RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

Nivelul educatiei parentala, vocabularul matern si dezvoltarea cognitive in copilaria timpurie Datele unui studiu longitudinal des!asurat in Ecuador
Norbert 0chad1, .h-

Un studiu recent estimeaza ca in tarile in curs de dezvoltare mai mult de 200 de milioane de copii mai mici de 5 ani nu isi ating propriul potential de dezvoltare cognitiva din pricina saraciei, hranei necorespunzatoare si stimularii* insuficiente. Copii cu nivele ridicate de dezvoltare ognitiva la varste mici au sanse mai mari de succes in viata, si asta in multiple dimensiuni. Studiile pe termen lung care au urmarit copii pana la varsta adulta au aratat ca testele cognitive aplicate la 5 si 10 ani ( cohorta 1 !0, copii "ritanici # e$plica 2! pana la %!& din nivelul de salarizare la %0 de ani, iar testele aplicate la ! si 11 ani ( studiu efectuat in US' # prezic 2(, respectiv %! & din nivelurile salariale o"tinute la %%, respectiv )2 de ani. *rocesul de dezvoltare in copilaria timpurie este e$trem de fle$i"il. Studii e$perimentale efectuate in US estimeaza ca educatia prescolara de calitate are un impact ridicat asupra marimii veniturilor viitorilor adulti si a evitarii de catre acestia a comportamentelor criminale, in special in cazul su"iectilor de gen feminin. +n tarile in curs de dezvoltare, studii longitudinale pe termen lung au aratat "eneficiile sustinute ale unei alimentatii mai "une in copilaria timpurie (,uatemala# si ale stimularii si interventiilor parentale ( -amaica # 'm utilizat date culese longitudinal din zonele rurale ecuadoriene pentru a analiza relatia dintre nivelul de scolarizare al parintilor, voca"ularul matern si dezvoltarea cognitiva a copiilor mici. 'sa cum este cunoscut, sunt disparitati su"stantiale in dezvoltarea cognitiva asociate diverselor situatii de "ac.ground familial. 'm investigat cand se instaleaza aceste disparitati si cum evolueaza acestea la varsta copilariei.

OBIECTIVE Am estimat asocierea dintre educatia parentala, vocabularul matern si dezvoltarea cognitiva timpurie a copiilor pe un esantion de copii saraci din zonele rurale ecuadoriene. METODA

Analiza regresiei este o metod statistica de msurare a legturii dintre dou sau mai multe fenomene.
Am utilizat analiza regresiva entru a estima legatura dintre nivelul de educatie parentala, vocabularul matern si vocabularul, memoria si abilitatile de integrare vizuala a copiilor de varsta mica. Acest studiu s-a bazat pe o cohorta longitudinala de copii din zona rurala ecuadoriana ( N= 211 !. "#$%&'A'# Nivelul de scolarizare si vocabularul matern sunt predictori puternici ai dezvoltarii cognitive a copiilor de varsta mica. Nivelul de bunastare a gospodariei si inaltimea, greutatea si nivelul hemoglobinei copiilor e(plica doar intr-un numar mic de cazuri asocierile observate ( dezvoltarea cognitiva )))! Nivelul vocabularului matern coreleaza mai bine cu nivelul vocabularului copiilor de varsta mai mare, ceea ce sugereaza ca efectele unui vocabular matern bogat sunt cumulative. *+N*&%$,, -iferentierea in dezvoltarea cognitiva a copilor incepe de la varste timpurii, ceea ce are importante implicatii in transmiterea intre generatii a saraciei si a inegalitatilor. .rogramele care cauta sa creasca stimularea timpurie a copiilor dezavanta/ati prin intermediul unor programe de educatie parentala, ofera perspective de rezolvare a acestor probleme.

2#'3+-0

/i0am "azat analiza pe seturi de date culese longitudinal cu informatii despre dezvoltarea copiilor culese in doua momente temporale. *entru studiu au fost alese cele mai sarace gospodarii rurale ( plasate in prima 1umatate a unei scale a saraciei # situate in 2 provincii din

cele 22 ale 3cuadorului. ( % provincii din regiunile muntoase, % de pe coasta4 au fost e$cluse zonele sla" populate si cele de 1ungla#. 5intre acestea au fost alese doar gospodariile cu cel putin un copil su" 2 ani la nivelul anului 200% si fara nici un copil pese 2 ani la aceiasi data. 5atele au fost initial culese pentru un program de a1utorare a famililor cu venituri modeste (6u0 man 5evelopment 7ond# Ca rezultat al aplicarii acestor criterii de selectie, esantionul a continut preponderent familii mici cu mame tinere. 3santionul a fost ales in 2 faze8 +n prima faza ! comunitati rurale au fost alese aleatoriu in interiorul celor 2 provincii studiate. +n a doua faza, peste 50 de familii eligi"ile pt studiu au fost alese aleatoriu din fiecare comunitate.

*rimele date analizate, pe care le voi considera ca fiind date de referinta ("aseline#, a fost realizat intre septem"rie 2005 si ianuarie 2002, in timp ce al doilea, denumit 9n continuare follo:0up, s0a desfasurat in intervalul mai ; iunie 200(. +n medie, %2 de luni s0au scurs intre follo:0up si "aseline.

