Volum Drept - 2008 (169pg)

SERIA TIINE JURIDICE JURIDICAL SCIENCES SERIES
NO. 1 / 2008
Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu University of Constantin Brncui from Trgu Jiu
Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu Annals of the Constantin Brncui University from Trgu Jiu
SERIA TIINE JURIDICE JURIDICAL SCIENCES SERIES

NR. 1/2008 NO. 1/2008
ISSN 1844 - 7015 Revist categoria C publicaii tiinifice de importan naional Cod CNCSIS 718
Redactor ef / Editor-in-Chief:
prof.univ.dr. Moise BOJINC Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu / Decan Facultatea de tiine Juridice
Redactor ef adjunct / Deputy Editor-in-Chief:

Lect. univ. dr. Ion Cristinel RUJAN Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu / Facultatea de tiine Juridice
Secretar general de redacie / Editorial Secretary General:

Lect. univ. Alin-Gheorghe GAVRILESCU Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu / Facultatea de tiine Juridice
Colegiul Redacional / Editorial Board:

Profesor Andre LAJOIE, Facultatea de Drept, Universitatea din Montral, Cercettor Centru de cercetare n drept public Profesor Daniel GADBIN, Decan Facultatea de Drept i tiine Politice Universitatea Rennes 1 Profesor Nathalie Des ROSIERS, Decan Facultatea de Drept, Universitatea din Ottawa Profesor Didier BLANC Prodecan la Facultatea de Drept i tiine Politice, Universitatea Versailles-Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines Prof. univ. dr. Pantelimon MANTA, Constantin Brncui Trgu-Jiu Lect. univ. dr. Titu IONACU, Facultatea de tiine Juridice, Universitatea Constantin Brncui Trgu-Jiu Lect. univ. Laura Magdalena TROCAN, Facultatea de tiine Juridice, Universitatea Constantin Brncui Trgu-Jiu Lect. univ. Giorgiana Elena SIMIONESCU, Facultatea de tiine Juridice, Universitatea Constantin Brncui Trgu-Jiu Lect. univ. Ana Maria DIACONU, Facultatea de tiine Juridice, Universitatea Constantin Brncui Trgu-Jiu Lect. univ. Octavia Maria CILIBIU, Facultatea de tiine Juridice, Universitatea Constantin Brncui Trgu-Jiu Facultatea de tiine Juridice, Universitatea
THE SERIES CONTENTS THE WORKS PRESENTED AT THE SESSION OF SCIENTIFIC COMMUNICATIONS WITH INTERNATIONAL PARTICIPATION THE SOCIETY OF KNOWLEDGE AND THE PROGRESS OF DEMOCRACY 6-8 june 2008 INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC COMITEE
President of Honor:
Acad. Bertrand Saint-Sernin Member of the French Academy, University Paris IV
President:
Prof PhD. Adrian Gorun Rector of Constantin Brncui University Trgu-Jiu
Vice-presidents:
Acad. Nicolae Manolescu President of Writers Union from Romania Prof.univ.dr. Lazr Vlsceanu University of Bucharest Prof. univ. dr. Lucica Matei National School of Political and Administrative Sciences, Bucharest Prof. univ. dr. Smaranda Angheni - Titu Maiorescu University Bucharest
Secretary:
Assoc. Prof. PhD. Gheorghe Gmneci general chancellor of Constantin Brncui University Trgu-Jiu
Members:
Prof. PhD. (Reader) Emil Hristov University of Mines and Geology Sofia Prof. PhD. Predrag Matvejevi - University La Sapienza Roma Prof. PhD. El. Thalassinos University of Piraeus, Greece Prof. PhD. Farkas Jen University of Budapest Acad. Marius Sala - Director of the Linguistics Institute Iorgu Iordan-Al. Rosetti Bucureti Prof. PhD. Alexandru Boboc Member of the Romanian Academy Prof. PhD. Constantin Brtianu Polytechnic University, Bucureti Prof. PhD. Petre Bieltz - University Titu Maiorescu (Bucureti) Assoc. Prof. PhD. Ovidiu Pecican - Babe Bolyai University (Cluj - Napoca) Prof. PhD. Ion Bulei University of Bucharest Prof. PhD. Dumitru Miron Academy of Economic Sciences, Bucharest Prof. PhD. Ion Dogaru University of Craiova Prof. PhD. Ani Matei SNSPA Bucharest
CUPRINS: 1. CAPITALUL INTELECTUAL ACTIV I FACTOR DECISIV AL DEZVOLTRII SOCIETII BAZAT PE CUNOATERE Moise BOJINC ..... 5 2. RASPUNDEREA POLITICA SI JURIDICA A PRESEDINTELUI ROMANIEI Pantelimon MANTA ........... 13 3. PROCLAMATIA DE LA TIMISOARA SI SOCIETATEA DESCHISA IN ROMANIA POST-TOTALITARA David KILGOUR . 21 4. OPOZABILITATEA I PROTECIA JURIDIC A DREPTURILOR SUBIECTIVE N SISTEMUL DREPTULUI EUROPEAN Vasile CIUV .. 33 5. PROCEDURA ADOPIEI Gabriela Ana ARC .... 43 6. CONTRIBUII LA STUDIUL ACIUNII N TGADA PATERNITII Alin-Gheorghe GAVRILESCU .. 55 7. DEONTOLOGIA POLITIENEASCA Constantin NICOLESCU ... 67 8. DESPRE ROLUL I STATUTUL JURIDIC AL SOCIETILOR TRANSNAIONALE N EPOCA CONTEMPORAN Laura Magdalena TROCAN .. 77 9. MINORUL N CADRUL STATULUI DE DREPT I AL SOCIETII CUNOATERII Veronica GAL .... 89 10. IMPLICATIILE PROIECTULUI NOULUI COD CIVIL SI ALE PROIECTULUI NOULUI COD DE PROCEDURA CIVILA ASUPRA MEDIULUI DE AFACERI Titu IONACU ... 99 11. RSPUNDEREA INTERNAIONAL PENTRU DAUNELE ADUSE MEDIULUI ELEMENTELE RSPUNDERII Remus IONESCU . 107
CONTENTS: 1. INTELLECTUAL ACTIVE CAPITAL AND DECISIVE FACTOR OF KNOWLEDGE BASED SOCIETY DEVELOPMENT Moise BOJINC ..... 5 2. POLITICAL AND JURIDICAL LIABILITY OF THE PRESIDENT OF ROMANIA Pantelimon MANTA ... 13 3. PROCLAMATION OF TIMISOARA AND BUILDING AN OPEN SOCIETY IN POST-TOTALITARIAN ROMANIA David KILGOUR . 21 4. OPPOSABILITY AND JURIDICIAL PROTECTION OF SUBJECTIVE RIGHTS IN THE EUROPEAN RIGHT SYSTEM Vasile CIUV .. 33 5. ADOPTION PROCEDURE Gabriela Ana ARC .... 43 6. CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF CONTESTED PATERNITY ACTION Alin-Gheorghe GAVRILESCU .. 55 7. DEONTOLOGIE POLICIERE Constantin NICOLESCU ... 67 8. ON THE ROLE AND JURIDICAL STATUS OF TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS IN CONTEMPORARY AGE Laura Magdalena TROCAN .. 77 9. THE MINOR CHILD IN THE SOCIETY OF KNOWLEDGE WHERE THE LAW RULES Veronica GAL .... 89 10. LES IMPLICATIONS DU PROJET DU NOUVEAU CODE CIVIL ET DU PROJET DU NOUVEAU CODE DE PROCEDURE CIVILE SUR LENVIRONNEMENT DAFFAIRES Titu IONACU ... 99 11. LA RESPONSABILIT INTERNATIONALE POUR LES DOMMAGES DENVIRONEMENT- LES ELEMENTS DE LA RESPONSABILIT Remus IONESCU . 107
12. DREPTUL COPILULUI I AL PRINTELUI DE A MENINE RELAII PERSONALE N CAZUL SCINDRII OCROTIRII PRINTETI CA URMARE A DIVORULUI Alin-Gheorghe GAVRILESCU .... 117 13. FORME DE PROTECIE A STRINILOR N ROMNIA Ina Raluca TOMESCU . 127 14. SOLUII ASUPRA CONTESTAIEI FISCALE Octavia Maria CILIBIU ... 134 15. SISTEMUL EUROPEAN DE PROTECTIE A DREPTURILOR OMULUI Elena-Ancua NEAMU .. 141 16. VIOLENA MODALITATE DE SVRIRE A INFRACIUNILOR NDREPTATE CONTRA LIBERTII I DEMNITII PERSOANEI. PRIVIRE COMPARATIV NTRE ROMNIA CA STAT MEMBRU AL UNIUNII EUROPENE I REPUBLICA MOLDOVA Mircea HOTOBOC ...... 147 17. LEGITIMITATEA I LEGALITATEA STRUCTURILOR INTERNAIONALE ALE SPORTULUI Jean FIRIC 157
12. THE CHILDREN AND PARENTS RIGHT TO MAINTAIN PERSONAL RELATIONS IN CASE OF SCISSION OF THE PARENTAL PROTECTION AS A RESULT OF THE DIVORCE Alin-Gheorghe GAVRILESCU 117 13. FORMS OF PROTECTING FOREIGNERS IN ROMANIA Ina Raluca TOMESCU . 127 14. SOLUTIONS TO FISCAL DISPUTES Octavia Maria CILIBIU ... 134 15. THE EUROPEAN SYSTEM FOR HUMAN RIGHTS PROTECTION Elena-Ancua NEAMU .. 141 16. VIOLENCE METHOD TO PERFORM CRIMES AGAINST THE FREEDOM AND THE DIGNITY OF THE INDIVIDUAL. A COMPARATIVE VIEW BETWEEN ROMANIA AS A MEMBER STATE OF THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDAVIA Mircea HOTOBOC ...... 147 17. LEGITIMACY AND LEGALITY OF INTERNATIONAL SPORTS STRUCTURES Jean FIRIC 157
Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008
CAPITALUL INTELECTUAL ACTIV I FACTOR DECISIV AL DEZVOLTRII SOCIETII BAZAT PE CUNOATERE

Prof. univ. dr. Moise BOJINC Facultateade tiine Juridice Universitatea ,,Constantin Brncui Tg Jiu
INTELLECTUAL ACTIVE CAPITAL AND DECISIVE FACTOR OF KNOWLEDGE BASED SOCIETY DEVELOPMENT
Univ. Professor Dr. Moise BOJINC Juridical Sciences Faculty Constantin Brncui University Tg Jiu
1. Preliminarii Astzi, afirmaia potrivit creia evoluia societii contureaz o er a cunoateri nu mai este o noutate i nu mai surprinde pe nimeni. Ansamblul domeniilor de dezvoltare economico-social cunosc noi definiri i redenumiri, prin renunarea la multe din vechile abordri, cutnd s explice realitatea mult mai complex ce se desfoar sub ochii notri. Aceast dezvoltare este adesea surprinztoare, cu toate c ea a fost nc din 1943 prefigurat de ctre Wiston Churchill care ntr-un discurs rostit la Universitatea din Harward a afirmat c imperiile viitorului vor fi adevrate imperii ale minii, i ca atare dezvoltarea viitoare se va fundamenta pe ali factori. Cu toate acestea, a trebuit s treac peste o jumtate de secol pentru ca omenirea s-i dea seama c n aceste imperii btliile se vor duce n ali termeni dect n imperiile c fie i numai prin faptul c n noile imperii miza vizeaz spectrul talentului i nu pe cel al resurselor naturale. Acest lucru a fost explicit formulat abia n 2006 ntr-un articol publicat n The Economist din 5 octombrie 2006. Locul central n societatea bazat pe cunoatere l ocup informaia care d natere capitalului intelectual. 2. Noiunea de capital intelectual. Noiunea de capital intelectual nu este una nou, ntruct ea a fost utilizat nc din 1836 de economistul Nassau, care aprecia capitalul intelectual ca pe un important factor de producie.
1. Preliminaries Nowadays, the statement according to which societys evolution reveals a new age of knowledge is not news anymore and does not surprise anyone. The social and economic fields experience new definitions and renames, by giving up many of the old approaches, seeking to explain the more complex reality that takes place in front of us. This development is often surprising, despite the fact that it has been foreseen since 1943 by Winston Churchill who, in a speech said at the Harvard University said that future empires will be real empires of the mind, and thus the future development shall be based on other factors. Despite all these, half a century had to pass before humanity realized that in these empires battles shall be held in other terms that in the empires due to the fact that in the new empires the stake focuses on the talent field and not on that of natural resources. This was explicitly issued in 2006 in an article published in The Economist in 5th of October 2006. The central place in the knowledge based society is occupied by the information that gives birth to intellectual capital. 2. The notion of intellectual capital. The notion of intellectual capital is not new, because it had been used in 1836 by the Nassau economist, who appreciated intellectual capital as an important production factor. Intellectual capital, in the view of Thomas A. Stewart is the sum of everything
Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Juridical Sciences Series, No. 1/2008
Capitalul intelectual, desemneaz n concepia lui Thomas A. Stewart ca fiind suma a tot ce tie din companie i care i ofer un avantaj competitiv sau capitalul intelectual este material intelectual - cunotiine, informaii, proprietate intelectual, experien i care poate fi folosit pentru a crea bogie. Este puterea intelectual colectiv [1]. Pentru Leif Edvinsson [2], capitalul intelectual desemneaz cunotiinele care pot fi transformate n valoare. Explicaia interesului pentru denumirea i dezvoltarea conceptului de capital intelectual se poate regsi i n influena managementului japonez contemporan care consider c succesul unei entiti este indisolubil legat de valorificarea inteligenei fiecrui angajat, n contra ponderea modelului taylorian de management n care accentul este pus pe impunerea de norme de munc ce transform angajatul ntr-un robot al produciei. Capitalul intelectual este considerat a fi moneda noului mileniu, iar folosirea neleapt a acestuia va prezenta cheia succesului n era cunoateri. El poate fi privit ca valoarea ascuns a unei entiti organizaionale fie ea ar, companie, ntreprindere, instituie. Practic, capitolul intelectual reprezint suma a tot ceea ce fiecare angajat tie ntr-o companie i poate fi folosit n dezvoltarea capacitii ei competitive. n lumea afacerilor, noiunea de capital intelectual a aprut n anii 1990, iar la jumtatea ultimului deceniu al secolului al XX-lea s-au cristalizat deja dou moduri separate de gndire asupra capitalului intelectual. Unul se refer la crearea i utilizarea cunotinelor, cu influene din mai multe domenii i vizeaz organizaia care nva, managementul conversaional, managementul inovri, managementul cunotinelor competene fundamentale i active invizibile. Conform acestui model de dezvoltare, creterea produciei este definit ca o funcie dependent de acumulare de capital uman. n aceast viziune creterea permanent este posibil numai dac stocul de capital uman se modific virtual la infinit.
it knows from the company and that offers a competitive advantage or intellectual capital is intellectual material knowledge, information, intellectual property, experience and that can be used for creating richness. It is the collective intellectual power[1]. To Leif Edvinsson [2], intellectual capital means the knowledge that can be turned into value. The explanation for the interest towards the name and development of the intellectual capital may be found in the influence of the contemporary Japanese management which considers that the success of an entity is irrevocably related to the capitalization of every employees intelligence, against the Taylorian pattern of management where the accent is on work regulations which transform the employee into a production robot. Intellectual capital is considered the currency of the new millennium, and the wise use of it shall be the key of success in the age of knowledge. It may be looked at as the hidden value of an organizational entity, either country, company, enterprise, institution. Practically, intellectual capital is the sum of what every employee knows within a company and can be used in developing its competitive ability. In the business world, the notion of intellectual capital appeared in the 90s and at the half of the last decade of the 20th century, two separate ways of thought upon the intellectual capital were born. One of them referred to the creation and use of knowledge, with influences from several fields and focuses on the company that learns, conversational management, innovation management, knowledge management fundamental abilities and invisible assets. According to this development pattern, output increase is defined as a function depending on human capital accumulation. In this view, permanent increase is possible only if the human capital stock virtually modifies forever. The other pattern, coming from the assessment field, has influences from using managerial performance diagrams. Based on
Cellalt model, provenit din sfera evalurii, are influene din folosirea diagramelor de performan managerial. Bazat pe resurse este orientat pe obinerea de profit din combinaiile unice ale capitalului intelectual i a resurselor corporale (materiale). Indiferent de modelul cultivat, rolul capitalului intelectual este de netgduit. El desemneaz toate activele (resursele) intangibile de care dispune o entitate i care i confer un avantaj relativ, n combinaie cu alte avantaje posibile ce pot conduce la beneficii n viitor. 3. Structura capitalului intelectual Capitalul intelectual are trei componente i anume, capitalul uman, capitalul structural i capitalul relaional. a) Capitalul uman, termen introdus pentru prima dat de Therodore Schultz, laureat al premiului Nobel, se caracterizeaz prin competenele, calificrile i abilitile intelectuale ale angajailor i este considerat a fi cea mai valoroas resurs a unei entiti organizaionale , ndeosebi cnd este vorba despre crearea valorii viitoare. Capitalul uman este fundamental pentru c este sursa inovrii i a nnoirii i reprezint capabilitatea angajailor de a oferi soluii clienilor. El este individual, nu poate fi proprietatea entitii i nu poate fi copiat. Cnd o entitate investete n capitalul uman ea i sporete automat valoarea, obinnd un avantaj competitiv sustenabil [3]. Capitalul uman a fost definit la nivel individual ca fiind rezultanta interaciunii dintre: motenirea genetic, educaia, experien i atitudinea fa de via i entitate. Pe lng abilitile individuale, capitalul uman are n vedere i dinamica unei entiti bazate pe nvare ntr-un mediu competitiv n continu schimbare, precum i propria sa creativitate i potenialul su inovativ. b) Capitalul organizaional (structural) definete structurile interne ale entitii, mrcile, proprietatea intelectual i alte active intangibile [4] El se refer la relaiile organizaionale care fac posibil transformarea potenialului intelectual n aciuni concrete
resources, it is focused on getting benefits from the unique combinations of the intellectual capital and corporal resources (material). Disregarding the used pattern, the role of intellectual capital shall not be doubted. It establishes all intangible assets (resources) available to an entity and that grant it a relative advantage, in correlation to other possible advantages that may lead to benefits in the future. 3. The structure of intellectual capital Intellectual capital has three components, namely, human capital, structural capital and relational capital. a) The human capital, a term introduced for the first time by Therodore Schultz, laureate of Nobel prize, is characterized by employees competences, qualifications and intellectual abilities and it is considered the most valuable resource of an organizational entity, especially when talking about creating future values. Human capital is fundamental because it is the source of innovation and renewal and represents employees ability to offer solutions to the clients. It is individual, cannot be the entitys ownership and cannot be copied. When an entity invests in human capital it automatically increases its value, obtaining a sustainable competitive advantage [3]. Human capital has been defined at individual level as being the result of the interaction between: genetic inheritance, experience and attitude towards life and entity. Besides individual abilities, human capital takes into consideration the dynamics of a learning based entity in a competitive environment in continuous change, as well as on its own creativity and its innovative potential. b) Organizational (structural) capital defines the entitys internal structures, marks, intellectual property and other intangible assets [4]. It refers to the organizational relations that make it possible for the intellectual potential to turn into
actual actions for creating the value reflected by the products and a service offered by the organization and represents the infrastructure of human capital. Infrastructure includes key elements like managerial philosophy, corporate culture, management processes and acquiring information technology systems and network systems. c) Relational capital (clients) reflect all the valuable relations established by the 4. Implicaii ale capitalului intelectual n entity with third parties. dezvoltarea economico-social Neconvenional, baza dezvoltrii valorilor intangibile ale capitalului intelectual 4. Implications of the intellectual pentru orice entitate o constituie dialogul i capital in economic and social comunicarea, colaborarea i cooperarea, development Unconventionally, the basis of responsabilitatea i competena, autoritatea i ncrederea n promovarea valorilor, respectul developing the intangible assets of intellectual capital for any entity is i loialitatea. Printre caracteristicile i exigenele represented by dialogue and communication, collaboration and cooperation, responsibility entitilor moderne se remarc: - creterea complexitii fiinei umane, n and competence, authority and trust in condiiile n care resursele umane au o promoting the values, respect and loyalty. Among the characteristics and importan strategic crescnd. - necesitatea dezvoltrii muncii de conducere requirements of modern entities we notice: n echip cu acceptarea relaiilor de negociere - increasing the complexity of human being, n contextul problemelor decizionale cu taking into consideration the increasing intervenia factorilor de risc i de strategic significance of human resources. - the need to carry a team management incertitudine; necesitatea adaptrii permanente a activity by accepting the negotiation relations in the context of decisional structurilor de organizare; necesitatea gsirii unor noi echilibre n problems with the intervention of risk and manifestarea managerial avnd n vedere incertitude factors; competena i cooperarea n cadrul - the need for a permanent accommodation of the organization structures; organizaiilor. the need to find new balances of the n acelai timp, viitorului fie c e vorba expression taking into de ntreprindere, societate comercial, managerial the competition and companie, instituie este privit ca un mecanism consideration complex n care se produc mutaii cooperation within organizations. At the same time, the future, whether determinante asupra performanelor cum ar fi: orientarea esenial a ofertei spre we are talking of enterprise, business satisfacerea cererii pieei, a cerinelor corporation, company, institution, is seen as formulate de beneficii produselor sau a complex mechanism where determining mutations occur upon the performances like: serviciilor oferite; adaptabilitatea bazat pe inovare - the essential orientation of the offer towards complying with the market permanent; of the requirements - minimizarea numrului de niveluri ierarhice requirements, established by the benefits of the product or prin aplatizarea structurilor organizatorice; punerea accentului pe satisfacia i the provided services; mulumirea angajailor astfel nct s - decreasing the number of hierarchic levels pentru a crea valuare reflectat de produsele i serviciile oferite de organizaie i reprezint infrastructura capitalului uman. Infrastructura include elemente cheie cum ar fi, filosofia managerial, cultura corporatist, procesele de management i nsuirea sistemelor de tehnologie a informaiei i sistemelor de reea. c) Capitalul relaional (clienii) reflect toate relaiile valoroase stabilite de entitate cu terii.
munceasc cu plcere i s fie devotai entitii respective. Aa se explic de ce tot mai multe entiti internaionale pun n analizele privind dezvoltarea pe primul plan oamenii i competenele acestora. Astzi lumea este preocupat mai mult ca de orice de cartografia inteligenei; instrument ce presupune capabilitatea de a ntocmi o hart prin care s se poat identifica sursele de inteligen dintr-o anumit ar, zon, ramur, companie sau instituie. Dezvoltarea centrat pe om a condus la apariia unui nou concept i anume a avantajului competitiv susinut de avantajul de cost i avantajul de difereniere. Avantajul de cost presupune obinerea acelorai beneficii ca cele pe care le dobndesc concurenii cu costuri mai mici iar avantajul de difereniere presupune obinerea de beneficii prin oferirea de avantaje care s le depeasc pe cele ale produselor concurente. Aceste dou avantaje de cost i de difereniere sunt cunoscute sub denumirea de avantaj de poziionare ntruct descriu poziia de lider n cadrul unei competiii n ce privete att costul ct i difereneierea produselor. Avantajul competitiv este astzi abordat din multe perspective precum ar fi cele dezvoltate n abordarea evoluionist sau n managementul cunoaterii. Alte studii i cercetri au demonstrat rolul activelor intangibile pentru convergena i competitivitatea att la nivel naional, european i nu numai, Cea mai frecvent abordare este cea care se bazeaz pe resurse, n viziunea creia o entitate i utilizeaz resursele i capabilitile pentru a crea un avantaj competitiv care conduce, n ultim instan la crearea de valoare adugat. Dar nu e vorba de orice avantaj ci de avantajul competitiv sustenabil care relev posibilitatea de a menine i de a mbunti poziia competitiv deinut pe pia de o entitate. Acest tip de avantaj permite entitii respective s supravieuiasc competitorilor de-a lungul unei perioade de timp. Pentru a ilustra conceptul de avantaj
by flattening organizational structures; laying the accent on satisfying and pleasing employees for making them work for pleasure and be devoted to that entity. This is how we explain that more and more international entities place people and their abilities on the first place in development related analyses. Today the world is preoccupied more than anything with intelligence cartography; this is an instrument supposing the ability to draw-up a map which would allow the identification of the sources of intelligence in a country, area, branch, company or institution. Man centred development has lead to the apparition of a new concept, namely the competitive advantage supported by the cost advantage and differentiation advantage. The cost advantage supposes the same benefits as the ones of lower costs contesters and the differentiation advantage supposes benefits by offering advantages that would overcome those of competing products. These two advantages cost and differentiation are known under the name of positioning advantage because they describe the leader position within a competition both regarding the cost and products differentiation. The competitive advantage is today approached from many views like the ones developed within the evolutionist approach or the management of knowledge. Other studies and researches have proved the role of intangible assets for the convergence and competitiveness both at national and European level and not only. The most frequent approach is that based on resources, taking into consideration that one entity uses its resources and abilities to create a competitive advantage that finally leads to added value. But we are not talking about any type of advantage but the sustainable competitive advantage that reveals the possibility to maintain and improve the competitive position held on the market by an entity. This type of advantage allows the respective entity to survive competitors during a period
competitiv sustenabil este necesar s se apeleze la o viziune lato sensu care s combine abordarea legat de resurse cu cea bazat pe avantajul de poziie, aa cum rezult din schema nr. 1:
Resurse Capabilitile distinctive Capabiliti Avantaj competitiv de cost i difereniere Cererea de valoare
of time. For illustrating the concept of sustainable competitive advantage it is necessary to call for a lato sensu vision that would combine resource related approach with the position advantage, as resulting from chart no. 1:
Resources Distinctive capabilities Cost and differentiation competitive advantage Value request
Viziunea extins asupra teoriei avantajului competitiv sustenabil explic de ce o anumit entitate poate fi mai performant dect alta, chiar i atunci cnd se afl n aceeai ar sau zon. n noul context de dezvoltare avantajul competitiv va aparine predilect celor care vor fi suficieni de informai i nelepi nct s tie i s recunoasc faptul c adevratele resurse ale secolului a XXI-lea sunt: cunoaterea, informaia, inovaia, creativitatea i capitalul intelectual adic activele intangibile. Factori tradiionali de producie (resursele naturale, fora de munc i capitalul) i-au diminuat treptat importana. n acelai timp, a crescut importana activelor intangibile-informaia, cunoaterea i creativitatea. n ultimele decenii interesul fa de valorile intangibile a devenit din ce n ce mai mare. Avantajul competitiv bazat pe activele intangibile ine i de maniera de combinare a resurselor tangibile i intangibile ntr-un mod ct se poate de distinctiv de ctre entiti. ntr-o societate bazat pe cunoatere exist patru dimensiuni cheie ale competitivitii, care se afl ntr-o strns corelaie i anume: - resursele (inclusiv inveniile n cercetaredezvoltare i achiziionarea de tehnologii). - activele intangibile obinute prin combinarea resurselor (cunotine, brevete de invenie, nume de mrci, reputaie, reele). - managementul schimbrii. dezvoltarea avantajului competitiv i a
Capabilities
The extended view upon the theory of sustainable competitive advantage explains why a certain entity can be more productive than another, even when being in the same country or area. Within the new development context, competitive advantage will mainly belong to those informed and wise enough to know and admit the fact that the real resources of the 21st century are: knowledge, information, innovation, creativity and intellectual capital, meaning intangible assets. Traditional production factors (natural resources, manpower and capital) have gradually decreased their significance. At the same time intangible assets significance has increased information, knowledge and creativity. For the last few decades, the interest for the intangible values has become bigger and bigger. The competitive advantage based on intangible assets depends also on the way of combining tangible and intangible resources as distinctive as possible by entities. Within a knowledge based society there are four key dimensions of competitiveness, which are strongly related, namely: - resources (including inventions in researchdevelopment and acquisition of new technologies) - intangible assets obtained by combining resources (knowledge, patents, trademarks, reputation, networks).
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eficienei. Investiiile n activele intangibile constituie importani factori ai competitivitii i convergenei ntruct cunoaterea, informaia, creativitatea induc randamente cresctoare spre deosebire de pmnt, fora de munc i capitalul care sunt supuse legii randamentelor descresctoare.. Lumea asist astzi la naterea unei noi sintagme: economia intangibil, care nu este sinonima nici cu economia informaiei i nici cu cea a cunoaterii. Economia intangibil este privit drept un triumf al biilor asupra atomilor iar nelegerea n adevrata sa dimensiune presupune analiz complex din cel puin trei perspective diferite i anume: - cea a cererii unde se analizeaz artefactele [5] intangibile care pot constitui un produs final pentru consum. - cea a ofertei unde se includ activele intangibile folosite de entiti pentru a-i stabili i menine poziia competitiv i anume: marca (renumele), proprietatea intelectual, capitalul uman, cercetareadezvoltarea, informaia i Know-how-ul. - cea a sistemului economic unde se analizeaz un set de tendine interconectate care afecteaz toate activitile economicesociale i care conduc la modificarea structurilor de pia i a naturii tranzaciilor.
[1] Thomas A Stewart, Intellectual Capital The New Wealth of Organizaions. 1999, p. 11. [2] Leif Edvinson este vicepreedinte pentru problema capitalului intelectual la Skandia [3] n 1963 Schultz scria despre necesitatea investiiilor n educaia pentru a crete productivitatea n agricultura S.U.A, iar n 1965 Gary Beker a dezvoltat o teorie a capitolului uman conform creia nivelul de educaie i experien a unei persoane sunt factori hotrtori n cretere veniturilor. [4] Arthur Andriessen definete activele intangibile ca fiind acele resurse controlate de entitate care nu au natur fizic, sunt capabile s produc profituri nete n viitor i sunt protejate legal. Dincolo de dorinele i cerinele prezentului, activele intangibile sunt analizate ntr-o proporie extrem de redus, de circa 3% fa de rezultatele cu caracter statistic. [5] artefact = fenomen sau structur artificial a crei apariie este legat de metode folosite n timpul unei experiene biologice. A se vedea Dicionarul romn de neologisme, Editura Floarea Darurilor sau Editura
- the management of change. - developing the competitive advantage and efficiency. Investments in intangible assets are important factors of competitiveness and convergence because, unlike the ground, manpower and capital are subordinated to the law of decreasing output. Todays world faces new syntagms: intangible economy, which is not synonymous to information economy or knowledge economy. Intangible economy is seen as a bits triumph upon atoms and understanding in its real dimension supposes complex analysis from at least three different views namely: - that of request where intangible artefacts [5] are analyzed which may produce a final product for consumption. - that of the offer including intangible assets used by entities for establishing and maintaining its competitive position, namely: the name, intellectual property, human capital, research development, information and Know-how. - that of the economic system where a set of interconnected trends are analyzed, affecting all the economic and social activities and leading to the modification of market structures and the nature of transactions.
[1] Thomas A Stewart, Intellectual Capital The New Wealth of Organizaions. 1999, p. 11. [2] Leif Edvinson is the vice-president for the issue of intellectual capital at Skandia [3] In 1963 Schultz wrote about the need to invest in education as it increases the productivity in agriculture of the USA, and in 1965 Gary Beker developped a theory of human capital according to which a persons level of education and experience are decissive factors in increasing incomes. [4] Arthur Andriessen defines intangible assets as being those resources controlled by the entity which are not physical, are capable of producing net benefits in the future and are legally protected. Besides the desires and requirements of the present, intangible assets are analyzed to an extremely reduced proportion, of approximately 3% in comparison to the statistic results. [5] artefact = phenomenon or artificial structure whose apparition is connected to the methods used during a biological experience. See the Romanian neologisms
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008 Routech Pro, Bucureti, 2000, p.44
Bibliografie O. Niculescu, L. Niculescu, Economia, firme i managementul bazate pe cunoatere, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2005 F. Gh. Filip, Societatea informaional societatea cunoateri. Concepte, soluii i strategii pentru Romnia, Editura Expert, Bucureti, 2001 *** Convergene economice n Uniunea European, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2002. *** Educaia economic. Actualitate i perspective, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2003. *** Relansarea creterii economice n Romnia, Editura Economic, Bucureti, 2000.
dictionary, Floarea Darurilor Publisher or Routech Pro Publisher, Bucharest, 2000, p.44
Bibliography O. Niculescu, L. Niculescu, Economy, companies and knowledge based management, Economic Publisher, Bucharest, 2005 F. Gh. Filip, Informational society knowledge society. Concepts, solutions and strategies for Romania, Expert Publisher, Bucharest, 2001 *** Economic Convergences in the European Union, Economic Publisher, Bucharest, 2002. *** Economic Education. Actuality and perspectives, Economic Publisher, Bucharest, 2003. *** Relaunching the economic increase in Romania, Economic Publisher, Bucharest, 2000.
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RASPUNDEREA POLITICA SI JURIDICA A PRESEDINTELUI ROMANIEI

Prof.univ.dr. Pantelimon MANTA
POLITICAL AND JURIDICAL LIABILITY OF THE PRESIDENT OF ROMANIA

Professor Dr. Pantelimon MANTA The Faculty of Juridical Sciences Constantin Brncui University,
Facultatea de tiine Juridice Universitatea Constantin Brncui Tg-Jiu 1. Aprecieri generale privind rolul efului statului Aprut odat cu statul, instituia efului statului a cunoscut o permanent evoluie n ce privete forma, structura i atribuiile. Dac de-a lungul timpului instituia efului statului a concentrat multe prerogative din domeniul legislativ, executiv i chiar judectoresc, n zilele noastre a aprut o net i riguroas delimitare a atribuiilor fa de celelalte autoriti publice care realizeaz funciile fundamentale ale statului. n cele mai multe state ale lumii instituia efului statului are o organizare unipersonal (cu denumiri din cele mai diverse: domnitor, principe, mprat, preedinte, etc.) iar n altele este organizat colegial (purtnd denumiri ca: prezidiu, consiliu de stat, etc); sunt state cum este cazul Angliei, unde prerogativele acestei instituii sunt exercitate de rege i guvern. n majoritatea statelor lumii care fiineaz n temeiul principiului separaiei puterilor n stat, instituia efului statului face parte din cadrul puterii executive, avnd i atribuii limitate n materie legislativ. Dac n regimul parlamentar funcia executiv a statului este ncredinat unei persoane (eful de stat ales) i unui organ colegial care are atribuii pe care le exercit n mod relativ autonom, n regimul prezidenial pur (ca n cazul S.U.A.) eful statului reprezint ntreg executivul, (este i preedintele ales al rii dar i eful executivului) fiind ajutat s guverneze de o serie de nali funcionari. Cu toate acestea doctrina dreptului administrativ are adesea preri divergente n ce privete sensul, semnificaia i coninutul
1. General views regarding the role of the chief of state Appeared together with the state, the institution of the chief of state has permanently known an evolution regarding the form, structure and attributions. If in time, the institution of the chief of state has brought together several prerogatives in the legislative, executive and even juridical field, nowadays a net and rough delimitation has appeared in comparison with the attributions of the other public authorities having the fundamental functions of the state. In most of the states in the world the institution of the chief of state has a unipersonal organization (with various names: voivode, prince, emperor, president, etc.) and in others it is collegially organized (with names like presidium, state council, etc); there are states, like England, where the prerogatives of this institution are exercised by the king and by the govern. In most of the states of the world existing based on the principle of state powers separation, the institution of the chief of state is part of the executive power, with limited attributions in the legislative matter. If within the parliamentary status the executive function is entrusted to one person (the chosen chief of state) and to a collegial body with attributions to be relatively autonomously exercised, within the pure presidential status (as in the case of the USA) the chief of state is the entire executive body (also the chosen president of the country and the chief of the executive body) being helped to govern by high state officers. Still, the doctrine of administrative law has often arguing views regarding the sense,
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noiunii de putere executiv. Astfel, se apreciaz c administraia nu este singura sarcin a executivului dar este o sarcina exclusiv a acestuia, avnd i sarcini extra-administrative, exercitate n raporturile cu Parlamentul. n sensul doctrinei de drept administrativ, pe de o parte, nu ar trebui s se vorbeasc de executiv, ci de funcia administrativ, ca una dintre funciile statului, iar pe de alta parte, trebuie s se admit c administraia de stat i executivul reprezint o unitate structural unic, n ale crei sarcini intr ntreg coninutul funciei executive [1] n ce privete evoluia acestei instituii, nc din antichitate Aristotel, considerat stagiritul gndirii antice, ncerca o clasificare a formelor de guvernmnt n: monarhie (care presupunea concentrarea exerciiului puterii n mna unei singure persoane), oligarhia (n care puterea este exercitat de un grup restrns) i democraia (poporul exercita direct sau prin reprezentare puterea). Tot n legtur cu formele de guvernmnt Platon aprecia c un bun i eficient guvern trebuie s se bazeze pe autoritate i libertate, regele fiind "pstorul poporului". Oricum, nc din China i India antic, de la Aristotel i Platon, la iluminitii din sec. XVIII i chiar n zilele noastre, puterea este personalizat avnd ca simbol un individ sau grup de indivizi. De-a lungul timpurilor statul nu este de conceput fr un ef de stat. ncepnd din China antic n care Confucius ii recunoate regelui (mpratului) legitimitatea de ef al statului n calitate de "fiu al cerului", la Homer care l consider pe rege "suprema expresiune a funciilor n stat" pn la" Principele" lui Machiaveli, statul nu este de conceput n afara simbolului su, conductorul, suveranul sau Fiul soarelui" cum l numeau japonezii. Ulterior, iluminitii au dezvoltat ideea legitimitii puterilor efului de stat ca i a rspunderii acestuia n faa poporului clasificnd formele de guvernmnt n republici (n care eful de stat, denumit, n cele mai multe cazuri preedinte, este ales pe timp determinat direct de ctre popor sau parlament) i monarhii (n care eful statului este ales pe viat sau pe baze ereditare).
meaning and content about the notion of executive power. It is thus appreciated that administration is not the only duty of the executive body, but it is one exclusive duty, with extra-administrative duties, exercised in the relations with the Parliament. In the sense of the administrative law doctrine, on one hand, we should not speak of the executive body, but the administrative function as one of the state functions, and on the other hand, we have to admit that the state administration and the executive body are one structural unit, including the duties of the entire executive function [1] Regarding the evolution of this institution, even since the Ancient times, Aristotle, considered the Stagirite of ancient thought, tried to classify the forms of government into: monarchy (supposing the concentration of the power exercise into the hand of one person), oligarchy (where the power is exercised by a restricted group) and democracy (the people exercised the power directly or through representation). Still regarding the forms of government Plato appreciated that a good and efficient govern has to be based on authority and freedom, the king being the peoples shepard". Anyway, ever since the Ancient China and India, since Plato and Aristotle, since the Illuminists of the 18th century and even nowadays, the power is personalized having the symbol of an individual or a group of individuals. In time, the state is not to be accepted without a chief of state. Beginning with the Ancient China, when Confucius admits the king (the emperor) the legitimacy of chief of state as the son of the sky, Homer considered the king the supreme expression of the state functions until Machiavellis Principe, the state cannot be accepted without its symbol, the leader, the sovereign or the Son of the Sun as the Japanese used to call it. Later on, the Illuminists developed the idea of the chief of states powers legitimacy classifying the forms of government into republics (where the chief of state, mostly named president, is elected directly by the
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2. Reglementarea institutiei prezidentiale de catre Constitutia din 1991 si cea din 2003 Legea fundamental consacr n Romnia un regim semiprezidenial. Principala difereniere ntre republica parlamentar i cea prezidenial const n aceea c n timp ce n republica parlamentar preedintele este ales de parlament (Grecia, Italia, Germania, Ungaria.s.a.), n republica prezidenial el este ales de popor, fie direct, fie prin intermediul unei adunri de electori. Diferenierea ns ntre cele dou regimuri const nu numai n modul de desemnare a preedintelui ci i n raportul ntre puteri. Astfel, n cadrul republicii parlamentare, guvernul, numit de preedinte, este responsabil n faa parlamentului, n timp ce n republica prezidenial, n general, nu exist efi de guvern (funcia fiind ncredinat efului statului) i nici rspundere guvernamental n faa Parlamentului. In mod indubitabil n acest regim politic puterea prezidenial este mai ntins, iar demarcaia executiv, legislativ i judectoresc mult mai accentuat. Att Constituia din 1991 ct i cea din 2003 statueaz c funcia de ef al statului este ncredinat Preedintelui Romniei. El este ales prin vot universal, secret, direct i liber exprimat, simboliznd voina naiunii n legislatura suprem pe care o exercit. Potrivit art. 83 alin. 3 din Constituie mandatul Preedintelui Romniei poate fi prelungit, prin lege organic, n caz de rzboi sau catastrof". Existenta acestor situaii de for major este lsat la aprecierea Parlamentului, prelungirea mandatului fcndu-se prin lege organic. Art.96, 97 i 98 din Constituie reglementeaz i situaiile care determin o imposibilitate temporar sau definitiv a exercitrii atribuiilor. Astfel, art.97alin.1 prevede c "vacanta funciei Preedintelui Romniei intervine n caz de demisie, de demitere din funcie, de imposibilitate definitiv a exercitrii atribuiilor sau de deces". Demisia este un act unilateral de voin juridic al Preedintelui i poate avea cauze obiective sau subiective, iar demiterea din funcie survine ca urmare a rmnerii
people or by the parliament) and monarchies (where the chief of state is elected for life or on hereditary bases). 2. Regulating the presidential institution by the Constitution in 1991 and 2003 Fundamental law establishes a semipresidential status in Romania. The main difference between the parliamentary republic and the presidential one is that while in the parliamentary republic the president is elected by the parliament (Greece, Italy, Germany, Hungary. s.a.), in the president republic the president is elected by the people, either directly, either through a meeting of electors. The difference between the two statuses is not only the way in which the president is elected but also the report between the powers. Therefore, within the parliamentary republic, the govern, named by the president, is responsible in front of the parliament, while within the presidential republic, in general, there are no chiefs of governs (the function is entrusted to the chief of state) and no governmental responsibility in front of the Parliament. Indubitably, in this political status, the presidential power is more extended, and the difference between the executive, legislative and juridical bodies more obvious. Both the 1991 and the 2003 Constitution, state that the institution of the chief of state is entrusted to the President of Romania. He is elected through universal, secret, direct and freely expressed vote, symbolizing the will of the nation within the supreme legislation it exercises. According to the art. 83 par. 3 of the Constitution, the mandate of the President of Romania may be extended, through an organic law, in case of war or catastrophe". The existence of this force majeure situations is left at the Parliament appreciation, the extension of the mandate being made through an organic law. Art.96, 97 and 98 of the Constitution regulate the situations that cause a temporary or definitive impossibility to exercise the attributions. Therefore, art.97 par.1 stipulates that the vacancy of the
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definitive a hotrrii de condamnare de ctre nalta Curte de Casatie si Justiie, pentru fapta de nalt trdare sau ca urmare a referendumului care a confirmat suspendarea sa din funcie. Imposibilitatea definitiv a exercitrii atribuiilor poate fi determinat de motive de sntate. Oricum, constatarea mprejurrilor care duc la vacantarea funciei de Preedinte este n competena Curii Constituionale, a crei decizie se va comunica Parlamentului i Guvernului pentru ca n termen de cel mult 3 luni s organizeze noi alegeri prezideniale. 3. Rspunderea Preedintelui Romniei n majoritatea tarilor democratice ale lumii este statuata neresponsabilitatea efului de stat pentru actele svrite n exercitiul funciei sale. i n Romnia imunitatea de care se bucur Preedintele Romniei are drept consecina imposibilitatea tragerii acestuia la rspundere politic sau juridic. Drept urmare, orice aciune n justiie pentru fapte imputabile preedintelui i care sunt legate de exercitarea mandatului prezidenial sunt blocate. Astfel, el nu poate fi sancionat, arestat, percheziionat, trimis n judecat penal sau civil i nici chemat ca martor n faa instanelor de judecat, civile sau penale. Din coroborarea art. 84 alin.2 cu art. 72 din Constituie rezult c neresponsabilitatea efului statului pentru opiniile politice exprimate n timpul mandatului este absolut, ea opernd chiar i dincolo de expirarea mandatului acestuia. De asemenea, n literatura de specialitate se apreciaz c neresponsabilitatea Preedintelui Romniei se extinde i la deciziile pe care acesta le ia n timpul exercitrii mandatului, neputnd fi tras la rspundere juridic (civil sau penal) pentru decretele pe care le emite n exercitarea atribuiilor stabilite de Constituie [2]. Cu toate acestea, actele svrite cu depirea abilitrii constituionale ori prin nclcarea acestor msuri atrage rspunderea politic i juridic a Preedintelui Romniei. Astfel, rspunderea politica poate fi
function of President of Romania appears in case of resignation, dismissal, definitive impossibility to exercise its attributions or death". Resignation is a juridical will unilateral act of the President and may have objective or subjective causes, and dismissal appears due to an irrevocable resolution of conviction issued by the High Court of Cassation, for high treason or due to a referendum confirming its suspension from its function. The definitive impossibility to exercise the attributions may be determined by reasons of health. Anyway, the establishment of the circumstances that lead to the vacancy of the position of President comes within the competence of the Constitutional Court, whose decision shall be notified to the Parliament and the Govern so that within 3 months new presidential elections be organized. 3. The liability of the President of Romania In most of the democratic countries of the world, it is stated the non-liability of the chief of state for the offences committed during the exercise of its function. In Romania also, the immunity of the President of Romania has the consequence of the impossibility to be made responsible both politically and juridically. Consequently, any action in justice for offences committed by the president and related to the exercise of the presidential mandate are blocked. Therefore, the president cannot be punished, arrested, searched, sent to penal or civil trial nor summoned as witness in front of civil or penal courts of law. By corroborating the art. 84 par . 2 with the art. 72 of the Constitution is results that the non-liability of the chief of state for the political opinions expressed during its mandate is absolute, and operates even beyond the expiration of its mandate. Also, in the specialty literature, it is appreciated that the non-liability of the President of Romania is extended over the decisions it takes during the mandate exercising, and cannot be made liable from the juridical point of view (civil or penal)
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antrenata n primul rnd n condiiile prevzute de art. 95 alin.1 i 2 "n cazul svririi unor fapte grave prin care Preedintele Romniei ncalc prevederile Constituiei, situaie n care Parlamentul poate dispune suspendarea din funcie dup obinerea avizului consultativ al Curii Constituionale, asupra propunerii pe care o poate face cel puin 1/3 din numrul total al senatorilor i deputailor. Cu prilejul dezbaterii, Preedintele poate da Parlamentului explicaii cu privire la faptele ce i se imputa. Decizia de suspendare din funcie se ia cu votul majoritii parlamentarilor n funcie i are ca efect interimatul acestei funcii care este asigurat n ordine de Preedintele Senatului sau al Camerei Deputailor. Suspendarea din funcie este o ncetare pe perioad determinat a exerciiului atribuiilor de ctre titularul funciei, dar dup aceasta etap n cel mult 30 de zile se organizeaz un referendum pentru demiterea Preedintelui. Preedintele poate fi suspendat din funcie n condiiile art.95 din Constituie care prevede c: - alin.1 "n cazul svririi unor fapte grave prin care ncalc prevederile Constituiei, Preedintele Romniei poate fi suspendat din funcie de Camera Deputailor i de Senat, n edina comun, cu votul majoritii deputailor i senatorilor, dup consultarea Curii Constituionale. Preedintele poate da Parlamentului explicaii cu privire la faptele ce i se imput;" - alin.2 "Propunerea de suspendare din funcie poate fi iniiat de cel puin o treime din numrul deputailor i senatorilor i se aduce nentrziat, la cunotina Preedintelui"; - alin. 3 "Dac propunerea de suspendare din funcie este aprobat, n cel mult 30 de zile se organizeaz un referendum pentru demiterea Preedintelui". Interimatul funciei de Preedinte al Romniei se asigur, n ordine, de Preedintele Senatului sau al Camerei Deputailor i intervine n situaiile reglementate de art.97 din Constituie, cnd aceast funcie devine vacant, ori dac Preedintele este suspendat din funcie sau afl n imposibilitatea
for the decrees issued in exercising the attributions established by the Constitution [2]. Despite all these, the actions committed over the constitutional capacity or by breaching those measures draw the political and juridical liability of the President of Romania. Therefore, political liability may be firstly called for under the conditions stipulated by the art. 95 par.1 and 2 "in case of committing serious actions through which the President of Romania breaches the provisions of the Constitution, case in which the Parliament may order the dismissal after obtaining the consultative consent of the Constitutional Court, upon the proposal of at least 1/3 of the total number of senators and deputies. During the debates, the President may explain himself in front of the Parliament regarding the actions imputed to him. The dismissal decision is taken with the vote from the majority of parliamentarians and causes the temporary appointment of this function to be provided by, in order, by the President of the Senate or of the Deputies Chamber. Suspension is a cease for an established period of the exercise of attributions by the position holder, but after this stage, within 30 days a referendum shall be made for dismissing the President. The President may be suspended from its function under the conditions of the art. 95 of the Constitution which stipulates that: - par.1 "in case of committing serious actions by breaching the provisions of the Constitution, the President of Romania may be suspended by the Deputies Chamber and by the Senate, in common meeting, with the vote of the majority of deputies and senators, after consulting the Constitutional Court. The President may explain himself in front of the Parliament regarding the imputations brought to him;" - par.2 "The proposal of suspension may be initiated by at least one third of the number of deputies and senators and shall be immediately notified to the President"; - par. 3 "If the proposal of suspension is
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temporar de a-i exercita atribuiile. Raiunea reglementrii acestei instituii i are justificarea in necesitatea asigurrii continuitii exercitrii atribuiilor pe o pe temporar, pn la alegerea noului Preedinte (sau pn la ncetarea strii care a determinat interimatul). Cel ce asigur interimatul nu are voie s adreseze Parlamentului, nu poate s dizolve organul puterii legislative i nu poate organiza referendum. n urma referendumului msura suspendrii din funcie a Preedintelui va nceta fie prin reluarea atribuiilor funciei (urmare a refuzului poporului de a vota demiterea preedintelui) fie se va transforma n demitere ca urmare a acceptrii prin referendum a propunerii parlamentare. Organizarea referendumului este obligatorie n termen de 30 de zile de la data suspendrii din funcie a Preedintelui. Dup declanarea procedurii referendumului, Preedintele se va putea adresa poporului pentru a da explicaiile i lmuririle pe care le consider necesare cu privire la situaia creat. Dac electoratul nu voteaz demiterea Preedintelui acesta i va relua exerciiul atribuiilor funciei ncetnd interimatul iar dac poporul a hotarat demiterea din funcie, atunci, interimatul va fi prelungit pana cnd noul Preedinte ce va fi ales va depune jurmntul de credin. In ce privete rspunderea juridic, aceasta are dou direcii dup cum faptele au sau nu legtura cu funcia de Preedinte. n situaia n care faptele ilicite (de natur patrimonial, contravenional sau penal) nau legtur cu funcia pe care o exercit Preedintele, el va putea fi sancionat ca orice cetean, potrivit principiilor dreptului comun, n funcie de caracterul i gravitatea faptei comise. Astfel, nimic nu oprete ca Preedintele s rspund, de exemplu contravenional i patrimonial dac ntr-o deplasare particulara a provocat un accident de circulaie prin nclcarea regulilor de circulaie. Cnd ns, nclcarea legii are n vedere fapte care au legtura cu exercitarea funciei, atunci problema rspunderii se pune
approved, within 30 days the most, a referendum shall be organized for dismissing the President". The temporary appointment in the position of President of Romania, shall be provided, in order, by the President of the Senate or the Deputies Chamber and interferes in the situations regulated by the art. 97 of the Constitution, when this position becomes vacant, or whether the President is suspended from its position or cannot exercise its attributions temporarily. The reason for regulating this institution is justified by the need to provide the continuity of exercising the attributions for a temporary period, until the election of a new president (or until the state that caused the temporary appointment ceased). The person temporarily appointed cannot address the Parliament, cannot dissolve the legislative power body and cannot organize a referendum. After the referendum, the measure of suspending the President shall cease either by taking back the attributions of the function (due to the peoples refusal to vote the president dismissal) either it shall be transformed into dismissal due to the referendum acceptance of the parliamentary proposal. Organizing the referendum is compulsory within 30 days from the president suspension from its position. After initiating the procedure of the referendum, the President shall be able to address to the people for explaining itself as it may consider necessary regarding the aforementioned situation. If the electorate does not vote the Presidents dismissal, it shall be able to start over the exercise of its attributions by stopping the temporary appointment and if the people decided its dismissal, then the temporary appointment shall be extended until the new president to be elected is sworn. Regarding the juridical liability, it has two directions in accordance with the connection of the actions with the position of President. If the illicit actions (patrimonial, contraventional or penal) have no connection to the function exercised by the President, it
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n ali termeni. Am analizat deja problema rspunderii Preedintelui pentru svrirea unor fapte grave, a sanciunilor politice care se pot aplica (respectiv suspendarea i demiterea din funcie). Constituia cuprinde n art. 96 alin1 o dispoziie special prin care "Camera Deputailor i Senatul n edina comuna pot hotr punerea sub acuzare a Preedintelui Romniei pentru nalt trdare, cu votul a cel puin dou treimi din numrul deputailor i senatorilor; competena de judecat aparine naltei Curii de Casaie i Justiie, n condiiile legii. Preedintele este demis de drept la data rmnerii definitive a hotrrii condamnare". Se observ c legea folosete termenul de nalt trdare necalificnd expres fapta ca infraciune, ceea ce pune n eviden intenia legiuitorului de a sublinia conotaiile nu numai juridice ci i politice ale acestuia. n acest sens, n literatura de specialitate s-a apreciat pe buna dreptate nefirescul reglementrii constituionale n condiiile n care Parlamentul are dreptul de a-l pune sub acuzare pe Preedinte pentru svrirea faptei de "nalta trdare" fr ns ca ea s fie descrisa de reglementari si lege . Aa cum spunea profesorul Ion Deleanu [3] "n condiiile actualei legislaii, nalta Curte de Casaie i Justiie se afl n ipoteze contradictorii inadmisibile: ea ar urma s califice fapta de nalt trdare, s-i prevad limitele speciale de pedeaps i apoi s decid eventuala condamnare i condiiile exercitrii cii de atac". n concluzie, autoritile judectoreti competente nu vor face o ncadrare a aciunilor i inaciunilor Preedintelui Romniei n latura obiectiva a infraciunii de nalt trdare deoarece aceasta nu este prevzuta de legea penala ci n cea a celorlalte infraciuni prevzute de legea penala n vigoare, precum i o determinare a vinoviei i a pedepselor acestora [4].; Din punct de vedere procedural, actul de punere sub acuzare al Parlamentului este urmat, n mod firesc de rechizitoriul Procurorului General al Parchetului General de pe lng nalta Curte de Casaie i Justiie
shall be punished as every other citizen, according to the principles of common law, in accordance with the character and the gravity of the offence. Therefore, nothing prevents the President from answering contraventionally and patrimonially, if for example, during a particular trip, he caused a travel accident by breaching the traffic rules. When breaching the law takes into consideration actions connected to the exercise of the function, then the problem of liability is stated in other terms. We have already analyzed the problem of the Presidents liability for having committed serious actions, political sanctions to be applied (suspension and dismissal respectively). The Constitution includes in the art. 96, par. 1 a special disposition through which The Chamber of Deputies and the Senate in common meeting may decide to accuse the President of Romania for high treason, with the vote of at least two thirds of the number of deputies and senators; the trial competence belongs to the High Court of Cassation and Justice, under the conditions of the law. The President shall be dismissed by right when the resolution of conviction remains definitive". We notice that the law uses the term high treason without expressly qualifying the action as offence, which highlights the lawmakers intention to underline its juridical and political connotations. In this sense, specialty literature reasonably appreciates the unnaturalness of constitutional regulation taking into consideration that the Parliament is entitled to accuse the President for having committed the offence of high treason without describing it by regulations and by the law. As professor Ion Deleanu used to say [54] "under the conditions of the current legislation, the High Court of Cassation and Justice is under inadmissible contradictory hypotheses: it has to decide upon the offence of high treason, foresee its special punishment limitations and then decide upon the possible conviction and the conditions for exercising the way of attack". In conclusion, competent juridical authorities shall not include the actions and
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inactions of the President of Romania into the objective side of the offence of high treason because it is not stipulated by the penal law but by that of other offences stipulated by the penal law in force, as well as an establishment of their guilt and punishments [4].; From the procedural point of view, the accusation made by the Parliament is naturally followed by the speech for prosecution made by the General Prosecutor of the General Prosecutors Office of the High Court of Cassation and Justice and has to be accompanied by the President suspension until the juridical resolution remains irrevocable. The Parliaments charge (and therefore the cancellation of immunity) may be also made for committing any offence regulated by the penal law, taking into consideration the provisions of the art. 16 of the fundamental law which stipulates that Nobody is above the law. Based on the speech for prosecution made by the General Prosecutor of the High Court of Cassation and Justice, the Penal Division of the High Court shall proceed with the trial and its resolution may be attacked through appeal that shall be judged at the [1] P.Manda, Tratat de drept administrativ, Editura United Divisions of the High Court of Lumina Lex, 2001, pag 332 Cassation and Justice which shall sentence a [2] P.Manda , op.cit. ,p331 definitive and enforceable resolution. [3] I. Deleanu, Drept constituional i Instituii Politice, If the supreme court has sentenced the Tratat, Editura Europa Nova , 1996 , p348 conviction, then the President is dismissed by [4] M. Preda , Drept administrativ ., p51 right, when the conviction resolution remains irrevocable, and elections for a new President shall be organized.
[1] P.Manda, Administrative law Treaty, Lumina Lex, 2001, pag 332 [2] P.Manda , op.cit. ,p331 [3] I. Deleanu, Constitutional Law and Political Institutions, Treaty, Europa Nova Publisher, 1996 , p348 [4] M. Preda , Administrative Law ., p. 51
i trebuie s fie nsoita i de suspendarea din funcie a Preedintelui pana la rmnerea definitiva a hotrrii judectoreti. Punerea sub acuzare de ctre Parlament (i deci nlturarea imunitii) poate fi fcuta i pentru svrirea oricrei alte infraciuni reglementata de legea penal, avnd n vedere dispoziiile art.16 din legea fundamental n care se precizeaz ca "Nimeni nu este mai presus de lege". Pe baza rechizitorului ntocmit de Parchetul General de pe lng nalta Curte de Casaie i Justiie se va trece la judecata de fond de ctre Secia Penala a naltei Curi a crei hotrre este supus caii de atac a recursului care se judeca de Seciile Unite ale naltei Curi de Casaie i Justiie care pronuna o hotrre definitiva i executorie. n situaia n care Preedintele a fost achitat, va nceta suspendarea i acesta i va relua exerciiul tuturor atribuiilor. Dac instana suprema a pronunat condamnarea atunci Preedintele este demis de drept, la data rmnerii definitive a hotrri de condamnare, urmnd s se organizeze alegeri pentru un nou Preedinte. Co
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PROCLAMATIA DE LA TIMISOARA SI SOCIETATEA DESCHISA IN ROMANIA POST-TOTALITARA
PROCLAMATION OF TIMISOARA AND BUILDING AN OPEN SOCIETY IN POST-TOTALITARIAN ROMANIA

