Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
REȚELE DE CALCULATOARE
CURS 1
INTRODUCERE IN ARHITECTURA
CALCULATOARELOR
Conf. Dr. Ing. Cornel Popescu Ș.l. Dr. Ing. Eugen Pop
Cuprins
1. Descrierea cursului SORC
2. Scurt istoric al sistemelor de calcul
3. Componente ale sistemelor de calcul
4. Arhitecturi de baza ale sistemelor de calcul
1. DESCRIEREA CURSULUI SORC
Obiective
1. Introducere in SO
3. Memorie
4. Sistemul I/O
5. Retelistica
6. Securitatea SO
1. Punctaj laborator:
1. Activitate practica (evaluata in ultima saptamana): 50
2. Evaluari pe parcurs (diverse forme): bonus
Observatii:
1. Prezenta la laborator este obligatorie asa cum va vom
anunta!
2. Se vor face mai multe laboratoare odata!
3. Este OBLIGATORIE obtinerea a cel putin 50% din
punctajul de laborator pentru a putea sustine examenul
final!
4. Lipsa sau insuficienta punctajului de laborator (vezi 3)
duce la repetarea materiei!!!
Evaluare/notare
• Definitie:
Un dispozitiv electronic capabil sa primeasca
informatii (date) intr-un format si sa execute o
secventa de operatii, in concordanta cu un set
predeterminat de instructiuni (program),
pentru a produce un rezultat sub forma
informatiilor sau semnalelor.
Oxford dictionary
Ce este un calculator ?
Un calculator este un dispozitiv care:
• Accepta intrari
• Executa in mod automat o procedura
(lista de pasi)
• Genereaza iesiri
http://www.computingbook.org/
Cronologie
Generatia Prima A doua A treia A patra
Zero Generatie Generatie Generatie Generatie
1970 1989
NETWORK ERA
Generatia zero
Fig 4
Fig 7
Fig 8
Prima generatie
(1945-1955) - Caracteristici
• Pionieri: Howard Aiken (Harvard),
John von Neumann (Princeton),
Konrad Zuse (Germania)
• Relee mecanice – la inceput
• Tuburi cu vid – continuare
• Limbaj masina absolut
– fire de legatura pe placa de conexiuni
– cartele perforate, ulterior
– NU exista un limbaj de programare
propriuzis
• Exempu de utilizare:
– tabele de sin, cos, log Fig 9
Prima generatie
(1945-1955) – fotografii - 2
Programarea ENIAC
Fig 9
Prima generatie
(1945-1955) – fotografii - 3
Tuburi cu vid
A doua generatie
(1955-1965) - Cronologie
• 1957 – FORTRAN = FORmula TRANslating
system - IBM
• 1959 -Texas Instruments si Fairchild
Semiconductor dezvolta circuitul integrat
• 1959 - COBOL = Common Business-
Oriented Language.
• 1960 - Digital Equipment Corporation Fig 11
(DEC) – primul mini-computer cu ecran - Fig 11
PDP-1 - Programmed Data Processor -
$120,000
• 1964 - IBM System/360, - Era Super-
computerelor, software ce putea fi
schimbat, periferice Fig 12
A doua generatie
(1955-1965) - Caracteristici
• Tranzistoare
– Au condus la apriatia “sisteme mari de
calcul” (mainframes)
– Specializare: proiectant, constructor,
programator, depanare
– Cartele perforate: limbaj de asamblare, Fig 14
FORTRAN
• Sisteme cu procesare pe loturi de
lucrari (batch processing)
– Lot de cartele transferat pe banda
magnetica
Fig 13
– Banda magnetica citita de sistem
– Rezultatele scrise pe banda si transferate
la imprimanta
• Exemple de utilizare:
– rezolvare ecuatii diferentiale, inginerie
Exemplu tranzistor
Circuit
tranzistor
Deschis
Exemplu tranzistor
Inchis
Exemplu tranzistor
Poarta logica
NAND
https://www.101computing.net/from-transistors-to-micro-processors/transistor-nand-gate/
A doua generatie
(1955-1965) - Fotografii
Fig 13
Generatia a treia
(1965-1980) – Cronologie 1
• 1965 – PDP 8 –primul minicomputer de
succes
• 1968 - Doug Engelbart – primul “mouse”
si tastatura, primul procesor “word” =
editor de text
Fig 15
• 1969 – ARPAnet - Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network – un stramos al
Internet-ului.
• 1970 - Fairchild Semiconductor - cip 256-
bit RAM.
