pag.1-2 Chimie 2007.

qxd 8/3/2007 12:51 PM Page 1

MINISTERUL EDUCAÞIEI, CERCETÃRII ªI TINERETULUI

C himie
C1

Manual pentru clasa a XII-a

Georgeta Tãnãsescu
Maria Negoiu


CORINT
EDUCAŢIONAL
pag.1-2 Chimie 2007.qxd 8/3/2007 12:51 PM Page 2

Manualul a fost aprobat prin O.MEdCT nr. 1262/44 din 6.06.2007, `n urma evalu\rii calitative [i este realizat `n conformitate cu
programa analitic\ aprobat\ prin Ordin al ministrului educa]iei [i cercet\rii nr. 5959 din 22.12.2006.

Date despre autori:

GEORGETA TÃNÃSESCU, prof. grad. didactic I, la Colegiul Naþional „Gheorghe Lazãr”, Bucureºti, autor ºi coautor a
numeroase lucrãri, printre care: Manual de chimie pentru clasa a IX-a ºi Manual de chimie pentru clasa a XI-a, Editura Corint,
Rezolvarea problemelor de chimie din toate manualele alternative, Editura Niculescu, Teste de chimie, clasele a VII-a ºi
a VIII-a, Editura Cartea de Buzunar.
MARIA NEGOIU, profesor universitar doctor, Facultatea de Chimie, Catedra de chimie anorganicã, conducãtoare de doctorat.
Autor ºi coautor a peste 100 de articole ºi lucrãri ºtiinþifice, printre care: Chimie anorganicã (3 volume), Structura combinaþi-
ilor anorganice, Bazele chimiei anorganice, precum ºi îndrumare de laborator ºi culegeri de probleme de chimie. Coautor al
manualelor de chimie, clasele a VII-a ºi a VIII-a, apãrute la Editura Cartea de Buzunar.

Referen]i:
Prof. univ. dr. Tudor Roºu, Facultatea de Chimie, Universitatea Bucure[ti
Prof. dr. Elisabeta Niculescu, Liceul Teoretic „C.A. Rosetti”, Bucure[ti

Redactor: Mihaela Zãrnescu Enceanu

Tehnoredactare computerizat\: Andreea Dobreci, Radu Dobreci
Coperta: Valeria Moldovan

Pentru comenzi şi informaţii, contactaţi:

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Descrierea CIP a Bibliotecii Na]ionale a României

TÃNÃSESCU, GEORGETA
Chimie: manual pentru clasa a XII-a / Tãnãsescu Georgeta,
Negoiu Maria. – Bucure[ti: Corint, 2007
Bibliogr.
ISBN 978-973-135-093-6
I. Negoiu, Maria

54(075.35)

ISBN: 978-973-135-093-6
Toate drepturile asupra acestei lucr\ri sunt rezervate Editurii CORINT,
parte component\ a GRUPULUI EDITORIAL CORINT.
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14

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15

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16

capitolul2tipar.P65 16 03.08.2007, 11:01

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25

capitolul2tipar.P65 25 03.08.2007, 11:01

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26

capitolul2tipar.P65 26 03.08.2007, 11:01

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27

capitolul2tipar.P65 27 03.08.2007, 11:01

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5$")+3.*($1$-%5'(-3'#$'%1$.1$D +.#'3'7-#$;%#1$&*'$%3+5',')-A'%-(*3'A'%.-1-3$#1'%5$%1$-)A'$;%)$%)+("#'#*'$
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5$%3-1$8
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>(#1D*(%'(#$16-/%5$%#'3.%5-#8%9$%$:$3./*;%6'#$7-%*(*'%-*#+3+&'/%"$%$:.1'30
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#&%+&!'=*'%$2#'0&'!"+"!%&+$.&".;'#+$*'-$%&.;'(&'(&0<;5/+"+&8
*"%$+,' -$' .$,!/"$' $*($!;' -"+$"7$"' !)*!&*%+"7$&$' +&"!%"*7$,)+' 0"/
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5$")+3.*($1$%-%($)>$(/,/$'(&'".)%;%4-7%)$%)-*7$-70%.+/*-1$-%-$1*/*'B
M@N M F4H → M@NF4H + N M F4H

28

capitolul3tipar.P65 28 03.08.2007, 11:42

 O$-)A'-% 5$% 5$")+3.*($1$% -% @N M% -1$% /+)% /-
#$3.$1-#*1'%5$%-.1+:'3-#'6%PQRST;%>(#1D*(%&-/+(%5$
"#')/0I%"$%30"+-10%)+()$(#1-A''/$%5'+:'5*/*'%5$%-7+#
F@NMH;% -/$% 3+(+:'5*/*'% 5$% -7+#% F@NH% ='% -/$% +:'D
4$(*/*'%FNMH%/-%-(*3'#$%'(#$16-/$%5$%#'3.%F!"#$%&)H8
O$7*/#-#$/$%$:.$1'3$(#*/*'%"*(#%(+#-#$%>(%*+,-./.%08

T+()$(#1-A'-% F3+/\]H
1"23/. :;76-7*<+="+%42;.>?9
45-6/78-9
%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%@A&%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%@A %%%%%%A&
R R;RYRR R R
^R R;RR_` R;RRMY R;RRYY
YRR R;RRQ^ R;RRP^ R;RRYc
Y^R R;RR^^ R;RRa^ R;RRMP
MRR R;RRac R;RR^M R;RRMQ
M^R R;RRaP R;RR^_ R;RRM`
1+,-./.% 0$% T+()$(#1-A''/$% 1$-)#-(A'/+1% ='
-/$%.1+5*='/+1%5$%1$-)A'$%.$(#1*%1$-)A'-B
M@NM F4H → M@NF4H + NM F4H
e'3.*/%F"H

("#%&)$%K-1'-A'-%)+()$(#1-A''/+1%@NM;%@N%='%NM%>(%#'3.8
U(-/'7<(5%1$7*/#-#$/$%5'(%*+,-./.%0%"$%+&"$160%)*3%!)*!&*%+"7$"'+&"!3
%"*%/,/$%@NM%0!"(&'=*'%$2#;%'-1%!)*!&*%+"7$$,&'#+)(/5$,)+%@N%='%NM%!+&0!
=*'%$2#8
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@NM @NM # ^R − @NM # R %%%%B7*-<C+./. @NM
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R; RR_` 3+/ \ ] − R; RYRR 3+/ \ ] R%→%^R a;M%d%YR X^

−a;M YR −^ 3+/ \ ] "

^R% →%YRR
6
^R" M;c%d%YRX^
J$%+&"$160%5'(%6-/+-1$-% Z@NM[%b%R;%5$+-1$)$%)+()$(#1-A'-%@NM%")-5$%>( YRR% →%Y^R M;R%d%YRX^
#'3.8% L(#1*)<#;% 5$% 1$4*/0;% "$% /*)1$-70% )*% 6-/+1'% .+7'#'6$% -/$% 6'#$7$'% 5$ Y^R% →%MRR Y;a%d%YRX^
MRR% →%M^R
1$-)A'$;%$:.1$"'-%6'#$7$'%5$%1$-)A'$%.$(#1*%$:$3./*/%)+("'5$1-#%6-%,'B
Y;R%d%YRX^
@NM
6 − 1+,-./.% D$% K'#$7-% 5$% 1$-)A'$
# ")-5$%>(%#'3.

