is beW t *v OI> ' ' ' a e 7 He ma take the bal1 m> The ^" y ' i*'8 8. These records needed y are 9- That is my book, but this is not . . . 10. I n umbrella and I asked Alice if I could borrow _____ 141

er

HI. Folosii forma corect a pronumelui (I, me, you, he. him, she her ii us, they, them). . ' ' *, 1. Look, there's George. Who invited . . . ? 2. The Wilsons and I decid to ask him. . . . thought he Would enjoy it. 3. I'm looking for my trouse Have you seen . . . ? 4. Does your boy friend speak English? . . . should stud*' it if he doesn't. 5. The weather is getting colder. . . . won't improve for t/ next two or three days. 6. Have you read this book? . . . is very interestin ' 7. She is a nice girl. Do you know . . . ? 8. W e of f ere d Ann some flowers Sh invited . . . to her birthday party. IV. Completai spaiile punctate cu pronume relative acolo unde este cazul1. The girl . . . is sitting at the desk is our typist. 2. The book . . . she is reading has been published recently. 3. That is the mn . . . helped the child cross the street. 4. Is this the woman . . . sold you the English dictionary? 6. I don't remember the joke . . . he told us. 6. That is the student . . . always gets- excellent marks. 7. He is the football player . . . scored three goals. 8. Is this the house . . . was built by your brother? V. Traducei In limba englez: Biric i Polina rmaser, i luar secerile pe umr i pornir amndoi spre locurile lui Tudor Blosu. Pe drum, Polina i spuse din nou c nu se poate ajunge la o nelegere cu tatl ei dac au s stea i s-1 atepte pe el s se mpace. Ea l cunoate mai bine. Pmntul trebuie luat cu fora. Biric i rspunse c orice lucru se poate lua cu fora cum ar fi s zicem un cal, o cru, o vit; l iai cu fora i l duci cu tine. Dar pmntul n-ai cum s-1 iai. Pentru pmnt trebuie forme la notariat i numai atunci poi s zici c e al tu. punndu-i acest lucru, Biric i atrase luarea aminte ct e ea de proast cnd i nchipuie c nu s-a gndit n toate felurile la situaia lor. Polina rspunse c tie ea de forme, chiar mai mult dect crede el. i anume c dac te foloseti de un lucru mai muli ani i aduci pe urm martori c atia ani lucrul acela a fost al tu, poi s-i faci forme c e al tu chiar dac la nu vrea. Biric i descrei fruntea i spuse cu mult mirare i admiraie c zu, a dracului naie de muiere mai este ea. Polina se fcu roie auzindu-1 cum o laud i i rspunse c cu alde ta^ -su ea i-a luat gndul de la omenie. Nu trebuie s mai strice omenia P e ; Cit a fost fat mare nu i-a.cumprat nici o a, nici un petic, a umblat descu \ la hor; el, Biric, cunoate i el bine povestea asta. Ar trebui s neleag altceva nu mai e de fcut. Merser mult n tcere i el nu-i rspunse ^ tlrziu. li atrase luarea aminte c tatl ei l poate da n judecat, l d n J ^ cat i iese ru. Polina l ntrerupse spunnd c asta n-are s .ndrzneas ^ s-o fac. Ea s-a mritat i are dreptul la pmntul pe care 1-a muncit. 91 ^ tatl ei are s fac proces, are s aib ea grij s-i scoat procesul P
(Marin Preda - 142

ADJECTIVt
t

finiie
este partea de vorbire care: . jjpotivul este parea e vorre care: . m o calitate a unui obiect (an interesting lecture, an old mn); a) eXpr(!ateg0 ria gramatical a comparaiei: He is taller than his brother. W fll ,e plinete funciile sintactice de atribut, apoziie, nume predicativ, C) Cement predicativ suplimentar.
_ . . , ! _ _ _ ! _ / ' ________ *______ 4

ii. =apftv:,>.pa. adjectiv. '

i The Comparigoa of Adjectives)

Spre deosebire de limba romn, unde adjectivul are flexiune dup gen, numr, caz i comparaie, adjectivul din limba englez nu se schimb dup gen , numr' i caz. Singurul mod de marcare formal este comparaia: Limba romn: un elev inteligent o elev inteligent elevi inteligeni Lecia a doua este mai grea dect prima lecie. Limba englez: a clever schoolboy . a clever sckoolgirl clever schoolchildreri Lesson 2 is more difficnlt i han Lesson 1.

Coninutul categoriei gramaticale a comparaiei const n faptul c la obiectele din lumea nconjurtoare calitile pot aprea n msur egal: The Maths teacher.is as old as fhe Physics tcachcr. sau n msur inegal: The maths teacher is older than ihe Physics tcacher. Categoria gramatical a comparaiei este concretizat n limba englez, ca i n limba romn, n trei grade de comparaie: Gradul p o z i t i v nemarcat arat prezena normal a unei caliti a obiectelor, fr a se face vreo comparaie : He is tall. She is beautiful. G r a d u l c o m p a r a t i v, c o m p a r d o u o b i e c t e , i n d i c n d p r e z e n a calitii la obiectele comparate n msur egal (comparativul de egalitate : e s as tall as his sisur ) sau n msur inegal (comparativul de superioriate: / am younger than her.) sau de inferioritate: ( T his lesson is less interes ng than the previous one).

He is more punctual.

. neexPrimat:

r a dul comparativ, termenul comparaiei poate fi exprimat: He is

'lir-ntg ^, com P ara t n cel mai nalt grad, prin intermediul unei comparaii fllr ' f t Superlativul relativ: She is the cleverest of all.) sau fr comparaie Superlativul absolut: She. is very clever). '''Vhil c Atunci cnd se compar numai dou noiuni se folosete

6.3.

urmarea comparativului

a superlativului

6.3.1 "Comparaia sintetic. A) A d j e ctivele mon osi l a b i c meaz comparativul i superlativul n mod sintetic. Ele primesc -f \ comparativ i the -(e)st la superlativ: . ' e ' r la smoli smaller the smallest short shorter the _shortest ^_^^Otograie: 1) A d j e c t i ve le te r m i na t e nt r- o c ons oa n p re c e da t de o vo c a l CUrl dubleaz consoana: big bigger the biggest ho hotter the hottest ft fatter the fattest th in thinner the thinnest 2) A d je c t iv e l e te r m i na t e n - y p r e c e d a t d e o c on s o a n t r a n s f o r m y In i : d ry dr ie r the dr ie s t Pe 3) Adjectivele terminate n -e sau -ee, pierd pe -e final naintea lui - e r s -est: nice nicer the nicest; free freer the freest; B) In mod sintetic se compar i adjectivele bisilabice terminate n -y, -le, -er, -ow i -some: happy happier the happiest; able abler the ablestdever cleverer the cleverest; narrow narrower the narrowesv handsome handsomer the handsomest; Excepii: eager, proper, fertile, hostile, fragile se compar- numai cu mort i the most. Atenie; Adjectivele menionate la punctul B) pot avea i forme ana litice de comparativ i superlativ. Formele sintetice snt folosite n special cu adjective bisilabice mai frecvente: prettier, cleverer, narrower, nobler. Unele adjective pot avea ambele forme de comparativ i superlativ: cu preferin pentru formele sintetice: a) adjective monosilabice: calm, fit, huge, just, keen, kind, plain, rare, scara, soun, stiff, vague: calm calmer the calmest b) adjective bisilabice terminate n -y sau -ly: angry, clumsy, cloudy, misty, sleepy, friendly, lovcly; angry angrier the angriest cu preferin pentru formele analitice: a)"adjective bisilabice cu accentul pe pripaa silab: active, civil, fertile, hostile, constant, prudent, plvtcsant, stupid, sudden; active active the most active; b) adjective bisilabice cu accentul pe ultima silab: concise,'remote, precla ' severe, profound, polie. E:.""pm; adjectivele bisilabice terminate n dou consoane: correc^ ^ tinct, exact, intact etc., formeaz comparativul i superlativul num . more i the most: a more distinct pronunciation o pronunie mai c) adjective formate din trei silabe cu un prefix negativ: unhappy, ^ n nl0st unpleasant, insecure; unpleasant more unpleasant ^e unpleasant. 144

W^ '..

orrne ' sintetice sau analit.ice cu toate aceste adjective depinde q irea*^ de ritmul propoziiei, de nevoia de expresivitate. :,>seon ,- m ba vorbit snt preferate formele sintetice, n timp ce n scris se nai ales formele analitice. '10Se ii o fontpnr;?ia anajUe, A) Adjectivele formate din d o u s a u ] t e s i l a b e formeaz comparativul i superlativul analitic cu ui morc i the most: ful more careful t fie most care. f u/. Sicalt -more difficult -Ihe moi di f f icul t R '( \ d i e c t i v e l e compuse formeaz gradele de comparaie n felul

urmtor- ^^ element este un adjectiv care i pstreaz sens.ul, acesta se H) schimb la comparativ i superlativ: ell-known better-known the best-known ll-paid worse-paid the worst-paid ntgHiaent-looking, 'more intellLgent-looking Ihe most inteU'i<<ent-1ookin n cnd cele dou elemente formeaz un tot din punct de vedere al sensului, comparaia se realizeaz cu ajutorul lui more i ihc most: heart-broken more heart-broken the most heart-broken far-fetched more far-fetched the most far-fetched , .3., .;. tVsmrea comparaliyuhii cie egalitate (inferiori teie. Comparativul ile e g a l i t a t e se exprim prin adjectivul la gradul pozitiv precedat i urmat de conjuncia as: My room is as large as hcrs. Camera mea este la. fel le mare ca a ei. Comparativul de i n f e r i o r i t a t e se exprim prin adjectivul la. gradul pozitiv precedat de not sojas i urmat de as1 (modalitate folosit mai ales n vorbirea curent) sau prin less ... than (procedeu folosit mai ales cu adjecti vele lungi i n exprhnarea scris): My homework is not as easy as yours. Tema mea nu e la fel de uoar ca a ta. This lecture is less mteresting than the previous one. Acest curs e mai puin interesant dect cursul anterior. 'i-i.4. Formarea superKh;?s]u absolut. Superlativul absolut se construiete cu ajutorul adverbelor very, too, highl.y, extremeiy, utterly: The story he told us w as very amusing. // in extremelly diicult ta reach tne top.

'4. Comparaia neregulat a adjectivelor

<n ele adjective formeaz comparativul si superlativul in mod neregulat: *><* = bun -better -the. best '

W/liTu* a g00d markoetter ihan eight. Ten is the best mark. bad = rfiu i ' = bolnav f "'orse the worst worst. a boys bu ' < Pet-er is worse 'han Tom. Of all the ) bad bous l know muli f rn o r ( ' the most nuch = mult rnor( if ' the mo 145
Hm bll , nrtl, M

We haven't much butter Left. I need more help. This plate has the mo; late = tirziu later = mai trziu = the latest = cel mai trziu" "' ' recent mai recent cel mai recent the latter = cel de-al doilea ( H dou elemente) ?" din urm ' (opus lui the former) the~tfiM = ultimul. (dintre niai m elemente) (opus lui the first) The late edition of this paper appears ai 3 p.m. There is a later one at 5 John and Tom are tall boys: the ormer is the captain of the basketball tea ^ the latter is a good footballer. What's the latest news? Care snt ultimele^ (pin acum) His last novei is still unpublished. Ultimul su roman este ?nepublieat. (nu a mai scris alte romane). ' old = btrn older = mai btrn the oldest = cel mai btrn vechi mai vechi cel mai vechi elder = mai n vrst the eldest = cel mai n vrst (despre membrii aceleiai (despre membrii aceleiai familii, folosit atributiv) familii, folosit atributiv) (opus lui younger) My brother is older than me. Fratele meu e mai mare dect mine. My elder brother is a doctor. Fratele meu mai mare este doctor. She is my eldest sister Ea este sora mea cea mai mare.
K'.;.,?; 1. Formele elder i the eldest se folosesc uneori i pentru persoane din a familiei: The elder girls in our school sing in the chorus. An elder officer. 2. Elder poate fi folosit. i ca substantiv nenumrabil la plural: She followed the a/ of her elders.

near = aproape nearer = mai apropiat the nearest = cel mai aprepiat (n spaiu, rudenie) (n spaiu, rudenie] the next = urmtorul (n timp, ordine) Peter is a near relation of mine. Peter este o rud apropiat de-a mea. Can you show me the nearest tobacconist's? mi putei arta tutungeria mai apropiat? Mrs Green was the next persan to arrice. Doamna Green a fost urmtor persoan care a sosit. little = puin less the least I have little time. My friend has less time than I have. Tom has the least o/ far = deprtat farther = mai deprtat (distan) the farthest further = mai deprtat ^(distan,) the furthest suplimentar, 'vadiional, n plus / can't walk-any arther/urther. Nu mai pot merge mai departe. / shall need urther help with this. Voi mai avea nevoie de ajutor pentru Pluto is the farthest planet. Pluto este cea mai ndeprtat planeta.
> .

Adverbele much i far aezate naintea comparativului i ^ dup comparativ ntresc ideea exprimat de adjectivul respectiv: is much more interesting/ar more interesting/more interesting by i 146

/ie has weritten. Cartea aceasta este mult mai interesant decit Tue'caripe care le-a scris. ' - trucia cu cit... + comparaie ... cu. aM ... + comparativ se reda prin G n m p ar ative precedate de the: ' . longer zAe days, the shorter ;Ae nights. Cu cit snt zilele mai lungi, cu \ nopile mai scurte. lt r' 0 trucia din ce in ce mai ..., tot mai... se red n limba englez vorbit /^miliar) prin repetarea comparativului i intercalarea conjunciei and: '' U ' IHer and colder. Este din ce n ce mai frig. The old mn f dl worse and lS C Btrnul se simea din ce n ce rnai ru. n adjectivul este plurisilabic, se repet adverbul moreflcss i se interiz conjuncia and: tf's lectures are more and more interesting. Your stories arc less and less Vcelai sens se red n stilul oficial i n scris prin folosirea adverbului "n fata comparativului: The bookspublished in this country are ever more interesting.

- -seiile sintactice ale adj

Din punct de vedere sintactic, adjectivele pot fi: a) atributive, ndeplinind funcia de atribut sau apoziie n propoziie: Tom has a new bike. 1 predicative, ndeplinind funcia de nume predicativ n propoziie: Tom 1 s ke is new. Verbele copulative: be, siand, secm, appear, look, becom.e, . o,get, turn, keep, remain, continue snt urmate de adjective (i nu de adverbe) -u valoare de nume predicative: He is clever. She is .gettin old. They are keeping silent. Verbele exprimnd percepia senzorial: look, smell, sound } 'tas1c, fecl snt de asemenea urmate de adjective: You look beautiful. The soup tastes gobd. Din punct de vedere al folosirii atributive sau predicative, adiectivele n ba englez se mpart n trei grupe mari: > adjective care pot fi ntrebuinate att atributiv, ct i predicativ: The old nan has come again. He is very old. ^Jective care nu pot fi folosite dec t atributiv., n aceast grup intr: ~adjectivele terminate n -en, provenite de la substantive concrete: OAe has a wooUen dress. ' indicnd punctele cardinale: Romnia lies in Eastern Europe. a crim < i Ie deriv ate din substantive: a medical school; atomic energy; ___ "Unal attack. he r i a L 6 , ad J e c t ive din care pot fi derivate adverbe: my former friend;

fectivp

and an utter

f L

^ ,. . c ar e snt ntrebuinate numai predicativ: Vele: -ad!pV ^' we ^' d run k, worth: He is ill. He is not well. d e r iv a t e obla-e cu.prefixul a-: ^ ^ aprins, n flcri alone = singur ' sPeriat ashamed = ruinat 147

aghast -= nfricoat, nspftlmmtat axecp adormit alert = atent, vigilent, vioi averse potrivnic, opus, alikc = la fel, identic awake = treaz olive = viu, in viat aware = contient The litt/e boy w as still asleep, but his rnother was awake.
.*Io'',i- 1. Unele dintre aceste adjeclive pot l'i folosite atributiv cud snt u r c - i i de un adverb: a fully awake pn-son : a very asharneil^e/o'W.- the hali aslepp , 2. Cleva adjective predicative au un sinonim cu valoare atributiv: afraid - r ened: alike similar; alive - living; atone - lonely. * ''
The child icos afraid to ask for helpjThe frigVteiu'd eh Ud didiil ask for hc 1. ) Xh l'o dresses.are very much a,like/These are similar dresses.

'6.7. Locui aji-eJivelor m piopoaiie

334)
A d j e c t i v u l f o l o s i t a t r i b u t i v preced substantivul pe care M determin; a high mountain; a dificult problem. 335) n cteva cazuri adjectivul, atributiv este n mod obligatoriu aezat dup substantiv:

n grupurile de cuvinte: Ambassador Extraordinari/, secretary encral

postmaster general, attorney general, court marial, heir apparent, kni^ht errant, poet laureate, f rom time imrnemorial; pronumele nehotrte care se termin n -body; -one; -thing, snt d e obicei urmate de adjective: She bought something nice. He said nolhhis inifceresting.

336)

Cnd mai multe adjective determin un substantiv, adjectivul al crui neles este .cel mai legat de substantiv se aaz n imediata lui apropiere, iar celelalte l preced n ordinea gradului de apropiere al nelesului lor de cel al substantivului. Nu exist reguli stricte privind ordinea adjecti velor, dar de obicei, cnd un, substantiv este determinat de mai multe adjective, ele se succed n ordinea urmtoare: nsuire, dimensiune, form, vrst, culoare, naionalitate, origine, adjectiv verbal: She bought a few large red apples. I met three tall young French girl students. The small round ancient Chinese box was on the table. 337) Cnd un substantiv este determinat de dou adjective la comparativ, unul scurt i cellalt lung, cel scurt l preced pe cel lung: She was taller ana more beautiful. 338) Adjectivul cu determinare urmeaz substantivul: It was a house ugly W'ui decay. Era o cas urt din cauza degradrii. 339) Adjectivul folosit predicativ urmeaz verbul j^pulativ: He is ill. She seems tired. You look pale.

Exerciii
I. Punei adjectivele din parantez la forma corect: 1. Summer ie (good) season of the year. 2. Ir; summer the daV s ' . (long) and the nights are (short) than in spring. 3. The 22 n d of J u n \ (long) day of the year. 4. In July the days become (warm) and ( w a e 5. (Many) people play football in summer. 6. Football is (popular) %
148

mania. 7. I think autumn is as (beautiful) as summer. 8. The weather ' n > s (warm) as in summer, but the trees-are (beautiful) than in summer. is n urnter is (bad) season of the year. It is cold and wet. 10. Some people 9' /v 1 j t j s (interesling) season of the year, because they can ski, skate or Jjly witfa snow. Airaeti forma corect a adjectivelor din parantez:
TI* >*^ t> '

i From these two dresses the chcaper is (the best, the belfer). 2. Since

' stu ( jj cs architecture. 4. Her (older, elder) sister did not come to the '"" M / 5. The doctor asked (the. nearest, the ncxt) person to come in. III. Traducei In limba englez: l Ai citit ultimul roman al lui Marin Preda? 2. i s-a prut mai intere. n t dect celelalte romane ale lui? 3. A fost pe departe cea mai plcut 'vacan pe care am petrecut-o vreodat la mare. 4. Ei studiaz din ce n ce mai mult si obin rezultate din ce n ce mai bune. 5. Cu ct era mai atent cu'atit mai pul,ine greeli fcea. C. l cunoti pe fratele ei mai mare? 7. Rochia -ta este mai modern dect a mea. 8. Care este planeta cea mai ndeprtat?
s

U<

i ' s retired, (less and less, fewcr and fewer) friends havc visited her. 3. nnd Bob are studeiits. The former studies medicinc, (the second, the

7. ABVEBBTJL (The Adverb)

7.1.. Definiie
340) 341) 342)
Adverbul este partea de vorbire care: arat o caracteristic a unei aciuni, a unei stri sau a unei caliti; poate avea categoria gramatical a comparaiei; ndeplinete funcia sintactic de complement circumstanial.
- 'i''i: I. Adverbul m? poate aprea pe lng un substantiv (de obicei precedat de arlirolul neholrt): He is quitc A MN now. li was only A CAT, sau un pronume: l s thts bo'ik really MINE? 2- Unele adverbe pot forma singure propoziii: Realbj.' Down! Faster! Gladly. Almost. Yes. No. Maybe. Now. Never.

locuiuni i construcii adverbiale

fi X B c u " c u . u n i l e (perifrazele) adverbiale s 5 n t expresii ta waj _oare "e ndverbe: atpresant = n prezent; asarule de obicei; by hifa ~ a r P opo; as a matter-of-fact = de fapt; at once imediat; once in now and then = din cnd n cnd; to-and fro = ncoace i ncolo etc. ae n E ' -' u c i i ] e a d v e r b i s e snt construcii prepozile t ar POt fi lolosite ca imt)i ^ adverbe: He watches TV in the evening. (adverb went out of the room. (adverb de loc) etc. 149

Unele construcii adverbiale se folosesc: 343) cnd nu se pot forma adverbe de la adjectiv: She spoke with 344) cnd construcia adverbial este mai fireasc dect adverbul: She the doctor in a broken voice.

345)

nd adugarea sufixului -ly ar schimba nelesul: She spoke in a h 1 voice. (She spoke highly of him). ' ^~~^ " &*

Cele mai rnulle adverbe de mod se formeaz prin adugarea sufixului -l-, J la forma adjectivului: Hc, is a slow walker. He walks slowly. La fel se formeaz i unele adverbe de timp, sufixul -ly fiind adugat unui substantiv: This magazine is published Je('er2/ wcefe. Nu toate cuvintele terminate n -ly snt adverbe. Unele snt numai adjective: friendly, locely, lonely, likely, timely i snt folosite ca pri ale uaor construcii adverbiale: He came at a timely moment. She spoke to us in a friendly way/manner. Adverbele de timp terminate n -ly pot fi folosite att ca adjective, -ct i ca adverbe: This s a daily paper. It comes oui daily. n general, adugarea sufixului -ly nu modific forma iniial a cuvntului: He s a careless driver, He drives carelessly. Dac adjectivul se termin n -e, acesta se pstreaz naintea sufixului -ly: entire entirvly; extreme extremely. >A true truly; due duly; whole wholly. Dac adjectivul se termin n -l, adverbul va avea -U, prin adugarea terminaiei -ly: beautiful + ly = beautifuliy.

Adjectivele terminate n -y l transform n -i -naintea .sufixului -lyhappy happily ; day daily. Adjectivele terminate n -II pierd un -l: fuH fuHy; Adjectivele terminate n -le silabic pierd -e i adaug -y- simpw simply; probablv probably; sensiblfi sensibly; Adjectivele terminate n -ic adaug -ally pentru a deveni adver e. enthusiastK enthusia-stie&My, automatic Dar: public, -publicly; , -Adjectivul good devine adverbul well: She is a good pupil. She spw
Unele adverbe au forme speciale (only, often, ever, etc.), pe cina stnt omonime cu alte pri de vorbire, n special cu adjective VW ar early/ast/late today. 150

English well.

]e

n alte cazuri, adverbele pot avea dou forme, cu diferenieri de sens.

FormS firi -IV

Sena

Form cu -\y

Sens

She ' jaoked al me.

ctime

e ose

an

aproape adnc, la adncime direct, drept, de- dreptul + go, come, sen fr intermediar personal

I followed the, instruetions closely. He was deeply concerned. The car was coming directly towards me. She was .directly affect-ed. They came directly after lunch. I got up directly the beli rang. I solvea- the problem easily. He was treated fairly. His paper is fairly good. . They criticized him freely. I could hardly undersland her. He recovered hardly what he hd lost before. He was highly appreciatcd. -He was jnstly forgiven. I haven't seen lately. them

ndeaproape foarte tare, profund direct, drept; n mod direct; ndat (imediat); de ndat ce cu uurin, uor drept, corect, cum se cuvine; destul de liber, neconstrns de-abia, cu greu, cu greutate, din greu foarte, extrem de pe drept n ultima vreme superficial, cu uurin n cea mai mare parte; n general aproape (de)

H? dug deep in the ground. They toent direct home.

alce ii easy! Just go easy! Easy come, easy go I play fair fight fair AII members are admilt-ed frec. workjstudyldrinkl rain bard

expresii n engleza vorbit: uor, calm, ncet n anumite colocaii: corect, cinstit

gratuit foarte mult, din greu, tare

The plane flew high in the air. She has just arrived. She arrived late. Be always travels light. She works most.
Tf

sus tocmai tirziu fr bagaje cel mai mult aproape, lng

He treals everything Hghtly. The village is mostly of wooden houses. He^ worked nearly ten hours. They were nearly home. She dresses prettily. He spoke quickly and confidently.

>ey live quite near.

^[JM>fttytoe.

destul de n engleza familiar: repede chiar

S18 as uick os yu
^l^sjlght o.

drgu n engleza ngrijit: repede bine, corect

H e judged rightly.

A Modern English Grammar, Second Edition, OUP, London, pp. 152-159

151
Forma fr -ly Sens Forma cu -IV Sens

Go right on to the end of the street. He guessed the ahswer right.

drept, direct

She is rightly constdere the brightest pupil in the class. He rightlygufissed her age.

"--. pe drept

bine, ntocmai

bine, corect

The door was wide open. They are wide awake. anjswerlguessjjudgej note wrong. gojtreat wrong.

de tot, n ntregime

He has travelled widely. They are widely different. The-words were wrongly speli. He was wrongly informed.

* -----------------------------------------------.

greit, ru, prost

r mult, pe o 8 U . praf a mare; ntr-o mare msur, foarte n mod greit

La aceste adverbe, forma n -ly are de obicei un sens mai abstract sau figurat. Alte adverbe cu dou forme snt: cheap ch.aply; dear dearlylast lastly; sharp sharply; tight tightly, etc. In alte cazuri, se poate folosi fie forma adjectival, fie cea adverbial, fr nici o schimbare de sens: She talked loud and clear/loudly and elearly. Pentru o mai mare fluen n exprimare, forma adverbial identic cu cea a adjectivului este adesea ntrebuinat n comparaia adverbelor, chiar dac la pozitiv apare forma n -ly: He runs quicker / slower than me. He shoated loudest.

7.5. Clasificarea adverbelor

Dup sensul lor'lexical, adverbele se mpart n patru mari categorii: adverbe de mod, adverbe de loc, adverbe de timp i particule adverbiale. 7.5.1. Adverbele de mod (Adverbs ofmanner). Adverbele de mod indic modalitatea propriu^-zis: well, badly, quickly, slowly, etc. Ele mai pot fi adverbe: de ntrire: actually, cevawhj, obviously, reatty; de amplificare: absolutely^completely, greatly, barely, hardly, scarcely; de afirmaie saunegaie: yes, no, of course, not at all; de probabilitate: maybe, perhaps, probably. 7.5.2. Adverbele de oe (Adverbs of Place) Unele adverbe de loc indic locul propriu-zis: here, there., Altele indic direcia: aside, forward(s), backward(s), Majoritatea adverbelor'de loc pot fi folosite pentru a exprima atlt ct i direcia: Loc: He doesrft live Iar (Nu locuiete departe). Direcie: He didn't go ar (Nu s-a dus departe). 7.5.3. Adverbele de timp (Adverbs of Time). Adverbele de timp indic8' momentul aciunii: now, novPadays, today, then, etc.; succesiunea n timp: afterwards, before, eventually, me previously, soon; 152

p-

_ d u r a t a: lately, recently, since, utili, yet; __frecvena: d e f i n i t : weekly, three times a day ; e d e f i n i t : often, usually, seldom, once in a while,

7 6. Comparaia adverbelor (Comparison of Adverbs)

Comparaia adverbelor apare numai la unele adverbe de mod, loc i timp. p a re aceleai caracteristici ca i comparaia adjectivului. G o m p a'r a t i v u l este folosit pentru compararea a dou persoane obiecte, iar s u p e r l a t i v u l pentru compararea mai multor persoane sau obiecte. 761 Gradul comparativ. Comparativul de s u p e r i o r i t a t e formeaz cu ajutorul sufixului -er n cazul adverbelor monosilabice i a adverbului early: fast fastei;. early earlier, i cu ajutorul cuvntului more n cazul adverbelor bi- i plurisilabice : quickly more quickly; carefully more carefully. n engleza familiar, forma de comparativ a adjectivelor este uneon folosit n loc de cea a adverbelor: She laughed louder than anyone else.'Ea. rdea mai tare dect toi ceilali. f, o rn p a r a 1 1 v u l d e e g a l i t a te se formeaz cu ajutorul lui as ... as: She speaks English as fluently as. fer brother, iai c o re TI >'* r a i i v u de i n f e' r i o r i t a t e, cu ajutorul lui noi so / as ... as: She doesn't learn as fast as her classmates, sau less ... than: He drives less careully than his wife. Comparativul adverbelor se realizeaz n doi termeni, ca i la adjectiv: Paul works as rapidly as the others (do). O th'e two boys, Dan works the more thoroughly. 7,6.2. Gradul superlativ. S u p e r l a t i v u l a b s o l u t se formeaz u ajutorul unor adverbe ca very, quite, most, care preced adverbul respectiv: very | most J beautifully. quite J
tr

I .

opre deosebire de gradul comparativ, superlativul absolut se realizeaz -un singur termen : Our teacher explains things most clearly. a, ^ u P r : a t i v u I r e a 1 3 ' este de dou feluri: xyP erJ at^vul r e l a t i v de s u p e r i o r i t a t e , exprimat prin ' e /--est n cazul adverbelor monosilabice i a adverbului early: H C runs (the) astest (of all). > pnn (the) most + adverb n cazul adverbelor bi- si plurisilabice: He b) wcrs (the) most intelligently (of all). ^p?r r l a t ' v u l r e l a t i v de i n f e r i o r i t a t e , exprimat prin ^ . a s t + adverb: She spells words (the). least correctly (of all). 153 vrbits 1C wUl the din form a superlativului poate fi omis, mai ales n limba Ane runs astest of all.

In cazul superlativului relativ, al doilea termen poate fi men ionat omis : (Of the three children), Mary plays the piano the best. Adverbele care au forme identice cu adjectivele se supun acelorai re fonetice i ortografice la gradele de comparaie: early earlier earliestlate later latest. ' 7.fi;3. CoPn;p;ra|a neregmat a advRy^t^re^-^tJnele .adverbe formeaz gradele de comparaie m mod neregulat: Gradul p o z i t i v well (bine) . badly (ru) TOWcA.;(mult) Utile (puin) far (departe) Gradul comparativ better (mai bine) worse (mai ru) more (mai mult) less (mai puin) farther (mai departe) further Gradul superlativ (the) best (cel mai bine) (the) worst (cel mai ru), f the) most (cel mai mult) (the) least (cel mai puin) (the) farthest (cel mai departe) (the) furtkest

7.7. Cteva adverbe speciale (Some Spec/a

flnongh (destul de) se aaz dup adjective i adverbe: Thepupils didn't work HAJKJ) enough. He is OLD enough to understand this.
Notai Cnd enough este folosit adjectival, determinnd un substantiv, el poate fi aezat nainte sau dup acesta:
You have <
m . ^ > to wrtte ybur composition. [ time enough J

Ai / destul tim P l s scrii compoziia. l timp destul J

ar v departe) se folosete de ojjicei'n propoziii negative sau interogative, i propoziii afirmative, el este fie nsoit de alte adverbe sau prepoziii, fie nlocuit de a... way: He didn't go far. H e went only & short way. He Ucu far away / not far from here. First (iRtJij. at ?^st'(]a nr-pv'^. r At first e folosit cu sensul de at tfie beginfiing / to begin with i este adesea urmat de but. n alte situaii se folosete first: First / went for a walk and w" / went to bed. At first / didn't like the town, but then I began to Iove it. Hardy, btirely, seafcely Aceste trei adverbe au un sens aproape negativ. Hardly se folosete de obicei mpreun cu any, ever sau cu verbul sensul: cu greu, de-abia: He can hardly speak. sau; foarte rar, aproape niciodat: He hardly ever comes to see me.' :, * nseamn numai, abia, doar" i este des folosit cu adje enough sau sufficient: He hd barely enough time to catch the trainbarely eia^ a .en. Are numai 18 ani. ', ' f, ,' combin sensurile lui hardly i barely: cu greu, abia: / scarcely heard what he said. aproape de loc: He scarcely ae anything. In Iu:??: (aiei): ont tb'?'*"-? (fic^o),

1R4

Adverbele here i there apar adesea nsoite de cuvinte ca: in, out. up. n, ocer: It's ho in here. Don't stay down there. It's cooler up here. Can you see thc unning out there The teacher is standing over there. cfl Adverbul just now are dou sensuri: chiar acum, tocmai, n acest moment: Pupils are going on holiday adineauri : He came in just now. A- nu se confunda a doua utilizare a iui just now cu just tocmai): I phoned her just now. (Verbul este la Az.rf Tense). I-am telefonat (iineauri. /. Aatv just phoned her. (Verbul este la Present Perfect). Tocmai j.am telefonat. Adverbul long este nlocuit n propoziii afirmative de a long time: Did you stay there long? Yes. l stayed there a long time. Ai stat mult acolo ? Da, am stat mult (timp) acolo. (mult), very much (foarte mult). Much apare singur n propoziii negative i' interogative. n propoziii afirmative, el este precedat de very: Do you like swimmng much? Yes. I like it very much. Much poate fi folosit i naintea comparativului: It is much better to come m time. Este mult mai bine s vii Ja timp. (numai, doar) se poate aeza: ^ naintea cuvntului pe care l determin: Only HE came to see me. He came to see me only YESTEBDAY. naintea verbului (n engleza vorbit): He only CAME to see mc yesterday. In acest caz, cuvntul Ja care se refer only va fi accentuat ://e only came to sec mc yesterday. (in prezent, n c.urnd). rolosit cu un verb Ja prezent, adverbul prescntly este sinonim cu at present. mai ales in engleza american: She ix preseritly stay irig ccith us. Prescntly este sinonim cu soon cnd este folosit cu un" verb la viitor: 1 u presently be wilh you. Adverbul still (nc) exprirr durata, continuarea. at th 6St e ^ o s ^ n propoziii afirmative si interogative: Is Man/'-still pentr Seaside?Yes she is ' stiU there. Still poate aprea si n propoziii negative 'hat ^ ''"^ continuarea unei aciuni negative: / still don' t understand "tis s about. Tot/nc nu neleg despre ce este vorba. ' pn acum ' P n atunci) se refer Ja un moment i ;,e ntre-.P rPoziii negative i interogative: Has it xlopped rinins

, Cnd H thatffi

T 1 yet are sensul

" J' ">

de

ej 0cU

- ^mai Puin frecvent). P poziia final: H ave thcy

a

t Jet arrived

vet?
A

?ezat sl 'ill&\ e

a nce

UVZUtdej afiJmuJ? l ' " J P ul propoziiei, ori dup conjunciile but, and, adver- ' ut

^re fi0

]nt

Anonime cu all the same (totui, cu toate acestea) si au

de

Vet Stil, )] ti, Vet

l' don'' t understand hi.m.

ine

' same >

i et

' "
Nu a sosit

In cazul superlativului relativ, al doilea termen poate fi menionat omis: (O the three children), Mary plays the piano the best. Adverbele care au forme identice cu adjectivele se supun acelorai fonetice i ortografice la gradele de comparaie: early earlier late later latest. 7 A :'.. Comparaia neregulat a adyerh-tK.v. Unele .adverbe gradele de comparaie m mod ne-egulat: ^^^^ Gradul pozitiv Gradul comparativ well (bine) . better (mai bine) badly (ru) worse (mai ru) much.: (mvii) more (mai mult) little (puin) less (mai puin) far (departe) farther (mai departe) Gradul superlativ (the) best (cel mai bine) (the) worst (cel mai ru), fthe) most (cel m'ai mult) (the) least (cel mai puin) (the) farthest (cel mai departe) (the) /urthest

further

7.7. Cteva adverbe speciale (Some Spet - ! . < : - '

jEnough (destul de) se aaz dup adjective i adverbe: The pnpils didrft work HAKD enough. He is OLD enough to understand this.
Not: Cnd enough este folosit adjectival, determinnd un substantiv, el poate fi aezat nainte sau dup acesta: You have \
m <mgh time \ time enough } t

" Ai I destul tim P l s sorii compoziia. l timp destul J

Far ^departe) se folosete de ouicei'n propoziii negative sau interogative. n propoziii afirmative, el este fie nsoit de alte adverbe sau prepoziii, fie nlocuit de a ... way: He didn't go far. He went only a short way. He Uves ar away / not far rom here. First (ja.i.). st ^st'Ha iKr-p-r', ^ , At first e folosit cu sensul de at the beginninl to begin with i este adesea urmat de but. n alte situaii se folosete first : First / went for a walk and tnen I went to bed. At irst / didri't like the town, but then I began to Iove it. Aceste trei adverbe au un sens aproape negativ. Hardly se folosete de obicei mpreun cu any, ever sau cu verbul con, c sensul: cu greu, de-abia: H e can hardly speak. sau: foarte rar, aproape niciodat: He hardly ever comes to see me.- _ ffi Barely nseamn numai, abia, doar" i este des folosit cu adj. ectl ^ a enough sau sufficient: He hd barely enough time to catch the train. " barely e.w^".en. Are numai 18 ani. Scarcely combin sensurile lui hardly i barely: cu greu, abia: / scarcely heard what he said. aproape de loc : H e scarcely ae anything. In here (aici): out tfeers (acolo). 154

Kstdy, 'srw:y., carf.^y

Adverbele here i there apar adesea nsoite de cuvinte ca : in, oul, up. ftt over'. It's ho in here. Dorit stay down there. l? s cooler up here. Can you see the running out there? The teacher is standing over there. cfl " Adverbul just now are dou sensuri: chiar acum, tocmai, n acest moment: Pupils are going on holiday iust now. . . J _ adineauri: He came m just now. r .' i i A- nu se confunda a doua utilizare a lui just now cu just cmai): / phoned her just now. (Verbul este la Past Tense). I-am telefonat . . rlineauri. / have just phoned her. (Verbul este la Present Perfect). Tocmai i-am telefonat. t. r Adverbul long este nlocuit n propoziii afirmative de a long time: Did you stay there long? Yes. I stayed there a long time. Ai stat mult acolo ? Pa, am stat mult (timp) acolo. ; .,.;. (mult), very much (foarte mult). Muck apare singur n propoziii negative i' interogative. n propoziii afirmative, el este precedat de very: Do you like swimming much? Yes. I like it very much. Much poate fi folosit i naintea comparativului : It is much better to come m time. Este mult mai bine s vii la timp. (numai, doar) se poate aeza: ^ naintea cuvntului pe care l determin: Only HE came to see mc. He came to see me only YESTERDAY. naintea verbului (n engleza vorbit): He only CAME to see mc yesterday. n acest caz, cuvntul la care se refer only va fi accentuat: He. only came io see mc yesterday. (n prezent,, n c ur n d). Folosit ' c u un verb la prezent, adverbul prescntly este sinonim cu at present. mai ales in engleza american.: She is presently stay ini; wi.th us. . Prescntly este sinonim cu soon cnd este folosit cu un verb la viitor: I' U presently be wilh you. Adverbul still (nc) exprim durata, continuarea. este folosit n propoziii afirmative i interogative: 7.9 the seaside? Yes, she is still there. Still poate aprea i n propoziii negative L r u a sublinia continuarea unei aciuni negative: I still don't undarstand nat this is about. Tot/nc nu neleg despre ce este vorba. tui t l^ c ^' P m acum, pn atunci) se refer la un moment i se ntrc- #e* 6a ^ n P r P o z iii negative i interogative: H as it stoppcd rainin yet? sau //" l arr ved et \ y - (. Nu a sosit nc) 'e hasn't yet arrived. (mai puin frecvent). md adverbul yet are sensul deja", el ocup poziia final: Have they film yet? Au vzut deja filmul? 'e la nceputul propoziiei, ori dup conjunciile but, and, adveryet sini sinonime cu all the same (totui, cu toate acestea) si au - ^ conjuncii: Still ' Yet l An ,, f / don t understand tiim. 11 tl >e same > 155

adverbe: He spoke very LOUDLY. Dac adjectivul este la gradul comparativ, sau dac participiul trecut este folosit predicativ, very trebuie nsoit sau nlocuit de much sau .de alte adverbe de amplificare: greatly, highly,-by ar. etc.:
She was b y ar/much TALLER than him. She vcas very much at ^his behaviour.

look.

Cu toate acestea nu-1 neleg, (foarte) poate modifica: adjective: She is very TALL* participii trecute ntrebuinate atributiv; She hd a very

Exerciii

I. Exprimai-v acordul cu afirmaiile de mai jos, folosind adverbe de mod

Exemplu: A. Mary is an efficient worker. B: Yes, she works efficiently. A. Alice is a good singer. B. Yes, she sings well, 1. Peter is a slow worker. 2. Ann is a good dancer. 3. Our teacher is a fluent English speaker. 4. He is a bad actor. 5. Doris is a hard worker. 6. Nick is a fast swimmer. 7. Mother is a careful typist. 8. Father is a careless driver. 9. He is an intelligent teacher. 10, He is an optimistic speaker. 11. He is a noisy eater. 12. Paul is an attentive listener. 13. He is a sensible speaker. 14. Dianais a quick runner.

II. Traducei n limba englez:

1. Ea muncete foarte mult la scoal. 2. A spat adnc n pmnt. 3. Era pe drept considerat cel mai bun elev din clas. 4. Cu greu pot s-ti vd faa n ntuneric. 5. Trenul a sosit cu ntrziere. 6. A fost adnc micat de buntatea ei. 7. A gsit rspunsul corect. 8. Psrile zboar la nlime. 9. Nu 1-am vzut n ultima vreme. 10. Este foarte apreciat pentru munca sa. 11. Se nrudete de aproape cu mine, 12. la-o ncetior! 13. n general sntem plecai duminica. 14. E aproape miezul nopii. 15. Ce te deranjeaz cel mai tare? 16. El e chiar n vrf. 17. Deschide mare gura.

8. PREPOZIIA (The Preposition)

8.1. Definiie'
Prepoziia este partea de vorbire neflexibil care: a) exprim raporturi sintactice de dependen ntre, prile unei Ea leag pri de vorbire diferite: substantive, adjective, verbe sau a de substantive sau substitute ale acestora: I was pleased at the o gong to the theatre. Am fost ncntat de ideea de a merge la teatru 156

pste neflexibil din punct de vedere morfologic; \ \ nrepoziia nu ndeplinete o funcie sintactic n propoziie ci marcheaz funcii sintactice : / gave the book to Mary (complement indirect). The roof of the house (atribut) is red,

3.2. Caracteristici ale prep ml fiilor eagleieti

i, 2.1. Prepoziiile englezeti cer cazul acuzativ: Look AT him. I am HEFORE her. Prepoziiile of, to i for prezint o situaie special. Construcia cu prepoziia of este folosit ca echivalent al unei construcii genitivale : The bov's coat \ . The colt of the boy j n e w ' iar prepoziia to i for marcheaz cazul dativ: / gave it to him. I bought it for her. : : 2, 2 Majoritatea prepoziiilor englezeti snt urmate de substantive articulate, spre deosebire de limba romn: The children are playing IN the garden. Copiii se joac N grdin. S 2. 'l Cteva prepoziii apar n construcii n care substantivul nu este articulat (Vezi 3.5.2,): ' . at home; st breakfastllunch/dinner; by car, bus, train, plane, boat; at daybreakfsunset/night; in/to bed, class, town, hospital; at play; at war; at ea; by nightlday, etc. at/in/to school, college, church. Folosirea articolului cu unele dintre aceste substantive aduce schimbri de sens, de ex.: referirea la o anumit cas, coal, etc.: He is AT home. (El) este acas. She is AT the home of her iriends. (Ea) este n casa prietenilor ei. sau: He is AT ea (on a ship). (El) este pe mare (pe un vapor). He is AT the ea (at the seaside). (El) este la mare (pe litoral). '-"'" Verbele precedate de prepoziii iau forma n -ing (Gerund): I am good AT remembering people's names. mi amintesc cu uurin numele oamenilor. DT Excepii: But i except snt urmate de infinitivul scurt: They did nothing UT laugh. N-au fcut nimic (altceva) dect s rd. '' " "-Unele cuvinte snt urmate n mod obligatoriu de anumii prepoziii: a ' Substantive: VTIS interest, progress, satisfaction -fin; ~^cause, chance, opportunity +of; exception, invitation, kindness +to; JAd jective: enthusiastic +about; fc "]ed> ajnazed, astonished, dever, good +at; oound, eager, famous, fit, sorry +for; uappomted, rich,' successful +in; Traid, ashamed, aware, characteristic, fond, full, jeaous, proud, 're worthy +o;
157

~ affectionate, approprite, attentive, contrary, cruel, deaf, indiffere, . parallel, polie,' rude, thankful -\-to; ' ' '''"d, y- angry, busy, charmed, consistent, delighted, dizzy, faint, identicei l satisfied, stiff, wet +with; rateful to smb. or smth,* angry with smb. st what smb. does about smth. c) V e r b e: aim, arrive, fire, gaze, glance, glare, look, laugh +at; account, ask, blame, care, leace, long, look, send, set out, start th wait + or; > ' ank , c onceal, die, differ, escape, hide, preveni, proiect, recover, start suff free +rom; ' "ef< abound, believe, end, f aii, originale, participate, succeed ({{--ing) -fin; accuse, boast, cure, deprive, die, remind, rob, suspect, take care +o! agree, comment, concentrate, congratulate, depend, insist, lecture, lve meditate +on; , ' adapt, adjust, apply, attribute, belong, cling, conform, consent, correspond direct, explain, fasten, go, introduce, link, listen, object, prefer, reduce refer, reply, report, sail, sell, speak, subscribe, turn +to; complete, flush, glow, quiver, overflow, shake, shiver, side, subscribe, supply, threaten, tremble + with. A t e n i ! agree with smb. on a thing; to a proposal; complain to smb. about smth; complain o an illness; consist o = a consta din; in = a consta n; lie te smb. about smth; part rom smb.; with smth. suffer or a cue; rom/with a disease, injury; think o smth.; about (= meditate); translate rom a language into another language; wait or smb j'smth.; on smb (= serve); warn o (the danger); against (the enemy); bite, kick, point, throw +at (scopul intenionat, dar neatins, al aciunii) bite, kick, point, throw +to (scopul aciunii este atins); get on / o a bus, boat; get in(to) / out o a car, plane. 'Atenie!

l
. 8.3. Poz iie
Pr epozi ia apare n gener al naint ea cuvn tului la care se reie The pupils are IN the classr oom. Elevii slnt n clas. E a es te fo lo si t d u p ac es ta : n n U T' 346) n ntr eb ri spe cial e

(Wh-questions): What is he writing A" (About what is he writing? formal): Despre ce scrie? oor 347) n p r o p o z i i i relative: The flat I live IN is on the lOtn J ^ (The flat in whieh / live is on the lOth floor = formal). Apartament"1 care locuiesc este la etajul 10.
* smb = somebody; smth = something.

158

x c l a m a i i : What photos they are looking AT! (At what photos ') *D * re looking f = formal) La ce fotografii se uitai ihey onstrucii pasive: The children were looked AFTEB by their 1B Jdmother. Bunica avea grij de copii. 8 n s t r u c i i infinitivale: This s a good firfn to work WITH. e) l n c g a es te o firm bun cu care s lucrezi.

^latiil.e (::;> [";A'^?nate de pftpOK'li

n combinaie cu alte pri de vorbire, prepoziiile exprim relaii variate 1: rQC: at, in, within. In (n) indic spaiul n general sau locul n interiorul cruia are loc aciu- in a continent country town village; in a square street room; in a forest wood field; . . , At (n la) indic un punct anumit dm spaiu sau un loc mai mic : at a moli village -address certain point; at home; at work; at play ; Within (n, ntre) (formal) indic poziia ntr-un spaiu limitat sau dis tana limit (la distan de, In) : Many important documents are kept wjthin the walls of this museum. Multe documente importante snt pstrate ntre pereii acestui muzeu. There is nobody within these four walls j within hearing / within a mile. i at a building (= instituia); in a building (cldirea): He is slschaol. E elev. He is in schaol. E n coal. He lives in New York (ora mare), They stopped at Brussels on their way to New . York (punct pe hart, traseu). By, bcsidc, next to, nesr, close to, aganst By (lng, la) indic vecintatea imediat: Mary is standing by the- window. Beside, next to (lng, la, alturi/aproape de) indic apropierea imediat: There is a night table beside my bed. The post office is beside/ aext to the hotel. Near, close to (lng, aproape de) indic apropierea n general: Hc lives near/ elose to his office. Against (lipit/rezemat de), exprim ideea de contact i sprijin: The bookcase is against the wall. Tom leant against the bookcase. Over, above, on.top of; under, beneath, below, underneath Over (deasupra) i under (sub, dedeseubt) indic o direcie vertical sau apr P^rea: There's a pictare over the fireplace. The dog is under the chair. Above (deasupra) i below (sub, dedeseubt) arat doar c un obiect se afl M BUS sau mai jos dect altul: Their f lat is above ours. Some part of Holland w below sea level. The TV^ f fa) ^ underneath (sub) arat c un obiect l atinge pe cellalt: pa V aerial is on top o the house. The book you need is underneath those
e

chiv f^^J 811 ^) P e su b) arat o distan mai mic decit below sau este un ^ormJ ftl lui under: The Dmbovia river passe beneath several

eut

^ froat of, beore; behind, ater n ront f^n fat-a) este folosit in engleza vorbit, cu referire la obiecte : a e iL tree in front of our house. (Dar: They were outside the cinema). tr^ n *a^ a' mamtea) exprim ordinea aezrii persoanelor, n limba ne was before me. ^

159

Behind (n spatele, napoia) indic poziia: The cat was behind the tr After (dup, n spatele) indic ordinea, n spaiu sau n timp; He walk ^ e( down the stairs ater his wife. * Between, among Between (ntre) = un obiect se afl ntre altele dou sau ntre mai m\ H dac numrul acestora este definit: Our school is between the hotel and the h pital. France lies between Belgium, West Germany, Switzerland and Sn S Among (ntre, printre) = un obiect se afla ntre mai multe obiect e: There's a dictionary among these books. DIRECIE: to, into, onto, towards. Aceste prepoziii snt folosite cu verbe de micare, pentru a indica direci To (la) micarea pn la un punct: He came to school early. " Into (n) ptrunderea: They went into the house. Onto (pe) micarea pe o suprafa: The actor walked onto the stare Towards (ctre, spre) direcia ctre un punct, dar nu i atingerea destinaiei (ca to): They walked slowly towards'the river. n vorbire, in i on snt adesea folosite n loc de into i onto, dup verbe ca put, place, lay etc.: She put her money in her bagjon the table. 349) Verbul arrive este urmat de prepoziia at: They arrived at home early. Through, across, over Through (prin) indic traversarea i ptrunderea: Dorit walk through(fe park, walk around it. Acrossjover (peste) in'dic numai traversarea: The train went over/across the bridge. They sailed across the ocean. Up, down, along Up and down (n susul i josul) exprim o micare pe v e r t i c a l : The children ran up and down the stairs / MU. sau pe orizontal (de-a lungul): They walked Up and down the streetj platform. (sinonim cu along) Past, b y Past (pe lng) indica micarea pe lng i dincolo de : Walk past the hotel, turn right and you'll get to the post-office. By (pe lng) indic o micare fr oprire sau cu o ntrerupere scurt: They drove by the lake without stopping. About, around Around (n jurul) indic o poziie sau micare circular: He has a muffw around his neck. .. Aboutjaround (n jurul, n preajma, prin) indic o poziie /micare ncde ij nit: There arerit many cinemas about/around here. They walked about/arou town all day. OI, out o, rom . t-; Off (de pe, de la, din) exprim separarea, desprinderea de pe o supra a, The case fell of the table. 0( Out of (din) exprima ieirea, scoaterea dintr-un volum: She came o the house. rlli From (de, de la) indic desprirea, distana, locul de unde a P aciunea: She came straight home rom school. TIMP: At, on, in , , w.i At a time: at thejthat time, at 8 o'clock, at noon, at night, at dinner ( at the weekend. .160
6

348)

QO a day: on Sunday, on Monday morning, on New Year's day, on the fit Of March, on the following day. In period : IW tne (late) afternoon, in July, in summer, in 1990, in the f llowing months, in the 20th century. By? J Ry = nu mai trziu de : You will have my answer by the end of the week. gefore = nainte de : / talked to Mm before noon. = mai trziu de, dup: Ring me up after the meeting. From... to, till/until o poate exprima relaii de timp sau direcie, till/until numai de timp. From (din, de la) indic momentul nceperii aciunii, to/till (pn n, pn i ) sfritul ei : She stayed with us rom January to/till April last year. Tilljuntil (i nu to) trebuie folosit dac lipsete f rom: He waited for you nntil 9 o'clock. Until indic sfritul unei aciuni pozitive, sau nceputul unei aciuni negative: We worked imtil noon (and stopped then). We didn't work until noon (We began then). DURATA: During, for, (all) through/throughout, over During (n timpul), exprim perioada n timpul creia a avut loc o aciune (In mod intermitent): We were in Bucharest during summer. We cisited the Art Galleries during our stay in Bucharest. For (de, timp de), indic durata unei aciuni nentrerupte : We stayed in Bucharest for three weeks. (All) through/throughout (tot, tot timpul) = de la nceputul pn la sfritul perioadei: We worked hard all through the year. 1 1 rained throughout the summer. Over (de, la)= indic o perioad limitat (srbtori, vacan): We went to the mountains over the weekend. A ' ^ ''''. i fii Prepoziiile de timp/durat se omit: a) n expresii cu last next, thls that, some every : Isawafilm last night (asear). H e came this morning. (n aceast diminea) / go to school ^^ every day. (n fiecare zi) o) D expresii ncepnd cu all: He stayed there all day / week (nu: for all day/ week). MOD, INSTRUMENT, CANTITATE: j *"*h (cu), without (fr), n ... manner/way (n modul) exprim modul care are loc aciunea : She spoke with confidence / Vvithout hesitation / in the "*<*/ Way.