• 1971-Intel - 4004 Microprocessor – Fig 16
primul microprocesor pe 4 biti
• 1972 -Intel - 8008, microprocessor pe
• 8-biti Fig 17
Generatia a treia
(1965-1980) – Fotografii 1
Fig 20
Generatia a treia
(1965-1980) – Fotografii 2
Generatia a treia
(1965-1980) – Cronologie 2
• 1975 -Popular Electronics – lanseaza
MITS Altair 8800 – primul “Personal
Computer” = PC
• 1975 - Paul Allen si Bill Gates dezvolta
BASIC pentru Altair 8800. Apare Fig 19
Microsoft.
• 1976 -Steve Wozniak si Steve Jobs –
lanseaza Apple I
• 1977 – 1980 – Apple II - Apple creste la
o cota de piata PC de 50%
• 1979 - Software Arts primul program –
”spreadsheet” = editor de tabele
Fig 18
Generatia a treia
(1965-1980) - Caracteristici
• 2 linii de calculatore:
– orientate cuvant – calcule numerice
– orientate pe caracter – sortare si tiparire
• IBM – calculatoare cu acceasi
arhitectura si set de instructiuni->
programe compatibile Fig 22
• Circuite integrate – raport Bill Gates (2013)
pret/performanta
• Multiprogramare – partitionare
memoriei pe zone fiecare cu cate un
program
• Ex de utilizare: Fig 21
Paul G. Allen
Generatia a treia
(1965-1980) - Caracteristici
• Virtualizare (spooling Simultaneous Peripheral
Operation On Line) – transfer imediat de pe
cartela pe disc
• Partajare de timp (timesharing) – fiecare
utilizator are un terminal si foloseste acelasi
procesor (ex: CTSS Compatible Time Sharing
System de la MIT) Fig 23
• MULTICS (Multiplexed Information and Steve Jobs
Computing Service) – putere de calcul
concentrata pusa la dispozitia mau multor
utilizatori
• Versiune pentru un utilizator UNIX – cod sursa
disponibil
• Minicalculatoare: DEC PDP-1: 4k de cuvinte de
18 bit Fig 24
Steve Wozniak
Generatia a patra
(1980-prezent) - Caracteristici
• Calculatoare personale – circuite integrate LSL (Large
Scale Integration) -> microprocesor
• Intel 8080 – primul CPU pe 8 biti (scara larga)
• Sisteme de operare: CP/M (Control Program for
Micorcomputer)
• IBM –PC -> DOS / Basic (Disk Operating System)
• MSDOS (Microsoft Disk Operating System) - tastatura
• Aplle Macintosh -> GUI (Graphical User Interface):
ferestre, iconite, meniuri, mouse
• Windows – initial peste MSDOS -> Windows 95
independent
Generatia a patra
(1980-prezent) –Fotografii 1
1984 –
Macintosh
1982 - Spectrum
1985 – Felix HC
Generatia a patra
(1980-prezent) –Fotografii 2
3. COMPONENTE ALE SISTEMELOR
DE CALCUL
3. Componente ale sistemelor
de calcul
Sistem de calcul
Hardware Software
Procesor si
Sursa tensiune sistem racire
CPU
Componente hardware: Motherboard Memorii
I/O
3. Componente ale sistemelor
de calcul
3.1 Motherboard
Motherboard =
placa de baza
Componente de baza:
• Socket CPU – soclu
pentru montarea
procesorului
• Slot Memorie – slot
pentru instalarea
memoriei
• Conexiuni Fig 26
dispositive I/O
3.1 Motherboard –
Arhitectura
motherboard
Placa de baza este impartita
conventional in urmatoarele
zone conectate prin magistrale
(BUS):
➢ CPU – Central Processing Unit
➢ Northbridge – conecteaza
memoria RAM si placa video
➢ Southbridge – conecteaza
dispositive I/O
➢ ROM – BIOS
➢ Cipset – controller South si
North Bridge Fig 27
3. Componente ale sistemelor
de calcul
3.1 Motherboard – tipuri constructive
• Format standard (eng: motherboard form factor):
– ATX (Advanced Technology eXtended),
– BTX (Balanced Technology eXtended),
– NLX (New Low profile eXtended)
Fig 28
Hardware – Mother board
3.1 Motherboard – tipuri constructive
Magistrale de date: EISA -din 1988
• Magitrale de procesor • magistala I/O, high-speed.
• Magistrale extinse: • 32-bit, sincronizat cu
frecventa CPU exemplu: 33,
– ISA - Industry Standard Architecture
40, 50 MHz.
