Bibliografie

1. Vasilescu Gabriel. Electronica. Cahul. 1993

2. E. Damachi, A. Tusoiu ş.a. Electronică – Bucureşti: Editura didactică şi pedagociă

3. Sandu D.D. Dispozitive şi circuite electronice.-Editura didactică şi pedagogică:

Bucureşti, 1975. P. 57 – 74.

4. Constantin P., Buzuloiu V. s.a. Electronica industrială.-Editura didactică şi pedago

Bucureşti, 1980. P. 22-32.

5. Жеребцов И.П. Основы электроники. Л: Энергоатомиздат, 1985, С. 73 – 87.

6.Гершунский Б.С. Основы электроники и микроэлектроники. – К.: Выща шк., 19
7. Лавриненко В.Ю. Справочник по полупроводниковым приборам. – К.: Техник
8. Негрескул В.В. Электроника. Лабораторный практикум. Часть 1. – Кишинэу:ТУ
9. Гусев В.Г., Гусев И.М. Электроника. М. "Высшая школа", 1991

10 Lupan O., Îndrumar metodic, pentru lucrări de laborator Partea I , Chişinău 2008
Lucrare de An la Electronică

# 1499 Electronica.
Circuite electronice cu
componente discrete.
Material didactic de Proiectare
Chisinau 2006
V.Negrescul
+847

Laboratoare la Electronică

#1756 (rom) Electronica.

O.Lupan, T. Melnic
Literature:

1. Conspect
2. Electronics Fundamentals
(Circuits, Devices and Applications)
3rd Edition, Thomas L. Floyd 1995 by Pretice-Hall Inc

For Laboratory works:

Lupan O, Melnic T. Electronics

#1753 (Eng)
#1756 (rom)
 Plan Lectia 6-7
1. Semiconductorii intrinseci, extrinseci, de tip p si de tip n
2. Formarea jonctiunii p-n electron-gol
3. Diodele semiconductoare
4. Caracteristicile diodelor. Punctul static de functionare
 Plan Lectia 6-7
1. Semiconductorii intrinseci, extrinseci, de tip p si de tip n
2. Formarea jonctiunii p-n electron-gol
3. Diodele semiconductoare
4. Caracteristicile diodelor. Punctul static de functionare
1. Semiconductorii intrinseci, extrinseci, de tip p si de tip n
Semiconductorii sunt solide cristaline compuse din elemente ale grupei a IV-a
principală (Si sau Ge) ce au patru electroni de valență. Materialele semiconductoare
stau la baza realizării de dispozitive electronice şi de circuite integrate.
σ = (10-6 - 105) Ω-1 m-1
Sarcinile electrice de conducţie din semiconductori (purtătorii) sunt :
electronii de conducţie şi golurile. 100

Daca intr-un semiconductor concentratia

electronilor este egala cu concentratia
golurilor el se numeste intrinsec. Deci
semiconductorul fara impuritati este un
semiconductor intrinsec.
Semiconductors (cont.)
Bonds, Holes, and Electrons in Intrinsic Silicon

Figure taken from Semiconductor Devices, Physics and Technology, S. M. Sze,1985, John Wiley & Sons
Doped Semiconductors
Bonds, Holes, and Electrons in Doped Silicon

Figure taken from Semiconductor Devices, Physics and Technology, S. M. Sze,1985, John Wiley & Sons
1. Semiconductorii intrinseci, extrinseci, de tip p si de tip n
Semiconductori intrinseci (puri)
Semiconductorii sunt solide cristaline compuse din elemente ale grupei a IV-a
principală (Si sau Ge) ce au patru electroni de valență. Materialele semiconductoare
stau la baza realizării de dispozitive electronice şi de circuite integrate.
σ = (10-6 - 105) Ω-1 m-1
100
Fiecare atom din cristal formează
patru legături covalente având
forma unui tetraedru regulat.

grupa a IV-a:
germaniul (Ge),
siliciu (Si)
Silicon Covalent Bond Model

Covalent bond

Silicon atom Silicon atom

Silicon Covalent Bond Model

Silicon atom Covalent bonds in silicon

 Caracteristici ale materialelor semiconductoare

• Cele mai folosite materiale

semiconductoare au la bază
elementele chimice:

• grupa a IV-a: germaniul (Ge), siliciu (Si)

• grupa a VI-a: seleniul (Se)

