Lucrari Stiintifice Zootehnie NR 51 2008

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 51 seria Zootehnie
CUPRINS ½ TABLE OF CONTENTS ¾
Z001 1. M. RUSSELL, M. SCHUTZ - Animal sciences extension education

informs public policy ½ Educaţia continuă în zootehnie ca politica
publica........................................................................................................ 3
Z0022. L. APOSTOL, T.F. APOSTOL, L.E. POPOVICI - Development

program of the Kosarom S.A. Companies Group ½ Programul de
dezvoltare a grupului de firme Kosarom S.A. Iaşi ..................................... 11
Z003 3. Ramona Alexa-AIRINEI, M. DASCĂLESCU - Population and labour

force in the Iaşi County agriculture ½ Populaţia şi forţa de muncă în
agricultura judeţului Iaşi ........................................................................... 14
Z0044. D.M. ANDREI, L. CĂLIN - Mathematics and biology interdisciplinary

aspects ½ Matematica şi biologia aspecte interdisciplinare...................... 21
Z005 5. Şt. BREZULEANU - Studies regarding the capitalisation of the tourist

and agro-tourist potential of Bacau county ½ Studii privind
valorificarea potenţialului turistic şi agroturistic în judeţul Bacău .......... 26
Z0066. Il. BURDUJAN - Lotka-Volterra model for two species in competition

½ Modelul Lotka-Volterra pentru două specii în competiţie ..................... 34
Z0077. A. CHIRAN, Anca COSOVANU, Elena GÎNDU - Survey on

development and diversification of economic activities for generating
multiple activities and alternative income by implementing measure
3.4 of SAPARD program in some animal husbandry farms from
North-East 1st region ½ Studiu privind dezvoltarea şi diversificarea
activităţilor economice pentru generarea de activităţi multiple şi
venituri alternative, prin aplicarea măsurii 3.4 – din cadrul
programului SAPARD, în unele ferme zootehnice din regiunea 1 Nord
– Est ................................................................................................................. 42
Z0088. Elena CIORNEA, Gabriela VASILE - Researches on the activity of

total amylase - an enzyme involved in the mobilization of reserve
substances - in some graminaceae species ½ Cercetări privind
activitatea amilazei totale - enzimă implicată în mobilizarea
substanţelor de rezervă-la specii de graminee........................................... 48
- 1199 -
Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi
Z0099. Elena CIORNEA, Gabriela VASILE - On the dynamics of the activity

of total amylase in various organs of Panicum miliaceum and
Sorghum sudanense - comparative study ½ Studiu comparativ
asupra dinamicii activităţii amilazei totale în diferite organe la
Panicum miliaceum şi Sorghum sudanense ............................................... 59
Z01010. N. COJOCARU, M. CĂLIN, Cecilia POP, C. CHIRUŢĂ - E-learning

technologies improve teaching of natural sciences and economy to
students in agriculture ½ Modernizarea prin e-learning a studierii
ştiinţelor exacte şi a ştiinţelor economice de către studenţii în
agricultură.................................................................................................. 69
Z011
11. Tatiana DABIJA, N. EREMIA - The content of biologically active
substances of propolis ½ Conţinutul substanţelor biologic active din
propolis ...................................................................................................... 75
Z012
12. Fl.-M. DIMA, A. CHIRAN, Elena GÎNDU - The development of
livestock breeding in the agro-economic area of Galati ½
Dezvoltarea creşterii animalelor în zona agroeconomică Galaţi............. 81
Z01313. C. LEONTE, Doina LEONTE, A. GRUBER - Geosynthetic fibbers

in constructions ½ Materialele geosintetice în construcţii ........................ 89
Z014
14. Doina LEONTE, Vasilica ONOFREI - Ecological alternatives to
enhance environment conditions in zootechnical units ½ Alternative
ecologice pentru îmbunătăţirea condiţiilor ambientale în complexele
zootehnice........................................................................................................ 93
Z015
15. Mirela Salvia MITULESCU - Sizes of the rural tourism and of
agrotourism on European level ½ Dimensiuni ale turismului rural şi
ale agroturismului pe plan european ......................................................... 97
Z016
16. Mirela Salvia MITULESCU - Present situation of the rural tourism in
Romania ½ Situaţia actuală a turismului rural în România.................... 105
Z017
17. Mirela Salvia MITULESCU - The experience of Germany and
Croatia in the rural tourism and agrotourism ½ Experienţa
Germaniei şi Croaţiei în turismul rural şi în agroturism......................... 111
Z018
18. Maria MORARU, Elena PETREA, R.A. MORARU - The influence
of French on the German and Romanian animal husbandry language
(poultry breeding) ½ Influenţa limbii franceze asupra limbajului în
avicultură în germană şi română ............................................................. 116
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Z019
19. Maria MORARU, Roxana MIHALACHE, R.A. MORARU -
Aspects regarding the origin of some zootechnical terms in the
Romanian language as well as in other Indo-European languages. II.
Slavic elements ½ Aspecte privind originile unor termeni zootehnici
în limba română şi alte limbi indoeuropene. II. Elementele slave........... 123
Z020
20. Anca-Mirela PAŞPARAN, C. MISĂILĂ - Connective physiological
implications in hepato-cellular affections ½ Implicaţii fiziologice
conexe în afecţiunile hepatocelulare........................................................ 129
Z02121. Anca-Mirela PAŞPARAN, C. MISĂILĂ - Hematological modifications

in hepatic cirrhosis associated with anemia ½ Modificări
hematologice în ciroza hepatică asociată cu anemia ............................. 136
Z022
22. Cornelia PENCEA, R. LICHIARDOPOL, I. SURDU, Veronica
HEBEAN, Aurora CIOCÎRLAN - Normolipidic pork meat – a
possible way to ameliorate the risk factors to the pork meat human
consumers ½ Evaluarea potenţialului de utilizare a cărnii de porc
normolipidică în ameliorarea factorilor de risc la consumatorii
umani........................................................................................................ 144
Z023
23. Cecilia POP - Management of processes within the European
regulations on quality ½ Managementul proceselor în contextul
aplicării normelor europene privind calitatea ........................................ 151
Z024
24. A. PRELIPCEAN, Gh. MUSTAŢĂ - Ecological data regarding some
parasitoids species which are controlling the Plutella xylostella L.
populations ½ Date ecologice privind unele specii de parazitoizi
care controlează populaţiile de Plutella xylostella L............................... 157
Z025
25. Mihaela-Loredana RUSU, I.V. CIUREA - Diagnostic study
regarding the development of the rural localities from Vrancea
Depression ½ Studiu diagnostic privind dezvoltarea localităţilor
rurale din depresiunea Vrancea............................................................... 163
26. Ioana TĂNĂSESCU, Marcela SÎRBU - Thermographic examination

Z026
for detecting thermal irregularities in agricultural buildings
envelopes ½ Examinarea termografică pentru determinarea
neregularităţilor termice ale anvelopei adăposturilor de taurine ........... 171
Z027
27. Anca TEUŞAN, V. TEUŞAN, A. PRELIPCEAN - Aspects regarding
the morphology of the reproductive apparatus of the domestic quail
(Coturnix coturnix japonica) (Bibliographical study) ½ Aspecte
privind morfologia aparatului reproducător la prepeliţa domestică
(Coturnix coturnix japonica) (Studiu bibliografic) .................................. 178
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Z028
28. Anca TEUŞAN, Cecilia POP - Study regarding the labelling of some
sugarlike products (chocolate) commercialized on the market of Iaşi
City ½ Studiu privind etichetarea unor produse zaharoase
(ciocolată) comercializate pe piaţa municipiului Iaşi.............................. 184
Z029
29. V. TEUŞAN, Anca TEUŞAN, R.M. RADU-RUSU - Researches
regarding the structure and ultrastucture of silver fox (Vulpes vulpes
fulva) ovaries ½ Cercetări privind structura şi ultrastrucutra
ovarelor la vulpea argintie (Vulpes vulpes fulva) .................................... 191
Z030
30. V. TEUŞAN, R.M. RADU–RUSU, Anca TEUŞAN - Figurative
elements study and hematological values at Rattus norvegicus
species ½ Studiul elementelor figurate şi a unor indici hematologici
la specia Rattus norvegicus...................................................................... 200
Z031
31. Carmen-Olguţa BREZULEANU - Intercultural education of
agricultural students from the viewpoint of the European integration
½ Educarea interculturală a studenţilor agronomi din perspectiva
intergării europene................................................................................... 213
Z032
32. Şt. BREZULEANU, Carmen Olguţa BREZULEANU,
R.A. MORARU - Methodologies used to assess the development of
rural and agri-tourism in the NE of Romania ½ Metodologii utilizate
în analiza dezvoltării si perfecţionării turismului rural şi
agroturismului in regiunea N-E ............................................................... 218
Z033
33. Z. BULIGA, Gabriela IGNAT - The financial stability analysis
through the rates at S.C. VASCAR S.A. Vaslui ½ Analiza
echilibrului financiar prin intermediul ratelor la S.C. VASCAR S.A.
Vaslui ....................................................................................................... 225
Z034
34. Z. BULIGA, Gabriela IGNAT - The analysis of the financial-book-
keeping results relying on the profit and loss account at S.C.
GALMOPAN S.A ½ Analiza rezultatelor financiar- contabile pe
baza contului de profit şi pierdere la S.C. GALMOPAN S.A. .................. 232
Z035
35. Rodica CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CĂPRIŢĂ - The correlation between the milk
electric conductivity and the sodium chloride content ½ Corelaţia
dintre conductivitatea electrică şi concentraţia clorurii de sodiu din
lapte.......................................................................................................... 237
Z036
36. Rodica CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CĂPRIŢĂ - Biochemical study on the total
protein and protein fractions in the blood serum of broiler chickens
½ Studiu biochimic asupra proteinei totale şi a fracţiunilor proteice
din ser la pui broiler ................................................................................ 241
- 1202 -
Z037
37. M. CONDREA - Observations on the biochemical behaviour of certain
strains of Yersinia enterocolitica ½ Observaţii privind
comportamentul biochimic al unor tulpini de Yersinia enterocolitica ..... 245
Z038
38. M. DĂSCĂLESCU, Ramona AIRINEI-ALEXA - The resources and
production factors in the hilly area of the Iaşi County ½ Resursele şi
factorii de producţie ale zonei colinare a judeţului Iaşi .......................... 249
Z039
39. D. DONOSĂ, Raluca Elena RADU - Aspects concerning financial
behaviour of population in the Central and Eastern European
countries ½ Aspecte actuale privind comportamentul financiar al
populaţiei din ţările Europei Centrale şi de Est....................................... 257
Z040
40. D. DONOSĂ, Şt. GAVRIL - Aspects of households’ financial wealth
in Romania ½ Aspecte ale stării financiare a gospodăriilor în
România ................................................................................................... 261
41. C. IATCO, Gabriela IGNAT - Dilemmas in designing performance

Z041
appraisal systems ½ Dilemele construcţiei sistemelor de evaluare a
performanţelor ......................................................................................... 265
Z042
42. C. IATCO, Gabriela IGNAT - Performance-related pay and skill and
competency-based pay ½ Plata după performanţă, abilităţi şi
competenţe................................................................................................ 271
Z043
43. Roxana LAZĂR, P.C. BOIŞTEANU, M. LAZĂR - Researches about
the blood biochemical constants modification at rabbit depending on
age ½ Cercetări privind modificări ale constantelor biochimice
sanguine la iepuri în funcţie de vârstă ..................................................... 275
Z044
44. Doina LEONTE, Vasilica ONOFREI, C. LEONTE, A. GRUBER -
Study on the use of biologically active products for the
decontamination and disinsection of swine raising sheds ½ Studiu cu
privire la utilizarea produselor biologic active pentru
decontaminarea şi dezinsecţia halelor de creştere a porcilor ................. 280
Z045
45. Roxana MIHALACHE - Arguments regarding the utopic character of
Plato’s Republic ½ Argumente privind caracterul utopic al Republicii
Platoniene.............................................................................................................. 285
46. R.-A. MORARU, D. DONOSĂ, Şt. BREZULEANU, G. UNGUREANU

Z046
- The agricultural cooperation in Germany after reunification ½
Cooperaţia agricolă din Germania după reunificare .............................. 290
- 1203 -
Z047
47. R.M. RADU-RUSU, V. TEUŞAN, M.G. USTUROI,
I. VACARU-OPRIŞ - Study on the dimensional and morphological
elements of some breast and limbs muscles at COBB-500 hybrid ½
Studiu privind elementele dimensionale şi morfologice ale unor
muşchi ai pieptului şi membrelor la hibridul COBB-500 ........................ 299
Z048
48. C. SĂLCEANU, Carmen–Mihaela NECHITA - Decisional management
from decision to delegation ½ Managementul decizional de la
decizie la delegare.................................................................................... 306
Z04949. P.C. BOIŞTEANU, Iolanda MĂRGĂRINT, Cristina G. RADU-RUSU,

Roxana LAZĂR - Aspects of the cellular, hormonal and metabolic
regulation of the muscular mass development at animals ½ Aspecte
ale reglării celulare, hormonale şi metabolice ale creşterii masei
musculare la animale ............................................................................... 315
Z05050. P.C. BOIŞTEANU, Iolanda MĂRGĂRINT, Cristina G. RADU-RUSU,

Roxana LAZĂR - Involvement of some peripheral organs in
energetic homeostasis regulation at animals ½ Participarea unor
organe periferice la reglarea homeostaziei energetice la animale.......... 324
Z051
51. Crina Teodora CARŞAI, A. VLAIC, Viorica COSIER, Antonia
ODAGIU, Niculina ARMEANA - Body measurements in
Maramures Brown breed cattle and testing of two protocols for
genotyping the leptin gene locus ½ Măsuratori corporale efectuate
la rasa Brună de Maramureş şi testarea a două protocole de
genotipizare a locusului genei leptinei..................................................... 333
Z052
52. Elena FECIORU - Hormonic control of the reproduction function with
the view of breeding and improvement of the Karakul sheep ½
Controlul hormonal al funcţiei de reproducţie în vederea
intensivizării creşterii şi ameliorării ovinelor Karakul ........................... 337
Z05353. Gh. HRINCĂ - Description of the phylogenetic relations in small

ruminants by means of the isoenzymes ½ Descrierea relaţiilor
filogenetice la rumegătoarele mici cu ajutorul izoenzimelor................... 343
54. Alexandra MATEI, Magda ANDRONE, Agatha POPESCU,

Z054
C. UNGUREANU - Study of phenotypic characters variability of
the egg and larva from the native genetic stock of the silkmoth
Bombyx mori L. sp. ½ Studiul variabilităţii caracterelor fenotipice
ale oului şi larvei din fondul genetic autohton al fluturelui de mătase
specia Bombyx mori L. ............................................................................. 353
- 1204 -
Z055
55. Elena MARANDICI, G. DARIE, Vera GRANACI, Alisa MORARU,
V. HAREA – Changes in boars spermogramm depending on season
½ Modificări ale spermogramei la vieri în funcţie de sezon.................... 358
56. G. NACU - Researches concerning the sperm production according to

Z056
the frequency of collecting the seminal material at boars ½ Cercetări
privind producţia spermatică în funcţie de frecvenţa recoltării
materialului seminal la vier ..................................................................... 362
57. Gh. NEAŢĂ, C. ŞONEA, M. PETRESCU - The strategy of sheep

Z057
genetic improvement and exploitation in Romania ½ Strategia
pentru ameliorarea geneticã şi exploatarea ovinelor în Romania........... 366
Z058
58. T. OROIAN, R.G. OROIAN, Simona PASCALAU, N. PASCA -
The crosses effect between Baltata Romaneasca Simmental type and
Red Holstein breeds on some conformation and milk production
traits ½ Efectul încrucişării între rasele Balţata românească de tip
Simmental şi Red Holstein asupra unor caractere de conformaţie şi a
producţiei de lapte.................................................................................... 372
Z059
59. Paula POŞAN, Mirela SUSAN, Angela STOICA, M. SUSAN -
Some results regarding the use of rams Ţigaie with BlackHead from
Teleorman in crossbreeding with different Romanian sheep breeds ½
Unele rezultate privind folosirea berbecilor de rasă Ţigaie
CapNegru de Teleorman în încrucişări cu alte rase din ţară .................. 376
Z060
60. Fl. PRICOP - The gene theory of sexuality of Galinaceae (I) ½ Teoria
genică a sexualităţii la Galinacee (I) ....................................................... 382
61.
Z061 Elena RUGINOSU, Mariana SOFRONIE, M. PÎNTEA,
Şt. CREANGĂ, Iulia COSTEA - Researches regarding the decrease
of puerperal disorders incidences at dairy cows, by different methods½
Cercetări privind reducerea incidenţei tulburărilor puerperale la
vacile de lapte prin diferite metode.......................................................... 392
Z062
62. Claudia Terezia SOCOL, A. VLAIC, Viorica COSIER - Approach
regarding the leptin gene isolation techniques from sheep adipose
tissue ½ Studiu privind tehnicile de izolare a genei leptinei din ţesut
adipos de oaie .......................................................................................... 398
Z063
63. Gh. TATARU - The efficiency of microelement utilisation in the
feeding of bulls on the sperm production ½ Eficienţa utilizării
microelementelor în hrana taurilor, asupra producţiei de spermă.......... 403
- 1205 -
Z064
64. M. COLĂ, Florica COLĂ, C. GĂVAN - Resynchronising oestrus and
ovulation after not-pregnant diagnosis at dairy cows ½
Resincronizarea estrului şi ovulaţiei la vacile diagnosticate negestante.... 409
Z065
65. D. DRONCA - Observations concerning the influence of environment
factors on partridge population (Perdix perdix) from Pişchia hennery,
forest district, Timişoara ½ Observaţii privind influenţa factorilor de
mediu asupra efectivului de potârnichi din crescătoria Pişchia,
direcţia silvică, Timişoara........................................................................ 414
Z066
66. D. DRONCA, N. PĂCALĂ, Mihaela IVANCIA, I. BENCSIK,
Marioara NICULA, Liliana BOCA - Estimation of the special
combinative capacity for live body gain in a group of hybrid rabbit
young stock during the first nursing phase ½ Estimarea capacităţii
combinative speciale pentru sporul de masă vie, la un efectiv de
tineret cunicul hibrid, în prima fază de alăptare ..................................... 418
Z067
67. Andrea HETTIG, M. BOTHA, M. ZĂHAN, I. ROMAN -
Reproductive technique applied to increase the prolificacy of rabbit
species ½ Tehnică reproductivă pentru creşterea prolificităţii la
specia cuniculă......................................................................................... 421
68. Andrea HETTIG, M. ZĂHAN, Ileana MICLEA, M. BOTHA,

Z068
I. ROMAN - The influence of cysteine, glycine and methionine on
in vitro maturated swine oocytes ½ Influenţa cisteinei, glicinei şi a
metioninei asupra maturării in vitro a ovocitelor suine .......................... 426
Z069
69. Ileana MICLEA, V. MICLEA, M. ZĂHAN, Andrea HETTIG,
I. ROMAN - Research concerning the use of antioxidants in the
maturation media of oocytes ½ Cercetări privind efectul utilizării
unor antioxidanţi în mediile de maturare a ovocitelor ............................ 431
Z070
70. I. PAŞCA, R. MORAR, Dana PUSTA, T. OROIAN, R. OROIAN,
Antonia ODAGIU, Claudia BAGITA - The sow age influence and
farrowing order on the development of the suckling piglets ½
Influenţa vârstei scroafei şi a ordinii de naştere asupra dezvoltării
purceilor sugari........................................................................................ 436
Z071
71. Mirela SUSAN, Paula POŞAN, Angela STOICA, P. TĂPĂLOAGĂ
- Observations regarding some reproductive performances at F 1
crossbred female Ţigaie with BlackHead from Teleorman and white
Ţurcana from Gioagiu-Orăştie ½ Observaţii privind unele
performanţe de reproducţie ale femelelor metise F 1, dintre Ţigaie
CapNegru de Teleorman şi Ţurcana albă din zona Gioagiu-Orăştie...... 441
- 1206 -
Z072
72. Ramona-Vasilica BACTER, C. BACTER, I. CHEREJI, Elena
GÎNDU, A. CHIRAN - Aspects regarding the evolution and
perspective of the meat market in Romania, in the context of the
integration in the European Union ½ Aspecte privind evoluţia şi
perspectiva pieţei cărnii în Romania, în contextul integrării în
Uniunea Europeana ................................................................................. 445
Z073
73. Larisa CAISÎN - The efficiency of the utilization of elementary
selenium addition to the rations of water and fodder for chickens ½
Eficienţa utilizării adausurilor de seleniu elementar în raţiile
tineretului avicol prin intermediul nutreţului şi apei ............................... 455
74. C. COMAN, Elena POPESCU-MICLOŞANU, Cristina PÎRVULEŢ,

Z074
Dorina PǍTRU, Minodora TUDORACHE - The effect of
replacing the alfalfa meal from the compounded feed of white New
Zeeland rabbits with the Arbocel product ½ Efectul înlocuirii făinii
de lucernă cu produsul Arbocel în nutreţul administrat iepurilor de
rasă Neozeelandez alb.............................................................................. 464
Z075
75. Carmen Claudia DURAU, AL. MOISUC, I. PĂDEANU -
Researches concerning grazing capacity and pastoral value of
meadow fescue grassland from Surduc's hills ½ Cercetări privind
capacitatea de păşunat şi valoarea pastorală a unei pajişti de paius
de livadă din dealurile Surducului ........................................................... 471
76. N. FLEANCU, I. M. POP - Research regarding oral administration of

Z076
organic selenium to dairy cows ½ Studiu cu privire la suplimentarea
pe cale orală cu seleniu organic a vacilor de lapte ................................. 476
Z077
77. Vera GRANACI - Investigation concerning the effect of
administration BioR preparation on blood lipids metabolism in sire
bulls ½ Studiu cu privire la efectul administrării preparatului BioR
asupra metabolismului lipidelor sanguine la taurii reproducători.......... 481
Z078
78. Veronica HEBEAN, Mihaela HĂBEANU, Ionelia ŢĂRANU,
Daniela MARIN, Mariana ROPOTĂ, Viorica TAMAŞ - Feeding
solutions to improve pig meat quality ½ Soluţii nutriţionale privind
ameliorarea calităţii cărnii de porc ......................................................... 487
79. D. MIERLIŢĂ, I. CHEREJI, Cristina MAERESCU - Effects of

Z079
different dietary fat sources on growth performances and carcass
fatty acid composition of broiler turkey ½ Efectul diferitelor surse de
grăsime din hrană, asupra performanţelor de creştere şi profilului
acizilor graşi din carcasă la puii broiler de curcă .................................. 496
- 1207 -
Z080
80. I. SURDU, Cornelia PENCEA, R. LICHIARDOPOL, Gh. BUDAN,
Aurora CIOCÎRLAN - Nutritional software to formulate and
evaluate human diets – Nutrimen ½ Software nutriţional pentru
formularea şi evaluarea dietelor la consumatorii umani......................... 504
Z081
81. Madlen Lăcrămioara STEFLEA - Researches regarding quality
improvement of consumption eggs’ yolk by introducing special
fodder additives to poultry nourishment ½ Cercetări privind
îmbunătăţirea calităţii gălbenuşului ouălor de consum prin
introducerea în alimentaţia găinilor a unor aditivi furajeri speciali....... 512
82. Aida ALBU, O. POPESCU, Cecilia POP, I.M. POP - Nitrate/nitrite

Z082
residue levels in some dairy cow feed ingredients and their
toxicological significance ½ Nivelurile reziduurilor de nitraţi şi
nitriţi în unele nutreţuri pentru vaci de lapte şi semnificaţia lor
toxicologică .............................................................................................. 520
Z083
83. Aida ALBU, O. POPESCU - Nitrate/nitrite residues in feedstuffs and
broiler mixed feeds and their potential toxic effects on animals ½
Reziduuri de nitraţi şi nitriţi în materii prime furajere şi nutreţuri
combinate destinate alimentaţiei puilor broiler de găină şi efectele
lor toxicologice......................................................................................... 524
Z084
84. Ligita BALEŽENTIENĖ, Sabina MIKULIONIENĖ - The quality of
galega–grass silages ½ Calitatea silozurilor de galega ........................... 528
Z085
85. Ligita BALEŽENTIENĖ, Sabina MIKULIONIENĖ - The impact of
different growing systems on forages quality ½ Impactul diferitelor
sisteme de cultivare asupra calităţii furajelor ......................................... 537
Z086
86. P.C. BOIŞTEANU, I.M. POP, Cecilia POP, Lenuţa FOTEA,
M.G. USTUROI - Studies about the influence of some vegetatives
additives used on the growth performances and broilers meat quality
½ Studii privind influenţa utilizării unor aditivi vegetali asupra
performanţelor de creştere şi calităţii cărnii la puii broiler de găină ..... 544
Z087
87. M. DOLIŞ - Researches concerning the conversion of nutritive
substances from mulberry tree leafs used in the Bombyx mory larvae
sustenance ½ Cercetări privind conversia substanţelor nutritive din
frunza de dud utilizată în hrana larvelor de Bombyx mory ..................... 549
88. M. DOLIŞ, D. SIMEANU, I. GÎLCĂ - Researches concerning the

Z088
efficacy of mulberry tree leafs usage by Bombyx mory larvae ½
Cercetări privind eficienţa utilizării frunzei de dud de către larvele
de Bombyx mory....................................................................................... 553
- 1208 -
Z089
89. Lenuţa FOTEA - Researches observing the influence of utilization in
feeding of different levels of medicinal herbs - Capsicum annuum,
Satureja hortensis and Anethum graveolens – on to the broilers
growing performance ½ Cercetări privind influenţa unor nivele
diferite de plante medicinale Capsicum annuum, Satureja hortensis
şi Anethum graveolens asupra creşterii puilor de carne ......................... 558
Z090
90. Nicoleta ION - Data concerning melliferous and medicinal vegetation
in hilly and mountainous areas of Romania ½ Date privind vegetaţia
melifero-medicinală din zonele de deal şi munte ale României ............... 562
Z091
91. A. IONEL, Irina TALPAN, Mihaela BALAN-SURMEI - Researches
regarding the remanent effect of fertilization with vinassa on the
quality of fodder yield on permanent meadows from Moldavian
plateau ½ Cercetări cu privire la efectul remanent al fertilizării cu
Vinassa asupra calităţii producţiei de furaj pe pajiştile permanente
din podişul Moldovei................................................................................ 570
Z092
92. A. IONEL, Mihaela BALAN-SURMEI, Irina TALPAN - Researches
regarding the remanent effect of fertilization with vinassa on the
fodder yield on permanent meadows from Moldavian plateau ½
Cercetări cu privire la efectul remanent al fertilizării cu vinassa
asupra producţiei de furaj pe pajiştile permanente din podişul
Moldovei................................................................................................... 577
Z093
93. Stasys JUKNEVICIUS, Jolanta STANKEVICIUTE, Nomeda
SABIENE - Optimization of forages ration in the organic farming
concerning some irreplaceable amino acids ½ Optimizarea ratiei
furajere în aminoacizi esenţiali, în condiţiile practicării agriculturii
organice.................................................................................................... 583
Z094
94. Roxana MIRON, I.M. POP - Researches regarding the quality and
nutritional value of the corn silage ½ Cercetări privind calitatea şi
valoarea nutritivă a silozului de porumb ................................................. 592
Z095
95. Tatiana PANAITE, Carmen CIURESCU, Ana CISMILEANU,
Anca BERCARU, C. RADUCANU, Rodica DIANA CRISTE -
Comparative data on the use of different selenium (Se) sources in
layer diets ½ Date comparative privind utilizarea a diferite surse de
seleniu (Se) în hrana găinilor ouatoare ................................................... 598
96. Cristina RADU-RUSU, I.M. POP - Effects generated by ascorbic acid

Z096
usage in laying hens feeding, during heat stress conditions ½ Efectele
utilizării acidului ascorbic în alimentaţia găinilor ouătoare, în
condiţii de stres termic ............................................................................. 604
- 1209 -
Z097
97. D. SIMEANU, M. RUSSELL, I.M. POP, M. DOLIŞ - Yield effect
generated by enzymatic supplementation of laying hens feeding ½
Efectul productiv al suplimentării cu enzime a hranei destinate
găinilor ouătoare ..................................................................................... 609
Z098
98. M. VOLF - Contributions to increase the fodder sorghum grain
production ½ Contribuţii la sporirea producţiei de boabe a sorgului
furajer....................................................................................................... 613
Z099
99. M. VOLF - Sorghum for silo – Contribution to improving the
cultivation technology ½ Sorgul pentru siloz – Contribuţii la
îmbunătăţirea tehnologiei de cultivare .................................................... 617
Z100
100. A.N. ABDELFATTAH - Developing an internet-based learning
environments and a virtual microscope for enhancing teaching and
learning of the structure and function of production animals ½
Dezvoltarea unor medii de învăţare bazate pe internet şi a unui
microscop virtual, în scopul îmbunătăţirii predării-învăţării
structurii şi funcţiilor la animalele de interes zootehnic.......................... 621
101. Doina ARDELEANU, Gabi-Marilena NEACŞU, Carmen-Ana

Z101
PIVODĂ, C. NEACŞU, I.-C. ARDELEANU - Researches
regarding poly-parasitical pollution in sheep farms ½ Cercetări
privind poluarea poliparazitară în fermele de ovine ............................... 623
Z102
102. T. BAJURA, S. CHILIMAR - The actual situation and prospects of
the livestock sector in the Republic of Moldova ½ Starea actuală şi
perspectivele dezvoltării sectorului zootehnic în Republica Moldova .... 630
Z103
103. Liliana BIŢIC, Elena GÎNDU, A. CHIRAN - Studies on the new
opportunities of developing animal husbandry in the Ţibăneşti
Microzone, Iaşi County, by drawing structural funds ½ Studii privind
noi posibilităţi de dezvoltare a creşterii animalelor în microzona
Ţibăneşti, judeţul Iaşi, prin atragerea fondurilor structurale.................. 639
104. S. BOCA, Marcela SÎRBU, Ioana TĂNĂSESCU - The production

Z104
performances from S.C. STAZOO S.R.L farm from Alba County ½
Performanţele de producţie din ferma SC. STAZOO SRL., judeţul
Alba .......................................................................................................... 645
Z105
105. S. BOCA, Marcela SÂRBU, Ioana TĂNĂSESCU, R. OLAR - The
milk productions at the Peica farm Bistrita-Nasaud district, obtained
within the existing constructive solutions ½ Producţii de lapte în
ferma Peica judeţul Bistriţa Năsăud obţinute în contextul unor soluţii
constructive existente ............................................................................... 649
- 1210 -
Z106
106. Mioara BOCĂNICI - The study of productive and reproductive
performances of Pinzgauer cattle from the family farms from
Dorna’s Basin and Campulung Moldovenesc ½ Studiul
performanţelor productive şi reproductive ale bovinelor de rasă
Pinzgau crescute în fermele familiale din Bazinul Dornelor şi din
Câmpulung Moldovenesc ......................................................................... 656
Z107
107. M. BOTHA, I. BUD - Interdependence between ambient factors and
kindling evolution at Chinchilla lanigera in the spring and summer
months ½ Interdependenţa între factorii mediali şi fătările la
Chinchilla lanigera în lunile de primăvară şi vară.................................. 663
Z108
108. M. BOTHA, I. BUD - Microclimate factors evolution in a middle size
Chinchilla breeding farm ½ Evoluţia condiţiilor microclimatice
într-o fermă de creştere a Chinchillelor de dimensiune medie ................ 668
Z109
109. S. BULANCEA - Contributions to the study of cattle breeding of race
Baltata neagra romaneasca in Dobrogea ½ Contribuţii la studiul
creşterii vacilor din rasa Balţata neagră românească în Dobrogea ....... 675
110. S. BULANCEA - Particularities of cattle breeding in small family

Z110
farms, in the specific conditions of Dobrogea region ½
Particularităţile creşterii vacilor de lapte din microfermele familiale,
în raport cu condiţiile specifice ale zonei Dobrogei ................................ 679
111. M.V. BURLICĂ, D. SIMEANU - The origin of Huţula breed

Z111
products obtained at Lucina Herd ½ Originea produşilor de rasă
Huţulă obţinuţi la herghelia Lucina......................................................... 684
Z112
112. Maria CORDUNEANU - Researches concerning the mother sheep
age effect on weight of Merinos from Palas lambs at birth and wean
½ Cercetări privind influenţa vârstei oilor mame asupra greutăţii
mieilor Merinos de Palas la naştere şi înţărcare..................................... 689
Z113
113. V. CIGHI - Comparative study concerning some phenotypic
performances in sheep of Tigaie and Romney-Marsh breeds ½ Studiu
comparativ privind unele performanţe fenotipice la ovinele din
rasele Ţigaie şi Romney-Marsh................................................................ 693
Z114
114. V. CIGHI - Researches concerning the main conformation features in
a buffalo population from SCDP Jucu ½ Cercetări privind
parametrii principalelor însuşiri de conformaţie la o populaţie de
bubaline de la SCDP Jucu ....................................................................... 700
- 1211 -
Z115
115. Iulia COSTEA, M. PÎNTEA, Şt. CREANGĂ, Elena RUGINOSU,
Mariana SOFRONIE - Morphological and productive characteristics
of the Sura de Stepa cattle from S.C.D.C.B. Dancu Iaşi ½
Caracteristicile morfo-productive ale taurinelor de rasă Sură de
stepă din cadrul S.C.D.C.B. Dancu Iaşi................................................... 704
Z116
116. S. DĂRĂBAN, A. POP, C. COROIAN - The potential of Merinos
breed of Cluj for meat production ½ Potenţialul rasei Merinos de
Cluj pentru producţia de carne ................................................................ 710
Z117
117. Monica DODU, I. CHEREJI - Quantitative and qualitative features
of eggs production issued from some Galinaceae populations in
Bihor County ½ Caracteristici cantitative şi calitative ale producţiei
de ouă la unele populaţii de galinacee din judeţul Bihor ........................ 716
118. I. DULUGEAC - European hippological studies of the race horse in

Z118
equestrian competitions ½ Sisteme hipologice europene în studiul
cailor de sport pentru probele ecvestre................................................... 723
Z119
119. I. DULUGEAC - Lipizzan race lines and the study of the
morphological characteristics of the Romanian Lipizzan horse ½
Liniile de Lipiţan şi studiul caracterelor morfologice la calul Lipiţan
din România ............................................................................................. 731
Z120
120. N. EREMIA, Iulia MIHAILOVA - The study of the variety of some
morpho-metric indices of honey bees ½ Studiul variabilităţii unor
indici morfo-metrici la albinele lucrătoare.............................................. 746
Z121
121. Elena GÎNDU, Alina-Emilia-Maria MOŞOIU, A. CHIRAN - Some
aspects regarding the development of animal breeding of surrounding
area of Oradea ½ Unele aspecte privind dezvoltarea creşterii
animalelor în zona preorăşenească a municipiului Oradea .................... 752
Z122
122. G. HOHA, B. PĂSĂRIN, Elena COSTĂCHESCU,
Gh. TĂRĂBOANŢĂ, Roxana Teodora STĂNESCU - Researches
concerning reproductive performances recorded to boars PIC 402
and PIC 408 exploited in S.C. SUINPROD S.A. Roman ½ Cercetări
privind performanţele reproductive înregistrate la vierii PIC 402 şi
PIC 408 exploataţi în cadrul S.C. SUINPROD S.A. Roman .................... 758
Z123
123. Cristina IONESCU, I. VACARU-OPRIŞ - Experimental results for
different housing densities and recipes of combined feed for broilers
½ Rezultate obţinute în urma experimentării densităţilor la populare
şi a reţetelor de nutreţuri combinate studiate .......................................... 766
- 1212 -
Z124
124. I. LADOŞI, M.GH. BEREŞ, G. POPA, Ileana BEREŞ, Paula
MUNTEAN, Daniela LADOŞI - Practical implications of
implementing batch farrowing systems in pig farming ½ Implicaţii
practice ale aplicării sistemelor de fătări grupate în exploatarea
suinelor..................................................................................................... 774
Z125
125. V. MACIUC - Contributions to the study of the morpho-productive
features at a ”Frisian” type cattle population, exploited in the N-E
area of the country ½ Contribuţii la studiul însuşirilor
morfoproductive la o populaţie de tip Friză exploatată în zona de N-
E a ţării .................................................................................................... 781
Z126
126. V. MACIUC, Şt. CREANGĂ, M. SCHUTZ, S. ACATINCĂI,
N. BUCĂTARU - Results of genetic estimation for Frisian type
cattle from North-Eastern Romania ½ Rezultate privind evaluarea
genetică a taurinelor de tip Friză din zona de Nord-Est a României ...... 788
127. Margareta MIHĂILESCU - Program for the management and

Z127
development of beef cattle in Neamt County during 2008-2009 ½
Program de dezvoltare şi exploatare a bovinelor de carne pentru
2008-2009 în jud. Neamţ.......................................................................... 796
Z128
128. Gh. NEAŢĂ, C. ŞONEA, E. CIURESCU - The strategy for cattle
meat production ½ Strategia pentru producţia de carne de vitã ............. 803
Z129
129. O. NEGREA, Z. MARCHIŞ - Study of interdigital tiloma in bovidae
family ½ Studiul incidenţei ficului interdigital (tiloma) la taurine......... 810
Z130
130. Alina NICOLESCU, Carmen Ana PIVODA, Camelia Zoia
ZAMFIR, I. NICOLESCU, Ana ENCIU, Daniela JITARIU,
Maria SAUER - Researches regarding the improvement of system
of gathering and preserving the sheep and goat milk ½ Cercetări
privind îmbunătăţirea sistemului de recoltare şi conservare a
laptelui de oaie şi capre ........................................................................... 815
Z131
131. Carmen Ana PIVODA, Camelia Zoia ZAMFIR, Ana ENCIU,
R, RĂDUCU, Ida AURELIAN, Daniela JITARIU, Maria SAUER -
Increasing the milk production at sheep and goats by introducing the
vegetal lecithin in the fodder ratio ½ Creşterea producţiei de lapte la
oi şi capre prin introducerea în raţia furajeră a lecitinei furajere .......... 823
132. M. RUSSELL - Polysaccharide storage myopathy in American Draft

Z132
Horses ½ Miopatia asociată stocării polizaharidelor la caii
americani de tracţiune ............................................................................. 831
- 1213 -
Z133
133. L. STĂNCESCU - The effect of flushing upon fertility and prolificacy
in ewes ½ Efectul flushingului asupra fertilităţii şi prolificităţii la oi ........ 838
Z134
134. V. UJICĂ, V. MACIUC, Şt. CREANGĂ, M. PÂNTEA, Rodica
DĂNĂILĂ, I. NISTOR - The genetical calibre of Sura de Stepa
breed from S.C.P.C.B. Dancu, Iaşi ½ Valoarea genetică a nucleului
de rasă Sură de stepă de la S.C.P.C.B. Dancu, Iaşi................................. 846
Z135
135. V. UJICĂ, V. MACIUC, I. NISTOR, D. LUCACI, Rodica DĂNĂILĂ,
ŞT. CREANGĂ - Amelioration program of Pinzgau breed from
Bucovina ½ Program de ameliorare a rasei Pinzgau din Bucovina ....... 852
Z136
136. Irina VASILACHE, S. CHILIMAR - Simmental breed recurs again
in the Republic of Moldova ½ Rasa Simmental revine în Republica
Moldova.................................................................................................... 862
Z137
137. Camelia Zoia ZAMFIR, Carmen Ana PIVODA, Alina NICOLESCU,
Ana ENCIU, N. CUTOVA, Daniela JITARIU - Technologies of
exploiting young sheep and goats in various pedo-climatic areas of
Romania ½ Tehnologii de exploatare a tineretului ovin şi caprin în
diferite zone pedoclimatice ale României ................................................ 865
138. Anca COSOVANU, E. TICAU, T. ROBU - A study of the impact of