^ C& ^ ^os^
ex

ca

prepoziie este urmat de un substantiv, pronume sau

P" m & modul: o asemnare /comparaie ntre doi termeni: She e a dancer. He is very much like his mother. Ske ent ^Cj'iprin' de^ i on (Pe> la) indic mijlocul cu care e svrit aciunea: l e aclt door This dress bus f onf ^ ^ " m(fde by hand. He goes to work by foot. I Usten to the news on the radio. He watches the news on television. a Pen ICL ^CU^ Precede instrumentul: The little child has learned to write with opened the door with a key. . exprim modul sau materialul folosit : She wrote the letter in ink. U^ exPrim cantitatea : Cloth is sold by the yard. Eggs are sold by

REFERINA: As to, as for, regarding, in regard to, concerning (formal) = cu p Vl (cit) despre: As to our grandmother, everybody loves her. Some interestin, ments concerning our ancient history hace just bcen found. About, on (despre): About este folosit cu verbe ca chat, quarrel, talk: They talked about their school daysi On este folosit pentru activiti organizate, dup verbe ca lecture speak: H e lectured on Scottish literature.

CAUZ: Because o, on account o (formal), rom, out of, for tx (din cauz de): ' t ( >i We put off our trip beeause o the weather. She was late on account heavy traffic. He couldn't speak for shame. H e did it f rom pity / out of cur She lost her gloves through her carelessness. s"; SCOP: for (pentru) / went to the chemist's for some aspirin. SURS j ORIGINE: from (din) He comes from France. AGENT: by (de, de ctre): She was examinedby a specialist. CONCESIE: in spie, despite (formal), for all, with all (familiar) =ciuda, cu toat / toate: They enjoyed the trip, in spie of the bad weather. Despi-, her illness, she still goes skiing. He was a good mn, for all his defects. Excepie: except for, but (cu excepia): Everybody left but the headmasir

'

< -', Diferena ntre prepoziii n limba romn i engleza' ' ' .
ntre folosirea prepoziiilor n limba englez i limba romn exist; numeroase diferene, care prezint dificulti pentru elevii romni. Unele dinte acestea snt:
Limba englez Limba romn

in the street (Engl. americ.on Ihe streetf in the playground In the sky in the un in the open air on the way to on the Ist floor round the corner at present t the same time at this moment t last in a year^s Urne in my opinion in att probabiliiy b y my watch by heart by mistake io go on a trip J on holiday to go (out) for a walk to look out of the window to get in through the window he's the tallest in the class outside the cinema

pe strad pe terenul de joc/sport pe cer la soare la aer curat (n drum spre Ia etajul I dup col; n prezent in acelai timp n acest moment in sfrit dup prerea mea independent de voina... dup toate probabilitile dup ceasul meu pe dinafar din greeal tj a merge in cltorie /in vacant a merge in plimbare a privi pe fereastr a intra pe fereastr e cel mai nalt din clas n faa cinematografului 16'2
peste un an

beyond control

MIA

unele diferene i n folosirea prepoziiilor n varianta britanic a limbii engleze:

britanic

Engleza americani

. the bocfc of... .t the weekend

t

toward
.

,s

'

< past nx.

in Ja& of...

on the street

fl

to one on Sunday.

ele.

on toe weekend ifs ten minutes atter sta. i/' a quarter beforo o. /'U se j/ou Sunday. etc.

Particulele adverbiale snt asemntoare ca form cu unele prepoziii sau adverbe. Ele se deosebesc ns de acestea prin funcia lor. Particulele adverbiale modific sensul verbelor pe care le nsoesc, transformindu-le n verbe cu particule adverbiale: They have put of the meeting again = They hace postponed the meeting again. Au amnat din nou edina. Particulele adverbiale cel mai frecvent folosite snt: about, across, along, around, away, back, by, down, in, of, on, out, over, past, round, through, up.
Multe dintre aceste particule adverbiale pot fi folosite i ca adverbe propriu-zise : He s In. Este nuntru. /Este n cas. sau ca prepoziii: He is in the-kitchen. Este n buctrie.

a) In majoritatea cazurilor, particulele adverbiale modific total sensul verbelor la care snt ataate : He came round after the accident. i-a recptat cunotina / i-a revenit dup accident. b ) m alte cazuri, sensul verbului cu particul adverbial poate fi dedus din analiza elementelor componente: go in, come out, bring back, take away. ' l sirea unor particule adverbiale pe lng anumite verbe ntrete doar iaeea exprimat de acestea: drink up (bea tot/pn la fund), stand up, lie Particulele se r adverbiale line diat dup un verb intranzitiv : He turnea icund and looked at me. i s-a uitat la mine. este tranzitiv i este urmat de un complement direct exprimat ronume s P au alt determinant, particula adverbial este aezat mnentul direct: We saw THEM off to the station. I-am condus la 1HESE up, please. Ridic astea, te rog.
v

erb ]Prin aceast caracteristic, verbele cu particule adverbiale se deosebesc de e urr nate de prepoziii obligatorii, deoarece prepoziiile nu pot fi separate de Vei>,
ra ^ease tk ME up tvhen y ou come to Bucharest. (up = particul adver. She was looking at HIM. (at = prepoziie).

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Dac complementul direct este exprimat printr-un substantiv, prtie adverbial poate fi aezat nainte sau dup acesta (mai ales n vorh; familiar) : He gave \wcls. THE WWK. He gave THE BOOK back. A tatm?* p w cartea. Dac complementul direct este lung, sau este exprimat printr-o propozif subordonat, particula adverbial este aezat imediat dup verb: He s back the book he hd borrowed. A napoiat cartea pe care o mprumuta/ 6

. Exercises I. Completai spaiile libere cu prepoziii de loc sau direcie: 1. I live ... 53, Franklin street. My flat is . . . the 10 th floor. 2. The tallest building . . . the world is . . . New York. 3. Father drove . . . the corner slowly while I went. . . the shop. 4. We'll leave . . . Bra ov tomorrow. 5. They'lj stop ... Paris . . . their way.. . London. 6. They ran . . . school. . . the busstop. 7. He went. . . Oradea ... a business trip last week. 8. Peter isn't home. He must be . . . school. 9. They arrived . . . the cinema early. 10. My uncie drove . . . me .-.. his car, but he didn't see me. 11. The coins fell his pocket. 12. She carried the box . . . the stairs . . . her room. 13. Let's sit . . . the sun. 14. He leant. . . the wall. 15. Don't go . . . the street on a red light. II. Completai spaiile libere cu prepoziii de timp sau de durat: 1. I'll be in the country . . . July . . . Septenlber. 2. They travelled . . . the day and slept. . . night, 3. Eminescu was born . . . January 15, 1850. 4. He came ... 10 o'clock, . . . the same time with his friend. 5. It is very ho here ... summer. 6. I phoned all my friends . . . New Year's Day. 7. We go to school . . . t h e morning. 8. I hope I'll have finished my homework . . . 9 o'clock. 9. We stayed at home . . . the weekends. 10. I've been living in Bucharest... ten yers. 11. They'll be here . . . ten minutes. 12. The manager won't be back. . . later this afternoon. 13. School begins . . . September and ends.. July. 14. I didn't understand him . . . first. ' HI. Traducei in limba englez: 1. La ce te uii? 2. El se uit pe fereastr. 3. Pe cine atepi? 4. Ct e ora dup ceasul tu? 5. Hai s mergem la plimbare. 6. E n spital de dou spia mni. 7. De ce i-e team? El e ntotdeauna amabil cu pacienii. 8. li sln recunosctor pentru serviciul pe 'care mi 1-a fcut. 9. L-am felicitat p en succesul su. 10. Tremura de frig. 11. Nu m mini! 12. Dimineaa s-au phm ba; prin ora, dup amiaza au stat acas. 13. Cursul a durat o lun ntreag 14. Au pornit-D spre ru. 15. edina a nceput la ora 11 dimineaa i a ^ u .^ pn la ora 2 dup amiaz. 16. A fost plecat n timpul vacanei. 17. Au cala o ^ ca de obicei. 18. ine o conferin despre arta contemporan. 19. TaD a fost pictat n ulei, nu n acuarel. 20. E un program bun la televi disear. 164

rim raporturi de coordonare sau de subordonare intre dou propoziii, a) t, or uri de coordonare ntre dou pri de propoziie sau intre o parte de propoziie i o propoziie; este neflexibil din punct de vedere morfologic; u ndeplinete nici o funcie .sintactic n propoziie dar marcheaz raporturile de coordonare si subordonare n cadrul propoziiei i al frazei.

Conjunciile coordonatoare leag pri de propoziie cu aceeai funcie sintactic sau propoziii de acelai fel: I visited the V Mage Miiseum and the Ari Galleries yesterday* It started to rain but the game continued. 9,'; ', ''jsiK ?? Dup relaiile pe care le stabilesc, conjunciile coordona toare pot fi: 350) copulati ve: and i; as well as precu m i; both .. . and att. . cit i, not only ... but also nu numai... dar i; 351) d i s j u n c t i v e : orsau; ori; either ... or sau ... sau; neiher ...nor nici... nici; 352) adversative: but dar, ci; , 9.2.2,. ntrebuinarea conjunciilor coordonatoare. (Vezi i 24.1 24.7) Either... or indic' dou alternative din care numai una este posibil, n propoziii pozitive sau interogative: We can either have a snack now, or we can have lunch at noon. Can you drink either milk or tea? Pentru a exprima o negaie se folosete either ... or + verb negativ sau neiher... nor + verb pozitiv: / can t tracei either by air or by ea. l can travel neither by air nor by ea. ' -&.&, >.-y^i\i. Conjunciile coordonatoare se aaz ntre unitile sintaclce Pe care le unesc: He opened the door AS WELL AS the window. i n - funciile coordonatoare nu pot fi aezate la nceputul frazei: Dan ieit i hu'homework and went out for a walk. Dan i-a terminat leciile i a *11 'a plimbare.

""- Conjunciile subordonatoare (SubordmatingCorijunctioag)

Con' eiitel iC^e Sukord0uatoare leag propoziiile secundare din fraz de ard s. M , regente :7 went to the post office, WHEEE / bought a dozen post- "i dus la pot, unde am cumprat dousprezece vederi.
lern

165 '

akfi Dup felul propoziiilor pe care le introduc, conju nct-, subordonatoare pot fi: 1) universale: that c; if, whether dac; care pot introduce mai m tipuri de propoziii subordonate: WHETHER he will be punctual remain be seen. (propoziie subiectiv). The best way is IF you go there your s il (propoziie predicativ) Remember THAT we must get there in'time, (complet' '
j i v\ " l VA

directa). 2) specializate: 353) d e l o c : where unde; wherever oriunde;. 354) de timp: when cnd; since de cnd; tilljuntil pn cnd; n timp ce; before nainte ca; after dup ce; 355) d e mod: (exactly) as; (just) as (aa) cum; (exact) cum; 356) d e cauz: as, since, because deoarece, fiindc; 357) d e s c o p : so that, in order thatlso (that) (mai formal) (pentru) ca cii scopul ca. Scopul negativ este exprimat de: for fear (that) de team s; in caselest (formal) ca s nu; 358) c o n d i i o n a l e : if ~ dac; provided (that) Ion condition (that) as long asjso long as cu condiia; unless afar dac, numai dac nu359) c o n s e c u t i v e : so that nct; so (familiar) nct; sofsuch ... (that) aa/astfel... nct; h) c o n c e s i v e : though, although (mai formal), while, whereas (formal), even ifthough dei, cu toate c, chiar dac; i) c o m p a r a t i v e: as ... as mai (mult) ... dect; as ifjas though ca i cum, de parc. . j When, as (temporale) ltho<When indic: simultaneitatea a dou aciuni: When / am tired go for a walk. Cnd sn't obosit fac o plimbare, (accentul este pe momentul a c i uni i ) s a u s u c c e s i u ne a l o r i m e di a t n t i m p : W he n s he r an g the beli, he came io the door. Cnd ea a sunat la sonerie, el a venit la u. As este folosit pentru aciuni paralele: She wept as she spoke. Plngea n timp ce vorbea, (accentul este pe aciunea nsi); sau ca sinonim al lui while: As / was crossing the street, I heard somebody caii my name. n timp ce / Pe cnd traversam strada, am auzit pe cineva strigndu-nu numele. . As, since, because (cauzale) As exprim cauza, motivul pentru aciunea din propoziia regen ^ As she liked the dress, she bought ii. Fiindc i-a plcut rochia, a cumpra ^ Since presupune un argument admis de interlocutor: Since you this book, Pil get U for you. Deoarece ai nevoie de carte, am s i-o iau. H not, unless (condiionale) /flf. l f not este opusul lui if (dac nu): I you get sick, yovCll need d It you don't get sick, you won't need a doctor. . ca), Unless este opusul lui provided / providing that (doar dac, cu condi 1 8 iar cnd este folosit unless verbul din propoziia condiional este la 9 pozitiv: You may see the doctor provided you have an appointment. " 166

tri la doctor cu condiia s fii programat. You can't see the doctor unless you jf ve an appointment. Nu poi s intri la doctor dect dac eti programat. Unless nu este folosit pentru a introduce propoziii condiionale ireale: ir couldn't have seen the doctor if he hadn't hd an appointment. N-ar fi putut s tre la doctor dac n-ar fi fost programat. Conjunciile subordonatoare se aaz la nceputul' propozi* secundare, care poate precede sau urma propoziia regent: AS the weather as bad, we stayed hotne all day. ALTHOUGH she spoke very slowly, I couldn't ^nderstand her. I can't help you with your homework BECAUSE Fm busy right tt lydialiked the book SO much THAT she read it three times. Spre deosebire de conjunciile coordonatoare, conjunciile subordonatoare pot fi precedate de alte conjuncii: He left early because he wasn't feeling very #ell AND because the party was boring. A plecat devreme pentru c nu se simea foarte bine i pentru, c petrecerea era plicticoas.

Exerciii
I. Formai fraze din propoziiile urmtoare cu ajutorul conjunciilor din paran teze.' ' . . . 1. Alice hd too much to eat. Cathy didn't. (but) 2. I haven't finished the book. I can't return it to the library yet. (so) 3. I shall buy that watch. It is not expensive. (if) 4. You won't understand. You listen carefully. (unless) 5. Mary bought a new dress. She didn't really need one. (although) 6. Peter" got good marks in his term papers. He worked very hard. (because) 7. Father has bought a violin. Alan can''learn how to play. (so that) 8. You must do. You are told. (exactly as). 9. I'm studying. I like to listen to radio, (while) 10. Bob is having an exam tomorrow. He can't come to rtur party. (since) II. He hd studied English for seven years. He couldn't speak it fluently. (even though) 12. Paul is keen on tennis. He plays every day. (so ... that) 13. It was a very difficult eocercise. Mary couldn't do it. (such ... that). Completai spaiile libere cu conjunciile potrivite ca sens din paranteze. A- Paul was not. . . bright. . . his brothers were. (although, as ... as, , that) 2. But he hd always worked harder . . . they ever hd. (than, e as, before) 3. He would get a scholarship . . . he passed the exam today. ahin'PrOPUk^' unttt) * *n a wav he did not really care . . . he won the scholar-pje or flot- (whether, if, unless) '5. But he wanted to do his best. . . it would feelin e tls niother. (only, that, since) 6. He came to the exam . . . he wasn't fullv g v^ry we ll. (in case, lest, though) 7. He listened to the invigilator carele might fail to catch all the instructions. (supposing, for fear, - The invigilator pronounced all the names slowly . . . each of them *ar his name clearly. (sothat, such... that, provided that). 167

III. Traducei n limba englez: Au ajuns sar la hanul lui domnu Vasiliu. Vitoria tia c acolo ar e gseasc ceva. ntr-adevr, a gsit. In sat la Suna, se strmse oarecare zvon ^ Spuneau unii i alii c ar f i nevoie s vie vreun judector de la trg, s cercet &' cum a fost cu vnzarea oilor. S vad dac se afl hrtia lor de cumprtu^ de la Dorna, i dac gospodarii din Suha au chitan de paralele pe care'ledat lui Lipan. Nu spune nimene c asemenea gospodari cu vaz ar fi l n ftu a svri o fapt rea dar e.bine s-i arate ndreptrile. Afar de asta spus nu tiu cine c numai dect cinstiii gospodari trebuie s arate mar ori martorii care s-au gsit fa la vnzare sau la numrtoarea banilor. nelegerea oriicui c numai asemenea strin sau strini, care s-au aflat H* fa, au putut s urmreasc pe Lipan, i s-i rpeasc banii oilor. S-ar putea ca aceti martori s fie cu totul necunoscui. Nici Galistrat, nici m e Gutui nu i-au vzut pn atunci, nici d6-atunci. Chiar dac ar fi aa, s arate ce nfiare aveau, ce cai i ce straie. Din puin, se pot afla multe i fptaii ies la iveal.
(Mihail Sadoveanu B a l t a g u l )

10. INTERJECIA (The ' Interjection).

linlfie
360)

'

Prin interjecie se exteriorizeaz senzaii, sentimente, manifestri de voin sau se reproduc sunete i zgomote din natur; 361) interjecia este o parte de vorbire neflexibil, nefiind marcat de categorii gramaticale; 362) interjecia poate constitui fie un element de ntrire pe lng o propoziie, fie o propoziie independent sau o parte de propoziie.

Cu ajutorul interjeciilor se exteriorizeaz: 1)

363)

364) urpriz: Oh l Wow! (a, ah, oh!). Oh,, what a nice dress I 365) mirare: Oh, dear! Dear me l Indeed l (vai drag, vai de mine, ntr366) *' 367)

senzaii i sentimente: bucurie: Ah l Ooh ! Jippee! Hurray ! (a, ah, ura!). Ah, thafs the book I wanted. Ooh, what a delicious cake I

s .

adeva , Oh, dear, I carii findmy purse. Dear me! What are you doing ocer f '

admiraie:- Whewl (ah, doamne): Whew, how beautiful she

nelegeare: Aha! (a, aha!): Aha, these gloves are exactly what l w looking for. . m HBOC 368) dispre: Fie l Pshaw ! What a shame l (Ptiu, pah, ce ruine 1): Fie "V youj You ought io be ashamed at what you have done. 369) dezgust: Ugh! (hl): Ugh, how dirty your hands are! h) aprobare: Well done! Congratulationsl (Foarte bine! Well done, P eter! You'ce passed all your exams brilliantly.

168

w
, e z a p r o b a r e : Nonsensel What a nuisance I (Prostii l Ce pacostei): 0 rjjat a nuisance! Now Pil have to do it all over again l e g re t: Ah! Oh I What a pity l (a!'oh! ce pcat!): What a pity you 1 coaldn't come l It was a good play.

durere: Ouch l Owl (vai, ah; aoleu!): Ouch, it hurts!

K/

Silence! (Sst, linite!): Hush! The baby's sleeping! M n c u r a j a r e : Cheer up ! Come on ! (Curaj! Haide!): Come on, don11 be afraid! You'II manage. ) o a v e r t i z a r e : Look O ut! Fire ! (Atenie! Foc!): Fire! The house is on fire l 3) se reproduc sunete i zgomote din mediul nconjurtor: Bow wow! iaow! Baa! Buzz! (Ham ham! Miau! Beh! Bzz!): Bang! Click! Crash!

2) manifestri de voin:' \ 0 rugminte, un ndemn: Oh! Help l (oh! Ajutor!); Ss h I Hu.sk l

10J fntrebufBf&rea inte

Una i aceeai interjecie poate avea semnificaii diferite, n funcie de context: Ah, here you are at last! (bucurie), dar i: Ah, if s painful! (durere). Unele interjecii snt folosite cu precdere de b r b a i : No fear! Good lord I Jolly good ! pe cnd altele snt specifice limbajului feminin: Wow ! Oh, dear l Oh, my ! Dear me l My goodness !

Exercises ' ? .

I- Traducei urmtoarele propoziii in limba romn:

1. Ouch, my leg! 2. Ooh, this icecream's delicious! 3. Jippee, we've won the match! 4. Wow, isn't she clever? 5. Well done, Peter. 6. Sshl Grandma is sleepmg. 7. My goodness l What dreadful weather! 8. Grr! Isn't it cold! 9. Look out! A car is coming. 10. Mm! This cream cake's very good. 11. Well, I must fie gomg". Oh, I see". 12 Well, good, luck!" Oh, thank you". 13. Ah, there you are!" 14. Dear me! You do look illl 15. What a pity we didn't go on a 1 011 ]?yesterday. Now it's raining. 16. Tut, tut! You are a naughty boy! *' Welcome home, my dear!
Completai spaiile libere cu interjecii potrivite ca sens:

' ' We're having a holiday tomorrow! We're going on a trip! 2. 3'' ^ Was a wonderful show! I hadn't thought I would enjoy it so much! e j a ' ' * ve s Pilt my tea! 4. . . . What a mess! 5. . . . it's painful! 6. . .'. that's .. . y what I needed. 7. . . . how wonderfully she sings! 8. . . . Father is 9 - - There's a bus coming l 10. . . . you do look pale! 11. . . . if Y e as r ^ oken that window again! 12 ..... l You can come with us even u aretired. You'll have a good rest there. 169

Partea a Il-a (The Simple Sentence)

Ii.0L Definiie
Propoziia este unitatea de baz a .sintaxei. Ea reprezint cea mai unitate a sintaxei care poate aprea de sine, stttoare .i care comunic o judecat, logic sau o idee cu caracter afectiv sau voliional.*

il.0.2. Clasif?
1) Din punct de vedere al scopului comunicrii, propoziiile se mpart In: 370) propoziii enuniative, care transmit o informaie: Columtus discovered America in 1492. Columb a descoperit America in 1492. He didn't notice her. Nu a observat-o. 371) p r o p o z i i i interogative, prin care se solicit o informaie: Would you like to come to our party? Vrei s vii la petrecerea noastr? 372) p r o p o z i i i imperative, care exprim o porunc, rugminte, ndemn, etc.: Open the bookl Deschide cartea. Switch on the radio, please. Deschide radioul, te rog. 373) p r o p o z i i i exclama tiv e, care exprim o stare afectiv (sur prinderea, nemulumirea, satisfacia, etc,): Oh, How attractive she ist Oh, ce frumoas este l 2) Din punct de vedere al structurii, propoziiile se mpart n: 374) p r o p o z i i i s i m p l e (Unextended Simple Sentences), alctui numai din subiect i predicat: The children are sleeping. Copiii dormDogs bar k. Ginii latr. 375) p r o p o z i i i d e z v o l t a t e (Extended Simple .Sentences), care c prind, pe lng subiect i predicat, i alte pri de propoziie: Yester ne went to school by bicycle. Ieri s-a dus la coal cu bicicleta. { c) p r o p o z i i i e l i p t i c e (Elliptical Simple Scntences), din care np ^ anumite pri de propoziie, ele puind fi completate u uurina- ( never heard about him. "Who is missing?" "John" (is missing).
* Acad. R.S.R. Gramatica limbii romane, voi. II, Ed. Acad. 1966. p. 7.

170

J .., Tipuri de propo; ;

Structura propoziiilor simple i dezvoltate poate fi detaliat In funcie & tile de propoziie care urmeaz n mod obligatoriu anumite verbe. de Pubele se mpart n trei clase mari: copulative, intranzitive, i tranzitiva, ct de vedere al complinirii verbale, al" prilor de propoziie care pot fi Site dup ele. V rbol copulativ prin excelen este verbul be. Acesta nu poate fi urmat dect a) J un nu me predicativ sau de un complement circumstan ial de loc: ,-\ f workers. . They are j ^ {he factory / y e r bele intranzitive nu pot fi urmate de complemente directe. Verbele tranzitive snt verbele urmate de complemente directe. Lund n considerare posibilitile de complinire verbal, se obin urmtoarele .-->^ " ] ;><-". ' . p r o p o z i i a s i . m pl: ) subiect -j-verb intranzitiv: He swims. El noat. b) subiect + verb copulativ -f-nume predicativ: He is / a t ea c h e r - El este / Profesor. ( competent. \ competent. P r o p o z i i a dezvoltat: 376) subiect + verb intranzitiv -f-complement circumstan ial: He swims in the ea. El noat n mare. 377) subiect -f- verb copulativ -f complement circumstan ial de loc: The teacher is herej in the classroom. Profesorul este aici/n clas. 378) subiect + verb tranzitiv -f- complement direct: She has found the book(Ea) a gsit cartea. 379) subiect + verb tranzitiv -j- complement direct -f- complement direct: The mn asked the boy several questions. Omul i-a pus biatului mai multe ntrebri. 380) subiect+verb tranzitiv -f-complement direct -f-complement indirect: Father gave the toy to the little boy. Tatl i-a dat jucria biatului. ) subiect -f- verb tranzitiv + complement direct + element predicativ suplimentar: They appointed him chairman. L-au numit preedinte. ?) subiect -f verb tranzitiv -f complement direct -f complement prepozit'onal: / helped him with his homework. L-am ajutat s-i fac temele.
E

''&-.;, Farfile de propoziie (The Parts of the &Y.r-,ence)

Prile de propoziie se clasific n: | Pri principale de propoziie: subiectul i predicatul; P Pe . Pozi Sr,^ secundare de propoziie: complementul direct, indirect, liale /J 0 a " ^ elementul predicativ suplimentar, complementele circumstanUrit 9)

>fitn

cauz etc i atributu Inr K P ' locen ' mod) ^ jez

r

ce

g , aceste pri de propoziie pot fi identificate cu ajutorul acteristici: pri de vorbire snt exprimate;
c a r

171

381) 382)

locul pe care-1 ocup n propoziie; trsturi specifice: acord, trecerea la diateza pasiv, etc. Subiectul (The S abject): a) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal (printr-un substantiv sau substit al acestuia, nsoit sau nu de determinani) sau printr-o propoziie g u]j donat cu funcie de subiect;
r

"

se aaz naintea predicatului n propoziiile enuniative i dup verb auxiliar / modal n propoziiile interogative; 384) se acord n numr i persoan cu predicatul. Predicatul (The Predicate): 385) este exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv sau intranzitiv la un mod personal sau printr-un veab copulativ cu o complinire nominal ; 386) se aaz de regul dup subiect; 387) are acord determinat de subiect. Complementuldirect (The Direct Object): 388) este exprimat, ca i subiectul, printr-un grup nominal sau printr-o propo ziie subordonat cu funcie nominal; 389) urmeaz de regul grupul subiect predicat; 390) devine subiectul propoziiei n transformarea pasiv. Complementul indirect (The Indirect Object): 391) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal; 392) urmeaz complementul direct, i are prepoziia exprimat (to sau for); I gave the book to Mary. 393) nu poate fi folosit fr un complement direct. Numele predicativ (The Predicative Part of a Nominal Predicate. 394) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal, un adjectiv sau printr-o propoziie subordonat cu funcie nominal; 395) urmeaz verbul copulativ be sau alte copulative: become, turn, etc.; 396) nu devine subiect al propoziiei n transformarea pasiv. Elementul predicativ suplimentar (The Predicative Adjunct): 397) este exprimat printr-un grup nominal, un adjectiv sau printr-o propoziie subordonat cu funcie nominal; 398) ur meaz grupul subiect predicat: The boat swept close They appointe him chairman. / left the meeting a Utile perturbed. . , (f) nu devine subiect al propoziiei n transformarea pasiv: He was appoW chairman. Complementul circumstanial (The Adverbial): 399) es te exprimat printr-un adverb, construcie adverbial sau prop subordonat circumstanial, printr-un grup nominal sau o cons r prepoziional; .. 400) este de obicei mobil, adic poate ocupa mai multe locuri n prop 401) este de obicei o p i o n a l , adic poate fi adugat sau eliminat propoziie fr ca ea s devin negramatical.

383)

172

1 , SUBIECTUL (The Subject)

( u

Subiectul es te pa rtea principal de propoziie despre care se s pune ce va ajutorul predicatului. ~\

; l 11.2. Exprimarea
n limba englez, subiectul este de obicei exprimat, chiar atunci cnd este m personal sau generic, verbul englez avnd puine desinene care s marcheze formal persoana i numrul (spre deosebire de limba romn): I read the paper every mor ning. Citesc ziarul n fiecare diminea. It's raining. Plou. You must do your duty. Trebuie s-i faci datoria. Subiectul poate fi exprimat: 402) printr-un grup nominal coninnd un substantiv, cu sau fr deter minant, sau un substitut al acestuia: Students work hard to pass their exams. Studenii se pregtesc serios ca s promoveze 'examenele. Everybody was present. Toii erau prezeni Three, are missing. Trei lipsesc. The wounded were taken to hospital. Rniii au fost dui la spital. 403) printr-o construcie cu infinitivul, participiul (prezent sau trecut) sau forma Gerund, construcie folosit de obicei pentru reducerea unei propoziii subordonate subiective i numit s u b i e - c t c o m p l e x :

She is said to be a good doctor. Se spune c ea este o. doctori bun. i n f i n i t i v u l cu f or -io.: 1 1 is unusual for her to be so quiet. Este n e o bi n u it c a e a s f ie a t t d e t c u t . o c o n s t r u c i e g e r u n d i a l : John's/His coming late worricd us. In t r z i er e a lu i J o h n n e - a n gr i j or a t. c ) pr intr-o pr op ozi ie su bor do nat subi ec ti v: Tha t no thin g cam e out o f it ir ritated him. Faptul c nu a ie it nimic din as ta l enerva . (l ) printr-un element care nu are sens de sine st ttor aa numitul subiect introductiv it sau there care anticipeaz subiectul, real, logic al propo ziiei: It is easy to do this exe.fcise. Acest exerciiu este uor de fcut. There are three pupils in the classroom. Snt trei elevi' in clas.'

n o m i n a t i v u l cu i n f i n i t i v :

De exemplu.:

'Jrm h '3~'' ? U b ' e f U ' ? e n e r ' c poate" fi exprimat prin pronumele one, p ' tney-. sau prin substantivul- people. P?ntr rnumele one- yu> ne' they i substantivul people se folosesc ca subiecte u a desemna o persoan n general sau un grup nedefinit de persoane: '' do.Jwo dlfferent things at atimc. Nu se pot face dou lucruri diferite timp. One can find this phone numbcr in the te/ephone diectory. 173

Acest numr de telefon se poate gsi tn cartea de telefon. People drink a. i of coffee in this country. n ara noastr se bea mult cafea. Pronumele ii este 404) al verbelor impersonale: It oflen rains in autumn. Deseori plou toarnn It snows a lot in the mountains. Ninge mult la munte. 405) al propoziiilor prin care se exprim timpul, vremea, distana: It's ncar , six o'clock. Este aproape ora ase. It's cola. Este frig. It's guie far from hc '! Este destul do departe de aici. Unele propoziii conin un subiect gramatical (formal) i unul I 0 m r (real), adevratul subiect al propoziiei. De obicei, subiectul real este anticipat prin pronumele it sau elementul there (care nu este identic cu adverbul there). 1) It introductiv este folosit cnd subiectul propoziiei este: 406) un infinitiv: It is necessary to start at onco. Esle necesar s porneti imediat It takes me half an hour to get to m y ofico. mi trebuie 'o jumtate de or s ajung la serviciu. 407) un gerund: It was no usc your crying. Ai plns degeaba. 408) 6 propoziie subiectiv: It is strnge that sho hasn't acceptod our invitation. Este ciudat c ea nu a acceptat invitaia noastr. It seems h.e is right. Se pare c are dreptate. 2) Subiectul introductiv there este folosit n propoziiile n care subiectul real nu este definit: There are somo books on thc table. Snt cteva cri pe mas. In stilul literar, there este urmat i de alte verbe, mai ales happen i ocmr: There happened that an old mn remembored somothing ahout hcr. S-a Sntmplat ca un btrin s-i aminteasc ceva despre ea. O propoziie introdus prin there este urmat de obicei de alta prin care se fac precizri: There is a mn at the door. He wanls to speak to you. Este un om la u. Vrea s vorbeasc cu tine.
Subiectul formal nu coincide cu cel logic nici la diateza pasiv: The story was told by an old mn. The story este subiectul gramatical, iar complementul de agent an old mn este subiectul logic al propoziiei. Acest lucru este evident transformnd propoziia Ia diateza activ: An old mn told the story.

11.4.'Locul gttMectuiui

Subiectul este aezat: a) naintea verbului, n propoziiile enuniative (afirmative i negative)Mary is a good swimmer. She doesn't swim every day. 409) dup verbul auxiliar sau modal, In propoziiile interogative: CanyW Does she want to read this book? 410) dup verb, cnd el este anticipat de un it sau there introductiv: There teacher m the room. It seems she has left. 174

r;-e
Predicatul este partea principal de propoziie care atribuie subiectului aciune, o stare sau o nsuire.^

Funcia de predicat poate fi ndeplinit de verbe tranzitive i intranzitive un mod personal, precum i de verbe copulative, atunci cnd au compliniri nominale. Verbele tranzitive i cele intranzitive formeaz predicatul verbal clasic: Birds fly. Psrile zboar. He wrote an interesting essay. A scris o compoziie interesant. - ? ;.. -u1 -, i' ; Nominal l'?'&?:i;\y ;;; esto alctuit din: 411) u n v e r b c o p u l a t i v + 412) un nume predicativ. A ) Ve r b e l e ' c o p u l a t i v e ( L i n k Ve r b s ) s n t v e r b e c a re i - a u pierdut total sau parial sensul lexical i ndeplinesc funcia gramatical de marc a raportului predicativ dintre dou nume" (subiectul i numele predi cativ), In cadrul predicatului nominal. Gramatica tradiional distinge mai multe clase de verbe copulative: 1) verbul be (Verb of Being), total golit de sens lexical: He is clever. El este detept.
ote; Cnd verbul be este folosit cu sensul de a exista, a se afla, a se gsi, a avea loc", etc. el formeaz singur predicatul propoziiei: Where s my pen? The school festival Is on Sunday.

2) Verbe parial golite de sens lexical: a) verbe a l e d e v e n i r i i (Verbs of Becoming): become, get, grotv, turn: Her hair has turned grey. A ncrunit. She is getting old. mbtrnete. ) Verb e ale continurii n a c e e a i s t a r e (Verbs of Lontinuingj: continue, keep, remain, hold, stay. He kept silent. Tcea. ^erbe a l e aparenei (Verbs of Seeming): appear, look, seem: seemed iU. Prea bolnav, He looks pale. Este palid -^ erbele c P ulative ' verbul be prezint cele mai multe posibiliti 1 (.cu or'ce parte de vorbire care poate ndeplini o funcie nominal), gohni sale totale de sens lexical: f a teacher. is l cer y competent. ( admired by his friends. 175

Celelalte verbe copulative se mbin doar cu cteva pri de \ ( . L . lfe toate cu adjective: ' The child fell felt got looked
M.

unele i cu participii trecute:

f seemed

He l appeared l impressed. | looked j

iar altele i cu substantive: She may J Jurn l an excellent teacher. y \ beeome J B) Nu me le p r e d i c a t i v (The Predicative) formeaz mpreun cu verbul cppulativ predicatul propoziiei. Numele predicativ este exprimat: a) printr-un substantiv sau echivalent al acestuia: My nephew has beeome a doctor. ^b) printr-un adjectiv, singur sau cu o complinire: She was happy. She was eager to come. c) printr-un participiu trecut: The village seemed deserted, Locul numelui predicativ n propoziie este dup verbul copulativ: Those boys are students.

De obicei, predicatul este aezat dup subiect i naintea complementului: T.he sun was shining brightly. Soarele strlucea puternic. In unele .cazuri, aceast ordine este inversat: 413) n propoziiile interogative: s Mary in the library ? 414) n propoziiile condiionale n care conjuncia if este omis, iar predicatu conine un verb auxiliar sau modal: Hd / time, I should take a walk. Da a avea timp, m-a plimba. 415) pentru a accentua o anumit parte din propoziie: NEVER shall l 1' what he did for me. N-am s uit niciodat ce a fcut pentru mine.

3. OOKIWI -i "^ r " FI'J. CU PREDICATUL (Subject - V< ( oncord) n limba englez, ca i n limba romn, verbul predicat se acoi subiectul n persoan i numr. .176

rtnd subiectul propoziiei este un pronume personal, verbul predicat sau a^ orbul auxiliar se acord cu pronumele personal la persoana respectiv: I AM Romanian. She S my best friend. He DOESN'T remetober a voord. t propoziiile relative, verbul se acord In persoan cu substantivul sau b) ^j^nele personal la care se face referirea: It is he who DESERVES all ke praise. I say it, who AM his sister. Dac Ins subiectul este exprimat prjntr-un alt pronume sau printr-unx substantiv, verbul predicativ este la persoana a IH-a singular sau plirfal:^ IS that mn? These lessons ARE difficult. . Qm( subiectul propoziiei este exprimat printr-un substantiv sau pronume nersonal, coordonat cu un alt pronume personal prin intermediul conjunciei and verbul se pune la persoana a III-a plural chiar dac ultimul pronume, conform regulilor de politee, este /: You and I | He and I J ARE going to the theatre tonight. You, Peter and I j e) Clnd subiectul coordonat prin either or reprezint persoane diferite, verbul se acord cu pronumele personal cel mai apropiat: Either my mother or I AM at home in the evening.
-U'j; n vorbirea curent, construciile ca cea de sus snt evitate, prin folosirea unui verb auxiliar sau modal care este invariabil .pentru persoan : Elther my mother or I WILL be at home in the evening. sau prin folosirea a dou propoziii coordonate : My mother IS at home in the evening and so am /.

m ausp
Acordul n numr se face: 416) dup form (acordul gramatical); 417) dup neles; j^3) prin atracie. ^3-1. Acordul gramatical (Gramatical Concord) ^^. Acord; substantivelor variabile en l gu^ a general a acordului n numr ntre subiect i predicat n limba

8 ez e8te urmtoarea: un subiect la numrul singular se acord cu un verb n^j^*1 singular, iar un subiect la numrul plural se acord cu un verb la

plura1 sau ' Acesta este numit n gramatic acordul dup form r d u l din limh gramatical i se aplic la substantivele numrabile dt i T en8lez' a re snt variabile ca form, avnd att numrul singular ^manUijQrUl Plural (ve" 2.3.1.): The -novei Pnireading S very interesting. nsefm A Pe car f "^ citesc este foarte interesant. These dictionaries AEE very Aceste dicionare snt foarte folositoare.

"" Ormtlca Umbli engleze

-. Ai:> . . . . . . . le la .i In cazul substantivelor invariabile, .predicatul este fie numai Ia si dup substantive invariabile la singular, fie numai la plural, dup substantiv c invariabile la plural, cu cteva situaii speciale n ambele cazuri. Substantivele invariabile la singular se acord cu verbul predicat la Si gular. Din aceast clas de substantive fac parte (vzi i 2.3.8, pct. A ? 418) substa ntive nenumrabile concrete: Buttor C01VTAINS animal f t Untul conine grsime animal. ' 419) substantive nenumrabile abstracte: His knowledge of Englisk IQ good. Cunotinele lui de englez snt bune. My homework for today S diffic.ui, Temele pentru azi snt grele. 420) substantivul news: The news S good. Vetile snt bune. 421) numele de boli: Mumps S infcctious. Creionul este o boal infecioas 422) nume de tiine i obiecte de studiu: Mathematics S more difficuit than Geography. Matematica este mai grea dect geografia. 423) nume de jocuri: Billiards S a game for adults. Biliardul este un joc pentru -aduli. . 424) unele substantive proprii: Athens is the capital of Greece. Atena esto capitala Greciei.
, ,:<. .1. Printre substantivele proprii care se acord cu verbul la singular, se numra i titlurile de cri, numele de ziare sau reviste: "Hari Times' 18 a novei by Dickens. The Times IS read by millions of English people. 2. Numele de cri cuprinznd cuvinte ca: Tales, Stories, Sketches, Notes, se pot construi ns i cu verbul la plural: Chauccr's 'Canterbury Tales' HAVE been translated inlo Romanian.

8) adjective i participii abstracte substantivizate: In most fairy-stories the good FIGHTS against the evil. n majoritatea basmelor, binele lupt mpo triva rului. Excepii. Unele dintre substantivele invariabile la singular se acord cu verbul la plural n anumite situaii: 425) substantivele numrabile concrete se acord cu verbul la plural cnd denumesc varieti: Romanian wines ARE famous. Vinurile romneti sint vestite. 426) Unele nume de boli ca mumps .se acord cu verbul la singular sau la plural, fr deosebire de sens: Mumps IS/ARE infectious. 427) Numele de tiine se acord cu verbul la plural cnd se refer la anu mite proprieti sau la o situaie anume: The aeoustics of the Pala.ce. Hali ARE very good. Calitatea acustic a / Acustica slii Palatului este foarte bun. ' . _Vordui ; Substantivele invariabile la plural se acord cu verbul predicat la plural. Din aceast clas de substantive fac parte (vezi i 2,3.8. pct. B.) : 428) substantive care denumesc obiecte formate din dou pri egale unelte sau articole de mbrcminte (summation plurals): Where ARE ^ glasses Unde-mi snt ochelarii? These tights ARE too long. Aceti ciorap" pantalon snt prea lungi. 429) alte substantive folosite numai la plural, terminate de regul *, n (pluralia tantum): AU the valuables HAVE been locked in the safe. obiectele de valoare au fost ncuiate n seif. 178

3) substantive nemarcate la plural: The cattle ARE grazing. Vitele pasc. nie walfc IW inis park on Sundays. Lumea se plimb n acest parc duminica. * 4V adjectivele sau participiile personale substantivizate : The handicapped TTEND special schools. Handicapaii frecventeaz coli speciale. 5) unele substantive proprii: The Alps ARE the highest mountains in / L Alpii snt.cci mai nali muni din Europa. "? Exc e Pt"' Substantivul propriu the United States se acord cu verbul la ^ ular cnd este privit ca o unitate : The United States lies in North American,
*; SlHjp .
f

/ .:<m> v*' > : ; ftctt ' " f ' Subiectul exprimat printr-un substantiv determinat de many a (construc-' f folosit n stilul literar) se acord cu verbul predicat la singular: Many a $. voung grl DREAMS io become a teacher. ~i> Subiectul exprimat prin substantiv determinat de a great (a good) deal, i e acord cu verbul la singular, deoarece nsoete un substantiv nenumrabil: ^ ^ great (a good) deal of the flour WAS of the best quality. A great (good) / fliany se refer la un substantiv numrabil la plural i se acord cu pluralul: 1 A great many of the students WERE present. Substantivele determinate de a lot, plenty se acord cu singularul cnd slnt urmate de substantive nenumrabile i cu pluralul cnd snt urmate de substantive numrabile : There 18 a lot of / plenty o bread on the table. Thcrc ARE a lot ol / plenty of children in the schoolyard.

AU determin acordul la singular cnd nsoete un substantiv nenumrabil: AII tb.e butter IBon the table, i acordul la plural cnd determin un substantiv numrabil : AII the pupils HAVE left. Acordul gramatical se face i cu pronumele personale i demonstrative: He S very good at maths. They ARE listening io the radio. These ARE his children. Cu pronumele nehotrit one, compuii lui every, some, any i no, each one, (n)either, much i Utile, acordul se face la singular: Somebody HAS toldme about his arrival. Little S known about Shakespeare's life. Every one HAS his hobby. One DOESN'T like-to have one's word doubted. Neither of them.IS nght. .
1. Pronumele none se poate acorda i cu un verb la plural n engleza contemporana cnd se refer Ia un substantiv cu sens de plural: None of the pupils HAVE done their homework for today. ^e' pronumele nehotrte coninnd body sau one snt urmate de verbe la singu-r, pronumele personale, reflexive sau posesive care se refer la ele snt adesea la numrul plural: Eyerybody tvas wriiing as fast as they could. No one hd failed in duty.

ide r^Ul dup n^eles este acordul ntre subiect i predicat n conformitate r m t t numr exprimat de subiect, care uneori este diferit de numrul Plur i t^ltivul famil y are form de singular n aceast propoziie, dar sens Ac rl * membrii familiei snt acas). ordul dup neles are loc la urmtoarele clase de substantive: npoSU stantivele numrabile care primesc desinena zero la plural: deer, 'ese w '* 179

(s kormal.: Att his family ARE at home-

 substantivele colective: audience, committee, crew, crowd, family

T

substantivele care exprim cantitatea sau felul: variety, kind; ' subiectele compuse; unele pronume. , . Acordul substantivelor numrrile e\i pluralul zero ' Unele gramatici consider c substantivele numrabile cu desinena la plural: sheep, Chinese, species r etc., se acord cu verbul predicat neles i nu dup form, deoarece nu pot fi identificate ca fiind la nu singular sau plural dect cu ajutorul contextului: This sheep is very old Q-aceasta e foarte btrn. These sheep give very good wool. Aceste oi dau ihu foarte bun. Nota; Alte gramatici menioneaz aceste substantive n cadrul acordului gramatical ele fiind urmate de verbe la singular sau plural la fel ca i celelalte substantive num rabile:
There S a { > in the manager'1 s office.

juri/, feam, etc.;

( German l
There ARE some { T _ _ f in the manager's office.

Japanese f Germans { Japanese

La substantivele numrabile care au forma de plural identic cu singularul (plural zero): sheep, Japanese, species, etc. numrul substantivului se recunoate dup forma verbului predicat. Acesta este la singular cnd substantivul este folosit cu sens de singular: There S a deer at the zoo. E un cerb la grdina zoologic, i la plural cnd Substantivul este folosit cu sens de plural: There ARE some deer at the zoo. Snt civa cerbi la grdina zoologic. (Pentru substantivele care fac parte din aceast clas, vezi: 2.3.2.) B. .Acordul substantivelor colective Substantivele colective cu form de singular se acord cu verbul la plural cnd referirea este la membrii colectivitii: AU the crew AEE on deck. Tot echipajul este / Toi membrii echipajului snt pe punte. The committee HAVE finally agreed on the agenda of the next meeting. Membrii comitetului au czut n sfrit de acord asupra ordinii de zi a urmtoarei edine. Substantivele colective iau ns form de singular sau de plural ' se acord cu verbul predicat la singular i la plural respectiv, cnd snt folosi e ca substantive numrabile, denumind colectivitatea ca un ntreg: The commi" tee IS made up of twenty people. Comitetul este format din douzeci de persoane "C. Acordul substantivelor exprinuB--:! cantitatea sau varietatea ^ Substantive ca: variety, number, kind, sort se acord cu verbul la sing sau la plural n funcie de sens: The number of foreign tourists visiting ^ onla^s -INCREASES every year. A great number of foreign tourists HAVE visitea\w country this year. The variety of goods on display at the National Extii S impressive. A great variety of goods AEE on sale at the Exhibition.
Not-, Substantivele kind i sort se acord cu verbul la plural n engleza fam1 These kind of tools ARE very useful.

180

c u biectele alctuite din dou sau mai multe elemente care formeaz o * e se numesc de obicei subiecte compuse si.se acord cu verbul ikabout his work. Poetul muzician a fost invitat s vorbeasc despre crea2) un substantiv precedat de dou adjective coordonate: A blue and . 'Cl0lh WAS for sale. Vindeau un material alb cu albastru. 3) -dou sau mai multe infinitive coordonate prin and: T o take care of the h'ldren, to do the shopping and cook the mealsIS very exhausting. S ai grij de nii s faci cumprturile i s gteti mncarea este foarte obositor. % C 4) expresii numerice : Three and three MAKES six. Two kilos ol apples S ;/ / need. Forty pupila MEANS a large class. Five kilometres S a short distance.
-.-$;?>: n unele calcule aritmetice se poate folosi i pluralul: S
unl
, fl Q

f MAKE

] t.

*r ca t la numrul singular. Ele pot fi exprimate prin: Pre \, (jgu substantive legate prin and: The poet and musician "WAS invited
Three and three -j ^ six. Four times live j MAKEg t. twenty.

5) propoziii subiective: That they are leaving so early ANNOYS me. ']. \cordwl prenumelor /interogative . Pronumele which i what snt urmate de verbul predicativ la singular sn plural n funcie de numrul substantivului pe care l nlocuiesc : What MA^CES him behave like that? Ce-1 face s se comporte astfel? Which ARE yours? Care snt ale tale? Pronumele interogativ who este construit de obicei cu singularul : Who S coming to dinner? Cine vine la cin? . . ., ' n limba vorbit, se intlnete uneori i un verb la plural dup who: Who ARE at the table? Cine este la mas? 3.2.S. Aeoprral prin atracie (Concord by Attrad.ion) Conform acordului prin atracie, verbul predicat se acord cu substantivul sau pronumele cel mai apropiat. In limba englez exist mai multe situaii de acord prin atracie: A, Acordul subiectelor coordonate Conform regulii de acord gramatical, dou sau mai multe subiecte n raport de coordonare (s u b i e c, t coordonat) se acord cu un verb predicat la plural : Father and Mother ARE going to the iheatre tonight. Roraanian and Czech beer ARE lighter than British beer. Reading and writing ARE taught ln ihe fast form. Both her kindness and her competence HAVE been appreciated. La subiectele coordonate prin either or, not only but also, acordul cu ^ e lc tu ^ ^ l se face ns prin atracie: Either your Iriends or your neighbour S Pa i Either your nei K g^our or your riends ARE at the door. Not only *m tmt also his parents ARE sending you their best regards. J-^fel se ntmpl i cu subiectele coordonate prin neither nor: . V de j ^ither he nor his sister HAS phoned. s imil n vorbu'ea curent exist tendina de acord cu verbul la plural, n mod _cu subiectele coordonate prin both and: Neither he nor his sister HAVE phoned.