• compuşi binari ai elementelor din

grupele III - V a sistemului periodic:
GaAs, InSb.
 Semiconductori intrinseci
• În procesul de conducţie electrică, în semiconductorii intrinseci densitatea
curentului electric este egală cu suma între densitatea de curent a
electronilor şi a golurilor:

• unde :
• n este concentraţia de electroni de conducţie din banda de conducţie;
• p este concentraţia de goluri din banda de valenţă;
• qo=e este sarcina electrică a electronului, respectiv, a golului, 1,60 x10 -19 C;
• vn, vp sunt vitezele de drift medii ale electronilor, respectiv ale golurilor.
 Concentrația purtătorilor intrinseci
• The density of carriers in a semiconductor as a function of
temperature and material properties is:

 EG 
n  BT exp  
2
i
3
 cm -6

 kT 
• EG = semiconductor bandgap energy in eV (electron volts)
• k = Boltzmann’s constant, 8.62 x 10-5 eV/K
• T = absolute termperature, K
• B = material-dependent parameter, 1.08 x 1031 K-3 cm-6 for Si

• Bandgap energy is the minimum energy needed to free an electron

by breaking a covalent bond in the semiconductor crystal.
• Conductivitatea electrică σ este dată de
suma dintre conductivitatea electronică σn
şi cea a golurilor σp:

• Deoarece în semiconductoarele intrinseci

prin ruperea legăturilor atomice numărul
electronilor liberi este egal cu numărul
golurilor, este valabilă relaţia n= p= ni,
astfel:
Modelul benzilor energetice al conducţiei
electrice
în semiconductoarele intrinseci:
T=0 K; E=0 T≠0 K; E=0 T≠ 0 K; E ≠ 0

Concentraţia electronilor de conducţie creşte

exponenţial cu temperatura şi scade exponenţial cu
creşterea intervalului Fermi.
 Intrinsic Silicon Resistivity
• Given drift current and mobility, we can calculate
resistivity (Q is the charge density) :
jndrift = Qnvn = (-qn)(- nE) = qn nE A/cm2
jpdrift = Qpvp = (+qp)(+ pE) = qp pE A/cm2

jTdrift = jn + jp = q(n n + p p)E = E

This defines electrical conductivity:

 = q(n n + p p) (cm)-1

Resistivity  is the reciprocal of conductivity:

 E V /cm 
 = 1/ (cm)   drift  2    cm
 jT A /cm 
Semiconductori extrinseci
impurity [or] extrinsic semiconductor
Donor Impurities in Silicon

• Phosphorous (or other column V element)

atom replaces silicon atom in crystal lattice.
• Since phosphorous has five outer shell
electrons, there is now an ‘extra’ electron in
the structure.
• Material is still charge neutral, but very little
energy is required to free the electron for
conduction since it is not participating in a
bond.
 Donor Impurities in Silicon

q

q e
• Phosphorous (or other column V
element) atom replaces silicon
atom in crystal lattice.
• Since phosphorous has five outer
shell electrons, there is now an
‘extra’ electron in the structure.
• Material is still charge neutral, but
very little energy is required to free A silicon crystal doped by a pentavalent
the electron for conduction since it element (f. i. phosphorus). Each dopant atom
is not participating in a bond. donates a free electron and is thus called a
donor. The doped semiconductor becomes
n type.
 Acceptor Impurities in Silicon

• Boron (column III element) has

been added to silicon.
• There is now an incomplete bond
pair, creating a vacancy for an
electron.
• Little energy is required to move
a nearby electron into the
vacancy.
• As the ‘hole’ propagates, charge
is moved across the silicon.
 Acceptor Impurities in Silicon

• Boron (column III element) has q

been added to silicon. e
• There is now an incomplete bond
pair, creating a vacancy for an
Vacancy
electron. q
• Little energy is required to move
a nearby electron into the
vacancy. A silicon crystal doped with a trivalent impurity
(f.i. boron). Each dopant atom gives rise to a
• As the ‘hole’ propagates, charge hole, and the semiconductor becomes p type.
is moved across the silicon.
Acceptor Impurities – Hole
propagation

Hole is propagating through the silicon.

Acceptor Impurities – Hole
propagation

e
Hole

Hole is propagating through the silicon.

Acceptor Impurities – Hole
propagation

Hole

Hole is propagating through the silicon.

Acceptor Impurities – Hole
propagation

Hole is propagating through the silicon.

