Limbaje Formale si Automate

Instructor Andrei PAUN

Semestrul II 2009-2010

Departmentul de Infomrmatica
Universitatea Bucuresti
Bucuresti, Romania

Structura cursului:
1. Cunostinte de baza
multimi, multiseturi, secvente, functii,
relatii, metode si tehnici de demonstratie,
alfabet, cuvinte, limbaje
2. Automate nite
automate nite nedeterministe (NFA),
automate nite deterministe (DFA),
transformarea de la NFA la DFA,
proprietati pentru limbajele acceptate de
automate,
lema de pompare
3. Expresii regulate
echivalenta dintre expresiile regulate si automatele nite
(in denirea limbajelor)
4. Gramatici independente de context (CFG)
simplicare si forme normale,
algoritmi de parsare, lema de pompare si
alte proprietati
2

5. Automate pushdown (PDA)

nondeterministic pushdown automata (NPDA),
deterministic pushdown automata (DPDA),
PDA vs. CFGs
6. Masini Turing (TM)
diverse tipuri de TM, TM universale,
decidabilitate si nedecidabilitate,
complexitate de timp si spatiu

Motivare pentru curs

Programming

Compiler

AI
Database

Graphics
VLSI

Theory of Computing
(1) Putere de calcul
(2) Complexitate
(3) Software design
(4) Circuit design
.....................

I. Cunostinte de baza
1. Multimi
1) O multime este o colectie de elemente luate
dintr-un univers.
2) O multime este nita daca contine un numar nit de elemente, si este innita in caz
contrar.
3) Cardinalitatea unei multimi este numarul sau
de elemente si se noteaza cu # sau (pentru multimea ).

 Cum specicam o multime:

(1) Listam toate elementele sale:
{} (or ),
= {2, 3, 5, 7},
= {3, 2, 2, 7, 5, 7}
(2) Precizam o proprietate: { ()}
= { este numar prim},
= { este un cuvant in romana si
este si palindrom},
= { este un intreg divizibil cu
3 si mai mic decat 10 }
(3) Denite recursiv:
Forma generala:
i) Anumite elemente initiale sau de baza
sunt in
ii) Daca , , atunci
iii) Nici un alt element nu apartine lui

Exemplu Denirea lui A:

i) 2
ii) Daca , , atunci +
iii) Nici un alt element nu apartine lui
(4) Inchiderea la operatii
Spunem ca o multime este inchisa la o operatie binara daca pentru toate , ,

Fie si este inchisa la . Spunem ca

este o inchidere a lui la operatia daca
nu exista astfel incat si este
inchisa la .
Forma generala (pentru multimi denite prin
inchidere)
este cea mai mica multime care contine anumite elemente initiale (de baza) si care este
inchisa la operatia .

 Exemplu
este cea mai mica multime care il contine
pe si este inchisa la +.
Operatii cu multimi
Daca se dau si doua multimi:

= { este in sau este in }

= { este in si este si in }

= { este in si nu este in }

 = { este in , pentru un , 1
=1
}
= { este in , 1 }
=1
Proprietati ale operatiilor cu multimi
Distributivitate
( ) = ( ) ( )
( ) = ( ) ( )
Indempotenta
= ; =
Involutie
() =
Comutativitate
= ; =
Asociativitate
( ) = ( )
( ) = ( )
9

Regulile lui De Morgan

( ) =
( ) =
Multimea submultimilor
Multimea tuturor submultimilor unei multimi (power set of ) se noteaza cu 2.
Exemplu:
= {2, 3, 5}
2 = {, {2}, {3}, {5}, {2, 3}, {2, 5}, {3, 5}, {2, 3, 5}}
Cateva multimi speciale:
: multimea vida;
: multimea intregilor;
: multimea intregilor pozitivi;
0: multimea intregilor care nu sunt negativi;
: multimea numerelor reale.
...............

10

2. Multiseturi
Un multiset este o colectie de elemente
dintr-un univers oarecare, colectie in care
repetitiile nu sunt ignorate.
3. Secvente
O secventa de elemente dintr-un univers oarecare este o lista de elemente care sunt
ordonate (ecare element are o pozitie).