/i0am focalizat atentia pe copii intre %2 ; !1 luni pentru analiza "aseline. <u am folosit teste de dezvoltare cognitiva pt copii mai mici de %2 luni. 5istri"utia pe varste a celor 212( copii pt. "aseline a fost urmatoarea8 220 aveau %, (11 aveau ), si 25! aveau 5 ani. =arsta medie a fost de 5) luni la "aseline si (5 luni la follo:0up.

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RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

*entru a evita eventualele erori am e$clus de la testare (voca"ular# copii care nu vor"eau lim"a spaniola. 5at fiind ca a fost vor"a de doar 10 copii in aceasta situatie, e$cluderea acestora nu a influentat semnificativ rezultatele studiului.
Rezultate

Cercetatorii au administrat % teste cognitive la copii de peste %2 de luni. *rimul, testul de voca"ular in imagini (>=+*# este o masura a perceptiei voca"ularului fiindca copii nu sunt solicitati sa numeasca ei o"iectele, ci anchetatorii numesc o"iectele, iar copii le identifica pe o imagine cu mai multe o"iecte. 'cest test este administrat si mamelor. >he other 2 tests :ere dra:n from the ?oodcoc.0-ohnson0/u@oz "atterA of cognitive a"ilities.1( Bne is a test of long0term retrieval, or associative memorA. Children are graduallA in0 troduced to a series of space creatures :ith nonsensical names, and are then sho:n groups of space creatures that theA are as.ed to identifA. >he last test measures visual integration, or visual0spatial thin.ing. Children are sho:n a se0 ries of pictures of common o"1ects that have "een distorted in various :aAs, and are as.ed to identifA the o"1ect. Cong0term retrieval and visual0spatial thin.ing are 2 of the primarA "road factors in the Cattell06om0Carroll theorA of cognitive a"ilities.1 D21 >he % cognitive tests :ere administered at "aseline and follo:0up. >o .eep the num"er of results in the article managea"le, + present onlA the "aseline tests in the main set of results. 6o:ever, the results :ere verA similar :hen + used the follo:0up data or focused on changes in development "et:een "aseline and follo:0 up. >ests :ere administered in childrenEs homes, and everA attempt :as made to preserve re0 asona"le testing conditions. 's a ro"ustness chec., + corrected for differences across house0 holds on a num"er of dimensions of the testing environment, as reported "A enumerators. Cron"ach a values for the tests :ere reasona"le (0.!) for the >=+*, 0.(! for the memorA test, and 0.( for the visual integration test#, suggesting that the tests had good internal consistencA. >he pair:ise correlation coefficients across tests :ere positive and statisticallA significant, ranging from 0.)0 to 0.50, :ell "elo: unitA. >his finding suggests that different tests pic.ed up on different underlAing dimensions of child development,

although measurement error in the tests is also li.elA to plaA a role. >o assess the e$tent to :hich cognitive development at "aseline predicted a childEs performance in school 2.5 Aears later, the studA included % additional tests at follo:0up that measured .no:ledge of letters and :ords, "asic mathematics, and numeric series. >hese tests :ere dra:n from the ?oodcoc.0-ohnson0 /unoz "atterA of tests of achievement (as opposed to cognitive a"ilities#. +n the test of letters and :ords, children are as.ed to read out :ords of increasing difficultA. >he mathematics test is a test of "asic arithmetic (addition, su"traction, and multiplication#4 children are as.ed to ans:er as manA Fuestions as possi"le :ithin % minutes. GinallA, the test of numeric series as.s children to complete series that are missing a given num"er Hfor e$ample, one Fuestion listed the num"ers 2, ), and (, :ith a "lan. space "et:een ) and (4 the correct ans:er :as 2. 'n important Fuestion for mA analAsis :as :hether, for anA given test, one should use the score standardized :ith the guidelines provided "A test developers or some other transformation of the test score. >he >=+* :as standardized "A the test developers on samples of /e$ican and *uerto Iican children and Aoung adults to have an average score of 100 at all ages and an S5 of 15.1! >he mean standardized >=+* score of children in mA sample :as (), more than 1 S5 "ehind the norm. >he performance of mothers :as even lo:er8 the average score :as !%, almost 2 S5 "elo: the norm. *erformance on the tests of memorA and visual integration :as also lo:. +n this case, the guidelines provided "A the test developers made it possi"le to convert the ra: scores into percentiles of the population that :as used to standardize the test. Bn average, children in the sample scored at the 1!th percentile of the memorA test and the th percentile of the visual integration test. ?or.ing :ith the e$ternallA standardized scores for the tests is attractive, as in principle it ma.es it possi"le to assess cognitive deficits relative to ho: these children JJshouldEE "e performing. 6o:ever, it is not clear :hether the reference populations that :ere used to standardize the tests are appropriate for rural 3cuador. >o "e conservative, + therefore con0 structed internallA standardized, age0specific z scores for everA test. Gor children, + did this "A su"tracting the month0of0age0specific mean of the ra: score and dividing "A the month0of0 age0

specific standard deviation. (Bn average, there :ere 5 children for each month of age, and at no age :ere there fe:er than %) children.# >hese z scores therefore have a mean of 0 and an S5 of 1 at everA age. Gor mothers, + follo:ed the same procedure, "ut did so for the sample as a :hole rather than separatelA for mothers of different ages. (+n the sample, Aounger and older mothers did not have significantlA different average scores on the test.# +n practice, ho:ever, the results :ere "roadlA similar if, instead of using the internallA standardized scores, + :or.ed :ith the ra: scores or the scores that used the e$ternal reference populations.
E"planator# $ariables

