Brands and Brand Strategies

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Brands and Brands Strategies: Managerial Considerations
Article in Romanian Journal of Marketing · December 2007
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Mãrci ºi strategii de marcã: consideraþii manageriale
Daniel ªERBÃNICÃ
Academia de Studii Economice Bucureºti
Rezumat
În marketingul orientat spre consumatori, mãrcile oferã adesea elementele esenþiale pentru
a face diferenþa între diferite oferte competitive ºi, din acest punct de vedere, ele sunt
esenþiale pentru succesul companiei. Aºadar, este important ca managementul de marcã
sã fie abordat dintr-o perspectivã strategicã. Mãrcile joacã un rol fundamental în
expansiunea pe plan internaþional a oricãrei companii. Realizarea unei structuri de brand
coerente la nivel internaþional este o componentã cheie a întregii strategii de marketing
internaþional a companiei, deoarece ea propune o structurã la nivelul altor mãrci puternice
pentru intrarea pe alte pieþe, pentru asimilarea mãrcilor achiziþionate ºi adaptarea strategiei
de marcã a companiei pe plan internaþional. Aceastã lucrare este o trecere în revistã a
literaturii de specialitate, cu scopul de a examina conceptele de marcã, aºa cum sunt ele
dezvoltate în management, dar ºi natura dinamicã a mãrcilor, din punctul de vedere al
schimbãrii de strategie, þinând cont de pretenþiile din ce în ce mai mari ale consumatorilor.
Cuvinte cheie: branding, management de marcã, multi-branding, brand global
Introducere
Experþii în branding considerã cã mijlocul anilor 1980 a reprezentat un punct de
cotiturã, în momentul în care comunitatea financiarã a constatat cã mãrcile au devenit
principala valoare a companiilor (Kapferer, 2004). Companiile nu mai erau achiziþionate
pentru capacitatea operaþionalã sau pentru cunoºtinþele de management, ci pentru cã
deþineau un portofoliu de mãrci puternice. În acest context, marketingul a devenit,
treptat, un marketing „centrat pe marcã” (Rust, Zeithaml ºi Lemon, 2004).
Odatã cu globalizarea pieþelor ºi creºterea competiþiei la nivel global, companiile
pun tot mai mult accent pe expansiunea geograficã a operaþiunilor lor, înfiinþând sau
achiziþionând companii în alte þãri, sau formând alianþe care depãºesc graniþele naþionale.
În acelaºi timp, odatã cu rãspândirea mijloacelor de comunicare globale ºi regionale,
dezvoltarea internaþionalã a vânzãrilor cu amãnuntul ºi deplasarea persoanelor, bunurilor
ºi organizaþiilor dincolo de graniþele naþionale trec printr-un profund proces de integrare
76 Daniel ªERBÃNICÃ
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Brands and Brand Strategies: Managerial Considerations
Daniel ªERBÃNICÃ
Academy of Economic Studies Bucharest
Abstract
In consumer marketing, brands often provide the primary points of differentiation between
competitive offerings, and as such they can be critical to the success of companies.
Hence, it is important that the management of brands is approached strategically. Brands
play a critical role in a firm’s international expansion. A coherent international brand
architecture is a key component of the firm’s overall international marketing strategy as
it provides a structure to leverage strong brands into other markets, assimilate acquired
brands, and rationalize the firm’s international branding strategy. This paper is a review
of the brand literature and his aim is to examine the brand concepts developed by
management and the dynamic nature of brands in terms of changing brand strategy and
increasing consumer sophistication.
Keywords: branding, brand management, multi-branding, global brand
Introduction
Brand experts pinpoint to the mid 80s as the turning point when the financial
community discovered that brands were becoming the firms’ key assets (Kapferer, 2004).
Firms were not anymore acquired for their operations capacity or their managerial
know-how, but because they detained a portfolio of strong brands. In such a context,
marketing progressively became “brand-centered” (Rust, Zeithaml & Lemon; 2004).
With the globalization of markets and the growth of competition on a global scale,
companies are increasingly expanding the geographic scope of their operations, setting
up or acquiring companies in other countries, or entering into alliances across national
boundaries. At the same time, with the spread of global and regional media, the
development of international retailing, and the movement of people, goods, and
organizations across national borders, markets are becoming more integrated (Aaker
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(Aaker, 1996b). Ca urmare, firmele trebuie sã acorde mai multã atenþie coordonãrii ºi
integrãrii strategiei de marketing pe pieþele internaþionale.
Un element important al strategiei de marketing internaþional a unei companii este
politica sa de marcã. Mãrcile puternice consacrã identitatea firmei pe piaþã ºi au o
poziþie solidã în rândurile consumatorilor (Aaker 1996, Keller 1998, Kapferer 1997) ºi,
în plus, constituie un instrument de contracarare a forþei mereu crescânde a vânzãrilor
cu amãnuntul (Barwise ºi Robertson 1992). Ele stau de asemenea la baza extinderii de
marcã, în vederea întãririi pe mai departe a poziþiei firmei ºi a creºterii valorii sale
(Aaker ºi Keller 1990). Pe pieþele internaþionale, companiile se confrunta cu o problemã
majorã – dacã sã foloseascã acelaºi nume de marcã în þãri diferite, întãrind astfel forþa
mãrcii dincolo de graniþe, sau sã menþinã mãrci locale, care sã rãspundã preferinþelor
consumatorilor din þara respectivã.
Dezvoltarea semnificaþiei de marcã ºi înþelegerea sa de cãtre consumatori este
importantã pentru managerii de marketing din zilele noastre (Keller 2003).
Astãzi, orice student la marketing poate spune cã, pentru a avea succes, mãrcile
trebuie sã fie relevante pentru pieþele lor þintã ºi sã fie diferite faþã de cele care aparþin
competitorilor. Dar existã numeroase dovezi ale faptului cã, în timp, marketingul ºi-a
pierdut în parte capacitatea de a crea ºi de a administra mãrcile diferenþiate. Aceastã
incapacitate de diferenþiere determinã mãrcile sã intre în competiþie pe baza preþului,
subminând însãºi motivaþia existenþei mãrcilor.
Incapacitatea de diferenþiere implicã faptul cã nereuºita pe piaþã se datoreazã lipsei
de gãndire originalã, lipsei de creativitate în probleme strategice. Diferenþierea are
nevoie de o strategie de marcã originalã. Aºadar, creativitatea este esenþialã pentru
dezvoltarea unei strategii de marcã plinã de succes (poziþionarea ori tema mãrcii, aºa
cum o denumim noi). Brandul este indisolubil legat de reputaþia produsului, a serviciului
sau a companiei cu care este asociat. Nu e doar un concept de marketing, cãci tot ce
face acea companie îi poate afecta reputaþia (adicã, marca).
Crearea, dezvoltarea, implementarea ºi menþinerea mãrcilor de succes se aflã adesea
în centrul strategiei de marketing. Brandingul de succes se bazeazã pe o perspectivã
strategicã (de Chernatony 1998) prin care structura mãrcilor puternice este prezentatã
ºi comunicatã unor segmente þintã bine definite, aceastã acþiune având ca efect crearea
unei imagini favorabile pentru marcã, care sã reflecte identitatea acestuia (Gardner ºi
Levy 1955, Reynolds ºi Gutman 1984, Kapferer 1997).
Numeroase tipologii de marcã (de ex. Chernatony ºi Dall’Olmo Riley 1997; Leahy
1994) aratã modul în care strategii de marcã structureazã conceptual anumite mãrci
care, prin natura lor, sunt astfel unice (Gardner ºi Levy, 1955). De-a lungul timpului
aceste concepte au acoperit o gamã largã, de la brandul privit ca simplã formulã de
identificare, la dezvoltarea unor identitãþi complexe, de mare valoare. Intenþiile
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1996b). As a result, firms need to pay greater attention to coordinating and integrating
their marketing strategy across markets.
An important element of a firm’s international marketing strategy is its branding
policy. Strong brands help to establish the firm’s identity in the market place, and develop
a solid customer franchise (Aaker 1996, Keller 1998, Kapferer 1997) as well as providing
a weapon to counter growing retailer power (Barwise and Robertson 1992). They can
also provide the basis for brand extensions, which further strengthen the firm’s position
and enhance value (Aaker and Keller 1990). In international markets, an important
issue for the firm is whether to use the same brand name in different countries, leveraging
brand strength across boundaries, or whether to maintain local brands responding to
local customer preferences.
Developing and understanding a brand’s meaning to consumers is important for
today’s marketing managers (Keller 2003).
Now any student of marketing can tell you that brands need to be relevant to their
targets and differentiated from their competitors to be successful. But there is ample
evidence that marketing has somehow lost the capacity to create and manage
differentiated brands. This lack of differentiation forces brands to compete on the basis
of price and undermines the business reasons why brands exist in the first place.
The inability to differentiate suggests that our downfall as marketers is our lack of
original thought, a lack of creativity in strategic matters. Differentiation demands an
original brand strategy. Therefore, creativity is vital to developing successful brand
strategy (the positioning or brand theme, as we call it). A brand is akin to the reputation
of a product, service or company with which it is associated. It is not just a marketing
concept, since everything a company does can affect its reputation (that is, the brand).
Creating, developing, implementing and maintaining successful brands is frequently
at the heart of marketing strategy. Successful branding requires a strategic perspective
(de Chernatony 1998) whereby strong brand concepts are presented and communicated
to well targeted segments resulting in favorable brand images which reflect the brand’s
identity (Gardner and Levy 1955, Reynolds and Gutman 1984, Kapferer 1997).
Various brand typologies (e.g. de Chernatony and Dall’Olmo Riley 1997; Leahy
1994) show how brand strategists have plans for particular brand concepts whose nature
is unique to the particular brand concept (Gardner and Levy, 1955). Over time these
brand concepts have ranged from the brand acting as a simple identification device to
the development of complex, value-laden identities. The goals managers have for their
brands must mesh with those of their target consumers. The goals consumers have for
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brandului, aºa cum este el gândit de manageri, trebuie sã se identifice cu intenþiile

consumatorilor þintã. Intenþiile consumatorilor þintã sunt numeroase (Gordon 1991),
între ele numãrându-se, de exemplu, comunicarea unor aspecte specifice persoanei ºi
modului ei de viaþã, prin intermediul folosirii brandului respectiv (Goffman, 1959; Grubb
ºi Hupp, 1968). Dacã intenþiile managerilor ºi cele ale consumatorilor nu coincid,
consumatorii vor ignora, probabil, ceea ce le comunicã marca, sau îi vor acorda foarte
puþinã atenþie; nu vor afla mai nimic, iar intenþiile managerilor nu se vor putea împlini.
Aºadar, intenþiile celor douã pãrþi sunt indestructibil legate.
Stadiile mãrcii
Un model deosebit de util a fost conceput de Goodyear (1996); el aratã modul în
care a evoluat, în timp, natura mãrcii. Modelul Goodyear se concentreazã mai mult pe
natura brandingului, în permanentã evoluþie în timp ºi mai puþin pe proiectul strategic
al conceptelor de marcã la un moment dat, sau pentru lansarea unui anumit brand.
Goodyear nu urmãreºte dezvoltarea unui anumit brand în timp, ci reprezintã, mai
degrabã, un model conceptual al stadiilor prin care ar putea trece un brand.
Cele ºase stadii se referã la schimbãrile apãrute în timp, în practicile de branding, la
o categorie de produs, ºi nu la transformãrile suferite de un brand anume. Atunci când
un produs este nou, companiile încearcã sã explice exact ce este produsul, ce face ºi ce
beneficii ar putea avea consumatorii din adoptarea lui; luând brandul ca element de
referinþã, aceasta este stadiul în care conducerea firmei încearcã sã scoatã în evidenþã
propriul brand în comparaþie cu altele cu aceleaºi atribute ale produsului. E posibil ca,
atunci când un brand nu mai poate menþine avantajul competitiv pe baza atributelor
produsului, conducerea companiei sã treacã la construirea personalitãþii mãrcii. Pe
mãsurã ce brandul devine cunoscut pe plan mondial, el poate deveni un simbol, o
imagine iconicã. În marketingul post-modern, marca poate fi compania însãºi, sau se
poate asocia cu cauze sociale. Astfel, pentru orice categorie de produs, mãrci diferite
se pot regãsi într-una din cele ºase stadii; mãrcile îºi pot schimba strategia (de exemplu,
de la element de referinþã la personalitate); în orice stadiu pot apãrea mãrci noi ºi, la fel
de bine, este posibil ca, pentru o anumitã categorie de produs, procesul de branding sã
nu treacã niciodatã prin toate cele ºase stadii.
Modelul Goodyear poate fi folosit pentru a explica situaþii în care conducerea
companiei utilizeazã diferite strategii pentru acelaºi brand; în consecinþã, marca se
regãseºte în mai multe stadii. Astfel, managerii pot percepe brandul ca aflându-se în
mai multe stadii, în funcþie de stadiul ciclului de viaþã al mãrcii pe piaþa (pieþele) relevante.
În secþiunile care urmeazã, se descrie relaþia dintre efortul de marketing ºi efortul
consumatorului, pentru fiecare stadiu.
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brands are numerous (Gordon 1991) and include such things as communication of
particular aspects of self and lifestyle through the use of specific brands (Goffman,
1959; Grubb and Hupp 1968). If managements’ and consumers’ goals for specific brands
do not coincide, consumers would ignore or pay minimal attention to brand
communications; little learning would occur and the goals of management would not
be realized. Thus, the goals of the two are inextricably tied to each other (de Chernatony
1993).
The stages of brand