'
1

r-, ' subiectele snt legate cu ajutorul unor cuvinte ca: gether with, as well as, no less than, like, but, except, acordul se face cu
181

primul element: My sister, as well as my brothers, HAS learned to drive vfriends, together with their teacher, ARE going fishing. '
fi., ^'.i'i ; j i/u ii f; i

Acordul ntre subiect i predicat se face prin atracie i In urnito' are cazuri: le 1) In propoziiile cu subiect introductiv there: THERE S a pen, a and some pencils in the pencil-case. '

2) n propozi ii int roduse de here: HER E ARE your books and b K ,;fi- Cnd substantivele din enumeraie formeaz tns un ansamblu, verbul de obicei la plural, chiar dac primul substantiv este la singular: Here ARE coat and gloves. There ARE a table, lour chalrs and a sofa in this room. "'

0 3) n propoziii interogative: Where 18 my coat and hat? 4) acordul prin atracie are loc i dup: more than one, one or two: More than one pupil HAS expressed his satisfaction with the new teacher One or two children ARE still playing, in the park. '

EXERCIII
cap. 1113 1. Gsii subiectele propoziiilor de mai jos i spunei prin ce sint exprimate: 1. She s^arted looking for her glasses. 2. Tom, Huck and Joe decided to run away at daybreak. 3. The beginning of the story is not interesting. 4. Everybody says he is innocent. 5. Who asked you that question? 6. To lose all your books looks like carelessness. 7. The fuure of Africa is in the hands of its own peoples. 8. There are no sandwiches left. 9. Whether she knew about it or not was what troubled him. 10. She is known to be a great opera singer. 11. It is essential for us to get better results in our work. II. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii. Remarcai modul de exprimare al subiectului impersonal sau generic: 1. Se spune c vom avea o toamn lung. 2. Trebuie s fii foarte atent cnd conduci pe o strad aa de aglomerat. 3. n aceast ar se bea multa bere. 4. Nu se tie niciodat. 6. Este mai uor s mergi cu bicicleta cnd vntul bate din spate. 6. Nu lua n seam ce zice lumea. 7. Se crede c recolta de anul acesta va fi foarte bun. in. Alegei forma corect a verbelor din parantez, intnd seama de acordul dintre subiect i predicat: 1. The local police (has/have) helped the firemen to put out the nr e 2. (Was/Were) the news good? 3. (s/Are) mathematics your favourite subjec 4. Fortunately all the crew (was/were) saved. 6. I want to know if *^ s(?Pecrai (has/have) survived. 6. The poultry (is/are) fed. three times a day. 7. Sev Chinese (have/has-) contributed new data to an important piece of T.es?& en. 8. The Romanian army (have/has) always fought for the country's indep > dence. 9. The money (is. are) on the table. 10. A great number of P U F (have/has) spent their holidays in camps. 11. The variety of on display (attract/attracts) the customers. 182

Traducei urmtoarele propoziii tn limba englez, fiind ateni la acordul biectelor exprimate prin substantive colective sau substantive invariabile $ la singular sau plural: . t Familia mea const din tata, mama, fratele meu i mine. 2. Elevii din 'u fost nedumerii'de ntrebrile profesorului. 3. Informaiile primite c'flS. 6 n vora bile. 4. Economiile ei au fost puse la banc. 5. Prul ei este de culoare ' - e 6. Statele Unite se nvecineaz cu Mexic i Canada. 7. Oamenii c a S . ^tdeauna curioi. 8. Se d de mncare la psri acum. 9. Snt multe 8ln Ti tinere n acest bloc. 10. S-au cheltuit o mulime de bani pentru utilarea tui laborator. 11. Gimnastica este ndrgit n Romnia. 12. Olanda se *fj5 In Europa de Vest. v Completai spaiile libere cu forma potrivit a verbului be: 1. Latin grammar . ... very difficult. 2. Shakespeare's plays . . ..performed girls? 4............everybody present? 5. a jl O ver the world. 3. Who . . . those Neither of them . . . eager to begin. 6. Either you or I . .'. wrong. 7. There . . . a lot of food still left. 8. There . . . a lot of people on the platform. VI. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii in limba englez, fiind ateni la acordul subiectelor exprimate prin pronume sau precedate de all cu verbul predicativ din propoziie: 1. Cineva mi-a luat umbrela din gre eal. 2. Toi elevii snt n clas. 3. Nici unul dintre cei doi nu mai este tnr. 4. Toat mncarea este n frigider. 5. Toat lumea a sosit i toat lumea se simte bine. 6. Sau ei sau el a fcut asta. 7. Nici unul din ei nu are dreptate. 8. Cine a fcut acest lucru? 9. Care cri snt ale tale? 10. El este de vin, nu ea. VII. Completai spaiile libere cu forma corect a verbelor din paranteze: 1. The cat, together with the kittens, (be) playing in the sun. 2. My father, as a well as my mother, (be) eager to know you. 3. John, along with his friends, never (miss) a basketball match 4. The principles on which he worked, as well as the way he acts, (be) appreciated by his fellow-students. 5. Either my parents ormy elder brother (accompany) my younger sister to school. 6.-Either Jane or her sisters (wash) the dishes after lunch. 7. Crime and Punishment (rankj araong the best novels of world literature. 8. To treat them this way (be) nfair. 9. Where (be) the scissors ? 10. These sort of mushrooms (be) not good to eat.
u

- Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba englez, fiind ateni la acordul dintre subiect i predicat:

j ' de minute e un timp scurt pentru o tez. 2. Majoritatea articolelor ^ de critic literar. 3. Numrul turitilor romni care i petrec con- 5. QJ crete n fiecare an. 4. De blndee i nelegere este nevoie acum. 7, jv . e fte? E tata i mama. 6. Poftim scrisoarea i ochelarii, bunicule, cu f am -! ^ 1Ca '.^ Brown i soia merg de obicei la ar. 8. Dl Brown, mpreun i p etf 'r 18 ' J i petrece vacana la mare. 9. In Subcarpai se afl crbune, fier 2. y: ' Ei snt cei care aranjeaz totul. 11. Patru ori zece fac patruzeci. nu l alb i cel rou din Romnia este vestit.
8a S Cedi a mare

183

primul element: My sister, as well as my brothers, HAS learned to drive firiends, together with their teacher, ARE going fishing. ' K Alte situai Acordul ntre subiect i predicat se face prin atracie i n urmtoar le l cazuri: 1) In propoziiile cu subiect introductiv Aere: THERE S a pen, a rubh r and some pencils in the pencil-case. 2) n propoziii introduse de here: HERE ARE your books and ba j >i Ctnd substantivele din enumeraie formeaz ns un ansamblu, verbul
de obicei la plural, chiar dac primul substantiv este la singular: Here ARE y coat and gloves. There ARE a table, tour chairs and a sofa in this room. *
6

- ' 3) n propoziii interogative: Where S my coat and hat? 4) acordul prin atracie are loc i dup: more than one, one or two: More than one pupil HAS expressed his satisfaction with the new teacker One or two children ARE still playing, in the park. - '

EXERCIII cap. 1113

1. Gsii subiectele propoziiilor de mai jos i spunei prin ce sint exprimate: 1. She sjarted looking for her glasses. 2. Tom, Huck and Joe decided to run away at daybreak. 3. The beginning of the story is not interesting. 4. Everybody says he is innocent. 5. Who asked you that question? 6. To lose all your books looks like carelessness. 7. The fuure of Africa is in the hands of its own peoples. 8. There are no sandwiches left. 9. W rhether she knew about it or not was what troubled him. 10. She is known to be a great opera singer. 11. It is essential for us to get better results in our work. II. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii. Remarcai modul de exprimare al subiectului impersonal sau generic: 1. Se spune c vom avea o toamn lung. 2. Trebuie s fii foarte atent cnd conduci pe o strad aa de aglomerat. 3. n aceast ar se bea multa bere. 4. Nu se tie niciodat. 5. Este mai uor s mergi cu bicicleta cnd vntul bate din spate. 6. Nu lua n seam ce zice lumea. 7. Se crede c recolta ae anul acesta va fi foarte bun. in. Alegei forma corect a verbelor din parantez, intnd seama de acordul dintre subiect i predicat: 1. The local police (has/have) helped the firemen to put out the ' 2. (Was/Were) the news good? 3. (s/Are) mathematics your favourite s" 4. Fortunately all the crew (was/were) saved. 6. I want to khow if this (has/have) survived. 6. The poultry (is/are) fed. three times a day. 7. Chinese (have/has) contributed new data to an important piece of re 8. The Romanian army (have/has) always fought for the country's " dence. 9. The money (is. are) on the table. 10. A great number ^ , -^ (have/has) spent their holidays in camps. 11. The variety of on display (attract/attracts) the customers.

182

r Traducei urmtoarele propoziii In limba englez, fiind ateni la acordul obiectelor exprimate prin substantive colective sau substantive invariabile la singular sau plural: 1 Familia mea const din tata, mama, fratele meu i mine. 2. Elevii din au fost nedumerii > de ntrebrile profesorului. 3. Informaiile primite t favorabile. 4. Economiile ei au fost puse la banc. 5. Prul ei este de culoare t nie. 6. Statele Unite se nvecineaz cu Mexic i Canada. 7. Oamenii T t ntotdeauna curioi. 8. Se d de mncare la psri acum. 9. Snt multe / ilii tinere n acest bloc. 10. S-au cheltuit o mulime de bani pentru utilarea stui laborator. 11. Gimnastica este ndrgit n Romnia. 12. Olanda se afl n Europa de Vest. V Completai spaiile libere cu forma potrivit a verbului be:

1. Latin grammar . ... very difficult. 2. Shakespeare's plays . . ..performed H over the world. 3. Who . . . those girls? 4. . . ..everybody present? 6. JVeither of them . . . eager to begin. 6. Either you or I. . '.wrong. 7. There . . . a lot of food still left. 8. There . . . a lot of people on the platform.
Vi. Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba englez, fiind ateni la acordul subiectelor exprimate prin pronume sau precedate de all cu verbul predicativ din propoziie:

1. Cineva mi-a luat umbrela din gre eal. 2. Toi elevii snt n clas. 3. Nici unul dintre cei doi nu mai este tnr. 4. Toat mncarea este n frigider. 5, Toat lumea a sosit i toat lumea se simte bine. 6. Sau ei sau el a fcut asta. 7. Nici unul din ei nu are dreptate. 8. Cine a fcut acest lucru ? 9. Care cri snt ale tale? 10. El este de vin, nu ea.
VII. Completai spaiile libere cu forma corect a verbelor din paranteze:

1. The cat, together with the kittens, (be) playing in the sun. 2. My father, as a well as my mother, (be) eager to know you. 3. John, along with his friends, never (miss) a basketball match 4. The principles on which he worked, as well as the way ne acts, (be) appreciated by his f ellow-students. 6. Either my parents or my elder brother (accompany) my younger sister to school. 6,-Either Jane or her sisters (wash) the dishes after lunch. 7. Crime and Punishment (rank) among the best novels of world literatura. 8. To treat them this way (be) J nfair. 9. Where (be) the scissors ? 10. These sort of mushrooms (be) not good to eat.
* Traducei urmtoarele propoziii n limba englez, fiind ateni la acordul dintre subiect i predicat:

1. 50 de minute e un timp scurt pentru o tez. 2. Majoritatea articolelor s nt de critic literar. 3. Numrul turitilor romni care i petrec conla mare crete n fiecare an. 4. De blndee i nelegere este nevoie acum. ^ ne este? E tata i mama. 6. Poftim scrisoarea i ochelarii, bunicule. fa mjPlca> Dl Brown i soia merg de obicei la ar. 8. Dl Brown, mpreun petri ?i Petrece vacf *nia Ja mare. 9. n Subcarpai se afl crbune, fier ; 2. y' Ei snt cei care aranjeaz totul. 11. Patru ori zece fac patruzeci, alb i cel rou din Romnia este vestit.
183

:.

C OM i. .i,K,i^M.,^j>'i li, jitii'* i'. -.J-k

(llH.:

JJl

14.1. Definiie
un Complementul direct este partea secundar de propoziie care deter verb tranzitiv cu funcia de predicat n propoziie, ' ^

"

14.2. .indicii foraisl a! complementului direct

Indicii formali ai complementului direct snt: 430) c a z u l a cu z a t i v cnd complementul direct este exprimat printr-n pronume personal (cu excepia lui it) sau prin pronumele interogativ" relativ who: I haven't seen him for a long time. Nu 1-am vzut de mult Teii me whom you met there. Spune-mi pe cine ai ntlnit acolo. 431) l o c u l n propoziie, dup predicatul exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv: / drink milk every day. Beau lapte n fiecare zi. 432) t r an sformarea la d i a t e z a p a s i v , ' n care complementul direct devine subiectul formal al propoziiei: The old woman recognized the driver. Btrna 1-a recunoscut pe ofer. The driver was recognized by the old woman. oferul a fost recunoscut de btrn.

14.3. Exprimarea conipemeBtelil ilirset

Complementul direct poate fi exprimat prin: a) un substantiv sau. un echivalent al acestuia : He is. writing a letter. El scrie 0 scrisoare. / saw them yesterday. I-am vzut ieri. Of all the books they showed u$ we bought tBree. Dintre toate crile pe care ni le-a artat am cumprat trei. b) o construcie complex acuzativul cu infinitiv sau cu participiu prezent, care este' de obicei utilizat pentru reducerea unei propoziii subordonate completive directe: We know him to be our best tennis player = We kno' that he is our best tennis player. tim c el este cel mai bun juctor de tenis al nostru. 1 saw him crossing the street = / saw that he was crossing the stree . L-am vzut traversnd strada. c) o propoziie subordonat completiv direct: / suggestth&t you s ^ ou phone him at once. Eu zic s-i telefonezi imediat. 14.8.1. Complementul direct .exprimai -prin piw.iim,'; pert.fl>al,Expn ^^ complementului direct prin pronumele personal it, prin pronumele refle*1 ' prin pronumele reciproc prezint unele particulariti. , ,t Clnd este exprimat prin pronumele personal it, complementul poate fi: 1) anticipativ; 2) nesemnificativ. 184

U este folosit a n t i c i p a t i v pentru a introduce o propoziie iptiv 'direct, o construcie cu infinitivul sau forma Gerund dup cont? think, consider, find, believe etc.: v / consider IT important that you should teii them the truth. Consider ftant ca tu s le spui adevrul. / found IT difficult to break the news. Mi-a jmP eu sg ]e Spun vetile. / think IT w0,s dangerous your climbing the-moun'st ^/ontf Cred c este foarte periculos s urci muntele singur. W n *L j ^ nesemnificativ. Anumite verbe intranzitive au dezvoltat . ca re st pe locul unui complement direct, fiind un complement direct un l V to lord it & o face pe stpnul; to carry it = a nvinge; to catch it = a 'orl?fi-'a o ncasa; to /bctf # = a merge pe jos; to rough it a face fa, a se
Q

A\

pfl y' j
eS U

^ The 'explorers hd to rough it when they got into the jungle. Exploratorii au trebuit s se descurce cnd au ajuns n jungl. ll.'ii.'i. tomptefffintH dirfiet exprimat-prin pronume reflexiv.' Din punct He vedere al felului n care verbele tranzitive n limba englez pot fi urmate u nu de un complement direct'exprimat prin pronume reflexiv, ele se mpart In: ) verbe urmate n mod obligatoriu de pronume reflexive: behave oneself, calm oneself, enjoy oneself, excuse oneself, help oneself: We enjoyed ourselves at the cinema. Ne-am distrat la cinematograf. Help yourself! Servete-te. b) verbe urmate de pronume reflexive sau personale n funcie de persoana asupra creia se rsfrnge aciunea verbului: She washed herself. (Ea) s-a splat (pe sine). She washed him. (Ea) 1-a splat (pe el). He hurt her.. (El) a lovit-o. He hurt himself. (El) s-a lovit. Alte verbe de acelai fel snt: dress, comb, shave, hide.
''r n limba vorbit se tinde spre omiterea pronumelui reflexiv: She washed and dressed in a hurry. S-a splat i mbrcat n grab.

c) verbe care pot fi urmate sau nu de pronume reflexive, cu diferen iere de sens: He applied himself to the task. S-a apucat de treab. He applied for a, job. A fcut cerere de serviciu. . - - > , ; ; . < mpjeroento! d i m-1 exprimat prin pronume reciproce Complementul direct este exprimat: a ) prin pronumele reciproce each other unul pe altyl/cellalt, cnd este vorba de dou persoane: The two boys helped each other to do the translation. Ui doi biei s.-au ajutat (unul pe altul) s fac traducera. l Prin: one another = unul pe altul/cellalt, cnd este vorba de mai multe Persoane: The children helped one another in cleaning the classroom. Copiii 8-au ajutat unul pe altul s fac curenie acas.

- ^BtrelMirafarea complementelor directe

f
1

erbemplementele directe snt ntrebuinate dup urmtoarele clase de leerf6 tra,nzitive urmate de un complement direct: eat, drink, Iove, meet. j u > read, seek, write: eed your adcice. Am nevoie de sfatul tu. 185

Verbe tranzitive urmate de dou complemente directe: ask, eni ,>, strike, teach: "' s<*fe, //e tattght tfte children arithmetic. Le-a predat copiilor aritmetic a asked him severul questions, I-am pus mai multe ntrebri. ' ^e 434) Verb e tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i un complement inrf' Qlr bring, give, hand, lend, offer, read, show, write etc.: ect Ee gave sweets io the children. Le-a dat copiilor dulciuri. He handed he r letter. I-a nmnat scrisoarea. 'ta 435) Verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i un complement ziional: accuse of, compare with, congratulate on, preveni from: We congratulated him on his promotion. L-am felicitat pentru pronxo Complementul direct intern (The Cognate Object) Exist i unele verbe intranzitive care pot avea un complement Acesta este exprimat printr-un substantiv care provine din aceeai ra cu verbul determinat sau este nrudit semantic cu el: smile a smile si song, laugh a laugh, fight a fightja battle, dance a dance. ' '6 a n acest caz, verbul se comport ca un verb tranzitiv: He Hved a lon and happy Iile. A trit o via lung i fericit. Last night I dreamt a strnge dream Noaptea trecut am visat un vis ciudat.
. Construciile cu complemente interne snt caracteristice limbii literare dup cum se vede i din exemplele de mai sus, complementele snt de obicei nsoit de atribute.

433)

Aceste verbe reprezint majoritatea verbelor tranzitive din limba englez. Exemplele sint numeroase: drink, eat, Iove, meet, need, read, seek, write, etc. Locul acestor complemente directe n propoziie este imediat dup verbul tranzitiv, naintea complementelor circumstaniale: She speaks English wd Vorbete bine englezete. / need the book tomorrow. Am nevoie de carte miini Transformarea pasiv. Clnd o propoziie coninlnd un predicat exprim; printr-un verb tranzitiv i un complement direct este transformat la diate. pasiv, complementul direct devine subiectul diatezei pasive, iar subiect se transform In complement de agent: The pupils loved their teacher, Uteacher was lovea by his pupils. Profesorul era iubit de elevii lui.

Aceste verbe snt puine la numr: ask, envy, save, strike, teach: Did she ask you any questions? i-a pus vreo ntrebare? ^ ^Q&, Dintre cele dou complemente directe, primul desemneaz o p iar al doilea un obiect: H e taught THE CHILDREN a new lesson. l^e-a r elevilor o 'lecie nou. They envied TJS our success. Ne invidia^ succesul nostru. ' . ^
n limba romn, complementul persoanei este de regul in ' traducerile exemplelor de mai sus).

186

Wr
A

rfransforittarea pasiv. Construciile cu dou complemente directe au n transformri pasive: He taught us a lesson.

were taught a lesson. sau: 2) A lesson was taught to us. Varianta frecvent este (1) cu complementul personal folosit ca subiect nnstrucia pasiv, complementul obiectului fiind reinut. In varianta (2), complementul obiectului devine subiectul propoziiei, compi ementu l persoanei este introdus de prepoziia to.

ve erbe; '.i iranaL

"

' . ^ . > * Jreet i w ,eom-

Aceste verbe snt urmate de cele dou complemente In ordinea complement direct-complement indirect: / bought the blouse for mother. Am cumprat bluza pentru mama. / gave the notebook to Mary. I-am dat caietul de notie Mriei.
T

-.rf Y 1. Ordinea complement direct complement indirect este folosit deseori pentru accentuare: Y ou must pay the money to her (not to bim). Trebuie s-i plteti ei banii (nu lui). 2. In alte cazurS, aceast ordine este obligatorie: 436) cnd complementul indirect este urmat de o propoziie subordonat: He gave a book to his friend tpho is visiting him. I-a dat o carte prietenului care l vizita. 437) cnd cele dou complemente snt exprimate prin pronume personale: / gave it to her. I-am dat-o ei. 438) dup verbele ca: address, announce, communicate etc.: / communicated the result of the experiment to everybody concerned. Am comunicat rezultatul experimen tului tuturor celor interesai. Ordinea celor dou complemente poate fi i: verb tranzitiv -f- complement indirect + + complement direct. n acest caz, prepoziia to sau for este omis: / bought mother a blouse. I gave Mary the notebook.

Transformarea pasiv. Cnd propoziia cu un complement direct i unul 'direct este transformat la diateza pasiv, ambele complemente pot deveni Activ: They showed us the house asiv: WE were shown the house. indirect al persoanei devine subiect, iar complementul obie ctului i pstreaz funcia, este complement reinut (retained
T
ite

J house was shown to US.

corrM61116111"1 direct devine subiect, iar cel indirect i pstreaz funcia, Plenaent indirect reinut (retained indirect abject). ; ren -rs0an t& dintre cele dou Variante const in faptul c prima accentueaz r ;rna lftr cea de a doua obiectul, mai frecvent n vorbirea curent fiind 187

i unul prepoziional

. .

Din aceast clas fac parte verbe ca: blame smb. for smth a da vina n cineva pentru ceva, charge smb. with smth. = a acuza pe cineva de cev cure smb. of smth. = a vindeca pe cineva de ceva, deprive smb of smth. =-*' lipsi pe cineva de ceva, help smb. with smth. = a ajuta pe cineva cu ceva 'etc^ Didthe doctor manage to cure the chila, ofthat disease? A reuit doctorul vindece copilul de boala aceea? They charged him with an important mission I'S dat o misiune important. Ordinea acestor complemente n propoziie este: verb tranzitiv -f cornple ment direct + complement prepoziional: / helped him with his homework Cnd complementul direct are o complinire sau este exprimat printr- 0 propoziie subordonat, complementul prepoziional este aezat imediat dup verb: They accepted with great pleasure the invitation sent by our foreign trade company. Au acceptat cu mare plcere invitaia trimis de ntreprinderea noastr de comer exterior. n transformarea pasiv a unui verb tranzitiv urmat de un complement direct i unul prepoziional, complementul direct devine subiectul formal al propoziiei, iar cel prepoziional este reinut: We, congratulated him on his success. He was congratulated on his success.

',. COMPLEMENTUL.EDIBECT-(The Indirect Object)

Complementul indirect este partea secundar de propoziie care indic persoana (rareori lucrul) asupra creia se rsfrnge n mod indirect aciunea verbului.

!.5JL Indicii formali al eom'pleaientalni iadir<

Indicii formali ai complementului indirect s nt: c a z u l dativ, c nd complementul indirect este exprimat p ro nu m e pe r so na l (c u e xc ep i a l u i i t ) sa u pr i n p ro nu m e le m f f l e . relativ who, precedat de prepoziia to sau for: Please, send a postcard to ^ Te rog trimite-mi o ilustrat. To whom did you lend the tape recor Cui i-ai mprumutat magnetofonul? 440) l o'cui n p r o p o z i i e : to

439)

dup complementul direct + prepoziia to sau for: He sold his

his neighbour. i-a vndut maina vecinului. She bought a new shin brother. A cumprat o cma nou pentru fratele ei. naintea complementului direct, fr prepoziie: Tom sold us She bought her brother a new shirt. 188

(l

pasiv, n care complementul a l i s formarea la d i a t e z a indirect al persoanei: noate deveni subiectul formal al propoziiei: Peter promised the tickets /us. ^ e w ere P ro m i s e d the tickets (by Peter). coate fi complement indirect reinut: They showed the town to us. The , vn was shown to us. _ -

l
for:
un

Exprimarea complementului indirect

Complementul indirect este exprimat de regul printr-un substantiv sau echivalent al acestuia, precedat de prepoziia to sau to our teacher.

, i books i,* t, ji,* \ for her children. She bought for them Prepoziia to sau for se omite: cnd complementul indirect se afla imediat dup verb \ Mother gave the children some sandwiches. Mama le-a dat copiilor nite sandviuri. We sent her a message. I-am trimis un mesaj. 442) dup verbe ca: afford, allow, forgive, refuse, spare: Can you spare me a few minutes? mi putei acorda cteva minute? Allow me to ask a question. Permitei-mi s pun o ntrebare.

441)

15,4', fairetoumfarea complementului Indirect

Complementul indirect este ntrebuinat : a) dup verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i unul indirect, a cror ordine poate fi schimbat, mpreun cu omiterea prepoziiei for: ouy, choose, do, leave, make, order, reserve, save: She ORDERED a new dress for hersel. She ORDERED herself a new dress. i-a comandat o rochie nou. dup verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i unul indirect, a cror ordine poate fi schimbat, mpreun cu omiterea prepoziiei to: ^ wi give, hand, lend, offer, owe, promise, read, show, etc. e showed the stamp book to the visitors. He showed the visitors the stamp ci H ' ^ G " a aratat vizitatorilor clasorul. c om i Ve r ^ e tran zitiv e urmate de un co mplement direct i de un com P ent indirect + prepoziia to n -aceast ordine: address, announce, tran ?nicate i describe, explain, introduce, mention, reiate, repeat, say, u T Wate, etc.: sue y ezplained everything to his father. Biatul a explicat totul tatlui 189

Complementul indirect n propoziie este aezat de regul: a) dup complementul direct (+prepoziia io sau for): He said to them. Le-a spus la revedere. She made coffee for all o us. A fn ^ ut pentru toi. . . b) naintea complementului direct, cnd complementul direct este m sau. urmat de o propoziie subordonat, prepoziia to sau for fiind &' ' U: / bought Helon all the English books I saw in the bookshop. I-am Cu m'' Elenei toate crile englezeti pe care le-am vzut n librrie. ^ r<
VffjjS; Complementele indirecte dup verbele urmate obligatoriu de pren 15.4. pct. c) nu pot fi aezate de .regul naintea complementelor prepoziia to nu poate fi omis: She Introduced her husband io the people prezentat soul celor de fa. Dar i: She explained to him the neiv regulations/ how she hd got'the informat' explicat noul regulament/ cum a obinut informaia.

c) la nceputul propoziiei, pentru subliniere To her I gave the dictiona not to him. Ei i-am dat dicionarul, nu lui. For her children she does herbt Pentru copiii ei ea face totul.
;

.6 'Transfe.r-iares pasiv

Verbele tranzitive urmate de complemente directe i indirecte se mpart:: dou grupe mari, dup felul n care se transform la diateza pasiv: a) Unele verbe au o singur transformare, n care complementul direct devb subiectul propoziiei pasive, iar cel indirect este reinut. Asemenea veri: snt cele de la punctul (c), 15.4, urmate obligatoriu de prepoziia to:K< conveyed the m e s s a g e to them. The m e s s a g e was conveyed K them. i de la punctul (a), urmate de prepoziia for: Have you left a n y f o o d to the others? H as a n y f o o d been left or the others? b) alte verbe, ca: give, offer, iell, show, promise (punctul b), au dou trans'^ mri pasive. . ( Transformarea mai frecvent este cea n care complementul indii*' persoanei devine subiect, iar complementul direct este reinut: Activ: The teacher gave the prize to Mary. Pasiv: Mary was given t h e p r i z e. Este posibil i transformarea: Tbe p r i z e was given to M ' care complementul direct devine subiect, iar complementul indirect este m Aceast transformare este folosit mai rar.

EME; T:;PBE:; .ziiojy.;. (Tbe r-.-^^;- -16J-

'. '.mit!Complementul prepoziional este partea secundar de determin predicatul propoziiei, exprimat printr-un verb intranzitiv. 190
0

'7 f :

' as complementului prepoziional

dicii formali ai complementului prepoziional snt: l acuzativ, clnd complementul prepoziional este exprimat z g) c * repoziie + pronume personal (cu excepia lui it>, pronume reflexiv in p" ^numele interogativ-relativ wfto: She looked at him. S-a uitat la el. u j Oked ai hersel i the mirror. S-a privit n oglind. At whom (vas she k S? La cine se uita (ea)? (form caracteristic limbii scrise). , r u l In propoziie: b ) ' ? Oj predicat, clnd acesta este exprimat printr-un verb intranzitiv: a Jos talking with his friends. Vorbea cu prietenii lui. dup complementul direct, cnd predicatul este exprimat printr-un verb ~~ itiv: UQS anyone comprea the translation with the original? A Aparat cineva traducerea cu originalul ? \ tr an sfo r ma r ea la d i a t e z a pas iv , n c ar e une le ver be 'ntranzitive cu prepoziie obligatorie se comport ca verbe tranzitive, prepoziia rmnlnd ataat de verb, iar elementul nominal din complementul prepoziional devenind subiectul formal al propoziiei: Crandmother looked APTER the ehildren, The children were looked APTER by their grandmother.

Complementul prepoziional este exprimat prin: 443) un substantiv sau echivalent al acestuia, precedat de o prepoziie: He is looking or his ie. i caut cravata. / ran atter them. Am fugit dup ei. 444) o construcie infinitival sau gerundial precedat de o prepoziie: Would they agree to start at once? Ar fi de acord s ncepem imediat? H e boasis o bing the best footballplayer in the school. Se laud c este cel mai bun juctor de fotbal din coal. c ) o propoziie subordonat: He boasts that he is the best football player in the gehool.

i'.er^ > ;\ prepoziional mPlementnl prepoziional este ntrebuinat dup: . cu prepoziie obligatorie: care for, complain of, depend T ore lon r he su at' tnsist ' f ' look at' passfor, warn of, wonder at, worry about: S the picnic wM va den- ^ f DEPEND on the weather. Succesul picnicului vreme. Would ou AR for pl ace i? vreme. Would y ou CARE for one ol these paintings? i-ar
g

oow/anzitive cu dou PrePzit: agree with smb about stnth, argue with stn PUnfffl.
Sr

nb. oi0?Zlt^ve cu prepoziie obligatorie : acquaint smb with smth, advise ttt smth, assure smb of smth, blame smb. for smth, bother smb.
1Q1

, rog x

dmtre aceste

tablouri? She COMPLAINED of the heat. Se

with smth, convince smb. of smth.,. entrust smb with smth, mistake smb for smth, warn smb about smth.: I warned him about the danger. L-am avertizat de pericol, d) adjective sau participii care ndeplinesc funcia de nume predicativ lntr-u predicat nominal, urmate de o prepoziie obligatorie: n about: He was REA80NABLE about her decision. at: She is GOOD at chemistry. in: He is INTERESED in astronomy. of: I am A W ARE of your efforts. on: Romnia's foreign trade is BASED on co-operation and equal riffhtfi 8 with: He is ANGRY with your behaviour. ' Alte adjective i participii urmate de aceste prepoziii snt: angry, glod, happy, knowledgeable, mod, annoyed, frightened, pleased worried + ABOUT: V angry, bad, dever, hopeless, terrible, alarmed, amused, annoyed, delighted pleased + AT; ' efficient, fortunate, lucky, oustanding, persistent, (un)successful -f-IN' afraid, certain, conscious, fond, glod, convinced, scared + OF; dependent, insistent, keen, lent, set -f OJf;. , busy, (unjcomfortable,, (injcompatible, content, furious, (un)happy, impatient, sick, uneasy, annoyed, bored, concerned, delighted, disapointed excited, exhausted, horrified, obsessed, occupied, overcome, pleased, satisfied upset + WITH (Vezi i cap. 8.)

'16.5. Locul'complementului prepoziional n propoziia

Locul complementului prepoziional n propoziie este de obicei: 445) dup numele predicativ exprimat printr-un adjectiv sau participiu: She was convinced of Ms loyalty. Era ^convinsa de loialitatea lui.' 446) dup complementul direct, n cazul unui verb tranzitiv: Nobody prevents your friend rom asking that question. Nimeni nu-1 mpiedic pe prietenul tu s pun' aceast ntrebare.

Unele verbe intranzitive cu prepoziie obligatorie: agree about l <>nl < aimat, argue about, arrange for, ask for, beliece in, caii for, caii on, conceiV?J] laugh at, look at, look for, look after, look into, run over, sleep in, spea* ^ about, talk of, think of, write about, etc. se comport ca verbe tranzitive Sn tra formarea pasiv. . tuj , Elementul nominal din complementul prepoziional Devine subie ^ propoziiei pasive, iar prepoziia rmne dup verb: A bus ran O V* neighbour's dog. The neighbour's dog was run OVER by a bus. eJjt n transformarea pasiv a verbelor tranzitive urmate de un . com Pp r0 pO' direct i de unul prepoziional, complementul direct devine subiectul P ^ ziiei pasive, iar cel prepoziional este reinut: They bothered HIM w> questions. HE was bothered with silly questions. 192

LEMENTUL PREDICATIV SUPLIMENTAR (The Predicative Adjunct.)

Flementul predicativ suplimentar este partea secundar de propoziie determin att predicatul, exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv, ct i un ca e l tontiv sau nlocuitor al acestuia care are funcia de complement direct l predicatului: She BOILED t h e e g g hard = She BOILED t h e e g.g.

The egg w hard.

1711 Exprimarea elementului predicativ suplimentar

Elementul predicativ suplimentar este exprimat de regul prin : a) un substantiv, dup verbe ca appoint, choose, elect, proclaim, caii, name : They elected Mr Brown (as) chairman. L-au ales pe dl. Brown preedinte. They nominated him President. L-au desemnat preedinte. They hace named the baby Dan. L-au numit pe copil Dan. b) u n a d j e c t i v (care exprim starea sau condiia ca rezultat al aciunii verbului), dup verbe ca: &0#--(hard), bake (hard), open (wide), drive (crazy, mad), break (open), wash (clean), push (open, snut), paint (white, green), etc.: Can you push the gate open? Poi s deschizi poarta? They've painted the fenee white. Au vopsit gardul alb.

17.3. Local elementului predicativ suplimentar

Locul elementului predicativ suplimentar este dup complementul direct (exprimat printr-un substantiv sau pronume in acuzativ) care urmeaz predi catul (exprimat printr-un verb tranzitiv): They elected him president. Push ' open.

1&.CONSTRUCIILE COMPLEXE (Complex Construoliona)

fp

* ^e construcii complexe se refer la construciile infinitivale, Senm diale, care snt folosite de obicei pentru reducerea unor subordonate la pri secundare de propoziie. Aceste construcii
13-

Acuzativul cu

[ infinitiv j participiu prezent l participiu trecut

- Nominativul cu
Infinitivul cu for to

/ infinitiv ( participiu prezent

infinitiv participiu prezent participiu trecut

Construciile gerundiale

18.2. Caracteristicile SOF "i!eiffr complexe

18 J l Construciile complexe au un caracter predicativ, deoarece ntre cei doi membri ai construciei: elementul nominal (reprezentat de regul printr-un acuzativ sau nominativ) i elementul verbal (reprezentat printr-un infinitiv, form n -ing sau participiu trecut), exist un raport predicativ implicit. Forma nepersonal a verbului funcioneaz ca predicat al elementului nominal, dar aceast funcie este considerat implicit i nu exprimat, deoarece formele nepersonale nu snt marcate formal pentru redarea categoriei de persoan. Caracterul predicativ al raportului dintre cele dou elemente reiese din funcia acestor construcii, de nlocuire sau reducere a unor propoziii subordonate, deci a unor elemente sintactice coninnd predicat: W e know her to be a gifted actress == We know that she is a gifted actress. tim c ea este o actri foarte bun. Infinitivul, participiul prezent i participiul trecut formeaz mpreun cu elementul nominal construcii similare:
Construcii complexe: ^ ______________________________________________________ ou nominativul: Nominativul absolut:

cu acuzativul:

Acuzativ cu infinitiv:

Nominativ cu infinitiv: I was warned not to be late. . Nominativ cu participiu

They toarned me not to be late. Acuzativ cu participiu prezent: She could feel her heart bcating.
Acuzativ cu participiu trecut: 1 want this work finished quickly.

Nominativ absolut cu infinii':

He seni the books />*'. th *

stationery to eome uterNominativ absolut cu participiu prezent: The valne f i W?P!S thevalue of f ea* /*"* Nominativ absolut cu ^ cipiu trecut: . His task performed, ne

prezent: He was notieed standing near the door. ___ ___

the office.

dintre cele trei feluri de construcii (cu participiu prezent sau participiu trecut) reies din modul n care este aciunea: 194

 construciile infinitivale ne intereseaz aciunea n sine, faptul petre- ^ ut care este vzut ca ncheiat: We saw him come ( that he came). Am vzu* c-a venit. , construciile cu participiul n -ing, aciunea este vzut n desfurare: We saw h.im coming (= that he was coming). L-am vzut venind, n construciile cu participiul trecut, aciunea este privit ca un rezultat: We found the log cabin deserted. Am gsit cabana prsit. jd,'1') c' '. 'i-'-r a'e acestor construcii snt urmtoarele: 447) complement d i r e c t complex (construc iile cu acuzativul): / S aw the ambulance coming. Am vzut sosind maina salvrii. We hd our house repaired and painted. Ne-au reparat i vopsit casa. 448) subiect complex (construc iile cu nominativul): Tbls part ol the land is believed to have been under the ea. Se crede c acest col de pmnt a fost sub ap. He happened to give the best solution. S-a ntmplat ca el s dea cea mai bun soluie. He was seen passing the shop. A fost vzut trecnd prin faa magazinului. 449) complement circumstan ial (nominativul absolut): Everybody being present, the lesson can begin. Toat lumea fiind prezent, lecia poate ncepe. The shopping done, they returned home. Dup ce i-au fcut cumprturile, s-au ntors acas. '

Gonstnie
Construciile cu acuzativul sint formate dintr-un substantiv sau pronume n cazul acuzativ i un verb la -infinitiv sau participiu (prezent sau trecut): care se afl fa de primul element ntr-un raport predicativ: / noticed them shake hands. Am observat c i-au dat mna. Verbele tranzitive urmate de obicei de un acuzativ cu infinitiv snt cele 'are exprim: ' P e r c e p i a s e n z o r i a l : see, hear, watch, feel, notice, perceive, observe: Did anyone see Mary leave the house? vzut-o cineva pe Mary Plecnd de acas? *> c ^ 1 1 v i t i mintale: think, kftow, consider, expect, suppose, weve, imagine, fancy, understand (n stilul literar) : hey knew the mn to have been very UI. tiau c omul a fost foarte bolnav. f of people supposed her to be right. Mult lume credea c ea are dreptate. Sh r i n ^ a S a u intenia: want, wish, deire, intend, mean : 'ed me to explain the rule. A vrut ca eu s explic regula. Did she -- to go there in her place? A intenionat ca eu s merg n locul ei? e n t i m e n t e: like, dislike, Iove, hate, prefer: sju " like them to keep their promise. A vrea ca ei s-i respecte promi6{ *- / hate you to be troubled. Nu-mi place s fii ^e"T.iot

e) un o r d i n sauopermisiun-e: command, order., request compel, force: ' a'< Our form teacher allowed us to go to the conference. Diriginta ne-a s mergem la conferin. The officer ordered his soldiers to advance. Oft""' le-a ordonat soldailor s nainteze. ' '^ 450) v e r b e c a u z a t i v e : cue, make, have, get, induce, let: What makes you think so? Ce te face s gndeti astfel? Get them coa early as possible. Determin-i s vin ct mai devreme posibil. 451) verbe d e c l a r a t i v e : declare, pronounce, report, de obicei .subiectul este animat: Everyone reported him to be good for this job au spus c el este bun pentru aceast treab. They dedarea the chiel to be a member of their committee. L-au declarat pe inginerul ef al comitetului. h) u n e l e verbe p r e p o z i i o n a l e : count on, depend on, wait f hope for, etc. : ' ' W e cannot wait for the weather to change. Nu putem atepta s se schimb vremea.
ft? l- Verbele de percepie (cu excepia lui perceive), verbele let i maJte i verbul cauzativ have snt urmate de infinitivul fr to: He mode me laugh. M-a fcut s rid 452) Verbul help este urmat de obicei de infinitivul cu to n varianta britanic, i de infinitivul fr to n varianta american a limbii engleze: / helped her (to) lay the table. Am ajutat-o s pan masa. 453) Unele verbe (cu excepia lui want de la pct. c) pot fi urmate i de propoziii subordonate introduse de tkat, ntre folosirea acestora i a construciei infinitivalc existnd anumite deosebiri: a) H e requested us to come in time. (us substantiv animat) He requested that the meeting should begin on time. (meeting substantiv inanimat) b) / tvish you to be careful. (n general) / wish you would be careful. (dar nu cred c ai s fii) 454) W e think him to be very loyal. (n engleza literar) W e think that ne is very loyal. (n vorbirea curent). 455) / hear him come. (acum)

/ hear that they are away. (durat)

4. A c u z a t i v u l cu i n f i n i t i v este folosit dup- verbele care exprim o activitate mintal mai ales n limba literar, iar infinitivul este cel al verbului be: I believe him to be honest. Cred c este cinstit. 7 suppose it to have been a mistake. Presupun c a fost o greeal. . .j n vorbirea curent, aceste verbe snt de obicei urmate de o propoziie comp l e " direct introdus de that: I believe (that) ne is honest. / suppose (that) it was a mis '

18,3.2. BisitiwJ CM for 1 -- io" (71<e For T Infinitive) Construcia A c u z a t i v u l cu i - n f i n i t i v este folosit .^ anumite clase de verbe (vezi i 1.15.3. pct. 6b). Un acuzativ cu nn " poate aprea i dup un adjectiv sau substantiv, situaie n care el es e v cedat de prepoziia for: It was UNUSUAL for him to write such a ^"^_ m t ' 0 De obicei el nu scria o scrisoare aa de lung. It was MADNESS or _ leave in such weather. Era o nebunie ca ei s plece pe o asemenea vre ^ Motfts Exist i cteva verbe urmate de prepoziia for, care pot fi folosite cu m . ^ cil j or to Printre ele se numr: arrange, ask, hope, long, plan, pray< " ring, send, telephone, wait, etc.:
f arranged ] They j planned for her to come.
l sent ' j

196

fnitivul cu for to este format din prepoziia for, urmat de un sub- au pronume n acuzativ i de un infinitiv cu to, care se afl ntr-un t'V S redicativ fa de (pro)nume: It was difficult for him to believe such a j-apoft P yenea greu s cread un asemenea lucru. ;hin"' . t construcie este ntlnit: - adjective : (it isjwas) necessary, advisable, imperative, impossible, ) d a 2i difficult, etc. V s ub s t a n t i v e : prob l e m , s ub j e c t , i de a , e t c . b) ^ u p , u n el e v e rbe int ra nz i ti ve s a u t ra n z it iv e. c)j f j n i t iv u l c u f o r t o e s te u t i l i z a t p e n t r u re d uc e r e a u n o r p r o p o z i i i u donate la pri principale sau secundare de propoziie: SU 1 \ subiect real introdus de it anticipativ : It is advisable for him to learn laneuages. Este recomandabil ca el s nvee limbi strine. It is diicult nThem to c ome . Este dific il ca ei s vin. 456) nume predicativ: The best thing is for him to agree with me. Cel mai bun l u c r u e ste ca el s fie de a cord cu mi ne. 457) complement direct : He wished for the parcei to be sent at once. A dorit ca pachetul s fie trimis imediat. 458) complement pre pozi ional: / would be de lighted for you to me et her. A fi ncntat s o cunoti. 459) complement circumstan ia l de scop: Pve brought some magazines for vouto read on the train. Am adus cteva reviste s le citeti n tren. 460) complement circumstan ia l consecutiv: This book is too difficult or me to read. Aceast carte este prea grea ca s-o citesc. 18.3.;-; n^iiim eti'partidpiml pmtjit (7'hc Acmsativc with tht Presimt ' Aceasta este o construcie asemntoare cu acuzativul cu infinitiv, diferena fiind de aspect al aciunii verbale : folosirea infinitivului red aciunea ca ncheiat, sau menioneaz doar aciunea, pe cnd participiul prezent prezint aciunea n desfurare : / heard them come. (= That means they have arrived). I-am auzit venind (Au venit). / heard them eoming. ( / heard them naking noise while they were eoming). I-am auzit venind (n timp ce veneau). Acuzativul cu participiul prezent se folosete dup: a ) verbe care exprim percepia senzorial :see, hear, feel, watch, notice, observe. heard the cbildren talking about their holidays. I-am auzit pe copii vorbind despre vacan. We watched the sun rising from behind the hills. m Privit soarele rsrind de dup dealuri. ) And, leave, set, catch, send: found him meiiding the radio. L-am gsit reparnd radioul. 18 1 ' -!'arti ,:'/'.'; u"uzativul1 W partii'ipiu trceist (The Acntsfit.iw with he PtfSl
Ve

ucie este ntrebuinat dup: c; ^- exprim percepia senzorial: He heard his name mentioned. v * auzit numele menionat. e ca,re exprim un ordin : He ordered it finished. A ordonat s fie terminat. p cauzat j ive have i get: I must have these shoes repaired. Trebuie d au pantofii l ft reparat.
e c re

constr

197

.'- . --minativul
Construciile cu nominativul snt alctuite dintr-un substantiv sau nume n cazul nominativ i un verb la infinitiv sau participiu prezent t care se afl un verb la o form personal: He happened to be a hard-work'^ ltl pupil. She was seen crossing the street. S .'...,>,.. KOi .:; -h'-, .' . - s e folosete dup urmtoarele verb 1) dup verbe intranzitive: seem, appear, happen, chance;prove, turn o care snt perechi sinonimice: He j a^pear^d \ to be pleased with the arrange ment. El prea s fie mulumit de aranjament. Her brother / Rnced ) lo , [ happened / be there. S-a n timpi tt ca fratele ei s fie acolo. 461) dup verbe declarative la diateza pasiv: say, declare, report, announceThe old mn was reported to have disappeared. S-a anunat c btrnul a disprut 462) dup verbul copulativ ie i unul dintre adjectivele: likely, unlikely, sure, certain: He is sure to' think of every possible advantage. Cu siguran c se va gindi la toate avantajele posibile. The train is likely to be late. Este posibil ca trenul s ntrzie.
1. Prin trecerea predicatului de la diateza activ la cea pasiv (pasivizare = passlvization), unele construcii cu acuzativul se transform n construcii cu nomina tivul. Astfel, nominativul cu infinitiv apare dup verbe tranzitive care pot fi urmate de acuzativ cu infinitiv la diateza activ (cu excepia verbelor exprimnd dorinfa sau intenia) i care exprim: 463) percepia senzorial: see, hear, feel, etc.: She was seen to leave the office. A fost vzut plecnd din birou. (Nominativ + infinitiv lung) 464) activiti mintale: think, know, consider, expect, understand, believe, suppose, etc.: Space flights are considered to provide important scientific data. Se consider ca zborurile cosmice aduc importante date tiinifice. 465) un ordin sau o permisiune: command, order, alloiv, let, etc.: The boy was allaae to go oiit. Biatului i s-a permis s ias afar. 466) determinarea: cue, make, have, force, compel, etc.: He was compelled to start all over again. El a fost obligat s ia totul de la nceput. 2. Construcia Nominativul cu infinitiv dup verbe de activitate mintala nu es e limitat la engleza literar (cum este Acuzativul cu infinitiv), ea puind fi ntnm n vorbirea curent (i cu alte verbe dect be): Are we supposed to do this Trecu s facem asta?

Aceast construcie este similar cu Nominativul cu infinitiv, cu ace diferen de aspect (sublinierea ideii de durat, de desfurare a aci u The old mn was seen leaving the house. Btrnul a fost vzut plecnd de &c Aceast construcie se folosete dup verbele urmate la diateza a de acuzativul cu participiu prezent (see, hear, leave, catch, findj etc.): The baby was heard crying. Copilul a fost auzit plngnd. , 198

Nominativul absolut {Th? .Absolute Nominative Con istruction)

]>f 0niinativul absolut este ntrebuinat cind subiectul construciei predi-. infinitiv sau participiu (prezent sau trecut) este diferit de cel al ^opoziiei care conine un verb predicativ. Construcia cu nominativul absolut conine n struptura sa un substantiv nominativ i un infinitiv, participiu prezent sauj participiu trecut, care se fl n raport predicativ faa de substantiv: They forwarded the heavy equip8 ent i>y seai *^e pcnshables to be sent by air. Au expediat echipamentul greu u vaporul, urmnd ca mrfurile perisabile s fie trimise cu avionul. The original text being too difficult, he asked for a translation. Textul original fiind prea greu, a cerut o traducere. His hopes attamed, he was perfectly happy. Speranele lui fiind mplinite, era foarte fericit.
cu

Subiectul construciei Nominativul absolut cu participiul prezent poate fi aatcipat de i:sau there: There being nothing to say, they sat looking at each other. Neavind nimic de^spus, stteau i se uitau unul la altul.

Construciile cu nominativul absolut snt folosite pe plan sintactic pentru reducerea unor propoziii subordonate circumstaniale la complemente circumstaniale: 467) de timp: Dinner being ready, the family sat down round the big, oval dinner table. ( When dinner was -ready...); 468) de cauz: He felt exhausted, his self-control having been strained to breaking point. ( as his self-control hd been strained...); 469) de condiie: Weather permitting, we shattgo to the beach tomorrow. (= U the weather permits ...).
y h Construciile cu nominativul absolut se intlnesc rar n vorbirea curent. Ele snt caracteristice englezei scrise, literare.

' -W, Ai^i gOBstrucIi co-iippxs

. Construciile gerundiale (Gerund Constructions). La fel ca i infinitivul P Participiul, forma Gerund intr n componena unor construcii complexe, r. care Gerund-ul se afl ntr-un raport predicativ fa de un substantiv sau P onume: Tour refusing io see him surprised everybody. Refuzul tu de a-1 ve aea a surprins pe toat lumea. Substantivul poate fi: A c a z u l genitiv s i n t e t i c (construcia cu genitiv e folosit pentru stantive. nume de persoane): H e seemed surprised at Mary's expressing interest in the subject. A prut surprins de faptul c Mary nu a artat nici n interes pentru aceast problem., a cazul acuzativ: Did you mind him/Tom speaking so loud? Te-a janjat faptul c el/Toma a vorbit aa de tare? Acuzativul este folosit/: J end substantivul este animat sau inanimat: / could sense the smell >'. Simeam cum se rspindea mirosul.

2) cnd substantivul este urmat de o complinire atributiv: / rem e f a Mend of mine going on such a trip. mi amintesc de un prieten de-ai care a mers ntr-o astfel de excursie. ^u 3) n vorbire, pentru substantive nume de persoane, substantive ari lrria sau inanimate. , te Dac partea nominal a construciei este exprimat printr-un pro n acesta poate fi un pronume posesiv, sau, n vorbire, un pronume n acuz r* 6 ' / couldri't understand lr] s l acting like that. Nu puteam s nejeg de ce ceda aa. / remember iheir/them saying that. mi amintesc c au spus Construcia gerundial este folosit dup aceleai cuvinte ca si f o r a ' a Gerund simpl (vezi 1.17.3). ' Construcia gerundial are rolul de a nlocui: 470) propoziii subordonate subiective: Your trying to convince him was obcious = That you tried to convince him was guie obvious. 471) circumstaniale: She being absent, nothing could be done = As she was ab sent, nothing could be done. etc.

19, COMPLEMENTE!/! eiRCUMSTAJSIAIiE (Adverbiala)

19.1. Definiie
Complementul circumstanial este partea de propoziie care determin sau modific un verb, un adverb, un adjectiv sau o ntreag propoziie. Ca determinant al verbului, complementul circumstanial indic mprejurarea n care se petrece o aciune (locul, timpul, scopul, cauza etc.): A taxi appeared at the corner of the street. (loc) They arrived half an hour later. (timp) Atunci cnd determin un adverb, adjectiv sau echivaleni ai acestora, complementul circumstanial arat cum se prezint o nsuire: It was nearly dark. Era aproape ntuneric. They are nearly there. Aproape au ajuns.

10.2. Clasificare
Complementele circumstaniale n limba englez se mpart, ca i n l" , a romn, n: complemente circumstaniale de loc, de timp, de mod, de cauza, de condiie, de scop, concesive, consecutive, etc.

9.3.-Complementul ckcuinNianiai <to Ioc (The Adv of Place)

10.3.1. Definiie. Complementul circumstanial de loc indic locul, P um tul de plecare, direcia sau limita unei aciuni sau stri. )0i.
N0tt linele complemente circumstaniale de loc exprimate prin adverbe indic locul propriu-zis: here, there, somewhere. Altele indic "'
ja

200

side, fonvard(s), backward(s), right, left. Majoritatea adverbelor de loc ns, not fi folosite pentru a exprima att locul, ct i direcia: Loc: He doeSn't live far. tfu locuiete departe, n i r e c i e : He didn't go far. Nu s-a dus departe. (Vezi i 7.5.2.)

(-..: . Complementul circumstanial de loc este eiprimat prin: adverb sau o perifraz adverbial de loc: She s here. H e was walking

"'the baker's. . O-, ,. propoziie circumstanial de loc: We do our shopping wherh everybody elge does. \
!!>.,':'.>l. Lom! complementului circumstanial de loc este de obicei dup predicat (+ complement direct) (+ compl. circ. de mod):
She

n substantiv cu sau fr prepoziie: Helen is in town for the moment. They went nome' n substantiv n cazul genitiv precedat de o prepoziie: We buy bread at

ha* been { ^j^ } } W THE LIBRARY all day.