11

4. Functii
Denitie Daca se dau doua multimi si , o
functie (partiala) de la la asociaza cu
ecare din (cel mult) un element din .
Notatii:
functie :
asocierea () =
nedenita () =
Functii speciale:
functia identitate:
: si
() = pentru toti
Functia caracteristica a lui pentru :

: {, }
() = ,
() = ,
12

Cateva proprietati ale functiilor :

totala:
() este denita pentru toate elementele
din
surjectiva:
pentru toate elementele din exista un
din astfel incat () =
injectiva:
, , = implica faptul ca () = ()
bijectiva:
in acelasi timp si surjectiva si injectiva
Notatia big-O
() = (()) daca exista > 0 si intregul pozitiv astfel incat pentru toate
() ()
() = (()) daca
() ()
() = (()) daca
() = (()) si () = (())
13

functie (partiala) ,
: 1 2 . . . 1 . . .
(1, 2, . . . , ) = (1, . . . , )
sau (1, 2, . . . , ) =

14

5. Relatii
O relatie -ara , 1, pentru multimile
1, . . . , este orice submultime a produsului cartezian 1 . . . .
Exemplu

= {1, 2}, = {1, 2, 3, 4}

= {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 4)}

15

Compunerea relatiilor
Fie si doua relatii. Atunci
compunerea lui cu , notata prin , este
relatia , denita prin:
= {(, ) (, ) este in si (, ) este in
pentru un din }
Compunerea unei relatii : cu ea insasi
0 : {(, ) este in }
1 :
, 1 : 1
+ = inchiderea tranzitiva a lui
=1
= inchiderea reexiva si tranzitiva a
=0
lui

16

Proprietatile relatiei
reexiva: pentru toti din

simetrica: implica

antisimetrica: , implica =

17

 tranzitiva: , implica

O relatie binara peste este o

relatie de echivalenta daca este
reexiva,
simetrica, si
tranzitiva.
O relatie de echivalenta peste
deneste submultimi disjuncte ale lui ,
numite clase de echivalenta.
[] = { este in si }

18

 Fie o relatie binara de echivalenta peste

si .
Spunem ca este -inchisa daca pentru toti
din , implica faptul ca este in .
Exemplu : multimea intregilor;
= {9, 4, 3, 2};
:este patratul lui (is the square
of)
Atunci este -inchisa.
este o relatie n-ara peste . este
-inchisa daca pentru toate 1, . . . , 1 din ,
avem ca daca (1, . . . , 1, ) este in atunci
este in .
Exemplu : multimea tuturor intregilor;
= {(, , ) = };
= { 1} pentru un intreg
Atunci este -inchisa.

19

Lema Fie o relatie de echivalenta peste .

Atunci pentru toti , din avem sau [] =
[] sau [] [] =
O relatie binara peste este o ordine partiala daca este
reexiva,
tranzitiva, si
antisimetrica.
Inchidere
+ este inchiderea tranzitiva a lui
O reprezentare in digraf pentru o inchidere
tranzitiva:

20

6. Cardinalitate
Daca se dau doua multimi si , spunem
ca ele au cardinalitate egala daca exista o
bijectie : .
Exemplu # = #0
() = 2 1, < 0
() = 2, 0
O multime este numarabila sau enumerabila
daca este ori nita ori innita, caz in care are
aceeasi cardinalitate cu .

21

7. Metode de demonstratie
demonstratie directa
demonstratie prin contradictie
demonstratie prin inductie
Demonstratie directa
Enumeram toate cazurile pentru a arata ca
proprietatea este adevarate.
Exemplu Orice numar par dintre 4 si 232 este
suma a doua numere prime.
Demonstratie prin contradictie
Stabilim validitatea propozitiei presupunand
ca nu este adevarata si inferam o contradictie.
Exemplu Exista un numar innit de numere
impare.
22

 Demonstratia prin inductie

baza
ipoteza inductiva
pasul inductiv
concluzie
Two forms:
(1) Prove it holds for a basis value ,
Hypothesize it holds for value ,
Prove it holds for value + 1.
(2) Prove it holds for basis values,
Hypothesize it holds for all values
less than and greater than basis
value,
Prove it holds for value .

23

Example (proof by induction)

(i) no two lines are parallel;
(ii) no three lines have a common intersection point.

Prove that the number of regions in an

arrangement of lines is
1 + ( + 1)/2

24

8. Proof Techniques
pigeonhole principle
counting
diagonalisation
The Pigeonhole Principle
Let 1 be an integer, let there be
pigeonholes, and there be + 1 items of mail
to be placed in the pigeonholes. Then, however the the items are placed, at least one
pigeonhole will contain at least two items.
The Pigeonhole Principle(Extended version)
Let 1, . . . , 1. There exists a positive integer (1, . . . , ). If (1, . . . , ), then however items are placed into pigeonholes,
there exists , 1 such that the -th
pigeonhole contains at least 1 + 1 items.