David KILGOUR Doctoral studies in constitutional law, University of Paris Member of Canadian Parliament
David KILGOUR Doctor n drept Membru n Parlamentul Canadian
Henry Bergson, filozoful care a dezvoltat prima data conceptul de societate deschisa, sustine ca guvernele societatilor deschise sunt receptive si tolerante iar mecanismele politice sunt transparente si flexibile. Statul nu pastreaza secrete asupra lucrurilor publice; este o societate nonautoritara in care toturor li se incredinteaza stiri despre tot ce se intampla. Libertatea politica si drepturile omului formeaza fundatia unei societati deschise. Karl Popper, in cartea sa, Societatea deschisa si dusmanii sai, defineste societatea deschisa ca pe una in care conducatorii politici pot fi dati jos fara varsare de sange, in opozitie cu o societate inchisa in care este nevoie de o revolutie sangeroasa sau o lovitura de stat pentru a schimba conducatorii. Democratiile sunt exemple de societate deschisa, in timp ce dictaturile totalitare si monarhiile autocrate exemple de societate inchisa. Sub regimul communist, Romania a fost un exemplu excelent de societate inchisa. In ca masura este societatea romananeasca deschisa acum, dupa 45 de ani de communism si 18 ani de eforturi spre a deveni o societate deschisa autentica? Dupa 1989, societatea romaneasca se gasea in ruina: o economie falimentara, o justitie si o politie controlate de securitate, iar dimensiunile moral-spirituale ale oamenilor erau sever alterate. Si ceea ce este uneori cel mai dificil de refacut este tocmai distrugerea morala. Perioada comunista, care practica un sistem fundamental opus naturii umane, a cauzat mereu in evolutia sa schimbari critice in gandirea normala a oamenilor. Aceasta s-a realizat prin instituionalizarea terorii fizice si
Henry Bergson, the philosopher who originally developed the concept of an open society, contends that in open societies, government is responsive and tolerant and political mechanisms are transparent and flexible. The state keeps no secrets from itself in the public sense; it is a non-authoritarian society in which all are trusted with the knowledge of all. Political freedoms and human rights are the foundation of an open society. Karl Popper, in his book The Open Society and Its Enemies, defines an "open society" as one which ensures that political leaders can be overthrown without the need for bloodshed as opposed to a "closed society" in which a bloody revolution or coup d'tat is needed to change the leaders. Democracies are examples of an "open society", whereas totalitarian dictatorships and autocratic monarchies are examples of a "closed
society".
Under its communist regime, Romania was an excellent example of a closed society. To what extent is Romanian society open now, after 45 years of communism and 18 years of struggling to become an authentic open
society?
After 1989, Romanian society found itself in ruins: a broken economy, a 'justice' or police administration controlled by the securitate (the communist secret service), the moral-spiritual dimensions of the Romanian people severely altered. What is sometimes the most difficult to restore is moral damage. The communist period, which practiced a system fundamentally out of sync with human nature, has caused continuously in its evolution
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presiunii psihice care cu timpul a ptruns adnc n contiina uman, supradimensionnd un instinct adnc nrdcinat n fiia uman: frica. Astfel s-a creeat o societate deviat de la normalitate, n care relaiile de baz dintre oameni erau controlate de spectrul fricii. Frica de a nu fi arestat de securitate, frica de a i exprima opiniile n mod deschis, chiar frica de a trai normal. Solul n care trebuia s ncoleasc acesta smna era srcia pentru ca omul srac poate fi controlat mult mai uor. Comunismul are, se pare, caile lui de a supravietui dupa ce este declarat mort. Daca indivizii asteapta pasiv ca lucrurile sa se schimbe, nu ar trebui sa ne miram de ce chestiuni grave au fost doar cosmetizate in loc sa fie fundamental schimbate. Cred ca nu gresesc cand afirm ca primul pas spre o societate deschisa in Romania a fost facut de Revolutia din Timisoara, in decemrie 1989. Indiferent ce s-a intamplat cu revolutia cateva zile mai tarziu- daca a fost transformata sau nu intr-o lovitura de stat de fostii lideri de partid, in dorinta lor de a pune mana pe putereRevolutia de la Timisoara, care a fost scump platita prin vieti umane, ramane un simbol al rezistentei impotriva totalitarismului. Inca imi amintesc ca eram cu sute de romani-canadieni la ambasada romana din Ottawa in noaptea aceea din decembrie 1989, cand regimul Ceausescu a cazut, datorita sutelor de ceteteni curajosi ai Timisoarei. Care a fost semnificatia acestei Revolutii care s-a raspandit si la Bucuresti, si apoi in toata tara? Nu a fost o lupta indreptata numai impotriva unui dictator, ci una indreptata impotriva comunismului: tiranie, desconsiderarea fiintei umane, respingerea si dispretul puternic fata de o constiinta activa, fata de valori morale, etc. Dupa patru decenii de educatie si propaganda exclusiv comunista, prejudecati apartinnd acestei ideologii mai bantuie constiinta tuturor romnilor. Existenta acestor prejudecati nu e o vina pentru purtator. Manipularea lor, insa, de catre grupuri interesante in renasterea comunismului (chiar si sub o noua forma) si reinstaurarea lui la putere este un act total anti-democratic. De aceea, in Martie 1990, Societatea
critical changes in normal human thinking. Thus, a norm-deviated society was created, in which the basic relationships among people were controlled by the specter of fear. Fear of being arrested by the securitate, fear to express openly what one thinks, even fear to live normally, etc. Human beings were supposed to forget their essence and become the new person completely obeying the party. The soil where this seed had to germinate was poverty because poor people are easier to control. After 45 years of communism, such damage is difficult to undo, especially whether there is no strong unanimous will for this to happen. With a weakened consciousness and a dependent mentality, many people do not realize how important is to play actively a role in this change and not wait for the government to do it. Communism appears to have its own ways to survive after being declared dead. If individuals wait passively for things to change, we should not wonder why critical problems were merely cosmetically altered and not fundamentally changed. I think I am not wrong when I say that the first steps towards an open society in Romania were started by the Revolution in Timisoara, in December 1989. No matter what happened with the Revolution few days later, if it was or not transformed into a putsch by the former party activists in their desire to seize political power. The Revolution of Timisoara, that paid a costly price in human lives, remains a symbol of resistance against totalitarianism across the world. I still recall being with hundreds of Romanian-Canadians and others at the Romanian embassy in Ottawa the night in December, 1989, when the Ceausescu regime fell thanks to the brave thousands of residents in Timisoara. What was the significance of this Revolution that spread in Bucharest afterwards, and then in the whole country? It was not a fight directed only against a dictator, but one directed against communism and all its connotations: tyranny, disrespect for the human being, rejection and strong loathing for
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Timisoara a lansat Proclamatia de la Timisoara, cel mai important text politic de dupa 89 si, de fapt, singurul program coerent de transformare a Romaniei comuniste intr-o societate democratica, spunea Ana Blandiana, poet, dizident si co-fondator al Fundatiei Alianta Civica. Dupa cum se afirma in Proclamatie, o serie de fapte intamplate in Romania, indeosebi dupa 28 ianuarie 1990, vin in contradictie cu idealurile Revolutiei de la Timisoara, astfel ca semnatarii au exprimat teluri liber-democrate, vazute ca reprazentand mostenirea revolutionara. Cea mai cunoscuta cerinta era Punctul 8 al documentului, in care se cerea ca toti fostii membri ai nomenclaturii PCR si securitatii sa fie exclusi de la ocuparea fuctiilor publice pentru o perioada de zece ani (sau trei legislaturi consecutive), mai ales pentru functia de presedinte (legea Lustratiei). Punand la indoiala statutul Frontului Salvarii National (denumit ulterior Partidul Social DemocratPSD), Proclamatia argumenta ca acesta era reprezentat dintr-un numar mic de comunisti care erau dusmanii lui Ceausescu, dar care, aveau propriile lor interese de putere si care, prin urmare, au pus mana pe putere. In lunile urmatoare, documentul a fost recunoscut si sustinut de sute de asociatii civice, in timp ce patru milioane de cetateni au semnat apeluri in favoarea introducerii Punctului 8 in cadrul legii electorale. El a fost si principala cerinta a Golaniadei- protestul din Piata Universitatii initiat de studentii si profesorii de la Universitatea din Bucuresti, care a fost violent reprimata de cea de-a treia Mineriada in iunie, acelasi an. Proclamand solidaritatea de clasa, textul opunea tehnica tipic comunista de dominatie prin invrajbirea claselor si categoriilor sociale. In timp ce exprima vointa de a nu copia sistemul vestic capitalist cu neajunsurile si inechitatile lui, Punctul 10 al Proclamatiei se declara in favoarea privatizarii (exprimate ideal sub forma distribuirii egale a actiunilor intre lucratorii intreprinderii, statul detinand numai acele fonduri care sa asigure controlul activitatii)si investitiilor imediate in sectorul public (ca mijloc de a preveni consecintele
active consciences, spiritual values, etc. After four decades of exclusively communist education and propaganda, prejudices engendered by this ideology perhaps still haunt all Romanian consciences. The existence of such prejudices is not the bearer's guilt. Nevertheless, their manipulation by groups interested in resuscitating communism and bringing it back to power is a deeply anti democratic act. That is why in March, 1990, the Timisoara Society issued The Proclamation of Timisoara, the most important political text after 89 and, in fact, the only coherent program of changing the communist Romania into a democratic society said Ana Blandiana, poet, dissident, and co-founder of the Civic Alliance Foundation. As stated in The Proclamation, a succession of occurrences in Romania, especially since January 28, 1990, have come to contradict the ideals of the Revolution of Timisoara, so the signers expressed liberaldemocratic goals,which they saw as representing the revolutionary legacy. The bestknown requirement was the document's 8th point, calling for all former Romanian Communist Party nomenklatura and Securitate cadres to be banned from holding public office for a period of ten years (or three consecutive legislatures), with an emphasis on the office of President (Lustration). Questioning the status of the governing National Salvation Front (renamed later Social Democrat Party-PSD), the Proclamation argued that the latter primarily represented a small group of Communists who, were Nicolae Ceauescu's enemies, but had their own power interests and had subsequently monopolized power. Over the following months, the document was recognized and advocated by hundreds of civic associations, while almost four million citizens signed appeals in favor of incorporating the 8th Point into the electoral law. The latter was also one of the main requests of the Bucharest Golaniad which was a protest in the University Square, Bucharest initiated by students and professors at the University of Bucharest and which was
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inflatiei). Textul exprima, de asemenea, speranta ca membrii Diasporii romane, care au parasit tara sub regimul comunist sa se reintoarca si sasi aduca contributia in societate, alaturi de partidele traditionale si sa ia atitudine impotriva acelei parti a publicului care, instigat de fortele obscure, au abuzat de exilatii care s-au reintors, numindu-i cei care ne vand tara. Documentul si-a exprimat opozitia fata de toate formele de sovinism, descriind Timisoara ca fiind reprezentantul de varf al spiritului tolerantei si respectului reciproc, singurele principii care vor guverna in viitoarea Casa Europeana exprimind astfel, un apel de solidaritate in privinta relatiilor etnice si a sistemlui multi-partinic bazat pe alegeri libere, cu excluderea partidelor extremiste, fie de dreapta sau stanga. Pentru cei care au acuzat Proclamatia ca ar genera o vanatoare de vrajitoare, sfarsitul Proclamatiei explica clar: La Timisoara nu s-a murit pentru ca activisti comunisti din randurile doi si trei sa treaca n frunte si unul din participantii la genocid sa fie numit de catre acestia ministru de interne. Nu s-a murit pentru ca dezbinarea sociala si nationala, cultul personalitatii, cenzura mass-mediei, dezinformarea, amenintarile telefonice si scrise si toate celelalte metode comuniste de constrngere sa fie practicate n vazul lumii,n timp ce noua ni se cere pasivitate n numele stabilitatii sociale. Aceasta Proclamatie se adreseaza n primul rnd celor care au primit revolutia cadou si se mira de ce suntem nemultimiti, de vreme ce dictatura a cazut, s-au abrogat o serie de legi proaste si a mai aparut si cate ceva n pravalii. Acum stiu de ce suntem nemultumiti: nu acesta a fost idealul Revolutiei de la Timisoara. Istoricul Dennis Deletand sustine ca lustratia era intrinsec legata de necesitatea publicarii dosarelor Securitatii detinute de CNSAS si Serviciile Romane de Informatii. El a comparat amanarile vadite in acest sens in modul de operare in Romania fata de procesele similare din alte tari din fostul Bloc Esteuropean (Polonia, Republica Ceha si Ungaria). Stim ca societatile deschise sunt caracterizate prin:
violently repressed during the third Mineriad (minerscoming in Bucharest) in June of the same year. Proclaiming class solidarity, the text opposed "the typically communist method of domination by spreading feuds among social classes". While expressing the will of "not copying the western capitalist systems with their drawbacks and inequities", the 10th Point of the Proclamation argued in favor of privatization (expressed ideally under the form of "distributing the stocks equally among the workers, the state keeping only those funds that may ensure the control of the activity") and immediate investments in the public sector (as a means to prevent the consequences of inflation). The text also expressed a hope that members of the Romanian Diaspora who had left the country under the Communist regime would return to their homeland and contribute to the society, together with the traditional parties and set itself against the portion of the public "who, instigated by obscure forces, abused the returned exiles, naming them those who sell the country. The document stated opposition to all forms of "chauvinism", depicting Timioara as the paramount representative of "the spirit of tolerance and mutual respect, the sole principles reigning in the future European House", and so, a similar call for solidarity was expressed in regard to ethnic relations and a multi-party system based on free elections was endorsed, with the exclusion of "extremist parties, be they leftist or rightist". For those leaders who accused the Proclamation of causing a dangerous witch-hunt, the end of the Proclamation clearly explains: In Timisoara people did not die so that the second and third rank communists should go to the front line, or that one of the participants in the mass murders should be promoted by the latter as Minister of the Interior. People did not die so that the social and national feuding, the personality cult, the censorship of the mass media, misinformation,
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guvernarea legii; respectul pentru drepturile omului, minoritati, diversitate de opinii; guverne alese democratic; economii de piata in care afacerile si guvernarea sunt evident separate; si o societate civila activa care ajuta la mentinerea controlului asupra abuzurilor oficiale. Cand romanii compara aceste principii cu ceea ce se intampla in tara, unii se simt descurajati. Dar complacerea este cel mai rau dusman. Chiar daca situatia este dificila, s-au facut cativa pasi curajosi spre o societate deschisa. Romanii ar trebui sa sprijine aceste incercari decat sa astepte in rolul de spectatori ca lucrurile sa se schimbe din exterior. Ce poate fi facut pentru intarirea Romaniei ca o societate deschisa, cu o societate civila puternica? 1. Acceptarea diversitatii si respectului pentru altii, in ciuda diferentelor. Pornind de la premisa cal ca o societate este formata din totalitatea membrilor ei, reintoarcerea la normal implica in primul rand o schimare la nivel de individ. Sub regimurile totalitare, individul e invatat ca este neimportant. Ca el nu conteaza. Ca opinia sa nu are importanta. Trebuie sa se renunte la acesta conceptie. Pentru construirea unei societi deschise dup o lunga epoca totalitar un prim principiu pe trebuie s-l lum n calcul, este faptul c societatea uman reprezint o diversitate, fiecare individ avnd caracteristicile lui unice i distincte, intocmai ca si piesele divers colorate ale unui mosaic foarte
complex.
Cu ct fiecare individ este apreciat pentru particularitatile proprii si cu cat este incurajat sa contribuie la armonia intregului, ca atat mai semnificativ devine intregul mosaic. Deci acceptarea diversitii este un prim pas cheie impreuna cu respectul pentru ceilalti si a parererii celorlalti. 2. Intelegerea adevarului si accepterea schimabrii de mentalitate. Cum poate avea loc, in practica, schimbarea individului? Schimarea pozitiva reala intr-o societate nu poate avea loc pana cand individul nu intelege realitatea in
written and telephone threats, and all the other communist methods of coercion should be practiced openly, while we are requested to stay passive on behalf of social stability. The British historian Dennis Deletant has argued that lustration was intrinsically connected with the necessity for publicizing Securitate files kept by the CNSAS and the Romanian Intelligence Service. He also contrasted the manifest delays in Romanian procedures with the similar processes in three other former Eastern Bloc countries (Poland, the Czech Republic, and Hungary). We know that open societies are characterized by: the rule of law; respect for human rights, minorities, diversity of opinions; democratically-elected governments; market economies in which business and government are normally separate; and an active civil society that helps keep official abuses in check. When Romanians compares these principles with what is happening in the country, some feel discouraged. But complacency is the worst enemy in any democracy. Even if the situation is difficult, some courageous steps have been taken in the direction of an open society. Romanians should continue to support these attempts rather than wait as spectators for things to be changed externally. What might be done to strengthen Romania as an open society with a strong civil society? 1. Acceptance of diversity and respect for others in spite of differences. Considering that a society is made up of all of its members, a return to normalcy implies first a change at the level of each individual. Under totalitarian regimes, the individual is taught that he or she is unimportant. They do not matter. Their opinions do not count. This view must be unlearned by all. For building an open society after a long totalitarian period, a first principle to be taken into account is that human society represents a wholesome diversity in which each individual has important distinctive features and roles, just like the differently coloured
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care se afla si a faptului ca el trebuie sa-si schimbe mentalitatea. Pentru aceasta ei trebuie sa cunoasca si inteleaga adevarul. Aici, fiecare individ ar trebui s aib cunotiin de crimele comunismului, de crimele din nchisorile comuniste din Romania din trecut si de crimele din inchisorile de astazi, din alte tari. Accesul la adevarata istorie a neamului su este esentiala. Tinerii ar trebui sa studieze istoria comunismului si sa invete ca acesta nu poate fi niciodata o solutie. Atat comunismul si fascismul sunt practic la fel. 3. O schimare autentica in atitudine, bazata pe valori, incusiv pe integritatea personala. Ceea ce este cel mai rau, poate mai rau decat crimele sale, este ca, sub comunism, constiinta morala a oamenilor este compromisa drastic. In condtitii de opresiune, oamenii sunt mult mai predispusi sa minta, sa se ascunda, sa insele, sa tradeze, sa linguseasca. Decaderea morala devine o a doua natura; doar cateva persoane pot ramane cu adevarat verticale, cel mai adesea cu pretul libertatii si vietii lor. Evident ca nu putem cere ca o societate sa fie dreapta si corecta daca noua, ca indivizi, ne lipseste simtul etic. Numai cand individul insusi devine constient cat de important este sa fie corect, sa-si faca munca cinstit, fara sa insele sau sa faca rau celorlalti din mediul sau, sa-i respecte pe ceilalti, sa-si aminteasca sa-i ajute pe ceilalti mai mult, va apare o schimbare semnificativa in orice societate. Aici, educatia copiilor, tinerilor, adultilor trebuie sa joace un rol important. 4. Promovarea valorilor, in general.Valori gresite au fost promovate de prea mult timp, in Romania si in alte societati totalitare. Oamenii ar trebui sa reinvete ceea ce este pozitiv, constuctiv, creator. Ei ar trebui sa inteleaga ca nici o economie puternica nici o societate deschisa nu se pot construi pe valori gresite sau pe non-valoare. Pe de alta parte, Romanii au multe exemple de oameni exemplari care si-au dedicat si sacrificat viata pentru cauze si idealuri nobile. Ei ar trebui facuti cunoscuti si promovati ca exemplu pentru tinerile generatii. Imi vin in minte nume precum: Corneliu Coposu- secretar personal al Ministrului Iuliu Maniu (unul dintre cei mai
pieces in a very complex mosaic. The more each individual is valued for their own particularities and the more they are encouraged to contribute to the harmony of the whole, the more significant becomes the entire mosaic. The acceptance of diversity is a key first step, together with the respect for others and the others' opinions. 2. Understanding the truth and an acceptance to change mentality. How in practice can change in individuals take place? Positive real change in a society cannot take place until the individual can understand the reality he/she lives in and the fact that she/he must change their mentality. For this, they must be aware of and understand the truth. Here each individual should know about the crimes of communism, the crimes committed in its prisons in Romania in the past, and today in other countries. Access to the true history of the country is essential. Young people should study the history of communism and learn that communism can never be a solution. Communism and fascism are virtually indistinguishable in practice. 3. An authentic renewal in attitude based on values, including personal integrity. What is perhaps worst of all, worse even than its crimes, is that under communism a peoples moral consciousness is compromised severely. Under oppressive conditions, people are more prone to lie, hide, cheat, betray, flatter. Moral depravity becomes second nature; only a few persons can remain truly vertical, often at the cost of their freedom or lives. Obviously, we cannot ask for society to be sound and righteous if we, as individuals, lack ethical development. Only if each individual becomes aware of how important is to be honest and does their work correctly, without cheating or harming the others in the environment where he/she is, if they understand that to respect the others and remember to help others more, will significant change come about in any society. Here, early, teenage and adult education must play an important role. 4. Promotion of sound values in general. For too long, bad values were promoted in Romanian and other totalitarian societies. People must therefore
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respectati politicieni de dinainte de razboi, el insusi un dizident si prizonier anti-comunist), care a fost condamnat la 17 ani de temnita grea pentru convingerile sale anti-comuniste. El este un simbol al rezistentei comuniste. Petre Tutea- un ganditor profund, una din acele rare personalitati la care gandul, vorba, fapta sunt una. El este un exemplu etic si intelectual in care putem gasi virtuti fundamentale: curajul, rabdarea, cumpatarea, pietatea. Alexandru Zub- cunoscut drept cel mai mare istoric in viata, eseist si academician; a fost si el detinut politic si dizident in timpul anilor de inceput ai Romaniei comuniste, un om de mare onoare. Ana Blandiana- o mare poeta si eseista contemporana. Spre sfarsitul anilor 1980 asumandu-si riscurile represaliilor comuniste, Blandiana a inceput sa scrie poezii de protest ca raspuns la pretentiile tot mai absurde ale regimului, in general. Dupa Revolutia din 1989, ea intra in viata politica, militand atat pentru inlaturarea fostilor activisti ramasi in functii de conducere cat si pentru o societate deschisa. Ea a co-fondat Sighet, Memorialul Victimilor comunismului si rezistentei anti-comuniste, care include un Muzeu si un Centru de Studii Internationale. Doina Cornea- intelectual si dizident notabil. Impreuna cu intelectuali ca Ana Blandiana, Mihai Sora si Mircea Dinescu, Cornea a continuat sa spuna adevarul despre guvernul lui Ion Iliescu. A fost co-fondator al Forumului Democratic Anti-totalitar din Romania. Acestia, impreuna cu tinerele victime ale revolutiei din 1989 si cu toate victimile comunismului sunt exemple de oameni care au fost gata sa moara decat sa se supuna unei doctrine incompatibile cu constiinta lor. 5. Programe educationale pentru a ajuta tinerii sa dezvolte spirit civic. Scolile, ONGurile, comunitatile locale, ministerele educatiei, justutiei, etc, si toata societatea civila ar trebui implicata in dezvoltarea proiectelor si programelor educationale care vor ajuta copiii si tinerii sa devina cetateni responsabili. 6. Programe educationale care sa ajute tinerii sa se dezvolte conform valorilor etice
relearn what is positive, constructive and creative. They should understand that neither a strong economy nor an open society can be built if based on bad values. On the other hand, Romanians have many examples of exemplary people who dedicated and sacrificed their lives for noble causes and ideals. They should be promoted and made known as models for the younger generations. Such names as the following come to mind: Corneliu Coposu was a private secretary of the Ministry of Iuliu Maniu (one of the most respected prewar politicians, he himself was an anti-communist dissident and prisoner) who was sentenced to 17 years of hard prison labour for his anti-communist convictions. He is a symbol of unyielding opposition to communism. Petre Tutea - a profound thinker, one of those rare personalities for whom thinking, speaking and acting are one and the same. He is an ethical and intellectual example where we can find fundamental virtues: courage, patience, moderation, piety. Alexandru Zub -known as the greatest historian alive; also essayist and academic; he was a political prisoner and dissident during the early years of Communist Romania, a man of great honour. Ana Blandiana - is a great contemporary Romanian poet and essayist. In the late 1980s, assuming risks of reprisals from the communist regime, Blandiana started writing protest poems in answer to the increasingly harsh demands of the system in general. After the 1989 Revolution, she entered political life, campaigning for the removal of communist partisans remaining in administrative offices, as well as for an open society. She founded Sighet, the Memorial of the Victims of Communism and anticommunist Resistance ("Memorial Sighet") that comprises a Museum and an International Study Centre. Doina Cornea noted dissident and intellectual. Together with intellectuals like Ana Blandiana, Mihai ora and Mircea Dinescu, Cornea continued her outspokenness against the government of Ion Iliescu, (president of Romania until his defeat by Emil
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precum corectitudinea, adevarul, respectul pentru ceilalti, altruismul si toleranta. In ciuda faptului ca cinismul, lipsa de scrupule si aroganta sunt afisate la fiecare nivel al societatii, tinerii ar trebui educati ca nu aceasta este calea spre succes si valoare personala inalta. 7. Oficialii alesi ar trebui selectati cu mare atentie de catre cei care voteaza. Ar trebui introdus votul uninominal. Oamenii ar trebui sa stie exact pe cine aleg, si ar trebui sa aiba acces la biografiile detaliate ale candidatilor. 8. Legea electorala ar trebui sa nu dea dreptul fostilor activisti de partid si ofiteri de securitate sa fie numiti pe liste de candidati- asa cum sustine Proclamatia de la Timisoara. Pentru a supravietui, unele dintre aceste persoane si-au ascuns conceptiile totalitare si radacinile, si-au rafinat metodele, au pozat in dizidenti, promitand sa construiasca democratia in tara. Dar prezenta lor in viata politica a tarii este sursa principala de tensiune si suspiciune care framanta astazi societatea romaneasca. 9. O clauza speciala a legii elctorale ar trebui sa interzica definitiv fostilor activisti de partid sa candideze pentru functia de Presedinte a tarii (conform Punctului 8 al Proclamatiei de la Timisoara), pentru Senat si Parlament. Presedintele Romaniei ar trebui sa fie un simbol al divortului tarii de comunism. 10. Investitii imediate sunt necesare, de exemplu, in domeniul educatiei si sanatatii. Aceasta este o prioritate pentru un standard minim de natiune civilizata. 11. Fostii dizidenti, detinuti politici si oameni care au demonstrat ca sunt activi in dezvoltarea societatii ar trebui incurajati si sustinuti sa participe in alegeri si alte functii decizionale. Citez din Punctul 6 al Proclamatiei de la Timisoara: Multi dintre romnii aflati astazi departe de tara au plecat dupa persecutii poltitice si chiar dupa ani grei de nchisoare. Ar fi rusinos din partea noastra sa-i hulim si noi cu vorbele activistilor comunisti de odinioara. Exilul romnesc nseamna sute de profesori emineti care predau la cele mai mari universitati din lume, mii de specialisti pretuiti la cele mai puternice firme occidentale, zeci de mii de muncitori calificati n tehnologiile cele
Constantinescu in the 1996 election, but still ruling in the view of some offstage). She was co-founder of the Democratic Anti-totalitarian Forum of Romania. They, together with the young victims of the 1989 revolution and with all the victims of communism, are examples of people who are and were ready to die rather than to bend under a doctrine incompatible with their consciences. 5. Educational programs to help young people to develop civic spirit. Schools, NGOs, local communities, ministries of education, justice, etc, and all of civil society should be involved in developing educational projects and programs which will help children and youth to become responsible citizens. 6. Educational programs to help young people develop themselves in accordance with sound values such as honesty, truthfulness, respect for others, altruism and tolerance. Despite the fact that cynicism, lack of scruples and brazenness are displayed at every level of society, young people should de educated that this is not the way to personal success and high self-esteem. 7. Elected officials should be a selected with great care by voters. The uninominal vote (its not a vote that you give not to an entire party, but a vote that you give to any person you want, putting the stamp exactly on that person, not on the entire party that he represents) should be introduced. People should know whom they choose, and should have access to candidates detailed biographies. 8. An electoral law should deny former Communist party workers and Security officers the right to be nominated as candidates on any list- as stated in The Proclamation of Timisoara. In order to survive, some of these persons hid their totalitarian concepts and roots, refined their methods of social manipulation, posing as dissidents and promising to build democracy in the country. But their presence in the country's political life is the chief source of the tensions and suspicions that trouble many in Romanian society today. 9. A special clause of the electoral law should ban former Communist party activists from running for the position of President of
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mai avansate. Sa fim mndri de ei si sa transformam raul n bine, facnd din trista si dureroasa diaspora romneasca o forta innoitoare pentru Romnia. Timisoara ii asteapta cu dragoste pe toti exilatii romni. Sunt compatriotii nostri si, azi mai mult ca niciodata, avem nevoie de competenta lor, de europenismul gndirii lor si chiar de sprijinul lor material. De asemenea, cultura romna va fi ntreaga numai dupa ce se reintegreaza n ea cultura din exil. 12. Efortul de a face justitia accesibila tuturor romanilor, in mod egal. Pentru acesta, eliminarea coruptiei este o conditie esentiala. 13. Politie, procurori, judecatori independenti politic. In acelasi timp, tribunalele nu trebuie s aiba nimic in comun cu modelul scenelor de teatru ex-comuniste. 14. Judecatori independenti selectati de o Comisie Juridica pentru a evita apartenenta politica in numiri. 15. Comisiile Juridice ar trebui sa includa persoane ireprosabile care sa recomande numai pe cei mai bine calificati barbati si femei pentru a fi judecatori. 16. Promovarea magistratilor tineri dar profesionisti, care nu sunt implicati politic si nu au apartenenta politica sau preferinte de vreun fel. 17. Un statut care ar trebui sa interzica ofiterilor de securitate sau altor oficiali ai fostului guvern nedemocratic din Romania sa aiba vreun birou politic sau juridic. In acelasi timp, dosarele securitatii ar trebui facute publice. De fapt Presedintele Basescu si Monica Macovei au luptat ambii impotriva coruptiei, pentru expunerea dosarelor securitatii si pentru incercarea de a separa justitia de influenta politica. Sa ne mai intrebam de ce a fost Monica Macovei concediata si presedintele Basecu suspendat? Poate Parlamentul Romaniei ignora Curtea Constitutionala care a declarat ca preseditele nu a incalcat constitutia si sa decida singur suspendarea? 18. Constitutia ar trebui modificata conform noilor realitati. Ce alta constitutie, intr-o democratie, ar permite ca un presedinte ales sa fie suspendat impotriva deciziei Curtii Constitutionale pentru ca a condamnat coruptia, in timp ce alt fost presedinte nu a fost nici
country, (-according to 8th Point of The Proclamation), for the Senate and for Parliament. Romania's presidents ought to be symbols of the countrys divorce from communism. 10. Immediate investments are necessary, for instance, in the fields of education and the public services of health and sanitation. This is a priority to build a minimum standard of educated nationals. 11. Former dissidents, political exdetainees and people who demonstrate that they are active in the development of society should be encouraged and supported to participate in elections and other decisional offices. Many of them who nowadays live abroad left the country following political persecution and even long terms of imprisonment. Besides, the Romanian culture will be complete only after the culture of the exile has been reintegrated back into Romania. 12. Strive to make justice available for all Romanians equally. For this, purging corruption is a prerequisite. 13. Politically independent police, prosecutors and judges. At the same time, justice must have nothing in common with the ex-communist courts as theatre model. 14. Independent judges selected by a Judicial Commission to avoid partisanship in appointments. 15. The Judicial Commission should be comprised of persons beyond reproach who would recommend only the best qualified men and women to be judges. 16. Promoting of young but professional magistrates who are not politically involved and would not be partisan or otherwise dependent. 17. A statute should forbid security and other officials of the former undemocratic government of Romania to have any political or judicial office. At the same time, the Securitates files should be made public. In fact, President Basescu and Monica Macovei (the former Minister of Justice) have both been fighting against corruption, for exposing the securitates files and for trying to separate justice issues from political influence. One wonders why was Monica Macovei was
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macar contestat cand a chemat in mod evident minerii pentru a reprima protestul studentilor? 19. Formarea unui mecanism care ar trebui sa restrictioneze influenta actuala a oamenilor foarte bogati spre varfurile puterii. Acetia pot favoriza prin anumite legi mersul societilor comerciale la care dein capital majoritar. 20. Societatea civila ar trebui sa intervina la crearea unui asemenea mecanism de siguranta. Poate avea, de asemenea, un rol in controlul serviciilor secrete. 21. Controlul politic asupra massmediei ar trebui sa inceteze. In mod ideal, nici un interes politic sau financiar nu ar trebui sa afecteze impartialitatea presei, televiziunii, radioului, etc. Rolul mass-mediei trebuie sa fie acela de informare nu de servire a unor interese politice. Ar trebui, de asemenea, sa informeze oamenii despre realitatile din Romania si consecintele lor in Romania port-totalitara. Germania de dupa perioada nazista poate fi un bun exemplu in acest sens. 22. Mass-media ar trebui sa aiba un rol educativ. Ea ar trebui sa promoveze idei specifice pentru o societate deschisa si sa ii demonstreze avantajele. Bineinteles, trebuie sa se tina cont si de interese comerciale, dar aceasta ar trebui sa fie o usa deschisa spre cultura si valori traditionale. Dac nainte de 1989 a existat acea grotesc cultur de partid, dup 1989 i-a fcut apariia o subcultur dominata de valori indoielnice. Nu ar trebui sa neglijam ca in aceasta sub-cultura, societatea deschisa este identificata ca dusman al poporului. 23. Societatea civila ar trebui sa informeze oamenii in legatura cu atrocitatile comuniste trecute si prezente, in cadrul massmediei, conferintelor, seminariilor, etc. Daca este adevarat ca cunoasterea este putere, este, de asemeni, adevarat ca oamenii ar trebui sa invete din greselile din trecut pentru a evita sa le faca in viitor. Romanii au China ca un exemplu viu a ceea ce s-ar fi intamplat daca ar fi supravietuit comunismul. Teroarea ar fi luat forme mult mai subtile, ascunse si mai greu de detectat. Raportul nostru, al lui David Matas si al meu, disponibil si in romaneste la www.organharvestinvestigation.net vorbeste
dismissed and President Basescu was suspended? Can Romania's Parliament ignore the Constitutional Court that had ruled that the president did not abuse the constitution and make its own decision about suspension? 18. The constitution should be modified to accord to new realities. What other constitution in a democracy allows an elected President to be suspended, against the decision of the Constitutional Court for condemning corruption whereas another former president was not even contested when he evidently called the miners (Mineriad) to put down a students protest? 19. Forming a mechanism that should restrict the current influence of very wealthy people in law-making. These people can favour through some laws companies in which they have major holdings. 20. Civil society should help in creation of such safety mechanisms. It might also have a role in the control of the secret service. 21. Political control over the media should cease to exist. Ideally, no political or financial interest should affect the impartiality of press, television, radio etc. The role of the media ideally should be to inform, not to serve political interests. It should also inform people about the realities in Romania and their consequences in a post-totalitarian Romania. Germany, after its Nazi period, can provide a good best practice in this respect. 22. The media should have an educational role. They should promote specific ideas for an open society and demonstrate its advantages. Of course, its commercial interests should be taken into account, but it also should be an open door to culture and traditional values. If, before 1989 there was a grotesque party culture, since 1989 we can talk about a sub-culture, dominated by bad values. We should not neglect that in this sub-culture the open society is identified as an 'enemy of the people'. 23. Civil society should inform people about past and present Communist atrocities, using media, conferences, seminars, etc. If its true that knowledge is power, it is also true that people should learn from mistakes in the past to avoid making them in the future. Romanians
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have China as a living example about what would have happened if communism had survived. Terror would have taken more subtle, hidden forms, harder to detect. The report of David Matas and myself available in Romanian at www.organharvestinvestigation.net says more about a new form of evil on our planet. We refer to the killing of Falun Gong practitioners- people who believe in the principles of truth-benevolence-forbearanceand harvesting their organs for commercial purposes. 24. Both civil society and the media should inform the public about the real values that brought prosperity, human rights, diversity, pluralism and the rule of law to democratic societies. Post-communist ones still have difficulty in appreciating democratic societies. This attitude is inherited from the totalitarian period when the party ideology claimed that western societies are loose in morals, rich in drugs, prostitution and, in spite of politeness, people are concerned only with their own business. Romanian society should not forget that among the first things it borrowed from West after the revolution were such things in its desire to pose as a free society. What Romanian society has perhaps failed to understand and what should be learned now is that among the best things western societies enjoy are their active civil societies and the rule of law. Every Romanian should be aware that a post-totalitarian society without the rule of law, without ethical values, without a determination to fight for both, will never heal its wounds and become a genuinely open society. In the last century, human dignity has been continuously assaulted by two ideologies remarkably similar in practice: Nazism and Communism. Both were unrelieved catastrophes for 1989 includ: Romanians and all other peoples they ruled. Abuzul (si chiar mai mult) asupra a zeci de milioane de oameni nevinovati, in The record of Communism in Europe between 1944 and 1989 includes: timpul unei aproape jumatati de secol, The abuse and much worse of Esecul economic continuu, Persecutia comunitatilor religioase si tens of millions of innocent people during crearea asa numitei crize a sufletului, putini almost half a century, Continuous economic failure, realizand ca aceste grupuri ar juca un rol major despre o noua forma a raului pe planeta noastra. Ne referim la uciderea practicantilor Falun Gong- oameni care cred si pun in practica principiile adevar-bunavointa-toleranta- si la recoltarea organelor lor, fara consimtamantul acestora, in scopuri comerciale. 24. Atat societatea civila cat si massmedia ar trebui sa informeze publicul despre adevaratele valori care au adus prosperitate, drepturi ale omului, diversitate, pluralism si guvernarea legii in societatiile democratice. Cele post-comuniste au dificultati in apreciarea societatilor democratice. Aceasta atitudine este mostenita din perioada totalitara, cand ideologia de partid pretindea ca societatile vestice abunda in droguri, moravuri usoare, prostitutie, si, in ciuda politetii, oamenii sunt preocupati doar de treburile lor. Societatea romaneasca nu ar trebui sa uite ca, printre primele lucruri pe care le-a imprumutat de la Vest, dupa revolutie, au fost tocmai acele lucruri, in dorinta ei de a poza intr-o societate libera. Dar, ceea ce societatea romaneasca n-a reusit probabil sa inteleaga si ar trebui invatat acum este ca, printre cele mai bune lucruri, de care se bucura societatile vestice, sunt tocmai societatea civila si guvernarea legii. Orice roman ar trebui sa-si dea seama ca o societate post-totalitara fara guvernarea legii, fara valori morale si fara hotararea de a lupta pentru amandoua, nu isi va vindeca niciodata ranile si nu va deveni o adevarata societate deschisa. In ultimul secol, demnitatea umana a fost continuu asaltata de doua ideologii uimitor de asemanatoare in practica: Nazismul si Comunismul. Ambele au fost catastrofe fara precedent atat pentru romani cat si pentru alte natiuni unde acestea au guvernat. Consemnarile despre comunismul din Europa dintre 1944Annals of the Constantin Brncui University of Trgu Jiu, Juridical Sciences Series, No. 1/2008
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in eventuala prabusirea a sistemului, Obligarea fermierilor care trudeau pamantul sa renunte la lucrarea pamantului fertil prin colectivizare fortata, deposedandu-i atat de pamant cat si de animale Inducerea faptului ca era o crima sa vorbesti despre democratie in scopul de a proteja dictaturile incompetente, violente, criminale, de altfel, in Romania sau in alta
The persecution of faith communities and the creation of what has been called a "crisis of the soul", little realizing that these groups would play a major role in its
eventual downfall,
Causing hard-working farmers to give up working fertile soil by forcing them into collectives, which seized both their land
parte
Comunismul a inversat conceptul nobil de egalitate umana transfomandu-l intr-un scut pentru privilegiile speciale ale oficialitatilor de partid, nomenclatura. George Orwell a incondeiat tradarea oamenilor de catre Revolutia rusa, in 1917, prin celebra fraza: Toate animalele sunt egale dar unele sunt
and animals,
Making it a crime to talk about representative democracy in order to protect incompetent, violent and otherwise criminal dictatorships in Romania and elsewhere. Communism twisted the noble concept of human equality into a shield for the special privileges of party officials, the nomenklatura. George Orwell penned his most famous line about the betrayal of the people in the Russian Revolution of 1917: "All animals are equal, but some are more equal than
mai egale decat altele.

Comunismul a inlaturat toate drepturile sindicatelor muncitoresti, inclusiv dreptul de a exista in vreo forma coerenta si a negocia in mod colectiv, demonstrand ca nicaieri unde acesta guverneaza nu manifesta inters fata de drepturile muncitorilor A distrus orice concept de guvernare a legii si independenta a judecatorilor. A transformat arta si cultura in propaganda sterila, exiland astfel multi artisti si scriitori. Violoncelistul/dirijorul/compozitorul Mitislav Rostropovich, care, ca si multi alti artisti a jucat un rol important in rasturnarea dictaturii din Rusia, a spus atat de bine: Constiinta este o mare motivatie pentru creativitate.
others."
Communism removed all rights of workers' unions, including the right to exist in any meaningful form and to bargain collectively, demonstrating that nowhere where it governs does it care about the rights of
workers.
It destroyed any concept of the rule of law and the independence of
judges.
It turned art and culture into a sterile propaganda, thus forcing many artists and writers into exile. The now late cellist/conductor/composer Mitislav Rostropovich, who, like many artists and writers, played such an important role in toppling the dictatorship in Russia, put it well: "Conscience is the great motivator of creativity."
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OPOZABILITATEA I PROTECIA JURIDIC A DREPTURILOR SUBIECTIVE N SISTEMUL DREPTULUI EUROPEAN
OPPOSABILITY AND JURIDICIAL PROTECTION OF SUBJECTIVE RIGHTS IN THE EUROPEAN RIGHT SYSTEM
Acad. Assistant Professor Dr. Vasile CIUVAT The University Titu Maiorescu Bucharest The Faculty of Law Targu Jiu
Conf. univ. dr. Vasile CIUV Universitatea Titu Maiorescu Bucureti Facultatea de Drept Trgu Jiu
ntruct drepturile sunt faculti, prerogative sau puteri ale persoanelor recunoscute i sancionate de lege i drepturile subiective constau n puterea pe care o are fiecare persoan de a pretinde ca facultile, aptitudinile i puterile sale care nu sunt ngrdite prin lege, s fie sprijinite sau aduse la ndeplinire de stat prin organele sale abilitate. Corespunztor celor constatate, se reine c dreptul subiectiv este o posibilitate (facultate sau putere) recunoscut de lege subiectului activ (titularului) pe care o exercit mpotriva subiectului pasiv, asupra cruia se concretizeaz sub form de obligaii. Asemenea drepturi (facultas agendi) pentru a fi recunoscute i valorificate trebuie s fie ocrotite de o norm general de drept (norma agendi) care, potrivit terminologiei utilizat n literatura de specialitate, poart denumirea de regul de drept obiectiv. Existena unei reguli de drept care s ocroteasc drepturile pe care le pretinde i exercit un subiect de drept mpotriva altui subiect de drept este determinant ntruct, numai n asemenea situaii drepturile n cauz genereaz obligaii pentru cellalt subiect, subiectul pasiv. Existena unor asemenea drepturi nu trebuie confundat cu posibilitatea materializrii lor efective. Materializarea efectiv a drepturilor subiective depinde de voina i fora probant a probatoriului invocat de ctre subiectul care le pretinde, n limitele normelor juridice care i fac aplicare. Din cele expuse putem conchide c drepturile subiective sunt doar posibiliti care pot fi materializate numai atunci cnt sunt ntrunite anumite condiii precum, condiia ca subiectul activ, el nsui, s aib o conduit n limitele prevzute de lege, conduit care la rndul ei antreneaz n sarcina subiectului pasiv o obligaie (obligaia de a da, de a
Regarding the subjective right, in the specialty literature, there appeared a lot of definitions among whom, under the aspect of the social dimension of the right, the most complete definition is given by Mihail Cantacuzino The subjective right is the power of every person to pretend that its aptitudes and powers which are not restricted, or exactly in the limit in which they are not restricted throught the law, to be not only respected, namely undisturbed by others or by society through its organs, but also, when they generated acts which create records with others, to be upholded by the society organs in order to be fulfilled the effects of the created records Pierre Pescatore defines the subjective right as the prerogative given to a person by the legal order and guaranteed through the right path, to have a value which is recognized to be its or being owed. From the definitions of the subjective right it can be easily concluded that the human factor represents the central area of interest for the organized collectivities and in the regulatory plan it was pursued that the essential rights of the people to be protected. The protection of the subjective rights by the legislator appeared since ancient times because the right reports itself to the human being presence in the society, to its capacity to influence and convert the social. The protection and guarantee of the subjective rights of people is one of the essential requirements of the
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face sau de a nu face ceva). Raportat la dreptul obiectiv care reprezint delimitarea voinei individuale, dreptul subiectiv arat zona n care persoanele pot aciona fr a aduce atingere prescripiilor normei sociale, sau din punct de vedere al interesului se poate manifesta fr a avea team c ncalc o asemenea norm. Cu privire la dreptul subiectiv, n literatura de specialitate, s-au formulat o multitudine de definiii din rndul crora, sub aspectul dimensiunii sociale a dreptului, cea mai complet este definiia dat de Mihail Cantacuzino Dreptul subiectiv este puterea pe care o are fiecare individ de a pretinde ca facultile, aptitudinile i puterile sale care nu sunt ngrdite, sau mai exact n limita n care nu sunt ngrdite prin lege, s fie nu numai respectate, adic nesuprate de alii sau de societate prin organele sale, ci s fie, atunci cnd ele s-au tradus n acte de via creatoare de raporturi cu alii, sprijinite de societate prin organele, sale spre a fi aduse la ndeplinire efectele raporturilor create [1]. Pierre Pescatore definete dreptul subiectiv ca fiind prerogativa concedat unei persoane de ctre ordinea juridic i garantat pe calea dreptului, de a dispune de o valoare care este recunoscut ca aparinndu-i fie ca a sa, fie ca fiindu-i datorat [2]. Din definiiile dreptului subiectiv cu uurin se desprinde concluzia c ntruct factorul uman reprezint zona central de interes pentru colectivitile organizate i n plan normativ s-a urmrit ca persoanelor sa le fie ocrotite drepturile eseniale ce li se cuvin. Ocrotirea de ctre legiuitor a drepturilor subiective s-a impus din cele mai vechi timpuri ntruct, dreptul n sine se raporteaz permanent la prezena omului n societate, la capacitatea sa de a influena i de a transforma socialul. Ocrotirea i garantarea drepturilor subiective ale individului constituie una dintre cerinele eseniale ale creterii gradului de socializare deoarece, de modul n care este gndit legea juridic sunt stimulate comportamentele fa de valorile sociale. De coninutul dimensiunii umane a dreptului depinde comportamentul indivizilor fa de valorile sociale (nsuirea regulilor de convieuire social). Exist o asemenea corelaie ntruct Dimensiunea uman a dreptului privete nainte de orice drepturile eseniale ale individului (drepturile fundamentale), drepturi care garanteaz egalitatea
development of socialization grade because, depending on the way in which the judicial law is thought, there are stimulated the behaviors against the social values. The behavior of the people against the social values (the assimilation of the social cohabitation rules) depends on the content of the human dimension of the right. There is such a correlation that The human dimension of the right concerns before anything the essential rights of a person (the fundamental rights), rights which guarantee the full equality of all the people, their possibility of unhampered manifestation of the dignity and liberty, because the human being, through its nature, is dignified and free. The correlation between human dimension of the right and social interest was perceived different along time. In the real sense, such an interdependence materialized itself along with the appearance and development of democratic society in which the existing social and political background produces real guarantees for the rights and liberties of the people. Reporting on the social dimension of the legal order which must be applied in our country, it is significant the assertion of Dimitrie Cantemir according to The laws are the our bed and mother. Such an approach concerns not only the position right in the civilized society but also the social dimension that it must have within a good unrolling of the human records. The vision of Dimitrie Cantemir caught contour along with the pass from the absolutist society to democratic society in which the dictatorship was replaced by the parliamentary democracy. Representing the prerogative given to a person by the objective right, the problems of the subjective rights outran the area of the national judicial orders and at present it is the metter of the main international judicial settlement, with the
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deplin a tuturor oamenilor, posibilitatea lor de manifestare nestingherit n temeiul demnitii i al libertii, pentru c omul, dup natura sa este o fiin demn i liber [3]. Corelaia dintre dimensiunea uman a dreptului i interesul social, a fost privit diferit de-a lungul timpurilor. n adevratul sens, o asemenea interdependen s-a concretizat odat cu apariia i dezvoltarea societii democratice n care cadrul social politic existent genereaz adevrate garanii pentru drepturile i libertile individului. Referindu-se la dimensiunile sociale ale ordinii juridice ce trebuie s-i fac aplicabilitate n ara noastr, semnificativ este afirmaia lui Dimitrie Cantemir potrivit creia, Legile sunt matca i mama noastr. O asemenea abordare privete nu numai poziia dreptului n societatea civilizat ci i dimensiunea social pe care el trebuie s o aib n cadrul bunei derulri a raporturilor umane. Viziunea lui Dimitrie Cantemir a prins contur odat cu trecerea de la societatea absolutist la societatea democratic, n care dictatura a fost nlocuit cu democraia parlamentar. Reprezentnd prerogativa pe care o acord unei persoane dreptul obiectiv, problematica drepturilor subiective a depit spaiul ordinilor juridice naionale i n prezent face obiectul principalelor reglementri juridice internaionale, att cu vocaie universal, ct i regional. Ca i n ordinea juridic intern i n ordinea juridic internaional, recunoaterea i garantarea drepturilor subiective sunt rezultatul unui proces social sinusoidal n care s-au parcurs toate fazele tradiionale de evoluie, precum fazele de idee, de declaraie, de norm juridic i de aplicarea legii. n plan declarativ, documentele internaionale de mare rezonan sunt Declaraia drepturilor din statul Virginia, din 1776, Declaraia drepturilor omului i ceteanului adoptat de Revoluia Francez n anul 1789 i Declaraia universal a drepturilor omului adoptat la data de 10 decembrie 1948. Inspirat din preceptele dreptului natural, Declaraia american din anul 1776 evideniaz faptul c, oamenii au fost creai egali, sunt nzestrai de creator cu anumite drepturi inalienabile, printre aceste drepturi se gsesc viaa,
universal vocation, as well as regional. As in the internal legal order, also in the international legal order, the recognition and guarantee of the subjective rights are the result of a social harmonious process in which there were covered all the traditional stages of evolution and also the stages of ideas, declaration, judicial standard and law application. In the declarative plan the international documents of great resonance are The Law Declaration from Virginia, in 1776, The Declaration of human being and citizens rights adopted by the French Revolution in 1789 and The Universal Declaration of human being rights adopted on 10 December 1948. Inspired by the edifiers of natural right, The American Declaration in 1776 distinguishes the fact that human beings were created equal, they are endowed by the creator with some inalienable rights including life, liberty and the seeking of happiness In the same idea, there are rewritten The French Declaration in 1789 and The Universal Declaration of human rights in 1948. The Declaration in 1978, for the first time, recognized the human rights and liberties as subjective rights which obligatory must be guaranteed by the state. Also The Declaration on 10 December 1948 represents an important moment of the process of international normativization of human rights which are subjective rights, fact unfulfilled along with the endorsement in 1966 of The International Agreement regarding the civil and political human rights. The normative stage of the human rights, in the plan of the universal international law, is dominated by the International Agreements in 1966, and in the regional plan, by convention with regional practicability among whom, for our continent, agreat importance has The European Convention of human rights
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libertatea i cutarea fericirii[4]. n aceeai idee, se rescriu Declaraia francez de la 1789 i Declaraia universal a drepturilor omului din anul 1948. Declaraia de la 1789 pentru prima dat, recunoate cu titlu de drepturi subiective drepturile i libertile omului, care obligatoriu trebuie garantate de stat. i Declaraia din 10 decembrie 1948 reprezint un moment de seam al procesului de normativizare internaional a drepturilor omului care la rndul lor sunt drepturi subiective, fapt mplinit odat cu adoptarea n anul 1966 a Pactului internaional privind drepturile civile i politice ale omului. Faza normativ a drepturilor omului, n planul dreptului internaional universal, este dominat de Pactele internaionale din anul 1966, iar n plan regional, de convenii cu aplicabilitate regional din rndul crora pentru continentul nostru, de mare importan sunt Convenia european a drepturilor omului, intrat n vigoare la data de 3 septembrie 1953, Carta social european, semnat la Torino n 1961, intrat n vigoare la data de 26 februarie 1965 i Actul final al Conferinei de la Helsinki din 1975, care a stat la baza reuniunilor OSCE desfurate n mai multe capitale europene, precum Belgrad, Madrid, Viena, Paris, Copenhaga, Moscova sau Praga. Cea mai semnificativ reuniune a OSCE, pentru drepturile omului, este Reuniunea de la Viena din 1989 n cadrul creia a fost creat Mecanismul dimensiunii umane. Recunoaterea i garantarea drepturilor subiective sunt asigurate i de ctre dreptul comunitar european, att n plan instituional ct i substanial. ntruct sursele juridice amintite depesc spaiul ordinii juridice comunitare europene, dup criteriul apartenenei dreptului la un bazin de civilizaie juridic, generic, pentru spaiul n care i fac aplicabilitate, documente constituie dreptul european. Drepturile i libertile omului fcnd parte din categoria drepturilor subiective, aa dup cum sunt ocrotite de sursele juridice din domeniu, n exclusivitate, sunt considerate drepturi subiective relative. Fac parte din aceast categorie de drepturi ntruct, titularii lor le pot exercita dup o anumit conduit cu concursul altui subiect de drept. Pentru a putea fi exercitate, drepturile i
which came into on 3 September 1953, The European social Charter, signed at Torino in 1961 and come into on 26 February 1965 and The Final Document of the Conference from Helsinki in 1975, which was the base of the reunions OSCE unfolded in many European capitals, such as Belgrad, Madrid, Viena, Paris, Copenhaga, Moscow or Prague. The most significant reunion of OSCE for the human rights, is the Reunion from Wien in 1989 within which it was created the Mechanism of human dimension. The recognition and guarantee of the subjective rights are also ensured by the European right, institutional plan and also substantial. Since the mentioned judicial sources surposs the area of the European Comunitarian and judicial order, on the criterion of the belonging of the right to on area of judicial civilization, generic for the area in which they are applied, the documents constitute the European law. The rights and liberties of the people which are part of the subjective rights are protected by the judicial sources in the domain and they are exclusively considered relative subjective rights. They are part of this category rights because their titulars can practiced after a certain with the participation of other subject of right. In order the human rights and liberties be practiced, the passive subject must obligatory be known, subject which has a correlative obligation that doesnt have the same content in all cases. The passive subject which the human rights and liberties are opposable to in all the situations, is only the state, which means that they are opposed only to this subject of right. Referring to liberties, they can be not only of the human being, but also public liberties. Public liberties, human liberties since to be practiced by their titular the passive subject must obligatory be known, arent part of the category of the
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libertile omului, obligatoriu trebuie s fie cunoscut subiectul pasiv, subiect cruia i revine o obligaie corelativ care nu n toate cazurile are acelai coninut. Subiectul pasiv cruia i sunt opozabile drepturile i libertile persoanelor, n toate situaiile poate fi numai statul, ceea ce nseamn c ele sunt opozabile numai acestui subiect de drept. Referindu-se la libertii, ele pot fi nu numai ale omului, ci i liberti publice [5]. Libertile publice, spre deosebire de libertile omului, ntruct pentru a fi exercitate de titularul lor trebuie s fie cunoscut i subiectul pasiv, nu fac parte din categoria dreptului subiectiv relativ i drept urmare sunt drepturi absolute. Fiind drepturi absolute, libertile publice implicit fac parte din dreptul subiectiv, cu consecina c titularii lor (statul) le poate exercita fr concursul altor subieci. Denumirea de drepturi publice este dat de faptul c n sistemul nostru juridic cuvntul public semnific intervenia puterii. Asemenea liberti sunt cele care privesc relaia cetenilor unui stat cu organele sale i pentru a fi consacrate i asigurat respectarea lor n caz de nevoie, trebuie s intervin organele statului. Sub aspectul opozabilitii, drepturile i libertile omului, ca drepturi subiective relative sunt opozabile erga omnes tuturor subiecilor de drept pasiv care nu sunt determinai, pe cnd libertile publice, sunt drepturi de natur absolut ntruct numai subiectul activ de drept statul, n exercitarea lor, este determinat. La rndul lor, drepturile i libertile omului se clasific n drepturi civile din rndul crora amintim dreptul la via, la libertate i inviolabilitatea persoanei, dreptul la proprietate, dreptul la cetenie, dreptul la egal ocrotire de lege etc. Drepturi subiective relative sunt i drepturile politice precum, libertatea gndirii, contiinei i religiei, libertatea de exprimare, dreptul de a participa la conducerea statului, dreptul de azil. Tot din categoria drepturilor subiective relative fac parte i drepturile economice i sociale n care se includ dreptul la munc, dreptul la asigurare social, dreptul la asociere i ntrunire panic, dreptul la sntate, dreptul la educaie i altele [6].
relative subjective right and they are absolute right. Being absolute rights, public liberties are part of the subjective right, with the consequence that their titular (the state) can practise them without the participation of other subjects the name of public rights is given by the fact that in our judicial system the word public signifier the intervention of the power. Such liberties are those which concern the citizens relation with the state organs and to be laid down and respected when necessary, the state organs must interferre. Under the opposability the human rights and liberties, as relative subjective rights are opposed erga omnes sto all the subjects of passive rights which are not determined, public liberties are rights of absolute nature since only the active subject of right the state, in their practise, is determined. On their turn, human rights and liberties are classified in civil rights among which there are mentioned the right of life, liberty, the persons inviolability, the right of property citizenship, equal protection by the law etc. The relative subjective rights are the political rights such as the liberty of thinking, conscience and religion, the liberty of express yourself, the right to participate at the leadership of the state, the right of shelter. The economical and social rights are also part of the category of relative subjective rights. Among the economical and social rights there are the right to work the right of social assurance, peaceful association and meeting, the right of health, education and others. The mentioned rights being considered subjective-relative, their opposability acts only against the subjects of right the state which with the exception of some restrictions predicted by the law, is obliged to respect them. The restriction predicted by the
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Drepturile amintite fiind considerate subiective relative, opozabilitatea lor opereaz numai fa de subiecii de drept statul, care cu excepia unor ngrdiri prevzute expres de lege, este obligat s le respecte. ngrdirile prevzute de legislaiile interne ale statelor au ca suport documentele internaionale care consfinesc asemenea drepturi i sunt stabilite, fie n scopul garantrii drepturilor i libertilor altora, fie pentru respectarea cerinelor morale, ordinii juridice i bunstrii generale ntr-o societate democratic [7]. Nefiind absolute, n exerciiul lor pentru a preveni abuzul de drept i pstrrii caracterului democratic al societii, drepturile i libertile omului, n limitele surselor juridice internaionale din domeniu, dac este cazul, pot fi limitate. Posibilitatea limitrii exerciiului drepturilor i libertilor ceteneti de ctre state prin reglementri juridice interne, potrivit Declaraiei universale a drepturilor omului, este restrns. Conform dispoziiilor art. 30 ale acestui document, prevederile Declaraiei nu pot fi interpretate ca implicnd pentru vreun stat, grupare sau persoan, dreptul de a se deda la vreo activitate sau de a svri vreun act ndreptat spre desfiinarea unor drepturi sau liberti enunate n prezenta Declaraie. i surse juridice ale dreptului european precum Convenia European a Drepturilor Omului, Carta Social European sau Carta Drepturilor Fundamentale a Uniunii Europene prevd o serie de derogri, excepii sau restrngeri aduse drepturilor i libertilor consfinite de aceste documente. Din rndul drepturilor subiective consfinite i garantate de ctre dreptul european, dreptul la via primeaz, motiv pentru care i se asigur o protecie juridic special. Este i firesc s primeze ntruct, dac viaa ar curmat i celelalte drepturi nu ar mai avea sens. Viaa nseamn posibilitatea ca individul s triasc n sens fizic. Partea spiritual a individului face obiectul altor drepturi protejate i n plan juridic, att de legislaiile interne alte statelor, ct i de documente internaionale. Pentru a fi garantat dreptul la via prin lege, este prevzut obligaia tuturor indivizilor de a nu aduce atingere existenei fizice a persoanei. Aceeai obligaie revine i autoritilor publice.
internal legislations of the states have as support the international documents that consecrate such rights and they are established with the purpose of guarantee the rights and liberties of others or respect the moral tasks, legal order and general welfare in a democratic society. Without being absolute, in their exercise to prevent the abuse of right and to keep the democratic character of society, the human rights and liberties, in the limits of the international judicial sources in the domain, can be limited when is necessary. The possibility to limit the exercise of human rights and liberties by the state through the internal judicial settlement is restrained according to the Universal Declaration of human rights. According to the thirteenth article of this document, the stipulation of the Declaration can not be interpreted as involving for a state, group or person the right to indulge in an activity or to comment an act led towards the abolishing of some rights and liberties started in this Declaration Also judicial sources of European right such as the European Convention of Human Rights, the European Social Charter or the Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union provide a lot of exceptions or restrains of the rights and liberties consecrated by these documents. From among the subjective rights consecrated and guaranteed by the European right the life right prevails and thats why it benefits of a special judicial protection. It is natural to prevail because, if life is stopped, the other rights dont have a sense. Life means the possibility that the person live physically. The spiritual part of a person is the object of other rights protected in the judicial plan, by the internal legislation of the states and also by the international documents. To be guaranteed the life right through the law, it is the obligation that all the people not to touch the physical
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Convenia European a Drepturilor Omului, art. 2 prevede c dreptul la via este protejat prin lege. i n jurisprudena Curii Europene a Drepturilor Omului sunt scoase n eviden obligaiile statelor de a garanta dreptul la via al tuturor indivizilor. Obligaiile sunt att negative ct i pozitive, n sensul c au obligaia, nu numai de a se abine de la provocarea morii ci i de a ntreprinde cele mai necesare msuri pentru a proteja viaa [8]. Protocolul nr. 6 la Convenia European a Drepturilor Omului privete abolirea pedepsei cu moartea i a fost ratificat i de ara noastr. Restrngeri aduse acestui drept, potrivit dispoziiilor art. 2 ale Conveniei Europene a Drepturilor Omului privesc patru ipoteze: existena unei sentine capitale pronunat de o instan judectoreasc, atunci cnd fapta a fost svrit de autor i este pedepsit astfel de lege; dac recursul la for s-a impus pentru aprarea persoanei mpotriva vreunei violene ilegale; dac recurgerea la for a fost impus de nevoia efecturii unei arestri legale sau pentru a mpiedica evadarea unei persoane deinute; dac utilizarea forei a fost necesar pentru a reprima, n conformitate cu legea, o revolt sau o insurecie [9]. Dreptul la via este protejat juridic i de ctre Carta Drepturilor Fundamentale proclamat de Consiliul European de la Nisa din 2000, de Parlamentul European, Consiliul Uniunii Europene i Comisia European, art. 2. Spre deosebire de Convenia European a Drepturilor Omului care conine pentru fiecare drept fundamental limitele exercitrii drepturilor fundamentale ale omului, Carta Drepturilor Fundamentale a optat pentru o clauz limitativ general sau orizontal. Clauza limitativ general se refer la garantarea substanei dreptului fundamental, iar clauza orizontal privete principiul proporionalitii n care sunt vizate de o potriv interesul general al societii i protecia dreptului i libertilor celuilalt [10]. Dreptul la proprietate, drept subiectiv este protejat, nu numai de actele fundamentale ale statelor democratice ci i de documente care constituie dreptul european. Protocolul adiional la Convenia European a Drepturilor Omului statueaz c orice persoan fizic sau juridic are dreptul la respectarea bunurilor sale. Nimeni nu
existence of the person. The same obligation has the public authorities. The European Convention of Human Rights, in the second article stipulates that the life right is protected by the law. Also in the European Court of Human Rights there are evidence the obligation of the states to guarantee the life right of all the people. Obligations are both negative and positive, in the sense that they have the obligation to refrain from causing death and take the most necessary measure for protecting the life. The no.6 Protocol of the European Convention of Human Rights refers to the abolishment of the death penalty and has been ratified by our country. The restrictions of this right, according to the provision of the art.2 of the European Convention of Human Rights refers to four hypotheses: a capital sentence given by a court of law, when the offence has been committed by the author and is thus punished by the law; if the appeal to force has been imposed for defending the person against any illegal arrest; if the appeal to force has been required by the need to make a legal arrest or for preventing the escape of an imprisoned person; if using the force has been necessary for repressing a rebellion or insurrection in accordance with the law. The right to life is juridically protected by the Fundamental Rights Charts given by the European Council in Nise from 2000, by the European Parliament, The European Union Council and the European Commission, art.2. Unlike the European Convention of Human Rights which includes the limitations of carrying peoples fundamental rights for every fundamental rights, the Fundamental Rights Chart has chosen a limitative general or horizontal clause. The limitative general clause refers to the guarantee of fundamental law substance, and the horizontal clause
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poate fi lipsit de proprietatea sa dect pentru o cauz de utilitate public i n condiiile prevzute de lege i de principiile generale ale dreptului internaional. Dispoziiile protocolului garanteaz n substan dreptul de proprietate, iar limitrile acestui drept sunt expres prevzute (cauz de utilitate public). Libertatea gndirii, contiinei i a religiei, drepturi subiective de natur politic sunt protejate juridic de toate documentele europene. Dispoziiile art. 9 ale Conveniei Europene a Drepturilor Omului consacr aceste liberti i este accentuat libertatea de opinie. Un asemenea drept d posibilitatea oamenilor de a-i schimba religia sau convingerile, att individual ct i colectiv. Sunt interzise aciuni ale statului de ndoctrinare sau constrngere la nivelul individului. Art. 2 al Protocolului nr. 1 la Convenie, permite copiilor s primeasc o educaie conform unor principii i convingeri filosofice i religioase, iar art. 14 interzice orice discriminare, inclusiv pe baz de religie [11]. Restrngeri aduse acestor liberti Art. 9, al. 2) sunt acceptate numai n cazul cnd sunt puse n pericol sigurana public sau protecia ordinii, sntii, moralei publice ori pentru protejarea drepturilor i libertilor altora. Drepturile legate de libertatea gndirii, contiinei i a religiei sunt consfinite i garantate i de alte documente europene precum carta Drepturilor Fundamentale, capitolul 2 art. 10. Dreptul la liber circulaie este consacrat i protejat juridic de majoritatea documentelor europene. Protocolul nr. 4 la Convenia European a Drepturilor Omului, art. 2, prevede c oricine se gsete n mod legal pe teritoriul unui stat are dreptul s circule n mod liber i s-i aleag n mod liber reedina. Orice persoan este liber s prseasc orice ar, inclusiv pe a sa. Restriciile de la libera circulaie sunt limitativ prevzute de acest document i privesc aspecte de natura securitii naionale, siguranei publice, prevenirea unor infraciuni, protecia sntii i a moralei, protecia drepturilor i libertii altora [12]. Bazele liberei circulaii a persoanelor n spaiul Uniunii Europene au fost puse de Actul Unic European, semnat la Luxembourg la 17 februarie 1986, intrat n vigoare la 1 iulie 1987.
refers to the principle of proportionality which refers both to the general interest of the company and the protection of the others right and freedom. The right to property, subjective right is protected not just by the fundamental acts of democratic states and by documents of European law. The additional protocole of European Convention of Human Rights stipulates that any natural or legal person is entitled to respect its Conditions stipulated by the law and general principles of international law. The dispositions of the protocol guarantees the ownership right and the limitations of the right are expressly stipulated. The freedom of thought, conscience and religion, political type of subjective rights are juridically protected by all the European documents. The provision of the art.9, of European Convention of Human Rights establish these freedoms and the freedom of opinion is highlighted. Such a right gives the opportunity for people to change their religion and beliefs, both individually and collectively. It is forbidden for the state to take actions that could indoctrinate or complet at the level of the individual. The 2 nd article of the Protocol no.1 to the Convention, allows children to receive an education in accordance with some philosophical and religious principles and beliefs, and the art. 14 forbids any discrimination, including based on religion. The restrictions brought to these freedoms art. 9 par. 2 are accepted only if they endanger public safety or the protection of order, health, public morality or for protecting other peoples rights and freedoms. The rights related to the freedom of thought, conscience and religion are ratified and guaranteed also by other European documents as the Fundamental Rights Chart, chapter. 2 art. 10.
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Tratatul de la Amsterdam, intrat n vigoare n anul 1999, art. 18, stabilete dreptul de liber circulaie a cetenilor Uniunii Europene i dreptul la liber reziden a acestora pe teritoriul unui alt stat membru. Proiectul de tratat al Constituiei pentru Europa, art. III.133, prevede dreptul la liber circulaie a lucrtorilor statelor membre ale Uniunii Europene, fr nicio discriminare. Restriciile erau justificate numai pentru motive de ordine public, siguran public i sntate public i cu excepia locurilor de munc din administraia public [13]. Cetenia Uniunii Europene, recunoscut de Tratatul de la Maastricht i reafirmat de Tratatul de la Amsterdam, ofer un cadru mult mai larg cetenilor statelor membre ale Uniunii Europene, n sensul c beneficiaz de dreptul de acces i sejur, indiferent dac ederea lor n acest spaiu vizeaz sau nu activiti de natur economic [14]. Dreptul european protejeaz juridic i drepturile minoritilor naionale. n baza dispoziiilor art. 13 ale Tratatului de la Amsterdam care consfinesc principiul nediscriminrii n dreptul comunitar au fost adoptate o serie de directive din rndul crora de referin este Directiva Consiliului nr. 2000/43/CE din 29 iunie 2000 cu privire la implementarea principiului tratamentului egal ntre persoane, indiferent de originea rasial sau etnic [15]. i Carta Drepturilor Fundamentale a Uniunii Europene protejeaz drepturi ale minoritilor naionale. Art. II-81 i art. II-82 interzic discriminri bazate pe criterii de sex, ras, culoare, origine etnic sau social, caracteristici genetice, limb, religie sau credin, opinii politice, apartenen la o minoritate naional, avere etc. i respect diversitatea cultural, religioas i lingvistic. Dreptul european protejeaz i alte drepturi subiective ale persoanelor din acest spaiu, n limita restrngerilor prevzute pentru fiecare drept recunoscut de sursele juridice amintite n aceast lucrare.
The right at free circulation is consecrated and judicial protected by the majority of the European documents. The no. 4 Protocol at the Human Rights European Convention, art. 2 stipulates that anyone legally found on a states territory has the right to drive freely and to chose the residence. Any person is free to leave any country, including his. The restrictions from the free circulation are limitative stipulated by this document and regard the aspects of the national security nature, public safety, prevention of some offenses, health and moral protection, rights and others freedom protection. The basic of the free circulation of the people in the European Union space have been imposed by the Unique European Document, signed at Luxembourg at 17 of February 1986, enforced at 1 st of July 1987. The Treaty from Amsterdam, enforced in the year 1999, art.18, establishes the right of free circulation of the European Union citizens and the right of free residence of those on the territory of another state member. The project of the Constitution for Europe, art. III. 133, stipulates the right of free circulation of the workers from the states members of the European Union, without any discrimination. The restriction were justified only for public order motives, public safety and public health with the exception of the working places from the public administration. The citizenship of the European Union, ratified by the Treaty from Maastricht and reaffirmed by the Treaty from Amsterdam, offers a broder framework to the citizens of the state members of the European Union, in the matter that they benefit to the right of access and journey, no matter if their staying in this space vises or not economical activites. The European right protects judicially the [1] M. Cantacuzino, Elementele dreptului civil, rights of the national minorities. On the Bucureti, 1921, p. 30. basis of the stipulation of the art. 13 of
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008 [2] Pierre Pescatore, Introduction a la science du droit, Luxembourg, Office des imprimes de letat, 1978, p. 239. [3] Nicolae Popa, Teoria general a dreptului, Editura All Beck, Bucureti, 2002, p. 58-59. [4] Vasile Ciuv, Protecia juridic a Drepturilor omului, Editura Themis, Craiova, 2000, p. 61. [5] Ion Dogaru, Dan Claudiu Dnior, Drepturile omului i libertile publice, Editura Dacia Europa Nova, Lugoj, 1997, p. 31. [6] Vasile Ciuv, op. cit., p. 55-56. [7] Doina Micu, Garantarea drepturilor omului, Editura All Beck, Bucureti, 1998, p. 9. [8] Bianca Selejan Guan, Protecia european a drepturilor omului, Editura All Beck, Bucureti, 2004, p. 81. [9] Idem, p. 87. [10] Marin Voicu, Introducere n dreptul european, Editura Universul Juridic, Bucureti, 22007, p. 87. [11] Bianca Selejan Guan, op. cit., p. 167. [12] Vasile Ciuv, op. cit., p. 116. [13] Marin Voicu, op. cit., p. 124. [14] Augustin Fuerea, Dreptul comunitar al afacerilor, Editura Universul Juridic, Bucureti, 2006, p. 128. [15] Cristian Jura, Drepturile omului Drepturile minoritilor naionale, Editura C. H. Beck, Bucureti, 2006, p. 197.
the Treaty from Amsterdam that name the principle of non-discrimination on the comunitary right have been adopted a series of directives from the line of which the reference is the Directive of the Council no. 2004/43/EC from 29 of June 2000 regarding the implementation of the principle of equal treatment between persons, no matter the racial origin or ethnic. And the Fundamental Rights Chart of the European Union protects the right of the national minorities. The art. II-81 and the art. II-82 forbids discriminations on sex, race, colour, ethnical origin criteria or social, genetic characteristics, language, religion or faith, political opinions, national minority adhesion, fortune and complies with the cultural, religious and linguistic diversity. The European right protects other subjective rights of people within this space limited by the restrictions stipulated for every right admitted by juridical sources mentioned in this paper.
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PROCEDURA ADOPIEI
ADOPTION PROCEDURE
Gabriela Ana ARC, judector Curtea de Apel Oradea Abstract:
Gabriela Ana ARC, judge Oradea Court of Appeal
Abstract: n prezenta lucrare se trateaz aspecte teoretice i aplicaii practice referitoare la procedura adopiei, respectiv la etapele care trebuie parcurse pentru realizarea operaiunii juridice a adopiei i anume evaluarea adoptatorului, obinerea atestatului de persoana sau familia apt s adopte, deschiderea procedurii de adopii, ncredinarea n vederea adopiei i ncuviinarea adopiei. Referitor la procedura adopiei, prin Legea nr. 273/2004 privind regimul juridic al adopiei sunt reglementate aspecte care nu erau reglementate n legislaia anterioar i anume: situaiile i procedura prin care un copil devine adoptabil - atunci cnd planul individualizat de protecie a copilului prevede ca finalitate adopia intern -, deschiderea procedurii adopiei naionale se face numai de ctre instana judectoreasc i obligativitatea consilierii prinilor biologici sau a reprezentanilor legali nainte de a-i da consimmntul la adopie. Astfel, se urmrete ca prin adopie s se realizeze interesul superior al copilului.
The current paper discusses theoretical aspects and practical applications related to the adoption procedure, respectively the stages that have to be completed for accomplishing the adoption juridical procedure, namely the evaluation of the adopting person, obtaining the adoption certification, opening the adoption procedure, the commission for adoption purposes and the adoption consent. Related to the adoption procedure, Law no. 273/2004 concerning the juridical regime of the adoption process, regulates aspects that were not tackled in the previous legislation, namely: the situation and the procedure through which a child can be adopted when the individual protection plan of the child mentions the finality of internal adoption -, the opening the national adoption procedure is performed only by a Court of Law and the counselors or the legal representatives of the biologic parents must give their consent for adoption. In this manner, the legislation is aimed at meeting the superior best interest of the child.
Spre deosebire de reglementarea anterioar, adopia, n lumina Legii nr.273/2004, este tratat ca o instituie de drept civil i nu ca o msur de protecie. Ea nu se mai adreseaz n mod automat tuturor copiilor care au nevoie de o msur de protecie, ci doar acelora pentru care o astfel de operaiune juridic este potrivit nevoilor i situaiei particulare a copilului. n cursul procedurii adopiei trebuie respectate urmtoarele principii: principiul interesului superior al copilului, principiul creterii i educrii copilului ntr-un mediu familial, principiul continuitii n educarea copilului, innd seama de originea sa etnic, cultural i lingvistic, principiul informrii copilului i lurii n considerare a opiniei acestuia n raport cu vrsta i gradul su de maturitate i principiul celeritii n ndeplinirea oricror acte referitoare la procedura adopiei. Etapele procedurii adopiei sunt: evaluarea adoptatorului, obinerea atestatului de
Unlike the previous regulation, the adoption, according to Law no. 273/2004, is considered as a Civil Law institution and not as a protection measure. It does not automatically address any more the general case of all children, but to those for whom such a juridical operation is adequate for the particular needs and situation of the child. The following principles have to be observed within the adoption procedure: the child superior interest principle, the principle of raising and educating the child in a family environment, the principle of continuity in the child raising, taking into account its ethnical, cultural and linguistic origin, the principle of informing the child and taking into account the childs opinion according to his age and maturity level, as well as the principle of accelerated action of any necessary acts related to the adoption process. The stages of the adoption procedure are as follows: evaluation of the adopting individual, obtaining the certification for the adopting person/family, opening the adoption procedure, the
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persoana sau familia apt s adopte, deschiderea procedurii de adopie, ncredinarea n vederea adopiei i ncuviinarea adopiei. 1. Evaluarea adoptatorului Persoanele care doresc s adopte, vor solicita Direciei generale de asisten social i protecia copilului n a crei raz teritorial acetia domiciliaz, evaluarea garaniilor morale i a condiiilor materiale pentru a putea s adopte. Evaluarea se efectueaz de ctre asisteni sociali profesioniti i va avea n vedere aspectele prevzute n art. 19 din Lege i anume: personalitatea, starea sntii i situaia economic a adoptatorului sau familiei adoptatoare, viaa familial, condiiile de locuit, aptitudinea de educare a unui copil, motivele pentru care adoptatorul sau familia adoptatoare dorete s adopte, motivele pentru care, n cazul n care numai unul dintre cei doi soi solicit un copil, cellalt so nu se asociaz la cerere precum i impedimentele de orice natur relevante pentru capacitatea de adopta. Cererea privind evaluarea se soluioneaz n termen de 60 de zile de la data nregistrrii iar procesul de evaluare a persoanei/familiei adoptatoare cuprinde potrivit art. 5 i urmtoarele din Normele metodologice de aplicare a Legii nr. 273/2004, evaluarea din punct de vedere social, evaluarea psihologic i pregtirea persoanei sau familiei pentru asumarea n cunotin de cauz a rolului de printe. n cadrul procesului de evaluare au loc ntlniri i discuii cu persoana/familia care dorete s adopte care au loc att la domiciliul persoanei/familiei ct i la sediul direciei. Informaiile obinute n urma evalurii din punct de vedere social i rezultatele evalurii psihologice precum i recomandrile psihologului vor fi consemnate n fia de evaluare care va sta la baza ntocmirii raportului de evaluare. 2.Obinerea atestatului de persoan sau familie apt s adopte Dup obinerea i analizarea tuturor informaiilor inclusiv a celor obinute cu ocazia derulrii componentei de pregtire, responsabilul de caz i psihologul vor ntocmi un raport de evaluare a capacitii de a adopta a solicitanilor, care va conine i propunerea privind acordarea sau neacordarea atestatului
commission for adoption and grating the adoption. 1. The evaluation of the adopting individual The persons interested in the adoption process, will require the General Direction for Social Security and Child Protection in zone of the domicile of the beneficiary, the evaluation of moral warrantees and the material conditions for the adopting persons. The evaluation is performed by professional social assistant and will monitor the aspects included in article 19 from the Law, namely: personality, health and economic status of the adopting person or family, family life, living conditions, the child education abilities, the motives behind the adoption, the reasons why, in case only one of the husband solicits the adoption, the other husband does not support the adoption request, as well as any other impediments related to the adoption capacity. The request for evaluation is solved in a 60-day term from the registration date, and the evaluation process for an adopting person/family also comprises, according to article 5, the Methodological Application norms for Law no. 273/2004, social evaluation, psychological assessment of the adopting person/family and its appropriateness for the parenting role. The evaluation process comprises meetings and discussions with the person/family that requested the adoption, both at the domicile of the adopting person/family and at the headquarters of the Direction. The information obtained in the social assessment and the results of the psychological evaluation, and the recommendations of the psychiatrist, will be noted in the evaluation chart that wills fundament the evaluation report. 2. Obtaining the adoption certification for the adopting person/family After obtaining and analyzing all the information, including the ones gathered during the preparation stages, the Case Manager and the psychologist will prepare an evaluation report of the adoption capacity of the solicitants, which will also comprise of the proposal for granting or not granting the adoption certification for the person/family under discussion. The general (executive) manager of the Direction will decide, through a disposal, on the granting/not granting of the certification. The
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de persoan ori de familie apt s adopte. Directorul general (executiv) al direciei decide, prin dispoziie, asupra acordri/ neacordrii atestatului. Dispoziia se comunic, n termen de 3 zile de la emiterea ei, solicitanilor iar perioada se valabilitate a ei este de 1 an. n cazul n care se decide neacordarea atestatului, persoana sau familia poate solicita o nou evaluare, formulat n scris n termen de 30 de zile de la comunicarea rezultatului nefavorabil. Potrivit art. 20 din Lege, obinerea atestatului nu este necesar pentru adopia persoanei majore dac adoptatorul sau familia adoptatoare a crescut-o n timpul minoritii sale i pentru adopia copilului de ctre soul printelui firesc sau adoptiv. 3.Deschiderea procedurii adopiei interne Potrivit dispoziiilor art. 23 alin.1 din Legea nr. 273/2004, ncuviinarea deschiderii procedurii adopiei se face numai dac planul individualizat de protecie stabilete necesitatea adopiei interne i prinii copilului sau, dup caz tutorele i exprim consimmntul la adopie. Pot fi adoptai copii aflai n evidenele Direciei generale de asisten social i protecia copilului i pentru care s-a elaborat un plan individualizat de protecie avnd ca finalitate adopia, aceast finalitate putnd fi prevzut numai dac demersurile pentru reintegrarea copilului n familia biologic sau integrarea lui n familia extins au euat. ntr-o spe [1], instana a admis cererea formulat de ctre Direcia general de asisten social i protecia copilului Bihor i a ncuviinat deschiderea procedurii adopiei interne a minorului R.D. nscut la data de 25.01.2005. n motivare a reinut c, minorul a fost dat n plasament la un asistent maternal, iar ulterior n plasament la o familie, iar pe baza planului individualizat de protecie a copilului, direcia a fcut demersuri pentru reintegrarea copilului n familie sau plasamentul acestuia n familia extins, demersuri fr finalitate, ntruct, mama i celelalte rude nu doresc reintegrarea acestuia n familie sau plasamentul, din discuiile purtate cu acetia rezultnd c sunt n imposibilitate de a-i asigura
disposition is communicated in 3-day term from its issuance, and its validity is one year. In case the Direction decides not to grant the certification, the involved person or family may request a new evaluation, formulated in writing in 30-day term after communicating the negative result. According to article 20 from the Law, the issuance of the certificate is not necessary for the adoption of the mature person if the adopting person or family had been involved in the child raising process and for the adoption by the husband of the natural or adoptive parent. 3. Opening the internal adoption procedure According to the provisions of article 23, paragraph 1 from Law no. 273/2004, the commission on opening the adoption procedure is performed only if the individual protection plan establishes the necessity of the internal adoption and the parents of the child and, as the case may be, the tutor give their consent for adoption. The children registered at the General Direction for Social security and Child Protection can be adopted if the individual protection plan with finality on adoption is concluded, and this finality can be exerted only if the efforts for reintegrating the child in the biologic family or the integration in the extended family have failed. In a juridical case [1], the Court of Law had admitted the request of the General Direction for Social Security and Child Protection, Bihor subsidiary, and granted the opening of the internal adoption procedure of the under-aged R.D, born on 25th of January 2005. In the motivation section it was mentioned that the under-aged was submitted for placement at a maternal assistant, and subsequently to a family placement, and based on the individual plan for child protection, the Direction had made efforts for reintegrating the child in the family or for the placement in a extended family, but these efforts were not finalized, since the mother and other relatives do not wish to reintegration or the placement in the family, and from the discussion held with these persons, it was concluded that those persons did not had the capacity to ensure a proper education and raising for the child. The mother agreed on the procedure opening, receiving professional advices for this measure. Consequently, it was considered that the single adequate measure for the child
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copilului creterea i educarea. Mama a fost de acord cu deschiderea procedurii, fiind consiliat n acest sens. Astfel s-a apreciat c singura msur de protecie a copilului const n deschiderea procedurii adopiei interne. Cererea se adreseaz instanei, de direcia n a crei raz teritorial domiciliaz copilul, n termen de 30 de zile de la finalizarea demersurilor privind reintegrarea copilului n familie. Hotrrea judectoreasc irevocabil prin care instana admite cererea produce urmtoarele efecte: drepturile i obligaiile printeti ale prinilor fireti sau, dup caz, cele exercitate de persoanele fizice sau juridice se suspend; drepturile i obligaiile printeti sunt exercitate de ctre consiliul judeean sau, dup caz, consiliul local al sectorului municipiului Bucureti n a crei raz teritorial domiciliaz copilul. Aceste efecte nceteaz de drept dac, n termen de un an de la data rmnerii irevocabile a hotrrii judectoreti, direcia nu a identificat o persoan sau familie corespunztoare pentru copil i nu a iniiat procedurile n vederea realizrii unei adopii interne. Deschiderea procedurii adopiei interne nu este necesar atunci cnd adopia privete o persoan major care a fost crescut n timpul minoritii de ctre adoptator i n cazul n care, adoptatorul este soul printelui firesc sau adoptiv. ntr-o spe [2], instana a admis cererea formulat de petenii I.T. i I.M. i a ncuviinat adopia majorului V.D., nscut la data de 06.03.1986 de ctre peteni. n motivare a reinut c, intimatul V.D. s-a nscut din prinii V.F. i V.I., tatl a decedat, iar intimatul a rmas n grija petenilor de la vrsta de 6 luni pn n prezent, acetia oferindu-i condiii de cretere i educare. ntr-o alt spe [3], instana a admis cererea introdus de ctre petentul C.F. i a ncuviinat adopia cu efecte depline a minorei C.A. nscut la data de 25.09.1991. n motivare a reinut c, petentul este cstorit cu mama minorei din anul 1997, iar de atunci pn n prezent, aceasta a locuit mpreun cu familia , perioad n care petentul a dezvoltat fa de minor un real sentiment de afeciune, oferindu-i condiiile materiale i garaniile
protection would be to open the internal adoption procedure. The request is addressed to the Court of Law by the subsidiary of the General Direction correspondent to the childs domicile, in 30-day term from the finalization of the efforts for reintegrating the child into the family. The decision of the Court of Law is final, admitting the request and implying the following juridical effects: the parent rights and obligations of the natural parents or, as the case may be, the ones exercised by natural or juridical persons, are suspended; the parent rights and obligations are exercised by the County Counsel or as the case may be, the Local Counsel of the Bucharest Municipal, correspondent to the domicile zone of the child. These effects rightfully stop, if in a term on 1 year from the issuance of the irrevocable Court of Law decision, the General Direction had not identified an adequate person or family for the child and had not initiated the specific procedures for executing the internal adoption process. The opening of the internal adoption procedure is not mandatory if the subject of the adoption is a mature person, which was raised in its childhood by the adopting party, or as the case may be, the husband of the natural or adoptive parent. In a case [2], the Court of Law had admitted the request formulated by the claimants I.T. and I.M. and commissioned the adoption of the mature person - V.D., born on 6th of March 1986 by the claimants. The motivation section noted that the intimated V.D had V.F and V.I as natural parents, with the father deceased in the meantime, and the intimate had been raised by the claimants from the age of 6 months up to current moment, those person offering the adopted person proper raising and education conditions. In another case [3], the Court of Law had admitted the request submitted by the claimant C.F. and commission the adoption with complete effects of the under-aged C.A born on 25th of September 1991. The motivation section states that the claimant is married with the mother of the under-aged starting from 1997, and ever since, the under-aged person has lived with the family, period in which the claimant has developed a real affection feeling towards the child, offering material conditions and optimal moral warrantees
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morale optime pentru cretere i educare, aspect ce rezult din declaraiile prilor inclusiv a minorei care, audiat, a artat c dorete s fie adoptat de petent. Tatl natural al acesteia a artat c este de acord cu adopia. Instana poate s constate refuzul abuziv al prinilor sau, dup caz al tutorelui, i s pronune totui deschiderea procedurii, dac adopia este n interesul copilului, cu respectarea condiiilor prevzute de art. 13 din Lege. ntr-o spe, Tribunalul Bihor [4] a admis cererea formulat de ctre Direcia general de asisten social i protecia copilului SatuMare i a ncuviinat deschiderea procedurii adopiei interne privind pe minora L.B.M. nscut la data de 03.09.2001. n motivare a reinut c minora L.B.M. provine dintr-o relaie ocazional a mamei, care mai are doi copii, unul aflndu-se n Centru de Plasament SatuMare. Minora nu a fost recunoscut de ctre tatl ei, iar date fiind condiiile de cretere i educare pe care mama i le putea oferi, la data de 22.10.2001, a fost instituionalizat la Centru de Plasament al Copilului nr.1 SatuMare. La data de 21.07.2004, n baza Hotrrii nr. 381 a Comisiei pentru Protecia Copilului, s-a dispus plasamentul minorei la familia B.I.L. i B.N.L. fa de care, aa cum rezult din raportul de evaluare detaliat a situaiei copilului, minora s-a ataat repede i a fcut progrese remarcabile. S-a mai reinut c, n perioada instituionalizrii, minora nu a fost vizitat de nici o rud, iar n baza planului de protecie a copilului s-a stabilit ca obiectiv general adopia copilului, reinndu-se c nu exist posibilitatea reintegrrii lui n familia natural sau a reintegrrii lui n familia extins raportat la poziia exprimat de membrii acesteia. n ce privete adopia minorei, mama acesteia s-a opus n mod constant, iar cu ocazia discuiilor purtate, aceasta nu a fost n msur s ofere nici un fel de garanie c n viitor va ncerca s o integreze pe minor n familia natural, c-i va oferi condiii de cretere i educare. Totodat, din ancheta social efectuat n instan rezult c mama minorei locuiete mpreun cu unul dintre copii, tatl acestuia i cu bunica patern ntr-o locuin compus dintr-o camer i hol, fr ap i canalizare i insuficient pentru numrul de persoane care
proper for raising and educating the under-aged person, aspect being derived from the declarations of the parties, including of the under-aged, which was interviewed, showing her availability of being adopted by the claimant. The natural father of the child had agreed with the adoption process. The Court of Law can ascertain the abusive refusal of the parents, or as the case may be, of the tutor, and still pronounce the opening of the procedure, if the adoption is in the best interest of the child, under the condition that it meets the conditions stipulated in article 13 from the Law. In a case, Bihor Court of Law [4] had admitted the request submitted by the General Direction of Social Security and Child Protection, Satu-Mare subsidiary, and commissioned the opening of the internal adoption procedure regarding the underaged L.B.M., born on 3rd of September 2001. The motivation section stipulates that the under-aged L.B.M. was conceived from an occasional relationship of the mother, who has another two children, one of them being in the care of Placement Centre, Satu-Mare subsidiary. The under-aged was not acknowledged by her father, and taking into consideration the raising and education conditions that her mother could have offered her, on 22nd of October 2001, she was institutionalized in the Child Placement Centre, no.1, Satu-Mare subsidiary. On 21st of July 2004, based on Resolution no. 381 of the Child Protection Commission, it was decided the placement of the under-aged in the family of B.I.L. and B.N.L. which, according to the detailed evaluation report regarding the child situation, quickly attached and made remarkable progress in their relationships. Also, it was mentioned that in the institutionalization period, the under-aged was never visited by a relative, and based on the child protection plan it was established as general objective the adoption of the child, mentioning that the child could not be reintegrated in the natural or extended family, according to the expressed position of its family. In respect to the adoption of the under-aged, her mother constantly opposed the procedure, and during the official discussions, she was not able to offer guarantees that in the future she will try to integrate the under-aged in the natural family, offering her proper raising and education conditions. In the same time, from the social investigation performed by the Court of
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convieuiesc n aceasta. Fa de aceast situaie, instana socotind c refuzul mamei este abuziv i avnd n vedere interesul superior al minorei a ncuviinat deschiderea procedurii adopiei interne. Curtea de Apel Oradea [5] a admis recursul declarat de petent, a casat sentina primei instane i trimis cauza spre rejudecare la aceeai instan, respectiv Tribunalul SatuMare. A reinut c se impune stabilirea caracterului abuziv al refuzului mamei, sens n care este necesar completarea probaiunii prin audierea unor martori care s stabileasc cu certitudine i condiiile locative, cele materiale i afective pe care recurenta poate sau nu s le ofere minorei ntruct, poate fi declanat procedura adopiei interne n lipsa acordului printelui firesc, doar n msura n care din probele administrate se poate reine c acest refuz este unul abuziv i c este n interesul copilului s fie adoptat de alt persoan. Or, n cauz, probele administrate nu stabilesc cu certitudine caracterul abuziv al refuzului mamei. 4.ncredinarea n vederea adopiei Conform art. 25 alin. 1 din Lege, ncredinarea n vederea adopiei se dispune de ctre instana judectoreasc de la domiciliul copilului pentru o perioad de 90 de zile. Pe perioada ncredinrii copilului n vederea adopiei, domiciliul acestuia se afl la persoana sau familia creia i-a fost ncredinat copilul. Efectuarea actelor obinuite necesare exercitrii drepturilor i ndeplinirii obligaiilor printeti, cu excepia celor care conduc la ncheierea unui act juridic, se realizeaz de ctre persoana sau familia creia acesta i-a fost ncredinat. Pe perioada ncredinrii copilului n vederea adopiei, direcia de la domiciliul adoptatorului sau a familiei adoptatoare urmrete evoluia copilului i a relaiilor dintre acesta i persoana sau familia creia i-a fost ncredinat, ntocmind n acest sens rapoarte bilunare. La sfritul perioadei de ncredinare n vederea adopiei, ntocmete un raport final referitor la evoluia relaiilor dintre copil i adoptatori, pe care l comunic instanei n vederea soluionrii cererii de ncuviinare a adopiei. ncredinarea copilului n vederea adopiei trebuie s ofere posibilitatea analizrii
Law, it results that the mother of the under-aged person lives with one of the children, his father and paternal grandmother in a house composed out of 1 room and one hallway, without no water supply or sewage and insufficient for the number of persons. In this situation, the Court of Law had considered the mothers refusal as being abusive and based on the superior interest of the underaged, had ascertained the opening of the internal adoption procedure. The Oradea Court of Apeal [5] had admitted the recourse declared by the claimant, has cancelled the sentence of the First Instance Court and submitted the case for rejudgement to the same Court of Law, respectively the Satu-Mare Tribunal. The tribunal had imposed the establishment of the abusive character of the mothers refusal, situation in which it was necessary to complete the probation by interviewing some witnesses that should also establish the locative, material and affective conditions that the person under discussion may or may not offer to the under-aged person, because the internal adoption procedure can be deployed without the agreement from the natural parent, only in the measure in which the managed evidence indicate an abusive refusal or that it is in the best interest of the child to be adopted by another person. Or, in cause, the managed evidence does not clearly establish the abusive character of the mothers refusal. 4 .The commissioning for adoption purposes According to article 25, paragraph 1 from the Law, the commissioning for adoption purposes is decided by the Court of Law from the territory correspondent to the childs domicile for a period of 90 days. On the period in which the child is placed for adoption, his domicile is registered on the location of the person or family that is responsible for the child in this period. The ordinary documents necessary for exercising the rights and meeting the parent obligations, with the exception of those that lead to the settlement of a juridical act, are performed by the family or person that received the child under the placement action. On the period of commissioning the child for adoption purposes, the General Direction correspondent to the adopting person or familys domicile monitors the evolution of the child and its
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i stabilirii pe baz de probe, deopotriv, att a capacitii fizice, ct i a celei psihice a acestuia de adaptare la noul mediu familial. De la obligativitatea ncuviinrii ncredinrii copilului n vederea adopiei, art. 29 din Lege instituie patru excepii, n care adoptia poate fi ncuviinat direct: adopia persoanei majore; adopia copilului firesc sau adoptiv al celuilalt so; adopia copilului pentru care a fost deschis procedura adopiei interne i a fost plasat la persoana sau familia adoptatoare, iar msura plasamentului dureaz cel puin 90 de zile; adopia copilului de ctre tutorele su, dac au trecut cel puin 90 de zile de la instituirea tutelei. n termen de 30 de zile de la data rmnerii definitive i irevocabile a hotrrii judectoreti, prin care s-a ncuviinat deschiderea procedurii adopiei interne, direcia n a crei raz teritorial se afl domiciliul copilului efectueaz demersurile necesare pentru a identifica cel mai potrivit adoptator sau cea mai potrivit familie adoptatoare pentru copil. Articolul 26 alin. 2 din Lege stabilete o ordine de prioritate a persoanelor n raport cu care urmeaz s fie analizate posibilitile de ncredinare a copilului n vederea adopiei de ctre direcia de la domiciliul copilului: rudele din familia extins, adic prinii naturali ai copilului i celelalte rude ale acestuia pn la gradul patru inclusiv, cu excepia frailor; asistentul maternal profesionist la care se afl copilul; alte persoane sau familii la care copilul se afl n plasament. Direcia, n cazul n care nu sunt solicitri din partea persoanelor enumerate mai sus, n temeiul art. 26 alin.3 din Lege, este obligat s efectueze demersuri n vederea identificrii, n raza sa administrativ-teritorial, a unei familii atestate i aflate n evidena Oficiului Romn pentru Adopii. ntr-o spe [6], instana a admis cererea formulat de ctre Direcia general de asisten social i protecia copilului, a ncetat msura de ncredinare la asistentul maternal B.C. i a ncredinat n vederea adopiei pe minora Z.E., nscut la data de 15.11.2003, la familia A.N. i A.D.M., pe o perioad de 90 de zile. n motivare a reinut c, minora a fost prsit de
relationships with the person or family to whom it was commissioned for adoption, preparing bimonthly reports in this sense. At the end of the commissioning period for adoption purposes, a final report is prepared for highlighting the evolution of the relationship between the child and the adopting individual, the General Direction submitting the report to the Court of Law for solving the request of commissioning the adoption. The commissioning of the child for adoption purposes must be able to allow the analysis and establishment the evidence basis, as well as the physical and physical and psychical abilities of the child and its adaptation capacity to the family environment. From the obligation of commissioning the child for adoption purposes, article 29 from the Law allows four exceptions, in which the adoption may be directly commissioned: the adoption of mature persons, the adoption of the natural or adoptive child by the other husband, the adoption of the child for which the internal adoption procedure was opened and was placed to the adopting person or family, and the placement measure lasts for at least 90 days following the wardship establishment. In a term of 30 days following the issuance of the definitive and irrevocable decision of the Court of Law, that provisioned the commissioning for the opening of the internal adoption process, the General Direction correspondent to the domicile of the childs domicile performs the necessary steps for identifying the most suitable adopting person or family for the respective child. Article 26, paragraph 2 from the Law establishes a priority order of the persons that are about to be analyzed in relation to the commissioning possibilities of the child and other relatives of the under-aged including up to the fourth degree, with the exception of brothers; the professional maternal assistant that currently houses the child; other persons or family to whom the child is placed. The General Direction, in case there are no requests coming from the above mentioned persons, based on article 26, paragraph 3 from the Law, is obliged to make efforts for identifying, within its administrative-territorial area, a certified family registered at the Romanian Adoption Office. In a juridical case [6], the Court of Law
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mam imediat dup natere i a fost dat n plasament n regim de urgen. Prin sentina civil nr.798/2005, Tribunalul Bihor a admis cererea de deschidere a procedurii adopiei interne pentru minor i direcia a nceput demersurile pentru identificarea celui mai potrivit adoptator. n urma procesului de selecie s-a stabilit c exist compatibilitate ntre copil i familia A.N. i A.D.M., familie atestat legal privind garaniile morale i condiiile materiale conform art. 19 alin. 1 i 2 din Legea nr. 273/2004. Totodat, s-a stabilit c din raportul privind compatibilitatea rezult c s-au realizat ntlniri lunare ntre minor i familia adoptatoare, ataamentul s-a realizat rapid i copilul se simte n siguran n mediul de via al adoptatorilor. Dac la expirarea termenului de 30 de zile de la data rmnerii definitive i irevocabile a hotrrii judectoreti prin care sa ncuviinat deschiderea procedurii adopiei interne, direcia nu a identificat o persoan sau familie adoptatoare, dintre persoanele evocate mai sus, va solicita Oficiului Romn pentru Adopii ca, n termen de 5 zile, s-i transmit lista centralizat la nivel naional a persoanelor sau familiilor adoptatoare atestate i nscrise n Registrul naional pentru adopii. Alegerea adoptatorului sau a familiei adoptatoare potrivite pentru copil se face n termen ce 60 de zile de la primirea listei centralizate, innd cont de interesul superior al copilului, de informaiile cuprinse n atestatul adoptatorului i de evoluia copilului pn la aceast dat. Direcia n a crei raz teritorial se afl domiciliul copilului, dup efectuarea verificrilor corespunztoare i dup ce constat compatibilitatea copilului cu persoana sau familia adoptatoare selectat, sesizeaz de ndat instana de judecat pentru ca aceasta s dispun ncredinarea copilului n vederea adopiei. Dac pe durata perioadei de ncredinare n vederea adopiei direcia n a crei raz teritorial domiciliaz adoptatorul sau familia adoptatoare constat neadaptarea copilului cu persoana sau familia adoptatoare ori existena oricror altor motive de natur s mpiedice finalizarea procedurii de adopie, sesizeaz de ndat instana judectoreasc, n vederea
had admitted the request formulated by the General Direction of Social Security and Child Protection, that disposed the cease of the commissioning measure towards the maternal assistant B.C. and had submitted the under-aged Z.E. for adoption, born on 15th of November 2003, in the family of A.N. and A.D.M., for a period of 90 days. The motivation section mentions that the under-aged was abandoned by her mother immediately after her birth and was submitted for an emergency placement. Through the Civil Sentence no. 798/2005, Bihor Tribunal had admitted the request for opening an internal adoption procedure for the under-aged person and tried to identify the most suitable adopting person or family. Following the selection process, it was concluded that there is a compatibility between the child and the family of A.N. and A.D.M. legally certified related to the moral guarantees and the material conditions, according to article 19, paragraph 1 and 2 from Law no. 273/2004. In the same time, the affective relation was quickly established from the compatibility report prepared after the monthly meetings with the under-aged and adopting family, and the child declared that he feels safe in the life environment of the adopting family. If upon the expiry of the 30-day term from the issuance of the definitive and irrevocable decision of the Court of Law on the opening of internal adoption procedure, the General Direction had not identified a person or family, among the above mentioned persons, will require the Romanian Adoption Office, that in a 5-day term, to transmit the consolidated list at the national level of the adopting persons or families registered and certified in the National Register for Adoption, and the selection of the adequate adopting person or family must be performed in 60 days after the consolidated list is received, taking into account the best interest of the child, the information included in the adopting party certification and the evolution of the child up to current moment. The General Direction correspondent to the child domicile, after the adequate verification and after observing the compatibility of the child with the selected adopting person or family, immediately notifies the Court Law to dispose the child commissioning for adoption purposes. If during the period for adoption
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revocrii sau, dup caz, prelungirii msurii ncredinrii. ntr-o spe [7], instana a admis aciunea formulat de Direcia general de asisten social i protecia copilului Bihor, a dispus revocarea msurii de ncredinare n vederea adopiei i plasamentul copilului A.C., nscut la data de 09.09.2000. la L.M., creia i-a delegat drepturile printeti. n motivare a reinut c, minorul a fost prsit de mam la natere, motiv pentru care prin Hotrrea nr. 1341/2000 a fost dat n plasament la asistentul maternal profesionist L.M. Ulterior, prin sentina civil nr. 358/2001 a Tribunalului Bihor a fost declarat judectorete abandonat, iar prin Hotrrea nr. 1440/2004 a fost ncredinat n vederea adopiei la familia L.I. i L.A.J. Din evalurile efectuate de specialiti a rezultat c ntre minor i famlia creia i-a fost ncredinat copilul n vederea adopiei nu s-a realizat relaia de ataament. S-a mai reinut c nici mama i nici alte rude ale minorului nu sau interesat de situaia copilului. n situaia n care instana de judecat a dispus revocarea ncredinrii, Direcia este obligat s reia procedura de identificare i de selecie a persoanei sau familiei creia urmeaz a fi ncredinat copilul. 5.ncuviinarea adopiei Cererea de ncuviinare a adopiei adresat instanei judectoreti prelungete de drept perioada de ncredinare pn la soluionarea cererii prin hotrre judectoreasc irevocabil. Cererea poate fi introdus direct de ctre adoptator sau familia adoptatoare, dar numai n situaia n care, persoana major este adoptat de persoana sau familia care a crescuto n timpul minoritii sale i n situaia n care, copilul este adoptat de soul printelui firesc al acestuia i de ctre direcia de la domiciliul acestora, n celelalte cazuri. ntr-o spe [8], instana a admis cererea formulat de petenii .D. i .M. i a ncuviinat adopia minorului P.P.O., nscut la data de 02.02.2004. n motivare a reinut c, datorit condiiilor precare de cretere, minorul a fost dat n plasament la Fundaia ,,Casa Speranei. Pe baza planului individualizat de protecie s-a ncercat reintegrarea copilului n familia extins, dar nu s-a reuit astfel c, prin sentina civil nr. 739/2005, s-a dispus
commissioning, the General Direction correspondent to the domicile of the adopting person or family makes notice on the mismatching of the child with the adopting person or family or any reasons that would impede the completion of the adoption procedure, quickly notifies the Court of Justice, favoring the revocation, or as the case may be, the extension of the commissioning act. In another juridical act [7], the Court of Justice had admitted the action formulated by the General Direction for Social Security and Child Protection, Bihor Subsidiary, had disposed to revoke the commissioning measure for adoption and placement purposes of the child A.C., born on 9th of September 2000, to L.M., who received the correspondent parent rights. The motivation section includes statement according to which, the under-aged was abandoned by his mother upon birth, reason for which by the Decision no. 1341/2000 was submitted for placement to the professional maternal assistant L.M. Subsequently, through civil sentence no. 358/2001 issued by the Bihor Tribunal, the under-aged person was declared legally abandoned, and through the Decision no. 1440/2004 was submitted for adoption to the L.I. and L.A.J family. According to the evaluation performed by the specialists, the authorities concluded that the no affective relationship had occurred between the child and the adopting family. Another aspect is that the mother and other relatives did not pay any interest to the situation of the child. In the situation in which the Court of Justice had disposed the revocation of the adoption commissioning, the Direction is obliged to resume the identification and selection procedure for the person or family that would be involved in the adoption process. 5. Adoption consent The request for adoption is addressed to the Court of Law and rightfully prolongs the commissioning period up to the resolution on the request by irrevocable judicial decision. The request can be directly introduced by the adopting person or family, only in the situation in which the mature person is adopted by the person or family which raised her through her childhood and in the case the child is adopted by the husband of the natural parent of the child and by the General Direction correspondent to the domicile of the
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deschiderea procedurii adopiei interne, iar prin sentina civil nr. 17/2006 minorul a fost ncredinat n vederea adopiei familiei .D. i .M. Familia adoptatoare este atestat c prezint condiiile materiale i morale pentru a adopta un copil, iar din raportul de specialitate rezult c, treptat, ntre copil i familia adoptatoare s-a creat o relaia de ncredere, ataament i afeciune, relaie care s-a stabilit i ntre copil i familia extins, respectiv bunicii materni i paterni. Cererea de ncuviinare a adopiei, potrivit art. 35 alin.2 din Lege, trebuie nsoit de urmtoarele acte: a)certificatul de natere al copilului, n copie legalizat; b)certificatul medical privind starea de sntate a copilului, eliberat de ctre uniti publice nominalizate de ctre direcia de sntate public; c)atestatul valabil al adoptatorului sau familiei adoptatoare; d) hotrrea judectoreasc irevocabil de ncredinare n vederea adopiei; e)certificatele de natere ale adoptatorului sau ale soului i soiei din familia adoptatoare, n copie legalizat; f)certificatul de cstorie al adoptatorului sau al soilor din familia adoptatoare, n copie legalizat; g)cazierul judiciar al adoptatorului sau, dup caz, al fiecrui membru al familiei adoptatoare; h)certificatul medical privind starea de sntate a adoptatorului, eliberat de medicul de familie pe lista cruia este nscris; i)documentele doveditoare cu privire la exprimarea consimmntului prinilor fireti, n msura n care nu s-a pronunat anterior o hotrre judectoreasc de ncuvinare a deschiderii procedurii adopiei interne a copilului. Curtea constituional [9] a admis excepia de neconstituionalitate a prevederilor art. 35 alin. 2 lit.i teza I i, prin extindere, i a prevederilor art. 63 alin.3 i 4 din Legea nr. 273/2004 reinnd c prevederile criticate sunt necontituionale, fiind contrare art. 20 din Constituie raportat la art. 5 paragraful 1 lit. a i art. 9 paragraful 1din Convenia european n materia adopiei de copii, n msura n care nu prevd luarea consimmntului prinilor fireti, faa instanei, odat cu soluionarea cererii de ncuviinare a adopiei. Autorul excepiei care nu i-a dat consimmntul la deschiderea procedurii adopiei, ntruct nu era
adopting entity. In a juridical case [8], the Court of Justice had admitted the request formulated by the claimants .D. and .M., and granted the adoption of the under-aged person P.P.O., born on 2nd of February 2004. The motivation section includes arguments related to poor raising conditions, that led to the situation in which the under-aged person was moved to the Foundation ,,Casa Speranei. Based on the individual protection plan, there were some initiatives to reintegrate the under-aged person in the extended family, but this action was not successful, so through the Civil Sentence no. 739/2005, it was disposed the opening of the internal adoption procedure, and ultimately it was commissioned for adoption to the .D. and .M family. The adopting family is certified that meets the material and moral conditions for adopting a child, and from the specialty report it results that, gradually, an affection relationship emerged between the child and the adopting family, along with a feeling of trust, commitment and affection, relation that was established between the child and the extended family, respectively the maternal and paternal grandparents. The request for granting the adoption, according to article 35, paragraph 2 from the Law, must be accompanied by the following documents: a)the birth certificate of the child, in certified copy; b)medical certification for stating the health status of the child, issued by nominated public institution by the Public Health Direction; c)valid certification of the adopting family and person; d)irrevocable judicial decision for granting the adoption; e)birth certificates for the adopting entity and the husband in the adopting family; f)marriage certificate of the husbands in the adopting family; g)judicial criminal record of the adopting person, and according to the case, for every member of the adopting family; h)medical certificate for stating the health status of the adopting person issued by the family doctor; i)the proof on the consent offering from the natural parents, in case the consent was not expressed before the juridical decision of adoption commissioning, afferent to the opening of the internal adoption procedure of the child. The Constitutional Court [9] had admitted the exception of lack of constitutional provision for the provisions of article 35, paragraph 2, letter i,
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stabilit paternitatea fa de copil, filiaia stabilindu-se ntre data deschiderii procedurii adopiei i data ncuviinrii adopiei de ctre instana de fond, i nici nu a fost parte n faza ncuviinrii adopiei, a susinut c lipsa exprimrii conimmntului prinilor fireti n faa instanei de judecat i n procedura ncuviinrii adopiei produce efecte dintre cele mai grave att cu privire la relaiile dintre copil i familia sa natural, ct i cu privire la dezvoltarea socio-psihic, cultural a acestuia. Aadar, exprimarea consimmntului prinilor fireti este necesar nu numai la momenul deschiderii procedurii adopei ci i n momentul ncuviinrii adopiei. Numai n cazul rapoartelor finale, acestea vor fi depuse la instana competent s ncuviineze adopia de ctre direcia n a crei raz teritorial domiciliaz persoana sau familia adoptatoare cel mai trziu cu 5 zile naintea termenului la care a fost citat pentru judecarea cauzei. Instana va admite cererea numai dac pe baza probelor administrate i-a format convingerea c adopia este n interesul superior al copilului. Dup ncuviinarea adopiei, direcia de la domiciliul copilului urmrete i ntocmete rapoarte trimestriale cu privire la evoluia copilului i a relaiilor dintre acesta i prinii si adoptivi pe o perioad de cel puin 2 ani dup ncuviinarea adopiei. Cererile prevzute de prezenta lege sunt de competena tribunalului n a crui raz teritorial se afl domiciliul adoptatului. Ascultarea copilului la judecarea cererilor este obligatorie dac a mplinit vrsta de 10 ani , iar opinia sa va fi luat n considerare i i se va acorda importana cuvenit innd seama de vrsta i gradul acestuia de maturitate iar n cazul pronunrii unei decizii contrare opiniei exprimat de ctre copil, instana este obligat s arte motivele care au condus la nlturarea opiniei copilului.
thesis I, and through extension, of article 63, paragraphs 3 and 4 from Law no. 273/2004 retaining that the criticized provision infringe the Constitution, being contrary to article 20 from the Constitution, making reference to article 5, paragraph 1, letter a and to article 9, paragraph 1 from the European Convention, in terms of children adoption, in the sense that those articles do not make any statements on the consent of the natural parents given in front of the Court of Justice, simultaneously with the solution offered to the adoption request. The author of the exception who did not give its approval on the opening of the adoption process, because the paternity of the child was not clearly identified, the filiations being established between the date of opening the adoption procedure and the date of giving the consent of the adoption, sustaining that the lack of consent expressing of the natural parents in front of the Court of law and in the procedure of granting the adoption, produces severe effects in the relations between the child and the its natural family, as well in its physical-sociological development, cultural and psychological . So, the expression of the consent on the part of the natural parents is necessary not only in the moment of opening the procedure, but also in the moment of granting the adoption act. Only in the case o final reports, these documents will be submitted to the competent Court of law for consenting the adoption to the General Direction in the area corresponding to the domicile of the adoption person or family, with maximum 5 days before the citation term of pleading the cause. The Court of Law will admit the request only based on the administered evidence clearly indicate that the adoption was performed in the best interest of the child. After the consent of the adoption, the General Direction in the territory correspondent to the domicile of the child monitors and prepares quarterly reports on the childs evolution and on the relationships between the child and adoptive parents for a period of 2 years after the adoption consent. The requests mentioned by the current law belong to the Tribunals competence with a Bibliografie territorial action within the zone of the adopted 1. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului persons domicile. It is mandatory that the child be interviewed if the child is over 10 years of age Bihor nr. 8/2006 (nepublicat).
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2. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 7/2006 (nepublicat). 3. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 3/2006 (nepublicat). 4. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 75/2006 (nepublicat). 5. *** - Sentinta civila a Curtii de Apel Oradea nr. 2/2006 (nepublicat). 6. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 20/2006 (nepublicat). 7. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 4/2006 (nepublicat). 8. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 43/2006 (nepublicat). 9. *** Monitorul Oficial nr. 238/27.03.2008. Decizia nr.369 din 20 martie 2008 a Curtii Constitutionale referitoare la excepia de neconstituionalitate a prevederilor art.15 alin. (1), art.35 alin.(2) lit. i) i art.63 alin.(3) i (4) din Legea nr.273/2004 privind regimul juridic al adopiei. 10. Bacaci, A., Dumitrache, V.C., Hageanu, C. Dreptul familiei, Editura All Beck, Bucureti, 2005. 11. Florian, E., Protecia drepturilor copilului, Editura C.H. Beck, 2005. 12. Bodoac, T., Legislaia adopiilor, Comentarii i explicaii, Editura C.H. Beck, 2006.
his opinion will be taken into consideration and would be granted the adequate importance according to the age and maturity degree, and in case the child expresses an opinion different to the Courts decision, the Court of Law is obliged to indicate the reasons behind the non-observance of the childs opinion. References 1. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 8/2006 (nepublicat). 2. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 7/2006 (nepublicat). 3. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 3/2006 (nepublicat). 4. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 75/2006 (nepublicat). 5. *** - Sentinta civila a Curtii de Apel Oradea nr. 2/2006 (nepublicat). 6. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 20/2006 (nepublicat). 7. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 4/2006 (nepublicat). 8. *** - Sentinta civila a Tribunalului Bihor nr. 43/2006 (nepublicat). 9.*** - Monitorul Oficial nr. 238/27.03.2008. Decizia nr.369 din 20 martie 2008 a Curtii Constitutionale referitoare la excepia de neconstituionalitate a prevederilor art.15 alin. (1), art.35 alin.(2) lit. i) i art.63 alin.(3) i (4) din Legea nr.273/2004 privind regimul juridic al adopiei. 10. Bacaci, A., Dumitrache, V.C., Hageanu, C. Dreptul familiei, Editura All Beck, Bucureti, 2005. 11. Florian, E., Protecia drepturilor copilului, Editura C.H. Beck, 2005. 12. Bodoac, T., Legislaia adopiilor, Comentarii i explicaii, Editura C.H. Beck, 2006.
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CONTRIBUII LA STUDIUL ACIUNII N TGADA PATERNITII
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF CONTESTED PATERNITY ACTION