&

Excepii: Complementul circumstanial de loc poate fi aezat ntre verb i complementul su direct dac complementul direct este prea lung sau este exprimat printr-o propoziie subordonat: They j l *. l the reading room all the dictwnaries they needed. Complementul circumstanial indicnd l o c u l p r o p r i u - z i s poate aprea i la nceputul propoziiei, mai ales cnd este exprimat printr-o construc ie prepoziional: Somewhere near the river the children were playing football. Complementul circumstanial care indic d i r e c i a se aaz uneori direct dup verb (naintea adverbului de mod), dac verbul exprim micarea spre un loc: H e went to school by bus. ' Clteva complemente circumstaniale exprimnd direcia pot aprea n poziie iniial: &) n limbajul literar, pentru a da for dramatic exprimrii, cu verbe la prezent sau Post Tense simplu: In they comei Away they went: 1 "l n exprimarea familiar, cu verbe ca go, come, get la prezent sau la imperativ (-f- you): Here she comes. There they go. In (bed) you get.
"'" Here i there apar n cteva expresii cu verbul le: Here/There you are. Poftim... (Asta-i pentru tine). There she is. Uite-o! A ajuns. Here we are. Am ajuns n sfrit (unde trebuia). There you are. Vezi c am dreptate (Asta ntrete ce-am spus). **"' " ' Dac subiectul n aceste expresii este exprimat printr-un substantiv i nu printr-un, pronume, are loc inversiune ntre subiect i predicat: There he is ! ,^
,\ ; . _. >. -j

i to and fro.

There

i your f athert Here they are f Here are your glasses!

>- 4 - mPLEMENTTO CIRCUMSTANIAL DE TIMP (The Adverbial of Time)

^r f

a) b)

'
8

nie

eftaile. Complementul circumstanial de timp indic: ntui a c i u n i i : now, nowadays, today, then, etc.; Cesiunea n timp: afterwards, before, eventually, formerly, ""'- soon; 201

4>

472) 473)
: .

durata: lately, recently, since, still, yet;

frecvena

definit: weekly, three limes a day; nedefinit: often, usually, seldom, once in a while.
Complementul circumstanial de timp este '< '"M^t p rjn 1) o parte de vorbire singur sau cu compliniri: a) un adverb de timp: She arriced yesterday. b)-o perifraz adverbial de timp: They cisit their grandparenls to time. c) o construcie adverbial (substantiv/numeral cu prepoziie, etc)- -> was born in 1966. ' 2) o construcie complex, utilizat pentru reducerea unei p rop circumstaniale de timp la un complement circumstanial de timp: 474) nomi nativul absolut cu participiul trecut: His homework wrilten, the h went out to play. ' . 3f 475) un participiu prezent sau trecut, precedat de o conjuncie He doesn't feel qaite well when travelling by plane. c) un Gerund precedat de o prepoziie: On leaving ihe house, she asked rnett look after the child. d) un substantiv cu sau fr prepoziie introdus printr-o conjuncie ternpor aij. While in Australia he learned English. I played this game- when a bov 3) o propoziie circumstanial de timp: He is always air sick when lie travels by plane. A) Majoritatea complementelor circumstaniale indicnd momentul .aciunii snt aezate la sfritul propoziiei; He went to the cinem.a yesterday last night. Nowadays ipresently ocup de obicei poziie iniial: Nowadays all childm of school-age attend school in Ramania. Dac ntr-o propoziie apar mai multe complemente circumstaniale indicnd momentul a ciunii, acestea snt aezate succesiv, de la perioads de timp m&i scurt la cea mai lung: He was born on Monday, the. 19* / February 1970. Pil see you at ten o'clocit on Sunday. sau: On Sunday Pil see you at ten o'clock. 476) Complementele circumstaniale indicind s u c c e s i u n e a aciunii ocup de obicei poziie iniial sau medial n propoziie: First he rang '' beli. Next he knocked on the door. H e then rang again. And tinally he start^ banging on the door. 477) Locul complementelor circumstaniale de timp exprimate Pf! adverbe de frecven (definit i nedefinit): Adverbele care exprim frecvena unei aciuni n rnod d e f i n i i : .'.. (zilnic), once (odat), again (din nou), Iwice (de dou ori) etc., snt de o ^ aezate la sfritul propoziiei: The school board meets weekly/three times a w . Ordinea mai multor adA^erbe de . f r e c v e n d e f i n , este de la unitatea mai mic la cea mai mare: She phoned him ho u eaeh day. , * sau: Each day she phoned him h o u r l y. . f; Adverbele de f r e c e v e n n e d e f i n i t : usually (de ff always (ntotdeauna), sometimes (uneori, cteodat), occasionally . -^i cteodat), often (adesea), never (niciodat), seldom (rar), snt de obicei a ntre subiect i predicat: / often go to the iheatre. 202

seen her. You must always dup acesta: / have never

ca predicatul conine un verb auxiliar sau un verb modal, adverbul de nt este aezat

frec' ^verbele de frecven nedefinit se aaz dup verbul be, naintea numedicativ: He is oftn late. jui P*/ c V erbul este folosit la diateza pasiv, adverbul de frecven nedefi-te ae z a t dup primul auxiliar: He has never been seen like this.
Sometimes poale fi aezat i la nceputul propoziiei: 7 sometlmes go for a tvalk fa ^ cvoods. a u- Sometimes 7 go for.a ivalk in the woods.

Unele adverbe nedefinite de frecven pot aprea Ja nceputul prepoziiei: _-dac aceasta este negativ: Generally / Normally / Usually ftedaesn't ^in _^pentru ntrire: Usually / meet her at conferences, but yesterday I ran fier in a department store.

gitu>(ia:

Subiect

Verb aux. /modal

Adv. de freoven

Verb noional sau nume predic, (dup be]

Alte pri de propoz.

~~~~~~

7
*.

believe

ihem.

Forma verbal simpla

77e

never always usually Sometimes

has

iime enough for A's friends.

Verb auxiliar + Verb noional Verb modal + Verb noional Verbal be -f

They
I She He

have would

seen
eat

her. this.

ean is has

rarely seldom

forget

sueh incidente.

UI.
been ill.

anme predicativ ---- ______ _______ She

U l ^ r d i " e a mai multor complemente c i r c u m s t a n - "oment- / timP n propoziie este urmtoarea: durat frecven

'

- / went to the country for a month eoery year during my childhood. m a ^ n e ar i t e * multor complemente circumstan n Propo^ie este: MOD loc --timp. They played A * i n t n e match yesterday.
a

v,
'

a scoate n

rdine

. at: eviden un anume circumstanial: Each day she phoned r l ya dverbiale mai ' ( ^ngi) snt aezate de obicei dup adverbe : ^ was walking e a r l i e r in the Botanical Gardens. 'ie su bo rdonat circumstanial se aaz dup un complement : We walked for h o u r s where the Exhibition hd been. 203

poa te fi schimb

.i 'J'W((

V** &'ii|)it5ilii -.'. !:.

' '- * r.'- k C.............ii..J.j:.. .

,!;:'

............. .

fiU

of Marmor}
19.5.1. Definiie. Complementul circumstanial de mod indic m care se ndeplinete o aciune sau apare o nsuire. 19.5.3, Clasificare. Complementele circumstan iale de mod se m p
u

' ii,

co mplementul circumstan ial de mod. propriu-zis; ^ r>; 479) complementul circumstan ial de mod comparativ. 19.5,3. C o m p l e rn o n l o l e c. i r c u m H 1 a n , i a l u ,.. ( | ( p r o p r i u - x i s e indic felu], m o d a l i t a t e a n care decurge a c ' ' sau starea: we'll, badly, quickly, slowly.
VHIII,.,

478)

7 7 7

Ele mai pot reda i alte sensuri: c an t i t a t e: enough, much, a little; n t r i r e : actua/Iy, certainly, obviously, really; a m p l i f i c a r e : absolutely, completely, greatly. hishlii
j o '/ 7 o

hnr^i
"tircjV

hardly, scarcely;

>' de a f i r m a i e s a u n e g a i e : yes, no, of course, noi al all p r o b a b i l i t a t e : maybe, perhaps, possibly. ' Complementele circumstaniale de mod propriu-zise:

a) Complementele circumstaniale de mod propriu-zise modific: un verb: He DRIVES careully. un adj e c t i v : He is & little TIRED. un adverb: You speak too FAST. / cari 1 1 follow you. b) Cuvintele care exprim p r o b a b i l i t a t e a , a f i r m a i a sau n e g a i a in de obicei locul unei propoziii ntregi: A: Can you ski? B: Yes, / can. Schiezi? Da. sau se'refer la o propoziie ntreag 1 : Surely you aren't ill. Sigur nu eti bolnav.
Not; Neavnd o legtur strns cu o anumit parte de propoziie, unele gramatici (printre care i cea de fa) nu analizeaz aceste complemente n cadrul capitolului despre complementele circumstaniale, ci n cel despre Elementele independente HI propoziie (Cap. 21).

480) modific o parte de propoziie; 481) in locul unei propoziii ntregi.

] 9.5.4. G o ni p i e rn e n t u l c i r c u m s t a n ^i a l de m o d l r p r i u - z i s poate fi exprimat prin: , 482) im adverb sau perifraz adverbial de mod: He drove slowly along ihe narr road. " . 483) un substantiv sau numeral introdus printr-o prepozi ie: He did tnis mistake. This problem can be solved in three ways. , 484) o construcie gerundial introdus prin prepoziiile by sau withouf. Hes have finished by thanking his parents for their help. , (l 485) o propoziie circumstanial de mod: He drove the car as they na him to. * 19.5.5, .Locui complementului circumstanial,de mod n pr< A) Complementele circumstaniale de mod propriu-zis se aaz ' dup verb (naintea complementului circumstanial de loc i de drove slowly to the station yesterday. _ ,verl Dac verbul este tranzitiv i urmat de complementul su direct, a de mod este aezat: . 204

dup complementul direct: She drove her car slowly to the station.
saU

'

naintea verbului (rar): She slowly drove her car ta the station. mplementul circumstanial de mod este aezat dup verbul be cina este folosit la diateza pasiv: The car was slowly driven into thegarage.
R}

aC6S

Circumstanialele de mod ntrind ideea exprimat de verb

' a j[ parte de vorbire (actually, certainly, obviously, really, surely, 8flU tiu simply-, ust ) Preced de obicei partea de vorbire la, care se refer: neS ^ -a\V dorit understand her behaviour. You must believe me simply on my word. t eaks quite rapidly. She is quite itt. Indeed poate aprea i n poziie final: Thank you very much indeed. was very kind indeed of you to come. r] Circumstanialele de mod exprimnd cantitatea preced sau eaz prile de vorbire la care se refer, n felul urmtor: (Very) much precede de obicei un participiu folosit predicativ: He was much impressed. dar urmeaz un verb principal (-j- complementul lui direct): / like English very much. Enough se aaz dup un adjectiv sau adverb: This lesson is EAS enough. Dac ns enough este folosit ca atribut pe lng un substantiv, el apare fie nainte fie dup acesta: He has TIME enough. He has enough TIME. D) Circumstanialele de mod care a m p l i f i c i d e e a exprimat de verb (absolutely, completely, entirely, fully, quite, perfectly, badly, greatly, so, well) pot aprea naintea verbului principal sau n poziie final (in special n propoziiile negative, interogative i imperative): / badly need your advice. I can perfectly understand her behaviour. We like her very mueh. Do you agree with us entirely? Adverbele barely, hardly, Utile, scarcely apar naintea verbului, a numelui predicativ sau ntre dou auxiliare: He barely HD time to catch the bus. She is barely EIGtHTEEN. She COULD hardly BE described as beautiful.
5 ! J.6. C O m p i - i < . .<: ;; ; i; ] _ ;; ; < ,;
U

;;>

. ;. , ;

j, . ,, j

,-j ;.

, . j ,, ,/

,; ; ,-,, .

! ) r: r i \- eg^e exprimat; a) printr-un substantiv sau pronume precedat de prepoziia like: It fits you like a glove. ") printr-un substantiv cu prepoziie, un adjectiv, un verb la infinitiv sau participiu prezent/trecut introduse prin as if, as though: She cried as if m a terrible danger. He behaved as if deprived of all his rights. ) un substantiv, adjectiv, pronume sau numeral, o construcie infinitival sau gerundial introduse prin conjunciile as, noi so / as, than'. Sfie is as Old as m y sister. John isn't as good at maths as m y older brother.' " is warmer here than downstairs. 0 Propoziie circumstanial de mod comparativ: She cried as if she were 1 a terrible danger. It is warmer here than it is downstairs. rtp , "" ' ' ' K - Complementul circumstanial de mod comparativ se aaz bicei:
o\ j

p verbul intranzitiv: He swims like a fish. PS complementul direct care urmeaz unui verb tranzitiv: He speaks *-*glish like an Englishman.
U

205

S,

Alte- complemeni

ircnmstania
'Exemplu:

Felul complementului circumstanial:

de mprejurri nsoitoare de cauz de scop

H e took farewelUiieU with waiting. She was punished because of you. The mn started erying IOT help. He came here to talk Io you.

condiional consecutiv concesiv de excepie de relaie

I couldn'1 have done U wlthoat his support.

She is too young to spcak. Thongh not a meehanic, he can repairall kindt of things. They listened to all the uiilnesses but one.

My friend has read everything aboutthe history o! the 01 y mp ie games.

20. TEIBUTI.T; (The 'All.ribmc)

20.1. Definiie
Atributul modific sau determin un substantiv'sau pronume care nde plinete n propoziie funcia de: 486) subiect: The tall boy is my Irother. 487) o parte secundar de propoziie:

488) complement direct sau indirect: They made an astonishing discovery. 489) c omplement prepoziional: He complained of the bad weather, . 490) complement circumstanial (de loc, tinvp te.): Th&y often go out on qi' evenings.

20,2. Exprima" -, str

Atributul poate fi exprimat printr-un adjectiv sau printr-o alt vorbire folosit ca adjectiv: L^ 491) u n adjectiv propriu-zis: That's an extraordinary solution. Este o soi extraordinar. 492) un substantiv cu valoare adjectival: He attended evening frecventa cursul seral.
206

w substantiv n cazul genitiv: You should follow your friend's advice. c) un trebui s asculi sfatul prietenului tu. Ar ffieral: Twenty persons were waiting for him. li ateptau douzeci de P el ^nfinitiv: There is only onething to do. Este un singur lucru de fcut. ' \rticipiu prezent sau trecut: They watched the rising tide. Urmreau f) un Crete fluxul. They sell frozen/oods here. Aici se vnd alimente congelate. un cUnidverb: Birds are chirping in the trees outside. Psrile cnt n pomii de
6 UB

The house on the right was built erifraza prepoziional sau adverbial: The house on t M P, 'few years ago. Casa, din dreapta a fost construit numai cu civa ni n urm. srap de cuvinte". He was a small and not-over-particulary-taken-care-of '^ L Era un biat mic i nu prea ngrijit. propoziie subordonat atributiv : The student who will guess the right will be rewarded. Elevul care va gsi rspunsul corect va fi evideniat.

alsii n propoziie
Atributul precede de regul cuvntul pe care l nsoete (atributul prepus). In unele cazuri ns, atributul poate aprea dup regentul lui (atributul postpus). : .2, "r-' Atributul precede subiectul atunci cnd este exprimat prin p.ri de vorbire folosite adjectival : 493) un adjectiv propriu-zis: My youngest brother became a pioneer a week ago. Fratele meu cel mai mic a fost f cut pionier sptmna trecut. 494) un demonstrativ: This exercise is less difficult than the iast one. Exerciiul acesta este mai puin dificil dect ultimul. 495) un substantiv : The. silver coins are kept here. Monedele de argint snt pstrate aici. 496) un substantiv n cazul genitiv: A n elephant's trunk is so strong it can hold a log of wood. Trompa unui elefant este aa de puternic nct poate s* ridice o buturug. e ) un numeral: Two men spoke at the conference. Dou persoane au vorbit la conferin. Cnd subiectul este precedat de dou adjective de acelai fel, cel scurt e aezat naintea celui lung: a long tiresome voyag'e o cltorie lung, Cositoare ; the shortest' and most accurate answer cel mai scurt i exact faspuns. Atributele exprimate prin p ri de vorbire diferite se aaz n ordinea: P r ^determinant: one, half, both + determinant : the, this, my +postin ant: the first three -f adjectiv : Pve read all the three historical novels published. Am citit toate cele trei romane, istorice pe care le-a publicat. A trib ut ul est e a ez at d up s ub iec t sau al t nom na ^ ^ ^i Q propoziie, cnd este exprimat: adjectivele: present, proper, exlant: jj stor y prpper is much longer. Povestea prppriu-zis este mult mai lung. we you seen the oldest inscription extant? Ai vzut cea mai veche inscripie 207

497) prin adjective folosite predicativ: The firemen got into the house Pompierii au ptruns n casa n flcri. 498) n construcii fixe tradiionale: sum total, time
immemorial, extraordinari/, poet laureate*." 499) dup pronume nehotrte terminate n body, one, -thing: Did you find anyihing new? Ai gsit ceva nou?

500) pri n construcii prepoziionale: / like this story about lying saucers ? place povestea aceasta despre farfuriile zburtoare. ' "ii 501) pr in construcii infinitivale: He hd the intention to help you. Intention ai te ajute. J50J.3. Unele atribute se pot aeza fie naintea substantivelor, fi e j, ele: ' f" 502) apoziia dezvoltat: G. Chaucer, the author of Canterbury Tales u in the l4-th century. G. Ghaucer, autorul Povestirilor din Canterburv trit n secolul XIV. The great poet and dramatist W. Shakespeare was Io * in 1516. Marele poet i dramaturg W. Shakespeare s-a nscut n 15i 503) a tributele exprimate prin adjective derivate din verbe, adjectivele expri mate prin participii trecute sau cele terminate n -able, -ible: visible stars stars visible, navigable rivers, ricers navigable.
'
$f,? ,Dac un substantiv este nsoit de mai multe atribute, unele din ele urmeaz pentru a conferi propoziiei ritmul potrivit: She lived in a little house tidy and comfortable. Locuia ntr-o cas mic, ngrijit i confortabil.

250J-. Ap055i|Ia (The Apposition)

20.4.1. Definiie. Apoziia este un atribut exprimat printr-un substantiv (uneori prin pronume) care explic-sau definete substantivul pe lng care st. Ea estete dou feluri: apoziia simpl i apoziia dezvoltat. 20.4.2, Apoziia sinjp-a este exprimat printr-un substantiv care specific titluri, profesiuni, numiri geografice, te.: Professor Smith, The Straits of Dover. Fiind n strns legtur cu substantivul pe lng care st, apoziia simpl nu se desparte prin virgul de acesta: Mount Everest. t'o/i.S, Lacul ap02fi simple, Apoziia simpl poate s precead sau^s urmeze substantivul: Boetor Jonnson, The Danube Delta, the town of Dubim. he river Thames. / aO.4.4, Apoafia dezvoltata este mai puin legat de substantivul la care se refer, n exprimarea oral, ea se citete cu o intonaie proprie, iar n lim scris se separ prin virgul de substantiv: Mr. Smith, a Mend of hers, visi us last week. Dl. Smith, un prieten de al ei, ne-a vizitat sptmna trecuta. Apoziia' dezvoltat poate fi uneori nsoit de un adverb care sublinia 2. relaia dintre apoziie i substantiv: Dan and Mar.y enjoyed watching tne mals al the zoo, particularly the. monkeys. Lui Dan i Mriei le-a plcut sa uite la animalele de la grdina zoologic, mai ales la maimue. O 1.5, Apoziia dezvoltat este aezat dup substantivul sau ec ^. lentul acestuia pe lng care st: There have been great English writer ^ fl . example Shakespeare. Au existat mari scriitori englezi, de exempl u kespeare.
208

^poziia dezvoltat poate aprea i naintea substantivului: A mn oi '' jfr Brown was still very energetic. Un om de cinzeci de ani, dl. Brown era

u. ELEMENTELE INDEPENDENTE (Independent Elements)

.Definiie

Elementele independente snt cuvinte, grupuri de cuvinte sau propoziii bordonate care nu au legtur gramatical cu celelalte pri ale propoziiei.

Elementele independente snt : 504) interjeciile; 505) substantivele sau pronumele n cazul vocativ (nemarcat formal n limba englez), identic ca form cu nominativul ; 506) cuvintele i locuiunile parentetice.

erece
Interjeciile nu au relaii gramaticale cu celelalte cuvinte din propoziie, funcia lor fiind de a da o anumit coloratur comunicrii. Ele pot exprima: 507) surpriza: Oh l 508) satisfacia, recunoaterea: Ah! 509) surpriza deosebit: Wowl 510) durerea: Ouch l Owl etc. Oh, what a nice present! Oh, ce cadou drgu! Ah, thaCs just what I was looking for ! O! este exact ceea ce cutam. Ouch, my toe l Au, degetul meu!

..4. Adresarea .direct (Vocative)

Numele unor persoane sau titlurile, denumirile profesiunilor, etc., rostite ceputul sau sfritul comunicrii, fr legtur gramatical cu celelalte cuvinte din propoziie, au rolul de a atrage atenia persoanei respective: . ' hnrry up ! We are late. Bob, grbete-te, am ntrziat! Have you got a mi nute, Mr. Brown? mi acordai un moment, Dl. Brown? !>;*:: Vocativul poate fi folosit i pentru a exprima relaia dintre vorbitor i asculttor: ~ ir i madam denot respectul fa de persoana creia i se face adresarea.
a !n

Minister, Doctor, snt folosite ca forme de adresare n stilul oficial. ~- Dintre vocativele folosite n vorbirea familiar menionm: daddy), mum(my),
y dear, arling.

~- Titluri i nume de profesiuni: My Lord, Your Honour, Your Excellency, Prime

U^o Q ramatica limbii engleze

209

Acestea pot fi: a) de afirmaie sau negaie: certainly, surely, really, to be sure, indeed means: We are very happy indeed. They really have enjoyed To be sure, we have heard such promises before. 511) d e probabilitate: perhaps, maybe, undoubtedly, as a matter-of-fact, in t : Perhaps he has left the town. As a matter-of-fact, nobody imagines tkafl will win the first prize. " < 512) de legtur cu comunicarea anterioar: however, moreover, therefore, nevert), less, to begin with, to conclude: In the end, however, .they came to an understanding. Pn la urm, totu ' au ajuns la o nelegere. ' ''' d) cuvinte sau grupuri de cuvinte cu caracter explicativ: in my personally, after all, to teii the truth : Personally, / dorit believe that. Eu personal, nu cred aceasta. In my opinion you've made a mistake. Dup prerea mea, ai'greit. '

21.6. Locul alimentelor isadeeBie^ie tu

513)
Elementele independente pot ocupa n propoziie: poziie iniial: As a matter of fact, / was happy I hd met him. De fapt, am fost fericit c 1-am cunoscut. - 514) poziie final: Come ora, boysl Hai(de) bieii 515) poziie medial: / really liked the show. '22. OIIDLV ' : r I x< fK^^A L

22.0. Generaliti
Ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie a fost tratat n capitolele anterioare (cap. 1121), n analiza fcut la fiecare parte de propoziie. n capitolul urmtor (cap. 23), se analizeaz din nou ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie, n funcie de scopul comunicrii: propoziii enuniative, interogative, imperative i exclamative. n capitolul de fa, ne intereseaz principiile generale care guverneaz aezarea cuvintelor n propoziie i unele situaii speciale. ;;2,0 i. Studierea ordinii cuvintelor n propoziie n limba englez p^ zint o importan deosebit. Limba englez este o limb sintetic, a puine forme flexionare (ca de exemplu desinena -s pentru formarea P| ^ lului substantivului i a persoanei a HI-a singular a verbelor, sufixul pentru formarea lui Post Tense i a participiului trecut la verbele reguwi De aceea, lociil pe care-1 ocup cuvintele n propoziie are un rol lEQ f tant n identificarea funciilor lor sintactice. 210

propoziiile urmtoare, de exemplu, .substantivul mn are aceeai J{ morfologic, funcia sa de subiect i respectiv de complement direct an"'' 11 ' - t \ o fiind identificat doar cu ajutorul poziiei i al transformrii TI ro p " ^ *
J'aSlV<!'v THE MN killed the tiger. ) o 'v : The tiger w< Aitfed BY THE MN. "s ' " mn este subiectul propoziiei active, in care ocup poziie

t'al i subiectul logic al propoziiei pasive, n care are funcia formal ..j"''complement circumstanial de agent. b) p siv: The t tiv THE TIGER killed the mn. mn was killed BY THE TIGER. qbstantivul mn este complementul direct al propoziiei active, fiind ezat imediat dup verbul tranzitiv i devenind subiectul formal al trans formrii pasive. ?10.'t. -Studierea ordinii cuvintelor n propoziie n limba englez este mportant i datorit diferenelor dintre cele dou limbi, n limba romn, ' ozitia prilor de propoziie difer de cea a cuvintelor englezeti n dou privine: , a) limba romn are mai multe forme flexionare dect limba englez i deci locul cuvintelor n propoziie nu este att de important, iar subiectul nu este de obicei exprimat, verbul romnesc fiind marcat formal pentru persoan i numr: Englez: Romn:, \ 7 NEVER sce him there. Niciodat nu-1 vd acolo. (Eu) Nu-1 vd niciodat acolo. (Eu) Nu-1 vd acolo niciodat. b) unele pri de propoziie n limba romna ocup de obicei alte locuri dect prile de propozi ie corespunztoare din limba englez: Englez: Ro m n: ' EFERYBODY went to sec the film. Au mers TOI s vad filmul. (subiect -f- predicat -f complemente) (predicat + subiect + complemente) He speaks ENGLISH well. El vorbete bine ENGLEZETE. (subiect -f predicat -j- compl. direct -j- (subiect + predicat + circ. mod + f circ. mod) -f comp], direct) 1 sawhimAT THE CINEMA last \night. L-am vzut asear LA CINEMA. subiect -f predicat + circ. de loc -f- (subiect -f- predicat + circ. de timp t-circ. de timp) +circ. de loc). ! / -3- Ordinea cuvintelor n limba englez prezint urmtoarele caracte nstici generale: ' Ordinea p r i l o r p r i n c i p a l e de propoziie este: ,'7 subiect predicat, n propoziiile enuniative i exclamative: PETER "kes algebra. THEY are not ready yet. How beautiful SHE is! --predicat .subiect, n propoziiile interogative: s HE an architect? r uinea obinuit a complementelor n propoziie este: tranzitiv -f complement direct ) + complemente circumstaniale intranzitiv / (de mod) (de loc) (de timp): . re ad the news quickly in the dining-room after dinner. quickly across the park every morning. 211

Atributul precede de obicei partea de vorbire P e care 516) nominal nsoete: Old Dacian implentents were found under the. ruins, 517) Schimbarea o r d i n i i normale a cuvintelor n pronrmt^
l v ' r^y'<Il'JC av

doua cauze mn: *'e partea de propoziie mai scurt tinde s fie aezat naintea celei lungi (din motive de ritm, echilibru al propoziiei): The hostess off^^ CKES to afl the guests in the room. 'ere^ partea de propoziie asupra creia vorbitorul dorete s ne atrag atenr este aezat la nceputul propoziiei, producnd de obicei inversiune nt subiect i predicat: NOWHERE was he better received than in his nat^ Ve town. ' e) I n v e r s i u n e a ntre subiect i predicat este: t o t a l , cnd predicatul este exprimat doar prin verbul (o form verbal simpl): Rarely hd HE time to watch TV. p a r i a l , cnd predicatul este alctuit din mai multe cuvinte 1 verb auxiliar / modal +verb noional (o form verbal compus). n al doilea caz, subiectul se aaz de regul dup primul cuvnt din forma verbului auxiliar / modal: Hardly hd THEY finished their dinner wken somebody rang at the door. Nowhere could YOU ind a better job. (Vezi 221 pct. 7) ' f) Aezarea n p o z i i e i n i i a l (poziia 0) a prilor de propo ziie care nu ocup de obicei acest loc, cu scopul de a le sublinia, nu produce totdeauna inversiune ntre subiect i predicat. Ordinea subiect predicat este meninut: dac subiectul este exprimat printr-un pronume: Here HE comes. Everyihing HE says is righl. dac elementul subliniat se refer la ceva menionat anterior: Telephone numbers I can never remember. On Sunday the exhibition hd been apen for a week. ' 22.0.4. Poziia diferitelor elemente sintactice n cadrul propoziiei in limba englez poate fi prezentat schematic astfel:
Poziie:

(Compl. Partea de prop.: circ. de timp/ Alt parte de vorbire pentru subliniere) (After dinner) Subiect ( +' atribute) Predicat Compl. direct

Compl. indirect / Compl. prepoz./ Eleni. predicativ supl. to them Compl. circ. de mod Compl. circ. de loc (Compl. circ. de timp)

Exemplu S :

She

said

goodnight

quickly

in the hali

____ '^ fcer ner)

23.1. Reguli privitoare la ordinea mvintelor fti pn 1) Subiectul ( + atributele sale) ocup locul l n propoziiile enunifltire' {i precednd predicatul: The mn has left. Omul a plecat. cau as . . e 518) Sub iectul sau alt element nominal din propoziie (alt nume) P08 precedat sau urmat de unul sau mai multe atribute. f0jo519) Subiectul este precedat de atribute exprimate prin pri de *6 site adjectival: 212

un demonstrativ, un numeral, n adjectiv propriu-zis, un substantiv, ) u participiu, etc.: The tall mn left, These books are ihteresting. This \ettin? dress is very beautiful. Three hundred people were present at the

ceremony.
rintr-un substantiv n cazul genitiv: The professor s lectures are very in* ca drul unui atribut care precede subiectul sau alt parte nominal de zitie se pot crea urmtoarele situaii, dac atributul este exprimat prin dou sau'mai multe adjective: nou adjective de acelai fel se aaz In ordinea adjectiv mai scurt adjeca) tiv mai lung: a QUIET intelligent boy; a LONG boring chapter; theTALLEST and most talkative girl. Dou adjective snt adesea legate prin and pentru subliniere: a dark and sloomy house, a new and useful experiment. . f)OUg adjective diferite ca sens lexical se aaz naintea substantivului n ordinea general/subiectiv specific/obiectiv: ce NICE new vase, a FINE old carpet, a PRETTY red flower. A] Se aaz imediat naintea substantivului adjectivele indicnd: culoarea: a delicate pink vase stilul: a beautiful gothic building naionalitatea: a cup of delicious China tea materialul: a useful plastic bag. f) Ordinea atributelor exprimate prin pri de vorbire diferite este: predeterminant: all, half, both -f-determinant: the, this, my + postdeterminant: ordinal: the first, the second + cardinal/cuantificator: two, several -f adjectiv + substantiv: All the three tall men were teachers. Poziia determinanilor n cadrul grupului nominal:
Grup Nominal Predeterm. Postdetermina Ordinal Cardin/Cuantifio. Calific.
%

\ Subst.

Grup Verbal

Half

my

first last two

The

workin g summe r

day months

was gone. were very

ho.

4) Subiectul (sau alt element nominal din propoziie) este urmat de atribute exprimate: ft) prin adjectivele: present, proper, extant: They drove from the suburbs to the city proper. The people present listened to him attentively. _ ) n construcii fixe tradiionale: sum total, time immemorial (vezi 6.7. pct. b) d) jfm^ a^Jective folosite predicativ: the house ablaze i aup pronume nehotrte terminate n -body, -one, -thing: There' nolhing unusual in what he says. Pr m construcii prepoziionale (substantiv + prepoziie): FU show you a f) Pwure of my son. sf Tconstruc" infinitivale: This is the question to be settled. a) Zl a ' y.nele atribute pot aprea fie nainte, fie dup substantiv: Z<Ki ^la ^ezvltat: Henri Coand, a scientist of world renown, was a great f er f nature. A scientist of world renown, Henri Coand was a great lover f nature.
213

b) Atributele.exprimate prin adjective derivate din verbe sau legate de tea, ca de exemplu adjectivele exprimate prin participii sau adjectiv^ terminate In -able, -ible preced numele cnd se accentueaz caracterul l adjectival (exprimarea unei caliti) i urmeaz numele cnd se $ c c ei1 tueaz caracterul lor verbal (exprimarea unei aciuni): ' Caracter adjectival: Caracter verbal: She is an adopted child. The classification adopted s ceru sim ( = which has been adopted) AU the available copies were pui at AU the copies available were put at 0 Ur our dispsal. disposal. c) Dac un substantiv este nsoit de mai -multe adjective, unele din ele 'i preced, iar altele l urmeaz, pentru realizarea ritmului propoziiei: Befor him stretched the vast forest, dark, dense and mysterious. r ,
e

6) Pe locul O n propoziie, naintea subiectului (+ atributele sale) se nnt

i * j'OC

afla:
a) complementul circumstanial de timp care exprim o perioad definit de timp: last year, in summer, on Mondy, yesterday. Poziia iniial a circumstanialului de timp este mai rar ftilosit dect poziia final (vezi: 22.1 pct. 15), de obicei n propoziii lungi, cu multe comple mente: Yesterday she unexpectedly left for Suceava by the morning plane. sau cnd se face referire la ceva menionat anterior: At eight she hd been waiting for you for half an hour. b) i alte pri de propoziie pot ocupa poziia O, pentru subliniere: Slowly and carefully he wrote his name. 7) n anumite situaii, subiectul ocup locul 2 n propoziie, prin inver siune total cu predicatul (exprimat prin verbul be sau kave la Present sau Post Tense: s HE at home? Have YOU a dog? sau prin inversiune parial cu verbul auxiliar sau modal care intr n alc tuirea predicatului: Have YOU met him? What can I do? Subiectul ocup locul 2 n propoziie: 520) n propoziii interogative: Could you get me some fruit? 521) cnd subiectul logic este precedat de un subiect introductiv (it sau there): IT is unusual for him to be so silent. THERE are beautiful pictures in this book. 522) cnd o parte de propoziie, n special complementul circumstanial exprimat prin adverbe negative sau restrictive singure: scarcely, hardly, seldom, rarely, liltle, even less, nor, neither, npwhere, by no means, at no time, never, etc. sau precedate de ONLY: only by chance, only yesterday, only then, only with difficulty, only by luck, este aezat pe locul O pentru subliniere: Little does he realize how foolish he looks. Only by chance did l hear IM they hd returned from their trip.

8) Predicatul ocup de obicei locul 2 n propoziie, dup subiect: He later. v ie Predicatul sau o parte a predicatului (verbul auxiliar sau modal; P 0^ ocupa locul l n propoziie, prin inversiune total sau parial cu subtf n situaiile enumerate la punctul 7. ,.^e 9) Predicatul poate fi precedat de anumite complemente circumstanP ^ (never, often, hardly, slowly, quickly) i este urmat dac este tranzi , J 'u01. complementul direct, iar dac este intranzitiv, de complemente ci _^ staniale, n ordinea: mod, loc, timp.: We often swim in the ea. We haa, g fun at the party last night.
214

-J adverbe restrictive,: hardly, s'carcely, only. ACeste adverbe preced predicatul exprimat printr-o form verbal simpl: rarely have visilors. sau verbul noional care intr n alctuirea, predi- e \ i mpreun cu un verb auxiliar sau modal: He has OFTEN lent me his ' HtU You can HARDLY excuse yourself for this reason. PC'1 Verbul he este urmat de aceste a-dverbe la formele simple (Present, \ Ile is OFTEN iii. i precedat de ele la formele, compuse : He has OFTEN Pentru subliniere, aceste adverbe pot fi aezate la nceputul sau sfritul iifiii cu sau fr inversiune ntre subiect i predicat: Often did they go r"; lone walks when they were young. (limba literar). They like io go for long , ijfs often they walk as far as five miles every day. They visit their frends
1)6

,0) predicatul este de obicei precedat de complementele circumstaniale ate prin : . adverbe de frecven nedefinit: often, always, usually, never, rarely ,, n l sometim.es.

ery often. 11) Verbul tranzitiv este urmat.de grupul complementelor (direct, indirect, prepoziional), n modul urmtor: a) U n s i n g u r complement d i r e c t se aaz imediat dup verb : r ce left my notebook at home. ' H s Dac verbul tranzitiv este exprimat printr-un verb cu particul adverbial, complementul direct se aaz: 523) dup particula adverbial, dac el este exprimat printr-un substantiv singur sau cu o complinire, sau printr-un pronume mai lung: Put on your gloves. Put on the gloves I bought you yesterday. Pack up everything. 524) ntre verb i particula adverbial: poziie obligatorie dac comple mentul direct este exprimat printr-un pronume: Put it on, sau variant la 1) dac., complementul direct este exprimat printr^lm substantiv: Put. your gloves on. b) Dou co mp l e me n te . d i r e c t e s e a a z d up ve rb n o rd in e a : complement direct al persoanei, complement direct al obiectului: He teaches THE CHILDREN mathematics. c ) U n complement d i r e c t i >unul i n d i r e c t se aaz n ordinea : 1) complement direct -f indirect, aceast ordine fiind uneori folosit pentru sublinierea complementului indirect: / eave THE NOTE to your deskv

; ; . i e, Aceast ordine este recomandat: ,.~c'nd ambele complemente snt exprimate prin pronume: / gave it
u t j.~^ P^ verbe urmate obligatoriu de prepoziia to: / explained the lesson em coh* ' ^ar i: ^ explained to them the importance of this discocery for the co ^mporary world). P I yl cnd complementul indirect este mai lung dect cel direct: / "ave the *"e t your deskmate. f a^ posibilitate este: verb tranzitiv + complement indirect fr to % ^irect> care este ordinea normal, neutr: / gave him Complement d i r e c t i unul prepoziional sen 9 8 Z n ' aceast ordine : They comprea THE FILM with the novei.

215

e) C o m p l e m e n t u l d i r e c t e s t e a e a s e m e n e a u r m a t elementul p r e d i c a t i v suplimentar: They found PLACE a prosperous village.

525) Un verb intranzitiv (sau un verb tranzitiv -f complement(e)\ urmat de complementele circumstaniale n ordinea: mod, loc, timp: H quietly in the room lor an hour. 526) C omplementul circumstanial de mod este aezat imediat dup v intranzitiv sau dup verbul tranzitiv i complementele sale: He smiled pro HI He covered the tube careully. % Excepii: 527) Complementul circumstanial de mod poate uneori preceda predi sau verbul noional din structura sa, dac este exprimat printr-un sin cuvnt: slowly, quickly, etc., pentru a sublinia felul n care a fost svr'v' aciunea: He QTJICKLY sat down when the teacher came in. He L Om v walked out of ihe room. 528) Complementul circumstanial de mod n propoziiile pasive este aez naintea verbului noional la participiul trecut: The roof has been SfellT OUSLY damaged. This work must be BETTER prepared. 529) Complementele circumstaniale de mod care se rfer la <o propoziie ntreag: fortunately, hojiestly, maybe, perhaps, etc. ocup de obicei poziie iniial (0): Fortunately there is plenty of time left. Maybe he is right. Dou sau mai multe complemente circumstaniale de mod se aaz de la cel scurt la cel mai lung: He spoke to the class CLEARLY, in a loud voice. Adesea cele dou complemente snt legate prin and: He spoke io the class clearly and in a loud voice. 14) Complementul circumstanial de loc se aaz dup circumstanialul de mod: She walked noisily out o the room. Excepii: 530) Circumstanialul de loc se poat.e uneori aeza naintea celui de mod, dup un verb intranzitiv exprimnd micarea, pentru a-i completa sensul: She walked TO SCHOOL in a hurry yesterday. Pil go TO THE CINEMA by bus. 531) Circumstanialul de loc se poate aeza naintea complementului direct, dup un verb tranzitiv, cnd complementul direct este urmat de o construc ie prepoziional sau o propoziie subordonat: / met there a boy wh pretended to be a friend of yours. 532) C omplementul circumstanial de loc se poate aeza la nceputul propozii 6' fie pentru subliniere, fie pentru echilibrul propoziiei. Aceast aezare produce inversiune ntre subiect i predicat, dac subiectul este exprima printr-un substantiv: Of goes yonr train ! Lower and lower bent the old m over the sick child. te Ordinea subiect - predicat rmne neschimbat dac subiectul exprimat printr-un pronume: O he goes l Lower and lower he bent. ^^^ Dou sau mai multe complemente circumstaniale de loc se a?az^ egj. cel mai specific la cel mai general: He lives at 55, Franklin street, Bncfi / met my friends in a little village on the Black ea coast. d'recieDac n propoziie apar dou adverbe: unul de loc i altul de t j, e adverbul de loc se aaz dup cel de direcie: The horse jumped o v e (direcie) (loc) .te f e n c e in the garden, sau la nceputul propoziiei: In the garden jumped o v e r t h e f e n c e .
, 216

/i p,1) Complementele circumstaniale de timp care ocupa poziia umua m yitie snt cele care indic: ^ j^ o m e n t u l a c i u n i i : yesterday, at five o'clock, two days ago, d urata a c e s t e i a : for three weeks, for ages, etc. . "frecvena definit: once in a while, from time to time, etc. " frecven nedefinit, vezi 22.1 pct. 10). Excepii! ,T complement circumstanial de timp scurt se aaz uneori naintea preV" tului sau a verbului noional din structura sa: You (can) now see that were wrong. Pil soon find out the truth. Vn complement circumstanial ac . a multe complemente circumstaniale de timp exprimnd momentul funii c e aaz de la momentul mai precis determinat la cel mai general: Hewas born at 3.12 in the afternoon on August 29th, 1968. Mai multe complemente circumstaniale -de timp diferite se aaz n ordinea: durat frecven moment: / went to the seaside for two weeks every summer during my childhood. de timp se poate aeza naintea unui rcumstanial de loc, dac este mai scurt dect acesta: / saw them EARLIER " front o the school. au dac exprim durata: / stayed FOR TWO WEEKS at the seaside.
S etC

EXERCIII
cap. 1422 I. Schimbai ordinea complementelor. Folosii prepoziia to sau lor naintea complementului indirect. . , Exemplu: Show us the album. Show the album to us. 1. Please, pass me the salt. 2. She bought her son some toys. 3. Teii the children this funny story. 4. He didn't forget to buy his sister a ticket. 6. Mother gave us some grapes. 6. Please, send your parents my regards. 7. Fetch me a glass of water. 8. He offered everyone flowers. U. nlocuii complementele indirecte din coloana nr. l cu complemente indirecte potrivite ca sens din coloana nr. 2. Facei schimbrile necesare. Exemplu: He offered everyone a copy. He offered a copy to all the students Present. l 2 r mise 2 LP ? d them a dictionary. The elderly lady. William handed her some pictures. all who hd come. / *^ e y told us the news. the woman sitting next to him. > ane showed Miss Denter the album everybody in the ball. h ve written John a letter. her, not to him. 6' A * Andrew owes Betty some money. him, not to her. Trad wicei urmtoarele propoziii in limba englez: Q " ne peisajul. 2. Te rog dicteaz-mi traducerea cuvintelor noi. vestea grozav. 4. I-am cumprat soului meu o cravat 217

foarte drgu. 5. Medalia de aur a fost acordat sportivei romne p e n t p erfo rman a ei ex trao rdin ar . 6. Nu e s te ne voie s -mi n ap oie zi 0^4 ftrte i-o fac cadou. ' <*. IV. Completai spaiile libere cu prepoziiile care lipsesc pentru a forma co mente prepoziionale: P'e1. She never speaks . . . this subject. 2. She waited. . . you for half hour. 3. He still depends . . . his parents. 4. Do you agree . . . me ? 5. T insisted . . . doing it himself. 6. Please, look .. . the book I've bought. V. Transformai propoziiile urmtoare pentru a folosi verbele din parante K verbe urmate de elemente predicative suplimentare. ^i Exemplu: The best speaker was their representative. (make) hey mode the best speaker their representative. 1. The wisest mn was their president. (choose) 2. The boy was given th name of William. (caii) 3. Mr White was their director, (appoint) 4. She was the winner. (proclaim) 5. He was the commander of the army. f dedare i 6. Richard was their secretary. (elect) VI. Folosii prepoziia to naintea infinitivului-acolo unde este cazul, n construc iile Acuzativ cu infinitiv sau Nominativ cu infinitiv: 1. He is said (be) the best football player of the- naional team. 2. Did you see her (play) this part? 3. They expected us (come) on Sunday. 4. I noticed him, (leave) the house. 6. I considered her (be) my best friend. 6. We have of ten heard hi.m (apeak) like this. 7. The teacher wanted the pupils (listen) to his explanation. 8. I felt him (move) in the room. d. We saw him (leave) the building. 10. He is considered (be) a great scientist. VII. Transformai eonstruciile Acuzativ cu infinitiv n construcii Nominativ .^ cu infinitiv. Exemplu: They knew Mm to be a good doctor. He was known to be a good doctor. 1. We expected her to speak first. 2. They thought him to be gifted in painting. 3. I heard him whistle. 4. We advised him to take it easy. 6.- They told us to wait. 6. The teacher asked him to explain the rule. 7. We saw him leave the rqom. 8. We consider his methods to be very interesting. VIII. Punei complementele circumstaniale din paranteze la locul potrivit w propoziie: ! I am working on my graduation project (now). 2. He has ha ^ dinner (already). 3. These flowers gr'ow (rapidly, in dark places). '^^ last lesson was difficult (unusually); this one is asy (enough)- , \ believed them (never). 6. His behaviour cannot be explained l e "' 7. Our teacher speaks English (very well). He speaks English (in room, -always). 8. That author doesn't write true stories (actu .al ':y''tin{es, can excuse yourself for that reason (hardly). 10. He comes ( sor n ^\n L Saturdays, to my place). 11. He goes to the seaside (usualty, in JulyJat those sentences (tonight). IX. Punei atributele din parantez la locul potrivit n propoziie1. We hd a long talk with somebody (intelligent). 2. That chi^ son (fair-haired). 3. I can't believe that story (long, of your frienaj-

218

olenty of sights in the town. (historical, of Braov). 5. He is a mn (handwtih strong features). 6. Have you seen the inscription (oldest, extant) ? 5< "u4 bought some wine (dry, red, inexpensive). 8. She was looking at a Valley /unde, beautiful, green). '
&re

e Subliniai apozi\HU: l You look tired, Aunt Mary. 2. Have you read Chacy Chase, the oldest torical English ballad?, 3. Professor Jones will lecture on modern art. !?lSYesterday I met the Smiths, the friends of my youth. 5. Do you know the d saying First come, first served"? 6. We admired the exhibits, especially h naional costumes. 7. London is crossed by the river Thames. 8. There was iv one carriage in the village and that was old Tom's the baker. Yj Traducei n 'limba englez: Rou Gheorghe era soldatul cel mai mic, nu numai din grupa sau din plutonul lui, ci din ntreaga companie^ Era att de mic, nct abia reuise la recrutare s nu fie reformat. De fapt la nceput l i reformaser, dup ce mai nti fusese amnat de dou ori n doi ani i dac n satul lui acest lucru n-ar fi fost socotit drept o dovad definitiv de infirmitate, Rou Gheorghe ar fi putut s ia imediat trenul de la centrul de recrutare i s plece n aceiai zi acas. In aceeai zi ns, tot satul ar fi tiut c nu e bun de armat i n primul rind fetele. Era originar de prin Banat. Aa se face c, dndu-se jos de pe cntarul medical, Rou Gheorghe nu ieise din sal, ci se retrsese mai ncolo, tcut i trist, ntrziind ct putuse de mult timpul mbrcatului. Cu ochiul lui pnditor de bnean linitit observase ns c nimeni nu era atent la el. i atunci se amestecase-cj^ceilali care veneau la rnd, se dezbrcase i se prezentase iar In faa comisiei/^,
(Marin Preda Soldatul cel mititel)

PELIJM-E P.ROPOZJIOR (Kinds of Sentences)'

punct de vedere al scopului comunicrii, propoziiile pot fi mprite cla Se m ri: ^ ^ enuniative, interogative, imperative i exclamative. -*aS^ ez nt Pf ' ^ anumite caracteristici n ceea ce privete intonaia, aia, topica, etc. necesare pentru exprimarea coninutului ei specific.

' '---:' ^sja eMBilf jrfiv (Declarative Sentesce, Statement)'Wa J?Pz^ia enuniativ este utilizat pentru transmiterea unei informaii. P ate fi: * lril8 b) ne tiv: He speaks English wett. (El),Vorbete bine englezete, j * * v ; He doesn't speak English well. El nu vorbete bine englezete. v>(. . n aia propoziiilor enuniative este descendent: 7 went to town ' jM-am dus n ora ieri. 219

( -j- co -- , Little mplement direct) ( + complemente circumstan iale de mod, loc t Q( Tommy learned a poem at school yesterday. ' ' 1Rl P): Ordinea cuvintelor n propoziia enuniativ n propoziiile enuniative, subiectul este de obicei exprimat i predicatul. Ordinea cuvintelor este astfel: (atribut +) subiect -f- j, e *) --

23,2* Propoziia negativ (The Negativ* Sentenc

23.2.1. Exprimarea negaiei n limba englez prezint unele deoseb' lri fa de limba romn, necesitnd un studiu atent. Exprimarea negaiei n limba englez se face de regul cu ajutorul un singur cuvnt de negare, spre deosebire de limba romn: / didn't say anvth '^ to anybody. Nu am spus nimic la nimeni. " * 28.2.2. O, propoziie poate conine dou negaii doar dac acestea se refer la dou pri diferite ale propoziiei: / didn't teii him not to phone. Nu i-am spus s nu telefoneze
Motft Propoziii ca: He ain't got nothing. El nu are nimic, care se pot ntlnitn unele opere literare, critece sau filme, snt forme incorecte din punct de vedere gramatical, caracteristice vorbirii necultivate sau cntecelor populare.

23.2.3. Exprimarea sBissului n^atl* al unei propoziii se poate face prin: A) negarea verbului; B) negarea altei pri de propoziie. A) Negarea verbului: a) Verbele be i have ca verbe noionale, verbele modale defective i verbele noionale la timpuri comp'use formeaz negativul prin adugarea negaiei not dup primul auxiliar / modal: He is NOT an engineer. I have NOT a new bicycle. He canNOT swim, / have NOT spoken English today. He should NOT have one this.
Notai Dac un verb este urmat de un substantiv, se poate folosi no (echivalentul lui not any) : I have no time. Nu am timp. There are no children in the playground. Nu e nici un copil / Nu snt copii pe terenul de joc.

n vorbire, negaia not este contras n n't care se scrie ntr-un cuvin cu verbul: He isn't an engineer. I haven't a bicycle. Exprimarea contras a negaiei se mai poate face i prin contragerea ver lui auxiliar, acolo unde este posibil: He isn't fiere = He's not here. Theytf't working = They'Tv not working. They haven't read the book = j/'Lj not read the book. He won't come = He'H not come. She wouldn't'speaA; ^ not speak. c'mp/ b) Pentru formarea negativului la timpurile Present Simple i P^ / f $, (care nu conin auxiliare n forma lor), se folosete verbul auxi pentru prezent i forma de Post Tense, did, pentru Past Tense. ^g ]8 Auxiliarul doldid -f negaia not se aaz ntre subiect i verb, car infinitivul scurt: / do not know him. I did not see them.
,

La persoana a III-a singular prezent, auxiliarul prime te -es, does: He does not like grapefruit. fttiAtenie!" 1. Verbul auxiliar do este necesar pentru formar e a fft ( , e ; vulm la prezent i Post Tense i n cazul verbului noional do 220

r/ didn't do anyhing yesterday. N-a fcut nimic ieri. Verbul have (vezi 1.19.4) poate forma negativul i cu ajutorul lui A n't have enough money. He didn't have any friends in this town. ' ' r vorbire, negaia not este de obicei contras: / don't [daunt] know him. \ rdidnt] see them. He doesu't [dAznt] like grapefruit. didn i L negativ a verbelor A n
Verb Subiect Ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie Verb &ux.{ modal Nume predicativ not 4 j Verb noional/ (-f- aJte pri de prop.)

----------

1 "J

Verb noional la { ispecul continuu

^ " , P ^ Te n s e

ara was
has hd are were will be

NOT

a teacher.

He

a Mcyele.

reading.

We

NOT
reading.

^~"X

He

l is \ toas
/ are \ taere ( ham [hd

NOT

understood.

Verb noional la liateza pasiv

YOM

being followed. been shown the museum.

They

.b noional la 'mpuri perfecte

NOT
He They They Mary has hd
will would come. i * finished by then. have arrived yet. have done this.

$ Mfional la y.^Ple, Pai Tense,

^

NOT
I He They do
does

like milk.

did
must swim.

;5sr+

You

should

NOT

have done ihis.

221

ere

B) Caracterul negativ al unei propoziii poate fi exprimat i prin rea altor pri de propoziie:

I spoke to nobody about this. complementul circumstanial: He is nowhere to be found. Pentru negarea acestor pri de propoziii se pot utiliza pronume, ^j tive sau adverbe negative ca: no (one), none, neither, nothing, n never, etc. (urmate de verbe la forma afirmativ) : None of them the answer. Niciunul dintre ei (mai muli de doi) nu tia rspunsul. them knew the answer. Niciunul (din cei doi) nu tia rspunsul. Unele dintre aceste mijloace de exprimare a negaiei au cte un dent: any (one), either, anything, anywhere, ever, etc. care este folosit verbul este la forma negativ: / didrit know anything = / knew nothing Ele pot fi folosite ca orice parte de propoziie, n afar- de subiect sau parte din subiect: / couldrit see anything in the dark. dar: Nothing could be seen in the dark. n majoritatea cazurilor, cuvintele negative au echivalente n propoziiile afirmative : Negativ: / didn't meet ANY friends of mine, / N-am ntlnit nici un prieten de-al met meu. / haven't read about this AUTWHERE. N-am citit nicieri despre asta.
4

subiectul : Nobody came here yesterday. numele predicativ: He is nothing Io me. complementul (direct, indirect,- prepoziional): / saw nothing

Afirmativ:

Negativ: They haverit eaten yet. N-au mncat nc. He isrit sleeping any longer. Nu mai doarme. He never/seldom phones me. Nu-mi telefoneaz niciodat / "ar mi telefoneaz. They dorit read very many l Ei nu citesc prea multe cri. Mary isrit coming either. Nu vine nici Mria. / dorit like him much. Nu-mi place prea mult. They were/i't away long. N-au fost plecai prea mult He hasrit travelled far. Nu a cltorit departe.

SOME friends of mine. Am ntilnit nite prieteni de-ai mei. /'ve read about this SOMEWHERE. Am citit undeva despre asta. Alteori ns se folosesc cuvinte diferite: Afirmativ: They've eaten already. Au mncat deja. He is still sleeping. Doarme nc. He sometimes phones me.

mi telefoneaz uneori. They read too many books. Ei citesc prea multe cri. Mary is coming, too. Vine i Mria. / like him a gFeat deal / a lot. mi place foarte mult. They were away a long time. Au fost plecai mult Vreme. H e has travelled a long way. A cltorit departe.
Adjectivele Utile i few i adverbele only, seldom, rarely, hardly, sc^ barely ocup un loc special. Ele snt cuvinte cu sens negativ, dei foflfl" 222

rat aceasta. In consecin, propoziiile care conin asemenea cuvinte nu " U a vea un predicat negativ (exist deja o negaie n propoziie) i se construPot HU any J compuii si: He seldom speaks to anyone. Arareori vorbete cu 'eSC a Few people know anything about him. Puini oameni tiu ceva despre el. nega al unei pri de propoziie se face n aezarea ei n poziie iniial. P rl * verbele be, have, aceasta atrage dup sine inversiunea total subiectd'cat: NEVER was he in time. Niciodat nu era punctual. Pre U verbele noionale, are loc inversiunea parial subiect verb auxiliar/ A a ]- HARDLY could he talk about that subject. Cu greu vorbea despre acel
jflOQ"*'

Dac verbul este la Present sau Past Simple, se adaug auxiliarul dojdoes, espectiv forma de Past Tense did: NEVER does he listen to anyone. Niciodat nu ascult de nimeni. NOT A fOAL did their goalkeeper miss. Nu i-a scpat nici o minge portarului lor. se ; . . 'iM'L11 . realizeaz cu ajutorul adverbului no sau not: 'Do you like him?' 'No.' Adverbul negativ no este de obicei nsoit de un subiect exprimat prin pronume, de auxiliarul verbului din prima propoziie i negaia contras -rCt: 'Have you seen Tom?' 'No, I haven't.' Adverbul not este folosit' dup cteva verbe principale (think, hope, expect i, mai rar, believe, suppose) la timpul Present sau Past Simple, pentru a nega o propoziie. ntreag: "Do you think it will rain?" "I hope not."/ "IthinKnot" Crezi c o s plou? Cred c nu/sper c nu. Forma alternativ pentru think, believe, suppose este cu do -\-not so: "Are.they going to broadcast the show?" "I don't think so." Au s transmit spectacolul la radio? Na cred / Cred c nu.
1. Acordul unei persoane cu o propoziie negativ se exprim n limba englez cu ajutorul adverbului negativ no i a unui rspuns scurt (spre deosebire de limba romn unde se folosete da): 'This is not a suitable dress for you.' 'No, it Isn't." Nu este o rochie potrivit pentru tine. Da, nu este. 533) Folosirea lui yes n limba englez nseamn, dimpotriv, exprimarea unui dezacord: 'This is not a suitable dress for you.' 'Yes, it is.' Nu este o rochie potrivit pentru tine. Ba da, este. 534) Tot pentru exprimarea acordului cu o propoziie negativ se pot folosi i con junciile neither/nor n poziie iniial, urmate de un verb afirmativ+subiect sau either/orin poziie final, precedate de un verb negativ: 'Pm not good at gardening.'
am t 'Nor " '/ 'I'm not elther.' Nu m pricep la grdinrit. Nici eu. 4. Acordul vorbitorului cu un enun afirmativ se face cu ajutorul adverbului too, aezat la sfritul propoziiei, sau so, n poziie iniial (+ inversiune):

SU

'J Hke English.' { Ig^*" 0 ^ ~ * m i P la ce engleza. - i mie.

rropoaiffe Istarogativ (The. Interogative Sentence)

4

rl P 4ia interogativ este folosit pentru a cere o informaie de la f0011*'01'1 .Coninutul interogativ al propoziiei este exprimat de regul 'wnia interogativ a verbului.

223

535)

23.B.1. InterogativMl verbelor se formeaz:

'p rin inversiune subiect-predicat n cazul verbelor be i hace folosite ca v noionale, la Present sau Past Tense: 'Was he at Aome?' Era acas? r as she a new uniform?' 1 Are o uniform nou? 536) prin inversiune subiect verb auxiliar/mo dai n cazul verbelor m defective i al timpurilor verbale compuse: WILL THEY have arrived ^ 6 now? Vor fi sosit deja? CAN HE come at five? Poate veni la ora cinci? 537) prin'inversiune subiect verbul auxiliar do / didla. timpul Present Sin, ; respectiv Post Simple al verbelor principale: DO YOU understand me no :> M nelegi acum? DID THEY understand me yesterday? M-au neles" 1 ' 6l ieri? . La persoana a IlI-a singular prezent, auxiliarul do adaug -es: DOES th postman comp every day? Vine potaul n fiecare zi? Forma interogativ a
A

Ve r b

Ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie: Verb Subiect Verb noional auxiliar/modal 2 3 4

Alte pJri de propoziie 5

*~

be, have, la Present, Past Tense

Are \ W ere f Have \ Hd

i'n the dassroom?

you

a dicitonary? reading ?

Verb notonal la aspectul continuu: Present Continuous Past Continuous* Present Perfect Continuaus Future Perfect Continuous etd. Yerb noional la diateza pasiv: Present Past Present Perfect Past Perfect Future Perfect Perfect Condiional

Are Were they Have Will s Are everything the clothes been living have been playing

now? at this time yesler-2*1 in Deva for a long time? all day?

*
prepared ? being washed?

Was Were Have Hd Will Would

America the classrooms the visitors the school the baby this

discovered being cleaned been shown been buill have been washed have been done

l Columb whenyouj^ theneuv^byl^O^^ b y tihh en^^ ey if n^ hadh^^-

224
~~~~ 1
2

verb noional timpuri per?#.< P^fect pai Perfect Future Perfect Ilave

Hd
W ill

they

finished. wrilten have arrived

already ? io you?

yet?

perfect Condiional

Would

have done

this? this? to you? in time? English ? too?