Z138
measure 3.1 – investments in agricultural holdings within the
S.A.P.A.R.D. programme in the 1st North Eastern Region ½ Studiu
privind impactul măsurii 3.1 - investiţii în exploataţiile agricole, din
cadrul programului S.A.P.A.R.D., în regiunea 1 Nord – Est ................... 871
Z139
139. I. GÎLCĂ, C. PASCAL, Mihaela IVANCIA, B. PĂSĂRIN,
M. DOLIŞ, T. ROBU - Researches concerning the comparison of
milk yield between Pinzgau breed imported from Austria and
Pinzgau of Transylvania ½ Cercetări referitoare la performanţele
productive înregistrate de taurinele Pinzgau importate din Austria,
comparativ cu cele de rasa Pinzgau de Transilvania .............................. 878
Z140
140. Şt. LAZĂR, D. BODESCU, O.C. VORNICU - Profitableness in
beekeeping and its influence factors ½ Rentabilitatea în apicultură şi
factorii de influenţă .................................................................................. 883
Z141
141. Gh. NEAGA - General aspect referring the technical –economical
parameters in the family farms in Constanta county ½ Aspecte
generale privind indicatorii tehnico-economici în exploataţiile
familiale de vaci de lapte din judeţul Constanţa...................................... 890
- 1214 -
Z142
142. Gh. NEAGA - The productive longevity in some dairy cows
exploitation in Constanta county ½ Longevitatea productivă în unele
exploataţii de vaci de lapte din judeţul Constanţa ................................... 896
Z143
143. C. PASCAL, Mihaela IVANCIA, I. PĂDEANU, C. CRISTIAN,
N. IFTIMIE - The milk yield aptitudes of the “Carpatina” goat
breed reared in Romania ½ Aptitudinile pentru producţia de lapte a
rasei de capre „Carpatina” crescută în România ................................... 904
Z144
144. I. PĂDEANU, S. VOIA, C. PASCAL GH. BOGDAN,
L. POROŞNICU - Researches regarding body weight dynamics of
crossbred Charollais x Merinos de Transilvania suckling lambs
reared in Banat area ½ Cercetări privind dinamica masei corporale a
mieilor sugari hibrizi Charollais x Merinos de Transilvania crescuţi
în zona Banatului ..................................................................................... 912
Z145
145. I. PÎRVUŢOIU, Agatha POPESCU, L. BJARNE, G. RADULESCU -
Case study concerning the analysis of gross margin in a Danish dairy
farm ½ Studiu de caz privind analiza marjei brute într-o fermă de
vaci daneza............................................................................................... 917
Z146
146. I. PÎRVUŢOIU, Agatha POPESCU, L. BJARNE, G. RADULESCU -
Case study concerning bankruptcy risk prediction in a Danish dairy
farm ½ Studiu de caz privind anticiparea riscului de faliment într-o
fermă de vaci daneză................................................................................ 923
Z147
147. P.N. POPŞOR - Longevity study for the population of Baltata
romaneasca breed in the area of Bistrita-Nasaud ½ Studiul
longevităţii la populaţia de taurine Bălţată românească din judeţul
Bistriţa Năsăud......................................................................................... 927
Z148
148. P.N. POPŞOR - Own research regarding precocity at Baltata
romaneasca breed in the area of Bistrita-Nasaud ½ Cercetări proprii
privind precocitate la rasa Bălţată românească din arealul judeţului
Bistriţa Năsăud......................................................................................... 936
Z149
149. I. CHEREJI, Monica DODU - Quantitative and qualitative features
of eggs production issued from certain domestic Anseridae
populations in Bihor county ½ Caracteristici cantitative şi calitative
ale producţiei de ouă la unele populaţii de anseride domestice din
judeţul Bihor............................................................................................. 945
- 1215 -
Z150
150. S. CHILIMAR, T. BAJURA - The standard project of a farm for
milk production ½ Proiect model al fermei de producere a laptelui ...... 953
Z151
151. A. CHIRAN, A.-F. JITĂREANU - S.C. "KOSAROM" S.A. Pascani,
important incorporated Unit in Moldova ½ S.C. "KOSAROM" S.A.
Paşcani, unitate integrata de referinţă în Moldova ................................. 960
Z152
152. Andreea Bianca GHIRILĂ, Aurelia PECE, Gh. MUREŞAN -
Researches concerning cow milk’s quality obtained in a farm from
Germany – Hessen Land ½ Cercetări privind calitatea laptelui de
vacă la o fermă din Germania landul Hessen.......................................... 968
Z153
153. G. MOVILEANU - Evaluation proceeding of muscle tissue to pig
carcasses in Romania ½ Procedura de evaluare a procentului de
ţesut muscular la carcasele de porcine în Romania................................. 971
154. Aurelia PECE, C. COROIAN, Bianca GHIRILĂ, G. MUREŞAN -

Z154
Study concerning the physico-chemical and microbiological
parameters of buffalo milk fated in industrial manufacture ½ Studiul
parametrilor fizico-chimici şi microbiologici pentru laptele de
bivoliţă destinat prelucrării industriale manufacture ............................. 976
155. O. PENTELESCU, Gh. MUREŞAN, C. BELE - Research

Z155
concerning some constituents from organic raw mik ½ Cercetări
privind unii constituenţi din laptele ecologic materie primă ................... 980
156. O. PENTELESCU, Gh. MUREŞAN - Monitoring somatic cell count

Z156
with a statistical control process tool ½ Monitorizarea numărului de
celule somatice prin intermediul controlului statistic al procesului ........ 986
Z157
157. Elena POPESCU-MICLOŞANU, L. IONIŢĂ, I. CUSTURA,
Consuela ROIBU - Study about the results of slaughtering and the
carcass features at the Balotesti quails population of different ages ½
Studiu privind rezultatele la sacrificare şi caracteristicile carcasei la
prepeliţele de Baloteşti în funcţie de vârstă ............................................. 993
158. M.G. USTUROI - Dynamics of consumption eggs quality, according

Z158
to the storage period ½ Evoluţia calităţii ouălor de consum, în
funcţie de perioada de stocare ............................................................... 1004
Z159
159. M.G. USTUROI - Influence of the post-transportation rest on the
poultry meat acidity ½ Influenţa repaosului post-transport asupra
acidităţii cărnii de pasăre ...................................................................... 1012
- 1216 -
Z160
160. A. VLAIC, V.A. BĂLTEANU, F.D. POP, Anda Raluca RUSU -
Molecular methods used for detection of cattle milk in buffalo, ewe
and goat dairy products ½ Metode moleculare folosite pentru
identificarea laptelui de vacă în produsele din lapte de bivoliţă, oaie
sau capră................................................................................................ 1016
161. D. COJOCARU, Elena CIORNEA, Gabriela VASILE - On the

Z161
concentration of some vitamins and provitamins in the Vaccinium
myrtillus L. fruit ½ Cercetări privind concentraţia unor vitamine şi
provitamine în fructele de Vaccinium myrtillus L. ................................. 1022
162.
Z162 D. COJOCARU, Elena CIORNEA, Gabriela VASILE,
Sabina Ioana COJOCARU - On the content of some active
principles in the Hyppophae rhamnoides fruit ½ Studiul conţinutului
în unele principii active în fructele de Hyppophae rhamnoides............. 1030
163. Andreea Bianca GHIRILĂ, Aurelia PECE, Vioara MIREŞAN,

Z163
Gh. MUREŞAN - Researches concerning the physico-chemical and
microbiological qualities of the milk ½ Cercetări privind însuşirile
fizico-chimice şi microbiologice ale laptelui.......................................... 1038
164.
Z164 Camelia HODOŞAN, Lucica NISTOR, S. BĂRBUICA,
I.G. MALOŞ, Gabriela MALOŞ - Survey regarding the
concentration of liquid food components through reverse osmosis
using special membranes ½ Studiu privind concentrarea
componentelor alimentelor lichide prin osmoza inversa folosind
membrane speciale................................................................................. 1041
165.
Z165 Gabriela MALOŞ, I.G. MALOŞ, Daniela IANIŢCHI,
Lucica NISTOR, Camelia HODOŞAN - The determination
through microbiological tests of the hygiene state belonging to the
surfaces that come in contact with milk in the milking installations ½
Aprecierea prin teste microbiologice a stării de igienizare a
suprafeţelor ce vin în contact cu laptele la instalaţiile de muls ............. 1045
166.
Z166 Gabriela MALOŞ, I.G. MALOŞ, Daniela IANIŢCHI,
Lucica NISTOR, Camelia HODOŞAN - The influence
appreciation of milking installations parameters for initial quality of
milk ½ Aprecierea influenţei parametrilor instalaţiilor de muls
asupra calităţii iniţiale a laptelui........................................................... 1054
Z167
167. Carmen Georgeta NICOLAE, Georgeta DINIŢĂ, Dana POPA,
R. Al. POPA, T. ISBĂŞESCU - Material balance for obtaining
shrimps cans in brine and crab cans in oil ½ Bilanţ de materiale
necesar obţinerii conservelor din carne de crevete în saramură şi de
crab în ulei ............................................................................................. 1063
- 1217 -
Z168
168. Lucica NISTOR, Minodora TUDORACHE, Georgeta DINIŢĂ,
I.G. MALOŞ, Gabriela MALOŞ - Researches regarding the
influence of the vital gluten on the breadmaking qualities of flours ½
Cercetări privind influenţa glutenului vital asupra calităţii de
panificaţie ale făinurilor ........................................................................ 1067
Z169
169. Lucica NISTOR, Gratziela Victoria BAHACIU, Camelia HODOŞAN,
S. BĂRBUICA, Andra SULER - The influence of husk adding on
chemical and phisical characteristics of bread ½ Influenţa adaosului
de tărîţe asupra caracteristicilor fizico-chimice ale pâinii.................... 1073
Z170
170. Aurelia PECE, C. COROIAN, Bianca GHIRILĂ, G. MUREŞAN -
Study of the physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of
cottage cheese obtained from buffalo milk ½ Studiul parametrilor
fizico-chimici şi microbiologici ai brânzei telemea obţinută din lapte
de bivoliţă............................................................................................... 1077
Z171
171. Agatha POPESCU, Elena ANGEL, Judita SAFARIKOVA -
Considerations concerning cow milk producing and marketing in
Romania and Bulgaria ½ Consideraţii privind producerea şi
comercializarea laptelui de vacă în Romania şi Bulgaria ..................... 1080
Z172
172. Agatha POPESCU, S. RASMUSSEN, G. RADULESCU - Major
aspects in the evolution of milk production in Denmark ½ Aspecte
majore în evoluţia producţiei de lapte în Danemarca ........................... 1087
173. Anca BOARU, I. BUD, R.M. VODĂ, Daniela LADOŞI,

Z173
I.V. PETRESCU MAG, Adriana CRISTE, Viorica COŞIER -
Characterization of the biological material of rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) used for artificial reproduction at sexual
maturity age ½ Caracterizarea materialului biologic de păstrăv
curcubeu (Oncorhynchus mykiss) utilizat la reproducerea artificială
la vârsta atingerii maturităţii sexuale.................................................... 1095
174. A. COLESNIUC, Petronela RĂILEANU, Lenuţa GRIGORICĂ -

Z174
The water quality appreciation from the Bahlui river by means of
some biological indexes ½ Aprecierea calităţii apei din râul Bahlui
cu ajutorul unor indicatori biologici...................................................... 1100
Z175
175. Anca DASCÃL, V. MICLEA, M. ZAHAN, V. CIORNEI,
L. SASCA - The influence of different glycerol concentrations in
ram sperm mobility at 4°C ½ Influenţa diferitelor concentraţii de
glicerol asupra mobilitãţii spermatozoizilor la temperatura de 4°C ..... 1106
- 1218 -
176. Daniela LADOŞI, I. LADOŞI, I. BUD, Anca BOARU, V. VLADĂU,

Z176
REKA ŞTEFAN, Camelia RĂDUCU - Relevant fresh water species to
be used as biomarker in monitoring pollution of hilly hydrographic
habitats ½ Specii acvacole relevante ca biomarker în monitorizarea
gradului de poluare a bazinelor hidrografice submontane .............................1112
Z177
177. C. MISĂILA, A. COLESNIUC, Elena GRIGORICA, Petronela
RĂILEANU - Growth stimulation and food capitalization, in
cyprinids, by control of the parasitic stress ½ Stimularea creşterii şi
a valorificării hranei la ciprinide prin controlul stresului parazitar..... 1118
Z178
178. O. NEGREA - Risk of dactylogirosis transmission in Carassius
auratus, in stress experimental conditions and therapeutic efficiency
of trichlorfon product (synthesis organo-phosphoric) ½ Riscul
transmiterii dactilogirozei la caras (Carassius auratus), în condiţii
experimentale de stres şi eficacitatea terapeutică a produsului
trichlorfon .............................................................................................. 1125
Z179
179. R.G. OROIAN, A. VLAIC, T.E. OROIAN - PCR technique used in
Saprolegnia sp. genetical characterization ½ Tehnica PCR utilizată
în genotipizarea Saprolegniei sp............................................................ 1130
Z180
180. L. SASCA, V. MICLEA, M. ZAHAN, A. DASCÃL, T. OROIAN,
G.R. OROIAN - Research concerning the main characteristics of
milt obtained consecutively to Ovopel treatment in common carp ½
Cercetări privind principalele caracteristici ale lapţilor obţinuti prin
tratament cu Ovopel de la crapul de crescătorie ................................... 1134
181. Gabriela VASILE, Gianina COMĂNESCU, Elena CIORNEA -

Z181
Structure of the digestive tractus in Aristichthys nobilis ½ Structura
tractusului digestiv la Aristichthys nobilis ............................................. 1139
Z182
182. Gabriela VASILE, Elena CIORNEA, Elena RADA MISĂILĂ,
C. MISĂILĂ - Biometric aspects of the digestive tractus in
Aristichthys nobilis and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix of various ages
½ Aspecte biometrice ale tractusului digestiv la Aristichthys nobilis
şi Hypophthalmichthys molitrix de diferite vârste ................................. 1149
183. I. BĂNĂŢEAN-DUNEA, A. GROZEA, M. BURA, Silvia PĂTRUICĂ,

Z183
G. HOHA - Researches regarding the biometry and the parameters
of Barbus meridionalis petenyi from Nadrag river basin ½ Cercetări
privind biometria şi indicii corporali la moioagă (Barbus
meridionalis petenyi) din bazinul râului Nădrag ................................... 1159
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Z184
184. A. GRUBER, B. PĂSĂRIN, I.M. POP, Françoise PICARD,
Doina LEONTE, C. LEONTE - The influence of Arthemia salina
feeding on Poecillia reticulata (Lebistes reticulatus) colors ½
Influenţa nauplilor de Arthemia salina asupra coloritului la Poecillia
reticulata (Lebistes reticulatus) ............................................................ 1163
Z185
185. Valerica MACOVEI, I. M. POP - Identification and quantitative
determination of aquatic vegetation in a piscicultural pool ½
Identificarea şi determinarea cantitativă a vegetaţiei acvatice
dintr-un bazin piscicol............................................................................ 1167
Z186
186. M. HANGAN, Laura URDEŞ, P. VASILE - Incidence of black spot
disease in the fresh water fish gathered up by industrial fishing in
Danubian Delta area ½ Incidenţa bolii petelor negre la peştii de apă
dulce obţinuţi prin pescuit industrial din zona Delta Dunării ............... 1172
Z187
187. M. HANGAN, Laura Daniela URDEŞ, Cristiana DIACONESCU,
P. VASILE - Crustaceans’ (Lernea sp.) pathogeny effect on
freshwater fishes bred in static ponds, within some fisheries in the
Danubian Delta area ½ Efectul patogenic al crustaceelor (Lernea
sp.) asupra peştilor dulcicoli crescuţi în bazine statice, în unele
amenajări piscicole din zona Deltei Dunării ......................................... 1177
Z188
188. Laura Daniela URDEŞ, M. HANGAN, P. VASILE -
Eustrongylides’ autumnal distribution and its pathogenicity in
Razelm, Dranov and Murighiol lakes’ fishes ½ Distribuţia şi
patogenitatea autumnală a lui eustrongylides sp. în cadrul
populaţiilor de peşti din apele lacurilor Razelm, Dranov şi Murighiol. 1181
Z189
189. Laura Daniela URDEŞ, M. HANGAN, P. VASILE -
Eustrongylidosis, a secondary nematodosis associated with certain
myxozoans and trematods in Danubian Delta freshwater fish ½
Eustrongilidoza, nematodoză secundară asociată cu sporozoare şi
trematode la unele specii de peşti dulcicoli din Delta Dunării.............. 1186
Z190
190. Mihaela IVANCIA - Comparative study between cow milk somatic
cell count from many gathering centers from Cimpulung
Moldovenesc area ½ Studiu comparativ intre numărul celulelor
somatice din laptele de vacă provenit din mai multe centre de
colectare din zona Cimpulung Moldovenesc.......................................... 1191
Z191
191. Mihaela IVANCIA, D. DRONCA, M.G. USTUROI, C. PASCAL -
Study regarding cow milk somatic cell count dynamic from Dornelor
area, dependings on gathering months ½ Studiu asupra dinamicii
numărului de celule somatice din laptele de vacă provenit din zona
Dornelor, în funcţie de lună ................................................................... 1195
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BACK
ANIMAL SCIENCES EXTENSION EDUCATION INFORMS

PUBLIC POLICY
M. RUSSELL, M. SCHUTZ
The United States Land Grant University system is the result of federal
legislation from 1862 through 1914 which established a relationship between the
federal government and the states to coordinate teaching, research and extension
that reaches into all 3000 counties in the United States. Purdue University serves
as an example of one of 90 Land Grant Universities in the U.S. More than
38,000 students from all 50 states and the District of Columbia, three territories,
residents abroad, and 130 other nations study at the West Lafayette Campus, and
more than 29,000 are enrolled at other campuses and locations. Purdue impacts
the lives of residents in all 92 Indiana counties through its Cooperative Extension
Service offices, eight agricultural research centers that span the state, and
through thousands of educational and community events and direct contacts
each year. Through direct interactions with stakeholders representing private
production, state and county-level organizations and agencies we determine the
needs of the state. Our educational plans also respond to issues identified in the
State of Indiana’s and Purdue University’s strategic plans. Faculty members in
Animal Sciences serve as extension specialists to support the county extension
educators and we offer examples of how the Department of Animal Sciences and
its collaborators bring science and technologies education to the public policy
making. Examples include milk quality and required labeling, EPA and IDEM
regulations for Confined Animal Feeding Operations, use of cereal grains and
forages for fuels and animal feeding, land use and zoning, animal wellbeing
requirements related to animal production, transportation, and harvesting
methods. Techniques used to affect the process include applied research and
extension methods and assisting large industry corporations who seek input in
constructing animal production and processing quality audits and purchasing
agreement expected production practices. The ultimate goals of these planned
programs are: advancing Indiana’s economic prosperity, enhancing educational
and learning opportunities, and improving the quality of life.
ORIGIN
In 1862 the United States Congress passed the Morrill Act which
provided for an educational institution in every state “where the leading object
shall be, without excluding other scientific and classical students and including
military tactics, to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and
the mechanic arts in such a manner as the legislatures of the states may
respectively prescribe in order to promote the liberal and practical education of
the industrial classes in several pursuits and professions in life.” Because of the
nature of the original funding through land, these colleges are known today as
"Land-Grant Universities." This was also the year that the United States
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Department of Agriculture and the Homestead Act were established. Congress

soon realized that to be effective, the educational function of land-grant
universities needed to be supplemented with research capabilities that serve the
specific needs of their region or state. The Hatch Act was passed in 1887 to
provide for the establishment of research farms where universities could conduct
research into agricultural, mechanical, and related problems faced by rural
citizens. These universities provided the technical agricultural education to those
who could attend and educated a generation of agricultural businessmen who led
the US in agricultural and mechanical development.
In 1890, Congress passed a second Morrill Act to add funding for
universities to serve the freed black slaves and their limited-resource educational
needs. Now every state in the United States has a Land Grant University and
those 17 states in the south have two. In 1994 federal U.S. legislation established
universities for Tribal Colleges for native Americans which are located on or near
Indian reservations throughout the United States.
The Cooperative Extension Service system was created by the U.S.
Congress because of concern for the education of the average citizen. Congress
passed the Smith Lever Act in 1914 which provided for the establishment of the
Cooperative Extension Service. It established a cooperative relationship among
counties, states, and the United States Department of Agriculture by making
federal funds available to each state to do extension activities through their land
grant universities. As a result of the Smith Lever Act, there are now Extension
offices in every county of every state and U.S. territories which serve to "extend"
information which has been developed on land grant campuses and research
stations across the country. The county Extension office is a branch office of the
respective Land Grant University and since their role is educational, the Extension
educators are university staff or faculty.
STRUCTURE
The Land Grant Universities work very closely with the regulation and
economic promotion arms of our state governments, but for the most part their
role involves regulations dealing with feed and agricultural chemicals,
environmental management, animal health, food safety, interstate trade, and
certainly economic development. We have forged partnerships with these
agencies to conduct educational programming for our citizens but the educational
leadership originates in the university structure. The Land Grant University
Extension Service is a shared funding program with Federal USDA, State Line
Items, and each county financially supports the office costs and some of the
university staff salary in the county. In the early years Extension primarily
focused on agriculture production, family nutrition, youth programs (4-H), and
community development came later (with a focus on the rural communities).
Thus in most states, the administrative leadership of the extension service resides
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in agriculture with strong funding and support to academic units of consumer &
family sciences and veterinary medicine. The administration of the federally
funded programs of Extension and Agricultural Research resides with the Dean of
Agriculture at Purdue and there are Associate Deans of Agriculture who are also
Directors of Agricultural Academic Programs, Research Programs, Extension,
and International Programs.
As the Morrill Act intended, these universities are comprehensive
universities with broad academic strengths but always including agriculture. For
example Purdue University schools (faculties) include Agriculture, Consumer &
Family Sciences, Education, Engineering, Health Sciences, Liberal Arts,
Management, Nursing, Pharmacy, Science, Technology, and Veterinary Medicine.
Purdue is the only institution in Indiana (population 6.4 M) offering agriculture and
veterinary medicine; but likewise Indiana’s other major public university, Indiana
University has strong programs in Medicine, Law and Fine & Performing Arts.
Thus the state of Indiana is not funding replication in these fields. In addition to
undergraduate and graduate students on the main campus in West Lafayette, we
have four regional campuses and eleven statewide technology centers. These are in
partnership with Indiana University, Purdue county Extension offices, and other
educational institutions. The University is led by a President who is hired and
answers to a Board of Trustees who themselves are elected by alumni and
appointed by the State Governor. The Provost is the highest academic leader at the
university and she oversees Vice Provosts of Research & Discovery Park,
Engagement, Academic Affairs & and the Discovery Learning Center.
UNIVERSITY SRATEGIC PLANNING

Purdue President France A. Córdova http://www.purdue.edu/president/
said that the 2007-13 strategic plan will be created by working groups with
aggressive stakeholder input. The focus will be eight strategic areas: student
success and the student experience; large-scale research and its infrastructure;
economic development; quality of life in the workplace; globalization; campus
design; synergies between science/engineering and liberal arts; and attracting
students to careers in - science, technology, engineering, and math.
http://www.purdue.edu/strategic_plan/2007-13/framework.shtml
The previous strategic plan was designed to make Purdue a preeminent
university with strategies to advance quality in all areas, lead the world in basic
and applied sciences and engineering, and contribute to societal progress,
especially in Indiana. A strategic plan defines an institution's goals and objectives
and provides the basis for systematic and continuous improvement.
The plan for the West Lafayette Campus called for $156 million annually in
new resources that will support discovery, learning, and engagement, leading to a
wide range of advancements in undergraduate learning, interdisciplinary research, and
economic development for Indiana. http://www.purdue.edu/oop/strategic_plan/
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EDUCATIONAL MISSION
Purdue is one of the largest universities in the country, with 38,712
students enrolled in fall 2005 on its West Lafayette Campus. Purdue also offers
degrees at four regional campuses and 11 School of Technology sites statewide,
bringing its system wide enrollment to 69,098 students from all 50 states and 130
other countries. More and more the emphasis with our education systems is on
the integration of research, teaching, and extension. This does not mean that basic
research done by the very best minds in the world is not important, but rather it is
critical as the seed of discovery from which all applied research and education
will grow. An expectation of agencies funding research require a demonstration
of the results use in applied or practical application which shows clear impacts in
the future. We value this close relationship between the research generation and
the educational delivery system. This is not only important in educating students
on campus but also the citizens of the state that cannot come to the university.
An increasing amount of our applied research is being conducted by
Purdue University extension staff and faculty in Purdue Agricultural Centers
throughout the state and these trials serve as the basis of extension educational
programs. Across Indiana, Agriculture Research Programs operates eight Purdue
Agricultural Centers (PACs) in areas representative of the state's varied soil types
and microclimates, where more site-specific research is conducted and research
results are conveyed to local farmers and other residents. ARP also works closely
with Purdue Extension to transfer the research-based knowledge generated by
Purdue faculty and staff to citizens in all of Indiana's 92 counties.
PURDUE EXTENSION
The Cooperative Extension Service is one of the nation's largest providers
of scientific research-based information and education. It's a network of colleges,
universities, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture, serving communities and
counties across America. http://www.ces.purdue.edu/index.shtml
Purdue Extension is a service tailored to meet the needs of Indiana, needs we
know firsthand. Our educators, specialists, and volunteers live and work in all 92
Indiana counties. We provide the link between Land Grant research and Indiana
citizens. Purdue Extension concentrates its efforts in four primary program areas:
Agriculture and Natural Resources
Extension educators with agricultural and natural resource specialties offer
programs and information on agricultural production and financial management for
farmers, food and fiber processors, manufacturers and consumers. We also provide
expertise in environmental issues, natural resource conservation and land use.
Consumer and Family Sciences
Consumer and Family Sciences Extension specialists and educators provide
education to people. We: help communities analyze, identify and meet the needs
-6-
of families; train volunteers and paraprofessionals to assist in areas of critical

concern to families; motivate people to become leaders in address community
issues; collaborate with agencies, community organizations, and educational
groups to address the needs of families.
Economic and Community Development Purdue Extension provides Indiana
citizens with educational programs and information they can use to increase
community vitality, build leadership capacity, enhance public decision-making,
and resolve public issues.
4-H and Youth Development A dedicated network of Extension educators, parents,

local leaders and volunteer staff, makes Indiana 4-H one of the most valued youth
programs in the state. Purdue Extension youth educators develop individual talents,
life skills and leadership abilities among Indiana's young people through the
traditional venue of 4-H clubs and county fairs as well as through field-tested
school enrichment materials and local-led community programs.
While there will always be important issues related to production agriculture

and food and natural resources, many of the challenges facing the US society are
broader and involve interdisciplinary teams to solve. Most Land Grant Universities
are moving to further engagement communities in learning and discovery. As the
agricultural businesses become economically stronger and self-sustaining, they often
conduct their own research and hire university graduates to lead their research and
development programs. This in turn leads to less direct dependence on the traditional
extension educational systems and more collaborations and partnerships. This is the
result of the success of our graduates in developing and leading businesses and
production systems in agriculture. We now have more and more educational
programs provided for individuals and business clientele that demand higher level
programs and are willing to pay for the service. This allows the Land Grant system to
do more applied research and reach even more citizens that cannot afford to pay for
the service that is available for all citizens. The line-item public dollars coming into
the university from federal and state sources have not increased substantially in the
past five years. This has caused the university to rely much more heavily on
endowments, grants, and competitive funding from a very diverse source of funds.
Now more than one third of the total funds supporting extension are paid by the
county budgets. Purdue and other successful land grant universities must become
more and more strategic in seeking competitive funding opportunities. We will end
this presentation with an example of how Purdue University is emphasizing this close
engagement with citizens, government, and businesses
PURDUE RESEARCH AND EXTENSION PLAN OF WORK

The planned programs for Indiana are: natural resources and environment,
plants and their systems, animals and their systems, agricultural, natural
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resources, and biological engineering , food/non-food products: development,

processing, quality, and delivery, economics, markets and policy, human
nutrition, food safety, human health and well being , family well being, youth
development, and economic, community development.
These planned programs were determined after reviewing input from
stakeholder interviews and community sessions conducted throughout Indiana in
2003 and 2005. In 2005, nearly 4600 people participated in the interviews and
community sessions. Under-served and under-represented populations were included
in the interviews and community sessions. Approximately 10% of the 1700
interview participants were from underserved or under-represented populations.
Interviews with stakeholders representing state level organizations and agencies
were also conducted to assess the needs of the state. Stakeholders recognized Purdue
as a trusted source of information for families, farms, businesses, and communities.
They said that Purdue research and extension should continue to focus efforts to
strengthen families, farms, businesses, and communities.
In addition, many of the planned programs respond to issues identified in
the State of Indiana’s and Purdue University’s strategic plans. According to the
Indiana Department of Agriculture, Indiana is in a unique position to be a global
leader in several food and agriculture areas. This conclusion is based on the
state’s productive land base, central location to the U.S. population, innovative
research, and manufacturing expertise. Agriculture continues to have a significant
role in Indiana’s economy and represents an area for economic growth and
development. In Indiana the food and agricultural sector generates directly or
indirectly about twenty percent of the jobs and income in the state.
With Indiana’s diverse agricultural structure, Purdue research and
extension can play a role in helping people become more productive and
prosperous. Environmental safety and increases in bio-fuel production are also
high priority policy issues in Indiana. Several areas targeted for growth by the
State Department of Agriculture are included among the planned programs
identified in this plan of work. The natural resources and environment, plants and
their systems, animals and their systems, agricultural, natural resources, and
biological engineering, and economics, markets, and policy planned programs
describe research and extension efforts that address these issues.
ANIMALS AND THEIR SYSTEMS PLAN OF WORK

“Research projects will be targeted at understanding the biology of
poultry and livestock at the molecular, cellular, and systemic level, and improving
the profitability of poultry and livestock production while minimizing
environmental impacts on production and enhancing the health and well-being of
animals. Specific efforts will span fundamental areas of growth and development,
animal behavior and well-being, and sustainable and efficient production systems,
using a multi-disciplinary approach. Research projects will also investigate the
-8-
efficient use of by-products and co-products from ethanol and biofuels production
facilities as feed for poultry and/or livestock. Extension activities will seek to
improve producers’ management skills to improve economic viability, enhance
environmental stewardship, improve awareness among youth of the opportunities
in poultry and livestock production, and to promote a positive image of poultry
and livestock production in Indiana. These activities will be accomplished
through publications, workshops, road-shows, and on-farm assistance. In addition,
Extension programs will be presented for small livestock and poultry producers,
in which often the producer has limited technical knowledge or experience or is
attempting to use alternative production techniques. “
ANIMAL SCIENCES STRUCTURE

The mission of the Department of Animal Sciences
http://www.ansc.purdue.edu/ is:
“The Purdue University Department of Animal Sciences provides leadership
and inspiration to educate individuals to anticipate and effectively respond to
challenges facing the global animal industries. Animal Sciences facilitates scientific
research and technology transfer for efficient and sustainable production of high
quality animal products with optimal animal well-being, enhancement of the human
diet, and advancement of sound environmental practices.”
The vision of the Department of Animal Sciences is very simple. We
desire to be the "place to go" for the citizens of Indiana and beyond for
knowledge in animal sciences. This includes students, traditional commodity
groups, government, consumers, and many others.
Our shared or common goals are:
• to provide students with a rigorous and relevant education thus prepared for a
lifetime of learning;
• to achieve scientific preeminence in selected areas, and be able to develop
teams to find and solve real problems in a real world; and
• to meet the needs of clientele making the best use of emerging technologies.
The 45 faculty members have expertise in the disciplines of growth and
development, nutrition, breeding and genetics, physiology, management, and
animal well-being and behavior. Fifteen faculty members serve as extension
specialists with the responsibility of leading the Purdue educational effort in their
species and discipline expertise. http://www.ansc.purdue.edu/species.htm
Faculty members in Animal Sciences serve as extension specialists to support
the county extension educators and we offer examples of how the Department of
Animal Sciences and its collaborators bring science and technologies education to
the public policy making. Our effectiveness is derived from a close working
relationship between the industry leaders (stakeholders) and the university
specialists who are involved in conducting relevant research in the area.
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BACK
Examples include:
• milk quality and required labeling,
• EPA and IDEM regulations for Confined Animal Feeding Operations,
• use of cereal grains and forages for fuels and animal feeding,
• land use and zoning,
• animal wellbeing requirements related to animal production
• transportation and harvesting methods.
Methods used to affect the process include applied research, unbiased
reporting of results and data, writing while pages and extension fact sheets,
conducting educational meetings, consulting when invited with public officials,
serving on and often co-chairing industry committees, addressing industry and
commodity panels, and testifying at legislative and other government hearings
and sessions, Many extension staff have also been involved in consulting and
assisting large industry corporations who seek input in constructing animal
production and processing quality audits and purchasing agreement expected
production practices.
SUMMARY
In reality, the United States Land Grant system provides federal, state,
and county funding initially from the governments to solve real problems of
residents. This flow of money is supplemented more and more by private and
corporation collaborations and grants to solve more specific and complex
problems. This system is only effective in delivering outputs and improved
quality of life and sustainable economic agricultural systems if the research and
education is relevant. The role of the faculty of animal science disciplines is to
stay in direct communication with the stakeholders and that the shoes
stakeholders communicate the relevance and importance of the university
Extension system to their livelihoods. The system of extension is totally
dependant on the relationships with communities and industry leadership and
serving their current and anticipated needs.
REFERENCES
USDA Cooperative State Research, Education & Extension Service http://www.csrees.usda.gov/
Indiana State Department of Agriculture, http://www.in.gov/isda/
Purdue University, http://www.purdue.edu/
Purdue President France A. Córdova http://www.purdue.edu/president/
Purdue University Strategic Plan http://www.purdue.edu/strategic_plan/2007-13/framework.shtml
Purdue University College of Agriculture, http://www.agriculture.purdue.edu
Purdue Extension is...Knowledge to Go. http://www.ces.purdue.edu/index.shtml
Purdue University Department of Animal Sciences http://www.ansc.purdue.edu/
Purdue Department of Animal Sciences Extension Information
http://www.ansc.purdue.edu/species.htm
- 10 -
BACK
DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM
OF THE KOSAROM S.A. COMPANIES GROUP
L. APOSTOL, T. F. APOSTOL, E. L. POPOVICI
The paper presents the development program of the Iaşi Kosarom

Companies Group, designed to be applied on short, medium or long terms.
Main goals to achieve are related to the establishment of new capacities or to the
extension of the existing ones, as listed below for each company:
1. S.C. Avi-Top S.A. Iaşi:
- building of 2 new broiler farms, having 200000 chickens
capacity each;
- increasing of the rearing capacities at the three existing
broiler farms.
- establishing of a continuous flow technological line for
convenience food products processing.
2. S.C. SUINPROD S.A. Roman:
- development of rearing and exploitation capacities for the
Mangaliţa swine breed, in order to create availabilities of
genetic material for exportation.
3. S.C. KOSAROM S.A. Paşcani:
- increasing of slaughtering capacity for swine;
- establishing of a continuous flow technological line for
producing sliced meat products, packed under vacuum
conditions.
Kosarom group comprises four companies (Kosarom, Avi-Top, Suinprod

and Agricola), that function within an integrated system. Thus, the cereals
produced by the Agricola Tg. Frumos Company serve as raw matter for supplying
both mixed fodders processing plants, which provide feed to the poultry in the
Avi-Top Iaşi Company and of the swine in the Suinprod Roman Company, as
well.
Poultry meat is obtained within the Avi-Top slaughterhouse, located in
Războieni place, while pork issues from Kosarom Paşcani slaughterhouse.
Kosarom S.A. Company processes both poultry and pork meat, provided by own
farms.
The invested capital signifies more than a pure financial matter, knowing
the group comprises four companies, which function on a double capital basis:
one of trust, one for technology.
The amount of the investments designed for Kosarom Paşcani Company
in 2008 reached 12 millions EUR. In order to improve and modernize the swine
slaughterhouse, 2 millions EUR have been drawn through the SAPARD program,
6 millions EUR from bank network and also 4 millions EUR from own sources.
- 11 -
The slaughterhouse will be able to slaughter 120 pigs/hour. Trenching department

will be modernized, in order to achieve a processing capacity of 34–35 tones of
meat /day.
A wide modernization program also runs within the Pre-Packing
department of the S.C. Kosarom S.A. Company; delivery capacity will be also
extended and a new storehouse for dry and fresh salami and sausages will be
built. Long term investments pool will pass over 32 millions EUR in Kosarom
Paşcani Company.
Major investments will be carried on during 2007-2008 in S.C. Avi-Top
S.A. Iaşi Company. During May, the poultry slaughterhouse, situated on
Războieni platform, will be inaugurated. Slaughtering capacity of the new facility
reaches 4000 chickens/hour, having also the availability to be extended. An
elementary calculation reveals a daily slaughtering capacity of 32.000 chickens.
The investments in Războieni poultry slaughterhouse reached 12 millions EUR,
from which 2 millions issued from SAPARD program, other 5.5 millions from
bank credit and the remaining sum from own funding.
Two broiler farms will be opened this year, each of them will be able to
accommodate 200000 chickens/series. Other three farms pass during
modernization stage. The development schedule will allow us to manage the meat
production according to the “all in, all out“ modern principle, that is essential in
preserving fowl health and ensuring final products quality. Meantime, an
appropriate supply of the slaughterhouse will be provided by the right design of
the poultry production flows, meaning a very correct politics of the company.
Right now, 750000 chickens per each series are raised within the S.C. Avi-Top
S.A. Iaşi Company.
The new slaughterhouse in Razboieni processes both chickens from own
farms or from satellite farms, owned by private breeders. An amount of 200000
broilers/series are slaughtered from private farms. These farms are supplied with
biological material and mixed fodder by S.C. Avi-Top S.A Iaşi. During an year,
6.3-6.7 rearing series could be completed. Production and financial results
achieved by S.C. Avi-Top S.A. Iaşi kept the Company in the best poultry meat
producers top in Romania. Thus, during 2007, the S.C. Avi-Top S.A., considered
a middle size company, which produces 3500-10000 tones of weight gain per
year, eas placed on the 5th place at national level, outrunning many companies
with tradition in poultry rearing and processing. Meanwile, S.C. Avi-Top S.A.
Iaşi, was placed on the 1st national place for low mortality rates (1.66%).
Exceptional achievements have been also recorded in incubation department, the
hatching rate reaching also the best national value – 84.56% - for the eggs
provided by meat type breeders. Moreover, the new built slaughterhouse could be
considered as the latest modernity in Romania, having similar performances to the
most modern slaughterhouses across the world.
S.C. Suinprod S.A. Roman, a company specialized for swine rearing and
fattening, reached 9.5 millions EUR as cash flow during 2007 and an amount of
- 12 -
BACK
115000 reared and delivered pigs. All processes in the own feed factory are
computer controlled, fact that allowed removal of any human error or of any cross
microbial contamination incidence.
S.C. Suinprod S.A. started from 2005 a program related to the
safeguarding of the Mangaliţa indigenous breed genetic patrimony. This swine
breed is rustic, tardy, has high fat content in carcass but provides high quality
meat and lard at slaughtering that are able to be used to obtain traditional meat
products, highly required on central and western European market. Meat and fat
issued from Mangaliţa pigs also contain low levels of cholesterol. Moreover, it
occur high levels of unsaturated fatty acids, as compared to other swine breeds.
Consequently, the Company targeted for 2011 to reach a flock of 1000 Mangaliţa
sows (500 matured + 500 juvenile). This will allow us to export genetic material
to any interested country.
Grace to a consequent development policy, the Kosarom Companies
Group is the Number One Brand in Moldova. It could be stated that, through its
achievements, this companies group entered the European Union with a step
forward prior to Romania’s adhering.
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BACK
POPULATION AND LABOUR FORCE IN THE IASI