25

Example Let = (, ) be a digraph with

# = 1. Then has a cycle if and only if
has a path of length at least .















26



9. Alphabets, Words, and Languages

An alphabet is a nite, nonempty set of
elements.
The elements of the alphabet are called
symbols or letters.
A word over an alphabet is a nite sequence of symbols from .
A language is a set of words.
Examples:
(1) English alphabet, words and language.
(2) Alphabet: {, }
words: , , , , , . . . . . .
language: {, , , , . . . . . .}
i.e. { 0}
(3) Alphabet : Fortran reserved words and
identiers
words : a Fortran program
Language : the set of all Fortran
programs.
27

 Empty word is a word over every alphabet.

The length of a word is the number of symbols in the given word.

Example:

= 0
= 4

The -length of a word is the number of

times occurs in .
Example:

011010 = 2
= 0

28

 The catenation of two words and , denoted by , is the word obtained by appending the word to .
Example =
=
=
=
= =
=

Catenation is associative:
() = ()
= +
0 = (Power of a word)
= 1, 1
Example ()0 =
()3 =
29

 Prex: is a prex of if such that

=
Example is a prex of
is a prex of any word
Any word is a prex of itself
Sux: is a sux of if such that
=
Example is a sux of
is a sux of any word
01011 is a sux of 01011
Subword: is a subword of if , s.t.
=
Example The subwords of are:
, , , , , , , , , ,
Proper prex (sux, subword):
is a proper prex (sux, subword) of
if is a prex (sux, subword) of
and = and = .
30

 Reversal:
(i) = , if = ;
(ii) = , if = for ,
is a word
Lemma If = 1 . . . for some 0, then
= . . . 1.
Proof: By induction on .
Basis: = 0. = by (i).
I.H.: Assume Lemma holds for all
with = .
I.S.: Consider a word with = + 1.
Then = 1 . . . +1 = 1, where
= 2 . . . +1.
Then = 1.
But = , by I.H., = +1 . . . 2,
so we get
= +1 . . . 1.
Universal Language over :
= {0, 1}, = {, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, . . .}
31

 Mappings (Morphism and Substitution)

Denition Let and be two alphabets.
Then a mapping : is said to be
a morphism if
(i) () = ;
(ii) () = ()(), for all , in .
Note: (ii) implies that we need only dene
the images of letters to dene the images of
words.
Example:
= {0, 1}, = {, , , },
(0) = , (1) = .
Then (1001) = (1)(0)(0)(1) = =

A morphism is said to be -free if, for all

= , () = .

32

Denition Let and be two alphabets. A

mapping : 2 is said to be a
substitution if
i) () = {};
ii) () = ()(), for all , .
Example:
1 = {, }, 1 = {, , },
a substitution 1:
1() = {, , };
1() = {, }.
Then 1() =
Example:
2 = {0, 1, 2}, 2 = {, },
2(0) = { 1}
2(1) = { 1}
2(2) = {}
Then 2(1020) =

33

 Given an alphabet , is dened as follows:

(i) ;
(ii) if , then for all .
A language over an alphabet is a subset
of , i.e.,
.
Example:
is a language over every alphabet .
{} is a language over every alphabet.
{ 0} is a language over {, }
{ 0} is a language over {, , }

34

 Catenation of Languages
1 2 = {1 2 1 in 1, 2 in 2},
usually written as 12.
Examples
1 = {, }; 2 = {, }
12 = {, , }
(Note that 1 2 = {(, ), (, ), (, ), (, )})
1 =
{}1 =
{} =
= {, };

= {, }

35

 Powers of Languages:
0 = {}
+1 = , 1
Plus
+ =
=1
Star
=
=0

0 1 2 . . . . . .

Examples
= {, }. Then
0 = {}
1 = = {, }
2 = {, , , }
0 = {} =
{}0 = {}
= {, , , , , , , . . . . . .}
(Note 4)

36

 Reversal of Languages
= { is in }
Examples
= {, , };
= {, , }

= { > > 0}
= { > > 0}

properties of reversal
( )
( )
()
(+)
()

=
=
=
=
=

()+
()

Complementation of Languages
Given a language over ,
=
=
? {}
() =
= { 0} over = {, }
=

37

 Alternative denition of + and

+ = { in = 12 . . . , for
1, 2, . . . , and 1}
= { in = 12 . . . , for
1, 2, . . . , and 0}
Given a word in , and a language
to test if is in we use = and test
=0
0
1
if is in , , . . . .

38

 Property Summaries
properties of catenation (of languages)
Associativity
Identity
Zero
Distributivity
w.r.

1(23) = (12)3
{} = {} =
= =
1(2 3) = 12 13
(1 2)3 = 13 23

Distributivity does not hold with respect to

properties of Plus and Star

+
(+)+
+
{}+
+

=
=
=
=
=
=

+ {} ( But + = {}?)