Lecturer Alin-Gheorghe GAVRILESCU, Faculty of Juridical Sciences Constantin Brncui University, Tg-Jiu
Lect. univ. Alin-Gheorghe GAVRILESCU Facultatea de tiine Juridice Universitatea Constantin Brncui din Tg-Jiu
Abstract Tgada de paternitate este mijlocul juridic ce confer posibilitatea nlturrii, prin hotrre judectoreasc, a unei stri civile care nu corespunde realitii prin rsturnarea n justiie a prezumiilor legale de paternitate, fcndu-se dovada, prin orice mijloc de prob admis de lege, c soul mamei nu este tatl copilului.
Abstract The contested paternity action is the juridical means that makes it possible, by order of court, to abolish a civil status not corresponding to reality through overthrowing the legal presumptions of paternity in a court, if proof is made, by any means of evidence legally valid, that the mothers husband is not the childs father.
1. Noiuni introductive Aciunea n tgada paternitii face parte din categoria aciunilor n contestaie de stat prin care se urmrete nlturarea unei stri civile aparente pe motiv c ea nu corespunde realitii [1]. A tgdui paternitatea unui copil nseamn a rsturna, pe cale judectoreasc, prezumiile de paternitate stabilite de lege n privina copiilor din cstorie[2]. Prezumiile de paternitate, n baza crora copilul nscut n timpul cstoriei are ca tat pe soul mamei (art. 53 alin. 1 C. fam.) iar cel nscut dup desfacerea, declararea nulitii sau anularea cstoriei are ca tat pe fostul so al mamei dac a fost conceput n timpul cstoriei i naterea sa a avut loc nainte ca mama s fi intrat ntr-o nou cstorie (art. 53 alin. 2 C. fam.) nu au caracter absolut, legea permind s se fac dovada c brbatul mpotriva crora opereaz nu este tatl copilului. n consecin, ori de cte ori prezumia de paternitate acoper o situaie nereal exist posibilitatea ca, prin aciune n justiie, aceast prezumie s fie nlturat prin administrarea dovezii contrare. Aadar, tgada de paternitate este mijlocul juridic ce confer posibilitatea nlturrii, prin hotrre judectoreasc, a unei stri civile care nu corespunde realitii prin rsturnarea n justiie a prezumiilor legale de paternitate, fcndu-se dovada, prin orice mijloc de prob admis de lege, c este cu neputin ca soul mamei s fie tatl copilului.
1. Introductory Notes The contested paternity action falls into the category of actions regarding the civil status of the physical person and its purpose is to abolish an alleged civil status because it has no grounds in reality.[1]. To contest paternity of a child means to overthrow, by judicial means, the paternity presumptions prescribed by law regarding children born in wedlock [2] The paternity presumptions, on the basis of which the child born in wedlock has the mothers husband for a father (art. 53 par. 1. Fam. C) or the one born after the dissolution, nullity statement and annulment of marriage has for father the mothers ex-husband, if the child has been conceived in wedlock and his/her birth occurred before the mother entered a second marriage (art. 53 par. 2 Fam. C) do not bear an absolute character, as the law allows to be proved that the man against whom they operate is not the childs father. Consequently, each time the paternity presumption covers a non-real circumstance, it is possible that, by legal action, this presumption be annulled by producing some contrary evidence. Hence, the paternity denial is the juridical means that makes it possible, by order of court, to abolish a civil status not corresponding to reality through overthrowing the legal presumptions of paternity in a court, if proof is made, by any means of evidence legally valid, that it is impossible for the mothers husband to be the father of the child.
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2. Dreptul la aciunea n tgada paternitii 2.1. Titularul dreptului la aciunea n tgada paternitii n reglementarea Codului familiei, dreptul la aciunea n tgada paternitii a fost mult vreme strns legat de persoana soului mamei. Acest caracter exclusiv personal al aciunii n tgada paternitii rezulta din prevederile art. 54 alin. 2 C. fam. care artau c aciunea n tgada paternitii poate fi pornit numai de so. Caracterul strict personal al dreptului la aciunea n tgada paternitii mpiedica intentarea aciunii de ctre o alt persoan, indiferent c era vorba despre mam, copil, alte rude, creditori sau procuror. Singura excepie era reglementat tot de dispoziiile art. 54 alin. 2 C. fam. n sensul c motenitorii puteau continua aciunea pornit de autorul lor n timpul vieii sale. n legtur cu acest caracter absolut personal al aciunii n tgada paternitii n literatura juridic s-a exprimat opinia c a atribui dreptul la aciunea n tgduirea paternitii numai soului mamei echivaleaz cu a-i acorda acestuia un fel de monopol n aprecierea oportunitii dreptului la aciune fr a ine seama de interesele mamei i copilului care nu poate fi concordant cu deplina i efectiva egalitate n drepturi dintre brbat i femeie [3] constituind, totodat, un obstacol n calea aflrii adevrului [4]. n consecin, unii autori au artat c dreptul de a nltura n justiie prezumiile legale de paternitate nu trebuie s fie numai o prerogativ a brbatului ci trebuie s se recunoasc i mamei i copilului dreptul de a aciona [5]. Ali autori s-au exprimat, de asemenea, n favoarea nlturrii caracterului exclusiv personal al dreptului la aciunea n tgada paternitii fr a determina ns dac un atare drept trebuie s fie recunoscut numai copilului, procurorului, curatorului celui disprut sau deopotriv i mamei [6]. Caracterului strict personal al dreptului la aciunea n tgada paternitii a fost nlturat prin Decizia Curii Constituionale nr. 349/2001 [7]. Prin aceast decizie dispoziiile art. 54 alin. 2 C. fam. au fost declarate neconstituionale n msura n care nu recunosc dect tatlui iar nu i mamei i copilului nscut n timpul cstoriei
2.The right to contested paternity action 2.1 The holder of the right to contested paternity action By Family code regulations, the right to contested paternity action has for a long time been related to the mothers husband person. This exclusively personal character of contested paternity action resulted from the provisions of art. 54 par. 2 Fam. C., stipulating that the contested paternity action can be initiated only by the husband. The strictly personal character of the contested paternity action prevented the action from being initiated by another person, whether we speak of the mother, the child, other relatives, creditors or attorney. The only exception to it was prescribed by the same art. 54 par. 2 Fam. C., in that the successors were allowed to continue the action initiated by its author during his lifetime. In reference to this entirely personal right to contested paternity action, theres been the opinion, in juridical literature, that conferring the right to contested paternity action only to the mothers husband is similar to granting him a sort of exclusiveness in estimating the opportunity of the right to action, without considering the mothers or childs interests, which is in discordance with the principle of absolute and effective equality of rights between man and woman [3], and is also an obstacle to the establishment of truth [4]. Consequently, some authors revealed that the right to legally overthrow the presumptions regarding paternity should not be restricted to man, hence the mother and the child must also be granted the right to initiate action[5]. Other authors similarly favoured the abortion of the exclusively personal right to contested paternity action, without being precise as to whom should be granted this right: the child, the attorney, the guardian or the mother[6]. The strictly personal character of the right to contested paternity action has been abolished by Decision of the Constitutional Court no. 349/2001[7]. By this decision, the dispositions of the art. 54 par. 2 Fam. C. have been declared not constitutional, in so far as they grant the right to initiate the contested paternity action only to the father and not to the mother as
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dreptul de a porni aciunea n tgada paternitii. n prezent, urmare a adoptrii n anul 2007 a Legii nr. 288 [8] pentru modificarea i completarea Legii nr. 4/1953-Codul familiei, aciunea n tgduirea paternitii poate fi pornit de ctre oricare dintre soi, precum i de ctre copil i poate fi continuat de ctre motenitori (art. 54 alin. 2 C. fam.). n persoana motenitorilor aciunea i intervertete caracterul ntruct, n cazul lor, prevaleaz interese de ordin patrimonial deoarece motenitorii care au acceptat succesiunea ar fi mpiedicai de copil n exercitarea drepturilor succesorale. i n ipoteza n care copilul ar renuna la motenirea soului mamei motenitorii vor avea dreptul s continue aciunea n tgada paternitii, interesul fiind tot de ordin patrimonial, ntruct copilul ar putea cere de la acetia pensie de ntreinere [9]. 2.2. Exercitarea dreptului la aciunea n tgada paternitii de ctre turore Tutorele va putea porni aciunea n tgada paternitii n condiiile art. 54 alin. 5 C. fam., respectiv dac titularul aciunii este pus sub interdicie. n actuala reglementare tutorele are posibilitatea s introduc aciunea n tgada paternitii fr a avea nevoie de ncuviinarea autoritii tutelare. O atare ncuviinare era cerut de prevederile art. 54 alin. 3 C. fam. anterior modificrii i completrii Codului familiei prin Legea nr. 288/2007 pentru ca tutorele soului mamei pus sub interdicie s poat porni aciunea. Dreptul de a porni aciunea n tgada paternitii recunoscut tutorelui completeaz protecia acordat celui pus sub interdicie [10]. Se poate ns ntmpla ca tutorele s nu-i ndeplineasc ndatorirea de a porni aciunea n tgada paternitii caz n care se ridic ntrebarea dac cel pus sub interdicie poate porni aciunea n perioadele de luciditate. n legtur cu aceast problem n literatura juridic s-a exprimat opinia c dreptul la aciunea n tgada paternitii nu poate fi recunoscut interzisului ntruct acesta poate s introduc aciunea dup ridicarea interdiciei dac tutorele nu a pornit-o ct timp a durat interdicia [11]. Trebuie avut ns n vedere faptul c potrivit art. 151 alin. 1 C. fam. ridicarea interdiciei va fi pronunat de ctre instan dac au ncetat cauzele care au
well, or to the child born in wedlock. Currently, following the adopting, in 2007, of Law no. 288 [8] for the modification and completion of Law no. 4/1953 Family Code, the contested paternity action may be initiated by any of the spouses, as well as by the child, and can be continued by the successors ( art. 54 par. 2 Fam. C). In the person of the successors, the character of the action is inverted, since in their case patrimonial interests prevail: the child would prevent the successors who assumed successorship from exercising their rights. Even in case that the child renounced the succession from behalf of the mothers husband, the successors would have the right to continue the contested paternity action, their interest being also of patrimonial nature, as the child might request a support pension. 2.2 Exercising the right to contested paternity action by the tutor The tutor may enter the contested paternity action under the terms of art. 54 par. 5 Fam.C., respectively, in case the action holder is laid under interdiction. Under current dispositions, the tutor has the right to initiate the contested paternity action without approval from the tutelary authority. Such approval is required by the provisions of art. 54 art. 3 Fam. C., prior to the modification and completion of Family Code by Law nr. 288/2007, so as the tutor of the mothers husband may enter the action. The right to enter the contested paternity action granted to the tutor completes the protection accorded to the person laid under interdiction [10]. It may happen though that the tutor elude his obligation to enter the contested paternity action, in which case a question is raised regarding the possibility of the person under interdiction to enter legal action during the moments of lucidity. In reference to this issue, theres been the opinion, in juridical literature, that the person under interdiction cannot be accorded the right to enter contested paternity action, because the latter can enter the action after the interdiction has been lifted, if the tutor didnt initiate it during the interdiction period [11]. Yet, we must take into consideration the fact that, according to art. 151 par. 1 Fam. C., the interdiction is lifted by court on the condition
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provocat punerea sub interdicie. Or, conform art. 142 alin. 1 C. fam. o persoan va fi pus sub interdicie dac datorit alienaiei mintale sau a debilitii mintale nu are discernmnt pentru a se ngriji de interesele sale. n general, boala psihic ce face ca persoana s fie lipsit de discernmntul necesar pentru a se putea ngriji de interesele sale este de durat, starea de insanitate putnd persista pn la data decesului celui suferind, astfel c, dac acesta a fost pus sub interdicie iar tutorele nu introduce aciunea n tgada paternitii el se gsete n imposibilitatea de a o porni. Astfel, dou persoane ntre care nu exist nicio legtur de snge rmn ntr-un raport de filiaie nereal n temeiul unei prezumii care nu poate fi rsturnat datorit strii mintale a incapabilului i a pasivitii reprezentantului su. Credem c pentru a se evita o astfel de situaie i a se da posibilitatea stabilirii unei stri civile care s corespund realitii trebuie s se recunoasc i celui pus sub interdicie dreptul de a introduce aciunea n momentele de luciditate urmnd ca aceasta s fie continuat de reprezentantul su legal. Se pune ns problema dac tutela este singurul caz de reprezentare n aceast materie. Credem c dac dup ce aciunea a fost pornit tutorele este ndeprtat de la tutel pentru c nu i-a ndeplinit mulumitor sarcina ori pentru celelalte motive artate de art. 138 alin. 2 C. fam. i exist urgen n soluionarea cauzei, atunci n temeiul art. 44 alin. 1 C. proc. civ. instana va putea numi un curator special care va avea posibilitatea s l reprezinte pe incapabil pn la numirea unui nou tutore. n plus, n cazul n care ntre reprezentant i reprezentat exist conflict de interese (de ex: tutore al tatlui prezumat este chiar mama copilului) curatorul special numit n baza aceluiai articol l va putea reprezenta pe incapabil. n schimb, dac titularului dreptului la aciune i s-a instituit curatela n condiiile art. 152 C. fam., curatorul nu este ndreptit s l reprezinte n aciunea n tgada paternitii [12]. n ipoteza n care titularul dreptului la aciunea n tgada paternitii este pus sub interdicie dup ce a pornit aciunea ea va fi continuat de ctre tutore. 2.3. Persoanele mpotriva crora se exercit dreptul la aciunea n tgada paternitii Anterior intrrii n vigoare a Legii nr. 288/2007 Codul familiei nu coninea prevederi
that the causes determining the interdiction proceeding have ceased to exist. But, according to art. 142 par. 1 Fam. C. a person will be laid under interdiction if she/he is not endowed with discernment so as to care for his/her interests, because of mental alienation or debility. Generally, mental illness depriving a person of the discernment ability to care for his/her interests, is a longstanding state, the debility state being likely to persist until the decease of the sufferer. Thus, if he/she was laid under interdiction and the tutor does not enter the contested paternity action, he/she is unable to initiate such action. In conclusion, though theres no blood conection between the two people, they maintain an unreal filiation relation on the basis of a presumption that cannot be overthrown because of the mental state of the incapacitated and the passivity of his/her representative. We think that, in order to avoid such situations and facilitate the establishment of a civil status in accordance with reality, the person under legal interdiction must be granted the right to enter action during his/her moments of lucidity, and further on this will be continued by the legal representative. However, theres a question here whether tutelage is the only case of representation in this respect. After the action has been entered and if the tutor is removed from his position because he has failed to do his duties satisfactorily or for the other reasons stipulated by the art. 138 par. 2 Fam. C, and if there cannot be delay in solving this case, then, we are of opinion that the court may appoint a special guardian, who will be able to represent the incapacitated until a new tutor has been assigned. In addition to this, in case theres a clash of interests between the represented and the representative (e.g. the tutor of the presumed father is the childs mother herself), the special guardian, appointed on the base of the same article, may represent the incapacitated. On the contrary, if the holder of the right to enter action has been assigned the guardianship under the terms of the art. 152 Fam. C, the guardian is not allowed to represent him/her in the contested paternity action. 2.3. The persons against whom the right to contested paternity action is excercised Prior to the enforcement of Law no. 288/2007 ,
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referitoare la calitatea procesual pasiv, adic la persoanele mpotriva crora se putea introduce aciunea n tgada paternitii. n urma modificrii i completrii dispoziiilor Codului familiei prin Legea nr. 288/2007 art. 54 C. fam. arat mpotriva cui se pornete aciunea, fcndu-se distincie ntre situaia n care aciunea este introdus de ctre soul mamei i cea n care aceasta este introdus de ctre mam sau copil. a) Situaia exercitrii dreptului la aciune de ctre soul mamei Pentru ipoteza n care dreptul la aciune se exercit de ctre soul mamei dispoziiile art. 54 alin. 3 C. fam. stabilesc c acesta introduce aciunea mpotriva copilului. Dac acesta din urm este minor cu vrsta sub 14 ani el va fi reprezentat de ctre mam, ea participnd la proces n dubl calitate: ca reprezentant al copilului lipsit de capacitate de exerciiu dar i n nume propriu ntruct potrivit art. 54 alin. 6 C. fam. mama copilului va fi citat n toate cazurile n care nu formuleaz ea nsi aciunea. Dac mama copilului este decedat sau nu are capacitate de exerciiu copilul va fi reprezentat de ctre un tutore. Copilul care are vrsta cuprins ntre 14 i 18 ani va fi citat i va sta personal n proces fiind asistat de ctre ocrotitorul su legal (mam sau, dup caz, tutore). n situaia n care minorul lipsit de capacitate de exerciiu sau cu capacitate de exerciiu restrns nu are reprezentant legal i exist urgen n soluionarea cauzei, atunci, la cererea prii interesate, instana poate s i numeasc un curator special care s l reprezinte pn la numirea reprezentantului legal n condiiile legii (art. 44 alin. 1 i 2 C. proc. civ.). n cazul n care copilul este decedat art. 54 alin. 3 C. fam arat c aciunea se pornete de tatl prezumat mpotriva mamei copilului. Unele precizri sunt necesare n legtur cu aceste prevederi: - textul citat se refer la copilul nscut viu i decedat pn la momentul introducerii aciunii de ctre brbatul prezumat a fi tatl copilului, nu i la copilul nscut mort ntruct, n cazul acestuia din urm nu se poate vorbi despre un raport de filiaie mpotriva cruia s se poat exercita dreptul la aciune, astfel c, ntr-un atare caz, aciunea ar fi lipsit de obiect [13].
the Family Code didnt contain provisions regarding passive standing, that is referring to the persons against which the contested paternity action may be entered. Following the modification and completion of Family Code dispositions, by Law no. 288/2007 art. 54 Fam. C. the person against which the action is entered is specified, and a distinction is made between the case in which the action is entered by the mothers husband and the case in which it is entered by the mother or by the chid. a) The case in which the right to action is excersised by the mothers husband In the mentioned case, the dispositions of art. 54. par. 3 Fam C. prescribe that the husband initiates the action against the child. If the latter is a minor under the age of 14, he/she will be represented by the mother, who is party to proceedings in a double capacity: as representative of the child incapable of excersising his/her rights and for herself, because, according to art. 54 par 6 Fam C., the childs mother will be summoned in court in all cases but for the case she initiates the action herself. If the childs mother is deceased or incapable of exercise, a guardian will represent the child. The child aged between 14 and 18 will be summoned and will be party of the proceedings, being assisted by his/her legal protector (the mother, or otherwise, the tutor). In case the child incapable of exercise or having a limited capacity of exercise, has no legal representative and there cannot be delay in solving this case, then, at the request of the interested part, the court may appoint a temporary guardian to represent him/her until the legal representative is assigned, according to law (art. 44 par 1 and 2, Civ. Proc. C). In case the child is deceased, the art. 54 par 3 Fam. C indicates that the action is to be initiated by the presumed father against the mother of the child. Some specification is needed regarding these provisions: -the foregoing provisions of this article refer to the child born alive and deceased before the presumed father of the child has initiated the action and not to the child born dead, because, in the case of the latter, theres no filiation relation we can speak of, and against which the right to action may be excersised; hence, in such a a
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- dipoziiile art. 54 alin. 3 C. fam. nu fac nicio referire la cazul n care att copilul ct i mama sa sunt decedai ns exist descendeni ai copilului. Credem c n situaia n care copilul a lsat descendeni aciunea ar trebui exercitat mpotriva acestora prevalnd i n acest caz interese de ordin patrimonial, tatl prezumat urmrind s-i nlture de la succesiunea ce s-ar deschide dup moartea sa i la care acetia ar putea veni prin reprezentarea copilului predecedat. n plus, ct vreme se recunoate motenitorilor copilului dreptul de a continua aciunea pornit de acesta n timpul vieii trebuie s se accepte i posibilitatea intentrii aceleiai aciuni mpotriva lor. - ntruct prevederile art. 54 alin. 3 C. fam. l vizeaz numai pe copilul decedat pn la data intentrii aciunii, se pune ntrebarea mpotriva cui va continua aciunea n situaia n care aceasta fusese pornit dar copilul a decedat n cursul judecii. n literatura juridic s-a artat c ntr-un astfel de caz aciunea poate fi continuat mpotriva reprezentantului legal al copilului sau a unui tutore ad-hoc dac minorul decedat era lipsit de capacitate de exerciiu, sau mpotriva unui tutore ad-hoc dac acesta avea capacitate de exerciiu restrns [14]. n ce ne privete, credem c dac aciunea poate fi pornit mpotriva mamei n cazul n care copilul este decedat la data introducerii ei, cu att mai mult ea poate fi continuat mpotriva acesteia n situaia n care copilul decedeaz n timpul procesului. Dac i mama copilului este decedat iar copilul a lsat descendeni aciunea poate fi continuat mpotriva acestora. b) Situaia exercitrii dreptului la aciune de ctre mam sau copil. Dac dreptul la aciune se exercit de ctre mam sau copil, art. 54 alin. 4 C. fam. prevede c acetia introduc aciunea mpotriva soului mamei iar dac acesta este decedat aciunea va fi pornit mpotriva motenitorilor lui. Dac soul mamei decedeaz n timpul procesului aciunea va putea fi continuat mpotriva motenitorilor si. Legea nu precizeaz mpotriva cui se va exercita aciunea n tgada paternitii n cazul n care cel ce ar trebui s aib calitate procesual pasiv este pus sub interdicie. ntr-o astfel de situaie urmeaz a se aplica prevederile art. 42 C.
case, the action would be void of object[13] --the dispositions of art. 54 par. 3 Fam. C. contain no reference to the case in which both the child and the mother are deceased, but the child has successors. We consider that, in case there are successors of the child, the action should be excersised against them. Patrimonial interests prevail in this situation, too: the presumed father is to remove them from an eventual successorship which might be initiated after his death, and which they might claim as representatives of the predeceased child. In addition to this, as far as the the the childs successors are granted the right to continue the action initiated by him/her during his/her lifetime,the possibility of taking the same action against them must also be admitted. -given that the provisions of art. 54 par. 3 Fam. C are only in reference to the child deceased before the date the proceeding is initiated, a question is raised: against whom will the proceedings be taken further on, in case they have been initiated, if the child died during trial. Juridical literature shows that, the situation given, the action may be taken against the childs legal representative, or against an ad-hoc tutor in case the minor is unable to excersise his/her rights, or against an ad-hoc tutor if the formers capacity of excersise was limited[14]. From our viewpoint, as far as the action ca be taken against the mother, the child having been deceased at the date of the proceeding, the more so may it be continued against her if the child has died during the trial. If the childs mother is also deceased and there are successors of the child, the action can further on be taken against those. b) The case in which the right to action is excersised by mother or child In this special case the art. 54 par. 4 Fam C. provides that the mother or the child initiate the action against the mothers husband and, if he is deceased, against his successors. Also, if the mothers husband dies during trial, it will be further taken against his successors. The law does not specify who the receiver of the contested paternity action is, if the person of passive standing is laid under interdiction. In such cases, the provisions of art. 42 Civ. Proc. C, are to be inforced: the
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proc. civ. care arat c persoanele care nu au exerciiul drepturilor lor nu pot sta n judecat dect dac sunt reprezentate (...). Aadar, interzisul judectoresc are o poziie similar cu cea a minorului cu vrsta sub 14 ani neputnd sta personal n proces ci prin reprezentant, respectiv prin tutorele su. Dac pn la soluionarea cererii de punere sub interdicie a fost numit un curator n temeiul art. 146 C. fam. acesta l va reprezenta pe cel a crui interdicie a fost cerut urmnd ca dup rezolvarea procesului de punere sub interdicie locul su s fie luat de ctre tutore. n caz de conflict de interese ntre reprezentant i reprezentat instana va putea numi un curator special n temeiul art. 44 alin. 1 C. proc. civ. n situaia n care se ivesc interese contrare ntre minorul pus sub interdicie i tutorele su ntruct tutore al acestuia este chiar brbatul prezumat a fi tatl copilului numirea curatorului se va face tot n temeiul art. 44 C. proc. civ. iar nu n baza art. 132 C. fam, adic de ctre instana de judecat competent s soluioneze aciunea n tgada paternitii (art. 44 alin 3 C. proc. civ.) i nu de ctre autoritatea tutelar 2.4. Cazurile n care se poate exercita dreptul la aciunea n tgada paternitii Legislaia n vigoare, la fel ca i cea anterioar adoptrii Legii nr. 288/2007 nu reglementeaz n mod expres cazurile n care se poate tgdui paternitatea, legiuitorul stabilind n art. 54 alin. 1 C. fam. regula c paternitatea poate fi tgduit dac este cu neputin ca soul mamei s fie tatl copilului. Aadar, titularul dreptului la aciune este pus n situaia s dovedeasc faptul c este imposibil ca brbatul mpotriva cruia opereaz prezumia de paternitate este tatl copilului. Nepaternitatea va putea fi dovedit prin orice mijloc de prob, inclusiv prin probe tiinifice [15]. Imposibilitatea ca soul mamei s fie tatl copilului poate fi determinat de incapacitatea brbatului de a procrea [16] sau de inexistena raporturilor de coabitare n perioada concepiunii copilului datorit unor mprejurri care au mpiedicat pe soi s se ntlneasc (de ex: soul execut o pedeaps privativ de libertate, este plecat n strintate ori relaiile dintre soi au fost att de mult deteriorate datorit unor grave nenelegeri care au fcut
individuals who do not have the capacity of excersise may not appear in trial, if not represented (). Therefore, the interdicted shares a position similar to that of the minor aged under 14, since he/she cannot stand in court as representative, or, respectively, through his/her tutor. If, until the request for interdiction is solved, a guardian has been appointed, in compliance with art. 146 Fam. C, he/she will represent the one whose interdiction was requested, but is to be replaced by a tutor the moment the interdiction proceedings are over. If theres a clash of interests between the representative and the represented, the court may appoint a special guardian, in accordance with art. 44 par. 1 Civ. Proc. C. in case the interests of the child under interdiction and hi/her guardian are contrary, owing to the fact that the guardian is the man presumed to be the childs father himself, the curators appointment will be made also on the grounds of art. 44 Civ. Proc. C, and not according to art. 132 Fam. C., in other words, the appointment will be made by a special court, authorised to solve the contested paternity action (art. 44 par. 3 Civ. Proc. C) and not by the tutelary authority. 2.4 The case in which contested paternity action may be excersised Current legislation, as well as the one prior to the adoption of Law no. 288/2007, does not contain specific regulations regarding the cases in which paternity may be contested; the legislator states in art. 54 par. 1. Fam. C. the rule that the paternity may be contested if it is unconceivable that the mothers husband be the childs father. Thus, the holder of the right to action is compelled by the situation to prove the fact thet it is impossible for the man against whom the paternity presumption operates, to be the childs father. The non-paternity can be proved by any means of evidence, including scientific proof [15] The impossibility of the mothers husband to be the childs father can be caused by his inability to procreate [16] or by the absence of cohabitation during conception period, owing to circumstances which prevented the spouses from meeting each other (e.g. the husband serves a privative of liberty sentence, he is gone abroad or the relationship between the spouses
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imposibile relaiile intime ntre ei n perioada concepiunii copilului). De asemenea, imposibilitatea ca soul mamei s fie tatl copilului poate fi determinat de faptul c perioada de concepiune a copilului, stabilit prin expertiz medico-legal, este anterioar datei la care mama l-a cunoscut pe brbatul prezumat a fi tatl copilului [17] sau de mprejurarea c respectivul copil este de alt ras dect aceea a mamei i a soului ei [18]. Imposibilitatea ca soul mamei s fie tatl copilului nu poate rezulta din simpla desprire n fapt a soilor n timpul legal al concepiunii, ct vreme nu se face dovada c relaiile intime dintre cei doi nu au continuat n aceast perioad. Faptul c n timpul legal al concepiunii copilului soia a avut relaii sexuale cu ali brbai nu este ndestultor pentru admiterea aciunii n tgada paternitii dar constituie un indiciu care oblig instana s solicite administrarea i a altor probe pentru a verifica temeinicia aciunii [19]. De asemenea, simpla mrturisire a mamei c soul ei nu este tatl copilului nu este suficient pentru a exclude paternitatea soului ci va trebui coroborat cu alte probe care s fac dovada c soul mamei nu este tatl copilului [20]. 2.5. Prescripia dreptului la aciunea n tgada paternitii Anterior modoficrii dispoziiilor Codului familiei prin Legea nr. 288/2007 aciunea n tgada paternitii trebuia introdus ntr-un termen de prescripie scurt, de 6 luni, care ncepea s curg de la data cunoaterii de ctre tatl prezumat a naterii copilului (art. 55 alin. 1 C. fam.). Dac nainte de mplinirea acestui termen tatl prezumat era pus sub interdicie, pentru tutorele su curgea un nou termen ncepnd de la data la care acesta afla despre naterea copilului (art. 55 alin. 2 C. fam.) iar dac n acest termen aciunea nu era pornit de ctre tutore, tatl prezumat avea posibilitatea s introduc aciunea dup ridicarea interdiciei, nuntrul unui termen de 6 luni (art. 55 alin. 3 C. fam.). Odat cu intrarea n vigoare a Legii nr. 288/2007 termenul de prescripie a aciunii n tgada paternitii a fost extins de la 6 luni la 3 ani. Ct privete momentul de la care termenul de prescripie de 3 ani ncepe s curg, acesta
has deteriorated to such a degree, due to serious misunderstanding, that any intimate relations during the childs period of conception were rendered impossible). Also, the impossibility of the mothers husband to be the childs father may be determined by the fact that the conception period, as established by medicolegal expertise, is previous to their encounter [17], or by the child belonging to a different race than that of the mother and her husbands race [18]. The impossibility for the mothers husband to be the childs father cant be the mere result of their separation in actual fact, during the legal period of conception, if evidence is not shown regarding the absence of any intimate relations during this period. The mothers involvement in sexual relations with other men during the legal period of conception is not a sufficient fact for admitting the contested paternity action, but represents an indication that determines the court to require the producing of further evidence to justify the merits of the case [19]. Moreover, the mothers mere testimony that her husband is not the childs father is not resistant enough to exclude the husbands paternity and would have to be corroborated with other proof to demonstrate that the mothers husband is not the childs father [20]. 2.5 The prescription of the right of contested paternity action Prior to the modification of the Family Code dispositions by Law no. 288/2007, the contested paternity action had to be initiated within a short prescription period of 6 months, starting from the date the childs father acknowledged the birth of the child (art. 55 par. 1 Fam. C.). If, before the expiration of this term, the presumed father was laid under interdiction, a new term was prescribed for his tutor, which started from the date the latter learned of the childs birth (art. 55 par. 2 Fam. C.) and in case the tutor didnt initiate the action within this term, the presumed father could initiate it after his interdiction has been lifted, within a 6 months period (art. 55 par. 3 Fam. C.). Once Law no. 288/2007 was inforced, the prescription period for the contested paternity action has been extended from 6 months to 3 years. Regarding the moment the 3
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difer n funcie de titularul dreptului la aciune. Astfel, legiuitorul stabilete n art. 55 alin. 1 C. fam. c aciunea n tgada paternitii se prescrie n termen de 3 ani de la data naterii copilului, iar pentru soul mamei termenul curge de la data la care a luat cunotin despre naterea copilului. Aadar, atunci cnd aciunea este pornit de ctre mam sau copil termenul curge de la data naterii copilului. n privina brbatului prezumat a fi tatl copilului art. 55 alin. 1 C. fam. instituie excepia de la regula c termenul curge de la data naterii copilului, artnd c acesta ncepe s curg de la data la care el a cunoscut naterea, ntruct nu n toate cazurile naterea copilului este cunoscut de tatl prezumat de la data la care ea a avut loc. Astfel: - dac tatl prezumat a disprut nainte de naterea copilului i se rentoarce ulterior, termenul va curge de la data la care dup rentoarcerea sa a aflat despre naterea copilului, indiferent c dispariia constituie o stare de fapt sau a fost declarat prin hotrre judectoreasc; - dac tatl preumat a fost declarat mort prin hotrre judectoreasc iar ulterior reapare i se anuleaz hotrrea declarativ de moarte termenul va curge de la data la care, reaprut fiind, a aflat despre naterea copilului iar nu de la data rmnerii definitive a hotrrii de anulare a hotrrii judectoreti declarative de moarte [21]; - dac tatl prezumat a fost pus sub interdicie termenul va curge de la data ridicrii interdiciei dac nainte de a fi pus sub interdicie acesta a cunoscut naterea copilului iar aciunea nu era prescris la momentul punerii sub interdicie, respectiv de la data la care, dup ridicarea interdiciei, a cunoscut efectiv naterea copilului n ipoteza n care se gsea pus sub interdicie la momentul naterii copilului; - dac soul mamei sufer de o boal psihic dar nu a fost pus sub interdicie termenul va curge de la data la care, aflndu-se n momente de luciditate, a fost n msur s recepioneze contient naterea copilului; - dac naterea a avut loc dup recstorirea mamei dar la mai puin de 300 de zile de la data desfacerii sau desfiinrii cstoriei anterioare, pentru fostul so al mamei termenul va curge de la data la care el a aflat
year-period of prescription starts being effective, this depends on the holder of the right to action. Thus, the legislator states in art. 55 par. 1 Fam. C. that the contested paternity action is prescribed within 3 years from the childs birth, and in reference to the mothers husband, the term becomes effective from the date of acknowledgement of the child. Thus, when mother or child takes action, the term starts being effective at the date of childs birth. As regarding the man presumed to be the childs father, the art. 55 par. 1 Fam. C. institutes an exception to the mentioned rule, stipulating that the term becomes effective in his case at the date he learned of the birth, since not in all cases does the presumed father have knowledge of the birth at the date it occurred. Hence: -if the presumed father disappeared before the childs birth and returned afterwards, the term becomes effective from the date of his returning on, when he learned of the childs birth, irrespective of his diappearing being a state of fact or being declared so by court order. -if the presumed father has been declared deceased by court order and appears at a later date, the court decision regarding his death is annulled and the term becomes effective from the date of his appearace when he was informed of his childs birth and not from the date of the definite annullment decision of the court order regarding his death [21]; -if the presumed father was laid under interdiction, the term starts being effective from the date the interdiction is lifted, on the condition that he knew about the childs birth before being laid under interdiction, and the action was not prescribed at the date the interdiction was issued, respectively, from the date when, the interdiction lifted, he acknowledges the childs birth, in case he was under interdiction at the moment of the childs birth; -if the mothers husband suffers from a mental disease but has not been laid under interdiction, the term becomes effective from the moment he is able to consciously acknowledge the childs birth, during a moment of lucidity; - if the birth occurred after the mothers remarriage, but within less than 300 days from the date of dissolution or annulment of previous
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despre hotrrea definitiv prin care s-a admis aciunea n tgada paternitii introdus de soul mamei din cstoria subsecvent [22]. Dac aciunea nu a fost introdus n timpul minoritii copilului art. 55 alin. 2 C. fam. d acestuia posibilitatea de a porni aciunea ntrun termen de 3 ani de la data majoratului su. Legea nu face nicio precizare cu privire la momentul de la care ncepe s curg termenul de prescripie n situaia n care aciunea este pornit de ctre tutorele celui pus sub interdicie. Credem c, indiferent dac titularul dreptului la aciune se afl pus sub interdicie la data naterii copilului ori a fost pus sub interdicie dup aceast dat soluia trebuie s fie aceeai ca i n reglementarea anterioar, n sensul c pentru tutore termenul de 3 ani n care poate introduce aciunea n tgada paternitii ncepe s curg de la data la care a cunoscut efectiv despre naterea copilului, ntruct, dac s-ar admite c el ncepe s curg de la data naterii copilului, s-ar putea ajunge la situaii n care la momentul exercitrii dreptului de ctre tutore acesta s fie deja prescris. Termenul de prescripie de 3 ani este susceptibil de suspendare, ntrerupere i repunere n termen n condiiile legii. n privina repunerii n termen art. 55 alin. 3 C. fam. prevede c reclamantul va fi repus n termen n condiiile legii. n consecin, reclamantul va fi repus n termen n condiiile art. 19 din Decretul 167/1958 conform cruia instana judectoreasc sau organul arbitrar poate, n cazul n care constat ca fiind temeinic justificate cauzele pentru care termenul de prescripie a fost depit, s dispun chiar din oficiu judecarea sau rezolvarea aciunii ori s ncuviineze executarea silit. Cererea de repunere n termen va putea fi fcut numai n termen de o lun de la ncetarea cauzelor care justific depirea termenului de prescripie. 3. Efectele admiterii aciunii n tgada paternitii De la data rmnerii irevocabile a hotrrii judectoreti prin care s-a admis aciunea n tgada paternitii copilul pierde calitatea de copil din cstorie i devine, n mod retroactiv, de la data concepiunii sale, copil din afara cstoriei. n situaia n care dup
marriage, for the mothers ex-husband the term becomes effective from the date he learns of the definite court order which admitted the contested paternity action initiated by the mothers husband from the subsequent marriage [22]. If no action has been initiated during the childs minority, the art. 55 par. 2 Fam. C. gives him/her the possibility of taking an action within 3 days from the date of his coming of age. The law contains no specification as to the moment the date of prescription becomes effective in case the initiater of the action is the tutor of the one under interdiction. We opinate that, irrespective of the fact that the holder of the right to action is under interdiction at childs birthdate, or that he was laid under interdiction after this date, the solution must be the same as by previous regulation. To be more specific, the 3 year period within which the guardian may initiate the contested paternity action starts being effective from the date he/she became aware of the childs birth, since if one admits to it starting at the childs birthdate, this may result in the paradoxical situation that, at the moment the guardian begins excersising his/her right, this latter may already have been prescribed. The 3 year prescription period is liable for suspension, interruption or renewal according to law. Regarding the prescription renewal, art. 55 par. 3 Fam C. provides that the plaintiff is accorded a renewal according to law. Consequently, the plaintiff will be accorded a renewal in compliance with 167/1958 Decree, stipulating that the court or arbitrary body may dispose trial ex officio or consent to forced execution, if it finds that the causes for overruning the prescripton period are thouroughly justified. The request for renewal may be forwarded within a month, starting from the moment the causes justifying the overrun ceased to exist. 3. The effects of admittance of the contested paternity action Starting from the date the court sentence regarding the admittance of the contested paternity action has been declared decree absolute, the child loses his/her status of child born in wedlock, and becomes, retroactively,
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desfacerea sau desfiinarea cstoriei anterioare mama copilului s-a recstorit i la mai puin de 300 de zile de la data desfacerii sau desfiinrii cstoriei anterioare a dat natere unui copil acesta nu va dobndi statutul copilului din afara cstoriei dac soul mamei va tgdui cu succes paternitatea ntruct, n favoarea sa va opera prezumia de paternitate fa de fostul so al mamei. Dac i acesta ar reui s fac dovada c este cu neputin ca el s fie tatl copilului atunci, prin efectul hotrrii prin care s-a admis aciunea n tgada paternitii, el ar deveni retroactiv copil din afara cstoriei. Admiterea aciunii n tgada paternitii va produce efecte cu privire la: numele copilului (acesta va purta numele avut de mam la momentul naterii sale), ocrotirea printeasc (va fi exercitat numai de ctre mam), domiciului copilului (va fi cel al mamei sale), obligaia de ntreinere (nu mai este datorat de ctre soul care a tgduit cu succes paternitatea copilului) [23].
[1] Teofil Pop, Drept civil romn. Persoanele fizice i persoanele juridice, Editura Lumina Lex, Bucureti, 1994, p. 117. [2] Tudor R. Popescu, Dreptul familiei, Tratat, vol. II, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1965, p. 47; Ioan Albu, Dreptul familiei, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1975, p. 235; Alexandru Bacaci, Codrua Hageanu, Viorica Claudia Dumitrache, Dreptul familiei, Ediia 4, Editura All Beck, Bucureti, 2005, p. 188. [3] Tudor R. Popescu, op. cit., p. 61. [4] Aurelian Ionacu, Filiaia fa de tat, n Filiaia i ocrotirea minorilor, de Aurelian Ionacu, Mircea Murean, Mircea N. Costin, Victor Ursa, Editura Dacia, Cluj Napoca, 1980, p. 58. [5] Idem. [6] Petre Anca, Filiaia fa de tat n Rudenia n dreptul R.S.R., de Eugen A. Barasch, Aurelian Ionacu, Petre Anca, Virgil Economu, Ion Nestor, Ion Rucreanu, Savelly Zilbertein, Editura Academiei R.S.R., Bucureti, 1966, p. 77. [7] Publicat n M. Of., Partea I, nr. 240 din 10. 04. 2002. [8] Publicat n M. Of., Partea I, nr. 749 din 05. 11. 2007. [9] Petre Anca, op. cit., p. 73. [10] Tudor R. Popescu, op. cit. p. 51. [11] Petre Anca, op. cit., p. 74 [12] Tudor R. Popescu, op. cit. p. 51; Ion P. Filipescu, Tratat de dreptul familiei, Ediia V, Editura All Beck, Bucureti, 2000 p. 309; Petre Anca, op. cit. p. 74-75. [13] Petre Anca, op. cit. p. 78. [14] Ion P. Filipescu, op. cit., p. 310. [15] Att n cazul aciunii n tgada paternitii ct i n
from the date of conception, a child born outside marriage. In case the childs mother remarried and gave birth to a child within less than 300 days from the date of previous marriage dissolution, this will not acquire the status of a child outside marriage, if the mothers husband successfully denies the paternity, because the paternity presumption towards the mothers ex-husband will operate in his favour. If the latter also managed to prove he cannot possibly be the childs father, then, by effect of the sentence admitting the contested paternity action, the child would retroactively become a child outside marriage. The admittance of the contested paternity action will bear effect on: the name of the child ( he/she will bear the mothers name at the moment of the birth), parental protectorship (excersised only by the mother), the domicile of the child (the same as his mothers), support obligations (theyre no longer the duty of the husband who has successfully denied the paternity) [23]
[1] Teofil Pop, Romanian Civil law. Juridical and Physical Persons, Publisher Lumina Lex, Bucharest 1994, p117 [2] Tudor R. Popescu, Family Law. Treaty, vol. II, Publisher Didactica si Pedagogica, Bucharest 1965, p.47; Ioan Albu, Family Law, Publisher Didactica si Pedagogica, Bucharest 1975, p. 235; Alexandru Bacaci, Codrua Hageanu, Viorica Claudia Dumitrache, Family Law, Publisher All Beck, Bucharest 2005, p. 188. [3] Tudor R. Popescu, op.cit., p. 61 [4] Aurelian Ionacu, Father Filiation, in: Filiation and minors protection, by Aurelian Ionacu, Mircea Murean, Mircea N. Costin, Victor Ursa, Publisher Dacia, Cluj Napoca 1980, p. 58 [5] Idem. [6] Petre Anca, Father Filiation in: Law and Kinshi in R..S.R. by: Eugen A. Barasch, Aurelian Ionacu, Petre Anca, Virgil Economu, Ion Nestor, Ion Rucreanu, Savelly Zilbertein, Publisher Academy of R.S.R., Bucharest, 1966, p. 77. [7] Published in Off. Mon., Part I, no. 240, of 10/04/2002 [8] Pblished in Off. Mon., Part I, no. 749 of 05/11/2007. [9] Petre Anca, op. cit., p. 73. [10] Tudor R. Popescu, op. cit. p. 51. [11] Petre Anca, op. cit., p. 74 [12] Tudor R. Popescu, op. cit. p. 51; Ion P. Filipescu, Treaty on Family Law, Publisher All Beck, Bucharest, 2000 p. 309; Petre Anca , op. cit. p. 74-75. [13] Petre Anca, op. cit. p. 78 [14] Ion P. Filipescu, op. cit., p.310 [15] both with the contested paternity action and the action
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008 cazul aciunii n stabilirea paternitii copilului din afara cstoriei se pot folosi ca mijloace de prob expertizele medico-legale prin care se analizeaz transmiterea caracterelor ereditare de la prini la copii. Aceste expertize sunt de mai multe feluri: serologic, antropologic, dermatoglific i genetic. Expertiza serologic se refer la transmiterea grupelor sanguine de la prini la copii i const n analiza grupelor sanguine ale ale copilului, mamei i tatlui prezumat, paternitatea fiind exclus n cazul incompatibilitii grupelor sanguine. Expertiza antropologic se refer la transmiterea, pe cale ereditar, a unor particulariti anatomice precum: fizionomia feei, conformaia nasului, a urechilor, malformaii, boli ereditare etc. Ea const n analiza trsturilor anatomice ale copilului i tatlui prezumat i poate fi fcut numai dup ce copilul a mplinit vrsta de 3 ani. Expertiza dermatoglific se refer la transmiterea ereditar a desenelor papilare i const n analiza tabloului dermatografic al copilului i al tatlui prezumat. Expertiza genetic se bazeaz pe analiza factorului genetic HLA ale crui caracteristici se transmit pe cale ereditar. Expertizele medico-legale clasice (serologic, antropologic, dermatoglific) stabilesc cu certitudine nepaternitatea dar nu pot stabili cu certitudine paternitatea, pe cnd expertiza genetic poate determina cu o probabilitate de 98-99% c un anumit brbat este tatl unui copil. [16] Pe baza expertizei capacitii de procreere se poate constata impotena sexual a brbatului sau sterilitatea sa. [17] Trib. Bucureti, sec. a III-a civ., dec. nr. 709/21. 03. 1996, n Culegere de practic judiciar a Tribunalului Bucureti 1993-1997, Coordonator Dan Lupacu, Editura All Beck, Bucureti, 1998, p. 216. [18] Petre Anca, op. cit., p. 70. [19] Trib. Suprem, s. civ., dec. nr. 81/1961 n J.N. nr. 4/1962, p. 144. [20] Trib. Suprem, s. civ., dec. nr. 237/1977 n C.D. 1977, p. 112-113; Trib. Suprem. s. civ., dec. nr. 867/1986 n R.R.D. nr. 2/1987, p. 66. [21] Tudor R. Popescu, op. cit., p.53; Petre Anca, op. cit., p. 80. [22] Ioan Albu, op. cit. p. 241; Alexandru Bacaci, Codrua Hageanu, Viorica Claudia Dumitrache, op. cit., p. 193. [23] Pentru o analiz detaliat a se vedea: Ion P. Filipescu, Efectele tgduirii paternitii copilului din cstorie cu privire la numele copilului, n R.R.D. nr. 12/1972, p. 87 i urm.; Ion P. Filipescu, Tratat... op. cit., p. 314 i urm.; Alexandru Bacaci, Codrua Hageanu, Viorica Claudia Dumitrache, op. cit., p.196-197. of establishing paternity of a child outside marriage, one can use as means of evidence the medico-legal expertises which analyse transmission of hereditary characters from parents to offspring. There are various types of expertises: serological, anthropological, dermatoglyphics analyse and genetic analyse. The serological expertise has to do with transmission of blood group from parents to offspring and consists of an analysis of the childs, mothers and presumed fathers blood groups, paternity being excluded in case of incompatibility. The anthropological expertise regards the hereditary transmission of anatomic features such as: facial physiognomy, nose and ears shape, malformations, hereditary disease etc. it comprises an analysis of childs and presumed fathers anatomic features, and may be effected after the child passes the age of 3. Dermatoglyphics analyse regards the hereditary transmission of pappilary ridges and consists of an analysis of the dermatoglyphic pattern of the child and of the presumed father. Genetic expertise is based on the analysis of HLA pattern, the characteristics of which are hereditarily transmitted. Classical medico-legal expertises (serological, anthropological and dermatoglyphic) certify with precision the non-paternity, but cannot accurately certify paternity, whereas the genetic expertise can determine with 98-99% probability that a certain man is the childs father. [16] On account of an expertise regarding the procreation ability, they can establish the males sexual impotence or sterility. [17] Bucharest Tribunal, Civ. Sect III, dec. no. 709/21.03.1996, in: Judicial Practice Textbook of Bucharest Tribunal 1993-1997, coord. Dan Lupacu, Publisher All Beck, Bucharest, 1998, p. 216 [18] Petre Anca, op. cit., p. 70. [19] Supreme Court, Civ. Sect.., dec. no. 81/1961 in J.N. no. 4/1962, p. 144. [20] Supreme Court, Civ. Sect., dec no. 237/1977 in C.D. 1977, p. 112-113; Supreme Court, Civ. Sect., dec no. 867/1986 in R.R.D. nr. 2/1987, p. 66. [21] Tudor R. Popescu, op. cit., p.53; Petre Anca, op. cit., p. 80. [22] Ioan Albu, op. cit. p. 241; Alexandru Bacaci, Codrua Hageanu, Viorica Claudia Dumitrache, op. cit., p. 193 [23] For further analysis see: Ion P. Filipescu, The effects of contested paternity regarding the child born in wedlock in reference to the childs name, in R.R.D. no. 12/1972, p. 87 and next; Ion P. Filipescu, Treatyop. cit., p. 314 and next; Alexandru Bacaci, Codrua Hageanu, Viorica Claudia Dumitrache, op. cit., p.196-197
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DEONTOLOGIA POLITIENEASCA
Comisar ef de poliie Constantin NICOLESCU Inspector ef I.P.J.Gorj
DEONTOLOGIE POLICIERE
Commissaire en chef de police Constantin NICOLESCU Inspecteur en chef I.P.J.Gorj
Ministerul Internelor i Reformei Administrative i componentele sale organizatorice au parcurs n ultimii ani un amplu proces de rennoire i restructurare, a c rui esen a avut i are n vedere transformarea institu iei ntr-un serviciu public autentic. Ideea central a noii concep ii de organizare i desf urare a activit ii pentru ndeplinirea atribu iilor de specialitate o reprezint satisfacerea intereselor comune ale comunit ii i cet enilor, potrivit naltului grad de responsabilitate a personalului ministerului, acesta constituind criteriul fundamental de apreciere a eficien ei func ionale. Standardele de serviciu, pentru solicit rile directe, urmeaz a fi stabilite n func ie de particularit ile atribu iilor fiec rui compartiment de munc , iar pentru serviciile indirecte, prin dezvoltarea tacticilor care pot contribui efectiv la rezolvarea problemelor sociale persistente, din competen , care afecteaz calitatea vie ii, drepturile i libert ile cet enilor. Raporturile de munc ale func ionarului din Ministerul Internelor i Reformei Administrative i au particularit ile lor, diferen iindu-se categoric de raporturile interpersonale circumscrise exclusiv ndeplinirii atribu iilor de specialitate. Cadrele ministerului trebuie s aib atitudini i comportamente acceptate de public, pentru a ob ine creditul acestuia i a evita luarea m surilor sanc ionatorii, iar serviciile prestate de c tre for ele de ordine public s ajung la cei c rora le sunt necesare.
Le Ministre des Affaires Intrieures et de la Rforme Administrative et ses composantes organisatrices ont parcouru les dernires annes un ample procs de renouvelement et de restructuration, dont lessence a t et est la transformation de l institution dans un service publique authntique. Lide centrale de la nouvelle conception dorganisation et de dveloppement de lactivit pour laccomplissement des attributions de spcialitat est la satisfaction des intrts communs de la communit et des citoyens, selon le haut degr de responsabilit du personnel du ministre, cela constituant le critre fondamental d apprciation de lefficience fonctionnelle. Les standardes de lemploi, pour les sollicitations directes, vont tre tablis en fonction des particularits des attributions de chaque compartiment de travail, et pour les services indirectes, en fonction du dveloppement des tactiques qui peuvent contribuer effectivement la rsolution des problmes sociaux persistants, de la comptence, qui affecte la qualit de la vie, des droits et des liberts des citoyens. Les rapports de travail du fonctionnaire du Ministre des Affaires Intrieures et de la Rforme Administrative ont certaines particularits, tout en se diffrenciant catgoriquement des rapports interpersonnels circomscrits exclusivement autour de laccomplissement des attributions de spcialit. Les cadres du Ministre doit avoir des attitudes et des comportaments accepts par le public, pour obtenir son crdit et pour viter la prise des mesures punitives, et les services offerts par les forces d ordre public doivent
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Rela iile publice externe, ca tipuri de raporturi sociale ale ministerului i personalului cu publicul i comunitatea, mass-media, organiza iile, institu iile i organismele societ ii civile i politice romne ti, precum i cele promovate pe plan interna ional, vor avea ca scopuri stabilirea, men inerea i dezvoltarea climatului de n elegere i ncredere reciproc , partenerial , n interesul realiz rii obiectivelor comune, prin acte de voin con tiente situate deasupra intereselor politice i n concordan cu normele dreptului interna ional. Ca institu ie fundamental a statului de drept, democratic i social, Ministerul Internelor i Reformei Administrative reprezint o component esen ial n educarea membrilor societ ii n raport cu obiectivele strategice generale. n exercitarea serviciului public prestat permanent n folosul comunit ii, fiecare cadru al Ministerului Internelor i Reformei Administrative asigur protec ia cet eanului, cu drepturile i libert ile sale, a comunit ii i a institu iilor statului. Ca orice profesie, care presupune n anumite mprejur ri, o doz mai mare sau mai mic de apreciere subiectiv cu impact deosebit n rela ia politist-cet ean, profesia de poli ist reclam anumite norme morale de conduit care se cer respectate att n activitatea profesional , ct i n via a personal . Aceast doctrin privitoare la normele de conduit i la obliga iile etice ale unei profesiuni, numit i teoria datoriei i a obliga iei morale, poart numele de deontologie".[1] Deontologia mai este denumit i tiin a care trateaz despre ndatoririle ce trebuie ndeplinite. Deontologia poli ieneasc este definit ca fiind un ansamblu de norme care reglementeaz raporturile dintre poli i ti, pe de o parte, i dintre poli i ti i cet eni, pe de alt parte. Scopul deontologiei poli iene ti este s impun , tuturor, o gam de principii prin educa ie, instruire i supraveghere, s devin parte organic a crezului fiec rui
arriver ceux qui en ont besoin. Les relations publiques externes, en tant que types de rapports sociaux du Ministre et du personnel avec le public et la communitat, mass-media, les organisations, les institutions et les organismes de la socit civile et politique roumaines, de mme que ceux promus sur le plan international, auront comme buts linstauration, la persistance et le dveloppement du climat de comprhension et de confiance rciproque, parteneriale, afin de raliser les objectifs communs, par des actes de volont conscientes situs au dessus des intrts politiques et en concordance avec les normes du droit internaional. En tant quinstitution fodamentale dtat de droit, dmocratique et social, Le Ministre des Affaires Intrieures et de la Rforme Administrative reprsente une composante essentielle dans lducation des membres de la socit en rapport avec les objectifs stratgiques gnraux. Dans l exercice de lemploi public prt dune manire permanente au profit de la communit, chaque cadre du Ministre des Affaires Intrieures et de la Rforme Administrative assure la protection du citoyen avec ses droits, avec ses liberts, de la communit et des institutions de l tat. Comme toute autre profession, qui suppose dans certaines circonstances, une dose plus grande ou plus petite d apprciation subjective avec un impact particulier sur la relaion policier-citoyen, la profession de policier implique certaines normes morales de conduite qui doivent tre respectes dans lactivit professionnelle, mais aussi dans la vie personnelle.Cette doctrine sur les normes de conduite et les obligations tiques dune profession, appele aussi la thorie du devoir et de lobligation morale, est dnomme dontologie".[1] La dontologie est aussi appele la science qui traite sur les tches qui doivent tre accomplies. La dontologie policire est dfinie comme un ensemble de normes qui rglementent les rapports entre les policiers, dune part, et entre les policiers et les citoyens, dune autre part. Le but de la dontologie
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poli ist, care s conduc la o mai puternic implicare n munc , la o conduit responsabil , s direc ioneze n final ac iunile pentru ndeplinirea n condi ii optime a atribu iilor func ionale i de specialitate. n vederea stabilirii unor reguli de conduit unitare pentru poli i ti a fost elaborat Codul de etic i deontologie al poli istului aprobat prin HG 991/2005 al c rui scop l constituie asigurarea conduitei etice a poli istului formarea i promovarea unei culturi profesionale adecvate, aplicabil personalului Ministerului Internelor i Reformei Administrative, formarea i educarea acestuia, prevenirea abaterilor comportamentale, mbun t irea calit ii serviciilor, protec ia persoanelor i a poli i tilor, realizarea pe aceast cale a echilibrului ntre drepturile cet enilor, interesele autorit ilor publice, drepturile i obliga iile personalului institu iilor poli iene ti. Pornind de la principiile enun ate n Codul de conduit al poli i tilor, adoptat de Adunarea General a ONU n 1979, Codul de etic i deontologie al poli istului ca i de la criteriile morale izvorte din reglement rile interne, literatura de specialitate consider c normele de conduit i deontologie poli ieneasc pot fi prezentate n dou grupe distincte : reguli generale ale comportamentului poli ienesc i reguli specifice ale conduitei func ionarilor care exercit puteri poli iene ti. Reguli generale ale comportamentului poli ienesc Organiza ia Interna ional de Poli ie Criminal - INTERPOL- a adoptat o rezolu ie la cea de-a 13-a sesiune desf urat la Berna n anul 1949, declarnd c " Orice acte violente sau inumane, adic cele mpotriva demnit ii umane comise de c tre poli i ti n exerci iul func iunii judiciare sau criminalistice, trebuie denun ate justi iei ". n decembrie 1979, Adunarea General a Na iunilor Unite a adoptat un
policire est d imposer, tous, une catgories de principes- par ducation, instruction et surveillance , devenir une part organique de la foi de chaque policier, qui mne une implication plus forte dans le travail, une conduite responsable, dirriger finalement les actions pour laccomplissement dans des conditions optimes des attributions fonctionnelles et de spcialitat. En vue dtablissement de certaines rgles de conduite unitaires pour les policiers a t labor le Code dtique et de dontologie du policier aprouv par HG 991/2005 dont le but est dassurer la conduite tique du policier, la formation et la promotion d une culture professionnelle adquate, appliquable au personnel du Ministre des Affaires Intrieures et de la Rforme Administrative, la prvention des infractions comportamentales, lamlioration de la qualit des services, la protection des personnes et des policiers, la ralisation de l quilibre entre les droits des citoyens, les intrts des autorits publiques, les droits et les obligations du personnel des institutions policires. Tout en tenant compte des principes noncs dans le Code de conduite des policiers, adopt de lAssemble Gnrale des ONU en 1979, Code dtique et de dontologie du policier, mais aussi des critres moraux issus des rglementations internes, la littrature de spialitat considre que les normes de conduite et dontologie policire peuvent tre prsentes dans deux groupes distincts : rgles gnrales du comportament policier et rgles spcifiques de la conduite des fonctionnaires qui exercent des pouvoirs policiers. Rgles gnrales du comportament policier LOrganisation Internationale de Police Criminelle - INTERPOL- a adopt une rsolution lonzime session qui a eu lieu Berne en 1949, dclarant que " Tout acte violent ou inhumain, cest-dire ceux contre la dignit humaine comis par les policiers dans lexercice de leur fonction judiciare ou criminalistique, doit tre dnonc la justice. ".
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cod de norme de conduit al poli istului, un sumar decalog de deontologie poli ieneasc iar la nivel european a fost elaborat un cod de etic al poli iei. Cunoa terea, dar mai ales respectarea acestor norme prezint un interes major pentru to i lucr torii Ministerului Internelor i Reformei Administrative, indiferent de func iile ocupate de ace tia, punnd amprenta att pe decizia cadrului de conducere, ct i pe activitatea concret de execu ie. Calitatea vie ii indivizilor i a societ ii, n ansamblul ei, se afl n leg tur direct cu modul concret n care func iile sunt exercitate de c tre poli i ti i, nu n ultimul rnd, cu natura atribu iilor pe care le au de ndeplinit. Comportamentul cadrelor apar innd for elor de ordine trebuie s corespund standardelor societ ii democratice i statului de drept, determinnd concursul larg al popula iei i, implicit, colaborarea cu alte organe i organisme socio-economice. O latur important a muncii de poli ie o constituie activitatea de prevenire a comiterii unor infrac iuni, avnd ca scop reducerea substan ial a faptelor penale prin care se aduce atingere vie ii, s n t ii, integrit ii corporale a persoanelor, avutului public i privat, odinii publice. n acest context, comportamentul poli istului trebuie s fie n concordan cu scopul urm rit. Respectnd toate cerin ele comportamentale i morale, poli istul nu trebuie ns s cad n extrema sensibilului, a nc lc rii demnit ii i onoarei proprii. Receptivitatea , solicitudinea i operativitatea n solu ionarea problemelor ap rute, constituie al i indicatori comportamentali, care contribuie la conferirea unei ncrederi din ce n ce mai mari a cet enilor n organele de poli ie. Prin conduita pe care o manifest n cadrul programului de lucru i n afara acestuia, fiecare func ionar al Ministerului Internelor i Reformei
En dcembre 1979, lAssemble Gnrale des ONU a adopt un code de normes de conduite du policier, un sommaire dcalogue de dontologie policire, et au niveau europpen a t labor un code dtique de la police. La connaissance, mais plutt le respect de ces normes prsente un intrt majeur pour tous les employs du Ministre des Affaires Intrieures et de la Rforme Administrative indiffrement des fonctions occupes par ceux-ci, en mettant laccent tant sur la dcision du cadre suprieur, tant sur lactivit concrte d execution. La qualit de la vie des individus et de la socit, dans son ensemble, est lie la manire concrte dans laquelle les fonctions sont exerces par les policiers et, pas dernirement, la nature des attributions quils ont accomplir. Le comportament des cadres appartenant aux forces dordre doit correspondre aux standardes de la socit dmocratique et dtat de droit, dtrminant le concours de la population et, implicitement, la collaboration avec dautres organes et organismes socio-conomiques. Un aspet important de lactivit de policier le constitue la prvention des infractions, dont le but est la diminution substantielle des faits pnaux par lesquels on atteint la vie, la sant, lintegrit corporelle des personnes, la proprit publique et prive, lordre public. Dans ce contexte, le comportament du policier doit tre en concordance avec le but poursuivi. Respectant toutes les consignes comportamentales et morales, mais, le policier ne doit tomber dans lextreme du sensible, de la violation de la dignit et de lhonneur propre. La receptivit, la sollicitude et loprativit dans la solution des problmes, constituent dautres indicateurs comportamentaux, qui contribuent la croissance de la confiance des citoyens dans les organes de police. Par la conduite quils manifestent au cadre du programme de travail et en dehors de celui-ci, chaque fonctionnaire du Ministre des Affaires Intrieures et de la Rforme
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Administrative trebuie s adopte o atitudine care s faciliteze comunicarea continu i operativ , cu o puternic nc rc tur emo ional-afectiv , pozitiv i reciproc , ntre cet ean i poli ist, n scopul ob inerii sprijinului popula iei n activitatea pe care o desf oar , cre terii prestigiului acestuia n fa a opiniei publice, condi ii indispensabile ndeplinirii prerogativelor conferite prin lege.[2] Modul de manifestare a comportamentului fiec rui poli ist trebuie s se particularizeze n raport cu fiecare situa ie concret . Ca efect, rolul hot rtor n derularea comportamentului revine fiec rui cadru, puterii sale de judecat i capacit ii sale de discern mnt. Prin conduita pe care o manifest n exercitarea atribu iilor de serviciu, i n societate, n rela iile cu cet enii, poli istul contribuie la cre terea prestigiului institu iei din care face parte i a ncrederii popula iei n aceast institu ie. Activitatea oric rui poli ist este desf urat sub inciden a legii, a normelor i principiilor ce deriv din drepturile i libert ile cet eanului. Legalitatea presupune obligativitatea de a respecta legea, att ca simplu cet ean, ct i n executarea atribu iilor ce i revin prin ndeplinirea obliga iilor de serviciu. Pe aceast baz , orice alt act normativ, inclusiv dispozi ia efilor profesionali, se emite n aplicarea legii i nu pentru nlocuirea acesteia. Aceast problem prezint interes din punct de vedere practic deoarece eful este r spunz tor de dispozi ia data, de executarea acesteia, de consecin ele ei , n esen de legalitatea acestei activit i. efii transmit dispozi iile pe linie ierarhic i de subordonare i r spund pentru legalitatea dispozi iilor date subordona ilor. Ei sunt obliga i sa verifice dac acestea au fost transmise i n elese corect i s controleze modul de ndeplinire a lor. Att efii ierarhici din cadrul Poli iei Romne , ct i subordona ii
Administrative doit adopter une attitude qui facilite la communication continue et oprative avec une profonde implication affective, positive et rciproque entre policier et citoyen, afin dobtenir le soutien de la population dans lactivitat quil dploie, la croissance de son prestige devant lopinion publique, conditions indispensables laccomplissement des prrogatives confrs par la loi. [2] La manire de manifestation du comportament de chaque policier doit se particulariser en rapport avec chaque situation concrte. Comme effet, le rle dcisif dans le droulement dun comportament revient chaque cadre, son pouvoir de jugement et sa capacit de discernement. Par la conduite quil manifeste dans lexercice des attributions de travail, et en socit, dans les relations avec les citoyens, le policier contribue la croissance du prestige de linstitution do il fait partie et la confiance de la population dans cette institution. Lactivit de chaque policier se dploie sous l incidence de la loi, des normes et des principes qui drivent des droits et des liberts du citoyen. La legalit suppose lobligativit de respecter la loi, comme simple citoyen, mais aussi dans lexecution des attributions qui lui reviennent par laccomplissement des obligations de travail. Sur cette base, tout autre acte normatif, inclusivement la disposition des suprieurs profesionnels, est mis dans lapplication de la loi et non pour son remplacement. Ce problme prsente de lintrt du point de vue pratique parce que le chef est responsable de la disposition donne, de son execution, de ses consquences, en essence de la legalitat de cette activit. Les suprieurs hierarchiques transmettent les dispositions hierarchiquement et rpondent pour la legalitat des dispositions donnes aux subordonns. Ils sont obligs de vrifier si celles-ci ont t transmise set comprises correctement et de contrler leur manire daccomplissement. Les suprieurs ierarhichiques de la Police Roumaine, mais aussi leurs
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acestora trebuie s i desf oare activitatea respectnd o serie de norme etice cu caracter general, astfel: s ac ioneze cu profesionalism, operativitate i obiectivitate pentru ndeplinirea atribu iilor ce le revin; s respecte demnitatea uman , ap rnd, sus innd i ncurajnd respectarea drepturilor omului, n orice mprejurare i fa de orice persoan ; s respecte normele morale de convie uire social , s aib un comportament decent n familie i societate; s manifeste corectitudine, respect i solicitudine n rela iile cu cet enii; n toate situa iile s ac ioneze astfel nct s nu- i compromit onoarea i demnitatea profesional i s nu aduc prejudicii prestigiului institu iei din care face parte; s dea dovad de probitate, cinste i intransigen n orice ac iune care angreneaz exercitarea atribu iilor de serviciu; s aib n orice mprejurare un comportament civilizat fa de cet eni, plin de solicitudine, n limitele legale i s nu contracteze datorii pe care nu le poate onora; s fie un exemplu n achitarea obliga iilor cet enilor c tre stat; s - i ndeplineasc ntotdeauna sarcinile ce le revin, conform legii, servind comunitatea i oprind s vr irea oric ror acte ilegale, potrivit responsabilit ii pe care o reclam profesia lor; s nu desf oare activit i lucrative private care pot afecta negativ imaginea sa personal sau pe cea a institu iei din care face parte. Reguli specifice ale conduitei poli istului func ionar public civil, cu statut special Particularitatea execut rii func iei publice poli iene ti, determin anumite
subordonns doivent dployer l activit respectant une srie de normes tiques caractre gnral, ainsi: Agir avec professionnalisme, oprativitat et objectivit pour laccomplissement des attributions qui leur reviennent; Respecter la dignit humaine, dfendant, soutenant et encourageant le respect des droits de lhomme, dans toute circonstance et envers toute personne; Respecter les normes morales de cohabitation sociale, avoir un comportement dcent en famille et en socit; Faire preuve de correctitude, de respect et de sollicitude dans les relations avec les citoyens; Dans toutes les circonstances il doit agir afin de ne pas compromettre lhonneur et la dignit professionnelle et ne pas porter prjudice au prestige de linstitution do il fait partie; Faire preuve de probit, dhonneur et d intransigence dans toute action qui implique lexercice des attributions de travail; Avoir dans toute circonstance un comportament civilis envers les citoyens, plein de sollicitude, dans les limites lgales et ne pas contracter des dettes quil ne peut acquitter; tre un exemple dans laccomplissement des obligations des citoyens envers l tat; Accomplir toujours ses tches, selon la loi, servant la communaut et stoppant la ralisation de tout acte illgal, selon les responsabilits quimpliquent leur profession; Ne pas dployer des activits lucratives prives qui peuvent affecter ngativement l image personnelle ou celle de linstitution do il fait partie. Rgles spcifiques de la conduite du policier fonctionnaire public civil, avec statut spcial La particularit de lexecution de la
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norme particulare de comportament, o anumit pozi ie etic vis a vis de modalitatea n care aceasta trebuie ndeplinit . Poli i tii au obliga ia de a- i ndeplini ntotdeauna atribu iile ce le revin conform legii, servind comunitatea i mpiedicnd orice persoan de la nc lcarea legii. Servirea comunit ii are la baz faptul c scopul principal al serviciului public exercitat de poli i ti este acela de a servi cet enii. n termenii Codului de conduit al poli i tilor i Codului de etic i Deontologie al poli i tilor, serviciul prestat fa de comunitate are n vedere, includerea, n mod special, a acord rii de asisten acelor membri ai comunit ii care, din motive de urgen personal , economic , social sau de alt natur , au nevoie de sprijin imediat. Aici se nscrie, printre altele, obliga ia tuturor poli i tilor de a interveni pentru acordarea sprijinului n situa ii publice de urgen (incendii, inunda ii, cutremure, catastrofe, epidemii, accidente ) precum i n toate cazurile cnd membrii comunit ii sunt victime ale unor acte de violen , jafuri i alte genuri de infrac iuni prev zute de legea penal sau cnd i sunt puse n pericol ori lezate drepturile i libert ile fundamentale. n ndeplinirea ndatoririlor ce le revin trebuie s respecte i s apere demnitatea uman , s trateze orice fiin uman n spiritul respectului fa de via , integritatea sa moral i fizic , indiferent de faptele ce i se repro eaz .[3] O alt cerin ce deriv din deontologia poli ieneasc se refer la faptul c serviciul prestat comunita ii trebuie s vizeze i persoanele care nu sunt capabile de responsabilitate infrac ional . Aceasta cu att mai mult cu ct realitatea muncii a confirmat faptul c unele din acestea fie din proprie ini iativa, fie sunt instigate ori determinate de alte persoane sa comit fapte ce intr sub inciden a legii penale. Codul de conduit al poli i tilor i
fonction publique policire dtermine certaines normes particulires de comportament, une certaine position tique vis- -vis de la modalitat dans laquelle celleci doit tre accomplie. Les policiers ont lobligation daccomplir toujours les attributions qui leur reviennent selon la loi, servant la communaut et empchant toute personne de violer la loi. Laide accord la communit trouve sa motivation dans le fait que le but principal du service public exerc par les policiers est celui de servir les citoyens. Dans les termes du Code de conduite des policiers et du Code d tique et de Dontologie des policiers, le service prt envers la communit concerne, premirement, linclusion, loctroi dassistance ceux membres de la communit, qui cause des motifs durgence personnelle, conomique, sociale ou dautre nature, ont besoin de soutien immdiat. Ici sinscrit, parmi dautres, lobligation de tous les policiers dintervenir pour loctroi de soutien dans des situations publiques d urgence (incendies, innondations, tremblement de terre, catastrofes, pidemies, accidents ) de mme que dans tous les cas lorsque les membres de la communit sont des victimes des actes de violence, des pillages et dautres genres d infractions prevuse par la loi pnale ou lorsquon met en pril ou on lse les droits et les liberts fondamentales. Accomplissant les devoirs qui leur reviennent, ils doivent respecter et dfendre la dignit humaine, ils doivent traiter chaque tre humain dans lesprit de respect envers la vie, son integritat morale et physique, indiffremment des faits quon lui reproche. [3] Une autre consigne qui drive de la dontologie policire refre au fait que le service prt au profit de la communit doit viser aussi les persoannes qui ne sont pas capables de responsabilit infractionnelle. La ralit du travail a confirm le fait que les unes de celles-ci soit de sa propre initiative, soit parce quelles sont instigues ou dtermines dautres personnes comettre des faits qui
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alte reglement ri legale cuprind printre altele, o serie de reguli specifice printre care amintim: - responsabilii cu aplicarea legii pot recurge la folosirea for ei numai dac acest lucru este strict necesar i dac ac iunile care tulbur ordinea i lini tea public nu au putut fi nl turate sau anihilate prin folosirea altor mijloace. Limitarea, propor ionalitatea i gradualitatea folosirii for ei trebuie s reprezinte un principiu care s orienteze comportamentul persoanelor investite cu exercitarea puterii poli iene ti; - s p streze secretul de stat sau de serviciu, s asigure confiden ialitatea problemelor, datelor i informa iilor de natur profesional , n afara cazurilor n care nevoile serviciului i ale justi iei sau legea reclam n mod necesar dezv luirea lor; - s respecte ntotdeauna adev rul i s nu omit , s nu ascund , ori s -1 altereze, s nu distrug nregistr ri, acte sau documente care, prin natura datelor i informa iilor ce le con in, ar putea mpiedica stabilirea adev rului; - s nu tolereze actele de abuz sau corup ie i s se opun cu fermitate oric ror ncerc ri de a fi subiec ii acestora; - s dovedeasc responsabilitate i competen profesional , spirit justi iar, deschidere spiritual , precum i disponibilitate de comunicare cu ceilal i membrii ai comunit ii; - s nu comit , s nu instige i s nu tolereze acte de tortur , tratamente inumane, pedepse crude ori degradante, pentru a intra n posesia unor informa ii sau a face o persoan s declare ceea ce dore te poli istul; - s intervin , n limita competen ei de inute, inclusiv n afara orelor program, din proprie ini iativ sau ca urmare a unei solicit ri, pentru acordarea de ajutor persoanelor aflate n pericol, pentru prevenirea i contracararea actelor de tulburare a ordinii i lini tii publice, de nc lcare a legii. Poli istul poate prezenta n public,
entrent sous l incidence de la loi pnale. Le code de conduite des policiers et dautres rglementations lgales contiennent parmi dautres,une srie de rgles spcifiques parmi lesqueles on rappelle: - les responsables avec lapplication de la loi peuvent faire recours lemploi de la force seulement si cette chose est strictement ncessaire et si les actions qui trouble lordre et le silence public nont pas pu tre empches ou annihiles par lemploi dautres mthodes. La limitation, la proportionnalit et la gradualit de lemploi de la force doit reprsenter un principe qui oriente le comportament des persoannes investies avec lexercice du pouvoir policier; - garder le secret dtat ou de travail, assurer la confidentialit des problmes, des donnes et des informations de nature professionnelle, except les cas o les besoins du travail et de la justice ou la loi rclame ncessairement leur dvoilement; - respecter toujours la verit et ne pas lomettre, ne pas la cacher ou laltrer, ne pas dtruire des enregistrements, des actes ou des documents qui par la nature des dates et des informations quils contiennent, porraient empcher la recherche de la verit; - ne pas tolrer les actes d abus ou de corruption et sopposer fermit toute tentative dtre leurs sujets; - faire preuve de responsabilit et de comptence professionnelle, esprit justitiaire, ouverture spirituelle, et disponibilit de communication avec les autres membres de la communaut; - ne pas comettre, ne pas instiguer et ne pas tolerer des actes de torture, des traitements inhumains, des punitions cruelles ou dgradantes, pour entrer en possession des informations ou pour faire dclarer une personne ce qui veut le policier; -intervenir dans la limite de sa comptence, inclusivement en dehors du programme, sa propre initiative ou comme consquence dune sollicitation, pour accorder laide des persoannes trouves en pril, pour la prvention et le contre attaque des actes de dsordre public, de violation de la loi.
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numai n condi iile stabilite prin ordin al ministrului internelor i reformei administrative, informa ii i date ob inute n exercitarea atribu iilor de serviciu sau poate face comentarii referitoare la astfel de date i informa ii, dac prin acestea nu se ncalc principiul prezum iei de nevinov ie ori nu sunt lezate dreptul la propria imagine, demnitatea, via a intim familial , privat a persoanei sau nu este prejudiciat finalizarea urm ririi penale ntr-o cauz aflat n curs de cercetare ori judecare. n ncheiere, trebuie men ionat c orice norm de deontologie nu are valoarea juridic a unei norme din aceast categorie, ci una pur moral . Existenta sa, ca i cunoa terea ei att de cei c rora le este adresat , ct i de opinia public reprezint liantul ncrederii reciproce n rela ia poli ist cet ean. Preocuparea adopt rii unor astfel de norme la nivel interna ional denot o preocupare mondial n g sirea celor mai eficiente metode morale n eradicarea abuzurilor i nc lc rilor drepturilor i libert ilor fundamentale ale omului.
[2] Ivan Stelian. Ioni Tudor - Drept poli ienesc, Editura Romfel, Bucure ti, 1993, pag. 168. [3] Legea 360/2002 privind Statutul poli istului
Le policier peut prsenter en public, seulement dans des conditions tablies par lordre du ministre des Affaires Intrieures et de la Rforme Administrative, informations et donnes obtenues dans lexercice des attributions de travail ou peut faire des commentaires concernant de telles donnes et informations, si par celles-ci, on nempche le principe de la prsumtion dinnocence ou on ne lse pas le droit la propre image, dignit, vie intime familiale, prive de la persoane ou on nest pas prjudicie la finali de la poursuite pnale dans une cause trouve en train de recherche ou de jugement. la fin, on doit mentionner que toute norme de dontologie na pas la valeur juridique dune norme de cette catgorie, mais purement et simplement morale. Son existence, de mme que sa connaissance par ceux auxquels elle est adresse, mais aussi par lopinion publique reprsente le liant de la confiance rciproque dans la relation policier citoyen. La proccupation de ladoption de telles normes au niveau international dnote une proccupation mondiale dans la recherche des mthodes morales plus efficientes dans l radication des abus et des violations des [1] Mic Dic ionar Enciclopedic, Editura tiin ific droits et des liberts fondamentales de i Enciclopedic , Bucure ti,1986, pag.511. lhomme.
[1] Petit Dictionnaire Enciclopdique, Maison dEdition Scientifique et Enciclopdique, Bucarest,1986, p.511. [2] Ivan Stelian. Ioni Tudor Droit policier, Maison dEdition Romfel, Bucarest, 1993, p. 168. [3] Loi 360/2002 sur le Statut du policier
BIBLIOGRAFIE 1.Constitu ia Romniei 2.Codul penal al Romniei. 3.Codul de procedur penal al Romniei. 4.Legea nr. 218/2002 privind organizarea i func ionarea Poli iei Romne. 5.Legea nr.360/2002 privind Statutul poli istului modificat prin OUG nr. 89/2003. 6.Legea nr. 346/2006 privind organizarea i func ionarea Ministerului Ap r rii Na ionale. 7.Legea nr. 550/2004 privind organizarea i func ionarea Jandarmeriei Romne. 8.Legea nr. 182/2002 privind protec ia informa iilor clasificate.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE 1.Constitution de la Roumanie. 2.Code pnal de la Roumanie. 3.Codel de procdure pnal de la Roumanie. 4.Loi no. 218/2002 sur l organisation et le fonctionnement de la Police Roumaine. 5.Loi no.360/2002 sur le Statut du policier modifi par OUG no. 89/2003. 6.Loi no. 346/2006 sur lorganisation et le fonctionnement du Ministre de la Dfense Nationale. 7.Loi no. 550/2004 sur lorganisation et le fonctionnement de la Gendarmerie Roumaine.
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9.Legea nr. 290/2004 privind organizarea i func ionarea cazierului judiciar. 10. Ivan Stelian. Ioni Tudor - Drept poli ienesc, Editura Romfel, Bucure ti, 1993
8.Loi no. 182/2002 sur la protection des informations classifies. 9.Loi no. 290/2004 sur lorganisationet le fonctionnement du casier judiciaire.
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DESPRE ROLUL I STATUTUL JURIDIC AL SOCIETILOR TRANSNAINALE N EPOCA CONTEMPORAN