COUNTY AGRICULTURE
Ramona ALEXA-AIRINEI, M. DASCĂLESCU
The population is defined as a community of people that live on a

certain geographical area. From the socio-demographic point of view, the
population the population can be described as a social subsystem which has in
view the number of the inhabitants, density, the structure on age and sex, births
and deaths, feminization, migration and others.
The specific of a society is given by the size of the population and its
characteristics (demographic, socio-economic and training). It is important the
knowledge of the population structure on age and sex, the level of training, the
degree of occupation, the activity domain, in order to adapt the policies of
development to the present society.
Population has an important role in economy. It actions as a consumer
of products and services on the one hand and generator of physical and
intellectual work, in quality on the other hand, in quality of human resource, the
labor force serves in order to put forward the financial resources and
exploitation capital in agriculture, decisively influencing the production results.
One of the main indicators that characterize human resources is the
population density. This is an element of great variability in space, being a result
of geographical, historical, economic and social conditions specific to each zone.
At the Iaşi county level the number of the population at 1 July 2006 was
of 824083 persons. In comparison with past year 2005, there is an increase with
10140 persons more than at 1 July 2005.
Regarding the population repartition on habitation areas of the total of
the population, in 1990, 48,8% lived in the urban area and 51,2 % in the rural
area, and in 2005, 47,3% of the population lived in the urban area and 52,7% in
the rural area.
The number of persons employed within the economy of Iasi County
dropped as value total nominal value, being with -53,7 thousand persons lower
in 2004 than in 1992, reaching this year the lowest value in the last 5 years. It is
interesting to mention the fact that on the general background of diminution of
population employed in economics, the commerce registers the highest growth,
with +14,4 thousand persons while in agriculture there are registered high
diminutions of 47,8 thousand of persons. One significant part of this number is
due to the migration of labour force abroad.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
In this scientific paper wants to present the social, demographic,

economic educative changes that appeared in the rural communities of Iasi
County. We use statistic materials gathered both though sociological investigation
and official documents data.
- 14 -
On the results of proper calculations, though annual statistic series or

censuses we analyzed both the demographic structure of rural population with its
main indicators: birth rate, death rate, natural increase, as well as their socio-
economic characteristics: structure of active and employed population in the two
areas rural and urban of Iasi County.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The labour force has the main role in the flows that underlie the
accomplishment of the production processes. This is the conscious factor of the
activities of the agricultural production, through which the labour means are used,
the labour processes rationalize and advanced processes of production
organization are applied.
Iasi County population at 1 January 2006 was of 814198 inhabitants,
representing 3,8 of the total population of Romania (Iasi County occupying the
third place after Bucuresti and Prahova County) (Table 1.)
Here was an increasing trend of Iaşi county habitant’s number. This way
in an 76 years period (1930-2006) the population has grown by 87.7 percents.
The population density is a factor that influence the social problem in the
territory (of living, of occupancy, of environmental protection) and which
fundaments the aspects regarding infrastructure, collective equipment, public
services of a certain area.
The economic factor used in order to quantify the density is the “number
of inhabitants / km2”. This indicator expresses the population distribution on
administrative territory of an area, at a certain moment and allows the distribution
of different population models of the territory, identifying the zones of population
concentration and zones with rare, dispersed population.
Table 1
The evolution of its population and density between 1930 and 2006
Years Number of inhabitants Inhabitants / km2
29 December 1930 420488 76,8
25 January 1948 431586 78,8
21 February 1956 516635 94,3
15 March 1966 619027 113,0
5 January 1977 729243 133,2
7 January 1992 811342 148,2
18 March 2002 816910 149,2
1 July 2005 813943 148,6
1 January 2006 814198 148,7
Source http://www.iasi.insse.ro
- 15 -
As regards the population density, we can notice a positive quantitative

jump comparable with 1930, when the density was of 76,8 inhabitants per km2 ,
reaching in 2002 at 149,2 inhabitants per km2. After this year it can be noticed
the tendency of decrease of density value, reaching in 2006 at 148,7 inhabitants
per km2 .
160 .2 7 29-Dec
.2
2
8 . 14 9 8.
6 8.
140 3 14 14 14 25 ianuarie 1948
13
120
3 1 13 21 februarie 1956
100 .
.8 .8 94 15 martie 1966
80 76 78 5 ianuarie 1977
60
7 ianuarie 1992
40
18 martie 2002
20
0 1 iulie 2005
Locuitori / km2 1 ianuarie 2006
Figure 2 Evolution of the population between 1930 and 2006
We observe a structural evolution of the population percent in the two

areas, and doesn’t exists a stabilization process of this percent. (tab. 2)
Table 2
Population on areas (%)
Areas Year 1990 Year 2003 Year 2004 Year 2005
Urban 48.8 47.1 46.3 47.3

Rural 51.2 52.9 53.7 52.7
Source: Anuarul statistic al judeului Iaşi 2006
In 2006 there were registered 10124 born – alive, with 90 less than
in the previous year, determining a birth rate of 12,5 born at 1000 inhabitants.
With this rate, Iasi County occupies the first place in the country, where the
average is of 10,2 born at 1000 inhabitants. (tab.3)
In 2006 the number of deceased was of 7895 persons, with 251 persons
less than in 2005, decrease reflected in the diminution of general death rate
from 10, 1%o in 2005 to 9, 7%o in 2006.
The decrease of infant mortality (deceased under 1 year at 1000 born)
also continued in 2006 with 13,7%o in comparison with 14,4%o in 2005, being
in the tendency of the last years and maintaining under the country average
(1 3,9%o ).
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The evolution of birth and death determined a positive natural

increase (+2229 persons), which corresponds to a rate of 2,8 persons to 1000
inhabitants, which rises in comparison to 2005 (2,5%o) and situating Iasi County
on the first place in the country.
The natural encrease of population represents the difference between
the average birth rate and average death rate.
Table 3
Natural movement of the population in 2006 in comparison with 2005
Year ABSOLUTE DATA (number)

Natural Deceased
Born Deceased Marriages Divorces
increase under 1 year
2005 10214 8146 2068 5459 707 147
2006 10124 7895 2229 5671 602 139
RATE (at 1000 inhabitants)

Birth Death Natural Marriage Infant
Divorce rate
rate rate increase rate mortality*
2005 12,6 10,1 2,5 6,7 0,87 14,4
2006 12,5 9,7 2,8 7,0 0,74 13,7
Note: * to 1000 born
Sursa : http://www.iasi.insse.ro
In order to accomplish the objective analysis of resources it is necessary

to know the distribution of employed population activities within the national
economy. For Iasi County, along the analyzed period of time, the data referring to
this indicator are presented in table 4.
As it is shown in table 4, the number of persons occupied within the
economy of Iaşi County dropped as total nominal value, being with -47.8
thousand less than in 2005 in comparison with 1992, reaching the lowest value in
this period. It is interesting to mention is the fact that on the general background
of the decrease of the employed population in economy, the commerce registers
the highest growth, with +14,4 thousand persons while in agriculture there are
registered high decrease, of 27.8 thousand persons. This shows the fact that the
population of the rural area are more and more migrating to the urban area or
abroad.
- 17 -
Tabelul 4
The population employed, on activities of national economy (at the end of the year)
Thousand of persons
Iaşi County 1992 1995 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Total economics 344,2 342,6 318 316,2 302,8 298,2 290,5 296,4
Agriculture, hunting
and forestry 130,3 125 136,7 134,7 115,4 110 100,7 102,5
Fishing and
pisciculture 0,3 0,2 0,1 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,2 0,2
Industry, of which: 98,3 79,7 65,8 64,4 71,2 67,2 61,3 55,8
Extractive industry 0,1 0,2 0,1 0,2 0,1 0,1 - 0,1
Processing industry: 92,5 73,4 59,4 58,9 66,1 62,3 56,7 51,2
Electric and thermal
energy, gasses and
water 5,7 6,1 6,3 5,3 5 4,8 4,6 4,5
Constructions 14,4 14,6 12,9 12,9 13,3 14,4 13,2 17,7
Commerce 18,5 44,1 28,3 28,5 27,8 28,7 29,9 32,9
Hotels and restaurants 4,6 3,4 3,5 3 2 2,6 4 4,1
Transport, storage and
communications 18,6 18,4 12,7 12,5 12,3 11,8 11,4 12
Financial brokerage 1,4 1,7 1,8 1,8 1,8 1,8 2,1 2,4
Real estate transactions
and other services 13,7 9 8,5 9,7 9,5 11,2 13,2 12,5
Defense and public
administration 3,3 3,5 3,6 3,7 3,8 4 4 4,7
Education 22 23,1 21,7 21,8 21,3 21,3 22,6 22,7
Health and social
assistance 12,6 14,3 16,7 17,1 17,8 18,3 19,2 18,9
Other activities of
national economy 6,2 5,6 5,7 5,9 6,4 6,7 8,7 10
Source. Anuarul statistic al judeului Iaşi 2006
- 18 -
40
.1
.9
35
38
36
.7
.6
34
34
30
25
.5
.5
23
20
22
.1
21
.8
18
15
10
.1
.3
11
6
10
2
9.
9.
5
5
5
2
6
8
4.
4
8
4.
4.
4.
1
4.
3.
3.
0
agricultură,vânatoare şi silvicultură industrie construcţii comerţ tranzacţii imobiliare şi alte servicii
2002 2003 2004 2005
Fig.2The structure of the population employed in the main activities of the national
economy
Demographic dimension of an area which is the main dimension of

economic analysis, because the population, through the elements that
characterizes it, expresses the development potential of a territory.
Table 5
Population on age groups (years)
Age groups Year 2003 Year 2004 Year 2005
Total 816003 821621 813943
15-19 years 73026 76283 73095
20-24 years 74646 75625 69770
25-29 years 70004 71721 71103
30-34 years 66725 64854 64939
35-39 years 51376 57475 62420
40-44 years 45998 43541 42169
45-49 years 55477 55335 52857
50-54 years 53346 52102 52697
55-59 years 31653 36191 41410
60-64 years 34978 32636 29260
65-69 years 35623 36064 36447
70-74 years 29512 29502 29703
75-79 years 20477 20996 21766
80-84 years 10196 11004 11837
85 and over 4824 4975 5168
Source. Anuarul statistic al judeului Iaşi 2006
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BACK
From the dates that are presented in table 5 result in a relatively big
percent of young life section 15-29 years, compared with over 55 years life
section, this movement is maintained in the studied time period.
The innovation index of labour force, expresses the renewal process of
active population (of the labour force) and is calculated as a report between the
population of the age group 15-29 years and the population of the age group of
30-40 years.
In Iasi County , the index of population renewal in 2004 was of 3,9, and
in 2005 is of 3,3 (tab. 5).
At the national level, the difference between the contingent of 30-40 years
and that of 15-29 years was very small (90,1 %), the renewal index of the labour
force being of 1,91. the index of 1,91 shows that in the following 15 years on the
labour force could be found with 91 % more persons with high productive
capacities, existing the possibility for an better level training, an raised
enterprising spirit, attributes that are present in the 15-29 years group. (Table 11)
CONCLUSIONS
The remaining of the younger population in the rural area is a decisive
role for the revitalization of the rural, for economic diversity, for the establishing
of demographical equilibrium, especially in the highly deficient zones. This
population contingent is the main beneficiary of the rural development policy that
has to be elaborated. A proof of the efficiency policy of the undergone rural
development is to establish this segment of population dimensioned according to
the natural, economic and social possibilities of each zone.
The 1990-2005 period was for Iasi County, a period of eloquent
movement regarding the human resources. There was a decrease of urban
population percent and a increase of that from rural area.
In Iasi County, the index of population renewal in 2004 was of 3,9, and in
2005 – 3,3, this is giving the hope regarding the insurance with human resources
needs for economy sector, in generally, and for agriculture in particularly.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Alecu I., Merce E., Pană D., Sâmbotin L., Ciurea I.V., Bold I., Doberscu N., – Management în
agricultură, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti, 1997
2. Ciurea I.V., "Management", Editura "Ion Ionescu de la Brad", Iaşi, 1993
3. Ciurea, I.V. şi colab, “Management”, Editura „Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi, 2005
4. Institutul naţional de statistică, Direcţia judeţeană de statistică Iaşi, Anuarul statistic al
judeţului Iaşi 2006,Editura Alfa, 2006
5. *** Anuarul Statistic al României 2005, Comisia Naţională pentru Statistică, 2000
6. ***www.iasi.insse.ro
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BACK
MATHEMATICS AND BIOLOGY

INTERDISCIPLINARY ASPECTS
Dumitru Mihai ANDREI, Laurenţia CĂLIN
Mathematics is one of the fundamental patterns for human thinking. For

a long time now, mathematics has been building methods, theories which
connects it to other studying objects, being the basis for experimental and social
sciences, an instrument that can be successfully applied to all possible sciences
and approaches.
In the present paper, we introduce some interdisciplinary elements, with
reference to mathematical terms used in various biological fields such as
Anatomy, Cytology, Genetics and Ecology.
Mathematics is one of the fundamental patterns for human thinking. For a

long time now, mathematics has been building methods, theories which connects
it to other studying objects, being the basis for experimental and social sciences,
an instrument that can be successfully applied to all possible sciences and
approaches. Mathematics represents a model science
Mathematical truths are generally available and necessary. They could be
reached using deduction chains, linked by fundamental truths, obviously
themselves.
Demonstration forms logical chains wile intuition reveals basic truths.
Life sciences are considered as a basic pattern. Natural phenomenon
could be uncovered by experience, not by intuition.
From this perspective, mathematics could be perceived as “pure” (it
represents the internal logical relations between concepts) or as “applied” (it
represents the extrapolation based on experience).
Mathematics does not tell a think about the world, but serves as
normative research instrument, bringing order in the initial concepts disposing,
whose consequences are finally achieved.
It is certitude that nobody doubts today that mathematics became an
indispensable component of each human being’s general knowledge. Extension of
mathematics applications toward other sciences is continuously developing.
This paper includes certain interdisciplinary elements which reveal the
mathematical notions used in other scientific fields, such as genetics, cytology,
ecology, human anatomy and botanic, as following:
* Gregor Mendel, biologist and mathematician, tried to apply
probabilities computation to the interpretation of the results issued from plants
hybridizing. When crossings between organisms differing by a single characters
pair (AA and aa) are practiced, heterozygote individuals (Aa) issue in first
generation, expressing the dominant character; these heterozygote organisms
produce two kinds of gametes (A and a), in equal proportions. Crossing between
- 21 -
heterozygote individuals (AaxAa), lead, through the probabilistic gametes

combination, to the occurrence of several organisms types: AA (25%), Aa (50%),
aa (25%).
* Chromosomes maps establish the distance existing between certain
genes, using the crossing-over occurrence frequency as measure unit, respectively
the frequency of recombined organism occurrence. The basic logical argument is
that which states that more distant are placed the genes on the same chromosome,
higher crossing-over occurrence become possible, more than they’d be closer.
* Using the probabilistic algorithm of gametes recombination, the
percentage of healthy or sick organisms could be established, mainly when
parents are in good health, but mother carries the genes for those maladies (color
blindness, albinism or hemophilia).
* Knowledge of the quantitative variability laws could be applied by
biometry. The students should measure high amount of beans, using the caliper
and centralizing the data into a table). Arithmetic mean could be calculated by
formula:
Sum of all measured lengths

X=
Beans amount
* Mapping of human genome (genetic, physical or integrated maps).
* Heritability expression (involvement of genetic factors could be
estimated)
* Analysis of familial pedigree (analysis of continuous variations of
quantitative features – height, weight), using certain standardized symbols.
* Energy flow through antropic ecosystems (statistics related to energy
consumption within certain European cities).
* Urbanization and its incidence toward environment (expression of
environmental quality indexes).
* Cytology – calculation of microtubules within cell when cilium or
flagella amounts are known. It is known that each cilium comprises nine
peripheral groups of twin microtubules and two microtubules in its center.
Consequently, cilium amount could be multiplied by 20, in order to find out cilliar
microtubules in the analyzed cell. Mean cell dimensions could be also expressed
as values: environ 20-30 microns, spermatozoid: 5-7 microns, striated muscular
fiber 15 cm length.
* Anatomy - knowing blood represents 8% from the entire body weight,
blood volume could be calculated, starting from body weight value and applying
simple three correspondent rule:
100Kg bodyweight ……………………….8 l blood

60Kg bodyweight……………………….X l blood
- 22 -
60 × 8
X= = 4.8l blood
100
* Physiology - knowing that nervous impulse circulates with 100m/sec.
through the myelinized axons, the requested time of nervous flow passage could
be calculated, if the axon length is also known.
Mathematical calculations could be used to reveal the vital capacity and
the whole pulmonary capacity, knowing the Current volume (V.C.=500ml air),
the Provisional aspiratory volume (V.I.R.=1500ml air), the Provisional expiratory
volume (V.E.R.=1000-1500ml air) and the Residual volume (V.R.=1500ml air)
values.
Vital capacity (C.V.)=V.C.+V.I.R.+V.E.R.
Pulmonary whole capacity (C.P.T.)=C.V.+V.I.R.+V.E.R.
Starting from the glomerular rate of filtration in kidneys (120ml/min),
filtration rate could be calculated for a 24 hours period, obtaining the primary
urine volume.
120ml x 1440minutes = 172800ml primary urine.
* Botanic - knowledge about graphics could be used to establish the light
and temperature influence on photosynthesis.
* Fractions could serve to teeth formula expression, such as this in
human:
2 1 2 3
I C PM M
2 1 2 3
I = incisors; C = canines; PM = premolars; M = molars.
* In ecology studies, the prey-predator relationship could be expressed by
Volterra’s law.
The graphs could be used in ecology as well, to represent the populations’
increases or decreases (eg. – graphic illustration of a bacteria population
increasing rate in milk; time period (hours) is represented on the vertical axis and
bacteria amount on the horizontal one).
Types of problems, solved

1) Knowing that glucose passes with 100 cm/hours speed through the
riddled pipes, and a riddle pipe reaches 200mm length, how long will take to a
glucose molecule to pass such a pipe?
A mole of glucose serves to produce 38 moles of ATP, grace to the
aerobe respiration. How many ATP moles issue from 12 moles of glucose?
Solution:
200 mm = 20 cm
100cm ……..……1 hour
20 cm …………. x hour
- 23 -
20 × 1
x= = 0.2 ore = 12 minutes
100
1 glucose mole ……….38 ATP moles
12 glucose moles ……... x ATP moles
x = 12 × 38 = 456 ATP moles
2) Knowing that hemolymph contains 90% water, calculate the quantity

of several substances solved in 20g of hemolymph.
Solution:
Percent of solved substances:
100% − 90% = 10%
Quantity of substances solved in 20 g of hemolymph is:
10% × 20 = 2g of solved substances
3) Knowing that encephalon volume reaches 1500 cm3 , establish how

much of it will be affected (%) if ataxia, postural instability, atony and asthenia
simultaneously occur at a person.
Solution:
Cerebellum volume is 1/10 of the encephalon one. Ataxia, postural
instability, atony and asthenia occur consecutively after cerebellum ablation.
1
V = 1500 × = 150 cm3 ⇒ in percents, the cerebellum contributes with
10
10% in whole encephalon mass.
4) A 17 years old professional sportswoman, have 1.72 m height and
70 kg weight.
Request:
a) Amount of bones in the upper and lower limbs, excepting phalanges.
b) Amount of trunk bones.
c) Quantity of water comprised within her muscles.
Solution:
a) 2 × (7 tarsals + 5metatarsals) + 2 × (8carpals + 5metacarpals) = 50 bones
b) 33 – 34 vertebras + 24 ribs + 1 sternum + 2 coxal bones = 60 – 61 bones
c) 70kg × 40/100 × 75/100 = 21kg
5) From the analysis of a 200 ml water sample, taken from an aquatic

ecosystem, several data have been achieved:
- mass of the dried filter paper, prior to filtration = 2g
- mass of the filter paper after sample filtration = 18g
Which are the quantities of plankton and organic matter within the sample
suspension?
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BACK
Solution:
Calculation formula to apply in order to find plankton content and
suspension substance quantity is listed below:
Gps = ( m 2 - m1 ) × 1000/V , where:
- m1 = mass of the dried filter paper, prior to filtration
- m 2 = mass of the filter paper containing plankton and suspension substance after
sample filtering
- V = water sample volume
Consequently, Gps = ( 18 - 2 ) × 1000/200 = 80g/l
REFERENCES
Ariniş, Ioana; Mihail, Aurora; Costache, Ştefan Viorel – Biologie, manual pentru clasa a IX a,
Ed. liceALL2000, pag. 12, 13, 91, 97
Ariniş, Ioana; Nanea, Mariana ; Vasile, Adriana – Biologie, manual pentru clasa a XI a, Ed.
Sigma, pag. 5, 64, 99, 101, 102, 107, 112, 125, 141, 142, 143, 150
Ene, Stelică; Brebenel, Gabriela; Iancu, Elena Emilia – Biologie, manual pentru clasa a XII a,
Ed. Gimnasium, pag. 15, 52, 66, 83, 95, 102, 107, 108, 112
Revuz, Andre; Matematica modernă, matematica vie – Editura Didactică şi Pedagogică Bucureşti
1970.
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BACK
STUDIES REGARDING THE CAPITALISATION OF THE

TOURIST AND AGRO-TOURIST POTENTIAL
OF BACAU COUNTY
Şt. BREZULEANU
The tourist potential of a territory is defined by the ensemble of natural,

economic, cultural-historical elements that stand for just as many opportunities
of tourist capitalisation, but only a single tourism functionality, thus constituting
a premise for the development of the tourist activity per se. A territory is of
interest under the aspect of its tourist potential, in that it displays natural tourist
and anthrop resources, whose capitalisation may generate some tourist activity
and may circumscribe it to the domestic and international tourist circuit.
Located in the Eastern part of Romania, in the very heart of Moldavia,
Bacau county is blessed with a special natural heritage that harmoniously
combines meadows, hills and mountains, rivers and lakes. The varied and
picturesque relief, numerous art and historic monuments, stately homes, natural
parks and spas turn Bacau into one of the most attractive tourist destinations of
Romania.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The information source that was the starting point of the study is
represented by the official data existing in the specialized units of the north-
eastern region and the direct investigations done in the researched area.
The method used for the study of the tourist and agro-tourist potential of
the north-eastern region is the diagnosis analysis which makes a point for the
favouring factors of rural tourism and agro-tourism in Bacau County, as well as
the restrictive ones, indicating at the same time the necessary measures for a
superior capitalization of the agro-tourist potential. The research of different sides
and components of the agro-tourist potential of the studied area has different
conceptual and applicative valences adequate for the area of the objectives aimed.

Situated in the east of Romania, more precisely in the centre of Moldova,
Bacau County is a blessed area. The landscape combines harmoniously the plane,
hills and mountains, crossed by rivers and crystal lakes. The varied picturesque
relief, its numerous historical and art monuments, memorial houses, natural
reservations and spas place Bacau among the zones with the highest tourist and
agro tourist potential in the country.
Bacau County beneficiates of the existence of a valuable tourist
patrimony, an important part being held by its natural resources. They are offered
by the geographic landscape favourable for the unfolding of some important agro
- 26 -
tourist activities, its components taken as a whole or individually, all coming as

an answer to the tourist motivations of major interest.
Bacau county has large possibilities of development of tourism in the
rural area and its practising is necessary in the present stage. The incomes from
this activity – consequence of the co-interest of the peasants for tourism practicing
through renting rooms and commercialization of natural products or engaging the
tourists in agricultural or household activities – can substantially contribute to the
living and civilization upraise and settling of the young in rural localities.
The geographic configuration of the north-eastern region, with high relief,
offers ideal conditions both for proper agro –tourism and for practising the winter
sports; thus, it is a reserve of potential which is used on a small scale, being a
possible resource of supplementary incomes which, if well influences and used,
can be turned to good accont in a short period of time with minimum investment.
The economy of the north-eastern region is highly dependent of mineral
resources, thing which determined the appearance of localities connected to rock
oil, salt an other resources. Activities related to salt extraction have been
imagined and put to practice in the last 40-50 years. The interior of the salt pits
(Târgu Ocna)have been used in therapeutic, sport and tourist purpose. The
diversity of such activities can be enlarged and put in the category of positive
external issues (camps for salt sculpturing, extension for therapeutic practises,
storage of noxious substances, setting up a salt museum etc).
We consider that the mineral resources have a decisive role in the
economy of the north eastern region. The economic effects have to be seen also in
social context, the capitalization of the mineral resources offer the opportunity of
creation new places of employment, stimulates and sustains the horizontal
industry and services for industry, forms an economic support for the localities
which are almost totally dependent by one mineral resource or their capitalization.
The mineral water resources make up a real treasure within the patrimony
of mineral resources of the north east region. Their diversity as chemical formula,
the distribution on a large scale within the county, the checked therapeutic effects
make them play an important role in the county’s economy, in its development
(improvement of population health, creation of new places of employment, agro
tourism development etc).
By far the best known spa in the north-eastern region is Slanic Moldova,
known by the tourists as “Pearl of Moldova” which gained its name due to the
natural therapeutic factors discovered more than 150 years ago. The variety of the
mineral waters, choke damps, microclimate, negative air-ionization and a rich
cultural tourist patrimony have increased the popularity of the spa. Annually over
30000 tourists beneficiate from complex therapy in the treatment bases equipped
with modern apparatus and specialized medical staff and also from the possibility
of rest and recovery in pleasant unpolluted surroundings. Although at present it is
on a wane as it is also the general tendency on the national scale, the degree of
occupancy of the tourist structures maintains over 57%, which shows that this spa
is among the preferential tourist destinations.
- 27 -
The information taken from the tourism societies and local public
authorities shows that although the value and variety of the tourist potential
allows a revival of the tourist activity, this cannot be done without a
diversification of the offer, especially through leisure diversification which could
lead to the enlargement of customer segment for who it is destined the newly
created product and finally for the revival of agro tourism in the zone and its
surroundings.
As regards the elements of material and spiritual culture, Bacau county
has a series of objectives, which through their artistic and historic content increase
the tourist value of this territory, allowing a large diversification of its agro tourist
offer. The historic past of these lands is presented in archaeological vestiges,
architectural monuments and memorial houses. It can be noticed the large number
of churches present in almost all localities of the county as well as the frequency
of peasant monuments and castles.
The ethnographic and folklore elements have an old tradition and
complete the tourist value of the zone. There are acknowledged and appreciated
the homespun from the Poiana Sărată-Oituz ethnographic zone of a special
beauty, the sculptures in wood, as well as the local folklore manifestations which
can be capitalized within tourist programmes.
Less capitalized are the climatic factors that can be used in preserving,
maintaining and improvement of health state of the human organism through: air
therapy, heliotherapy and through area therapy which is generically called
climatic therapy. Identification and use of these natural resources will contribute
to the development and promotion of agro tourism in rural are in the north-eastern
region.
The entropic potential of the north-eastern region is identical to the
potential tourist offer of that geographic area. Trying to make a subdivision of the
entropic potential we notice that it is mainly made up of the cultural-historic
background of the zone and of the economic objectives which represent a tourist
interest.
Analysing the rural area of the north-eastern region, we can notice that it
is the keeper of a inestimable treasure of historic, architectural or art monuments,
historic vestiges, as well as of a genuine ethno-folkloric patrimony of a real purity
and value.
The tourist villages as development resources of agro-tourist activities are
the spinal column of the rural community which through their specific and
particular issues (location, natural resources, architectonic or historic monuments,
ethno-folkloric tradition) together with the special quality of good hosts, can be
transformed into a rural tourist product, at the same time being prepared to satisfy
a large range of motivations of intern and international tourism. In Bacau County,
they can be met on Trotuş couloir (Poiana Sărată)or in the mountainous zone of
Berzunţi, Asău etc.
- 28 -
Many times, during the unfolding of a tourist programme some of the

attractions is represented by economic activities of that area (barrages, water
reservoirs, hydroelectric power stations, bridges etc). it is normal to happen like
this as the tourists are willing to have the acknowledgement of the cultural
background which they have in their holidays especially within the tourist cultural
products, these attractions being the main of the trip.
Without discussion there are other economic-social objectives considered
to be resources for agro-tourist development of rural zones in Bacau County such
as: ceramic workshops, lime, brick, ceramic furnaces; installations – small works
for wood stone, marble processing; agricultural farms, handicraft centres that can
contribute to the accomplishment of some forms of specialized tourism.
Many more tourists want to see “live” the hospitality, gastronomic
customs, and handicraft and village rituals. The relaxation, fresh air, fresh food
consumption, wine degustation, fresh products of peasant gastronomy, all these
are solid arguments for practising rural tourism. Popular art, religion and old
customs and Christian traditions, the possibility of being in the middle of the
specific local events (bees, rejoicings, fairs, festivals etc) and even the therapy
through physical work are equally considered attraction points. Hunting, sport
fishing, trips, resting near rivers and lakes, all these can be considered a reason for
spending the holiday under different conditions.
Bacau county is a region full of history, with a lot of traditions and
secular traditions that are still present in villages, with a lot of feast days and
traditional events. During the feast days, tourists can participate at certain cultural
events: concerts („Mărţişor”, „Cireşar”, „Ion Drăgoi” etc.), theatres, parades and
mass manifestations of independence day, titular saints’ day.
The harvest days are marked in the towns and villages of the north-east
region by traditional fairs. During these events, the tourists have the opportunity
to know better the folklore, handicraft pieces and specific traditional costumes.
All these are combined in a series of specific elements of the agricultural,
pastoral, religious and civil calendar have transformed in a permanent source of
hospitality, benevolence and warmth in all the county of Bacau.
The Trotuş, Tazlău, Siret, Berheciu, Zeletin and Bistriţa valleys are real
ethnographic and folkloric bottom where on the ancient background of popular
culture there can be noticed the marks of Romanian tradition and modernity.
The main ethnographic centres are: Brusturoasa (carpentry, centre of
fabrics, carpets, cloths with geometric patterns, popular costumes of dacic origin,
embroidery, traditional architecture), Oituz (pottery and hazel knitting centres),
Sălătruc (gates of sculptured wood), the ethnographic centre of Balcani
(unpolished black pottery); the ethnographic centre of Berzunţi (embroidery on
traditional jackets, traditional architecture, wooden gates); the ethnographic centre
of Fundu-Răcăciuni (valuable pieces of popular art); the ethnographic centre of
Glăvăneşti (carpets with zoomorphic and floral ornaments); the ethnographic
centre of Prăjeşti (popular costumes worn by women); Scorţeni village
(numerous values and variables in domains of folkloric creations).
- 29 -
In Bacau county, the folklore bands reappear together with the coming of
winter holidays. Most of them are made up o young persons, especially teenagers,
but also of the olders of the villages who are most adequate to get involved in
such projects.
In order to make evident the use of resources for agro tourism
development in Bacau county, we have made a SWOT analysis where we found
the following:
Strengths:
The network of urban localities, as regards their number and order is
among the best within the north-eastern development region, being
the basis of economic projects for development.
Bacau county is crossed by two transport mains ( roads and railways)
which connect on the one hand the north of Moldova and the south of
the country and on the other hand, Transylvania.
On the territory of Bacau county there are a series of zones with a
complex natural and cultural patrimony, especially on the west part,
being in a better shape than the other parts of the country, which is a
valuable tourist and ethno-folkloric patrimony.
The existence of an equilibrated system of urban localities along Trotus
valley.
Good density of roads network.
Weaknesses:
Bacau county has accessed in a modest way the different funds of
development in comparison to the specific potential and problems and
has few projects of inter-communal cooperation, which has limited
the access to efficient financing for infrastructure development which
can lead to a stronger development of agro tourist activity;
The eastern of the north-east region is characterized by a complex of
restrictive factors of rural development;
Multiple disequilibrium between the east of the county and the rest of
the territory, manifested through large downshifts of social-economic
nature, leading to the risk of development stagnation on larger
territories;
The east of the county has rural localities situated in an area which
lacks towns, so it presents a reduced accessibility to services (lack of
a polarizing centre in the rural area in the east of the county).
Large downshifts between the eastern part of the county and the rest of
the territory as regards the cultural, sport, education and health
equipment, but also hoses equipping with water supplies and the
communal instalments of water and canalization.
Massive rooting out done injudiciously and excessive occupancy of
some forest territories with constructions led to the disappearance of
some species of local fauna and flora and amplified the losses
produced by torrents and earth flows.
- 30 -
Pollution of some areas with mine exploitations, wells and urban

pollution (CHs, water floods), but also the lack of a system of
integrated household of wastes and disparities in the space
distribution of waste platforms.
Low possibilities of capitalization of the natural and cultural patrimony
due to the lack of information and education of the potential local
agents, of reduced accessibility and lack of material, technical,
accommodation and public alimentation infrastructure, and also
because of the considerable level of degradation.
The medium size of the population in the villages that make up the
county is very low (755 inhabitants), which leads to the increase of
administration costs of the developing projects.
Major disparity between the incomes of the local budgets between the
urban and rural localities.
Important zones (especially in the east and south) with high potential
and probability of earth flow and flood risk.
Small number of works at the hydro-technical infrastructures and land
improvements in comparison to the necessary ones.
Degradation of the communal, county and local roads and the existence
of some problems regarding the technical state of the railways.
Attrition of the networks of water and canalization.
− Modest capitalization of tourist potential.
Opportunities
Potential of qualified labour force, allowing the rapid development of
some projects of economic development.
The existence of fundamental studies for the setting up a zone of
associated localities within Bacau municipality.
A large part of the population is grouped around municipalities and
towns, which represent an important reserve of labour force.
The existence of some rural zones with valuable local specific, capable
of generating opportunities for agro tourism or ethnic-folkloric
tourism (in the west and south-western zone).
Threats:
Although there are on its territory as series of reservations and nature
monuments, as well as objectives of cultural patrimony of national
interest, Bacau County is overpassed by the neighbour counties,
which have larger opportunities of tourist attractions;
The accomplishment of an express road between Iasi, Piatra Neamţ and
then to Târgu-Mureş, will diminish the importance of road connection from
Bacau to Transylvania.
The poverty of the rural areas of Bacau County and the surrounding
areas can produce supplementary pressures on the environment
- 31 -
(especially on the forestry fund) and of the services concentrated in

the urban areas.
The difficulty of managing the protected areas due to the lack of
preparing this action with projects for their delineation and protection
can lead to the destruction of the existing values.
Arrangement of most communes with more than 9 component villages
in the eastern of the county can accelerate the process of
destructuralization of the network in the zone.
Re-rural-isation as phenomenon due to the low standard living, lack of
places of employment, lack of cheap living resources in the urban
area, which generates a migration form urban to rural.
Growth of risks on medium and long term regarding the decrease of
productivity of agricultural lands.
Uncontrolled urbanizations (extension of towns), can be a process of
compromise and pollution of the existing tourist potential.
From the study of the localities of Bacau county there results that the
rural tourism manifests according to different criteria: size of units that practise
agro tourism and which are appreciated generally according to the number of
accommodation places and the services offered by the agro tourist unit
(accommodation, meals, bed and breakfast and other services); the zones where
they are placed the localities with agro tourist specific; the affiliation of agro
tourist units to different specific organizations with local, national and
international character etc.
CONCLUSIONS
The main offer of the north-eastern region is made up of natural
landscape componenets, represented by the natural agro-tourist resources and play
a determining role in the development of agro tourism.
We consider that the agro tourism of Bacau county must evaluate more
rigorously the chances of revival and at the same time, to become again one of the
complementary resources of income, especially in the under-privileged zones
from the agricultural point of view. Thus there have been made a series of
remarkable positive effects of which we mention: creation of new places of
employment, geographic transfer of resources, design and systematization of the
territory, equilibration of local budgets, faster integration of our country in the
structures of European Union through tourism.
In Bacau county which has faced in the latest years profound
transformations imposed by the process of transition to the market economy, the
rural tourism proved to be the most sensible sector to social-economic stimuli, a
phenomenon which could be felt both in the research domain and in that of tourist
products offer.
- 32 -
BACK
Formation of tourist product implies both the analysis of tourist potential

(natural and historic-cultural, geographic position, labour force, psycho-social
features of the population etc.), human and financial material (sources and
financing means) and the possibilities of capitalization, all these make up a
competitive tourist offer. Through studies of conjuncture there can be chosen the
most favourable markets, means and ways of promotion and advertisement.
In order to accomplish this demarche, we must take into account: the
value and variety of tourist resources, agro-pastoral activities and ethno-folkloric
traditions in the area, favourable position on an important tourist route or near
some tourist centres and well-known spas, the closeness to mountains of great
attractiveness and tourist circuit, high social-economic development of villages
that have a comfortable standard living in households with good effects for tourist
reception and accommodation, including the foreigners, psycho-structural features
of the population which offer a high level of hospitality, honour and morality,
high level of inhabitants emancipation (know foreign languages).
It is also necessary the stock-taking of natural and social-economic tourist
resources of the north-eastern region, which has to be continued with the detailed
analysis of the possibilities of capitalization of the tourist product.
In conclusion, a high quality rural tourism supposes high quality services.
It comes to reason why the rural tourism organizations have to have modern
sanitary equipment for comfortable accommodation conditions as well as for
public alimentation, access ways and civilized communication. We consider that
it must be paid a certain attention to the promotion of rural tourist product which
needs: publishing some newsletters, setting up a specialized review annual
publication of a catalogue of European standards, elaboration of some media
programmes, setting up an office of information and broadcasting.
BIBIOGRAPHY
1. Apetroaie Camelia, 1996 – Valorificarea resurselor locale prin activitatea de turism rural,
comuna Vama, judeţul Suceava. Turismul rural românesc.
2. Acatrinei Marilena, 2002– Tendinţe în dezvoltarea turismului rural. Turismul rural românesc.
3. Brezuleanu S., Brad I. 2001- Consideraţii privind activităţile agroturistice din landul Baden -
Wurttemberg, Germania. Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi,
Facultatea de Agricultură, Lucrări Ştiinţifice. Ciurea I. V., Chiran A., Brezuleanu S., Gîndu
Elena, Ungureanu G. 1998 -Researches regarding the efficiency of technical-economic
activities of some mountain farms from western carpathians. Programul TEMPUS-PHARE –
Contributi allo studio dell’a transizione dell agricoltura rumena verso il mercato: aspetti
strutturali, economici ed estimativi. Editione Conquiste, Bologna
4. Glăvan V., 1995– Agroturismul – factor determinant în dezvoltarea economico-socială a
satului românesc, în Revista Română de Turism nr. 4.
5. Popa C., 2004 – Oportunităţi de dezvoltare a turismului rural şi agroturismului în Regiunea
Nord-Est a României. Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară, Facultatea de
Horticultură, Lucrări Ştiinţifice.
- 33 -
BACK
LOTKA-VOLTERRA MODEL FOR TWO SPECIES IN