Vrb noional la:

present Simple pai Simple

Do
Does - Did

you
this everybody

like belong come speak have come

Verb noional + Verb modal

Can
Should

sne

.3.2, Se pot formula ntrebri i despre situaii negative, ceea ce rezult in ipozU interogativ negative. n acest caz, inversiunea are loc ntre subiect verb auxiliar / modal, iar negaia noi se aaz dup subiect: WILL TOM not do it? (form utilizat n limba scris, literar). Cnd/sa folosete forma contras -rit (frecvent n vorbire), ea face corp comun pi auxiliarul: Won't Tom do it? N-o s fac Toma asta? S3.3.3, n propoziiile interogative, se folosesc n general aceleai pronume, adjective sau adverbe ca i n propoziiile negative. t. e H j i H, l.Any i compuii lui pot fi folosii i n propoziii.afirmative, cu sensul de oricine, orice, oriunde: You can take any book you like. Poi s iei orice carte vrei. Anyone can do this. Oricine poate s fac acest lucru. Take anything you like. Ia tot/orice doreti. You can get it anywhere. Se gsete (de cumprat) peste tot/oriunde. 538) Some i compuii lui se transform n any i compuii lui i n propo ziii condiionale pentru a reda sentimentul negativ" al vorbitorului* // you ee any children in the playground, come and teii me (But I dorit think there are "^y children in the playground). Dac vezi vreun copil pe terenul de sport, Vin o i spune-mi. 539) Some este folosit n contexte n car se folosete de obicei any, pentru a j?ro sjnt'raentul pozitiv" al vorbitorului. I f you see some children in the playspn ' c-ome an<^ te^ me- Dac vezi nite copii pe terenul de sport, vino i
j

formelor afirmative n ntrebri: W as there someone there? some tea ^ indic orientarea pozitiv a ntrebrii, vorbitorul a ?ten - ""; nume tea.'- uiuica orientarea pozmva a inireDani, vorouorui c g * ? lm rspuns afirmativ, o confirmare a ntrebrii sale: E adevrat ' ost cineva acolo? Dorii nite ceai? generaie 7n Prpoziiile interogative se pot formula mai multe feluri de ntrebri: , speciale, alternative i disjunctive. 5'aste L n*r)^r^e generale f Y.cs - No Quesions) ,se refer la predicat a Pta un rspuns scurt afirmativ sau negativ, exprimat de regul prin 225

Umbll engleze

Folosirea lui some, any., no i a compuilor lor u afirmative, negative i interogative

Propoziia afirmativ Verb afirmativ + some (+ compuii) Propoziia negativ Verb afirm. + no + Verb neg. + any ( + ( + compuii) compuii) Propoziia interogativ Verb interog. + ^y (+ compuii)

Fve jo/'Bome books, Am nite cri. Fve got something. Am ceva. , f someone. 7 see \ somebody. Vd pe cineva, It must be gomewhere. Trebuie s fie undeva.

I've gol no books. Nu am

/ haven^t got any books. nici o carte.

Have you got. any too)ts > Ai vreo carte? ffasfcego/anythliig Are (el) ceva? Can you see Jnyone 9 lanyboiy Vezi pe cineva? Con this be found BUT . where Se gsete asta undeva?

Fve got nothing. 7 haven't got anything. Nu a m nimic. , (no one. /see iobdy. Nu vd pe nimeni. He is nowhere to be He tm'< anwyhere to be found. found. Nu e nicieri de gsit.

""'iSS;.

YesjNo + pronume + verb auxiliar/modal : ' Can you ski ?' ' Yes, I ean.' tii s schfezi? Da, tiu. 'Have you written to him?' 'No, Ihaoeri't? I-ai seria? Nu (nu i-am scris). Intonaia acestor ntrebri este ascendent: 'id you talk to him last night?'\'Ye$) I did.' iar ordinea cuvintelor este: auxiliar/modal + subiect + -J- verb noione.1 ( + complemente) : Will you be seeing them tommorroHi? li ntllneti ffiine? .ntrebrile generale pstreaz uneori forma propoziiilor enuniative, coninutul lor interogativ fiind indicat doar de semnul ntrebrii i intonaia ascendent 'You saw ^im.^'l'Yes, / did." 1 Aceast form este caracteristic exprimrii familiare, fiind folosit sau cnd vorbitorul ateapt un rspuns afirmativ : You live here? (Tu locuieti aici?) sau pentru exprimarea surprinderii: You paid a fine? Ai pltit (ntr-adevr) amend? 23.3.5. ntrebrile speciale (Wh questions) formuleaz ntrebri despre o anumit parte de propoziie i ateapt un rspuns definit referitor la aceasta 'When did they arrive?' 'Last night.' Gnd au sosit? Asear. ntrebrile speciale snt introduse de pronume, adjective sau adverb interogative: Who pentru fiine: Who is coming? Cine vine? Whose is the book.' J cui e cartea? Who did you talk to? Cu cine ai vorbit? What pentru obiecte : What subject do you like best ? Ce obiect de studi i place cer mai mult? Which pentru a indica alegerea su preferina dintre . dou sau K> multe persoane sau obiecte: Whieh ofthese books do you want? Pe care dintr aceste cri o vrei? How pentru indicarea modului: How did you get this? Cum ai

t , asta? . " How many pentru indicarea numrului: How many guests did last night? Citi musafiri ai avut asear? How rnuch pentru indicarea cantitii: How much rice did Cit orez ai cumprat? How mucii did it cost? Ct a costat?
nfl

226

jun/ old t- ....... ; indu-i-...,.. ,.,,.;;, .-.i. A .,,,.. ; i, -.,'<; yow? Ci ani ai? /frw /w1 pen.tru indicarea distanei : How far rfid he run ? Ct de departe
&

J^yvhere pentru indicarea locului: Where did you find this? Unde ai

8*S ^Whenjwhat time pentru indicarea momentului: When did they arrive? A a u sosit? What time did you get ap? La ce or te-ai sculat? ^ffow long pentru indicarea duratei: How long did you stay there? Ct . D\ ai stat acolo? ( L-VVhy pentru indicarea cauzei: Why are you late? De ce ai ntrziat? Intonaia ntrebrilor speciale este descendent: 'What are you doing ^rj'/'w reading.' Ordinea cuvintelor n ntrebrile speciale Cuvintele interogative ocup poziie iniial n ntrebrile speciale, iar edicatul sau o parte a lui precede de obicei subiectul, ordinea cuvintelor fiind : \ cuvnt interogativ (+ compliniri) -(- be/have (PresentfPast simple) + subiect ( + complemente) : WHAT has he in his ha nd? Ce are in mn? WHERE were they la t night? Unde au fo st asear ? 540) cuvnt interogativ (-f- compliniri) + auxiliar /modal + subiect -fverbnoional .( + complemente) : HOW MANY postcards have you written today ? Cte vederi ai scris azi? 541) cuvnt interogativ ( + compliniri) + predicat( + complemente) cnd cuvntul interogativ este subiectul propoziiei interogative. In aceast situaie nu mai arejoc inversiunea subiect predicat sa-u subiect auxiliar, *iar la timpurile iPresent Simple i Post Simple nu se mai folosete auxiliarul do: HO W/ MANY PUPILS have written to you? Ci elevi i-au scris? WHAT hppened Ce s-a ntmplat? WHO rings you ap every aay? Cine i telefo neaz n fiecare zi? In toate cele trei cazuri (a, b, c), cuvntul interogativ ocup poziie iniial. O excepie o constituie -situaiile n care cuvntul interogativ este precedat de o prepoziie: At whom are you looking? La cine te uii? construcie caracte ristic englezei literare. In vorbire, prepozi ia se aaz la sfritul ntrebrii: Who are you loohng at 23.3.6. ntrebrile alternative (Either-ar questions)se refer la una dintre oua sau -mai multe alternative, legate prin conjuncia or: Did you see a film w a play last night? Ai vzut un film sau o pies de teatru asear? Prima sau primele alternative au o intona ie ascendent, iar ultima, scendent ;: Did you talk to Peter, f John f or Mary about it? a unor ntrebri speciale : How did you get there: by bus or by tram ? ^ IIM f on ecin * * ordinea cuvintelor n ntrebrile alternative este aceeai ntrebrile ^ ntpel) *p '' e disiiinctive (Disjunctive Questions) cer rspuns sau '

generale sau speciale. ntr f Drile alternative au structura fie a unor ntrebri generale : Did you ] jj: T"6 la un enun pozitiv 'sau negativ, prin reluarea, m final, a verbului j nt 'mdal i a subiectului exprimat prin pronume, la forma interogativ Enu n t gat ~ negativ ' dup cum urmeaz: n0fv * Pozitiv + form interogativ negativ contras: Tom can answer ' i s l Can t he? Toma poate s rspund acum, nu-i aa? Father has lost Ke ys, hasn't he Tata i-a pierdut cheile, nu-i aa?
Cuvlnt interog. (+ complinire)
Verb auxiliar/ modal

227
Subieot

Situaie:

' Verb n-ional (+ complinire)

Prepoziie

Cuvin tul
interogativ = subiectul propoziiei

Who
What How many
Which boofcs

came yesterday? is going on there ? are present? havebeenchose n? see? like ? live? le brought? going io do it? like him? ehosen ?

Who
What What Where When Cuvntul

did
is
d o d will

you
your name? ehMren you they you, they

How
Why
WMch book What colour How old

are do

interogativ =
alt parte de propoziie dect subiectul

has
is are
have does

he
the material? you? they this

How long
How much How far What Whal

studied English ? cost? run? speaking looking take send shown interest work look about?

eon is

you he
they

were does did

has
will

al?
afler?

Who

he you
the mn the scientist the weather

Who
interogativ = pronume tnterog. -j- prepozifie What What What What

for? in? on?

like? like?

is
does

he

542) Enun negativ + forma interogativ: You don't watch T V every night, do you? Nu te uii la televizor n fiecare sear, nu-i aa? They haven t come yet, have they? N-au sosit nc, nu-i aa? 543) Enun pozitiv + forma interogativ (pentru exprimarea surprinderii sau nencrederii): He comes fiere every day, does he? Chiar vine pe-aici n fiecare zi? Intonaia ntrebrilor disjunctive este: descendent , dac vorbitorul nu ateapt un rspuns real, c ' doar o confirmare formal a enunului su: 'The weather is lovely today, i*"|' U?'\'Yes, it is.' Ce vreme frumoas e azi, nu-i aa? Aa e.
!i
K

228

 a s c e n d e n t , dac el solicit un rspuns, o confirmare sau negare eal a celor spuse: 'Jtis cold outside, isn't it?' f E frig afar, nu-i aa? printr-un rspuns afirmativ sau negativ: 'Yes, itis.'/No, it isn't.' Da, este. / Nu, nu este. Particulariti ale ntrebrilor disjunctive ntrebarea disjunctiv care conine forma / am se termin cu aren't J: I am efficient, aren't I? Snt eficient, nu-i aa? Dac subiectul din prima parte a ntrebrii disjunctive este un pronume sau adjectiy nehotrt, pronumele din partea a doua este he, she, we sau they, dup sens: ach participant has to fiii in a form, doesn't he? Fiecare participant trebuie s completeze un formular, nu-i aa? Everybody will be delighted, won't tbey? Toi vor fi ncntai, nu-i aa? Observai i ntrebrile disjunctive coninnd verbe modale: You have to be there at nine, don't you? Trebuie s fii acolo la ora 9, nu-i aa? He used to go_ fishing in summer, didn't he? Obinuia s mearg la pescuit vara, nu-i aa? You'd better stay, hadn't you? Mai bine ai rmne, nu-i aa? You'd rather go, wouldn't you? Ai prefera s pleci, nu-i aa?

23.4. Propoziia imperativ (The Imperative Sentence)

/ Propoziia imperativ exprim un ordin; o rugminte, un ndemn, o interdicie, etc. : .'i.. Forma verbiil caracteristic propoziiilor imperative este modul imperativ, aspectul simplu, diateza activ. Imperativul are o singur form, care coincide cu .infinitivul scurt al verbelor, utilizat pentru persoana a Il-a singular i plural: Read the lesson! La persoana I i a IlI-a singular i plural, ideea de imperativ este exprimat prin construcia let + substantiv/pronume personal n acuzativ + infinitivul scurt al verbului notional: Let me try. S ncerc eu. Let Mary do it. S fac Mria asta. Let them come in. S intre. La persoana I plural, pronumele personal n acuzativ este de obicei contras n vorbire: Let us stop now = LeVs stop now. S ne oprim acum. Forma negativ a imperativului se construiete cu verbul auxiliar do -f ne gaia. not: Don't f rea^ l^e lesson Nu citi(i) lecia! .

Sf }"=<*".

f ^ Mary do it l S nu fac Mria asta! .

La persoana I plural snt posibile dou forme: cu auxiliarul do, caracteristic exprimrii familiare: Don"11 le?s stop l fr auxiliarul do: Lefs not stop l S nu ne oprim l 229

J* ormeie imite* au\uuu

Persoana a Il-a singular i plurai : Persoana I plural: Celelalte persoane: I singular, a IlI-a singular i plural:
Wfite! Dm'l urile!

Let us ] .. . Don't leCa\ .. . Lefs } wn l e t Lefinot } wn t e l me htm her them l m e \ mitei Don't lei 1 * ifc/ [them j

I I

23.4.2. Intonaia propoziiilor imperative depinde de sensul lor. Intonaia ascendent este ntrebuinat pentru exprimarea unei invi taii sau a unei rugmini: Sit down. Stai jos. Give me that book. D-mi cartea aceea. " Intonaia descendent este folosit pentru exprimarea unui ordin: Clase your book. nchide cartea! Don't look'-at your deskmate! Nu te uita la vecinul de banc! 23.4.3. Din punct de vedere al structurii, propoziiile imperative pot fi mprite n: 544) propoziii imperative fr subiect; 545) propoziii imperative cu subiect; 546) propoziii imperative cu lei; 547) alte construcii cu valoare de imperativ.

548) Propoziiile imperative fr subiect se construiesc cu modul imperativ, forma afirmativ sau negativ, i se refer la persoana a l-a singular sau plural. Aceast form este utilizat n special pentru exprimarea unor ordine sau interdicii: Don't park herel Nu parcai aici. Park over iherel Parcai acolo. 549) Propoziiile imperative cu subiect se construiesc de asemenea cu impe rativul, subiectul fiind ns menionat. La persoana a Il-a singular, subiectul este you accentuat, prezena sa indicnd: iritarea vorbitorului: You mind your own business. Vezi-i de treaba ta, o difereniere: You bring the plales, Mary, and you, bring the glasses, Peter. Mria, tu adu farfuriile, i tu Petre adu pabarele. La persoana a III-a, subiectul $oate fi: un substantiv, utilizat pentru nominalizare: Bob and Cathy come here. Bob i Gti s vin ajcu un pronume nehotrt, cnd imperativul este adresat oricrei persoane dintr-un grup: Somebody clean the blackboard. Cineva s tearg tabla. Everybody write their names. Toi,s-i scrie numele. Forma negativ a propoziiilor imperative de tipul a) i b) se construiete cu ajutorul lui do not (don't):I)Qn't open the window. Nu deschide fereastra. Doa't you lift that case. Tu s nu ridici geamantanul (acela)j c) Propoziiile imperative la persoana I i a Dl-a singular i pural se construiesc cu ajutorul verbului let, urmat de un substantiv sau pronume n acuzativ i de infinitivul scurt al verbului de conjugat: Let me do it, FAC eu asta. Let them come now. S vin acum.
230

m' Ict w l g0 for a walk. (Hai) s mergem ia plimbare. /X* l

5

:-bicei un ndemn :

Not: O alt posibilitate do exprirciare a unui ndemn este prin ntrebarea how-j ivhat aboui+ Gerund: WHAT ABOUT gotog for. a wak?

) Alte construcii cu valoare de imperativ snt: 1) construc ii'impersonal: No parking ! Parcarea interzis. ,Y0 (unauhorized) entry l Intrarea interzis (persoanelor ne autorizate). V/et paint l Proaspt vopsit. , 2) p r o p o z i i i e l i p t i c e : The salt, please. Sarea, v rog. Out itl D-i drumul! 3) propoziii conin! n d v e r b,,e modale, folosite pentru a exprima: un ordin: You are to be back at seven. Trebuie /s v ntoarcei la ora apte. / un sfat / o necesitate imediat: You must see that film ! Trebuie s vezi// vedei filmul acestal You must go and see her. Trebuie s te duci s-o vezi. 23.4.4. Exist mai multe mijloace de ntrire i de formulare politicoas a propoziiilor imperative, Pentru ntrire, insisten, se aaz verbul do naintea imperativului: Do speak more quietly. Te rog vorbete mai ncet. Pentru formulare politicoas, de la un grad mai redus la un grad mai nalt de politee, se ntrebuineaz; ^-c^vntul please, aezat la nceputul sau, mai frecvent, la sfritui propoziiei imperative: Switeh on the lights, please. Aprinde lumina, te rog. ' construciile shqll we? i will you? in poziie!final,care dau propoziiilor imperative aspectul unor ntrebri disjunctive: Lefs walch the TV programme shall "we Haide s urmrim programul la televizor. Turn the volume up, will' you? Vrei s dai volumul mai tare? will you j would you n poziie iniial -^-please final, care dau propo ziiilor imperative aspectul unor ntrebri generale: WonlA l yu answer ^e ^oor' Please? Vrei s rspunzi la u, te rog. verbe ca mind, wonder i adjective sau adverbe: kind, kindly, etc. n construcii interogative sau afirmative: WouMU m j [ changing seats? Te superi dac schimbm locurile? Will you b so kind as to have a look at these papers? Vrei s fii aa de drgu s te uii Ja aceste lucrri? / wonder if you would kindly read this Application, etc.

23.5. Propoziia exclamativ (The Exclamatory Sentence)

Propoziia exclamativ exprim o gam larg de stri afective: surprinerea, satisfacia, nemulumirea, dispreul, etc., In: f: construcii specific exclamative; ' *n alte forme nespecifice. 231

Formele imperativului
Persoana a Il-a singular i plural : Persoana I plural: Celelalte persoane:-I singular, a IlI-a singular i plural: ."
fTrtfe.' Don't urile!

Let us \ write! .. . Don't lefs] ., . Let', } Lef* noi } wnie! me ? them \ [me 1

| write! Don't kt 1 m \ mitei j ( them j

23.4.2. Intonaia propoziiilor imperative depinde de sensul lor. Intonaia ascendent este ntrebuinat pentru exprimarea unei invi taii sau a unei rugmini: Sit down. Stai jos. Gice me that book, D-mi cartea aceea. * Intonaia descendent este folosit pentru exprimarea unui ordin: Clase your book. nchide cartea! Don11 look'at your deskmale! Nu te uita la vecinul de banc l 23.4.3. Din punct de vedere al structurii, propoziiile imperative pot fi mprite n: 550) propoziii imperative fr subiect; 551) propoziii imperative cu subiect; 552) propoziii imperative cu lei; 553) alte construcii cu valoare de imperativ. a) Propoziiile imperative fr subiect se construiesc cu modul imperativ, forma afirmativ sau negativ, i se refer la persoana a Il-a singular sau plural. Aceast form este utilizat n special pentru exprimarea unor ordine sau interdicii: Don't park herel Nu parcai aici. Par/c over therel Parcai ^ acolo. b) Propoziiile imperative cu saMeet se construiesc de asemenea cu impe rativul, subiectul fiind ns menionat. La persoana a Il-a singular, subiectul este you accentuat, prezena sa indicnd: iritarea vorbitorului: Y ou min your own business. Vezi-i de treaba ta, o difereniere: You bring the plates, Mary, and you, bring the glasses, Peier. Mria, tu adu farfuriile, i tu Petre adu paharele. La persoana a IlI-a, subiectul .poate fi: un substantiv, utilizat pentru nominalizare: Bob and Cathy come here. Bob i Ci s vin aici, un pronume nehotrt, cnd imperativul este adresat oricrei persoane dintr-un grup: Somebody clean the blackboard. Cineva s tearg tabla. Everybody write their names. Tois-i scrie numele. Forma negativ a propoziiilor imperative de tipul a) i b) se construiete cu ajutorul lui do not (don't):J)on't open the window. Nu deschide fereastra. Don't you lift that case. Tu s nu ridici geamantanul (acela)j c) Propoziiile imperative la persoana i a ffi-a singular i plural se construiesc cu ajutorul verbului let, urmat de un substantiv sau pronuro n acuzativ i de infinitivul scurt al verbului de conjugat: Let me do it. FAC eu asta. Let them come now. S vin acum. 230

{go for a wcHk. (Hai) s mergem la plimbare. l as 'et's

Not: O a^-& posibilitate de exprimare a unui ndemn este prin ntrebarea hou>-,' tvhaf 'aboui'+ Gerund: WHAT ABOUT gong for. a walk?

d) Alte construcii cu valoare de imperativ snt: 1) construc ii'impersonal'6: No parking ! Parcarea interzis. funauthorized) enry I Intrarea interzis (persoanelor neautorizate). /et 'paint! Proaspt vopsit. 2) propoziii e l i p t i c e : The salt, please. Sarea, v rog. Out \fith itl D-i drumul i 3) p r o p o z i i i c o n i n n d v e r b,e modale, folosite pentru exprima: un ordin: You are to be back ai seven. Trebuie,s v ntoarcei la ora apte. .' un sfat / o necesitate imediat: You must see that film ! Trebuie s vezi/'edei filmul acesta! You must go and see her. Trebuie s te duci s-o vezi. 23.4.4. Exist mai multe mijloace le ntrire i de formulare politicoas propoziiilor imperative, Pentru ntrire, insisten, se aaz verbul do naintea imperativului: io speak more quietly. Te rog vorbete mai ncet. Pentru formulare politicoas, de la un grad mai redus la un grad mai nalt de^ politee, se ntrebuineaz; /cuvntul please, aezat la nceputul sau, mai frecvent, la sfrjitul propoziiei imperative: Switch on the lights, please. Aprinde lumina, te rog. construciile shqll we? i will you? n poziieffinal, care dau propoziiilor Imperative aspectul unor ntrebri disjunctive: Le?s walch the TV programme phall we? Haide s urmrim programul la televizor. Turn the volume up, will1 you? Vrei s dai volumul mai tare? will you / would you n poziie iniial -{-please final, care dau propo ziiilor imperative aspectul unor ' Please? Vrei s rspunzi la u, te rog, ntrebri generale: answ er ' Will l Woold / verbe ca mind, wonder i adjective sau adverbe: kind, kindly, etc. construcii interogative sau afirmative:
m n

. , \changing seats? Te superi dac schimbm locurile?

l, - j->n be so kind as to have a look at these papers? Vrei s fii aa de l gu 8 te uii Ja aceste lucrri? I wonder if you would kindly read this Wplication. etc.

, , b) ?onstruct'" specific exclamative ; l ' >Q alte forme nespecifice.

3.5. Propoziia, exclamativ (The Exclamatory Sentence)

d ^rPoziia exclamativ exprim o gam larg de stri afective : surprin- ^ a> satisfacia, nemulumirea, dispreul, etc., n : o 231

554) Intonaia propoziiilor exclamative este descendent: How intere ing this book isl , Ce interesant este aceast carte! *'"
Propoziiile exclamative prftpriu-zisc smt cele introduse de ,A/,, ( + adjectiv) + substantiv sau de hotv + adjectiv/adverb: What (interesti n ] stories he knows! Ce povestiri (interesante) tie! How well he remetnb everything! Ce bine i amintete totul I Aceste propoziii au form afirmativ. Ordinea cuvjntelor este: subiect + predicat -f-etc., precedate de parte de propoziie despre care se exprim exclamaia. (Aceasta ocup totdeaun 9 poziie iniial). What wonderul people they met on their trip ! Ce oamen' minunai au ntlnit n excursie/ (What... / how... + subiect + predicat (-{-complemente). Uneori propoziiile exclamative snt eliptice; predicatul i subiectul fiind neexprimate: What a wonderful voice (she has) ! Ce voce minunat! How truc (t his is )! Ct de adevrat! ' 23.5.3. .Propoaifiile exclamativa cu form nespecific snt exclamaii exprimate prin: ' a.) p r o p o z i i i e n u n i a t i v e : Her acting was perfect l Interpretarea ei a fost perfect! You are a liar! Eti un mincinos!
Not: O categorie aparte o formeaz propoziiile introduse de here, there, aivay, of f, n care are loc inversiunea subiect predicat dac subiectul este exprimat printr-un substantiv: Here you are / Here it is. (Poftim) dar: There goes the last bust S-a dus i ultimul autobuz!

555)

b) p r o p o z i i i i n t e r o g a t i v negative n care Vorbitorul ateapt acordul interlocutorului cu cele spuse de el: Hasn't she improvedl Nu-i aa c a fcut progrese! Lsrit he dever I Nu-i aa c e detept! c) i n t e r j e c i i : Hush f ! Dear me ! Vai de mine!

EXERCIII
I. Trecei urmtoarele propoziii la forma negaii : 1. This is a Dacia car. 2. They were playing tennis. 3. She needs hei 4. I do my homework in the evening. 6. They came early. 6. He has a siste 7. The meeting began at five o'clock sharp. 8. They should sell their ca 9. He can swim. 10. She has lost her pencil. 11. I listen to the radio in tn< morning. 12.They will arrive tomorrow. 13. He toldme something. 14. He tea^?. English in this school. 15. There are many pictures in this book. 16. report was typed yesterday. 17. He got up late yesterday. 18. He goes to wo by bus. 19. I write to her every week. 20. They are going to visit the L H. Formulai ntrebri la care prile de propoziie scrise cursiv s fie Exemplu: They played football in the park. A: Where did they play football? B: In the park.

i. They are waiting in the other room. 2. He did bis work carefully. 3. The ret'ary wili type the report tomorrow. 4. He is ten years old. 5. The students SeC fhis c^ass WOI>k verv hard- *. The last lesson was very difficult. 7. Two pupils n ' absent today. 8. The journalist spoke about peace and disarmament. 9. He ^working ort his thesis now. 10. The teacher willftlk to our parents tomorrow. i Father's car broke down yesterday. 12. The pupils met their teacher in front f the school. 13. They postponed their trip because of the weather. 14. They h ve been here a week. 1&. He wants the red pencil. 16. His car is blue. ifl Completai urmtoarele tntrelri disjunctive; 1. That mn is our teacher, . . . ? 2. You haven't finished yet, . .. ? o peter reads in the library, . . . ? 4. Mary sent the letter yesterday,. . .? R You will explain that tomorrow, . . . ? 6. They didn't have a good time at the party . ? 7. You can do this translation, . . . ? 8. John doesn't know the truth,. ? 9. He shouldn't behave like this, . . . ? 10. You have a new dress,'.. ? H- Everybody in this class plays football well,. . . ? 12. He never used to wear a hat, . . . ? 13. We'd better wait for her . . . ? 14. You'd rather not say anything . . . ? IV. Trecei urmtoarele propoziii la interogativ i rikgativ sub form de dialog: Model: They are still eating. ' A: Are they still eating? B: No, they aren't. They aren't eating any longer. 1. Tom whispered something to his brother. 2. They should have left eariier. 3. She has a new pen. 4. He did too many exercises yesterday. 6. He lives a long way from his friends. 6. They sometimes see each other. 7. hey3ve already seen that film. 8. There are some people in the street. 9. They'll find him. 10. Anyone can do this translation. V . Exprimai urmtoarele comenzi nir-un mod mai politicos. Folosii mai multe variante: . Open the door. 2. Don't sing in this room. 3. Keep quiet. 4. Be careful. 5. Drive more slowly. 6. Don't waste your time. 7. Don't make so much noise. 8, Take the dog for a walk. VI. Comentai asupra jocurilor olimpice folosind propoziii exclamative: Exemplu: The Olympic Games are an important event. What an important event} the Ol ic Games are , How important J a r 1. Many top athletes compete in the Games. 2. They work very hard. There is an atmosphere of good-wil and co-operation .during the Games. ' The Games are very weli-organized. 5. The Olympic Stadium is huge. There are a lot of participants in the Olympic Games. 7. They come from ^ n g distances. 8. Millions of people watch the Games on television. 9. The vmanian representatives are well-trained. 10. They obtain geod resolts at the Games.

Traducei n limba englez: Nci'unuia dintre ei nu i-a plcut spectacolul. 2. Nici unul din cei doi despre ce vorbeai. 3. De la cine ai primit pachetul? 4. Se duc la nu-i aa? 5. N-ai fost niciodat la galeriile de art, nu-i aa? 6 r S las
233

fi' j'ir* *ns? ^re i aa d gus ne cni un cntec? 9. Trebuie s-i telefonezi. 10. E mult vreme , dud nu 1-am mai vzut. 11. N-a fost plecat mult vreme. 12 Nu-mi ^ acest actor i nici prietenului meu nu-i place. 13. Ei nu mai snt aici. 14. fu greu putea s vad ceva n camera ntunecoasa. VIU Antrenorul tia c nu exist nimic mai bun cnd vrei s-1 nvei pe Om ceva dect s-1 ambiionezi,,s-1 pui s se ntreac cu alndac e nevoie. I at de ce de la o vreme, ncepuse s promit miei premncelor mai buni executani ai exerciiilor necesare antrenamentului. Luca simi dup un timp, aa cum simte nvtorul care i-a ctigat ncrederea elevilor si, ca se terminase cu indisciplina. Chiar Le tie", altdat atlt de refractar, se arata intere 86t de aceste jocuri Premiile nu erau mare lucru, dar nimeni nu putea suferi ca altul s i-o ia nainte, aa cum se ntmpl de obicei cu toi oamenii.
(Eugen Barbu Unsprezece)

SINTAXA FRAZEI
(The compound and complex sentence) IO.4). GENERALITI

III.O.l. Unitatea de baz a sintaxei este p r o p o z i i a . Propoziia poate f i-de sine stttoare: She i x a teacher, sau poate fi n anumite relaii cu alte propoziii, intrnd n alctuirea unei fraze: Sh became a teachvr whcn shc was twenly thrcc.

Fraza este unitatea sintactic superioar propoziiei, fiind constituit din dou sau mai multe propoziii; ea este totdeauna de sine stttoare, Atenie! In^ limba englez nu exist un cuvin t special pentru fraz. Sentence poate nsemna att f r a z cit i p r o p o z i i e independent (care nu face parte dintr-o fraz). Pentru propoziiile din cadrul unei fraze se folosete termenul clause. 111.0.2. Sintaxa p r o p o z i i e i studiaz propoziia privit ndependent de legtura cu alte propoziii. Sintaxa frazei studiaz felul cum se unesc propoziiile pentru a alctui fraze, raporturile care se stabilesc ntre aceste propoziii n cadrul frazei. III.0.3. Raporturile sintactice dintre propoziiile unei fraze snt aceleai ca i dintre prile unei propoziii: raporturi de coordonare ntre propoziiile de acelai fel; raporturi de subordonare ntre propoziii dependente unele de altele. Frazele prin coordonare, alctuite din dou sau mai multe propoziii principale, se numesc compound sentences n limba englez, iar frazele prin subordonare, formate din una sau mai multe propoziii principale i una sau njai multe propoziii secundare, se numesc complex sentences. Identitatea raporturilor existente n cadrul propoziiei i al frazei face c an studierea celor dou uniti sintactice s se ntlneasc categorii similare: subiectului din propoziie i corespunde n fraz propoziia subiectiv, complementului direct, propoziia completiv direct, etc. HJ.0,4. Propoziiile dintr-o fraz snt legate ntre ele: asindetic: fr ajutorul unui cuvnt de legtur; cu ajutorul unor conjuncii (coordonatoare sau subordonatoare), Pronume,sau adjective relative sau interogative, adverbe relative sau adverbe cu Valoare de conjuncie. 235

24.

.AZA'PRIN

ORDONARE , fhe .: .^pou.:. .,,.u;nce)

24.1. Coordonarea
Coordonarea esie raportul amtre dou sau mai multe uniti sintactice (pri de propoziie, propoziii, fraze), care stau pe acelai plan. n cadrul frazei, propoziiile aflate n raport de coordonare slnt pe acelai plan, n sensul c snt fie toate principale (formnd o fraz prin coordonare compound sentence), fie toate subordonate aceluiai element regent.

24.2, Fclal coordonrii

Dup natura raportului dintre elementele pe care le leag, coordonarea n fraz, ca i n propoziie, poate fi: copulativ, disjunctiv i adversativ Coordonarea se poate realiza att asindetic, prin simpla alturare a propoziiilor coordonate, ct i prin conjuncii coordonatoare specifice.

24J. Coordonarea copulativ (Copulative Cooi- ;,

i ion)

Propoziiile coordonate prezentate de vorbitor ca asociate se numesc copulative. Conjunciile copulative snt: a) and, b) both... and, c) noi only... but also, iar pentru propoziii negative: d) (and) neither/nor e) neithcr... nor. Conjunciile copulative se aaz ntotdeauna la nceputul propoziiilor pe care le introduc i nu pot fi precedate de alte conjuncii: / like tea and my sister likes milk. (Comparai cu o conjuncie subordonatoare, care poate fi precedat de' o alt conjuncie: He went home because he was tired AND because it was late). a) And poate lega dou sau mai multe propoziii, n al doilea caz, conjuncia apare de regul o singur dat, naintea ultimei propoziii: Phone him at once, invite him to the conerence and ask him to be punctual. Dac dou sau mai multe propoziii coordonate prin and au acelai subiect, subiectul din a doua (a treia, etc.) propoziie este de obicei omis: He went into the shop, (he) bought a ie and (he) paid for it at the cash desk. Dac predicatele din propoziiile coordonate conin acelai verb auxiliar, el se omite mpreun cu subiectul: Pve been waiting and (Pce been) wondering where you are. .
A'ot&tji propoziiile subordonate nu are loc elipsa subiectului sau a subiectului i verbului auxiliar: Mary mode the beds after she aired the room. Aliee bas cookea for tis while she has been here.

b) Both... and snt folosite pentru coordonarea a dou propoziii avnd ace lai subiect, sau pentru coordonarea a dou subiecte avnd acelai pre<"ca ' H e both speaks and writes two foreign languages. Both Peter and Ann won prizes.
236

v not only ... but edso. Pentru ntrire, not only poate fi aezat n poziie iniial, produclnd inversiune Intre subiect i predicat: Not only did he read the whole poem, but he also translated part of U. K\ Nor / neither este folosit cnd prima propoziie este negativ. Nor / neither cere inversiune Intre subiect i predicat/verb auxiliar i poate fi precedat
de and: He did not come to the symposium, (and) {
nei ; er

' " did he send in

his paper. e) Neither ... nor snt folosite i mpreun pentru a nega dou propoziii legate prin and. Folosirea lui neither... nor subliniaz caracterul negativ al ambelor propoziii. Comparai: She didn't eat and she didn't drink. dar: She neither ae nor drank anything.

24.4. Coordonarea, disjunctiv (Disjunctive Coordination)

Raportul de coordonare disjunctiv se stabilete ntre pro poziii coordonate care snt prezentate k de vorbitor ca excluzndu-se una pe alta ntr-o msur mai mare sau mai mic. Conjunciile disjunctive snt: or i either.., or, iar n propoziiile n care se exclud ambele alternative, cu un verb la forma afirmativ, neither... nor. Coordonarea disjunctiv se stabilete de 'obicei ntre dou alternative, dintre care una este preferat ntr-un anumit moment. Alternativa preferat este de obicei menionat nti: Shall we 'ga for a walk or shall we watch TV? Adugarea lui either naintea primei alternative jndic de regul excluderea ambelor alternative. Exist ns i situaii n care coordonarea disjunctiv leag trei sau mai multe propoziii, raportul de excludere reciproc fiind mai puin evident: You may either read a book, watch TV or listen to the radio. Raportul disjunctiv se apropie de cel copulativ i n cazul a dou propoZl ii, dac nu este necesar a se opta pentru o singur alternativ.

24.5. Coordonarea adversativ (Adversative Coordination)

v

Propoziiile coordonate care se opun una alteia fr a se exclude se numesc e r satire. Acestea snt legate de obicei prin conjuncia adversativ but: They would to come but they are loo busy. 237

"FEAZA PI! U

'OBDONAB

. aonce)

24.1. Coordonarea
Coordonarea este raportul cnntre dou sau mai multe uniti sintactice (pri de propoziie, propoziii, fraze), care stau pe acelai plan. n cadrul frazei, propoziiile aflate n raport de coordonare slnt pe acelai plan, n sensul c snt fie toate principale (formnd o fraz prin coordonare compound sentence), fie toate subordonate aceluiai element regent.

24.2. Felu coordonrii

Dup natura raportului dintre elementele pe care le leag, coordonarea n fraz, ca i n propoziie, poate fi: copulativ, disjunctiv i adversativ Coordonarea se poate realiza att asindetic, prin simpla alturare a propoziiilor coordonate, ct i prin conjuncii coordonatoare specifice.

24.3.. Coordonarea ccipedstlv (Copulative Coor

Propoziiile coordonate prezentate de vorbitor ca asociate se numesc copulative. Conjunciile copulative snt: a) and, b) both... and, c) noi only... but also, iar pentru propoziii negative: d) (and) neiiher/nor e) neither... nor. Conjunciile copulative se aaz ntotdeauna la nceputul propoziiilor pe care le introduc i nu pot fi precedate de alte conjuncii: / Hke tea and my sister likes mii k. (Comparai cu o conjuncie subordonatoare, care poate fi precedat de o alt conjuncie: He went home because he was tired ANI) because it was late). a) And poate lega dou sau mai multe propoziii, n al doilea caz, conjuncia apare de regul o singur dat, naintea ultimei propoziii: Phone him at once, incite him to the conference and ask him to be punctual. Dac dou sau mai multe propoziii coordonate prin and au acelai subiect, subiectul din a doua (a treia, etc.) propoziie este de obicei omis: He went into the shop, (he) bought a ie and (he) paid for it at the cash desk. Dac predicatele din propoziiile coordonate conin acelai verb auxiliar, el se omite mpreun cu subiectul: Pve been waiting and (Vve been) wondenng where you are.
ATot; n propoziiile subordonate nu are loc elipsa subiectului sau a subieciii ui i verbului auxiliar: Mary mode the beds after she aired the room. Aliee bas <# for IAS while she bas been here.

b) Both... and snt folosite pentru coordonarea a dou propoziii avind ace lai subiect, sau pentru coordonarea a dou subiecte avind acelai Pre Pa,,g He both speaks and writes two foreign languages. Both 'Peter and Ann won prizes.
236

noi on ty " ^ a ^ so ' P en tr u ntrire, not only poate fi aezat n poziie ini, producnd inversiune ntre subiect i predicat : Not only did he read the whole poem, but he also translated part of U. . flor / neither este folosit cnd prima propoziie este negativ. Nor / neither cere inversiune Intre subiect i predicat/verb auxiliar i poate fi precedat

de and: He did not come to the symposium, (and) j neitner did he send in his paper. \ Neither ... nor snt folosite i mpreun pentru a nega dou propoziii legate prin and. Folosirea lui neither... nor subliniaz caracterul negativ al ambelor propoziii. Comparai: She didrft eat and she didn't drink. dar: She neither ae nor drank anything.

M4, Coordonarea, disjunctiv (Disjunctive Coordination)

Raportul de coordonare d i s j u n c t i v se stabilete ntre pfo-poziii coordonate care snt prezentate^ de vorbitor ca excluzndu-se una pe alta ntr-o msur mai mare sau mai mic. Conjunciile disjunctive snt: or i either.., or, iar n propoziiile n care se exclud ambele alternative, cu un verb la forma afirmativ, neither... nor. Coordonarea disjunctiv se stabilete de obicei ntre dou alternative, dintre care una este preferat ntr-un anumit moment. Alternativa preferat este de obicei menionat nti: Shall we 'go for a walk or shall we watch TV? Adugarea lui either naintea primei alternative jndic de regul excluderea ambelor alternative. Exist ns i situaii n care coordonarea disjunctiv leag trei sau mai multe propoziii, raportul de excludere reciproc fiind mai puin evident: You may either read a book, watch T V or listen to the radio. Raportul disjunctiv se apropie de cel copulativ i n cazul a dou propo2l t", dac nu este necesar a se opta pentru o singur alternativ.

24.5. Coordonarea adversativ (Adversative Coordination)

Propozijile coordonate care se opun una alteia fr a se exclude se numesc versative. Acestea snt legate de obicei prin conjuncia adversativ but: They wonld l e to come but they are too busy.
d

237

este mai mare dect la coordonarea copulativ i cea disjunctiv, adversative neputndu-i schimba locul ntre ele fr a se modifica He is elderly bot (he) (is) energetic. Este n vrst, dar plin de energie. energetic but (he) (is) elderly. Este pin de energie, dar (este) n vrstg.

24.6. Folosirea timpurilor n frazele prin coordonare

n frazele prin coordonare se pot utiliza oric& timpuri verbale, n funcie de intenia vorbitorului: / went io the seaside last year AND Pil go there again next year. , Excepie: enumerrile de aciuni n stilul narativ se pun la acelai timp gramatical: prezent. Post Tense sau viitor, n funcie de momentul naraiunii spre deosebire de limba romn, unde timpurile pot alterna: "Everybody was home. Welcome. Noises of welcome. Mother kissed kint. Father asked him what marks he hd got. Noises... The noise ofcurtain rings being putted aside. His bed Was ho and his face and body were ho. The nurse asked him: 'Are y ou att right?' H e ddu't know, and the nurse said: 'Get back into bed.' " (J. Joyce The Portrtt of the Artist as a Young Mn) Toi erau acas. Bine-ai venit. Zgomote de Bun venit. Mama l srut. Tata M ntreab ce note a obinut. Zgomote... Zgomotul inelelor de perdea trase de-o parte. Patul lui dogorete i faa i trupul i dogoresc. Sora i] ntreab: ~Nu i-e bine? Nu tia; i sora zise: Bag-te napoi n'pat." (J. Joyce Portretul artistului n tineree)

25. FBAZA PBIN SUB OB B OHABE ^(The Complex Sentence)

Subordonarea este raportul sintactic existent ntre doi termeni dintre care unul l determin pe cellalt, depinde de el din punct de vedere gramatical. Raporturile ntr-o fraz prin subordonare (Complex Sentence) se stabilesc ntre propoziiile secundare sau .subordonate (Subordinate Clauses) i propoziiile lor regente (Main Clauses), care la rndul lor, pot fi propoziii principale n fraz sau subordonate propoziiei principale din fraz. Fraza: He asked me where I bought the dress / was wearing. este alctuit din: 556) He asked me (propoziie principal) 557) where / hd bought the ress (propoziie secundar fa de l dflr regenta lui 3) 558) / was wearing (propoziie subordonat fa de 2). 25.1. Propoziiile subordonate snt legate de propoziiile lor regente prin559) conjuncii subordonatoare circumstaniale; 560) un element wh-; 561) that 562) inversiune. 238

liloc de indicare a subordonrii n fraz. Ele se clasific n funcie de ^poziiile pe care le introduc. (Vezi f 9.3.1.-) Unel e conjuncii subordonatoare cnt alctuite din dou elemente: o onjuncie, care apare de regul n propoziia subordonat i un adverb care nare n propoziia regent (correlativc subordinaiors): He was so iii that they look him to hospital. No sooner hd they reached home than it stopped raining. Conjunciile subordonatoare se aaz de regul la nceputul propoziiei secundare. Aceasta poate precede sau urma propoziia regent. Propoziiile subordonate temporale, cauzale (introduse de as/since), condiionale i concesive apar de obicei n poziie iniial: As the weather was hd we stayed homeall day. Although she spoke very slowly, I couldn't understand her. Propoziiile introduse de beeause i propoziiile consecutive ocup de regul o poziie final n fraz: / can't help you with your homework beeause Pm busy right now. Lydia liked the book so much that she read it three times. Conjunciile subordonatoare pot fi precedate de alte conjuncii, spre deosebire de conjunciile coordonatoare: H e lefi early beeause he wasrit feeling very wett AND beeause the party was boring. Dac o propoziie subordonat are acelai subiect (i verb auxiliar) ca i propoziia sa regent, acesta trebuie menionat: Though he has never been to this town, he has of ten wrilten about it,, b) Elementele wh reprezint: pronume interogative sau relative: who, whom/whose, whieh, what; adverbe relative: where, when, how, why ; compuii acestora: whocuer, whichever,'whatever, wherever, whenever, however. Elementele wh- snt folosite ca marc a subordonrii n: propoziii interogative indirecte:' / don't know who was there. n propoziii relative: This is the place where I irst saw her. etc. c) Conjuncia that este folosit pentru introducerea mai multor tipuri de propoziii subordonate. (Vezi: 25.4. 25.7). n vorbire, conjuncia that-este adesea omis: \'tnew l ghe was right.

ii) tiOiljiiiiciifc tJiijuruOaiiiiilC; ii"CUili>i,aiiJ,lli-ii; t-'i.'n. ;( iy mai UipG td'ii

Im sure J That nu poate fi omis cnd propoziia este subiectiv: THAT he was so ill alarmed her.