+, () =
,
= {}, 0 = {}
{}, {} = {}, 2 =
+, =
+ + and

39

Chapter 2. FINITE AUTOMATA

Example Design a sequential lock. The
lock has 1-bit sequential input. Initially the
lock is closed. If the lock is closed it will open
when the last three input signals are 1, 0,
1, and then remains open.
state (transition) diagram

state (or transition) table

40

state set :
{0, 1, 2, 3}
input alphabet :
{0, 1}
Transition function : (0, 0) = 0, (0, 1) = 1, . . .
Start state :
0
Final state set :
{3}
Deterministic Finite Automata (DFA)
= (, , , , ) where

is a nite nonempty set of states

is the input alphabet

: transition function
s
start state
nal state set

41

A computer is a nite state system (i.e. FA)

which has millions of states.
There are many examples of FINITE
STATE SYSTEMS. A nite automaton is an
ABSTRACTION of them.
View a DFA as a machine

42

Specifying
1)

State diagram
(Transition diagram)

Start state

Final state
2)

43

Congurations
a word in

where is the present state, and

is the remaining input
Example:
0
...
1
(start conguration)
Moves of a DFA
0 1
1 2

...
2
(nal conguration)

if = and (, ) =

Conguration sequence
0 1 2
+ and
is a binary relation over .
+ : transitive closure of .
: reexive transitive closure of .
44

0
0
0
0

2
2
0
2

if 1 1 2 2 . . .
steps
Accepting Conguration Sequence
0 1 2
can also be viewed as a function
: ,
since the next conguration is determined
uniquely for a given conguration.
The DFA stops when:
(i) we have no more input,
or (ii) the next conguration is undened.
45

A word is said to be accepted by a DFA

if , .
The language of a DFA , ( ), is dened
as:
( ) = { , for some }
Examples

( ) =

( ) =
46

DFA membership problem

DFA
MEMBERSHIP
INSTANCE: A DFA, = (, , , , )
and a word .
QUESTION: Is in ( ) ?
Run the DFA with input .
In at most steps it accepts, rejects or
aborts.
Examples

Checking for words that

contain as subword.
Check:

47

Let denote any letter of English alphabet

and any decimal digit; the form of
PASCAL IDENTIFIERS can be specied
by

Recognizing comments that may go over

several lines.
/*................*/

: symbols other than and /

48

A DFA which has a total is said

to be complete; if is nontotal it is
incomplete.
Theorem. Every incomplete DFA
can be completed by adding one
new state (sink) to give DFA
such that ( ) = ( ).
Example:

( ) is the set of all words that

do not contain two consecutive s.

49

 Two DFA 1 and 2 are equivalent

if (1) = (2).
The collection of languages accepted
by DFAs is denoted by
.
It is called the family of DFA languages
and it is dened as:
= { = ( ) for some DFA }

= { 1} is not accepted
by any DFA.

50

Proof: Use contradiction and

Pigeonhole principle.
Assume = ( ), for some DFA
= (, {, }, , , ).
Let = #. Consider the accepting
conguration sequence for ,
0 11 . . . . . . 2
where 0 = and 2 . Now + 1 states
appear during the reading of , but
there are only distinct states in .
By Pigeonhole principle at least one
state must appear at least twice during
the reading of s.
Assume = , 0 < .
Then
0() . . .
. . . . . .
2
Therefore () .
This is a contradiction.
51

 = {}, 1.
For any 1, is a DFA language?

= { : 0 }, 1.
For any 1, is a DFA language ?

52

Nondeterministic Finite Automata (NFA)

= (, , , , )
same as a DFA except
.
is a nite transition relation.
In a DFA
is a transition function:
:
It can be viewed as a relation
:
In a NFA, can be be viewed as a function:
: 2
Examples:
NFA for words in {, } that contain three
consecutive as.

53

Both (0, , 1) and (0, , 3) are in .

We dene acceptance by existence
of a computation that leads to a nal
state.
Conversely, we dene rejection by
the nonexistence of any computation
that leads to a nal state.
The language of an NFA = (, , , , )
is dened by
( ) = { , for some in }.

54

The family of NFA languages

is dened by:
= { = ( ), for some NFA }.
Two NFAs 1, and 2 are equivalent if
(1) = (2).
Why NFA?
(i) easy to construct;
(ii) useful theoretically;
(iii) are of same power as DFA.
Note:
congurations are dened in the same way
Transition (move)

if = , for some , and (, , ) .

55

Transforming NFA to DFA

Consider the NFA 1 again

There are only limited number of choices.