COMPETITION
Il. BURDUJAN
Multispecies mathematical models in ecology are analyzed. A parti-

cular interest is paid to the two-species models in competition. The correspond-
ding mathematical model consists of a special quadratic dynamical system in
plan, the so-called Lotka-Volterra system, containing six parameters. Since their
use in real situations implies necessarily to estimate these parameters, it
becomes important to make firstly a classification of such dynamical systems. We
shall apply some specific algebraic techniques to analyze these models.
A BRIEF HISTORY
It is well known that the idea of applying mathematics to biological or
biomedical problems goes back to the Enlightenment period. Unfortunately, for a
long time period the application of mathematics in biology was identified with the
use of elementary computations. The modern development in mathematical
biology took place roughly between 1920 and 1940, a period now referred to as
the “Golden Age of Theoretical Biology”. That means to make a conceptual
application of mathematics in biology, i.e. the building of an appropriately
methodology of bio-mathematical researches. However, a considerable progress
in this direction was remarked until the second half of the 19th century, under the
impulse of Darwin’s evolution theory. The essential feature of the theory of
evolution is its dynamical conception of life phenomena, conception which
opened the way to “number” in biological research. The works of F. Galton and
K. Pearson provided the mathe-matical foundation of evolution theory by
applying the statistical analysis as well as elementary quantitative techniques to
the handling of biological information in connection with the study of evolution.
It was a remarkable aprioric confirmation of the following truly beautiful remark
of V.A. Kostitzin: “Mathematics entered into the natural sciences through the gate
of statistics…” The development of animal ecology enhanced interest in the study
of populations. The economical aspects regarding the development of biological
procedures were the starting points for the economical entomology and fishery
management. As a natural result and success of economical entomology studies
was the foundation in 1902 of the “Conseil international pour l’exploration de la
mer”. Galton’s ideas on the statistical quantification of the laws of evolution were
took over by R. Pearl and R. Fisher who introduced a large set of mathematical
tools to be used in solving problems in population genetics. Moreover, Fisher’s
works as well as J. B. S. Haldane’s and S. Wright’s had created a statistical model
of evolution that combined the Mendelian heredity with natural selection what
can be considered an issue for the emergence of the so-called “evolutionary
- 34 -
synthesis”. In the 19th century, the theory of probability receives new stimuli in
connection with the development of natural sciences and with practical
requirements of society. An important moment in the whole development of the
so-called later mathematical biology was the appearance of V. Volterra papers on
population dynamics. Volterra held a determinist point of view expressed in
differential equations, whereas Fisher, Haldane and Wright used extensively
probabilistic techniques. For Volterra, statistical and probabilistic methods “could
be very useful but less reliable than infinitesimal analysis”. He wasn’t favorable
to Galton’s and Pearson’s idea to build the foundational principle of biometrics on
the statistical concept of correlation considered as a generalization of causation.
The legitimacy of applying mathematical concepts in biology was contested by
several biologists who felt that biology could not follow the “blind mathematical
laws of physics or submit to the simplification requirements of a mathematical
formulation”. An important point in all these discussions was the fit of the
biomathematical equations and laws to experience. Practical problems in
agriculture, as well as in fishery, motivated a special interest in quantitative
methods in biology. Volterra himself began with a problem laid out by D’Ancona
regarding data from fishery in the Adriatic.
Ecosystem models are generally used to try to understand and predict the
behavior of the system. However, the fisheries models are used for more than this,
namely, they are used to try to determine the optimum harvest and, for the
management of fisheries, to establish the allowable catch of the various species.
Actually, the management of fisheries is a part of the so-called the management of
renewable resources which is based on the concept of maximum sustainable yield
(MSY); it assumes that either too much or too little fishing or hunting or
gathering would reduce the amount obtained in the long run.
A MULTISPECIES MODEL
In a previous paper [4] was analyzed the simple or surplus yield model of
Schaefer, which is a one-compartmental model having a logistic equation as its
mathematical foundation. But it is natural to consider multispecies models.
Indeed, many of the commercially fished species inhabit the same region and
compete for the same food. Recall that the concept of competition is a central one
in population dynamics and ecology. Begon et al. [2] defined (in 1996) the
competition as being “an interaction in which one organism consumes a resource
that would have been available to, and might have been consumed by another.
One organism deprives another and, as a consequence, the other organism grows
more slowly leaves fewer progeny or is at greater risk of death”. There exists an
extensive and important body of population biological theory concerning the
competition for shared resources between different consumer species (see [8]).
However, competition may be about many different things that have nothing to do
with feeding, such as nesting sites, territoria and mating partners. Competition
- 35 -
may be between individuals of the same species, in which case we call it intra-
specific competition, or of different species, in which case it is called interspecific
competiton. In an ecosystem where coexists two species, the competition has both
these traits: intraspecific and interspecific. Such an ecosystem can be schema-
tically represented by a weighted digraph in which the vertices represent the
species and the flows are arcs. Actually, a two-compartmental model is obtained.
In Figure 1 is given the digraph representing the flow-diagram of a two-
compartmental model.
b1 b2
a12
a11 x1 x2 a22
a21
d1 d2
Figure 1: A two-compartment model for two species of fishery.

b1, b2, d1, d2 represent the flows from and to the outside; aij are
the flows between the comparments
The corresponding mathematical model is

 1 dx1
 x dt = b1 − a11x1 − a12 x 2
 1
 (1)
 1 dx 2 = b − a x − a x
 x 2 dt 2 21 1 22 2
Recall that the most well-known model for competition for two species has been
proposed by Lotka and Volterra in 1925 and has been extensively studied by
Gause starting by 1934. In the Lotka-Volterra model, the competition between
two species is represented without any reference to resources, i.e. for a particular
species the presence of a competitor is simply assumed to reduce its growth. A
very important assumption used in this model is that in the absence of the compe-
titor, the growth of both species 1 and 2 follows the logistic growth model.
Let us denote the volumes of the two species by N1 and, respectively, N2.
When both species are present their dynamics are described by the following
ordinary differential system
 1 dN1  N + β12 N 2 
 = r1  1 − 1 ,
 N1 dt  K1 
 (2)
 1 dN 2  N + β 21 N1 
N = r2  1 − 2 .
 2 dt  K2 
- 36 -
Here r1 and r2 are the logistic population growth rate of species 1 and 2, while K1
and K2 are the carrying capacity of both species. The term β12N2 can be thought
of as the decrease in growth rate of species 1 due to the presence of species 2, i.e.
the parameter β12 represents the per capita decline (per individual of species 2); a
similar meaning have β21N1 and β21, respectively. Of course, the system (2) is a
special form of (1). Since N1 and N2 represent the number of individuals the two
species, they must be necessarily positive numbers. The standard analyze of
Lotka-Volterra model means to reach the following steps:
• determine the isoclines,
• determine the steady states,
• determine the stability properties of these steady states.
We put this system in a form suitable for an algebraic study, namely
 dx1
 = 2a101 x1 + a111 (x1 )2 + 2a112 x1 x 2 ,
dt
 2 (3)
 dx = 2a 2 x 2 + 2a 2 x1 x 2 + a 2 (x 2 )2 .
 dt 02 12 22
It must be remarked that the right hand sides of this system represent two dege-
nerate conics into pairs of concurrent lines. In order to associate this system with
a commutative binary algebra, we homogenize it and get the system:
 dx1
 = 2a101 x1 z + a111 (x1 )2 + 2a12
1 1 2
xx ,
 dt
 dx 2
 = 2a 02
2
x 2 z + 2a12 x x + a 222 (x 2 )2 ,
2 1 2 (4)
 dt
 dz
 = 0.
 dt
Certainly, we are interested in the solutions of (4) with z=1. The right hand sides
of (4) represent two quadrics degenerated into pairs of concurrent planes. The x1-
isoclines are
x1=0, z=1
2a101z + a11
1 1
x + 2a12
1
x 2 = 0, z = 1.
Similarly, the x1-isoclines are
x2=0, z=1
2
2a02 z + 2a12
2 1
x + a 22
2
x 2 = 0, z = 1.
The four isoclines can be graphically represented in first quadrant of the plane
z=1 (see Fig.2)
- 37 -
x2 x2 x2 x2
x1 x1 x1 x1
Figure 2: The four isocline cases for system (4).

Thick dashed lines indicate x1-isoclines; thick solid lines indicate x2-isoclines.
If B=(e1, e2, e3) is the natural basis in Ρ3 then we associate to (4) the following
algebra A(⋅) on Ρ3
“⋅” e1 e2 e3
e1 1
a11e1 a12e1 + a12e 2 a01e1
1 2 1
e2 a12e1 + a12e 2
1 2
a 222e 2 2
a02 e2
e3 1
a e a e2 0
01 1 02 2
This algebra has a 2-dimensional ideal namely SpanΡ{e1, e2}, which is comple-
mentary to a 1-dimensional (null) algebra. The steady states of (4) are just the
nilpotents of order two of A(⋅). Their coordinates can be obtained solving the
system
 2a101 x1 z + a11
1
(x1 )2 + 2a112 x1 x 2 = 0,
 2 2 (5)
 2a 02 x z + 2a12 x x + a 22 (x ) = 0.
2 1 2 2 2 2
According with the four cases of isoclines one gets the following steady states
 2a 2   2a 2 
A1 (0, 0, z), A 2  − 101 z, 0, z  , A 3  0, − 202 z, z  ,
 a11   a 22 
 2(a1 a 2 − 2a112a 02
2
) 2(a111a 02
2
− 2a12
2 1
a 01 ) 
A 4  − 101 222 z, − z, z  .
 a11a 22 − 4a12a12
1 2
a11a 22 − 4a12a12
1 2 1 2

Recall that the only steady states of interest for us are those with z=1. A1 is called
the extinct state and corresponds to the case when both species are absent. In the
x1-only state A2 species 1 reaches its carrying capacity (K1), while species 2 goes
extinct. A4 is an internal steady state in which both species have non-zero
abundance; it is usually called the coexistence state. The nature of each steady
state A(x1A , x 2A , z A ) is studied by means of the characteristic roots of the
Jacobian matrix J(A) of the right hand sides of the system computed in it. But
J(A) is connected with left multiplication by
1
J(A) = L X where X A = x1A e1 + x 2A e 2 + z A e3 .
2 A
- 38 -
One gets:
a111 x1A + a12
1
x 2A + a101 z A 1 1
a12 xA a101 x1A 
1 1 
J(A) = L =  2 2
a12 xA 2 1
a12 x A + a 22
2
x 2A + a02
2
zA 2
a02 x 2A 
2 XA 2
 0 0 0 

The characteristic polynomial is
P(λ ) = λ (λ 2 − Tr L XA λ + ∆ A )
where
Tr L XA = (a11
1
+ a12
2
)x1A + (a12
1
+ a 22
2
)x 2A + (a101 + a 02
2
)z A ,
∆ A = (a11
1 1
x A + a12
1
x 2A + a101z A )(a12
2 1
x A + a122 x 2A + a02
2
z A ) − a12
1 2 1 2
a12 x A x A .
A steady state point with z=1 will be stable or not depending on Tr L XA is
negative and ∆A is positive.
It is of interest to find the idempotent elements of A(⋅), because their
existence assure that origin is an unstable equilibrium.
Finding of idempotents means to solve the equivalent systems
 2a101 x1 z + a111 (x1 )2 + 2a112 x1 x 2 = x1 , a111 (x1 )2 + 2a112 x1 x 2 = x1 ,
 2 2  2 1 2
 2a 02 x z + 2a12 x x + a 22 (x ) = x , ⇔  2a12 x x + a 22 (x ) = x , (6)
2 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
  z = 0,
 0 = z, 
which assure that the only idempotents of A are just the idempotents of its
maximal ideal. One gets three idempotent elements, namely
1 1 a 222 − 2a112 a111 − 2a12
2
E1 = 1 e1 , E2 = 2 e 2 , E3 = 1 2 e1 + 1 2 e2 ,
a11 a 22 a11a 22 − 4a112a12
2
a11a 22 − 4a112a12
2
if a111 ≠ 0 , a 22
2
≠ 0 , a11
1 2
a 22 − 4a12
1 2
a12 ≠ 0. In case when one or more of the entities
a111 , a 222 , a111a 222 − 4a112a12
2
are zero, then we get accordingly 0, 1 or two idem-
potents.
As it was already remarked, in order to decide the nature of the steady states we
need to know the signs of Tr L XA and ∆A. Some results can be established for
Lotka-Volterra model. We notice that
r1 1 r r
a101 = , a11 = − 1 , a112 = − 1 β12 ,
2 K1 2K 1
r2 2 r r
2
a02 = , a12 = − 2 β 21 , a 222 = − 2 .
2 2K 2 K2
This time, the steady state points of interest are
- 39 -
 K 1 − β12 K 2 K 2 − β 21K 1 
A1(0,0,1), A(K1,0,1), A3(0,K2,1), A 4  , ,1  .
 1 − β12β 21 1 − β12β 21 
In case of two interacting species we have necessarily K1 > 0 and K2 > 0.
Moreover, if r1=0 or r2=0 then N1=const., respectively N2=const., what is not
realistic from biological point of view. β12=0 or β21=0 means that the presence of
species 2 (resp., species 1) do not affect the growth of species 1 (resp., species 2)
what is not the case for an interspecific competition. Consequently, in what
follows we shall consider r1 > 0, r2 > 0, K1 > 0, K2 > 0, β12 > 0 and β21 > 0, i.e. A(⋅)
has necessarily three idempotent elements. It means that A1 is an unstable critical
point. Certainly, the steady state points have strong connection with the isoclines.
For Lotka-Volterra model the isoclines are depicted in Figure 3 (see [5]).
N2 I N2 II N2 III N2 IV
K2 • K1/β12
K2 K1/β12
K2 •
K1/β12 K1/β12
K2
N1 N1 N1 N1
• K2/β21
• K2/β21
•
K1 K1 K2/β21
K1 K2/β21 K1
Figure 3: The four isocline cases for Lotka-Volterra model.

Thick dashed lines indicate N1-isoclines; thick solid lines indicate N2-isoclines.
Bullets design the steady state points.
The stability of steady states can be graphically analyzed (see [5]). In order to
answer to the problem of their asymptotically stability we need to decide the sign
of real parts of characteristic roots. It is enough to do this analyzing the signs for
Tr L XA and ∆A; to this end we must necessarily express them by the coefficients
of system (4). One gets
1 1
Tr L XA = − (2r1K 2 + r2 K 1β 21 )x1A − (2r2 K 1 + r1K 2β12 )x 2A +
2K 1K 2 2K 1K 2
1
+ (r1 + r2 )z A ,
2
 r r  r r 
∆ A =  − 1 x1A − 1 β12 x 2A + r1 z A   − 2 β 21 x1A − 2 x 2A + r2 z A  −
 K1 2K 1   2K 2 K2 
rr
− 1 2 β12β 21 x1A x 2A .
4K 1K 2
- 40 -
BACK
For example in case III, A2 and A3 are asymptotically stable. Indeed, this is a
consequence of equalities
r2
Tr L XA = − r1 − (K β − K 2 ) < 0, ∆ A2 = 0,
2
2K 2 1 21
r1
Tr L XA = −r2 − (K β − K 1 ) < 0, ∆ A3 = 0.
2
2K 1 1 12
Similar can be studied the nature of any equilibrium.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Taking into account of the four cases naturally appearing in an
interspecific competition it must be remarked that in cases I-III one species
outcompetes the other species. The only case when the coexistence of both
species is theoretically assured is case IV. In nature, there exist many situations of
competitive exclusion. But there exists examples of apparently competitive
species which can coexist. An explanation could be the fact that the Lotka-
Volterra model is obtained by neglecting many complicating factors. This
criticism is not completely correct because it consider only singular points which
are in the finite part of phase space, although can exist singular points at infinity.
That is, it is possible to obtain the coexistence in very long run, depending on the
position of the two species in phase space in the initial moment. Such problems
can be studied using the classification results obtained by Schlomiuk&Vulpe [7].
REFERENCES
1. Barbu V. (1985), Differential Equations (Romanian), Ed. Junimea, Iaşi.
2. Begon M., Harper J.L., Townsend C.R. (1996), Ecology: Individuals, populations and com-
munities. 3rd Edition, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford.
3. Brauer F., Castillo-Chavez C. (2001), Mathematical Models in Population Biology and
Epidemiology, Texts in Applied Mathematics, 40, Springer-Verlag, New-York.
4. Burdujan I. (2004), - On fisheries models, Ann. U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, seria Zoot. v.47, p.635-639
5. Farkas M. (2001), Dynamical models in Biology, Elsiver Inc.
6. Georgescu R-M. (2007), Applications of groups theory to the bifurcation study of some models
in biological dymamics. (Romanian) Ph. D. Thesis, Univ. Piteşti.
7. Schlomiuk D., Vulpe N.(2001), Geometry of quadratic differential systems in the neighbourhood
of the line at infinity, Report no. 2701, Centre de recherches mathématiques et de
Statistiques, Université. de Montreal.
8. Tilman D. (1982), Resource competition and community structure. Princeton University Press,
Priceton, N.J.
- 41 -
BACK
SURVEY ON DEVELOPMENT AND DIVERSIFICATION OF

ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES FOR GENERATING MULTIPLE
ACTIVITIES AND ALTERNATIVE INCOME BY
IMPLEMENTING MEASURE 3.4 OF SAPARD PROGRAM IN
SOME ANIMAL HUSBANDRY FARMS FROM NORTH-
EAST 1ST REGION
A. CHIRAN, Anca COSOVANU, Elena GÎNDU
The present survey presents the influence of the measure 3.4 of

S.A.P.A.R.D Program on the development and diversification of the economic
activities for generating some multiple activities and alternative income, in some
animal husbandry farms from North-East 1st region.
The survey was carried out within the Regional Payment Center for
Rural Development and Fishery and focused on the underlining in virtue of a
system of specific indicators of the most important outputs of the animal
husbandry farms (fishy, apicultural, snail farming) that benefited form
investments by SAPARD Program.
The survey showed that this field was insufficiently exploited because of
the farmers’ lack of trust in the promotion of new activities, of less favorable
natural conditions and of a less performant management and marketing in the
promoting and improvement of the products obtained in conditions of economic
efficiency.
Modern farmer must be an expert in many fields. It is necessary for him

to take lots of decisions starting with the status of crops, various agricultural
operations, and financial solutions for purchasing some equipment, the
constructions to develop, methods of solving some management formalities up to
applications for various sub-ventions and funds.
The success of an agricultural farm consists firstly in the ability to
manage them, to prevent the implication of the enterprise in the negative effects
chain that reverberates upon it and, at the same time, to provide a strategic line for
future evolution (Alecu I., 2003; Draft R., 1989; Gradinariu M., Manolescu
Irina, 2006; Oancea Margareta, 2003; Tracy M., 2000).
Along with the integration of Romania in the European Union, the
national economy and its agricultural and food sector must align to the standards
and norms requested by EU (Zahiu Letitia, 2006).
The pre-adherence special program for agriculture and rural
development– S.A.P.A.R.D. set the technical and financial requirements
necessary for the process of adherence to the European structures.
The main objectives of the measure 3.4 are: supporting the agricultural
activities in the rural environment by assistance of specific services – for this
purpose, one proposes the support of setting the organization of agricultural
- 42 -
machines and maintenance services for agricultural services; supporting the

activities of youngsters and women; supporting the activities specific for rural
tourism (agricultural and sylvan tourism); maintenance and development of
traditional handicraft activities, development of aquaculture, apiculture, snail
farming and growth of mushrooms.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The object of the survey is the influence of SAPARD Program over the
North - East 1st region during 2004 -2006 and it was carried out within the
Regional Payment Center for Rural Development and Fishery.
The survey focused on the following objectives: drawing the research
plan for collecting of information, bibliographic research, monitoring of statistical
data and centralizing of questionnaires addressed to the department of promotion.
For the determination of some important results, there were analyzed the
following indicators:
¾ evolution of investments by categories;
¾ comparative situation of the 3 types of investments from the value
point of view;
¾ rate of investments in the North-East 1st region;
¾ review of investments in animal husbandry sector (apiculture,
fishery and snail farming) by counties.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A first indicator analyzed refers to the dynamics of the projects submitted
during 2004 – 2006 (table 1).
Table 1
Evolution of investments by categories
Total projects Out of which for apiculture, fishery and
Item Year submitted Measure 3.4 snail farming:
0 0
N N %
1. 2004 38 5 13,2
2. 2005 84 23 27,4
3. 2006 174 56 32,2
Total 296 84 28.4
From the presented data, it is observed an increase of the number of

projects submitted, thus in comparison with year 2004, in year 2006 the increase
was of 16, 8 times.
This increase is determined by the positive influence of the following
factors: facilitation of access too financing by simplification of procedures,
aggressive promotion of measure 3.4 by the apparition of some related financial
- 43 -
instruments that purpose is facilitating the access to financial resources necessary

for co-financing of projects, such as:
¾ Farmer Program;
¾ Rural Credit Guarantee Fund;
¾ Fund of Credit Guarantee for Small and Medium Sized Enterprises.
In comparison with the total number of projects submitted within 3.4
measure, the projects in the field of fishery, apiculture and snail farming have
relatively low rates: 4,4 % (fishery farms), 11,5 % (snail farming) and 12,5 %
(beekeeping farms).
Table 2
Rates of investments in the North-East 1st Region
Measure 3.4
% of total Other projects of
Investments No projects Investments M 3.4 investments of
measure 3.4
Fishery farms 13 4,4
Apiculture 37 12,5 212
Snail farms 34 11,5
Total 84 28,4 296
From the value point of view, it is observed an important change

regarding the rate occupied by the investments of the third categories (fig. 1).
Snail farming
Apiculture 1200 thousand
1509 thousand Euro
Euro 20,7%
26%
Fishery
3090 thousand
Euro
53,3%
Figure 1 - Comparative situation of the 3 types of investments by value
The current situation may be justified by the following:

¾ The apiculture raised the highest interest for investments due to
the advantageous report between the size of investment and the
- 44 -
profit it generates, to the existence of a traditional trade, as well

as to the favorable natural conditions for the development of
apiculture in the region of Moldova;
¾ The snail farms represent the second option by the criterion of the
number of projects in which the beneficiaries tend to invests. This
situation is explained by: aggressive promotion, the possibility to
get a high profit with a relatively small investment, as well as by
the need to improve the exploitation of a margin sector in the
animal husbandry production, a sector which is less developed
and represented in Romania;
¾ Fishery occupies the last place as regards the number of projects
due to the high level of investment, as well as of the complexity of
the situation.
Quantitatively, the territorial distribution in the three directions:
apiculture, snail farming and fishery is irregular and insufficient (fig. 2, fig.3,
fig.4).
This is due to the concentration of capital, to a high level of knowledge,
as well as to an efficient promotion in report to the high receptivity of the
potential investors of the big and well developed counties, such as Iasi and Bacau.
If from the point of the geo-climatic conditions, counties such as Piatra
Neamt, Suceava, Botosani and Vaslui have better conditions in comparison with
Iasi and Bacau counties, the economic factor is critical in this situation.
Nevertheless, it is remarked the low penetration of the investments in these
directions in relation with the expectations and funds allotted by the European
Union by SAPARD Program.
10000
2602
1655
1015
1000 824
500
199
100 Number of projects

Thousand Euro
10
4
3
2 2
1 1
1
Iasi Bacau Botosani Neamt Suceava Vaslui
Figure 2 - Review of investments in fishery, by counties, according to

the number of projects
- 45 -
1000
690
292 265
215
100
28 Num ber of projects

18 Thous and Euro
11
10
4
3
1 0 0
1
Ias i Bacau Botos ani Neam t Suceava Vas lui
Figure 3 - Review of investments in apiculture, by counties,

according to the number of projects
1000 791
246
186 211
112
100
Number of projects
Thousand Euro
10 8 8 7
6
5
0 0
1
Iasi Bacau Botosani Neamt Suceava Vaslui
Figure 4 - Review of investments in snail farming, by counties,

according to the number of projects
The motivation for the low degree of development of these directions

consists in the generally low receptivity towards them due to the reserve of the
potential beneficiaries by the lack of vision over the perspective of developing a
successful business. This situation is generated by objective factors such as
amortization of investment on long term, climatic instability of the last years, and
lack of business management knowledge, promotion and purchase of products.
As regards value, there were no evident differences.
CONCLUSIONS
1. During the review period, although there was an evident growth both of the
number of projects and of its value, the results in this field were not in
accordance with the existent potential in the North-East 1st Region, the
available funds and the planed development targets.
- 46 -
BACK
2. The main arguments that determine the placing of some counties on the first
places are: existence of capital, degree of information, features of the region
and tradition.
3. Although, the interest shown towards the three directions of investments was
relatively low, it must be noticed that the investments carried out contributed
to the process of development and efficiency of the fishery, apiculture and
snail farming.
4. For the future one needs to identify new means for a better information
regarding the traction of the receptivity of the potential investors and the
implementation of projects so that to ensure a durable development,
supporting and efficient.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Alecu I., 2003 - Agricultural Management in Romania. Past, Present and Future Ceres
Publishing House, Bucharest.
2. Chiran A. and coll., 1998 – The policy of rural development in Romania. Rev. Cercetări
agronomice în Moldova, Bucureşti.
3. Chiran A., Ciurea I.V., Gîndu Elena, Ignat Gabriela, 2006 – Management, marketing şi
gestiune economică. Ed. Performantica, Iaşi.
4. Dona I., 2000 - Politici agricole.Ed. Semne, Bucureşti.
5. Dona I., 2002 – Managementul dezvoltării rurale. Ed. Economică, Bucureşti.
6. Draft R., 1989, Management, The Dryden Press, New York.
7. Gradinariu M., Mihai C., 2006 - Management of Romanian Agricultural Enterprise to the
Market Economy, Alexandru Ioan Cuza Publishing House, Iasi.
8. Oancea Margareta, 2003 - Modern Management in Agricultural Unities, Publishing House
Ceres, Bucharest.
9. Tracy M., 2000, Food Products and Agriculture in Market Economy, Impex Publishing House
92.
10. Zahiu Letitia and coll., 2006 - European Union Agriculture under the impact of the Common
Aricultural Policy Ceres Publishing House, Galati.
- 47 -
BACK
RESEARCHES ON THE ACTIVITY OF TOTAL AMYLASE -

AN ENZYME INVOLVED IN THE MOBILIZATION OF
RESERVE SUBSTANCES - IN SOME GRAMINACEAE
SPECIES
Elena CIORNEA, Gabriela VASILE
The investigations were devoted to the activity of total amylase, an

enzyme involved in the mobilization of the reserve substances in some
graminaceae species: Panicum miliaceum (millet), Setaria pumila (bristle grass),
Festuca pratensis (hair grass) and Sorghum sudanense (Sudan grass). At the
same time, the germinative capacity of the caryopses under study was
determined, alongwith the optimum pH conditions of the amylolitic activity.
The caryopses have been treated with 3% oxygenated water, for the
removal of the possible pathogenic germs or of some substances that might have
influenced the germination process, and then let to soak for 24 hours.
Germination of caryopses was made at room temperature, in Petri boxes lined
inside with filtering paper wetted with distilled water, samples taking over being
performed at intervals of 24 hours, for 10 days.
The enzymatic activity was determined by the Noelting-Brenfeld method
and as the substrate of amylase is the starch, the concentration of this
polysaccharide has been evaluated, for each series of samples, by the
polarimetric method. Also, for evidencing enzyme’s specific activity, the
concentration of proteins was dosed by the Bradford method, finally the results
being processed statistically.
The obtained data, agreeing with those provided by literature, show that
the total amylasic activity in germinated caryopses of millet, bristle grass, hair
grass and Sudan grass is maximum for a pH interval ranging between 5.5 - 6.5.
Along the 10 days of the germination process, the total amylasic activity
shows a Gauss-type dynamics in all species taken into study, certain differences
being registered as to the moment in which the maximum activity is attained. Thus,
in Panicum miliaceum, the maximum specific activity of total amylases was
registered at 120 hours of the germination process, in Setaria pumila and Festuca
pratensis - at 144 hours, and in Sorghum sudanense - at 168 germination hours,
respectively, along with a correlation between the enzymatic activity and the ratio
of substrate mobilization.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The experiments were developed on germinated caryopses of Panicum
miliaceum, Setaria pumila, Festuca pratensis and Sorghum sudanense.
The caryopses have been treated with 3% oxygenated water, for the
removal of the possible pathogenic germs or of some substances that might have
influenced the germination process, and then let to soak for 24 hours.
Germination of caryopses was made at room temperature, in Petri boxes lined
- 48 -
inside with filtering paper wetted with distilled water, samples taking over being
performed at intervals of 24 hours, for 10 days.
The enzymatic activity was determined by the Noelting-Brenfeld method,
based on the reduction of the free maltose resulting from the enzymatic hydrolysis
of starch with 3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid, with formation of 3-amino-5-nitrosalicylic
acid, orange in color, determined colorimetrically at 540 nm.
As the substrate of amylase is the starch, the concentration of this
polysaccharide has been evaluated, for each series of samples, by the polarimetric
method. Also, for evidencing enzyme’s specific activity, the concentration of
proteins was dosed by the Bradford method, and the results were processed
statistically (BRADFORD, 1976; ARTENIE and TĂNASE, 1981; FOWLER et al.,
2000; COJOCARU, 2005).

As the amylolytic activity depends strictly on both the germination degree and
pH of the incubation medium, a first stage of the present study was oriented towards the
determination of the germination capacity of the seeds from the species under
investigation, as well as of the optimum incubation pH. The germination capacity of the
analyzed caryopses is of 71% at Setaria pumila, 83% at Panicum miliaceum, 85% at
Festuca pratensis and 91%, respectively, at Sorghum sudanense.
For attaining an as high as possible reproducibility degree of the
experimental results and for eliminating the errors induced by possible differences in
the operation mode, a first series of experiments was devoted to the determination of
the optimum pH conditions for the activity of the enzymes taken into study.
Literature data (COJOCARU et al., 2007) evidence the apical part played by
the pH action of the enzymatic catalysis, the biological catalysts being especially
sensible to the large variations of this parameter. Generally, the pH may affect the
enzymatic activity either in an irreversible manner - when denaturation of the
protein-enzyme macromolecules occur, - or reversibly, by influencing the ionization
degree of the substrate, of the enzyme or of the enzyme-substrate complex. For all
enzymes known up to now, the graphical representation of the dependence of the
enzymatic reaction speed on the pH of the incubation medium appears as a Gauss
curve, the maximum catalytic activity being registered at well-determined pH
values, known as optimum action pH, which differs from one enzyme to another
(COJOCARU, 1997; COJOCARU et al., 2007).
The influence of pH on the stability of the enzyme is tested by exposure
to different values of the hydrogen ions concentrations, by readjusting the pH to
the optimum action value, and by testing the catalytic activity.
The present investigations analyzed the manner in which the ionization
state of the enzyme or of the enzyme-substrate complex influences the rate of the
enzymatic reaction. To this end, the samples were incubated at 40°C, for 30
minutes, in aqueous media with various pH values, obtained by addition of either
- 49 -
acetic acid or sodium hydroxide to the acetate buffer solution, on maintaining

constant all the other reaction conditions. The data expressing the activity of total
amylase under various pH conditions are synthetically given in Figure 1.
Micromoles maltose/g 3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
3.5 4 5.5 6.5 7
pH
P. miliaceum S. pumila F.pratensis S.sudanense
Fig.1. Influence of the incubation medium pH on the activity of total amylase

in some cultivated and spontaneous graminaceae
Data referring to the dependence of the enzymatic activity on the pH of

the incubation medium show that the activity of total amylase in germinated
caryopses of Panicum miliaceum, Setaria pumila, Festuca pratensis and Sorghum
sudanense is maximum over a pH interval between 5.5 - 6.5, which agrees with
literature information, according to which, in the case of millet, the optimum
action pH of α-amylase is of 5.4, while β-amylase has an optimum pH of 6.0
(GIMBI and KITABATAKE, 2003). In the lentil cotyledons (Lens esculenta L.), the
optimum action pH of α-amylase is of 6.1 (SHAHA et al., 2004), while the
optimum action pH of the α-amylase from coffee beans is between 4.5 - 5.2
(VALENCIA et al., 2000), and the β-amylase from the sweet potato has - according
to LEE and WHELAN (1965) - an optimum pH situated between 4.0 - 5.0,
somehow higher values (5.3 - 5.8) being reported by VITAL et al. (1994).
At low pH values, a pronounced decrease of the enzymatic activity may
be observed, to be explained - on one hand, by the cleavage mechanism of the
glycosidic link imaged by Thoma and Koshland (1960), in which an important
role in catalysis is played by the D - 179, E - 204, D - 289 dicarboxylic
aminoacids, at low pH values the carboxylic group occurring in a non-ionized
form while - as the aminoacid cannot fix glycosidic rest - the catalytic process is
blocked. On the other hand, the 3.5 - dinitrosalicilic reactive is strongly basic, as
due to sodium hydroxide, while the incubate from which the amount of maltose
might induce - as a result of its intensely acid pH - denaturation of the reactive,
thus modifying the process of color development. At high pH values, a slight
decrease of the enzymatic activity may be noticed, over this value the acetate
buffer solution loosing its buffering capacity.
- 50 -
During germination of the graminaceae seeds under analysis, the activity

of total amylases suffers some modifications. Thus, for each of the samples
considered, three parallel determinations were made the results obtained being
processed statistically, on also calculating the standard error, standard deviation,
the coefficients of mean's variation and means precision.
In the graminaceae caryopses occurring in biological repose (moment
zero), the activity of total amylase attains its maximum threshold; after a
germination period of 24 hours, total amylase records a slight increase, the
maximum activity being registered in the middle of the time interval under
analysis, differences being evidenced from one species to another (i.e., in millet,
the maximum peak occurs after 120 hours of germination, in bristle grass and hair
grass at 144 hours from the beginning of the germination process and in Sudan
grass, respectively, at 168 hours) (CIORNEA et al., 2006).
Such dynamics of the total amylasic activity permits the assumption that
mobilization of the reserve starch for assuring the energy necessary in metabolic
processes starts as early as the first hours of the germination process even if, in
the beginning, the catalytic activity is modest.
The gradual diminution of the amylolytic activity in the second stage of
the interval under study might be explained by a gradual diminution of the
amount of starch and also by a possible initiation of the photosynthetic process,
which assures itself the precursors of the metabolic processes.
Another objective of the present study involved determination of the
amount of starch in the caryopses during germination, once known that, in
cereals, starch synthesis occurs - at the level of the endosperm - according to an
unique mechanism, involving enzymatic isoforms which are not to be found in the
tissues of other non-cereal plants (GENSCHEL et al., 2002; JAMES et al., 2003). On
the other hand, starch represents the main reserve polysaccharide in cereals,
which might mean that, during germination, a perfect correlation is manifested
between the total amylolytic activity and the rate of starch degradation.
However, a comparison between the dynamics of starch concentration
(or, in other words, the rate at which this polysaccharide gets degraded) and the
total amylasic activity evidences no perfect similitudes. On one hand, the total
amylolytic activity increases progressively in the first period, while the starch
concentration records a progressive decrease, yet not entirely superposable with
the amylasic activity. On the other hand, in the second period over which the
experiments were performed, the amylasic activity decreased quite rapidly, yet
without any diminution in the rate of starch degradation (Figs. 2 - 5).
- 51 -
Fig.2. Correlation between starch concentration and total amylase

in germinated caryopses of Panicum miliaceum

in germinated caryopses of Setaria pumila

in germinated caryopses of Festuca pratensis
- 52 -

in germinated caryopses of Sorghum sudanense
Intensification of the metabolics processes assumes the occurrence of a

dynamics characteristic to the concentration of the total soluble proteins, at least
due to the activity of the enzymes and to the acceleration of the biosynthesis of
some new ones.
As to the dynamics of soluble protein concentration, this is somehow
different from that of starch. Thus, in the first three days, a progressive - yet not
intense - decrease of proteic concentration is registered, followed by its increase
in the next five days, up to values which do not exceed the reference ones, after
which they get stabilized at approximately the same level with that of the
reference. This means that, after the first three days, the biosynthetic processes are
also considerably accelerated, starting - probably - with the biosynthesis of all
enzymes necessary in the metabolic processes for assuring the development of
both embryo and plantlet (Fig. 6).
18
mg % 16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
Hours of germination
Fig.6. Soluble protein concentration in germinated caryopses of Panicum miliaceum
On the basis of protein concentration, the specific activity could be

subsequently determined, the fact that this dynamic is highly similar to the one
calculated for the total amylolytic activity demonstrating that the investigators
succeeded in maintaining relatively constant the conditions of samples
- 53 -
homogenization and of total amylase extraction, as well as the conditions under

which the other stages of determinations have been performed (Fig. 7).
80
70
Micromoles maltose/
mg protein 60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
Fig.7. Specific activity dynamics of total amylase in germinated

caryopses of Panicum miliaceum
As to the Setaria pumila species, one may observe that both proteins
concentration and the specific activity show a similar dynamics, the only observation
to be made being that the recorded values are somehow lower (Figs. 8 - 9).
14
mg %
12
10
2
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
Fig.8. Soluble protein concentration in germinated caryopses of Setaria pumila

60
Micromoles maltose/
50
mg protein
40
30
20
10
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
Fig.9. Dynamics of the specific activity of total amylase in germinated caryopses

of Setaria pumila
- 54 -
25
mg%
20
15
10
0
24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
Fig.10. Soluble protein concentration in germinated caryopses of Festuca pratensis
In Festuca pratensis, mention should be made - on one side - that both

proteins concentration and the specific activity follow a different curve (the
values of proteinemy recording a slightly ascending increase up to 144
germination hours, followed by a slow decrease, the specific activity being
maintained relatively constant up to 144 germination hours, when a sudden leap is
recorded) while, on the other hand, the values of the two parameters are much
higher than the values of the previously analyzed species (Figs. 10 - 11).
120
Micromoles maltose/
100
mg protein
80
60
40
20
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
Fig.11. Dynamics of the specific activity of total amylase in germinated

caryopses of Festuca pratensis
As to the Sorghum sudanense species, a quite ample oscillation of proteic

concentration may be observed from one germination day to another, while the
specific activity attains its maximum threshold - which is about four times higher
than in the other species under study - at 168 hours from the beginning of the
germination process (Figs. 12 - 13).
- 55 -
12
mg %
10
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
Fig.12. Soluble protein concentration in germinated caryopses of Sorghum sudanense
500
Micromoles maltose/
450
400
mg protein
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
Fig.13. Dynamics of the specific activity of total amylase in germinated

caryopses of Sorghum sudanense
Starting from the statistical analysis of the experimental results obtained,

a comparison between the calculated and the critical values of the factors permits
the following assertions:
¾ the calculated value of the factor on columns (31875.885) is considerably
higher than its critical value (2.282) - which means rejection of the null
hypothesis (H01) and acceptance of the alternative one (H11), namely that
significant differences are observed as to the activity of total amylase in the
species under study;
¾ the calculated value of the factor on rows (16149.482) is much higher than its
critical value (1.903), which means rejection of the null hypothesis H02 and
acceptance of the alternative one; consequently, significant differences should be
mentioned between the activity of total amylase and the germination hours;
¾ as to the interaction factor, one may see that its calculated value (3630.762) is
higher than the critical one (1.447), which means rejection of the null hypothesis
and acceptance of the alternative one - that is, both the species and the
germination time influence the enzymatic activity, even if in different ratios.
- 56 -
3000
micromoles maltose / g
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 24 48 72 96 12 0 14 4 16 8 19 2 21 6 24 0
Panicum miliaceum Setaria pumila

Festuca pratensis Sorghum sudanense
Fig.14. Comparative representation of total amylase individual values

in some graminaceae during the germination period
CONCLUSIONS
¾ Along the 10 days of the germination process, the total amylasic activity shows
a Gauss-type dynamics in all species taken into study, certain differences being
registered as to the moment in which the maximum activity is attained. Thus, in
Panicum miliaceum, the maximum specific activity of total amylases was
registered at 120 hours of the germination process, in Setaria pumila and Festuca
pratensis - at 144 hours, and in Sorghum sudanense - at 168 germination hours,
respectively, along with a correlation between the enzymatic activity and the ratio
of substrate mobilization.
¾ As to the dynamics of the concentration of total soluble proteins, obtained for
the determination of the specific activity, this is somehow different and
fluctuating from one species to another, attaining values that exceed those of the
reference, after which they get stabilized at approximately the same level, which
means that - possibly - after the first days, a significant acceleration of the
biosynthetic processes occurs, probably starting with the biosynthesis of all
enzymes necessary for the metabolic processes assuring the development of both
embryo and plantlet.
REFERENCES
1. ARTENIE, V., TANASE, ELVIRA, 1981 - Practicum de biochimie generală, Ed. Univ.
„Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iaşi, 94 - 99.
2. BRADFORD, M. M., 1976 - A rapid and sensitive method for the quantification of microgram
quantities of protein utilizing the principle of protein-dye binding, Anal. Biochem., 72: 248 - 254.
3. CIORNEA, ELENA, ARTENIE, VL., COJOCARU, D. C., VASILE, GABRIELA, 2006 -
The dynamics of total amylase’s activity in Panicum miliaceum and Setaria glauca during the
germination period, An. Şt. Univ. „Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iaşi, s. II a Genetică şi Biologie
Moleculară, Tom VII, Fasc. 1, 43 - 48.
4. COJOCARU, D. C., 1997 - Enzimologie, Ed. Gama, Iaşi, 22 - 26.
5. COJOCARU, D. C., 2005 - Enzimologie practică, Ed. Tehnopress, Iaşi, 233 - 246.
- 57 -
BACK
6. COJOCARU, D. C., SANDU, MARIANA, 2004 - Biochimia proteinelor şi acizilor nucleici,

Ed. Pim, Iaşi, 61 - 71.
7. FOWLER, J., COCHEN, L., JARVIS, P., 2000 - Practical statistics for field biology,
Second Edition, Ed. by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., England, 186 - 207.
8. GENSCHEL, U., ABEL, G., LORZ, H., LUTTICKE, S., 2002 - The sugary type isoamylase
in wheat: tissue distribution and subcellular localization, Planta, 214: 813 - 820.
9. GIMBI, D. M., KITABATAKE, N., 2002 - Changes in alpha and beta - amylase activities
during seed germination of American finger millet, Int. J. Food Sci. Nutr., 53 (6): 481 - 488.
10. JAMES, MARTHA, DENYER, K., MYERS, A., 2003 - Starch synthesis in the cereal
endosperm, Current Opinion in Plant Biology, 6: 215 - 222.
11. LEE, E., WHELAN, W., 1965 - An enzymic impurity in crystalline sweet- potato beta-
amylase, Biochem. J., 95: 27.
12. SHAHA, R. K., SANA, N. K., KARIM REZAUL, M., 2004 - Characterization of alpha
amylase from lentil (Lens esculenta L.) cotyledons, Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 7 (6):
1050 - 1056.
13. VALENCIA, A., BUSTILLO, A. E., OSSA, G. E., CHRISPEELS, M. J., 2000 - Alpha
amylases of the coffee berry borer (Hypothenemus hampei) and their inhibition by two plant
amylase inhibitors, Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol., 30 (3): 207 - 213.
14. VITAL, HAGENIMANA, LOUIS, VEZINA, RONALD, E.S., 1994 - Sweet potato alpha
and beta amylases: characterization and kinetic studies with endogenous inhibitors, Journal of Food
Science, 59 (2): 373.
- 58 -
BACK
ON THE DYNAMICS OF THE ACTIVITY OF TOTAL

AMYLASE IN VARIOUS ORGANS OF PANICUM
MILIACEUM AND SORGHUM SUDANENSE –
A COMPARATIVE STUDY
Elena CIORNEA, Gabriela VASILE
The paper develops a comparative analysis on the dynamics of the total

amylasic activity in various organs (root, embryonic grain and leaf) in two
gramineae species - Panicum miliaceum (millet) and Sorghum sudanense (Sudan
grass). Determination of enzymatic activity, as well as dosing of the soluble proteins
(for the calculation of specific activity) in the respective supernatants involved - each
- three parallel samples, the results obtained representing the mean value of these
repetitions.
The activity of amylases was determined by the Noelting - Brenfeld method,
based on the reduction of the free maltose resulted from the enzymatic hydrolysis of
starch, with 3, 5 - dinitrosalicylic acid, which is accompanied by the formation of an
orange-colored 3-amino-5-nitrosalicylic acid, evidenced colorimetrically at 540 nm.
At the same time, the concentration of proteins has been dosed by the Bradford
method, for determining the specific activity of the enzyme, followed - in a final step -
by the statistical processing of the results obtained.
In millet grains, after 168 hours of germination, the activity of the enzyme is
almost imperceptible (8.007 - 10.808 µM maltose/g, which is the result of the starch
reserve exhaustion, representing one third of the activity grasped in the roots and the
one - seventeenth part, respectively, from that of the whole plant.
The results of the experimental investigations evidenced the fact that, for
both species under study, the amylolytic activity is considerably higher at the leaf
level, a possible explanation referring to the role played by the foliar tissue - that of
“central residence” of the substances metabolism.
As to the protein concentration and specific activity in the extracts from the
analyzed samples, one may observed that in both species they follow the same curve,
in Sorghum sudanense the values obtained being, nevertheless, higher (0.405 - 2.026
µM maltose/mg protein in the roots, 0.730 - 1.507 µM maltose/mg protein in the
grain and 3.008 - 12.958 µM maltose/mg protein in the leaves).
MATERIALS AND METHOD

The experiments have been developed on small roots, embryonic grain
and stems of Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum sudanense.
The activity of amylases was determined by the Noelting - Brenfeld
method, based on the reduction of the free maltose resulted from the enzymatic
hydrolysis of starch, with 3, 5 - dinitrosalicylic acid, which is accompanied by the
formation of an orange-colored 3-amino-5-nitrosalicylic acid, evidenced
colorimetrically at 540 nm. The enzymatic activity has been expressed in µM
maltose/g. At the same time, the concentration of proteins has been dosed by the
Bradford method, for determining the specific activity of the enzyme, followed -
- 59 -
in a final step - by the statistical processing of the results obtained (BRADFORD,

1976; ARTENIE and TĂNASE, 1981; FOWLER et al., 2000; COJOCARU, 2005).
For a differentiated determination of the amylase activity in root, grain
and stem, these organs have been separately harvested, the enzyme extraction
being performed with distilled water, at +4°C, for 30 minute, followed by
centrifugation of the homogenates at 3000 rpm, for 15 minutes.