Lect. univ. Laura Magdalena TROCAN, Facultatea de tiine Juridice, Universitatea Constantin BrncuiTg-Jiu
ON THE ROLE AND JURIDICAL STATUS OF TRANSNATIONAL CORPORATIONS IN CONTEMPORARY AGE
Lecturer Laura Magdalena TROCAN Faculty of Juridical Sciences Constantin Brancusi University Tg. Jiu
Abstract: Globalization, followed by the liberalization of international economic streams, has become a propelling force for economic growth. This process stimulates not only the national and international environment but also its agents and the competition between them. The spectacular development of transnational corporations and the significant increase of their weight and influence on todays world has affected and been in turn affected by globalization. At the beginning of this century as we stand, the transnational corporations represent one of the greatest forces operating in the economic, financial, scientific and technological fields, and have a major say in world politics as well. Companies of this type have expended to such a scale that they lost their national character to a certain degree. They no longer compete within national ground, but at an international level, with similarly profiled foreign companies in order to take hold of as large a share of the global market as possible.
Abstract: Globalizarea, nsoit de liberalizarea fluxurilor economice internaionale, a devenit o for motrice a creterii economice, un proces care dinamizeaz att mediul economic internaional i naional, ct i actorii din arena internaional i competiia dintre ei. Dezvoltarea spectaculoas a transnaionalelor i creterea substanial a ponderii i influenei lor n lumea de azi a influenat i a fost la rndul ei influenat de globalizare. La nceput de secol XXI, corporaiile transnaionale reprezint una din marile fore ce acioneaz n domeniul economic, financiar, tiinific i tehnologic, avnd un cuvnt greu i n politica mondial. Companiile de acest tip au ajuns s aib o asemenea extindere, nct, i-au pierdut ntr-un anume sens caracterul naional. Pentru aceste firme concurena nu se mai duce n plan naional, ci n plan internaional, cu companii strine de acelai profil, pentru ocuparea unor segmente ct mai mari din piaa global..
Analitii cei mai avizai ai comerului mondial apreciaz c extinderea i consolidarea economic a companiilor transnaionale reprezint una din cele mai mari sfidri a sfritului de secol i nceputului de nou mileniu. Localizate, n special, n statele dezvoltate, aceste societi ocup piee de cel mai mare interes strategic, cum sunt: industria petrolier, industria de automobile, industria chimic i farmaceutic. Revoluiile din Europa Central i de Est i liberalizrea comerului au permis extinderea afacerilor acetor companii ntr-o zon considerat inabordabil pentru ele. rile din aceste regiuni le-au adus dou avantaje deosebite: le-au oferit materii prime de care aveau nevoie, deoarece naintea anilor 90 le obineau din zone ndeprtate i le-au deschis pieele pentru tranzaciile comerciale
Some of the most well-advised analysts of world trade qualify this expansion and economic consolidation of transnational corporations as representing one of the greatest challenges at the close of this century and the new millennium beginning. Located particularly in developed countries, these companies absorb markets of greatest strategic interest such as: oil industry, motor vehicle industry, chemical and pharmaceutical industry. Central and East Europe revolutions and trade liberalization permitted the extension of these companies business to a so far considered inaccessible territory. These now permeable regions have brought about two singular advantages: they offered the essential prime matter, since before the 90s this was acquired from more remote areas, and opened their markets for the increasing commercial transactions [1]. The growing importance of transnational
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n cretere [1]. Importana crescnd a societilor transnaionale n cadrul economiei mondiale a devenit un subiect extrem de controversat. De unii apreciate, de alii contestate, cert este c aceste firme gigant reprezint o realitate a economiei actuale i sunt cei mai importani ageni economici de pe glob [2]. Actualmente, dimensiunile activitii economice a societilor transnaionale au atins proporii impresionante. Potrivit datelor publicate de Conferina Naiunilor Unite pentru Comer i Dezvoltare exist, n prezent, peste 65.000 de societi transnaionale, care au 870.000 de filiale. Pentru a avea reprezentarea forei economice a cestor societi transnaionale azi, precizm c cifra global de afaceri pe ansamblul acestor societi a fost n anii 1971-1972 de cca 450 miliarde de dolari SUA, ceea ce la vremea respectiv reprezenta echivalentul produsului naional brut obinut n aceeai perioad n Germania, Frana i Japonia, considerate la un loc [3]. Evoluiile spectaculoase ale companiilor transnaionale din ultimii ani se explic prin: apariia procesului de mondializare i liberalizare a pieelor, lansarea programelor de privatizare i de atragere a investiiilor directe strine, deinerea unor evidente avantaje concureniale ca urmare a superioritii lor tehnologice, competena managerial i organizatoric, accesul la resurse financiare importante, posibilitatea diversificrii pieelor [4]. Susintorii lor le consider avantajoase att pentru economiile dezvoltate, ct i pentru cele n curs de dezvoltare apreciind c ele contribuie la folosirea eficient i productiv a resurselor mondiale, ceea ce sporete bogia global i prosperitatea economic. Pe de alt parte, criticii societilor transnaionale acuz aceste companii c submineaz democraia, afecteaz societile naionale i contureaz o nou form de imperialism. n opinia lor ele reprezint un agent important n economia mondial, dar statele naionale continu s fie actorii principali. La nceput de secol XXI,
corporations as part of the world economy has become a highly controversial topic. While valued by some and questioned by others, it grew clear that these giant companies are a matter of fact in todays economy and one of the most important economic agents on globe [2]. Nowadays, the extent of economic activity performed by multinational corporations has amounted to an impressive rate. According to data published by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development, there are currently over 65,000 transnational corporations worldwide, with 870,000 subsidiaries. In order to have a clear picture of the economic force of these transnational companies today, let us add that the total turnover of these companies on the whole was, between 1971-1972,of approximately 450 billion American dollars, which, at the time, was the equivalent of the gross national product acquired in Germany, France and Japan altogether, during the same period [3]. Therere a few factors which account for the unprecedented development of transnational corporations in recent years: the process of mondialization and market liberalization, the launching of privatization programs and the strategies of drawing foreign direct investment, a technological superiority which created some obvious competitive advantages, quality management and organizational competence, the access to important financial resources, the possibility of market diversification [4]. Their supporters envisage them as beneficial not only for the well-developed countries but also for the developing countries, in that they contribute to efficient and productive use of world resources, which increases global wealth and prosperity. On the other hand, the multinational corporations have their critics who blame them for undermining democracy, for bearing effects on national societies and for incarnating a new form of imperialism. From their point of view, they represent an important agent in worlds economy, yet national states remain its main actors. Today, at the beginning of the twenty-first
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corporaiile transnaionale reprezint una din marile fore ce acioneaz n domeniul economic, financiar, tiinific i tehnologic, avnd un cuvnt greu i n politica mondial. Companiile de acest tip au ajuns s aib o asemenea extindere, nct, i-au pierdut ntrun anumit sens, caracterul naional. Societile transnaionale reprezint surse principale de capital, tehnologie i acces pe pia pentru aproape fiecare ar. Activitile acestora au un impact puternic asupra distribuiei mondiale a bogiei i activitii economice, ntre economiile naionale. Ele aduc beneficii att consumatorilor, ct i economiilor din ntreaga lume. Cu toate acestea, societile transnaionale reprezint concentraii imense de putere economic i, asemenea tuturor forelor, pot adopta atitudini corupte i abuzive din punct de vedere social. Prin fora lor economic, financiar, tehnologic, de cercetare tiinific, societile transnaionale reprezint o provocare pentru toi agenii economici de pe glob, o chemare la o competiie dur, n care cei ce reuesc s se adapteze concurenei rezist, iar cei mai slabi sunt eliminai. Determinarea locului i statutului juridic al acestor entiti n cadrul societii internaionale constituie una din cele mai controversate probleme, existena lor punnd n discuie reevaluarea abordrii tradiionale a subiectelor de drept internaional public, unii autori, avnd n vedere fora lor economic, diversitatea activitilor pe care le desfoar, dar, mai ales faptul c activitatea lor se extinde n numeroase state atribuindu-le calitatea de subiecte de drept internaional public [5]. n raportul Grupului de personaliti creat de Naiunile Unite pentru a studia efectele societilor transnaionale asupra dezvoltrii i relaiilor internaionale se arat: Societile trananaionale sunt ntreprinderi care au n proprietate sau controleaz instalaii de producie i servicii n afara teritoriului unde i au baza. n 1977, Institutul de Drept Internaional aprecia c societile transnaionale sunt ntreprinderile formate dintr-un centru de decizie localizat ntr-o ar i centre de activiatate, cu sau fr
century, the transnational corporations represent one of the greatest forces operating within the economic, financial, scientific and technological fields, and they have a major say in world politics as well. Companies of this type have expended to such a scale that they lost their national character to a certain degree. Transnational corporations represent main sources of capital, technology and market access for almost every country. Their performance has got a strong impact on the distribution of world wealth and economical activity, among the national economies. They bring in benefits both to the consumers and to the economies worldwide. Nevertheless, the transnational corporations represent huge concentrations of economic power, and, like all such powers, they may adopt socially corrupt and abusive attitudes. Given their power either on economic, financial, technological or scientific research field, the transnational corporations are a challenge for every economic agent in the world, a call for tough competition, in which the ones managing to adapt the competition survive and the weak are eliminated. One of the most debated issues nowadays is establishing the juridical status and the category these international entities fall into, within the international society. Their existence brings forward the subject of reconsidering the traditional approach of international public law, therefore some authors, taking into account these companies economic force, the wide range of activities they perform, and particularly the extension of their activity in many states, qualify them as falling under the international public law [5]. The Report of the Group of Personalities created by the United Nations to study the influence of transnational corporations on development and international relations shows: transnational corporations are enterprises which own or control production installations and services outside their home territory. In 1977, the Institute of International Law described the transnational corporations as being enterprises which comprise a decision
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personalitate juridic proprie, situate n unul sau mai multe state. Cele dou definiii subliniaz un criteriu comun de apreciere, i anume criteriul extrateritorialitii. ns n afara acestuia n cadrul ONU au fost elaborate mai multe definiii ale societilor transnaionale care au folosit i alte criterii precum: numrul filialelor din strintate, compoziia capitalului, partea exporturilor n cifra de afaceri etc [6]. Sintetiznd diversele definiii prezentate n literatura de specialitate putem aprecia c societile transnaionale sunt acele societi comerciale care, chiar de la nfiinarea lor, se constituie pe elemente fr caracter naional (cum sunt: capitalul ce provine de la asociai din diferite ri, stabilirea mai multor sedii principale n ri diferite etc.) i care sunt lipsite de o legtur juridic cu un anumit stat, astfel c n privina lor nu primete vocaie nici una din legile naionale, iar litigiile izvorte din interpretarea i aplicarea actelor lor constitutive sunt scoase de sub competena instanelor naionale spre a fi date pentru soluionarea unor instane speciale [7]. Din aceast definiie se pot desprinde i trsturile specifice societilor multinaionale: capitalul lor este multinaional sau naional, structura organizatoric proprie prezint un centru comun de decizie i control, precum i o gestiune global internaional distinct, activitile de producie i comercializare desfurate pe mai multe piee au la baz o strategie economic i financiar comun, nu se afl sub incidena unor anumite legi naionale, datorit funcionrii concomitente n mai multe ri, litigiile referitoare la funcionarea societii sunt supuse spre soluionarea unor instane arbitrale sau tribunalelor internaionale [8]. n ceea ce privete modalitatea de constituire, n anii 1995-1999, a fost utilizat n mod frecvent fuziunea [9]. Experiena arat c societile transnaionale au aprut iniial ca societi comerciale naionale ce au adugat treptat trsturi multinaionale care, le-au ndeprtat tot mai mult de regimul lor naional. Astfel, n prezent, societile
center, located in one country, and a range of other activity centers, having or not having juridical personality, situated on the territory of one or more other countries. The two definitions display a common point, that is, the extraterritoriality criterion. Apart from this principle, there are yet other definitions of transnational corporations developed by the United Nations, which used criteria such as: the number of subsidiaries abroad, capital structure, the percent of exports in the turnover etc [6]. Combining the many technical literature definitions, one can conclude that multinational corporations are those trade companies which are based, from their very beginnings, on elements void of national character (such as: the capital is supplied by their partners in various other countries, the creation of more head offices in different countries etc.) and dont have any juridical connection with any particular country; thus, they are not bound by any of the national laws and all litigations arising from the interpretation or application of their constitutive acts are no longer under the authority of national courts, but submitted for resolution to certain special courts [7]. The specific features of multinational corporations can also be derived from the above definition: their capital is multinational or national, their characteristic organizational structure comprises a common decision and control center, as well as a distinctive international global administration, their production and trading operations displayed on various markets have a common basis in terms of economic and financial strategy, they dont fall under the provision of certain national laws, owing to their operating simultaneously on the territory of different countries , the litigations referring to the functioning of the trade company are submitted for resolution to some arbitral courts or to international courts [8]. Regarding the way these companies were constituted, during the period of 19951999, a frequent method was merger [9]. As fact reveals, the multinational corporations were at their beginnings national
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transnaionale se sustrag regimului naional al statelor i i instituie principii i norme acceptate de prile contractante, aplicabile n derularea tranzaciilor lor comerciale [10]. Pe plan internaional existnd societi transnaionale ale cror acte constitutive evit orice referire la vreun sistem naional de drept, n privina lor primind aplicare numai normele stabilite prin statutele proprii. Din aceast categorie fac parte i unele organisme constituite sub egida ONU (ex. Banca Internaional pentru Reconstrucie i Dezvoltare, Societatea Financiar Internaional etc). Pe principii similare a fost constituit i societatea Scandinavian Air System (SAS), cu participare a trei societi comerciale din Danemarca, Norvegia i Suedia. Societatea nou format i-a stabilit cte un sediu principal, cu valoare juridic egal cu celelalte sedii n capitatele celor trei state participante: Copenhaga, Oslo i Stockholm. Din cuprinsul statutului acestei societi transnaionale lipsesc orice trimiteri la legile naionale ale celor trei state [11]. Cele mai cunoscute societi transnaionale, la nivel mondial sunt: General Electric, British Petroleum, Deutsche Telecom, Exxon-Mobil Amoco, Bayer, Fiat, Nike, Levi Strauss, Adidas, Coca-Cola, Mc Donalds, Nestle, Parmalat, Novartis. n principiu, orice societate transnaional este legat de statul unde i are sediul societatea mam, al crei capital este deinut, n majoritate, de ceteni ai acestui stat [12]. n virtutea principiului teritorialitii, relaiile juridice ale societii mam cu statul de origine sunt reglementate de dreptul naional al acestui stat. Deci, din punct de vedere al constituirii, funcionrii i extinderii personalitii sale juridice, orice societate transnaional este supus dreptului statului a crui naionalitate o are. Pe de alt parte, grupul de societi din care face parte i societatea de baz, indiferente dac sunt simple filiale ale acesteia sau entiti juridice distincte, de alt naionalitate, urmeaz o politic proprie, care ar putea s nu fie n armonie cu interesele statului de origine sau, invers, acesta s adopte msuri care s stnjeneasc activitatea societilor
trade companies that progressively gained multinational features, and therefore gradually lost their national character. Such is the case that in present days transnational corporations manage to elude the national regime of states and set up rules and regulations accepted by the contracting parties and applied during trade transactions [10]. On the international level there are transnational corporations that avoid any reference to a particular national law system, which makes them subject only to norms established by their own statuses. Some organizations under the authority of ONU fall into this category as well (e.g. the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, the International Finance Corporation etc.). Scandinavian Air System was constituted following similar principles: it merges three trade companies from Denmark, Norway and Sweden with head offices of equal legal status in each capital of the three participant states, Copenhagen, Oslo and Stockholm. The constitutive acts of the three trade companies lack any reference to the national laws of the corresponding countries [11]. The most wellknown transnational corporations in the world are: General Electric, British Petroleum, Deutsche Telecom, Exxon-Mobil Amoco, Bayer, Fiat, Nike, Levi Strauss, Adidas, CocaCola, Mc Donalds, Nestle, Parmalat, Novartis. As a rule, any transnational corporation is attached to the country where the head office of the parent company is, the capital of which is hold mainly by the respective countrys citizens [12]. By virtue of the territoriality principle, the national laws of this state settle the juridical links of the parent company to the country of origin. Hence, as far as its constitution, functioning and extension of its juridical personality are concerned, any transnational corporation falls under the law of the origin country. On the other hand, the corporation to which the parental company belongs, whether the incorporated companies are mere subsidiaries or distinct juridical bodies, of different nationality, sticks to its own politics, which may not concord with the interests of the
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transnaionale [13]. Conflictul de interese poate privi domeniul fiscal, repatrierea profiturilor, angajarea forei de munc, transferul de tehnologii, controlul schimburilor comerciale etc. Rezult astfel un sistem de relaii multiple i deosebit de complexe din care se pot desprinde dou idei: n primul rnd tendina societilor transnaionale de a-i desfura activitatea dup reguli proprii, de a-i constitui un fel de ordine juridic proprie i efectul de extrateritorialitate, pe care unele din msurile statului de origine (transfer de tehnologii, controlul schimburilor comerciale etc.) l poate genera [14]. n statul gazd activitile unei societi transnaionale se realizeaz, de regul, prin ncheierea de contracte privind prestrile de servicii sau investiii. Asemenea activiti se realizeaz direct, printr-o societate a grupului avnd o alt naionalitate dect a rii gazd, fie prin constituirea unei societi avnd naionalitatea acestei ri. ns, indiferent c este vorba de o filial sau de o societate avnd naionalitatea rii gazd, ambele se nscriu n ordinea juridic a statului gazd i opereaz n conformitate cu normele de drept intern ale acestuia [15]. Cu toate acestea, o filial a unei societi multinaionale urmeaz s se supun, legislaiei rii de origine, legislaiei statului gazd i orientrilor de politic economic ale societii transnaionale mam, fapt ce uneori duce la apariia unor serioase conflicte juridice. n general, n relaiile lor cu societile transnaionale statele gazd ezit ntre dou politici. Pe de o parte urmresc s le atrag, apreciind c prin aceasta se creeaz noi locuri de munc, venituri supilmentare, i mai ales se introduc n economie tehnologii avansate. Pe de alt parte, unele state se tem de efectul pe termen lung al prezenei societilor transnaionale pe teritoriul lor ar putea fi n contradicie cu propriile strategii de dezvoltare, temere justificat uneori de practiceile unor companii transnaionale. Unul din instrumentele care mijlocesc raporturile concrete ale statelor gazd cu
origin country, or on the contrary, the latter can adopt measures that may hinder the performance of transnational corporations [13]. The dispute of interests may involve the financial field, the repatriation of profits, the employment of labour force, the transfer of technologies, the trade control etc. All these result in a highly complex system of multiple relations, from which one can infer two ideas: first of all, the tendency of multinational corporations to operate according to rules of their own, to constitute themselves a sort of separate juridical system, and then the extraterritoriality effect, as generated by some of the measures adopted by the origin country (technology transfer, trade control etc) [14]. Within the host country, the operations of transnational corporations are achieved mainly by entering into contracts that refer to services provision and investments. Such activities are performed directly, through one of the companies belonging to the group, of a nationality other than the host country, or by constituting a company having the nationality of this country. Nonetheless, whether one speaks of a subsidiary or of a company having the nationality of the host country, they are both subject to the juridical order of the host country and operate according to its internal policy and laws [15]. On the other hand, a multinational corporation subsidiary is compelled to obey the laws of the origin country, the laws of the host country and the economical policy of the parent transnational company, which sometimes results in serious legal disputes. As a rule, in relation to the transnational companies, the host countries oscillate between the two policies. On the one hand, they are interested in arousing these companies interest, seeing in it an opportunity for new jobs, additional income, and most of all, for introducing advanced technologies. On the other hand, some states fear the long-term effect of these companies presence on their territory, in that they might interfere with their own development strategies, a fear justified at times by the practices of some transnational corporations.
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societile transnaionale este contractul de stat. Acesta se poate defini lato sensu ca fiind contractul ncheiat ntre un stat i o societate transnaional strin. El poate privi furnizarea unor bunuri sau servicii (studii sau asisten tehnic), exploatarea unor bogii naturale (concesiuni), gestiunea unor sectoare de servicii publice (contracte de concesiuni sau de exploatare), lucrri publice (construcii de drumuri, poduri), mprumuturi [16]. De regul, societile transnaionale evit jurisdicia instanelor naionale pentru litigiile ce s-ar putea ivi n legtur cu interpretarea sau aplicarea actelor lor constitutive. Asemenea societi convin ca litigiile de care am vorbit mai sus s fie supuse spre soluionare unor instane speciale: tribunale internaionale ad-hoc, tribunale internaionale arbitrale etc., specialitii apreciind c existena societilor transnaionale pune n vedere dou aspecte oarecum contradictorii: unul negativ constnd n sustragerea acestor societi de sub incidena legislaiilor naionale a statelor, iar altul pozitiv, decurgnd paradoxal chiar din consecinele determinate de acest fapt, concretizat n instituirea unor norme i principii ce ar putea servi drept premise pentru elaborarea unor legi uniforme cu aplicabilitate mai larg la anumite categorii de raporturi la care d natere comerul internaional [17]. n acest sens, avnd n vedere puterea economic a societilor transnaionale, precum i importana din ce n ce mai crescnd a acestora n comerul internaional, ONU s-a pronunat pentru elaborarea unor reguli uniforme privind constituirea i activitatea acestora. Prima ncercare n acest sens dateaz din 1972 cnd Consiliul Economic i Social al ONU (ECOSOC) a iniiat studierea problematicii societilor transnaionale. ncercri de reglementare internaional a activiti societilor transnaionale s-au desfurat i n cadrul Conferinei Naiunilor Unite pentru Comer i Dezvoltare, iar pe baza studiilor acestei conferine, Adunarea General a ONU a adoptat n 1980, prin Rezoluia 35/63 un Ansamblu de principii i reguli echitabile
One of the mediation instruments between the host countries and the transnational corporations is the state contract. This can be defined lato sensu as the contract concluded by the state and the foreign transnational company. It may concern goods and services provision (studies and technical assistance), exploitation of natural resources (contractual right), administration of public services sectors (concession or exploitation contracts), public construction works (building of roads and bridges) and loans [16]. As a rule, transnational corporations avoid national courts jurisdiction, lest any litigations may arise from the interpretation or application of their constitutive acts. Such companies usually forward the abovementioned cases to some special courts: ad hoc international tribunals, arbitral international courts etc. Specialists describe the nature of transnational corporations as comprising two contradictory aspects: a negative feature, meaning the way these companies elude states national legal systems, and a positive one, which derives from the consequences of this fact, manifested in the elaboration of norms and principles that might serve as premises for creating new homogenous laws of wider applicability to certain types of relations occasioned by international trade [17]. In this respect, UN has declared for setting up homogenous rules regarding the constitution and activity of the transnational corporations, given their economic power and growing influence on international trade. The first attempt in this respect dates back to the year 1872, when the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) initiated the study analysis of transnational corporations problems. There were also attempts of international settlement regarding the multinational corporation activities during the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. On the basis of this conference studies, in 1980, the United Nations General Assembly adopted through the 35/63 resolution, a set of multilaterally agreed equitable principles for the control of restrictive business practices used by
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convenite la nivel multilateral pentru controlul practicilor comerciale restrictive folosite de societile transnaionale. De asemenea, Consiliul de administraie al Organizaiei Internaionale a Muncii n 1977 a adoptat Declaraia tripartit de principii referitoare la societile transnaionale i politica social. n 1977, n cadrul comunitii Europene a fost elaborat un cod de conduit privind activitatea societilor transnaionale de origine comunitar n Africa de Sud. n 1976, Consiliul Organizaiei pentru Cooperare i Dezvoltare Economic, care reunete rile dezvoltate a formulat Principiile directoare pentru societile transnaionale, revizuite n 1978. n 1978 aceeai organizaie a adoptat Recomandrile privind practicile comerciale restrictive. Statele Pactului Andin (Bolivia, Columbia, Venezuela, Ecuador i Peru) au adoptat n 1970 un Cod comun de investiii aplicabil societilor transnaionale care se constituie ntre statele membre [18]. La nceput secolului al XXI lea, corporaiile transnaionale reprezint una din marile fore ce acioneaz n domeniul economic, financiar, tiinific i tehnologic, avnd un cuvnt greu i n politica mondial. Companiile de acest tip au ajuns s aib o asemenea extindere, nct, i-au pierdut ntrun anumit sens, caracterul naional. Societile transnaionale reprezint surse principale de capital, tehnologie i acces pe pia pentru aproape fiecare ar. Activitile acestora au un impact puternic asupra distribuiei mondiale a bogiei i activitii economice, ntre economiile naionale. Ele aduc beneficii att consumatorilor, ct i economiilor din ntreaga lume. Cu toate acestea, societile transnaionale reprezint concentraii imense de putere economic i, asemenea tuturor forelor, pot adopta atitudini corupte i abuzive din punct de vedere social.
[1] D.Mazilu, Dreptul comerului internaional, vol. I, Editura Lumina Lex, Bucureti, 1999, p. 210-211. [2] Jumtate din avuia lumii se poate regsii n doar cteva sute de corporaii-www.efinance.ro [3] Repartiia pe ri a celor mai puternice 100 de societi la nivel mondial, dup activele strine, n
transnational corporations. Also in 1977 the Board Council of International Labour Organization adopted the Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy. In 1977, the European Community Council adopted a Code of Conduct for business operating of EU-based companies in South Africa. In 1976, the Council of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, reuniting all the developed countries, had elaborated the Guiding Principles for transnational corporations, later revised in 1978. In 1978, the same Organization adopted the Recommendations concerning restrictive business practices. The members of the Andean Community (Bolivia, Colombia, Venezuela, Ecuador and Peru) also adopted in 1970 a Common Investments Code applying to transnational companies constituted on the territory of the member states [18]. Today, at the beginning of the twenty-first century, the transnational corporations represent one of the greatest forces operating in the economic, financial, scientific and technological fields, and have a major say in world politics as well. Companies of this type have expended to such a scale that they lost their national character to a certain degree. Transnational corporations represent main sources of capital, technology and market access for almost every country. Their performance has got a strong impact on the distribution of world wealth and economical activity, among the national economies. They bring in benefits both to the consumers and to the economies worldwide. Nevertheless, the transnational corporations represent huge concentrations of economic power, and, like all such powers, they may adopt socially corrupt and abusive attitudes.
[1] D.Mazilu, Dreptul comertului international(International Trade Law), Bucuresti: Lumina Lex, 1999, vol. I, pp. 210-211. [2] Half of the world wealth belongs to only a few hundred corporations www.efinance.ro [3] In the year 2003, the top 100 most powerful corporations, in terms of foreign assets, were distributed among countries as follows:
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008 anul 2003, era urmtoarea: ara de origine Numrul de companii 25 S.U.A. 15 Frana 13 Germania 11 Marea Britanie 9 Japonia Sursa: UNCTAD World Investment Report 2005, New York and Geneva, 2005, pag.267-269. Restul corporaiilor i aveau sediul n Elveia (4), Italia (3), cte dou n Canada, Norvegia, Australia, Olanda, Finlanda i cte una n Hong Kong (China), Suedia, Republica Coreea, Singapore, Irlanda i Malaezia. Companiile americane se menin n top, dei, comparativ cu anii precedeni se nregistreaz o reducere a numrului de STN din aceast ar. Totui, o analiz a activelor totale demonstreaz c firmele americane sunt mult mai puternice: General Electric 647 miliarde dolari, Ford 304 miliarde dolari, General Motors 448 miliarde dolari. Ele se menin n top i n alte clasamente dup alte criterii: vnzri totale (General Electric 134 miliarde dolari, Ford 164 miliarde dolari, Exxon-Mobil 237 miliarde dolari, General Motors 185 miliarde dolari), total angajai (General Electric 305.000 persoane, Ford 327.531 persoane, General Motors 294.000 persoane). n privina numrului de angajaii se remarc, n ultima perioad, o reducere substanial a acestuia. La nivel mondial se nregistreaz unele modificri n raportul de fore. n anul 2003, nou venii n top au fost cteva firme productoare, precum BAE Systems (Marea Britanie), Robert Bosch (Germania) i United Technologies (SUA), ca i cteva companii de petrol i minerit, precum Petronas (Malaezia), Statoil (Norvegia) i Rio Tinto (Marea Britanie) sub impulsul celei de-a treia revoluii industriale. Salturi spectaculoase, fa de anul 2002, au nregistrat, Suez (Frana) i Deutsche Telekom (Germania). (A.Voiculescu, S. Dumitrescu, Schimbri n raportul de fore ntre societile transnaionale, Editura ASE Bucureti, 2006, p.122). [4] D.Mazilu, op. cit., p. 213. [5] Ali autori, plecnd de la faptul c att n statul de origine ct i n statele unde au filiale, personalitatea juridic a societilor transnaionale decurge din aplicarea dreptului intern al respectivelor state, le neag calitatea de subiecte de drept internaional. (R. Miga-Beteliu, Drept internaional public, Edit. All Beck, Bucureti, 1998, p. 138). [6] Ibidem, p. 139. [7] M.Costin, S. Deleanu, Dreptul comerului internaional, vol. I, Editura Lumina Lex, Bucureti, 2004, p. 57. [8] I. Macovei, Dreptul comerului internaional, vol. I, Edit. C.H.Beck, Bucureti, 2006, p. 177. [9] Constituirea prin fuziune a fost determinat, de mai muli factori, i anume: interesul pentru o expansiune mai rapid a tranzaciilor; teama de restrngere a pieei; incertitudinile provocate de unele schimbri tehnologice; creterea costurilor activitii de Country of origin Number of companies U.S.A 25 France 15 Germany 13 U.K. 11 Japan 9 Source: UNCTAD World Investment Report 2005, New York and Geneva, 2005, pp. 267-269. The remaining corporations head offices were in Switzerland (4), Italy (3), Canada, Norway, Australia, Finland (two for each) and one for each of the following: Hong Kong (China), Sweden, The Republic of Koreea, Singapore, Ireland and Malaysia. American companies stay on top, although, as compared with previous years, there is a decrease in the number of TNCs in this country. However, when counting the total assets, the American corporations are the most powerful: General Electric 647 billion dollars, Ford 304 Billion dollars, General Motors 448 billion dollars. They maintain their top positions following other criteria as well: total sales (General Electric 134 billion dollars, Ford 164 billion dollars, ExxonMobile 237 billion dollars, General Motors 185 billion dollars), total number of employees (General Electric 305,000 people, ford 327,531 people, General Motors 294,000 people). Yet, one can notice a significant decrease in the number of employees lately. There is a certain shift in the balance of world power. In 2003, the newcomers to the toplist were a few products companies, such as BAE Systems (Great Britain), Robert Bosch (Germany) and United Technologies (USA) as well as several oil and mining companies like Petronas (Malaysia), Statoil (Norway) and Rio Tinto (Great Britain), under the impetus of the third industrial revolution. As compared to the year 2002, companies like Suez (France) and Deutsche Telekom (Germany) marked a spectacular rise. (Voiculescu, A. , Dumitrescu, S., Schimbari in rapotul de forte intre societatile transnationale (Changes in the balance of power among transnational corporations), Bucharest: ASE, 2006, p. 122) [4] Mazilu, D., op.cit., p. 213 [5] other authors, on account of the fact that the juridical personality of transnational companies is derived from the application of the respective countries laws, either being the origin country or those where they founded subsidiaries, reject the idea of them being subject to international law. (Miga-Besteliu, R., Drept international public (International Public Law), Bucuresti: All Beck, 1988, p. 138). [6] Ibidem, p. 139 [7] Costin, M., Deleanu, S., Dreptul comertului international (International Trade Law), Bucuresti: Lumina Lex, 2004, vol. I, p. 57 [8] Macovei, I., Dreptul comertului international, Bucuresti: C.H. Beck, 2006, vol. I, p. 177 [9] The merger process of companies was caused by many factors, among which: the interest in the rapid expansion of transactions; the concern regarding an eventual market limitation; the uncertainty roused by
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008 cercetare. [10] De exemplu, societatea franco-etiopian de ci ferate nfiinat n baza unui tratat ncheiat ntre Frana i Etiopia n 1959 a fost guvernat, potrivit dispoziiilor tratatului, n principal de normele acestui, precum i prin acelea cuprinse n statutele anexe, iar n subsidiar, adic, n msura n care acestea s-ar dovedi insuficiente i de regulile nscrise n Codul Comercial etiopian, dar numai dac nu intr n conflict cu tratatul i statutul. [11] M.Costin, S. Deleanu, op. cit., p. 59. [12] Relaiile cu rile de origine sunt, n cea mai mare parte, relaii de parteneriat. Prin extinderea dincolo de graniele propriei ri, marile firme duc cu ele valorile culturale, obiceiurile de consum ale rii de origine. McDonalds, Coca Cola sau Levis reprezint n ultim instan America i visul american ntr-o alt manier. Universalizarea limbii engleze se datoreaz ntr-o foarte mare msur corporaiilor americane i britanice, care au forat consumatorii s nvee limba produselor pe care le consumau sau doreau s le consume. Coca Cola l-a inventat pe Mo Crciun n costum rou, iar astzi nimeni nu-i poate imagina un altfel de Mo Crciun. Beneficiile rilor de origine nu se rezum la exportul de imagine. Transnaionalele repatriaz sume importante din rile gazd, investesc sume foarte mari n componenta de cercetare dezvoltare, care rmne cel mai adesea cantonat n rile de origine Astfel, conform surselor OCDE, n anul 1999, cheltuielile brute pentru cercetare dezvoltare, ca pondere n PIB, efectuate de sectorul ntreprinderilor, era de 3% n Suedia, 2% n Japonia, 2% n SUA, 1,7% n Germania, 1,4% n Frana, 1,3% n Marea Britanie. (R. M. Zaharia, Societile transnaionale i statele naiune-www. mmq.ase.ro). [13] Interesele corporaiilor corespund cel mai adesea cu cele ale rilor de origine. Prin internaionalizarea firmelor, fiecare ar i extinde, practic, influena n ara sau zona respectiv. Prin intermediul corporaiilor, rile de origine controleaz, practic economiile multor ri. Se aprecia c la nceputul anilor 90 peste 60% din industria canadian era controlat de companiile americane. i dac se face comparaia cu ri n dezvoltare, dependena economiilor acestor ri de marile firme este i mai mare. Exist, ns, situaii cnd relaiile nu mai sunt att de cordiale. Divergenele pornesc tocmai de la ceea ce nseamn, n fapt, o companie transnaional. Interesele acesteia pot fi i sunt, destul de des, diferite de interesele rilor de origine. Cele mai multe dintre nenelegeri pleac de la internaionalizarea firmei i ceea ce implic aceast internaionalizare pentru statul de origine. Multe dintre firme renun n a-i concentra atenia asupra deschiderii de noi uniti de producie n ara de origine n favoarea celor din rile gazd, mai ales dac acestea din urm ofer avantaje importante din perspectiva costului forei de munc, al impozitelor sau al preurilor la materiile prime. Acest lucru nseamn creare de locuri de munc n afara rilor de origine i, implicit, o presiune sporit din technological changes; the increased costs for research activity. [10]For instance, the French-Ethiopian railway company, founded in 1959 on the basis of a treaty between France and Ethiopia, operated mainly under the norms of the treaty and those stated by the the subsidiary statuses and secondly, under the rules of the Ethiopian Civil Code. This latter took effect only in case the treaty rules proved insufficient, and provided that they didnt interfere with the treaty and the status. [11] Costin, M., Deleanu, S., op.cit., p. 59 [12] The relations with the country of origin are mainly partnership relations. While expanding their activities beyond their national bounderies, these companies also propagate their home cultural values and consumer habits. McDonalds, Coca Cola or Levis are, after all a representation of the American dream, only in a different manner. The universalization of English language ows much to the British and American corporations that forced their consumers to learn the language of the products they purchased or desired to purchase. It is Coca Cola that invented the red-dressed Santa Clause, which nobody can picture differently today. The image projection is not the only benefit for these countries. The transnational corporations repatriate significant sums from the host countries and invest hugely in the search-and-development sector, which is more than often retained within the country of origin. Thus, according to O.E.C.D., in 1999, the gross expenses for search and development, as part of the GDP, in the enterperises sector, were: 3% in Sweden, 2% in Japan, 2% in the USA, 1.7% in Germany, 1.4% in France, and 1.3% in Great Britain. (Zaharia, R.M., Societatile transnationale si statele natiune (Transnational companie national states) www. Mmq.ase.ro). [13] The interests of the corporations often correspond to those of the origin countries. Through the internationalization of firms, each country extends its influence in the target countries or areas. Practically, the parent countries control many other countries economies. At the beginning of the 90s, some estimated that over 60% of the Canadian industry was controlled by American companies. The dependence of the developping countries economy on the great corporations is even bigger as compared to it. There are also circumstances of not so cordial relationships. The cause for differences lies in the very nature of a transnational corporation. Its interests may be and often are quite separate from those of the home country. Many dissensions arise from the firm becoming international and the effect of this internationalization on the country of origin. Many companies cease to focus on opening new production establishments in their home country, and favour the host countries, particularly if this comes with significant advantages concerning labour force costs, taxes or prices of raw materials. This means they supply jobs for people abroad and increase pressure from the goverments as a result of enemployment. During recession periods,
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008 partea guvernelor ca urmare a omajului. n perioadele de recesiune, multe dintre marile companii recurg chiar la reduceri de personal n rile de origine, dat fiind faptul c aici sunt pltite i cele mai mari salarii. O astfel de situaie este una potenial conflictual, multe state de origine adoptnd msuri care s limiteze exportul de capital, dac acesta se dovedete a avea consecine negative pe piaa muncii sau a ncasrilor bugetare. Un alt aspect delicat n relaiile dintre rile de origine i corporaiile transnaionale l reprezint diferena dintre interesul naional, aa cum este el perceput de ctre rile de origine, i interesul firmei. O companie urmrete obinerea de profit pentru a menine i a crete ncrederea investitorilor n aciunile firmei. Anumite piee sau afaceri pot aprea, din aceast perspectiv, extrem de atractive pentru managerii unei corporaii internaionale, dar atitudinea guvernului rii de origine fa de guvernul rii gazd respective poate fi una negativ. Cele mai elocvente exemple n acest sens sunt cazurile firmelor de armament, care pot ctiga sume uriae din comerul cu rile aflate n conflict. Nu puine sunt cazurile n care arme fabricate de o companie se afl n dotarea ambelor tabere, chiar dac atitudine rii de origine este favorabil doar uneia dintre pri. O alt situaie este cea n care anumite ri impun embargo economic altei ri (SUA Cubei sau, pn de curnd, Libiei). Pentru companiile americane, aceste poteniale piee sunt excluse nu din raiuni ce in de profitabilitatea afacerilor, ci din raiuni politice, dictate de interese naionale. De altfel SUA interzicea afaceri cu produse de nalt tehnologie cu orice ar potenial inamic, ce ar putea ncorpora componente ale produselor respective n producia de armament. (Idem). [14] R. Miga-Beteliu, op. cit., p. 139-140. [15] Totui, trebuie avut n vedere c societile transnaionale nu sunt supuse unui singur sistem juridic, fapt ce a determinat unii autori s considere c ele practic nu pot fi controlate de nici un guvern naional. (R. Miga-Beteliu, op. cit., 140). [16] Idem; M.Costin, S. Deleanu, op. cit., p. 59-61. [17] D. Mazilu, op. cit., p. 214. [18] R. Miga-Beteliu, op. cit., 141-142. many companies resort to staff reduction within the origin countries, since its there they pay the biggest wages. The given situation is likely to generate conflict; many home countries take measures so as to limitate the capital export, if the latter bears negative effects on the labour market and national income. Another delicate matter with corporations and home countries is the difference between the national interest, as perceived by the origin country and the company interests. The goal of a company is to obtain profit, in order to consolidate investors trust in its activities. From this point of view, some markets or businesses may be highly alluring for the managers of an international corporation, while the attitude of the home country government towards the host country government may be negative. The armament firms are clear examples in this respect, since they gain huge amounts of money from the trade with the very countries their government is in conflict with. Not few are the cases in which both parts use weaponry produced by the same company, even though the home country favours one of them. A different example is that of some countries imposing an embargo on another country (USA on Cuba or, until recently, on Libya). As far as American companies are concerned, the reasons these potential markets are left out are political and dictated by national interests, and not profit and business related. As a further example, USA restricted any high-tech products trade with any potentially hostile country, lest it incorporate components of these products in the armament production. (idem) [14] Miga-Besteliu, R., op. Cit., p. 139-140 [15] However, one must take into account the fact that multinational corporations are not subject to a single juridical system, which induced some authors opinion that they cant be controlled by a particular government. (Miga-Besteliu, R., op.cit., p. 140) [16] idem; Costin, M., Deleanu, S., op.cit., pp. 59-61 [17] Mazilu, D., op.cit., p. 214 [18] Miga-Besteliu, R., op.cit., pp. 141-142.
Bibliography Sitaru, Al., D., Dreptul comertului international (International Trade Law), Bucuresti: Actami, 1996, vol. II Miga-Besteliu, R., Drept international public (International Public Law), Bucuresti: All Beck, 1998 Sitaru, Al., D., Drept international privat (Private International Law), Bucuresti: Lumina Lex, 2000 Costin, M., Deleanu, S., Dreptul comertului international (International Trade Law), Bucuresti: Lumina lex, 2004, vol. II Dambischi, A., Transnationalizare versus
Bibliografie D. Al. Sitaru, Dreptul comerului internaional, vol. II, Editura Actami, Bucureti, 1996 R. Miga-Beteliu, Drept internaional public, Edit. All Beck, Bucureti, 1998 D. Al. Sitaru, Drept internaional privat, Editura Lumina Lex, Bucureti, 2000 D. Mazilu, Dreptul comerului internaional, vol. II, Editura Lumina Lex, Bucureti, 2001 M. Costin, S Deleanu, Dreptul comerului
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internaional, vol. II, Editura Lumina Lex, Bucureti, 2004 A. Dambischi, Transnaionalizare versus globalizare. Integrarea regionala i global a Romniei, n Economistul: supliment, v. 14, nr. 1684, august 2004 A. Dambischi, Rolul societii umane n redimensionarea relaiilor economice contemporane. Perspectiva global a corporaiilor transnaionale, n: Economistul: supliment, v. 14, nr. 1724, octombrie 2004 A.Voiculescu, S. Dumitrescu, Schimbri n raportul de fore ntre societile transnaionale, Editura ASE, Bucureti, 2006 I. Macovei, Dreptul comerului internaional, vol. I, Editura C.H.Beck, Bucureti, 2006 M.Pedrero, Corupia marilor puteri, Editura Litera Internaional, Bucureti, 2008 R. M. Zaharia, Societile transnaionale i statele naiune-www. mmq.ase.ro
globalizare. Integrarea regionala si globala a Romaniei (Transnationalizationg versus Globalization. The Regional and Global Integration of Romania), in Economistul (The Economist): supplement, v. 14, no. 1684, august 2004 Dambischi, A., Rolul societatii umane in redimensionarea relatiilor economice contemporane. Perspectiva globala a corporatiilor internationale (The Role of Human Society in Reshaping the Contemporary Economic Relations. The Global Perspective on International Corporations) , in: Economistul (The Economist): supplement, v. 14, no. 1724, october 2004 Voiculescu, A., Dumitrescu, S., Schimbari in raportul de forte intre societatile transnationale (Changes in the Balance of Power among Transnational Corporations), Bucuresti: ASE, 2006 Macovei, I., Dreptul comertului international (International Trade Law), Bucuresti: C.H. Beck, 2006, vol. I Pedrero, M., Coruptia marilor puteri (The Corruption of the Great Powers), Bucuresti: Litera International, 2008 Zaharia, M., R., Societatile transnationale si statele natiune (Transnational corporations and national states) www. Mmq.ase.ro
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MINORUL N CADRUL STATULUI DE DREPT I AL SOCIETII CUNOATERII