29

capitolul3tipar.P65 29 03.08.2007, 11:42

 9&'#"+!/+0/,'+&"!7$$,)+'!:$3
2$!&' 0!"(&' !)*!&*%+"7$"
+&"!%"*7$,)+'5$'!+&5%&'!)*!&*3
%+"7$"'#+)(/5$,)+8'?0%<&,1'-$%&3
."'(&'+&"!7$&'2&($&'H 6 I'&0%&
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+&#+&.&*%"%&' #+$*' &!/"7$$,&
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#+)!&0&' 2"$' !)2#,$!"%&1
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%/$&' !&&"' !&' 0&' */2&5%&
M2&!"*$02'(&'+&"!7$&N8
capitolul3tipar.P65 30
E*%+/!F%'!)*!&*%+"7$"'+&"!%"*7$,)+'0!"(&'=*%)%(&"/*"'=*'%$2#1'&>#+&0$"
-$%&.&$' (&' +&"!7$&' #&*%+/' /*' +&"!%"*%' -"' $*!,/(&' 0&2*/,' 2$*/0G' -"#,$/;
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@NM
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#
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-/#$%'(#$16-/$%5$%#'3.%"*(#%5-#$%>(%*+,-./.%D8
K-/+-1$-%6'#$7$'%5$%1$-)A'$%/-%*(%3+3$(#%5-#;%-$%&."'$*0%"*%"*&&1'"$
.+-#$%+&A'($%#1-"<(5%+%/'('$%#-(4$(#0%/-%)*1&0%>(%.*()#*/%1$".$)#'68
f1-,')*/%5'(%!"#/<+%&)%-1-#0%+%/'('$%#-(4$(#0%#1-"-#0%/-%#%W%YRR%"I%>(
)+("$)'(A0;%-$%&."'$*0%"*%"*&&%/-%YRR%"$)*(5$%"$%.+-#$%)-/)*/-%*#'/'7<(5
5-#$/$%5'(%41-,')B
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6 −M; a YR −^ 3+/ \ ] "
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L(%)$/$%.1$7$(#-#$%-(#$1'+1;%"D-*%,0)*#%1$,$1'1'%(*3-'%/-%)-/)*/-1$-%-$%&.&$
(&'+&"!7$&'"'+&"!%"*7$,)+8%E(%1-A'+(-3$(#%-"$30(0#+1%"$%.+-#$%-./')-%='
.$(#1*%)-/)*/-1$-%-$%&.&$'(&'+&"!7$&'"'#+)(/5$,)+I%.$(#1*%-)$-"#-%#1$&*'$
"0%/*03%>(%)+("'5$1-1$%!)&<$!$&*7$$'0%)&!:$)2&%+$!$%-'%$)*-A'$'%)2'3')$;
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F)+("*301''H%1$-)#-(A'/+1%='%,+13-1$-%.1+5*='/+18%9$%$:$3./*;%>(%1$-)A'-
)+("'5$1-#0%-(#$1'+1B
M@N M F4H → M@NF4H + N M F4H
-#<#%@NM%)<#%='%@N%-*%)+$,')'$(#*/%M;%)$$-%)$%>("$-3(0%)0%6'#$7-%5$%,+13-1$
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6$1',')-%*#'/'7<(5%5-#$/$%5'(% *+,-./.%08%9'(%41-,')%"$%+&"$160%)0%,+13-
)*1&$'%.$(#1*%@NM%$"#$%-)$$-='%)*%)$-%.$(#1*%@N;%5',$1$(A-%)+("#<(5%>(
'(6$1"-1$-%-)$"#+1-8%L(%")2'3&;%NM%-1$%)+$,')'$(#*/%Y;%)$$-%)$%>("$-3(0
)0%"$%,+13$-70%(*3-'%?*30#-#$%)+3.-1-#'6%)*%)-(#'#-#$-%5$%@N%+&A'(*#0
F)-1$% -1$% )+$,')'$(#*/% MHI% -)$-"#-% >("$-3(0% )0% 6'#$7-% 5$% ,+13-1$% -
)+3.*"*/*'% @N% $"#$% 5*&/0% ,-A0% 5$% 6'#$7-% 5$% ,+13-1$% -% NM8% U)$"#% ,-.#
.+-#$%,'%6$1',')-#%='%.1'(%)-/)*/-1$-'-$%&.&,)+'$*0%"*%"*&&;%*#'/'7<(5%5-#$/$
5'(%41-,')*/%1$5-#%>(%!"#/<+%&)8
K'#$7$/$%'("#-(#-($$%)-/)*/-#$%/-%%#%W%M^R%";%,+/+"'(5%/'(''/$%#-(4$(#$%/-
)*1&$/$%5'(%41-,');%"*(#B
R; RRRQ
6 @N c; Q YR −Q 3+/ \ ] "
_R "
R; RRRP % 6 @N M6 NM
a;P YR −Q 3+/ \ ] "
6 NM
_R "
J'(#$#'7<(5%6-/+1'/$%+&A'(*#$%.$(#1*%6'#$7$/$%5$%1$-)A'$%-/$%.1+)$"*/*'
)2'3')%)+("'5$1-#%"$%.+-#$%")1'$B
6 @NM F#1-(",+13-1$ H 6 @NF,+13-1$ H M6 NM F,+13-1$ H
30
03.08.2007, 11:42
 9$+-1$)$%6-/+1'/$%6'#$7$'%5$%1$-)A'$%"$%3+5',')0%>(%#'3.%G%6'#$7-%5$%1$-)A'$ -
")-5$%)*%#'3.*/%F!"#$%&&H%G%='%.$(#1*%)0%6'#$7$/$%.+#%,'%5',$1'#$%.$(#1*%1$-)#-(A'
='% .1+5*='% F>(% ,*()A'$% 5$% )+$,')'$(A''% 5$% 1$-)A'$H;% #1$&*'$% "0% A'($3% )+(#% 5$
".$)',')'#-#$-%,'$)01$'%1$-)A''%)<(5%5$")1'$3%6'#$7-%*($'%1$-)A''%)2'3')$8
9'(% )$/$% .1$7$(#-#$% -(#$1'+1% "$% .+-#$% 5$5*)$% )0% 6'#$7$/$% )*% )-1$% "$
)+("*30% 1$-)#-(A'';% 1$".$)#'6% "$% ,+13$-70% .1+5*=''% 5$% 1$-)A'$% "*(#
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f$($1-/'7<(5;%.$(#1*%+%1$-)A'$%(+#-#0B
-U + &h → )T + 59
e'3.

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%%%%%%%%%-;%&;%);%5%"*(#%)+$,')'$(A''%"#+$)2'+3$#1')'8
-U + &h → )T + 59
0)1)+#2'()*)'#,)#-)+./')
Y U Y h
6 − −
9*.0% )*3% "$% )+("#-#0% >(% )$/$% .1$7$(#-#$% -(#$1'+1;% 6'#$7-% 5$% 1$-)A'$ - # & #
$"#$%+%301'3$%5$.$(5$(#0%5$%)+()$(#1-A''/$%)+3.+($(A'/+18 Y T Y 9
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-U + &h → C1+5*='; ( (
/$4$-%6'#$7$'%5$%1$-)A'$%-1$%$:.1$"'-B 6 O U U h h
- &
/*(&'*?'5$'*J'0&'*/2&0!')+($3
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ZU[;%Zh[%W%)+()$(#1-A''/$%1$-)#-(A'/+1;%$:.1'3-#$%>(%3+/\]8 (&'+&"!7$&'0/*%'&4",&'!/'!)&<$3
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5$%1$-)A'$B%%&2#&+"%/+;1'#+&0$/*&1'!"%",$."%)+$%=8-8 ?%/*!$' !F*(' !)*!&*%+"3
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ZU[%W%Zh[%W%Y%3+/\];
M@N M F4H → M@NF4H + N M F4H
-$%&."'(&'+&"!7$&'&0%&'&4",;
,&4&"'-$%&.&$%-1$%$:.1$"'-B !/'!)*0%"*%"'(&'-$%&.;D
M
6 W i @N M 6%W%i

31

capitolul3tipar.P65 31 03.08.2007, 11:42


("#$% &H$% % C-1#')*/$/$% )+("#'#*$(#$
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.1$7'(#$% +% -(*3'#0% +1'$(#-1$
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capitolul3tipar.P65 32
3.('2'(+()# '4,'2',5+67
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)2'3')$B
+$% TM j ^ h1F4H → TM j a F4H + jh1F4H
,$% TM ja F4H + jM F4H → TM jQ F4H
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45

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47

capitolul 4tipar.P65 47 03.08.2007, 11:17

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52

capitolul 4tipar.P65 52 03.08.2007, 11:17

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53

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62

capitolul 5 tipar.P65 62 03.08.2007, 11:49

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capitolul 6tipar.P65 63 03.08.2007, 11:30