+ focused on the association "et:een childrenEs cognitive development, parentsE education (Aears of completed schooling, separatelA, for each parent#, and mothersE voca"ularA (as measured "A their >=+* scores#. +n some regressions, + also included a household :ealth inde$ and measures of child height, :eight, and hemoglo"in status. >o calculate the :ealth inde$, + aggregated a num"er of household assets and d:elling characteristics "A principal components. >he :ealth inde$ used here is the value of the first principal component. Similar :ealth indices have "een used e$tensivelA in the medical, demographic, and economics literature,22K25 including research on the population + studied.15 >he results + present are not sensitive to the e$act choice of varia"les included or to alternative :aAs of aggregating them. 3numerators measured height in the field using stadiometers (Seca, 6anover, /5# and measured :eight :ith electronic scales (>anita, +llinois, +C#. + converted height into height0for0age z scores, and :eight into :eight0for0height z scores, using standards provided "A the ?orld 6ealth Brganization (?6B#. 3numerators measured hemoglo"in levels in the field using porta"le photo0 reflectometers (6emocue, 'ngelholm, S:eden#. 7ecause higher levels of hemoglo"in are reFuired at greater elevation a"ove sea level, "efore analAsis + ad1usted hemoglo"in levels for differences in elevation across parishes using procedures pu"lished "A the US Centers for 5isease Control and *revention224 elevation :as measured at the household level using handheld glo"al positioning sAstem (,*S# units (,armin, Blathe, LS#.

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RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

%issing Data

+ discuss % potential sources of missing data8 attrition (loss to follo:0up#, children :ho :ere missing 1 or more tests, and children :ho :ere missing 1 or more covariates. 's :ith anA longitudinal studA, attrition (loss to follo:0up# :as a potential source of concern. Gigure ' (availa"le as a supplement to the online version of this article at http8MM:::.a1ph.org# sho:s the num"er of children in the 2 surveA :aves and the proportion :ho :ere missing 1 or more cognitive tests. 'ttrition "et:een "aseline and follo:0up surveAs in the studA :as lo:. >here :ere 211( children aged %,), and 5 Aears at "aseline, 122 (5.(&# of :hom could not "e found at follo:0up. >he characteristics of parents and children :ho :ere o"served in "oth surveA :aves :ere verA similar (>a"le ', availa"le as a supplement to the online version of this article at http8MM:::.a1ph.org#. ' some:hat higher percentage of children (1!.)&# :ere missing 1 or more of the "aseline cognitive development tests. Nounger children :ere more li.elA to "e missing tests, as :ere children of lo:er household :ealth, parental education levels, maternal >=+* scores, and nutritional status (>a"le '#. + analAzed the test performance of children :ho missed a given test at "aseline "ut too. the same test at follo:0up. Compared :ith children :ho too. the test in "oth surveA :aves, children :ho missed a test at "aseline did significantlA :orse on the same test if theA too. it at follo:0 up. /ore children of mothers :ith lo: >=+* scores, and of parents :ith lo:er education levels, :ere missing tests than :ere other children. +n principle, this could introduce "iases into the reported results. 's a ro"ustness test, + therefore present results in :hich + imputed the "aseline test scores for children :ho :ere missing tests "A using the percentiles of the distri"ution of the tests these children too. at follo:0up. Gor e$ample, a child :ho did not ta.e the >=+* at "aseline "ut too. it at follo:0up, and scored in the 25th percentile of the distri"ution, :ould "e given a "aseline >=+* score eFuivalent to the score at the 25th percentile of the "aseline distri"ution. ' modest percentage of children (%. & and 5.5&, respectivelA# did not complete the tests of .no:ledge of letters and :ords and of numeric series at follo:0up. ' much higher percentage of children (%2.)&# did not ta.e the "asic math test. +n the ma1oritA of cases ( 5.)&#, this :as "ecause

children could not add or su"tractHan o"vious prereFuisite for this test. >he small num"er of missing values for the tests of letters and :ords and of numeric series ma.e it unli.elA that missing data :ould "ias the results. Gor the "asic math test, + report :hether or not a child too. the test and ho: the child scored on the test, assigning children :ho did not ta.e the test a score of zero. (Iesults :ere FualitativelA similar if, instead, + discarded data for children :ho did not ta.e the math tests from these estimates.# ' little more than one Fuarter of children (%1.2&# in the sample :ere missing data on 1 or more covariatesHin most cases, data on either child hemoglo"in levels (missing for 20. & of children# or the >=+* scores of mothers (missing for 2.2& of children#. +n the main set of results, + limited the analAsis to children :ith no missing data. 6o:ever, as a ro"ustness test, + also present results in :hich + replaced the missing values :ith the sample averages.
Statistical %et&ods