25.2. Clasificarea propoziiilor subordonate

O clasificare funcional a propoziiilor subordonate este n: A) propoziii subordonate introduse de that, care ndeplinesc funciile nui 8 r up nominal, puind avea funcia de: subiect: That he answered so well surprised everybody. . complement direct: / knew that she Was right. /^ nume predicativ: The belief is that things Will improve.
239

 563)

apoziie: Your opinion, that things will improve, s well fonnded, complement prepoziional: Pm sure that they were right. P
e

ropoziiile relative, care se comport funcional ca nite adjeef atributive: The mn who waved to us was my uncie. 564) Propoziiile circumstaniale, care ndeplinesc funcia unor complement circumstaniale de timp, loc, condiie, cauz, etc,, fa de elementele i recente: . regente: when he comes. where you go. i! you want to.

6 r

25.3. Reducerea propoziiilor subordonate

Propoziiile subordonate pot fi reduse de obicei la construcii cu verbe la forme nepersonale: a) construcii infinitivale; b) construcii participiale a) Construciile i n f i n i t i v a l e (toInfinitive Nominal Clauses) pot ndeplini funcia de: " subiect: For him to come so late is unbelievable. complement direct: 7 like everyone to be punctual. nume predicativ: To be a doctor is to be very bard working.

apoziie: His deire to become a veterinary doctor was finally fulfilh complement prepoziional: Pm glod to be of help.
b) Construciile p a r t i c i p i a l e (ing-Nominal Clauses) pot l plini funcia de: subiect: Helping people in need is the main duty of the Red Cross. complement direct: 7 don't like lying to people. complement prepoziional: Pm proud of being her pupil. nume predicativ: 77w hobby is collecting Bomanian stamps. apoziie: His present job, being secretary of the sports club, requires great deal of work.

A. Propoziiile subordonate introduse de that (That Clauses) Propoziiile subordonate introduse de that pot ndeplini mai multe funcii pe ling elementele lor regente. In consecin, ele se mpart n propoziii subordonate completive directe, subiective, predicative, apoziionale, etc'

25.4. Propoziia completiv direct (The Direct Object Cir

25.4.1. Propoziia completiv direct ndeplinete rolul de compleniei direct al predicatului din propoziia regent: Remember that we have to lea by 11 :00 a.m. S nu uii c trebuie s plecm n jurul orei 11. 25.4.2, Propoziiile enuniative i interogative trecute la vorbirea 1 rect snt de asemenea completive directe: We asked him whether he hd une 240

od the instructions. L-am ntrebat daci neles mstruciuiine. ne i e hd understood everything. Ne-a spus c a neles tot. . . 3. Conjuncia that este deseori omis n engleza familiar dup verbe believe, imagine, suppose; see, hear, know, remember, understand i S& thmk l ^e wfti come in time. Cred c o s vin la timp. T \ suppose J Conjuncia that trebuie pstrat cnd propoziiile snt lungi i au multe jnplemente circumstaniale: I' dorit suppose that he intends to return until tmorrow. Nu cred c intenioneaz s se ntoarc pn mine. ; ; . s i i e! Nu se folosete conjuncia that dup: / wish, Pd rather, Fd '- I wish you could tind out the truth. A dori s poi afla adevrul. ;, Corespondena timpurilor Folosirea timpurilor verbale n propoziia completiv direct este mai strict n limba englez dect n limba romn. Raportul logic stabilit ntre timpul predicatului din propoziia principal/ regent i timpul predicatului din propoziia subordonat este exprimat pe p l an si nt a ct ic p ri nt r-o a n u m it co n c o r d a n sa u c o re sp o n de n a timpurilor verbale folosite n cele do.u propoziii, numit n limba englez. Sequence of Tenses (Corespondena timpurilor). Exist cteva reguli generale de coresponden a timpurilor care se aplic n principal la propoziia completiv direct: Regula I. Daca verbul propoziiei principale este la un timp p r e z e n t (Present, Present Perfect), n propoziia completiv se poate folosi orice timp cerut de logica enunului : she has sent the letler. they came yesterday. he will conduct the concert tonight. c ea a expediat scrisoarea. c ei au venit ieri. c el va dirija concertul disear.

i I

Regula II. Dac verbul propoziiei principale este la viitor, n propo ziia completiv se poate folosi orice timp afar de viitor: / shall inform him that I need his report tomorrow. li voi informa c am nevoie de raportul lui mine.

Regula III, Cnd verbul din propoziia principal este la prezent, sau Present Perfect, n propoziia completiv se poate folosi viitorul (spre deosebire de celelalte propoziii subordonate): / know that he will come tomoiTQw. tiu c va veni mine. (conform regulii I). Regula IV. Daca verbul propoziiei principale este la un timp trecut, v erbul propoziiei subordonate trebuie de asemenea s fie 'la un timp trecut: ea a trimis/trimisese scrisoarea, ei snt/erau plecai din ora. . ea ne va ajuta. T , 7 , We knew El ca she hd sent the letter. they were away. i tiam T . ,, , , menionase she would nelp us.

' Gramatica limbii engleze

241

la traducerea n limba romn! Post Perfect (pentru exprimarea anterioritii) se poate traduce mai-mult-ca-perfect, dar perfectul compus este mai frecvent: tiam.c ea a tr scrisoarea, iar Post Pense (aciuni simultane) se traduce de obicei prin prez nt: tiam c ei sint plecai din ora.

Corespondena. Intre timpurile din propoziia principal i din compWdirect (Sequence of Tenses): '
Raportul aciunii din subordonat fa de aciunea din principala Timpul predicatului din principal Timpul predicatului din subordonat

1. anterioritate

Present j Present Perfect! Future Past Tensel Past Perfect

Present Perfect Past Perfect Present Tense Past Tense Future Present Future-in-the-Past

2. simultaneitate

Presentj Prestnt Perfect/ Future Past Tensej Past Perfect

3. posterioritate .

Presentj Present Perfect Future Past TensejPast Perfect

Se poate observa paralelismul ntre timpurile prezente ale indicativului (Present, Present Perfect) utilizate pentru exprimarea unor aciuni prezente i timpurile trecute (Past Tense, Past Perfect) ntrebuinate pentru redarea uiior aciuni trecute. Un paralelism similar exist ntre viitor i viitor n trecut : / think / have met her before. Cred c am mai ntlnit-o. 566) / think he is right. Cred c are dreptate. 3. / think they will come later. ' Cred c vor veni mai trziu.

565)

7 thought /hd met her before. Am crezut c o mai ntlnisem. x / thought he was right. Am crezut c are dreptate. / thought they would come later. Am crezut c vor veni mai trziu.

Excepii la regula IV: Fac excepie de la corespondena timpurilor trecute completivele direc care exprim: ., ' a) fapte cu valabilitate general, adevruri (considerate) absolute: told that Shakespeare is the greatest English writer. Ni s-a spus c peare este cel mai mare scriitor englez.
242

i } com directe dup verbe ca know, realize, believe, ihjirik, hope, regret, care presupun adevrul complementului direct, acestarttnd adevrat i n .momentul vorbirii: / realized he is a South- American. Mi-am dat seama c este din America de Sud. Regula V. Folosirea subjonctivului n propoziia completiv direct: Dup verbe ca ask, demand, require, order, urge, tsuggest, propose, arrange, recommend, verbul din subordonata completiv' se pune la subjonctivul prezent a n a l i t i c should + infinitiv :

The captain { or?ers. l that the crew should abandon ship.

Cpitanul ordon /a ordonat ca echipajul s prseasc vasul. Not: n engleza familiar, verbul suggest poate fi urmat i de verbe la indicativ prezent sau Past Tense:
Propun / Am propus ca el s ia lecii de not.

b) Subjonctivul prezent s i n t e t i c este folosit n varianta american a limbii engleze i uneori n limba englez scris: The captain ordered that the crew abandon ship. Regula VI. Folosirea timpurilor dup verbul wish: Verbul wish este urmat de:

, n) Post Tense, pentru a exprima regretul fa de o aciune nerealizat n prezent: / wish(ed) she were/was here with us. A dori / A fi dorit /ca ea s fie aici cu noi. sau 'fa de -o situaie de mai lung durat: He . wisheslwished he lived in the country. Ar dori / Ar fi dorit s locuiasc la r. 567) Post Perfect, pentru a exprima regretul fa de o aciune nerealizat in trecut: We wish(ed) she hd joined us. Am fi dorit ca ea s fi venit cu noi. 568) Would + infinitiv pentru a exprima o dorin-pentru o aciune viitoare (care nu are anse de a se realiza) : / wish he would come in time (but I don't think he will). A dori ca el .s vin la timp dar nu cred c o va face. sau e rugminte politicoas: / wish ypu would speak louder. A dori '' v-a ruga s vorbii mai tare. Atenie! Verbul wish este urmat de verbe la indicativ (prezent, viitor) cnd are sensul de a spera": / wish.he will come in time = / hope he will 'come in time. Sper c va veni la timp. ' Regula VI se aplic i la r d rather, P d sooner:
harder rather ' e a ma e sooner j ^ ^ ^ ^ more efforts io improve. he would come tomorrow.

ca el s munceasc mai mult. ca el s fi fcut mai multe eforturi pentru a se perfeciona. ca el sa vin mine.

Atenie! Wish urmat de o completiv direct se traduce In limba onin prin condiional + subjonctiv: 7 wish she were here = A dori ca ea Sa fie aici. 7 wished she hd been with us = A i dorit ca ea s i fost cu noi. 243

e*

La fel: P d rather he worked harder = A prefera ca el s munceasc mai mul t. et c . . 25.4.5. Reducerea propoziiei completive directe Propoziia completiv direct poate fi nlocuit de o construcie infinitj. val cnd subiectul ei este identic cu subiectul din propoziia regent: / want to talk to Mm. Vreau s vorbesc cu el. sau cu complementul direct, n care caz se folosete construcia Acuzativ + i n f i n i t i v : / want her to talk to the child. Vreau ca ea svorbeasc cu copilul. Dup unele verbe se poate folosi o construcie gerundial n locul celei infinitivale, pentru a sublinia legtura dintre cele dou aciunj (i nu dintre subiecte): / dorit like his ringing us up so often. (accentul cade pe aciunea de telefonare) Nu-mi place c ne telefoneaz aa de des. dar: / dorit like him to ring us so oten. (accentul este pe subiectul completivei) Nu-mi place ca el s ne telefoneze aa de des.

25.5. Propoziia completiv prepoziional

25.5.1. Aceast propoziie este introdus de elemente wh nsoite sau nu de prepoziii:

I
I

ai what she has bought. at who has come. where he is going.

f la ce-a cumprat. Privete J la cine a venit. [ unde se duce.

25.H;g n propoziia completiv prepoziional, prepoziia se omite: a) cnd propoziia completiv este introdus prin that:

l reminded me At the last moment, she \ persuaded me J that she couldrit go. l was delighted
mi-a amintit m-a convins s mearg, a fost ncntat b) dup anumite verbe i adjective: J c nu putea

I wonder She hasn't decided J ^h ofthese ties he wants to buy. I'm not sure j
M ntreb l Nu s-a hotrt \ care cravat vrea, s-o cumpere. Nu snt sigur j

25.5.3. Dup anumite verbe, propoziia completiv prepoziionala fi anticipat de pronumele it, care ndeplinete rolul de complement P ional formal n propoziia regent: You may rely upon it that he Will his promise. Poi s fii sigur c i va fine promisiunea.
244

25.5 n propoziiile completive prepoziionale^ se aplic corespondena timpurilor: that it hd been a misunderstanding. that he was right. that she would apologize. V {c a fost o nenelegere.

I
1 r sur

Ani czut de acord j c el are dreptate. l c ea i va cere scuze. Dup construcii la un timp prezent exprimnd sentimente: be sorry, be prised / astonished / amazed, be disappointed, verbele din propoziia completiv pot fi puse: a) la prezentul indicativ sau subjonctivul should + i n f i n i t i v pentru exprimarea unor aciuni simultane;

P m amazed that they j 5m^L , .

| the children here for the summer.

Sint uimit c-i aduc aici copiii vara. b) la Present Perfect / Post Tense sau should + i n f i n i t i v p e r f e c t pentru exprimarea unei aciuni anterioare celei din principal:

V m surprised that he / b ? s f cc ept^

l tkeir offer.

\ should have accepted J

."

M surprinde (faptul) c a acceptat oferta lor. Dac verbul din principal este la un timp trecut, se aplic corespondena timpurilor trecute: a) simultaneitate : Post Tense sau. should -(-infinitiv:

was disappointed they j ^T6,A h

l so late.

Am fost dezamgit c au 'venit aa de trziu. b) anterioritate: Post Perfect sau should + i n f i n i t i v p e r f e c t :

car. / was sorry they / h.ad f,old,
y

.,- \their

" \ should have sold J

Mi-a prut ru c i-au vndut maina. In toate cazurile, folosirea subjonctivului accentueaz ideea: Mi-a prut T au c i-au putut vinde maina, pe cnd indicativul scoate n relief aciunea c we a avut loc: Mi-a prut ru c i-au vndut maina.

55.6. Propoziia subiectiv (The Subject Cltise)

6.6.1 Propoziia subiectiv apare dup sau naintea: Y elor seem, chance, appear, turn out: u seemed that he was wrong. unor adjective ca: likely, certain, possible, dear, true, important, alarming, etc -: I?s possible that the tourists have arrived. 245

c) a unor verbe tranzitive exprimnd stri sufleteti: alarm, amaze, aa ra confuse, discourage, embarrass, reliece, scare, trouble, etc. :

That she hasn't written yet amazes me. 'S.O, JLoe! pTOpoEia suMeriiyo n 1 Poziia normal a propoziiei subiective este dup propoziia regenta propoziia subiectiv fiind anticipat de pronumele introductiv-anticip atjy it cu funcie de subiect formal al regentei: It is important that you should do your homework careully. Este important s-i faci temele cu grij. n engleza literar, propoziia subiectiv ocup uneori poziie iniijjx. . That he has retnsed our ofer amazes me. M surprinde c a refuzat oferta noastr. In pro{KEx}ia sabiecttv n propoziia subiectiv se poate folosi: a) modul indicativ; b) modul subjonctiv. Folosirea indicativului arat c aciunea din propoziia subiectiv este vzut ca un fapt real, svrit: It is strnge that they arrived before us. E ciudat c au ajuns naintea, noastr. Folosirea subjonctivului arat c aciunea este vzut ca o idee, presupunere: It is- strnge that they should arrive beore us. Este ciudat ca ei s ajung naintea noastr. Folosirea timpurilor n propoziia subiectiv depinde i de timpul verbului din propoziia regent. A) Modul indicativ: a) Un timp prezent n regent poate fi urmat de orice timp n propoziia subiectiv: It 'is unlikely that they have talked/will talk about this. Este puin probabil c ei au vorbit / vor vorbi despre asta. b) Un timp trecut este urmat tot de un timp trecut, conform corespondenei timpurilor trecute:

'

that he hd phoned. that he behaved like that. that he would come.

Modul indicativ sau subjonctiv: a) Dup construcii exprimlnd sentimente sau mirarea: it is strnge, alarming, surprising, annoying, gratifying, splendid, verbul din propoziia subiectiv se pune, pentru a exprima: 1) simultaneitatea la prezent sau subjonctiv should + infinitiv.
It is splendid that the children /,?',, l to bed early. r \ should go ]

2) anterioritatea la Present Perfect / Post Tense sau should + i ni t i v . perfect:

n f l

'

It is gratifying that he { ^ait*d , . , , l until the train arrived. 6 a 6 ' | should have warted ] i) Dac construciile de mai sus snt la Post Tense, n propoziia subiectiv se ntrebuineaz: 246

1) pentru simultaneitate . Post Tense sau should '^ i n f i n i t i v : It was alarming that Mary { studied ) un^ m idnight. 6 ( should study J 2) pentru anterioritate : Post Perfect sau should + i n f i n i t i v ore u perfect: s. '
It was strnge, that theij \ h.ad 1a,mlved . , l bcfo J l should hav$. arrived j '

Folosirea subjonctivului n toate aceste propoziii exprima aciunea ca o kdee, presupunere, pe cnd indicativul exprim aciunea ca un fapt real, svrit. Indicativ: Era ciudat c ei au ajuns naintea noastr. Subjonctiv: Era ciudat ca ei s fi ajuns naintea noastr. B) Modul subjonctiv: a) n propoziiile subiective introduse de it is / \vas advisable, desirable, essential, imperative, important, incvitable, necessary, right, vital, se folo sete subjonctivul prezent analitic cu should: It is j was necessary that he should find a solution immediately. Este / Era necesar ca el s gseasc imediat, o soluie.
Not&'n engleza american, este preferat subjonctivul prezent sintetic la forma afirmativ: 1 1 is f was necessary ihal he find a solution immediately.

b) Dup it is possible. it is probable, se ntrebuineaz subjonctivul prezent analitic cu mayjmight: It is possible that she m y phone me tonight. Este posibil ca ea s-mi telefoneze disear. La forma interogativ ns, se folosete should + i n f i n i t i v : Is it \possible that I should see you this evening? Este posibil s te vd disear? 25.6.4. Reducerea propoziiei Subiective, i) Propoziia subiectiv poate fi redus la o construcie i-nfinitival dac: 569) propoziia principal conine un substantiv sau pronume care poate fi i subiect al infinitivului: It was kind of you to help us. A fost drgu din partea ta s ne ajui. It is my intention to do it. Este intenia mea s fac acest lucru. 570) subiectul generic sau nedefinit al propoziiei subiective este subneles: It is good to be careul. Este bine s fii atent. Construcia infinitival poate fi i i n f i n i t i v u l cu for-to. For + + prbnume se omite dac nelesul reiese din context: It is easy (for us) to say no. (Ne) este uor s spunem nu. 2) Adeseori construcia infinitival este nlocuit de o construcie gerundial: ' ^ > To live mar school l IS m d c f M Livmg near school J . ' . c locuiete lng coal este un avantaj pentru el. Ambele construcii pot fi anticipate de pronumele it: IVs not easy / * * r y l to persuade her. * l trymg / * Nu este uor s ncerci s o convingi, 3) Propoziia subiectiv mai poate fi nlocuit,i de nominativul absolut Participiu prezent: Everythng going wrong alarmei them. Faptul c totul |iergea prost i-a alarmat.

247

iib.V. 11 opoziia predicativa (The Predicative Clause)

571) 572)
Propoziia predicativ este folosit dup verbul oapulatv Je, Folosirea timpurilor: a) Orice timp poate urma unui prezent n regent: that he was bora in this town. that he has written about it. that the book will be soon published. c s-a nscut n acest ora. c a scris despre el. c volumul va fi publicat n curnd. b) Dup un verb la trecut, se aplic corespondena timpurilor n trecut:
that they hd phoned. that they were in town. that they would come the next day.

I I I I

c telefonaser, c erau n ora. c vor veni a doua zi.

25.^.3. Propoziia predicativ poate fi redus la o construcie gerundial: That s learning by doing. Asta nseamn a nva fcnd.

25.8. Propoziiile relative (Relative Clauses)

25.8.1. Propoziiile relative se mpart n: 573) p r o p o z i i i r e l a t i v e r e s t r i c t i v e , limitnd nelesul unui nume din regent; 574) p r o p o z i i i r e l a t i v e descriptive, care aduc explicaii suplimentare despre un element nominal din regent; 575) p r o p o z i i i a p o z i i o.n a l e, cu funcia de apoziie a unui nume din regent. 25.8.2. Propoziiile relative snt introduse de pronumele relative who, tvhat, ivhicfi si that (numai relativa restrictiv), adjectivele relative which, what, whose i adverbele relative where, when, why, 25.8.3: Propoziia relativ restrictiv este esenial pentru nelesul ppoziiei regente i nu se desparte prin virgul de aceasta. The bus that g to the station stops at this corner. Autobuzul care merge la gar oprete la co !, Propoziia relativ restrictiv este introdus prin pronume relativ who, which, that i prin adverbe relative: where, when^ etc, 248

Pronumele relativ that, care introduce nuiftai propoziii relative restrictive, poate fi folosit ca subiect att pentru persosineyci i pentru obiecte (who este ns preferat dup substantivul people i pronumele those):
The students that l are waitin ouisiae are tourists. The people who J Studenii care l asteap t a f ar snt turiti. Oamenii care J ' Which este uneori folosit ca subiect pentru obiecte, dar that este mult mai frecvent: The icecream \ ^uicn l ^ as c h oco i a i e i n ^ COS f S more _ [ that j ngheata care are ciocolat n ea cost mai mult. Adverbele relative where i when snt deseori ntrebuinate pentru introducerea propoziiilor relative n loc de prepoziie + pronume relativ: The store n which / buy groceries l is where l buy groceries J
across (he streeL

The store

Magazinul n care cumpr coloniale ] egte vjzavj Magazinul unde cumpr coloniale J Pronumele relativ este de obicei omis cnd substantivul pe care-1 determin propoziia relativ poate fi complement direct al predicatului din relativ: / liked THE FILM we saw yesterday. Mi-a plcut filmul pe care 1-am vzut ieri. Dac complementul este prepoziional, that se omite, iar prepoziia se aaz la sfritul propoziiei relative: The sport I am fond OF is football. Sportul care mi place este fotbalul. > . i desrapiv. Propoziia relativ descriptiv Jiu este eseniala pentru nelesul propoziiei regente. Adugind informaii suplimentare i puind fi omis fr ca sensul s fie afectat, relativa descriptiv le desparte prin virgul de propoziia regent: Your deskmate, whose name I lan never remember, has just phoned. Tocmai a telefonat colegul tu de banc, fi crui nume nu mi-1 amintesc niciodat. '?=8.5. Folosirea timpurilor a propoziiile relativ In propoziiile relative se poate folosi orice timp, n funcie de intenia orbitorului, independent de verbul din principal: / showed him the dress 111 wear at the school festival tomorrow. I-am artat rochia pe care o voi purta hune la serbarea colar. Our new T V set, which we bought two months ago, is ery good: Televizorul nostru cel nou, pe care 1-am cumprat acum dou luni, ste foarte bun. S 8,6. Propoziia relativ poate fi redus la: ap o zi i e , care poate fi un substantiv, adjectiv sau participiu, singur sau cu o complinire. (Subiectul propoziiei reduse este de obicei un pronume sau substantiv din propoziia regent):
0

The teams j plf yi tn| ln l the Olympics wear special uniforms. Echipele j ^i^entru }
olim

Piad Poart uniforme speciale..

24fl

la o c o n s t r u c i e i n f i n i t i v a l activ cu sens pasiv: This is not a thing to play with. Acesta nu este un lucru cu care s te joci. 577) dac subiectul construciei infinitivale nu este exprimat n propoziti regenta, sau este subneles, fiind general sau nehotrt, el este prezent sub forma unui acuzativ n construcia i n f i n i t i v u l cu for-to: The best thing for you to do is to follow his adnce. Cel mai bun lucru p e care-1 ai de fcut este s-i urmezi sfatul. 25.8.7. Propoaiia apoziionalfe este de obicei introdus de: when, where why, how, that, whether. ' Propoziiile apoziionale ndeplinesc funcia de apoziii pe ling substantive din regent ca opinion, reason, idea, problem, impression, doubt, excuse question, f act i se construiesc cu indicativul: / dorit know the REASON why he left in such a hurry. Nu tiu motivul pentru care a plecat aa de grbit. 25.8.8. n propoziiile atributive apozitive pe lng substantive ca wish suggestion, recommendation, request se folosete subjonctivul analitic exprimat prin should +i n f in i ti v: The chairman's REQUEST that the afternoon session should be postponed was accepted. Cererea preedintelui ca edina de dup-amiaz s fie amnat a fost acceptat. 25,8.9 Propoziia apoziional poate fi redus: a) la o construcie infinitival sau gerundial (uneori), cnd subiectul ei este generic sau nedefinit sau cnd el este prezent n propoziia regent: The question of how to send the goods Jias to be settled. Trebuie rezolvat pro blema privitoare la modul cum va fi expediat marfa. H is idea, j * *. l everything by himself, frightens me.

576)

Ideea lui, de a-face totul singur, m nspimnt. b) dac propoziia priacipal nu conine un asemenea cuvint, el va fi exprimat printr-un acuzativ n propoziia apoziional n construcia I n f i n i t i vul cu for-to: Our hope for him to return soon is faint. E slab sperana ca el s se ntoarc n curnd. sau printr-un posesiv (acuzativ + Gerund): Peter's | Ms j enjoying h'imself, was wrong. him J c) Propoziia apoziional poate fi redus i la un nominativ absolut: This s our way, mother giving instruetions and we following them. Propoziiile circumstaniale (Adverbial Clauses) Propoziiile subordonate circumstaniale snt de mai multe feluri:

25.9.1. Propoziia circumstanial de timp este introdus de conjunctul 6 when, as, while, until j till, before, after, as soon as, whenever, since, etc.
Nots Adverbele hardly, scarcely, no ooner (de-abia) pot i ele .introduce propozi' 1 temporale. Hardly i scarcely snt urmate de conjuncia when, iar no ooner de than: He hardly finished eating a cake when he begins another. Nici n-apuc s termine mncat o prjitur c i ncepe alta. They hd no ooner got on the train than it W ' Nici n-au apucat s se urce n tren c a i plecat.

25.9. Propoziia circumstanial de timp (The Adverbial Clause of Time)

Daci adverbele de mai sus ocup primul loc n propoziie, pentru ntrire, are loc inversiune ntre subiect i verbul auxiliar: Hardly has he finished eating a cake when he begins another. No sooner hd they got on the rain tnan if left.

25,9.2. Folosirea 'timpurilor n propoziia eim;s'!;kt>KH.;a! 'a v ;;-, p Un timp prezent n regent este urmat de un timp prezent n circumstan- . .. ja de timp : When I have some day off, / go to the mountains. Cnd am cteva *]]e libere, merg la munte. Unui viitor in regent i corespunde un prezent n temporal, pentru a exprima simultaneitatea aciunilor: While you are getting ready, P II rnake a telephone caii. n timp ce te pregteti, am s dau un telefon. IU be waiiing risht here when you come out of the examinatiou room. Te voi atepta chiar aici cnd vei iei din sala de examen. ti un prezent sau Present Perfect pentru anterioritate : After the film is over, ! vttfll go for a walk. Dup ce se va termina filmul, vom face o plimbare. Pil help you as soon as I have finished my homework. Te voi ajuta de ndat ce n: i voi fi terminat leciile. l t n f i e ! la diferena dintre romn (verbul din temporal este Ja viitor sau 'prezent) i englez (verbul este la prezent sau Present -Perfect): Te voi ajuta de ndat ce mi voi (fi) termina (t) leciile. / Am s te ajut cnd am s-mi termin leciile. Un predicat la un timp trecut n propoziia principal cere Past Tense In propoziia temporal, pentru exprimarea simultaneitii: When I left lor school this morning, it was raining heavily. Cnd am plecat la coal azi de diminea, ploua cu gleata. i Past Perfect pentru exprimarea unei aciuni anterioare celei din principal: They left the classroom as soon as they hd finished their papers. Au ieit din clas de ndat ce / imediat dup ce i-au terminat lucrrile. Aceleai reguli snt valabile cnd predicatul propoziiei regente este la -viitor n trecut: / told you I would caii on you l soon * l J ^d finished the bookl when / I hd some spare time. A te n i e la traducerea 'acestor propoziii! In limba romn se folosete viitorul n temporal, pe cnd n limba englez l. numai p^t Tense sau Past Perfect: i-am spus c voi trece pe la tine /
de ndat ce voi

f i terminat cartea. | cnd voi avea puin timp liber.

. verbuldin propoziia regent este la modul condiional, verbul din Circumstaniala de timp este la Past Tense: I would try to caii on you before , went away. A ncerca s trec pe la tine nainte s pleci din ora.
fot: Datorit sensului, after poate fi urmat de Past Tense sau de Past Perfect, pentru a exprima anterioritatea aciunii din circumstaniala de timp fa de aciunea din propoziia principal:
R* ng up all his friends after he { ^^ rned } f rom the trip.
A

telefonat tuturor prietenilor si dup ce s-a ntors din cltorie.

iperfe mod similar, untill / till pot fi urmate de Past Tense sau de Past l / e n subord/mata de timp:

}"

defMt

didn't have until he

251

"

defMte

Nu a plecat, pn nu a primit un rspuns precis. Before permite folosirea lui Past Tensc.sw a lui Past Perfect principal nsoit de o subordonat temporal la Past Tense:
She J & a^e .
\

l him your message before you arrived.

J

Ea i-a transmis / i transmisese mesajul tu nainte s soseti tu. n toate cele trei cazuri, folosirea lui Past Perfect subliniaz anterioritate a aciunii. Spre deosebire de conjunciile de mai sus, when este urmat de Past Tens e pentru a indica: 578) simultaneitatea aciunilor din cele dou propoziii: We paid for the materiah when the company delivered them. (when = at that moment) Arn pltit pentru materiale cnd le-a livrat ntreprinderea. 579) succesiunea imediat a celor dou aciuni: When Peter returncd from school his mother cooked dinner. (when = as sobn as) Cnd Petre s-a ntors de la coal, mama sa a pregtit masa. When este urmat de Past Perfect pentru a arta c aciunea din subordonata de timp o precede pe cea din principal: We paid for the materials when the company hd delivered them. (when =after) Am pltit pentru materiale dup ce le-a livrat ntreprinderea.
QiCtd,: Dup when se poate, folosi viitorul sau viitorul n trecut cnd when nu introduce o propoziie temporal, ci o completiv direct: We vcant to know when he will come. Vrem s tim cnd va veni. We wanted to know when he vrould come. Voiam s tim cnd va veni.

Conjuncia since cere folosirea lui Present Perfect n propoziia principal, pentru a indica perioada de timp pn la (sau eventual i n) momentul prezent. Cu verbe care indic durata (ex.: live, stay} 6e, own) since poate fi urmat de acest timp si n propoziia temporal: f Since we came to this to(vn\wehafevisitedtkeArtGaUeriesse(>eraitimes. \ o ince we ve been hvmg here J { De cnd am venit n acest ora, \ am vizitat Galeriile de Art de mai De cnd locuim aici, J multe ori. 2a,3.3. Iledaceroa propoziiei circumstaniale de timp Propoziia circumstanial de timp poate fi redus la o construcie format dintr-o conjuncie de timp i un substantiv, adjectiv sau participai i crei subiect este subiectul din propoziia regent: H e always sings whi shaving. Totdeauna cnt cnd se brbierete. Conjuncia poate fi omis naintea construciei participiale, care poate j prezent sau perfect: Walking to school, / met my English teacher. Mergi spre coal, 1-am ntlnit pe profesorul de englez. Having done my homevv ^ I went.to. the cinema. Terminndu-mi leciile /Dup ce mi-am fcut lec.i m-am dus la cinema. Dup conjuncii care pot fi folosite i ca prepoziii, se folosesc coi gerundiale: / switched off all the lig'hts beore going to bed. Am stins toate nile nainte s merg la culcare. Construcia gerundial introdus de on, after sau before poate avea 1^ subiect diferit de cel din propoziia regent, exprimat printr-un pronum substantiv n cazul genitiv sau acuzativ: 252

passing all his exams, his friends came to celebrate. |up ce Tom / el i-a luat toate examenele, prietenii au venit s-1 srbtoreasc. Propoziia temporal poate fi nlocuit i de o construcie prepoziional: ifter Dacia's defeat by the Romans, it become a Roman province. Dup infrn-gerea Daciei de ctre romani, ara a devenit o provincie roman.

v;5.10. Propoziia cfreimstaaia de oe (The Adverbial Clause of Place)

!?5.10.1. Propoziia circumstanial de loc este introdus de adverbele where, wherever i se construiete cu orice timp: Would you please put^those books 'back where they belong. Ai vrea v rog s punei crile napoi / unde le este locul. Wherever we went, we met hospitable people. Oriunde mergeam, ntlneam oameni ospitalieri. "- IA.?;, Circumstaniala de loc este de obicei-nlocuit de un adverb de loc sau de o construcie prepoziional: Would you plea&e put those books in their right place? We met hospitable people everywhere.

5,11. Propoziia circumstanial de mod, propriu-zis (The' Adverbial Clause of Manner)

Aceasta este introdus de (exactly) as, (just) as i se construiete cu orice ip cerut de logica enunului din principal: He will do just as you told him. |a face exact cum i-ai spus. Propoziia circumstanial de mod propriu-zis poate fi redus la: un participiu prezent sau trecut cnd subiectul participiului este subiectul sau complementul predicatului din propoziia regent: H e came to us smiling. Se ndrept spre noi zmbind. He bought the house unrepaired and unpainted. A cumprat casa nereparat i nevruit, o construcie gerundial, dup o prepoziie: He resembles you in spending his spare time reading. Seamn cu tine prin faptul c-i petrece timpul liber citind. o prepoziie + substantiv: He differs from you in disposition. Se deosebete de tine la dispoziie. ,

35.12. Propoziia circumstanial de mod comparativ (The Adverbial Clause of Comp ar ison)
"5.12.1. Propoziia circumstanial de mod comparativ este introdus e conjunciile as, than, as if, as though. Conjuncia as este precedat n regent de un adjectiv la gradul pozitiv Ir de un substantiv. Cuvintele as, so, such sau the same pot anticipa conjunc-I. as ' The film is not &s.good as you thought. Filmul nu este att de bun ct cr ezut. They heard such a noise as they hd never heard beore. Au auzit un
253

asemenea zgomot, cum nu mai auziser niciodat. He left for school the am i time.as I did. A plecat la coal la aceeai or la care am plecat i eu. Conjuncia than este precedat de un adjectiv la gradul comparativ c se afl n propoziia regent: He was older than we hd expected. El era rn n vrst dect crezusem. In propoziiile circumstaniale de mod comparative, verbul poate fi Omls n acest caz, pronumele personale snt n cazul acuzativ: ''
a cn / sang better than jjje.did. tat el. Am c n t a t mai bine dect { l niinl el. Propoziia comparativ eliptic este mai frecvent dect cea n care verbul este exprimat. Verbul nu poate ns fi omis dect dac este be sau dac att regenta ct i subordonata conin acelai verb: She speaks English better than him (than he speaks U). Ea vorbete englezete mai bine dect el. dar: She speaks English better than she writes ii. Ea vorbete limba englez mai bine dect scrie. 25.12.2. Folosirea timpurilor n propoziiile comparative Propoziiile comparative introduse de as, than se construiesc cu orice timp condiionat logic de predicatul propoziiei principale:

as we hd thought. <wflmacouldbe. as nis son s now. as you are going to be.

n propoziia comparativ de tipul cu cit... cu att, care se construiete n limba englez cu ajutorul a dou adjective sau adverbe la comparativ (unul n propoziia regent, altul n propoziia comparativ), precedate de articolul hotrt the, se folosesc de regul viitorul n principal i prezentul n comparativ: The harder you work, the better results you will get. Cu ct vei munci mai mult, cu att vei obine rezultate mai bune. sau: Post Tense + Post Tense: The more frequently they met, the more they liked each other. Cu ct se ntlneau mai des, cu att se plceau mai mult. Propoziiile comparative introduse de as if, as though, (dup un verb prezent sau trecut) se construiesc cu indicativul prezent sau viitor pentru exprimarea unei comparaii reale: h looks as if\
he has been here

: ^Tdt,he .ha8j- . l it s going to ram. (It s cloudy). i cu Post Tense (simultaneitate) sau Past Perfect (anterioritate) pentru a exprima o comparaie imaginar, ireal: He talks j talked as if he were a teacher (but he isn't / wasn't). He behaves / behaved as if he hd been here (but he hasn't / hadn't). 25.12.3. Comparaiile reale se traduc n romn prin indicativ, cele ireale, prin condiional: Se pare c a fost aici. dar: Se poart de parc ar fi fost aici. ... Propoziia comparativ poate fi nlocuit de un adjectiv, un participi sau de o construcie prepoziional: as though angry. She behaved} <* ^ seeil? eouraSemeni-as though dazed. as if in search of something. 254

de parc, ar fi fost suprat, de parc ar fi avut nevoie de o ncurajare, de parc ar fi fost ameit, de parc ar fi cutat ceva. Dac propoziia comparativ este introdus de tkan, ea poate fi nlocuit ull infinitiv (cu sau fr to): He did nothng more than (to) sign his name. .a fcut nimic altceva dect s-i^ semneze numele.

25.13. Propoziia circumstanial cansal (The Adverbial Clause of Reason)

25.13.1- Propoziia circumstanial cauzal este introdus de conjunciile because, as, since i se construiete cu orice timp condiionat logic de verbul din principal: Since Dan often forgets things, his wifegace him a list. Deoarece Dan este cam uituc, soia lui i-a dat o list.

because I hadn't been able to sleep all night. because today is Sunday.

Azi diminea m-am sculat f pentru c n-am putut dormi toat noaptea, la ora zece j pentru c azi e duminic. 25.13.2. Circumstaniala cauzal poate fi redus la un participiu, adjeg-I tiv, substantiv sau o construcie prepoziional: Feeling unwell, he went to bed early. Deoarece nu se simea bine, s-a dus la culcare devreme. He was admired \ as a mn of character. Era admirat fiind un om de caracter. Participiul poate face parte dintr-un nominativ absolut: The weather being unsettled, we postponed our trip. Vremea fiind instabil, ne-am amnat l cltoria. l care poate fi nlocuit de o construcie prepoziional: In sueh unsettled weather, \we hd to postpone our trip. Pe aa o vreme instabil, a trebuit s ne amnm cltoria. Dup o prepoziie, se poate folosi o construcie gerundial: The little boy w as scolded for going out in the rain. Bieelul a fost certat pentru c a ieit afar n ploaie. Dac propoziia cauzal are acelai subiect cu propoziia regent, ea poate 11 redus la un infinitiv: / was glad to see them. M-am bucurat s-i vd. care se transform ntr-un i n f i n i t i v cu for-to cnd cele dou subiecte s nt diferite: / was ashamed for them to speak like that. Mi-a fost ruine,c au vorbit aa.
" v l v . . * * '

25.14. Propoziia circumstanial condiional (The Adverbial Clause of Condition) ' s

ub \[aze*e condiionale snt formate din dou feluri de propoziii: propoziia condiional ///"" Clause) referitoare la condiia care face (M 'n(^ePunirea aciunii din principal, i propoziia principal sau regent ain Clause) care exprim rezultatul sau efectul condiiei.
255

25.14.1. Exist trei tipuri mari de propoziii condiionale: tipul l, o c o n d i i e r e a l v i i t o a r e s a u g e n e r a l a care exprim o situaie anticipat sau posibil: ' ntr-un moment viitor: We'll leave tomorrow i the weather is K0n:i Vom pleca mine dac va fi vreme bun. n general: I I make a mistake, the teacher always finds it. Dac f vreo greeal, profesorul o gsete ntotdeauna. tipul 2, o c o n d i i e i r e a l p r e z e n t s a u viitoar care se refer la: ' o situaie imaginar, contrar unei realiti prezente: I the weather were better (right now), we. could go for a walk. Dac vremea ar fi mai bun am putea face o plimbare. ' o situaie improbabil, ntr-un moment viitor: I I hd the day o toiuorrow, / would go to the beach. Dac a avea zi liber mine, m-a duce la pl aj tipul 3, o condi'ie i r e a l trecut, cu referire la o situaie imaginar sau contrar realitii ntr-un moment trecut: I the weather hd been better, / would have left last Monday. Dac vremea ar fi fost mai bun, as fi plecat lunea trecut. 8!<,L4 2 Propoziia circumstanial condiional este introdus de conjunciile: if; provided (that) / so long as / on condition that; in case; suppose / supposing (that). Condiia negativ este introdus de unless. Conjunciile in 'case i provded snt ntrebuinate mai ales cu propoziii condiionale de tipul l: In case I see him, Pil give him your message. n caz Q-1 vd, am s-i transmit mesajul tu. ni forgive you provided you teii the truth. Am s te iert cu condiia s-mi spui adevrul. Suppose se folosete mai ales cu propoziii condiionale de .tipul 2 i 3: Suppose you were a teacher, what would you do ? Presupunnd c ai fi profesor, ce-ai face? Suppose she hd been right, what would you have done? S presupunem c ea ar fi avut dreptate, ce ai fi fcut (atunci)? Unless (condiie negativ) este mai frecvent n propoziiile condiionale de tipul l, i este' urmat de un verb la forma afirmativ. Folosirea lui unless ntrete negaia (if not este neutru). Comparai: / won't say anything i he doesn't bring up the matter himself. N-am s spun nimic dac n-aduce el vorba. / won't say anything unless he brings up the matter himsel. N-am s spun nimic dect dac aduce el vorba. Propoziia condiional poate fi introdus i de alte cuvinte de legtura, situaii n care i pierde forma/'de propoziie condiional: Find the correct answers and they''ll give you a prize. (= If you find the correct answers, they give you a prize.). Look ai the map J *, . l you will lose your way.

n engleza literar, apar uneori propoziii condiionale n care or i ^ subiect verb auxiliar este inversat, iar conjuncia z/este omis. Ace as ^ ntmpl de regul cnd propoziia condiional conine be, have, coula ^ should: Were I in your position, / 'should apologize. Dac a fi n locul tu, J cere scuze. Hd he known about this, matter, he might have found a sotu Dac ar fi tiut despre aceast problem, poate ar fi gsit o soluie. n cazul verbelor noionale se folosete should / would +i n ^ nl JJ1 ai Should he come earlier, we could go to the theatre. Dac ar veni (cumva) devreme, am putea merge la teatru. 256

,,l4iS. urdinea pj opoziiilor. De obicei propoziia condiional urmeaz ropoziia regent. Dac o preced, cele dou propoziii sini desprite prin siilsL- If you go ont, post these letters for me, will you. Dac pleci n ora, v * e te rog aceste scrisori la pot pentru mine. ';;>.. 14.-1. Timpurile folosite1 tn frazele condiionale snt urmtoarele:
Tioul d" propoziie condiional - - --------------------

Timpul tn propoziia principala

Timpul tn propoziia condiional

Viitor/Prezent/Imperativ /'H go swimming A teacher is always happy Go and buy tickets Condiional prezent She would go on a trip Condiional trecut / wonld have spoken Io Ann

Prezent if the water s warm. if his pupil work hard. if you want Io see the play. Past Tense if she were* on holiday. Past Perfect if I hd seen her yeslerday.

2 3

i!'.;, 1.4.5. Tradiiefirea propoziiilor condiionale din limba romn n limba (englez prezint de obicei dificulti, deoarece folosirea timpurilor difer *n cele dou limbi: n romn se folosete viitorul n propoziia condiional tip l i modul condiional att n propoziia principal ct i n condiional ((condiionalele de tip 2,3), pe cnd n englez, indicativul viitor i condiionalul prezent i trecut apar doar n propoziiile principale (vezi tabelul): 1. M voi duce s not dac apa va fi cald. 2. Ea s-ar duce n excursie dac ar fi n vacan. 3. A fi vorbit cu Ana dac a fi vzut-o ieri.
:*ut: n limba englez, se poate folosi viitorul dup if doar cnd propoziia, subordonat este completiv direct (nu condiional): / don t know ii he will come. Nu tiu dac va veni.

;5.14.6. A t e n i e2 A) In frazele condiionale de tipul l, care se refer" o condiie real, posibil, se mai pot folosi: Past tense -f- Past tense, care exprim o condiie i un rezultat real n ecut: If he felt tired, he went for a walk. Dac se simea obosit, fcea o plimbare. Viitor /prezent /imperativ n propoziia principal + Present Perfect \Past Tense, n propoziia condiional, pentru exprimarea unei condiii fecute i a unui rezultat prezent: If you haven't understood the instructions, fad them again. Dac n-ai neles instruciunile, citete-le din nou. T** va veni , . . astzi. n-a fost aici ieri ,, , , , f teii him to come today, H he wasn't here yesterday, { he,u come ( spune-i s vin astzi. ' l
today

j * n propoziiile condiionale de tipul 2, verbul be are forma were la toate persoanele. 'Vorbirea curent ns, exist tendina de a se folosi i a>as: She would go on a trip U g&e 88 n holiday. Ar merge n excursie dac ar fi n' vacan.
Gramatica limbii ensleze

257

25.14.7. B) Dac verbul din regent e la viitorul-n-trecut, n condiio nal se folosete: Post Tense pentru exprimarea simultaneitii: He promised \e would write to us i he hd the time. A promis c ne va scrie dac va avea timp

P ast Perfect pentru a exprima o aciune anterioar celei din regent H e promised he would write to us i he hd inished his work. A promis c ne a scrie dac-i va fi terminat lucrul. 25.14.8. n limba englez pot aprea i combinaii ntre cele trei tipuri de fraze condiionale: tip l (condiia real) cu tip 2 (aciune ireal): I you have a few hourg to spare, / would invite you to the 'cinema. Dac ai cteva ore libere, te- invit la cinema. tip 2 (condiie contrar realitii prezente) cu tip 3 (aciune nerealizat n trecut) : I she were a better singer, she would have participated in the festival Dac ar fi o cntrea mai buna, ar fi participat la festival. tip 3 (condiie ireal n trecut) cu tip 2 (rezultatul condiiei n prezent): l I he hadn't hd an accident, he wouldn't be in hospital now. Dac n-ar fi avut | un accident, n-ar fi n spital acum. 25.14.9. Should +infiniti-vul poate fi folosit n propoziiile con- 1 diionale de tipul l i 2 iar were io+infinitivul n propoziiile condi ionale de tipul 2, pentru a exprima un grad mare de incertitudine, o situaie puin probabil: I you should get any news rom her, let me know at once.l Dac se ntmpl s primeti veti de la ea, anun-m imediat. If he were to| come, / would be very happy. Dac ar verii cumva, a fi foarte fericit. n engleza literar, apare uneori inversiune ntre subiect i verbul auxi-l liar, iar if se omite : Should you get any news, let me know at once. Were he toi qome, / would be very happy. 25.14.10. wni poate fi utilizat n condiionalele de tipul l, iar would n cele de tipul 2, cu valoarea de verb modal a voi" : I you will wait a moment,! Pil bring you the book you need. Dac vrei s ateptai un moment, v voi aduce cartea de care avei nevoie. W e would be delighted ii you would accep our invitation. Am fi ncntai dac ai voi s acceptai invitaia noastr. Aceast construcie este folosit pentru a exprima o rugminte politii coas: I you will/would do this or me, / shall be moi grateful. Dac avei/a avea amabilitatea s facei aceasta pentru mine, v, voi fi recunosctor. 25.14.11. Could l might + i n f i n i t i v u l (prezent sau perfect) folosete n frazele condiionale de tipul 2 sau 3 n locul auxiliarului should i would +infinitivul (prezent sau perfect) cnd este implicat o mianj! modal: I the weather were ine, we could go to the country over the weekena\ Dac ar fi vreme frumoas, am putea merge la ar la sfritul sptnilnul She might have passed the exam i she hd solved all the problems. Poate c fi luat examenul dac ar fi rezolvat toate problemele. 25.14.12. Circumstaniala condiional poate fi redus la: 580) un participiu sau adjectiv, cnd cele dou propoziii au acelai Born in an earlier century, he would have been a great explorer. Dac snscut n alt secol, ar fi fost un mare explorator. 581) un participiu absolut, cnd subiectul este general sau nedefinit: appearances, she must be telling the truth. Dac judecm dup cred c spune adevrul.
258

construcie infiiytival (subiect identic sau nedefinit): li would hurt her to talk like that. Ar mhni-o dac ai vorbi aa,. o construcie prepoziional: But for them f Without them j / would have lost my way. Fr ei m-a fi rtcit.

25.15. Propoziia circumstanial de scop (The Adverbial Clause of Purpose)

25.15.1. Propoziia circumstanial de scop este introdus de so that, in order that i that (formal). In case, for fear that i lest (nvechit, formal) introduc propoziii de scop cu sens negativ (dar cu verbul la forma afirmativ). 25.15.2. A) Propoziia de scop introdus de so that, caracteristic englezei familiare, se construiete cu: will l can - ( - i n f i n i t i v dup un verb la prezent, viitor sau imperativ: I'll send f will ) [ the letter airmail so that he get it right aw'ay. Send can J (Voi) trimite scrisoarea par avion ca s-o primeasc imediat. cu would l could -f- i n f i n i t i v dup un verb la uri timp trecut: / gave her the key so that she could get in. I-am dat cheia ca s poat intra. B) n engleza literar, se ntrebuineaz conjuncia so 'that i mai ales in order that. Un prezent, viitor sau imperativ n regent este urmat de may sau mai rar, de shall - ( - i n f i n i t i v n circumstaniala de scop: Open the window so that she may get some fresh air. Deschide fereastra ca s poat respira/sa respire puin aer curat. iar un timp trecut, de might / should - { - i n f i n i t i v : / lent Dan the dictionary so that he might do the translation. I-am mprumutat dicionarul lui Dan ca s-i fac traducerea. Propoziiile de scop negative snt introduse de so that, in order that, urmate de will not -ifn f i n i t i v (dup un verb la prezent, viitor sau imperativ): I must give hifo^Jist so that he won't forget what to buy. Trebuie s-i dau o "St ca s nu uite ce s cumpere. sau de would / should not -f i n f i n i t i v, dup un verb la un timp trecut: They left early so that they wouldn't be tired the next day. Au plecat devreme ca s nu fie obosii a doua zi. Ideea de scop negativ poate fi exprimat i n propoziii cu verbul la afir-. Acestea snt introduse de conjunciile: in case,_ urmat de Present j Past Tense sau should -(-infinitiv: I'll give him a list in case he i gjjould orget f w ^ at for fear (that) + should / would - ( - i n f i n i t i v : They want(ed) to leace early for fear they j ^JJj | be tired the next day. 259
to

 lest + should + i n f i n i t i v: He took a taxi lest he should miss train. A luat un taxi ca s nu piard trenul.
Not: In case este folosit, n engleza familiar, ca nlocuitor al lui lest, care a ieii din uz.

o construcie infinitival, cnd subiectul ei este identic cu cel din prop 0 -| ziia regent: He went to the park to listen to the bnd concert. S-a dus hil parc s asculte fanfara. l 583) i nfinitivul cu for-to, cnd subiectele snt diferite: He took his children to\ the park for them to listea to the bnd concert. i-a dus copiii n parc si asculte fanfara. l Adeseori, infinitivul este precedat de so as, in order, sau onpurpose pentrul a sublinia idee a de scop: grt oO l bnd concert. { in order f S-a dus n parc pentru a asculta fanfara. c) Construcia infinitival poate fi redus la o construcie prepoziional^

582)

25.15.3i Propoziia circumstanial de scop poate fi redus la:

The Romanians fought in the 1877 -1878 W ar {

Romnii' au luptat n rzboiul din 18771878 pentru (a dobndi) indepenJ den.

25.16. Propoziia circumstanial consecutiv (The Adverbial Clause of Result)

25.16.1. Aceste propoziii snt introduse de conjuncia that precedat n regent de so, such: sau de conjuncia so (that). So este urmat, n regent] de un adjectiv sau adverb, pe cnd such este urmat de un (adjectiv + ) substanJ tiv. It was so ho l j.* , j n ii. -j that w e ened aU the wmdows It was such a ho day \ - P It was ho so we opened all the windows. Era aa de cald fA , ,. , Era o zi aa de fierbinte { m c t * n d e s c h i s t o a t e fe*rele. Era cald, aa c am deschis toate ferestrele. Pentru subliniere, conjuncia so se aaz uneori la nceputul circumstanl ialei consecutive, n acest caz, are loc inversiune ntre subiect i predicai So difficult was the exercise, that npbody could do it. Aa de greu a fost exerc iul, c nimeni n-a putut s-1 fac. 25.16.2. Predicatul propoziiei consecutive este la orice timp cerut logica enunului:

,. -, ,. . ,

f that they promoted him.

t h a t p u n e v e r f o rg e t hi n lt

He did his job so well j

* . ,v ... . . , f nclt 1-au promovat. Ii feea aa de bme serviciul | nc t nu .j ^ oi uit ft nic io d a t. 260

25!6.. Cnd subiectul propoziiei regente este acelai cu cel al propo ziiei consecutive, aceasta poate fi redus la: a ) as to - ( - i n f i n i t i v clnd propoziia consecutiv este anticipat de such sau so: Behave in such a wa-y as to be admired. Poart-te n aa fel Inct s fii admirat, j,) so as to + i n f i n i t i v: Put on your coats so as to be ready. Punei-v hainele, ca s fii gata. c ) o construcie infinitival: He talked slowly enough to be understood. A vorbit destul de rar ca s poat fi neles. ' Dac cele dou propoziii au subiecte diferite, circumstaniala consecutiv poate fi nlocuit de infinitivul cu for-to: The coffee was too ho for me to drink. Cafeaua era prea fierbinte ca s-o pot bea.