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65

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#$#* 5(#&'13&&8* &0.&6)-)0'* .)
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capitolul 6tipar.P65 66
&'()*++#,'#+,';/+=+)(.'#(5'#3;2.#)(/+2;+
>,';/+=+)(.'(# +2;353+# 16?@
H+'-&"(#/4&L2TU&,*&+84-&.#)1G(&,(4/3"*&'*&'(#3"#*&+6*,)*'&%*&"(#"<&,*
51('*%*+=-& '+& .#& ,'>*6+& 51*=*#)+)-& +#)*1"(1& I!"#$% &BJ:& ;,)8*4<& .#& /16+
1*+'3"*"&'/&NB4<&"(#""&L2TU&8(16*+=-&/#&51*'"5")+)&+42&%*&L2B4T<&'+1*&,*
,(4/2"4"=*+=-&I.#&51*=*#3+&NB4&'(#'*#)1+)J:
C*&51('*%*+=-&4+&&.)0'&6&5(-)(*&"0$#$&*H%OP&51"#&/16-)(+1*4*&1*+'3""Z
7)/+8+/(/'# '9-'.+:';/(5<
+$%C6/4*"!"9+7/+%D,'E%91%F'GHB
!&Y#)1(%/&.#)1G(&*51/2*)-&T&6_&,(4/3"*&+&/#*"&,-1"&,(4/2"4*<&L2IOD J <
M T
'*&'(#3"#*&"(#"&L2TU&I,+/&T&6_&,(4/3"*&(23"#/)-&4+&,*5+1+1*J:
!& ;%+/@-&'$)*?+&5"'-)/1"&,(4/3"*&N CD :
T E
C*&(2,*1?-&8(16+1*+&/#/"&51*'"5")+)&+42&%*&L2CDE&I!"#$%&&JZ
L2 T + + CD TE− → L2CD E ↓
,/48+)&%*&54/62&I51*'"5")+)&+42J
H+'-&,G+&/)"4"=+)&,(4/3"*&%*&L2IODMJT<&*'/+3"+&1*+'3"*"&,*&,'1"*Z
L2 ( OD M )T + N T CD E → L2CD E ↓ +TNOD M
%%,$%C6/4*"!"9+7/+%D,'E%91%;501I"/%6/%"5617:%+09+0"4:%JC
!&Y#)1(%/&.#)1G(&*51/2*)-&T&6_&,(4/3"*<&+&/#*"&,-1"&,(4/2"4*<&L2IOD J
M T
'*&'(#3"#*&"(#"&L2TU&I,+/&T&6_&,(4/3"*&(23"#/)-&+#)*1"(1J:
!&;%+/@-&\&6_&,(4/3"*&%*&"(%/1-&%*&5()+,"/<&XY:
C*&(2,*1?-&8(16+1*+&/#/"&51*'"5")+)&@+42*#&%*&L2YTZ
L2TU&U&TYQ&→&L2YT↓
"(%/1-&%*&54/62&I51*'"5")+)&@+42*#J
!"#$#%&'(#)&%*&,(4/3""4*&/)"4"=+)*<&*'/+3"+&1*+'3"*"&,*&5(+)*&,'1"*Z
L2IODMJT&U&TXY&→&L2YT↓&U&TXODM
>,';/+=+)(.'(# +2;353+# $3?@
H+'-&"(#/4&B/TU&,*&@-,*0)*&.#)1G(&,(4/3"*&'*&'(#3"#*&+6*,)*'&%*&"(#"&,*
51('*%*+=-&'+&.#&,'>*6+&51*=*#)+)-&+#)*1"(1&I!"#$%&BJ:&;,)8*4&,*&(23"#*&/#
51*'"5")+)&#*@1/&%*&B/C<&'+1*&,*&,(4/2"4"=*+=-&.#&NODM&%"4/+)<&8(16$#%&(
,(4/3"*&'*&'(#3"#*&"(#"&B/TU:
C*&51('*%*+=-&4+&&.)0'&6&5(-)(*&"0$#$&*>$OP&51"#&/#+&%"#&1*+'3""4*&'*
/16*+=-:
66
03.08.2007, 11:30
 7)/+8+/(/'# '9-'.+:';/(5<

+$%C6/4*"!"9+7/+%"54101"%A1'E%87"4%!57>+7/+%7/+9*"@101"%G9KL/"*M/7
!& L/#*& .#)1G(& *51/2*)-& T& 6_& ,(4/3"*& '*& '(#3"#*& (& ,+1*& ,(4/2"4-& +

"(#/4/"&B/TU&I%*&*7*654/Z&B/CDEJ&,+/&T&6_&,(4/3"*&(23"#/)-&4+&,*5+1+1*
I'*&'(#3"#*&"(#"&B/TUJ:
!& ;%+/@-&,(4/3"*&O+DN&5$#-&4+&51*'"5")+1*+&'(654*)-:

!&Y#)1(%/<&5*,)*&51*'"5")+)/4&@*4+)"#(,&(23"#/)<&,(4/3"*&%*&+6(#"+'&0"

+@")-&*51/2*)+&5$#-&4+&%"=(4?+1*+&51*'"5")+)/4/":
C*& 8(16*+=-& /#& 51*'"5")+)& @*4+)"#(,& +42+,)1/G%*,'>",& %*& B/IDNJ T
I!"#$% &2J<& '+1*& ,*& %"=(4?-& 8(16$#%& (& ,(4/3"*& +42+,)1/& "#)*#,& '*& '(#3"#*
"(#/4&'(654*7&)*)1++6"#('/51/<&`B/IONMJEaTUZ
B/TU&U&TNDQ&&→&B/IDNJT↓ ("#$%&2$&&L1*'"5")+)/4&@*4+)"#(,&%*
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&51*'"5")+)&@*4+)"#(,&I+42+,)1/G%*,'>",J B/IDNJT:

B/IDNJT&U&EONM&→&`B/IONMJEaIDNJT
B/CD E + TO+DN →
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&,(4/3"*&%*&'/4(+1*&+42+,)1-
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&I-)(5'&C*!5:Q)&'9)-J
→ B/ (DN )T ↓ + O+ TCD E
,$%NC6/4*"!"9+7/+%A1'E%91%"5617"%+09+0"4/ >"%1(7"%&%*&'/51/
I55:&@*4+)"#(,J
!& L/#*& .#)1G(& *51/2*)-& T& 6_& ,(4/3"*& '*% '(#3"#*& (& ,+1*& ,(4/2"4-& +

"(#/4/"&B/TU&I%*&*7*654/Z&B/CDEJ&,+/&T&6_&,(4/3"*&(23"#/)-&4+&,*5+1+1*:
!&;%+/@-<&.#&5"'-)/1"<&,(4/3"*&%*&XY&5$#-&4+&51*'"5")+1*&'(654*)-:

C*& 8(16*+=-& /#& 51*'"5")+)& #*@1/& %*& B/Y T& '+1*& ,*& %*,'(65/#*
"#,)+#)+#*/&.#&B/Y&I51*'"5")+)&+42J&0"&YTZ
TB/TU&U&EYQ&→&TB/Y&↓&U&YT
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&"(%/1-&%*&'/51/&IYJ&I51*'"5")+)&+42J
H+'-&,G+&/)"4"=+)&,(4/3"*&%*&B/CDE<&*'/+3"+&,*&5(+)*&,'1"*Z
TB/CDE&U&EXY&→&TB/Y&↓&U&TXTCDE&U&YT

&+,-./0/123,2'$456'14'`7,8$9:;a<=
!& c75*1"6*#)/4& +& 8(,)& & %*,'1",& 4+& '+5")(4/4& oB(62"#+3""& '(654*7*p<

8""#%&(&-)(53&)*.)*5"/,#)E(-):
C*&8(16*+=-&/#&,-)5&,&'('*%-$02-"75('&%*&>*7+'"+#(8*1+)&IYYJ&%*&'/51/&YY<
B/T`A*IBOJda&I!"#$%&OJ:
l*+'3"+& *,)*& '+1+')*1",)"'-& "(#/4/"& B/TU& 0"& 5*16")*& %*)*16"#+1*+
51*=*#3*"&/16*4(1&%*&B/TU:

&+,-./0/123,2'/>-/?>3'7,56'@/'7,A6
H+'-&"(#""&%*&A*TU&0"&A*MU&,*&@-,*,'&.#)1G(&,(4/3"*&'*&'(#3"#*&+6*,)*'
!& ("#$%&O$&L1*'"5")+)/4&21/#G1(0'+)
%*&"(#"<&,*&51('*%*+=-&'+&.#&,'>*6+&%"#&!"#17+%&B: %*&B/T`A*IBOJda:

67

capitolul 6tipar.P65 67 03.08.2007, 11:30

 C*& (23"#& 51*'"5")+)*& %*& '/4(+1*& #*+@1-& %*& A*C& 0"& A*TCM<& ,(4/2"4*& .#
+'"="<& '/& 8(16+1*& %*& "(#"& A*TU& 0"<& 1*,5*')"?& A* MU:& C*& 51('*%*+=-& 4+
"%*#)"8"'+1*+&"(#"4(1&A*TU&0"&A*MU&51"#&1*+'3""4*&%*,'1",*&.#&'(#)"#/+1*:

7)/+8+/(/'# '9-'.+:';/(5<
+$%C6/4*"!"9+7/+%"54101"%(/'E%91%K"675P"M"%+09+0"4"
!& Y#)1(%/&.#)1G(&*51/2*)-&T&6_&,(4/3"*&'*&'(#3"#*&(&,+1*&,(4/2"4-&+

"(#/4/"&A*TU&I%*&*7*654/Z&A*IODMJT&,+/&A*B4TJ&,+/&T&6_&,(4/3"*&(23"#/)-
("#$%&Q$ &L1*'"5")+)/4&A*IDNJT:
4+&,*5+1+1*:
A*B4T&U&TO+DN&→ !&;%+/@-<&.#&5"'-)/1"<&,(4/3"*&%*&O+DN&5$#-&4+&51*'"5")+1*&'(654*)-:

→&A*IDNJT↓&U&TO+B4
55:&+42G?*1=/"
C*&8(16*+=-&/#&51*'"5")+)&+42G?*1=/"&%*&>"%1(7"%&%*&8"*1&IYYJ&A*IDNJT
I!"#$%&QJZ
A*TU&U&TNDQ&→&A*IDNJT
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&51*'"5")+)&+42G?*1=/"