+ report 2 sets of results. +n the first set, + used the "aseline data to descri"e (1# the association "et:een parentsE education, mothersE voca"ularA scores, and childrenEs cognitive development4 (2# ho: this association changed as children aged4 and (%# :hether the o"served relationship appeared to "e mediated "A household :ealth and child nutritional status. +n .eeping :ith the literature on socioeconomic status and child health,2!000%0 + refer to the differences in development "et:een children of parents :ith more or less schooling (or higher or lo:er mother >=+* scores# as schooling or maternal voca"ularA gradients. >o account for differences across parishes (e.g., differences in the disease environment or in the availa"ilitA of health or education in0 frastructure#, all regressions include a set of parish fi$ed effects. >he estimated coefficients can therefore "e interpreted as differences in child cognitive development "et:een households living in the same parish. Gor each outcome, specification 1 reports the coefficients on the measures of maternal schooling, paternal schooling, and motherEs voca"ularA scores :ithout additional controls. +n specification 2,1 also included the :ealth inde$ and the measures of child nutritional status. 7ecause mA main interest :as the association "et:een cognitive development, parentsE education, and mothersE voca"ularA levels, +

report onlA the coefficient and standard errors on these varia"les. 6o:ever, + also report the P value on an G test of 1oint significance of the parish fi$ed effects, an G test of 1oint significance of the child nutrition varia"les, and the P value on the t test of significance on the :ealth inde$ in specification 2. ' comparison of the coefficients on parentsE education and mothersE voca"ularA in specifications 1 and 2 is informative a"out the e$tent to :hich child nutrition or household :ealth appears to mediate the o"served associations. + ne$t report results on age patterns in the relative development of children of parents :ith more or less formal schooling, or of mothers :ith higher or lo:er voca"ularA. >he first results :ere "ased on a series of descriptive graphs that focused on differences "et:een children in the upper and lo:er thirds of the distri"ution of mother >=+* scores, "A month of age. >here :ere relativelA fe: children at anA given month of age, so + too. !0month moving averages. >he graphs sho: strong age patterns in the association "et:een the voca"ularA scores of mothers and children. 7ecause no such age patterns :ere apparent for the measures of memorA and visual integration, the ne$t set of results :as limited to child voca"ularA onlA. + report the results of regressions of child vo0 ca"ularA scores separatelA for single Aear of age of children at "aseline. >he final set of results sho:s the association "et:een parentsE education, mothersE voca"ularA, and school0aged childrenEs performance on achievement tests. Gor this purpose, + regressed the standardized scores on the tests of letters and :ords, "asic math, and numeric series at follo:0 up on the measures of parentsE education and mothersE voca"ularA, :ith and :ithout controls for the "aseline scores of children on the tests of language, memorA, and visual integration. ' comparison of the coefficients across the 2 specifications gives a sense of the e$tent to :hich anA association "et:een parentsE education and mothersE voca"ularA, on the one hand, and childrenEs achievement, on the other, :as mediated "A cognitive development "efore children enter school. >o account for possi"le correlation of out0 comes :ithin villages, all regressions clustered standard errors at the parish level. Gor the statistical analAsis, + used Stata version 10.1 (StataCorp C*, College Station, >O#.

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RESEARCH AND PRACTICE

"#0%&'0
Caracteristicile de "aza ale gospodariilor si a copiilor din esantion sunt prezentate in ta"elul 7 ./amele din eantion erau tinere( varsta medie de 22. ani#. ,ospodariile erau foarte sarace8totalul cheltuielilor pe cap de locuitor sunt de 2.10 dolari americanipe zi, pentru o gospodarie medie, mai putin de 2 dolari pe zi pentru 52& din gospodarii simai putin de 1 dolar pe zi pentr 11&din gospodarii. +n medie parintii au terminat !,5 ani de scolarizare.Un pic mai mult de 1umatate din copii din esantion au fost "aieti iar varsta medie a fost de 5) de luni. Copii aveau pro"leme nutritionale serioase4 )2& erau anemici (i.e., nivelul hemoglo"inei su" 11.5

gMdC,dupa a1ustarea diferentelor de altitudine deasupra niveluli marii# si 21& erau studenti (i.e., aveau inaltimea pentru varsta lor, care a fost mai ult de 2 5S su" cea a unei poplatii de referinta asa cum este definita de ?6B4 >a"elul '#. 5e celalta parte, la fel ca in cele mai multe monstre din 'merica Catina,fractiunea de copii pe care au fost irosite (i.e., aveau greutatea proportionala inaltimii care era mai mult de 2 5S decat ceaa populatiei de referinta definita de ?6B # era scazuta mai putin de 2&. >a"elul 1 prezinta rezultatele de regresie in dezvoltarea cognitiva a copiilor cu privire le nivelul de educatie al parintilorsi scorul mamelor la voca"ular ,cu si fara covaria"ile