A particularly helpful model has been devised by Goodyear (1996) showing how
the nature of branding has evolved over time. The Goodyear model focuses on the
evolving nature of branding over time rather than on the strategic design of brand
concepts at particular times and for particular brand launches. Rather than a tracing of
an actual brand over time, Goodyear’s is a conceptual model of the possible stages that
a brand might go through.
The six stages refer to changes in branding practices in a product category over time
rather than changes in any specific brand. When the product is new, companies attempt
to explain what the product is, does and how it can benefit consumers; this is the stage,
brand as reference, in which management tries to distinguish its brand from others
using product attributes. When a brand can no longer sustain a competitive advantage
on the basis of product attributes, management may decide to build a personality for
the brand. As the brand becomes well-known, world-wide, it may become a symbol or
icon. In post-modern marketing, the brand may be the company or align itself with
social causes. Thus, in any product category, different brands may be in any one of the
six stages; brands may change strategies (for example, from reference to personality);
new brands may enter at any stage and the branding process in a particular product
category may never complete all six stages.
The Goodyear model can be used to explain situations in which management uses
different strategies for the same brand with the result that the brand is located in more
than one stage. Thus, managers can view any brand as being in multiple stages depending
on the stage of the brand life cycle in the relevant market(s).In the succeeding sections,
the relationship between the marketing effort and consumer effort is described for each
stage.
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Stadiul 1: Bunuri care nu reprezintã un brand. În þãrile dezvoltate acest stadiu este
de obicei trecut cu vederea, dar are o importanþã mai mare în economiile în curs de
dezvoltare. Excepþie fac bunurile de larg consum, sau cazurile în care consumatorii nu
doresc sã facã o distincþie între mãrci – de exemplu, scobitori sau bolduri. Chiar ºi în
economiile în care mãrcile nu reprezintã un element obiºnuit (de exemplu, fosta URSS)
acest stadiu poate fi scurtat, deoarece consumatorii folosesc elemente substitutive pentru
a face diferenþa între bunuri despre care se presupune cã nu reprezintã un brand. În
aceastã fazã, multe organizaþii se poartã ca ºi cum nu prea ar fi nevoie de eforturi
pentru comercializare. În economiile occidentale, revoluþia industrialã a schimbat
aceastã stare de lucruri, pentru cã oferta a început sã depãºeascã cererea, iar producãtorii
au fost nevoiþi sã înveþe sã-ºi vândã produsele (de Chernatony ºi Dall’Olmo 1997). În
acest stadiu, scopul producãtorului este sã-ºi vândã, pur ºi simplu, bunurile, iar cel al
consumatorului, sã cumpere o parte din bunurile limitate. Scopul principal al
consumatorilor este acela de a obþine bunurile necesare, iar scopul managerilor este
acela de a produce ºi de a vinde bunurile respective. În acest stadiu, reþeaua mentalã a
consumatorului se constituie, în primul rând, din punctul nodal care identificã respectiva
categorie de produs. Informaþiile despre produs sunt în general limitate la modul în
care se utilizeazã acesta.
Stadiul 2: Mãrcile ca element de referinþã. În acest stadiu, þelurile managementului

de marcã se îndreaptã spre poziþionarea mãrcii ca deþinãtor de beneficii funcþionale
unice, adicã spre identificarea beneficiilor funcþionale ale mãrcii sub un nume distinctiv,
care astfel sã-l diferenþieze de alte mãrci (Copeland 1923; Jones 1986; Brown 1992).
Aceste acþiuni asigurã firmei ºi managementului o serie de beneficii. Încercând, cu
rãbdare, sã dea mãrcii un nume distinctiv potrivit, acesta poate fi protejat prin
înregistrarea patentului, oferindu-i protecþie legalã împotriva imitatorilor ºi arãtând sursa
de proprietate (Fogg 1998). Într-adevãr, definiþia datã mãrcii de cãtre Asociaþia Americanã
de Marketing, în 1960, este foarte apropiatã de brand ca element de referinþã, acesta
fiind definit ca „un termen, simbol sau design... care trebuie sã identifice bunurile sau
serviciile unui producãtor... ºi sã-l diferenþieze de cele ale competitorilor”. Amintirea
acestei percepþii cu privire la funcþia mãrci lor dominã ºi astãzi manualele de marketing
(de ex. Kotler ºi Armstrong, 1996).
Diferenþierea se face cel mai simplu prin accentuarea atributelor produsului
(funcþionalitate), deoarece consumatorii pot fi încã în faza în care aflã câte ceva despre
produs. Acum, consumatorii îºi pot îmbunãtãþi selecþia de produse/mãrci, deoarece pot
identifica mãrcile ºi pot face deosebirea între ele (Hoyer ºi Brown, 1990).
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Stage 1: Unbranded Goods In developed countries this stage is usually by-passed

but has more relevance to developing economies. Exceptions might be commodity
goods or cases where consumers are unwilling to make brand distinctions — for example,
toothpicks or clothes pins. Even in economies where brands are not common (for example
the former USSR) this stage can be short lived as consumers use surrogate cues to
differentiate between supposedly unbranded goods. In this phase, many organizations
adopt the attitude that there is little need for selling effort. In Western economies, the
industrial revolution changed this because supply began to exceed demand and
producers had to learn to sell their goods (de Chernatony and Dall’Olmo 1997). In this
stage the goal of the manufacturer is simply to sell goods and the consumer to acquire
some of the limited goods. The primary goal of consumers is to obtain the necessary
goods and the goal of management is to produce and distribute the good. In this stage,
the consumer’s memory network consists primarily of a node identifying the product
category. Information about the product is generally limited to product uses.
Stage 2: Brands as Reference In this stage, the goals of brand management are to
position the brand as having unique functional benefits, i.e. to identify the brand’s
functional benefits with a distinctive name thereby differentiating it from other brands
(Copeland 1923; Jones 1986; Brown 1992). Doing so provides the firm and management
several benefits. By taking time to give a brand an appropriate and distinctive brand
name, the brand name can be protected through trademark registration, giving it legal
protection against imitators and denoting the source of ownership (Fogg 1998). Indeed,
the 1960 American Marketing Association definition of a brand is very much akin to the
brand as reference, defining it as “a term, symbol or design.... intended to identify the
goods or services of one seller...and to differentiate them from those of competitors”.
Remnants of this perception of the function of brands still dominate marketing textbooks
(eg Kotler and Armstrong, 1996).
Differentiation is most readily achieved by stressing product attributes (functionality)
because consumers may still be learning about the product. This is the beginning of
secondary demand stimulation. Consumers can now improve product/brand selection
because they are able to identify brands and to distinguish between them (Hoyer and
Brown 1990).
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Pentru identificare, nu e nevoie decât de conºtientizarea, de cãtre consumatori, a

numelui de marcã; diferenþierea le cere mai mult, ºi anume sã acumuleze mai multe
informaþii despre marcã.
Aplicarea caracteristicilor funcþionale le permite consumatorilor sã catalogheze rapid
marca în propriile structuri mentale (Cohen ºi Basu, 1987). Mai precis, calitatea sigurã
este cheia cãtre un branding de succes (Doyle 1989). Diverºi autori pun în evidenþã
faptul cã marca reprezintã o garanþie pentru cumpãrãtorul potenþial (de Chernatony
1989; Low ºi Fullerton, 1994; Irons 1996). Unul din modurile în care pot fi interpretate
mãrcile este acela cã ele reprezintã valori în mintea consumatorilor (Southgate 1994).
Acestea nu sunt doar valori funcþionale (Sheth, Newman ºi Gross 1991). Pe o piaþã cu
consumatori cu experienþã, se poate pune întrebarea dacã mãrcile adaugã suficientã
valoare, încât sã poatã fi deosebite de produsul de bazã (Southgate 1994).
În acest stadiu, în memoria consumatorilor se face legãtura între diferite mãrci ºi
categoria respectivã de produse (Cohen ºi Basu 1987; Bousch 1993). Aceste conexiuni
au o naturã extrem de categoricã (Mervis ºi Rosch 1981), prin faptul cã diferenþierea
între mãrci se face în principal pe baza atributelor fizice. Acest proces este descris de
Keller (1993), care defineºte cunoaºterea mãrcii, pe baza a douã componente:
conºtientizarea mãrcii ºi imaginea mãrcii. Aceste conexiuni relativ simple le permit
consumatorilor sã selecteze produsele rapid ºi sã evite anumite elemente de risc perceput.
Fiecare marcã reprezintã un set de informaþii, fiecare set de informaþii fiind construit de
cãtre consumatori, pentru a evita, explicit, atributele multiple (de Chernatony ºi
Dall’Olmo 1998). Cea mai mare parte a eforturilor de marketing se concentreazã pe
dezvoltarea ºi accentuarea caracteristicilor funcþionale ale mãrcii, ca ºi pe comunicarea
acestora cãtre consumatori. La rândul lor, aceste elemente le permit consumatorilor sã
identifice ºi sã deosebeascã marca de cele rivale, constituindu-se ºi într-o garanþie a
calitãþii durabile. Astfel, producãtorii se angajeazã într-un proces de poziþionare a mãrcii,
definit de Ries ºi Trout (1981) ºi care construieºte percepþia mãrcii prin comparaþie cu
mãrcile rivale.
Stadiul 3: Mãrcile ca personalitate. Ajunºi în stadiul 3, consumatorii se confruntã

cu un mare numãr de mãrci – cu o mulþime de promisiuni funcþionale (Biel 1994). Dar
avansul tehnologic face dificilã menþinerea avantajului funcþional (Lambin 1997), ceea
ce face ca mãrcile care intrã în competiþie în aceeaºi categorie sã aibã calitãþi similare
din punct de vedere funcþional (de Chernatony 1997). Pentru a-ºi diferenþia mãrcile,
specialiºtii în marketing se concentreazã pe incorporarea unor valori emoþionale în
mãrcile lor, ilustrând acest lucru metaforic, prin personalitatea de marcã. Ei aleg anumite
trãsãturi de personalitate pentru marcã, astfel încât acestea sã fie în armonie cu valorile
emoþionale ale mãrcii ºi cu stilul de viaþã al consumatorilor þintã (Aaker, 1996; Smothers
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Identification requires only that the consumer be aware of the brand name;
differentiation requires more of the consumer, e.g. that they acquire some knowledge
about the brand.
Use of functional characteristics enables consumers to rapidly categorize the brand
in their mental sets (Cohen and Basu 1987). In particular, consistent quality is a key to
successful branding (Doyle 1989). A variety of authors stress that the brand is a guarantee
to the potential customer (de Chernatony 1989; Low and Fullerton, 1994; Irons 1996).
One interpretation of brands is that they are values in consumers’ minds (Southgate
1994). These are not solely functional values (Sheth, Newman and Gross 1991). In a
market with experienced consumers some might question whether the brand adds enough
value to be distinguishable from the basic product (Southgate 1994).
In this stage, consumers are linking various brand nodes to the product category in
memory and expanding the network associated with each brand (Cohen and Basu 1987;
Bousch 1993). These networks are mostly categorical in nature (Mervis and Rosch 1981)
in that they differentiate brands primarily on physical attributes. This process is described
by Keller (1993) who conceptualizes brand knowledge as having two components:
brand awareness and brand image. These relatively simple networks enable consumers
to make product selections quickly and to avoid some elements of perceived risk. Each
brand represents a chunk of information and each chunk of information is constructed
by consumers to avoid explicitly multiple attributes. (de Chernatony and Dall’Olmo
1998).Most marketing effort concentrates on developing and enhancing functional
characteristics of the brand and communicating these to consumers. This, in turn, enables
consumers to identify and distinguish the brand from the competition and also acts as a
guarantee of consistent quality. Thus, marketers are engaging in a brand positioning
process defined by Ries and Trout (1981) which builds perception of the brand vis-a-vis
competitive brands.
Stage 3: Brands as Personality By stage 3, consumers are faced with a variety of