– EISA – Extended ISA • 160 MB/sec
– PCI – Peripherical Component Interconnect
– PCIe – PCI Express
– AGP – Accelerated Graphics Port PCI Express - din 2004
• magistrala seriala I/O, very
– IDE – Integrated Device Electronic
high speed.
– ATA – Advanced Technology Attachment • inlocuieste PCI si AGP.
– PATA – Parallel ATA • v2.0500 MB/sec. / canal.
– SATA – Serial ATA • v4.0: 1969 MB/s / canal
Fig30
3. Componente ale sistemelor
de calcul
3.3 Central Processing Unit
https://www.techspot.com/review/2158-intel-tiger-lake-core-i7-1165g7/
Comparatie (exemplu)
EXEMPLU
?
3. Componente ale sistemelor
de calcul EXEMPLU
3.3 Central Processing Unit www.amd.com
3. Componente ale sistemelor
de calcul EXEMPLU
3. Componente ale sistemelor
de calcul
3.4 Componente I/O
Hardware – I/O
3.4 Componente I/O
4. ARHITECTURI DE BAZA ALE
SISTEMELOR DE CALCUL
Sistem de calcul - arhitectura
• Computerul contine unul sau mai multe elemente din urmatoarele
categorii:
– Procesorul - unitate centrala de procesare (CPU).
• controleaza functionarea computerului
• proceseaza datele. numeste
– Memoria principala – memorie reala sau primara
• stoceaza date si programe.
• este de regula volatila, se pierde la inchiderea computerului
– Modulele I/O
• Asigura transferul datelor intre computer si exterior
• Ex: dispozitive de memorie secundare, echipamente de comunicare, unitati de
disc
– Magistrale (de date, de adrese si de control ):
• comunicarea intre procesoare, memoria de baza si modulele I/O.
• Toate sunt interconectate pentru a asigura functionarea
computerului, adica executia programelor.
Sistem de calcul - arhitectura
CPU
• CPU = Central Processing Unit
– unitate centrala de procesare
Iesire
Intrare Citire Executie
Decodare
Instructiune Instructiune
• Functii de baza:
– “Fech” - preluarea instructiunilor din memorie si
transferarea catre memoria interna. Stocarea instructiunii
se face in registri = componenta adresabila a memoriei.
– “Decode” – decodarea instructiunilor
– “Execute” – executia instructiunilor
• Activitati efectuate:
– Executia de operatii de baza (logice si aritmetice)
– Planificarea si controlul operatiilor
– Memorarea instructiunilor si datelor (operanzilor)
Modelul von Neuman vs.
modelul Harvard
Modelul von Neuman
Magistrala adrese
Memorie CPU
Magistrala date
vs.
Modelul Harvard
Magistrala adrese
Memorie
CPU
date Magistrala date
Magistrala adrese
Memorie
CPU
date Magistrala date
Fig 33
IBM Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (ASCC), Harvard Mark I
Bibliografie
• http://elec.widgetlifes.com/the-10-most-influential-computer-history-news-
techradar-uk/
• http://www.lovendal.net/wp52/uluitorul-mecanism-din-antikythera-un-complex-
computer-antic/
• http://www.computer-history.info/Page4.dir/pages/Univac.dir/index.html
• http://ed-thelen.org/comp-hist/samp-collection.html
• http://www.palvenn.no/ITkonsulent.lnk/main02achievements/cdc/default.htm?p
ath=main02achievements/cdc
• http://www.computer-hardware-explained.com/what-is-a-motherboard.html
• http://www.technogeek.ro/solid-state-disk.html
• http://www.c-jump.com/CIS77/CPU/VonNeumann/lecture.html
• http://web.engr.oregonstate.edu/~traylor/ece112/lectures/comp_arch.pdf
• Andrew S. Tanenbaum – Sisteme de operare moderne
• William Stalling – Operating Systems Internals and design Principles
Bibliografie – imagini 1
• Fig1: A Enigma G machine on display at the National Cryptologic Museum in 2005. -
Photographer: Austin Mills - http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Enigma-G.jpg
• Fig2: Colossus codebreaking computer in operation, This file is from the collections of The
National Archives (United Kingdom), catalogued under document record FO850/234,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colossus.jpg
• Fig3: http://transistorselect.blogspot.ro/2010/11/blog-post.html
• Fig4: de|Nachbau des Z1 im deutschen Technik Museum in Berlin, Sursa:
de.wikipedia.org: 22:33, 27. Dez 2005 . . ComputerGeek
• Fig5: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer) in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
Glen Beck (background) and Betty Snyder (foreground) program the ENIAC in BRL building
328, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eniac.jpg
• Fig6: Photo by U. S. Navy Electronics Supply Office as part of the Report Department of the
Army, Ballistic Research Laboratories - Maryland, A third survey of domestic electronic digital