25.17. Propoziia circumstanial concesiv (The Adverbial Clause of Concession)

584) Propoziia circumstanial concesiv este introdus de: though, although (mai formal), ecen if / though, however ( + adjectiv / adverb), whoever, whatever, no matter, while, whereas (formal). 585) Propoziia circumstanial concesiv poate avea i forma unei propoziii, aparent principale, de fapt subordonat, exprimat prin: 586)
un imperativ: Laugh as miich as you like, r U do it this way. Rzi ct ai vrea, eu ani s fac aa. 587) imperativ cu let: Let him be the laziest fellow in the world, / vvould still try to help him. S fie i cel mai lene om din lume i tot as ncerca s-1 ajut. 588) subjonctiv sintetic: Vil receive him, be he who may. Am s-1 primesc, oricine ar fi. 25.17.3. Timpurile verbale folosite n circumstanialele concesive snt timpurile prezente i trecute ale indicativului: .

Though i he has never studied music, he plays the piano very well. Although \ he is not a professional, Even though [ he did not study music in school, J
Dei Cucnt toatefoarte c el bine la pian n-a studiat niciodat muzica, nu este profesionist, nu a studiat muzica la'coal, (Al)though he hd been playing fotball all morning, he wasn't very tired. Dei jucase fotbal toat dimineaa, nu era obosit. (Al)though he was not feeling very well, he continued his work. Dei nu se simea foarte bine, i-a continuat lucrul. May j might + i n f i n i t i v u l este folosit n propoziiile concesive pentru a exprima o presupunere: Whoever may/might come, show him in. . In limba romn, indicativul din propoziia concesiv se traduce tot prin indicativ, pe cnd may/might -f- i n f i n i t i v se traduc prin condiional: ^ricine ar veni, poftete-1 nuntru. Propoziia concesiv poate fi redus la: un participiu, adjectiv sau substantiv: Though tired, she continued her work. i obosit, i-a continuat munca. 261

589)

participiu absolut, clnd subiectul este nedefinit: Even admittin explanation, his behaviour cannot be excused. Chiar daca admitem e caia lui, comportarea lui nu poate fi scuzat. ^*~

un

590) o construcie prepoziional, coninnd de obicei cuvntul all;

for aU ! , . . , " ... l his faults. Este un om bun m t ^ with all } ' ./, A j , Cut oate/ . . . I / n cmda defectelor i, r m spie of J u.

EXERCIII CAP. 2425

I. Transformai prile de propoziie scrise cursiv in propoziii subordonate1. He lost his way because of the thick fog. 2. We went on the picnic in spie of the heavy rain. 3. Following the dance, the hostess seryed refreshmenta 4. The books on my desk have to be returned to the library. 6. He went to the post office in order to buy some stamps. 6. The green dress costs as much as the red dress. 7. Her being late amazes me. 8. We were astonished at his behaviour. 9. You can rely on his help. 10. We saw interesting things everywhere. II. He speaks like a native. 12. But for her, I would have forgoten about the meeting. 13. This is the reason for his early arrival. 14. The weather being so cold, we made a fire. II. Punei verbele din parantez la forma potrivit : 1. I first met her twenty years ago when-1 (live) in Paris. 2. I (have) a tiny apartment in the Latin Quarter and I (earn) barely enough money to keep body and squl together. 3. She hd read a book of mine and (write) to me about it. 4. I (answer), thanking her, and presently I (receive) from her another letter saying that she (pass) through Paris and (like) to have a chat with me. 5. I (answer) that I (meet) her at Foyots on Thursday at half-past twelye. 6. She (be) not so young as I (expect) and in appearance imposing rather than attr active. 7. She (be) in f act a woman of forty a charming age, but not one that (e&cite) a sudden and devastating passion at first sight. 8. She,also (give) me the impression of having more teeth than necessary for any practicai brought, for the prices (know) exactly how m ._, - ,-----,------........------,-------, (make up) my mind that I (put) my hand in my pocket and with a dramatic cry start up and say it (be) picked. 11. Of course it (be) awkward if she (havej. not money enough either to pay the bill. 12. Then the only thing to do f oej to leave my watch and say I (come) back and pay later.
(After: W. S. Maugham ~ The Luncheon!

DI. Traducei In limba englez: 1. Muzica pe care am ascultat-o asear era de George Enescu. ' e> veni de ndat ce-i va termina treaba. 3. A fost aa de frig In u l t " na . nct au ngheat rurile. 4. Mary a plecat n grab, de team s nu in 6. Tom a vizitat expoziia ca s le poat povesti prietenilor despre ea. 262

ar n aici, ne-ar putea ajuta. 7. Ea va veni miine acas dac i-a terminat 8. A fi trecut pe la ea dac mi-ar fi spus unde locuiete. 9. I-am Paulei c o voi ajuta cnd am s m ntorc din vacan. 10. Dan a |pus c-i place s studieze gramatica. 11. E ciudat c ncearc s telefoneze la f flC east or trzie. 12. Tata propune s fim gata pe la ora 12. 1. Duminica ^ecut am stat acas pentru c a fost vreme rea. 14. Ne-a asigurat asear c g le va atepta pn te vei ntoarce. 15. Tata a cumprat o main veche, ,jei prietenii lui 1-au sftuit s n-o fac. 16. Azi de diminea secretara a ajuns ]a birou mai devreme dect de obicei. 17. Oriunde ne duceam, ne opream i ceream informaii. jV. A. Paul intrase n camera lui i era aproape s nu-i observe, i cutase toat dimineaa fr s aib aerul c o face. Dan i spusese unde j.ai putea gsi dar el rspunse c nu dorea s tie. I-ar fi evitat dac M fi putut. B. Iubite Ghi. Srit opt zile de cnd i-am trimis o scrisoare prin care te rugam s-mi rspunzi dac persoana ce voia s cumpere tablouri de la mine, despre care mi-ai scris mai de mult, mai persist n dorina sa i dac, prin urmare, s-i trimit ie tablouri n acest scop. Tabloul tu cu Ceahlul, despre care i scrisesem c e n lucru, acum e gata complet. Atept un rspuns al tu ca s tiu ce s fac. (...). Al tu cu toat dragostea, Octav Bncil. C. Iubite Ghi, E cam mult de cind nu mai tiu nimica despre tine; tiu c eti foarte ocupat, ca ntotdeauna, totui cnd este chip, scrie-ne i nou^ cteva rnduri i ne spune cum te afli i ce mai faci. Eu snt mai bine de cnd am fost la Teohari. Ceilali snt cu toii sntoi. Am terminat portretul d-rei Cirea i snt foarte mulumit. La nceput i chiar tot timpul ct mi-a stat disperasem c nu voi putea-o face bine din cauza unei vioiciuni ce o caracterizeaz. Apoi nu se prea inea 'de euvnt. mi fgduia, de exemplu, c vine mine i eu ateptam zadarnic, cci m trgea pe sfoar. Dar, n fine, a trecut tot necazul, rezultatul fiind pe .deplin mulumitor, cel puin pentru mine ca executor, nu tiu ce vor zice criticii de toat mna. Octav Bncil. D. Toat lumea tia c domnul Pantelimon i reparase vechea-i main | i,Topolino", care sttuse cinci ani pe butuci i c nu era duminic, dac echipa juca n alt ora, s lipseasc. Se mprumuta de bani dac n-avea, umplea E rezervorul cu benzin i fcea un tur la volan prin centru, .ca s fie vzut. l Mainuajunmca gaze de-ai fi spus c deasupra oraului plutea un val de cea Wtificial. Trectorii ieii la plimbare la ora unsprezece scoteau batistele i M e puneau la nas. Lng el, Vizante fcea semne cunoscuilor cu mna. >(E.Barbu Unsprezece). E. Snt vise ce parc le-am fi trit cndva i undeva, precum snt lucruri despre care ne ntrebm dac n-au fost vis. La asta m gndeam deuzi seara cnd rvind printre hrtiile mele ca s vd ce se mai poate gsi ars hrtiile ncurc am dat peste o scrisoare care mi-a deteptat unei ntmplri ciudate, aa de ciudat c, de n-ar fi dect apte ani cnd s-a petrecut, m-a simi cuprins de ndoial, a crede c ntr-adevr visat numai, sau c am citit-o ori auzit-o demult. 263

Era n 1907. Fusesem greu bolnav n Bucureti i m ntorsesem la Berlin nsntoirea mea se fcea cu anevoin, cernd ngrijiri mari. La plecare doctorul m-a sftuit s m feresc pn i de cele mai uoare eforturi' Bietul doctor! Am dat din umeri zmbind i i-am spus s fie pe pace,
(Mateiu I. Caragiale Remember)

26. VORBIREA DIRECT I'INDIRECT (Direct and Indirect Spee ; i . - ,

Exist dou posibiliti de redare a spuselor cuiva: prin vorbire directi indirect.

26.1. Vorl)irea direct (Direct Speech)

26.1.1. n vorbirea direct se reproduc ntocmai cuvintele persoanei! care le-a rostit. Acestea se introduc de obicei prin virgul i snt ncadratei ntre ghilimele (simple sau duble), spre deosebire de limba romn (dou! puncte i liniu de dialog): H e asked me, "Where is Dan?" M-a ntrebat:! Unde este Dan? 26.1.2. Enunul reprodus ndeplinete funcia de propoziie completivl direct a predicatului din propoziia principal. Propoziia principal poatel aprea nainte, intercalat sau dup completiva direct. Cu excepia poziieil iniiale, poate avea loc inversiune ntre subiect i predicat cnd subiectul estel exprimat printr-un substantiv, iar verbul este la Present sau Past Tenset Simple: Tom said, 'I can come with you', dar: said Tom. Tom said. he aid. 26.1.3. Folosireaiimpurilor n vorbirea direct nu este afectat de timpul predicatului din propoziia principal: He is saying, f TU see him tomorrow.' He has said, | '/ met her last night.' He said, i '/'ve just arrived.' etc.

26.2. Vorbirea indirect (Indirect / Reported Speech)

n vorbirea indirect, o a treia persoan red spusele cuiva, fr a reproj duce totdeauna ntocmai cuvintele sale; John said to Peter, 'Shall I naeet at the station tomorrow?'

John suggested { S^* 00 " "^ } P**r ai the station the mxi
Propoziia reprodus ndeplinete de asemenea funcia -de completi v | direct a predicatului din propoziia principal. 264

Cnd spusele cuiva snt trecute de la vorbirea direct la cea indirect, procedeu frecvent utilizat n conversaie (Ea mi-a spus c...), au loc anumite schimbri att n propoziia principal ct i n completiva direct. Modificrile snt de dou feluri: A) generale, care afecteaz orice fel de enun reprodus; J3) specifice, caracteristice fiecrui tip de propoziie: enuniativ, interogativ, exclamativ, imperativ. 2<>.3.1.' A. jl edificrile generale se refer la: persoan, determinani i timpu" verbale. Pronumele personal, reflexiv si posesiv se schimb dup neles: persoana I i a Il-a devin de obicei persoana a IlI-a: Tom said to Mary, 'You should have asked me first.' Tom told Mary that she should have asked him first. Pot aprea ns i cazuri ca: 'You are right, Diana,' said Paul. Diana (reproducnd cuvintele lui Paul): Paul said that I wa/right. Pronumele smne neschimbat cnd vorbitorul i reproduce propriile lui cuvinte: 'I think we should leave immediately ,' I said. / said I thought we should leave immediately. 28.3.2. Pronumele / adjectivele demonstrative i adverbele de loc i timp ce indic apropierea snt nlocuite cu altele care exprim deprtarea. Astfel: this devine that today devine that day these those yesterday the day before here there the day before yesterday two days before now then tomorrow the nextjfollowing day the day after tomorrow in two days'- time next week the nextjfollowing week last week the previous weekj the week before a year ago a year before/the previous year. Schimbarea adverbelor de loc i timp nu are loc n mod automat. Contextul i momentul vorbirii indirecte indic schimbrile necesare: The teacher said, 'Tom, bring yourpaintings here the day ater tomorrow.' The teacher told Tom to bring his paintings to school in two days' time. 2!; ,3-3 n ceea ce privete adverbele de timp, ele snt nlocuite numai dac relaia dintre momentul vorbirii indirecte i momentul vorbirii directe nu mai este aceeai: 7:00 a.m. Radio-news report: 'British steel workers are jfftanning o *rade-union meeting tomorrow.' Tom (a doua zi): They said on the fadio^yesterday that British steel workers are planning a trade-union meeting today. Dac actul de vorbire are loc i este reprodus n aceeai zi, schimbarea pronumelor i adverbelor determinative nu mai este necesar, deoarece nelesul lor este acelai fa de momentul prezent (al redrii spuselor n vorbirea indirect): Dan (n aceeai zi): They said on the radio this morning that British st eel workers are planning a trade-union meeting tomorrow. Folosirea! timpurilor n vorbirea iidir< j 26.3.4. Dac predicatul din propoziia principal este la prezent, Present \trfect sau viitor, timpul din propoziia redat n vorbire, indirect (completiva rmne neschimbat. 265

(Chai\

Indirect

Alice

h s a k

to Tom

' 'P

Vorbire indirect: Alice j kas ^jjj [ Tom she will help him if she can. Adjectivele / pronumele demonstrative sau adverbele din completiva direct rmn de asemenea neschimbate: Alice has said, '/'# come here tomortow.1 Alice has promised she will come here tomorrow. 26.3.5. Dac predicatul propoziiei principale este la un timp trecutPost Tense, Post Perfect, Future-in-the-Past, timpurile verbale din enunul reprodus devin i ele trecute (se aplic corespondena timpurilor). Aceast schimbare a timpurilor este denumit back-shift In limba englez, deoarece ea are loc dinspre prezent spre trecut sau dinspre trecut spre un timp i mai trecut:

Present

devine Post Tense]

Post Tense j Present Perfect J devin Post Perfect; Post Perfect j Future devine Future-in-the-Past.
Sshimbarea timpurilor n completiva direct se aplic la propoziiile enuniative, exclamative i interogative.

'/'ve been very busy today.' 'How hungry I am!' 'Will yoa give me something to eat? Mr Brown told his wife that he hd been very busy that day. He exclaimed that he was very hungry. He asked his wife if she would give him something to eat. Propoziiile imperative, care devin infinitive n vorbirea indirect, nu se supun acestei reguli, deoarece nu conin un verb la o form personal: Mrs Brown said to her husband, 'Be carefull Don't foivesofastr Mrs Brown told her husband to be caretul and not to drive so fast. SK.3.6. Conform regulilor de coresponden a timpurilor, dup un verb la un timp trecut, Present simple devine de obicei Post Simple n vorbirea indirect: Doris said, '/ have many friends.'' Doris said she hd many friends. Excepii: * a) cnd prezentul nedefinit exprim o aciune repetat, un obicei sau o carac teristic a subiectului, timpul poate rmne neschimbat dac aciunea a^ acelai caracter i n momentul prezent (momentul vorbirii indirecte)George said, '/ go to the seaside every summer.'
f 'Wftvt

George said that he !

goeg

> to the seaside every summer. 266

timpul nu se schimb: The teacher said, 'Water boils at 100 Celsius.' The teacher said that water bols at 100 Celsius. c ) cnd coninutul enunului este valabil i n momentul vorbirii: George said "/ can't buy a pair of skis nove. I haven't sctired enough money." George said, he can't buy a pair of skis as he hostii savea r.nough money. Prezentul continuu se transform de obicei n Past Tense continuu: 'Pm reading.' He said he was reading. 26.3.7. o aciune viitoare este exprimat n vorbirea indirect n modul urmtor: will (-(-infinitiv) \ , . r- * 7 j /, would ( + irifinitiv) f d e v m : w o u l d ( + mfinitiv)

vurjjirea, uueuuir

OAJJHJJH

u laru-umT-CTmwi ---- j -- --------

/, we shall ( + infinii v) devine : Ae, they, would ( -f- i n f i n i t i v) am l is / are going io { -f i n f i n, i t i v) devin : was j were going io ( + i n f i-n i t i v) ., f "I'm going to buy a new car next year." Frank said, j ghaU buy a tfiaeia' car."

Frank said he was going to buy a new car the following year and added he would buy a 'Dacia' car. Excepie: Corespondena timpurilor nu se aplic n cazul n care aciunea e viitoare si n momentul vorbirii indirecte, nu numai n momentul vorbirii directe: George said, TU take up engineering after graduation.' George said /ze'll take up engineering after graduation. 26.3.8. Post Simple devine Past Perfect Simple n vorbirea indirect: Mother said, 'Tom hurt himself.' Mother said that Tom hd hurt himself. Excepii: Past Simple poate rmne neschimbat pentru : 591) aciuni repetate n trecut: Harry said, '/ invited all my friends to my birthday parties whe.nl was young.' Harry said he invited all his friends to his birthday parties when he was young. 592) exprimarea unui fapt: The children asked, 'Were there any animals on the farm?' The children asked if there were any animals on the farm. 593) enunuri redate n vorbirea indirect imediat dup rostirea lor (n aceeai zi): Pa,ul said, '/ played football this morning.' 1 Paul said he played football this morning. . A) cnd ntre predicatele din principal i completiva direct nu exist un l ___ Raport de anterioritate : He said, 'Sadoceanu was the greatest writer of his time.' He said that Sadoceanu was the greatest writer of his time. e) n vorbire, dac nu se produce confuzie cu privire la 'momentele celor dou aciuni: My-friend said to me, '/ saw a good film last night.' 1 My friend told me he saw a good film last night. *) In propoziiile circumstaniale de timp. Propoziia regent a circumstan ialei de timp poate fi de asemenea meninut la Past Tense sau deveni Past Perfect: Our neighbour said to us, '/ met your father when I was living in Braov.'' Our neighbour told us he j ^^ in Braov. 26?
e

[ our father when he was

Alice

to

can

-'
V or bi re in di re ct : A li c e j ka
s

0 i t T o m s h e w ill h el p h i m if s h e c a n. A djecti vele / pronu mele demo nstrati ve sau adver bele din compl etiva l direct

rmn de aseme nea neschi mbate: Alice has said, '/'/ come here tomor. 1 row.1 Alice has promis ed she will come here tomor row. 2 *5.3.5 . Dac predic atul propo ziiei princi pale este la un timp trecutl Post Tense, Post Perfec t, Future -inthePast, timpur ile verbal e din enunu l! reprod us devin i ele trecute (se aplic coresp onden a timpur ilor). Aceast ! schim bare a timpur

ilor este denu mit backshift In limba engle z, deoar ece! ea are loc dinspr e preze nt spre trecut sau dinspr e trecut spre un timp i trecut : P r e s e n t d e v i n e P o s t T e n s e ; P o s t T e n s

e | P r e s e n t P e rf e c t \ d e v i n P o s t P e r f e c t; P o s t P e r f e c t \ F ut u re d e vi n e F ut u r

ein th eP a st . S ahim barea timpu rilor n comp letiva direct se aplic la propo ziiile enun iative , excla mati ve i inter ogati

give him somet hing to eat\ P ropo ziii le imp erati ve, care devi n infi nitiv e n vorb irea indi rect , n se sup un aces tei regu li, deo

husb and to be care tul and not to driv e so fast. 2 6,3.6 . Conf orm regul ilor de cores pond en a timp urilo r, dup un vern la un timp trecu t, Pres ent simp le devin e de obice i Post Simp le n vorbi rea indir ect: l D o r i s s a i d , ' / h a

Mr Brown said to his wife ve. arec e nu '/'ve been con 'How hungry in I un 'Will you something to verb eat? la o Mr for Brown m told pers his onal wife ' that Mrs he Bro hd wn been said very to busy her that husb day. and, He 'Be exclai care med t full he Don was 't very riv hungr esof y. H e astr asked Mrs his Bro wife if wi she told would her

v e m a n y f r i e n d s . ' ' D o r i s s a i d s h e h d m a n y f r i e n d s . E x c e p i i: a) cn d pre zen tul ned

efi nit ex pri m o ac iu ne re pet at , un ob ice i sa uo car ter isti c a su bie ctu lui , ti mp ul po ate r m ne ne sc hi mb at da c ac iun ea aT I ac ela i car act er i n mo me nt ul pr ez ent (m om

ent ul vor biri i ind ire cte )| Ge org e sai d, '/ go to the sea sid e eve ry su m me rS
Ge org e sai d tha t he |
goeg

f to the se asi de ev ery su m me r.

266

ond vorbirea, direct exprim un fapt universal valabil, un adevr absolut, timpul nu se schimb: The teacher said, 'Water boils at 100 Celsius." 1 The teacher said that water boils at 100 Celsius. cnd coninutul enunului este valabil i n momentul vorbirii: George said "/ can't buy a pair of skis now, I haveji't sabed enough money." George said, fie can't buy a pair of skis as he hostii saved mough money. Prezentul continuu se transform de obicei n Past Tense continuu: Tm reading.' He said he was reading. 26,3.7. o aciune viitoare este exprimat n vorbirea indirect n modul urmtor: l devin: would (-f- i n f i n i t i v) will ( + i n f i n i t i v) would ( + i n f i n i t i v) J /, we shall ( + i n f i n i i v) devine : he, they, would ( - ( - i n f i n i t i v ) am l is l are going <o{ + i n f i n . i t i v ) devin : was j were going to ( + i n f i-n i t i v) f "Pm going to buy a new car next year." Frank said, Frank said he was going to buy a new car the following year and added he would buy a 'Dacia' car. Excepie: Corespondena timpurilor nu se aplic n cazul n care aciunea e viitoare i n momentul vorbirii indirecte, nu numai n momentul vorbirii directe: George said, 'Pil take up engineering after graduation.'' George said Ae'll take up engineering after graduation. 28.3.8. Post Simple devine Past Perfect Simple n vorbirea indirect: Mother said, lTom hurt himself.'' Mother said that. Tom hd hurt himself. Excepii: Past Simple poate rmne neschimbat pentru: 594) aciuni repetate n trecut: Harry said, '/ invited all my friends to my birthday parties when I was young.' Harry said he invited all his friends to his birthday parties when he was young. 595) exprimarea unui fapt: The children asked, 'Were there any animals on the farm V The children asked if there were any animals on the farm. 596) enunuri redate n Vorbirea indirect imediat dup rostirea lor (n aceeai zi): Paul said, '/ played football this morningS Paul said he played football this morning. 597) cnd ntre predicatele din principal i completiva direct nu exist un raport de anterioritate : He said, lSadoceanu was the greatest writer of his time.' He said that Sadoveanu was the greatest writer of his time. n vorbire, dac nu se produce confuzie cu privire Ia ''momentele celor dou aciuni: My-friend said to me, '/ saw a good film last night. r My friend told me he saw a good film last night. ') n propoziiile circumstaniale de timp. Propoziia regent a circumstan ialei de timp poate fi de asemenea meninut la. Past Tense sau deveni Past Perfect: Our neighbour said to us, '/ met your father when I was living in Braov.'' Our neighbour told us he j j^ in Braov.
me

? our father when he was

267

g) n propoziiile condiionale de tipul 2: Harry said, '/ would go to the Lf it was openS Harry said he would go to the 'museum if it was open. h) dup wish, would rather, it is time: 'ICs time you finished your papers ' the teacher said. The teacher told the pupils it was time they finished thel \ papers. 26.3.9. Past Tense Continuous devine n principiu Past Perfect Continuous \ dar n practic rmne adesea neschimbat. '' Schimbarea are loc doar cnd acest timp se refer la o aciune terminat-l He said, 'WK werc thinking of moving house but we have changed our minds 'l Hc said that they hd been thinking of moving house but hd changed theirminds \ 26.3.10. Verbele modale se schimb n felul urmtor: may devine might \ will devine would, can devine could: The typist said, 'The mcchanic can fix my typewriter but he won't.' Thel lypist complained that the mechanic could fix her typewriter but he wouldn't.l Dac verbele modale exprimate n vorbire direct nu au forme pentru! trecut, ca de exemplu must, need, should, ought to, hd better, sau snt dejal la trecut sau condiional, ca would, could, might i used to (numai Past Tense)\ ele rmn neschimbate n vorbirea indirect: lWe must buy Mother a presentt for her birthday,' the children said. The children said they must buy a p regent for her birthday. 'You.ought to help your parents, Tom,'' tbe teacherl said. The teacher told Tom he ought to tielp his parents. Atenie! n general, must se menine n vorbirea indirect (Vezi| 1.20.5 pct. 2). Cnd'ns must exprim o obligaie, el poate deveni would have to sau hd to, n funcie de-sens: Harry said, '/ must go to school now.*\ Harry said he hd to go to school immediately. Father said, '/ must go to conference tomorrow.' Father said he would have to 'go to a conference the next day.\ n mod similar, could este meninut n vorbirea indirect: George askedj 'Could / use your penT George asked me ifhe could use my pen, sau meninut/) schimbai n funcie de sens: He said, He asked me
'Could you lend me your dictionary, please?' 1 '/ could swim when it was fine.'' 'I couldn't go into the water alone when I was a child.' to lend him my dictionary. if I could lend him my dictionary.

could He said he He added he couldn't fine. had not heen allowed to

ii

l
j

.
had been aWe to

.. f swim when it was

go into the water alone wher* he was a child.

-26.3.11. Frazele condiionale de tipul 2 i 3 nu se schimb n vorbirea indirect. Cele de tipul l devin identice ca form cu condiionalele de tipul 2j Ke said, ' You'll hurt yourself if you are not careful.' He told me / would h myself if I was not caretul. B. Modificrile specifice se refer Ia verbele care trebuie folosite n fiecar fel de propoziie reprodus (enuniativ, exclamativ, interogativ, er tiv), la punctuaie, ordinea cuvintelor, etc. 26.3.12. Propoziiile enuniative (Declarative Scntcnccsj Verbul say este caracteristic vorbirii directe, cu sau fr complement indirect. 268

Dac este urmat de un complement indirect, verbul say urmeaz de obicei cuvintele reproduse: '/ dorit understand the question,' Cathy said to her teacher. n vorbirea indirect, se pstreaz de regul say cnd complementul indirect nu este menionat, iar verbul ocup poziie iniial: Cathy said she didn't understand the lesson. n celelalte cazuri, se ntrebuineaz tell+ complement i n d i r e c t : Cathy told the teacher she didn't understand the question. Semnele citrii snt omise n vorbirea indirect, iar enunul reprodus se introduce prin conjuncia that (care se poate omite, mai ales n limba vorbit): tpvejust arrived,' Fred said. Fred said (that) he hd just arrived. n unele situaii, spusele cuiva nu pot fi reproduse n vorbirea indirect, ci trebuie parafrazate, n funcie de sens: Paula said, Tm sorry P m late.' 1 You'd better stay in bed for a few days, Peter,' the doctor said. Paula apologized for being late. The doctor advised Peter to stay in bed for a few days.

Yes i no snt exprimate n vorbirea indirect cu ajutorul unui subiect verb auxiliar: 'Is this device safe?' 'Yes.' The mn asked if the device was safe and the mechanic replied that it was. sau prin nlocuirea cu verbe de afir-mare sau negare: He said, 'No.' He refused. denied it. answered in the, negative.

J agreed. He said, ' Yes.' He { accepted. [ answered in the affirmative. 28.3.13. Propoziiile interogative (Interogative Sentences) Dac verbul din principal este say, acesta trebuie nlocuit cu verbe ca: ask (urmat sau nu de un complement indirect), wonder, want to know, inquire l(care nu pot fi urmate de complemente indirecte), etc. 'Why is Tom angry?' iHelen said to me. Helen { aske j M) l why Tom was angry. 6 l wondered J
y

Cnd propoziiile interogative snt redate n vorbire indirect, ele devin propoziii enuniative, n consecina, forma interogativ a verbului devine afirmativ sau negativ: subiectul precede predicatul, verbul auxiliar do este omis, iar semnul ntrebrii se transform n punct: 'Isrit Rob coming?' 'Where does he live?' Peter s saymg Pete T wants to know f if Bob is \ where he
not coming., lives.

Excepie: Cnd un cuvnt interogativ: who, what, how much, how ^ subiectul propoziiei interogative, ee menine ordinea cuvintelor din irea direct: Laura says, 'How many (people) arrived last night?' Laura to know haw many (people) arrived last night. 269

Do asemenea: I said, 'What's the matter?' I asked (him) what wos th n mattcr. Dac in vorbirea directa.propoziia interogativ este o ntrebare special" adic dac ca ncepe cu un pronume, adjectiv sau adverb interogativ ( w i, what, which, when, where, ho w, why, etc.), acesta este pstrat n vorbirea inH" rect: 'How do you speli this word?,' the teacher has asked. The teacher h asked how we ipell this word. n cazul unor ntrebri generale, legtura ntre propoziia principal completiva direct se face cu ajutorul conjunciei i/ 1 sau whether: He is 'Have you been to Suceava?' He is asking J , ,, l we have been to Suceava. ^ \ whether j Whether este folosit n mod obligatoriu pentru redarea n vorbirea indirecta a ntrebrilor alternative: 'A re you going to the theatre or to the cinema ?' Tomnn said to his sister. Tommy asked his sister whether she was going to theatre th or to the cinema. or not. ntrebrile generale ncepnd cu will j would / could you se transformi n vorbirea indirect n mod difereniat, n funcie de sensul ntrebrii: 598) o ntrebare despre o aciune viitoare: 'Will you sing in the choir tomorrow?\ he said. He asked mo if I would sing in the choir the next day.

599)

o rugminte, cerere: 'Could you serve the coffee?'' Bob said.

f n, Bob asked me to serve the coffee. I could serve the coffee. i i c) o invitaie: 'Would you attcnd our meeting?' the children said to

theil teacher.

The children

f asked l j invited J

their teacher to their .meeting.

d) un ordin, o comand: 'Copy the csson, Mary.' The teacher told Mary to copt the lesson. n mod similar, ntrebrile ncepnd cu shall Ijwe, se transform diferer iat n vorbire indirect, devenind: 600) o ntrebare despre o .aciune viitoare: would + i n f i n i t i v: 'Shall I you iomoTTow? Bob said. Bob wanted to know if he would see me the nes day. 601) cererea unui sfat: should +infinitiv: 'Shall I buy the long dres* mother? 'Alice said. Alice asked her mother if she should buy the long dresi c), o ofert: offer + i n f i n i t i v lung: 'Shall I bring you your glasses Patricia said. Patricia oered to bring me my glasses. d) o sugestie: suggest + Gerund / should +infinitiv: 'Shall we have snack?' Denise said. Denise suggested j
ghould haye

}a

snack,

270

Schimbrile de timp n propoziiile interogativa au loc la fel ea i In cele 'Where have you been?' l What is Tom doing?' 'When will they leave?' ( where we hd been. He wanted to know l what Tom was doing. l when they would leave. 2(i:3.14. Propoziiile exclamative (Exclamatary Sentcncr-x ) Propoziiile exclamative devin propoziii enuniative n vorbirea indirect. Ijn consecin,, semnul exclamrii din vorbirea direct nu mai este necesar: at a funny joker he said. He exclaimed that it was a funny joke. Snt posibile mai multe transformri, n funcie de natura exclamaiei: L) Exclamaii nceplnd cu what (a)..., how... se transform n completive directe [ introduse de that: 'How very kind of him to help /' mother said. Mother l exclaimed that it was very kind of him to help them. |'b) Exclamaii ca Oh l Ah J UghI devin: He exclaimed with ,1 surprise Idisgust, eto. He gave an exclamation oi \ n funcie de sens, se ntrebuineaz diverse verbe ( + adverbe de mod) ca: exclaim, complain, shout, remark, observe, say admiringly,say scornfully, etc., pentru redarea propoziiilor exclamative n vorbirea indirect: 'What a delicious cake /' the guest said. The guest said admiringly that the cake was delicious. 'How tired I am /' the old woman said. The old woman complained that she was very tired. Observai de asemenea: /'~~~\ She said, 'Thank you.'' He She thanked me. , said, 'Domn it /' They said, He swore. l Good morning /' They greeted me/wished me a good morning. She said, M happy new yearT She wished me a happy new year. He said, 'Well dane!' He cougratulated me. She said, 'Liar/' She called me a Har. Predicatul propoziiei exclamative se supune corespondenei timpurilor de un predicat'trecut n propoziia principal.

'How beautifully she sang /' 'How pretty she is T 'What a delightful trip we'll have /'

f exclaimed f that she hd sung beautifully. He | said admiringly \ that she was pretty. [ remarked l that they would have a delightful trip. Dac exclamaia n vorbirea direct nu conine un verb la un timp per8on al, n vorbirea indirect se folosete verbul be: Helen said, 'What a lovely Prsent /' Helen exclaimed that the present was lovely. 271

Propozriie In vorbirea indirect, propoziiile imperative devin infinitive: 602) afirmative: He said, 'Sit down, Peter.' He told Peter to sit down 603) negative: He said, 'Don't interrupt the speaker please.' He asked thern not to interrupt the speaker. Verbul din propeziia principal (ay, teii) se nlocuiete cu un verb care exprim un ordin (teii, order, command), o rugminte (ask, request, urge, bes) un sfat (warn, advise, recommend), etc., n funcie de sens: Officer to soldiers' Clean the barracks ! The officer ordered his soldiers to clean the barracks. Mother to Ann: Pass me the salt, will y ou? Mother asked Ann to pass her the salt Teacher to Tom: (Y ou should) go to the doctor. The teacher advised Torn. to go to the doctor. Aceste verbe snt urmate n mod obligatoriu de complemente indirecte sau prepoziionale. Dac ele nu snt menionate n vorbirea direct, vor fi adugate: 'Give me my ball!' the little boy shouted. The Utile boy shouted at the bigger boys to give him his ball. Dac verbul din principal este la diateza pasiv, complementul indirect nu mai este necesar: 'Go to bed!' they said to Tommy. Tommy was told to go to bed. Imperativul pentru persoana I plural (Lefs +infinitiv) exprim de obicei o sugestie i se exprim n vorbirea indirect prin verbul suggest -fGerund / completiv direct introdus de that: Nick said, { \Lets watch
' l (M/A^-f f* t\mi

[ watching T V. Nick suggested { that they should watch TV. \ that they watch TV. (n engleza american) Imperativele exprimnd un ordin n general se pot transforma n vorbire indirect i: cu ajutorul verbului be to, n special cnd: 604) verbul din principal este la prezent: H e says,-'.Do the next exerciseT He says that we are to do the next exercise. 605) ordinul este precedat de o propoziie temporal sau condiional: He said, '// she comes, ring me up.' He said that if she came we were to ring him up. cu ajutorul lui should: The Captain ordered that the sailors should clean the deck.

' 26.4. Vorbirea indirect liber (Free Indirect Speech)

Aceasta reprezint un stadiu intermediar ntre vorbirea direct i indirect i este utilizat frecvent n stilul narativ. Se caracterizeaz prin schim barea timpurilor, a prenumelor i adverbelor ca i in vorbirea indirecta, da^ propoziia principal este de obicei omis i se pstreaz unele forme din vo birea direct: propoziii interogative, vocative, ntrebri disjunctive, e Aceast form este adeseori folosit n literatur pentru exprimarea g* durilor unui personaj. In consecin, verbul he thought este de obicei mai pot vit dect he said n asemenea cazuri. 272

EXERCIII
r Trecei urmtoarele propoziii la vorbirea indirect, opertnd schimbrile de ' pronume necesare: 1. Mary has said to me, Td like to go out.' 2. They always say, 'These exercises are too difficult for us.' 3. Doris is saying, 'Behave yourself, Peter.' 4 Dan is always saying, Tve left my notebook at home.' 5. The teacher has said to the pupils, 'I want to have a look at your homework.' 6. John and Tom are saying, 'We haven't done our homework.' 7. I always say, 'I don't jike to be late,.' 6. Our teacher says, 'If you work hard, you will succeed.' H. Trecei urmtoarele propoziii interogative la vorbirea indirect, fiind la ordinea cuvintelor i la auxiliarul do. Folosii verbele: He has asked.,. jfe wants to know... Exemplu : 'Where do you live ?' ^e wants to know ) where j ,. J ^ H e has asked me ) 1. How old are you? 2. Where does your father worfc? 3. Who are your friends ? 4. What is your daily programme ? 5. What time do you get up in the morning? 6. When did you move to this school? 7. Who lives next to you? 8. Are you going away over the weekend? 9. When will you finish school? 10. What are you going to do afterwards? 11. Do you like games? 12. Are you 1 good at sciences? 13. Have you bought Marin Preda's last book? 14. Have you read it? 15. What do you think of it? III. Trecei urmtoarele propoziii la vorbirea indirect, operlnd schimbrile de timp si adverbe necesare, dup un verb la Past Tense: He said (that) ... sau He told me / us (that) ... 1. Tm leaving for the seaside tomorrow.' 2. 'I '11 give you an answer as soon as I can.' 3. 'We watched TV last night.' 4. 'We've never been here before.' 5. 'I talked to them 1 yesterday.' 6. Tll be very busy next week.' 7. 'We've just arrived.' 8. 'I read this book a long time ago.' 9. 'They are having an English lesson now.' 10. 'I know what the teacher will say.' 11. 'I can't answer, this question.' 12. 'I shall try to. finish this today.' IV . Trecei urmtoarele ntrebri la vorbirea indirect dup un verb la Past Tense. Exemplu: 'Is it raining? When did it start?' 'When will you leave?' He asked (me) j if / whether it was raining He wondered | f it hd started. He wanted to know J } / would leave. 1. When did you buy this camera? 2. Is it a Romanian make? 3. How ftmch did it cost ? 4: Do you know how to use it ? 5. Have you a book with instruc-ons? 6. When are you going to take your first photo? 7. Do you keep the camera in a case for protection? 8. Will you take pictures of your friends? Can they develop your films at the photographer's ? 10. When will you have yur film back? 11. Do you think the pictures will come out clearly? 12. Will o me a photo, too? 273
Gramatica limbii engleze

V. Trecei urmtoarele propoziii, in vorbire indirect, fi-otosii verbe adecvate i n propoziia principal (say, teii, ask, wonder, want io know, promise, order advise, etc.) la Past Tense. '

1. 'I watched TV last night.' 2. 'What are you studying?' 3. 'You'must hurry.' 4. 'Shall I get you a taxi?' 5. 'Father may be at the meeting.' g 'Smoking is bad for young people.' 7. 'Help me with the washing, please ' 8. 'Don't go away.' 9. 'Don't tajk while you are eating.' 10. 'When did y ou lose your purse?' 11. 'Has Paul left any message for me?' 12. 'Shall we leave soon?' 13. Tll be back in half an hour.' 14. 'I went to the beach 'every dav when I was living in Constantza.' 15. 'I don't take sugar in my tea.' 16. 'Cain you play the piano?' 17. 'Why should I do this?' 18. 'Gould you make up this prescription for me?' 19. 'Let's play tennis.' 20. 'What a lovely dayl'
VI. Traducei urmtoarele fraze n limba englez: 1. Elevul 1-a ntrebat pe'director cnd trebuie s se prezinte la cabinetul su. 2. Funcionarul ne-a sftuit s citim atent instruciunile nainte s deschi dem cutia. 3. Secretara ntreab dac trebuie s bat la main toate rapoar tele. 4. Mama mi-a atras atenia s nu uit de ntlnire. 5. Doctorul ne-a spus c nimeni n-are voie s vorbeasc cu pacientul, pin a doua zi. 6. Voia s tie de ce prietenii mei au plecat aa de devreme. 7. Btrnul ne-a spus c el nu ncuie niciodat ua din spate. 8. Profesorul i-a ntrebat pe elevi dac au neles lecia sau nu. 9. George s-a scuzat, spunnd c e vina lui, 606) Profesorul voia s tie cine a participat la olimpiada de matematic. 607) Se ntreb dac va reui s plece -din ora la sfritul sptmnii. 12. Dl. Brown ne spuse c el nota n fiecare zi cnd era copil. 13. Profesorul a explicat c lemnul plutete pe ap. 14. Ei au spus c ar fi ajuns la timp dac n-ar fi pierdut autobuzul. 15. Bob propuse tuturor s fac o plimbare. 16. Oaspeii au mulumit gazdei i au spus c petrecerea a fost foarte reuit. 17. Micul Tommy voia s slie dai ' ' l o v i i Irohuio s poarte uniforme. 18. Exclam dezgustat c mirosea foarte urt. 19. li spuse noapte bun Mriei i o sftui s se odihneasc bine. 20. Btrna spuse c ar fi dorit ca copiii s nu fac atta 'zgomot. VII. Dup ce ai tradus frazele de mai sus n limba englez i le-ai verificat cu ajutorul cheii exerciiilor, trecei frazele obinute la vorbirea direct. VIII. Traducei in limba englez: A. Dei era trziu, fata iei la poart. Ea l ntreb ns de ce n-a venit mai devreme. Paraschiv i rspunse c a avut treab, c a stat toat seara de vorb cu ai lui. La ntrebarea fetei el i rspunse c despre ei au vorbit, adic despre nsurtoarea lor.
(Marin Preda - Moromeii)

B. i cum i spuneam, d nval la mine n birou i-mi spune : , , ] trebuie s ne mpotrivim unei nedrepti..." Ce nedreptate, mi biete ^ ntreb. i-mi povestete n cteva cuvinte c Mangru vrea s te concediez pentru c echipa de fotbal a pierdut un meci n nu tiu ce localitate unde v-a. deplasat. Eti un om aa cum i place lui. Mi-a povestit, c# i cnd eu n-a tiut, cum te-ai luptat cu vagabonzii ca s-i bagi n producie, cum ai repa arena; de, domnule, ca i cnd n-a fi fost acolo cu dumneata i cu Mangir L-am lsat s vorbeasc, ntrebndu-m de unde le-a aflat pe toate. i de vrea s-1 dea afar Mangru?" 1-am ntrebat cnd a isprvit.
(E. Barbu -

274

Cheia exercllilor (p. 1. VERBUL

608) 1. It is raining; 2. is he driving; drives; 3. started, was walking; 4. rang, was going out; 5. has been, blew; 6. has been snowing; 7. have you heard; 8. I've^ast spoken, spoke; 9. lent, asked/had asked; 10. hd been, arrived; 11. hd been living, met; 12. is, shall go; 13. is, shall be skiing; 14. shall have skied. have 15. are you doing; am having; have; 16. does the train leave, leaves; 17. are you doing; am looking; have you been looking; have been looking; came; did you come; came. 609) 1. It is raining. It often rains in autumn. 2. It has been raining since you came. 3. Ithasrained. 4. Itrained yersterday too. 5. It was raining when I looked out of the window. 6. It hd rained when I went out. 7. It hd been raining for a long time. 8. It looks like rain. 9. It is going to rain today. 10. It will be raining when you come back from your office. 11. We'll go for a walk when the rain has stopped. 12. We shan't go for a walk unless it stops raining.
IV. 1. They are being shown the musenm. 2. He has been appointed president. 3. The pupils were asked several questions. 4. The soldiers were ordered to stand to attention. 6. I have been given a good dictionary. 6. You will be told what time the bus leaves. 7. The carpenter will be paid for his work. 8. They were promised new bicycles. 9. I have been lent this book by the form teacher. 10. The singer will be offered flowers. V. 1. This matter must be looked intq. 2. This bed has not been slept in. 3. The children were well looked af ter. 4. The dog was run over by a bus. 5. You will be laughed at i f you wear this dress. 6. Empty bottles must not be thrown away. 7. This glass ha not been drunk out of. 8. I was taken on by his behaviour. 9. Every moment must be , accounted for. 10. She doesn't like to be stared at. Vn. 1. It is advisable that you be/should be there at eight o'clock sharp. 2. They require that the enemy troops be/should be withdrawn from their territory. 8. Why should we do this? 4. His wish that we should become teachers has been fulfilled. 6. Come what may, FII start the engine. 6. I wish you would be quieter. 7. I wish they were here now. 8. I wish they hd attended the conference, 9. What would you do if they offered you this job? 10. If anyone should caii for her, teii them she is away. 11. Mother gave me some money so that I might buy the dictionary I needed. 12. I'11 give you his Phone number so that you may ring him up. 13. He worked very hard for fear he should fail the exam. 14. However late it may be, ring me up. 15. No matter how many mistakes he might have made, his paper is the best in the class. VIII. 1. to become; 2. come; 3. to revise*4. wait; 6. cross; 6. to repeat; 7. wait;
D ,

" to return;9. to compare; 10. to understand; 11. to compete; 12. to say; 13. try; *4. to hear. IX. 1.. from leaving; 2. of studying; 3. about losing; 4. in posting; 5. on doing; 6. at finding; 7. to receiving; 8. on getting; 9. on having played; 10. of having driven. i
fel.8*

'

275

610) 1. me/my reading; 2. him/his coming; 8. me for interrupting you/my interrupting you; 4. her/her wearing; 6. them/their making; 6. us/our coming; 7. you/your going out8. her/her acting; 9. them/their playing; 10. him/his pretending; 11. you/your trying; 12. us/ our working. 611) 1. to give. 2. meeting. 3. interrupting. 4. to talk. 5. to give. 6. leaving. 7. cycling 8. to walk. 9. to wake. 10. to teii. 11. walking. 12. selling, working, writing. 18. to niake 14. to write. 16. singing. 16. to hear. 17. cutting. 18. to go 19. walking, travelling 20. to go. 21. to ,see. 22. seeing. 23. smoking. 24. to smoke.
XH. 1. following. 2. followed. 8. interesting. 4. interested. 5. frozen. 6. freezing 7. riding. 8. exported. 9. importing, exporting. 10. tired. 11. tiring. 12. accused. 18. accusing. 14. baked. 15. expected. 16. astonishing. 17. lost. 18. frightened. 19. frightening. 20. dried. 21. crowded. XHI. 1. Books borrowed from the library must be returned in time. 2. The windows of the drawing-room opened on to a terrace overlooking the ea. 8. Hearing footsteps he turned with a start. 4. AII long known objects are dear to us. 6. He kept silent, as if puzzled by my behaviour. 6. Having completed her piece of work, she rose to switch oft the machine. 7. Then he was gone, the dog following. 8. He practised every day, his principie being that practice makes perfect. 9. The child stopped crying. 10. He stopped to help the old woman. 11. One of the reasons for her having read the book so many times hd been to learn the new words. 12. He coughed to draw the attention of the audience, 13. I'm sorry to have disturbed you while working. 14. His voice began to trembla with emotion. 15. I promised to obey my parents. 16. I saw her weep(ing). 17. I'm sorry I didn't mean to hurt you. 18. Nobody is to blame. 19. This problem is too difficult for us to solve. He denies having been there. XIV. 1. may leave.2. may have heard. 8. must have gone. 4; must not play. 5. couldn't have forgotten. 6. should see, 7. could repair. 8. must be true. 9. should have written. 10. hd to take. XV. 1. Will you fetch me the newspaper, please. 2. Shall I buy some bananas? You'd) rather buy some oranges. 3. Would you sign in the register, please. 4. Could you help me with my luggage? 6. Would you like a cup of coffee? No, thank you. I'd like a cup of tea. 6. She can't speak English yet, but she will be able to do so in a few years' time. 7. He could have learned the poem but he wouldn't. 8. The sky might clear up later. 9. May I borrow this book? Yes, you may. 10.1 used to go swimming every day when I was younger. 11. They may have won the match, b'ut I'm not sure. 12. He should/ought to have left earlier. Then he would have caught the train. 18. There is a good concert on TV. You shouldn't miss it. 14. Peter is absent today. He must b'e ill. 16. You mustn't play in the middle of the road. 16. He can't/couldn't have been out of town last week. I met him several times. 17. He went to bed at eight o'clock last night, He must have been very tired. 18. The children were allowed to go out when the rain stopped. 19. How dare he say such a thing? 20. You needn't have taken your umbrella; it h d stopped raining. Cap. Z. SUBSTANTIVUL 1.1. School begins in September. 2."We go swimming on Sunday(s). 3. Mr Brown s an MP. 4. On July 4th every year the Americans celebrate Independence Day, 5. The Danube flows into the Black ea. 6. Dr lonescu consults the pupils every Monday. 7. Spai" borders on France. 8. The Chinese, the Vietnamese and the Japanese live in Asia. 9. " Intercontinental Hotel in Bucharest is next to the National Theatre. 10. 'Hard Times i a novei by Dickens. 11. We study English and Russian at sehool. 12. The Conference io Peace and Security in Europe was hold in Helsinki in 1976.

276

II. schoolboys, masterpieces, brothers-in-law, fathers-in-law, headmasters, jnilkmen, women dentists, postmen, blackboards, sons-in-law, passers-by, bedrooms, car races, lookers-on, men singers, merry-go-rounds, horse races, forget-me-nots, footsteps, firemen.

612) 1. books, shelves. 2. toys. 3. men, tourists. 4. children, stories. 6. watches. 6. hce, jnsects. 7. cliffs. 8. leaves. 9. geese. 10. potatoes. 11. feet. 12. women, housewives. 18. mice. 613) 1. hundreds. 2. hundred. 3. million. 4. million. 5. thousands. 6, thousands. 7. dozen. S. dozen. 9. dozens. 10. feet. 11. foot.
V. a) stimuli, phenomena, desiderata, addenda, larvae, bases, analyses, crises, criteria; b) campuses, viruses, encyclopedias, villas, museums, albums, gymnasiums, electrons, sopranos; c) syllabuses, geniuses, J genii, formulas/formulae, curriculums/curricula, symposiums/symposia, indexes/indices, automatons/automata, plateaus/plateaux, tempos/ tempi , VI. 1. sheet. 2. bars. 3. loaf, loaves. 4. piece/stick. 5. piece. 6. piece. 7. pair. 8. piece/ item. 9. piece/item. 10. piece. 11. piece. 12. head, VII. 1. The news I have received is interesting. 2. I packed my luggage last night. 3. We are going to publish all the information necessary to the candidates. 4. His knowledge of history is remarkable. 5. I've bought some fruit and some cakes. 6. Haveyoudone your homework? IX. 1. Where are the tongs? 2. Many thanks. 3. Every means has been tried/ All means have been tried. 4. The Army Headquarters was/were near London 6. Physics is his favourite subject. 6. We caught three big trout. 7. A book on Romanian fresh-water fishes has just been published. 8. He .has brown hair. 9. She has a few grey hairs, 10. Give me two loaves (of bread) please. 11. She has made great progress in learning English. 12. These are the minutes of the meeting. XI. My dear uncie Ghi, A thousand thanks for your friendly crd. As soon as I get the author's copies from the Academy, I shall send you a copy of my work on the Black ea. We are having an unpleasant winter, my wife and I both being ill. But our dear Tou is strong and I am very pleased to hear his voice over the telephone.

Gr. Antipa
Xn. 1. daughter; 2. lady; 3. niece; 4. aunt; 5. mother; 6. sister; 7. hen; 8. hind; " girl; 10. wife; 11. woman; 12. queen. XIII. 1. boy-friend; girl friend; 2. he-goat; she-goat; 3. male student; female student; 4. Tom cat; Tibby cat; 6. Jack-ass; Jenny ass; 6. male f rog; female f rog. XIV. 1. This is my neighbour' car. 2. This is Lily's doll. 8. This is Dick's bicycle. - This is my cousin's stamp book. 5. This is Mr White's umbrella. 6. This is Lawrence and Paul's electric train. 7. These are Peter's and Mary's bicycles.
4

XVI. 1. My cousins' house is large. 2. The ladies' hats are very pretty. 8. The pupils" uruforms are blue. 4. The women's work is very much appreciated. 6. The workers' life is much better today. 6. The teacher praised the students' work. 7. Where are the children's dothes? 8. The babies' food is in the fridge. XVn. 1. Mary is David's sister. 2.'The pages of the book have numbers. 8. What is yur brother's hobby? 4. This is a woman's hat. 6. What's the favourite sport of this boy? The roof of the shed was blown off by the wind. 7. That is Alice's pencil-box. 8. Ladies'' t ftts are very pretty this year. 9. This is the room of my brother and sister. 10. Where are

277

the girls' blouses7.il. Bickens" nov-els are very iulereisung. W u;.- house is at a i.,,;distance. 18. Have you read yesterday's paper? XK. 1. I bought a dog for Mike. 2. He gave some presents to Tom. 8. I chose ; nice present for my sister. 4. Mary showed her composition to the teacher. 5. Thei seni a parcei to their parents. 6. Did you make this cardigan for Helen? 7. Did he gi ve a bunch of flowers to his mother? 8.1 ordered a lemonade for my sister. XX. 1. Important problems for Ihe country's uture have been discussed in tho l'arliament. 2. Have you read yesterday's newspaper? 3. fler a moment's thought, tiupupil answered all my questions perfectly. 4. The jury handed rewards to all the winners of the competition. 5. We hd a very good time at the party of my friend's sister. 6. I think I have taken somebody else's hat. 7. The pen is Bob's. 8, What do you know about the climate of this country? 9. The teacher spoke for more than an hour about the climate of this country. 10. The pupils offered a bunch of flowers to their teacher. 11. We'd betlor meet at .Mary's. 12. The printing of this book meant an important success. ft) 1. Our most modern poetess spoke about her latest volume of poems. 2. You will be accompanied by my son and daughter. 8. I don't know who acts the princess. 4. I haven't seen my aunt and uncie for a few months. 6, Her youngest niece is the heiress of the house. 6. My neighbour left the door open and forgot about it. Cap. 3. AUTIC01UL IV. 1. -, the, the. 2. - 8. - 4. - 5. the 6. - the - 7. -, - 8. the 9. - the, the. 10. the,-, - 11.-, - 12. the 13. a 14. a/the, a. 15. the, the, - 16. the 17. an 18. a 19.20. the, the 21. a 22. - 23. the, an, VII. A. 1. What a beautiful day! 2. A dozen needles costs a penny. 3. You must speak in a louder voice. 4. Did you come by bus? 5. How rnany times a week do you have l'hysics? 6. The Danube crosses several. European cuntries 7. Bulgaria is/lies to Ihe south of Romnia. 8. Honey is sweet. 9. My friend is.spending her holiday at the seaside. 10. All the pupils came to the school festival. 11. Children like games very much. B. 1. Pens, pencils, rubbers, glue and ink are on sale at the stationer's. 2. Where is the pen I bought yesterday? 3, I like symphonic music. 4. I like the music composed/ written for the piano. 6. We study the history of the Romanian people at school. 6. We also study world history. 7. In Canada there are two official languages: Bnglish and French. 8. The Romanian language is a Romnce language. 9. The press, radio and television have a major educaional role in Romnia. C. 1. Where are your people? Grandpa fs in bed, grandma is in the kitchen, mother is at school and f atherisatwork. 2. Igenerallygo home by bus, but sometimes I go by tram. 614) l can never sleep in the/a car or on the/a train. 4. Mother often wakes up in the night to feed the baby. 6. I don't like to go out at night. 6. What time do you have lunch? 7. lusuaUy, have lunch at noon/at 12 o'clock. 8. Have you finished preparing (the) lunch?