brands—all of which make functional promises ( Biel 1994). But advances in technology
make it difficult to sustain a functional advantage (Lambin 1997) with the result that
brands competing in the same category have become functionally more similar (de
Chernatony 1997). To differentiate their brands, marketers focus on incorporating
emotional values into their brands, portraying this through the metaphor of brand
personality. They select brand personalities consonant with the emotional values of the
brand and the target consumers’ lifestyle (Aaker, 1996; Smothers 1993; Shields 1992;
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1993; Shields 1992; Belk, 1988; Plummer, 1985), astfel încât consumatorul ºi
personalitatea mãrcii sã fie convergente (Malhotra 1988; Schiffman ºi Kanuk 1996).
Din perspectiva interacþiunii sociale, indivizii îºi formeazã concepte despre ei înºiºi,
reprezentând percepþia fiecãruia despre rãspunsul celorlalþi faþã de ei (Solomon 1983)
ºi folosesc aceste concepte despre ei înºiºi pentru a le ghida comportamentul la
cumpãrare (Dolich 1969, Grubb ºi Hupp, 1968).
În stadiul de brand considerat ca personalitate, marca ajunge sã reprezinte mai mult
decât produsul (Southgate 1994). Ea reprezintã valorile care merg dincolo de
funcþionalitatea produsului, pentru a deveni un mijloc eficient de comunicare a
personalitãþii proprietarului (Lanon 1993). Valorile mãrcii se modificã, de la instrumental
la simbolic, facilitând exprimarea sinelui sau ajutându-i pe oameni sã îºi reprezinte
propria istorie trecutã (Csikszentmihalyi ºi Rochberg-Halton, 1981; Belk 1988).
Capacitatea obiectului deþinut de a conferi o semnificaþie simbolicã a apãrut dintr-un
lung ºir de cercetãri. De exemplu, obiectele deþinute le permit indivizilor sã se exprime,
pe ei înºiºi ºi trecutul lor (Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, 1981; Belk, 1990;
Dittmar, 1992); valorile personale sau credinþele religioase (Belk 1992) ; identitatea
etnicã (Mehta ºi Belk, 1991) ; propria competenþã (Hirschman ºi LaBarbera, 1990) ;
puterea socialã ºi statutul personal (Furby, 1978) ºi modul în care se diferenþiazã de
ceilalþi (Csikzentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, 1981).
În stadiul 3 este important ca managerii sã acorde o atenþie constantã pieþei, pentru
a crea personalitatea cea mai potrivitã pentru marcã ºi pentru a o moderniza atunci
când este necesar. Personalitatea de marcã trebuie sã se schimbe constant, pentru a se
conforma expresiei ºi imaginilor despre sine ale consumatorului, aflate ºi ele în continuã
schimbare. Specialiºtii de piaþã încep prin a conferi mãrcii elemente de personalitate
care sã incorporeze caracteristici ºi valori umane, astfel încât marca sã devinã o
modalitate de exprimare a propriului sine ºi a propriei identitãþi (de Chaernatony ºi
Mc Williams 1989) : Printr-un proces complex, în care consumatorii apeleazã la înþelesuri
sociale împãrtãºite, ei transformã, modificã, primesc ºi reflecteazã constant imagini ºi
înþelesuri de marcã pentru a-ºi exprima propriul sine, stilul de viaþã, apartenenþa de
grup, statutul ºi valorile în care crede, cum ar fi succesul. În acest proces, consumatorii
simt cã marca le aparþine, prin modul în care îl interpreteazã. Drept urmare, ei stabilesc
o relaþie cu mãrcile.
Stadiul 4 : Brandul ca imagine iconicã. În stadiul mãrcii ca imagine iconicã, înþelesul

diferitelor mãrci este acceptat pe o scarã atât de largã, încât brandul poate fi considerat
relevant pentru ceva ce trece dincolo de el, devenind un simbol. În aceastã privinþã
Goodyear (1996) considerã cã, de fapt, consumatorii « deþin marca », deoarece ei înþeleg
ºi folosesc proprietãþile simbolice ale acestuia. Imaginea mãrcii este suficient de puternicã
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Belk, 1988; Plummer, 1985) so that consumer and brand personalities are brought into
alignment (Malhotra 1988; Schiffman and Kanuk 1996). From a social interactionist
perspective, individuals form self concepts which are one’s perceptions of the responses
of others to one’s self (Solomon, 1983) and use these self concepts to guide purchase
behavior (Dolich, 1969, Grubb and Hupp, 1968).
In the stage of brand as personality, the brand has become more than the product
(Southgate 1994). It represents values which go beyond the functional ones of its product
form to act as an efficient communicator of the personality of the owner (Lanon 1993).
The values of the brand change from instrumental to symbolic and facilitate expression
of self or help people represent their past history (Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton,
1981; Belk 1988). The ability of possession to confer symbolic meaning has been borne
out by a long stream of research. For example, possessions enable individuals to express
themselves and their past (Csikszentmihalyi and Rochberg-Halton, 1981; Belk, 1990;
Dittmar, 1992); personal values or religious beliefs (Belk, 1992); ethnic identity (Mehta
and Belk, 1991); one’s competence (Hirschman and LaBarbera. 1990); social power
and status (Furby, 1978) and differentiation of one’s self from others (Csikzentmihalyi
and Rochberg-Halton, 1981).
Stage 3 requires that management pay constant attention to the market to create the
right personality for the brand and to update it when needed. The brand’s personality
must constantly change to keep up with constantly shifting consumer self images and
expression. Marketers begin giving brands personalities that incorporate human
characteristics and values so that the brand becomes a means of expressing one’s identity
and self ((de Chernatony and McWilliams 1989). Through a complex process in which
consumers use shared social meanings, they constantly transform, alter, receive and
reflect brand images and meanings to express self, lifestyle, group membership, status
and values such as success. In this process, consumers are making the brand their own
through their interpretation of it. As a result, they form relationships with brands.
Stage 4: Brand as Icon In the Brand as icon stage, the meaning of various brands has
become so widely accepted that the brand can be used to stand for something beyond
itself; in short, it has become a symbol. At this point Goodyear (1996) believes consumers
“own the brand”, because they understand and use its symbolic properties. The brand’s
image is strong enough to stand on its own in signifying values and consumers use it for
that purpose (Goffman, 1959; Gardner and Levy, 1955). The fourth stage usually results
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pentru a-ºi reprezenta propriile valori, iar consumatorii o folosesc tocmai în acest scop
(Goffman 1959 ; Gardner ºi Levy, 1955). Cel de-al patrulea stadiu rezultã, de obicei,
din utilizarea amplã ºi continuã, de cãtre management, a aceleiaºi valori, pe perioade
îndelungate de timp. Managerii decid sã asocieze marca cu o anumitã valoare ºi, de
obicei, extind acea percepþie a mãrcii în întreaga lume. Astfel, pentru a avea succes,
simbolul ales (fie cã e vorba de calitate, prestigiu sau faptul cã brandul respectiv este
« beton ») trebuie sã reprezinte o valoare pentru consumatorii din întreaga lume.
Pentru a întãri latura lor simbolicã, mãrcile folosesc adesea anumite simboluri fizice
relevante pentru marcã. Mercedes foloseºte acelaºi ornament de pe capotã (steaua în
cerc) de câteva decenii ; Marlborough – pachetul roºu cu alb ; camioanele Mack –
buldogul; Harley Davidson – vulturul, iar Coca-Cola – sticla în formã de clepsidrã.
Aceste imagini iconice ajung un mod rapid de identificare a simbolurilor mãrci lor,
indiferent în ce limbã sunt prezentate. În acest stadiu, conexiunile mentale ale
consumatorilor, reprezentând cunoaºterea, sunt bine dezvoltate, aºa cum aratã Keller
(1993). Krishnan (1996) a explicat importanþa asocierilor primare ºi secundare în
construirea echitãþii de marcã. Toate mãrcile trebuie sã determine asocieri mentale
comune, astfel încât sã fie clasificate împreunã cu acestea. Astfel, LA Gear, Adidas,
Reebok ºi Nike sunt, toate, firme de încãlþãminte de sport, cu anumite caracteristici
comune. Conceptul de marcã se alege înainte de intrarea pe piaþã, cu o perspectivã pe
termen lung, astfel încât managerii sã se angajeze sã foloseascã acelaºi concept de
marcã, fie el funcþional sau simbolic, pe toatã durata ciclului de viaþã al produsului. În
aceastã perioadã, mixtura de elemente de marketing are rolul de comunicare a
conceptului de marcã cãtre pieþele þintã respective, ºi de înlesnire a activitãþilor de
tranzacþionare, de exemplu stabilirea punctelor de distribuþie corespunzãtoare (de
Chernatony ºi Daniels, 1994).
Stadiul 5 : Brandul ca organizaþie. Trecerea în stadiul 5 marcheazã tranziþia de la

marketingul clasic la cel post-modern, aºa cum este definit de Brown (1995). Atât
consumatorii, cât ºi managerii trebuie sã aplice schimbãri majore. De partea cererii,
consumatorii sunt mult mai rafinaþi, au o mai mare experienþã cu o gamã largã de
mãrci ºi sunt specialiºti atât în utilizarea computerului, cât ºi în studierea pieþelor ;
drept rezultat, comunicarea nu mai este la fel de bine structuratã, dar este mai interactivã
ºi mai potrivitã pentru a rãspunde solicitãrilor individuale (Barwise, 1997). Folosirea pe
scarã din ce în ce mai largã a internetului permite tot mai multor consumatori sã
descopere ceea ce doresc ei sã ºtie despre mãrci, iar nu ceea ce specialiºtii de piaþã
doresc sã le spunã (Mitchell, 1997). Pe mãsurã ce compania/organizaþia devine un
brand, comunicarea trebuie sã se extindã pentru a prezenta acelaºi mesaj în toate
punctele de contact. Numeroºi acþionari interacþioneazã cu diferite secþiuni ale firmei.
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from management’s extensive and continued use of the same value for long periods of
time. Management has chosen to associate the brand with a particular value and usually
extended that perception of the brand around the globe. Thus, the chosen symbol
(whether quality, prestige, or “coolness”) must be of value to consumers around the
world to be successful.
To reinforce the symbolism, brands frequently use some physical symbol to denote
the brand. Mercedes has used the same hood ornament (star in a circle) for decades;
Marlborough its red and white packaging; Mack trucks its bulldog; Harley Davidson an
eagle; and Coca Cola its hourglass bottle. These icons become shorthand means of
identifying symbolic brands no matter what the local language. In this stage, consumer
networks of knowledge, as described by Keller (1993), are well developed. Krishnan
(1996) has explained the importance of primary and secondary associations in building
a brand’s equity. All brands must have some common associations so that they can be
categorized together. Thus, LA Gear, Adidas, Reebok and Nike are all athletic shoes
with certain characteristics in common. The brand concept is chosen before entry with
a long run perspective in mind so that management is committed to using the same
brand concept whether functional or symbolic throughout the product life cycle. In this
period, the marketing mix is charged with communicating the brand concept to the
appropriate market targets and to facilitating transaction activities such as arranging for
appropriate distribution outlets (de Chernatony and Daniels 1994).
Stage 5: Brand as Company Entry into stage five marks the transition from classical
marketing to postmodern marketing as defined by Brown (1995). This necessitates major
changes on the part of both consumers and management. On the demand side, consumers
are far more sophisticated, have a greater experience of a broader array of brands and
have become computer as well as market literate with the result that communication
becomes less structured, more interactive and better suited to answering individual
queries (Barwise, 1997). Growing penetration of the Internet allows more consumers to
find out what they want to know about brands, rather than what marketers want to say
(Mitchell, 1997). As the company becomes the brand, communication must expand to
present the same message at all of the points of contact. Numerous stakeholders interact
with different parts of the firm. Any individual could be a consumer of the brand, a
media reporter about the company, an owner of the brand through stock purchase or a
regulator of the company in an elected, regulatory capacity.
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Orice individ este un consumator potenþial al mãrcii, un reporter media despre companie,
un deþinãtor al mãrcii prin cumpãrarea de acþiuni, sau un element de reglaj al companiei,
în capacitatea sa electivã limitatã.
Pentru asigurarea unei comunicãri constante, firmele au ajuns la concluzia cã proprii
angajaþi sunt la fel de importanþi ca ºi constructorii de marcã (de Chernatony 1996;
King 1991): Firma trebuie sã se asigure cã toþi angajaþii înþeleg viziunea mãrcii, valorile
lui inerente, ºi cã ilustreazã valorile mãrcii prin acþiunile de fiecare zi, devenind astfel
o sursã cheie de personificare a mãrcii (de Chernatony ºi Dall’Olmo 1998, Riley 1998).
Împlinirea acestui deziderat cere o pregãtire extensivã ºi explicarea detaliatã a înþelesului
ºi strategiei de marcã. Accentul pus în planul de comunicare a mãrcii se relevã mai
întâi prin prezentarea angajaþilor ºi a noii campanii; numai atunci când angajaþii înþeleg
ºi sunt capabili sã respecte promisiunile poate începe comunicarea cu consumatorii.
Angajaþii trebuie sã înþeleagã brandul propriu, sã fie motivaþi pentru a acþiona aºa cum
o cere identitatea mãrcii ºi trebuie sã fie împuterniciþi sã ia mãsurile care se impun
pentru creºterea importanþei acestuia. În acest stadiu, extinderea mãrci lor devine mai
dificilã. Mulþumitã brandingului umbrelã extinderea are un impact asupra modului în
care este perceputã firma, dar ºi fiecare marcã în parte. Unele studii au demonstrat cã
extinderea poate avea atât efecte pozitive, cât ºi negative asupra mãrcilor existente
(Dacin ºi Smith, 1994; Aaker ºi Keller, 1990; Bottomley ºi Doyle, 1996; Broniarczyk ºi
Alba, 1994; Bousch ºi Loken, 1991; Park, Milberg ºi Lawson, 1991; Reddy, Holak ºi
Bhat, 1994; dar ºi Keller ºi Aaker, 1992). Ca rezultat, este posibil ca înþelesul mãrcii sã
se dilueze sau chiar sã devinã nesigur, deoarece valorile incorporate în marcã se pot
schimba. Aºadar, este esenþial ca tuturor acþionarilor sã le fie transmis acelaºi mesaj.
Managerii trebuie sã stabileascã foarte clar care sunt valorile pe care doresc sã le
comunice, cum pot fi incluºi consumatorii în crearea de valoare adãugatã ºi cum se
poate menþine un mesaj stabil. Toate acestea încep cu dorinþa consumatorilor de a se
implica mai mult ºi cu dorinþa lor de a stabili o relaþie mai strânsã cu mãrcile ºi firmele
cãrora acestea le aparþin.
Stadiul 6: Brandul ca politicã. În stadiul final, brandul ca politicã, marca ºi compania