suplimentare .'ceste rezultate sugereaza o stransa legatura intre dezvoltarea cognitiva a copiilor si anii de scolarizare al mamelor cat si voca"ularul lor.5e e$emplu in cazul in care covaria"iile care nu au fost incluse in regresie, in fiecare an de scolarizare materna voca"ularul s0a marit,capacitatea de memoriei la fel si scorurile de integrare vizuala de 0.05%,0.02% si 0.0%! deviatii standard.=oca"ularul mamelor e in crestere cu o deviatie standard a crescut si scorul copiilor la voca"ular ,memorie si integrare vizuala cu 0.2), 0.2) si 0.20 deviatii standard, respectiv cu anii de scolarizare incheiati care au avut loc constant. +ncluderea masuratorilor de "unastarea gospodariior

TA01) 1'2e ressions of 3o nitive 4evelop"ent in )arly 3hildhood on Parents5 )ducation( 6others5 Vocabulary( 7ousehold 8ealth( and 3hildren5s 9utritional Status: )cuador( %../'%..;
Vocabulary (n = 1<=>)( 0 (S)) Specification 1 Specification % 6e"ory (n = 1<>?)( 0 (S)) Specification 1 Specification % Visual Inte ration (n =
C, C<
(

CU

Specification 1

Specification %

6other#s schoolin ( y @ather#s schoolin ( y 6other#s TVIP score( z 6odel Statistics( P @ test: parental education ? @ test: parish fi!ed effectsb t test: asset inde!c @ test: child nutrition11 R2

.../<,,, (...11) ...1< (...1.) ..%=1,,, (...<;)

...=<,,, (...11) ....; (...1.) ..%./,,, (...<;)

...%<, (...1<) ....1 (....>) ..%=1,,, (...<;)

...1< (...1=) '....; (....>) ..%.7,,, (...<;)

...<7,,, (....>) ...%=,,, (....?) ..%..,,, (...%>)

...%%,, (....>) ...1/, (....?) ..1;.,,, (...%>)

-...1 -...1

-...1 -...1 ...7 -...1

-...1 -...1

-...1 -...1 ...< .11/

-...1 -...1

-...1 -...1 -...1 ../=

.</<

.<7=

.%<<

.%=7

.<//

.<7/

Note. TVIP = Test de Vocabulario en Ima'genes Peabody (the Spanish version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test). 17 All re ressions Included a set of parish fi!ed effects. Specification 1 included only the "easure of parents# education and "others# scores on the TVIP$ specification % added the &ealth inde! and the "easures of child nutritional status (hei ht'for'a e z score( &ei ht'for'hei ht z score( he"o lobin levels). S)s ad*usted for clusterin at the parish level. a +ives the P value on a test of *oint si nificance of the parental education and "others# TVIP variables. b +ives the P value on a test of *oint si nificance of the parish fi!ed effects. c +ives the P value on a test of si nificance on the &ealth inde!. d +ives the P value on a test of *oint si nificance of the child nutrition variables. ,P-1 ,,P-../$ ,,,P-..1.

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un sfert, atunci acste varia"ile suplimentare au fost incluse in regrsie.'socierea dintre anii de

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scolarizare incheiati ai tatilor si dezvoltarea cognitiva a copiilor a fost mai sla"a, si a fost semnificativa numai pentru testul de integrare cognitiva .+ndecele averii a fost scatistic vor"ind

%1

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&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&1&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&1&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&1&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&1&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&1&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&1&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&1&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&1&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&1&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&'&

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*hild4s Age, 2o Note. TVIP=Testde Vocabularioen Imageries Peabody (the Spanish version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test). 17 Seven' "onth "ovin avera es are sho&n. The scores have been nor"aliAed so that they have a "ean of . and a standard deviation of 1 at each a e.

@I+B2) 1'Association bet&een "others5 vocabulary test scores and children5s (a) vocabulary score( (b) "e"ory score( and (c) visual inte ration score at baseline: )cuador( %../'%..;. si nutritie a copiluli, a redus oarecum coeficientul de scolarizare al mamelor . Coeficientul voca"ularului matern nu a scazut cu mai mult de

semnificativ in toate cele % specificatii . +n aceste regresii care include educatia parintilor, voca"ularul mamelor si alimentatia copiilor a fost semnificativ asociat cu scorurile de la voca"ular si a avut o asociere de limita semnificativa cu scorurile de integrare vizuala(* P 0.05)#, dar acesta nu prezice semnificativ scorurile de la memorie (*P0.115#. Iezultatele de la cele doua importante controale de ro"ustete asupra rezultatelor principale sunt prezentate in ta"elul C(availa"le as a supplement to the online version of this article at http8MM:::.a1ph.org#. *rima specificatie , spcificatia 1,corespunde rezultatelor de "aza din ta"elul 18pro"a a fost limitata la copii fara a pierde varia"ile concomitente sau lipsa datelor de testare.+n specificatia 2 am inlocuit datele covaria"ilelor lipsa cu pro"a medie pentru varia"ila in cauza( astfel incat , de e$emplu tuturor copiilor carora le lipseau datele cu privire la hemoglo"ina