615)

I hd to stay in bed for a week last year when I hd (the) fiu.

VOI. 1. His shoes . . . 2. Her hat. . . 8. Their hats ... 4.. . . its nest 5. Her dress . 6. His eyes . . . 7. Their books ... 8. Its tail,. . 9. Their ears . . . 10. Her brother . - IX. 1. each 2. either 3. every 4. either 5. each 6. each 7. every 8. each 9. either 10. either, both 11. each 18. either 18. every, each 14. each.

278

XI. "Why do ppople slecp at. night?" "Rut when do you sleep, Darie?" "Also at night. But I wouldn't sleep at all, especially in the gummertime/in the) summer," "And what would you do?" -I would lie down in the grass, But would He down on my back. I'd keop my eyes open. If I could stop blinking, l wouldn't blink at all. I'd look at the stars. And, looking at them, I'd imagine I was free." "Lie down in the grass now. Look at the stars now, Darie, and imagine now whatever you want to imagine." I do, as the wind is telling me. I ,lie down in the grass. I put both my arma under my head. I look at the sky. It seems motionless, but I know H isn't. Nothing ever keeps atill. v The whole sky, what you can see of it and what you can't, with its stars k those that can be seen and those that can't, corhes from somewhere. From where? I don't know. I'll ask the grass. She doesn't know either. I stretch out my hands. J stop the wind in his gentle run. I ask him. "l don't know, Darie." "Does anyboy in t-his world know?" "Xobody knows, Darie." Now, I say to myself, now I shan't ask anyone. I shall look at the sky. I start to look at it.

Cap. 4. NUMERALUL

III. The 24th of lanuary, andlhe Ist of December are naional days of our people. 2. Open the book at page 48 and read chapter 15 agan. 3. I live at no. 49, Spiru Haret street. 4. How old are you? I am 12 (years old). 5. At half past two I'll get on bus no. 331 and go to visit the exhibition. 6. How much i a pair of shoes? 7. I've bought butter, a dozen of eggs and a kilo of flour. 8, We have the long break between ten minutes to ten and ten past ten. 9. I have been waiting for you for more than half an hour. 10. I dialled double five, seven, nine, three, four and then I waited. 11. I think they .left by the 6.30 train. 12. terrible earthquake occured in March 1977.

Cap. 5. PRONUMELE

I. 1. her. 2. yours. 3. your, mine. 4. your 5. our 6. his 7. his. 8. theirs. 9. mine. 10. hers. II. 1. I told it to them. 2. I wrote it to her. 3. I sent it to him. 4. I bought them for her. 5.1 gave them to him. 6.1 explained it to him. 7. I showed it to them. 8. I asked him about it. > . in. 1. him. 2. we. 3. them 4. he 6. it 6. it 7. her 8. us. IV. 1. who 2. 3. who 4. who 6. 6. who 7. who 8. which/that V. Biric and Polina stayed behind. They put their sickles over their shoulders and made for Tudor Blosu's land. On the way Polina told him again they could not reach an agreement with ver father if they stayed and waited for him to make it up to them. She knew him better than that. The land must be taken by force. Biric answered that you could take anything by force, say a horse, a cart, a cow; you take it by force and carry it away with you. But you can't take land. You need papers at the notary's office for the land and only then you can say it is yours. Telling her this, Biric made her realize what a fool she hd been to imagine he hadn't thought of their situation from a 'l possible angles ; Polina answered she knew more about legal papers than he thought. What she knew was that if you made use of one thing for several years, and afterwards

279

you brought witnesses that the thing hd been yours for so many years, you coulrf obtain papers saying that it was yours even if the other person did not want you to Biric's face lightened and he said with great wonder and admiration that she was some woman. Polina blushed when she heard him praise hr and answered that she no longer hoped to tind 'any understanding from her father. They shouldn't waste their good intentions on him. When she was a young girl, he hadn't bought her anything, not a stitch of clothing; she used to come bare-footed to the village dance. Biric himself knew the story well enough. He ought to understand there was nothing else to do about the matter They walked silently for a long time and he answered only later. He told her that her father could sue him and take him to court. A trial might turn out bad. Polina interrupted him by saying he wouldn't dare do such a thihg. She hd married and hd a right to the land she hd worked on. And if her father wanted a trial, she would take care to make him sorry he hd wanted itCap. 6. ADJECTIVUL

I. 1. the best. 2. longer, shorter. 8. the longest. 4. warmer, warmer. 5. many 6. the most popular 7. as beautiful as 8. warm, more beautiful 9. the worst 10. the most interesting. II. 1. the better 2. fewer and fewer 3. the latter 4. elder 5. the next. HI. 1. Have you read Marin Preda's last novei? 2. Did it seem more interesting than his other novels? 3. It was by far the most pleasant holiday we spent at the seaside. 4. They study more and more and get better and better results..5. The more attentive he was the fewer mistakes he made. 6. Have you met her elder brother? 7. Your dress is more modern than mine. 8. Which is the farthest/furthest planet? Cap. 7. AY.aEIJ, 1.1. Peter works slowly. 2. Ann dances well. 3. Our teacher speaks English fluently. 4. He acts badly. 6. Doris works hard. 6. Nick swims fast. 7. Mother types carefully. 8. Father drives carelessly. 9. He teaches jntelligently. 10. He speaks optimistically. 11. He eats noisily. 12. Paul listens attentively. 13. He speaks sensibly. 14. Diana runs quickly. II. 1. She works very hard at school. 2. He dug deep in the ground. 3 He was rightly considered the best pupil in the class. 4 I can hardly see your face in the dark. 5 The train arrived late. 6. He was deeply moved by her kindness. 7. Hs guessed the answer right / He rightly guessed the answer. 8. Birds fly high. 9. I haven't seen him lately. 10. He is highly appreciated for his work. 11. He is closely related to me. 12. Take it easy! 13. We are mostly out on Sundays. 14. It is nearly midnight. 15. What is troubling you most? 16. He is right at the top. 17. Open your mouth wide.
.Cap. 8. PREPOZIIA

I. 1. at; on. 2. in, in. . round; into. 4. for. 5. in, on, to. 6. from, to. 7. to, on. 8. at, at. 9. at. 10. past, in. 11. out of. 12. up, into. 13. in. 14. against. 15. across. II. 1. from, to. 2. in, at. 8. on. 4. at, at. 6. in. 6. on. 7. in. 8. by., 9. over. 10. for. 11. in. 12. until. 13. in, in. 14. at.

280

III. 1. What are you looking at? 2. He is looking out of the windovv. 3. Who are you waiting for? 4. What's the time by your watch? 5. Let's go for a wa,lk. 6. He has been in hospital for two weeks. 7. What are you afraid of? He is always kind to his patients. 8.1'm grateful to him for the favour he has done to me. 9.1 congratulated him on his success. 10. He was shivering with cold. 11. Don't lie to me. 12. In the morning they walked about/rouhd town, in the afternoon they stayed at home. 13. The course lasted for a whole month. 14. They set off towards the river. 15. The meeting began at eleven o'clock in the morning and lasted until two o'clock in the afternoon/and ended at two o'clock in the afternoon. 16. He was away during his holiday. 17. They travelled as usual. 18. He is delivering a lecture on contemporary art. 19. The picture was painted in oii not in watercolours. 20. There is a good programme on television toriight. t'p. 9. CONJUNCIA in. In the evening they reaehed Mr Vasiliu's inn. Vitoria knew she would find something there. And indeed she did. In the village of Suha people were talking. Theysaid a judge from the city should come to investigate how things h d been with the sale of the sheep, to see whether the bill for their sale at Dorna could be found, and whether the honourable men from Suha hd a receipt for the money they hd given to Lipan. Nobody said such important men could commit an evil deed but it was good for them to claim their rights. Besides, somebody said the honourable men should produce the witness or witnesses-who hd been present at the sale and at the counting of the money. It was obvious that onlysuchastrangerorstrangerswhohad been there, could have f ollowed Lipan and stolen the money for the sheep. These witnesses might be totally unknown. Neither Calistrat, nor Ilie Gutui hd seen thern before or since. Even so, they hd to say what they looked like and how their horses and clothes were. You could learn a lot from a little information and the evil doers would be found. i'ap. 1113 .

II. 1. They say we'll have a long autumn. 2. You must be very careful when you drive in such a busy street. 3. They drink a lot of beer in this country. 4. You can never teii. 5. It is easier to ride your bike when the wind blows from behind. 6. Don't talse into account what people say. 7. It isbelieved that this year's crop will be very good. in. 1. have 2. was 3. is. 4. were 5. has 6. are 7. have 8. has 9. is 10. have. 11. attracts IV. 1. My family consists of father, mother, my brother and I. 2. The class were puzzled by the teacher's questions.jj 3.} The information received is favourable. 4. Her savings have been put into the bank. 6. Her hair is chestnut-brown. 6. The United States borders on Mexico and Canada. 7. People are always inquisitive. 8. The poultry are being fed now. 9. There are a lot of young families in this block of flats. 10. A lot of money has been spent on equipping this laboratory. 11. Gymmastics is very popular in Rom nia. 12. The Netherlands lie in western Europe. V. 1. is 2. are 3. are 4. is 6. is 6. am .7. is 8. are TI. 1. Someone has taken my umbrella by mistake. 2. AU the pupils are in the classroom. 3. Neither of them is very young. 4. AII the food is in the fridge. 6. Everyone / Everybody has arrived and everyone / everybody is enjoying themselves. 6. Either they or he has done it. 7. None of them js right. 8. Who has done this? 9. Which books are yours? 10. It is he Who is to blame, not she. Vn. 1. is 2. is. 8. misses 4. are 5. accompanies 6. wash 7. ranks 8. is 9. are 10. are.

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i. l.Fifty minutesis a short time for a term-paper. 2. Most of his articles are on literary criticism. 8. The number.of Romanian tourists who spend their holidays at the seaside increases every year. 4. Kindness and understanding is what is needed row. 5. Who is it? It's your father and mother. 6. There is the letter and your glasses, Qrandpa. 7. Mr Brown and his wife usully go to the cpuntry on Swndays. 8. Mr Brown, together with his family, usully spends his holidays at the seaside. 9. There are coal,. iron and oii in the Subcarpathians. 10. It is they who arrarnge everything. 11. Four times ten make / makes forty, 12. Romanian red and white wines are famous.
Cap. 1422

in. 1. Describe this landscape to us. 2. Please dictate to me the translation of tfye new words. 8. Teii them/Let them know the great piece of news. 4. I bought a very nice ie for my husband. 6. The gold medal was awarded to the Romanian athlete for her extraordinary :performance. 6. You needn't return this book to me. I offer it to you as a present. XI. Rou Gheorghe was the shortest soldier, not only in his group or platoon, but in the entire company. He was so short that at recruitment he hd hardly managed to escape being sent back home. In fact they hd rejected him at first, after his application hd been withheld twice in two years, and if people n his vilage hd not thought this was a certain proof of infirmity, Rou Gheorghe could nave taken a train from the recruitment centre immediately and left for home the same day. But the same day, the whole village would have known he was not good for the army, the girls first of all. He came from Banat. And so, stepping off fhe medical weighing scales, Rou Gheorghe hd not left the room, but hd gone back, silent and sad, puttind off for as iong as he could the tirne to get dressed again. With the watchful eyes of a quiet Banat mn, he hd noticed that nobody paid hirn any attention. And then h hd mixed with the others whose turn was next, hd uridressed and hd appeared before the commission again.
Cap. 28. FELURILE PROPOZIIILOR

VII. 1. None of them liked the show. 2. Neither of them understood what you were talking about. 8. Who have you reeeived/did you receive that parcei from? 4. They're going to the match, aren't they? 6. You have never been to the Art Galleries, have you? 6. Shall I leave the radio on or turn it off? 7. Lst's turn back, shall we? 8., Will you be so kind as to sing a song for us? 9. You must ring him up. 10. It's a Iong time since I last saw him. 11. He wasn't away Iong. 12. I don't like this actor and neither does my friend. 13. They aren't here any longer/They are here no longer. 14. He could hardly see anything in the dark room. VIII. The coach knew there.was nothing better, when you wanted to teach a mn something, than to make him ambitious, make him compete with others if necessary. This is the reason why he hd begun to promise small prizes to those who performed best the drills necessary to their training. After a while Luca felt, like the teacher who has gained his pupils' trust, that the indiscipline was over. Even 'Know-all', once so stubborn, showed interest in these games. The prizes did not amount to much, but nobody could stana someone else being ahead of him, as usully happens with all people.

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24-26 SLVTAXA FBAZEI

ooking for them all morning without looking like doing it. Dan hat told him where he might find them but he hd answered saying he didn't v> IV. A. Paul hd entered his room and almost did not notice thera. He hd been "t. Dan hat told want tp know.

B. Dearest Ghi, It is eight days now since I sent you a letter in which I asked you to let me know whether the person who wanted to buy paintings from me, about whom you wrote to me gome time ago, is still willing to do so and whether, consequently, I should send you any pictures to/for this purpose. Your painting of Mount Ceahlu, which I hd informed you was still being worked On, is now completely ready. I am looking forward to your answer, so that I can know what to do. - ., With all my
Octav Sncitf/

C. Dearest Ghi, It is along time sirice I last heard from you, I know you are very busy as you always are, but write us a few lines when you can, to teii us how you are and what you are doing. I have been feeling better since I went to Teohari. The others are all well. I have finished Mrs. Cireaa's portrait and I am very pleased with it. At first, and even all the time she sat for me, I felt desperate that I would not be able to paint her well enough because of a certain liveliness which is charaeteristic of her. Then she dfe not keep her word. For instance, she would teii me she was coming the next day and I would wait in vain because she was deceiving me. Now at last my troubles are over and the result is completely satisfactory, at least for me, the one who did it. I do not know what all the critics will have to say.
Octav Bncil

D. Everybody knew Mr. Pantelimon hd repaired his old car, a 'Topolino', which hd been left under repair for five years, and that he missed none of the Sunda'ys when the football team played in ariother town. He borrowed money if he did not have any, he filled his tank with petrol and made a tour o'f the city, driving so that people could see him. The little car burnt up so much petrol that you would have thought a wave of arti ficial fog flowed over the city. People out for a walk at eleven in the morning took out their handkerchiefs and shielded their noses with them. Beside him, Vizante waved to the people he knew. , ' E. *There are certain dreams that we seem to have lived somewhere and some time> just as there are things we have lived which make us wonder if they were not a dream. This is what I was thinking of yesterday evening when, searching through my papers to g ee what was to be burned papers mix things up I came upon a letter which reminded me of a strnge story, so strnge that, if it not were only seven years since il happened, I would feel very much in doubt, I would believe that I hd only dreamed about it, or that I hd read it or heard it long ago. It was in 1907. I hd been seriously ill in Bucharest and I hd returned to Berlin. % recovery proceeded slowly, requiring intensive care. When I left, the doctor hd advised me to avoid even the slightest exertion. Poor doctor! I hd shrugged my shoulders, , and told him not to worry.

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tlitp. 26. 'VORBIREA IJXRECs , ;JI INWRECT.

616) 617)

VI. 1. The pupil asked the headmaster when he should/must come to his office The clerk advised us to read the instructions carefully before opening- the box The ecretary asked if she must / hd to type aii the reports. 4. Mother reminded

me not to forget about the meeting. 5. The doctor told us that nobody could / was allowed to speak to the patient until the next day. 6. He wanted to know why my friends hd left so early. 7. The old mn told us that he never locked / locks the back door. 8. The teacher asked the pupils whether they hd understood the lesson or not. 9. George apologized, saying that it was his fault. 10. The teacher wanted to know who hd taken part in the Maths competition. 11. He wondered if he would manage / be able to go away over the weekend. 12. Mr Brown told us that he went swimming every day when he was a child. 13. The teacher explained that wood floats on water. 14. They said they would have been in time if they hd caught the bus. 15. Bob suggested going for a walk / they should all go for a walk. 16. The guests thanked the hostess and said (that) the party hd been a great success. 17. Little >jmmy wanted to know if pupils must / have to wear uniforms. 18. She exclaimed with disgust that the smell was very bad. 19. He wished Mary good night and advised her to have a good rest. 20. The old woman said she wished the children were not making so much noise.

VIII A. Though it was late, the girl came to the gate. But she asked him why he hd not come earlier. Paraschiv answered her that he hd been busy, he hd spent al evening talking with his parents. To the girl's question he answered that they hd talked about the two of them, that is, about their marriage. B. And as I was saying, he rushed into my ofice and said, "Pussy dear, we have to fight aginst an injustice..." "What injustice?" I asked him. And he told me in a few wtords that Mangru wanted to fire you because he football team hd lost a match in Idon't-know-what-place where you hd gone. You are a mn just as he likes. He told me, as if I hadn't known, how you hd fought with the tramps to make them work, how you hd repaired the arena; yes ir, as if I hadn't been there with you and Mn gru... I let him talk, wondering how he hd found out all those things. "And why does he want to fire Mangru?" I asked him when he hd finished.

284

Bibliografie selectiv

Academia Romniei.Gramatlca limbii romne, Ed. Academiei Romniei Bucureti, 1966. Banta Andrei, A Descriptive Grammar of English, TUB, Bucureti, 1978. Bdescu. Alice, Gramatica Umbli engleze, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti, 1963. Blr Elena, Aspects of Modality in Engllsh, TUB, Bucureti, 1979. Catedra de limba i literatura englez a Facultii de limbi strine a Universitii din Bucureti, Gramatica limbii engleze, Editura tiinific, Bucureti, 1962.' * * * Limba englez. Exerciii pentru admiterea n nvmtntul superior, E.D.P., Bucureti, 1978. Chioran D., Engllsh Phonetics and Phonology, E.D.P., Bucureti, 1978. Cornilescu Alexandra, The Transformational Syntax of Engllsh, TUB, Bucureti, 1976. Dimitriu C., Gramatica limbii romne explicat. Morfologia. Junimea, Iai, 1979. Iordan lorgu, Robu Vladimir,, Limba romn contemporan, E.D.P., Bucureti, 1978. Kruisinga E., A Handbook of Present-Day English, volume II, English Accldence and Syntax. Keimnk and Zoon, Utrecht, 1922. Leech G., J. Svartvik, A Communlcative Grammar of English, Longman, London,-1979. Levichi Leon, Gramatica Umbli engleze, E.D.P., Bucureti, 1971. Levichi Leon, Preda loan, Gramatica limbii engleze, Ed. tiinific, Bucureti, 1967. Nicolescu Adrian, Tendine n limba englez contemporan, TUB, Bucureti, 1978. Palmer Harold i F.G. Blandford, A Grammar of Spoben English, Third Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1969. Quirk Randolph, Greenbaum S., Leech G., Svartvik J., A Grammar of Contemporay English, Longman, London, 1972. Quirk Randolph, Greenbaum S., A Uniyersity Grammar of English, Longman, London 1973. Retinschi Sanda, Explicaii gramaticale pentru cursurile intensive postuniversitare de limba englez, TUB, Bucureti, 1980. Schibsbye Knud, A Modern English Grammar, Second Edition, OUP, London, 1970. tefnescu Ioana, Leotures in English Morphology, TUB, Bucureti, 1978. Thomson A.J., Martinet A.V., A Practicai English Grammar, 2-nd Edition, OUP, London, 1969. Zandvoort R.W., A Handbook of English Grammar, Longman, London, 1957.

285

CUPRINS

CuTnt nainte .........,....................--- -,,......................,...............

PARTEA I MORFOLOGIA 1.0. GENERALITI ........................................................................... 0.1. Morfologia i sintaxa............................................................. 0.2. Criterii utilizate n definirea prilor de vorbire.......................... 0.2.1. Criteriul semantic....................................................... 0.2.2. Criteriul morfologic...................................................... 0.2.3. Criteriul sintactic......................................................... 5 5 5 5 6 6

1. VERBUL......................................................................................................

618)................................Definiie................................................. 6 619)-------------------------Clasificare......................................----7 620) 621) 622) 623) 624) 625)

Structura morfologic................................................ Sensul lexical al verbelor............................................. Funcia sintactic a verbelor..................................... Verbe cu sens lexical redus.........................................

7 7 7 7

Categoriile gramaticale ale verbului Timpul 9

9

1.5. Timpul prezent simplu ............ ....................... 626) D e f i n i i e .................................. 627) F o r m ................... . .................. 628) P r o n u n a r e i o r t o g r a f i e . . . . . . . . ; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629) n t r e b u i n a r e ............ . . . . ................
286

* .^ 'l

...i, .,.,........., .,:. , : jimptu.......... ,................................... . . . . . . . 630) Definiie........................................................................ 631) Form . ..,.............................,.................................. 632) Pronunare i ortografie............................................. 633) Verbe neregulate.......................................................... 634) ntrebuinare .....................................'..................... 1.6.6! Traducerea lui Past Tensc......................................... 1.7. Perfectul prezent......................................................................... 635) Definiie ............................................'..................... 636) Forma........................................................................... 637) ntrebuinare................................................................ 1.8. Mai mult ca perfectul..........................:.................................... 638) Definiie ____-----.................................................. 639) Form........................................................................... 640) ntrebuinare................................................................ 1.9. Mijloace de exprimare a viitorului....................................____. 641) Definiie . .. ..................................: . . . . . ,.............. 642) Form ................................<................................... 643) ntrebuinare.................................................:............. 644) Be about to.................................,..............,................. 645) Be to ......................................................................... 646) Viitorul cu going to.................................................... 647) ntrebuinare................................................................ 648) Prezentul continuu...................................................... 649) Prezentul continuu + adverbele de timp...............

11 11 11 11 12 16 17 18 18 18 18 20 20 20 20 21 21 21 22 23 23 23 23 23 23 24 24 24 24 24 24 25 25 25 25 25 25 26 26 26 27, 28 28 29 30 30 31 31 32

650) 651) 652) 653) 654) 655)

Prezentul simplu.......................................................... Prezentul simplu + continuu + verbe de micare Definiie ............................................... '.................... Form.......................____............................................. ntrebuinare................................................................ Aciuni viitoare dintr-o perspectiv trecut...........

1.10. Aspectul...................................................................................... 656) Definiie...........................' . . . . . ' ................................... 657) Opoziia durativ-non durativ.................................... perfectiv-non perfectiv................................ 658) Verbe de activitate ................................................... 659) Aspectul continuu Form....................................... 660) Ortografie___________: .. .. .. ....................................... 661) ntrebuinarea aspectului continuu.......................... 662) Prezentul continuu...................................................... 663) Past Tense Continuu................................................... 664) Viitorul Continuu..........................................................

665) 666) 667) 668) 669) 670) 671)

Traducerea formelor la aspectul continuu.............. Verbe, care nu pot fi folosite la aspectul continuu . . Aspectul perfectiv Definiie.................................... ntrebuinare................................................................. Aspect perfectiv aspect continuu.......................... Mai mult ca perfectul continuu ............................. Vii'torul perfect continuu.......................................... 287

1.11. D i a t e z a ......... . .................................. 672) D e f i n i i e ................. . ............... . . . 673) Di ate za act iv . . . . . . ...... .. .. ...... . . ...... .. . 674) D i a t e z a p a s i v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675) Be -f- participiul trecut ................. , ...... 676) Conjugarea unui verb la diateza pasiv .......... 677) Get l become + participiul trecut ............ . . . . 678) C o m p l e m e n t u l d e a g e n t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.11.8. , ntrebuinarea diatezei pasive ................ -. . . . 1.11.9. Traducerea construciilor pasive ............... .

33 3] 32 32 35 34

679) P e r s o a n a i N u m r u l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 680) M o d u l 681) 682) 683) 684) 685) 686) 687) 688) 689)
..............................................
Definiie .............. ...................... Modul' indicativ .............................. Modul subjonctiv ............................ S ub j on c t iv u l s i n te t ic .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . Subjonctivul prezent .......................... Subjonctivul trec ut ____ ........................ Subj onc tiv ul II tr ec ut . ........ .. .. ... . .. .. ...... Subjonctivul analitic . . . ........... ...... ...... ntrebuinarea subjonctivului analitic . ...........

35

36 36| 37! 37| 38| 381 39J 39J 40' 41 41 41

690) S h o u l d + ' l n f i n i t i v ............................ 691) M a y / m i g h t + i n f i n i t i v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692) Wo u l d + I n f i n i t i v ............................ 693) C o u l d + I n f i n i t i v ............................ 694) S u b j o n c t i v s a u I n d i c a t i v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.14. F or me le neper so na le a le verbului ... ............ ...... ... 695) Formele nepersonale ..... . .............. . ..... 696) C a r a c t e r i s t i c i v e r b a l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697) Caracteristici substantivale ....... .' ............ 1.15. I n f i n i t i v u l ........ , ..................... . . .......... 698) Fo rm ele i nf in it iv ului . . . .. .. ...... .. .. ........ . 699) Ca r a c te r i s t ic i v e r b a l e . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . 700) Caracteristici substantivale . . ...................
'1.15.4., Traducere . . ................... . . . . .........

42
42 42 42

42
42 43 43 44

1.16. F o r m a n - i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - - - 701) D e f i n i i e ...... ........... ............... ...... 702) P a r t i c i p i u l n - i n g . . . . . . . . . - - - - . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703) C a r a c t e r i s t i c i v e r b a l e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704) Caracteristici adjectivale ..................... 705) Fu n c ii s in t ac ti c e . . . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. . .. .. .. 706) T r a d u c e r e .................................. 1.17. G e r u n d ........................... . ........ . . . . ..... 707) Caracteristici verbale 708) Caracteristici substantivale 709) ntrebuinare

44
44

46

46

710) 711) 712) 713) 714) 715)

Traducere ............................................................... Infinitivul cu to i Geruqd------................................. Folosirea infinitivului cu to......................................... Folosirea formei Gerund............................................. Gerund sau Infinitiv.................................................... Asemnri de sens.....................................................

50 50 50 50 51 52 53 53 53 53 5 54 54 55

1.18. Participiul Trecut...................................................................... 716) Definiie........................................................................ 717) Caracteristici verbale ............................................... 718) Caracteristici adjectivale ................................____ 719) Forme partieipiale folosite adjectival...................... 720) Funcii sintactice.......................................................... 721) Traducere .......................................................____ 722) Conjugarea verbului CALL.........................................

1.19. Verbele auxiliare ................................................................. 723) Caracteristici................................................................. 724) Forme contrase ....................................................... 725) Be............................................................................... 726) Have ........................................................................... 727) SkattlShould ............................................................. 728) WilljWould.................................................................. 729) MaylMight.................................................................. 730) Lei.............................................................................. 731) Do ............................................................................

56 56 56 57 57 57 58 58 58 58

1.20. Verbele modale.......................................................................... 59 732) Definiie........................................................................ 59 733) Caracteristicile verbelor modale ............................ 59 734) Can, Could.................................................................. 60 735) May, Might................................................................ 61 736) Must, Have to, Need................................................... 62 737) Shall, Should...................................................................... 64 738) Ought to...................................................................... 64 739) Will, Would ............................................................. 65 740) Used to....................................................................... 66

741) 742)

Be to.......................................................................... Dare............................................................................

66 67 67

Exerciii....................................................................................

2. SUBSTANTIVUL...............................................................................
!>

71

743)..............................................................................................Defini ie ................................................................................................. 71 744)..............................................................................................Clasific are ................................................................................................. 71 745) Formarea substantivelor ............................................* 71 746) Grad de individualizare............................................. 72
289

2.3. Numrul substantivelor................................ ......................... 747) Substantive numrabile...................................r......... 748) Clasificarea substantivelor numrabile....................... 749) Formarea pluralului substantivelor numrabie .... 750) Pluralul regulat al substantivelor.............................. 751) Ortografia pluralului regulat..................................... 752) Pluralul neregulat al substantivelor.......................... 753) Substantive nenumrabile ........................................ 754) Numrul substantivelor invariabile..........................

73 73 73 74 74 74 75 79 .81

2.4. Genul substantivelor ............................................................ 755) Definiie.................................:...................................... 756) Clasificarea substantivelor dup ideea de gen........... 757) Genul substantivelor nume de persoane................... 758) Genul substantivelor nume . de animale................... 759) Genul substantivelor nume de obiecte...................... 760) Folosirea stilistic a categoriiei gramaticale a genului

86 86 86 86 87 87 87

2.5. Cazul substantivelor................................................________ 761) Definiie ................................................................... 762) Cazul nominativ.......................................................... 763) Cazul acuzativ.............................................................. 764) Cazul dativ.................................................................. 765) Cazul genitiv................................................................ 766) Cazul vocativ ........................................................ Exerciu................................................................................. 3. ARTICOLUL I ALI DETERMINANI........................................ 3.1. Categoria determinrii........................................................... 767) Definiie..................................................................... 768) Determinanii propriu-zii .....................,................. 769) Predeterminanii........................................................ 770) Postdeterminanii.........................................................
3.2. Articolul .;.................................................................................................................................... 771) Definiie..................................................................... 772) Referin unic.......................................................... 773) Referin individual . . .. . . v............................................................ 774) Numele proprii i referina unic............................. 3.3. Articolul hotrt....................................................................... ' 3.3.1. Forma articolului hotrt............................................. 3.3.2. Funciile articolului hotrt.........................................
290

88
88 89 89 90 90 93

93 97 97 97 97 98 99
101 101 101 101 102 12 102 102

!(j5 3.4, Articolul neho;................. ....................................................... 775) Forma articolului nehotrt..................................... 105 776) Funciile articolului nehotrit.......................................105

3.5. Articolul zero ....................................................................... 777) Definiie /-----........................................................,. . . 778) Funciile articolului zero.............................<............. 3.fi. Omisiunea articolului ...........................................................

106 106 107 111

ALI DETERMINANI.......................................... ...................

112

3.7. Adjectivul demonstrativ........................................................... 779) Definiie........................................................................ 780) Form.................____,................................................. 781) ntrebuinare .......................................................... 3.8. Adjectivul posesiv...................................................................... 782) Definiie . . ............................................................... 783) Form........................................................................... 784) ntrebuinare .......' . . . . . , ................................____ 3.9. Adjectivul interogativ ........................................................... 3.9.1. Definiie . :................................................................ ,3.9.2. Form ...................................................................... 3.9.3. ntrebuinnre................................................................ 3.10. Adjectivul nehotrt................................................................ 785) Definiie..................................:................................................................ 786) Form........................................................................... 787) ntrebuinare................................................................ 788) Adjectivul negativ......................................................
Exerciii .................'......................................................................

112 112 112 112 113 113 113 114 115 115 115 115 i Ifi 116 116 116 117
118

4. NUMERALUL 4.1. Definiie

........................................................................................ ........................................................................................

121 121 122

4.2: Clasificare.......................................................................................... 789) Numeralul ca determinant, n gramatica structu ralist............................................................................ 790) Categoria numeralului n gramatica tradiional . . . . 4.3. Numeralul cardinal ........................................................................ 791) Form......................................................................... . 792) ntrebuinare................................................................

122 122
122 122 124

291

-:. . Numeralul ordinal.................................................................... . .......................................................................................................... 125 793) Form............................................................................ 125 794) ntrebuinare .......................................................... 126 4.5. Numeralul racionar ............................................................... 126 , 4.5.1. Form . . -................................................................... ...................................................................................................... 126 4.6. Numeralul colectiv...................................................................... 127 795) Form........................................................................... 127 796) ntrebuinare................................................................ 127 4.7. Numeralul multiplicativ............................................................. 128 797) Form ...................................................................... 128 798) ntrebuinare ' ..'....................................................... 128
,*

5. PRON UMEL E........................................ 129

80 1)
De fin ii e

799)..............................................................................................N
umeralul distributiv............................................................................ 128 12 9

800)..............................................................................................N
umeralul adverbial............................................................................. 128 Exerciii....................................................................................... ..................................................................................................... 129

80 2)
Ro lul de su bst itu t al pr on u m elu i

13 0

803).........................................................................................
Categoriile gramaticale ale pronumelui 130

Pr on u m ele int er og ati v

804).........................................................................................
Clasificarea pronumelui 131

805).........................................................................................
Funciile sintactice ale pronumelui 132

806).........................................................................................
Pronumele personal 132

13 7 5.1 0. Pro nu mel e rela 138

807) Categoria persoanei la pronumele personal 808) Categoria genului la pronumele personal
133 809) Categoria numrului la pronumele personal 134 810) Categoria cazului la pronumele personal 134 811) Funciile sintactice ale pronumelui personal 134
*

132

tiv.................................

81 7)
De fini ie . 138

5.7. Pronumele reflexiv 135 812) Categoriile gramaticale ale pronumelui reflexiv . . . . 135 813) ntrebuinarea pronumelui reflexiv
135 814) Pronumele de ntrire 136

81 8)

815)......................................................................................... Pronumele posesiv

137

nt reb uin ar ea pro nu me lui rel ati v 139

816).........................................................................................

81 9)

Locul pronumelui relativ 139 292

5.11. Pronumele nehotrt ............................................................... 820) Definiie .................................................................. 821) ntrebuinare................................................................

140 140 140

5.12. Pronumele negativ................................................................... Exerciii....................................................................................

6. ADJECTIVUL ...................,..............................................................

141 141
143

822)................................................ Definiie...................................
143

823).............................................................................................. Compa raia adjectivelor ............................................................................ 143 824)..............................................................................................Forma rea comparativului i superlativului............................................... 144 825) 826) 827) 828)
Comparaia sintetic................................................... Comparaia analitic ................................................ Formarea comparativului de egalitate i inferioritate Formarea superlativului absolut.............................. 144 145 145 145

829)..............................................................................................Compa raia neregulat a adjectivului........................................................ 145 830)..............................................................................................ntrire a comparativului adjectivului........................................................ 146 831)..............................................................................................Funcii le sintactice ale adjectivului . . . . * . . . . ............................................ 147 832)..............................................................................................Locul adjectivului n propoziie................................................................. 148 Exerciii........................................................................................ 148
7. ADVERBUL ................................................................................... 149

833).............................................................................................. Definii e .................................................................................................. 149 834).............................................................................................. Locui uni i construcii adverbiale.............................................................. 149
7.2.1. Locuiuni adverbiale................................................... .7.2.2. Construcii adverbiale.................................................. adverbului ........................................................................................... 149 149 150

835)..............................................................................................Forma 836)..............................................................................................Modifi cri de ortografie............................................................................. 150 837)..............................................................................................Clasific area adverbului ............................................................................. 152 838) Adverbe de mod......................................................... 839) Adverbe de loc............................................................
152 152

840) Adverbe de timp........................................................ 7.6. Comparaia adverbului.............................................................

7.6.1. Gradul comparativ...................................................... 841) Gradul superlativ.......................................................... 842) Comparaia neregulat...............................................

152

7.7. Adverbe speciale .................................................................... dExet iii.................................................................................. 293

153 153 153 154 154 156

o. PREPOZIIA.................,............,.......................,...............................

843).......................................................................................Definiie ; . . , .................................................................................... 156 844)..............................................................................................Caract eristici ale prepoziiilor.................................................................... 157 845) 846) 847) 848) 849)
Prepoziii cu acuzativ................................................ Prepoziii urmate de substantive cu articol.............. Prepoziii urmate de substantive nearticulate........... Verbe precedate de prepoziii .................................... Cuvinte cu prepoziii obligatorii.................................. 157 157 157 157 157

850)..............................................................................................Locul prepoziiilor...................................................................................... 158 851)..............................................................................................Eelaii exprimate de prepoziii..................................................................... 159 852) Paralelisme ntre prepoziia n limba romn i n limba englez........................................................................ 162 8.6. Diferene ntre prepoziia n limba romn i n limba englez ........!........................................................... 163 8.7. Particulele adverbiale............................................................... 163 853) ntrebuinarea particulelor adverbiale...................... 163 854) Locul particulelor adverbiale n propoziie............... 163 Exerciii.................................................................................... 164
9. CONJUNCIA ................................................................................ ' 9.1. Definiie................................................................................... 9.2. Conjunciile coordonatoare .................................................. 855) Clasificare................................................................... 856) ntrebuinare :.......................................................... 857) Poziie '.........................................................,............ 9.3. Conjunciile subordonatoare..................................................... 858) Clasificare ............................................................... 859) ntrebuinare................................................................ ' 9.3.3. Poziie......................................................................... Exerciii...........................................................................----10. INTERJECIA ............................................................................... 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 166 166 167 167 168 168 168 169 169

860) Definiie................................................................................... 861) Clasificare....................................................................,,.......... 862) ntrebuinare............................................................................ Exerciii............................................................................----294

PARTEA A II-A SINTAXA PEOPOZIIEI

II.O. GENERALITI...........................................................................
II.O.l. Definiie ----...............................................................----II.0.2. Clasificare.............................................................................. II.0.3. Tipuri de propoziii .............................................................. II.0.4. Subtipuri de propoziii........................................................ II.0.5. Prile de propoziie................................................................

170
170 170 171 171 171

11. SUBIECTUL......................................................................................

173 173 173 173

173 174 174 174

863) Definiie..................____.......................................................... 864) Exprimarea subiectului ----.................................................. 865) Situaii speciale........................................................................ 866) Subiectul generic . , . . . , . . . . . . . , . . . . , ...................... 867) Subiectul impersonal................................................... 868) Subiectul introductiv ..------..................................... 11.4. Locul subiectului n propoziie...............................................
12. PREDICATUL...................................................................................

175
175 175, 175 175 176

869) Definiie...................................................................................... 870) Clasificare.............................................................................____ 871) Predicatul verbal ................................................... 872) Predicatul nominal.................................................... 12.3. Locul predicatului n propoziie...............................................
13. ACORDUL SUBIECTULUI CU PREDICATUL..................................

176 177 177 177 179 181 182

l'

873) Acordul n persoan................................................................. 874) Acordul n numr................................................................. 13.2.1. Acordul gramatical...........................'......................... 875) Acordul dup neles................................................... 876) Acordul prin atracie............................................... Exerciii.................................................................................
295

':. CC

LEMENTUL DIRECT ........................."................................

182 184 184 184 184 185 185 1*55 186 186

877) Definiie....................................................................................... 878) Indicii formali ai complementului direct................................. 879) Exprimarea complementului direct......................................... 880) 881) 882) 883) 884) 885) 886)
Complementul direct exprimat prin pronume per sonal ......................................!'.................................. Complementul direct exprimat prin pronume reflexiv Complementul direct exprimat prin pronume reciproc

ntrebuinare ................................................... . . . . ' ................ Verbe tranzitive cu un complement direct................................. Verbe tranzitive cu dou complemente directe.......................... Verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i un complement indirect......................................................... 14.8. Verbe tranzitive urmate de un complement direct i un complement prepoziional ............................'................

187 188 188 188 188 189 189 190 190 190 190 191 l-11 191 192 192 193 l93

15. COMPLEMENTUL INDIRECT.........................................................

887) 888) 889) 890) 891) 892)

Definiie.................................................................................... Indicii formali ai complementului indirect............................. Exprimarea complementului indirect..................................... ntrebuinare............................................................................. Loeul complementului indirect............................................... Transformarea pasiv...............................................................

16. COMPLEMENTUL PREPOZIIONAL.................... ......................

893) 894) 895) 896) 897) 898)

Definiie.................................................................................. '. Indicii formali ai complementului prepoziional...................... Exprimarea complementului prepoziional,............................ ntrebuinare............................................................................ Locul complementului prepoziional..................\.................... Transformarea pasiv..............................................................

17. ELEMENTUL PREDICATIV SUPLIMENTAR.................................

899) Definiie................................................................................... 900) Exprimarea elementului predicativ suplimentar-----.............. 901) Locul elementului predicativ suplimentar................................

18. CONSTRUCII

902) Definiie....................................................................................... 903) Caracteristicile construciilor complexe...................,.............. 904) Caracteristici predicative............................................ 905) Asemnri ntre construciile complexe.................. 906) Deosebiri ntre construciile complexe...................... 907) Funciile -sintactice.................................................... 18.3. Construciile cu acuzativul.................................................... 908) Acuzativul cu infinitiv................................................ 909) FOR + infinitivul ................................................. 910) Acuzativul cu participiul prezent ......................... 911) Acuzativul cu participiul trecut.................................. 18.4. Construciile cu nominativul................................................. 912) Nominativul cu infinitiv............................................. 913) Nominativul cu participiul prezent.......................... 914) Nominativul absolut................................................................... 915) Alte construcii complexe............................................................
19. COMPLEMENTE CIRCUMSTANIALE..............................; . . . . . .

194
194 194 194 195

195
195 196 197 197

198
198 198 199 199 200

916) Definiie............................................................................____ 917) Clasificare .......................................................................... 918) Complementul circumstanial de loc......................................... 919) Definiie........................................................................ 920) Exprimarea complementului circumstanial de loc .. 921) Locul complementului circumstanial de loc . . . . . . 19.4. Complementul circumstanial de timp....................................... 922) Definiie..............................................................,'... 923) Exprimarea complementului circumstanial de timp 924) Locul complementului circumstanial de timp . . . . 19.5. Complementul circumstanial de mod................................... 925) Definiie............................................................................ 926) Clasificare....................................................,............. 927) Complementul circumstanial de mod propriu-zis.. 928) Exprimarea complementului circumstanial de mod 929) Locul complementului circumstanial de mod propriu -zis........................................................................... 930) Complementul circumstanial de mod comparativ .. 931) Locul complementului de mod comparativ............... 19.6. Alte complemente circumstaniale..........................................
297

200 200
200 200 201 201

201 201
202 202

204
204 204 204 204

204 205 205

206

20. ATRIBUTUL

........................................................ . , . . , , , , . , . . .

20 206 206 207 207 207 208 208 208 208 208 208 208 209 209 209 209 209 210 210 210 210 210 211 211 212 212 217
219

932) Definiie .................................................................................. 933) Exprimarea atributului.............................................................. 934) Locul atributului.........................................................................

20.3.1.* Atributul prepus........................................................ Atributul pustpus ................................................... Atribute ce pot avea ambele poziii.......................... 20.4. Apoziia .................................................................................. 937) Definiie........................................................................ 938) Apoziia simpl ...............................................____ 939) Locul apoziiei simple ................................................ 940) Apoziia dezvoltat ____......................................... 941) Locul apoziiei dezvoltate...........................................

935) 936)

21. ELEMENTE INDEPENDENTE................................................ . . . . .

942) 943) 944) 945) 946) 947)

Definiie....................................................................................... Clasificare Interjeciile ............................................................................... ____....................................................................... . . . . . . ____................................................

Adresarea direct

Cuvintele i locuiunile parentetice-----..................................... Locul elementelor independente................................................

22. ORDINEA CUVINTELOR N PROPOZIIE....................................... 22.0. Generaliti .................'............................................................ 22.0.1. Importana studierii ordinii cuvintelor...................... 22.0.2. Comparaia cu limba romn...................................... 22.0.3. Caracteristici generale ale ordinii cuvintelor n limba englez.............................................................. 22.0.4. Poziia prilor de propoziie..................................... 22.1. Reguli privitoare la ordinea cuvintelor n propoziie------.. Exerciii...................................................................................... 23. FELURILE PROPOZIIILOR...........................................................

948) Clasificare.................................................................................... 949) Propoziia enuniativ ...........................................................

298

219 219

23.2. Propoziia negativ ..,............................................................ 950) Exprimarea negatei ............................................... 951) Dou negaii ntr-o propoziie..........................----952) Exprimarea sensului negativ.................................... 953) Sublinierea carterului negativ......................____ 954) Negarea unei propoziii ntregi................................. 23.3. Propoziia interogativ -----.------......................................... 955) Interogativul verbelor ........................................... 956) Propoziii interogativ-negative................................... 957) Folosirea prenumelor i adjectivelor n propoziii in terogative...................................................................... 958) ntrebri generale..................................................... 959) ntrebri speciale........................................................ 960) ntrebrile alternative................................................ 961) ntrebrile disjunctive ............................................ 23.4. Propoziia imperativ............................................................... 962) Forma verbal............................................................. 963) Intonaia propoziiei imperative................................ 964) Structura propoziiei imperative.............................. 965) Mijloace de ntrire sau de formulare politicoas ....

220 220 220 220 223 223 223 224 225

225 225 226 227 227

229 229 230 230 231

23.5. Propoziia exclamativ............................................................ 231 966) Intonaia....................................................................... 232 967) Propoziiile exclamative propriu-zise...................... " 232 968) Propoziiile exclamative cu form nespecific . . . . 232 Exerciii............................................... ,................................. 232

PARTEA A III-A SINTAXA FEAZEI II.O. Generaliti.................................................................................... III.O.l. Propoziia-fraza.......................................................... III.0.2. Definiie ..........................................<................... III.0.3. Raporturile sintactice .......................................... III.0.4. Legarea propoziiilor................................................. 24. FRAZA PRIN COORDONARE.................................. .............. . 235 235 235 235 235 236 236
236

969) Coordonare - Detiniie............................................................ 970) Felul coordonrii..................................................................... 971) Coordonarea copulativ ____..............................................
209

25. FRAZA PRIN SUBORDONARE........................................................

238 238 239 240

972) 973) 974) 975)

Legarea propoziiilor subordonate.............................................. Clasificarea propoziiilbr subordonate...................................... Reducerea propoziiilor subordonate..........................................

Propoziia completiv direct ............................................

Rolul completivei directe......................................... Propoziia interogativ n vorbirea indirect este completiv direct...................................................... 25.4.3. Omiterea conjunciei that"..................................... 2S-.4.4. Corespondena timpurilor........................................... 25.4.5. Reducerea propoziiei completive directe...............

240
240 240 241 241 244 244 244 244 244 245 245 245 246 246 247 248 248 248 248 * 248 248 248 248 249 249 249 250 250 250

976) 977)

25.5. Propoziia completiv prepoziional...................................... 978) Prin ce se introduce.................................................... 979) Omiterea prepoziiei ................................................ 980) Anticiparea completivei prepoziionale prin it-----981) Corespondena timpurilor n completiva prepozi ional ...................................................................... 25.6. Propoziia subiectiv ................................................................ 982) Prin ce se introduce.................................................... 983) Locul propoziiei subiective n fraz.......................... 984) Folosirea timpurilor n propoziia subiectiv........... 985) Reducerea propoziiei subiective.............................. 25.7. Propoziia predicativ ......................................'..................... 986) Prin ce se introduce................................................... 987) Folosirea timpurilor .. .:......................................... 988) Reducerea propoziiei predicative............................. 25.8. Propoziiile relative.................................................................... 989) Felurile propoziiilor relative------.............................. 990) Prin ce se introduce propoziia relativ................... 991) Propoziia relativ restrictiv................................. 992) Propoziia relativ descriptiv................................ 993) Folosirea timpurilor n propoziia relativ.............. 994) Reducerea propoziiei relative................................. 995) Propoziia apoziional............................................. 996) Folosirea timpurilor n propoziia apoziional----997) Reducerea propoziiei apoziionale.........................
300

998) Prin ce se introduce ........ .777!. .TrVTTTTr.. 999) Folosirea timpurilor ................:., ,....................... 1000) Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale de timp .... 25.10. Propoziia circumstanial de loc......................................... 1001) Prin ce se introduce................................................... 1002) Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale de loc........... 1003) Propoziia circumstanial de mod propriu-zis...................... 1004) Propoziia circumstanial de mod comparativ......................
Prin ce se introduce................................................... Folosirea timpurilor................................................... Traducerea propoziiei circumstaniale de mod com parativ...................................................................... 25.13. Propoziia circumstanial cauzal........................................ 1008) Prin ce se introduce................................................... 1009) Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale cauzale .. . . 25.14. Propoziia circumstanial condiional................................. 1010) Tipuri de condiii....................................................... 1011) Prin ce se introduce propoziia circumstanial con diional ......................................................... 1012) Locul propoziiilor circumstaniale condiionale . . . . 1013) Folosirea timpurilor.................................................. 1014) Traducerea propoziiilor condiionale...................... 1015) Alte timpuri folosite in propoziiile condiionale----1016) Folosirea timpurilor n condiional dup viitorul-n-trecut.................................................................... 1017) Combinaii ntre cele trei tipuri de propoziii cir cumstaniale condiionale.......................................... 1018) Should + infinitiv ..........................................-----

250 251 252 253 253 253 253 253 253 254 254 255 255' 255 255 256 256 257 257 257 257 258 258 258 258 258 258 259 259 259 260 260 260 260 261 216 261 261 261 262

1005) 1006) 1007)

1019) Will n propoziii circumstaniale condiionale .... 1020) CouldjMight + infinitiv -...............................:_____ 1021) Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale condiionale, 25.15. Propoziia circumstanial de scop.................................----1022) Prin ce se introduce................................................... 1023) Folosirea timpurilor ............................"................. 1024) Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale de scop . . . . 25.16. Propoziia circumstanial consecutiv...........................____. 1025) Prin ce se introduce................................................... 1026) Folosirea timpurilor.........*........................................ 1027) Reducerea propoziiei circumstaniale consecutive . . 25.17. Propoziia circumstanial concesiv........................................ 1028) Prin ce se introduce..............,................................. . 1029) Reducerea propoziiilor concesive............................. 1030) Folosirea timpurilor ............................................. Exerciii ...............................................................................
301

26. VOBBIBEA DIRECT I INDIRECT .. ...........

........

264

26.1. Vorbirea direct ..................................................................... 1031) Definiie......................................................................... 1032) Locul i funcia sintactic a enunului n vorbirea indirect........................................................................ 1033) Folosirea timpurilor ................................................

264 264
264 264

1034).......................................................................................Vorbirea indirect.....................................................................................____ 264 1035)..............................................................................................Transf ormarea vorbirii directe n vorbire indirect...................................... 265 1036) 1037) 1038) 1039) 1040) 1041) 1042) 1043) 1044)
Pronumele personal, reflexiv i posesiv................... Pronumele/adjectivul demonstrativ ..................... Adverbele de timp ................................................... Predicatul la un timp prezent.................................. Predicatul Ia un timp trecut.................................... Predicatul la prezentul simplu.................................. Predicatul aciune viitoare ................................ Predicatul Past simple ..................'...................... Predicatul Past Tense Continuous....................... 265 265 265 265 266 266 267 267 268 268 268 268 269 271 272

1045) Predicatul Verbe modale......................................... 1046) Frazele condiionale ____......................................... 1047) Propoziii enuniative ............*.............................. 1048) Propoziii interogative ........................................... 1049) Propoziii exclamative................................................ 1050) Propoziii imperative ........................................... 26.4. Vorbirea indirect liber..........................................................
Exerciii .................................................................................. Cheia exerciiilor ........................................................................... Bibliografie........................................................................................ Cuprins...............................................................................................

272 273 275 285 286

Nr. colilor de tipar : 19 Bun de tipar : 01.09.1992 Corn. nr. 20 302 Regia Autonom a Imprimeriilor Imprimeria CORESI" Bucureti ROMNIA