Veronica GAL Procuror Parchetul de pe lng Judectoria Petroani
ntr-un stat de drept i ntr-o societate a cunoaterii un rol important l au educarea i protecia copilului, care reprezint viitorul omenirii. Exist minori care nu respect normele de drept, iar pentru reeducarea acestora sunt necesare sanciuni, prioritare fiind msurile educative. n sistemul de drept romnesc acestea sunt n numr de patru, respectiv mustrarea, libertatea supravegheat, internarea ntr-un centru de reeducare i internarea ntrun institut medical-educativ.
THE MINOR CHILD IN THE SOCIETY OF KNOWLEDGE WHERE THE LAW RULES
Veronica GAL Public Prosecutor Prosecutors Offices nearby the Court of law of Petrosani Town
The education and protection of children plays a very important part in a state where the law rules and in the society of knowledge because children represent the future of mankind. There are still minor children who dont observe the regulations stated by the law and there are necessary penalties for their re-education, the priority being the education type measures. The Romanian system of laws comprises four types of educative measures, i.e. admonishment, supervised freedom, consignment to a reeducation center and consignment to a medical education institute.
I NOIUNI GENERALE Statul de drept reprezint totalitatea procedurilor i principiilor prin care se garanteaz libertatea persoanelor i participarea acestora la viaa social-politic. nc din cele mai vechi timpuri s-au pus bazele statului de drept. Astfel, n Grecia Antic, filosoful Platon vorbete despre existna acestui stat, precum i de formele de guvernmnt [1]. Acesta a susinut c pentru ca un stat s fie drept i deosebit trebuie ca cetenii si s fie educai n spiritul dreptii. Evoluia statului de drept nu se poate realiza dect ntr-o sociatate a cunoaterii, n care guverneaz supremaia legii. Copilul reprezint viitorul fiecrei societi, iar educarea i ocrotirea sa sunt o prioritate n toate domeniile, inclusiv n cel juridic. Delincvena juvenil constituie o problem important a unui stat de drept, n contextul n care societatea are nobila misiune de a modela copilul care reprezint pentru omenire modul su de evoluare. n sistemul nostru de drept problema rspunderii penale a minorilor i n general problema prevenirii i combaterii delincvenei juvenile a constituit i continu s constituie una din problemele cele mai grele i mai dramatice care se pun pe planul politicii penale i a dreptului penal [2].
I GENERAL ASPECTS The law governing state embodies all the procedures and principles which guarantee the freedom of persons and their participation in the social and political life. The foundations of the law governing state were laid in ancient times. Thus, the Greek philosopher Plato speaks about the existence of this type of state, as well about its forms of governing [1]. He claimed that a state can be right and singular when its citizens are educated in the spirit of justice. The evolution of the law governing state can happen only in a knowledge society where the supremacy of law governs. The child represents the future of any society and his education and protection is a top priority of all the current domains, including the legal domain. Juvenile delinquency represents an important issue of a law governing state within the context of the society that has the noble mission to model the child that mirrors the evolution of mankind. With respect to our legal system, the issue of criminal liability of minor children and prevention and fighting against juvenile delinquency in general has always been one of the toughest and dramatic aspect facing the criminal policy and criminal right [3]. Criminal liability of minor children has always had a protective character, focusing on the
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Rspunderea penal a minorilor a fost i education type measures. este tratat cu un caracter ocrotitor, punndu-se accentul pe msurile educative. II EDUCATION MEASURES APPLICABLE TO MINOR CHILDREN The penal code states a punishing regime II MSURILE EDUCATIVE made of education measures and punishments for APLICABILE MINORILOR Codul penal prevede pentru infractorii law offenders that are underage. The education measures represent the minori un regim sancionator compus din msuri priority element of the punishing system for minor educative i pedepse. Msurile educative reprezint componenta children. They are ordered when court considers prioritar a sistemului sancionator al minorilor. that the minor child shall improve its behavior with Acestea se dispun cnd instana consider c no additional punishes. According to the art. 100 of the Penal minorul se poate ndrepta fr s i se aplice o Code, the choosing of a punishment shall take into pedeaps. Conform art. 100 Cod penal la alegerea consideration the level of social danger posed by the sanciunii se ine seama de gradul de pericol act that has been carried out, the physical condition, social al faptei svrite, de starea fizic, de the intellectual and ethical development his dezvoltarea intelectual i moral, de behavior, the condition in which the child in comportarea lui, de condiiile n care a fost question has raised and lived and other elements crescut i a trit i de alte elemente de natur s that shape the personality of the minor child. The results of the criminal practice show caracterizeze persoana minorului. Din analiza practicii judiciare rezult c that the underage law offenders are addressed infractorilor minori li se aplic mai mult pedepse several punishments and less education measures. dect msuri educative. Apreciem c se impune We consider that our legislation should improve the n legislaia noastr mbogirea paletei de range of education measures that provides msuri educative, care s asigure reeducarea reeducation of underage law offenders, without minorilor infractori, fr a fi scoi din mediul lor being removed from their family and school familial i colar i a fi ncarcerai n mediul environment and imprisoned. The education measures that can be taken penitenciar. Msurile educative, care se pot lua fa de vs. the minor child are said in the art. 101 Penal minor sunt prevzute n art. 101 Cod penal i Code and they are the following ones: sunt: mustrarea, libertatea supravegheat, admonishment, supervised freedom, consignment internarea ntrun centru de reeducare i to a reeducation center and consignment to a internarea ntrun institut medical-educativ. medical education institute. 2.1 ADMONISHMENT 2.1. MUSTRAREA Admonishment is the easiest penalty stated Mustrarea reprezint cea mai uoar sanciune prevzut de Codul penal i se poate by the Penal Code and can be applied to the minor aplica fa de minorul care a comis o fapt child that has commits a criminal act with a penal cu un grad de pericol social redus. diminished level of social danger. Conform art. 102 Cod penal msura According to art. 102 in the Penal Code educativ a mustrrii const n dojenirea the education type measure related to minorului, n artarea pericolului social al faptei admonishment involves the scolding of the minor svrite, n sftuirea minorului s se poarte n with the indication of the social danger posed by the aa fel nct s dea dovad de ndreptare, action performed, counseling the minor child to atrgndu-i-se totodat atenia c dac va svri behave in such a manner so that he shows an din nou o infraciune, se va lua faa de el o improvement, warning him that in case of a new msur mai sever sau i se va aplica o infringement of the law, he shall be addressed a pedeaps. more serious measures or he shall suffer some kind Dei s-a considerat c aceast msur are of punishment. un caracter formal considerm c, dimpotriv, Although it is considered that this measure
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admonestarea minorului, determinarea sa s neleag c a greit i c pe viitor trebuie s se abin s vin n conflict cu legea penal, efectuat ntr-un cadru solemn, au o eficien mare n reeducarea minorului. n practica judiciar [3] s-a stabilit c n raport de circumstanele n care infractorul minor a participat la comiterea infraciunii, ct i de datele ce caracterizeaz persona i familia sa, instana apreciaz ca ndestultoare msura educativ a mustrrii prevzut de art 102 Cod penal, ce este de natur s asigure ndreptarea minorului. Executarea msurii educative a minorului, potrivit art. 487 Cod procedur penal se efectueaz, de ndat, n edina n care s-a pronunat hotrrea sau cnd nu se poate acest lucru, se fixeaz un termen cnd se dispune aducerea minorului, citndu-se, totodat prinii, ori dac este cazul, tutorele sau curatorul ori persoana n ngrijirea sau supravegherea creia se afl minorul. Dei legiutorul romn a urmrit prin punerea n executare a hotrrii imediat dup pronunare, sensibilizarea i contientizarea minorului cu privire la consecinele faptei sale, la un moment apropiat de data comiterii acesteia, apreciem c de lege ferenda se impune modificarea art. 487 Cod procedur penal, n sensul punerii n executare a msurii educative a mustrrii dup rmnerrea definitiv a hotrrii judectoreti. Afirmm acest lucru deoarece exist cazuri n care hotrrea nu rmne definitiv, exercitndu-se ci de atac de ctre procuror sau partea vtmat. Ori, punerea n executare a hotrrii de ndat, n condiiile n care minorul este chemat n judecat n cile de atac (unde se poate modifica hotrrea) poate crea o confuzie n mintea minorului cu repercursiuni asupra conduitei sale viitoare. Din aceste motive considerm c se impune modificarea art. 487 Cod procedur penal n sensul executrii msurii educative a mustrrii dup rmnerea definitiv a hotrrii judectoreti. O problem important privete luarea msurii educative a mustrrii fa de minor care a ajuns major n timpul judecii. Literatura juridic [4] a precizat c nu se poate aplica mustrarea, deoarece art. 102 Cod
displays more or less a formal character, we consider that this scolding of the child (carried out in a solemn setting) and trying to make him understand that he was wrong and he shall have to refrain himself in the future from breaching the criminal law are more efficient in the education of the minor child. The judicial practice [3] states that depending on the circumstances in which the minor delinquent produced the infringement of the law and on the information that characterize both the person in question and his family, court can consider sufficient the education type measure contained by admonishment and said by the art. 102 in the Penal Code; it can correct the behavior of the minor child. In compliance with the art. 487 in the Code of criminal procedure, the carrying out of the education type measure shall be performed immediately during the session that delivered the decision or if this thing is not possible, there shell be settled a court day when the minor is to be brought together with his parents or his tutor or the person that takes care of the minor child. Although the intention of the Romanian legislative bodies was to implement the decision immediately after its delivery, rendering the minor child more sensible and making him aware on the consequences of his deeds at a moment closer to the date when the deed in question has been performed, de lege ferenda we consider that the art. 487 in the Code of criminal procedure should be modified, i.e. the enforcement of the education type measure of the admonishment after the finalization of the judgment. We affirm this idea considering the situations when this judgment is not definitive and either the prosecutor or the injured party brings an appeal. The implementation of the decision as soon as possible during which the minor child is summoned as a result of this appeal (and during which the judgment can be changed) can bring disorder into the minor child's mind and this thing can have repercussions on his future behavior. These are the reasons why we consider that the art. 487 in the Code of criminal procedure should be changed, more exactly the carrying out of the admonishment after the finalization of the judgment. One important issue concerns the use of the education type measure of the admonishment vs.
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penal se refer la minori. Apreciem c i n aceste condiii se poate aplica mustrarea, deoarece fapta este comis n timpul minoritii i prezint un grad de pericol social mai redus dect dac ar fi comis de un infractor major. n practica judiciar [5] s-a stabilit c msura educativ a mustrrii se poate aplica i inculpatului minor care a devenit major la data judecrii cauzei, deoarece nicieri n prevederile art. 99-110 Cod penal nu se prevede c msurile educative sunt destinate numai infractorilor care sunt minori la data aplicrii acestora. Dac de msurile educative n-ar putea beneficia i inculpaii devenii ntre timp majori, ar nsemna c acestora s nu li se poat aplica dect pedeapsa nchisorii, indiferent de criteriile artate n art. 100 Cod penal, ceea ce nu se poate accepta. 2.2 LIBERTATEA SUPRAVEGHEAT Msura educativ a libertii supravegheate este reglementat de dispoziiile art. 103 Cod penal: (1) Msura educativ a libertii supravegheate const n lsarea minorului n libertate timp de un an, sub supraveghere deosebit. Supravegherea poate fi ncredinat, dup caz, prinilor minorului, celui care l-a adoptat sau tutorelui. Dac acetia nu pot asigura supravegherea n condiii satisfctoare, instana dispune ncredinarea supravegherii minorului, pe acelai interval de timp, unei persoane de ncredere, de preferin unei rude mai apropiate, la cererea acesteia, ori unei instituii legal nsrcinate cu supravegherea minorilor. (2) Instana pune n vedere, celui cruia i s-a ncredinat supravegherea, ndatorirea de a veghea ndeaproape asuora minorului, n scopul ndreptrii lui. De asemenea, i se pune n vedere c are obligaia s ntiineze instana de ndat, dac minorul se sustrage de la supravegherea ce se exercit asupra lui sau are purtri rele ori a svrit din nou o fapt prevzut de legea penal. (3) Instana poate s impun minorului respectarea uneia sau mai multora din urmtoarele obligaii: a) s nu frecventeze anumite locuri stabilite; b) s nu intre n legtur cu anumite
the minor child that has turned full age during the trial period. The judicial literature [4] states that no admonishment shall be applied since the art. 102 in the Penal Code makes reference to minor children. We estimate that admonishment can also be applied in these conditions because the offence has been carried out by the time when the person in question was still minor and displays a more reduced level of social danger than the situation when this offence had been committed by a full aged offender. The judicial everyday practice [5] settles that the admonishment can also be applied to the minor child that has become full aged at the moment when the case was on trial, because there is no situation in the provisions of the Art. 99 - 110 Penal Code that says that the education - type measures should be applied only to those delinquents that are under age the date when these articles are applied. In the meantime, whether the delinquents that have turned the age of 18 cannot gain profit from the educative type measures, they shall be sentenced to prison, irrespective of the criteria stated by the art. In the Penal Code and this thing cannot be accepted. 2.2 SUPERVISED FREEDOM The educative type measure of the supervised freedom is being regulated by the provisions of the art. 103 in the Penal Code: (1) The educative type measure of the supervised freedom involves the idea that the minor child should be set free for a year under special supervision. Where appropriate, this supervision can be entrusted to the parents of the minor child, to those who adopted him or to the legal guardian. Whether these persons cannot provide supervision in good conditions, court shall order that supervision of the minor child be entrusted, for the same period of time, to another dependable person, preferably to a close relative (at his/her request) or to an institution that has been legally assigned with the supervision of minor children. (2) The Court shall warn the person to whom this supervision has been entrusted on his duty to closely guard the minor child with the view to improving his behavior. This person shall be also warned on his obligation to inform court as soon as the minor child gets off this supervision or he behaves badly or he has infringed again the law. (3) The Court can ask the minor child to
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persoane; c) s presteze o activitate neremunerat tr-o instituie de interes public fixat de instan, cu o durat de 50 i 200 de ore, de maximum 3 ore pe zi, dup programul de coal, n zilele nelucrtoare i n vacan. (4) Instana atrage atenia minorului asupra consecinelor comportrii sale. (5) Dup luarea msurii libertii supravegheate, instana ncunotineaz coala unde nva sau unitatea unde este angajat i, dup caz, instituia n care presteaz activitatea stabilit de instan. (6) Dac nuntrul termenului prevzut n alin. (1) minorul se sustrage de la supravegherea ce se exercit asupra lui sau are purtri rele, ori svrete o fapt prevzut de legea penal, instana revoc libertatea supravegheat i ia fa de minor msura internrii ntr-un centru de reeducare. Dac fapta prevzut de legea penal constituie infraciune, instana ia msura internrii sau se aplic o pedeaps. (7) Termenul de un an prevzut n alin. (1) curge de la data punerii n executare a libertii supravegheate. Legea nu prevede criterii exprese pentru aplicarea acestei msuri educative, ns este clar c ea va fi luat atunci cnd simpla atenionare a minorului nu este suficient, fiind necesar o aciune prelungit n timp de supraveghere a minorului. Unele instane [6] au considerat c minorilor care au comis o infraciune grav, cum ar fi, de exemplu, infraciunea de tlhrie, li se poate aplica msura educativ a libertii supravegheate, deoarece provin din familii organizate, care le pot supraveghea comportamentul, astfel nct s previn comiterea altor fapte penale. Alte instane [7] au stabilit c la vrsta de 17 ani minorul este suficient de matur pentru a putea aprecia consecinele faptelor sale, supravegherea printelui nemaifiind eficient, astfel nct pentru svrirea infraciunii de tlhrie se impune aplicarea unei pedepse. S-a mai precizat n practica judiciar [8]c aplicarea acestei msuri educative nu este n msur s asigure reeducarea unui minor care nu nva, nu are nici o ocupaie i a comis mai
observe one or several of the following obligations: a) he shall not visit certain predetermined places; b) he shall not connect certain persons; c) he shall perform a non-paid activity in a public institution that has been previously determined by the court; it shall include between 50 and 200 hours, with a maximum of 3 hours/day, after school hours during weekends and holidays. (4) The Court shall warn the minor child on the consequences of his behavior. (5) As soon as court takes measure of supervised freedom, it shall inform the school where the offender learns or the company where he works about the institution where he performs the activity decided by court. (6) Whether the minor child sneaks away of the supervision he has been subjected to or he behaves badly, or he infringes the law within the time limit stated by the indent (1), courts shall annul the supervised freedom and decides that the minor child should be consigned to a reeducation center. Whether the act stated by the criminal law is considered as law infringement, court shall order the consignment or imposing a sentence. (7) The time limit of one year stated by the indent (1) shall run from the date when the supervised freedom is being enforced. Law doesnt state explicit criteria for the implementation of this education type measure but it is clear that this measure shall be taken when the simple warning of the minor child is not enough, being necessary a prolonged supervision of the minor child. Certain courts [6] considers that the minor child that has committed a serious offence, such as robbery, can be addressed the supervised freedom, because they come from well organized families that can supervise their behavior so as to prevent other infringements. Other courts [7] have settled that the age of 17 represents sufficient maturity so as to be able to assess the consequences of his actions, the supervision of one parent being futile, so that robbery requires the enforcement of a punishment. Also, the judicial practice [8] states that the implementation of this education type measure cannot provide the reeducation of a minor child who doesnt go to school, has no occupation and
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multe infraciuni de furt calificat mpreun cu ali minori infractori. Considerm c msura educativ a libertii supravegheate poate fi aplicat de instana de judecat, dar innd cont n fiecare caz n parte, de modalitatea de comitere a infraciunii, de urmarea produs, de gradul de pericol social concret al faptei, de cauzele care au determinat minorul s comit fapta, de maturitatea psihic a acestuia i dac mediul din care provine a avut o influen negativ, fiind propriu sau impropriu dezvoltrii i educrii sale. Msura educativ a libertii supravegheate se ia pe timp de un an, care are durata unui termen de ncercare. Practica judiciar [9] a statuat c inculpatului minor i se poate aplica msura educativ a libertii supravegheate numai dac, la data punerii n executare a msurii, acesta nu a depit vrsta de 17 ani. Acest aspect rezult din interpretarea dispoziiilor art. 103 alin. 1 Cod penal, care prevd c msura educativ a libertii supravegheate se ia pe timp de un an, termenul curgnd de la data punerii n executare a msurii. Prin urmare, msura se ia numai pe timpul minoritii i supravegherea privete comportarea minorului n perioada ct dureaz minoritatea, nemaiputnd fi exercitat asupra persoanei devenite majore. Aceeai problem ca n cazul msurii educative a mustrrii se pune i n cazul punerii n executare a libertii supravegheate, care, conform art. 488 Cod procedur penal se face n edina n care s-a pronunat hotrrea. Astfel, se pune n executare o hotrre care nu este definitiv, iar exercitarea cilor de atac mpotriva minorului ar putea avea consecine asupra acestuia, n condiiile n care i s-ar agrava situaia i ar trebui s se execute alt sanciune dect cea stabilit de prim instan. De aceea, considerm c se impune modificarea art. 488 Cod procedur penal n sensul punerii n executare a msurii educative a libertii supravegheate n momentul rmnerii definitive a hotrrii judectoreti. 2.3. INTERNAREA NTR-UN CENTRU DE REEDUCARE Potrivit art 104 Cod penal Msura educativ a internrii ntr-un centru de reeducare
has trespassed the law, i.e. several robberies together with other minor children that can be considered as offenders. We believe that the education type measure of supervised freedom can be applied by the court of law considering each case apart, the manner used for the law infringement, the consequences, the actual social danger raised by the deed. This application shall also have to take into consideration the reasons that have led the minor child to violate the law, his physical maturity and whether the environment where that minor child has had a bad influence over his development and education level. The education type measure of supervised freedom shall be applied for one year which is the extent of a testing period. The judicial practice [9] states also the fact that the minor child can be addressed the education type measure of supervised freedom whether this person has not exceed the age of 17 at the moment when this measure is being taken. This aspect results from the reading of the provisions said by the art. 103, indent 1 in the Penal Code which says that the education type measure of supervised freedom shall last one year, the time limit starting the very moment when this measure is being taken. As a result, this measure shall be taken only during the period when the child is under age and supervision concerns the behavior of the minor child during this period, being no longer possible to be performed when the child turns 18 years old. The same problem as in case of admonishment also rises for the implementation of this supervised freedom which shall be executed in the session when the decision has been delivered, according to art. 488 in the Code of Criminal Procedure. Otherwise, there shall be executed a decision which is not final and the appeals taken against the minor child might have a negative influence over him whether his situation aggravates and another penalty should be put into practice, different by the one settled by the first court of law. This is the reason why it is necessary to change the art. 488 in the Code of Criminal Procedure, more exactly the execution of the education type measure of supervised freedom only at the moment when the court decision remains final. 2.3 CONSIGNMENT TO A REEDUCATION CENTER In compliance with the art. 104 in the Penal
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se ia n scopul reeducrii minorului, cruia i se asigur posibilitatea de a dobndi nvtura necesar i o pregtire profesional potrivit cu aptitudinile sale. Msura internrii se ia fa de minorul n privina cruia celelalta msuri educative sunt nendestultoare. Prin urmare, aceast msur educativ este o sanciune privativ de libertate, se aplic minorilor care au comis fapte penale ce nu pot fi considerate prea uoare i urmrete reeducarea minorului. Minorul internat dobndete n timpul internrii, nvtura necesar potrivit cu vrsta sa i o pregtire profesional potrivit cu aptitudinile sale. Considerm c, dei este o msur privativ de libertate, internarea ntr-un centru de reeducare prezint un caracter preponderent educativ, minorul putnd asimila n regim de strict supraveghere i disciplin un comportament adecvat, astfel nct s respecte normele de convieuire social, iar la eliberarea din centru s poat presta o munc util, Desigur, nu toi minorii care sunt internai prezint o stare identic. Unii au oarecare nvtur, alii au primit o oarecare pregtire profesional, astfel nct aciunea de reeducare va fi, pe ct posibil, ndreptat n sensul completrii a ceea ce minorul posed ca bun i a nlturrii a tot ce constituie o deformare. Reeducarea minorului trebuie s se fac n aa fel nct minorul s capete interes pentru nvtur ce i se acord. Pe de alt parte minorul trebuie s simt plcere pentru pregtirea profesional pe care o primete, care trebuie s corespund aptitudinilor minorului [10]. Apreciem c pot fi ndeplinite aceste deziderate, dar innd seama de personalitatea fiecrui minor n parte, de faptul c ei prezint caracteristici total diferite fa de aduli i cu ajutorul specialitilor din centrele de reeducare ( educatori, psihologi ), care folosesc diferite strategii educaionale. De asemenea, trebuie s se in cont de faptul c se reeduc minori cu comportament deviant, care prezint numeroase carene educative, unii dintre acetia provenind din familii dezorganizate, cu climat familial conflictual, neavnd modele educaionale n familie. .
Code, the education type measure of the consignment to a reeducation center is taken with the view to reeducating the minor child. He shall be given the opportunity to acquire a professional training suitable to his natural capabilities. The minor child shall be consigned at the moment when no other education type measures give any results. Consequently, this education measure is a constraint type penalty and is being applied to those minor children who have committed certain criminal actions which are considered rather serious and it intends to reeducate the minor child. The minor child that is being consigned shall acquire the knowledge suitable to his age and a professional training in compliance with his natural capabilities. We believe that, despite the fact that this is a constraint type measure, consignment to a reeducation center displays preponderantly an educative character, the minor child being able to assimilate a suitable behavior under strict supervision and discipline, so that he could observe the norms of social living and when he is set free, he can perform a useful work. Of course, not all minor children that are being consigned display a similar condition. Some of them have acquired a certain level of education; some have got a certain professional training, so that the reeducation shall consist mainly in supplementing the good traits of the minor children and removing the bad traits. The minor child shall be reeducated so that he becomes interested in the information given to him. On the other hand, the minor child should display pleasure for the professional training got and it shall have to be in accordance with the natural capabilities of the minor child [10]. We consider that these condition ca be met with the help of the experts working in these reeducation centers (tutors, psychologists), on condition that the personality of each minor child should be taken into account because they display personal characteristics that are totally different from the ones of adult persons. There shall also be considered the fact there are being reeducated minor children with deviations which present a lack of education; some of them come from disorganized families, with conflicts inside their families, with no educational models inside families. According to art. 106 in the Penal Code, the
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Potrivit art. 106 Cod penal msura internrii ntr-un centru de reeducare se ia pe timp nedeterminat, ns nu poate dura dect pn la mplinirea vrstei de 18 ani. La data cnd minorul a devenit major, instana poate dispune prelungirea internrii pe o durat de cel mult 2 ani, dac aceasta este necesar pentru realizarea scopului internrii. n practica judiciar [11] s-a stabilit c este contrar legii hotrrea judectoreasc prin care s-a dispus internarea ntr-un centru de reeducare a inculpatului, minor la data svririi infraciunii, dar a devenit major la data pronunrii. Considerm c msura educativ a internrii ntr-un centru de reeducare nu trebuie s fie luat cnd minorul mai are puin timp pn la mplinirea vrstei de 18 ani, deoarece msura nu-i ndeplinete scopul su educativ. n acest sens s-a pronunat i practica judiciar [12] care a precizatc dac minorul mai are doar 5 zile pn la mplinirea vrstei de 18 ani, iar pn la data rmnerii definitive a sentinei el devenea major, nu i se putea aplica msura internrii ntrun centru de reeducare deoarece o asemenea msur nu poate realiza scopul urmrit de legiuitor. n aceste cazuri se impune aplicarea unei pedepse, deoarece luarea msurii educative nu ar fi suficient pentru ndreptarea minorului.. . Potrivit art. 107 Cod penal dac a trecut cel puin 1 an de la data internrii n centrul de reeducare i minorul a dat dovezi temeinice de ndreptare, de srguin la nvtur i la nsuirea pregtirii profesionale, se poate dispune liberarea acestuia nainte de a deveni major. Potrivit atr. 108 alin. 1 Cod penal dac n perioada liberrii acordate potrivit articolului precedent, minorul are o purtare necorespunztoare, se poate dispune revocarea liberrii, iar conform alin. 2 al aceluiai articol dac n perioada internrii ntr-un centru de reeducare ori a liberrii nainte de a devenii major minorul svrete o nou infraciune pentru care se apreciaz c este cazul s i se aplice pedeapsa nchisorii, instana revoc internarea. n cazul cnd nu este necesar o pedeaps, se menine msura internrii i se revoc liberarea.
consignment to a reeducation center shall be taken for an undetermined period but shall last until the minor child gets 18 tears old. When the child turns age of 18, the court can order the prolongation of the consignment for a maximum period of 2 years, whether it is considered as necessary to accomplish the purpose of the consignment. The judicial practice [11] states as illegal the court decision through which the consignment to a reeducation center is ordered against the child who is under age when the law has been infringed but the child turns the age of 18 the date when the judgment is passed. We believe that the decision for the consignment to a reeducation center shouldnt be taken whether the minor child is less until he turns his 18 years old as this education measure shall not fulfill his tutoring purpose. Also, the judicial practice [12] says the same thing: whether the minor child is 5 days apart from the day when he turns 18 years old and he becomes major the moment when the court passes his final judgment, the minor child shall not be consigned to a reeducation center because such measure cannot reach the purpose intended by the legal body. These situations need imposing some sentence to him since an educative type measure would not be sufficient for the redress of the minor child. In compliance with the art. 107 in the Penal Code, whether at least one year has elapsed from the moment when the minor child was consigned and he gives evidence of redressing himself, he is diligent in the working and learning process, one can order his release before the child turns the age of 18. According to the art. 108, indent 1 in the Penal Code, whether the minor child behaves badly within the period granted in compliance with the above said article, the abrogation of the release period can be ordered; in compliance with the indent 2 of the same article, whether the minor child infringes the law during his consignment to a reeducation center or all through the release period before the child turns age of 18, court can cancel the decision for consignment and can order imprisonment. Whether no penalty is necessary, the consignment is maintained and the release order is annulled. In accordance with the art. 490 in the Code of criminal procedure, whether the court decides
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Conform art. 490 Cod de procedur penal n cazul cnd s-a luat fa de minor msura educativ a internrii ntr-un centru de reeducare, instana poate dispune, prin aceeai hotrre, punerea n executare de ndat a msurii luate. Considerm c, la fel ca n cazul mustrrii i al libertii supravegheate punerea n executare a internrii, anterior rmnerii definitive a hotrrii este de natur de a-l prejudicia pe minor, datorit caracterului su privativ de libertate. Avem n vedere mai ales situaia n care soluia dat n cile de atac ar viza achitarea, o msur mai uoar ori chira o pedeaps neprivativ de libertate. n consecin, apreciem c judectorul, innd seama de caracterul facultativ al aplicrii imediate a msurii, ar trebui s nu recurg la o astfel de soluie. Potrivit art. 491 alin. 1 Cod de procedur penal liberarea minorului dintr-un centru de reeducare nainte de a deveni major, revocarea liberrii nainte de a deveni major, precum i ridicarea sau prelungirea msurii internrii ntrun centru de reeducare se dispun din oficiu sau la sesizare, de judectoria sau tribunalul care a judecat n prim instan pe minor. 2.4. INTERNAREA NTR-UN INSTITUT MEDICAL-EDUCATIV Potrivit art. 105 Cod penal Msura internrii ntr-un institut medical-educativ se ia fa de minorul care, din cauza strii fizice sau psihice, are nevoie de tratament medical i de un regim special de educaie. Aceast msur educativ are un caracter diferit fa de celelalte, deoarece nu are n vedere doar reeducarea minorului, ci i nsntoirea sa. Ridicarea msurii internrii se dispune de ctre instana care a judecat n prim instan pe minor. Msura internrii ntr-un institut medical-educativ nceteaz de ndat ce a disprut cauza care a impus luarea sa. Totui, dac instana consider, la dispariia cauzei care a determinat luarea msurii, o ridic i o poate nlocui cu msur internrii ntr-un centru de reeducare. III CONCLUZII Ca urmare a integrrii n Uniunea
the consignation of the minor child to a reeducation center, by the same decision it can also order the immediate implementation of the measure that has been taken. The same as for admonishment and supervised freedom, we consider that the implementation of the consignment previous to the finalization of the court decision shall be detrimental to the minor child due to the fact that it restricts the childs freedom. We refer mainly to the situation when the settlement reached after appeals aims at the acquittal of the offender, an easiest sentence or a penalty that involves no constraints of freedom. Consequently, we consider that the judge shall not give such a sentence and shall take into consideration the optional character of the immediate implementation of the measure. According to the art. 491, indent 1 in the Code of criminal procedure, the release of the minor child from a reeducation center before the child turns age of 18, the annulment of release before the child turns age of 18, as well the abrogation or the prolongation of the period of consignment in an reeducation center shall be ordered by the court that judged the minor child the first time ex officio or as a result of the notice. 2.4 CONSIGNMENT TO A MEDICAL EDUCATION INSTITUTE In compliance with the art. 105 in the Penal Code the consignment to a medical education institute shall be carried out whether the minor child has some sort of medical problems, either physical or psychical disturbances, or whether the child needs medical treatment and a special education treatment. This education-type measure displays a different character compared to the other situations because it intends not only the reeducation of the minor child but also his medical recovery. The court that heard the minor child the first time can annul the decision of consignment. The education-type measure of consignment to a medical education institute ceases as soon as the cause that previously determined the measure vanishes. Nevertheless, whether the court decides that the cause for the consignment to a medical education institute has vanished, it can replace it with the consignment to a reeducation center. III CONCLUSIONS As a result of adheration to the European
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European, Romnia va trebui s ating standarde de dezvoltare care sunt orientate n mai multe direcii, dintre care cea mai important este dezvoltarea cadrului legislativ. Societatea bazat pe cunoatere presupune dezvoltarea sistemelor educaional, economic i juridic. Strategia de reform a sistemului judiciar [13] este orientat pe mai multe direcii de aciune i considerm c cea mai important o constituie eficientizarea justiiei pentru minori, deoarece protecia drepturilor minorilor necesit o deosebit atenie din partea celor care nfptuiesc justiia. n vederea realizrii acestei protecii este necesar crearea unor dispoziii legale diferite de cele ale majorilor, corespunztor standardelor europene, precum i aplicarea n prectic mai mult, ca sanciuni, a msurilor educative, care au pentru minori un caracter ocrotitor. BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1] Popa N, Dogaru I, Dnior G, Dnior D C, Filosofia Dreptului, Editura All Beck, Bucureti, 2002, pag. 33; [2] Bulai C, Manual de drept penal, Partea general, Editura All, Bucureti, 1997, pag. 568; [3] Decizia penal nr. 124/R/18.03.1998 a Curii de Apel Braov, publicat n sistemul informaional Ecris; [4] Rmureanu V, Msurile educative ale mustrrii i libertii supravegheate, Revista Romn de Drept nr. 2/1971, pag. 28; [5] Criu , Criu E D, Codul penal adnotat, Editura Argessis Print, Curtea de Arge, 1999, pag. 290, decizia penal nr. 461/1997 a Curii de Apel Bucureti; [6] Decizia penal nr. 95/P/27.04.2004 a Curii de Apel Constana, publicat n sistemul informaional Ecris; [7] Decizia penal nr. 211/10.05.2001 a Curii de Apel Timioara, publicat n SET nr. 1/2001 al Curii de Apel Timioara; [8] Decizia penal nr. 83/25.01.1999 a Curii de Apel Timioara, publicat n sistemul informaional Ecris; [9] Criu , Op. cit., pag. 293-294, decizia penal nr. 81/20.01.1994; [10] Dongoroz .a., Explicaii teoretice ale Codului penal, Partea general, volumul II, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 1970, pag. 247; [11] Buletinul Jurisprudenei, Editura Juris Argessis, Bucureti, 2000, pag. 261-262; [12] Revista Dreptul nr. 2/2000, pag. 160, decizia penal nr. 857/1999 a Curii Supreme de Justiie; [13] H.G. nr. 1052/2003 privind Strategia de reform a sistemului judiciar, publicat n Monitorul Oficial nr. 649/12.09.2003.
Union, Romania shall have to reach standards of development that focus on several directions, among which the most important one is the development of the legislative framework. The knowledge based society involves the development of the educational, economic and legal systems. The approach regarding the reformation of the judicial system [13] follows several directions and we believe that the most important one involves the improvement of the juristic act towards the minor child, because protecting the rights of minor children needs a special attention from those persons who perform act justice. With the view to reaching such protection, it is necessary to create some new legal provisions, different from those of adult persons, in compliance with the European standards, together with the practical implementation, under form of penalties mainly, of the education type measures that display a protective character for the minor children. BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1] Popa N, Dogaru I, Dnior G, Dnior D C, Filosofia Dreptului, Editura All Beck, Bucureti, 2002, pag. 33; [2] Bulai C, Manual de drept penal, Partea general, Editura All, Bucureti, 1997, pag. 568; [3] Decizia penal nr. 124/R/18.03.1998 a Curii de Apel Braov, publicat n sistemul informaional Ecris; [4] Rmureanu V, Msurile educative ale mustrrii i libertii supravegheate, Revista Romn de Drept nr. 2/1971, pag. 28; [5] Criu , Criu E D, Codul penal adnotat, Editura Argessis Print, Curtea de Arge, 1999, pag. 290, decizia penal nr. 461/1997 a Curii de Apel Bucureti; [6] Decizia penal nr. 95/P/27.04.2004 a Curii de Apel Constana, publicat n sistemul informaional Ecris; [7] Decizia penal nr. 211/10.05.2001 a Curii de Apel Timioara, publicat n SET nr. 1/2001 al Curii de Apel Timioara; [8] Decizia penal nr. 83/25.01.1999 a Curii de Apel Timioara, publicat n sistemul informaional Ecris; [9] Criu , Op. cit., pag. 293-294, decizia penal nr. 81/20.01.1994; [10] Dongoroz .a., Explicaii teoretice ale Codului penal, Partea general, volumul II, Editura Academiei Romne, Bucureti, 1970, pag. 247; [11] Buletinul Jurisprudenei, Editura Juris Argessis, Bucureti, 2000, pag. 261-262; [12] Revista Dreptul nr. 2/2000, pag. 160, decizia penal nr. 857/1999 a Curii Supreme de Justiie; [13] H.G. nr. 1052/2003 privind Strategia de reform a sistemului judiciar, publicat n Monitorul Oficial nr. 649/12.09.2003.
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LES IMPLICATIONS DU PROJET DU IMPLICATIILE PROIECTULUI NOULUI NOUVEAU CODE CIVIL ET DU PROJET COD CIVIL SI ALE PROIECTULUI NOULUI COD DE PROCEDURA CIVILA DU NOUVEAU CODE DE PROCEDURE CIVILE SUR LENVIRONNEMENT ASUPRA MEDIULUI DE AFACERI DAFFAIRES
Lect. univ. dr. Titu IONACU Facultatea de tiine Juridice Universitatea Constantin BrncuiTg-Jiu
Lect. univ. dr. Titu IONACU Facult des Sciences Juridiques Universit Constantin BrncuiTg-Jiu
n contextul alinierii la standardele europene, mediul de afaceri din Romnia este supus unor presiuni constante, venite att din registrul economic, ct i din cel legislativ. Una dintre cele mai importante schimb ri implementate n acest sens este reprezentat de schimbarea Codului Civil i de Procedur Civil . Referitor la noul regim juridic al propriet ii, transferul i constituirea de drepturi reale asupra bunurilor imobile, respectiv nstr in rile i constituirile de garan ii reale imobiliare vor avea loc de la data intabul rii, cu alte cuvinte, nscrierea va avea efect constitutiv i translativ. Garan ia real mobiliar f r deposedare va purta denumirea de ipotec real mobiliar , iar garan ia real mobiliar cu deposedare se va numi gaj. Codul civil este un cod perfectibil, el este inspirat din Codul napoleonian din 1804, care a fost adoptat ntr-o epoc a misticii drepturilor omului, cu accent deosebit pus pe concep ia individualist . n anul 1940 s-a ncercat o reformare a codului, sub denumirea proiectul Codului civil Carol al II-lea. Modific rile prev zute de noile variante ale codurilor urmeaz tradi ia dreptului continental. O surs nsemnat a modific rilor o constituie i codul civil al provinciei canadiene Quebec, din anii 90, f r a se face o deplasare c tre dreptul anglo-saxon. In viitor, n noul cod civil vor fi reglementate i aspecte ale dreptului comercial, astfel nct nu se mai impune un cod comercial.
Dans le contexte de lalignement aux standards europens, lenvironnement daffaires de Roumanie est soumis pressions constantes, venues tant du registre conomique, que du registre lgislatif. Un des plus importants changements implments en ce sens est reprsent par le changement du Code Civil et de Procdure Civil. Concernant le nouveau rgime juridique de la proprit, le transfert et la constitution de droits rels sur les biens immeubles, respectivement les alinations et les constitutions de garanties relles immobilires auront lieu la date de lenregistrement, cest dire, linscription aura effet constitutif et translatif. La garantie relle sans dpossession aura la dnomination dhypothque relle mobilire, et la garantie relle mobilire avec dpossession sera nomme gage. Le Code Civil est un code perfectible, il est inspir du Code napolonien du 1804, qui a t adopt dans une poque de la mystique des droits de lhomme, avec accent diffrent mis sur la conception individualiste. En 1940 on a essay reformer le code, sous la dnomination le projet du Code Civil Carol le II. Les modifications prvues par les nouvelles variantes des codes suivent la traditions du droit continental. Une source signifiante des modifications est constitue aussi par le code civil de la Provence canadienne Quebec, des annes 90, sans faire un dplacement vers le droits anglo-saxon. A lavenir, dans le nouveau code civil
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In ceea ce prive te proiectului noului cod de procedur cicvil , preciz m c judecata n prima instan va avea dou etape: etapa cercet rii i etapa dezbaterilor. Calea obi nuit de atac va fi apelul controlul de fond, recursul fiind calea extraodinar , numai pentru motive de nelegalitate, cenzurndu-se n principiu dispozitivul , solu ia. Dac se atac considerentele, n care se aduc dezleg ri ale unor probleme de drept care nu au legatura cu solu ia sau privesc prejudiciile produse p r ii, instan a va nlocui considerentele, men innd solu ia. Nu vor fi supuse recursului: -hot rrile emise de judec torie n prim instan ; -hot rrile care privesc nulitatea/desfacerea c s toriei, pensia de ntre inere, ac iunile privind gr ni uirea. -hot rrile date n competen a judec toriei, al c ror obiect evaluabil are o valoare de cel mult 5000 lei. -mp r eala judiciar ; O alt modificare este aceea c recursul va fi de competen a naltei Cur i de Casa ie i Justi ie. n cod se va preciza expres cnd o hot rre judec toreasc este supus numai apelului. Scopul recursului este de a asigura conformitatea hot rrilor judec tore ti cu regulile de drept atacate, i vizeaz numai legalitatea hot rrii, nu i temeinicia. Cei implicati n recurs vor fi aproape in exclusivitate avoca ii i consilierii juridici ( eventual licen ia ii n drept). Dac n prezent procurorul poate ataca orice hot rre, n proiect este prev zut c acesta va putea ataca numai daca a participat, sau dac n cauz sunt viza i minorii sau interzi ii. Recursul este nesuspensiv de executare. Cererea de suspendare se va putea introduce prin avocat, cu depunerea unei cau iuni. Recursul se va judeca n Camera de Consiliu, n complet de trei judec tori,
seront rglements aussi des aspects du droits commercial, ainsi quon ne simpose pas un code civil. En ce qui concerne le projet du nouveau projet du nouveau code de procdure civile, nous prcisons que le jugement en premire instance aura deux tapes: ltape de la recherche et ltape des dbats. La voie habitue dattaque sera lappel le contrle de fond, le recours tant la voie extraordinaire, seulement pour des raisons de non lgalit, tant censur en principe le dispositif, la solution. Si on attaque les considrants, ou on apporte des solutions de certains problmes de droit qui nont pas liaison avec la solution ou ils concernent les prjudices produits la partie, linstance remplacera les considrants, maintenant la solution. Ne seront pas soumis au recours: -les arrts dlivrs par la justice de paix en premire instance; -les arrts qui concernent la nullit/lannulation du mariage, la pension dentretien, les actions concernant la sparation. - les arrts donns dans la comptence de la justice de paix, dont lobjet valuable a une valeur de maximum 5000 lei. -la sparation judiciaire; Une autre modification est celle que le recours sera de la comptence de la Haute Cour de Cassation et de Justice. Dans le code sera prcis expressment lorsquun arrt est soumis seulement lappel. Le but du recours est celui dassurer la conformit des arrts avec les rgles de droit attaques, et il vise seulement la lgalit de larrt, pas aussi le bien-fond. Les personnes impliques en recours seront presque en exclusivit les avocats et les conseillers juridiques (ventuellement licencis es droits). Si prsent le procureur peut attaquer nimporte quel arrt, en projet il est prvu que celui-ci pourra attaquer seulement sil a particip, ou si, en cause, sont viss les mineurs ou les interdits. Le recours est non suspensif
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pre edintele instantei nemaiputnd suspenda. Termenul de recurs este m rit la 30 de zile, pentru ca intimatul s i poat angaja ap r tor, n cuprinsul cererii urmnd s fie indicat i numele avocatului . n 1993 erau unsprezece motive de casare , n urma modific rilor efectuate prin O.U.G. 138/2000 au r mas nou motive, iar n actualul proiect sunt apte motive. judec torul este incompatibil, exist un num r mai mic de judec tori / grefieri, dect cel prev zut de lege (mai mare este permis), a lipsit procurorul; - judec torul ales aleatoriu a fost schimbat sau hot rrea a fost pronun at de un alt judec tor, care nu a luat parte la dezbateri sau la pronun are; - cauza este de competen a (ordine public ) altei instan e; instan a a dep it atribu iile puterii judec tore ti; - prin hot rre s-a nc lcat norme de procedur prev zute sub sanc iunea nulit ii - hot rrea nu cuprinde motivele sau motivele sunt contradictorii/ str ine de natura cauzei - nc lcarea sau aplicarea gre it a unor norme de drept material ( nu i substan ial). Pentru a evita recursurile abuzive, motivele de casare vor fi primite dect dac nu au fost invocate n apel sau au fost respinse. Recursul se depune la instan a a c rei hot rre se atac . Ca noutate instan a a c rei hot rre este atacat va preg ti dosarul complet, dup care l va nainta instan ei de recurs. Sunt reglementate recursul incident i recursul provocat. Referitor la regimurile matrimoniale esen iale, n noua reglementare vor fi conven iile matrimoniale, ca expresie a libert ii contractuale i economice a
dexcution. La requte de suspension pourra tre introduite par avocat, en dposant une caution. Le recours sera jug dans la Chambre de Conseil, en complet de trois juges, le prsident de linstance ne pouvant pas suspendre. Le dlai de recours est augment 30 jours, pour que lintim puisse emboucher dfendeur, dans le contenu de la requte suivant tre indiqu aussi le nom de lavocat. En 1993 taient onze raisons de cassation, aprs les modifications effectues par O.U.G. 138/2000 ont restes neuf raisons, et dans le projet actuel sont sept raisons. - le juge est incompatible, il y a nombre plus petit de juges/greffiers, que celui prvu par loi (plus grand est permis), il a manqu le procureur; - le juge nomm alatoirement a t chang ou larrt a t donn par un autre juge, qui na pas particip aux dbats ou lorsque larrt a t donn; - la cause est de la comptence (ordre publique) dune autre instance; - linstance a dpass les attributions du pouvoir judiciaire; par arrt son violes des normes de procdure prvues sous la sanction de la nullit - larrt ne comprend pas les raisons ou les raisons sont contradictoires/trangre de la nature de la cause - la violation ou lapplication errone de certaines normes de droit matriel (pas substantiel). Pour viter les recours abusifs, les raisons de cassation seront reus seulement si elles nont pas t invoques en appel ou elles ont t repousses. Le recours est dpos linstance dont larrt sattaque. Comme nouveaut linstance dont larrt est attaqu, prpare le dossier complet, puis elle le rend linstance de recours. Sont rglements le recours incident et le recours provoqu. Concernant les rgimes matrimoniales essentielles, dans la nouvelle rglementation
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so ilor, nl turnd astfel efectul constrng tor al regimului comunit ii de bunuri, ca unic reglementarea a rela iilor ntre so i, aflat n prezent n vigoare. Regimul particip rii la achizi ii, care este regimul de drept comun n sistemele de drept elve ian i german, nu a fost inclus n proiect. Astfel, vor exista dou regimuri matrimoniale: - regimul supletiv al comunit ii ( cu posibilitatea partaj rii n timpul c s toriei, f r a justitifica acest fapt magistratului; regimurile matrimoniale conven ionale; - regimul separa iei de bunuri; - regimul comunit ii conven ionale. Astfel, datorit libert ii conven iilor matrimoniale, so ii vor avea libertatea de a alege un regim matrimonial concret, adaptat nevoilor i mentalit ilor lor, cu limitarea c prin clauzele inserate nu se poate deroga de la dispozi iile imperative i bunele moravuri. De asemenea exist i alte limite speciale, derivnd din principiul egalit ii de drepturi ntre b rba i i femei, din drepturile i ndatoririle p rinte ti ( autoritatea p rinteasc ). So ii au libertatea de a alege, de a opta ntre regimurile matrimoniale alternative, f r a avea ns libertatea de a i construi un regim matrimonial propriu, prin mbinarea elementelor mai multor regimuri matrimoniale distincte, posibilitate prev zut n alte legisla ii. La ncheierea c s toriei, dac nu se alege un regim matrimonial, so ii vor fi considera i automat ca fiind c s tori i sub regimul matrimonial supletiv, respectiv cel al comunit ii de bunuri. Ca titlu de exemplu, un comerciant aflat n ascensiune, supus unui risc profesional ridicat, poate opta pentru regimul separa iei, pentru a proteja bunurile familiei, un comerciant experimentat, posesorul unei pozi ii stabile pe pia , poate opta pentru regimul particip rii la achizi ii (regim
seront les conventions matrimoniales, comme expression de la libert contractuelle et conomique des poux, ainsi loignant leffet contraignant du rgime de la communaut de biens, comme unique la rglementation des relations des poux, prsent en vigueur. Le rgime de la participation aux acquisitions, qui est le rgime de droit commun dans les systmes de droit suisse et allemand, na pas t inclus en projet. Ainsi, il y a deux rgimes matrimoniaux : - le rgime suppltif de la communaut (avec la possibilit de partager pendant le mariage, sans justifier au magistrat ce fait; - les rgimes matrimoniaux conventionnels; - le rgime de la sparation de biens; le rgime de la communaut conventionnelle. Ainsi, par suite de la libert des conventions matrimoniales, les poux auront la libert de choisir un rgime matrimonial concret, adapt leurs besoins et leurs mentalits, avec la limitation que par les clauses insres on ne peut pas droger des dispositions impratives et le bons murs. Il y a aussi des autres limites spciales, drivant du principe de lgalit de droits entre les hommes et les femmes, des droits et des obligations morales paternels (lautorit paternelle). Les poux ont la libert de choisir, dopter entre les rgimes matrimoniaux alternatifs, mais sans avoir la libert de construire un rgime propre matrimonial, par combiner les lments de plusieurs rgimes matrimoniaux distinctes, possibilit prvue en autres lgislation. Au moment du mariage, sil nest pas choisi un rgime matrimonial, les poux seront considrs automatiquement comme tant maris sous le rgime matrimonial suppltif, respectivement celui de la communaut des biens. Comme titre de exemple, un commerant situ en ascension, soumis un grand risque professionnel, il peut opter pour le rgime de la sparation, pour protger les biens de la famille, un commerant expriment, le possesseur dune position
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nereglementat in proiect), acest regim func ionnd ca un regim al separa iei de bunuri, ca la ncetarea acestui regim, prin orice form , s se disocieze, astfel ca bunurile pe care so ii le-au adus mpreun se mpart regim prev zut de legisla ia francez . Privitor la formalismul conven iilor matrimoniale, acetea vor fi contracte solemne, ce vor fi ncheiate n form autentic , de c tre notar, sub sanc iunea nulitatii absolute. Justificarea acestei masuri este dat de necesitatea protec iei juridice, prin consultan a i asisten a oferit de profesioni ti ai dreptului, de gravitatea i complexitatea acestor conven ii. In ceea ce prive te rela iile ter ilor cu so ii, vom vorbi n continuare de publicitatea regimului matrimonial, i ne vom referi la formalit ile generale, ocazionate de ncheierea c s toriei, precum i de cele speciale, privind bunurile imobile. Dupa ncheierea c s toriei, so ii declar regimul matrimonial ales, i n acest sens se face men iune pe actul de c s torie, i n registrul special inut la locul ncheierii c s toriei, unde se va depune i o copie a conven iei. Referitor la aceast formalitate de publicitate, s-a f cut propunerea ca publicitatea s fie asigurat de Uniunea Na ionala a Notarilor Publici , avnd in vedere fluxul de informatii privind conven iile autentice i eviden a acestora. Regimul primar imperativ este ansmablul normelor juridice aplicabile regimului patrimonial ntre so i, interesnd i ter ii, indiferent de regimul matrimonial aplicabil, fiind astfel o adev rat constitu ie a regimurilor matrimoniale, dreptul comun al lor. Locuin a familiei chiar dac este proprietatea exclusiv a unuia dintre so i, nici unul nu poate dispune exclusiv de folosin a acesteia, propunndu-se chiar mai mult, s nu poat dispune dac nu are consim mntul expres, scris al celuilalt so ( deci nici nstr inare, nici ipotecare), nlocuindu-se astfel cuvntul a asigura
stable sur march, il peut opter pour le rgime de la participation aux acquisitions (rgime non rglement en projet ), ce rgime fonctionnant comme un rgime de la sparation de biens, comme la cessation ce rgime, par nimporte quelle forme, se dissocie, ainsi que les biens que les poux les ont apport ensemble se divisent rgime prvu par la lgislation franaise. Concernant le formalisme des conventions matrimoniales, celles-ci seront des contractes solennels, qui seront conclus en forme authentique, par le notaire, sous la sanction de la nullit absolue. La justification de cette mesure est donne par la ncessit de la protection juridique, par la consultation et par lassistance offertes par des professionnels du droit, par la gravit et par la complexit ce ces conventions. En ce qui concerne les relations des tiers avec les poux, on parle de la publicit du rgime matrimonial, et on fait rfrence aux formalits gnrales, occasionnes par le mariage, ainsi que par les formalit spciales, concernant les biens immeubles. Aprs le mariage, les poux dclarent le rgime matrimonial choisi, et en ce sens il est fait la mention sur lacte de mariage, et dans le registre spcial tenu au lieu de la clture du mariage, o sera dpos aussi une copie de la convention. Concernant cette formalit de publicit, il est fait la proposition que la publicit soit assure par Union Nationale des Notaires Publics, ayant en vue le flux dinformation concernant les conventions authentique et leur vidence. Le rgime primaire impratif est la totalit des normes juridiques applicables au rgime patrimonial entre les poux, intressant aussi les tiers, indiffremment du rgime matrimonial applicable, tant ainsi une vraie constitution des rgimes matrimoniaux, leur droit commun. Lhabitation de la famille mme si elle est la proprit exclusive dun des poux, aucun deux ne peut disposer exclusivement de son emploi, mme proposant davantage, de ne pas disposer sil na pas le
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cu asupra, respectiv n loc de dreptul de a asigura folosin a locuin ei familiei cu dreptul asupra locuin ei familiei. Daca opozi ia so ului este nejustificat , so ul se poate adresa instan ei, care poate cenzura refuzul abuziv. Independen a profesional i patrimonial presupune ca fiecare so poate ncheia acte juridice cu cel lalt so , sau cu ter ii , poate efectua singur depozite bancare, putnd dispune liber de fonduri. Aportul de bunuri comune este posibil la constituirea unei asocia ii sau funda ii, sau a unei societ i comerciale. Nici un so nu devine singur asociat, daca ntrebuin eaz bunurile comune pentru societatea comercial . Proiectul de modificare a codului civil vizeaz i sistemul de carte funciar . Conform Codului civil din 1864, sistemul de publicitate este stabilit ca fiind sistemul de transcrip iuni i inscrip iuni; ( codul civil francez din 1804 a neglijat publicitatea imobiliar , reglementnd acest lucru ulterior, la jum tatea secolului XIX). Este nevoie de un sistem general aplicabil pe ntreg teritoriul, iar acest lucru nu este posibil nainte de existen a unui cadastru general, cadastrul i sistemul de publicitate imobiliar unic r mnnd un deziderat. n proiect, conform art. 641-673, este definit dreptul tabular, ca fiind totalitatea normelor juridice care reglementeaz publicitatea imobiliar , norme materiale i procedurale. Dreptul material de inspira ie const n Decretul 115/1938, Legea nr. 7/1996. Decretul 115/1938 a fost aplicat n Bucovina nainte de 1918, iar n Banat i Transilvania dup 1918. Noul sistem de carte funciar consfin e te efectul translativ/ constitutiv de drepturi al nscrierii n cartea funciar . Dreptul procedural este con inut de legile speciale, n care este prev zut procedura birourilor i a nscrierilor. Dobndirea, modificarea i stingerea drepturilor tabulare se face
consentement express, crit de lautre poux (donc ni alination, ni hypothquer), remplaant ainsi le mot assurer avec sur, respectivement au lieu du droit dassurer lemploi de lhabitation de la famille avec le droit sur lhabitation de la famille. Si lopposition du mari est injustifie, le mari peut sadresser linstance, qui peut censurer le refus abusif. Lindpendance professionnelle et patrimoniale suppose que chaque poux peut conclure des actes juridiques avec lautre poux, ou avec les tiers, il peut effectuer seul des dpts bancaires, pouvant disposer des fonds. Lapport de biens communs est possible la constitution dune association ou fondation, ou dune socit commerciale. Aucun poux de devienne seul associ, sil utilise les biens communs pour la socit commerciale. Le projet de modification du code civil vise aussi le systme de carte foncire. Conformment au Code civil du 1864, le systme de publicit est tabli comme tant le systme de transcriptions et dinscriptions; (le code civil franais du 1804 a nglig la publicit immobilire, rglementant cette chose ultrieur, la moiti du XIXeme sicle). Il est ncessaire un systme gnral applicable sur le territoire entier, et cette chose nest pas possible avent de lexistence dun cadastre gnral, le cadastre et le systme de publicit immobilire unique restant un desideratum. En projet, conformment l art. 641673, il est dfini le droit tabulaire, comme tant la totalit des normes juridiques qui rglementent la publicit immobilire, normes matrielles et procdurales. Le droit matriel dinspiration consiste dans le Dcret 115/1938, a Loi no. 7/1996. Le dcret 115/1938 a t appliqu en Bucovine avant de 1918, et en Banat et en Transylvanie aprs 1918. Le nouveau systme de carte foncire consacre leffet translatif/ constitutif de droits de linscription dans la carte foncire. Le droit procdural est contenu par les
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exclusiv prin nscriere n cartea funciar . Renun area la un drept tabular se face prin declara ie autentic . For a probant a c r ii funciare na te o prezum ie relativ , cel nscris sau radiat este prezumat a fi sau a nu fi titularul dreptului tabular. Pentru promovarea ac iunii n revendicare va fi suficient extrasul de carte funciar , dovedind ca titularul este proprietar, dac prtul nu opune excep ii personale. Drepturile de crean , faptele i alte raporturi juridice fac obiectul not rii, au caracter limitativ, efectele not rii sunt numai opozabilitatea, interesnd nceperea urm ririi silite, sechestrul, urm rirea veniturilor. Pentru a nu sacrifica drepturile adev ratului proprietar, termenul de cnd proprietarul aparent este nscris n cartea funciar , i n cadrul c ruia adev ratul proprietar poate promova ac iune n nulitate i ac iune n rectificare, ac ionnd pentru a restabili situa ia, sub sanc iunea ca ter ul s nu mai poat fi evins, este de un an, n cazul n care proprietarul aparent nstr ineaz cu titlu oneros ter ului de bun credin , i de 10 ani dac nstr inarea are loc cu titlu gratuit. Acest nou sistem de publicitate este un sistem modern i eficient, bazndu-se pe: - prioritatea nscrierii (ca modalitate de transmitere); rangul preferen ial (primul dobnditor are doar o ac iune personal ); - prescriptibilitatea dreptului la ac iunea n presta ie tabular ; - efectele juridice ale not rii (nscrierea regimurilor matrimoniale ntr-un registru unic, i a imobilelor care fac obiectul conven iilor matrimoniale; - notarea pur informativ ( exproprierea pentru cauze de utilitate public ); - drepturile condi ionale (radiere 5 ani cele suspensive, 10 ani cele
lois spciales, o est prvue la procdure des bureaux et des inscriptions. Lacquisition, la modification et lextinction des droits tabulaires est fait exclusivement par inscription dans la carte foncire. La renonciation un droit tabulaire se fait par dclaration authentique. La force probante de la carte foncire nat une prsomption relative, celui inscrit ou radi est prsum tre ou non le titulaire du droit tabulaire. Pour la promotion de laction de revendication sera suffisamment lextrait carte foncire, prouvant que le titulaire est propritaire, si laccus noppose pas des exceptions personnelles. Les droits de crance, les faits et autres rapports juridiques font lobjet de la notation, ont caractre limitatif, les effets de la notation sont seulement lopposabilit, intressant le commencement de la poursuite oblige, le squestre, la poursuite des biens. Pour ne sacrifier pas les droits du vrai propritaire, le dlai ds que le propritaire apparent est inscrit dans la carte foncire, et dans le cadre duquel le vrai propritaire peut promouvoir action en nullit et action de rectification, actionnant pour rtablir la situation, sous la sanction que le tiers ne puisse pas tre soumis une viction, est dun an, dans le cas o le propritaire apparent aline titre onreux au tiers de bonne foi, et de 10 ans si lalination a lieu titre gratuit. Ce nouveau systme de publicit est un systme moderne et efficient, se basant sur: - la priorit de linscription (comme modalit de transmission); - le rang prfrentiel ( le premier acqurant a seulement une action personnelle); - la prscriptibilit du droit laction en prestation tabulaire; - les effets juridiques de la notation ( linscription des rgimes matrimoniaux dans un registre unique, et des immeubles qui font lobjet des conventions matrimoniales; - la notation purement informative (lexpropriation pour des causes de nullit publique);
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rezolutorii); - registratorul i oficiul de cadastru r spund solidar pentru prejudiciu, dac , din cauza inexactit ii inerii eviden ei se pierde dreptul de proprietate.
- les droits conditionnels (radiation 5 ans ceux suspensifs, 10 ans ceux rsolutoires); - la personne qui enregistre les papiers et loffice de cadastre rpondent solidairement pour prjudice, si, cause de linexactitude de lvidence il est perdu le droit de proprit.
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RSPUNDEREA INTERNAIONAL PENTRU DAUNELE ADUSE MEDIULUIELEMENTELE RSPUNDERII
LA RESPONSABILIT INTERNATIONALE POUR LES DOMMAGES DENVIRONEMENT- LES ELEMENTS DE LA RESPONSABILIT