computing systems, Report No 1115, 1961, The UNIVAC II,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Univac-I-Navy-Electronics-Supply-Office-BRL61-0992.jpg
• Fig7: w:IBM 650 computer at Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas, opened to show
storage drum and rear of front panel. Author: Cushing Memorial Library and Archives, Texas
A&M, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_650_with_front_open.jpg
Bibliografie – imagini 2
• Fig8: The Basic 650 Configuration. Photo: IBM Archive,
http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/650.html
• Fig9: IBM vacuum tube module in the museum "Haus zur Geschichte der IBM
Datenverarbeitung" in Sindelfingen, Germany, Author: JuergenG,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RoehreIBM_090325.jpg
• Fig10: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/eniac.html
• Fig11: PDP-1 computer, Author: Matthew Hutchinson, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PDP-
1.jpg
• Fig12: Ein System/360 zur Elektronischen Datenverarbeitung im VW-Werk Wolfsburg (1973),
PhotographerSchaack, Lothar, German Federal Archive,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_B_145_Bild-F038812-0014,_ Wolfsburg,
_VW_Autowerk.jpg
• Fig13: Punch card from a typical Fortran program, Arnold Reinhold,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FortranCardPROJ039.agr.jpg
• Fig14: Assorted discrete transistors. Packages in order from top to bottom: TO-3, TO-126, TO-
92, SOT-23. AuthorTransisto , http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Transistorer_(croped).jpg
Bibliografie – imagini 3
• Fig15: SRI’s first computer mouse prototype, Douglas Engelbart AuthorSRI International
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SRI_Computer_Mouse.jpg
• Fig16: Intel 4004, Photo by John Pilge. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:C4004_(Intel).jpg
• Fig17 CPU Intel C8008-1 AuthorKonstantin Lanzet
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:KL_Intel_C8008-1.jpg
• Fig18: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Apple_II_tranparent_800.png
• Fig19 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Altair_8800_Computer.jpg
• Fig20: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Arpanet_logical_map,_march_1977.png
• Fig21: Paul G. Allen at Flying Heritage Collection, AuthorMiles Harris,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paul_G._Allen.jpg
• Fig22: Bill Gates in Berlin (2013), Authorwww.dts-nachrichtenagentur.de, http://www.dts-
nachrichtenagentur.de/kostenlose_bilder.php
• Fig23: Steve Jobs shows off the iPhone 4 at the 2010 Worldwide Developers Conference,
AuthorMatthew Yohe http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Steve_Jobs_Headshot_2010-
CROP.jpg
• Fig24 Steve Wozniak, Photo taken by Al Luckow,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Steve_Wozniak.jpg
Bibliografie – imagini 4
• Fig25 Exploded view of a personal computer, Self-published work
by User:HereToHelp and File:Personal computer, exploded 5.svg,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Personal_computer,_exploded_6.svg
• Fig26 labeled diagram of Acer E360 Socket 939 motherboard by Foxconn (labels in English),
Derivative works of this file: Acer E360 Socket 939 motherboard by Foxconn hr.svg,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Acer_E360_Socket_939_motherboard_by_Foxconn.svg
• Fig27 block diagram of a modern motherboard (legend in English), user:Moxfyre. Original
uploader was Moxfyre at en.wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Motherboard_diagram.svg
• Fig28 Comparison of (personal) computer motherboard form factors, VIA Gallery from
Hsintien, Taiwan, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VIA_Mini-
ITX_Form_Factor_Comparison.jpg
• Fig29: Crop from :Image:RAM n.jpg, Original uploader was Grendelkhan at en.wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DIMMs.jpg
• Fig 30: 3 SDRAM DIMM Slots, Benjamin albert, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3SDRAM-
DIMMs.jpg
• Fig 31: http://www.lanl.gov/history/atomicbomb/images/NeumannL.GIF (Archive copy at
the Internet Archive), http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:JohnvonNeumann-LosAlamos.gif
• Fig 32: A Macintosh 128K, Authorw:User:Grm wnr,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Macintosh_128k_transparency.png
• Fig 33: IBM MARK I http://www-03.ibm.com/ibm/history/exhibits/markI/markI_intro.html