li se atri"uia valoarea de 11. 2!#.+n aceasta specificatie am atri"uit de asemenea si datele de testare lipsa, asa cum am descris in sectiunea /etode..+n a treia specificatie am controlat o serie de caracteristici a mediului de testare specific, am inclus controale pentru a vedea daca copilul indiferent de orice este distras de ceilalti copii, adulti sau animale cateodata sau de cele mai multe ori( 2 varia"ile# daca testarematerialelor ce au fost asezate pe o suprafata plana ,cum ar fi o masa ,daca atatenumeratorul cat si copilul ce au fost asezati pe parcursl testelor si daca testele au fost efectuate in casa nu afara . Coeficientiei de "aza ai regresiei au fost similar calititativ in cazul in care am inlocui valorile covaria"ilelor lipsa cu mediile de pro"a si imputarea valorilor de testare lipsa , si de asemenea daca am controla pentru un numar de caracteristici ale mediului de testare, asa cum a fost descris in ta"elul C. Gigura 1 reprezintQ grafic scorurile medii referitoare la testele de voca"ular, memorie, i integrare vizualQ pentru copii din partea de sus, de mi1loc, i treimea de 1os a distri"uiei scorurilor >=+* a mamelor.Rn concordanQ cu ta"elul 1, figura 1 indicQ faptul cQ copiii ale caror mame au avut un voca"ular mai mic , de asemenea, au avut un nivel mai scazut de dezvoltare cognitivQ.+n cazul testului de voca"ular dar nu si a celui de memorie sau a testului de integrare vizuala, aceste declivitati pareau sa fie mai a"rupte printre copii mai mari. Gigura 2 e$tinde analiza dintre modele de vSrstQ 9n voca"ular.Gigura comparQ distri"uiile dintre scorurile de voca"ular, printre cei mai mici copii din eantion, 9n vSrstQ de % ani la momentul initial, si cei mai mari copii la momentul initial in varsta de 5 ani . Gigura 2, a i " reprezintQ grafic distri"uia dintre rezultatele pentru eantion ca un 9ntreg i se suprapune unei distri"uii normale, 9n timp ce figura 2, c i d reprezintQ grafic distri"uiile separate pentru copii 9n treimea de sus i de 1os distri"uia dintre scorurile de voca"ular ale mamelor. Gigura 2 prezinta clar distri"utia rintre scorurile de voca"lar intre copii cu varste cuprinse intre % si 5 ani .*entru copii 9n vSrstQ de % ani, distri"uia a fost unimodalQ i chiar distorsionatQ, pro"a"il, sugerSnd cQ nu au fost suficiente 9ntre"Qri uoare 9n test pentru copiii cei mai mici .5iferenele dintre copiii mamelor cu un voca"ular mai mare i un voca"ular mai mic au fost modeste. *entru copii de 5 ani distri"utia a fost "imodala. Cele 2 moduri de distri"uie a corespuns "ine cu distri"utiile care stau la "aza scorurilor de voca"ular pentru copiii mamelor cu performane relativ ridicate i scQzute la testul voca"ular. >a"elul 5 (disponi"il ca un supliment la versiunea on0line a acestui articol la http8MM:::. '1ph.org# completeazQ rezultatele 9n cifre, concentrSndu0se pe performanele la testul de voca"ular. 'socierea

dintre scorurile de voca"ular la mame si copii pare sa fie mai mare cand copiii devin mai mari. Un test G pentru egalitatea coeficienilor privind scorurile >=+* ale mamelor pentru copiii cu vSrste cuprinse 9ntre % i 5 ani la momentul initial au avut o valoare * de 0.001 9ntr0o specificaie, fQrQ controale suplimentare i o valoare * de 0.0)) 9n alta specificaie care, de asemenea, controlatQ pentru "unastare si statutul nutritional al copilului. *e de alta parte , ipoteza nula a coeficientilor egali pe anii de scolarizare impliniti al mamelor si a tatilor pentru copii de diferite varste,nu ar putea fii e$clusa. .

-2.5
, -core

-1.5

5.5

1.5

2.5

6.5

Note. TVIP=Test de Vocabulario en Ima'genes Peabody (the Spanish version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test). 17

@I+B2) %'4istribution of baseline vocabulary scores of (a) all <'year'old and (b) all /'year' old children versus a nor"al distribution( and of (c) <'year'old and (d) /'year'old children in the hi hest and lo&est third of the distribution of "others5 vocabulary scores: )cuador( %../'%..;.