Lect. univ. Remus IONESCU Preedinte Judectoria Trgu-Crbuneti Cadru asociat Universitatea Constantin Brncui Tg-Jiu Cadru asociat Universitatea Titu Maiorescu Tg-Jiu
Lect. univ. Remus IONESCU Preedinte Judectoria Trgu-Crbuneti Cadru asociat Universitatea Constantin Brncui Tg-Jiu Cadru asociat Universitatea Titu Maiorescu Tg-Jiu
Abstract nc lcarea unei obliga ii cu caracter interna ional privind protec ia mediului (de origine cutumiar sau conven ional ) sau a unui principiu general al mediului va determina, n anumite condiii, r spunderea interna ional a statelor .Trebuie totu i remarcat c n acest domeniu statele, ca subiecte originare ale dreptului interna ional public au manifestat o anumit reticen fa de mecanismele jurisdic ionale interna ionale i-o lips de ncredere n a accepta r spunderea lor n acest domeniu, n ciuda faptului c tratatele interna ionale care reglementeaz probleme angaj rii unei asemenea responsabilit i sunt numeroase.
Abstract Lempitement dune obligation internationale en ce concerne la protection denvironnement / dorigine coutumire ou conventionnel / ou dun principe gnral denvironnement, va impliquer, en certaine conditionnes, la responsabilit internationale des tats. Quand mme il faut tre remarquer que en ce domaine les tats ont manifeste une certaine rticence au mcanismes juridictionnels internationales et ils se mfient daccepter leur responsabilit en ce domaine, malgr aux internationales qui rglent les problmes.
Preliminarii
n dreptul internaional, normele acestuia sunt create, att de ctre subiectele dreptului internaional, n primul rnd de state, ca subiecte originare de drept ct i de organizaiile internaionale. Aceste norme, fiind elaborate de prin acordul de voina liber consimit al statelor, devin obligatorii i trebuie respectate ntocmai . ns, exist i situaii cnd aceste norme sau principii fundamentale sunt nclcate, moment n care cei care procedeaz astfel pot fi sancionai. Faptele sau actele ilicite din punct de vedere al dreptului internaional sunt nclcrile normelor dreptului internaional convenional sau cutumiar, precum urmeaz: agresiunea armat a unui stat ndreptat asupra altui stat, determinarea daunei unui stat, prin for de inaciune (neluarea unor msuri). Rspunderea mai poate surveni i n cazul culpei. Considrations gnrales Dans le droit international, il y a normes en vigueur tablis par les thmes du droit international /des tats/ et par les organisations internationales : Ces normes, labores par la volont libre consente des tats, sont obligatoire tre respectes. Il y a des situations quant ces nomes ou principes fondamentales peut tre ignor et ceux qui fait a peut tre sanctionnes. Les faites ou les actes illicites du point de vu du droit international sont les invasions des norme du droit international connotation ou coutumires. Ies sont : lagression aromate dun tat contre lautre, la dtermination du don mange dun tat, par force de linaction /tre passif/. La responsabilit peut tre survenue en ce concerne la culpabilit, le prjudice ou aux lisons causales.
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Rspunderea juridic este ntlnit n toate ramurile dreptului , sugernd ideea de sanciune sau reparaie. Ea d expresie unui raport social sanc ionat din punct de vedere juridic, n baza cruia o persoan se afl ntr-o relaie de obligaie fa de alt persoan creia i datoreaz satisfacie sau repararea unui prejudiciu ce i 1-a cauzat . Independent de daunele pe care statele sau cetenii lor le pot suferi direct, n dreptul internaional al mediului exist tendina vdit ctre rspunderea internaional pentru daunele aduse patrimoniului comun. Declaraia ONU asupra mediului din 1972 este interpretat n acest sens, ntruct ea are n vedere rspunderea internaional pentru daunele cauzate nu doar mediului altor state, ci i zonelor de dincolo de limitele jurisdiciei naionale". Astzi, dreptul internaional al mediului dispune de puine reguli clare i precise n problema rspunderii pentru daunele trasfrontiere cauzate mediului natural de pe teritoriului altor state. Este motivul pentru care s-a recurs la cercetarea contribuiei altor ramuri ale dreptului internaional public (dreptul fluvial, maritim spaial), precum i la sprijinul dreptului internaional privat, fapt care a condus Ia conturarea diferitelor categorii sau forme ale rspunderii n domeniul proteciei mediului i conservrii resurselor naturale. ns problema comun mai multor ramuri de drept, rmne stabilirea unor ecostandarde (uniforme i obligatorii) privind protecia factorilor de mediu pe plan regional i internaional, astfel nct s se poat ajunge, mai nti la renunarea exercitrii unor activit i productoare de pagube (potrivit unor standarde minimale), iar apoi, treptat la protecia integral a elementelor componente ale mediului natural (potrivit unor standarde maxime). Specialitilor n dreptul internaional le revine sarcina de a cerceta problemele privind formele i modalitile corespunztoare de colaborare internaional i regional n acest domeniu, n particular asupra coninutului categoriei
Rencontre dans tout les branche du droit, la notion de responsabilit juridique sugere lide de sanction ou de rparation. a donne lexpression a une rapport sociale sanctionn du point de vu juridique: Comme a une personne il y a dans une relation doblativits contre une autre personne pour donner satisfactions ou la rparation dune prjudice. Sans tenir compte de dommages que les tats ou leurs citoyens peut tre soffite directement, dans le droit international denvironnement il y a une tendinsse vers la internationale pour les dommages de patrimoine commune. La dclaration ONU de lenvironnement 1972 est interprte commune a, parce qui elle demande de responsabilit international pour les dommages denvironnement dautre pays mais aussi des zones travers les limites de la de la juridiction national. Aujourdhui, le droit interne denvironnement dispose de peu ds rgles claires et prcises en ce concerne le problme de la responsabilit pour les dommages /transfrontire/ au-del des frontires souffert par environnement et qui sont dclanche sur le territoire des autre pays. Cest le raison qui a dtermine la recherche de la contribution des autre branches du droit interne, publique /le droit fluvial, maritime, spatial/, et aussi le soutien du droit interne priv : Cela a conduit la mise en vidence des certains catgories ou formes de la responsabilit dans le domaine de la protection denvironnement et pour la concertation des ressources naturelles. Le problme principal, commun au plusieurs branche du droit, est dtablir des ectomsodermes /uniformes et obligation/ en ce qui concerne la protection denvironnement rgional et international de sorte que on renonce faire de lexercice des activits qui produit des dommages, puis, peu peu, la protection intgrale des lments lenvironnement naturel /approprie des maximum standards/. Les spcialits eu droit interne out la mission de faire des recherches en ce qui
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de prejudiciu. Rspunderea juridic n dreptul mediului nconjur tor a devenit azi o zon fierbinte" datorit situaiei ecologice mondiale afectat grav de consecinele industrializrii i automatizrii, a aplicrii tehnologiilor de vrf spaiale si nucleare, a exploatrii neraionale a resurselor naturale, a urbanizrii excesive, precum i a altor factori, dependeni de politica dus n acest domeniu de fiecare ar. Angajarea unor astfel de activiti att de ctre stat ct i de ctre persoane private duce la producerea de pagube ecologice intenionate sau accidentale cu un grad ridicat de periculozitate fa de mediul natural. In dreptul internaional aceasta a dus la apariia unor tehnici noi de reparaii a victimelor polurii, la stabilirea unor regimuri speciale n dreptul internaional public i la armonizarea sistemului de rspundere n dreptul intern. Elementele rspunderii Rspunderea material a statelor este o form a rspunderii civile proiectat n sfera relaiilor internaionale. n principiu, faptele cauzatoare de rspundere includ fie comportrii ilicite din punct de vedere a dreptului internaional, prin care se produc pagube mediului nconjurtor, fie o seam de activiti ilicite ce nu sunt interzise de dreptul internaional, care pot constitui ns surse ale vtmrii mediului. Fapta ilicit trebuie s ndeplineasc, n primul rnd o condiie obiectiv, constnd n nclcarea de ctre un stat a unei obligaii internaionale ce-i revenea n domeniul proteciei mediului nconjurtor. Precizm c este vorba numai de obligaii juridice asumate de state, n conformitate cu dreptul internaional public. Astfel, nu pot fi luate n consideraie, obligaiile asumate de ctre un stat prin contractele de drept intern sau obligaiile morale. Pe de alt parte, ca fapta s fie ilicit, este necesar ca obligaia internaional nclcat s fie n vigoare n momentul producerii ei [Sion I. Gr. Ecologie i dreptul internaional, Bucureti, Ed. tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1990]. Pentru ca inaciunea prin care un stat
concerne les modalits de collaborations internationale et rgionale dans cette direction, particulirement en ce qui concerne la catgorie du prjudice / 34/. Dans le droit denvironnement la responsabilit juridique est devenu aujourd'hui ; une zone brlant; cause de la situation cologique mondiale srieusement affecte par lindustrialisation et automation, par lapplication des haut technologique spciales et nuclaires, par une explantation irrationalit des ressortes naturelles, par lurbanisation extensive, et pas dautre factures qui dpendent der la politique des pays. Lapproche de ces activits par ltats et par des personnes prives condit des dommages cologiques dlibres ou accidentels avec un grande degr de priculosit vis--vis denvironnement. Dans le droit international cette phnomne conduit des nouveaux technologies de repartions pour les victimes de la pollution, tablir des rgimes spciales dans le droit interne publique et aussi lharmonie du system de la responsabilit dans le droit interne. La responsabilit juridique pour lempitement demandes de la protection denvironnement et lexplication des ressources naturelles constitue selon /un aspect/ lune des plusieurs faces de cet ensemble des rapports, pas le plus efficace. Les catgories de responsabilits qui peut tre appliques, pour lempitement des dispositions lgales qui concerne la protection denvironnement, sont : la responsabilit disciplinaire, matrielle, civile, contraventionnelle et pnale. Mais il faut dire que la responsabilit disciplinaire et celle matrielle sont gouvernes par la lgislation du travail qui se base sur la culpabilit /demployeur/ dengage qui a fait un dlit sur lenvironnement ou vis--vis de son travail. Les lments de la responsabilit. La responsabilit matrielle des tats est une forme de la responsabilit civile projete vers les relations internationales. En gnral, les actions qui causent la responsabilit contienne des comportements
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violeaz normele dreptului internaional s duc la angajarea rspunderii trebuie ndeplinite urmtoarele condiii: svrirea actului ilicit cu intenie sau din neglijen sau impruden; actul ilicit s fie imputabil statului sau organelor sale; ntre prejudiciul cauzat i aciunea ilicit s existe un raport de cauzalitate. Aceast obligaie este formulat n principiul 21, precum i n articolul 30 din Carta drepturilor i ndatoririlor economice ale statelor, ca instrument cu caracter soft low" precum i n Convenia asupra dreptului mrii de la Montego Bay, ca posibil instrument cu caracter hard law" [Convenia a fost semnat la 10 decembrie 1982, intrat n vigoare la 1994 i a fost ratificat n Romnia prin legea nr. 110/1996]. Obiectul obligaiei nclcate are inciden asupra regimului rspunderii, n sensul c faptul internaional ilicit are consecine diferite i prin urmare, formele de rspundere aplicabile nclcrii anumitor obligaii, de importan esenial pentru protecia unor interese fundamentale ale comunitii internaionale ale statelor, difer fa de cele aplicate pentru nclcarea altor obligaii. In funcie de obiectul obligaiei internaionale nclcate, Comisia de Drept Internaional a clasificat aceste fapte n crime i delicte internaionale. Rspunderea este diferit pentru crime fa de cea pentru delicte. n ceea ce privete cauzele care exclud caracterul ilicit al faptei putem spune c i n dreptul internaional s-a recunoscut intervenia anumitor mprejurrii de natur s nlture caracterul ilicit al faptei, prin care se violeaz o obligaie internaional. Aceste situaii sunt: consimmntul victimei la nclcarea unei obligaii internaionale de ctre un alt stat, poate exonera de rspundere acest stat, ns cu condiia ca acest consim mnt s fie expres i valabil exprimat, prealabil comiterii faptului i totodat s nu se refere la nclcarea unei norme imperative. alt fapt care exclude caracterul ilicit l constituie contra msurile sau represaliile. Ele sunt
illicites du point de vu du droit international et qui provoque des dommages denvironnement au des activits illicite qui ne sont pas punies par la loi, mais elles sont des sources des dommages denvironnement. Laction illicite doit accomplir, premirement une condition objective : la violation dun tat lobligation internationale dans la protection denvironnement. On dit que cest seulement des obligations juridiques assumes par un tat en conformit du droit international publique. Ainsi, les obligations assumes dun tat par les contredis de droit internationale ou obligations morales, ne peuvent pas tre prendre en considration. Dune autre cot, pour que laction tre en vigueur quand elle est faite. Afin que linaction, par quelle un tat a viol les normes du droit international, conduit des responsabilit : il faut accomplir une suites des conditions : accomplir une action illicite avec intention ou par ngligence/limprudence/ laction illicite doit tre impute ltat ou ses organismes ; entre le prjudice et laction illicite doit tre un rapport de causalite. Cette obligation a t formule dans le principe 21 et dans larticle 30 du /Livre des droites et obligations des tats/, comme un instrument avec un caractre / soft low/ . Elle est rencontre aussi dans la Convention du droit maritime /Montego Bay/ , conne un possible outil avec un caractre /hard low/ ; La convention a t signe le 10 dcembre 1982, qui est entre en vigueur le 1994 et ratifi en Roumaine par la loi nr : 110/1996. Lobjet de lobligation voile a lincidence sur le rgime de la responsabilit c'est--dire que fait international illicite a des diffrents consquences et ce pourquoi les formes des responsabilits applicables la violation de certains obligations, dune importance essentielle pour la protection des intrts fondamentales des communaut international des tats, sont diffrents
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definite ca aciuni neconforme dreptului internaional public, dar legitime, deoarece sunt svrite de un stat, pentru a rspunde fa de conduita ilicit, a altui stat mpotriva sa. Ele nu implic folosirea forei sau ameninarea cu fora [A. Bolintineanu, A. Nstase, B. Aurescu, Drept internaional contemporan, Ed. All Beck, Bucureti, 2000, fila 258]. Fora major i cazul fortuit exonereaz de rspundere statul care comite fapte ilicite, datorit interveniei acestor evenimente neprevzute, care scap de sub controlul statului. Starea de necesitate i legitim aprare exclud rspunderea statului care svrete un act ilicit. Exist i autori, care pe lng aceste cauze de exonerare a rspunderii includ i starea de necesitate [A. Bolintineanu, A. Nstase, B. Aurescu, Drept internaional contemporan, Ed. All Beck, Bucureti, 2000, fila 258]. Responsabilitatea internaional Regula de baz a responsabilitii statului n contextul proteciei mediului poate fi sintetizat n felul urmtor: statele sunt responsabile pentru prejudiciile aduse mediului din alte state sau mediului global, rezultate prin nclcarea unei reguli internaionale sau a unui standard internaional general acceptat. Responsabilitatea statului este confirmat prin Declaraia de la Stockholm: Statele au...responsabilitatea de a asigura c activitile aflate n jurisdicia sau sub controlul lor nu provoac pagube mediului din alte state sau unor zone aflate n afara limitelor jurisdiciei naionale." Pentru a revendica responsabilitatea statului trebuie ntrunite mai multe elemente constitutive Paguba produs asupra mediului trebuie s fie rezultatul nclcrii unei legi internaionale. Astzi dreptul internaional al mediului este n formare, iar multe tratate pentru protecia mediului sunt puternic fundamentate pe obligaiile generale privind cooperarea. Aceste obligaii, mpreun cu prevederile specifice de interdicie, pun de multe ori probleme dificile la demonstrarea i
comparable ces au celles pour la violation des autre obligations. Pae rapport lobjet de lobligation international viol, La Commission du Droit International, a classifi ces actions en crimes et dlits internationales. La responsabilit est diffrente pour les crimes que pour les dlits. En ce concerne les causes qui liminent le caractris illicite dun fait on peut dire que dans le droit international a t reconnu lintervention des certaines situations qui fait disparatre le caractre illicite par quel on a viol une obligation international. Cestes situation sont: laccord de la violine pour la violation dune obligation internationale dun autre pays, qui peut se disculpe mais la condition que cette approbation tre exprs et valable exprim, pralable du fait et il faut que laccord ne se peut pas violer une norme imprative. Une autre action qui exclue le caractre illicite sont les contre-mesure ou les reprsailles. Elles sont dfinies comme des actives non conformes /incompatibles/ avec le droit internationale publique, mais lgitimes parce quelles sont faites dun tat, pour rponde une conduite illicite dun autre pays contre lui. a nimplique pas la force ou les menaces. . La cause de force majeure et le cas fortuit /imprvu/ exonrent de responsabilit ltat qui a commis les faits illicites. Ltat de ncessite et lgitime dfense excludent la responsabilit dtat qui q fait une action illicite. Il y a des crivaines qui include aussi ltat de ncessit. La responsabilit internationale. Le prncipal rgle de la responsabilit dtat dans la protection denvironnement peut tre synthtise comme a: les tats sont responsables pour le prjudices denvironnement dautres pays ou denvironnement global par la violation dun rgle international ou dun standard international accept. La responsabilit dtat est confirme par ,,La Dclaration de Stockholm,,.
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confirmarea vinoviei. Statul este responsabil att pentru propriile activiti, ct i pentru activitile persoanelor juridice sau fizice aflate n propria jurisdicie sau sub propriul control. Cu alte cuvinte, chiar dac nu statul este poluatorul direct, el este responsabil pentru eecul su n stoparea sau controlarea activitilor poluatoare efectuate de alii. n baza acestei reguli, statele pot fi responsabile pentru c: nu au adoptat sau impus legile necesare pentru protecia mediului; nu au ncetat activitile periculoase; sau au lsat nepedepsite cazurile de nclcare a legii. Nu trebuie s existe circumstane justificative, cum ar fi acordul statului afectat e o cauz intermediar sau cauze exoneratoare de rspundere. Paguba trebuie s fie semnificativ", ceea ce poate pune serioase probleme pentru constituirea dovezilor i cuantificarea prejudiciilor. n practic, exist puine aciuni juridice bazate pe responsabilitatea statului, majoritatea cazurilor de poluare nefiind soluionate la nivel internaional, ci prin intermediul regulilor internaionale de rspundere civil, adic direct ntre persoanele implicate. Sunt de asemenea importante comisiile internaionale de revendicare, care distribuie fonduri donate" de statul generator al prejudiciului, direct statului reclamant. O astfel de procedur permite statelor s rezolve revendicrile, fr a admite responsabilitatea legal. Responsabilitatea internaional este guvernat prin reguli cutumiare i tentativele de calificare ale Comisiei de Drept internaional n acest domeniu. Problema este complex datorit faptului, c este abordat n acelai timp sub unghiul reparrii prejudiciului cauzat i sub cel al sanciunii autorului unui act ilicit cauzator de pagube. Mai mult, punerea n aplicare a conceptelor care conduc aceast materie este fcut foarte greu prin natura nsi a societii internaionale, slab ierarhizate. Faptul generator de prejudicii. Responsabilitatea internaional rezult
Les tats ont la responsabilit dassurer que les activits de ses juridictions ne fais pas des dommages sur lenvironnement des autres pays ou sur des zones qui sont au dehors de la juridiction nationale. Pour revendiquer la responsabilit dtat il faut plusieurs lments constitutifs. Le dommage produit sur lenvironnement doit tre le rsultat dune violation dun loi international. Aujourd'hui le droit international denvironnement est une branche nouvelle qui se forme. Plusieurs traites pour la protection denvironnement sont forcements construits sur les obligations gnrales de la coopration. Ces obligations cot des prvissions spcifique dinterdiction, mettent des problmes difficiles pour la dmonstration et la confirmation de la culpabilit. Ltat est responsable pour ses actions et aussi pour les activits des personnes juridique au physique au son propre juridiction ou son propre contrle. C'est--dire que ltat est coupable mme sil nest pas ce qui a pollu. Il est responsable pour son chec dans le contrle des activits polluantes effectues par les autres. Aussi ltats peuvent tre responsabilit pour ne pas adopter ou ne pas imposer les lois ncessaires pour la protection denvironnement, nont pas cesser les activits daugerenses ou nont pas puni la violation du loi. Il nu faut pas exister des circonstances justificatives : laccord dtat affect qui est une cause intermdiaire ou des causes qui peuvent exonrer la responsabilit. La dommage doit tre signifiant et comme a il mette des problmes majeurs pour la constitution des preuves et pour la quantification des prjudices. En pratique, il y q peu des actions juridique bases sur la responsabilit de ltat, les plusieurs cas de pollution ne sont pas solutions au niveau international, mais par des rgles internationales de responsabilit civile, c'est--dire parmi des personnes implique.
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dintr-un act ilicit imputabil unui subiect de drept internaional. a) Ilicitatea faptului generator Fundamentul responsabilitii este ilicitatea, aceasta manifestndu-se ntr-o aciune violatoare a unei obligaii internaionale. Acest principiu cutumiar este aplicat de numeroase decizii jurisdicionale sau arbitrale. Ilicitatea poate s nu antreneze dect o simpl reparaie a pagubei ocazionate. Dar ea poate, de asemenea, provoca punerea n aplicare de sanciuni. Valoarea unei obligaii eseniale pentru salvgardarea intereselor fundamentale ale comunitile internaionale poate ntr-adevr s fie calificat ca fiind crim internaional. Exist situaii cnd un act ilicit ocazionnd o pagub poate s nu antreneze responsabilitatea autorului su (este cazul de exemplu, al actului comis sub efectul forei majore). Exist, pe de alt parte, o tendin de a admite responsabilitatea i pentru actul ilicit cauzator de prejudicii. Aceast responsabilitate obiectiv" a fost constatat prin convenii n cazuri particulare. b) Imputabilitatea Faptul generator n sistemul de responsabilitate trebuie s fie imputabil subiectului de drept responsabil. Referindu-ne la state, faptul generator poate s fie comis printr-o autoritate statal acionnd n numele statului nsui: poate fi vorba de autoriti administrative daun la un contract ncheiat cu un strin, arestare sau expulzarea arbitrar etc, legislative refuzul de a lua msurile recunoscute drept necesare pentru execuia unei obligaii internaionale, adoptarea unei legi contrare unui angajament internaional sau jurisdicionale, refuzul de a face justiie fiind de o gravitate particular . Un agent incompetent sau funcionar pot angaja responsabilitatea statului dac ofer aparenele unui agent oficial. Colectivitile locale i departamentale statului, serviciile publice i personale morale de drept privat,
Aussi important sont les comites de revendication qui distribuent des fonds donns par ltat qui a caus le prjudice un autre tat. Une telle procdure permettre aux tats les revendications sans admettre la responsabilit lgale. La responsabilit internationale est gouverne par des rgles coutumires et par les tentatives de qualifications de la Commission du Droit International. Le problme est complexe parce quil est abord du point de vu de la rparation du prjudice caus et aussi du point de vu de la sanction dauteur sui a fait un acte illicite avec des dommages. La mise en place des conceptes qui conduisent cette matire est ralise par la nature de la socit internationale, mal hirarchise. Le fait gnrateur des prjudices. La responsabilit internationale rsulte par un acte illicite qui peut tre imput un subject de droit international. a. Lillgalit du fait gnrateur. Le fondement de la responsabilit est lillgalit qui se manifeste dans une action qui viole une obligation internationale. Ce principe coutumier est appliqu par des nombreuse dactions juridictionnelles ou arbitrales. Lillgalit nu peut pas entraner que une banale rparation de la dommage, mais elle peut provoquer la mise en place des sanctionnes. La valeur dune obligation essentiale, pour la sauvegarde des intrts fondamentaux des communauts internationales, peut tre qualifi comme une crime internationale. Il y a certaines situations quand un acte illicite qui produit un dommage, peut sauver lauteur de responsabilit /lacte fait sur lfect de la force majeure/. Dun autre cot, il y a une tendinsse dadmettre la responsabilit aussi pour le fait illicite qui a produit des dommages. Cette responsabilit objective par des convections dans les cas particuliers. b.Limputabilit. Lacte gnrateur dans le systme de la responsabilit doit tre imputable au sujet responsable.
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investite cu prerogative de autoritate public, pot n mod egal s angajeze responsabilitatea statului. Prejudiciul Responsabilitate internaional nu survine dect dac a fost adus un prejudiciu unui drept i nu doar unui interes. Drept trebuie s fie subiectiv i s fie individualizat. n dreptul internaional al mediului prejudiciu este cel mai adesea material, dar poate fi i moral, ca lezarea onoarei unui stat, de exemplu. Victima prejudiciului poate fi un stat sau un alt subiect de drept internaional. Subiectele de drept intern (persoanele fizice sau juridice) nu au mijloace de aciune de ordin internaional contra statelor susceptibile de a i se aduce prejudiciu. Astfel se explic instituia numit protecia diplomatic". Protecia diplomatic" este o instituie cutumiar de drept internaional public pe care nu trebuie s o confund m cu simplele demersuri efectuate de ctre un diplomat pe lng guvernul acreditar n favoarea resortisanilor statului su), n virtutea creia un stat andoseaz" reclamaia unuia din resortisanii si care a suferit un prejudiciu din partea unui stat strin i acioneaz fa de acest stat pentru a obine reparaii. Pentru punerea n aplicare a proteciei diplomatice trebuie s fie ndeplinite 2 cerine: reclamantul trebuie s aib naionalitatea statului care intervine n favoarea sa i s fi epuizat cile interne [ M. Duu Drept internaional al mediului, Editura Economic Bucureti, fila 256]. Consecinele responsabilitii. Statul care a svrit faptul ilicit i a crui rspundere este stabilit poate supus unor sanciuni, avnd totodat obligaia de a repara prejudiciul. n cazul nclcrii obligaiilor erga omnes, sanciunile se aplic independent i prealabil obligaiei de reparare. De asemenea, mai exist n sarcina statului a crui rspundere este angajat obligaia de a pune capt faptului ilicit i de a lua msuri
Dans ce concerne les tats, le fait gnrateur peut tre commis par une autorit dtat qui actionne pour ltat mme. C'est--dire des autorits administratives qui peut crer un dommage pour un contracte avec un trange, determition au lexpulsion arbitraire etc. ; ou des autorits lgislative le refuse de prendre les mesures. Un agent incapable ou un fonctionnaire peut angajer la responsabilit dtat sil offre les apparences dun agent officiel. Les collectivits locales et les dpartements dtat, les service public et personales morales du droit priv, investies avec des prrogatives dautorit publique, peuvent angajer la responsabilit dtat. Le prjudice. La responsabilit internationale ne sourvienu pas que dans le cas dun prjudice dun droit pas dun intrt. La victime dun prjudice peut tre un tat on un autre sujet du droit international. Les sujettes du droit international / les personnes physique ou juridique/ nont pas les moyennes daction au niveau international contre les tat successibilits dun prjudice. Ainsi sexplique linstitution appelle,, la protection diplomatique,,. La protection diplomatique est une institution coutumire du droit international publique. Mais il ne faut pas la confonder avec les simples dmarches effectues dun diplomat sur le gouverne qui peut accrditer les reprsentants de son tat. Comme a un tat ,,enclosse,, la rclamation dun de ses reprsentantes qui q souffert un prjudice fait par un tranger. Pour la nuisse en application de la protection diplomatique il doit tre accouflir deux demandes : le rclament est le citoyen dtat qui intervienne les moyennes internes doit tre puiss / M. Dutu/. Les consquences de la responsabilit. Ltat qui q fait un acte illicite et la responsabilit a t tablie, peut tre asservi
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des sanctions et il faut rparer le prjudice. Dans le cas de la violation des obligation ,,erga omnes,, les sanctionnes sapplique indpendants et en pralable de lobligation de rparation. Il est aussi la mission de ltat de finir lacte illicite et de prvenir des faites. Pour les dommages matriaux, la rparation suppuse ,,restitutio in integrum,, par example les cas du Temple PreahVihear 1962. Thailanda a ete oblige de restituer Cambogiei les objets confisques illgale de Cambogia. Si cela nest pas possible, pour des raisons sociales ou materiales intervienne lobligation de ddommagements quivalents. On peut accorder des ddommagement pour la dommagent /damnum emergens/, et aussi pour le bnfice irralise / lucrum cesans/, qui doit tre normal et prvisible. En ce qui concerne des dommages morales ; la rparation cest la offert dun ,,satisfaction,, , c'est--dire des excuses, des honneurs pour le drapeau lse, la punitions des personnes coupable etc. Comme a, la France a t oblige de BIBLIOGRAFIE 1. Mircea Duu, Dreptul mediului, sexcuser de victimes du naufrage dans le cas Rainow Warrior. Editura C.H. Beck,Bucureti, 2007; Il y a des cases qui on payer pour des 2. Mircea Duu, Dreptul internaional al mediului, Editura Economic, Bucureti, dommages morales aussi. 2004; 3. Bolintineanu A. Nstase A. Aurescu BIBLIOGRAFIE B. ;Drept internaional contemporan 1. Mircea Duu, Le droit editura ALLBeck Bucureti 2000; Editura C.H. 4. Sion I. Gr. Ecologie i Dreptul environnement internaional, Editura tiinific i Beck,Bucureti, 2007; 2. Mircea Duu, Le droit internationale de l Enciclopedic Bucureti 1990; Editura Economic, 5. Geamnu Gr. ; Drept internaional environnement, contemporan, Editura Didactic i Bucureti, 2004; 3. Bolintineanu A. Nstase A. Aurescu B. pedagogic Bucureti 1995; 6. Decleris M. The law of ; Le droit international contemporaine" sustainabledevelopment, General principles, editura ALLBeck - Bucureti 2000; 4. Sion I. Gr. Ecologie i Le droit European Commission,2000; 7. Dejant-Ponce,M. Pallemaerts, M. international , Editura tiinific Droits de l homme/Human right and the i Enciclopedic - Bucureti 1990; environment, Conseil de l Europe/Council 5. Geamnu Gr. Le droit international of Europe, 2002; contemporain Editura Didactic i 8. Ferry L. Le nouvel Ordre ecologigue, Pedagogic Bucureti 1995; de prevenire a faptelor. n situaia daunelor materiale, reparaia const n restituio in integrum. De exemplu, n cazul Templului PreahVihear (1962). Thailanda a fost obligat s restituie Cambogiei obiectele ridicate ilegal din templul din cauz din Cambogia. Dac aceasta nu mai este posibil, ca urmare a unor motive de ordin social sau material, opereaz obligaia de despgubiri echivalente. Se pot acorda despgubiri att pentru paguba propriu-zis (damnum emergens), ct i pentru beneficiul nerealizat (lucrum cesans), care trebuie s fie normal i previzibil. n situaia daunelor morale, reparaia const n oferirea de satisfacie, sub forma de scuze, onoruri pentru steagul lezat, pedepsirea persoanelor vinovate i altele. Astfel, n cazul Rainow Warrior, Frana a fost obligat s-i cear scuze victimelor implicate n naufragiul vasului n spe. Au fost cazuri n care s-au pltit despgubiri i pentru daune morale.
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Grasset, 1992; 9. Guillot P., Droit de l environnement, Ellipses, 1998; 10. Levegue C. Environnement et diversite du vivant, Pocket, 1994.
6.Decleris M. The law of sustainable developent - general pricipiples, European Commisiion 200; Dejant-Ponce, M. Pallemaers, Droits de l homme /Human right and the environemet, Conseil dei Europe/Council of Europe 2002; 8. Ferry L. Le nouvel Ordre ecologigue, Grasset 1992; 9.Guillot P. Droit de lenvirinement, Ellipses ; 10. Levengue C. Environement et diversite du vivan, Pocket 1994.
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DREPTUL COPILULUI I AL PRINTELUI DE A MENINE RELAII PERSONALE N CAZUL SCINDRII OCROTIRII PRINTETI CA URMARE A DIVORULUI
THE CHILDREN AND PARENTS RIGHT TO MAINTAIN PERSONAL RELATIONS IN CASE OF SCISSION OF THE PARENTAL PROTECTION AS A RESULT OF THE DIVORCE
Lect. univ. Alin-Gheorghe GAVRILESCU Facultatea de tiine Juridice, Universitatea Constantin BrncuiTg-Jiu
Abstract n anumite situaii copilul poate fi separat de prinii si sau de unul dintre acetia. n principiu, separarea copilului de prini sau de unul dintre ei nu duce la stingerea tuturor obligaiilor i nici la pierderea tuturor drepturilor printeti. Pentru a-i putea ndeplini ndatoririle pe care le are fa de copil legea recunoate printelui de care acesta a fost separat dreptul de a avea legturi personale cu copilul i de a veghea la creterea, educarea, nvtura i pregtirea profesional a acestuia (art. 43 alin. 3 C. fam.). Pe de alt parte, legiuitorul romn consacr n art. 16 din Legea nr. 272/2004 dreptul copilului de a menine relaii personale i contacte directe cu ambii prini n ipoteza n care a fost separat de acetia sau de unul dintre ei printr-o msur dispus n condiiile legii, cu excepia situaiilor cnd acestea ar fi contrarii interesului superior al copilului, ntruct ar periclita dezvoltarea fizic, mental, spiritual, moral sau social a copilului. Aceste dispoziii sunt concordante cu cele ale art. 9 pct. 3 din Convenia cu privire la drepturile copilului care dispune c statele pri vor respecta dreptul copilului care a fost separat de ambii prini sau de unul dintre ei de a ntreine relaii personale i contacte directe cu cei doi prini ai si, n mod regulat, exceptnd cazul cnd acest lucru contravine interesului superior al copilului. Pe plan internaional, ocrotirea relaiilor personale dintre prinii i copii este asigurat i de prevederile Conveniei asupra relaiilor personale care privesc copiii [1] art. 4 alin. 1 din acest act internaional dispunnd: copilul i prinii si au dreptul de a obine i de a ntreine relaii personale constante.
Lecturer Alin-Gheorghe GAVRILESCU Faculty of Juridical Sciences Constantin Brancusi University Tg. Jiu
Abstract In certain situations, the child may be separated by his parents or by one of them. The childs separation from the parents does not lead to the extinction of all obligations and neither to the lost of all parental rights. To fulfill the duties regarding the child, law recognizes to the parents from which this one has been separated the right to have personal connections to the child and to watch at the growth, education, learning and professional qualification of this (art. 43 paragraph 3 C. fam.). On the other side, the Romanian legislator devotes in art. 16 from the Law no 272/2004 the childs right to maintain personal relations and direct contact with both parents in the apotheosis where this one has been separated from them or from one of them, through a measure disposed in the laws conditions, excepting the situations where these would be contraries to the superior interest of the child, because it would endanger his physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social interest of the child. These dispositions are concordant to those of the art. 9 pct. 3 from Convention regarding the childs rights that disposes that the parts will respect the childs right who was separated of both parents or of one of them to maintain personal relations and direct contact with the two parents, in a regular manner, excepting the case where this contravenes to the superior interest of the child. On the international plan, protecting the personal relations between parents and children is assured also by the Convention foresights upon the personal relations that concern children [1], art. 4 paragraph 1 from this international right that disposes: the child and his parents have the right to obtain and maintain constant personal relations.
1. Noiuni introductive privind dreptul copilului i al prinilor de a menine relaii personale n cazul scindrii ocrotirii printeti urmare a divorului La desfacerea cstoriei instana judectoreasc are obligaia s se pronune asupra ncredinrii copiilor minori, chiar dac acest lucru nu s-a cerut, putnd aprea
1. Introductive notions regarding the children and parents right to maintain personal relations in case of scission of the parental protection as a result of the divorce At the matrimony dissolve, the instance has the obligation to pronounce upon the entrusting of the under age children, even if this thing was not requested, being able to
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practic dou situaii de scindare a ocrotirii printeti: ncredinarea copilului unuia dintre prini i ncredinarea copilului unor rude sau persoane strine ori unei instituii de ocrotire. a) ncredinarea copilului unuia dintre prini. ncredinarea copilului unuia dintre prini la desfacerea cstoriei este reglementat de dispoziiile art. 42 alin. 1 C. fam. care prevd c odat cu pronunarea divorului instana judectoreasc va hotr, innd seama de interesele copiilor, cruia dintre prini i va ncredina, ascultnd n acest scop prinii, autoritatea tutelar i copilul care a mplinit vrsta de 10 ani [2]. Aadar, i n privina ncredinrii minorului la desfacerea cstoriei, ca de altfel n toate demersurile i deciziile care privesc copiii, trebuie s prevaleze interesul superior al acestuia. Interesul superior al copilului are un caracter complex fiind determinat, n lipsa unei prevederi legale exprese, de ctre practica judiciar prin examinarea unui ansamblu de criterii de apreciere precum: vrsta i sexul copilului, situaia material a prinilor, posibilitile lor concrete de a se ocupa de copil, posibilitile de dezvoltare fizic, moral i intelectual pe care copilul le poate gsi la unul sau altul dintre prini, conduita moral a fiecrui printe, gradul de ataament i preocupare pe care fiecare printe l-a manifestat fa de copil, legturile afective stabilite ntre copil i prini [3]. Niciunul dintre aceste criterii, privit separat, nu este determinant, nu poate fi absolutizat, astfel c instana va aprecia care dintre prini are posibilitatea s ofere condiii mai bune pentru creterea i educarea copilului n raport de ansamblul criteriilor respective morale i materiale. n aliniatul 4 al art. 42 legiuitorul las prinilor posibilitatea de a se nvoi cu privire la ncredinarea copiilor ns pentru ca nelegerea lor s produc efecte este necesar ca ea s fie ncuviinat de ctre instana judectoreasc. n practica judiciar s-a decis c dispoziiile art. 42 alin. 4 C. fam. trebuie raportate printr-o interpretare sistematic la cele cuprinse n alin. 1 al aceluiai articol prin care se stabilete pentru instan
appear practically two scission situations of the parental protection: entrusting the child to one of the parents and entrusting the child to a relative or foreign persons or to a protection institution. a) Entrusting the child to one of the parents. Entrusting the child to one of the parents at the matrimony dissolve is settled by the dispositions of art. 42 paragraph 1 C. fam. that foresee that once with the divorce passing, the instance will decide, taking into account the childrens interests, to which of the parents will be entrusted, listening in this sense the parents, the tutelary authority and the child who has 10 years [2]. Therefore, for the under age entrusting at the matrimony dissolve, but also in all the steps and decisions that regard the children, must prevail his superior interest. The superior interest of the child has a complex character being determined, without having a legal expressed foresight, by the judiciary practice through the examination of an ensemble of appreciation criteria such as: age and sex of the child, material situation of the parents, their concrete possibilities to take care of the child, the possibilities of physical development, moral and intellectual that the child may encounter at one or another of the parents, moral behavior of each parent, the affection degree and preoccupation that each parent manifested towards the child, the affective relations established between the child and parents [3]. Neither of these criteria, examined separately, is determinant, or absolutized, so instance will appreciate which of the parents has the possibility to offer better conditions for the raising and educating the child according to the ensemble of the respective moral and material criteria. In the paragraph 4 of art. 42 the legislator gives to the parents the possibility to consent regarding the children entrusting but for making effects their understanding, it is necessary that it must be consented by the instance. In the judiciary practice, it was decided that the dispositions of art. 42 paragraph. 4 C. fam. Must be reported through a systematic interpretation to those content in
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obligaia de a ine seama de interesele copiilor minori atunci cnd dispune ncredinarea acestora unuia sau altuia dintre prini. n consecin, chiar dac prinii se nvoiesc ntr-un anume sens n legtur cu ncredinarea copiilor minori aceast nvoial nu este obligatorie pentru instan ci trebuie cenzurat prin raportare la interesele minorilor a cror ncredinare spre cretere i educare este solicitat [4]. n ipoteza ncredinrii copilului la divor unuia dintre prini exerciiul drepturilor printeti al printelui cruia nu i s-a ncredinat copilul este diferit fa de exerciiul drepturilor printeti din timpul cstoriei i fa de exerciiul drepturilor printeti al printelui cruia i-a fost ncredinat copilul, deosebirile fiind determinate de separarea prinilor i de imposibilitatea obiectiv de meninere a acelorai modaliti de exerciiu a drepturilor i ndeplinire a ndatoririlor printeti i dup desfacerea cstoriei. Aceste diferenieri sunt evideniate de prevederile art. 43 alin. 1 C. fam. care arat c printele divorat cruia i sa ncredinat copilul exercit cu privire la acesta drepturile printeti precum i de cele ale art. 43 alin. 3 C. fam. care consacr dreptul printelui divorat cruia nu i s-a ncredinat copilul de a avea legturi personale cu acesta (precum i dreptul de a veghea la creterea, educarea, nvtura i pregtirea sa profesional). Dreptului printelui de a pstra legturi personale cu minorul reglementat de dispoziiile art. 43 alin. 3 C. fam. i corespunde dreptul copilului de a menine relaii personale i contacte directe cu acest printe [5]. Printele divorat cruia nu i s-a ncredinat copilul i respectivul copil pstreaz dreptul de a menine relaii personale i contacte directe unul cu cellalt ntruct, pe de o parte, acest printe are aceeai rspundere n privina creterii i educrii copilului ca i printele cruia copilul i-a fost ncredinat iar pe de alt parte exercitarea acestor drepturi duce la consolidarea raporturilor afective dintre printele cruia nu i-a fost ncredinat spre cretere i educare copilul i acesta din
paragraph 1 of the same article through which is established for the instance the obligation to take into account the under age children interests when disposes the entrusting of these to one or another of the parents. As a consequence, even if parents consent in a certain way regarding the entrusting of under age children, this agreement is not obligatory for the instance but must be censored through report to the under age interests whose entrusting for raise and education is requested [4]. In the apotheosis of the child entrusting at the divorce to one of the parents, the exercise of parental rights of the parent to whom the child was not entrusted is different towards the parental rights exercise of the parent to whom it was entrusted the child, the differences being determined by the parents separation and the objective impossibility of maintaining of the same modalities of right exercise of rights and fulfillment of the parental duties even after the matrimony cancellation. These differences are pointed out by the foresights of art. 43 paragraph 1 C. fam. Which shows that the divorced parent, to who was entrusted the child exercises towards this one the parental rights as well as those from art. 43 paragraph 3 C. fam. That consecrates to the divorced parent to who it was not entrusted the child to have personal relations with him (as well as the right to take part to the raise, education, culture and professional qualification). The parents right to keep personal connections with the under age, settled by the dispositions of art. 43 paragraph 3 C. fam. corresponds the right to maintain personal relations and direct contacts with this parent [5]. The divorced parent to whom was not entrusted the child and he keeps the right to maintain personal relations and direct contacts one with the other because this has the same responsibility regarding the raise and childs education as the parent to whom was entrusted the child and on the other side the exercise of these rights leads to the consolidation of the affective reports between the parent to whom was not entrusted the child and the
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urm [6]. b) ncredinarea copilului unei tere persoane sau unei instituii de ocrotire. La desfacerea cstoriei instana judectoreasc poate s ncredineze copiii unor rude sau altei persoane, cu consimmntul acestora sau unor instituii de ocrotire dac exist motive temeinice n acest sens (art. 42 alin. 3 C. fam.). Avnd n vedere prevederile art. 30 alin. 1 din Legea nr. 272/2004 care consacr dreptul copilului de a crete alturi de prinii si i pe cele ale art. 33 din aceeai lege care arat c el nu va putea fi separat de prinii si sau de unul dintre acetia mpotriva voinei lor cu excepia cazurilor expres i limitativ prevzute de lege, sub rezerva revizuirii judiciare i numai dac acest lucru este impus de interesul superior al copilului, ncredinarea copilului la divor unor rude sau altei persoane ori unei instituii de ocrotire apare ca o soluie de excepie de la regula ncredinrii copilului unuia dintre prini. La aceast soluie de excepie instana va putea recurge dac, aa cum cere art. 42 alin. 3 C. fam., exist motive temeinice n acest sens. Legiuitorul nu determin aceste motive temeinice astfel c revine instanei sarcina s aprecieze dac vreunul dintre prini poate sau nu s asigure copilului condiii care s permit dezvoltarea sa fizic, mental, spiritual, moral sau social urmnd s decid ncredinarea copilului altei persoane sau instituii de ocrotire dac va constata, n urma aprecierii fcute, c aceast ncredinare este cerut de interesul superior al copilului. ncredinarea copilului altei persoane sau unei instituii de ocrotire nu echivaleaz cu decderea prinilor din drepturile printeti [7], ea nu are ca efect stingerea tuturor obligaiilor i nici pierderea tuturor drepturilor printeti privitoare la persoana minorului. Prinii divorai al cror copil a fost ncredinat la desfacerea cstoriei altei persoane sau unei instituii de ocrotire continu s aib dreptul de a menine legturi personale cu copilul ntruct legiuitorul, reglementnd n art. 43 alin. 3 C. fam. acest drept n favoarea printelui divorat cruia nu i s-a ncredinat copilul, nu face nicio distincie ntre situaia ncredinrii copilului
last one [6]. b) Entrusting the child to a third person or to a protection institution. At the matrimony dissolve the instance may entrust the children to a relative or to another person, with their consent or to another institution of protection if there are reasons in this sense (art. 42 paragraph 3 C. fam.). Taking into account the foresights of art. 30 paragraph 1 from the Law no 272/2004 that dedicates the childs right to raise besides his parents or besides one of these against their will excepting the cases expressed and limited foreseen by the law, under the reserve of judiciary revision and only if this is imposed by the superior interest of the child, the childs entrust at the divorce to some relatives or another person or a protection institution appears as an exception solution from the rule of the under age child entrust to one of the parents. At this exception solution the instance will appeal if, as requests art. 42 paragraph 3 C. fam., are strong reasons in this sense. The legislator does not determine these strong reasons so the instance has the duty to appreciate if one of the parents may or not assure to the child conditions that may support the physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development, following to decide the childs entrust to another person or protection institution if will conclude, as a result of the realized appreciation, that this entrust is requested by the superior interest of the child. The childs entrust to another person or institution is not equal with the parents decline from the parental rights [7], it does not have as an effect the extinction of all parental rights regarding the underage person. The divorced parents whose child was entrusted at the matrimony dissolve of another person or of some protection institution continues to have the right to maintain personal connections with the child, since the legislator, settling in art. 43 paragraph 3 C. fam. This right in the divorced parent favor, to who was not entrusted the child, does not make any distinction between the situation of the childs entrustment to one of the parents
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unuia dintre prini i cea n care el a fost ncredinat unei alte persoane sau unei instituii de ocrotire. Pe de alt parte, nici dispoziiile art. 16 alin. 1 din Legea nr. 272/2004 nu fac nicio distincie ntre aceste situaii atunci cnd reglementeaz dreptul copilului de a menine relaii personale cu ambii prini sau cu printele de care a fost separat printr-o msur dispus n condiiile legii. 2. Realizarea dreptului de a menine relaii personale 2.1. Modaliti de realizare a dreptului de a menine relaii personale n conformitate cu art. 15 din lege relaiile personale se realizeaz prin: - ntlniri ale copilului cu printele sau cu alte persoane ce au dreptul la relaii personale cu copilul; - vizitarea copilului la domiciliul acestuia; - gzduirea copilului pe perioad determinat de ctre printele sau de ctre alt persoan la care copilul nu locuiete n mod obinuit; - coresponden ori alt form de comunicare cu copilul; - transmiterea de informaii copilului cu privire la printele ori la alte persoane ce au dreptul la relaii personale cu acesta; - transmiterea de informaii referitoare la copil, inclusiv fotografii recente, evaluri medicale sau colare. Modaliti similare de realizare a dreptului la relaii personale sunt reglementate n art. 2 lit. a din Convenia asupra relaiilor personale care privesc copiii care arat c noiunea de relaii personale cuprinde n coninutul ei urmtoarele: - ederea copilului limitat n timp la persoana cu care acesta nu locuiete de obicei i care este titular a dreptului la relaii personale cu copilul precum i ntlnirea dintre copil i acea persoan; - orice form de comunicare ntre copil i acea persoan; - furnizarea oricror informaii cu privire la copil ctre acea persoan sau invers.
and the one where he was entrusted to another person or to a protection institution. On the other side, the dispositions of art. 16 paragraph 1 from the Law no 272/2004 do not make any distinction between these situations when settle the childs right to maintain personal relations with both parents or with the parent from which was separated through a measure disposed in the laws conditions. 2. The realization of the right to maintain personal relations 2.1. Modalities to realize the right to maintain personal relations According to art. 15 from the law, the personal relations are realized through: - meeting of the child with the or with other persons that have the right to personal relations with the child; - visits to his residence; - hosting the child for a determined period by the parent or another person to which the child does not live usually; - correspondence or another form of communication with the child; - information transmission to the child regarding the parent or other persons who have the right to personal relations with him; - transmitting of information regarding the child, referring to the child, inclusively recent photos, medical or scholar evaluations; Similar modalities to realize the right to personal relations are settled in art. 2 lit a from the Convention of the personal relations that regard the children that show the notion of personal relations contains the following: - the childs staying, limited in time at the person with which this one does not usually live, and who is titular of the right to personal relations with the child as well as the meeting between the child and that person; - any form of communication between the child and that person; - supply of any information regarding the child by that person or vice versa; 2.2. Agreements regarding the personal relationships The personal relationships program and the realization manner are established by the
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2.2. nvoieli cu privire la relaiile personale Modul de realizare i programul relaiilor personale se stabilesc de ctre instana judectoreasc prin hotrre [8]. Sesizat cu o asemenea cerere instana judectoreasc va putea s ncuviineze o nvoial cu privire la relaiile personale ntruct art. 8 alin. 2 din Convenia asupra relaiilor personale care privesc copiii reglementeaz posibilitatea autoritii judiciare [9] de a ncuviina, la cerere, o nvoial cu privire la relaiile personale cu un copil cu condiia ca aceast nvoial s nu contravin interesului superior al copilului, cu excepia acelor situaii n care ar exista o prevedere contrar n dreptul intern. n dreptul nostru nu exist o dispoziie contrar prevederilor art. 8 alin. 2 din aceast Convenie dar nici o reglementare expres n sensul celor prevzute de textul citat, ceea ce nu constituie ns o mprejurare de natur s mpiedice instana s ncuviineze o astfel de nelegere ct vreme hotrte potrivit interesului superior al copilului. 2.3. Asigurarea realizrii efective a dreptului copilului i al prinilor de a menine relaii personale ntruct meninerea de relaii personale ntre prini i copii d coninut dreptului la respectarea vieii de familie reglementat de art. 8 din Convenia pentru aprarea drepturilor omului i a libertilor fundamentale exerciiul dreptului prinilor i al copilului la astfel de relaii trebuie asigurat efectiv, pe deplin. Aceeai idee se desprinde i din dispoziiile art. 8 alin. 1 din Legea nr. 272/2004 care consacr dreptul copilului la stabilirea i pstrarea identitii sale, ceea ce implic, ntre altele, i dreptul acestuia de a-i pstra, n condiiile prevzute de lege, fr nicio ingerin, relaiile de familie. n practica noastr judiciar s-a decis c, n spiritul bunei credine i al nelegerii, n interesul superior al copilului, principial, ambii prini trebuie s manifeste o disponibilitate maxim i o cooperare deplin, fiind excluse icanele, de aa manier nct copilul s se bucure de prezena, de afeciunea, de grija i de cretere
court of law thorough a decision [8]. Having such petition the court will be able to allow an agreement regarding the personal relationships as art. 8, paragraph. 2 of the Convention on the personal relationships regarding children regulates the possibility of the judiciary authority [9] to create, on petition, an agreement regarding the personal relationship with a child under the condition that this agreement does not infringe the best interest of the child, excepting those situations in which there were a contrary stipulation in the interne right. In our right, there is no stipulation contrary to the stipulations of art. 8, paragraph. 2 in this Convention but neither a specific regulation in the sense of those stipulated by the cited text, that is not a circumstance capable of stopping the court from allowing such an agreement as long as the decision is taken in the best interest of the child. 2.3. Assuring the effective realization of the right of the child and parents of maintaining personal relationships. As maintaining personal relationships between parents and children gives content to the right to respect the family life regulated by art. 8 of the Convention for protecting human rights and fundamental freedoms exercising parents and childs right to such relations must be effectively and fully assured. The same idea comes of the stipulations of art. 8, paragraph 1 of Law no 272/2004 that gives the child the right to establish and maintain his identity, which implies, amongst other, his right to keep in the conditions stipulated by law, without any interference, the family relations. In our judiciary practice it was decided that, in the spirit of good fate and understanding, in the best interest of the child, mainly, both parents must manifest a maximum availability and full cooperation, excluding gags, such as the child may benefit from the presence, affection, care and raise of both parents [10]. These ideas seem to have also been considered by the French legislator when he established in art. 372-2, paragraph 2 of the Civil Code that each of the parents have
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din partea ambilor prini [10]. Aceste raiuni par s fi fost avute n vedere i de legiuitorul francez atunci cnd a stabilit n art. 372-2 alin. 2 din Codul civil c fiecare dintre prini trebuie s menin relaii personale cu copilul i s respecte legturile acestuia cu cellalt printe. Aadar, n vederea aprrii i asigurrii meninerii de relaii personale ntre printele la care copilul nu locuiete i acesta din urm legea civil francez instituie pe de o parte obligaia acestui printe de a ntreine relaii personale cu copilul iar pe de alt parte obligaia printelui care exercit autoritatea printeasc de a se abine de la orice ar putea tirbi legturile copilului cu cellalt printe. Dreptul printelui i al copilului de a menine relaii personale unul cu cellalt nu trebuie stnjenit prin prezena obligatorie a celuilalt printe, ntruct, aa cum s-a artat n practica judiciar, comunicarea dintre printele cruia nu i-a fost ncredinat copilul i respectivul copil trebuie s aib loc n mod firesc, fr nici o restrngere [11]. Numai dac nu este n interesul superior al copilului s ntrein relaii personale nesupravegheate cu printele de care a fost separat instanele trebuie s aib n vedere prevederile art. 4 pct. 3 din Convenia asupra relaiilor personale care privesc copiii i s ia n considerare posibilitatea de ntreinere a unor relaii personale sub supraveghere sau a altor forme de relaii personale cu acest printe. n realizarea efectiv a relaiilor personale trebuie s se in cont i de durata de timp n care printele are legturi personale cu minorul [12]. n acest sens, instanele au decis c dreptul printelui de a veghea la creterea i educarea copilului minor nu se poate exercita n mod eficient dac legturile personale i-au fost limitate doar la cteva ore din anumite zile [13]. n unele situaii exerciiul dreptului de a menine relaii personale poate fi limitat. Astfel, n temeiul art. 4 pct. 2 din Convenia asupra relaiilor personale care privesc copiii relaiile personale pot fi restrnse, sau chiar excluse, atunci cnd acest lucru este necesar n interesul superior al copilului. Posibilitatea ngrdirii dreptului de a menine relaiilor personale este reglementat i n dreptul
to maintain personal relations with the child and to respect his relations with the other parent. Thus, in order to protect and insure the maintenance of personal relations between the parent that does not have the custody and the child the French civil law institutes on the one hand the obligation of this parent to maintain personal relations with the child and on the other hand the obligation of the parent that exercises the paternal authority to abstain from anything that could damage the relations of the child with the other child. The right of the parent and of the child to maintain personal relations with each other must not be disturbed by the mandatory presence of the other parent, as, according to judiciary practices, the communication between the parent that was not given custody and the respective child must take place naturally, without restraints [11]. Only if it is not in the best interest of the child to have unsupervised personal relations with the parent from whom he was separated the courts must take into consideration the stipulations of art. 4 pct. 3 of the Convention on personal relations regarding children and to take into consideration the possibility of maintaining personal relations under supervision or of other personal relations forms with this parent. In the effective realization of the personal relationships there also must be taken into account the time duration in which the parent has personal connections with the minor [12]. In this sense, the courts have decided that the parents right to supervise the raise and education of the minor child cannot be exercised efficiently if the personal relationships have been limited to a few hours on certain days [13]. In some situations, exercising the right to maintain personal relations can be limited. Thus, on the basis of art. 4 pct. 2 of the Convention on personal relations that concern the children the personal relations may be restricted, or even excluded, when this is necessary in the best interest of the child. The possibility to limit the right to maintain personal relations is also regulated in the
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intern, art. 16 alin. 2 din Legea nr. 272/2004 prevznd c instana de judecat, lund n considerare, cu prioritate, interesul superior al copilului poate limita exercitarea acestui drept dac exist motive temeinice de natur a periclita dezvoltarea fizic, mental, spiritual, moral sau social a copilului. De altfel, chiar nainte de adoptarea Legii nr. 272/2004 n literatura juridic s-a exprimat opinia [14] c, dac prin exercitarea abuziv a dreptului de a avea legturi personale cu copilul creterea, educarea, instruirea i formarea acestuia pentru via sunt periclitate, atunci, instana de judecat sesizat este ndreptit s dispun ngrdirea, suspendarea sau chiar suprimarea dreptului printelui de a avea legturi personale cu acesta. 3. Soluionarea litigiilor n materia relaiilor personale n cazul n care printele la care nu se afl copilul este mpiedicat nejustificat s-i exercite dreptul de a menine relaii personale cu acesta el se va putea adresa instanei judectoreti care va decide, lund n considerare, cu prioritate, interesul superior al copilului. ntr-o atare situaie instana judectoreasc va trebui s aib n vedere dispoziiile art. 7 din Convenia asupra relaiilor personale care privesc copiii care arat c atunci cnd soluioneaz litigii n materie de relaii personale autoritatea judiciar va trebui s ia toate msurile pentru a se asigura c ambii prini sunt informai despre importana pe care o au pentru copil i pentru fiecare dintre ei stabilirea i ntreinerea de relaii personale regulate cu copilul lor precum i pentru a-i ncuraja pe prini i pe celelalte persoane care au legturi de familie cu copilul s ajung la nvoieli pe cale amiabil n ceea ce privete relaiile personale cu acesta, n special prin medierea familial. n temeiul aceluiai articol, nainte de a lua o hotrre, autoritatea judiciar trebuie s se asigure c dispune de informaii suficiente n special din partea titularilor rspunderii printeti, pentru a decide n interesul superior al copilului, iar dac este cazul, s obin informaii
internal law, art. 16, paragraph. 2 of Law no. 272/2004 stipulating that the court of law, taking into consideration, firstly, the best interest of the child may limit the exercising of this right if there are sufficient reasons capable of affecting the physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social development of the child. In fact, just before the enacting of Law no. 272/2004 in the juridical literature was expressed the opinion [14] that, if by the abusive exercising of the right to have personal relationships with the child his raise, education, instruction and formation for life are endangered, then, the notified court of law has the right of ordering the restriction, suspension or even suppression of the parents right to have personal relationships with this. 3. Solving litigations about personal relationships In case the parent that does not have the custody of the child is unjustifiably stopped from exercising his right of maintaining personal relations with this he will be able to address the court which will decide, taking into account, first of all, the best interest of the child. In such a situation, the court will have to consider the stipulations in art. 7 of the Convention on personal relationships regarding children that show that when solving litigations regarding personal relationships the judiciary authority will have to take into account all the measures in order to insure that both parents are informed about the importance that has both for the child and both of them the establishing and maintaining of regular, personal relations with their child as well as in order to encourage the parents and the other persons that have family connections with the child to amiably reach agreements regarding the personal relations with this, especially through family mediation. On the basis of the same article, before making a decision, the judiciary authority must assure that it has sufficient information especially from the part of the titular of the parent responsibility, in order to decide in the best interest of the child, and if it is the case, to obtain extra information from other organisms and relevant persons.
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suplimentare de la alte organisme i persoane relevante. [1] Published in M. Of. Part I no 257/17. 04. 2007
[1] Publicat n M. Of. Partea I nr. 257/17. 04. 2007 [2] Conform prevederilor art. 24 alin. 2 din Legea nr. 272/2004 i copilul care nu a mplinit vrsta de 10 ani va putea fi ascultat dac instana apreciaz c audierea lui este necesar pentru soluionarea cauzei. [3] C. A. Bucureti, s. a III-a civ., dec. nr. 882 din 11 aprilie 2006, n Pandectele Romne, nr. 5/2006, p. 98 i urm.; C. A. Timioara, s. civ. dec. nr. 254/31. 01. 2006, n E. Rou, Dreptul familiei. Practic judiciar. Hotrri C.E.D.O., Editura Hamangiu, 2007, p. 79 i urm.; C.S.J., s. civ., dec. nr. 1848/1991, n Probleme de drept din deciziile Curii Supreme de Justiie 19901992, Editura Orizonturi, Bucureti, 1993, p. 217 i urm; C. A. Galai, dec. civ. nr. 36/R/13 ianuarie 1998 (nepublicat), n F. Ciutacu, Dreptul familiei. Culegere de spee. Modele de aciuni, Editura Themis Cart, Slatina, 2005, p. 36-37; C. A. Timioara, s. civ., dec. nr. 154 F/13. 02. 2007 pe portal. just. ro; C. A. Iai, s. civ. dec. nr. 14/18. 01. 2007 pe portal. just. ro. [4] C.A.B. s. a IV-a civ., dec. nr. 2166/2000, n Culegere de practic judiciar n materie civil pe anul 2000 a Curii de Apel Bucureti, Lucrare ngrijit, coordonat i sistematizat de Judector dr. Dan Lupacu, Editura Rosetti, Bucureti, 2002, p. 517520 [5] Curtea de Apel Craiova, dec. civ. nr. 8/19. 01. 2007 pe portal.just.ro [6] Curtea de Apel Piteti, dec. civ. nr. 2121/15. 11. 2004; Curtea de Apel Timioara dec. civ. nr. 176/24. 01. 2006 pe portal.just.ro [7] T.R. Popescu, Dreptul familiei. Tratat, vol. II, Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1965, p. 295. [8] O astfel de hotrre judectoreasc are caracter vremelnic, astfel c, dac s-au schimbat mprejurrile avute n vedere de instan, se va putea pronuna o nou hotrre adaptat noilor mprejurri. A se vedea n acest sens Trib. Suprem, s. Civ., dec. Nr. 426/1980, n R.R.D. nr. 10/1980, p. 66. [9] Conform art. 2 lit e din Convenie prin autoritate judiciar se nelege instana judectoreasc sau o autoritate administrativ care are competene echivalente. [10] Curtea de Apel Timioara, dec. Nr. 1531/2006 pe portal.just. ro [11] C.A.B., s. civ. dec. nr. 560/1994 n Culegere de practic judiciar civil, Curtea de Apel Bucureti, 1993-1998 (Dan Lupacu, Octavia Spineanu Matei, Mihaela Tbrc, Adriana Roua Pop, Rodica Susanu), Editura All Beck, Bucureti, 1999, p. 115-116; Trib. Suprem, s. civ. dec. nr. 1884/1979, n CD 1979, p. 167-168. [12] Curtea de Apel Piteti, dec. civ. nr. 2121/2004 pe portal.just.ro. [13] T.M.B., s. III civ., dec. nr. 96/1990, n Culegere de practic judiciar civil pe anul 1990, Tribunalul [2] According to the foresight of art. 24 paragraph 2 from Law no 272/2004 and the child who did not accomplish the age of 10 years old will be able to be listened if the instance appreciates that his hearing is necessary for the cause solving. [3] The Appeal Court Bucharest s. a III-a civ., dec. no 882 from 11 April 2006, in the Romanian Pandects, no 5/2006, p. 98 and: The Appeal Court Timioara, s. civ. Dec. no 254/31. 01. 2006, in E. Rou, Family right. Judiciary Practice. Decisions C.E.D.O., Publisher Hamangiu, 2007, p. 79 and: C.S.J., s. civ., dec. no 1848/1991, in Problems of right from the decisions of the Supreme Court of Justice 1990-1992, Publisher Orizonturi, Bucharest 1993, p. 217 and: The Appeal Court Galai, dec. civ. no 36/R/13 January 1998 (unpublished), in F. Ciutacu, The Family Right.. Manual of races. Action models, Publisher Themis Cart, Slatina, 2005, p. 36-37; The Appeal Court Timioara, s. civ., dec. no. 154 F/13. 02. 2007 pe portal. just. ro; The Appeal Court Iai, s. civ. dec. no 14/18. 01. 2007 pe portal. just. ro. [4] The Appeal Court Bucharest s. a IV-a civ., dec. no 2166/2000, in Manual of judiciary practice in civil material over the year 2000 of the Appeal Court Bucharest, Guided work, coordinated and systematized by the Judge dr. Dan Lupacu, Publisher Rosetti, Bucharest, 2002, p. 517-520 [5] The Appeal Court Craiova, dec. civ. no 8/19. 01. 2007 on portal.just.ro [6] The Appeal Court Piteti, dec. civ. no 2121/15. 11. 2004; The Appeal Court Timioara dec. civ. no 176/24. 01. 2006 on portal.just.ro [7] T.R. Popescu, The Family Right. Treaty, vol. II, Publisher Didactic and Pedagogic, Bucharest 1965, p. 295. [8] Such decision has a temporary character, thus, if the circumstances taken into consideration in court have changed, a new decision adapted to the new circumstances can be taken. See in this sense the Supreme Court, s. Civ., dec. No. 426/1980, in R.R.D. no 10/1980, p. 66. [9] According to art. 2 lit e of Convention through judicial authority it is understood that the court or an administrative authority with equivalent competences. [10] Timioara Appeal Court, dec. No. 1531/2006 on just.ro [11] The Appeal Court Bucharest s. civ. dec. no. 560/1994 in Civic judiciary practice collection, Bucharest Appeal Court, 1993-1998 (Dan Lupacu, Octavia Spineanu Matei, Mihaela Tbrc, Adriana Roua Pop, Rodica Susanu), Publishing House All Beck, Bucureti, 1999, p. 115-116; Supreme Tribunal., s. civ. dec. no 1884/1979, in CD 1979, p. 167-168. [12] Piteti Appeal Court, dec. civ. no 2121/2004 on just.ro. [13] T.M.B., s. III civ., dec. no. 96/1990, in Civic judiciary practice collection in 1990, Bucharest
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008 Municipiului Bucureti, de Ioan Mihu, Casa de editur i pres ansa S.R.L., 1992, p. 33. [14] Ioan Albu, Dreptul printelui divorat cruia nu i s-a ncredinat copilul de a avea cu acesta legturi personale, n R.R.D. nr. 2/1988, p. 32. Municipality Tribunal, by Ioan Mihu, Publishing House ansa S.R.L., 1992, p. 33.
[14] Ioan Albu, The right of the divorced parent who was not given the custody of the child to have personal relations with this, in R.R.D. no. 2/1988, p. 32.
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FORME DE PROTECIE A STRINILOR N ROMNIA
FORMS OF PROTECTING FOREIGNERS IN ROMANIA
Lect. univ. Ina Raluca TOMESCU Universitatea Constantin Brncui Trgu-Jiu
Assistant Professor Ina Raluca TOMESCU Constantin Brncui University Trgu-Jiu
Abstract. La migration, phnomne qui ne disparaissent jamais, connatre les nouvelles fonctionnalits en fonction de l'volution socio-politique du monde. Il est ncessaire pour la politique de l'Etat sur les migrations devrait tre mis jour en permanence en fonction des nouveaux dveloppements rgionaux et phnomne international et de devenir l'un des principaux domaines d'tude pour les autorits comptentes en la matire afin qu'il puisse tre atteindre les conditions optimales pour maximiser les effets positifs de ce processus et limiter les effets ngatifs pour le pays et, implicitement, pour ses propres citoyens.
Abstract. La migration, phnomne qui ne disparaissent jamais, connatre les nouvelles fonctionnalits en fonction de l'volution socio-politique du monde. Il est ncessaire pour la politique de l'Etat sur les migrations devrait tre mis jour en permanence en fonction des nouveaux dveloppements rgionaux et phnomne international et de devenir l'un des principaux domaines d'tude pour les autorits comptentes en la matire afin qu'il puisse tre atteindre les conditions optimales pour maximiser les effets positifs de ce processus et limiter les effets ngatifs pour le pays et, implicitement, pour ses propres citoyens.
Reglementarea regimului juridic al strinilor, a condiiilor de intrare, edere i ieire a constituit o preocupare constant a statelor lumii nc de la apariia primelor tratate internaionale. n cel mai vechi tratat de drept internaional cunoscut n istorie i care a fost semnat n anul 1278 .e.n. ntre faraonul Ramses al II-lea, din dinastia a XIX-a, i Hattuil al III-lea, regele Hitiilor, se prevede msura returnrii propriilor ceteni i grija pentru tratamentul acordat strinilor. Astfel, ntr-un articol special se arata c dac vreo persoan va fugi din Egipt i va veni n ara Hitiilor, regele Hitiilor nu-1 va reine n ara lui, dar l va ntoarce n ara lui Ramses. De asemenea, mpreun cu fugarii vor fi ntori oamenii i avutul lor n ntregime. Dac vor fugi din Egipt unul, doi, trei etc. oameni n ara Hitiilor, ei trebuie s fie napoiai n ara lui Ramses. Ei nii, avutul lor, soiile, copiii i slugile vor fi adui nevtmai. i s nu-i pedepseasc, s nu le strice ochii, buzele, picioarele [1]. n epoca modern, introducerea controalelor la frontier i a documentelor de cltorie, ncepnd cu secolul al XIX-lea, n Europa a creat un anumit numr de obstacole fizice i juridice circulaiei persoanelor, astfel nct intrarea, ederea i ieirea au devenit un act juridic pe care indivizii nu-1 pot executa fr autorizaie. Un studiu comparat al regimului juridic al strinilor n marile sisteme
The regulation of foreigners juridical status, entry conditions, staying and leaving conditions has been a permanent concern of the states of the world from the birth of the first international treaties. In the oldest treaty of international law known in the history and signed in 1278 B.C. between the pharaoh Ramses the 2nd, from the 19th dynasty and Hattuil the 3rd, the king of Hittites, it is provided the measure of returning to their own citizens and the concern for the treatment regarding foreigners. Therefore, in a special article it was stipulated that if a persons runs away from Egypt and comes to the Hittites country, the king of Hittites shall not keep it into his country, but return him to Ramses country. Also, together with the runners, the people and their fortune shall be returned entirely. If one, two, three etc people run away to the Hittites country, they have to be returned to Ramses country. They, their fortune, their wives, children and servants shall be sent back uninjured. They were not supposed to punish them, injure their eyes, lips, legs [1]. In modern times, the introduction of border controls and travel documents, beginning with the 19th century in Europe, created a number of physical and juridical obstacles for persons travelling, so that the entry, the staying and the exit became a juridical act that individuals cannot perform without authorization. A compared study
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de drept ale lumii contemporane evideniaz fenomenul receptrii n sistemele naionale a unor principii i norme de drept din legislaiile naionale ale statelor cu economii dezvoltate, care se confrunt cu un flux important de strini migrai legal sau ilegal. Aspectele negative sau pozitive ale migraiei se reflect n modul n care autoritile legislative din statele lumii au neles s reglementeze condiiile de intrare, edere i ieire ale strinilor, apatrizilor, regimul refugiailor i azilanilor [2]. Imigrarea pe considerente umanitare, pentru reunirea familiilor sau din motive economice, pentru un loc de munc, a determinat adoptarea unor norme de drept care se regsesc n toate legislaiile naionale, indiferent de sistemul de drept. In cel de-al doilea mare sistem, common law, s-a dezvoltat o nou ramur de drept, cunoscut ca Immigration Law i care reglementeaz regimul juridic al strinilor [3]. Analiza comparativ a regimului juridic al strinilor n marile sisteme de drept (romano-germanic, common law, religioase i tradiionale) ne-a permis s constatm modul n care fiecare stat sau comunitate de state iau dezvoltat legislaia n acest domeniu n funcie de interesele naionale. n Romnia a fost adoptat o politic n domeniul imigraiei, iar anual, prin hotrre de Guvern, se stabilete numrul permiselor de munc ce pot fi eliberate strinilor pentru ncadrarea n munc. Astfel, rile noilor democraii n Europa Central i de Est, din ri de emigrare devin treptat ri de imigrare a strinilor din alte ri ale lumii. Extinderea Uniunii Europene spre rile din Est va fi un instrument care va ajuta aciunea de control al micrii populaiilor n interiorul Europei. n acelai timp, Uniunea European va avea nevoie de un numr tot mai mare de strini care s presteze munci mai umile i mai grele pe care, chiar dac ar fi bine pltii, europenii nu le vor mai face. Strinii vor fi integrai printre europeni prin respectarea normelor de convieuire n comun, a legalitii, dar i a drepturilor egale. n ara noastr, prin Legea nr. 122/2006 privind azilul n Romnia [4] a fost stabilit regimul juridic al strinilor care solicit o form de protecie n Romnia, regimul juridic al strinilor beneficiari ai unei forme de protecie n Romnia, procedura de acordare, ncetare i anulare a unei forme de protecie n Romnia, precum i procedura pentru stabilirea statului membru responsabil cu analizarea cererii de azil. Astfel, odat cu
of the foreigners juridical status within the great law systems of the contemporary world highlights the reception phenomenon within national systems of developed economies countries, which are facing an important flow of legally or illegally migrated foreigners. The negative or positive aspects of migration are reflected in the way in which legislative authorities in the world states have understood to regulate the entry, staying and leaving conditions for the foreigners, stateless persons, the status of refugees and assailants [2]. Immigration for humanitarian reasons, for reuniting the families or from economic reasons, for a place to work, has caused the adoption of some law regulations found in all the national legislations, no matter their law system. Within the second great system, common law, a new law branch has been developed as Immigration Law which regulates the foreigners juridical status [3]. The comparative analysis of the foreigners juridical status within the great systems of law (Romano-Germanic, common law, religious and traditional) has allowed as to establish the way in which every state or community of states have developed their legislation in the field in accordance with the national interests. In Romania a policy in the field of immigration has been adopted and annually, through a Government resolution, it is established the number of work permits to be issued for foreigners for employment. Therefore, the countries of the new democracies in Central and East Europe, from immigrating countries they gradually become immigration countries for foreigners from other countries in the world. The extension of the European Union towards the Eastern Countries shall be an instrument helping the control action for the populations movement inside Europe. At the same time, the European Union will need more and more foreigners to provide humble and hard works that, even if better paid, Europeans would refuse to carry them. Foreigners will be integrated among the Europeans by complying with the regulations of living together, legality, and equal rights. In our country, through the Law no. 122/2006 regarding asylum in Romania [4] it is established the juridical status of foreigners who benefit from a form of protection in Romania, the granting procedure, cancellation procedure for a
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intrarea n vigoare a Legii nr. 122/2006 [5], legislaia romn n materia azilului folosete termeni i expresii uniforme din dreptul european [6], legea romn transpunnd astfel Directiva Consiliului nr. 2001/55/EC privind standardele minime de protecie temporar n eventualitatea unui flux masiv de persoane strmutate i msurile de promovare a balanei de eforturi ntre statele membre n vederea primirii unor astfel de persoane i suportarea consecinelor, Directiva Consiliului nr. 2003/9/EC privind standardele minime pentru primirea solicitanilor de azil, Directiva Consiliului nr. 2003/86/EC privind dreptul la reunificarea familiei i Directiva Consiliului 2004/83/EC privind standardele minime pentru calificare i statutul cetenilor rilor tere sau apatrizilor ca refugiai sau ca persoane aflate n nevoie de protecie internaional i coninutul proteciei acordate. Astfel, potrivit legii romne, cererea de azil este solicitarea fcut de ctre un cetean strin sau apatrid n scopul obinerii proteciei din partea statului romn. Formele de protecie acordate de statul romn, conform Legii 122/2006, cu modificrile i completrile ulterioare, sunt: statutul de refugiat, protecia subsidiar i protecia temporar. 1. Statutul de refugiat este o form de protecie recunoscut de statul romn ceteanului strin sau apatridului care ndeplinete condiiile prevzute n Convenia privind statutul refugiailor, ncheiat la Geneva la 28 iulie 1951, la care Romnia a aderat prin Legea nr. 46/1991 pentru aderarea la Convenia privind statutul refugiailor, precum i la Protocolul privind statutul refugiailor (art. 2, lit. g din Legea 122/2006). Potrivit art. 4 din Legea 122/2006, autoritile romne competente trebuie s asigure accesul la procedura de azil oricrui cetean strin sau apatrid, aflat pe teritoriul Romniei ori la frontier, din momentul manifestrii de voin, exprimat n scris sau oral, din care s rezulte c acesta solicit protecia statului romn, cu excepia situaiilor prevzute expres de lege, fr discriminare, indiferent de ras, naionalitate, etnie, limb, religie, categorie social, convingeri, sex, orientare sexual, vrst, handicap, boal cronic necontagioas, infectare HIV sau apartenena la o categorie defavorizat, de situaia material, de statutul la natere ori de statutul dobndit sau de orice alt distincie. 2. Protecia subsidiar este forma de protecie acordat de statul romn ceteanului strin sau apatridului pentru alte motive dect cele prevzute de Convenia de la Geneva (art.
form of protection in Romania, as well as the procedure for establishing the member state responsible with the asylum request analysis. Therefore, when enforcing the Law no. 122/2006 [5], the Romanian legislation on the matter of asylum uses terms and expressions common in European law [6], the Romanian law thus transposing the Council Directive nr. 2001/55/EC regarding the minimum temporary protection standards in the event of a massive flow of moved people and the measures for promoting the efforts balance between the member states in order to receive such persons and bear the consequences, The Council Directive nr. 2003/9/EC regarding the minimum standards for receiving asylum applicants, Council Directive nr. 2003/86/EC regarding the right to reunite the family and Council Directive 2004/83/EC regarding the minimum qualification standards and the status of citizens from third countries or stateless persons or refugees or as persons in need for international protection as well as the content of protection. Therefore, according to Romanian law, the request for asylum is the application made by a foreigner or stateless person for obtaining protection from the Romanian state. The forms of protection given by the Romanian state according to the Law 122/2006, as further amended and completed, are: the status of refugee, subsidiary protection and temporary protection. 1. The status of refugee is a form of protection accepted by the Romanian state for the foreigner or stateless person that meets the requirements stipulated in the Convention regarding the refugees status, concluded at Geneva on 28th of July 1951, to which Romania adhered through the Law no. 46/1991 for adhesion to the Convention regarding the refugees status, as well as to the Protocol regarding the refugees status (art. 2, letter. g of the Law 122/2006). According to the art. 4 of the Law 122/2006, competent Romanian authorities have to provide access to the asylum procedure for every foreigner or stateless person, being on Romanian territory or at its border, from the moment of revealing the will, in writing or orally, of which it results that it requires the protection from the Romanian state, except the situations expressly stipulated by the law, without discrimination, no
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2, lit. h din Legea 122/2006). Solicitantul acestei forme de protecie nu ndeplinete condiiile pentru recunoaterea statutului de refugiat i cu privire la el exist motive temeinice s se cread c, n cazul returnrii n ara de origine, respectiv n ara n care i avea reedina obinuit, va fi expus unui risc serios [7] i care nu poate sau, datorit acestui risc, nu dorete protecia acelei ri. Protecia subsidiar nceteaz atunci cnd mprejurrile care au condus la acordarea ei au ncetat s existe ori s-au schimbat ntr-o asemenea msur nct aceast form de protecie nu mai este necesar. Aceste dou forme de protecie, statutul de refugiat i protecia subsidiar, pot fi solicitate i de membrii de familie (aa cum sunt prevzui de art. 2 lit. j), care se afl pe teritoriul Romniei, cu condiia ca acetia s nu se afle ntr-una din urmtoarele situaii: a) au comis o infraciune contra pcii i omenirii, o crim de rzboi ori o alt infraciune definit conform tratatelor internaionale relevante la care Romnia este parte sau altor documente internaionale pe care Romnia este obligat s le respecte; b) au comis o infraciune grav de drept comun nainte de intrarea pe teritoriul Romniei; c) au comis fapte care sunt contrare scopurilor i principiilor enunate n preambulul i n art. 1 i 2 din Carta Organizaiei Naiunilor Unite; d) constituie un pericol la adresa ordinii publice i siguranei naionale ale Romniei; e) au instigat sau au fost complici la svrirea faptelor menionate anterior. 3. Protecia temporar este o procedur cu caracter excepional menit s asigure protecia, n cazul unui flux masiv sau al unui flux masiv [8] iminent de persoane strmutate din ri tere care nu se pot ntoarce n ara de origine, protecie practic imediat i temporar unor astfel de persoane, n special dac exist i riscul ca sistemul de azil s nu poat procesa acest flux fr efecte adverse pentru funcionarea sa eficient, n interesul persoanelor n cauz i al altor persoane care au nevoie de protecie. n cazul existenei unui astfel de flux de persoane strmutate Romnia poate propune Consiliului Uniunii Europene emiterea unei decizii prin care s se constate existenta acestuia, propunerea n care se va realiza o descriere a grupurilor specifice de
matter the race, nationality, language, religion, social category, sex, sexual orientation, age, handicap, chronic uncontagious disease, HIV infection or birth status, material status or the status acquired through another distinction. 2. Subsidiary protection is the form of protection given by the Romanian state to the foreigner or stateless person for other reasons than the ones provided by the Convention at Geneva (art. 2, letter h from the Law 122/2006). The applicant of this form of protection does not comply with the conditions for admitting the status of refugee and there are grounded reasons to believe that, in case of sending back to the origin country, in the country of actual residence respectively, it will be exposed to a serious risk [7] and cannot or does not want the protection from that country due to this risk. The subsidiary protection stops when the circumstances leading to it ceased to exist or have changed to such extent that this form of protection is no longer necessary. These two forms of protection, the status of refugee and subsidiary protection, may be claimed by the family members (as provided by the art. 2 letter. j), which is on the territory of Romania, on condition that they are not in one of the following circumstances: a) have committed an offence against the peace and humanity, a crime of war or another offence defined according to the relevant international treaties to which Romania is part of or other international documents that Romania has to comply with; b) have committed a serious common law offence before entering on Romanias territory; c) have committed actions against the purposes and principles expressed in the preamble and in the art. 1 and 2 in the United Nations Organizations Chart; d) is a danger for the public order and national safety of Romania; e) have instigated or have been accomplices to committing the aforementioned offences. 3. Temporary protection is an exceptional procedure meant to provide protection, in case of a massive flow or of a imminent massive flow [8] of persons coming from third countries and that cannot return to their origin country, immediate and temporary protection actually for such persons,
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persoane crora li se va aplica protecia temporar, data la care protecia temporar intr n vigoare i o estimare a scalei de micri ale persoanelor strmutate. Legea 122/2006 mai prevedea, ca form de protecie acordat strinilor, protecia umanitar temporar [9], care se acorda n perioadele de conflicte armate, n care Romnia nu era angajat, pentru persoanele care proveneau din zonele de conflict. Aceast protecie se acorda prin hotrre a Guvernului, elaborat de Ministerul Administraiei i Internelor, la propunerea Oficiului Naional pentru Refugiai, n situaia n care se constata sau existau informaii c din zona de conflict urmeaz s fie nregistrat un aflux masiv i spontan de persoane care au nevoie de protecie. Odat cu dobndirea de ctre Romnia a statutului de stat membru al Uniunii Europene, prevederile referitoare la protecia umanitar temporar au fost abrogate conform art. 151 din Legea 122/2006. Indiferent de forma de protecie dobndit de un strin pe teritoriul Romniei, acestuia i revin o serie de obligaii, n esen fiind vorba de respectarea Constituiei Romniei, a legilor i celorlalte acte normative emise de autoritile romne; de a avea o conduit corect i civilizat, de a respecta msurile stabilite de organele romne competente n materie de refugiai i de a rspunde la solicitrile acestora; de a respecta regulamentele de ordine interioar din centrele Oficiului Romn pentru Imigrri, dac este cazat ntr-un asemenea centru; de a evita provocarea oricror stri conflictuale sau incidente cu populaia ori comiterea unor fapte ce pot intra sub incidena legii penale; de a se supune regulilor privind regimul juridic al strinilor, n msura n care legea nu dispune altfel. Pentru a putea obine protecie n Romnia, strinii trebuie s urmeze procedura ordinar prevzut de Legea 122/2006, n urma manifestrii de voin exprimate n faa autoritilor competente. Din momentul manifestrii de voin, solicitantul de azil beneficiaz de toate drepturile i obligaiile prevzute de lege [10]. n situaia n care pe parcursul desfurrii acestei proceduri, funcionarul anume desemnat constat c cererea este nefondat, c strinul, prin activitatea sa i prin apartenena la o anumit grupare, prezint un pericol pentru sigurana naional ori pentru ordinea public din Romnia sau c strinul provine dintr-o ar
especially if there is the risk that the system of asylum cannot process this flow without side effects for its efficient working, to other persons interest who need protection. In the case of such a flow of persons moved to Romania it may propose to the Council of the European Union to issue some decisions for establishing its existence, the proposal for making a description of specific groups that shall be applied temporary protection and shall be enforced an assessment of the scale of persons movements. The Law 122/2006 also provided, as a form of protection for foreigners, temporary humanitarian protection [9], that was granted during armed conflicts periods, in which Romania was not engaged, for the persons coming from conflict areas. This protection was granted through Government resolution, issued by the Ministry of Administration and Interior, at the proposal of the National Office for Refugees, if there was established that there was information that a massive and spontaneous flow of persons was to be registered from the area of conflict that may require protection. Together with acquiring the status of member state of the European Union by Romania, the provisions regarding the temporary humanitarian protection have been abrogated according to the art. 151 from the Law 122/2006. No matter the form of protection acquired by a foreigner on the territory of Romania, he has certain obligations, namely the compliance with the Constitution of Romania, the laws and other normative documents issued by Romanian authorities; to have a decent and civilized behaviour, to comply with the measures established by Romanian bodies competent in the matter of refugees and answer to its requirements; to comply with the internal regulations within the centres of the Romanian Office for Immigrations, if accommodated in such centre; to avoid causing conflictual states or incidents with the population or committing offences that may go under the liability of the penal law; to obey the regulations of the foreigners juridical status, to the extent the law stipulates otherwise. For being able to get protection in Romania, foreigners have to follow the ordinary procedure stipulated by the Law 122/2006, after expressing the will in front of competent authorities. From the moment of expressing the will, the
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sigur de origine, poate declana procedura accelerat, cu excepia cererilor de azil ale minorilor nensoii a cror soluionare se realizeaz n termen de 3 zile de la declanarea procedurii. Cererea de azil, care se depune la organele teritoriale ale Poliiei de Frontier Romne dintr-un punct de control pentru trecerea frontierei de stat, este naintat de ndat structurii competente a Oficiului Romn pentru Imigrri, care o analizeaz i pronun o hotrre n termen de 3 zile de la primire. Legea romn stabilete condiiile de depunere a cererii de acces la o nou procedur de azil i soluiile care pot fi date de instana de judecat n cazul exercitrii cii de atac. Strinul are dreptul de a rmne pe teritoriul Romniei pn la pronunarea instanei, hotrrea instanei prin care s-a pronunat asupra plngerii strinului fiind irevocabil. Legea nr. 122/2006 stabilete i procedura rii tere sigure [11], prin care Oficiului Romn pentru Imigrri poate decide retrimiterea strinului n ara ter sigur, pe care a tranzitat-o anterior, i unde i s-a oferit deja protecie, fr analizarea pe fond a cererii sale. De asemenea, Oficiului Romn pentru Imigrri poate decide s reprimeasc pe teritoriul rii strini n situaiile n care Romnia este declarat de statul solicitant ar ter sigur pentru acetia. De la data aderrii Romniei la Uniunea European, procedura rii tere sigure nu se mai aplic n cazul statelor membre ale Uniunii Europene ori al altor state care au convenit printr-un acord special participarea la mecanismul de determinare a statului responsabil. Potrivit acestui mecanism, unui solicitant de azil i se poate refuza accesul la procedura de azil n Romnia dac, n conformitate cu conveniile sau directivele Uniunii Europene, un alt stat este responsabil pentru examinarea cererii de azil. Persoana care a fost recunoscut ca refugiat sau creia i s-a acordat protecie subsidiar este protejat mpotriva expulzrii, extrdrii ori returnrii [12] n ara de origine sau n orice stat n care viaa ori libertatea sa ar fi pus n pericol sau n care ar fi supus la torturi, tratamente inumane ori degradante. Totui, aceste persoane pot fi ndeprtate de pe teritoriul Romniei dac exist motive temeinice s fie considerate un pericol la adresa securitii statului romn sau, fiind condamnate pentru o infraciune grav printr-o
asylum applicant benefits of all the rights and obligations provided by the law [10]. If during this procedure, the officer expressly appointed establishes the that the request is not grounded, that the foreigner, through its activity and by belonging to a certain group, is a danger for the national safety or for the public order in Romania and that the foreigner comes from a safe country of origin may initiate the accelerated procedure, with the exception of the asylum request for the minor children not accompanied by anyone, whose solution shall be made within 3 days from initiating the procedure. The asylum request, which shall be submitted at the territorial bodies of the Romanian Border Police from a point of control for passing the state border, shall be immediately handed to the competent structure of the Romanian Office for Immigrations that analyzes it and sentences a decision within 3 days from reception. The Romanian Law establishes the conditions for submitting the access application for a new procedure of asylum in case of exercising the way of attack. The foreigner is entitled to remain on Romanian territory until the sentence is given, the decision of the court through which the foreigner complaint was irrevocable. The Law nr. 122/2006 establishes the procedure of the safe country [11], through which the Romanian Office for Immigrations may decide to resend the foreigner to the safe third country, he passed through previously and where he had already been offered protection, without analyzing his request on the ground. Also, the Romanian Office for Immigrations may decide to receive foreigners again on the Romanian territory if Romania is declared safe third country for then by the applicant state. Since Romanias adhesion to the European Union, the procedure of safe third country has not applied for member states of the European Union or to other states that have especially mutually agreed to participate to the mechanism of establishing the liable state. According to this mechanism, an asylum applicant may be refused the access to the asylum procedure in Romania if, in compliance with the conventions or the directives of the European Union, another state is responsible for examining the request for asylum. The person admitted as refugee or which has received subsidiary protection is protected
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hotrre definitiv, constituie un pericol la adresa ordinii publice din Romnia. Strinul care pierde statutul de refugiat (prin ncetare sau anulare), conform art. 98 i art. 100 din Legea 122/2006, se supune prevederilor legale privind regimul juridic al strinilor n Romnia. n scopul armonizrii legislaiei romne n domeniul azilului cu legislaiile rilor membre ale Uniunii Europene, Legea 122/2006 a extins posibilitatea acordrii, la cerere, a statutului de refugiat i copiilor minori din cstoriile ncheiate dup intrarea pe teritoriul Romniei, din afara cstoriei sau adoptai de beneficiarul principal al formei de protecie. n prezent, Romnia a reuit s rezolve n mare chestiunea reglementrii procedurii de azil i a drepturilor de care se bucur solicitanii de azil, refugiaii i persoanele care au primit protecie subsidiar. Trebuiesc ns dezvoltate n continuare forme specializate de asisten din partea autoritilor pentru integrarea n societate a strinilor care au primit protecie n Romnia. Aceasta nseamn derularea concret a unor programe de pregtire profesional i sprijin concret pentru gsirea unui loc de munc, a unei locuine etc, dar i cursuri de pregtire a funcionarilor publici privind comunicarea intercultural. Refugiaii ar trebui n mod normal s aib alt statut dect restul strinilor n ceea ce privete dreptul de a obine cetenia romn i asta datorit situaiei lor speciale. n acest moment, refugiaii trebuie s atepte tot opt ani [13] (sau cinci n cazul cstoriei cu un cetean romn) pentru obinerea ceteniei romne. Statisticile arat c n ultimii 15 ani, numai circa 20 de refugiai au reuit s obin cetenia romn. Prevederile articolului 34 din Convenia de la Geneva privind statutul refugiailor spun c statele contractante vor facilita, pe ct posibil, asimilarea i naturalizarea refugiailor. Ele se vor strdui, n special, s accelereze procedura de naturalizare i de reducere, pe ct posibil, a taxelor i costurilor acestei proceduri.
[1] I. Deak, Ph.L. Jessup, A Collection of Neutrality Laws, Regulations and Treaties of Various Countries, vol. I, Washington 1939, p. 210. [2] G.S. Goodwin-Gill, International Law an Movement of Persons between States, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1978, p. 10. [3] C. Vincenzi, D. Marrington, Immigration Law: The Rules Explained, London. Sweet/Maxwell, 1992. p. 27. [4] Publicat n M.onitorul Oficial nr. 428 din 18 mai 2006. [5] A intrat n vigoare la 4 august 2006.Ulterior,
against expulsion, extradition or sending back [12] to the origin country where its life or freedom might be endangered or undergo tortures, inhuman or degrading treatments. Still, these persons may be alienated from Romania if there are solid reasons to be considered a danger for the safety of the Romanian state, being convicted for a serious offence though an irrevocable resolution is a danger for the public order in Romania. The foreigner loosing the status of refugee (through ceasing or cancellation), according to the art. 98 and art. 100 of the Law 122/2006, shall be regulated by the legal provisions regarding the foreigners juridical status in Romania. For harmonizing the Romanian legislation in the field of asylum with the legislations of European Union member states, the Law 122/2006 has extended the possibility of granting, at request, the status of refugee to the minor children coming from marriages concluded after entering the Romanian territory, outside the marriage or adopted by the main beneficiary of the protection form. At present, Romania has managed to solve the problem of regulating the procedure of asylum and the rights of the asylum applicants, refugees and persons receiving subsidiary protection. Specialized forms of assistance have to be developed next by the authorities for integrating foreigners receiving protection in Romania into the society. This means actual development of professional training programs and actual support for finding a job, a place to live etc, as well as training courses for public officers regarding intercultural communication. Refugees should normally have another status in comparison with the rest of the foreigners regarding the right to get Romanian citizenship and this because their special status. Currently, refugees have to wait eight years [13] (or five in the case of marriage to a Romanian citizen) for getting Romanian citizenship. Statistics indicate that for the last fifteen years, only approximately 20 refugees have managed to get Romanian citizenship. The provisions of the article 34 from the Convention at Geneva regarding the refugees status say that contracting states shall facilitate, as possible, the assimilation and naturalization and reduction, as possible of taxes and costs for this procedure.
[1] I. Deak, Ph.L. Jessup, A Collection of Neutrality
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008 legea a fost modificat prin prin Ordonan a de Urgen nr. 55/2007 privind nfiinarea Oficiului Romn pentru Imigrri prin reorganizarea Autoritii pentru strini i a Oficiului Naional pentru Refugiai, precum i modificarea i completarea unor acte normative (M.Of. nr. 424 din 26 iunie 2007) i prin Legea nr. 347/2007 pentru aprobarea Ordonanei de Urgen a Guvernului nr. 55/2007 (M.Of.Nr.851 din 12 decembrie 2007). [6] Cerere de a z i l , solicitant de azil, procedura de azil, protecia subsidiar etc. [7] Conform art. 26 alin. 2 din Legea 122/2006, prin risc serios se nelege: a) condamnarea la pedeapsa cu moartea sau executarea unei astfel de pedepse; b) tortura, tratamente sau pedepse inumane ori degradante; sau c) o ameninare serioas, individual, la adresa vieii sau integrit ii, ca urmare a violen ei generalizate n situa ii de conflict armat intern sau interna ional, dac solicitantul face parte din populaia civil. [8] Prin flux masiv se nelege sosirea n Uniunea European a unui numr mare de persoane strmutate care vin dintr-o ar sau zon geografic specific , indiferent dac sosirea lor n Uniunea European a fost spontan sau ajutat (art. 2, lit. m din Legea 122/2006). [9] Articolele 29-33 din Legea 122/2006. [10] Conform art. 20-21 din Legea 122/2006. [11] Sunt considerate ri tere sigure statele membre ale Uniunii Europene, precum i alte state stabilite prin ordin al ministrului internelor i reformei administrative la propunerea Oficiului Romn pentru Imigrri, cu respectarea urmtoarelor condiii: a) pe teritoriile lor, viaa sau libertatea solicitantului nu este i nu va fi ameninat, n sensul art. 33 din Convenia de la Geneva; b) pe teritoriile lor str inul nu risc s fie supus torturii sau tratamentelor inumane ori degradante; c) n rile respective strinului i se asigur protecie efectiv mpotriva returnrii n ara de origine, n sensul prevederilor Conven iei de la Geneva, precum i n baza informrilor efectuate de naltul Comisariat al Naiunilor Unite pentru Refugiai (UNHCR) cu privire la practica aplicrii principiului returnrii. [12] Cu excepia cazurilor prevzute de art. 44 din Legea nr. 535/2004 privind prevenirea i combaterea terorismului. [13] Art. 8 din Legea nr. 21/1991a ceteniei romne, modificat prin Ordonana de Urgen a Guvernului nr. 43/2003 pentru modificarea i completarea Legii 21/1991. Laws, Regulations and Treaties of Various Countries, vol. I, Washington 1939, p. 210. [2] G.S. Goodwin-Gill, International Law for Movement of Persons between States, Oxford, Clarendon Press, 1978, p. 10. [3] C. Vincenzi, D. Marrington, Immigration Law: The Rules Explained, London. Sweet/Maxwell, 1992. p. 27. [4] Published in the Official Gazette no. 428 from 18th of May 2006. [5] Enforced on 4th of August 2006. Later on, the law was altered through the Emergency Ordinance no. 55/2007 regarding the establishment of the Romanian Office for Immigrations through the reorganization of the Authority for foreigners and the National Office for Refugees, as well as by altering and completing some normative acts (M.Of. nr. 424 from 26th of June 2007) and through the Law no. 347/2007 for approving the Government Ordinance of Emergency nr. 55/2007 (M.Of.Nr.851 from 12th of December 2007). [6] Asylum request, asylum applicant, asylum procedure, subsidiary protection etc. [7] According to the art. 26 par. 2 of the Law 122/2006, through serious risk we understand: a) sentence to a death penalty or executing such penalty; b) torture, inhuman or degrading treatments or penalties; or c) a serious, individual threat upon the life or integrity, due to the generalized violence in cases of internal or international armed conflict, if the applicant is part of civil population. [8] Massive flow means the entrance into the European Union of a high number of persons moved from a specific country or geographic area, no matter whether their arrival into the European Union was spontaneous or supported (art. 2, lit. m of the Law 122/2006). [9] Articles 29-33 of the law 122/2006. [10] According to the art. 20-21 of the Law 122/2006. [11] Safe third countries are considered the member states of the European Union, as well as other states established through the order of the ministry of interior and administrative reform at the proposal of the Romanian Office for Immigrations, by complying with the following conditions: a) on their territories, the applicants life or freedom is not and shall not be threatened, within the meaning of the art. 33 in the Convention from Geneva; b) on their territories the foreigner does not take the risk of being subdued to torture or inhuman or degrading treatments; c) in the respective countries the foreigner receives actual protection against being sent back to its origin country, within the meaning of the Convention at Geneva, as well as on the basis of the information given by the High Commisariate of the United Nations for Refugees (UNHCR) regarding the practice of enforcing the principle of sending back. [12] Except for the cases provided by the art. 44 of the Law nr. 535/2004 regarding the terrorism prevention and fight. [13] Art. 8 of the Law nr. 21/1991 of Romanian citizenship, as altered though the Government Emergency Ordinance nr. 43/2003 for altering and completing the Law 21/1991.
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SOLUII ASUPRA CONTESTAIEI FISCALE