As generally known, during the germination period, the enzymes act upon
the reserve substances, for the formation and differentiation of the various tissues
and organs which - once individualized - have the capacity of growing and of
reaching maturity by a metabolism of their own.
Consequently, our investigations were aimed, among other, at
determining the activity of total amylase in various tissues (roots, embryonic
grain, leaves), for further evidencing the possible differences or similarities
recorded in the activity of this enzyme. As such organs appear towards the end of
the germination period, the samples have been taken over beginning with the 7th
day, up to 240 hours of germination, from the Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum
sudanense species, seen as harmoniously developing under laboratory conditions
(CIORNEA et al., 2005).
Figure 1 shows that, in Panicum miliaceum, the activity of total amylase
in the roots ranges between 10.235 - 28.988 µM maltose/g - a value
approximately 25 times lower than the total amylase in the whole plant.
30
Micromoles maltose/g
25
20
15
10
0
168 192 216 240
Fig.1. Total amylase activity (µM maltose/g) in Panicum miliaceum roots
As to the presence of total amylase in millet grains, after 168 hours of

germination, the observation may be made that the activity of the enzyme is
almost imperceptible (8.007 - 10.808 µM maltose/g, which is the result of the
starch reserve exhaustion, representing one third of the activity grasped in the
roots and the one - seventeenth part, respectively, from that of the whole plant.
- 60 -
12
10
0
168 192 216 240
Fig.2. Total amylase activity (µM maltose/g) in Panicum miliaceum grains
In the millet leaves, the activity of total amylase is very high,

comparatively with that developed in roots and grains, ranging between 113.080 -
370.290 µM maltose/g (Fig. 3), as probably due to the very intense metabolism
recorded at this level, on also knowing that the foliar tissue becomes the “head
quarters” of substance metabolism, which supports the idea of ASATSUMA et al.,
2005, according to whom the α-amylase from chloroplasts and from the Golgi
endoplasmatic reticule plays an essential part in degrading the starch from the rice
leaves (Oryza sativa). Other authors (LEVI and PREISS, 1978; KAKEFUDA et al.,
1986) evidenced that, in the case of barley (Hordeum vulgare), the α-amylase is
either absent or it develops a much diminished activity in the chloroplasts of the
green leaves.
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
168 192 216 240
Fig.3. Total amylase activity (µM maltose/g) in Panicum miliaceum leaves
Starting from the mean values and standard deviation of all analyzed
samples, there have been subsequently calculated the upper and lower limits of
the confidence intervals, on the basis of the critical value t (α, n-1), given by α =
0.05 and by n-1 degrees of freedom, i.e. t (0.05, 3), as illustrated in Figure 4.
As to the concentration of proteins in various organs, the observation to
be made is that - in the case of millet - the protein dynamics is different from one
organ to another, being nevertheless relatively constant - at the level of the same
organ - from one germination day to another (Fig. 5).
- 61 -
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
168 192 216 240 168 192 216 240 168 192 216 240
Root Grain Leeaf

Fig.4. Confidence intervals of total amylase activity in

Panicum miliaceum roots, grains and leaves
35
mg% 30
25
20
15
10
5
0
168 192 216 240
Root Grain Leaf
Fig.5. Protein concentration in different organs of Panicum miliaceum
The comparative graphical representation of the specific activity of total

amylase evidences a clear-cut difference, in favor of the foliar tissue (Fig. 6).
14
12
Micromoles maltose/
10
mg protein
8
6
4
2
0
168 192 216 240
Root Grain Leaf
Fig.6. Specific activity dynamics of total amylase

in different organs of Panicum miliaceum
In Sorghum sudanense, the activity of total amylase in the roots is

somewhat higher than in Panicum miliaceum, varying between 12.162 µM
maltose/g, at 168 germination hours, and 40.395 µM maltose/g, in the last day of
germination under analysis (Fig. 7).
- 62 -
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
168 192 216 240
Fig.7. Total amylase activity (µM maltose/g) in Sorghum sudanense roots
In the Sudan grass grains and leaves, the dynamics of the total amylase
activity follows the same curve as the one described for the millet, with the only
difference that the minimum value in the grain is even lower (6.737 µM maltose/g
at 240 hours from the initiation of the germination process), while - in the leaf - it
is more pronounced (421.634 µM maltose/g) (Figs. 8 - 9).
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
168 192 216 240
Fig.8. Total amylase activity (µM maltose/g) in Sorghum sudanense grains
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
168 192 216 240
Fig.9. Total amylase activity (µM maltose/g) in Sorghum sudanense leaves
Here, again, the limits of the confidence intervals have been calculated
and plotted graphically for all organs subjected to analysis, very narrow values
- 63 -
being recorded - which shows that the deviation from the mean value is non-
significant (Fig. 10).
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
168 192 216 240 168 192 216 240 168 192 216 240
Root Grain Leaf

Fig.10. Confidence intervals of total amylase activity

in Sorghum sudanense roots, grains and leaves
As to the protein concentration and specific activity in the extracts from the
analyzed samples, one may observed - as also evidenced by the graphical illustration
(Figs. 11 - 12) - that they follow the same curve as the previously analyzed sample,
the values obtained being, nevertheless, higher (0.405 - 2.026 µM maltose/mg
protein in the roots, 0.730 - 1.507 µM maltose/mg protein in the grain and 3.008 -
12.958 µM maltose/mg protein in the leaves of Sorghum sudanense).
40
mg % 35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
168 192 216 240
Root Grain Leaf
Fig.11. Protein concentration in different organs of Sorghum sudanense

14
Micromoles maltose/
12
mg protein
10
8
6
4
2
0
168 192 216 240
Root Grain Leaf
Fig.12. Specific activity dynamics of total amylase

in different organs of Sorghum sudanense
- 64 -
Further on, a comparative study was devoted to the activity of total

amylase in different organs (roots, grain and leaves), during their formation, for
evidencing the possible similarities or differentiations in the dynamics of the
amylolytic activity. Consequently, a comparison between the values of the two
(calculated and statistical) factors led to the following conclusions:
¾ considerable differences were registered in the enzymatic activity of the two
species, the calculated value of the factor on columns (129.83) being significantly
higher than its critical value (4.493);
¾ the calculated value of the factor on rows (4980.743) is, again, much higher
than its critical value (3.238), which indicates that some differences exist between
the activity of total amylase in the roots and the germination hours;
¾ as to the interaction factor, one may observe that its calculated value (210.827)
is higher than the critical one (3.238), both factors (the species and the
germination time) influencing the enzymatic activity.
Table I. Anova model bifactorial test (summary) with replication of total amylase activity
in Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum sudanense roots during the germination period
Species Count Sum Average Variance
Panicum miliaceum 12 208.414 17.367 58.068
Sorghum sudanense 12 273.319 22.776 133.474
Table II. Calculated and critical values of total amylase activity factors in
Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum sudanense roots during the germination period
Source of variability SS g. l. SS Calculated F Critical F
Rows 2019.334 3 673.111 4980.743 3.238
Columns 175.527 1 175.527 1298.83 4.493
Interaction 85.475 3 28.491 210.827 3.238
Within 2.162 16 0.135
Total 2282.499 23
SS = sum of squares, g. l. = degree of freedom, SS = average sum of squares
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
168 192 216 240
Panicum miliaceum Sorghum sudanense
Fig.13. Comparative representation of the individual values of total amylase activity in

Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum sudanense roots during the germination period
- 65 -
The data systematized in Tables III - IV and Figure 14 permit the

following assertions:
¾ appreciable differences exist between the enzymatic activity recorded in millet
and Sudan grass, the calculated value of the factor on columns (157.383) being
significantly higher than its critical value (4.493), meaning that the null
hypothesis is therefore rejected;
¾ the calculated value of the factor on rows (193.362) is, once again, much
higher than its critical value (3.238), which evidences the existence of
considerable differences in the activity of total amylase developed in grains and
the germination hours;
¾ as to the interaction factor, the observation was made that its calculated value
(143.894) is higher than the critical one (3.238), which means rejection of the null
hypothesis (H03) and acceptance of the alternative one (H13), both factors (species
and germination time) influencing the enzymatic activity.
Table III.Anova model bifactorial test (summary) with replication of total amylase activity
in Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum sudanense grains during the germination period
Table IV. Calculated and critical values of the factors of total amylase activity in
Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum sudanense grains during the germination period
Source of variability SS g. l. SS Calculated F Critical F
Rows 78.537 3 26.179 193.362 3.238
Columns 21.308 1 21.308 157.383 4.493
Interaction 58.445 3 19.481 143.894 3.238
Within 2.166 16 0.135
Total 160.457 23
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
168 192 216 240

Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum sudanense grains during the germination period
- 66 -
As to the activity of total amylase in the leaves of Panicum miliaceum

and Sorghum sudanense, the data listed in Tables V - VI and Figure 15, along
with the comparative analysis of the calculated and, respectively, critical values of
the factors, lead to the following conclusions:
¾ the calculated value of the factor on columns (3330.06) is higher than its
critical value (4.493), which means rejection of the null hypothesis (H01) or, in
other words, considerable differences are observed between the activity of total
amylase in the leaves of millet and, respectively, Sudan grass;
¾ the calculated value of the factor on rows (132819.2) is much higher than its
critical value (3.238), which means rejection of the null hypothesis (H02) and
acceptance of the alternative one, permitting the assertion that pronounced
differences do exist between the activity of total amylase in the leaves and the
germination hours;
¾ as to the interaction factor, its calculated value (1184.444) is higher than the
critical one (36.238), which means rejection of the null hypothesis (H03), the
conclusion being that both factors (species and germination time) do influence the
enzymatic activity.
Table V. Anova model bifactorial test (summary) with replication of total amylase activity
in Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum sudanense leaves during the germination period
Table VI. Calculated and critical values of the factors of total amylase activity in
Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum sudanense leaves during the germination period
Source of
SS g. l. SS Calculated F Critical F
variability
Rows 277206.207 3 92402.07 132819.2 3.238
Columns 2316.715 1 2316.715 3330.06 4.493
Interaction 2472.045 3 824.015 1184.444 3.238
Within 11.131 16 0.695
Total 282006.1 23
- 67 -
BACK
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
168 192 216 240

Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum sudanense leaves during the germination period
CONCLUSIONS
The dynamics of total amylasic activity in the roots, grains and leaves of
Panicum miliaceum and Sorghum sudanense records very high values in the
leaves, which is probably due to the very intense metabolism developed at this
level, once known that the foliar tissue becomes the “headquarters” of the
substance metabolism.
In both species of graminaceae taken into study, the limits of the confidence
intervals of the amylolytic activity are extremely narrow in all the three organs
under investigations, which suggests a very low deviation from the average value.
REFERENCES
1. ARTENIE, V., TANASE, ELVIRA, 1981 - Practicum de biochimie generală, Ed. Univ.
„Alexandru Ioan Cuza” Iaşi, 94 - 99.
2. ASATSUMA, S., SAWADA, C., ITOH, K., OKITO, M., 2005 - Involvement of alpha-
amylase in starch degradation in rice chloroplasts, Plant and Cell Physiology, 46 (6): 858.
3. BRADFORD, M. M., 1976 - A rapid and sensitive method for the quantification of microgram
4. CIORNEA, ELENA, COJOCARU, D. C., VASILE, GABRIELA, 2005 - Some preliminary
data on the activity of total amylase, α- and β-amylase in the small roots and strains of millet and
bristle grass, Studii şi Cercetări, Biologie, Serie nouă, Ed. Univ. din Bacău, 10: 161 - 163.
5. COJOCARU, D. C., 2005 - Enzimologie practică, Ed. Tehnopress, Iaşi, 233 - 246.
6. FOWLER, J., COCHEN, L., JARVIS, P., 2000 - Practical statistics for field biology,
Second Edition, Ed. by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., England, 186 - 207.
7. KAKEFUDA, G., DUKE, S.H., HOSTAK, M. S., 1986 - Chloroplast and extrachloroplastic
starch - deradind enzymes in Pisum sativum L., Planta, 168: 175 - 182.
8. LEVI, C., PREISS, J., 1978 - Amylopectin degradation in pea chloroplast extracts, Plant
Physiology, 61: 218 - 220.
- 68 -
BACK
E-LEARNING TECHNOLOGIES IMPROVE TEACHING OF

NATURAL SCIENCES AND ECONOMY TO STUDENTS IN
AGRICULTURE
N. COJOCARU, M. CĂLIN, Cecilia POP, C. CHIRUŢĂ
The curricula in different specialties of Agriculture (Agronomy,

Horticulture, Animal Husbandry etc.) include courses in natural sciences and
economics. Previous expertise shows that teaching disciplines like Physics or
Economics is quite difficult, as the core knowledge of students in agricultural
sciences is remote from those areas, and their skills in dealing with the respective
concepts are not always very strong. Nowadays, e-learning technologies are
considered to be among the most efficient ways to improve the quality of teaching
and studying. There are more and more e-learning applications in service. The
paper presents an e-learning approach for two university courses: one in
Biophysics, addressed to first year students in Agronomy and Animal Husbandry,
and another one in the Science of Commodities, addressed to M.Sc. students in
Quality Management of Agrifood Products. They are part of a more complex e-
learning service under development within a Grid Computing project that was
initiated by five universities of Iasi, Romania. This project is aimed to ensure a
powerful distributed and integrated computational resource to the partners and
to create a collaborative research environment for people acting in various
scientific branches. The e-learning service for agricultural sciences is one of the
tasks that The University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of
Iasi are developing as project partner. This service would be enriched with more
and more modules to cover a larger spectrum of topics in agricultural sciences
and veterinary medicine and to provide a modern and efficient learning
environment for all types of educational frameworks.
INTRODUCTION
E-learning means education via the Internet, network, or standalone
computer. One of the most confusing aspects of e-learning is that many people
reduces its meaning to using electronic support to provide learning tools. In fact,
the "e" doesn't stand for "electronic", but could be better defined as Evolving or
Everywhere or Enhanced or Extended [2]
However, e-learning would not be possible without a modern computer
infrastructure, as it uses electronic applications and processes to learn, and
transfers skills and knowledge via network. E-learning applications and processes
include Web-based learning, computer-based learning, virtual classrooms, and
digital collaboration. Content is delivered via the Internet, intranet/extranet, audio
or video tape, satellite TV, and CD-ROM.
E-learning can have different goals, forms, costs, and applications. It may
be categorized with three types [3]. The first type is an open-university education.
- 69 -
Another type of e-learning is short courses, which last only a few weeks and
comprise a single subject. A third type is self-study by means of tutorials.
The e-learning platforms represent virtual realities which change the way
people experience and interact with computers. Using online learning through the
Internet, individuals can share information through remote interaction with each
other. Students can collaborate to learn, solve problems, can meet and interact.
The virtual environments can be used in the field of education, as a technology
having the potential to facilitate more active student and instructor collaboration
and learning, and help to provide distance education. Environments allow the
instructor to teach courses at their own technological comfort level by providing
templates for course management. A student should get the real classroom
experience even while accessing the courses remotely [4]
Moodle
The design and implementation of courseware, allowing remote student-
teacher interactions, can be achieved by using the features of Moodle, a software
package for producing internet-based courses and web sites. Moodle [5] is an
ongoing development project designed to support a social constructionist
framework of education. It is provided freely as Open Source software (under the
GNU Public License). The word Moodle was originally an acronym for Modular
Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment. The Founder and Lead
Developer Managing Director is Martin Dougiamas (Perth – Australia).
Moodle supplements the traditional face-to-face learning by providing
online-classes, is user friendly, simple, efficient, easy to install on any platform
that supports PHP. It requires an underlying SQL database. The entire system is
managed by an admin user during setup. Moodle has the following main modules.
Site Management. This module is used for site management used for web
interface. This application incorporates authentication mechanisms using plug-in
modules. The usual email mechanism enables students to create their own login
accounts which are verifiable by confirmation. The administrator can specify
which fields to use.
User Account Management. The account management is done through an
web interface; different sets of accounts can be created on the server. The admin
account has administrative privileges and controls course creation and user
accounts. Every individual has one account assigned for the entire server;
however access privileges may vary for these accounts. A course creator account
can be assigned privileges to create courses and teachers typically have editing
privileges which can be revoked to prevent course modification. Teachers can
also enroll and unenroll students manually. This process can however be
automated.
Course Management. The administrator has admin privileges to restrict
other teachers and also to control the overall settings for a course. The teacher can
set the course formats by week, by topic or by social format. An array of course
activities such as Quizzes, Forums, resources, assignments, etc can be developed.
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The course catalog homepage could be used to display any changes to the courses.
The webpage can also be used to post grades for quizzes and assignments. These
web pages can be edited using a web-based programming editor such as an
HTML editor. Activity reports can also be generated for logging and tracking
access information. Graphs and visual information can be embedded in these
reports.
Assignment module. This module is used to post assignments with due
dates wherein students can upload their assignments. It also provides a provision
to timestamp student submissions and to display grades.
Chat module. This module is, as obviously, text-based communication.
Choice Module. The Choice Module is used to obtain student feedback
through votes. It also supports graphical data.
Forum Module. This module enables discussions between teachers,
teachers and enrolled students, or between students. Discussions can be single or
multi-threaded. The module also supports images and also allows discussion
threads to be moved from one forum to another.
Quiz Module. The quiz module relies on a database of questions and is
able to generate a quiz for every student. Questions can be sequential or random.
The module allows quizzes to be created automatically and inserting the time-
frame for each quiz. At the teacher’s discretion, quizzes can be set for students to
attend multiple times and can also include images, true or false questions, short-
answer questions, embedded answer questions, etc.
Resource Module. In this module only text information are displayed in
present. The module supports interactive content such as video, sounds,
PowerPoint, flash, etc. It can also be seamlessly linked with external applications.
E-learning courses: pedagogy and technology
The pedagogy of a courses is based on facts that students have different
education background and that e-learning is unknown to most of participants.
Culture differences in the relation between teacher and participant may exist.
Therefore, an introductory e-learning example is first held to train students in
using the courseware. Participants and teachers get acquainted to each other and
an introduction to the topics is given. During the courses the progress of the
learning is tested by the participants themselves (self-tests) and/or by the teacher.
The participants of the e-learning courses must have access to the Internet,
a browser (for example Internet Explorer) and an e-mail program. The teachers
post lessons, literature, assignments and comments to the participants; the
participants send answers and questions to the teacher; participants can be
monitored. A calendar informs about the schedule of the course. Communication
between the participants and the teacher can also be carried out by means of
chatting, where several persons can take part at the same time. The browser has to
have some plug-ins in order to receive and to display different types of
courseware. General plug-ins are the pdf-file reader (for example Acrobat
Reader), the Flash Player and the Java byte code interpreter (also called Java
- 71 -
Virtual Machine) that translates applets into machine code of the used client
computer. Besides the electronic means of communication, hard-copy material
such as books and CDs, may be handed out to the participants of the courses. The
mixture of hard-copy material and electronic material may disappear when
e-learning will be more used in future.
Developping an e-learning service for students in agriculture
In 2006, four faculties and a research institute in Iasi, Romania started the
research project named Academic Grid for Complex Applications. The acronym
of the project is GRAI. The five participants in the project are:
The Technical University of Iasi, Faculty of Automatic Control and
Computer Engineering (which also holds the leadership of the
GRAI project);
Institute for Computer Science, Romanian Academy, in the
location of the Faculty of Electronics and Telecommunication;
The “Al. I. Cuza” University of Iasi, Faculty of Computer Science,
The University of Medicine and Pharmacy Iasi, Faculty of
Biomedical Engineering
The University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine
of Iasi, Faculty of Horticulture.
As its title shows, the GRAI project aims to develop a grid computing
structure for research and for other academic purposes. To achieve them, two
main directions must be followed:
1. Development of a grid computing system that would interconnect
the scientific and computational resources of the five partners.
2. Development of grid services and specific applications based on
them.
One of the tasks that The University of Agricultural Sciences and
Veterinary Medicine of Iasi undertakes within the project is the development of
an e-learning service for students in agricultural sciences. This service would be
enriched with more and more modules to cover a larger spectrum of topics in
agricultural sciences and veterinary medicine and to provide a modern and
efficient learning environment for all types of educational frameworks.
Currently, five courses are under construction: (1) E-learning exemple:
orientation in Moodle; (2) Biophysics and Agrometeorology; (3) Biophysics; (4)
Climatology (5) Science of Commodities.
Courseware design
The design of a courseware is planned in accordance with the contents, the
pedagogy and the technology. The contents is given by the curricula. An
introduction into the topic may be necessary. The participant should learn by
doing. A high degree of interactivity makes the learning much more interesting,
and the students should experience the progress in learning. Different assignments
are attached. It is be possible for students to perform self-tests. The courses are
also being updated according to the gained expertise and updating is quite easy.
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Basically, a courseware consists of a user interface, literature, learning programs,

multiple-choice quizzes and assignments.
Fig. 1. First page (start page)
Fig. 2. Available courses of fundamental sciences
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BACK
Fig. 3. Course categories
CONCLUSIONS
Nowadays, e-learning technologies are considered to be among the most
efficient ways to improve the quality of teaching and studying.
Moodle is a suitable, Open Source development environment for creating
and using e-learning courseware.
E-learning can improve the efficiency of teaching in all areas of agricultural
sciences, but would have a special effect in teaching topics in sciences and
economics to students in agriculture.
Acknowledgement. The GRAI project runs under the CEEX grant no. 74
II03/31.07.2006. CEEX is the excellence research framework created by the
Romanian Ministry of Education and Research.
REFERENCES
1. Calin M. , ACADEMIC GRID FOR COMPLEX APPLICATIONS, Coord. Craus M., UT Iasi,
Partner USAMV Iasi, CEEX, Cod MEC 2288, 2006-2008.
2. From http://www.managersforum.com/
3. Hőhle J. “Designing of Course Material for e-learning in photogrammetry” from
http://cartesia.org/
4. Jeffery, C., Dabholkar, A., Tachtevrenidis, K., Kim, Y. (2005). A Framework for Prototyping
Collaborative Virtual Environments. CRIWG, Retrieved December 21, 2005 from
http://www.cs.nmsu.edu/~jeffery/vcsc/vcsc.pdf].
5. Moodle home page: http://www.moodle.org; installation support, hosting, development,
consulting at http://moodle.com/.
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BACK
THE CONTENT OF BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE

SUBSTANCES OF PROPOLIS
Tatiana DABIJA, N. EREMIA
The problem concerning the establishment of the composition of the biologic

active substances from the propolis composition, especially in the aggravated
ecological environment is very actual. Accordingly to that, the aim of the
experiment was to study the propolis biologic active substances in different areas
and periods of collecting in Republic of Moldova. There was taken the samples
from collected propolis from each area (South, Centre, North) in spring time (April
- May), autumn (August-September) ant there was established the composition of
the biologic active substances (micro-, macroelements and heavy metals).
The experimental results showed that in the studied propolis the average
of the dry matter at the temperature of 650C was- 98,81%, but at the temperature
of 1050C it was – 96,73%. The average of beginning water in the propolis is -
1,19%, hygroscopic average– 2,08%, and total – 3,27%.
There was established that the quantity of studied microelements in the
collected propolis in spring time was 53,3 mg/kg in Central area and 133,8
mg/kg in South area. There was the higher amount of Zn – 70,9 and Mn – 11,5
mg/kg. At the same time in the collected propolis the amount of Cu was between
2,18 – 13,7 mg/kg, Co – 0,5 – 1,0 mg/kg, and Cr – 0,6 – 5,4 mg/kg.
The total quantity of studied microelements increased by 41,81 mg/kg, where
Co increased by 1,09, times Mn – 1,34, Cu – 1,36, Zn – 1,46 and Cr – 2,53 times.
The total amount of macroelements in collected propolis during spring
time was 5244,6 mg/kg, but in autumn time it was 3921,25 mg/kg. The higher
amount had the level of Co, which varied between 1000 – 4270 mg/kg in spring
time and 1130 - 1990 mg/kg in autumn time.
It is necessary to mention that the quantity of some elements in autumn
time increased: Mg – 1,69 times, Fe – 1,28 times, but the content of Ca, Na, K
and F phosphates felt down.
The average of ash faction in spring time consisted – 1,53%, and in
autumn time – 2,29%.
It was established that the total amount of heavy metals in collected
propolis from different areas of Republic of Moldova in spring time vary between
46,5mg/kg – 120,9mg/kg, and in autumn time it has been increased by 1,37 times,
the average being 114,4mg/kg.
The most part in heavy metals had Zn, its quantity in collected propolis
vary between 39,1 -153,0 mg/kg, Pl 1,85 – 8,33mg/kg and Cu 2,18 – 15,7mg/kg.
There was found a small amount of Cd which vary between 0,11 – 0,36mg/kg.
The problem of the ecological situation in whole world is getting worth,
and concerning to that, the question of improving the sanitary quality of bees
products has to be studied.
The quantity of macro-, and microelements and heavy metals in propolis is
not the same in different areas of Republic and different times of active season
and it mostly depends of the plants species from which it has been collected.
- 75 -
INTRODUCTION
The propolis is a resinous substance, which has a green or a brown colour,
sometimes it has yellow or red nuances, it has a pleasant smell of trees bulbs.
The bee use the propolis for covering the holes from their beehive for
making smaller the bee entrance, usually they use the propolis for greasing
sealing board for better cheeping of the temperature in the nest, to get stronger the
elements from the beehive and other. When the mice get into the beehive, usually
the bees kill then, and their bodies can not be thrown outside the beehive, the bees
cover them with the propolis, and they do not decompose. The propolis has
bacteriological and antiseptic characteristics, what does not allow the
development of decompose processes, and it has the protection role of the family
for different microorganismes. When the beehive is heated by the Sun the volatile
and ether substances, of the propolis volatilize, forming the aerosols what have
an antiseptic and disinfection influence inside the beehive. The bees families
which are on the Sunny places are less affected by the illnesses.
The bees collect the propolis from the bulbs, cheery, hazel, plumb, pine,
peach and horse nut trees, but the most valuable propolis is that what was
collected from the poplar tree. The propolis has the vegetal origin (Hristea C.,
1976).
The propolis is a natural product, secreted by the bees, and its chemical
composition, is not finial studied till now. The propolis is move and more used in
medicine that is way is necessary to receive its high quality. Does not exist a real
form of these material under the chemical composition till now (Вахонина Т.,
Душкова Е., 1987; Vahonina T., Duşcova E., 1990).
The propolis is a bioactive substance what has a huge importance and it has
a bio stimulation and bio regulator effect. Its activity can be explained for its
elements from the composition which can be used as a catalysts of biological
activity of the body as are vitamins what take part in the propolis chemical
composition.
There is a real danger when the propolis is collected because of the metals
with the mutation and cancer effect of genetic cell apparatus after the pollution of
the environment (Косовец Ю.Т., Демидов В.В., Коган Б.С., 1990).
During the last ten years, the propolis became the subject for the study with
the chemical and pharmacy character.
During several years there were developed the studies concerning the
chemical composition of propolis (Eremia N., Dabija Tatiana, 2005; 2007).
After the scientific literature study we can give the conclusion that the
propolis presents a complex product, but its quality and biologic peculiarity
depends on its chemical composition, plans species and geographical areas.
The exact show of the propolis quality during the active season will help the
right organisation of its collecting and determination of the technology for the
receiving of these product.
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At the same time the quantity and the quality as well its price depends of its
chemical composition, receiving technology, geographical avea, plants species
visited by the bees, its storing and using.
The determination of the technology and the study of its biologic active
substances, especially in worth ecological conditions it is very important
theoretically and practically.
Accordingly to that the aim of the experiment was the study of the biologic
active substances of the propolis in different periods and from different areas in
our country.
MATERIAL AND METHODS

As a subject of the experiments was the families of honey bees from
different areas of Republic of Moldova (South, Centre, North).
From each family there were collected samples of propolis to determine the
weigh of the dry matter, the beginning water content at the temperature of 650C
and hygroscopic at 1050C. The other zootehnical researches have been done
accordingly to the recognised methods of Петухова E.A. (1981), Разумов В.А.
(1982).
The content of macro-, and microelements, the content of heavy metals in
propolis composition has been determined accordingly to the atomic
spectroscopic method at Metrological Centre of Scientific Researches at Scientific
Academy of Moldova.
The received results have been worked using the statistical variation
method by the computer programmes.