,$ C6/4*"!"9+7/+%"54101"%(/'E%91%R(/SA=T2U)V
TU
!&Y#)1(%/&.#)1G(&*51/2*)-&T&6_&,(4/3"*&'*&'(#3"#*&"(#"&A* :

!& ;%+/@-&\&6_&,(4/3"*&'*&'(#3"#*&>*7+'"+#(8*1+)&IYYYJ&%*&5()+,"/<

XM`A*IBOJda:

C*&8(16*+=-&/#&51*'"5")+)&+42+,)1/&%*,'>",&%*&>*7+'"+#(8*1+)&IYYYJ
%*&8"*1&IYYJ<&'/#(,'/)&,/2&#/6*4*&%**(#%(+'-$*.)*R$-0%$##:
MA*TU&U&T`A*IBOJMaMQ&→&A*M`A*IBOJdaT
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&55:&+42+,)1/&I+42+,)1/&%*&V/1#2/44J

H+'-&,*&/)"4"=*+=-&,(4/3"*&%*&A*B4T<&*'/+3"+&1*+'3"*"&*,)*Z
MA*B4T&U&TXM`A*IBOJda&→&A*M`A*IBOJdaT↓&U&dXB4

&+,-./0/123,2'/>-4?4/'7,A6'14'`7,8$9:;a5=
!&c75*1"6*#)/4&+&8(,)&%*,'1",&4+&'+5")(4/4&oB(62"#+3""&'(654*7*p<&8""#%
(&1*+'3"*&%*&'(654*7+1*:
C*&8(16*+=-&/#&51*'"5")+)&+42+,)1/&%*&>*7+'"+#(8*1+)&IYYJ&%*&8"*1&IYYYJ<
A*E`A*IBOJdaM<&#/6")&+42+,)1/&%*&R*14"#:&l*+'3"+&*,)*&'+1+')*1",)"'-&"(#/4/"
A*MU&0"&5*16")*&%*)*16"#+1*+&51*=*#3*"&.#&/16*&+&"(#"4(1&A*MU:
% & C'1"*& *'/+3"+& 1*+'3"*"
!

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C6/4*"!"9+7/+%"54101"%(/)E%91%;10!59"+417:%+09+0"4:%SJGA=T
MU
!& Y#)1(%/& .#)1G(& *51/2*)-& T& 6_& ,(4/3"*& '*& '(#3"#*& "(#"& A* & I%*

*7*654/Z&A*B4MJ:
!& ;%+/@-<&.#&5"'-)/1"<&,(4/3"*&%*&,/48('"+#/1-&%*&5()+,"/<&XCBO:

68

capitolul 6tipar.P65 68 03.08.2007, 11:30

 C*&8(16*+=-&/#&'(654*7&,(4/2"4&'/&'/4(+1*&1(0/G,$#@*1"/Z H)0'-$* &"0&&* .)* >( OP* 7&
A*MU&U&dCBOQ&→&`A*ICBOJdaMQ N(OP8*-)(53&&#)*.)*&.)0'&6&5(-)
&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&&,(4/3"*&1(0/G,$#@*1"/ .$5* #(* ,-".$7&* 5$* (5)#)(7&
5$#"-&S*.&0*(5)+'*/"'&C*)+')
&+,-./0/123,2'/>-/?>3'$256'@/'B256 6"(-')* &/,"-'(0'1* 5$0"(72
')-)(*C(#"-&#"-*,-".$7&#"-*.)
H+'-&"(#""&B+TU&0"&R+TU&,*&@-,*,'&.#)1G(&,(4/3"*&'*&'(#3"#*&+6*,)*'&%*
!& +"#$%&#&'(')*,)0'-$*(*(,-)5&(
"(#"<&,*&51('*%*+=-&'+&.#&,'>*6+&%"#&!"#17+%&B: 5(-)* .&0'-)* 5"/,$7&&* -)9$#2
W#&51*=*#3+&IONEJTBDM&,*&(23"#&51*'"5")+)*&+42*&%*&B+BDM<&1*,5*')"? '(3&*+)*6"-/)(91*/(&*$7"-*7&
R+BDM:&;'*,)*&51*'"5")+)*&,/#)&,(4/2"4*&.#&+'"="&6"#*1+4"<&8(16$#%&,(4/3"" 5(-)*)+')*/(&*;-)$*+"#$%&#4
'*&'(#3"#&"(#""&B+TU&0"&R+TU:
C*& 51('*%*+=-& 4+& &.)0'&6&5(-)(* &"0&#"-* >(OP* 7&* N(OP& 51"#& 1*+'3""4*
%*,'1",*&.#&'(#)"#/+1*:

7)/+8+/(/'# '9-'.+:';/(5<
+$%C6/4*"!"9+7/+%"54101"%A+'E%91%5P+0+*%6/%+>54"1
TU
!& L/#*& .#)1G(& *51/2*)-& ,(4/3"*& '*& '(#3"#*& "(#"& B+ & I%*& *7*654/<

,(4/3"*&%*&B+B4TJ&,+/&T&6_&,(4/3"*&(23"#/)-&4+&,*5+1+1*:
!& ;%+/@-&,(4/3"*&%*&(7+4+)&%*&+6(#"/<&ION J B D :
E T T E

C*&8(16*+=-&/#&51*'"5")+)&+42&%*&(7+4+)&%*&'+4'"/<&B+BTDE&I!"#$%&WJZ ("#$%&W$&&L1*'"5")+)/4&%*&(7+4+)&%*
T+ T−
B+ + BT D → B+BT D E ↓
E
'+4'"/:
&51*'"5")+)&+42
A+Y 34"54
,+/&3"#$#%&'(#)&'-&,*&/)"4"=*+=-&,(4/3"*&%*&B+B4TZ
CD TE− BT D TE −
*"54
BD MT −
B+B4T&U&IONEJTBTDE →&B+BTDE↓&U&TONEB4
B+TU dq\]QK Tq\]Q\\ Kq\]Qj
R+TU \q\]Q\] Tq\]Qg Kq\]Qj
,$%C6/4*"!"9+7/+%"54101"%X+'E%91%;501I"/%6/%;10!+*%6/%+>54"1%S=FBT'GHB
TU .+,/010%-O$&f+4(1"4*&LC&5*#)1/
!& L/#*& .#)1G(& *51/2*)-& ,(4/3"*& '*& '(#3"#*& "(#& R+ & I%*& *7*654/<
,-1/1"4*&"(#"4(1&%*&B+TU&0"&R+TU:
,(4/3"*&R+B4TJ:
!&;%+/@-&,(4/3"*&%"4/+)-&%*&,/48+)&%*&+6(#"/<&ION J CD &,+/&,(4/3"*
E ' E
%"4/+)-&%*&NTCDE: E G:717"0/% 6/% X+'E% ;14*
*5P"9/Z
Y(#/4&%*&R+TU&51*'"5")-&"6*%"+)&,/2&8(16-&%*&R+CDE<&51*'"5")+)&+42Z
R+ T + + CDTE− → R+CD E ↓ 304"+5#%&"6
&51*'"5")+)&+42 >$* (5)#(7&* (0&"08* BT D TE −
<"E(#('=8*6"-/)(91*,-)5&,&'('*(#%
&'()*++#,'#+,';/+=+)(.'#(5'#3;2.#(;+2;+ 7&*&"0$#*.)*N(OP8*.(-*5)#*/(&*;-)$
>,';/+=+)(.'(# (;+2;353+# 435=(/A# CD?B−
+"#$%&#* )+')* "E(#('$#* .)* 5(#5&$
<H!*I*O* *TUVTT=*5))(*5)*,)-/&')
.)')-/&0(-)(* 5(0'&'('&C1* (
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51*=*#3+&,(4/3"*"&%*&'4(1/1-&%*&2+1"/<&R+B4T&I?*="&"%*#)"8"'+1*+&"(#/4/"&R+TUJ< I*+,/010%-OJ:

69

capitolul 6tipar.P65 69 03.08.2007, 11:30

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capitolul 6tipar.P65 70
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70
03.08.2007, 14:56
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71

capitolul 6tipar.P65 71 03.08.2007, 11:30

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72

capitolul 6tipar.P65 72 03.08.2007, 11:30

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73

capitolul 6tipar.P65 73 03.08.2007, 11:30

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75

capitolul7tipar.P65 75 03.08.2007, 14:09


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77

capitolul7tipar.P65 77 03.08.2007, 14:09

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78

capitolul7tipar.P65 78 03.08.2007, 14:09

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79

capitolul7tipar.P65 79 03.08.2007, 14:09

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80

capitolul7tipar.P65 80 03.08.2007, 14:09

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81

capitolul7tipar.P65 81 03.08.2007, 14:09

 T'*&.*(-$%#$! #'*#0'-! ). a-.+2"<.%"1-")-.+(5#(%6-%#1-#% H O K +%(%31*25##*1+%(,1(3)%(+)%C(*1+#%:1(+.)
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1 x 10 1 x 10
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8 –8 –6
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7 –7 –7