>a"elul 2 prezintQ rezultatele regresiilor de realizare colarQ a copiilor cu privire la educatia parintilor si voca"ularul mamei. 5in aceste regresii, care nu controleazQ dezvoltarea cognitiva la momentul initial, in fiecare an de colarizare al mamei a crescut scorul cu privire la testele de litere i cuvinte, matematica de "azQ, i seria numericQ cu 0,0%(, 0,02) i 0,0%( S5, respectiv, 9n fiecare an de scolarizare a tatalui a crescut scorul cu privire la testele de litere i cuvinte, matematica de "azQ, i seria numericQ de 0,02(, 0,012 i 0,02% S5. B crestere in scorul mamei la voca"ular cu 1 deviaie standard a fost asociat cu creterea scorurilor copiilor cu privire la testele pentru litere si cuvinte, matematicQ de "azQ, i serie numericQ de 0.1!2, 0.1!0 i 0.1%0 S5, . B comparaie 9ntre coeficienii din 9ntreaga specificatie sugereazQ cQ poriuni 9nsemnate din asocierea dintre caracteristicile pQrinilor i performanele copiilor la testele de realizare din coalQ a fost mediatQ prin dezvoltarea cognitivQ a copiilor 9nainte de a intra coalQ. 5e e$emplu, coeficienii privind voca"ularul mamei au scQzut cu apro$imativ o 1umQtate atunci cSnd mQsurile de dezvoltare cognitivQ a copilului de referinQ au fost incluse 9n regresii.

-,0*%00,+N
3ste foarte acceptata de catre neurologi, psihologii dezvoltarii chiar si economisti care sunt in perioade sensi"ile sau critice timpurii in dezvoltarea copilului atunci cand e$perientele cu e$teriorul sunt foarte importante.

' intelege varsta la care deficitele in dezvoltarea cognitiva sunt sta"ilite i modul 9n care acestea se coreleazQ cu educaia pQrinteascQ, voca"ularul mamei, precum i diversele mQsuri de statutul socio0economic ale gospodQriei, este critica pentru proiectarea de politici sociale eficiente. 'm folosit date longitudinale din 3cuador din mediul rural pentru a demonstra cQ avanta1ul relativ al copiilor ai cQror mame au mai multQ educaie i voca"ulare mai "ogate incepe mai devreme in viata unui copil. >his finding has important implications for the intergenerational transmission of povertA and ineFualitAHa critical consideration given that the distri"ution of income in 3cuador and other Catin 'merican countries is among the most uneFual in the :orld.%) 7roadlA similar patterns, :hich sho: that the "ul. of the difference in test scores "A socioeconomic status is esta"lished "efore children enter school, are also apparent in research in the United States. %5,%2 >he studA also sho:s that disparities in cognitive development in earlA childhood :ere associated :ith school performance, as has "een found in other settings.122,%!,%( >he most stri.ing results reported here concern voca"ularA acFuisition. +n the sample, changes in the distri"ution of overall voca"ularA scores "et:een ages % and 5 Aears corresponded remar.a"lA :ell :ith the emergence of distinct distri"utions for children :ith mothers :ho had richer and poorer voca"ularies. =oca"ularA acFuisition is a cumulative process, so a childEs a"ilitA to learn more :ords depends in good part on his or her e$isting voca"ularA at a given age.

+n rural 3cuador, it appears that small deficits in voca"ularA at earlA ages "eget larger deficits later on.% 'n important Fuestion is :hether the o"0 served parental education and maternal vo0 ca"ularA gradients in child cognitive devel0 opment are mediated "A child nutritional status or household :ealth. 6ousehold :ealth, parentsE education levels, mothersE voca"ularA, and childrenEs nutritional status are not randomlA assigned, so causal inferences can onlA "e dra:n :ith some caution. + sho:ed that the coefficients on maternal schooling and (especiallA# voca"ularA generallA change onlA modestlA :hen varia"les for child nutritional status and household :ealth are included in the regressions. >hus, it does not appear that the main reason for the "etter performance of children :ith mothers :ho have more schooling and richer voca"ularA levels is the fact that these children are less poor, or have "etter nutritional status. >he studA has some limitations. >he sample :as dra:n from the lo:er half of the distri"ution of :ealth in 3cuador, :as limited to relativelA Aoung families, and onlA covered rural areas4 it is not clear :hether the results :ould hold for a nationallA representative sample of children in 3cuador. 7ecause the period covered "A the studA :as also relativelA short, it is not clear :hether the disparities "et:een children of parents :ith more or less education, and "et:een those of mothers :ith more or less voca"ularA, remain as children

TA01) %'2e ressions of Achieve"ent Tests for School'A ed 3hildren on Parents5 )ducation( 6others5 Vocabulary( and Perfor"ance on Achieve"ent Tests for School' A ed 3hildren: )cuador( %..?
Score: 1etters and 8ords (n = 11?%)( 0 (S)) TooC 0asic 6ath Test (n = 1%<<)( 0 (S)) Score: 0asic 6ath Test (n = 1%1/)( 0 (S)) Score: 9u"eric Series Test (n = 117<)( 0 (S))

Specification 1 Specification % Specification 1 Specification % Specification 1 Specification % Specification 1 Specification % 6other#s schoolin ( y @ather#s schoolin ( y 6other#s TVIP score( A R ..<1;
%

...<?,,, (...1.) ...%?,,, (....>) ..17%,,, (...%>)

...%=,, (....>) ...%=,,, (....?) ...?1,,, (...<.) ..<7=

'....= (..../) '...1%,,, (....=) '...=1,,, (...17) ..%.7

'....% (..../) '...1.,, (....=) '...%? (...1?) ..%%1

...%=,,, (...1%) ...1; (...1.) ..17.,,, (...</) ..<.<

...11 (...1%)