 Band Diagram: Acceptor Dopant in Semiconductor

• For Si, add a group III element to “accept” an

electron and make p-type Si (more positive “holes”).
• “Missing” electron results in an extra “hole”, with an
acceptor energy level EA just above the valence band
EV.
– Holes easily formed in valence band, greatly EC
increasing the electrical conductivity.
• Fermi level EF moves down towards EV.
EF
EA
EV
p-type Si
 Schematically

Modified from B. Van Zeghbroech, Principles of Semiconductor Devices

http://ece-www.colorado.edu/~bart/book/
 Diffusion Current (cont.)
• Carriers move toward regions of
lower concentration, so
diffusion current densities are
proportional to the negative of
the carrier gradient.

 p  p
j diff
 ( q) D p     qD p A/cm2
 x  x
p

 n  n
jndiff  (q) Dn      qDn A/cm2
 x  x Diffusion currents in the
presence of a
Diffusion current density equations concentration gradient.
 Diffusion Current (cont.)
• Dp and Dn are the hole and electron diffusivities with
units cm2/s. Diffusivity and mobility are related by
Einsteins’s relationship:
Dn kT D p
   VT  Thermal voltage
n q p
Dn   n VT , D p   p VT
• The thermal voltage, VT = kT/q, is approximately 25
mV at room temperature. We will encounter VT many
times throughout this course.

 Total Current in a
Semiconductor
• Total current is the sum of drift and diffusion current:

n
j  q n nE  qDn
T
n
x
p
j p  q  p pE  qD p
T

x
 Total Current in a
Semiconductor
• Total current is the sum of drift and diffusion current:
n
j  q n nE  qDn
T
n
x
p
j p  q  p pE  qD p
T

x
Rewriting using Einstein’s relationship (Dp = nVT),

 1 n
j  q n n  E  VT
T
 In the following sections, we will
nx
n
 use these equations, combined
with Gauss’ law, (E)=Q, to
 1  p calculate currents in a variety of
j p  q  p p  E  VT
T
 semiconductor devices.
 p x
Chap 2 - here
Example 45
n-type versus p-type

 In n-type - the electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the
minority carriers.
 In p-type - the holes are called the majority carriers and electrons are the
minority carriers.
Jonctiunea p-n
§2. Formarea jonctiunii p-n electron-gol
Joncţiunea p-n este regiunea din vecinătatea
suprafeţei de contact dintre două semiconductoare
cu tip de conducţie diferit, una de tip p şi alta de
tip n.
Linia de demarcaţie dintre cele două regiuni se
numeşte joncţiune metalurgică.
 § 3. Diodele semiconductoare
Diodele semiconductoare sunt dispozitive electronice cu două terminale, care
au în structura lor o joncţiune p-n, o regiune de tip p şi una de tip -n, realizate în
aceeaşi reţea cristalină continuă, şi două contacte ohmice (terminale).

N P

Diode Symbol
Cathode Anode
Catod Anod

_
+

ion.ichim@adm.utm.md <ion.ichim@adm.utm.md>
 • Exact expression for the recombination current:
qni  V / 2VT  1 qN D 2Vbin  V 
J scr  e ,  VT , Enp 
rec 2 Enp ks 0

• Corrections to the model:

qni  V / mrVT
J scr  e
 rec
• Total forward current:


J  Js e
V / VT

1 
qni  V / mrVT
 rec
e 
 J s,eff e
V / VT
1
  ideality factor. Deviations of  from unity
represent an important measure for the recombination
current.
  qVD

I D  I S  e nkT
 1
 
Ideal Diode Equation
Where
ID and VD are the diode current and voltage, respectively
q is the charge on the electron
n is the ideality factor: n = 1 for indirect semiconductors (Si, Ge, etc.)
n = 2 for direct semiconductors (GaAs, InP, etc.)
k is Boltzmann’s constant
T is temperature in Kelvin

kT/q is also known as Vth, the thermal voltage. At 300K (room temperature),
kT/q = 25.9mV
 Analysis of Diode Circuits