au ajuns sã se identifice strâns cu problemele sociale, etice ºi politice (Goodyear 1996).
Consumatorii îºi aratã ataºamentul faþã de aceste mãrci ºi faþã de companiile care le
împãrtãºesc pãrerile.
Brandul global
Din ce în ce mai mulþi teoreticieni sunt de acord cã adevãrul despre globalizarea
mãrcilor se aflã undeva între extremele tezei omogenizãrii, postulate de Ted Levitt
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To ensure consistent communication, firms find that staff become critically important
as brand builders.( (de Chernatony 1996;King, 1991) The firm must ensure that all its
staff understand the brand’s vision, its core values and live the brand’s values through
their daily actions, thereby being a key source in the brand’s personification (de
Chernatony and Dall’Olmo Riley 1998). Achieving this requires extensive training and
a comprehensive explanation of the brand’s meaning and strategy. The emphasis of the
brand communication plan shifts to firstly showing staff any new campaigns and only
when they understand and are able to deliver the promises, can consumer
communication commence. Staff must understand their brand, be motivated to perform
in a manner consistent with the brand’s identity and be empowered to take actions that
enhance it. In this stage, extending brands becomes more difficult. Thanks to umbrella
branding, the extension has an impact on the perception of the firm as well as the
individual brand. A number of studies have demonstrated that extensions can have
both positive and negative effects on existing brands. (Dacin and Smith, 1994; Aaker
and Keller, 1990; Bottomley and Doyle, 1996; Broniarczyk and Alba, 1994; Bousch
and Loken, 1991; Park, Milberg and Lawson, 1991; Reddy, Holak and Bhat, 1994; and
Keller and Aaker, 1992) The result can be a dilution of brand meaning or even an
inconsistency of meanings as values incorporated into the brand can change. Thus, it is
critical that all stakeholders receive the same message. Management must explicitly
consider what values they will communicate, how they can include the consumer in
the creation of added value and how they can maintain consistency of message. All of
this begins with the desire of consumers to become more involved and the desire to
form a closer relationship with brands and their firms.
Stage 6: Brand as Policy In the final stage, brand as policy, the brand and company
become closely identified with social, ethical and political issues (Goodyear 1996).
Consumers commit to those brands and companies who share their views.
The global brand

There is growing consensus that the truth about globalization of brands lies somewhere
between the extremes of Ted Levitt’s thesis of homogenization (Levitt, 1983) and Naomi
Klein’s more recent prediction of a ‘no logo’ backlash (Klein, 2000). To move beyond a
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(Levitt, 1983) ºi predicþia mai recentã aparþinând lui Naomi Klein, cu privire la reacþia
negativã de tip „fãrã forme de identificare” (Klein, 2000). Dincolo de dezbaterile sterile,
abstracte, despre globalizare, strategii de marcã au nevoie de criterii strategice care sã
se bazeze pe tipologia mãrci lor ºi mediilor în care se pot aplica acestea, pentru a fi
bine informaþi atunci când iau decizia dacã, unde, când ºi cum sã globalizeze sau sã
localizeze un brand anume. Teza lui Ted Levitt despre globalizarea pieþelor afirma cã
firmele cu acoperire globalã ºi mãrcile lor urmau sã cunoascã o creºtere inexorabilã,
oferindu-le consumatorilor globali o combinaþie imbatabilã de calitate, disponibilitate,
siguranþã ºi preþ scãzut. El descria o Utopie de Brand în care gusturile ºi nevoile urmau
sã se omogenizeze tot mai mult, în vreme ce companiile de succes urmau sã se
concentreze pe ceea ce doreºte „toatã lumea”.
Unii autori (Quelch, Holt ºi Taylor, 2003) au definit patru tipuri diferite de brand
global.
1. Mãrcile fundamentale cum sunt Nike, Sony ºi Coca-Cola îºi definesc categoria ºi
se construiesc pe baza unor mituri sau istorii puternice (de exemplu, tema independenþei,
specificã pentru Levi’s, sau tema conectãrii la Nokia). Pentru aceste mãrci tocmai
universalitatea firului narativ ºi nu caracterul global însuºi stã la baza atracþiei pe care
o exercitã. Adeseori, acestea sunt mãrcile „iniþiatoare”, care definesc o anumitã categorie.
Cum astfel ele îºi pot influenþa moºtenirea, principala provocare cu care se confruntã
specialiºtii evoluþiei pe piaþã a mãrci lor fundamentale, în acest caz, este nevoia de
face ca mitul sã rãmânã la fel de puternic pentru fiecare nouã generaþie. Coca-Cola a
avut mare succes în acest sens; Levi’s – mai puþin. Aºa cum s-a dovedit în cazul Coca-
Cola, mãrcile fundamentale pot trece dincolo de graniþele naþionale, fiind îmbrãþiºate
de consumatori ca mãrci cu adevãrat globale. De aceea ele pretind – ºi permit – un
grad mic de specific local, pentru a nu-ºi periclita universalitatea sau aura miticã. În
plus, mãrcile fundamentale sunt mai puþin exclusive – ºi exclusiviste – decât mãrcile de
prestigiu.
2. Mãrcile de prestigiu cum sunt Chanel, BMW, Rolex ºi Gucci atrag prin mituri
specifice de origine culturalã, sau legate de provenienþa fondatorului sau a tehnologiei
(de exemplu Mercedes ca întruchipare a excelenþei germane în proiectare ºi inginerie).
Aceste mãrci se aflã mereu în centrul atenþiei ºi au o valoare înaltã de aspiraþie. Ca o
amuletã magicã, marca de prestigiu determinã creºterea valorii celor care îl folosesc.
Cu riscul de a-i exclude pe cei mulþi pentru a-i atrage pe cei puþini dar buni, mãrcile de
prestigiu resping categoric specificul local. De exemplu, BMW ºi Mercedes din Japonia
ºi Singapore vor evita, în general, folosirea unor simboluri iconice locale, pentru a
rãmâne o aspiraþie suficient de puternicã.
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sterile debate about globalization in the abstract, brand strategists need decision criteria
based on a typology of brands and environments that they can apply to make informed
decisions about whether, when, where and how to globalize or localize a brand. Ted
Levitt’s globalization of markets thesis asserted that global companies and their brands
would grow inexorably, offering global consumers an unbeatable combination of quality,
availability, reliability and low price. He described a Brand Utopia in which tastes and
needs would become increasingly homogenised, with successful companies focusing
on what ‘everyone’ wants.
Some authors (Quelch, Holt and Taylor, 2003) revealed four different types of global
brand.
1. Master brands like Nike, Sony and Coca-Cola define their category and are built
on powerful myths or narratives (e.g. Levi’s theme of independence or Nokia’s theme
of connection). For these brands it is this universality of their narrative rather than the
fact of globalness itself that is at the heart of their appeal. Often, these are ‘first mover’
brands that define a category. While they can thus leverage their heritage, the
corresponding key challenge facing marketers of Master brands is the need to keep the
myth relevant to each new generation. Coca-Cola has been superbly successful at this;
Levi’s has been less so. As Coca-Cola also illustrates, Master brands can transcend their
national origins to be embraced by consumers as truly global brands. They thus require
- and permit - little if any localization that might threaten to undermine their universality
or mythical appeal. Master brands are also less exclusive - and exclusionary - than
Prestige brands.
2. Prestige brands such as Chanel, BMW, Rolex and Gucci have an appeal built on
specific myths of cultural origin or the provenance of a founder or a technology (e.g.
Mercedes as the embodiment of German design and engineering excellence). These
brands are nearly always in strong display categories with high aspirational value. Like
a magic amulet, a Prestige brand increases the value of the one who uses it. At the risk
of excluding many to appeal to the chosen few, Prestige brands actively reject
localization. For example, BMW and Mercedes in Japan and Singapore will usually
avoid the use of local icons to stay sufficiently aspirational.
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3. Super-mãrcile sunt disponibile pentru toþi, la fel ca ºi mãrcile fundamentale. Spre

deosebire de acestea, super-mãrcile se definesc mai degrabã prin categoria din care
fac parte, decât prin imaginea miticã sau firul narativ. Între exemple se includ Gillette,
Pepsi, McDonald’s, Shell, Philips ºi American Express (cardul obiºnuit). Ca atare, un
super-brand poate avea destul succes ºi poate fi la fel de bun ca oricare altul din categoria
sa, fãrã sã se diferenþieze pe baza unui mit sau fir narativ distinctiv pe care sã-l „deþinã.”
În loc de asta, super-mãrcile încearcã sã devinã reprezentative printr-un oarecare grad
de adaptare localã (de exemplu, McDonald’s adapteazã versiuni ale mâncãrurilor locale
la sistemul de servire rapidã) ºi rãmân relevante prin inovaþii constante ale produsului
ºi serviciilor (de exemplu, evoluþia „sistemelor de ras Gillette”).
4. Mãrci „global-locale” de tipul Dove, Nestle ºi Danone sunt disponibile la nivel