...<?,,, (...11)

...%?,, (...11)

...1% (...1.)...%<,, (...1.) ...%.,, (....>) ...>%,,, (...<=) ..<=% ..1<.,,, (...<?) ..<1= ...;71 (...<?) ..<==

age, and ho: theA affect a larger set of out0 comes. >he studAEs results have important policA
1P-.1$ ,,P-../$ ,,,P-..1.

implications. Girst, even in settings :here povertA is :idespread, as is the case in rural 3cuador, children of mothers :ith lo:er education and lo:er voca"ularA levels have :orse cognitive outcomes than do other children "efore theA enter school. 'rgua"lA, prioritA for interventions in earlA childhood should therefore "e given to these children, if targeting of interventions on these characteristics is administrativelA feasi"le. Second, the lo:er levels of development among children :ith parents :ho have less education and a more limited voca"ularA suggest that these children maA receive less earlA stimulation (e.g., theA maA "e read to less#, have home environments that are less nurturing, or have less access to preschool or other programs that maA improve child development and school readiness. *rograms that see. to increase earlA stimulation for disadvantaged children maA therefore hold considera"le promise, as has "een found :ith home0"ased parenting programs in -amaica 011 and preschool in 'rgentina,)0 among other settings. /A analAsis leaves manA Fuestions for future research. >:o are particularlA important. >he first of these is the e$tent to :hich the associations reported represent causal effects of parentsE education and mothersE voca"ularA on childrenEs development, or an uno"served, perhaps geneticallA determined correlation "et:een the cognitive endo:ments of parents and children. 'ns:ering this Fuestion is particularlA difficult "ecause it :ould reFuire an e$ogenous increase in the education of one group of people "ut not another, presuma"lA :hile theA are still school aged, and long0term follo:0up to assess dif0 ferences in the cognitive development of their children. >he second critical Fuestion is the e$tent to :hich specific policies and programs can help address the o"served deficits in cognitive development, "oth for children :ho have not Aet entered school and for those :ho are school aged. Careful evaluation of interventions that improve child nutrition, provide earlA stimulation to children, or assign children to "etter teachers are all promising. T
About the Author
<or"ert SchadA is :ith the +nter0'merican 5evelopment 7an., ?ashington, DC. Correspondence should "e sent to <or"ert SchadA, *rincipal 3conomic 'dviser, +nter0'merican 5evelopment 7an., 1%00 <e: Nor.'ve,<?, ?ashington, 5C 205!! (e0 mail8 norberts@iadb.org#. Ieprints can "e ordered at http://www.ajph.org "A clic.ing the JJIeprintsM3printsEE lin.. >his article :as accepted 'pril 11, 2011.

AcCno&led "ents
5ata collection :as funded "A the ?orld 7an., *rinceton UniversitA, and the ,overnment of 3cuador. + have "enefited from verA useful comments from % referees and from 6arold 'lderman, /aria Caridad 'rau1o, -ere 7ehrman, -ulian Cristia, Santiago Cueto, *atrice 3ngle, 5eon Gilmer, SallA ,rantham0/c,regor, Glorencia Copez0 7oo, Laren /acours, 6ugo <opo, Christina *a$son, and 'imee =erdisco. Iodrigo 'zuero and Nanira Bviedo provided outstanding research assistance.

7u"an Participant Protection

>his pro1ect :as approved "A the institutional revie: "oard at *rinceton UniversitA, and "A a compara"le "odA in the ,overnment of 3cuador. 1. and ver"al a"ilitA and earlA school achievement. +n8 5uncan -, 7roo.s0,unn -, eds. Consequences of Growing up Poor. <e: Nor., <N8 Iussell Sage Goundation4 1 !81%20 1( . 2. Sigman /, /c5onald /', <eumann C, 7:i"o <. *rediction of cognitive competence in LenAan children from toddler nutrition, familA characteristics and a"ilities. J Chi d Ps!cho Ps!chiatr!. 1 1 4%2(2#8%0!0 %20. %. =ictora C,, 7arros GC, Cima IC, et al. >he *elotas 7irth Cohort StudA, Iio ,rande do Sul, 7razil, 1 (202001. Cad "audePub ica. 200%41 (5#812)10 1252. ). Carneiro *, 6ec.man -. #u$an Capita Po ic!. 7oston, /'8 <ational 7ureau of 3conomic Iesearch4 200%. <73I ?or.ing *aper ) 5. 5. 7erlins.i S, ,aliani S, ,ertler *. 200 . >he effect of pre0primarA education on primarA school performance. J Pub ic %con. 200 4 %(102#821 02%).

"eproduced 7ith permission of the cop1right o7ner. 8urther reproduction prohibited 7ithout permission.
Note. TVIP = Test de Vocabulario en Imageries Peabody (the Spanish version of the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test). 17 All re ressions include a set of parish fi!ed effects. Specification 1 included only the "easure of parental education and "others# scores on the TVIP$ specification % added the "easures of co nitive develop"ent at baseline (vocabulary( "e"ory( visual inte ration). S)s ad*usted for clusterin at the parish level.