For example:
0 1 1 2
0 3 3
{0} {1, 3} {1, 3} {2}
Why limited number of choices?
The state set is nite.
We summarize the choices at each step
by combining all conguration sequences
into one super-conf. sequence.
{0} {1, 3} {1, 3} {2}.
56

We now have a set of all possible

states at each step. From this point
of view the computation of the NFA
on an input word is deterministic.
A super-conguration has the form

where and .
Note that is a super-conf.,
it means that the NFA cannot be
in any state at that point, i.e.,
an abort has occured.
We say that

if = , for some , and
= { (, , ) , for some }

57

More examples on super-congurations

: ( ) is the set of all words
that have as a subword.

The super-conguration sequence

on input word is as follows:
{0} {0} {0, 1} {0, 1}
{0, 2} {0, 2}

58

Notice that given a set and

an input symbol , the set
s.t. is uniquely determined.
Lemma (2.3.1) (Determinism Lemma)
Let = (, , , , ) be an NFA.
Then for all words in and for
all .
and
implies
= .
Lemma (2.3.2) Let = (, , , , )
be an NFA. Then for all words in
and for all in ,

i {} , for some with in .

59

Example (Transformation of an NFA to a DFA)

= (, , , , ) where
= 0, 1, 2,
= 0,

= ,
= {2}

= (, , , , ) where
= 2 = {, {0}, {1}, {2}, {0, 1}, {0, 2}, {1, 2}, {0, 1, 2}}

(, ) = { (, , ) and }
60

 = {0}
= {
Algorithm NFA to DFA
The Subset Construction
On entry: An NFA = (, , , , ).
On exit: A DFA = (, , , , )
satisfying ( ) = ( ).
begin Let = 2, = {} and
= { , and = }
We dene : by
For all and for all ,
(, ) = , if in .
end of Algorithm
if = { (, , ) and }
61

 = {0}

Algorithm NFA to DFA 2

The Iterative Subset Construction

62

Theorem Given an NFA = (, , , , ), then

the DFA = (, , , , ) obtained by either subset construction satises
( ) = ( ).
Proof:
By Lemma 2.3.2, for all in
, i {} for some with

By the construction of ,
{} in i
{} in .

( )

, for some
{} , , in
{} , in and =
,
( )
63

Theorem
Every NFA Language is a DFA language and
conversely.
( = )
Example
Every nite language is accepted by a DFA.

64

NFA
It is useful to loosen the denition of NFA
even more by allowing the read head to remain over the same symbol of the input and
read nothing.
Example
1 = { 0, 0}
M:

( ) = 1
: (0, , 0)
(0, , 1)
(1, , 1)
0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1
0 0 1
65

Formally, a -NFA = (, , , , )
where , , , are as before, but
is a nite transition relation
for which
( {})
Congurations are as before.
is dened by

if either = for and (, , )
or
= and (, , )
Example
Given FA 1 and 2, construct
a FA 3 such that
(3) = (1) (2)

66

Transforming -NFA to NFA

Two steps:
Step I: completion
Step II: transition removal
(I). -Completion
Given a -NFA = (, , , , )
perform the following process:
For all , , :
whenever (, , ), (, , ) are in
add (, , ) to
until no new transitions are added to
and let this be .
Let the new NFA be
= (, , , , )
where = { (, , ) and }
and = {(, , ) + }
Example:

67

Claim 1: For any , ,

+ if and only if

Claim 2: For any , , ,

if and only if

Theorem: ( ) = ( )
Example:

68

(II) Transition Removal

Given a -completed -NFA
= (, , , , ),
perform the following process:
(0) = ;
() For all , , ,
if (, , ) and (, , ) in
then add (, , ) to ;
() Delete all -transitions from .

Now we got = (, , , , )
where = ( {(, , ) (, , ), (, , ) })
{(, , ) , }
Example

69

Claim Whenever

for some , we have

and vice versa.

Claim ( ) = ( )
Theorem
=

70

Properties of FA Languages
I. Closure Properties
Union: The union of two DFA languages
is a DFA language.
Proof: Given 1 = (1) and 2 = (2),
1, 2 are generic DFA languages.
1 = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1) and
2 = (2, 2, 2, 2, 2).
Construct a -NFA = (, , , , ) where

=
=
=
=

1 2 {}
1 2
1 2 {(, , 1), (, , 2)}
1 2

71

Now we claim that ( ) = 1 2

(1) Let be a generic word in ( ).
( ) implies
+ for some 1 or 2.

If 1, then 1 and then

1 1 . We know that (1).

If 2, then 2 . Since

2 2 , we know that (2),

therefore (1) (2), i.e., 1 2.
So ( ) 1 2.
(2) Let be a generic word in 1 2.
Without losing of generality we can assume
that 1, i.e., (1).
Then 1 1 , for some 1.