{ sânge, lacrimi

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1 x 10

1 x 10
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1 x 10

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1 x 10 1 x 10

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82

capitolul7tipar.P65 82 03.08.2007, 14:10

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83

capitolul7tipar.P65 83 03.08.2007, 14:10

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capitolul7tipar.P65 95 03.08.2007, 14:10


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101

capitolul7tipar.P65 101 03.08.2007, 14:10


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Z

[,Q#[
3 Cu0 ,\\\→,Cu+2 ;/,[,&#0/$2%'&
'5)0+&#
],U#[
2 N+5 ,\\\→,N+2 IVTU,[,'5)0+-%
&#0/$#&#
[,_#[
3Cu0 ,\\→,3Cu+2
2N+5 ,\\→,2N
[
],_# +2

U;/ + `IVTU → U;/ ( VTU )Q + QVT + PI Q T

+X +Q +Q +U
("#$%')$,M#+$3)+,$/1&/"/),$/,' ,$, QRS-TP + `IQWTP +YZa#WTP → RQWTP + QS-WTP + ^a#Q (WTP )U + PIQT
.'"/3)#,0#,J?VTU8 '5)0+-% &#0/$2%'&

+_ +Q +U
R Q ;&Q T X + XI Q WT P + _ a# WT P → R Q WT P + ;&Q (WT P )U + Ua# Q (WT P )U + XI Q T
'5)0+- % &#0/ $2%'&
:*'.)!'+ *4&*+ #$4!5!-9
1*$'%*.*+ .3#%3-+ '%*+ $+ &*(>
1!()9+ 1*+ $6!1'%*+ "'!+ "'%*
1*.A&+'%,!(&3-+B!"#$%',C8
:#$/80/#9,.;7
&'()*)(+(,# ,78,9)2,-(+01

-/*01"*%0234252"%02%*678*825%9/%*4#":8
!,F/-#,4-%&D',#1&/=#%2,Q*b,.'"/3)#,0#,+A'%+%,0#,+&?)-%6,J?VT 8
U
!,K-%&'0/,4-,#1&/=#%2,',.<&*2,B1"2$/326,=+&2C,0#,$/1&/8

W#, '=.#&72, $2, 1#, .<&*+, +&2*)#, 0#, $/1&/, .#, 0#1/-#, +&?)-%, B+.1#$%
K .%&2"/$)%'&C6,)+&,.'"/3)+,B)-)3)+",)-$'"'&2,+,J?VTUC,0#7)-#,+"=+.%&2D7#&A/)#
Ca B!"#$%')C8
Na
Mg
M#+$3)+,$+&#,+,+7/%,"'$L
Al ;/ + QJ?VTU → ;/ ( VTU )Q + QJ? ↓
Zn
Fe F&'$#.#"#,&#0'5,.#,1'%,.$&)#L
Sn
Cu0 ,\\→,Cu+2 + 2e–
'5)0+&#
Pb
H2
2Ag+1 + 2e– ,\\→,2Ag0
&#0/$#&#
Cu
Hg H-%&/$<%,1&'$#.#"#,0#,'5)0+&#,>),&#0/$#&#,+/,"'$,.)*/"%+-6,#$/+3)+,.#
Ag
Pt 1'+%#,.$&)#L
Au '5)0+&#

BYC Cu0 + 2Ag+1,→,Cu+2 + 2Ag0

("#$% ',$, W#&)+, +$%)7)%23)), $()D &#0/$#&#
*)$#,+,*#%+"#"'&8

110

capitolul 8tipar.P65 110 03.08.2007, 14:13

 &'()*)(+(,# ,78,9)2,-(+01
-/*01"*%6":0252"%02%;25!*8%9/%02342
!,F/-#,4-%&D',#1&/=#%2,Q*b,.'"/3)#,0#,./":+%,0#,$/1&/6,;/WT 8
P
!,K-%&'0/,4-,#1&/=#%2,',1"2$/32,B.<&*26,=+&2C,0#,A)-$8

W#,'=.#&72,$2,1"2$/3+,0#,A)-$,.#,+$'1#&2,$/,/-,.%&+%,&'>/D+&2*)/,0#
$/1&/,B!"#$%'<C6,)+&,.'"/3)+,+"=+.%&2,0#,;/WTP,.#,0#.$()0#,"+,$/"'+&#8
M#+$3)+,$+&#,+,+7/%,"'$L
c- + ;/WT P → c-WT P + ;/ ↓
F&'$#.#"#,&#0'5L
'5)0+&#
c-0,\\\→,c-Q],],Q#[
&#0/$#&#
;/Q],],Q#[,\\\→,;/Z
.+/ &#0/$#&#

BQC Zn0 + Cu+2,→,Zn+2 + Cu0 ("#$%'<$,M#+$3)+,A)-$/"/),$/,'

'5)0+&#
.'"/3)#,0#,;/WTP8
;#"#,0'/2,1&'$#.#,+/,"'$,3)-<-0,$'-%,0#,%#-0)-3+,0):#&)%2,0#,'5)0+&#,+
*#%+"#"'&6,#51&)*+%2,1&)-,.#&)+,+$%)7)%23)),$()*)$#,+,*#%+"#"'&,B!"#$%',C
:*'.)!'+ *4&*+ #$4!5!-9
b+, .%/0)/", +$)A)"'&, >), =+A#"'&, +), +:"+%, 0#.1&#, .).%#*#"#, :'&*+%#, 0)-
1*$'%*.*+8!(.3-+'%*+&*(1!()'
+$)A)), >), =+A#"#, "'&, $'-G/?+%#8, J.#*2-2%'&6, 1#-%&/, .).%#*#"#, &#0'5, .#
1*+$6!1'%*+"'!+"'%*+1*.A&
0#:)-#.$,.3#-3%!+$6!1'(&>%*13.9&$%+.$(L3,'&*M
.3#%3-+<4*%!'+'.&!2!&9)!!+.0!>
M#0,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,T5,],-#[ N!4&*"3-+7$%"'&+1!(&%>3(+%*13.9&$% "!.*+'+"*&'-*-$%=B
%*13.9&$% $6!1'(& <:*1=+;!+3(+$6!1'(&+<D6=+.$(L3,'&
B0'-'&,0#,#[C B+$$#1%'&,0#,#[C
%*#%*8!(&9+.3#-3+%*13.9&$%>$6!1'(&
4'3+.3#-3+%*1$6
b+,/-,1&'$#.,&#0'5,1+&%)$)12,%'%0#+/-+,0'/2,.3#-3%!+%*1$6M &2)-(,3(,45)6
T5Y,],-#[,e,M#0Y,,,,,,,,*
J$)0, ! ,f+A2,$'-G/?+%2,],I]
M#0Q,[,*#[,e,T5Q,,,,,,,,-
H-%&/$<%,-/*2&/",0#,#"#$%&'-),$#0+3),#.%#,#?+",$/,-/*2&/",0#,#"#$%&'-) f+A2,],I], ! ,J$)0,$'-G/?+%
+$$#1%+3)L J$)0Y,],f+A2Q,! ,J$)0Q,],f+A2Y
*T5Y,],*-#[,e,*M#0Y BUC
[
-M#0Q,[,-*# ,e,-T5Q BPC
ddddddddddddddddddddddddd
J0/-<-0,BUC,$/,BPC,.#,'=3)-#,*.3')!'+,-$5'-9L
*T5Y,],-M#0Q,e,*M#0Y,],-T5Q
H-,$'-.#$)-32L
I(+ $6!1'(&+ "'!+ #3&*%(!.+ <D6J=+ %*'.)!$(*'89+ .3+ %*13.9&$%3-+ "'!
#3&*%(!.+<:*1K=+7$%"A(1+$6!1'(&3-+"'!+4-'5+<D6K=+;!+%*13.9&$%3-+"'!
4-'5+<:*1J=8