Nodal analysis
Mesh analysis
Kirchhoff’s voltage law
Thevenin & Norton theorems

Vss  RiD  v D
Vth/RTh

Slope=-1/RTh
Vth
 Currents
é ù
ê ú
dn ê kT dn ú
J n = qmn nE + qDn = qm n n +
dx ê q dx ú
ê ú
ë û
dp é kT dp ù
J p = qm p pE - qD p = qm p ê pE - ú
dx ë q dx û
Drift currents Diffusion
currents
Equilibrium
 The built-in field
• Near interface,
electrons from n-
side fill holes on p-
side
– Results in negative
charges on p-side
(un-neutralized
acceptors)
• Electrons annihilate
holes that diffused
into n-side
– Results in positive
charges on p-side
(un-neutralized
donors)
• Results in a built-in
electric field near
junction
§ 4. Caracteristicile diodelor.
Punctul static de functionare
Diode ratings

In addition to forward voltage drop (Vf) and peak inverse voltage (PIV), there are
many other ratings of diodes important to circuit design and component selection.

Semiconductor manufacturers provide detailed specifications on their products -- diodes

included -- in publications known as datasheets. Datasheets for a wide variety of
semiconductor components may be found in reference books and on the internet. I
personally prefer the internet as a source of component specifications because all the
data obtained from manufacturer websites are up-to-date.
A typical diode datasheet will contain figures for the following parameters:

Maximum repetitive reverse voltage = VRRM, the maximum amount of voltage the
diode can withstand in reverse-bias mode, in repeated pulses. Ideally, this figure would
be infinite.
Maximum DC reverse voltage = VR or VDC, the maximum amount of voltage
the diode can withstand in reverse-bias mode on a continual basis. Ideally, this
figure would be infinite.
Maximum forward voltage = VF, usually specified at the diode's rated forward
current. Ideally, this figure would be zero: the diode providing no opposition
whatsoever to forward current. In reality, the forward voltage is described by the
"diode equation."

Maximum (average) forward current = IF(AV), the maximum average amount

of current the diode is able to conduct in forward bias mode. This is
fundamentally a thermal limitation: how much heat can the PN junction handle,
given that dissipation power is equal to current (I) multiplied by voltage (V or E)
and forward voltage is dependent upon both current and junction temperature.
Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
Maximum (peak or surge) forward current = IFSM or if(surge), the maximum
peak amount of current the diode is able to conduct in forward bias mode. Again,
this rating is limited by the diode junction's thermal capacity, and is usually much
higher than the average current rating due to thermal inertia (the fact that it takes
a finite amount of time for the diode to reach maximum temperature for a given
current). Ideally, this figure would be infinite.
Maximum total dissipation = PD, the amount of power (in watts) allowable for
the diode to dissipate, given the dissipation (P=IE) of diode current multiplied by
diode voltage drop, and also the dissipation (P=I2R) of diode current squared
multiplied by bulk resistance. Fundamentally limited by the diode's thermal
capacity (ability to tolerate high temperatures).
Operating junction temperature = TJ, the maximum allowable temperature for
the diode's PN junction, usually given in degrees Celsius (oC). Heat is the
"Achilles' heel" of semiconductor devices: they must be kept cool to function
properly and give long service life.
Storage temperature range = TSTG, the range of allowable temperatures for
storing a diode (unpowered). Sometimes given in conjunction with operating
junction temperature (TJ), because the maximum storage temperature and the
maximum operating temperature ratings are often identical. If anything, though,
maximum storage temperature rating will be greater than the maximum
operating temperature rating.
Thermal resistance = R(Θ), the temperature difference between junction and
outside air (R(Θ)JA) or between junction and leads (R(Θ)JL) for a given power
dissipation. Expressed in units of degrees Celsius per watt (oC/W). Ideally, this
figure would be zero, meaning that the diode package was a perfect thermal
conductor and radiator, able to transfer all heat energy from the junction to the
outside air (or to the leads) with no difference in temperature across the thickness
of the diode package. A high thermal resistance means that the diode will build up
excessive temperature at the junction (where it's critical) despite best efforts at
cooling the outside of the diode, and thus will limit its maximum power dissipation.

Maximum reverse current = IR, the amount of current through the diode in
reverse-bias operation, with the maximum rated inverse voltage applied (VDC).
Sometimes referred to as leakage current. Ideally, this figure would be zero, as a
perfect diode would block all current when reverse-biased. In reality, it is very
small compared to the maximum forward current.

Typical junction capacitance = CJ, the typical amount of capacitance intrinsic to

the junction, due to the depletion region acting as a dielectric separating the
anode and cathode connections. This is usually a very small figure, measured in
the range of picofarads (pF).
Punctul static de functionare