Then 1 . Therefore ( ).

So, 1 2 ( ).
(3) By the results of (1) and (2), we conclude
( ) = 1 2.
Since every -NFA language is a DFA language,
( ) is a DFA language.
72

2. Complementation:
The complement of a DFA language
is a DFA language.
Proof: There is a complete DFA
= (, , , , ) with = ( ). Dene
= (, , , , )

3. Intersection:
1 and 2
= 1 2

1 2

73

4. Catenation:
The catenation of two DFA languages is a
DFA language:
1 = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1);
2 = (2, 2, 2, 2, 2).
( ) = (1)(2)
= (1 2, 1 2, , 1, 2),
= 1 2 {(, , 2) 1}

= (, , , , ) where

=
=
=
=
=

1 2
1 2
1 2 {(, , 2) 1}
1
2

74

5. Star:
The star of a DFA language is a DFA language
= ( ) where = (, , , , )

= ( )
= (, , , , ) where

=
=
=
=

{}

{(, , )} {(, , ) }
{} = {}

6. Plus:

75

II. Decidability Properties

A decision problem is a problem each instance of which is either false or true.
A decision algorithm is an algorithm whose
result for each possible input is either false
or true.
A decision problem is decidable if there exists a decision algorithm for it. Otherwise it
is undecidable.
1. DFA membership
INSTANCE: A DFA = (, , , , )
and a word .
QUESTION: Is ( ) ?
Theorem: DFA membership is decidable.

76

Proof: Compute for the given and the terminating state such that . If
then answer True else answer false.
2. DFA Emptiness
INSTANCE: A DFA = (, , , , ).
QUESTION: Is ( ) = ?
Theorem DFA emptiness is decidable.
Proof: ( ) = i there is no path in the
state diagram of from to a nal state. If
= , then this holds immediately.
Otherwise, enumerate the states that can be
reached from . (Mark . Now mark all states
reachable by one transition from one of the
marked states. Repeat this until no newly
marked state is introduced.
The marked states are the reachable states).

77

3. DFA Universality
INSTANCE: A DFA = (, , , , ).
QUESTION: Is ( ) = ?
Theorem DFA universality is decidable.
Proof:
4. DFA Containment
INSTANCE: Two DFA
1 = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1) and
2 = (2, 2, 2, 2, 2).
QUESTION: Is (1) (2) ?
Theorem DFA containment is decidable.
Proof:
(1) (2) = means that (1) (2)

78

5. DFA Equivalence
INSTANCE: Two DFA
1 = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1) and
2 = (2, 2, 2, 2, 2).
QUESTION: Is (1) = (2) ?
Theorem DFA equivalence is decidable.
(1) (2) ? yes
(2) (1) ? yes

79

Pumping Lemma and Non-DFA Language.

The DFA Pumping Lemma
Let = (, , , , ) be a DFA and let
= #. For all words in ( ) such that
, can be decomposed into , for
some , , and in such that
(i)
(ii)
(iii)

;
1; and
for all 0, is in ( ).

Example = (, , , , ) where
= {, , }, = {, },
= {}.
# = 3

Let be an arbitrary word of length #

in ( ), e.g. = . The accepting conf.
sequence for is:
.
So, = , = , = and () ( ) for
all 0.
80

Proof of DFA Pumping Lemma:

Let be in ( ) with .
Then has an accepting conguration sequence
012 . . . 12 . . . . . . 1
where 0 = , .
Consider the rst transitions. , 1, . . . ,
cannot all be distinct since there are only
distinct states (by pigeonhole principle).
This means that = for some 0 < .
Let
= 1 . . . ,
= +1 . . . ,
= +1 . . . .
So, we have 0

( = )
.
Since = , for any 0

81

() , since
() 1, since <
() ( ) for all 0, since
0
qed.
Re-state Pumping Lemma
If is a DFA Language
then
( = ( ) for some of states;)
for every word of length in ,
there exists one decomposition =
which satises
() ,
() 1,
() ( ) for all 0.

82

Comments: The DFA pumping lemma shows

a property of DFA languages. It can be used
possitively; but it is mainly used negatively
to show that some languages are not in .
The DFA pumping lemma gives a necessary
condition for DFA languages. The condition
is not sucient.
Review of logic:
if then if then
if then if then
if then if then
Example
if it is sugar then it is sweet.
if it is not sweet then it is not sugar.
if it is sweet then it is sugar.
So, pumping lemma can be used to show
that a language is not a DFA language, but
cannot be used to show that a language is a
DFA language.