111

capitolul 8tipar.P65 111 03.08.2007, 14:13

 aQ,],Q#[ →,Qa[ Q6`X :<;(,-5)+0# .,# ;7).;49,./',9,# =(+-.+9.
Q], [ ]
J? ],# ,→,J? Y6jj
IQTQ,],QI],],Q#[,→,QIQT Y6X` :>,9)+#8;(,-5)+0,0;9#=(+-.+9.#.,#9,./',9,
S-TP[,],`I],],^#[,→,S-Q],]
PIQT Y6^Y E)-,#51#&)*#-%#"#,1&#A#-%+%#,+-%#&)'&,.#,0#0/$#,$2,A)-$/",#.%#,*+)
, ]
F=TQ ],PI ,],Q# ,→,F= ,] [ Q] &#+$%)7,0#$<%,$/1&/"6,.+/6,+"%:#",.1/.6,8!(.3-+'%*+#3&*%*+1*+$6!1'%*+"'!
QIQT Y6P_ "'%*+1*.A&+.3#%3-B,;/1&/",#.%#,*+),&#+$%)7,0#$<%,+&?)-%/"6,+0)$2,#3&*%*'
;"Q,],Q#[,→,Q;"[ Y6U_ $6!1'(&9+'+.3#%3-3!+*4&*+"'!+"'%*+1*.A&+'+'%,!(&3-3!8
;&QTXQ[,],YPI],],_#[,→,Q;&U],] E/12, $/*, .D+, $'-.%+%+%6, &#+$%)7)%+%#+, 0):#&)%2, +, *#%+"#"'&, .#, 1'+%#
XIQT Y6UU #51")$+,3)-<-0,$'-%,0#,4*%!'+'.&!2!&9)!!+"*&'-*-$%,0#.1&#,$+&#,+),+:"+%,4-
, ] [
TQ ],PI ,],P# ,→,QIQT Y6QU
$"+.#"#,+-%#&)'+&#L
f&Q,],Q#[,→,Qf&[ Y6Zj
QI?Q],],#[,→,I?QQ] Z6jY R6,;+6,V+6,S?6,J"6,c-6,a#6,W-6,F=6,IQ6,;/6,I?6,J?6,F%6,J/
], [
J? ],# ,→,J? Z6`Z
I?QQ],],#[,→,QI? Z6`Z &2)-(,3(,45)6
a#U],],#[,→,a#Q] Z6XX
, ] [
TQ ],QI ,],Q# ,→,QIQTQ Z6_`
O(+4*%!'+'.&!2!&9)!!+"*&'-*-$%M
!, "*&'-*-*+ .*-*+ "'!+ '.&!2*+ 43(&+ .$(4!1*%'&*+ .*-*+ 4!&3'&*+ @('!(&*'
S-TP[,],#[,→,S-TPQ[ Z6^_
KQ,],Q#[,→,QK[ Z6^P IQ@+ '.*4&*'+ #$&+ 4.$'&*+ IQ+ 1!(+ '.!8!/+ 4#%*+ 1*$4*5!%*+ 1*+ .*-*+ 4!&3'&*
],
;/ ],# ,→,;/ [
Z6^Q 13#9+IQ6+.'%*+(3+#$&+1*8-$.3!+IQ,1!(+'.!8!H
TQ,],QIQT,],P#[,→,PTI[ Z6PZ !,3(+"*&'-+#$'&*+@(-$.3!+1!(+.$"#3;!+"*&'-*-*+.'%*+@!+3%"*'89+;!

;/Q],],Q#[,→,;/ Z6UP #$'&*+7!+1*8-$.3!&+1*+"*&'-*-*+.'%*+@-+#%*.*1B

;/Q],],#[,→,;/] Z6Y_
QI],],Q#[,→,IQ Z6ZZ 9#-0)-3+,0#,+,+$$#1%+6,&#.1#$%)7,0#,+,$#0+,#"#$%&'-),#.%#,:'+&%#,0):#&)%2
U], [
a# ],U# ,→,a# [Z6ZU_ 0#,"+,/-,.).%#*,"+,+"%/"8,T,*2./&2,+,1/%#&)),'5)0+-%#,.+/,&#0/$2%'+&#,+
F=Q],],Q#[,→,F= [Z6YU /-/),.).%#*,#.%#,0+%2,0#,2'-$'%*'+#$&*()!'-3-3!+4&'(1'%1/,0#%#&*)-+%2,4-
W-Q],],Q#[,→,W- [Z6YP
Q], [
&+1'&%,$/,#$&*()!'-3-+4&'(1'%1+'-+*-*.&%$13-3!+1*+0!1%$,*(8
V) ],Q# ,→,V) [Z6QU
;'*1+&<-0,1'A)3)+,*#%+"#"'&,4-,4*%!'+'.&!2!&9)!!,$/,1'A)3)+,+$#.%'&+,4-
F=WTP,],Q#[,→,F=,],WTPQ[ [Z6U^
;0Q],],Q#[,→,;0 [Z6PZ
4*%!'+#$&*()!'-*-$%+4&'(1'%1+1*+%*13.*%*,0)-,$'"'+-+,+"2%/&+%2,B!"#$%'=C
Q],
a# ],Q# ,→,a# [
[Z6PP .#,$'-.%+%2,$2,+$#.%#+,./-%,+.#*2-2%'+&#8,H-,$'-.#$)-32L
;&U],],#[,→,;&Q] [Z6^Z E3+ .A&+ 3(+ "*&'-+ '%*+ 3(+ #$&*()!'-+ 4&'(1'%1+ 1*+ %*13.*%*+ "'!+ "!.
;&U],],U#[,→,;& [Z6XU <(*,'&!2=/+'%*+&*(1!()9+"'!+"'%*+1*+'+4*+$6!1'/+0#$)+*4&*+"'!+'.&!2+1!(
Q], [
c- ],Q# ,→,c- [Z6X_ #3(.&+1*+2*1*%*+.0!"!.H+*4&*+3(+%*13.9&$%+"'!+#3&*%(!.B
QIQT,],Q#[,→,IQ,],QTI[ [Z6`U V#*#%+"#"#,1'%,:),4-$+0&+%#,4-,4*%!'+#$&*()!'-*-$%+4&'(1'%1+1*+%*13.*%*/
S-Q],],Q#[,→,S- [Y6Y` '5)0+-%/",$#",*+),1/%#&-)$,:))-0,:"/'&/"8
U], [
J" ],U# ,→,J" [Y6__ E)-,7+"'&)"#,.#&)#),1'%#-3)+"#"'&,.%+-0+&0,0#,&#0/$#&#%.#,1'+%#,0#0/$#L
IQ,],Q#[,→,QI[ [Q6QU
S?Q],],Q#[,→,S? [Q6UX J?#-3),&#0/$2%'&) J?#-3), '5)0+-3)
b+U],],U#[,→,b+ [Q6UX IQgQI]
!&#0,h,Z !&#0,i,Z
V+],],#[,→,V+ [Q6XY !,e,Z
;+Q],],Q#[,→,;+ [Q6X_
f+Q],],Q#[,→,f+ [Q6jZ P*&*%"!('%*'+2'-$%!-$%+#$&*()!'-*-$%+4&'(1'%1,.#,=+A#+A2,1#,:+1%/"
R],],#[ →,R [Q6jQ $2,.#,1'%,)*+?)-+,$#"/"#,#"#$%&'$()*)$#,$+&#,.2,$'&#.1/-02,'&)$2&#),&#+$3))
], [
b) ],# ,→,b) [U6Z^ &#0'56,0/12,$/*,.#,7+,7#0#+,4-,$#"#,$#,/&*#+A28
D6!1'%*'+7!!(1+3(+#%$.*4+1*+.*1'%*+1*+*-*.&%$(!/+!'%+%*13.*%*'+#%$.*4
("#$%'=$,W#&)+,1'%#-3)+"#"'&,.%+-D
0+&0,0#,&#0/$#&#8 1*+ '..*#&'%*+ 1*+ *-*.&%$(!6, 4-, $'-0)3)), +0#$7+%#6, %*'.)!!-*+ %*1$6+ #$&+ 7!

112

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 3&!-!8'&*+#*(&%3+'+#%$13.*+.3%*(&+*-*.&%!.+@(+.*-3-*+*-*.&%$.0!"!.*H+7$%)'
*-*.&%$"$&$'%*+<1!7*%*()'+1*+#$&*()!'-=+'+.*-3-*!+2'+.'%'.&*%!8'+.'(&!&'&!2
'7!(!&'&*'+7')9+1*+*-*.&%$(!+'+4!4&*"*-$%+%*1$6+!"#-!.'&*B

:#$,0/0,#,0,'(9;'?)2)',
:# <;(,-5)+0/0# =(+-.+9.# .,# ,0,'(9;.