global dar se distribuie local, adesea sub o întreagã varietate de nume de produs locale
sau regionale (sub-mãrci ). Chiar ºi acolo unde consumatorii sunt conºtienþi de aceastã
distribuþie globalã, brandul global-local rãmâne „apropiat”, fiind considerat „unul
de-al nostru” – ºi tocmai aceastã trãsãturã îi creºte valoarea, în mai mare mãsurã decât
faptul cã poate fi gãsit pretutindeni. Aceste mãrci pretind ºi permit cel mai mare grad de
specificitate localã, aflându-se, de obicei, deºi nu întotdeauna, în categorii cu valoare
de reprezentativitate micã, de exemplu alimente, produse gospodãreºti ºi de îngrijire
personalã. (Ca atare, aceste mãrci au pragul cel mai scãzut pentru determinarea reacþiilor
negative, atunci când consumatorii simt cã sãnãtatea sau siguranþa lor sau a familiilor
lor sunt puse în pericol – vezi mai jos). De notat ºi faptul cã valoarea potenþialã de
aspiraþie faþã de un produs dat depinde decondiþiile economice locale; în multe þãri
mai puþin dezvoltate ºi în societãþile de consum mai noi, aceastã caracteristicã este
proprie bunurilor de consum în continuã miºcare.
Mãrcile fundamentale, de prestigiu, super-mãrcile ºi mãrcile „global-locale” mai
pot fi caracterizate ºi din punctul de vedere al aspectelor specifice de afinitate evidenþiate
de fiecare dintre ele pentru crearea echitãþii de marcã. Modelul Equity EngineSM al
companiei de cercetãri Research International considerã cã echitatea de marcã este
reprezentatã de performanþa mãrcii (beneficiile sale funcþionale) la care se adaugã
afinitatea perceputã faþã de marcã (beneficii emoþionale): Deºi aceastã definiþie acoperã
toate categoriile de produse ºi servicii, de obicei jumãtate, sau chiar mai mult din
echitatea de marcã decurge din afinitate, în mai mare mãsurã decât din performanþã.
Afinitatea are trei dimensiuni de bazã, fiecare dintre acestea având, la rândul sãu, câte
trei coordonate.
1. Autoritatea reprezintã poziþia mãrcii între alte mãrci, pe coordonatele moºtenirii,
încrederii ºi inovãrii.
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3. Super brands are universally available like Master brands. Unlike Master brands,
Super brands are defined more by their category than by a myth or narrative. Examples
include Gillette, Pepsi, McDonald’s, Shell, Philips and American Express (regular card).
As such, a Super brand may be quite successful and as good as any other in the category
without being differentiated on the basis of a distinctive myth or narrative that it ‘owns.’
Instead, Super brands try to become relevant by localizing somewhat (e.g., McDonald’s
adapting versions of local foods to a quick service environment) and remain relevant by
constant product or service innovation (e.g., the evolution of Gillette’s ‘shaving systems’).
4. GloCal brands such as Dove, Nestle and Danone are available globally, but
marketed locally, often under a variety of local or regional product names (sub-brands).
Even where consumers are aware of this global distribution, a GloCal brand may ‘feel
close’ and be seen as ‘one of ours’ - and it is this, rather than its universal availability,
that enhances its equity. These brands thus require and permit the greatest degree of
localization and are usually, though not always, in categories with weak display value
such as food, household products and personal care. (As such they are brands with the
lowest threshold for triggering negative reactions if consumers perceive that their own
or their families’ health or safety are threatened - see below.) We should also note that
the potential aspirational value of a given product is relative to local economic conditions;
in many less-developed countries and newer consumer societies, a variety of fast moving
consumer goods can take on this character.
We can further characterize Master, Prestige, Super and GloCal brands in terms of
the specific aspects of affinity that each leverages to create brand equity. Research
International’s Equity EngineSM model of brand equity views brand equity as the sum
of perceived brand performance (functional benefits) and perceived brand affinity
(emotional benefits). While this ranges widely across product and service categories,
typically half or more of brand equity derives from affinity rather than performance.
Affinity has three basic dimensions, each of which in turn has three dimensions.
1. Authority is the brand’s standing among other brands on the dimensions of
heritage, trust and innovation.
2. Identification is the relationship of consumer and brand in terms of bonding (how
the consumer currently views the brand), caring (what the consumer believes the
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2. Identificarea reprezintã relaþia, mai precis apropierea dintre consumator ºi marcã

(cum priveºte consumatorul brandul respectiv), grija (ce crede consumatorul cã
simte marca despre el sau ea) ºi nostalgia (relaþiile cu marca din trecut).
3. Aprobarea reprezintã evaluarea de cãtre consumator a mãrcii prin prisma societãþii
în general ºi a unor grupuri specifice de referinþã, pe coordonatele de prestigiu,
acceptabilitate ºi susþinere.
Mãrcile fundamentale sunt în general puternice în privinþa a cel puþin unul dintre
cele trei coordonate de bazã ale afinitãþii. Deºi nu toate mãrcile fundamentale „se
miºcã repede”, ele sunt puternice în zona autoritãþii ºi mai ales a inovaþiei ºi gradului
de încredere.
Forþa super-mãrcilor stã, la fel ca ºi în cazul mãrci lor fundamentale, în încredere ºi
inovare. Cum încrederea este un element esenþial al tuturor tipurilor de marcã,
super-mãrcile încearcã sã se diferenþieze în principal în domeniul inovãrii – element
definitoriu, în mare mãsurã, pentru categoria în cauzã (ca ºi super-mãrcile însele). Cum
nu relevã elemente mitice sau narative, aºa cum se întâmplã în cazul mãrci lor
fundamentale, super-mãrcile sunt mai puþin puternice, totuºi, în ceea ce priveºte
coordonatele de bazã ale identificãrii ºi aprobãrii.
În concordanþã cu atracþia „elitistã” pe care o exercitã, mãrcile de prestigiu aratã o
relaþie „amicalã” cu consumatorii – îºi permit sã fie iubite dar dau foarte puþin în schimb.
De fapt, mãrcile de prestigiu fac apel, selectiv, la consumatorii care îºi imagineazã cã
sunt „deasupra” cerinþelor comune ºi care sunt siguri de identitatea ºi valoarea proprie,
demonstrate prin alegerea rafinatã a acestor mãrci.
În contrast cu celelalte trei tipuri de marcã (ºi mai ales cu mãrcile de prestigiu),
mãrcile „global-locale” sunt exemplul tipic de identificare puternicã. Ele aratã „grijã ºi
preocupare” faþã de consumatorii pe care îi ºtiu foarte bine ºi, în schimb, le trezesc
nostalgia despre ceea ce au însemnat aceste mãrci cu care, la propriu, „au crescut
împreunã”. Ca ºi mãrcile de prestigiu, mãrcile global-locale sunt puternice pe baza
moºtenirii ºi încrederii, dar negociazã aprobarea pentru identificare.
Nemaifiind (doar) o problemã de relaþie directã personalã, aprobarea socialã este
din ce în ce mai mult mediatã prin intermediul „comunitãþilor virtuale” definite, parþial,
prin experienþe împãrtãºite de marcã (Upshaw ºi Taylor, 2000).
Aºa cum s-a arãtat mai sus, încrederea este condiþia esenþialã pentru ca un brand sã
aibã succes, dar fiecare tip de marcã poate câºtiga (sau pierde) aceastã încredere în
moduri oarecum diferite. Aºa cum Naomi Klein afirmã spre finalul teoriei despre mãrcile
„fãrã forme de identificare”, mãrcile care sunt cele mai vizibile pentru consumatori ºi
care se mândresc cu înalte valori morale au ºansele cele mai mari sã eºueze (Klein,
2000).
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brand currently feels about him or her) and nostalgia (past relationships with the
brand).
3. Approval is the consumer’s evaluation of the brand through the lens of society at
large and specific reference groups in terms of prestige, acceptability and
endorsement.
Master brands tend to be strong on at least one aspect of each of the three basic
dimensions of affinity. While not all Master brands are in fact ‘first movers,’ they tend to
be strong on authority, particularly innovation and trust.
Super brands share with Master brands strengths in trust and innovation. Since trust
is an essential element of all types of brands, Super brands attempt to differentiate
primarily on innovation - which is largely defined (like Super brands themselves) by the
category. Because they do not engage a universal myth or narrative in the way that
Master brands do, however, Super brands typically show less strength on the basic
dimensions of identification and approval.
In keeping with their ‘elitest’ appeal, Prestige brands exhibit the ‘coolest’ relationship
with consumers - allowing themselves to be loved, but reciprocating very little. In fact,
Prestige brands may selectively appeal precisely to consumers who fancy themselves
to be ‘above’ such common demands and who are secure in their own identity and self-
worth, displayed through their refined choice of such brands.
By contrast to the three other types of brands (particularly Prestige brands), GloCal
brands typically demonstrate the strongest identification. They project ‘concern and
caring’ for the consumers they know so well and elicit in return nostalgia about what
these brands have meant to them as they literally ‘grow old’ together. Like Prestige
brands, GloCal brands thus tend to be strong on heritage and trust, but they trade approval
for identification.
No longer (only) a matter of direct personal relationships, social approval is
increasingly mediated through ‘virtual communities’ defined in part by shared brand
experiences (Upshaw and Taylor, 2000).
As noted earlier, trust is the bedrock precondition of all successful brands, but each
type can gain (or lose) this trust in somewhat different ways. As Naomi Klein herself
suggests toward the end of No Logo, brands that are the most visible to consumers and
pride themselves on their high moral ground, may be setting themselves up for the
biggest fall (Klein, 2000).
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Folosind tipologia personalitãþii de marcã conceputã de aceasta, Jennifer Aaker ºi S.

Adam Brasel, de la Universitatea Stanford ºi Susan Fournier de la Harvard Business
School au fãcut publice, de curând, rezultatele unor cercetãri care ar putea lãmuri
diferenþele între capacitatea mãrci lor de prestigiu ºi a celor global-locale de a rezista
în ciuda efectelor de recul ale lipsei semnelor distinctive ºi transparenþei (Aaker, Fournier
ºi Brasel, 2003). Experimentele aratã cã un brand considerat „sincer” de cãtre
consumatori poate avea dificultãþi mai mari în a se redresa dupã eºuarea unor servicii,
decât un brand considerat a fi „interesant”. Printr-o analogie exactã cu relaþiile
interpersonale, s-ar pãrea cã se pune mai mult preþ ºi se aºteaptã mai mult de la o
relaþie „sincerã”, de lungã duratã (Aaker 1997).
Strategii în managementul de marcã

Prea des se întâmplã cã specialiºtii de piaþã încearcã sã acopere strategia imitativã,
care se bazeazã pe beneficiile de categorie, solicitând agenþiilor lor de publicitate sã
creeze reclame unice. Problema este cã o strategie obositã blocheazã orice încercare
de originalitate, în orice aspect al execuþiei. Aceastã crizã de diferenþiere nu e o problemã
de execuþie (Tait, 2004). Per total, specialiºtii de piaþã par sã-ºi fi pierdut capacitatea de
gândire creatoare atunci când dezvoltã strategii de marcã. Sau poate cã suntem constrânºi
de un sistem de gândire care lucreazã împotriva gândirii originale. Pentru ca mãrcile sã
aibã succes, ele trebuie sã se bazeze pe strategii diferenþiate, necunoscute. Din pãcate,
tocmai acestea sunt ideile care nu plac, cel puþin la început, nimãnui. Acesta este
motivul pentru care verificarea cantitativã a ideilor alternative de poziþionare are toate
ºansele sã omoare în faºã, sistematic, ideile mai originale, iar oamenii le preferã pe
cele care sunt mai apropiate de ceea ce cunosc deja.
Firmele îºi dezvoltã strategia de marcã pentru a realiza o analogie între identitatea
de marcã ºi imaginea de marcã. Aaker ºi Joachismsthaler (2000) definesc identitatea de
marcã drept un set de asocieri mentale pe care strategul de marcã sperã sã le formeze,
sau sã le pãstreze în mintea consumatorilor. Aceste asocieri mentale pe care consumatorii
le fac cu marca au drept rezultat imaginea de marcã. Din punctul de vedere al
consumatorului, asocierile mentale joacã un rol important în evaluarea de cãtre
consumator a produsului, sau în alegerea acestuia, fiind esenþiale pentru echitatea de
marcã (Keller 1993, Brown ºi Dacin 1997, Keller 1998, Berens et al. 2005). Elementul
esenþial în toate aceste lucrãri este ipoteza conform cãreia consumatorii folosesc
asocierile mentale ca semnale de recunoaºtere, atunci când se informeazã despre marcã.
Astfel, scopul strategic al firmei este acela de a forma legãturi afective puternice ºi
semnificative între brandul sãu ºi consumatori, pentru ca astfel marca sã li se imprime
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Using the brand personality typology she developed, Jennifer Aaker and S. Adam
Brasel of Stanford University and Susan Fournier of the Harvard Business School have
recently reported research which may shed light on the differences between Prestige
and GloCal brands’ ability to resist transparency and ‘no logo’ backlash (Aaker, Fournier
and Brasel, 2003). Her experiments indicate that a brand seen by consumers to be
‘sincere’ may actually have a harder time recovering from a service failure than a brand
seen to be ‘exciting.’ By precise analogy to interpersonal relationships, it appears that
consumers put more into - and expect more out of - a ‘sincere’, long-standing relationship.
(Aaker 1997).
Brand Management Strategies