Lect. univ. Octavia Maria CILIBIU Facultatea de tiine Juridice, Universitatea Constantin Brncui, Tg-Jiu
Abstract: Contestaia fiscal este o procedur administrativ prealabil care este reglementat diferit fa de procedura administrativ prealabil reglementat de Legea nr. 554/2004 privind contenciosul administrativ. Contestaia poate fi: admis n totalitate, admis n parte sau respins
SOLUTIONS TO FISCAL DISPUTES
Lecturer Octavia Maria CILIBIU Faculty of Juridical Sciences, Constantin Brncui University, Tg-Jiu
Abstract: The fiscal dispute is a preliminary administrative procedure regulated separately from the preliminary administrative procedure as prescribed by Law no. 554/2004 regarding the administrative contentious. A dispute can be partially or totally accepted, or dismissed.
Contestaia formulat mpotriva actelor administrative-fiscale este o cale de atac prealabil (recurs prealabil administrativ fiscal), faza administrativ a contenciosului administrativ fiscal, fiind reglementat diferit fa de procedura administrativ prealabil reglementat de Legea nr. 554/2004 privind contenciosul administrativ Contestaia fiscal este un mijloc pus la dispoziia contribuabililor care se consider vtmai n drepturile i interesele lor recunoscute de lege de ctre organele administrativ-fiscale. Este soluionat de organe ale administraiei fiscale, fiind un recurs administrativ pur. Contestaia poate fi [1]: admis n totalitate, admis n parte sau respins. n situaia admiterii contestaiei, se decide, dup caz, anularea sau desfiinarea total sau parial a actului atacat. Dac prin decizie se desfiineaz total sau parial actul administrativ fiscal atacat se va ncheia un nou act administrativ fiscal care va avea n vedere strict considerentele deciziei de soluionare. Prin noul act administrativ fiscal ntocmit conform considerentelor deciziei de soluionare, nu se pot stabili n sarcina contestatorului sume mai mari dect cele din actul desfiinat. Respingerea contestaiei se poate face: - din motive de nerespectare a procedurii i - din motive nentemeiate n fond.
The dispute lodged against fiscal administrative acts is a preliminary means of appeal (preliminary administrative fiscal appeal), an administrative phase of the administrative fiscal contentious, and is under separate regulations as compared to the preliminary administrative procedure established by Law no. 554/2004 regarding the administrative contentious. The fiscal dispute is a means of appeal available for taxpayers who believe their economic rights and interests, granted by law, have suffered prejudice from the administrative fiscal bodies. It is adjudicated by the administrative fiscal bodies, and is a pure administrative appeal. A dispute can be [1] partially or totally accepted, or dismissed. In case the claim has received acceptance, it is decided that the contested act be annulled or repealed partially or totally, according to case. If the act brought before court is totally or partially repealed, by court decision, a new fiscal act is settled, which is to refer strictly to the adjudication decision reasons. The new administrative fiscal act must not settle for the claimant sums any larger than the ones stipulated in the abrogated act. A dispute may be dismissed: - because of reasons of non-compliance with the procedure and - because of reasons that are ungrounded in substance. A dispute may be dismissed as [2]:
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Contestaia poate fi respins ca [2]: - nentemeiat n situaia n care argumentele de fapt i de drept prezentate n susinerea contestaiei nu sunt de natur s modifice cele dispuse prin actul administrativ atacat; - nemotivat, n situaia n care contestatorul nu prezint argumente de fapt i de drept n susinerea contestaiei sau argumentele aduse nu sunt incidente cauzei suspuse soluionrii; - fiind fr obiect, situaie n care sumele i msurile contestate nu au fost stabilite prin actul administrativ fiscal atacat sau dac prin reluarea procedurii administrative, lundu-se act de soluia pronunat de instana penal, se constat c cererea rmne fr obiect; - inadmisibil, n situaia contestrii deciziilor de impunere emise n temeiul deciziei referitoare la baza de impunere. Potrivit dispoziiilor art. 217 din Codul de procedur fiscal, dac organul de soluionare competent constat nendeplinirea unei condiii procedurale contestaia va fi respins fr a se proceda la analiza pe fond a cauzei. De exemplu, ntr-o spe a fost respins contestaia fiscal pentru nendeplinirea condiiilor de procedur deoarece a fost contestat Raportul de inspecie fiscal, act cruia Codul de procedur fiscal nu i confer calitatea de act administrativ fiscal [3]. n conformitate cu art. 109 alin. (1) si (2) din Codul de procedur fiscal, republicat, raportul de inspecie fiscal reprezint actul premergtor, care st la baza emiterii deciziei de impunere i prin urmare nu este act administrativ fiscal. Se reine, totodat ca raportul de inspecie fiscal este actul prin care se finalizeaz activitatea de inspecie fiscal cuprinznd constatrile organelor fiscale i se ntocmete n conformitate cu procedura prevzut la titlul VII, Capitolul II din Codul de procedur fiscal, republicat. Neavnd natura juridic a unui act administrativ fiscal, raportul de inspecie fiscal nu produce potrivit legii, efecte juridice fa de contribuabilul controlat i bugetul de
-ungrounded, in case the de facto and de jure arguments to sustain the claim are not of a nature to modify those disposed by the act under dispute; -unreasonable, in case the contester does not present de facto and de jure arguments to sustain his claim, or the presented arguments do not relate to the cause submitted for adjudication; -void of object, in case the contested sums and measures have not been established by the disputed act or if, in the course of the administrative procedure review, by observance of the adjudication pronounced in penal court, the claim is found to lack its object. -unacceptable, if the claim is lodged against the tax resolutions issued on the strength of the decision regarding the taxation base. According to the dispositions of art.217 of Fiscal Procedure Code, if the authorised body establishes that one procedural condition is not met, the dispute will be dismissed, without further analysis of the cause. For instance, the fiscal dispute was dismissed in a case for not meeting the procedural conditions, because the claim was lodged against the Fiscal Inspection Report, to which the Fiscal Procedure Code does not confer the quality of an administrative fiscal act [3]. In compliance with art.109, par.(1) and (2) of Fiscal Procedure Code republished, the Fiscal Inspection Report represents the preliminary act to the issuance of the tax resolution, and hence is not an administrative fiscal act. Also the fiscal inspection report is the final act of the fiscal inspection procedure, including all the findings by the fiscal bodies and is elaborated in conformity with the procedure provided in Chapter II, title VII of the Fiscal Procedure Code, republished. Since it doesnt have the juridical nature of an administrative fiscal act, the Final Inspection Report does not, according to law, bear juridical effects on the controlled taxpayer and the state budget so it is not liable
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stat, de aceea nu este susceptibil de a fi pus n executare i pe cale de consecin, de a fi contestat. Deciziile emise n soluionarea contestaiilor pot fi atacate la instana judectoreasc de contencios administrativ competent n termen de 6 luni de la data primirii rspunsului la plngerea prealabil sau de la data expirrii termenului legal de soluionare a cererii conform dispoziiilor art. 11 din Legea nr. 554/2004 privind contenciosul administrativ.
for execution, and consequently, for contestation. The decisions issued with a view to disputes adjudication can be attacked in the special court for administrative contentious within 6 months from receiving the answer to the preliminary complaint or from the expiration date of the legal term for adjudication, according to the dispositions of the art.11, Law no. 554/2004 on administrative contentious.
[1] According to the dispositions of art.216 of Fiscal Procedure Code, republished [2] According to the instructions for the enforcement of art. 185, currently 216 of Fiscal procedure Code [3] In a case, the Fiscal Control Section Dambovita notified the Public Finance Devision Dambovita in reference to the dispute formulated by the trading company X Ltd., registered in Targoviste. The dispute was lodged against the partial Report of Fiscal Inspection issued on, which established debts to a total value ofRON, comprising: extra profits tax; interests from profits tax; profits tax penalties; additional value-added tax; interests from value-added tax; value added tax penalties. The fiscal dispute was submitted within the legal term stipulated by art. 177, par. (1) of G.O. no. 92/2003 regarding Fiscal Procedure Code, republished, including subsequent modifications and completions, (art. 207 currently), contains the signature of the disputer and the stamp of the company. On finding that the submitted case meets the conditions provided by art.175 (art. 205 currently), 177 (art. 207 currently) and art. 179, par.(1) letter a) (art. 209 currently) of G.O. no. 92/2003 regarding Fiscal Procedure Code, including subsequent modifications and completions, the Public Finance Division Dambovita is authorized to solve the dispute lodged by the trade company X Ltd., registered in Targoviste. I.The petitioner contests the partial Report of Fiscal Inspection issued onon the following grounds: -the police bodies asked the control bodies to check whether the company registered the sums listed in the book confiscated during the inspection, in the accounts register for the period 01/01/2000 31/10/2005, and in case not, to set up the sums representing taxes and contributions which evaded payment to the consolidated budget. -under chapter III of the disputed report, the fiscal control bodies record that, in order to establish the basis of assessment for the value added tax and for the extra profits tax, the inspection bodies considered all vouchers and financial accountings which are means of evidence and are relevant for the assessment of tax liabilities. -on 24/11/2005, the police bodies found in the
[1] Conform dispoziiilor art. 216 din Codul de procedur fiscal, republicat. [2] Conform instruciunilor pentru aplicarea art.185, actual 216 din Codul de procedur fiscal. [3] n spe, Direcia General a Finanelor Publice Dmbovia a fost sesizat de Activitatea de Control Fiscal Dmbovia asupra contestaiei formulat de S.C. x S.R.L. cu sediul n Trgovite. Contestaia a fost formulat mpotriva Raportului de inspecie fiscal parial ncheiat n ... prin care s-au stabilit debite n suma de ... lei RON, reprezentnd: impozit pe profit suplimentar;dobnzi aferente impozitului pe profit; penaliti aferente impozitului pe profit; taxa pe valoarea adugat suplimentar; dobnzi aferente taxei pe valoarea adugat; penaliti aferente taxei pe valoarea adugat. Contestaia a fost formulat n termenul legal prevzut de art. 177 alin. (1) din O.G. nr. 92/2003 privind Codul de procedur fiscal, republicat, cu modificrile i completrile ulterioare, (n prezent art. 207)poart semntura titularului dreptului procesual precum i tampila societii. Constatnd c n spe sunt ntrunite condiiile prevzute de art. 175(n prezent art. 205), 177 (n prezent art. 207) si art. 179 alin. (1) pct. a) (n prezent art. 209) din O.G. nr. 92/2003 privind Codul de procedur fiscal, cu modificrile i completrile ulterioare, Direcia General a Finanelor Publice Dmbovia este competent s soluioneze contestaia formulat de S.C. X S.R.L. cu sediul n Trgovite. I. Petentul contest Raportul de inspecie fiscal parial ncheiat n... din urmtoarele motive: - organele de poliie au solicitat organelor de control s verifice dac societatea a nregistrat n evidena contabil aferent perioadei 01.01.2000 31.10.2005 sumele n lei menionate n caietul ridicat cu ocazia verificrilor i dac nu, s se stabileasc sumele reprezentnd impozite i taxe sustrase de la plata ctre bugetul general consolidat; - n capitolul III al raportului contestat organele de inspecie fiscal fac consemnarea potrivit creia pentru stabilirea bazei de impunere a taxei pe valoarea adugat i a impozitului pe profit suplimentar organele
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008 de inspecie au avut n vedere toate documentele justificative i evidenele financiar - contabile care constituie mijloace de prob i sunt relevante pentru stabilirea obligaiilor fiscale; - la data de 24.11.2005 organele de poliie au gsit asupra gestionarei punctului de lucru al societii din ... un caiet cu diverse nsemnri, organul de inspecie fiscal stabilind obligaii fiscale n raport cu acest caiet care nu constituie n sens fiscal i nici din punct de vedere financiar - contabil un document justificativ; - chiar i n ipoteza absurd, total nelegal sub aspect financiar contabil c evidena contabil a societii ar fi trebuit refcut cu valorile nscrise n acest caiet, este de sesizat c valorile nscrise n acest caiet pe o perioad de peste doi ani sunt i valori n minus fa de evidena contabil, dar nota bene cnd sunt valori mai mari n caiet trebuie nscrise la venituri i impozitate cu accesoriile cuvenite; - stabilirea de obligaii fiscale suplimentare n sarcina societii nu este fondat, caietul n cauz nu este opozabil societii, nu constituie document justificativ sub raport financiar contabil care s creeze obligaia legal n sarcina societii; - nu a fost emis nici o decizie de impunere, n cauz existnd cercetare penal. Fa de cele mai sus precizate societatea comercial solicit suspendarea pn la soluionarea cu caracter definitiv a cauzei penale. II. Prin decizia de impunere nr. ..., emis n baza raportului de inspecie fiscal din data de ..., organele de control au stabilit n sarcina petentei suma totala de ... lei RON, reprezentnd taxa pe valoarea adugat i impozit pe profit suplimentare, cu dobnzile i penalitile aferente. Prin referatul privind soluionarea contestaiei depus de S.C. X S.R.L., ntocmit de ctre Direcia Controlului Fiscal Dmbovia organele de control propun respingerea contestaiei. III. Avnd n vedere cele prezentate mai sus, documentele existente la dosarul cauzei, motivaiile contestatoarei i n raport cu actele normative n vigoare, s-au reinut urmtoarele: Direcia General a Finanelor Publice Dmbovia este investit s analizeze dac suma total de ... lei RON, reprezentnd taxa pe valoarea adugat i impozit pe profit suplimentare, cu dobnzi i penaliti de ntrziere aferente, este legal datorat. n fapt, inspecia fiscal a cuprins perioada 01.01.2000 - 31.10.2005, avnd ca obiect verificarea realitii i legalitii obligaiilor bugetare, fiind emise Raportul de inspecie fiscal n data de ... i decizia de impunere nr. ... Societatea comercial x S.R.L. a depus contestaia nr. ... mpotriva raportului de inspecie fiscal parial din data de .... Prin adresa nr. ..., confirmat de primire n data de 23.02.2006, Biroul Soluionare Contestaii din cadrul D.G.F.P. Dmbovia a solicitat petentului completarea contestaiei cu privire la obiectul contestaiei. n possession of the administrator in charge of the office, a book containing various notes. The fiscal control body assessed tax liabilities on account of this book, which is not considered to be a document in proof neither fiscally nor financially. -even on the absurd, entirely illegal financially assumption that the financial accounts of the company should have been reviewed according to the sums registered in this book, one may call attention to the fact that the sums registered along a two-year period are minus-values as compared to the financial accounting; but, nota bene, in case the values registered in the book are bigger, they must be registered to incomes and taxed accordingly. -the assessment of additional tax liabilities for the trade company is not grounded: the book in question is not binding on the company, since it is not a document in proof in the financial meaning, hence it does not generate liabilities for the company. -no tax resolution was issued, because of criminal investigation of the case. In reference to those mentioned above, the trade company requests suspension until final adjudication of the criminal case. II. By the tax resolution no. , issued on the strength of the fiscal inspection report of ..(date), the control bodies assessed for the claimant the total sum of.RON, which comprises the value added tax and extra-profits tax, including the due interests and penalties. In the report of Fiscal Control Division Dambovita, regarding the adjudication of the dispute lodged by the trade company X Ltd., the control bodies suggest dismissing the dispute. III. Considering all those presented above, the existing documents of the case file, the disputers arguments and the normative documents in force, the following are to be mentioned: The Public Finance Division Dambovita is authorized to establish whether the total sum ofRON, comprising the value added tax and extra-profits tax, including due interests and penalties, is legally due. In fact, the fiscal inspection referred to the 01/01/2000 31/10/2005 period, and its goal was to verify the validity and legality of liabilities. As a result, the Fiscal inspection report dating from, and the tax resolution no. were issued. The trade company X Ltd. formulated the complain no. against the partial fiscal inspection report, dated. By the notification no. , the receiving of which was confirmed on 23/02/2006, the Office of Disputes Resolution from P.F.D Dambovita requested the contester to complete her dispute letter in reference to the object of the dispute. The answer received on behalf of the company on the date of, mentions that the object of dispute is partial Fiscal Inspection Report, dating from. The trade company erroneously sustains that no tax resolution was issued, the tax decision being handed
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008 rspunsul primit de la societate n data de ..., se menioneaz c obiectul contestaiei l reprezint actul administrativ fiscal - Raportul de inspecie fiscal parial ncheiat n data de .... n mod eronat societatea susine c nu a fost emis nici o decizie de impunere, deoarece odat cu Raportul de inspecie fiscal petentului i-a fost transmis i decizia de impunere aa cum se precizeaz n capitolul VII - Anexe din raport, confirmate de primire n data de 03.02.2006. n conformitate cu art. 107 alin. (1) si (2), (actual 109) din O.G. nr. 92/2003 privind Codul de Procedur Fiscal, republicat, cu modificrile i completrile ulterioare, raportul de inspecie fiscal reprezint actul premergtor, care st la baza emiterii deciziei de impunere i prin urmare nu este act administrativ fiscal. Se reine, totodat ca raportul de inspecie fiscal este actul prin care se finalizeaz activitatea de inspecie fiscal cuprinznd constatrile organelor fiscale i se ntocmete n conformitate cu procedura prevzut la titlul VII din Codul de procedura fiscal, republicat. Neavnd natura juridica a unui act administrativ fiscal, raportul de inspecie fiscala nu produce potrivit legii, efecte juridice fa de contribuabilul controlat i bugetul de stat, de aceea nu este susceptibil de a fi pus n executare i pe cale de consecin, de a fi contestat. Organele de control au emis Decizia de impunere nr. ... n baza raportului de inspecie fiscal din data de ..., cuprinznd sumele stabilite suplimentar, precum i dobnzile i penalitile datorate, aceast decizie fiind actul administrativ ce poate fi contestat conform art. 175 (n prezent art. 205) din O.G. nr. 92/2003 privind Codul de Procedur Fiscal. Lund n considerare faptul c n spe, societatea petent contest Raportul de inspecie fiscal, act cruia Codul de procedur fiscal nu i confer calitatea de act administrativ fiscal, D.G.F.P. Dmbovia va respinge contestaia formulata de S.C. X S.R.L. pentru nendeplinirea condiiilor de procedur, fiind depus mpotriva unui act ce nu are calitate de act administrativ fiscal. n drept, art. 43 din O.G. nr. 92/2003 privind Codul de procedur fiscal, republicat, cu modificrile i completrile ulterioare, prevede: Art. 43 - Coninutul i motivarea actului administrativ fiscal (1) Actul administrativ fiscal se emite numai n form scris. (2) Actul administrativ fiscal cuprinde urmtoarele elemente: a) denumirea organului fiscal emitent; b) data la care a fost emis i data de la care i produce efectele; c) datele de identificare a contribuabilului sau a persoanei mputernicite de contribuabil, dup caz; d) obiectul actului administrativ fiscal; e) motivele de fapt; over together with the Fiscal inspection report, as mentioned in chapter VII Enclosure of the report, and receiving confirmation on the date of 03/02/2006. In compliance with art.107, par.(1) and (2) (109 currently) of G.O. no. 92/2003 regarding the Fiscal Procedure Code republished, including subsequent modifications and completions, the Fiscal Inspection Report represents the preliminary act to the issuance of the tax resolution, and hence is not an administrative fiscal act. Also, the Fiscal Inspection Report is the final act of the Fiscal Inspection Activity, including all the findings by the fiscal bodies and is elaborated in conformity with the procedure provided in Chapter II, title VII of the Fiscal Procedure Code, republished. Since it doesnt have the juridical nature of an administrative fiscal act, the Final Inspection Report does not, according to law, bear juridical effects on the controlled taxpayer and the state budget so it is not liable for execution, and consequently, for contestation. The control bodies issued the Tax Decision no. , comprising supplementary liabilities as well as due interests and penalties, on the strength of the Fiscal inspection report dating from , and it is an contestable administrative document, according to art.175 (art.205 currently) of G.O. 92/2003 regarding the Fiscal Procedure Code. Considering the fact that, in this case, the petitioner company disputes the Fiscal inspection Report, to which the Fiscal Procedure Code does not confer the quality of an administrative fiscal act, P.F.D. Dambovita dismisses the dispute lodged by the trade company X Ltd., because of reasons of noncompliance with the procedure. The art.43 of G.O. 92/2003 regarding the Fiscal Procedure Code, republished, including subsequent modifications and completions, provides: Art.43 The content and motivation of the fiscal administrative paper: (1) The administrative fiscal act is issued only in written form. (2) The administrative fiscal paper includes the following elements: a) the name of the issuing fiscal organ; b) the date at which the act was issued and the date it produces its effects; c) the identification data of the taxpayer or of the person authorised by this one, according to case; d) the object of the administrative document; e) the de facto motives; f) the de jure motives; g) the name and signature of the person(s) authorised by the fiscal body, according to law; h) the stamp of the fiscal body; i) the possibility to be disputed, the term for submitting the dispute and the body where the dispute is submitted; j) specifications regarding the hearing of the
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Analele Universitii Constantin Brncui din Trgu Jiu, Seria tiine juridice, Nr. 1/2008 f) temeiul de drept; g) numele i semntura persoanelor mputernicite ale organului fiscal, potrivit legii; h) tampila organului fiscal emitent; i) posibilitatea de a fi contestat, termenul de depunere a contestaiei i organul fiscal la care se depune contestaia; j) meniuni privind audierea contribuabilului. Art. 83 (n prezent art. 85) si art. 107 (n prezent art. 109) din Ordonana mai sus menionat precizeaz: Art. 83 - Stabilirea impozitelor, taxelor, contribuiilor i a altor sume datorate bugetului general consolidat (1) Impozitele, taxele, contribuiile i alte sume datorate bugetului general consolidat se stabilesc astfel: [...]b) prin decizie emis de organul fiscal Art. 107 - Raportul privind rezultatul inspeciei fiscale (1) Rezultatul inspeciei fiscale va fi consemnat ntr-un raport scris, n care se vor prezenta constatrile inspeciei, din punct de vedere faptic i legal. (2) Dac, ca urmare a inspeciei, se modific baza de impunere, raportul ntocmit va sta la baza emiterii deciziei de impunere. n cazul n care baza de impunere nu se modific, acest fapt va fi comunicat n scris contribuabilului. Pentru considerentele artate n coninutul deciziei i n temeiul art. 43, art. 83 (n prezent art. 85) si art. 107 (n prezent art. 109) din O.G. nr. 92/2003 privind Codul de procedur fiscal, republicat, cu modificrile i completrile ulterioare, coroborate cu art. 179 alin. 1 lit. a) (n prezent art. 209), art. 181 (n prezent art. 213), art. 186 (n prezent art. 217) si 199 din O.G. nr. 92/2003 privind Codul de procedur fiscal, republicat, cu modificrile i completrile ulterioare, se: D E C I D E 1. Respingerea contestaiei formulat de S.C. x S.R.L. cu sediul n Trgovite, pentru nendeplinirea condiiilor de procedur, fiind depus mpotriva unui act ce nu are calitate de act administrativ fiscal. 2. n conformitate cu prevederile art. 188 alin (2) (n prezent art. 218) din O.G. nr. 92/2003, republicat, cu modificrile si completrile ulterioare si ale art. 11 alin. (1) din Legea nr. 554/2004 a contenciosului administrativ, prezenta decizie poate fi atacat n termen de 6 luni de la data primirii, la instana de contencios administrativ competent din cadrul Tribunalului Dmbovia. taxpayer. Art.83 (art.85 currently) and art.107 (art.109 currently) of the G.O. mentioned above stipulates: Art.83 The assessment of taxes, contributions, custom taxes as well as other accessory debts owed to the state budget. (1) The taxes, contributions, custom taxes and other accessory debts owed to the state budget are established by: [] b) resolution issued by the fiscal body Art. 107 The report regarding the results of the fiscal inspection (1) The result of the fiscal inspection must be recorded in the form of a written report, and include the inspection findings, from the legal and factual point of view. (2) If, as a result of the inspection, the basis of assessment is modified, the issued report will be the basis of the tax resolution issuance. In case the basis of assessment remains unmodified, this fact will be communicated in writing to the taxpayer. On account of the reasons contained in the decision and according to art.43, art.83 (art.85 currently) and art.107 (art.109 currently) of G.O. no.92/2003 regarding the Fiscal Procedure Code, republished, including the subsequent modifications and completions, corroborated with art.179, par.1, letter a) (art.209 currently), art.181 (art. 213 currently), art.186 (art.217 currently) and 199 of G.O. no.92/2003 regarding the Fiscal Procedure Code, republished, including the subsequent modifications and completions, it IS DECIDED: 1. The dismissal of the dispute lodged by the trade company X Ltd., registered in Targoviste, because of non-compliance with the procedure, since it was lodged against a document lacking the quality of an administrative fiscal act. 2. According to the provisions of art.188, par.(2) (art.218 currently) of G.O. no.92/2003 regarding the Fiscal Procedure Code, republished, including the subsequent modifications and completions, and art.11, par.(1) of Law no. 554 on administrative contentious, the present decision may be contested within 6 months from the date of its receiving, in the authorised court for administrative contentious belonging to Dambovita Tribunal.
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SISTEMUL EUROPEAN DE PROTECTIE A DREPTURILOR OMULUI

Masterand Elena-Ancua NEAMU
The concept of human rights was first formulated in the 18 century, following the line of natural rights of the nations, being the foundation of the social contract theory, belonging to Jean-Jaques Rousseau. It began to materialize during two major events such as the French bourgeois revolution (1789) and the rebellion of the English colonies from North America against Great Britain (1776). Human rights protection by means of juridical instruments transposing these rights into legal stipulations began mandatory into the international community, shortly after the second world war; as a consequence of the constant perpetuation of violations of human rights within the nations that possess totalitarian regimes. This necessity materialized into a number of prescriptions with universal or regional character, following the ratification of the United Nations Charta, on the 26th of June 1945. Thus, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, proclaimed and endorsed by the General Assembly of the United Nations on the 10th of December 1948, was the first document with universal calling in this field of activity, and settles a unitary conception of the international community about the rights and liberties of man, opening a new path towards a system of international protection of human rights. Right after the year 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations has endorsed, within this area of activity, over sixty conventions and declarations with the purpose of creating specific mechanisms for the protection of these rights.
th
THE EUROPEAN SYSTEM FOR HUMAN RIGHTS PROTECTION
Student: Elena-Ancua NEAMU

The concept of human rights was first formulated in the 18th century, following the line of natural rights of the nations, being the foundation of the social contract theory, belonging to Jean-Jaques Rousseau. It began to materialize during two major events such as the French bourgeois revolution (1789) and the rebellion of the English colonies from North America against Great Britain (1776). Human rights protection by means of juridical instruments transposing these rights into legal stipulations began mandatory into the international community, shortly after the second world war; as a consequence of the constant perpetuation of violations of human rights within the nations that possess totalitarian regimes. This necessity materialized into a number of prescriptions with universal or regional character, following the ratification of the United Nations Charta, on the 26th of June 1945. Thus, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, proclaimed and endorsed by the General Assembly of the United Nations on the 10th of December 1948, was the first document with universal calling in this field of activity, and settles a unitary conception of the international community about the rights and liberties of man, opening a new path towards a system of international protection of human rights. Right after the year 1948, the General Assembly of the United Nations has endorsed, within this area of activity, over sixty conventions and declarations with the purpose of creating specific mechanisms for the protection of these rights.
1. CONSIDERATII GENERALE CU PRIVIRE LA SISTEMUL DE PROTECTIE A DREPTURILOR OMULUI Omul beneficiaza de drepturi inerente fiintelor umane oriunde s-ar afla, indiferent de statutul sau regiunea unde s-a nascut, locuieste, munceste sau traieste, indiferent de nationalitate, rasa, sex, credinte religioase sau filozofice, stare materiala, fiindca acestea au un caracter universal ceea ce constituie un fundament al drepturilor lor egalesi inalienabile, ca un coloral al libertatii, dreptatii, securitatii si pacii in lume. Sistemul European de protectie a drepturilor omului a fost stabilit de catre Consiliul European al carui statut semnat la
1. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE PROTECTION SYSTEM OF HUMAN RIGHTS Men benefit from a number of rights that are inherent to human beings all over the planet, no matter the social status, the country of origin, the place of where they live and work, nationality, race, sex, religious or philosophical beliefs, material state, because all of these possess a universal nature that constitutes the foundation of their equal and inalienable rights, expressing the right of liberty, security and peace world wide. The European system for human rights protection was established by the European Council; its status signed in London on the 5th of may 1949, states in its third article that each member of the European Council must accept the
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Londra la 5 mai 1949, prevede in art 3 ca fiecare membru al Consiliului Europei trebuie sa accepte principiile statului de drept si principiul in virutea caruia fiecare persoana aflata sub jurisdictia sa trebuie sa se bucure de drepturile si libertatile fundamentale ale omului. Instituia drepturilor omului, care a cunoscut pe parcursul timpului, un laborios dar si indelungat proces de cristalizare, se infatiseaza in prezent ca o institutie deosebit de complexa, ce tine atit de ordinea juridica interna cit si de cea internationala. Afirmarea, respectarea i garantarea material a drepturilor omului prin legislaia intern a statelor i printr-un control internaional eficace al Naiunilor Unite i al instituiilor specializate este de natur s conduc la prevenirea nclcrilor i la corecta aplicare a legislaiei internaionale care consacr dreptul omului la via, demnitate, securitate, la pace, proprietate, la protecia sa social i politic mpotriva atingerilor aduse persoanei sale, drepturilor sale sacre, mpotriva tuturor discriminrilor. Omul, drepturile sale imprescriptibile, reprezint cea mai mare valoare a umanitii. De aceea, drepturile sale au fost afirmate, proclamate, consacrate prin mijloace juridice, materiale i instituionale, astfel ca persoana s fie protejat i aprat de efectele nocive ale rzboaielor, de manifestrile de intoleran etnic, religioas, filozofic i politic. Respectarea efectiv a drepturilor omului, presupune tocmai eradicarea srciei i accesul tuturor oamenilor la un nivel de trai decent, pe care societatea uman cu posibilitile ei contemporane trebuie s-l asigure tuturor membrilor si pe baza cuceririi tiinei i tehnicii i a folosirii naionale a resurselor materiale i financiare, astfel nct fiecare individ s fie interesat de progresul societii i al su personal. Aceasta implic un raport armonios ntre om, stat i societate, o solidaritate reciproc acceptat n interes comun. Respectarea plenar a drepturilor omului, presupune egalitatea ntre brbai i femei, o deplin egalitate ntre sexe astfel nct societatea s beneficieze de aporturi constructive al tuturor membrilor ei capabili de a-i exprima o voin politic i de a participa n mod
principles of the de facto state, and the principle that stipulates that each person under its jurisdiction should enjoy the fundamental rights and liberties of man. The Convention for Protection of Human Rights was signed on the 4th of November 1950 in Rome, by the representatives of thirteen governments, and became operative on the 3rd of September 1953, at the same time with the deposition of the second ratification document. It is the most important document, being the foundation of the mechanisms and the institutions that are needed for applying these rights and liberties of man. The Convention reunites all the nations that are members of the European Council, including Romania (since the 7th of October 1993); it was enhanced or modified up until now, by eleven additional protocols. The human rights institution, which has known along the years a long and laborious process of crystallization, appears to us in our days as a very complex institution that interacts with the internal as well as the international juridical regime. The declaration, the guarantee and the material observance of human rights by the international legislation of the nations and by a severe and effective control performed by the united Nations and specialized institutions, must lead to the prevention of violations and to the correct application of the international legislation, that guarantees the right of a human being to life, dignity, security, peace, prosperity, political and social protection against all the difficulties suffered by ones person, against its sacred laws and against all discriminations. The human being, its indefeasible rights, are the most precious value of humanity. Thus, human rights were proclaimed, established, dedicated by means of juridical, institutional and material procedures, in this way any person should be protected from the harmful effects of war, from the manifestations of ethnic, religious, philosophical and political intolerance. The de facto observance of human rights, precisely means poverty eradication and the access of all people to a decent level of existence, that must be ensured by the human society by its contemporary means, such as the new discoveries
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contient la luarea deciziilor adecvate n of science and technology and the use of national, interesul comunitii. material and financial resources, in a way that every individual is to be interested with the 2. MECANISME DE PROTECTIE SI progress of society and of it self. This implicates GARANTAREA DREPTURILOR that people, nations and society, are in the best of terms, all being in a solidarity mutually accepted OMUNLUI La nivelul continentului, mecanismele for the common well-being. The overall observance of the human constituite in baza conventiei pentru apararea dreptulor omului si a libertatilor fundamentale rights implies the equality between men and adoptat la Roma, la 4 noiembrie 1950, asigura women, absolute equality between genders in such posibilitati sporite pentru apararea drepturilor a way that the society may benefit from positive omului, daca se constata violarea acestor efforts from all its constituents, capable of drepturi. Aceste mecanisme reprezinta un expressing a political will and of consciously sistem inchegat care mai ales in anii 1995-2000, participate to the process of taking decisions in the si-a demostrat eficienta in protectia si garantarea best interest of the community. drepturilor omului in statele europene.. Dintre mecanismele cunoscute pe plan 2. PROTECTION MECHANISMS AND international pentru garantarea drepturilor THE HUMAN RIGHTS ASSURANCE All over the continent, the mechanisms omului, mecanismele jurisdictionale si-au dovedit in practica cea mai mare eficacitate. Ele that derive from the convention for the protection au la baza doptarea unor instrumente juridice of human rights and of their fundamental liberties prin care se creeaza organe cu atributi signed in Rome on the 4th of November 1950, jurisdictionale a caror competenta este sa provide for enhanced possibilities for defending examineze plingerile ce le sint adresate si sa human rights, if proven violation of these pronunte o hotarire care sa aiba autoritate de rights. Those mechanisms represent a unitary lucru judecat. system which, especially between 1995 and 2000 Acest tip de mecanism este caracteristic has proven its efficiency in the area of protection sistemelor regionale de protecie a drepturilor and assurance of human rights within European omului, existente pe continentul european - n states. cadrul Consiliului European - i pe continentul From the mechanisms internationally american - n cadrul Organizaiei Statelor known for the assurance of human rights, on one Americane - instituite prin Convenia european hand on the European continent there is the pentru salvgardarea drepturilor omului i a European Council, and on the other hand on the libertilor sale fundamentale (1950) i prin American continent there is the Organization of Convenia american privind drepturile omului American States. These two structures were (1969). established by the European Convention for Mecanismul European de protectie a safeguarding of human rights and its fundamental drepturilor omului, are un caracter complex in liberties (1950) and by the American Convention exercitarea atributilor sale. La infiintare, acesta regarding human rights (1969). avea in vedere activitatea a trei organe, care isi The European mechanism for desfasurau activitatea in colaborare, desi aveau safeguarding human rights possesses a complex natura diferita. character in exercising its attributes. At its Primul oragan care intervenea in in foundation, the mechanism was considering the procesul de asigurare a respectarii drepturilor activity of three organs, running their activities in omului era Comisia pentru apararea complete co-operation even thou their nature was different. drepturilor omului. The first organ able to intervene within the Aceasta este un organism important de protectie a drepturilor omului si este alcatuita process of respecting human rights assurance is the dintr-un numar de membrii egal cu cel al Commission for Protecting Human Rights. This is an important organism operating in statelor. Membrii sint alesi in mod individual de
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catre Comitetul de Ministrii a Consiliului Europei. Comisia isi desfasoara activitatea dupa propriu sau regulament in baza caruia isi alege un presedinte si doi vicepresedinti pentru o periada de trei ani. Lucrarile Comisiei nu sint publice, dosarele sint confidentiale, iar sedintele se desfasoara in secret, tinand sema de implicatile fiecarui caz adus in fata acestui organ European. Comisia reprezinta primul organ care primeste orice cerere referitoare la o incalcare a drepturilor omului prevazute in conventie, indiferent daca acesta cerere provine de la un stat parte sau de la o persoana fizica. Comisia poate desfasura, in timpul examinarii cereri si o activitate de solutionare amiabila. In siuatia in care nu se poate ajunge la un asemenea rezultat, Comisia redacteaza un raport pe care il inainteaza Comitetului ministrilor. Al doilea organ care intrevine in procesul de solutionare a unei plingerii privind incalcarea unor drepturi reglementate de Conventie este Curtea Europeana a Drepturilor Omului. Aceasta este singurul organ jurisdicional propriu-zis din sistemul existent. A fost creat n anul 1958 i a nceput s judece, un an mai trziu, n anul 1959. Constituirea Curii a fost considerat a fi necesar pentru a oferi garaniile pe care le ateapt europenii n realizarea drepturilor ce le-au fost consacrate. Curtea Europeana a drepturilor omului se compune dintr-un numr de judectori egal cu acela al statelor membre. Pe baza unei liste prezentate de statele membre, judectorii sunt alei de ctre Adunarea parlamentar a Consiliului Europei. De la constituirea Comisiei Europene a Drepturilor Omului i a Curii Europene a Drepturilor Omului s-a acumulat o experien, care a confirmat rolul important al acestor mecanisme n domeniul proteciei i garantrii drepturilor omului. n cazul plngerilor cu caracter statal, procedura se declaneaz n baza art. 24 din Convenia European a Drepturilor Omului, iar n cazul plngerilor individuale, temeiul juridic al declanrii procedurii l constituie art. 25. Att Comisia European a Drepturilor Omului, ct i Consiliul de Minitri pot sesiza Curtea European a Drepturilor Omului. Curtea poate
the field of protecting human rights and comprises a number of members equal to that of the states involved. The members are individually selected by the Minister Committee of European Council. The commission runs its activity following its own regulations, selecting one president and two vice-presidents for a period of three years. The committee works are not public, the files are confidential, and the meetings take place in secret, considering the implications of each case brought to justice before this European organ. The commission constitutes the first organ that receives every request reffering to a violation of human rights stipulated within the convention, no matter if this request is from a member nation or an individual person. The commission may display, during the process of examining the request, also an activity of conciliatory solving. In the case that such a result can not be obtained, the commission wrights a report that is brought forward to the Minister Committee. The second organ that intervenes in the process of solving complaints regarding the violation of rights stipulated by the convention, is the European Court of Human Rights. This was the only proper jurisdictional organ belonging to the existent system. It was created in 1958 and began to work one year later, in 1959. The setting up of the court was considered to be necessary for offering the assurance that the Europeans are waiting for in the realization of the rights that were made for them. The European Court for Human Rights consists of a number of judges equal to that of the member states. On the basis of a list presented by the states that are members, the judges are selected by the Parliamentary Assembly of the European Council. Since the constitution of the European Commission of Human Rights, and of the European Court of Human Rights, a vast experience was accumulated, experience that confirmed the major role played by these mechanisms in the field of protection and assurance of the human rights. In the case of complaints belonging to a state, the starting of the procedure is based on article 24 from the European Convention, and in case of individual complaints, the legal terms of releasing the procedure is based on article 25. Both
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fi sesizat i direct de ctre un Stat-parte la Convenie ori de ctre statul al crui cetean a fost victima unei nclcri sau unor nclcri. -Comitetul Minitrilor era cel de-al treilea organ al Consiliului Europei creia Convenia i recunotea competene i atribuii i n domeniul garantrii drepturilor omului. Acestui organ i se recunoteau funcii judiciare, prevzate de art. 32 i 54 din Convenie nainte de modificarea acesteia. ntr-o alt opinie, Comitetul Minitrilor era considerat organ politic de decizie. Ali autori, analizeaz intervenia Comitetului, ca organ politic, ntr-o procedur quasi-judiciara, fapt pentru care a fost deseori criticat. Mecanismele internationale de garantare a depturilor omului sint complexe si diversificate. Se impune n primul rnd preocuparea comunitii internaionale pentru asigurarea cadrului normativ, att internaional, ct i intern, de promovare i garantare a drepturilor omului i a libertilor sale fundamentale. n al doilea rnd, trebuie evideniat rolul mecanismelor internaionale de supraveghere a respectrii drepturilor omului pe plan intern, ca organisme care au sarcina de a corecta acele decizii interne care sunt de natur s ncalce n vreun fel drepturile i libertile cetenilor. 3. PROTECTIA DREPTURILOR OMULUI IN UNIUNEA EUROPEANA Nefiind numai o problem intern a statelor, problema drepturilor omului este una dintre problemele majore ale contemporaneitii, a crei respectare i aplicare demonstreaz capacitatea de nelegere i cooperare a tuturor statelor i popoarelor ca n prag de nou secol i mileniu, s practice acele msuri i aciuni care favorizeaz democraia, libertatea, nelegerea, cooperarea multiform, tolerana i prietenia ntre toate naiunile i statele, grupurile entice i religioase n scopul salvagardrii pcii i securitii n lume. Uniunea i propune s se ocupe de fora de munc i promovarea progresului economic i social ceea ce ajut la crearea unui spaiu fr frontiere interne i stabilirea unei monede unice. Se dorete instituirea unei cetenii a Uniunii prin ntrirea proteciei drepturilor i intereselor
European Commission of Human Rights and Minister council, have the right to inform the European Court for Human Rights. The Court may also be informed directly by a member state, or by a state having a citizen that was the victim of one or more violations of the human rights. The Minister Committee is the third organ of the European Council, recognized by the convention. This organ has judiciary functions stipulated in the article 32 and article 54 from the Convention, prior the modification. Other say that the Minister Committee was considered a political organ of decision. Other authors analyze the intervention of the Committee, as a political organ within a semi-judiciary procedure, for which it was often criticized. The international mechanisms for the assurance of human rights are in fact complex and diversified. First of all, the concern of the international community for the assurance of the laws stands forward. These laws and regulations, promote and guarantee the fundamental human rights and liberties. Secondly, it must be underlined the role of the international mechanisms in the surveying the application of human rights on a intern level, as organisms in charge to correct those internal decisions that may violate in one way or another, the rights and liberties of the citizens. 3.THE PROTECTION OF HUMAN RIGHTS WITHIN THE EUROPEAN UNION The problem of human rights is not only a internal problem of the nations, but one of the major problems of the contemporary society. The observance and application of this problem demonstrates the ability of understanding and cooperation between all states and nations, as in the verge of a new century and millennium, to be able to take those measures and actions that promote democracy, liberty, understanding, multi-level cooperation, tolerance and friendship between all nations and states, ethnic and religious groups, with the purpose of safeguarding peace and security all over the world. The Union wants to take care of the labor related problems, of the promotion of economical and social progress, in order to help creating a border free space, and to help implementing a unique currency. The Union wants to create a
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cetenilor care aparin Statelor Membre. Uniunea este fondat pe principiul libertii, democraiei, respectului drepturilor omului i libertilor fundamentale, precum i al statului de drept, principii care sunt comune statelor membere. Uniunea respect identitatea naional a statelor membere Protecia drepturilor omului are o natur juridica dual [1], intern i internaonal i contribuie la cristalizarea societii civile, la trecerea de la principiul majoritii la principiul ocrotirii individului i a minoritii, la consolidarea statului de drept. Individul, ca i statul, este obligat s participe activ la aceste transformri n scopul realizrii unei adaptri corespunztoare evoluiei fireti a societii. Legea i implicit juritii sunt printre aceia care ii pot aduce aportul pozitiv, benefic, la realizarea unei armonii ntre finalitatea normelor juridice i dezvoltarea societii, gndirii, culturii i civilizatiei. Funciile statului n societile democratice au cptat noi valene, acordndu-se atenie sporit celei sociale, care contribuie la dezvoltarea societii n ansamblul su, dar n egal msur contribuie la satisfacerea nevoilor individului. Constituirea sau cristalizarea statului de drept n rile din centrul i estul Europei, adoptarea unor noi constituii n urma evenimentelor radicale ale anului 1989, precum i adoptarea unor acte juridice internationale de ctre state sau organizaii internaionale, reflect preocuparea i dorina statelor, popoarelor indivizilor de a participa activ la transformrile care ne marcheaz viaa, n mod direct sau indirect (prin intermediul reprezentanilor abilitai de lege s acioneze pe plan intern sau internaional).
domestic jurisdiction of states, n A.Eide, A. Schon, International protection og Human Rights , Ed. Almquist i Wiksell, Uppsala, 1968, p.47
citizenship by fortifying the protection of human rights and peoples interest within their nations. The Union is founded on the principle of liberty, democracy, human rights and fundamental liberties respect, as well as of the state itself; these principles are common to all member states. The Union respects national identity of all the states. The human rights protection has a double juridical nature [1] , internal and international, and contributes to the crystallization of the civil society, to the passage from the principle of the majority to the principle of protecting the individual and the minorities, to the reinforcement of the state itself. The individual, as well as the state, must participate in a active manner to these transformations, with the purpose of an adequate adaptation to the natural evolution of society. The law and consequently the lawyers are among those that may bring their best to the accomplishment of such a harmony between the end use of the juridical regulations and the development of the society, culture, thinking and civilization. The functions of the state within the democratic societies have acquired new meanings; enhanced attention has been payed to the social dimension, satisfying the needs of the society but in the same time the needs of the individual. The formation or the crystallization of the state itself in central and eastern Europe, the embracing of new constitutions following the radical events that took place during the year 1989, as well as the implementation of international juridical laws by states or international organizations, reflect the constant concern of individuals, nations, states, of actively participate to the transformations that make a mark through our lives, directly or indirectly, by means of representatives qualified by law to act on any level, [1] M. Markovi Implementation of human rights and the internaly or internationally.
[1] M. Markovi Implementation of human rights and the domestic jurisdiction of states, n A.Eide, A. Schon, International protection og Human Rights , Ed. Almquist i Wiksell, Uppsala, 1968, p.47
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VIOLENA MODALITATE DE SVRIRE A INFRACIUNILOR NDREPTATE CONTRA LIBERTII I DEMNITII PERSOANEI. PRIVIRE COMPARATIV NTRE ROMNIA CA STAT MEMBRU AL UNIUNII EUROPENE I REPUBLICA MOLDOVA
VIOLENCE METHOD TO PERFORM CRIMES AGAINST THE FREEDOM AND THE DIGNITY OF THE INDIVIDUAL. A COMPARATIVE VIEW BETWEEN ROMANIA AS A MEMBER STATE OF THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDAVIA
Mircea HOTOBOC avocat Baroul Hunedoara