&2)-(,3(,45)6
Q-*.&%$1+<4*"!.*-3-9+,'-2'>
H-,$"+.+,+,KND+,+),+:"+%,$2,.*-3-*-*+*-*.&%$.0!"!.*,./-%,0).1'A)%)7# (!.9=+ G+ '(4'"5-3+ 7$%"'&
$/,+G/%'&/",$2&'&+,*(*%,!'+.0!"!.9+4*+&%'(47$%"9+@(+*(*%,!*+*-*.&%!.96 1!(&%>3(+ "*&'-, B.$(13.&$%
+7<-0,"+,=+A2,#%$.*4*+%*1$68 4'3+ #-9.3)9C+ >), *-*.&%$-!&3-
493,B@(+.'%*+4*+'7-9+!(&%$134CB
E/12,$/*,.D+,72A/%,+-%#&)'&6,"+,)-%&'0/$#&#+,/-#),1"2$/3#,0#,A)-$,4-
.'"/3)#,0#,;/WTP6,.#,1&'0/$#,1&'$#./",&#0'5L
c- + ;/WT P → c-WT P + ;/ ↓ I(+ *-*"*(&+ ,'-2'(!.+ *4&*
1#-%&/,$+&#,%&+-.:#&/",0#,#"#$%&'-),+&#,"'$,4-%&#,$#"#,1$39+.3#-3%!+%*1$6M 7$%"'&+1!(+1$39+4*"!.*-3-*/
#3(&*'+ 1*+ 4'%*+ ;!+ .$(13.>
'5)0+&# Q]
c-,\\\→,c- ,],Q#[ &$%3-+"*&'-!.B
&#0/$#&#
;/Q],],Q#[,\\\→,;/
c-,],;/Q],\\\→,c-Q],],;/
E+$2, 1&'$#.#"#, &#0'5, 1&#A#-%+%#, +-%#&)'&, B$6!1'%*'+ c-, >), &#.1#$%)7 R3(&*'+1*+4'%*+@(.0!1*+.!%>
%*13.*%*'+;/Q]C,+/,"'$,4-,.1+3)),0):#&)%#6,.#,:'&*#+A2,$+.*-3-9+*-*.&%$.0!> .3!&3-+ *-*.&%!.+ ;!+ '4!,3%9
"!.96,$+&#,#.%#,+"$2%/)%2,0)-,1$!+*-*.&%$8!/+#3(&*+1*+4'%*,>),3(+.$(13.&$% (*3&%'-!&'&*'+ 4$-3)!!-$%8
"*&'-!.+*6&*%!$%8

&'()*)(+(,# ,78,9)2,-(+01
E$(13.&$%3-+ "*&'-!.+ -*',9
>7:;842"4/*%?"%!2:01"7:*4/*%2:/"%0/525/%/5/08470@"A"0/%BC:D>2E
.*!+ 1$!+ *-*.&%$8!+ ;!+ #*%"!&*
J"$2%/)#>%#,*'-%+G/",0)-,!"#24*%'FG%3*#$%))=G,/%)")A<-0L
&%'(4#$%&3-+ *-*.&%$(!-$%+ 1*
!,O-,1+(+&,f#&A#")/.,4-,$+&#,)-%&'0/$),YZZ,*b,.'"/3)#,YS,0#,+A'%+%
-'+'($1+-'+.'&$1B
0#,A)-$6,c-,BVTUCQ6,>),',1"2$/32,0#,A)-$,B+-'0C8
!,O-,+"%,1+(+&,f#&A#")/.,$/,YZZ,*b,.'"/3)#,+A'%+%,0#,$/1&/6,;/BVT C
U Q
Y,S6,>),',1"2$/32,0#,$/1&/,B$+%'0C8
!,O-,%/=,4-,:'&*2,0#,O,B1/-%#,0#,.+&#C,$#,$'-3)-#,',.'"/3)#,0#,+A'%+%

0#,.'0)/6,V+VTU6,+.%/1+%,"+,$+1#%#,$/,7+%2,.+/,(<&%)#,0#,:)"%&/8 S'+ @(.0!1*%*'+ .!%.3!&3-3!

!, ;'-0/$%'&), *#%+")$), $+&#, "#+?2, $#), 0'), #"#$%&'A), >), +1+&+%/", 0#
*-*.&%!./+*-*.&%$(!!+4*+1*#-'>
*2./&2,B7'"%*#%&/C8 4*'89+1*+-'+'($1+B*-*.&%$13-
k#),$'-.%+%+,$2,+$/",7'"%*#%&/"/),-/,#.%#,0#7)+%,1<-2,$#,-/,.#,4-$()0# (*,'&!2C+-'+.'&$1+B*-*.&%$13-
$)&$/)%/",#"#$%&)$,1&)-,)-%#&*#0)/",1/-3)),0#,.+&#8 #$8!&!2C8

113

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 #[ #[
J-'0 k'"%*#%&/
VT U− V+]
$+%)'-)
+-)'-)
;+%'0
VT U− VT U−
.'"/3)#,0# c-Q] VT U−
c-BVTUCQ VT U− ;/Q] .'"/3)#,0#
;/BVTUCQ

c-B.C,→,c-Q]B+lC,],Q#[ ;/Q]B+lC,],Q#[,→,;/↓

("#$%'F$,F)"+,#"#$%&)$2,c-[;/,BE+-)#""C,[,1&#A#-%+&#,.$(#*+%)$28

Proces redox

H:7925,B[C,#.%#,#"#$%&'0/",/-0# >*87925,B]C,#.%#,#"#$%&'0/",/-0#
+&#,"'$,$6!1'%*'M +&#,"'$,%*13.*%*'M
B[C,,c-,→,c-Q],],Q#[ B]C,,;/Q]],Q#[,→,;/
m,"'4'+'($13-3!+4.'1*,1&)-,%&#D m,"'4'+.'&$13-3!+.%*;&*,1&)-,0#D
$#&#+,)'-)"'&,c-Q],4-,.'"/3)#@ 1/-#&#+,$/1&/"/),1#,$+%'0@
m,.%*;&*+(3"9%3-+!$(!-$%+#$8!&!2! m,.%*;&*+(3"9%3-+!$(!-$%+(*,'&!2!
$+&#, 7'&, :), -#/%&+")A+3), 0#, )'-)) $+&#, 7'&, :), -#/%&+")A+3), 0#, )'-))
-#?+%)7),0)-,1/-%#+,0#,.+&#8 1'A)%)7),0)-,1/-%#+,0#,.+&#8

7-363-+1*+*-*.&%$(!+B.3%*(&3-+*-*.&%!.C
.!%.3-9+1*+-'+'($1+-'+.'&$1B

:*'.)!'+%*1$6,?#-#&+%'+&#,0#,$/&#-%,#.%#L
&'()*)(+(,# )-.)*)./+01 c-,],;/Q],\\\→,c-Q],],;/
W)*='")$6,$#"/"+,?+"7+-)$2,.#,-'%#+A2L
, C2A(1+ -'+ 1!4#$8!)!*
!

#-9.3)*+ 1*, c-6, J?6, a#+ ;!

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E/12,$/*,.#,$'-.%+%2,4-,#51#&)*#-%/",#:#$%/+%,+-%#&)'&6,+$/",7'"%*#%&/"/)
.D+, 0#1"+.+%6, *2./&<-0/D.#, +.%:#", 1!7*%*()'+ 1*+ #$&*()!'-, 0)-%&#, $#), 0')
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114

capitolul 8tipar.P65 114 03.08.2007, 14:14

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g I+
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115

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0#,#"#$%&'0,+",A)-$/"/)8
F&'$#.#"#,&#0'5,0)-,$#"#,0'/2,.#*)$#"/"#,>),&#+$3)+,?"'=+"2,./-%L
J-'0,B[C c-B.C,→,c-Q]B+l6,YSC,],Q#[
;+%'0,B]C QI]B+l6,YSC,,],Q#[ →,IQB?C
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B[C,,c-, ,c- B+l6,YSC, , ,I B+l6,YSC, ,IQB?6,Y,+%*C, ,F%,,B]C
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117

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capitolul 8tipar.P65 118
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!,e,Z6PP,k,],Z6U^,k,e,Z6X`,k8,M#+$3)+,#.%#,.1'-%+-2,4-,.#-./",)-0)$+%8
)+$%;/,→,;/Q],],Q#[,,, ! ;/ g ;/Q+ e,[Z6UP,k,B'5)0+&#C
QI],],Q#[,→,IQ,, ! QI + g IQ e,Z6ZZ,k,B&#0/$#&#C
!,e,[Z6UP,k,],Z6ZZ,k,e,[Z6UP,k8,M#+$3)+,-/,+&#,"'$8
)0$% S-T −P + ^a# +Q + `I + → ^a# +U + S- +Q + PI Q T
;#"/"+,#"#$%&'$()*)$2,+.'$)+%2,&#+$3)#),&#0'5L
B[C,,a# ,a# , , S-T −P 6,I ,S- ,,B]C
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Z
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B[C F=B.C + WTQP − B+lC → F=WT P B.C + Q# − 7$-$4!=B
B]C F=TQ B.C + PI + B+lC + WTQP − B+lC + Q# − → F=WTP B.C + QI Q TB"C
Q.3')!'+%*1$6+,-$5'-9+,*(*%'&$'%*+1*+.3%*(&+*4&*M
F=B.C + F=TQ B.C + PI + B+lC + QWTQP− B+lC → QF=WTP B.C + QIQ TB"C
F&)-,:/-$3)'-+&#6,+$/*/"+%'&/",.#,0#.$+&$2,:'&*<-0,+12,>),+.%:#",.'"/3)+
0#,IQWTP,.#,0)"/#+A2@,$'-$#-%&+3)+,+$#.%#)+,.#,7#&):)$2,*2./&<-0,0#-.)D
%+%#+,.'"/3)#)8,M#4-$2&$+&#+,+$/*/"+%'&/"/),.#,&#+")A#+A2,1&)-,"#?+&#+,#"#$D
%&'A)"'&,"+,&#0&#.'&6,+7<-0,"'$,1&'$#./",&#0'5,)-7#&.,\,*-*.&%$-!8'8