Too often marketers try to cover up a me-too strategy based on the category benefit
by asking their ad agencies to make unique ads. The problem is that a tired strategy
anchors down everyone trying to be original in any aspect of execution. This
differentiation crisis is not a problem of execution (Tait, 2004). Overall, marketers seem
to have lost the ability to think creatively when developing their brand strategies. Or
perhaps we are being constrained by a belief system that works against original thinking.
If brands are to succeed they need to be based on differentiated, unfamiliar brand
strategies. Unfortunately, these are the exact same ideas that people initially dislike.
That’s why quantitative testing of alternative positioning ideas will likely systematically
kill the more original ideas, and people will prefer the ones that are closest to what they
already know.
Firms develop their brand strategy in order to achieve congruence between brand
identity and brand image. Aaker and Joachismsthaler (2000) define brand identity as a
set of brand associations that the brand strategist aspires to create or maintain in
consumers’ minds. These brand associations in consumers’ minds result in a brand
image. From the consumer’s perspective, associations play an important role in
consumers’ product evaluations and choices and are fundamental to brand equity (Keller
1993, Brown and Dacin, 1997; Keller, 1998; Berens et al. 2005). Essential to this literature
is the assumption that consumers use brand associations as retrieval cues for information
about brand. Thus, the strategic aim of the firm is to form strong and meaningful affective
bonds between its brand and consumers and, in so doing, become part of their memories
and an important link in their social networks (Thompson et al., 2006; Atkin 2004;
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acestora în memorie, devenind o legãturã importantã în reþelele lor sociale (Thompson

et al., 2006; Atkin 2004; Roberts 2004). Aºadar, cu cât brandul este mai puternic, cu
atât este mai simplu pentru consumatori sã-ºi reaminteascã asociaþiile mentale respective.
Acest set determinã creºterea valorii generale a mãrcii (Rust et al., 2004).
Ca punct de plecare al întregii strategii, este extrem de importantã stabilirea ºi
menþinerea mãrcii. Astfel, se recomandã adoptarea unei abordãri holistice, sau a unei
„strategii generale de marcã “. O astfel de strategie generalã de marcã trebuie
implementatã acceptându-se ideea cã marca ar putea traversa numeroase linii de
producþie ºi regiuni geografice diferite. Adoptarea unei strategii generale de marcã mai
necesitã ºi recunoaºterea faptului cã mãrcile sunt importante atât pentru comerþul
tradiþional, cu amãnuntul, cât ºi pentru pieþele online.
Decizia cu privire la strategia de poziþionare a mãrcii este esenþialã pentru succesului
unui brand (vezi, de exemplu, Pham & Muthukrishnan, 2002), deoarece are o influenþã
puternicã asupra percepþiilor ºi a preferinþelor ulterioare (Carpenter, Glazer & Nakamoto,
1994). Cum orice companie îºi poate poziþiona, teoretic, marca pe coordonate în numãr
infinit, strategiile de poziþionare sunt comentate, în literatura de specialitate, cu ajutorul
tipologiilor de poziþionare (vezi, de exemplu, Aaker & Shansby, 1982; Crawford 1985;
Kotler et al., 2005; Wind 1982).
Realizarea unei strategii generale de marcã necesitã o strânsã coordonare între firma
licenþiatoare ºi cei care cumpãrã licenþa pe diferite pieþe. Trebuie sã existe un program
solid de protejare a mãrci lor ºi de monitorizare a modului în care se folosesc acestea.
Trebuie sã se acorde atenþie ºi unor moduri potenþiale de utilizare a mãrci lor. Aici s-ar
putea include identificarea mãrci lor ce ar putea fi utilizate în viitor, ca ºi identificarea
noilor produse ºi servicii împreunã cu care s-ar putea folosi noul brand.
Strategiile eficiente de management al mãrcii implicã ºi o atenþie sporitã la asigurarea
armoniei între strategia de acordare a licenþei de marcã ºi scopurile generale ale
întreprinderii (Keller 1998). Sunt necesare eforturi pentru ca firma sã fie sigurã cã marca
se reflectã pozitiv asupra sa, cã nu scade din valoarea celorlalte linii de producþie ºi cã
rãmâne profitabil pentru alte pãrþi ale companiei.
Importanþa stabilitãþii trebuie reflectatã ºi în selectarea partenerilor care primesc
licenþa. Se pune accent pe partenerii de licenþã care iubesc afacerile sãnãtoase ºi care
oferã produse inovatoare. În acelaºi timp, totuºi, se pune accentul ºi pe partenerii de
licenþã cu culturi ºi scopuri de afaceri similare, deoarece astfel de poate ajunge la
reducerea timpului petrecut pentru ajungerea la un acord. Companiile trebuie sã
creioneze un profil al partenerului ideal pentru licenþã, dar sã fie conºtiente cã, deºi
mulþi licenþiatori ºi firme deþinãtoare de licenþe pãstreazã relaþii de afaceri de lungã
duratã, puþine dintre acestea sunt de fapt permanente (Craig ºi Douglas 1996).
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Roberts 2004). Therefore, the more powerful the brand, the easier consumers recalled
the set of associations. This set increases the brand’s overall value (Rust et al., 2004).
As a threshold issue, it will be extremely important to establish and maintain the
brand. When doing so, the adoption of a holistic approach, or an “overall brand strategy”
is recommended. Such overall brand strategy should be implemented with full
recognition that the brand may traverse numerous different product lines and geographic
regions. Adopting an overall brand strategy also requires recognition that brands are
significant to both the traditional retail and the online market.
The decision about a brand’s positioning strategy is central to the success of a brand
(e.g., Pham & Muthukrishnan, 2002), because it has a strong influence on consumers’
brand perceptions and subsequent preferences (Carpenter, Glazer, & Nakamoto, 1994).
Since a company can theoretically position its brand on an infinite number of different
dimensions, positioning strategies are discussed in the marketing literature with the
help of positioning typologies (e.g., Aaker & Shansby, 1982; Crawford, 1985; Kotler et
al., 2005; Wind 1982).
Accomplishing an overall brand strategy requires close coordination between the
licensor and licensees in different markets. There must be a consistent program for
protecting brands and monitoring the usage of brands. Focus should also be placed
upon prospective uses of brands. This may include identifying brands that might be
used in the future and identifying new products and services with which existing brands
might be used.
Effective brand management strategies also necessitate emphasis on ensuring
consistency between the brand licensing strategy and the enterprise’s overall business
goals (Keller 1998). Efforts should be undertaken to ensure that the brand reflects
positively on the company, does not detract from other product lines and remains
profitable with other parts of company.
The importance of consistency should also be reflected in the selection of license
partners. Focus should surely be placed upon license partners that enjoy healthy
businesses and that offer innovative products. At the same time, however, emphasis
should also be placed upon licensee partners with similar cultures and business goals
since doing so may help to reduce the amount of time that is expended on reaching the
basis business terms. Companies should develop a profile of the ideal license partner
but recognize that while many licensors and licensees may enjoy long-term relationships,
few of such relationships will be permanent (Craig and Douglas 1996).
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Un management de marcã de succes implicã neapãrat atenþia pentru creºterea la

maximum a influenþei mãrcii respectiv. Desigur, asta poate sã însemne lucruri diferite
în contexte diferite. Totuºi, în orice circumstanþã, o judecatã raþionalã cu privire la
plasarea mãrcii este esenþialã.
Exclusivitatea contractului de licenþã este un factor cheie în managementul de marcã.
Faptul cã un contract de licenþã este exclusiv sau nu are implicaþii importante asupra
întregii afaceri. Atunci când se are în vedere exclusivitatea pentru oferta de licenþã, nu
trebuie uitat faptul cã licenþa exclusivã se garanteazã o singurã datã. Ca atare, trebuie
sã se acorde o atenþie deosebitã strategiilor ºi scopurilor în afaceri ale partenerilor de
licenþã potenþial exclusivi.
Pe lângã înþelegerea intereselor ºi a strategiilor deþinãtorilor potenþiali de licenþã
exclusivã, licenþa trebuie astfel structuratã încât sã se pãstreze angajamentul deþinãtorului
de licenþã faþã de marcã. Desigur, este în interesul firmei mamã sã se asigure cã interesul
faþã de marcã al deþinãtorului de licenþã este maxim ºi cã va rãmâne în continuare
astfel. Existã multe soluþii în acest sens, de exemplu, solicitarea unor plãþi adiþionale
sau a unei alte forme de compensare, pe durata licenþei, pentru menþinerea exclusivitãþii
convenite.
Dacã, la acordarea licenþei pe bazã de exclusivitate, este extrem de important sã se
stabileascã anumite norme, sã ne amintim cã ºi licenþele fãrã exclusivitate pot juca un
rol important în afaceri. Aºadar trebuie acordatã mare atenþie, cu toate resursele existente,
structurãrii contractelor fãrã exclusivitate, pentru ca ele sã devinã profitabile (Laforet ºi
Saunders 1994).
Toate contractele de licenþã trebuie sã includã reguli de aplicare obligatorii.
Majoritatea contractelor de licenþã se referã la probleme importante, cum sunt
standardele de control de calitate ºi standardele de raportare. Totuºi, aceste standarde
ºi cerinþe nu sunt de prea mare folos dacã nu existã mecanismele potrivite pentru
aplicarea lor. Mecanismele de aplicare potrivite depind de specificul fiecãrui contract
de licenþã. Ca exemplu, totuºi, la contractele de licenþã cu exclusivitate, terminarea
acestei exclusivitãþi poate reprezenta un remediu eficient în caz de încãlcare a anumitor
prevederi contractuale.
Firma mamã nu trebuie sã adopte o atitudine de indiferenþã, lãsându-l pe deþinãtorul
de licenþã sã se descurce singur cu produsele ºi serviciile. În fapt, trebuie depuse eforturi
pentru a garanta cã produsele deþinãtorului licenþei sunt apreciate ºi moderne. Clar,
este în interesul licenþiatorului sã se asigure cã brandul sãu este legat de cele mai
populare produse ºi servicii (Berry 1998). Desigur, interesul consumatorului se poate
schimba în timp, aºa cã este esenþial ca, periodic, sã se verifice schimbãrile ce pot
apãrea la cererea de produse ºi servicii pe licenþã.
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Successful brand management will involve focus on the maximizing the leverage of
the brand. Of course, this may mean different things in different context. However, in
all circumstances, a considered judgment regarding brand placement will be crucial.
The exclusivity of the license agreement will be a key factor in brand management.
Whether the license agreement will be exclusive or non–exclusive will have important
implications for all of the business. When considering the exclusivity of a license grant,
it must be recalled that the license can only be granted once as an exclusive license.
Accordingly, particular scrutiny must be directed towards the strategies and business
goals of potential exclusive licensees.
In addition to understanding the current interests and strategies of the prospective
exclusive licensee, it is advisable to construct the license in such a way so as to maintain
the licensee’s commitment licensee to the brand. Clearly, it will be in the interest of the
licensor to ensure that the licensee’s interest in the brand is and will stay as high as
possible. This can be done in a number of ways including, for example, by requiring
additional payments or some other form of compensation during the license term in
order to maintain the exclusivity of the arrangement.
While exclusive licensing arrangements will be extremely important, it must be
recalled that non-exclusive licenses can also play a role in the business. Accordingly,
proper attention and resources should also be devoted to constructing such non-exclusive
arrangements and ensuring that they are profitable (Laforêt and Saunders 1994).
All license agreements should include effective means of enforcement. Most license
agreements will address extremely important issues including quality control standards
and reporting standards. However, such standards and requirements will not be of much
use without effective enforcement mechanisms to back them up. The precise enforcement
mechanisms that should be used will depend on the particulars of the licensing
arrangement. As an example, however, in an exclusive licensing arrangement, the
termination of exclusivity may be an effective remedy for the breach of certain contractual
requirements.
Licensors should be not adopt a “hands off” approach when dealing with the licensee’s
products and services. Rather, efforts should be undertaken to ensure that the licensee’s
products are desirable and up-to-date. Clearly, it will be in the licensor’s interest to
ensure that its brand will be affixed to the most popular products and services (Berry
1998). Of course, consumer interest can change over time so it will be essential to
periodically monitor changes in demand for the licensee’s product and services.
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Atunci când se stabileºte o relaþie de licenþã pentru un anumit brand, este importantã
ºi alocarea echitabilã a proprietãþii ºi controlului asupra bunurilor comune. Acesta este
un element important în orice tip de relaþie, dar cu atât mai mult în cazul unei relaþii pe
termen lung. În toate cazurile, licenþiatorul este cel mai interesat în menþinerea mãrcii,
astfel cã el îºi va pãstra cea mai mare parte a controlului asupra acestuia (Caller 1996).
Totuºi, anumite elemente ale afacerii pot avea un impact important, în cele din urmã,
în împãrþire. Aici ar trebui sã se þinã seama de afacerea fiecãrei pãrþi ºi de impactul pe
care aceasta l-ar putea avea asupra mãrcii. La alocare ar trebui sã se þinã seama ºi de
faptul cã asocierea numelui cu anumite produse ºi servicii reprezintã cheia întregii
afaceri.
Angajaþii întreprinderii joacã un rol extrem de important în toate iniþiativele de
licenþiere a mãrcii. Selectarea echipei care se ocupã de licenþã trebuie sã porneascã de
la ideea cã membrii ei sunt chemaþi sã organizeze controlul ºi coordonarea tuturor
activitãþilor deþinãtorilor de licenþã. Alãturi de angajaþii cu un rol cheie în realizarea
licenþei, trebuie pregãtiþi ºi alþi angajaþi care sã joace un rol activ în eforturile de licenþiere
în plan general.
Companiile trebuie sã fie active – ºi nu statice – ºi sã depunã toate eforturile pentru
integrarea strategiei de marcã în dezvoltarea produsului ºi lansarea unor activitãþi. O
strategie clarã ºi pro-activã are cele mai mari ºanse de a-ºi primi rãsplata cuvenitã.
Dezvoltarea structurilor internaþionale de branding