The propolis or bees glue is a natural product what the bees collect from the
bulbs secretions and plants and where the bees add their secretions.
These product are collected from different plants, its composition presents
large variety.
At the temperature at about 30 - 380 C the propolis is getting soft, at the
temperature at 150C it is tuff and crumbly, but at the temperature of 1000C it gets
liquid. It melts at 780C, it gets tuff at 14 – 150C. It has different colours from dark
green, yellow – red to black.
The propolis has the density 1,112 – 1,136, it is soluble in the alcohol,
petrol, acetone, chloroform, ether and other. It has a pleasant smell, its taste is bit
and sharp.
The experimental results showed that in the studied propolis the average of
dry matter at the temperature of 650C was 98,81%, but at the temperature of
1050C – 96,73%. The average of beginning water in propolis composition was
1,19%, the hygroscopic – 2,08%, and total – 3,27%.
- 77 -
There were found micro- and macroelements and heavy metals in propolis
composition.
The results showed that the microelements quantity in studied propolis in
spring time varied from 53,3 mg/kg (Central area) to 133,8 mg/kg (South area).
There is higher amount of Zn – 70,9 and Mn – 11,5 mg/kg. At the same
time the quantity of Cu in collected propolis varied between 2,18 – 13,7 mg/kg,
and Co quantity was between 0,5 – 1,0 mg/kg, and Cr varied between 0,6 - 5,4
mg/kg (tab.1).
Table 1
The microelements quantity in studied propolis, mg/kg
Spring Autumn
(April - May) (August - September)
Microelements
The limit The limit
X ±Sx X ±Sx
(min-max) (min-max)
(Mn) 11,5±1,79 (8,4-14,6) 15,4±0,90 14,5-16,3
(Cr) 3,3±1,42 (0,6-5,4) 8,34±0,09 8,25-8,43
(Co) 1,0±0,0 (0,5-1,0) 1,09±0,015 1,07-1,12
(Zn) 70,9±17,29 (39,1-98,6) 103,3±49,70 53,6-153,0
(Cu) 6,09±3,80 (2,18-13,7) 8,27±4,82 3,45-13,1
(Ni) 1,8±0,03 (1,75-1,88) - -
The
microelements 94,59 53,3-133,8 136,40 82,85-189,97
quantity
During autumn time (August - September) the total quantity of

microelements got higher with 41,81 mg/kg, where Co got lower with 1,09 times,
Mn – 1,34, Cu – 1,36, Zn – 1,46 and Cr – 2,53 times.
Between studied macroelementes in spring time the higher amount has Ca,
which varied between 1000 – 4270 mg/kg, in autumn 1130 – 1990 mg/kg (tab. 2).
The total quantity of studied macroelements in propolis composition in
spring time was – 5244,6 mg/kg, but in autumn – 3921,25 mg/kg. At the same
time we can mention that the quantity of some elements during autumn time got
higher as it is: Mg – 1,69 times, Fe – 1,28 times, but the Ca, K, Na and
phosphates felt down.
The average of ash faction in spring time consisted – 1,53%, and in autumn
time – 2,29%.
It was established that the total amount of heavy metals in collected
propolis from different areas in Republic of Moldova in spring time vary between
46,5mg/kg – 120,9mg/kg, and in autumn time it has been increased by 1,37 times,
the average being 114,4mg/kg.
- 78 -
The most amount of heavy metals had Zn, its quantity in collected propolis
vary between 39,1 -153,0 mg/kg, Pl 1,85 – 8,33mg/kg and Cu 2,18 – 15,7mg/kg.
There was found a small amount of Cd which vary between 0,11 –
0,36mg/kg.
The problem of the ecological situation in whole world is getting worth, and
concerning to that, the question of improving the sanitary quality of bees
products has to be studied.
The quantity of macro-, and microelements and heavy metals in propolis is
not the same in different areas of republic and different times of active season
and it mostly depends of the plants species from which it has been collected.
Table 2
The macroeliments quantity in studied propolis, mg/kg
Spring Autumn
Macroelements
The limit The limit
X ±Sx X ±Sx
(min-max) (min-max)
(Ca2+) 2790±956,60 1000-4270 1560,0±430,0 1130-1990
(Mg2+) 206,7±24,60 179-255,8 349,75±16,75 333-366,5
(Fe) 456,4±37,95 407,5-531,1 585,0±15,00 570-600
(K+) 956,7±104,77 750-1090 690,0±190,00 500-880
(Na+) 84,8±16,80 62,2-118,8 62,2±15,25 47-77,5
(P2O5) 750±85,04 660-920 675,0±25,00 650-700
The
microelements 5244,6 3595,7-6339,1 3921,25 3670,5-4173,5
quantity
The ash faction, % 1,53±0,20 1,18-1,88 2,29±0,16 2,13-2,45
Table 3
The heavy metals quantity in studied propolis, mg/kg
Spring Autumn
Heavy metals
The limit The limit
X ±Sx X ±Sx
(min-max) (min-max)
Plumb (Pb) 6,37±1,07 4,9-8,33 2,57±0,72 1,85-3,3
Cadmium (Cd) 0,17±0,05 0,11-0,28 0,24±0,12 0,11-0,36
Cuprum (Cu) ,09±3,80 (2,18-13,7) 8,28±4,82 3,45-13,1
Zinc (Zn) 70,9±17,29 (39,1-98,6) 103,3±49,70 53,6-153,0
The heavy metals
83,53 46,5-120,9 114,4 59,0-169,8
quantity
The quantity of micro-, macroelements and heavy metals in propolis is not

the same in different areas of republic, in different periods of active season and
mostly it depends on the plants species from which it was collected.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. There was established that the propolis has in its composition 96,73% dry
matters, 1,19% beginning water 2,08% hygroscopic, 5,95mg/g monoacids.
2. There was determined that the total quantity of studied microelements in
propolis varied between 53,3 – 133,8 mg/kg in spring time and 82,85 –
189,97 mg/kg in autumn time. The average of macroelements quantity in
propolis was 3922,25 – 3964 mg/kg, and heavy metals 85,53 – 114,4
mg/kg.
3. The quantity of biologic active substances (aminoacids, micro-,
macroelements and heavy metals) in propolis is not the same in different
areas of republic and it depends on the plants species from which it was
collected.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Eremia, N., Dabija, T. Létude du contenu des metaux lourds danslepropolis // Lucrari
ştiinţifice. Zootehnie şi Biotehnologii. – Timişoara, 2005, vol. 38, p. 585-587.
2. Eremia, N., Dabija, T. Particularităţile producerii şi calităţile biochimice ale propolisului.
Chişinău, 2007, 25 p.
3. Hristea, CL. Stupăritul nou. Bucureşti, 1976. 491 p.
4. Вахонина, Т.В., Душкова Е.С. Качество прополиса // Прополис, Бухарест, 1987, с. 240 –
245.
5. Vahonina, T.V., Duşcova E.S. Calitatea propolisului // Propolis, Bucureşti: Apimondia, 1990,
p. 27-28.
6. Косовец, Ю.Т. Демидов, В.В. Коган, Б.С. Микроэлементный лазерно – спектральный
анализ наследственных структур и репродуктивных тканей в целях генетического
мориторинга загрязнения окружающей среди тяжелыми металлами / Микроэлементы в
биологии и их применение в сельском хозяйстве и медицине, Самарканд, 1990, с. 369.
7. Петухова, Е.А. Зоотехнический анализ кормов. М.: 1981, с. 23.
8. Плешков, Б.П. Практикум по биохимии растений. М.:Колос, 1976, с.3-254.
9. Разумов, В.А. Массовый анализ кормов: Справочник. – М.: «Колос», 1982, 176 с.
- 80 -
BACK
THE DEVELOPMENT OF LIVESTOCK BREEDING IN THE

AGRO-ECONOMIC AREA OF GALATI
Fl.-M. DIMA, A. CHIRAN, Elena GÎNDU
The agro-economic area of Galati includes the territories of 8 localities,

with an agricultural surface of 5.8 thousand ha, representing 14.73% of the total
agricultural surface of Galati County.
The researched area offers favorable conditions for livestock breeding,
so that, comparatively to the year 2002, the number of animals increased (except
for birds), reaching in present a total of 8,818 cattle, of which 5,938 cows and
calves, 6,990 swine, 14,529 sheep and goats, 5,193 beehives etc.
The animal production also recorded a positive evolution, so that in
2006, in direct correlation with the year 2002, the increase substantiated in 210
tons of meat, 31,119 hl. dairy cattle and sheep milk, 50 tons of honey etc.
The production results obtained especially in the last 2 years of the
period subjected for analysis (2002-2006) are a consequence of the
implementation of the National Support Program for Animal Husbandry (acc.
HG 785/2005 and 1288/2006) “The sustainable development of animal
husbandry and of the efficiency of the animal production field, as well as the
lucrativeness of aquaculture in Romania”.
In this context, the authors wish to highlight the main coordinates of
animal husbandry development in the agro-economic area of Galati: the size of
animal farms, the number of animals, the crops, the animal production and its
destination, investments etc.
Key words: region, development, livestock breeding
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The research has been done in the agro-economic area of Galati which
includes the territory of 8 localities, with an agricultural area of 51.8 thousand
hectares, of which the feedlot represents 2108 hectares, complete with 2907
hectares of natural grassland.
The region offers favourable conditions for animal husbandry which
represents a priority considering the necessity of providing Galati city with fresh
agricultural products, including animal products.
The analysis covers a period of 5 years (2002-2006) and is based on a
series of indicators, of which we mention: size and structure by livestock species
of zootechnical farms; the livestock population by species and categories; total
livestock production by categories of products; investments; feedlot etc.
RESULTS AND DEBATES

During the period comprised between 2002-2006, the livestock population in the
agro-economic area of Galati, recorded a positive evolution except for poultry, for
which the population decreased with approximately 15% (tab. 1, fig. 1):
- 81 -
Table 1
The evolution of livestock population, by species, in the agro-economic area of Galati
between 2002-2006
Specification 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 %/2002
Cattle – total of which: 8774 9259 8994 8730 8818 100,5
- cows + heifer 5463 5582 6057 5404 5938 108,7
Pigs – total 5592 6850 6291 5243 6990 125,0
Sheep + Goats – total 10170 10751 11623 12204 14529 142,9
Bee Families 3168 3531 4154 4674 5193 163,9
Poultry – total * 232,3 222,3 214,3 204,2 200,3 86,2
• thousand heads
ANIMAL AND POULTRY POPULATION

IN THE AGRO-ECONOMIC AREA OF GALATI
250000
NUMBER OF HEADS
200000 CATTLE
150000 PIGS
100000 SHEEP AND GOATS
POULTRY
50000
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
YEARS
Fig.1 The evolution of livestock population in the agro-economic area of Galati
During the period subject for analysis the investments in animal

husbandry were relatively small and were mostly translated into means of
harvesting and processing the feed, milking machines, cooling and quality
analysis of the milk, electricity generators (Tab. 2).
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Table 2
Structure of investments made in the agro-economic area of Galati
Name of the Area of which, by localities:
machine total Bra- Fru- Sche- Şen- Smâr- Tulu- Vâ- Ga-
niştea mu- la dreni dan ceşti nă- laţi
şita tori
Ind. Group for 16 1 - 8 1 - 1 1 4
milking
Feed chopping 12 2 - 4 - - 1 1 4
machine
Mowing 8 - - 2 - - 1 - 5
Machine
Electricity 9 - - 4 - - 1 - 4
Generator
Milk Cooler 4 - - 3 - - - - 1
Milk Analysis - - - - - - - -
Machine
Total 49 3 - 21 1 - 4 2 18
From the data presented above, one can observe that over 40 % of the
investments were made in Schela, which hold an important percentage of the
livestock population of the locality. In the other localities, given the small number
of animals, the investments were also smaller, while in Frumuşiţa and Smârdan,
there were no investments in a animal husbandry.
The total animal production for the main species recorded a positive
evolution, except for poultry products (tab. 3).
Table 3
The evolution of total production for animal products in the agro-economic
area of Galati between 2002-2006 – tons
Product 2002 2003 2005 2006 %/2002
Meat – total of which: 1483,6 1581,6 1437,5 1693,4 114,1
- Beef 456,6 567,5 451,5 492,8 107,9
- Pork 558,5 646,9 533,2 668,2 119,6
-Mutton + Goat Meat 147,4 159,9 170,9 206,3 140,0
- Poultry meat 321,1 307,4 282,4 276,8 86,2
Dairy cow milk* 72586 76604 72859 74270 102,3
Sheep+Goat milk* 4703 4912 5285 6138 130,5
Extracted honey 74,5 84,8 112,1 124,0 166,4
Chicken eggs** 9714 9312 8567 8426 86,7
• hl; ** - mill. pieces
The most significant increases were recorded for “extracted honey” and
“sheep and goats meat and milk”, while for other products the increases were smaller.
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The destination of animal production was oriented mainly towards the

free market.
For example, in average for the 5 years under analysis, 47,3 % of beef
production was sold on the free market, 40,7 % was used in self-consumption,
while 12 % was destined for the state fund (fig. 2).
For honey, over 92 % of the total production was sold on the free market,
and the rest as used for self-consumption (fig. 3).
For the other products, the production destination was similar.
In the agro-economic area of Galati, most of the animal husbandry farms
are small (tab. 4).
DESTINATION OF BEEF PRODUCTION BY
AGRO-ECONOMIC AREA
300
CANTITY (TONS)
250
200 State funds

150 Free market
100 Family use
50
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
YEARS
Fig. 2 Destination of beef production in the agro-economic area of Galati (2002-2006)
DESTINATION OF HONEY PRODUCTION BY

AGRO-ECONOMIC AREA
200
150
CANTITY(tons)
Family use
100
Free market
50
0
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
YEARS
Fig. 3 Destination of honey production in the agro-economic area of Galati

(2002-2006)
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Table 4
The size of the agricultural farms in the field of animal husbandry in the agro-economic area of Galati
Size of Species or category of animals

zootechnical Reproducing Sows and young Swine Goats Sheep Poultry
farms cows and heifer sows for breeding
num- heads number heads number heads number heads number heads num- heads
ber ber
Total of which: 2385 2992 701 713 - - - - - - - -
- with 1-2 heads 2349 2830 693 693 - - - - - - - -
- with 3-5 heads 31 102 8 20 - - - - - - - -
-over 5 heads 6 90 - - - - - - - - - -
Total of which: - - - - 3485 5425 - - - - - -
-under 3 heads - - - - 3478 5362 - - - - - -
-over 3 heads - - - - 7 62 - - - - - -
Total of which: - - - - - - 223 1466 - - - -
-under 10 heads - - - - - - 209 516 - - - -
-over 10 heads - - - - - - 14 950 - - - -
Total of which: - - - - - - - - 1183 14755 - -
-under 10 heads - - - - - - - - 1026 3450 - -
-11-20 heads - - - - - - - - 56 689 - -
-21-50 heads - - - - - - - - 30 746 - -
-50-100 heads - - - - - - - - 26 1854 - -
-over 100 heads - - - - - - - - 45 8642 - -
Total of which: - - - - - - - - - - 14847 276665
-under 25 heads - - - - - - - - - - 12466 187930
-26-50 heads - - - - - - - - - - 1532 48076
-51-100 heads - - - - - - - - - - 797 33159
-over 100 heads - - - - - - - - - - 52 7500
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For example, in the case of farms for “reproducing cows and heifer”,
farms with “1—2 animal heads” accounted for 98,5 %, those for “sows and
young sows for breeding”, 98,9 %.
In the case of “swine”, the most significant percentage is held by farms
with a livestock population of “under 3 heads” (99,8 %), for goats and sheep, the
farms with “under 10 heads” dominate (93,7 – 86,7 %) while in poultry farms,
84,0 % have a livestock population of “under 25 heads”.
All these examples demonstrate the fact that there is a possibility of
concentrating the livestock population in a small number of farms with a livestock
population that would insure the viability, sustainability, and efficiency of the
farms.
The development of animal husbandry in the agro-economic area of
Galati is tightly connected to the provisions of feed supplies (tab. 5).
From the data presented above, one can observe a negative phenomenon,
in the sense that the area used for feedlots has drastically diminished in 2006, only
23 ha being cultivated. In exchange, as a consequence of the fact that the medium
production of perennial feedlots marked a significant increase, the total
production increased with approximately 20 %, insuring, in general, an increase
with over 7 %.
Table 5
The evolution of the feedlot in the agro-economic area of Galati
Specification Measur 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 %/2002

ement
unity
Total area with ha 2253 2238 2300 2305 2108 93,6
fodder plants of
which:
-perennial cultures ha 1931 1931 1883 1888 2085 108,0
-annual cultures ha 322 307 417 417 23 7,1
Total production tons 43880 44813 52895 42056 46821 106,7
of which: m.v.
-perennial cultures tons 38717 39413 48267 36718 46621 120,4
m.v.
-annual cultures tons 5163 5400 4628 5338 200 3,9
m.v.
It is estimated that the total production of fresh feed and the stock of feed
sorts recorded at the beginning of the hibernation period (1st of November) covers
the monthly requirements for consumption until a new harvest for the livestock
population of cattle, sheep+goats, and horses.
Regarding the succulent feed from root crops, one can notice a deficit for
the hibernating period which is compensated by the surplus of gross feeds (cobs
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and straws), as well as by the secondary products obtained in the processing

industry (spent brewer’s grain, beet noodles).
The concentrated cultivated feeds used in the feed intakes for pigs and
poultry, insure the feeding of the livestock population until the new harvest.
Within the National Program “The sustainable development of the
animal husbandry and of the efficiency of the animal production field, as well
as the rehabilitation of aquaculture in Romania”, in Galati a county program
of rehabilitation of natural grassland was funded, as an integral part of the
National Program for the period between 2005-2008.
Within this program, the owners of natural grassland (town halls and
landlords) have established actions and measures which, applied between 2005-
2008, would lead to the rehabilitation of natural grasslands (tab. 6).
Because between 2005-2006 the sources for financing were only local
budgets, the regeneration actions for natural grasslands and the fertilization with
chemical substances were used on small areas.
Table 6
Actions for the rehabilitation of natural grasslands between 2005-2008
2005 Program
Specification Program Reali- 2006 2007 2008
sed
Regeneration of natural 2010 20 2500 3100 3400
grasslands of which:
-inseminations 810 10 1050 1300 1400
-over inseminations 1200 10 1450 1800 2000
Chemical fertilizations 6847 1872 7950 10500 11000
Organic fertilizations 19000 19622 19500 20000 20500
Amendments application 50 - 50 50 100
Maintenance works 40972 40848 40972 40972 40972
Deforesting 265 - - - -
Drainage 100 - 150 150 150
Fighting against soil erosion 100 - 150 150 150
At the same time, the town halls in the agro-economic area of Galati, as
well as the whole county, have felt the lack of technical and economic
management for the actions and measures for the rehabilitation of natural
grasslands, which they had under administration.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The agro-economic area of Galaţi presents favourable conditions for livestock
breeding, which explains the increase tendency of livestock population
(except poultry) during the period subject for analysis. Between the years
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BACK
2002-2006, the level of investments in the zootechnical field was rather low
and concentrated mainly (79.6 %) to the localities Schela and Galaţi.
2. The total production obtained for the main animal products presented a
positive trend with the exception of poultry products for which the tendency
was contrary.
3. Over 90 % of the total animal production in the agro-economic area of Galaţi,
was sold on the free market, with few differences by categories of products.
4. The majority of zootechnical farms is small and very small, the phenomenon
of concentration by association being very weakly represented.
5. The structure of the feedlot, structurally speaking, does not correspond to the
requirements of insuring a scientific feeding with favourable effect on the
quality of the animal output.
6. For the rehabilitation of natural grasslands, the town halls and landlords have
appointed certain funds which were insufficient for applying certain actions
and measures (regenerations, fertilizations, inseminations, over inseminations,
amendments applications, fighting against soil erosion etc.).
7. In the future, measures for the financial support (from national and European
funds) for livestock producers in the agro-economic area of Galati are bound
to be taken in order to succeed in the major desideratum to provide the
population of Galati with fresh animal products.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chiran A., Jităreanu G., 1994 – Le processus de réorganisation et de privatisation du secteur
agricole de la Roumanie. Lucr. şt. Univ. Agron. Iaşi, vol. 37, seria Agronomie.
2. Chiran A. şi colab., 1998 – The policy of rural development in România. Rev. Cercetări
agronomice în Moldova, vol. 3-4, Iaşi.
3. Chiran A. şi colab., 2000 – Aspecte tehnico-economice privind fermelwe familiale specializate
în creşterea taurinelor în zona de nord a Irlandei. Rev. Cercetări agronomice în Moldova,
vol. 3-4, Iaşi.
4. Chiran A., Dima Fl.-M., Gîndu Elena, 2007 – Marketing în agricultură. Ed. Alma Print, Galaţi.
5. Dima Fl.-M., Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, 2006 – Agricultura în zona agroeconomică Galaţi :
prezent şi tendinţe de viitor Lucr. şt. USAMV Iaşi, vol 49, seria Agronomie.
6. Lup A., 1998 – Consideraţii privind dimensiunea exploataţiilor agricole. Rev. Tribuna
economică, nr. 23, Bucureşti.
7. Otiman I.-P., 1997 – Dezvoltarea rurală în România. Ed. Artprint, Timişoara.
8. Petrache A., 2001 – Investiţiile în agricultură pe criterii de eficienţă. Rev. Tribuna economică, nr.
49, Bucureşti.
9. Timariu Gh., 1998 – Superioritatea economică şi socială a exploataţiilor mari asociative – din
experienţa germană. Rev. Tribuna economică, nr. 38, Bucureşti.
10. Zahiu Letiţia, 2001 – Dezvoltarea durabilă a agriculturii şi a spaţiului rural. Rev. Tribuna
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BACK
GEOSYNTHETIC FIBBERS IN CONSTRUCTIONS

C. LEONTE, Doina LEONTE, A. GRUBER
Employ an ample documentation of speciality, in work it analysis

fonctions and role the syntetic fibers in constructions, in comparison which on
classic materials.
In trace investigation conclusion that the syntetic fibers because of, the
functiones and the special characteristics, together with the advantages imosed
their use in differet constructions works especially,: railway bed (for the slopes,
banks, barrages and dams consolidation), drainages, roads, earthwork for
railroad, ecological garbage containers.
Geosynthetic functiones
Sealing
Acting as liquid and gasbarrieres, geomembranes have become a
fundamental component in civil engineering, due to the heightened need for
groundwater protection. High density polyethylene(HDPE) geomembranes,
specifically those with a certification by government regulators and thickness’ of
more than 1,5 mm, are most commonly used.Personnel from those companies that
have been approved by the certyfing agency, are employed to both deploy and
weld the geomembranes where an area needs to be sealed. For sealing purposes in
road constructions and environmental protection, HDPE geomembranes and
geosynthetic clay liners are gaining use due to the importance of a quality seal.
Protection
Geomembranes, structures, coated materials as well as related
construction elements must often be protected from potential mechanical
damage.Without suitable protection, damage may occur from sharp-edged objects
such as stones, from the unevenness of the subsoil or even by the cover material.
Mechanically bonded needle – punched nonwovens as well as composite
materials manufactured from poly propylene( PP) or (HDPE) are commonly used
for protections layers. Specific to nonwoven geotextiles, the protection function is
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directly related to the thickness and mass per unit area, as a heavier and thicker
nonwoven is more likely to provide better protection.
Drainage
Drainage materials are required for the surface collection and diversion of
grownd water, as well as the general collection of fluids and their discharge into a
drainage system. Drainage system are thypically designed with individual
material layers or in combination with other components to create pre-formed
composite drainage elements.Composite drainage elements consist of at least one
filter layer and one collection layer.The percolation layer is required for the flow
and discharge of fluids at a collection point, without the build-up of pressure.
Single and multiple component geosynthetic drainage system made from hight
density polyethylene as well as polypropylene often replace the conventional
thick aggregate drainage layer.
Erosion control
Single-component geosynthetic layer and tree – dimensional multi-
component composite material are used to prevent surface erosion.By preventing
soil particle from being washed off slopes or channels, rapid vegetation is
ensured when erosion control mats are used.
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Reinforcement
Geosynthetic are installed beneath or between soil layers to improve the
mechanical properties soil layers by absorbing the tensile foces and minimizing
deformation.Geotextiles, geogrids and composite synthetic materials are used in
application such as retaining structures according to the principles of “ reinforced
soil”, slope stabilization or for foundation reinforcement of earthen dams where
the subsoil exhibits poor bearing capacity. The use of geosynthetic for
reinforcement applications minimizes expensive constructive measures, can
readuce soil intermixing and eliminate the need for additional soil layer.
Separation
As a separation layer, geotextiles are used to prevent adjacent soil layers
or fill materials from intermixing. Synthetic nonwovens that exhibit an elongation
capacity, are the materials of choice in most applications.The selection of suitable
product is dependant upon the base course grain size and the operational loads to
be expected. The main use of separation nonwovens are in road and railway
construction, hydraulic and landfill engineering, and field construction.
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BACK
Filtration
In filtration applications such as hydraulic engineering drainage system,
nonwoven geotextiles are used to retain soil particles while allowing the passage
of liquids through the filter media. There are two aspects to filtration that should
be evaluated when designing. The mechanical filter efficiency( does the fabric
have sufficient soil retention capacity) and the hydraulic filter efficiency( does the
water discharge whitout a hydraulic pressure buil-up). As with aggregate filter
layers, the geotextile thickness directly benefits the long – term mechanical and
hydraulic efficiency of the filter.
CONCLUSION
For the construction of classified roads, geosynthetics are used to the
fulfill separation, reinforcement, filtration and drainage functions.
Separation and soil filter stability can by achivied using Secutex®
geotextiles, and the bearing capacity can by increased with either Secugrid® or
Combigrid®.
Other advantages of using Secutex® nonwoven geotextiles for the
constructions of concret pavements include the prevention of craks upon the
casting of the paving slab, cushioning the slab from vibration damage during
service, and protection against subgrade erosion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. MAN T.,1996 – Piscicultural requirements, Timişoara, University Tehnique.
2. CONSTRUCTIV – Magazin of report in construction area , nr 3/2004.
3. ANTREPRENORUL – Magazin of construction , nr 4/2004.
4. www.naue.com
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BACK
ECOLOGICAL ALTERNATIVES TO ENHANCE

ENVIRONMENT CONDITIONS IN ZOOTECHNICAL UNITS
Doina LEONTE, Vasilica ONOFREI
Nowadays, an important problem for both agriculture and population is

the dejections administration and integration in the efficient agricultural circuit.
The purpouse of this paper is to show the efficiency of the active biological
products on prophylactics actions used on zootehnic sector, comparative polluted
consequence of decontaminations of chemical nature. As a studying material it
was utilized the Kopros product, produced by BIOMA company.
Treating zoo technical dejections by using the ecological product
KOPROS means the reduction of ammonia emanations, fighting larva and
insects, insuring optimal conditions for the animals’ growth and development
and finally, and implying a simultaneous humification process.
Conclusively, the achievement of ecological agricultural products in
conditions of high productivity and superior organoleptic qualities, allows an
efficient environment protection, by complete removal or assimilation of factors
harmful to the soil, the waters, the plants and animals, and above all, harmful to
the human being.
Integration of Romania in the European Union implies a greater

impotance given to deciding fators, but also to operators on all levels when it
comes to environment protection, ensuring a natural frame so as to stimulate a
harmonious development of plants and animals, without bringing about
environment changes which might harm the humans.
Obviously, this proof of responsibility towards nature, but also towards
our own health, could be achieved if we were willing to make important changes,
not only from a technological point of view, but also when it comes to
mentalities, by a high degree of information and by concrete involvement.
Nowadays, an important issue, not only for agriculture, but also for the
entire population, is the handling of dejections as well as their integration within
the productive agricultural circuit. Be it unorganized abandonment, or deposit on
a systematic platform, the presence of dejections can be easily „noticed”, due to
the unpleasant smell, the insects and birds, but also due to the degrading aspect of
the piece of land unadequately used.
Beyond this image susceptible to the senses, there are far more complex
phenomena, contaminating the soil and subsoil with harmful substances, which
could be completely eliminated only in decades or even centuries.
Futhermore, another complex issue is represented by wastewaters, for
which the current physical and chemical treatments applied practically replace
some harmful compounds with others less harmful, but with still unknown long-
term implications to our health, since the sediments coming from the water
treatment plants occupy ever increasing surfaces of land.
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Zootechnical units encounter major difficulties when it comes to the issue

of handling and reintegration if dejections, which rather often are discharged in
neighbouring rivers, being partially or even not all treated and containing high
amounts of ammonia and pathogenic agents.
After a thorough analysis of all these aspects, which have a negative
impact upon nature, but also upon the human beings, the GEOLIFE technology
created some products, which provide a biological treatment without the
contribution of chemical substances, and having significant results.
As part of its research programmes, GEOLIFE technology offered special
attention to the zootechnical and piscicultural field, where the hygiene conditions
and the environment safety play a fundametal role in ensuring productivity.
Widely acknowledged throughout the world is the product KOPROS
(photo 1), which is addressed to the treatments of zootechnical dejections, by
significantly reducing their corrosive and toxic impact. This treatment reduces
ammonia emissions, eliminates larvas and insects and ensures optimal conditions
for animal breeding, by achieving at the same time an accelerated humification
process.
Photo 1 – Presentation form for KOPROS product
KOPROS is 100% ecological, being represented through such cultures

like Aspergillus orizae and Bacillus thuringensis, free of salmonella, produced by
means of „Selected spontaneous culture” and far from any form of genetic
modifications.
Aspergillus orizae produces lipases, cellulases, proteases, which are more
active when the pH is lower in comparison to the corresponding enzymes,
significantly stretching therefore the field of activity of those enzymes.
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Bacillus thuringensis, present in lyophilized form, produces endotoxins

(biotoxins) for the control of insects, by means of the direct interaction between
its own biochemical complex and the metabolism of the insect in larvar stage.
As hydrolitic catalyzers KOPROS contains amylases, which hydrate, liquify
and digest the substrate containing amides, transforming it into simpler, more
soluble sugars.
These bacteria cultures are not pathogenic, and therefore KOPROS is not
toxic for humans, animals or the environment.
KOPROS is made up of a biocatalitic mix which allows the symbiosis
activity, and also contains species of microorganisms, which multiply in that
environment and which catalyze naturally and atoxically all organic substances
from zootechnical dejections.
These microorganisms cause and accelerate the speed of oxido-reductive
reactions degrading organic compounds, do not destroy themselves during the
reactive process and remain active in time. Furthermore, they may reproduce very
rapidly.
As a result of the final reaction, one obtains carbon anhydride, water and
other bacteria, with the following consequences:
• the removal of ammonia emissions from shelters and the subsequent fresh air
supply (the enzymes produced by the bacteria contained in KOPROS rapidly
interact, using the organic nitrogen in dejections, which is turned into stable
nitrogen, thus preventing the appearance of ammonia nitrogen);
• the removal of ammonia from zootechnical shelters occurs very rapidly
(values which range among 80 – 100 p.p.m. to 0 p.p.m.);
• the removal of dangerous and harmful rotting formations;
• the pathogenic germs control;
• the removal of insects (present in pits, basins and dejections), of their eggs
and larvas – one should take into account the fact that each fly in summertime
may lay up to 10,000 eggs every 20 days, which within a month become adult
and 20 days later lay another approx. 10,000 eggs;
• the enrichment of nutritious values N-P-K in the garbage pit, and the
mineralization of organic substances for cultures and for humificated land,
rapidly degrading residues from the anterior culture, generally speaking
animal and vegetal rests;
• the immediate use of dung, in order to improve land fertility;
• the maintainance of clean straw beds for a long period of time;
• the removal of organic crusts from shelters and lattice works, turning the
crusts into liquid materials easy to clean;
• decrustation of basins from dejections;
• decrustation of canals, pumps, mechanic tools;
• decrustation of shelters, feeders and panels that separate the docks;
• reduction of energy consumption with about 50% when it comes to running
the water treatment plants.
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BACK
European norms and the ever increasing interest for products achieved in
atoxical conditions grant the strong belief that chemical-free products may find
their aplicability also in the field of stock raising.
Investing for the future depends a lot on the way and concept we decide
to follow, which may fullfil many of the imposed exigencies, having a medium or
long-term positive impact not only on the environment, but also on our health.
CONCLUSIONS
• By reducing ammonia emissions, by exerting control upon larvas and insects,

by decrustating the surfaces and by means of liquifying dejections, the use of
biologically active products creates optimal conditions for stock raising.
• The enzymes produced by bacteria cultures generated by KOPROS product
naturally and atoxically catalyze all organic substances from zootechnical
dejections.
• The microorganisms from the KOPROS product do not destroy themselves
during the reactive process, but remain active in timp, furthermore being able
to reproduce very rapidly.
• The achievement of ecological agricultural products in conditions of high
productivity and superior organoleptic qualities, allows an efficient
environment protection, by complete removal or assimilation of factors
harmful to the soil, the waters, the plants and animals, and above all, harmful
to the human being.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
***, 2007 – Presentation materials - BIOMA Co
*** - Law no. 5/29 June 1989 concerning rational management, protection and safeguard of water
quality
*** - Law regarding quality of drinking water 458/ 8 July 2002
*** - Law 311/28 July 2004 concerning changes and additions to Law 458/ 8 July 2002 concerning
quality of drinking water
*** - Emergency decree concerning environment protection 195/22 December 2005.
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BACK
SIZES OF THE RURAL TOURISM AND OF AGROTOURISM

ON EUROPEAN LEVEL
Mirela Salvia MITULESCU
The rural tourism and the agrotourism have had a different evolution
from one European country to another. The developed countries created their
own national programs to support the development of these branches of tourism.
Since the development of this activity started in the 80’s, the number of
participating farms doubled in countries such as Italy, France and Great Britain.
The number of agro-tourist farms exceeds 600.000; the percentage of the farms
which offer tourist services is 8% in Western Germany, 4% in Holland and 2% in
France and Italy. Austria exceeds the percentage of 10% due to its 300.000
farms, and in Sweden and Switzerland the percentage of the farms that offer
tourist services is 20%.
The promotion of the rural tourism and agrotourism ranges among the
political, economic and financial objectives of the European Union, mainly due
to the positive effects which the development of these sectors may generate at
economic and social level in the European villages.
GENERAL ASPECTS
The rural tourism and the agrotourism constitute two concepts which have
their own history. The rural tourism and the agrotourism start gaining more and
more grounds related to the preferences of the tourists both in the European
countries as well as in the rest of the highly industrialized countries. The
pollution of the great cities, the daily stress, the rediscovery of the authentic
culture constitute the reasons for choosing to spend the holidays at the country
side. The studies show that every fourth European spends his holidays at the
country side. (2)
In the last years more and more of the developed countries created their
own national programs of support for the development of the activities of rural
tourism and agrotourism adapted to the resources available to them.
As a result of that spectacular evolution, more and more persons from the
rural environment are interested in developing activities of rural tourism and
agrotourism. In this context the majority of the European countries pay increased
attention to developing the rural tourism and especially the agrotourism.
If we make reference strictly to Europe, we notice there are a series of
reasons which were the basis of developing the activities of rural tourism and
agrotourism:
• The change in the behavior of the hikers;
• The promotion of the forms of tourism which seeks economic
development of the rural areas;
• The need for protecting the environment;
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• The elaboration of certain strategies for development of these forms of

tourism (3)
With the integration in the European Union, with the increase of the
incomes and reduction of the work hours, the money funds register increases, and
the time allotted to travels increases. These are only a few of the indicators which
denote the real situation in the field. Particularly the statistics record the fact that
in the last years the travels in Europe register significant increases, and the
expansion of the European Union creates the conditions for their continuous
growth. The concern for the environment protection which is stressed more and
more stimulates the development of the rural tourism and especially of the
agrotourism.
The development of the rural regions within the context of the European
evolution involves:
• Varied types of accommodation offers;
• Supply with agroalimentary products;
• Contact with the folk art, trades and local folklore, etc.;
• Environment protection;
• Work places paid in the rural environment;
• infrastructure (3)
By harmonizing these elements one laid the foundations for the field
activities.
By expanding the area of interest one may observe that the situation is
similar on other continents as well, where one of the tourism branches is the rural
tourism.
The services provided aim mainly at satisfying the tourists’ needs. The
international tourist fluxes “represent one of the most dynamic components of the
international economic changes’. (4)
RURAL TOURISM AND AGROTOURISM IN EUROPE

The rural tourism and agrotourism have had a different evolution from
one European country to another. By following the models of other countries, the
more developed countries from Europe also created their own national programs
to support the development of these branches of tourism.(1) To these programs
one adds also the numerous laws and publications which regulate this field. In
general, the countries which become component of the European Union are
guided by the valid regulations in the process of development of the services.
All the valid legislative regulations, national and international programs
converge to the improvement on one side of the services in order to meet the
demands of the customers (infrastructure, accommodation, meal, possibilities for
spending spare time, etc.), and on the other side, towards creating/offering these
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services without harming the environment, with a view to protecting it so that the
next generations may also benefit from the existent resources.
The tendency to shift from the mass tourism to the individual tourism, as
well as the modification of the preferences regarding the holidays’ time,
determined the actors of the field to offer alternative services.
By mid 80’s the rural tourism was registered on top of the preferences of
the tourists of Europe with an average of 25% of the population which preferred
the holidays in the rural environment. Here are some of the tourist destinations
preferred by the tourists from the countries of the European Union:
Table 1
Types of tourist destinations
Country Rural Mountain Cities Seaside

areas (%) (%) (%)
(%)
Belgium 25 19 5 55
Denmark 35 14 40 42
Spain 27 19 27 53
France 29 27 18 51
Greece 8 1 20 70
Ireland 27 8 37 46
Italy 11 24 19 58
Luxemburg 19 29 17 62
Holland 39 32 21 36
Portugal 29 8 24 62
Germany 34 30 15 44
Great Britain 29 13 19 58
EU average 25 23 19 52
Source: Europeans and their Holidays, Commissions of the European Communities
The operators from the rural tourism and agrotourism began to focus on
activities such as: visits to farms, nature walks, sports activities, in general
activities oriented towards health.
Ever since the development of this activity began, in the 80’s, the number
of participating farms doubled in countries such as: Italy, France and Great
Britain. The number of agrotourist farms exceeds 600.000, the percentage of the
farms which provide tourist services is 8% in Western Germany, 4% in Holland
and 2% in France and Italy. In Great Britain, more than 15% of the total amount
of farms officially recorded is involved in tourist activities. Spain, which is one of
the main tourist centers of the world, does not have the farm tourism developed
yet. Austria exceeds the percentage of 10% by its over 30.000 farms and 300.000
accommodation units. In countries such as Sweden and Switzerland, the
percentage is 20%.
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By mid 90’s, 12 European countries- Belgium, Denmark, Greece,

Holland, Portugal, Spain, Ireland, Great Britain, Italy, Austria, France and
Germany had over 100.000 farms included in the tourist circuit. (10)
Another relevant aspect which resulted from these reorientations
constitutes the focus on promoting the specific services. Thus, the rural tourist
products and those from agrotourism find their place in the brochures and
catalogues of the European tour-operators.(5)
The complexity of a program for tourist development involves the
unfurling in parallel of certain programs of marketing and financing.
Starting from these reasons, an important initiative of the European Union
constitutes the programs intended for rural development, which have as purpose
the promotion of the activities complementary to those from agriculture in rural
areas and the supporting of local project for development.
Such programs take place at European level. Among the most relevant we
mention:
• PHARE Programs – an initiative of the European Community, which
supports financially the countries from central and western Europe and
aims at: development of rural tourism from the point of view of global
economic development, local economic development as well as the
development of the agricultural sector.
• SAPARD Program – by which one aims at finalizing the agrarian reform
by creation of infrastructures compatible with a developed market
economy; creation of the infrastructure of the agricultural sector;
intensification of the investments in the field; development of the
relations between the households suppliers of raw material and processing
enterprises; achievement of a viable crediting system for the agricultural
sector;
• The structural Funds for the rural tourism – The European Fund for
Regional Development (EAFRD) – intended for development of
infrastructure;
- The Social European
Fund (SEF) – intended for forming and capitalization of the human
resources from the rural environment;
- The European Fund
of Orientation and Agricultural Guarantee (EFOAG) – intended for
regional and local development of the rural settlements;
- Action Group
LEADER - which aims at organizing seminars, exchange of experts,
study visits, transfer of information and statistic data, with a view to
developing this branch of tourism;
- Community program
undertaken by „EUROAGRITOUR” – which reunites the representatives
of the national syndicates of the farmers with a view to debating the
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social, fiscal problems from the field of tourism within the existent
agricultural exploitations;
- „The Village I love”
Program, organized by EUROTER – intended for promoting the
agrotourist products at European level;
-„EUROPEAN
RURAL TOURISM NETWORK” program initiated by EUROGITES,
EUROTER, in cooperation with 12 other organizers from rural tourism
from 9 European countries- it includes 3 components: knowledge of the
European market from the field, formation of a network of tourist
dwellings in the rural space of Germany, Spain, Hungary, Portugal an
Czech Republic as well as informing about the existence of the network
and the promotion of the provided services;
-„Rural Lodging”
program, initiated by „Federation de Gites de Wallonie” – which had as
purpose the persuasion of the owners from the rural environment to renew
and modernize the dwellings, so that then they may include them in the
rural tourist circuit;
- „INTERREGIONAL
CELTIC COOPERATION” Program – which sought the promotion of
the rural and cultural tourism of 8 agricultural regions from Spain,
France, Ireland, Great Britain, focusing on culture and elements of
history;
- „DATA BASE OF
RURAL TOURISM SERVICES” Program - which had as purpose the
achievement of a data base regarding the quantity and quality of services
from the rural tourism;
- „TRAINING
SEMINAR FOR RURAL TOURISM OPERATOR” program, initiated by
The Commission for Agriculture and Rural Tourism within the European
Union, involved the organization of 5 seminars of professional training of
the operators from the rural tourism (Denmark, Ireland, Great Britain,
Poland, Hungary).
- EXPERT Program –
which sustained projects from countries such as: Belgium, Czech
Republic, Cyprus, Germany Luxemburg, Poland, Sweden, Hungary,
focusing on durable development of the targeted areas.
- Program for INTEGRATED DEVELOPMENT OF

THE RURAL TOURISM – represent the third stage of the
strategy of the European Union for durable development of the
rural tourism and benefits from the LEADER strategy and the
structural funds;
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- „AGRICULTURE-ENVIRONMENT -TOURISM”
Program– elaborated by France, Italy, Spain and Belgium aimed
at opening agriculture towards other activities (1,5)
The support granted by promoting the economic and financial facilities,

as well instituted as the examples of good practice made so that, more and more
farmers became aware of the advantages brought by the involvement in the tourist
activities. The achieved studies in the countries where the rural tourism has an
extended tradition, underline a tight correlation between the sizes of the
accommodation offer, the degree of modernization of the households as well as of
the development of the respective zones.
In the majority of the European countries the rural tourism benefits from
the income tax exemption for a determined period of time, and the initiatives of
the farmers who wish to carry out tourist activities are supported by granting
credits funded by regional organizations or by the European Union. For example,
in Austria, the localities homologated as “tourist recreation villages” are
supported by the Ministry of Trade and Reconstruction and by the Ministry of
Agriculture and Forestry, by granting credits with small interest. Aside from that
one adds the 40% contribution granted by the tourism agencies for publicity.
In countries such as Belgium, Luxemburg, France, Portugal and Spain the
rural tourism is supported by public financial support. (7)
Regarding the tourist offer, this varies from one country to another. The
most pronounced diversification of the tourist product is recorded in countries
such as: France, Ireland, Great Britain, Spain, and while in countries such as:
Germany, Austria, Belgium, Holland, Denmark, Italy, the agrotourism is
predominant, by means of arranged farms.
Preoccupied by achieving a common economic and monetary market, the
European Union promotes the durable development, the growth of the quality of
life, the economic and social cohesion. (7)
In many European countries the efforts of the governments for sustaining
the rural tourism are obvious.
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Table 2
Stimulation of the development of the rural tourism
Country Possibilities of stimulation of the development of the rural tourism