:#"0,2,-(,#B+0*+-)',#/='+(,
;+"$/"+%'+&#"#6, $#+./&)"#, #"#$%&'-)$#6, &+0)'/&)"#, 1'&%+=)"#6, G/$2&))"#6 J-'0,[
$")")-0&/
$+.#%':'+-#"#6,'=)#$%#,$#,-#,./-%,+%<%,0#,:+*)")+&#,./-%,1/.#,4-,:/-$3)/-#,0#
0#,A)-$
=+%#&)),*)$),>),#:)$)#-%#6,-/*)%#,*-*"*(&*+,'-2'(!.*+34.'&*+<5'&*%!!+34.'&*=8
;+%'0,[
F)"+, b#$"+-$(t6, )-7#-%+%2, 4-, Y`_X, 0#, $()*).%/", :&+-$#A, s#'&?# ?&+:)%
b#$"+-$(t6,#.%#,$#+,*+),7#$(#,=+%#&)#,/.$+%2,/%)")A+%28,J"$2%/)&#+,+$#.%#)+
!"#$%&'")%/"
#.%#,1&#A#-%+%2,4-,!"#24*%).)8
C($13-+ #.%#, :'&*+%, 0)-%&D/-, $)")-0&/, *)$, 0#, A)-$, /*1"/%, $/, ', 1+.%2
:'&*+%2,0)-,VIP;"6,c-;"Q,>),*+%#&)+",)-#&%,0#,/*1"/%/&2,B#"#$%&'")%/"C@,4-
*)G"'$/",$)")-0&/"/),.#,)-%&'0/$#,$+%'0/",:'&*+%,0)-,?&+:)%,>),4-$'-G/&+%,0#
S-TQ8,M#+$3))"#,&#0'5,$#,+/,"'$,./-%,$'*1"#5#6,0+&,.)*1"):)$+%,.#,&#1&#A)-%2L
B[C,,,c-B.C,→,c-Q,],Q#[,,$6!1'%* ("#$%).)$,!"#*#-%/",b#$"+-$(t
B]C,,,QVIP]B+lC,],QS-TQB.C,],Q#[,→,S-QTUB.C,],QVIUB+lC,],IQTB"C
%*13.*%*
J.%2A),.#,:+=&)$2,7+&)+-%#,*'0):)$+%#6,*+),#:)$)#-%#8,E#,#5#*1"/6,"+
=+%#&)+,+"$+")-26,VIP;",.#,4-"'$/)#>%#,$/,RTI6,',=+A2,+"$+")-2,B!"#$%).,C8
M#+$3)+,"+,+-'0,)*1")$2,%'%,'5)0+&#+,A)-$/"/)6,0+&,+$#.%+,#.%#,1&#A#-%,./=
:'&*2,0#,1/0&2,4-,+*#.%#$,$/,#"#$%&'")%/",.2/@,&#+$3))"#,"+,#"#$%&'A),./-%L
J-'0,B[C,,,c-,],QIT[,→,c-T ],IQT,],Q#[
;+%'0,B]C,,,QS-TQ,],IQT,],Q#[,→,S-QTU,],QIT[
f+%#&))"#,/.$+%#,+"$+")-#,./-%,*+),#:)$)#-%#,0#$<%,$#"#,+$)0#6,4-,.1#$)+"
1#-%&/, :+1%/", $2, +-'0/", 0#, A)-$, .#, $'&'0#+A2, *+), "#-%, 4-, *#0)/, =+A)$ ("#$% ).,$, f+%#&)+, +"$+")-2
0#$<%,4-,*#0)/,+$)08 c-DS-TQ8

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 ;+%'0
O-,+"%,%)1,0#,=+%#&)#,/.$+%2,4",&#1&#A)-%2,5'&*%!'+1*+'%,!(&+.3+'($1+1*
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T, =+%#&)#, /.$+%2, 0#'.#=)%, 0#, )*1'&%+-%2, #.%#, 5'&*%!'+ %*@(.9%.'5!-9
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W'"/3)#,0#,I?T,4-,*#0)/
J-'0,B[C,,,;0,],QIT[,→,;0BTICQ,],Q#[
=+A)$,0#,RTI,>),c-BTICQ
;+%'0,B]C,,,V)TQ,],QIQT,],Q#[,→,V)BTICQ,],QIT[
("#$% ).<$, f+%#&)+, $/, '5)0, 0# C2'(&'L3-+3&!-!89%!!+5'&*%!*!+(!.0*->.'1"!3,$'-.%2,4-,:+1%/",$2,1'+%#,:)
*#&$/&8 &#4-$2&$+%2,1&+$%)$,:2&2,&#.%&)$3)#,B0#,-#-/*2&+%#,'&)6,:2&2,.2,.#,0#?&+0#A#C8

:<)0,#.,#';2C/=(),#D#',0/0,#,0,'(9;'?)2)',#'+9,
B,-,9,+E1#,0,'(9)')(+(,#.)-#';2C/=()C)0)
!-#&?)+, %#&*)$2, #")=#&+%2, 1&)-, +&0#&#+, $'*=/.%)=)")"'&, #.%#, +0#.#+
Y8QU %&+-.:'&*+%2,4-,#-#&?)#,#"#$%&)$2@,$2"0/&+,1'+%#,%&+-.:'&*+,+1+,4-,7+1'&)6
$+&#,1/-,4-,:/-$3)/-#,',%/&=)-26,$#,"+,&<-0/",#),+$3)'-#+A2,/-,?#-#&+%'&8
k'"%*#%&/
#[ E#, &#?/"26, *+5)*, PZu, 0)-, #-#&?)+, 0#, $'*=/.%)#, #.%#, %&+-.:'&*+%2, 4-
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#[
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$#"/"2, ?+"7+-)$2, $&#>%#, ?&+0/", 0#, $'-7#&%)&#, +, #-#&?)#), $()*)$#, 4-, #"#$%&)D
$)%+%#8, ;#"/"#"#, ?+"7+-)$#, $+&#, &#+")A#+A2, +$#+.%2, %&+-.:'&*+&#, :'"'.)-0
R] $'*=/.%)=)"),$'-7#-3)'-+"),.#,-/*#.$,#!-*+1*+.$"534&!*8
TI[ J/,:'.%,:2$/%#,-/*#&'+.#,4-$#&$2&),1#-%&/,+,&#+")A+,#!-*+1*+.$"534&!*8
IQT
O-+,0)-%&#,$#"#,*+),*+&),1&'="#*#,#.%#,%#*1#&+%/&+,$&#.$/%2,0)-,%)*1/"
:/-$3)'-2&)),$+&#,)&'.#>%#,#-#&?)#6,+$$#"#&<-0,4-,+$#"+>),%)*1,1&'$#./",0#
$'&'A)/-#,+,#"#*#-%#"'&,$#"/"#)8,H-,+$#.%,.#-.6,&#A/"%+%#,&#*+&$+=)"#,.D+/
'=3)-/%,$/,1)"+,$#,:'"'.#>%#,0&#1%,$'*=/.%)=)",IQ6,0+&,$'.%/",+$%/+",+",$#"/D
"#),',:+$#,-#:)+=)"2,1#-%&/,/%)")A+&#+,"+,.$+&2,"+&?28,;/,%'+%#,+$#.%#+6,1)"+
TQ !"#$%&'A),0# 0#,$'*=/.%)#,#.%#,/%)")A+%2,4-,.)%/+3)),.1#$)+"#6,$/*,+&,:),7#()$/"#"#,.1+3)+"#8
$2&=/-#,1'&'.
T,+.%:#",0#,$#"/"2,.#,=+A#+A2,1#,&#+$3)+,0)-%&#,IQ,>),TQL
QIQB?C,],TQB?C,→,QIQTB"C
("#$%).=$,F)"+,0#,$'*=/.%)#8
W$(#*+%)$6,1)"+,0#,$'*=/.%)#,#.%#,&#1&#A#-%+%2,4-,!"#24*%).=8,M#+$3))"#
$+&#,.#,1&'0/$,"+,#"#$%&'A),./-%L
B[C,,,QIQ,],PIT[,→,PIQT,],P#[
B]C,,,TQB?C,],QIQT,],P#[,→,PIT[
T,+.%:#",0#,=+%#&)#,+,:'.%,:'"'.)%2,$+,./&.2,1&)-$)1+"2,0#,#-#&?)#,#"#$%&)$2
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#5%&+%#&#.%&#8
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.0!"!.*f/,4-,$+&#,.2,1&#A)-3),&#A/"%+%#"#,$#&$#%2&)"'&,"+,-)7#",*'-0)+" #3%!-*+1*+"';!(!/+#*(&%3+'#'>
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#"#$%&'0/",B+-'0,.+/,$+%'0C,&#1&#A#-%+%,1&)-,+$#.%,1&'$#.8
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