Deºi multe cercetãri de pânã acum se referã la problematica factorilor de succes în
extinderea de marcã (Völckner & Sattler, 2006; Echambadi, Arroniz, Reinartz & Lee,
2006; Czellar, 2003; Bhat & Reddy, 2001; Park, Milberg & Lawson, 1991; Aaker &
Keller, 1990) nu se cunosc totuºi prea multe despre resursele pe care companiile trebuie
sã le deþinã în momentul în care începe extinderea de marcã.
Majoritatea dezbaterilor ºi a cercetãrilor despre branding, fie ele locale sau
internaþionale, se concentreazã pe echitatea sau valoarea asociatã cu un nume de marcã
ºi pe factorii care creeazã sau reprezintã sursa de bazã a valorii (Aaker 1996, Kapferer
1997, Keller 1998). S-a acordat o deosebitã atenþie, de exemplu, cercetãrii modului în
care valoarea personificatã de marcã ºi posibilitãþii extinderii echitãþii valabile pentru
marcã, la alte produse, fãrã ca aceastã acþiune sã aibã drept rezultat scãderea de valoare
(Aaker ºi Keller 1990). Acest interes a fost stimulat, în parte, de creºterea puterii pieþei
ºi valorii asociate cu un brand puternic, iar pe de altã parte cu costurile prohibitive ale
lansãrii unui brand nou de succes.
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When undertaking a brand licensing relationship, it will also be important to allocate

equitably ownership and control of the IP assets. While this will be an important issue
in all relationships, it will be particularly important when a long-term relationship is
contemplated. In all instances, the licensor will have the stronger interest in the brand
and will likely desire to retain the maximum amount of control (Caller 1996). However,
particular business issues may impact the ultimate allocation. Such allocation should
include consideration of each party’s business that impact power of the brand. The
allocation should also be conducted with recognition of the fact that the association of
the name with particular products or services will be the key.
The enterprise’s staff will play an extremely important role in the company’s overall
brand licensing initiatives. Selection of licensing staff should be undertaken with the
recognition that such staff members will be required to organize control and coordinate
all the activities of the licensees. In addition to focusing on the key licensing staff, other
relevant staff members should be trained and encouraged to take an active role in the
efforts overall brand licensing efforts.
Companies should be active – and not static – when undertaking efforts to integrate
the brand strategy into product development and launch activities. A clear and proactive
strategy is likely to generate the most reward.
Development of International Branding Structures

Although there is an extensive amount of research concerning the question of success
factors of brand extensions (Völckner & Sattler, 2006; Echambadi, Arroniz, Reinartz &
Lee, 2006; Czellar, 2003; Bhat & Reddy, 2001; Park, Milberg & Lawson, 1991; Aaker &
Keller, 1990) there is yet little knowledge concerning the underlying resources companies
must have to succeed with brand extension.
Most discussion and research on branding, whether domestic or international, focuses
on the equity or value associated with a brand name and the factors which create or are
the underlying source of value (Aaker 1996, Kapferer 1997, Keller 1998). Considerable
attention has, for example, been devoted to examining how the value embodied in a
brand and its equity can be extended to other products without resulting in dilution of
value (Aaker and Keller 1990). This interest has been stimulated in part by the increasing
market power and value associated with a strong brand and in part by the prohibitive
costs of launching a successful new brand.
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Asemenea subiecte sunt cu deosebire incitante pe pieþele dinafara Statelor Unite,