Belgium The regional authorities grant facilities for 30% of the total costs for
projects
Denmark The government supports The National Association for Agrotourism
offering a fixed sum each year.
France The regional authorities support the initiatives of the new enterprisers from
the rural environment; likewise it offers professional support for the
marketing activities and studies of feasibility; the regional and national
authorities support the associations from the rural tourism establishing an
annual sum.
Greece The projects from the rural tourism of the Region Pertra Kersov were
supported by the government, local authorities and EU.
Ireland The Agency for Development of Tourism in the rural areas „Ballyhoura
Failte Society” is financed by the government, local authorities and EU.
Italy The Association of Agrotourism is financed by the government.
Holland Several associations from the field are financed by the government.
Germany The support granted for the development of the rural tourism is distributed
on multiple levels: Bayern is financed by the government Niedersachsen by
the regional authorities; Hessen by the regional authorities; Baden
Wurtemberg by the regional authorities; Rheinland Pfalz by the regional
authorities and other sources, etc.
Portugal The general office for torurism has a developed system for supporting the
initial investments in the rural areas.
Spain „Galice-Investments” bears up to 30% of the total costs of the investments;
„Asturies” – 30% of the total costs of the investments; „Catalogne” and
„Canaries” grant subventions for the cultural and ethnographic shows in
localities which have less than 2000 inhabitants. The Basque Association
of Agrotourism is financed by EU.
Great There is a special involvement of the regional and national authorities in
Britain developing the rural areas: The Department of Environment, Alimentation
and Rural Businesses (DEFRA) included the development of the rural
tourism in the various development schemes.
Austria The government grants support or is not interested in levying taxes for the
new investors; also grants indemnities.
Source: Krizman-Pavlovic, D. (2001) – Turizam na seoskim gospodarstvima, Marketing.
It is obvious that many European countries have a positive attitude

regarding the support of the initiatives that aim at the development of the rural
tourism due to the multiple advantages of this strategy in the development of the
rural areas. Apart from the interest that each country shows for the development
of the tourism in the rural areas a series of initiatives for this purpose of OECD,
EU and other profile institutions are added.(9)
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BACK
The proposal of the Council of the Community for achievement of a

strategy for Rural Development (2007-2013) focuses on the development of the
rural tourism offering opportunities for the development of the micro-businesses
from the rural economy.
According to the European Commission, the general Directorate for
Agriculture, in the year 2001, 5.556 projects approved for diversification of the
agricultural activities were recorded, of which 1.682 projects, representing a
percentage of 30% were for agrotourism.
In the year 2002 there were 10.529 projects of which 7% were for
agrotourism and in 2003 there were 28.042 projects approved of which 4% for
agrotourism. (9)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Alecu, I. N., Constantin, M.,– Agroturism şi marketing agroturistic, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti,
2006;
2. Bran, Florina, Marin, D., Simon, Tamara – Turismul rural – modelul european, Editura
Economică, Bucureşti, 1997;
3. Buciuman, E., – Economia turismului rural şi a agroturismului, Editura Pro Transilvania,
Alba – Iulia, 1999;
4. Cristureanu, Cristiana – Strategii şi tranzacţii în turismul internaţional, Editura C. H. Beck,
Bucureşti, 2006;
5. Glăvan, V. - Turism rural – agroturism – turism durabil – ecoturism, Editura Economică,
Bucureşti, 2003;
6. Krizman-Pavlovic, D. – Turizam na seoskim gospodarstvima, Marketing, 2001;
7. Petrea, Rodica, Petrea D.– Turism rural, Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca, 2000;
8. *** Commissions of the European Communities – Europeans and their holidays;
9. *** OECD, 1994 – Tourism Strategies and Rural Development, Paris;
10. http://www.rural-europe.aeidl.be.
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BACK
PRESENT SITUATION OF THE RURAL TOURISM

IN ROMANIA
Over the last years, in Romania, rural tourism has known an increasing
evolution. The main types of structures of rural tourism are: halting places, motels,
guesthouses, campings, holiday villages. In 2007, the offer for rural tourism is
represented at the level of 8 development regions. These regions are heterogeneous
regarding the touristic potential and development.
The development of rural tourism has an important influence on economy.
In addition to economical aspects, the rural tourism has also a social and cultural
component , by developing communication relations between tourists and natives, by
taking part to the education of young tourists regarding the cultural-instructive role
and widening the sphere oh human knowledge regarding rural environment.
INTRODUCTION
The apparition of the classic tourism followed by the development of

rural tourism and agro tourism in the last years is strongly connected to creating
“some economical and social conditions we call premises of their occurrence”. (1)
Among these premises there are: the increasing of the urban population, vacations
/ free time the employees have, increase of the population’s income, the non-
diversified offers of the classical tourism, the access to fast means of transport,
etc.
The National Agency for Rural and Cultural Tourism (ANTREC)
defines tourism as representing “all tourist activities performed in the countryside
in order to benefit from the natural and human potential in the villages”. (4) The
rural tourism is a particular form of tourism based on a certain “art” of welcoming
the tourist, it is a “mood” that implies hospitality from the rural community and
respect for the rural environment from the tourists. (5) This type of tourism is
characterized by three elements: “rural space, people and products”. (6) The rural
space is represented by the rural places, natural resource and the types of
accommodation. People represent the human resources implied in offering tourist
services (accommodation, food, traditions, customs, etc.) The products are
represented by the tourist products themselves, attractions that are the subject of
the tourist activities.
Thus, the rural tourism has as performing place the countryside and
appears as a background for relaxing vacations in nature. The rural tourism can be
considered as a possible alternative to enliven some villages, traditions, handcrafts
and customs. The rural tourist spaces are different according to the existent
resources, the usage of the land, the tourist activities performed, etc. The
following specific categories can be distinguished: rural houses – represented by
the place itself; forests, water, agricultural lands. (5)
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FEATURES OF RURAL TOURISM

There are a series of factors of influence in the occurrence and
development of this form of tourism: pollution of the urban environment, worsen
the health problems of the population; scenery and the new of rural places; the
exceptional diverse offer of the mountainous areas; the need to refresh in non-
polluted areas; reduce of the work week; access to new opportunities of spending
the free time; prices accessible for any category of consumers; increase of interest
for the traditional food; households and farms in the rural environment have an
extra dwelling place (2).
Next, we present some characteristics that differentiate the rural tourism
from the classical tourism.(table 1)
Table 1
Differences between the activities specific to the classical tourism and
those to the rural tourism
No. Activities specific to classical tourism Activities specific to rural tourism
1. Social economical activities in resorts Social economical activities mainly
and tourist cities agricultural and forestry
2. Increased density of the built space in Decreased density of the built space in
the inner area the inner area
3. High level of residents’ density Low level of residents’ density
4. Quantitative dense infrastructure Quantitative reduced infrastructure
5. Buildings with modern architecture Buildings with regional and local
architecture
6. Multiple, autonomous tourist activities Complementary tourist activities
7. Significant distance between Closeness between residence and daily
residence and work place activities
8. Reduced season High season
9. Anonymous, interpersonal Close, individualized relationships with
relationships with the tourists the tourists
10. Complex forms of administration and Simplified forms of administration and
accountability accountability
11. Multiple possibilities of promoting Reduced possibilities of promoting and
and selling tourist services selling tourist services
Source: Alecu I. N., Constantin M., 2006, page 67
In particular, the complementary activities performed by the tourist

services suppliers in the countryside are the following: trip in nearby places,
mountain tracking, climbing, explorations in wild areas, walking or boating, ski
fond, ski on slopes; travel by carts; cycling, riding horses, watching the nature,
taking photos (vegetation, animals), watching the scenery, getting to know the
rural patrimony, knowing the collectivity, the rural holidays, fishing, hunting,
nature sports, jogging, aerobics. (2,3)
The rural tourism has a larger frame then the other forms of tourism. In
Romania you can meet all types of welcoming at European standards.
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The main structures developed in the rural tourism are: holiday villages
with centers of villas and bungalows for individual or group accommodation,
around common places of dining and spending the time; tourist halting places,
represented by hotels for passing by tourists, near certain tourist tracks, with a few
rooms and a restaurant; motels for tourists who travel by cars; rustic hotels as
pavilions; camping for tents or caravans; pensions which have more rooms then
the halting places and rooms for preparing and serving dinner.(table 2)
Table 2
Types of establishments of tourist reception with functions of tourist accommodation
– on types of structures within rural tourism
-Number-
Types of establishments of
tourist reception with functions 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
of tourist accommodation
TOTAL 1846 2046 2125 2184 2496
Motels 137 143 149 161 154
Tourist inns 16 16 15 11 9
Tourist villas 669 676 691 716 742
Bungalows 259 265 279 305 297
Holiday villages 1 2 2 3 2
Campings 71 74 72 3 2
Tourist halting places 11 15 25 29 31
Rural tourist boarding houses* 682 781 892 956 1259
*Including agrotourist boarding houses
Source: reference – National Institute of Statistics – „Romanian Tourism” in
Figures, 2005.
- National Institute of Statistics – „Romanian Tourism” in
Figures, 2007.
The analysis of the overall evolution of tourist welcoming structures with

accommodation shows a significant increase of the number of villas and pensions
(including the agro tourist pensions). The most spectacular increases were recorded
for the rural tourist pensions, from 682 in the year 2002 to 1259 in 2006.
As regards the number of places in tourist pensions, they increased
progressively from 6219 in 2002 to 14551 in 2006.(table 3)
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Table 3
Existing accommodation capacity on types of structures within rural tourism
-Number of bed places-
Types of establishments of
2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
tourist reception
TOTAL 63790 63447 64919 66071 69443
Motels 5812 5795 5992 6189 5725
Tourist inns 422 378 385 292 278
Tourist villas 16669 16464 16107 15157 16005
Bungalows 4584 4769 4854 4963 4698
Holiday villages 36 56 56 266 110
Campings 29263 27598 26894 26568 26962
Tourist halting places 785 877 1226 1485 1114
Rural tourist boarding 6219 7510 9405 11151 14551
houses*
*Including agrotourist boarding houses
Source: reference – National Institute of Statistics – „Romanian Tourism” in
Figures, 2005.
- National Institute of Statistics – „Romanian Tourism” in
Figures, 2007.
TOURISTIC REGIONAL DIVISION OF GUESTHOUSES

In Romania the offer of rural tourism (8) from 2007 is represented at a
level of eight developing regions. These regions are heterogeneous concerning the
potential and the valuing of tourism. The regions are delimited in the following
way:
The Region of North-East of Moldova has guesthouses affiliated to
ANTREC in the following counties:
- Bacău county: 16 guesthouses;
- Iaşi county: 5 guesthouses;
- Neamţ county: 26 guesthouses;
- Suceava county: 28 guesthouses.
The Region of South -East has guesthouses affiliated to ANTREC in
the following counties:
- Buzău county: 18 guesthouses;
- Constanţa county: 13 guesthouses;
- Galaţi county: 2 guesthouses;
- Tulcea county: 22 guesthouses;
- Vrancea county: 53 guesthouses.
The Region of South - Muntenia has guesthouses affiliated to
- Argeş county: 16 guesthouses;
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- Dâmboviţa county: 6 guesthouses;

- Giurgiu county : 1 guesthouses;
- Prahova county: 13 guesthouses.
The Region of South – West Oltenia has guesthouses affiliated to

- Dolj county: 1 guesthouses;
- Gorj county: 54 guesthouses;
- Mehedinţi county: 22 guesthouses;
- Vâlcea county: 17 guesthouses.
The Region of West has guesthouses affiliated to ANTREC in the

following counties:
- Caraş Severin county: 13 guesthouses;
- Hunedoara county: 6 guesthouses;
- Timiş county: 2 guesthouses.
The Region of North - West has guesthouses affiliated to ANTREC in

the following counties:
- Bihor county: 27 guesthouses;

- Bistriţa-Năsăud county: 16 guesthouses;
- Cluj county: 20 guesthouses;
- Maramureş county: 16 guesthouses;
- Sălaj county: 4 guesthouses.
The Central Region has guesthouses affiliated to ANTREC in the

following counties:
- Alba county: 73 guesthouses;
- Braşov county: 79 guesthouses;
- Covasna county: 21 guesthouses;
- Harghita county: 44 guesthouses;
- Mureş county: 3 guesthouses;
- Sibiu county: 22 guesthouses.
Bucharest – Ilfov Region has guesthouses affiliated to ANTREC in the

following counties:
- Ilfov county: 6 guesthouses;
- Bucharest-2 guesthouses.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
We can conclude that the rural tourism in Romania has had an
ascendant evolution lately. This evolution occurs as a result of improving the
economical, social and cultural conditions, valuing the existent resources that
helped to make viable strategies of intervention. There is also the permanent
tendency to improve the infrastructure, and the structure of quantitative and
qualitative elements that are components of tourist activities.
The development of rural tourism has an influence on the economical
plan but also on the social and cultural plan. It has a major contribution to the
economic life of the village by: the possibility to accomplish a developing policy
on a long term, and the policies in the agriculture, infrastructure and environment
protection. It also offers a support for developing new business, having an effect
on the growth of jobs locally, it encourages the local traditional activities, values
the local resources (preparing the agro alimentary products for trade and tourists’
consumption), aspect that contributes to the increase of the villagers’ income and
the quality of life in the countryside. (7,1)
Besides the economical aspects, the rural tourism has a social
component and a cultural one too, especially by developing the communication
between tourists and villagers, by the contribution to the education of young
tourists about the cultural-educative role of the countryside, the intercultural
exchange and the integration of the tourist in the rural society in order to discover
an authentic and new lifestyle.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Alecu, I. N., Constantin, M., – Agroturism şi marketing agroturistic, Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti, 2006;
2. Bran, Florina, Istrate, I., – Economia turismului şi mediul înconjurător, Editura
Economică, Bucureşti, 1996;
3. Bran, Florina, Simon, Tamara, Nistoreanu, P.– Ecoturism, Editura Economică,
Bucureşti, 2000;
4. Cândea, Melinda, Bran, Florina – Spaţiul geografic românesc, Editura Economică,
Bucureşti, 2001;
5. Petrea, Rodica, Petrea D. – Turism rural, Presa Universitară Clujeană, Cluj-Napoca,
2000;
6. Petroman, I, Petroman, P.– Turismul cultural, Editura Eurostampa, Timişoara, 2005;
7. Tacu, A, P, Glăvan, V.,– Turismul rural românesc. Actualitate şi perspectivă,
Editura Pan Europe, Iaşi, 1999;
8.*** Catalogul Naţional al Pensiunilor Turistice şi Agroturistice, ANTREC, 2007;
9. *** INS – Turismul României. Breviar statistic, 2005;
10. *** INS – Turismul României. Breviar statistic, 2007.
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BACK
THE EXPERIENCE OF GERMANY AND CROATIA IN THE

RURAL TOURISM AND AGROTOURISM
In Germany, the only farm of accommodation in the rural environment is

the habitation for tourists within the agricultural farm. There are approximately
20.000 agricultural exploitations which possess accommodation rooms within the
farms, and on lands the number of rooms made available for the tourists rise to
440.000.
In Croatia, the majority of the family farms are small; have between 1 and 5
ha compared to the farms available in the neighbouring countries. The family farms
which begin the tourist activity reduce the agricultural production. This is a
drawback which drew the attention and for which one tries to identify viable
solutions for solving certain possible problems which may occur.
THE EXPERIENCE OF GERMANY IN RURAL TOURISM AND

AGROTOURISM
The organization of trips in villages began in Germany since 1965. In
Germany there are two organizations which militate for farmer’s interests –
German Society for Agriculture (DLG), which offers certificates to the houses
which accomplishes the conditions for the inclusion in the circuit of tourist’s offer
and the organization for Public viewpoint Stimulation (IMA). (2,4)
In 1990 in Germany it was established “The work group for vacation in
peasantry household and rural tourism” (ANG), which has as purpose the
elaboration of a strategy for tourism promotion and of rural tourism in peasantry
household. (8)
In Germany, the only type of accommodation in rural environment is the
house for tourists as part of agrarian farm. There are about 20 000 agrarian
exploitations which have accommodation places as parts of the farms, and on the
provinces the number of the rooms available for the tourists rise up to 440 000.
The most of the accommodation places are in Bayern provinces – 10 000, here
being the most of the rooms 50 000. The tourists are in the large majority from
Germany and they come from middle social class. The tourists from Belgium and
Holland choose to spend their holidays in Germany. (1)
The main items identified with the occasion of accomplishing of a study
regarding the development of agrotourism and marketing instruments in
agrotourism in Germany are the followings:
• the existence of varied instruments which promote the investment and
planning in agrotourism;
• the existence of some associations which promote the tourism services
on the market;
• initiatives which sustain the development of agrotourism;
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• the existence of quality standards defined by the German agrarian

society, which stand on the basis of specific activities.
In Germany some programs sustain the investment promotion or taking
the conceptual measurements in agrotourism field for agrarian areas. Beside the
direct subsidies the farmers can as well get loans for activities initiation in area.
Thus, the existence of LEADER program supports the development of
agrotourism both directly and indirectly through specifically projects. (6)
As it can be seen, all implied actors in offering services in rural tourism
area and agrotourism from Germany give a special attention to the capitalization
of those rural areas where there are villages and bucolic farms very well
maintained. It is estimated that 20% from peasant’s income who rents rooms
comes from tourism. Rural tourism in Germany exerts a big influence over the
commerce and little industries both by selling agroalimentary products, and
through the investments for household’s modernization.
Starting from these correspondents the accent was set step by step on
activities diversification specific to rural tourism. On national level the action
“Holydays at bucolic farms” was initiated. The state sustains the initiatives of
interested persons for arranging the household for giving touring services.
Statistical data discloses the facts that as the result of this action were put at
tourist’s disposition in Schwartzwald region and in north side of Messen province
over 7500 beds, their number increasing annually. Another relevant aspect is the
fact that for the children is practiced big prices discounts. (4)
The state intervention in what regards giving financially support for rural
tourism development is made by central funds or provinces, this support being
given to the organizations. (3)
THE EXPERIENCE OF CROATIA IN RURAL TOURISM AND

AGROTOURISM
In the last years, in Croatia it is established an attitude change vis-à-vis of
rural tourism development. Besides the development of traditional tourism in little
Mediterranean rural settlements which interweave elements both from the urban
and rural life, the tourism develops in more rural settlements from the entire
country. There are small projects, named unofficially ”Etno-eco villages” which
aim the revitality of some abandoned villages. The sensitive point of these
projects is the fact that being artificially created the villages won’t have the spirit
of an alive rural community.
The increase of interest in rural tourism development can be the best
explained by the increase of household’s number which offers services to the
tourist. In 2002 there were registered 177 farms implied in different touring
activities. Of this number 68 of these are in the north-west side, in Istria area, 39
in Dubrovnik area, 15 in Zadar area, 6 in Sibenik area and 4 in Split area. It is
amazing that traditional agrarian areas from North of Croatia are less involved in
- 112 -
rural tourism than the one’s situated on the coast or islands. Thus, in Zagrebsunt
13 farms were included in the touring circuit, in Krapina-Zagorje area, one of the
most rural picturesque areas we find 8 of this kind, in Varazdin area are registered
6 farms implicated in touring activities. (5)
One of the reasons of this situation can be the absence of touring tradition
in north comparative with the one from maritime resorts. Another reason could be
the passive relative attitude of national or regional authorities vis-à-vis to the
encouraging of rural tourism development. The Croat rural inheritance is
spectacularly rich, but, unfortunately the politic factors from tourism field do not
capitalize it appropriately. Obviously, the official documents are dealing only
with tourism at farms, being forgotten the fact that this kind of tourism is only a
small part from the concept of rural tourism, where the role of rural community is
inevitable in creating a rural comprehensive product.
Thus, in 2002 the chamber of commerce of Croatia (the sector for
tourism) introduced a set of laws for farms which are interested to involve
themselves in tourism. As a part of First international Conference of Agriculture
and Rural Development, organized in November 2006 in Croatia there were made
known the results of a study made in Croatia regarding the development of
agrotourism in this county. The study was made in 2002 and contained 43
agrotourism farms from Istria area, one of the most developed touring areas of
Croatia.
It is remarked the fact that the size of farms is closely bounded by the
development of agrotourism activities and that is why there is a bound between its
size and the type of farm tourism. According to the obtained data, the majority of
familial farms from Istria have between 1,01-5,00 hectares and 5,01-10,00
hectares, from the agrarian territory. Comparative with the existent farms in the
neighbor countries, for example Italy and Slovenia, the farms from Croatia are
small. For example, according to the Familial Associations Catalogue of Tourism
at the farm in 2002, in Slovenia, from the total number of 161 farms, most of
them have 10 hectares, the average being of 26 hectares. In Italy, the medium size
of agrotourism households is of 68, 5 hectares.
Starting from these data, the average of agrotourism households is of
12,7% in Istria, and in Croatia of 2,59%, according to the Agrarian Census made
in 2003.
This problem is the result of many years of wrong management of
agrarian territory, agrarian productions being small in agrotourism households.
The request and the offer of agrotourism households products and services is
presented thus: (figure 1)
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Tour operators and private

tourist agency
Tourist Rural
market evironment
Agrotourism
household
Agro touristic Agrotourism Agricultural Agricultural

market activity activity producers
Tourist association of
counties and local Figure 1. Demand and offer of
communities products and services of agrotourism
households
Source: Journal of Central European
Agriculture (2006), vol. 7, no. 3.
Demand
Offer
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BACK
From the presented model we can observe that the agrotourism

households are formed from two segments: touring and agrarian. The agrotourism
households have an impact over the rural environment, these being able to sell
their products and services both directly and indirectly through touring
associations, touring agencies and trips operators. Even if it was started from an
offer of products fairly restrained, the specialized producers of regional products
(wines, bacon, olive oil, honey, etc.) have diversified their offer along the years as
a result of the changes in consumers request in general.
In currently manner, the most common situation in Croatia is bounded by
the fact that the familial farms which begin their agrotourism activity reduce the
agrarian production. This is a shortcoming, which drown the attention and for
which it is tried the identification of viable solutions for resolving some problems
which may appear.
Croatia has perfect opportunities for developing these touring offers the
more so as it is one of the few countries in the world which interweaves
harmoniously varied climate elements, natural and socio-cultural characteristics.
So, it can be drawn a conclusion that the rural touring product is a big
competitive advantage of Croat tourism on the market always bigger and
pretentious of international tourism.
CONCLUSIONS
In Germany, Bayern region is financed by the government, thus the
support offered for the development of rural tourism is distributed on multiple
levels depending on each region from Germany.
In Croatia, agrotourism, this form of tourism which takes place inside of
familial households, represents a specific form of business, with impact over
economic and social development of space from rural areas, the same as in the
other countries where it doesn’t develops. The lack of financial resources with
which lots of farmers from West Europe are confronting (here being included
even those from Croatia), constitutes one of the problems with which these are
confronting. The development of tourism activities appears as a possible strategy
which can generate additional amounts at the income of farmers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bran Florina, Marin D., Simon Tamara - Turismul rural – modelul european, Editura Economică,
Bucureşti, 1997;
2. Ghereş Marinela - Agroturism, Editura Risoprint, Cluj – Napoca, 2003;
3. Glăvan V. – Turism rural. Agroturism. Turism durabil. Ecoturism, Editura Economică, Bucureşti,
2003;
4. Mitrache Şt. (coordonator) – Agroturism şi turism rural, Editura Fax Press, Bucureşti, 1996;
5. *** Chamber of Commerce of Croatia, 2002;
6.***INW - Continuative survey on the development of agrotourism in the Pomerania region,
Berlin, 2005;
7. ***Journal of Central European Agriculture (2006), vol. 7, no. 3;
8.***Tribuna Economică nr. 32/1996, Bucureşti
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BACK
THE INFLUENCE OF FRENCH ON THE GERMAN AND

ROMANIAN ANIMAL HUSBANDRY LANGUAGE
(POULTRY BREEDING)
Maria MORARU, Elena PETREA, R.A. MORARU
The specialized foreign terms and expressions are, often, a clue for the
history of the concerned field, the place/the land where one certain theory
appeared, where it has been discovered or it has been done something in
connection with the discussed field, the approached phenomena etc. In the
present paper the authors are trying to investigate with help of some linguistic
instruments from a incontestable value, some proves of the massive influence of
the French language in the sphere of a poultry language, one higher influence
then that of the English, at least for a certain period. The authors aims to
cataloguing a few specific Romanian and German terms of French origin,
reflected by Romanian and German specialty literature concerning poultry and
included in the first German-Romanian Poultry Dictionary, 1997, Iaşi. Thus, it
must be mentioned that the most part of this terms are in connection with the
exterior examination of the animal, with breeding technologies, types of fodder,
animal foodering or with the structure of egg, the physiologic processes which
are place in the egg, with the hunting, etc., also with all the sub-fields of the
poultry breeding. The authors are considering that those elements are a proof
that the French poultry had one great influence upon the development of this
branch of the animal husbandry in Romania.
A specialized dictionary represents only apparently a simple collection of

specific terms and expressions of some field in a certain language. By one
attentively analysis it may be observed that this, in fact, constitutes itself in a real
monograph of the field or of the subject to which it is dedicated, while it is giving
us concrete, explicit information, or sometimes only implicitly (through borrowed
words and expressions), about the history of the approached field, of the evolution
of the concerned language, about the manner of formation of the terminology
(through archaisms or old words/expressions), also about the actually stage of
researches (through the used notions, through the evolution/frequency of them,
through synonyms which are usually placed within the dictionary according to
their frequency). Also, the specialized foreign terms and expressions are, often, a
indication about the history of the concerned field, the place/the land where one
certain theory appeared, where it has been discovered or it has been done
something in connection with the discussed field, the approached phenomena etc.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Some specialized terms and expressions from the specialty Romanian and
German literature about poultry, included in our Dictionar german-roman de
- 116 -
aviculturã, Iaşi, ed. Gama, 1997 and Dictionar roman-german de aviculturã, ed.
Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Iaşi 2005, suggested us the idea that the beginning of the
scientific study of poultry in Romania is laying under the auspices of the French
specialty literature concerning poultry. In our paper we will discuss a part of this
terms
REZULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

A first term which may be summit to the analysis is :
ANVIZAJARE f. sg. s. (Engl. Envisaging, Germ. Anvisieren n. sg.), in the
expression anvizajarea furajului (Engl. Envisaging of the fodder, Germ.
Anvisieren des Futters). So it may be ascertained the fact that the expression
ANVIZAJAREA FURAJULUI has in German an equivalent too, which led us
to the French language.
None dictionary of Romanian has registered this term excepting DRGAv
2005; instead, we have found in other German explicative dictionary1, published
in 1999 (WDtS), the corresponding verb with the following explanation:
ANVISIEREN, v. tr. (s. hat anvisiert; mit Akk., Engl. to envisage); 1. Ins
Blickfeld nehmen (Engl. to take into account, Rom. a avea în vedere, în
perspectivã); 2. Als Ziel setzen (1. to cut through with the look, a pãtrunde cu
privirea; 2. to establish an objective, a fixa un obiectiv). The presence of this term
in the German complicate the situation, while the term anvizajare, of a
incontestable French origin, could come to us very well through the German way.
The verb a anvizaja is not appearing in MDA2, but it is to found in MDN3
with following explanation : “(v.tr.) to take in consideration/ “a lua in
considerare” (<Fr. envisager). The Romanian borrowed only one of this meanings
from the French term (meaning 3, cf. Le Nouveau Petit Robert de la langue
française, 2007, abrev. Petit Robert, s. lower down :
Fr. ENVISAGER (v.tr.), attested in 1560, formed from the pref. en- and
the noun visage (“face, chip”), the first meaning of them, out of use, is “to look to
the person in the face”; 2. (attested in 1653) Fr. «examiner par la pensée» (Engl.
“to examine in mind, to look, to see”, Rom. “a examina in gând, a privi, a
vedea”) ; the meaning 3 « prendre en considération, avoir en vue » was taken by
Romanian too “a lua în considerare”; 4. envisager de +inf. – Rom. “a se gândi la,
a proiecta să”, Engl.”to think of, to plan to ….”.
However, the fact that the Romanian term comes closely to the French
makes us to suppose that it is coming to us directly from French, therefore it is
possible, that the Germ. anvisieren had a direct source in French too.
1
x..x..x. Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache,
2
x..x..x. Micul dicţionar academic, vol. I-IV,
3
Florin Marcu, Marele Dicţionar de Neologisme,
- 117 -
The term PELETĂ and its derivative PELETIZARE registered some

differences from one dictionary to another in Romanian. So, in MDN we have :
PELETÃ f. sg., (Engl. “pellet”)– “granulã obţinutã prin peletare”, Engl.
“a granule obtained through pelletization”, obviously a borrowed word <fr., Engl.
pellet, rom. pelet. ;
PELETIZARE f.sg., (Engl. “pelletization”): : “aglomerare mecanică a
granulelor unui minereu fin măcinat and umezit, rostogolit (după Fr.
pelletisation)”, Engl. “mechanical aglomeration of granules of the fine ground
and wet, rolled (after Fr. pelletisation).
The explanation of the words is identical in MDA, but this dictionary
indicates only the English language as origin of the rom. neologism peletă,
attested for the first time in Romanian in the Dictionarul de neologisme
(Dictionary of neologismes), ed. a II-a, 1978, while the etymology of the noun
peletizare is considered unknown; his attestation is less older in the Lexiconul
tehnic român, 1957 (Romanian technical lexicon). By studying the Petit Robert,
we can obtain important dates : pellet m.sg. has the mention “anglicism”
(Anglicismus), and its derivative pelletisation is only indicated; therefore it is not
registered as a dictionary item.
The electronic data-base Le Grand Dictionnaire Terminologique,
exclusively to the specialized terminology indicates us the Fr. granulé as
equivalent for the Engl. pellet (in the animal husbandry). Some dictionary
mention that, according to specialty (mine industry, pharmacology, animal
husbandry, geology etc.), the Engl. pellet and pelletization have as equivalents
various words: boulette and bouletage, granule and granulation, pastille. But it
seems to us interesting the following specification : Rappelons que l'anglais pellet
vient du français pelote, issu lui-même du latin populaire pilotta, « petite balle »,
diminutif de pila (Engl. pellet vine din Fr. pelote <lat.pop. pillota, “minge mică”,
diminutive de la pilla), “Remember that the English pellet comes from the
French. pelote <lat.pop. pillota, “ a small ball”
The term in discussion – PELETÃ – was borrowed not only by Romanian,
but by others languages too, for example, we can find it in German too undo the
form Pellet n. sg.; Pellets pl.; here it enters in the composition of some
specialized expressions or composed-terms in German, for example: Rom.
diametrul peletului, Germ. Pelletdurchmesser n., Engl. pellet’s diameter; Rom.,
formă de pelet, Germ. Pelletform f., Engl. pellet form; Rom. efect de peletare,
Germ., Pelletierungseffekt m., Engl. pellet effect. The preference of German for
composed-words is obviously.
In WDtS we find:
Pelle f:11) 1. dünne Schalle (Kartoffel-) (thin pelle at potatoes, Rom.
pieliţa finã a cartofului) 2. Umhüllung der Wurst (Engl. skin fell of the sausage,
Rom. învelişul cârnatului) (Lat. pellis “Fell, Haut”).*
- 118 -
pellen V. 1., hat gepellt, mit Akk. Die Pelle von etwas entfernen, schälen
Kartoffeln (Engl. to pell off, Rom. a îndepãrta pieliţa de pe ceva, a curãţa cartofi.)
pelletieren (v. 2. hat pelletiert, mit Akk pelletisieren**)
pelletisieren (v. 2. hat pelletisiert; zu Pellets pressen <auch> pelletieren,
engl” to press up to pellete”)
It surprised us the fact that in WtDS we couldn’t find the term Pellets such
as item, we met it only in the expression: zu Pellets pressen (Rom. a presa pânã
la peletă ). Either the authors of the dictionary considered that it is a too
specialized term, with a too limited circulation, which has no place in a such
general dictionary, or they have omitted to include it here. It is sure that in
German exists the entire word family (s. the verb pellen = a decoji, to pell off).
PELETARE f. sg. (Rom. “mod de preparare a furajelor combinate”, Engl.
“pelletisation, way to prepare a combined fodder) was borrowed in German too
and adapted undo the form Pelletierung f. sg. ; s. also Rom. efect de ~
Pelletierungseffekt m.
The noun ECLOZIUNE s.f., Engl.“hatching” and the verb a ECLOZA
“to hatch” are borrowed from French too.
MDN indicates three meanings for the noun ecloziune and gives us the
French etymon :
1. “ieşirea a puilor sau a larvelor din ou”, (Engl. to go out from egg). 2.
(fig.) “ieşire la iveală, inflorire ; manifestare” (Engl. turn out:
blooming/flowering; occurrence”. 3. (med.) Intervenţie medicalã prin care este
scoasã din funcţie o parte a organului, cu scopul de a fi extirpatã (Engl. “Surgery
intervention through which is taken out of function a part from the organ, in order
to be extirpated.”) (<fr.éclosion)
The verb ecloza appears with three meanings : v.intr. 1. (cu privire la
larve, pui) a ieşi din ou (concerning about larva, nestling, chicken) “to come out
from egg.” 2. (despre flori) a înflori (about flowers), Engl. “to to flower, to
blossom” 3. (fig.) a se naşte, a apãrea, a se ivi (Engl. “to born, to appear “) (after
Fr. éclore, éclosion)
The verb ecloza and the neutral noun eclozionator Engl. “hatchery” (<Fr.
éclosionnateur) are, both, attested for the first time in the Dictionarul de
neologisme, ed. 1978, while the fem. noun ecloziune appears for the first time in
Memoriile of Eugen Lovinescu.
The French CHALAZE was borrowed by the Romanian with the adjusted
form ŞALAZĂ (attested : Dictionarul de neologisme, 1978 : “albuminous
filament which suspends the yolk of the egg in its covers”), and in German
appears with the form Chalazen pl.
Even if in German we meet the verb transchieren, it is obviously that this
word is not genuine German, but it represents an adaptation to the morpho-
- 119 -
phonetical and grammatical system of German language of the verb Fr. trancher,
confirmed by the DLR, where we find the indication: “a desfac|e vt. (un animal
tăiat), Engl. to trench, Germ. ausschlachten vt., tran(s)chieren vt.”idem”.
The verb TRANŞA comes from Fr. trancher (cf. MDN) ; MDA indicates
a double etymon, Fr. trancher, Germ. transchieren. Attested for the first time in
the Dictionarul limbei romane of A.T.Laurian and I.C.Massim (1873-1877), the
Romanian term had taken also the own meanings, as the figurated ones of the
French etymon.
The term FURAJ, which comes to complete the autochthonous NUTREŢ
(<inherited from lat. nutricium) comes, certainly from Fr. fourrage, what is
obviously after the graphia of furaj in German (Fourage), where, is, too,
utilizated and is going in the composition of some composed words, for example:
comerţ with nutreţ/de furaje = Germ. Fouragehandlung f. sg.
It exists in German also one term formed on autochthonous ground, which is
authentic German – Futtermittel, with the same meaning, but with a larger
spreading.
The term SILAGE appears in German in the expression Germ.
Silageentnahme f.sg., Engl. discharging from the ensiled fodder”, rom.
“descărcarea furajului insilozat” (de ex. din turn, din tranşee). The French
ensilage was borrowed with this form in germ: Ensilage f.sg., Gärfutterbereitung
f. sg., Rom. INSILOZARE f. sg.
The term BURSITĂ “inflamaţie a mucoaselor seroase”, Engl. inflamation
of serous mucous membranes) and REGIM are not raising problems with regard
to the etymology, French obviously: Fr. bursite and Fr. régime. The last term
appears also in German near a genuine composed word: Germ. Regime n.sg.,
Haushalt n. sg., Rom. regim n. sg.
The Rom. term VOLIERÃ f. sg., Engl. “aviary”, Germ. Voliere f.,
appears in DEX and in MDN with the explanation:
“Cuşcã sau ansamblu de cuşti de dimensiuni mari, confecţionate din plasã
de sârmã, in which se ţin pãsãrile din grãdinile zoologice – (Engl. Cage or
ensemble of cages of large size, made up from wire net, for keeping of the birds in
the zoological gardens)- from Fr. volière”.
MDA registers the term with the same meaning and with its attestation in
the Mic dictionay enciclopedic (Small enciclopaedic dictionary), 1972. In French,
volière, attested in the XIV-century, is formed from the verb voler (Rom. “a
zbura”, Engl. to fly), and the meaning is similar with that taken in Romanian too.
With regard to the specialized dictionaries, the term in discussion is to met
for the first time in DGRAv4, published in 1997, being, up to recently5, the only
existing dictionary in Romania for the sub-field poultry of animal husbandry.
4
Moraru, Maria, Hara, Otilia, Dicţionar german-român de avicultură, Iaşi, 1997.
- 120 -
In German we can met this French noun in the expression “system of

aviaries”: Germ. Volieren-System n., rom. “sistem de voliere”.
In cynegetic field, is indubitable the fact that the Germ. Falkonier m.
(“şoimar”) comes from Fr. fauconnier (<faucon, “şoim”).
For this field in Romanian we can mention following terms:
FALCONIFORME s. pl., “order of wild birds to prey with an strong body,
long wings , an long and dick beak”, from Fr. falconiformes. In German exist
more words with this root: falc-: der Falke “şoim”, der Falkonier m. “şoimar” m.,
der Falkner m.”idem”, from French falconièr.
Howewer, the number of the French borrowed words is not finished yet.
We can mention also:
ELEVEUZÃ s. f., “cloşcã artificialã, bruder”, from the French eleveuse
“idem”, Germ. Schirmglucke. The German created an own word for this device,
more explicit/transparent than the French one.
DEBECAJ s. n., “tãierea, scurtarea ciocului”, Engl. “cutting of the beak of
birds” from the French débécage (idem”). In German exists the equivalent
Schnabelkupierung f. sg., a composed word from Schnabel “beak” and the French
“couper “ , Rom.” a tãia”.
All this words penetrated the Rumanian specialty language through the French
specialty literature and most of them are incomprehensible for the big part of
Romanians, which are not at home in the field of poultry breeding. We can
establish also the relatively age of this borrowed words, the period, when they
penetrated the Romanian language. Par example, about FURAGE we could say,
that is the oldest of them, while it is understood by all the Romanians and it has
developed here a large word family: A FURAJA vb. tr,. to fooder, the noun
FURAJARE s.f., the foodering, the adj. FURAJAT Engl. foddered.
CONCLUSIONS
The few terms which we summit to analysis are bringing new proves about
the contacts among languages, in form of loan of terminology, specific for some
fields of the science. We tried with the present paper, to investigate with the help
of some linguistic instruments of a incontestable value, some proves of the
massive influence of the French language on the poultry language, a higher
influence then that of English, at least for a certain period of time. Thus, it can
conclude that the most part of the analyzed terms are in connection with the
exterior examination of the animal, with breeding technologies, types of fodder,
foodering of animals, or with the structure of egg, the embryology, the physiology
5
Recently appeared in the Editura Universitãtii “Ion Ionescu de la Brad” in redaction of
Maria Moraru, R.A. Moraru andi Elena Petrea the rjoinder to this, Dicţionarul român-
german de aviculturã, Iaşi, 2005, 208 pg.
- 121 -
BACK
processes which are place in the egg, with the hunting etc., also with all the sub-
fields of the poultry breeding.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
x..x..x.Wörterbuch der Deutschen Sprache, Berlin, 1999 (WtDS);
x..x..x. Micul Dictionar Academic, vol. I-IV, Bucureşti, Univers Enciclopedic, 2001-2003 (MDA);
x..x..x.Dictionarul Explicativ al Limbii Român , Bucureşti, Univers Enciclopedic, 1998 (DEX);
x..x..x Le Nouveau Petit Robert de la langue française, Paris 2007 (Le Petit Robert);
Bãlãşescu M., Bãltan Ghe., Dascãlu Al., Vancea I., Avicultura, Bucureşti, 1980.
BRANDSCH H. şi colab., Geflügelzucht, Berlin, 1979.
Marwith, Florin, Marele Dictionar de Neologisme, Bucureşti, Saeculum I.O., 2006;
Moraru, Maria, Hara, Otilia, Dictionar german-român de avicultură, Iaşi, 1997) (DGRAv, 2001);
Moraru, Maria, Moraru, R.A., Petrea, Elena, Dictionay român-german de aviculturã, Iaşi, 2005
(DRGAv 2005)
Schwark-Mazanowski P., Internationales Handbuch der Tierproduktion. Geflügel, Berlin, 1987.
Vacaru Opriş I., Tehnologia creşterii pãsãrilor, partea I şi a II-a, Iaşi, 1993.
- 122 -
BACK
ASPECTS REGARDING THE ORIGIN OF SOME