83

Non-DFA Language
= { 0} is not a DFA Language
Proof (I):
Assume is a DFA language. Then = ( )
for some DFA = (, , , , ) with = .
Consider = , .
By DFA pumping lemma, there is a decomposition
=
which satises (i), (ii), and (iii).
Consider all the possible decompositions
Case 1 : = , 1.
But 0 = .
Case 2 : = , 1.
0 = .
Case 3 : = , , 1.
Then 2 = .
All the possible decompositions fail.
Therefore, is not a DFA language.
84

Proof (II):
..................
= .
Consider = in . Obviously, .
By DFA pumping lemma, there is a decomposition
=
that satises (i), (ii), and (iii).
The only decompositions that satisfy
(i) and (ii) are the following:
= for 1.
But 0 = .
So, there is no such decomposition.
is not a DFA language.
(i) ;
(ii) 1;

85

Notes on proving that a language is not

a DFA language by pumping lemma

1) Assume L is a DFA language.

Then we have a constant .
2) Choose a word in of length .
3) Consider all the possible decompositions
of . If none of them satisfy
(i), (ii), and (iii) at the same time,
then conclude that such decomposition
does not exist.
So, is not a DFA language.

86

= {2 0} is not a DFA language.

Proof:
(1) Assume = ( ) for some = (, , , , )
with = .
2+1
(2) Consider = , .
(3) By DFA P.L., there is a decomposition
=
satisfying (i), (ii), and (iii).
The only decompositions of which satisfy
(i) and (ii) are the following:
= , 1.
+1

Notice that = 2 .
2+1 > 2+1 2+1 > 2+1 2 = 2
i.e., 2+1 > 2+1 > 2.
+1

> > 2 .

So, . It is contrary to (iii), so is

/
not a DFA language.
87

6. DFA Finiteness
INSTANCE: A DFA = (, , , , )
QUESTION: Is ( ) nite?
It is decidable.
Theorem ( ) is nite i
accepts no words that satisfy
< 2
Proof: If: Assume accepts no words with
< 2 and ( ) is innite. Since
( ) is innite, it must accept some word
with 2. By P.L., = with
1, and = is in ( ). Notice that > . If 2,
then repeat this process.
Otherwise 2 > . (i.e., 2 ).
This is a contradiction.
Only if: By P.L., = , 1.
Since ( ) for all 0, ( ) is innite.

88

Theorem The family of DFA languages is

closed under morphisms.
Proof:
Let be a DFA language. Then there is
a DFA = (, , , , ) such that ( ) = .
Let : be a morphism.
We are going to show that
() = { () } is a DFA language.
Construct = (, , , , ) by dening
(, (), ) is in i (, ) = .
is a lazy FA. So, L(M) is a DFA language.
It is not dicult to show that ( ) = ().
Therefore, () is a DFA language.

89

Finite Transducers and Finite Transductions

(Translations)
In automata and language theory, a machine
with input and output is called a transducer.

I in

O in

A transducer is single-valued if it produces

at most one output word for each input word.
It is multi-valued otherwise.
A transducer denes
a function : , if it is single-valued,
a relation , otherwise.
A function or a relation that is dened by a
transducer is called a transduction (translation).
90

Specically, a nite automaton with output

is called a nite transducer.
FA(DFA, NFA, or -NFA)
+ output (output alphabet, output tape)
= FT

Input tape
read-only head

Finite control

write-only head
Output tape

Formally, a nite transducer (FT) is a sixtuple (, , , , , ) where

is an output alphabet;
( {}) is a nite transition
relation;
the others are the same as in a FA.
91

A conguration is a word in .
output till now;
current state;
remaining input.
We write

if (, , , ) is in .
, +, are dened as usual.
Given , we say that is an output for
w.r.t. if

for some .
Let () be the set of all outputs for , then
() = { for some }.
The transduction or translation dened by
is ( ) = {(, ) and ()}

92

Example :

0 0 1 1
1 2 2
i.e. 0 2
Since 2 , we say (),
and (, ) ( ).
We can see that
( ) = {( , ) , , 0}
Example
Let () = 101, () = 11.
Encoding:

Decoding:

93

REGULAR EXPRESSIONS
The Second Model for Dening Languages
Example:
Consider the language of all the words that
consist of s and s and have as a subword.
We can formally dene this language by the
following:
(1) = { {, } and has as a
subword};
(2) = ( ) where is an NFA given by
the following diagram:

Both of the above denitions are lengthy.

It can also be expressed by
([ ][ ])

94

Denition Let be an alphabet.

A regular expression over is dened recursively:
Basis: (1) ,
(2) ,
(3) , where
are R.E.s over
Induction Step:
If 1 and 2 are R.E.s over , then
(4) [1 2],
(5) [1 2],

(6) 1
are R.E.s over
We usually omit .
The set of all regular expressions over is
denoted by

95

[[ + ]] is the same as [[ ]]
Example:
2

[[ ] ] is a R.E. over {, }
3

We display the parsing by an

expression tree:

What language does an R.E. dene?