acolo unde conceptul de „putere” asociat cu branding-ul este relativ nou (Court et al.,
1997). Pieþele sunt adeseori fragmentate, caracterizându-se printr-o distribuþie la scarã
redusã ºi lipsa potenþialului, sa a dimensiunilor necesare pentru a garanta utilizarea
amplã a reclamelor în mass-media, atât de necesare pentru dezvoltarea mãrci lor
puternice (Barwise ºi Robertson 1992). Pe mãsurã ce aceste pieþe devin tot mai strâns
legate ºi integrate, companiile care opereazã pe pieþele internaþionale trebuie sã identifice
oportunitãþi de întãrire a structurii de marcã, printr-o coordonare ºi armonizare mai
bunã a mãrci lor dincolo de graniþele culturale.
Pe mãsurã ce firma se extinde pe piaþa internaþionalã, problemele legate de
„arhitectura” sau structura de marcã devin din ce în ce mai complexe. Pe lângã numãrul
nivelelor ierarhice, de care trebuie sã se þinã seama, este necesarã determinarea unei
alte dimensiuni, ºi anume gradul de coordonare ºi standardizare a mãrcii dincolo de
graniþele dintre þãri.
Un numãr restrâns dintre companiile studiate au o structurã de marcã foarte simplã,
bazatã pe numele corporaþiei, aºa cum se întâmplã, de exemplu, cu Shell, Philips,
Apple, Nike etc. În general, acestea erau organizaþii care desfãºurau afaceri direct
(companie-la-companie) care puneau un puternic accent pe branding-ul corporatist,
sau pe o linie de producþie relativ restrânsã ºi coerentã. Alte cazuri se referã la companiile
de bunuri de consum orientate spre segmentul global, cum sunt Nike sau Bennetton.
Principalul lor obiectiv era acela de a stabili, pentru marcã, o identitate globalã puternicã
ºi, abia în al doilea rând, de a rãspunde condiþiilor de piaþã locale (Piercy 1997). În
unele cazuri, emblema corporatistã ºi identificarea vizualã (Apple ºi Nike) a jucat un
rol fundamental în identificarea mãrcii ºi în definirea imaginii acestuia în întreaga lume.
Alte companii, ca de exemplu P&G sau Best Foods, au folosit strategia unui produs
dominant. Aceastã strategie a reprezentat ceva obiºnuit la firmele americane care s-au
extins în strãinãtate, prin accentuarea mãrci lor „puternice”, aºa cum a fãcut, de exemplu,
P&G cu Camay sau Pampers. Firmele cu structuri naþionale centrate dominant pe
produse, ºi care s-au extins prin achiziþia unor companii naþionale, au preluat astfel un
mare numãr de mãrci locale ºi naþionale, pe lângã produsele proprii de brand global ºi
regional. Best Foods, de exemplu, are mai multe mãrci de produse internaþionale, cum
sunt Hellmans, Knorr etc., alãturi de mãrci ale unor produse din þãrile respective, cum
sunt cartofii Pfanni.
Unele companii aveau structuri de marcã hibride, reprezentând o combinaþie de mãrci
corporatiste ºi de produse. Coca-Cola, de exemplu, foloseºte numele Coca-Cola pe brandul
sãu de cola din lumea întreagã, cu variante de produs cum sunt Cherry Coke, Coke Lite
sau Diet Coke, ori Coca fãrã cafeinã în unele cazuri, dar nu în toate þãrile. În plus, Coca-
Cola are un numãr de mãrci pentru bãuturi rãcoritoare locale sau regionale, cum sunt Lilt
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Such issues are particularly salient in markets outside the US, where the concept of
“power” branding is relatively unknown (Court et al 1997). Markets are often fragmented,
characterized by small-scale distribution, and lack the potential or size to warrant the
use of heavy mass-media advertising needed to develop strong brands (Barwise and
Robertson 1992). As these markets become more interlinked and integrated, companies
operating in international markets need to identify opportunities for strengthening brand
architecture by improved co-ordination and harmonization of brands across countries.
As the firm expands in international market, issues relating to brand architecture or
brand structure become even more complex. In addition to considering the number of
levels in the hierarchy, another dimension, namely the degree of brand coordination or
standardization across countries, needs to be determined.
A few of the companies studied had a very simple brand structure based on the
corporate name, as for example, Shell, Philips, Apple, Nike, etc. In general, these were
business-to-business organizations with a heavy emphasis on corporate branding, or a
relatively narrow and coherent product line. Other cases included consumer goods
companies focused on a global target segment such as Nike or Benneton. Their prime
objective was to establish a strong global identity for the brand rather than respond to
local market conditions (Piercy 1997). In some instances, the corporate logo and visual
identification (Apple and Nike) played a major role in identifying the brand and defining
brand image worldwide.
Other companies as, for example, P&G, or Best Foods used a product dominant
strategy. This strategy was common among U.S. firms who had expanded internationally
by leveraging “power” brands, as, for example, P&G with brands such as Camay, or
Pampers. Firms with domestic product dominant structures that had expanded by
acquiring national companies often acquired a substantial number of national and local
product brands, in addition to their own global and regional product brands. Best Foods,
for example, has several international product brands such as Hellmans, Knorr, etc., as
well as national product brands such as Pfanni potatoes.
A number of companies had hybrid brand structures with a combination of corporate
and product brands. Coca-Cola, for example uses the Coca-Cola name on its cola brand
worldwide, with product variants such as Cherry Coke, Coke Lite or Diet Coke or caffeine
free Coke in some, but not all countries. In addition, Coca-Cola has a number of local
or regional soft drink brands, such as Lilt in various fruit flavors in the U.K., TabXtra, a
sugar-free cola drink in Scandinavia, and Cappy, a fruit drink in East Europe and Turkey.
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cu diferite arome de fructe în Marea Britanie, TabXtra – o bãuturã rãcoritoare fãrã cola în
Scandinavia ºi Cappy, o bãuturã rãcoritoare în Europa de Est ºi Turcia.
Alte companii îºi structureazã diferit arhitectura de marcã pentru divizii de produse
diferite. De exemplu, Unilever are o arhitecturã globalã de marcã pentru propria divizie
de produse. Sectorul de produse din grãsimi animale constã mai ales din mãrci naþionale,
dovedind o oarecare armonie în poziþionare sau numele mãrcii în diferite þãri, în vreme
ce sectorul de îngheþatã constituie o combinaþie între mãrci de produse locale ºi globale,
cum sunt Magnum, Cornetto ºi Solero. Acestea sunt susþinute de mãrci regionale, sau
aparþinând þãrii respective, ca de exemplu Walls ºi Algida, toate având o etichetã comunã
în întreaga lume.
Multi-branding
Multi-brandingul este de departe cea mai popularã strategie de marcã, fiind folositã
de multe companii în multe tipuri de afaceri (Van Sister, 2004). Este în general recunoscut
pentru cã oferã excelente oportunitãþi de deschidere a unei afaceri, pur ºi simplu pentru
cã un singur brand nu poate cu adevãrat sã acopere toate nevoile consumatorilor în
toate segmentele pieþei. Multi-brandingul poate fi considerat, de fapt, una dintre cele
mai eficiente strategii de marcã, dar necesitã capacitãþi profesionale ºi preocupãri
constante din partea companiilor, în management ºi marketing.
Strategiile de marcã sunt întotdeauna de cea mai mare importanþã pentru companii,
deoarece mãrcile sunt considerate o forþã motrice fundamentalã în business. Astãzi,
toatã lumea este de acord cã mãrcile determinã rezultate mai bune, sustenabile, fiind o
sursã internã, dar ºi externã de inspiraþie care determinã recunoaºterea ºi stabileºte
relaþii. Aºadar, multi-brandingul este strategia de marcã cea mai des folositã de multe
companii, specificã pentru multe categorii. Dacã studiem diferite portofolii multi-brand,
mãrcile sunt adesea poziþionate cu roluri specifice, adicã marcã de prestigiu, marcã de
flanc sau marcã de luptã. Cum multe pieþe sunt puternic fragmentate, e logic sã se
introducã mãrci suplimentare pentru a participa eficient la competiþie într-o anumitã
categorie. Între alte motive strategice pentru multi-branding se numãrã ºi acoperirea
diferitelor canale de distribuþie, atunci când preþul pentru o anumitã categorie creºte
prea mult, sau pur ºi simplu pentru împãrþirea diminuarea riscurilor pentru brandul-
pilon.
Majoritatea pieþelor justificã apariþia operaþiunilor de multi-branding dar, desigur,
mono-mãrcile sau mãrcile globale sunt în continuare foarte puternice; toate sunt active
ºi au succes la penetrarea pe diferite pieþe ºi segmente. Un factor important care
influenþeazã strategia de marcã în direcþia constituirii multi-brandingului este situaþia
economicã actualã din Europa. Cum dezvoltarea economicã din majoritatea þãrilor
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Other companies had different brand architecture for different product divisions.
For example, Unilever has a global brand architecture in its personal products division.
The yellow fats division consists mostly of local brands with some harmonization in
positioning or brand name across countries, while the ice-cream division had a
combination of local and global product brands such as Magnum, Cornetto and Solero.
These are endorsed by a country or regional house brands such as Walls and Algida,
and all shared a common logo worldwide.
The Multi-Branding
Multi-branding is by far the most popular brand strategy, and is used by many
companies in all types of business (Van Sister, 2004). It is generally recognized that
multibranding offers a fine opportunity to grow a business, simply because one brand
cannot really cover all customer needs in all the various segments of a market. Multi-
branding can, in fact, be considered as one of the most effective brand strategies, but it
requires professional skills and ongoing management and marketing focus from
companies.
Branding strategies are always highly important for companies, as brands are regarded
as the ultimate business driver. Brands today are acknowledged as the driver for better,
more sustainable results and as an internal as well as external source of inspiration,
which creates both high recognition and relationships. So, multi-branding is the most
frequently used brand strategy within many companies and categories. Looking at the
various multi-brand portfolios, brands are often positioned with specific roles such as
prestige brand, flanker brand or fighter brand. Since many markets are strongly
fragmented, it makes sense to introduce extra brands in order to compete effectively
across a category. Other strategic reasons for multi-branding are the coverage of various
distribution channels, when the price range within a category becomes too wide, or
simply in order to spread risks for the bastion brand.
Most markets provide scope for multibranding operations but, of course, monobrands
or global brands are vividly alive as well; all are active and successful in penetrating
different markets and segments. One important factor influencing brand strategy towards
multi-branding is the current economic situation in Europe. As economic growth in
most countries is negative or stable, we see in very many consumer markets a
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este negativã sau stabilã, se observã pe multe pieþe o dezvoltare, sau evoluþie cãtre
segmentele de valoare ridicatã sau reducere. Multe dintre mãrcile existente nu îºi pot
permite, sub nicio formã, din cauza poziþionãrii (deci a preþului) sã pãtrundã în aceste
segmente, aºa cã asistãm la apariþia unui numãr mai mare de mãrci noi, aparþinând
jucãtorilor existenþi pe piaþã, care pãtrund pe aceste segmente.
Cele mai importante motive pentru apariþia multi-brandingului sunt:
- brandul unic nu poate acoperi toate segmentele
- pieþele sunt puternic fragmentate
- oferte de dezvoltare a unui brand mai bine definit pentru nevoile mai clar
fdiferenþiate ale consumatorilor
- creºterea diversitãþii canalelor de distribuþie
- gama de preþuri este prea largã la anumite categorii
- rãspândirea companiei ºi riscurile implicate de portofoliul de marcã
Mai existã ºi alte avantaje pe care le poate oferi o strategie de multi-branding:
• oportunitãþi mai mari pentru managementul relaþiei cu consumatorii (CRM), care
le permite producãtorilor sã îndeplineascã mult mai exact nevoile consumatorilor
(la nivel individual)
• ºansa de poziþionare mai clarã a mãrci lor, pentru construirea unor valori de
marcã care sunt, în acelaºi timp, puternic identificate
• capacitatea de utilizare a strategiei pe pieþele segmentate în funcþie de preþ
• în cazul în care apare o problemã legatã de un anumit brand, care duce la
retragerea unui mare numãr de produse de acel tip de pe piaþã, aceastã situaþie
nu are un impact direct prea mare asupra celorlalte mãrci din portofoliu
Rolul central al branding-ului în stabilirea identitãþii firmei ºi în construirea poziþiei
acesteia pe piaþa globalã, legat de pãrerea consumatorilor, distribuitorilor cu amãnuntul
sau altor participanþi la activitãþile de pe piaþã determinã creºterea importanþei stabilirii,
de cãtre companii, a unei strategii de marcã foarte exacte (Schmitt ºi Simenson 1997).
Un element cheie al succesului este structurarea unei arhitecturi de marcã armonioase
ºi consistente dincolo de graniþele naþionale ºi de liniile de producþie, una care sã
defineascã numãrul de nivele, dar ºi de mãrci la fiecare nivel. Deosebit de important
este accentul relativ pur pe mãrcile corporatiste, comparativ cu mãrcile de la nivelul de
producþie, ca ºi gradul de integrare pe pieþe diferite. Aceste elemente trebuie bine înþelese
ºi împãrtãºite la toate nivelele organizaþiei, fapt care determinã consolidarea unei culturi/
mentalitãþi care promoveazã dezvoltarea unor mãrci internaþionale puternice, care sã-
ºi pãstreze forþa neºtirbitã de utilizarea exageratã sau de contradicþii.
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development or evolution into value or discount segments. Many of the existing brands
really cannot allow themselves, because of their (price) positioning, to enter these
segments, and so we see more new brands from existing market players entering these
segments.
The most important reasons for multi-branding are:
- a mono brand cannot cover all segments
- markets are strongly fragmented
- development of more defined brand offers to more differentiated consumer needs
- increase in variety of distribution channels
- price ranges within categories are often too wide
- spread company and brand portfolio risks.
There is a further range of advantages that a multi-branding strategy can offer:
• enhanced opportunities for customer relationship management (CRM), enabling
manufacturers to fulfill (individual) consumer needs more precisely.
• the opportunity to position brands more clearly and build strongly identified brand
values at the same time.
• the ability to handle strategy in price segmented markets.
• given a brand problem requiring serious product recalls, this does not have too
much direct impact on the other brands in the portfolio.
The central role of branding in establishing the firm’s identity and building its position
in the global marketplace among customers, retailers and other market participants,
makes it increasingly imperative for firms to establish a clear-cut international branding
strategy (Schmitt and Simenson 1997). A key element of success is the framing of a
harmonious and consistent brand architecture across countries and product lines, defining
the number of levels and brands at each level. Of particular importance is the relative
emphasis placed on corporate brands as opposed to product level brands and the degree
of integration across markets. These should be clearly understood and shared throughout
all level of the organization, leading to a culture/mentality that promotes the growth of
strong international brands without diluting their strength by over-use or inconsistencies.
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Concluzie
Rolul central al brandingului în stabilirea identitãþii unei firme ºi construirea poziþiei sale
pe piaþa globalã, în rândul consumatorilor, distribuitorilor cu amãnuntul ºi altor participanþi
la activitãþile de pe piaþã determinã importanþa stabilirii unei strategii internaþionale de
marcã clare de cãtre firme. Un element cheie pentru succes este structurarea unei arhitecturi
de marcã armonioase, de încredere, în þãri diferite ºi pe linii de producþie diferite, care sã
defineascã numãrul de nivele ºi mãrcile existente la fiecare nivel. Este foarte important ca
firmele sã punã accentul pe mãrcile corporatiste, în comparaþie cu mãrcile de la nivelul de
producþie, ca ºi pe gradul de integrare pe diferite pieþe. De exemplu, atunci când firma Nike
a fost acuzatã (pe drept sau pe nedrept) de folosirea mâinii de lucru ilegale pentru fabricarea
produselor sale, brandul respectiv a avut de suferit din cauza unei decizii de fabricaþie.
Acest exemplu ilustreazã necesitatea ca misiunea unei companii sã fie în perfectã armonie
cu poziþionarea doritã pe piaþã. Marca are nevoie sã se bazeze pe principii de organizare
general valabile, deciziile luate în toate aspectele afacerii fiind verificate din punct de
vedere strategic. Aceste decizii trebuie sã fie clar înþelese ºi acceptate la toate nivelele
organizaþiei, ceea ce duce la structurarea unei culturi/mentalitãþi care sã promoveze
dezvoltarea unor mãrci internaþionale puternice, fãrã ca forþa lor sã aibã de suferit din
cauzã cã sunt folosite excesiv sau contradictorii.
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(August), 347-356.
Aaker, J., Fournier, S. and Brasel. S. A. (2003). When Good Brands Do Bad. Paper
presented to the Marketing Science Institute Board of Trustees Meeting in Washington,
D.C., March 6, 2003.
1-RRM 4-2007.pmd 112 3/14/2008, 9:00 AM

Conclusion
The central role of branding in establishing the firm’s identity and building its position
in the global marketplace among customers, retailers and other market participants
makes it increasingly imperative for firms to establish a clear-cut international branding
strategy. A key element of success is the framing of harmonious and consistent brand
architecture across countries and product lines, defining the number of levels and brands
at each level. Of particular importance is the relative emphasis placed on corporate
brands as opposed to product level brands and the degree of integration across markets.
For instance, when Nike was accused (fairly or unfairly) of using sweatshop labour to
make its products, the brand suffered because of a manufacturing decision. This example
illustrates the necessity that a company’s mission be in complete lockstep with the
positioning desired in the marketplace. The brand needs to be an over-arching organising
principle and strategic filter for decision-making in all aspects of the business. These
should be clearly understood and shared throughout all level of the organization, leading
to a culture/mentality that promotes the growth of strong international brands without
diluting their strength by over-use or inconsistencies.
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Brands and Brands Strategies: Managerial Considerations

Article in Romanian Journal of Marketing · December 2007

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Cuvinte cheie: branding, management de marcã, multi-branding, brand global

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Keywords: branding, brand management, multi-branding, global brand

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brandului, aºa cum este el gândit de manageri, trebuie sã se identifice cu intenþiile

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The stages of brand

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Stadiul 2: Mãrcile ca element de referinþã. În acest stadiu, þelurile managementului

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Stage 1: Unbranded Goods In developed countries this stage is usually by-passed

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Pentru identificare, nu e nevoie decât de conºtientizarea, de cãtre consumatori, a

Stadiul 3: Mãrcile ca personalitate. Ajunºi în stadiul 3, consumatorii se confruntã

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Stage 3: Brands as Personality By stage 3, consumers are faced with a variety of

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Stadiul 4 : Brandul ca imagine iconicã. În stadiul mãrcii ca imagine iconicã, înþelesul

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Stadiul 5 : Brandul ca organizaþie. Trecerea în stadiul 5 marcheazã tranziþia de la

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Stadiul 6: Brandul ca politicã. În stadiul final, brandul ca politicã, marca ºi compania

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The global brand

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3. Super-mãrcile sunt disponibile pentru toþi, la fel ca ºi mãrcile fundamentale. Spre

4. Mãrci „global-locale” de tipul Dove, Nestle ºi Danone sunt disponibile la nivel

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2. Identificarea reprezintã relaþia, mai precis apropierea dintre consumator ºi marcã

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Folosind tipologia personalitãþii de marcã conceputã de aceasta, Jennifer Aaker ºi S.

Strategii în managementul de marcã

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Brand Management Strategies

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acestora în memorie, devenind o legãturã importantã în reþelele lor sociale (Thompson

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Un management de marcã de succes implicã neapãrat atenþia pentru creºterea la

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Dezvoltarea structurilor internaþionale de branding

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When undertaking a brand licensing relationship, it will also be important to allocate

Development of International Branding Structures

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