Violena supune ateniei moartea, tortura, masacrul, oprimarea, criminalitatea sau terorismul, epurarea sau genocidul. ntr-un alt cadru, ne gndim la lipsa de civilizaie, insulte i injurii, nepolitee i atitudini nerespectuoase. Cu toate c e un fenomen att de cunoscut, nu e uor s ajungem la o definiie satisfctoare i n acelai timp consensual. Astfel, o prim accepiune evoc n mod spontan folosirea forei, focalizat asupra vtmrilor fizice. O a doua accepiune, avnd n vedere variabile juridice sau socio-instituionale, pune accentul pe violarea normelor i n special pe cele ce vizeaz legalitatea.
Mircea HOTOBOC avocat Baroul Hunedoara

Violence draws attention on death, torture, massacre, oppression, crime wave or terrorism, cleansing or genocide. In another frame, we think about lack of civilization, insults and injuries, rudeness and disrespectful attitudes. Although it is such a known phenomenon, it is not easy for us to come to a satisfactory and, at the same time, consensual definition. Thus, a first understanding of the notion calls forth a spontaneous use of force, centered on physical injuries. A second understanding of the term, bearing in mind variables of a legal or socialinstitutional nature, emphasizes on the breach of norms, especially the ones concerning legality.
Dreptul la libertate reprezint, alturi de dreptul la via, integritate corporal i sntate, un drept fundamental al persoanei. Fr dreptul la libertate, personalitatea omului nu-i poate gsi afirmarea, cci numai n msura n care este liber, omul se poate bucura pe deplin de via i de celelalte drepturi care i sunt inerente. Libertatea nu este numai o dorin, un deziderat al omului, ci, mai mult dect att, este o condiie esenial a existenei i a dezvoltrii nestingherite a organismului uman, fiind de o importan biologic, vital pentru om [1]. Dorina de libertate ca i promisiunea libertii au prilejuit de-a lungul istoriei declanarea de fore care au intrat n aciune, n lupte pentru cucerirea acestui deziderat. Dar libertatea ca fenomen care nsoete i condiioneaz aciunea uman confer omului dreptul de a aciona dup bunul plac ? La aceast ntrebare, Hegel a dat urmtorul rspuns: Omul obinuit crede c
The right to freedom represents, together with the right to life, integrity and health, a fundamental right of a person. Without the right to freedom, human personality would not express itself, as only to the extent in which a person is free may he/she fully enjoy life and its inherent rights. Freedom is not only a desire, a wish of the human, but, more than this, it is an essential condition of the existence and unsuppressed development of the human organism, having a vital biological importance for a person [1]. The desire for freedom, as the promise of freedom have given the opportunity, throughout history, to release different forces that have come into action, into battle in order to obtain this goal. But freedom as a phenomenon that escorts and conditions human action also gives man the right to act as he pleases? To this question, Hegel has given the following answer: The average human believes is free when he is allowed to act as he
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este liber cnd i este permis s acioneze dup bunul plac, dar tocmai n bunul plac st faptul c el nu este liber...Cnd se aude spunnd c libertatea n genere este s poi aciona aa cum vrei, o atare reprezentare poate fi luat numai ca o total lips a culturii gndirii, n care nu se gsete nc nici o umbr despre ceea ce este voina liber [2]. Jules Renard spunea: Libertatea are limitele pe care le impune justiia [3]. Aceasta nseamn c libertatea nu este absolut, nu este nelimitat, c deci nu se poate aciona oricum, fr opreliti, ca expresie a unui desvrit liber arbitru exprimat prin maxima laisser faire, laisser passer, ci aa cum foarte sugestiv o spuneau romanii prin aforismul libertate sub lege (sub lege libertas), altfel spus: libertate dar n legalitate. Reglementarea i ocrotirea juridic a drepturilor i libertilor individuale se fac numai n msura n care exercitarea lor nu este potrivnic celorlali membri ai societii, ordinei de drept, idee consacrat n articolul 29 din Declaraia Universal a Drepturilor Omului, adoptat i proclamat de Adunarea general a O.N.U. prin Rezoluia 217 A (III) din 10 decembrie 1948 precum i n alineatul (1) al articolului 23 din Constituia Romniei, republicat: Libertatea individual i sigurana persoanei sunt inviolabile. Pentru respectarea libertii persoanei sunt instituite garanii juridice n diferite ramuri ale dreptului Codul civil, Codul comercial, Codul muncii, Codul familiei iar dreptul penal substanial conine prevederi care la rndul lor sunt menite a apra libertatea persoanei mpotriva oricror manifestri violente i cu consecine att de duntoare. Violena, prin diferitele ei forme, aduce atingere libertii voinei persoanei, i viciaz sau anihileaz consimmntul, adic manifestarea de voin. Dac n ceea ce privete eroarea i dolul (viclenia), vicierea consimmntului nu este realizat de victim ea nerealiznd c acioneaz sub imperiul lor n cazul violenei, victima este contient de nocivitatea aciunii infractorului, dar nu poate s evite rul cu care este ameninat.
sees fit, but in this fitting lies the fact that he is not free When he hears himself say that freedom in general is to act as you please, such a representation may be considered only as a total lack of a thinking culture, in which resides no shadow of what is free will [2]. Jules Renard used to say: Freedom has the limitation that justice imposes [3]. This means that freedom is not absolute, is not without limits, and therefore one can not act without restrictions, as expression of an entire free will as stated by the phrase laisser faire, laisser passer, but as the Romans have said, through freedom under the law (sub lege libertas), otherwise said: freedom but in equality. The regulation and the legal protection of the individual rights and freedoms are performed only to the extent in which their exercise is not contrary to other members of the society, to the legal order, idea that was stated in article 29 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, as adopted by the UN General Assembly through Resolution 217 A (III) of December 10th, 1948, as well as in paragraph (1) of article 23 of the Constitution of Romania, republished: Individual freedom and security of a person are inviolable. In order to respect the freedom of the individual, legal guarantees are instated in different areas of law Civil code, Commercial code, Labor code, Family code, and the substantial criminal law also has provisions intended to protect the freedom of the person against any violent manifestations and with such harmful consequences. Violence, by its many forms, also affects the freedom of a persons will, alters or annihilates his consent, that is the manifestation of his will. If in cases of error and deceit, the alteration of the consent is not accomplished by the victim who does not realize that acts under their command in cases of violence, the victim is aware of the nocuous of the activity of the perpetrator, but is unable to avoid the damage he/she id threatened with. Otherwise said, violence is not a fault of the will by itself, but by its effect [4].
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Altfel spus, violena nu este un viciu al voinei prin ea nsi ci prin efectul ei [4]. Libertatea individual i sigurana persoanei fiind inviolabile, prin Codul penal sau instituit prevederi care sancioneaz acele infraciuni prin care se acioneaz asupra libertii persoanei sau aduc atingere acestei liberti prin acte de violen care mbrac fie forma violenei fizice, fie de cele mai multe ori forma constrngerii psihice. Etimologic, noiunea de constrngere (compus din con i strngere dup cuvntul francez contraindre) desemneaz o aciune de silire, forare, obligare. n Codul penal romn n vigoare, partea special, infraciunile care aduc atingere libertii persoanei sunt grupate n Capitolul II din Titlul II, intitulat Infraciuni contra libertii persoanei, respectiv articolele 189 196. n Codul penal al Republicii Moldova, asemenea infraciuni figureaz n partea special, Capitolul III sub titulatura Infracini contra libertii, cinstei i demnitii persoanei, respectiv articolele 164 169. Infraciuni comune n cele dou coduri sub aspectul n discuie sunt: lipsirea de libertate n mod ilegal prevzut de articolul 189 Cod penal romn, respectiv articolul 166 Cod penal moldovenesc, sclavia prevzut de articolul 190 Cod penal romn, respectiv articolul 167 Cod penal moldovenesc, supunerea la munc forat sau obligatorie, prevzut de articolul 191 Cod penal romn, respectiv articolul 168 Cod penal moldovenesc. De remarcat este faptul c unele infraciuni care n Codul penal romn figureaz n grupa celor comise contra libertii persoanei cum sunt: antajul (articolul 194), violarea de domiciliu (articolul 192), sunt prevzute n Codul penal moldovenesc, n alte capitole i anume: infraciunea de antaj, figureaz n Capitolul VI n grupa infraciunilor contra patrimoniului (articolul 189) iar cea de violare de domiciliu, o gsim n Capitolul V care se refer, printre alte infraciuni, la cele care ncalc drepturile constituionale ale cetenilor (articolul 179). Corelativ, n Codul penal
The individual freedom and the safety of the person being untouchable, the Criminal code has instated provisions that sanction those crimes that act upon the freedom of the individual or harm this freedom by acts of violence that take the form of the physical violence or as most cases are the form of the psychological constraint. Ethimologically speaking, the notion of constraint (that comes from the French contraindre) designates an action that forces, obliges. The Romanian Criminal code, in force, the special part groups the crimes that fault the freedom of the individual in Chapter II, Title II, entitled crimes against the freedom of the individual, respectively articles 189 196. The Criminal code of the Republic of Moldavia instates such crimes in the special part, Chapter III, under the title of crimes against freedom, honor and dignity of the individual, respectively articles 164 169. Common crimes in the two codes for the question at issue are: the illegal deprivation of freedom as provided by article 189 of the Romanian criminal code, respectively article 166 of the Moldavian criminal code, slavery as provided by article 190 of the Romanian criminal code, respectively article 167 of the Moldavian criminal code, the forceful or mandatory labor, as provided by article 191 of the Romanian criminal code, respectively article 168 of the Moldavian criminal code. One must also take notice of the fact that some crimes that under the Romanian criminal code are in the category of those committed against the freedom of the individual, as blackmail (article 194), trespass of the domicile (article 192) are also stated in different chapters of the Moldavian criminal code, as follows: the crime of blackmail is provided in Chapter Vi in the category of the crimes against property (article 189), and we can find the trespass of the domicile in Chapter V, that concerns, among other crimes, the ones that breach the constitutional rights of the citizens (article 179). In the same manner, the Moldavian
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moldovenesc, n grupa infraciunilor contra libertii persoanei, figureaz infraciunea de rpire a unei persoane (articolul 164) care nu figureaz n grupa respectiv a Codului penal romn. n aceeai grup a infraciunilor contra libertii persoanei din Codul penal moldovenesc figureaz infraciunea prevzut de articolul 169 sub denumirea internarea ilegal ntr-o instituie psihiatric pe care nu o gsim n grupa corespunztoare din Codul penal romn. La o analiz mai atent, ncadrarea uneori diferit a infraciunilor mai sus menionate ntr-o grup sau alta, este doar formal i nesemnificativ, ntruct unele infraciuni au ca obiect juridic att relaiile sociale referitoare la dreptul persoanei la libertate ct i relaiile sociale din alt sfer proteguit de legea penal. Astfel, infraciunea de antaj are ca obiect juridic special relaiile sociale referitoare la libertatea moral a persoanei dar, n acelai timp, aduce atingere i relaiilor sociale legate de patrimoniul persoanei. Asistm n acest fel la o interferen, la o intersectare a unor relaii sociale, lezate prin aceeai infraciune. n ceea ce privete infraciunea de rpire a unei persoane prevzut de articolul 164 din Codul penal moldovenesc, se observ c elementele ei constitutive pot fi uor regsite n coninutul infraciunii de lipsire de libertate n mod ilegal, prevzut de articolul 189 Cod penal romn. Astfel, n alineatul 2 al articolului 189 Cod penal, rpirea unei persoane constituie o agravant a infraciunii de lipsire de libertate n mod ilegal. Dup aceast succint prezentare a infraciunilor contra libertii persoanei aa cum sunt ele reglementate n ambele coduri penale, vom analiza unele din aceste infraciuni sub aspectul elementului esenial ce constituie modalitatea de svrire a lor i anume, violena exercitat inclusiv sub forma constrngerii morale, psihice.
criminal code groups the crime of kidnapping (article 164) in the category of the crimes against the freedom of the individual, contrary to the Romanian criminal code. In the same category of crimes against the freedom of the individual within the Moldavian criminal code, we can find the crime provided for in article 169 under the name of illegal admission in a psychiatric institution that we can not find in the corresponding group of the Romanian criminal code. Upon a closer analysis, the sometimes different framing of the above mentioned crimes in one group or another is merely formal and insignificant as some crimes have both the social relations concerning the right to freedom of the individual and those social relations from another sphere, but provided for by the criminal law, as their legal subject. Thus, for the crime of blackmail, the special legal subject concerns the social relations on the moral freedom of the individual, but, at the same time, concerns the social relations on the property of the individual. We therefore attend to an interference, an intersection of some social relations, endangered by the same crime. As for the crime of kidnapping a person, as provided for by article 164 of the Moldavian criminal code, we can notice that its constituent elements may easily be found within the content of the crime of illegal deprivation of freedom, as provided for by article 189 of the Romanian criminal code. Thus, paragraph 2 of article 189 of the Criminal code instates the kidnapping of a person as an increase in the gravity of the crime of illegal deprivation of freedom. After this short presentation of the crimes against the freedom of the individual, as provided by both criminal codes, we shall proceed to an analysis of some of these crimes, as to what concerns the essential element that constitutes the method of their commitment, which is violence under the form of moral, psychological constraint.
Infraciunea de lipsire de libertate n mod ilegal prevzut de articolul 189 Cod penal The crime of illegal deprivation of freedom,
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romn i de articolul 166 Cod penal moldovenesc Obiectul juridic al infraciunii de privare ilegal de libertate l constituie relaiile sociale a cror existen i normal desfurare depind de ocrotirea libertii fizice a persoanei, adic a posibilitii acesteia de a se mica, de a circula, de a aciona dup voina sa n limitele admise de lege. De regul, fapta de lipsire de libertate const ntr-o aciune, de exemplu fptuitorul nchide persoana ntr-o ncpere, mpiedecndo s se deplaseze sau o urc ntr-un vehicul silind-o s se deplaseze contrar voinei ei. Pentru existena infraciunii, fptuitorul folosete de cele mai multe ori fora fizic sau ameninarea cu svrirea unui ru, deci constrngerea pentru a-i anihila victimei puterea de opunere, de rezisten. Infraciunea de privare ilegal de libertate prezint forme agravante cum sunt cele prevzute de articolul 166 literele e) i f) din Codul penal moldovenesc, care constau n aplicarea de ctre fptuitor de violene periculoase pentru viaa sau sntatea persoanei, sau agravanta prevzut de alineatul 2 al articolului 189 din Codul penal romn care are n vedere comiterea faptei de o persoan narmat sau cnd victima este supus unor suferine sau viaa i este pus n pericol. Exist situaii n care lipsirea de libertate a unei persoane nsoete o alt infraciune. Astfel, violul nu poate fi conceput fr lipsirea de libertate a victimei, deoarece numai n felul acesta poate fi realizat, prin constrngere, raportul sexual. n acest caz violul absoarbe n coninutul su lipsirea de libertate a victimei necesar realizrii actului sexual. Dar dac lipsirea de libertate depete aceast necesitate, de exemplu infractorul dup comiterea violului, a ncuiat victima ntr-o ncpere, ne aflm n prezena a dou infraciuni n concurs: cea de viol i de lipsire de libertate n mod ilegal, ambele comise prin acte de violen fizic i constrngere. O form agravant a infraciunii de lipsire ilegal de libertate o constituie svrirea faptei prin rpire.
as provided for by article 189 of the Romanian criminal code and article 166 of the Moldavian criminal code The legal subject of the crime of illegal deprivation of freedom is formed by the social relations whose normal existence and performance depend on the protection of the physical freedom of the individual, that is of the possibility to act, to move, to circulate according to his will, within the boundaries enforced by law. Usually, the action of illegal deprivation of freedom consists of an action, for instance the perpetrator locks the person in a room, preventing this person to move, or forces the person to go into a vehicle, in order to travel against this persons will. In order for this crime to exist, the perpetrator, most of the times, makes use of physical force or threatens to do harm, therefore constraints the individual in order to annihilate the victims ability to oppose, to resist. The crime of illegal deprivation of freedom presents different increases in the gravity of the crime, as those provided in article 166 letters e) and f) of the Moldavian criminal code, which consist of the administration by the perpetrator of violence perilous for the health or the safety of the person, or as the one provided in paragraph 2 of article 189 of the Romanian criminal code, which concerns the action of the deed by an armed person or if the victim is subject to suffering or the victims life is endangered. There are cases when the deprivation of freedom of a person accompanies another crime. Thus, rape can not be conceived without the deprivation of freedom of the victim, because only in this case can the sexual act be performed, by constraint In this case, rape absorbs in its contents the deprivation of freedom of the individual, needed for the performance of the sexual act. But if the deprivation of freedom surpasses this necessity, for instance if the perpetrator, after the rape, locks the victim in a room, we find ourselves in the presence of two concurrent crimes: rape and illegal deprivation of freedom, both committed through acts of
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Legiuitorul romn nu a incriminat aceast fapt n mod distinct, ca cel moldovenesc, care a prevzut-o n articolul 164 din Codul respectiv, ci a inserat-o ca circumstan agravant a infraciunii de lipsire de libertate n mod ilegal. Circumstana agravant se refer la procedeul folosit de infractor, de pild, de a rpi persoana, lund-o din locul unde se afl i ducnd-o n alt loc mpotriva voinei sale, unde o priveaz de libertate. Pentru existena agravantei infraciunii, este suficient ca victima s nu fi mers de bun voie, ci urmare a constrngerii fizice sau morale, exercitate de fptuitor. Dac n schimbul eliberrii victimei private de libertate se cere un folos material, situaie care constituie o alt agravant a infraciunii de lipsire de libertate prevzut de alineatul 2 al articolului 189 Cod penal romn i, de asemenea, o agravant a infraciunii de rpire prevzut de litera f) a alineatului 2 al articolului 166 din Codul penal moldovenesc, infraciunea dobndete o periculozitate social deosebit. Este, fr ndoial, un act de constrngere prin violen a voinei celui care, pentru eliberarea persoanei privat ilegal de libertate, i se cere s dea un folos material sau s acorde orice alt avantaj. Cel aflat ntr-o asemenea situaie nu mai acioneaz liber, voina sa de a aciona i dispune fiind viciat de violena exercitat prin constrngere psihic, realizat prin privarea de libertate fie a sa, fie a altei persoane de care este legat prin rudenie, afeciune sau alte interese majore. Privarea ilegal de libertate poate fi comis nu numai prin aciuni directe ci i prin aciuni indirecte cum ar fi: internarea victimei ntr-o instituie psihiatric dei este vdit sntoas din punct de vedere psihic, prin prezentarea eronat i cu rea intenie a strii de fapt n faa autoritilor competente. n Codul penal moldovenesc, n grupa infraciunilor contra libertii persoanei, figureaz la articolul 169 i cea de internare ilegal ntr-o instituie psihiatric, infraciune care nu o gsim sub aceast titulatur n grupa corespunztoare din Codul penal romn, dar
physical violence and constraint. An increase in the gravity of the crime of illegal deprivation of freedom is to perform this deed through kidnapping. The Romanian legislator has never incriminated this act distinctively, as the Moldavian one, who provided it in article 164 of the respective Code, and has left it as a circumstance for the increase in the gravity of the crime of illegal deprivation of freedom. The above circumstance refers to the line of action of the perpetrator, for instance to kidnap the person, by taking him from the point of origin and taking him in a different location against his will, where is deprived of freedom. If in exchange for the release of the victim, previously deprived of freedom, one requires a material gain, a situation that constitutes another increase in the gravity of the crime of deprivation of freedom provided in letter f) paragraph 2 of article 166 of the Moldavian criminal code, the crime gets a special social danger. It is, without question, an act of constraint by means of violence of the will of the one who, in order to release the person illegally deprived of freedom, request a material gain or other form of advantages. The person who finds himself in such a situation may no longer act freely, his will to dispose and act is harmed by the violence exercised through physical constraint, accomplished by deprivation of freedom of oneself or of another person to who is bound by kindred, affection or other major interests. The illegal deprivation of freedom may be perpetrated not only by means of direct actions, but also by means of indirect actions, such as: the admittance of the victim in a psychiatric institution, although clearly healthy from a psychological point of view, as a consequence of a wrongful and ill-intended presentation of the facts to the competent authorities. The Moldavian criminal code also places, among the rimes against the freedom of the person, in article 169, the illegal admission in a psychiatric institution, a crime that can not be found under the same title in
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aceasta nu nseamn c o asemenea fapt nu este incriminat, ci dimpotriv deoarece ea intr n sfera suficient de larg a infraciunilor la care se refer articolul 189 din Codul penal romn. Este de subliniat c printr-o asemenea fapt, persoana respectiv este n imposibilitatea de a se apra, voina ei fiind anihilat prin constrngere moral. Infraciunea de antaj Am artat mai sus c infraciunea de antaj figureaz n Codul penal romn n grupa infraciunilor contra libertii persoanei (articolul 194), iar n Codul penal moldovenesc, se afl n grupa infraciunilor contra patrimoniului (articolul 189), alturi de furt, tlhrie, etc. Am nvederat c o asemenea abordare legislativ se explic prin aceea c sunt lezate deopotriv att relaiile sociale care apr libertatea persoanei ct i cele care proteguiesc patrimoniul acesteia. Din punct de vedere obiectiv, antajul se realizeaz printr-o aciune de violen sau ameninare prin care autorul constrnge o persoan s dea, s fac sau s nu fac, ori, s sufere ceva [5]. Violena i ameninarea, ca mijloace de realizare a constrngerii, sunt date n orice aciune susceptibil obiectiv, s inspire un sentiment de alarm, de temere subiectului pasiv, s pun stpnire pe cugetul acestuia, care nu mai are astfel libertatea psihic necesar s se opun preteniilor fptuitorului, ea privind posibilitatea producerii unui ru viitor [6]. n Codul penal romn n vigoare, sunt prevzute dou situaii care caracterizeaz latura obiectiv a infraciunii de antaj: urmrirea de ctre autor a dobndirii n mod injust a unui folos pentru sine sau pentru altul i ameninarea exercitat de fptuitor c va da n vileag fapte reale sau imaginare, compromitoare, pentru victima ameninat, pentru soul ei sau pentru o rud apropiat. Cea de-a doua situaie reprezint o agravant a infraciunii de antaj, sanciunea fiind mai mare. n Codul penal moldovenesc,
the corresponding group of the Romanian criminal code, which does not necessarily mean that such a deed is not provided for, but, on the contrary, since it comes within the large sphere of the crimes referred to by article 189 of the Romanian criminal code. It is to be noted that by means of such an action, the respective person is unable to protect herself, because the will is annihilated through moral constraint The crime of blackmail We have shown above that the crime of blackmail is placed by the Romanian criminal code in the category of the crimes against the freedom of the person (article 194), while the Moldavian criminal code places it in the category of the crimes against property (article 189), together with the crimes of theft, robbery etc. We have shown that such a legislative approach can be explained by the fact that the wronged relations at both those social relations that protect the freedom of the person and the ones that protect his/her property. From an objective point of view, blackmail is accomplished through a violent action or a threat, by means of which the author forces a person to give, to do or not to do, or to suffer something [5]. Violence and threat, as means to accomplish the constraint are given, in any action, objectively susceptible to inspire a feeling of disturbance, of fear to the passive subject, to enslave his/her thoughts, who thus no longer possesses the psychological freedom needed to oppose the claims of the perpetrator, concerning the possibility of producing a future harm [6]. The Romanian criminal code, presently in force, states two cases that characterize the objective side of the crime of blackmail: the pursuit by the author to unjustly obtain a gain for oneself or for another and the threat of the perpetrator to expose real or imaginary compromising facts for the threatened victim, the spouse or a close relative. The second situation represents an increase in the gravity of the crime of blackmail, with a harsher sanction.
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infraciunea de antaj incriminat n articolul 189 n Capitolul VI al prii speciale privind infraciunile contra patrimoniului, are un coninut prezentat mult mai detaliat att n ceea ce privete forma simpl de antaj, ct, mai ales, cu privire la formele agravante ale acestei infraciuni. Astfel, n prima form, antajul are ca obiect cererea autorului ca victima s transmit bunurile ei fie c este proprietarul, posesorul sau deintorul acestora, sau ameninarea c va distruge aceste bunuri, de asemenea, ameninarea cu violen a victimei, a rudelor sau apropiailor acesteia, cu rspndirea de tiri defimtoare sau cu rpirea acestora. n forma agravant, figureaz comiterea antajului n mod repetat, de dou sau mai multe persoane sau de un grup criminal organizat, prin folosirea de arme, trecerea la schingiuire, tortur. Infraciunea de antaj este ndreptat mpotriva libertii persoanei, mpotriva dreptului ei de a se manifesta liber, de a voi i dispune fr a fi constrns prin violen sau ameninare. Totodat, prin incriminarea antajului, sunt ocrotite i relaiile sociale legate de patrimoniul persoanei, care sunt periclitate prin folosul material urmrit de fptuitor atunci cnd constrngerea este exercitat n vederea unui folos material i a creat un prejudiciu. Ca atare, antajul are un obiect juridic complex, dat att de relaiile sociale privind libertatea persoanei, ct i de cele referitoare la patrimoniu. Aa se explic de ce n Codul penal romn, aceast fapt este inserat n rndul infraciunilor contra persoanei, iar n Codul penal moldovenesc figureaz n grupa infraciunilor contra patrimoniului. Dar, indiferent de natura relaiilor sociale periclitate prin infraciunea de antaj, elementul comun l reprezint exercitarea de ctre fptuitor a unor acte de violen fie fizic, fie psihic sub forma constrngerii morale, fie prin ameninare.
In the Moldavian criminal code, the crime of blackmail incriminated in article 189 of Chapter VI of the special part on crimes against property, has a much more detailed content, both in regard to the simple form of blackmail and especially to the aggravating forms of this crime. As such, under the first form, blackmail has for object the request of the author for the victim to transmit the assets whether he is their proprietor, possessor or detentor, or the threat that will destroy these assets and also the threat of violence toward the victim, the relatives or those close to the victim, by spreading harmful news or their kidnapping. In the aggravating form we have the repeated blackmail, committed by two or more persons, or by an organized criminal group, by using guns, torture. The crime of blackmail is against the freedom of the person, against the persons right to act freely, to will and dispose without constraint by means of violence or threat. At the same time, by incriminating blackmail, there are also protected the social relations connected with the property of the person, that are endangered by the material gain pursued by the perpetrator, when the constraint is accomplished in order to obtain a material gain and has already created a damage. As such, blackmail has a complex legal object, given both by the social relations concerning the freedom of the person and those concerning the property. This explains why the Romanian criminal code frames this crime among those against the individual, and the Moldavian criminal code among the crimes against property. But regardless of the nature of the social relations endangered by the crime of blackmail, the common element is the exercise by the perpetrator of acts by means of violence, whether physical or psychological, under the form of moral constraint, whether by threat.
Slavery Sclavia The crime of slavery is incriminated by Infraciunea de sclavie este incriminat
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de Codul penal romn n articolul 190, iar n cel moldovenesc n articolul 167. n ambele coduri, aceast fapt figureaz n grupa infraciunilor contra libertii persoanei. n timp ce Codul penal romn definete aceast infraciune n mod generic, atunci cnd precizeaz c ea const n punerea sau inerea unei persoane n sclavie sau n traficul de sclavi, pornindu-se de la ideea c nelesul noiunii de sclavie este ndeobte cunoscut, Codul penal moldovenesc o definete n mod explicit artndu-se c sclavia const n punerea sau inerea unei persoane n condiii n care o alt persoan exercit stpnire asupra acesteia. Totodat, n sfera noiunii de sclavie este inclus un caz mai particular i concret i anume acela constnd n determinarea unei persoane prin utilizarea constrngerii, violenei, ameninrii cu violena sau nelciunii s se angajeze sau s rmn n raport de concubinaj sau cstorie. Spre deosebire de alte infraciuni contra libertii persoanei prin care se atenteaz la libertate sub anumite aspecte, de pild libertatea de micare, libertatea moral, etc.,n cazul sclaviei, sunt afectate drepturile persoanei aproape n totalitate, deoarece victima este lipsit complet de atributul esenial al ei, care este libertatea individual, altfel spus ea este redus la un simplu obiect al dreptului de proprietate al altei persoane. Modalitatea sau mijloacele pentru realizarea coninutului infraciunii de sclavie sunt cele enumerate de Codul penal moldovenesc n articolul 167: violena, ameninarea cu violen, constrngerea. Atunci cnd legiuitorul se refer n textul respectiv la fapta similar sclaviei determinarea unei persoane s se angajeze sau s rmn n raport de concubinaj sau cstorie printre mijloacele menionate de anihilare a voinei, figureaz i nelciunea. Supunerea la munc forat sau obligatorie Infraciunea este prevzut n articolul 191 Cod penal romn, ea constnd n fapta de a supune o persoan, n alte cazuri dect cele legale, la prestarea unei munci contra voinei ei, iar n Codul penal moldovenesc figureaz
the Romanian criminal code in article 190, and by the Moldavian one in article 167. In both codes, this crime is placed in the category of the crimes against freedom of the individual. While the Romanian criminal code defines this crime in a general manner, when it states that it consists of the enslaving or the keeping into slavery or into slave trafficking of a person, bearing in mind the idea that the meaning of the concept of slavery is commonly known, the Moldavian criminal code defines it explicitly, instating that slavery is the setting or the keeping of a person in such conditions as another person might exercise dominion over the person. At the same time, the notion of slavery includes a more particular and concrete case, that is the one concerning the determination of a person, by using constraint, violence, threat to become violent or deceit, to engage or remain in a relation of concubines or marriage. Unlike crimes against freedom of a person by means of which freedom is harmed under different issues, like freedom to move, moral liberty etc., in cases of slavery are affected almost entirely the rights of the individual, since the victim lacks an essential attribute, the individual freedom, or otherwise said, the victim is reduced to a mere object of the property of another person.. The way or means to realize the crime of slavery are those enumerated by the Moldavian criminal code in article 167: violence, threat with violence, constraint. When the legislator refers in the respective text to the deed similar to slavery the determination of a person to engage or remain in a relation of concubines or marriage among the means to annihilate the will is also the deceit. The forceful or mandatory labor The crime is enshrined in article 191 of the Romanian criminal code, and consists of the act to submit a person, in other cases than the ones stated by law, to perform labor against this persons will, while the Moldavian criminal code enshrines it in article 168, including in its generic content the situation of
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n articolul 168, coninutul incluznd pe lng cel generic i situaia de a ine o persoan n servitute pentru achitarea unei datorii. Expresia care definete infraciunea supunerea la munc forat spune prin ea nsi care sunt mijloacele folosite de fptuitor: violena, ameninarea cu violen, constrngerea moral i, uneori, nelciunea. Infraciunile contra libertii persoanei nu au fost analizate printr-o abordare exhaustiv ci numai sub aspectul comiterii lor prin violen i constrngere. BIBLIOGRAFIE SELECTIV : [1] Fromm E. Idei contemporane texte alese, Editura Politic Bucureti, 1983, pag. 460-461. [2] G.W.F. Hegel Principiile filozofiei dreptului Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1964, pag. 43-45. [3] Renard J. Jurnal, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1979, pag.146. [4] Diaconescu H. Violena i efectele sale n Dreptul romn, Editura AIUS, Craiova, 1995, pag. 52. [5] Antoniu G. Comentarii n Codul penal al Republicii Socialiste Romnia, comentat i adnotat, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1975, partea special, vol. I, pag. 162-163. [6] Roca V. Infraciuni contra libertii persoanei, n Explicaii teoretice ale Codului penal Romn de V. Dongoroz, S. Kaen, I. Oancea, I. Fodor, N. Iliescu, C. Bulai, R. Stnoiu i V. Roca, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1971, partea special, vol. III, pag. 285.
keeping a person in easement in order to pay a debt. The expression that defines the crime, forceful or mandatory labor suggests by itself the means used by the perpetrator: violence, threat with violence, moral constraint and, sometimes, deceit. The crimes against the freedom of the person were not analyzed by means of an extensive approach, but only as to what concerns their doing by means of violence and constraint. SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY: [1] Fromm E. Idei contemporane texte alese, Editura Politic Bucureti, 1983, pag. 460-461. [2] G.W.F. Hegel Principiile filozofiei dreptului Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1964, pag. 43-45. [3] Renard J. Jurnal, Editura Univers, Bucureti, 1979, pag.146. [4] Diaconescu H. Violena i efectele sale n Dreptul romn, Editura AIUS, Craiova, 1995, pag. 52. [5] Antoniu G. Comentarii n Codul penal al Republicii Socialiste Romnia, comentat i adnotat, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1975, partea special, vol. I, pag. 162-163. [6] Roca V. Infraciuni contra libertii persoanei, n Explicaii teoretice ale Codului penal Romn de V. Dongoroz, S. Kaen, I. Oancea, I. Fodor, N. Iliescu, C. Bulai, R. Stnoiu i V. Roca, Editura Academiei, Bucureti, 1971, partea special, vol. III, pag. 285.
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LEGITIMITATEA I LEGALITATEA STRUCTURILOR INTERNAIONALE ALE SPORTULUI
LEGITIMACY AND LEGALITY OF INTERNATIONAL SPORTS STRUCTURES
Lect.univ.dr. Jean FIRIC Universitatea din Craiova Asist. univ. dr. Manuel Cristian FIRIC Universitatea din Craiova
PhD lecturer Jean FIRICA Craiova University MSc junior lecturer Manuel Cristian FIRIC Craiova University
Abstract The institutional identity or the place the sports structures hold in the judicial organization of the sports world is the theme to which the legitimacy and legal character of the international structures of sports relate to. The two elements dimension ascribes to sports universality. The paper presents a few judicial cases and problems of wide interest.
Abstract The institutional identity or the place the sports structures hold in the judicial organization of the sports world is the theme to which the legitimacy and legal character of the international structures of sports relate. The two elements dimension ascribes to sports universality. The paper presents a few judicial cases and problems of wide interest.
Organele internaionale i funciile structurilor internaionale ale sportului Vasta constelaie a micrii sportive din ultimele decenii a cunoscut modificri cu adevrat nsemnate, iar expansiunea considerabil a activitii sportive a dus la proliferarea organelor de conducere i la mpovrarea structurilor. n aceste condiii, vom analiza locul pe care l-a ocupat i l vor ocupa structurile sportului n organizarea juridic i instituional a lumii n care acioneaz ele. Tocmai la aceast chestiune, cu privire la identitatea instituional, se raporteaz tema legitimitii i legalitii structurilor internaionale ale sportului. Primul semn de ntrebare, care ine de problema fundamental, l reprezint LEGITIMITATEA. La prima vedere noiunea pare mai greu de definit i poate fi apreciat n raport cu principiile sau valorile recunoscute ce decurg din ordinea lucrurilor sau a raiunii. Aceast referin constituie o anumit ordine natural legat de un ntreg ansamblu de factori ntmpltori: importana istoriei, evoluia mentalitilor, uneori chiar statura i notorietatea unei anumite personaliti. Aa nct m voi limita la formula lui Ferrero, spunnd c legitimitatea se afl n minile geniilor invizibile ale cetii . n aceast situaie, cetatea este una imens ntruct
International Organs and the Functions of International Sports Structures The wide constellation of sports movement in the recent decades has undergone significant changes, and the considerable expansion of sports activities resulted in the proliferation of governing bodies and the overburdening of structures. In this case, we shall analyse the place sports structures have and will have within the juridical and institutional organization of the world they operate in. The thesis on legitimacy and legality of international sports structures relates precisely to this matter, concerning its institutional identity. The first question we raise, in connection to the main topic, regards LEGITIMACY. This notion seems difficult to define at first sight, and can be appreciated in relation to acknowledged values and principles deriving from the order of things or of reason. This reference means a certain natural order comprising a whole set of random agents: the importance of history, the evolution of mentalities, and at times even the stature and notoriety of a certain personality. So I shall confine myself to Ferreros conception, and say that legitimacy lies in the hands of citys invisible genii. In our case, the city is boundless, since sport is universal: this is the
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sportul este universal: aceasta este dimensiunea la care trebuie apreciat legitimitatea structurilor internaionale ale sportului. Dup cum tim valorile umaniste pe care se bazeaz principiile olimpice sunt, n mod firesc, purttoare de legitimitate, doar c, fiind vorba de aprecierea structurilor care le propag, acest prim argument nu este suficient. De aici reiese i necesitatea aprofundrii problemei. Cealalt chestiune, LEGALITATEA, pare mai simpl: legalitatea fiind conformitatea fa de ordinea stabilit, fa de o lege pozitiv, pentru care este suficient s se gseasc ordinea juridic de referin. Dar tocmai aici apare dificultatea. Pe de o parte, exist instane sportive care stabilesc ordinea interioar i disciplina care trebuie s fie respectat i aceeai pentru toi. Aceast legalitate nu poate veni dect din partea factorilor de rspundere de la cele mai nalte foruri, adic din partea structurilor internaionale, care se vd astfel nzestrate cu o remarcabil putere de comunicare juridic, deoarece mesajul lor trebuie s ating pn i cele mai mrunte mecanisme ale procedurilor instituionale, chiar i pentru cluburile i asociaiile cele mai izolate. Pe de alt parte, fiecare stat are legi pe care le impune pe teritoriul su. Deoarece activitatea sportiv, prin succesul de care se bucur, se gsete n centrul mizelor politice i economice, un numr considerabil de state au n constituiile lor, chiar, legi i articole consacrate sportului. Considerm necesar s le mbinm i s acionm prin intermediul ambelor legaliti. Adic, reeaua juridic a sportului mbin, ntotdeauna n cadrul ei, ordinea sportiv i ordinea de stat. Echilibrul lor variaz n funcie de ri i regimuri politice. Dac ar trebui s schim anumite repere, propunem s denumim legea i s vedem ce nelegem prin zona logisticii, zona de densitate maximal i zona instituiei sportive. n primul rnd, zona logisticii se raporteaz la administrarea mijloacelor economice ale sportului. Ea reprezint locul de definire a dreptului administrativ i a celui fiscal, a dreptului civil, comercial sau al
proportion one must have in mind when discussing the legitimacy of international sports structures. As we are aware of, the classic values at the core of the Olympic principles are inherently legitimate; nonetheless, when referring to the structures they propagate, this first argument proves insufficient. Hence the necessity of considering this issue thoroughly. The other issue, LEGALITY, seems easier to approach: legality means compliance with an established order, with a positive law, for which one need only to identify the referent juridical order. But at this point difficulties emerge. On the one hand, there are sports authorities which determine the internal order and discipline, that must be obeyed and be the same for all. This type of legality can only be the prerogative of responsible agents from high level forums, that is, the international structures, which are thus endowed with a remarkable power of juridical communication, since their message must reach even the finest mechanisms of institutional procedure, even if concerning the most remote clubs or associations. On the other hand, each state makes its own laws, which it enforces within its territory. Given that sports activities, on the account of their acknowledged success, fall in the centre of political and economical disputes, a considerable number of states include laws and articles referring to sport in their constitutions. We deem it proper to combine and act through the mediation of both types of legality. In other words, the juridical network of sport always mingles the sports order and the state order. The balance between them varies depending on countries and political regimes. If we are to settle certain reference points, we suggest we define the law and also see what we mean by the logistics domain, the area of maximum density and the area of the sports institution. First of all, the logistics domain involves the administration of sports economical resources. It is the application area of administrative law, fiscal law, civil law,
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muncii i cel al finanelor publice. Pe scurt, ea reprezint zona n care legalitatea statului ocup tot sau aproape tot terenul, unde importana i amploarea problemei sportive este minimal . La polul opus, se situeaz zona de densitate maximal a sportului, unde ordinea sportiv pare s dein monopolul. Aceasta este zona domeniului sportiv, a confruntrii, izolat n unitatea sa de timp, loc i obiectiv. Aici regulamentul sportiv domnete n exclusivitate i are un caracter fondator: fr el nu ar exista competiia. nvingtorul ctig ntotdeauna datorit regulamentului, iar adversarul su, ntr-un anumit mod, este nvins de regulament. Legalitatea statului nu trebuie s intervin. n fine, ntre cele dou zone, exist zona instituiei sportive, zon complex, eterogen, n care acioneaz structurile internaionale ale sportului. Fiecare unitate elementar sau federaie, precum Comitetul Internaional Olimpic (CIO), Asociaia Comitetului Naional Olimpic (ACNO), asociaiile continentale, denumite Consiliul Naional Olimpic (CNO), ct i regruparea unor federaii internaionale i gsesc locul aici. Aceast entitate se organizeaz i funcioneaz, stabilindu-se material i juridic, pe teritoriul unui stat. Compoziia de ansamblu este n msur s i exercite propria presiune juridic, s aplice aceast for de comunicare instituional care va ntrece orice mecanism sau ansamblu, deoarece ea este indispensabil coerenei sistemului i realizrii obiectivelor sale. n aceast situaie, trebuie vzut ce fel de legalitate se impune n aceast ultim zon, fie ordinea de stat, fie pe cea sportiv. Pe undeva, ne dm seama c n rezolvarea i n accepiunea noastr vom fi influenai de geniile invizibile ale cetii , iar rezultatul este strns legat de o alt dezbatere: cea despre legitimitate. De fapt, n spatele dublei probleme, legitimitate i legalitate, se profileaz clar chestiunea fundamental cu care se confrunt structurile internaionale ale sportului, probleme de actualitate dar i de viitor: IDENTITATEA INSTITUIEI SPORTIVE. n faa unui asemenea subiect, juristul
commercial law, labour law or public finance law. In short, it represents an area where state legislation reigns and where the importance and amplitude of sports matters are minimal. Then, there is the maximum density area of sports on the opposite side, where sport order seems to hold the monopoly. This is the area of sports, of competition, isolated within its time, place and goal unit. Sport regulations are herein exclusive and have a fundamental character: without them, no competition can exist. The winner always wins by the rules and owing to them, and his/her adversary is in a way defeated by the same rules. State legislation must not interfere. Finally, theres the sports institutions area in between, a zone of complexity and heterogeneity, where international sports structures operate. Each single unit or federation, such as the International Olympic Committee (IOC), the National Olympic Committee Association (NOCA), the continental associations, known as the National Olympic Council (NOC), as well as some international federations regrouped, belong to this area. This entity organizes itself and functions within the territory of a state, where it settles materially and legally. The overall structure has the power to exert juridical pressure, to exercise its force of institutional communication, which exceeds any mechanism or ensemble, because it is essential to the system coherence and to the achievement of goals. In this case, we have to see what type of legality functions in this last area: the state order or the sport order. We are still aware of our analysis and conception being influenced by the citys invisible genii, and the results are closely connected with another debate: the one on legitimacy. As a matter of fact, against the background of this double-featured issue, the fundamental question emerges, one which the international sports structures have to deal with both in present and in future: the IDENTITY of the SPORT INSTITUTION. When confronted with this problem, the legal expert tends to be cautious and the sportsman to debate passionately. Since we are in a dilemma, we hope for indulgence: this is a
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nclin spre o mare pruden i sportivul lupt cu o anume pasiune. n cadrul acestei noi dileme, credem c vom beneficia de indulgen, fiind vorba de o chestiune de identitate, n sensul c suntem determinai n larg msur de ceea ce ntreprindem; mai ales dac ceea ce facem este att de important pentru solidaritatea ansamblului. n acest caz, expresia structuri internaionale ale sportului este ct se poate de adecvat: o structur este, de fapt, un ansamblu alctuit dintr-o serie de fenomene solidare, astfel, nct fiecare dintre ele depind de celelalte i nu poate fi ceea ce este dect n cadrul i datorit relaiei sale cu acestea. Nu credem c poate exista un termen mai potrivit pentru micarea sportiv. Identitatea instituional a acestei micri trebuie cutat, att n organele pe care le regrupeaz, ct i n funciile pe care le reunete. Dintre funciile exercitate de structurile internaionale ale sportului, ne intereseaz numai aspectele care se raporteaz la noiunile de legalitate i legitimitate, adic la aspectele instituionale, cele care ilustreaz puterea de comunicare juridic a micrii sportive. Din acest punct de vedere, regsim cele dou genuri majore pe care le au n comun toate instituiile: stabilirea unei reglementri i rezolvarea diferendelor a legifera i a judeca. Autoritile sportive nu sunt singurele preocupate de acest aspect n domeniul sportului; statele au i ele preocuprile lor, fiecare pe teritoriul unde i exercit suveranitatea. Problema rmne aceeai: ponderea structurilor internaionale ale sportului n exercitarea acestei duble funcii instituionale, n raport cu legalitatea statelor. Despre a legifera Noiunea a legifera reprezint sarcina oricrei grupri menit s defineasc ordinea i funcionarea intern. Din proprie iniiativ, fiecare entitate i aplic ordinea reglementar, denumit adesea drept spontan i care semnific, n general, conformarea fa de ordinea statului. Credem c nu este legitim s fie altfel: acest principiu este valabil, n general, pentru asociaii, sindicate i grupri private. Dar, nu suntem siguri c structurile
matter of identity, in that we are to a great extent determined by what we do; particularly when what we do is quite important for the solidarity of the ensemble. In this case, the phrase international sports structures is more than appropriate: a structure is in fact an ensemble constituted of a series of joint phenomena so that each and every one of them depends on the others and cannot be what it is but in relation to them. We believe theres no other term to define so exactly the sports movement. In attempting to define the institutional identity of this movement, one should consider the organizations it regroups and the functions it combines. From among the functions that international sports structures hold, we are interested in those aspects related to the concepts of legality and legitimacy, that is the institutional aspects illustrating the sports movement power of juridical communication. From this point of view, there are two major types of problems common of all institutions: the prescription of regulations and the resolution of differences concerning the terms to legislate and to judge. Not only sport authorities are interested in this matter, but also the states, each on the territory where they exert sovereignty. We go back to the same issue: the weight of international sports structures in relation to the states legislation, when it comes to exercising the above mentioned double institutional function. About to legislate Any group that has to define its own internal order and functioning, should clear up this point. Every entity elaborates a regulatory order, on its own initiative, which is often called spontaneous law and generally means conformity to the state order. Indeed it is not legitimate otherwise: this principle is applicable to associations, syndicates and private groups. Nonetheless, we are not sure whether the international sports structures can fit into this frame. Hypothetically speaking, their authority is universal and meanwhile it depends on the sovereignty of states, which raises questions as to how it might actually
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internaionale ale sportului se pot adapta la aceast schem. Aadar, ipotetic, autoritatea lor este universal, fapt ce ne determin s ne gndim cum se poate exercita ea, dac de fiecare dat depinde de suveranitatea statelor. Nu vom prezenta, dect un singur exemplu, cel al naionalitii sau naionalitilor. Nu putem fii de acord ca sportivii s se comporte ca nite mercenari i s se vnd mai multor drapele. Considerm c pentru organizarea unor ntlniri internaionale se impune ca aceste criterii de ataament naional s fie pretutindeni aceleai. De aici, deriv i regulile definite de federaiile internaionale, care instituie criterii universale ale naionalitii sportive. n schimb, naionalitatea civil sau adevrat este definit n deplin suveranitate, n mod distinct, de fiecare stat care i stabilete propriile criterii i i alege bazele de la care intenioneaz s-i recunoasc proprii supui. Pe de o parte, criterii universale, iar pe de alt parte, naionale; contrarietatea este inevitabil. ndeosebi, la un nivel sportiv mai redus i fa de regulile sportive naionale, prin care federaiile naionale vor s-i protejeze selecionabilii, ne gndim la cine trebuie s nving. n acest scop, ele ncearc s-i pcleasc pe cei ce pot avea aceeai naionalitate civil, iar noi vom urmri s vedem ce se va ntmpla. Cu acest prilej, statul poate afirma: ordinea mea public interzice s se fac deosebirea ntre naionalii mei. n acest sens, la o anume etap Consiliul de Stat din Frana a dat de neles c va lsa loc regulii sportive; el a admis c aceasta nu aduce atingere principiului egalitii, din moment ce prejudiciile nu depeau, prin importana lor, pe cele care puteau justifica faptul de a asigura perfecionarea juctorilor pregtii n Frana (cazul Federaiei franceze de baschet). Ulterior, a refuzat federaiei orice putere de a face distincia ntre juctorii titulari ai naionalitii franceze. n Europa, o situaie identic se nregistreaz n legtur cu principiul comunitar al liberei circulaii a persoanelor ntre statele membre ale Uniunii Europene. Curtea de Justiie a Comunitii Europene
exert itself. We shall confine ourselves to a single example, that concerning the nationality or nationalities. We certainly cannot agree with sportsmen acting like mercenaries and selling themselves to several countries. Criteria of national attachment, everywhere the same, must be taken into account when international meetings are to be organized. The rules established by international federations refer to it when instituting the sports nationality universal criteria. On the contrary, civil or real nationality is defined distinctively by each state, on the basis of its own established criteria and in relation to which it recognizes its subjects. So, on the one hand, universal criteria, on the other hand, national ones; the contrariety is inevitable. Particularly at lower sports levels, meaning the sports national regulations created by national federations and meant to protect their eligible sportspeople, one thinks of who must win the competition. To this purpose, they try to deceive people who might be of the same civil nationality, and we shall see what happens under these circumstances. On this occasion, the state can declare: my public order forbids making any difference among my nationals. In this respect, during a certain stage, the State Council in France gave to understand that they would let sports rules be applied; they admitted this would not harm the equality principle, since the damages did not exceed in importance those which might justify the fact of providing intensive training for players in France (it is the case of French Federation of Basketball). Later on, they refused the federation any authority to make distinctions between the permanent players of the French national. We encounter a similar situation in Europe, in reference to the communitarian principle of free movement for people from the states members of the European Union. The European Court of Justice states that the communitarian right doesnt hold ascendancy over the dispositions related strictly to sports; however, the sportspeople, in their capacity of economical operators may be applied the rules concerning the free movement within
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estimeaz c dreptul comunitar nu are ascendent asupra dispoziiilor strict sportive; totui, n calitate de operator economic, sportivului i se poate aplica regulile care impun libera circulaie n cadrul CEE, ca i resortisanilor din statele membre. n general, Jurisprudena arat cu anumite nuane c la acest punct regulile statale au ctig de cauz fa de regulamentele sportive. Un punct de vedere susinut de Statele Unite i adoptat de Curtea de Apel din Los Angeles, avea drept rspuns unul asemntor cu cel prezentat de Samuel Pisar n Jocurile Olimpice i dreptul, cu urmtorul coninut: Ezitm mult s aplicm o lege naional care ar putea afecta o competiie la care particip sportivi din lumea ntreag, n conformitate cu regulile acestei convenii. Acest caz a fost pus n discuie naintea Jocurilor Olimpice de la Los Angeles i urmrea s reglementeze situaia probelor din cadrul acestor Jocuri. Prin urmare, aceast preferin recunoscut regulii sportive universale ar trebui s ne dea de gndit: desigur, ea este vital pentru viitorul micrii sportive i trebuie aprat. De asemenea, ea trebuie luat n considerare de statele crora structurile internaionale ale sportului le ofer un teren privilegiat de comunicare, deoarece diplomaia poate fi exercitat i altfel dect pe cile obinuite. Despre a judeca Structurile sportului au i acest rol, de a judeca. Mai mult, pentru ele acest rol este chiar primordial: el se manifest esenial, dar nu n exclusivitate, prin aplicarea unei discipline interne, condiie inevitabil de supravieuire juridic a instituiilor. Aprtoare a regulilor, protectoare a eticii, aceast disciplin reprezint garania solidaritii care unete membrii federaiei. Acelai lucru a fost constatat i exprimat de Pierre de Coubertin: Prima, cea mai util dintre sarcinile care revin unei federaii sportive, este de a se organiza judiciar. Ea trebuie s fie n acelai timp Consiliu de Stat, Curtea de Apel i Tribunal al conflictelor. n general, justiia reprezint instanele disciplinare n faa crora se
EEC, as in the case of non-citizen residents from the states members. In general, jurisprudence reveals that, at this point, state rules may prevail over sports regulations. A point of view maintained by the United States and adopted by the Court of Appeal in Los Angeles, was confronted with a response similar to Samuel Pisars in The Olympic Games and the law: We are reluctant to the idea of enforcing a national law that might affect a competition involving sportspeople from all over the world, in compliance with the rules of this convention. This case was brought forward just before the Olympic Games in Los Angeles, with the view to set up the rules governing the Olympic games events. In conclusion, this acknowledged preference for the universal sports rule should set us thinking: surely it is vital for the future of sports movement and has to be defended. Also it must be carefully considered by the states that international sports structures offer a privileged ground for communication, because diplomacy may be exerted in ways other than ordinary. About to judge Sports structures also assume this role of arbitrating. Moreover, it is a primordial role for them: it manifests essentially, but not exclusively, by imposing an internal discipline, an inherent condition of juridical survival for their institutions. Defender of rules, protector of ethics, this discipline is a guarantee of solidarity between the federation members. Pierre de Coubertin noticed and expressed a very similar truth: The first and most useful task of a sports federation is to organize itself judicially. It must be a State Council, Court of Appeal and Disputes Tribunal at the same time. Generally speaking, justice represents the disciplinary courts before which both judges and parts appear, at the same time. Indeed, it is the very holders of political power that constitute them, whether we speak of the congress, of an international federation governing body, or a court. Sometimes, this frequent inconvenient is aggravated by the fact
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nfieaz, n acelai timp, judectori i pri. ntr-adevr, ele sunt constituite chiar de ctre cei care dein puterea politic, fie c este vorba de congres, organ suveran al federaiei internaionale, fie de o instan specializat. Uneori, acest frecvent inconvenient este agravat de faptul c drepturile aprrii nu sunt asigurate ntr-un mod satisfctor sau datorit absenei unui posibil recurs. i apoi, dac din fericire pentru el, mpricinatul gsete, n afara sportului, un tribunal care anuleaz o sanciune contestabil, anularea nu va avea dect o consecin redus i limitat la teritoriul statului unde i are sediul tribunalul. De altfel, este posibil ca ndoiala s domneasc chiar i de partea federaiilor internaionale. Doar puin rea-intenie ar fi ndeajuns pentru a explica n acest fel dispoziiile regulamentare care interzic frecvent orice recurs naintat unei instane exterioare. Fr ndoial, este vorba mai ales de a proteja ordinea sportiv de interveniile unei puteri din afara sportului. n acest caz, ncercm s ne imaginm la cum poate fi legitimitatea unor reguli att de opuse principiului liberului acces la justiie, unanim consacrat astzi. n aceast privin, de partea statului, rezerva e mare. Mai nti, statul nu admite, n principiu, o alt justiie dect a lui. Iat de ce statul consider c deciziile disciplinare nu au valoare jurisdicional. Pentru el, acestea sunt nite simple acte private, pe care destinatarii lor le pot oricnd contesta naintea unui tribunal. n orice caz, statele nu acord dect o consideraie limitat sanciunilor date de federaiile internaionale. Unele ajung chiar pn la a afirma c un sportiv legitimat nu poate fi sancionat dect de federaia sa naional, iar dac aceasta nu face dect s aplice o msur hotrt de o federaie internaional, statul consider c federaia naional nu a fcut dect s se conformeze regulilor internaionale care i se impun. Dar, ne-am nela i mai mult asupra acestui domeniu juridic, dac nu ar exista factori de ameliorare demni de luat n seam. Pe de o parte, elaborarea unui sistem unitar de reprimare a dopajului pune accentul pe importana garaniilor procedurale. Pe de
that defence is not satisfactorily represented or an eventual appeal is impossible. In addition to this, if the defendant is fortunate to find, outside the sports area, a court that overrules a contestable sanction, the consequences of it would be restricted to the territory of the state where the court is located. In fact, theres cause for doubt even on behalf of the international federations. Only a bit of malicious intent is enough to explain this sort of regulatory dispositions, forbidding any appeal before an external court. No doubt it is mainly a question of protecting sports order from the interference of powers alien to sport. In this case, we try to see how legitimacy, comprising rules that are contrary to the principle of free access to justice, is a matter of common consent. As far as state is concerned, our attitude is one of reserve. First of all, state does not conceive of a justice other than its own. That is why the state regards disciplinary decisions as having no jurisdictional value. From its viewpoint, these are mere private actions, and the person to whom they refer may at all times contest them in a court. In any case, states have a limited consideration for sanctions that are issued by international federations. Some states even claim that only a national federation can sanction its legitimate athlete. In case it imposes a measure that has already been decided by an international federation, the state considers that the national federation acted in compliance with the international laws imposing on it. Yet, we would be misled in this juridical field, but for a few factors worth mentioning. On the one hand, the elaboration of a unitary anti-doping system focuses on the importance of procedural guarantees. On the other hand, IOC created a Court of Arbitration for Sport. Its arbitrators are independent, its procedures are equitable, its justice is recognised and accepted. It thus offers, in many respects, a laudable and inspiring example. Of course, its competence is different, as it has been set up to settle all disputes related to sports, and to a less extent those related to the institution or to sports logistics. Yet, it offers sports partners and
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alt parte, acum civa ani, a fost creat de ctre CIO un tribunal de arbitraj al sportului. Judectorii si sunt independeni, procedura sa este echitabil, justiia sa este consimit i recunoscut; ca atare, el propune, n multe privine un model demn de inspiraie. Fr ndoial, competena sa este diferit, ea se extinde tocmai la ansamblul litigiilor legate de sport i mai puin la cele ale instituiei dect la cele ale logisticii sportive; ea ofer partenerilor sportului, i chiar lumii sportive, imaginea unei justiii sportive mai convingtoare. Structurile internaionale ale sportului i afl n mod justificat locul printre ONG-uri i este bine c ele sunt instituite ntro reea privat, n afara comunitii internaionale a statelor. Cnd este cazul, aceast distan ne ofer o marj de autonomie util pentru o diplomaie sau o presiune discret, fin i eficace. Totui, pentru cei care acest aspect i surprinde sau i ocheaz, le vom rspunde sau reaminti c aceast libertate este cea care a permis, la Jocurile Olimpice de la Seul, o victorie rsuntoare asupra boicoturilor anterioare i o ocazie de a avansa spre o lume mai bun i mai panic, chiar n termenii Chartei Olimpice. De asemenea, credem c structurile internaionale ale sportului trebuie s aib grij s-i ocupe domeniul n ntregime pentru c aceasta este miza viitorului, n caz contrar, ele risc s se compromit. Legitimitatea lor nu se dozeaz, ea se ctig sau se pierde, ea este cheia autonomiei lor. Pentru a o merita, nu este suficient rezistena fa de constrngerile politice sau financiare i nici voina de a recupera tentaiile comandate de acestea fr rost. Considerm, c la fel de important va fi i intervenia noastr pentru a alunga demonii din interior, pentru a tinde spre o legalitate mai echitabil, care s se impun cu mai mult siguran, i spre o instituie mai legitim care s se mndreasc cu valorile ei umaniste. Evident, o chestiune de identitate . n acest articol am prezentat cteva cazuri i probleme de interes din justiie pentru a veni n sprijinul asociaiilor i al sportivilor. Am urmrit s explicm anumite noiuni nsemnate din drept i am dorit s
even the sports world, the image of a more convincing sports justice. The international sports structures have a legitimate place among the NGOs and its a good thing they are constituted as a private network, outside the international community of states. When necessary, this distance represents an autonomy margin useful in diplomacy or in exerting a discreet, fine and yet efficient pressure. In case some are surprised or even shocked by this aspect, I shall answer and remind them this is the kind of freedom that made possible, during the Olympic games at Seul, the resounding victory over the previous boycotts. It is an opportunity to advance towards a better and more peaceful world, under the terms of the Olympic Charter. We also believe that international sports structures should take hold of their entire domain, since this is the stake of the future, or otherwise they might be compromised. Their legitimacy is not a matter of dosage, it is something to win or to lose, and is the key to their autonomy. In order to deserve it, mere resistance to political and financial restraints is not enough. We consider our contribution equally important to the chasing of the demons inside, to the aspiration for a more equitable legality, for a more legitimate institution that should take pride in its classic values. It is obviously a matter of identity. This article has brought forward a few issues and cases of juridical interest that might prove helpful for sports associations and sportspeople. Our goal has been to explain certain law concepts and weve intended to convey their exact juridical meaning to those involved in sport. We have suggested to sports organizations, trainers and sportspeople that they obey the operative regulations so as to avoid appealing to justice. We hope that preventive measures and transparent communication concerning the importance of rights and obligations will provide a legal frame for sporting activities.
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transmitem exact nelesul juridic celor angrenai n sport. Am prezentat i propus organizaiilor sportive, antrenorilor i sportivilor s respecte regulamentele n vigoare pentru a nu apela la justiie. Avem sperana c msurile preventive i comunicarea clar cu privire la importana drepturilor i obligaiilor vor alctui cadrul legal pentru desfurarea activitilor sportive. BIBLIOGRAFIE Aron, R., (1982). Confesiunea unui fan. LEsppress, 16 aprilie Barnes, J., (1988). Sportul i dreptul n Canada Bettati i Dupuy, (1986). ONG i dreptul internaional. Colecia de drept internaional Economica Brundage, A., (1964). Cuvntarea preedintelui CIO. Buletinul CIO Caillois, R., (1982). Jocurile i oamenii. Londra: Oxford University Press Coubertin, P., (1907). Rolul federaiilor. Revista Olimpic Coubertin, P., (1935). Texte alese. Vol., Olimpism Depiero, V., (1985). Canadian Amateur Diving Association Kidd , B., (1982). Drepturile sportivilor n Canada. Toronto Lefort, C., (1974). Un om prea mult. Paris, Seuil Lefort, C., (1981), Invenia democratic. Paris, Fayard Morini, S., (1984). Sociologia sportului i regulile sale. Nagoya Pisar, S., (1985). Jocurile Olimpice i dreptul. Mesaj Olimpic Searle, J.R., (1972). Regulile jocului i moralitatea. University of North Carolina at Greenboro Vinogradoff , P., (1972). Bunul sim n drept. Londra, Oxford University Press -Carta Canadian a Drepturilor i Libertilor , 1982 . -Curtea de Justiie a Comunitilor Europene , 1974 . -Ghid practic al Curii de Arbitraj pentru Sport (CAS) , Lausanne , 1987 .
BIBLIOGRAPHY Aron, R., (1982). Confesiunea unui fan (A fans confession) LEsppress, April 16 Barnes, J., (1988). Sportul i dreptul n Canada (Sport and Law in Canada) Bettati i Dupuy, (1986). ONG i dreptul internaional. Colecia de drept internaional Economica (NGOs and International law. International law collection. Economics) Brundage, A., (1964). Cuvntarea preedintelui CIO. Buletinul CIO (IOC presidents speech. IOC Bulletin) Caillois, R., (1982). Jocurile i oamenii. (Games and People) Londra: Oxford University Press Coubertin, P., (1907). Rolul federaiilor. Revista Olimpic ( The Role of Federations. Olympic magazine) Coubertin, P., (1935). Texte alese. (Selected Texts)Vol., Olimpism Depiero, V., (1985). Canadian Amateur Diving Association Kidd , B., (1982). Drepturile sportivilor n Canada. (Athletes Rights in Canada) Toronto Lefort, C., (1974). Un om prea mult. (A man too much) Paris, Seuil Lefort, C., (1981), Invenia democratic. (The Democratic Invention) Paris, Fayard Morini, S., (1984). Sociologia sportului i regulile sale. (The Sociology of Sport and its Rules) Nagoya Pisar, S., (1985). Jocurile Olimpice i dreptul. (Olympic Games and Law. Olympic message) Mesaj Olimpic Searle, J.R., (1972). Regulile jocului i moralitatea. ( The Rules of the Game and Morality) University of North Carolina at Greenboro Vinogradoff , P., (1972). Bunul sim n drept. (Decency in Law) Londra, Oxford University Press -Carta Canadian a Drepturilor i Libertilor.(The Canadian Charter of Rights and freedoms) , 1982 . -Curtea de Justiie a Comunitilor Europene (European Communities Court of Justice) , 1974 . -Ghid practic al Curii de Arbitraj
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-Omaha contra British Columbia Lacrosse Association , 1984 . -Trumbley contra Saskatchewan Amateur Hocckey Association , 1986 .
pentru Sport (CAS) (The Court of arbitration for Sport. Practical Guide), Lausanne , 1987 -Omaha contra British Columbia Lacrosse Association, (Omaha versus British Columbia Lacrosse Association) 1984 . -Trumbley contra Saskatchewan Amateur Hocckey Association (Trumbley versus Sakatchewan Hockey Association), 1986 .
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The University "Constantin Brancusi" from Tirgu-Jiu will train students capable to examine critical phenomena, reach the problems solutions, to imagine alternatives to the proposed solutions, young people prepared to accept the visions of the world of other cultures and to assume a leader position in Romania during the following years. The institution is called to leave the group of isolated universities that have chronic, mediocrity tendencies by adopting strategies that would bring it on the first place of scientific research from the space of Oltenia, in the line of national performant universities. The University "Constantin Brancusi" from Tirgu-Jiu must be in the avangarde of the superior education reform, working for the clarification - at the level of the population in the zone - of the impact of the European integration for the creation of the European Space of the superior education and the European Space of research. The institution is engaged in the qualitative improving of the learning and teaching processes, by a common reflection on the didactical and research activities, requiring the solidarity of teachers and students in looking up for creative solutions for the transition to an education centered on the student with clearly defined finalities and objectives.
Prof.univ.dr Adrian GORUN Rector of Constantin Brncui University from Trgu Jiu
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