{, }
{, }
{, }
{}
{} {}

96

Denition Given a regular expression , the

language () denoted by is dened as follows:
Basis: (1) if = , then ;
(2) if = , then {};
(3) if = , then {};
Induction Step:
(4) if = [1 2], then (1) (2);
(5) if = [12], then (1)(2);

(6) if = 1 , then ((1)).

Properties of R.E.s
:
1 2 2 1;
[1 2] 3 1 [2 3];
So, [1 2] 3 1 2 3.
:
[12]3 1[23];
So, [12]3 123.
..........................................

97

Denition A language is regular i there is

a regular expression such that = ().
The family of (all) regular languages is
denoted by .
Example = [].
= { in {, } and contains an even
number of }.
Claim: () =
Proof:
(i) () , since every word in ()
contains an even number of s.
(ii)Let . Then can be written as
0 1 . . . . . . 2 , 0, 1, . . . , 2 0.
So, = (0 1 )(2 3 ) . . . . . . (22 21 )2 .
([])() = ().
...

98

Examples = {, }.
1 = { = , }.

2 = { 0 mod 3}.
[[]]

3 = { has 2 or 3 with the last two

appearances nonconsecutive }

4 = { = , 1}

99

Examples
What are the languages denoted by the following R.E.s ?

1 =

2 = [ ]

3 = [ ]

4 = [ ]

100

How many languages over do R.E.s dene?

= {, }

(1) Innitely many ?

(2) Countable ?

101

Regular Expression into Finite Automata

Let be a regular expression over . Then
we can construct a -NFA such that
( ) = (), using the following rules:
(i) = .
Construct such that ( ) =



(ii) = .
Construct such that ( ) = {}





(iii) = , .
Construct such that ( ) = {}


#





"!

102

(iv) = [1 2].
Construct such that ( ) = (1) (2).

(v) = [12].
Construct such that ( ) = (1)(2).

(vi) = 1 .
Construct such that ( ) = (1).

103

Example
= [[ []]]
Construct a FA such that ( ) = ().
, , by (iii)

by (vi)

[] by (v)

[ ] by (iv)

[ ] by (vi)

[[ ]] by (v)

104

Theorem For , an arbitrary regular expression over , the -NFA, , constructed as

above satises ( ) = ().
Proof: Let () be the total number of , ,
and operations in . We prove this theorem
by induction on ().
Basis: () = 0. Then = , , or .
Then clearly we have ( ) = ().
Induction Hypothesis:
Assume the claim holds for all with ()
, for some 0.
Induction Step:
Consider an arbitrary regular expression
with () = + 1. Since + 1 1, contains
at least one operator , , or .
Case I: = 1 2. Then (1)
and (2) . So, (1) = (1) and (2) =
(2) by I.H.. We know the construction of
= 1 2 satises ( ) = (1) (2),
and () = (1) (2)
105

Therefore, ( ) = ().
Case II: = 12
....................................

Case III: = 1

....................................

In each of the three cases, we have shown

that ( ) = (). Therefore this holds for
all regular expressions by the principle of induction.
...

106

Finite Automata into Regular Expressions

To prove that every DFA language is regular
we introduce an extension of nite automata.
Denition An extended nite automaton
(EFA), , is a quintuple (, , , , ) where
, , are as in -NFA,
is the only nal state, = ,
: is a total extended transition
function.
Example of an EFA:

(, ) =
(, ) =
......
One nal state =
107

 A conguration is in
Move
if
(i) = , ,
(ii) (, ) = , and
(iii) ().
, + are dened similarly as before.
Lemma If is a DFA, Then there is an EFA
with ( ) = ( ).
Example DFA into EFA.

108

Example:
An extended nite Automaton (EFA).
M:

Check if the following words are in ( )

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

109

State Elimination Technique

Goal of the technique:

i.e.:

(1) EFA has 2 states

Example

110

(2) EFA has + 1 states, 2.

Then eliminate a state from to form :
:

Note: {, }
Consider all transitions (, , )
and (, , )
:

(, ) = (, ) (, )((, ))(, )
111

Example

[ ]

112

Example

113

Summary of the State Elimination Technique

(0) Change FA into EFA
(1) Add a new start state if the original one
has incoming transitions.
(2) Add a new nal state if there are more
than one nal states originally. Old nal
states become non-nal states.
(3) Eliminate the states in {, }
one by one.
(4) Eliminate the transition (, ).

114