ZOOTECHNICAL TERMS IN THE ROMANIAN LANGUAGE
AS WELL AS IN OTHER INDO-EUROPEAN LANGUAGES.
II. SLAVIC ELEMENTS
Maria MORARU, Roxana MIHALACHE, R.A. MORARU
The specialized foreign terms and expressions are, often, a clue for the
history of the concerned field, of the place / the land where a certain theory
appeared, where something has been discovered or it has been done related to the
discussed field or the approached phenomena etc. In the present paper, the authors
are trying to investigate with the help of some linguistic instruments of
incontestable value, some proves of the massive influence of the French language
in the sphere of the poultry language, noticed as a higher influence then the
English one, at least for a certain period of time. The authors aim to catalogue few
specific Romanian and German terms of French origine, reflected by the
Romanian and German specialty literature concerning poultry and included in the
first German-Romanian Poultry Dictionary, 1997, Iaşi. Through the following
foreign elements in the Romanian special terminology, the authors ascertain the
existence of some French words such as eleveuzã, anvizajare, volierã, ecloziune,
furaj etc., which are, in their most part, no more percepted as foreign elements by
the Romanian people; others, like eleveuzã, anvizajare, volierã., show their real
origin not only to persons who know several foreign languages. Thus it must be
mentioned that the most part of these terms are related to the external examination
of the animal, breeding technologies, types of fodder or with the egg’s structure,
with the physiologic processes which occur in egg, with the hunting, etc., and also
with all the sub-fields of the poultry breeding. The authors are considering that
these elements represent a proof that the French poultry had one great influence
upon the development of this branch of the animal husbandry in Romania.
According to the researches that have been done till now regarding the
origins of the basic zoo technical technology, the conclusions are that most of the
names of domestic animals – pig, sheep, ox, cow, horse, poultry etc – entered the
primitive Indo-European languages, more precisely from Asia and the Caucasus,
arriving in Europe together with the animals they name. Starting from these,
several equivalences developed in different dialects which allowed us to conclude
that not only the Romanian appellatives for domestic animals come mostly from
Latin but also many of the appellatives for parts of the body or different organs
proved to be of Latin origin: rom. cap < capus, capitis; rom. frunte < frons,
frontis; rom. os < os, oseum; rom. inima < lat. anima, ae; rom. plãmâni lat.
pulmon, nis, etc. There are also of latin origin words which refer to primary
animal products such as carnea, laptele, lâna, sângele. But, at the same time,
when confronting Romanian with other languages, we can easily conclude that
- 123 -
part of the primary terminology referring to animals and some processed products
is of Slavic origin.
MATHERIAL AND METHOD

The names for animals usually belong to the relatively stable vocabulary of
a language *. As regards Romanian as we could see, most of them are inherited
from the mother tongue – Latin: rom. animal < lat. animal, is, rom. vacã < lat.
vacca, ae; rom. bou < lat. bos, bovis; rom. miel < lat. agnielum; rom. lup < lat.
lupus,i etc. we can say that the only name of a big domestic animal which has a
Slavic origin is BIVOL, as it undoubtedly comes from bg. Bivoly**. The
southern-Slavic etymology is obvious, because in the northern Slavic language
there appears the group uj (rus. bujvol), while in Bulgarian, Romanian and
Hungarian we have i vowel. Even DEX: 102 confirms the origin of the Romanian
word from bg. BIVOLŮY.
Unlike the other species of domestic animals which have been bred on the
territory of our country for millenniums, the buffalo is relatively recent as it was
brought here only in the 9th century by the Bulgarians. It is known that starting
with the 6th century, the Bulgarian state situated in the south of the Danube had
become powerful enough, as it was permanently at war against the Byzantine
Empire. Having remained without defence after the withdrawal of the roman
armies and the migrations which devastated the human settlements, the territory in
the north of the Danube was tempting for the neighbours in the south who hurried
to take it. This can explain that the first state formations on Dacia’s territory were
set up by the Bulgarians Menumorut, Ken and Sen (9th Century), but also by Glad
and Gelou who were Romanians. The Bulgarians brought with them not only the
language, but also a big horned animal, the buffalo, that found here, especially in
the Transylvanian Plateau, especially in Sãlaj and Târnave, good conditions for
development. Here as well as on the entire territory where the Dacians- Romans
lived, numerous old Slavic elements had entered the language of the native people
starting with the 6th century (may earlier) as a result of the migrations ofthese
tribes. Thus it is no wonder that the buffalo presered its original name. the
analysis of he structure of this name makes us suppose that we have a compound
word made up from a compound word, formed from -vol (see sl. voly = ox) and
the prefix bi- which might easily come from the adj. sl. bujnyi (“furious”).
Its relative, the aurochs, is also of Slav origin, whose name comes from
sl. zubrъ.
*
v. Mihãilã, Împrumuturi vechi ....
**
v. DEX.
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Among the appellatives that denominate parts of the animal body we can
mention the ones considered to have a Slav origin: GREABÃN, GLEZNÃ,
LABÃ şi COPITÃ.
As regards the word GREABÃN n.n. “part of the body at some (large)
animals, situated between the neck and backbone”, cfr. DEX:433, it might come
from din sl. grebeni “comb”. In fact, the meaning of “comb” is only one of the
multiple meanings of the Slavic word greben’ (Ozegov Dictionary mentions 8
meanings for this word), and we are not sure and we are not sure if this very
meaning of “comb” gave the name for this part of the animal body. Referring to a
part of the animal body “situated between neck and backbone:, i.e. in its superior
part, we consider that GREABÃN is closer in meaning to another one, that of
“upper part, superior part of an object”. Another meaning of this Slavic word is
that of “the top of the hill” which, in our opinion, also comes from the meaning
mentioned above.
Less controversed is the origin of GLEZNÃ n.f., “part of the leg of some
animals between fistula and fetlock”, on which almost most of the authors
consider that they might come from bg. glezna, glezinu, with the same meaning
(DEX:432), without anyone finding another argument.
Instead, for the origin of the word LABÃ there is a tooth and nail in the
specialized literature: DEX and part of the linguists attach to this word a
Hungarian origin, Ion. Pop Sireteanu* on contrary, advocates for the in-land
origin. On I. Balasz** opinion and ours, LABÃ is of Slavic origin, from lapa
“paw, animal leg”.
As for us, we argue this supposition by counting on the greater phonetic
proximity between the two words-the Romanian and Slavic ones – in comparison
to the Hungarian one, which lost the final vocal a from sl. Lapa, thus remaining
monosyllabic see. Hung. Lá; this rapprochement between the Slavic and
Romanian word is encouraged and it can be a possible transformation of the
voiced labial sl. p in voiceless labial b in Romanian, a phenomenon that we
noticed under certain conditions, for example src. serpskij = rom. sârbesc. For we
have noticed such a transformation at a south-Slavic dialect, we tend to consider
that Romanian could have borrowed this word from an idiom like this.
As regards the last noun mentioned above, copita, it has for sure a Slavic
origin, from sl. Kopyto, being present in all the Slavic languages and not only:
bg. kopito, mac. kopito, scr. kopito, slovenã kopito etc.
Nor for poultry, the appellatives of Slavic origin are not too numerous.
The only ones are COCOŞ, GÂSCA and GÂNSAC*.
*
Siriteanu, I. Pop, Memoria… p. 86.
**
Balaj, I., Despre originea şi evoluţia semanticã … p. 102-109.
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KOKOS n. m. “cocoş” < scr. kokotъ “idem”, Rom. lit. “idem” (see
Melich:110). Also DEX:192 presents the Slavic origin of the word “kokoši”. But,
although DEX indicates for this fowl the Slavic origin, from kokoši, with the
meaning of “hen”, we consider that this appellative was rather used with the
meaning of “fowl” **, if we tend to believe Melich. As a matter of fact, if we take
a closer look we can notice that even in those times, there were lexical differences
among the Slavic languages as regards the denomination of this fowl: the north
Slavic languages preferred the Russian petuh/scr. Petéh, while the south ones had
pe kokotъ*. Anyway it stands to reason why both Romanian and Hungarian took
this word from a south Slavic language, which they have been in direct contact
with for a long period of time.
AS regards the Slavic origin of the appellatives GÂNSAC, see bg.
gъnsaka, and GÂSCÃ – bg. gъska, supported by Scãrlãtoiu (v. Rsl., op. cit. p.
109), we presume that these appellatives could have come in our language
through the Slavic channel, but that they must have had an Indo-European root,
for in German we find Gans “goose”, in Russian “gus’”, on the one hand and the
geese that have been in this region for thousands of years must have had a name,
on the other hand.
Much numerous appellatives of Slavic origin are connected to the fish
fauna. Thus, we meet:
MREANÃ n.f., is thought to have been borroed from mac. mrenka
“Barbus fluviastilis” (Scãrlãtoiu, op. cit. p.112);
CRAP n.m., an old Slavic borrowing from krap, bg. krapъ, mac. krap, germ
Karpfen, another Indo-European root probably (idem);
PLÃTICÃ n.f., an old Slavic borrowing *platika, bg. platika, alb
platice “small fish” (idem);
PÃSTRAV n. m. < bg. pãstãrvъ “idem” (DEX:766)” Rom. lit.
“pãstrãv”;
RAC n.m. “rac”, from bg. rak “idem” (idem);
ŞTIUCÃ n.f. < sl. ščuka “idem” (idem);
The relatively large number of these appellatives in comparison to the rest
could be explained by the fact that the Slavs who came on the territory of our
country first settled in more fertile zones, along the river meadows, where they
could find fish for nourishment, while the autochthon population retreated to safer
regions. The coming of the new migratory populations – the Hungarians, banished
the Slavs to higher regions and more protected, but the name of these inhabitants
remained, remaining in Romanian and even in Hungarian*.
Also of Slavic origin, more precisely Bulgarian, are the following
appellatives used in the domain of animal husbandry:
*
. Melich, Die Herkunft..., p. 103.
*
V. Moraru, Elem vechi slave….IV, pag. 439.
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ŞIŞTAR n.n. < from bg.. şiştar (wood container of cylindrical form used
at milking),
SMÂNTÂNÃ n.f. < bg., ucr. smetana (fat from the upper part of the curd)
IESLE n.f. < from sl. iasli (chute for animal feeding)
POIATÃ n.f., – sl. pojata (rudimentary shelter for fowls, swine and cattle)
Moderate opinions as regards the role of the Slavic element in the

formation of Romanian had I.A.Candrea Les elementes latins dans la langue
roumaine. Le consonantisme, Paris, 1902, p. XIII, who for the first time supports
the idea of the formation of Romanian before the Slavs came. “Lorsque les Slaves
font irruption dans leur pays balcanique, c’est a dire vers le VII-ième siècle, la
periode latine peut-être considerée (p.583) comme terminée et la langue roumaine
comme formée” (se Florica Dumitrescu, I.A.Candrea, lingvist şi filolog, B., 1974,
p. 23-24). This idea was supported by Sextil Puşcariu, Limba românã, I,
Bucureşti, 1940, p. 284”,too: ”Influenţa superstratului slav (….) a început într-o
vreme când principalele legi fonologice erau încheiate în româneşte şi când
organizarea limbii era fixatã în trãsãturile ei principale.”(see also Th. Capidan,
Elementul slav în dialectul aromân, B., 1925). Half a century later, I. Pãtruţ in
Studii de limbã rusã şi slavisticã, Cl, 1974, states that “elementul slav nu a
participat la procesul de formare al limbii române, ci el este un adaos ulterior”
(op. cit. p. 931). On the other hand, I. Pãtruţ tries to show that the inferior limit of
the Slavic-Romanian relations cannot be traced before the 9th century, even the
10th (ibid) idea which we can not agree with *.
There are undeniable proofs that the Slavs came on today Romania in the
6th century AD, fact that cannot be ignored. How even can we imagine that for
three centuries, i.e. till 10th century this influence could not have been noticed on
the native tongue, if we take into consideration the close intimate relations
between the two ethnic populations and the large number of toponyms and
hydronyms of Slavic origin all over the country which replaced the autochthon or
Latin ones long before the arrival of the Hungarians (9th century), otherwise these
would not have resisted to the new influences.
CONCLUSIONS
Besides the large number of appellatives of Latin origin which can be
found in the animal regnum there entered some Slavic elements belonging
especially to the south Slavs; it can be easily explained through the secular
“symbiosis“ of the natives with the Slavs during the migrations till their
assimilation by the Romanians. It is remarkable that within the appellatives for
domestic small and large animals, only two are of Slavic origin: BIVOLUL and
ZIMBRUL, while the others, of Latin origin, perpetuated unaltered.
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BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. 1.Adrados, F.C., Lingvistica indoeuropeea, 1975, I şi II.;
2. 2.Balaj, I., Despre originea şi evoluţia semanticã a rom. gând, în SCL, nr. 1, 1987, p. 102-109.
3. 3.Capidan, Th., Elementul slav în dialectul aromân, B., 1925
4. 4.Dumitrescu, Florica, I.A.Candrea, lingvist şi filolog, B., 1974, p. 23-24.
5. 5.Devoto, G., Origini indoeuropee, Sanson, Firenze, 1962.
6. 6.Ivănescu Gheorghe, Vérité et erreur dans la recherche des dialectes proto-indo-européens,
Iasi, Philologica, I, p. 9 – 34, 1970.
7. 7.Melich, Johann, Die Herkunft der slavischen Lehnwörter der ungarischen Sprache, extr. din
”Archiv für Slavische Philologie”, 32. Band, erstes und zweites Heft, Berlin, 1910, p. 92-117.
8. 8.Mihãilã, G , Împrumuturi vechi slave în românã, Bucureşti, 1967.
9. 9.Moraru Maria, Moraru, R.A., Elemente vechi slave în maghiara si romana, IV., Regnul
animal, Lucrãri ştiinţifice, vol. 50/3, seria Agronomie, USAMV. Iaşi, p. 436-442.
10. 10.Pãtruţ, I., Studii de limbã rusã şi slavisticã, CL, 1974.
11. 11.Pãtruţ, I., Criteriul determinãrii împrumuturilor slave în limba românã, în St.C. Lingvisticã,
XXII (1971), 1971, p. 351-368.
12. 12.Scãrlãtoiu, Ecaterina, Împrumuturi vechi slave în dialectul meglenoromân, Romanoslavica,
XIV, Bucureşti, 1986, p.59-117
13. 13.Simenschy, Th., Ivănescu, Gh., Gramatica comparată a limbiloe indoeuropene, Ed.
Didactică şi pedagogică, Bucureşti, 1981.
14. 14.Sireteanu, I.Pop, Memoria limbii române, vol. I, Iaşi, Ed. Bucovina, 1997, p.96.
15. 15.Wald, Lucia, Sluşanschi, D. Introducere în studiul limbii şi culturii indoeuropene, Ed.
Ştiinţifică şi enciclopedică, Bucureşti, 1987.
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BACK
CONNECTIVE PHYSIOLOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

IN HEPATO-CELLULAR AFFECTIONS
Anca-Mirela PAŞPARAN, C. MISĂILĂ
The paper analyzes the recovery rhythm of hematological insufficiency after

the application of an anti-hepatic treatment on a batch of patients suffering from
hepatocell affections (all from the Districtual Hospital of Botosani), as a function of
the seriousness of the iron-deficiency hypochromic anemia recorded in the moment of
their hospitalization. Determinations have been made, both in the moment of
hospitalization and after the treatment, on 3 groups, of 10 patients each as follows:
patients affected by a mild (A), moderate (B) and severe anemia (C), respectively, on
calculating: the hemoglobin concentration (g Hgb/dL blood), the hematocryte (Hct
%), the number of red blood cells (x 106/µL), along with the values of the
erythrocytary constants: mean corpuscular volume – MCV (µm3/erythrocyte); mean
corpuscular hemoglobin – MCH (pg Hgb/erythrocyte); mean corpuscular
hemoglobin concentration – MCHC (g Hgb/dL erythrocyte amount).
A general hematological failure, evidenced by 26 - 51% lower values of the
Hgb concentrations, by 19 - 45% lower values of Hct and by 25 - 46% lower number of
red blood cells, respectively, was registered in the moment of patient’s hospitalization.
After the treatment, the failure was partially brought to a normal state,
in all the three variants, the Hgb concentration attaining levels representing 8 -
33% of the normal values, while the Hct concentration and the number of red
blood cells come to represent 5 - 31% and, respectively, 17 - 36% of the normal.
The recovery of the hemoglobin is 21% more active than that from the Hct level
and 39%, more active, respectively, than that of the number of red blood cells.
Instead, the recovery of Hgb, Hct and MCHC proceeds independently on the
initial degree of anemia seriousness, which is not the case of the red blood cells
number, when the recovery is more active in the variants with moderate and
severe anemia, where about 10 - 13% of the initial failure is re-established,
comparatively with the mild anemia variant, when the recovery is only of 8.2%.
INTRODUCTION
The relation between an affected liver and the structural and functional
blood integrity has been amply studied, numerous scientific investigations having
been devoted to this aspect. Starting from its multiple functions – from that of
exocrine gland and center of biosynthesis, of depositing and degrading the
biologically active substances, up to the neutralization and inactivation of several
drugs and toxins present in the organism, the liver is, equally, an important center,
especially during prenatal life (Paun, 1997; Misaila and Comanescu, 1999). In
adult condition, the hematopoietic function of the liver is almost wholly inhibited,
yet its involvement in storing vitamin B12, in view of erythropoiesis, and also its
extravascular physiological hemolysis are maintained, besides its other functions,
such as: center of biosynthesis for most of the plasmatic factors of coagulation, of
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the main plasmatic proteins, a 5-10 % ratio of the total amount of erythropoietic
included, a. s. o. An abundant blood irrigation of the liver, along with the complex
chemical modifications of the carried substances, represents only a few elements
expressing the multiple functional connections between the liver and the blood
tissue. All these interactions are responsible for the blood homeostatic
perturbations occurring any time when the functional integrity of the hepatic cells
is at stake.
In the case of hepato-cellular affections - either an icteric syndrome or
some cases of hepatitis or hepatic cirrhosis - the homeostatic modification
produced at the level of the peripheral blood appear as connective functional
implications, manifested the more severely, the more sever the liver disfunction
is. Generally, the hepatic affections induce perturbations both in the normal
metabolism of the iron – thus influencing both the hemoglobinosynthesis and the
normochromy of the red cells – and in a corresponding storage and utilization of
vitamins B10 (the folic acid) and B12, known as participating to the normal
maturation of the elements appearing in erythropoiesis, all these aspects
contributing to associating the liver maladies with the anemia (Sulkowski, 2003;
Andreana et al., 2004; Gupta et al., 2005; Cengiz et al., 2007; Savage et al., 2007;
Grimaldi et al., 2008).
The present study analyzes the results of the investigations devoted to the
connective hematological modifications observed in patients suffering from
hepatitis, investigated in the Clinical Laboratory of the Mavromati Districtual
Hospital of Botosani between April-September 2006. The severity of the anemia
in the moment of hospitalization, along with the recovery extent of the
hematological failure as a result of the antihepatitic treatment applied have been
estimated from the values of the main specific indices under analysis and also
from the derived erythrocytary constants.

The study starts from the results of the laboratory analyses performed in
blood samples taken over - both in the beginning of their hospitalization and after
5-15 days from the application of the antihepatitic treatment and of a
hepatoprotecting food regime - the patients affected by hepatitis under
consideration. Taking over and analysis of the blood samples were performed by
the specialized staff of the Clinic, with vacuum-collecting tubes and the EDTA K3
anticoagulant substance, on an ABX Pentra 60 C+ type automatic hematological
analyzer. The main hematological indices usually involved in evidencing and
characterizing the anemic state, namely: hemoglobin concentration (g Hgb/dL
blood), the hematocryte (%), the number of red blood cells (x 106/µL), have been
analyzed, along with the mean corpuscular volume – MCV (µm3/erythrocyte);
mean corpuscular hemoglobin – MCH (pg Hgb/erythrocyte); mean corpuscular
hemoglobin concentration – MCHC (g Hgb/dL erythrocyte amount).
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Out of the total number of 303 adult patients suffering from
hepatocellular affections, followed in the laboratory along the above-mentioned
period, 37.3 % (i.e. 113 cases) have been found as suffering from various forms of
hepatitis (29.2 % acute hepatitis B, 46 % acute hepatitis C and 24.7 % chronic
hepatitis) and 47.9 % (i.e. 145 cases) from hepatic cirrhosis.
On considering the reversible character of the hematological
insufficiency, characterized by the tendency of a post-treatment recovery of the
initial values, the present study develops a comparative evaluation of the recovery
rhythm, recorded on groups of patients affected by mild, medium and severe
forms of anemia. To this end, the patients suffering from hepatitis have been
divided into 3 different groups, each formed of 10 persons, as follows: group A -
the mild form of anemia (Hgb = 10-12 g/dL); group B - moderate anemia (Hgb =
7-10 g/dL) and group C - severe anemia (Hgb = below 7 g/dL). The comparative
evolution of the levels of hematological indices analyzed is plotted synthetically
in Figures 1 to 6, each value representing the arithmetic mean of the 10 samples.
A comparative analysis between the mean values of hemoglobin in the
patients with hepatitis and the mean of the physiologically normal values of this
parameter (fig. 1) shows that, in the beginning of hospitalization, the Hgb
concentration records significant decreases, comparatively with the normal level,
up to 10.8 g/dL in group A, 9.2 g/dL in group B and 6.8 g/dL in group C – which
means lowering of the Hgb value up to 74.3 %, versus the normal, in patients with
mild anemia, up to 63.2 % in those with moderate anemia, and up to 48.6 % of the
normal values, respectively, in people affected by severe anemia.
16 14.5
14 13.3
11.5
12 10.8
10 9.2 9.4
Hgb (g/dL)
8 6.8
6 A B C
A B C
4
74% 63% 49% 100% 92% 79% 67%
2
0
Initial Regular physiological Final
values mean
Fig.1. Post-treatment hemoglobinic recovery in hepatitis-affected patients
Generally, anemia is defined as a severe breathing insufficiency,

provoked by inhibition of the Hgb biosynthesis, an effect with multiple causes,
usually accompanied by the reduction in the number of red blood cells and,
implicit, of the Hct too. Evolution of the values of the erythrocitary constants
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orientates the diagnosis, for the establishment of the type of anemia. More than
that, in some forms of anemia the range of perturbations may also affect the over
figurative elements of blood.
50
43.5
45 41.5
40 35.3 35.7
35 30.2 29
30
Hct (%)
25 23
20 A B C
A B C
15
10
100%
81% 69% 55% 95% 82% 69%
5
0
values mean
Fig.2. Post-treatment recovery of the hematocryte values in patients affected by hepatitis
The distribution of patients on groups, according to the seriousness of the

anemy, was based on the values of Hgb concentration (fig. 1), yet the data
illustrated in Figures 2-3, on Hct and number of red blood cells, evidence a close
correlation with those on hemoglobin. Thus, the initial values of Hct (fig. 2) are
18.9 % lower in patients with mild anemia, versus the normal ones while, in
groups B and C, the differences increase up to 30.6 % and 45.2 % respectively.
Such drastic decreases of Hct may be explained only by the numerical
diminution of the red blood cells (fig. 3), as the initial MCV values remain quite
close to the normal ones (fig. 4). Indeed, Figure 3 shows that the initial values of the
red blood cells number decrease (as in the case of Hgb) up to 74.7 % from the normal
in group A, up to 57.4 % in group B and up to 54.2 %, respectively, in group C.
6
5.1
5
4.2
3.8
4 3.6
RBC (Mil./µl)
3.1
2.9
3 2.6
2
A B C A B C
1
75% 57% 54% 100% 83% 71% 65%
0
values mean
Fig.3. Post-treatment evolution of the number of red blood cells in patients suffering
from hepatitis
- 132 -
120
92.5 93.9 96 95.2

100
83.7 87 86.5
80
MCV (fL)
60
40 A B C A B C
20 106% 108% 96% 100% 110% 109% 99%
0
values mean
Fig.4. Post-treatment evolution of the MCV values in patients suffering from hepatitis
Following the applied antihepatitic treatment and the recommended

alimentary regime, a visible recovery of the hematological insufficiency present
in the beginning of hospitalization is to be observed in the hemogramme, as a
result of the amelioration of the functional condition of the hepatocyte. This
process is even more ample in the case of Hgb than in Hct and number of red
blood cells. Thus, the differences recorded comparatively with normal cases are
reduced, after the treatment, with 17.5 % at Hgb – in group A (mild anemia), with
16.2 % in group B (moderate anemia) and with 18.5 %, respectively, in group C
(severe anemia). The hematocryte shows a slower recovery, the differences being
reduced, in the three groups, with 14.3 %, 12.7 % and 14.2%, while the recovery
rhythm of the erythrocyte’s number is even slower, the differences versus the
mean physiologically normal values being only of 8.2%, 13.2 % and 10.4%
respectively.
As evidenced by the results obtained, recovery of the hematological
insufficiency is not total, not even in patients with mild anemia, and, besides this,
the seriousness of anemia, in the moment of hospitalization, does not influence
the recovery rhythm, which is seen as evolving - in all variants - along curves
with parallel direction.
Equally, the results of the investigations confirm the functional response
of the hepatocyte, which partially re-establishes the synthesis ability of the
biologically-active compounds, both involved for increasing the field of the
hemoglobinosynthesis and for the homeostatic recovery of the erythropoiesis.
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35 32
31.3 31.5
30.3
28.2 29
30
26.1
25
MCH (pg)
20
15
A B C A B C
10
5 97% 108% 90% 100% 109% 110% 104%
0
values mean
Fig.5. Post-treatment evolution of the MCH values in patients suffering

from hepatitis
40
35
35 32.2 32.2 32.4
30.6 30.1 29.5
30
MCHC (g/dL)
25
20
15 A B C A B C
10
87% 86% 84% 100% 92% 92% 93%
5
0
values mean
Fig.6. Post-treatment evolution of the MCHC values in patients suffering

from hepatitis
The more active recovery of the hemoglobinic insufficiency,

correlated with the post-treatment increasing tendency of the mean MCH (fig. 5)
and MCHC (fig. 6) in both taking over operations suggest the pre-eminent
occurrence of the hypochrome forms of anemia, associated with some
macrocytosis tendencies (Munteanu, 1997).
CONCLUSIONS
1. A general hematological failure is observable in the patients taken into
study, in the moment of their hospitalization, evidenced by a 26-51 % decrease in
the Hgb concentration, of 19-45 % in the Hct and of 25-46 % in the number of red
blood cells, comparatively with the normal values.
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BACK
2. After 5-15 days of antihepatitic treatment and hepatoprotecting food

regime, the hematological insufficiency is partially recovered in all variants, the
Hgb concentration coming to obtain 8-33 % of the normal values, while that of
Hct reaches 5-31 % and the number of red blood cells, respectively, 17-36 % of
the normal.
3. Hemoglobinic recovery is 21 % more active than that of Hct and 39 %
more active than that of the red blood cells number.
4. In the case of Hgb, Hct and MCHC the recovery evolves along some
curves with parallel orientation in all three variants, regardless of the initial
seriousness of the anemia.
5. Recovery in the erythrocyte’s number is more active in the case of
moderate and severe anemia, when 10-13% of the initial insufficiency is
recovered, comparatively with variant A (mild anemia), in which the re-
establishment is of only 8.2%.
REFERENCES
Andreana, A., Cesaro, G., Giordano, M.G., Ricciotti, R., Andreana, L., 2004: Hepatitis-associated
aplastic anemia: description of a new case, Infez. Med. 12 (4), 274-277
Cengiz, C., Turhan, N., Yolcu, O.F., Yilmaz, S., 2007: Hepatitis associated with aplastic anemia:
do CD8(+) Kupffer cells have a role in the pathogenesis?, Dig. Dis. Sci. 52(9), 2438-
2443.
Grimaldi, D., Limal, N., Noizat-Pirenne, F., Janvier, D., Godeau, B., Michel, M., 2008: IgA-
mediated auto-immune haemolytic anaemia revealing a hepatitis C virus infection, Rev.
Med. Interne 29(2), 135-138.
Gupta, A., Bansal, D., Marwaha, R.K., Trehan, A., 2005: Hepatitis-associated aplastic anemia:
successful outcome following immunosuppressive therapy, Indian J. Gastroenterol. 24(4),
175-176.
Misăilă, C., Gianina Comănescu, 1999, Elemente de Hematologie generală, Ed.Corson, Iaşi
Munteanu, N., 1997: Anemiile hipocrome, in: Păun, R., 1997 (sub red.): Tratat de Medicină internă-
Hematologie, vol.I, Ed. Med., Buc.
Păun, R., 1997 (sub red.): Tratat de Medicină internă-Hematologie, vol. I, Ed. Med., Buc.
Savage, W.J., DeRusso, P.A., Resar, L.M., Chen, A.R., Higman, M.A., Loeb, D.M., Jones, R.J.,
Brodsky, R.A., 2007: Treatment of hepatitis-associated aplastic anemia with high-dose
cyclophosphamide, Pediatr. Blood Cancer 49(7), 947-951.
Sulkowski, M.S., 2003: Anemia in the treatment of hepatitis C virus infection, Clin. Infect. Dis. 37,
Suppl 4, 315-322.
The author’s address: „Alexandru Ioan Cuza ” University of Iaşi, B-dul Carol I, Nr. 20A, 700506,
Iaşi-Romania, e-mail: pcamanca@yahoo.com
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BACK
HEMATOLOGICAL MODIFICATIONS IN HEPATIC

CIRRHOSIS ASSOCIATED WITH ANEMIA
Anca-Mirela PAŞPARAN, C. MISĂILĂ
The paper analyzes the connective hematological modifications in 3

groups of 10 patients, each suffering from cirrhosis (namely, mild, moderate and
severe anemia), treated at the Botosani County Hospital, between April -
September 2006. The seriousness of the anemy was evaluated in the beginning of
the hospitalization period together with the re-establishment of the hematological
failure as the result of the anti-cirrhosis treatment applied, which involved
determination of the main indices here involved: hemoglobin, the hematocryte,
the number of red blood cells, the number of thrombocytes, as well as the derived
erythrocitary constants.
In the beginning of the hospitalization period, the average values of the
hemoglobin represented 35 - 75% of the normal level, while, those of the Hct 39 -
82%. In the same moment, the thrombocytary failure was much more severe than
the erythrocytary one, the initial number of red cells representing 37 - 70% of the
average normal values, while that of the thrombocytes was of only 25 - 57%.
The post-treatment recovery is active in all the three variants. The levels
of Hgb, Hct and red blood cells number are re-established, in the severe anemy
variant, in a more active, compensating manner, comparatively with the cases of
mild and moderate anemy. The initial thrombocytary failure is, however, more
severe, so that the recover of the thrombocytes is occurring more slowly,
comparatively with that of the red blood cells, in cirrhosis.
INTRODUCTION
As generally known, the liver is a very special, unique organ of the
human body, as due to its capacity to regenerate after maladies or temporary
lesions having affecting it. Any modification occurring at hepatocyte level
disturbs its structural equilibrium, thus putting into evidence the interferences
with its functions (Paun, 1997; Gherasim, 2000). For example, a multiple
functional relation is active between the liver and the blood tissue, while the
homeostatic modifications at blood level appear as the more severe, the more
pronounced is the liver disfunction. In most situations, the hepato-cell complaints
assume perturbations in the organism’s iron supply, or in its absorption and
transport (Hilgard and Gerken, 2005), one of the immediate consequencies being
a depression of the hemoglobinosynthesis rhythm, which causes anemia.
Consequently, in the case of hepato-cell maladies of the hepatitis and
cirrhosis type, the hematological component is usually manifesting in the form of
associated anemia disease, with various degrees of seriousness, which may
aggravate the evolution of the hepatic disfunction, and those curing may improve
the functional condition of the liver (Bladé et al., 2007; Bruno et al., 2005).
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Hepatic cirrhosis is an extremely severe disease, in which the functions of

the hepatic cells are blocked by the intracytoplasmatic cerrides, structurally
characterized by an association with fibrose, regeneration nodules and
hepatocytary necroses, therefore, alteration of the hepatic architecture. Hepatic
cirrhosis ranks among the ten fatal maladies, the most pregnant causes of its
installation being the hepatic viruses and the alcohol (Malik et al., 2002; Haruta et
al., 2007). Besides these, a faulty alimentation, precarious living conditions, auto-
imune hepatitis, biliary stasis, the drugs, heart insufficiency may also provoke
hepatic cirrhosis (Martín and de Las Heras, D., 2004; Nacoulma et al., 2007).
Generally, deterioration of the patients’ health condition up to the stage of
cirrhosis is reflected, as well, in the seriousness degree of the anemia
accompanying it. The present paper discusses the results of some investigations
devoted to connective hematological modifications in patients suffering from
cirrhoses, hospitalized in the Mavoromati Districtual Hospital of Botosani,
between April and September 2006.
At the same time, the study estimates the seriousness of the anemia in the
beginning of the treatment and the re-establishment of the hematological failure
after the application of the anticirrhotic treatment, from the viewpoint of the
values of hemoglobin, hematocryte, number of red blood cells and number of
thrombocytes, as well from that of the derived erythrocytary constants.

The experiments were made on blood samples taken over from the
patients affected by hepatic cirrhosis both in the moment of their going to the
hospital and after 5-15 days of anticirrhotic treatment and hepatoprotecting food
regime. Taking over and analysis of the blood samples were made by the
authorized staff of the clinic, vacuum-collecting tubes and the EDTA K3
anticoagulant, and an automated ABX Pentra 60 C+ type hematological analyzer
being used. The main hematological indices involved in evidencing and
characterization of the anemic states (Misaila and Comanescu, 1999) were
considered in the study, namely: hemoglobin concentration (g Hgb/dL blood), the
hematocryte (%), the number of red blood cells (x 106/µL), the number of
thrombocytes (x 103/µL), along with the mean corpuscular volume – MCV
(µm3/erythrocyte); mean corpuscular hemoglobin – MCH (pg Hgb/erythrocyte);
mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration – MCHC (g Hgb/dL erythrocyte
amount).

The investigations were performed on 145 adult subjects affected by
hepatic cirrhosis, representing 47.9 % of the total number of 303 patients
suffering from hepatocell affections. Out of the remaining number of patients
- 137 -
registered in the laboratory along the period taken into study, 113 cases (37 %)
suffered from various forms of hepatitis, namely: 29.2 % acute hepatitis B, 46 %
acute hepatitis C and 24.7 % chronic hepatitis.
Considering the reversible character of the hematological failure in
hepato-cell affections, marked by a post-treatment recovery tendency of the initial
values (Pasparan and Misaila, 2008), the paper compares the recovery rhythms,
recorded on groups of patients, i.e. patients with mild, moderate or severe forms
of anemia, on the basis of the mean hemoglobin concentration registered in the
beginning of hospitalization. We constituted 3 different groups of patients, each
formed of 10 subjects (5 men and 5 women), as follows: group 1 - the mild form
of anemia (Hgb = 10-12 g/dL); group 2 - moderate anemia (Hgb = 7-10 g/dL) and
group 3 - severe anemia (Hgb = below 7 g/dL). The results obtained have been
illustrated in Figures 1 to 7, each value representing the arithmetic mean of the 10
samples.
16
14.5
14 13.2
12 10.9 11.2
10
8.8
Hgb (g/dL)
8.4
8
6 5.1
4 1 2 3 1 2 3
75% 61% 35% 100% 91% 77% 58%

2
0
values mean
Fig.1. Post-treatment hemoglobinic re-establishment in patients

suffering from hepatic cirrhosis
The seriousness degree of the anemia in the moment of hospitalization:

the data in Figures 1-4 show that, in the moment of their hospitalization, the
patients with cirrhosis showed much lower average levels than the average of the
regular physiological values considered as normal, both for Hgb and Hct, and for
the number of red blood cells and thrombocytes. Consequently, from value of
14.5 g/dL - taken as the mean of the regular values -, the Hgb level decreases to
10.9 g/dL in the patients from group 1, to 8.8 g/dL to group 2 and to 5.1 g/dL to
group 3, respectively. This represents a pronounced hemoglobinic failure, the
levels record in the moment of patients’ hospitalization representing 75-35 % of
the regular values (fig. 1). Similar decreases have been also registered for the
mean values of the Hct (fig. 2) and of the red blood cells number (fig. 3), in these
last cases the failure attaining up to 82-39 % in the Hct and up to 70-37 % of the
normal red blood cells number.
- 138 -
50
43.5
45 41
40 35.6 35.2
35
28.3
Hct (%)
30 25.7
25
20 17.1
15 1 2 3 1 2 3
10
5 82% 65% 39% 100% 94% 81% 59%
0
values mean
Fig.2. Evolution of the hematocryte values in patients affected by cirrhosis
6
5.1
5 4.6
4 3.6 3.7
RBC (Mil./µl)
2.8 3
3
1.9
2
1 2 3 1 2 3
1
70% 54% 37% 100% 91% 74% 59%
0
values mean
Fig.3. Evolution of the red blood cell number values in patients affected by
cirrhosis
Such values demonstrate the advanced degree of hepatic destruction in the

patients under study, the hepatic cells having no possibility, any more, of
functionally assuring the normal development of both hemoglobinosynthesis, and
erythropoiesis and thrombocytopoiesis (fig. 4). This later aspect is especially
interesting, as the thrombocytary failure in the moment of hospitalization is much
more severe than in the above - mentioned parameters.
- 139 -
300
250 240
PLT (x 1000/µl) 200 189
151
150
113
92 95
100
61
1 2 3
50 1 2 3
47% 38% 25% 100% 79% 63% 40%

0
values mean
Fig.4. Evolution of the thrombocyte number values in patients affected by

cirrhosis
Consequently, if in variant 1, that is, in patients with mild anemia (as a

function of the Hgb level), the number of red blood cells is 30 % lower than the
normal, the number of thrombocytes decreases - in the same variant – with 43 %,
comparatively with the normal. In variant 3 (severe anemia), in the beginning of
hospitalization, the red blood cells decrease with 63 %, while the thrombocytes
with 75%.
As to the erythrocytary constants under analysis (Figures 5-7), mention
should be made of the fact that, both in the moment of hospitalization and after
the treatment, the values recorded in the three variants are much closer to the
normal average value, comparatively with the other parameters investigated. In
variants 1 and 3, MCV is 5-6 % lower, in the beginning of hospitalization (fig. 5),
besides the numerical diminution of the red blood cells, both of them justifying
the low Hct values.
100 94.2
90 86.4 87 86.6 86.9
82.8 81.9
80
70
60
MCV (fL)
50
40 1 2 3 1 2 3
30
20
10 95% 99% 94% 100% 99% 108% 100%
0 Regular physiological
Initial Final
values mean
Fig.5. Evolution of the MCV values in patients affected by cirrhosis
- 140 -
In a similar manner, the MCHC values (fig. 7) recorded in the moment of

hospitalization are 11-16 % lower than the normal ones, being correlated with the
initial levels of the hemoglobin concentration.
35
32
31
30
29 29
30 28
25
25
MCH (pg)
20
15
1 2 3 1 2 3
10
5 100% 103% 86% 100% 107% 110% 97%
0
values mean
Fig.6. Evolution of the MCH values in patients affected by cirrhosis
40
35
35 32.2 31.9 33
30.7 31.2
29.6
30
MCHC (g/dL)
25
20
15 1 2 3 1 2 3
10
5 88% 89% 84% 100% 92% 91% 94%
0
values mean
Fig.7. Evolution of the MCHC values in patients affected by cirrhosis
The re-establishment rhythm of hematological failure after the treatment-

the regeneration capacity of the hepatocyte, following the diminution of the
destructive effects and application of drug treatments with active recovery, along
with a hepatoprotecting regime induces the occurring of the hematological
recovery - usually present in milder affections (icterus, hepatitis) - even in
cirrhosis.
The present investigations evidenced that, as a result of the anticirrhotic
treatment and of a corresponding alimentary regime, a visible recovery of the
hematological failure - recorded in the moment of hospitalization - is observed.
From this point of view, the recovery rhythm of the anemia, in the three variants
of seriousness of the malady, has - with only few exceptions - an almost parallel
course, for both hemoglobin and hematocryte, and the number of the red blood
- 141 -
cells and thrombocytes. For example, in the case of mild and moderate anemia,
the hemoglobin regains 16 % of the initial difference from the normal, and 23 %,
respectively in severe anemia. As to the hematocryte, 12-16 % are recovered in
variants 1 and 2 and 20 %, respectively, in cases of severe anemia. As to the
number of red blood cells, the recovery recorded might be defined as a
compensating one, being more active in patients suffering from severe anemia,
comparatively with the other two variants.
In the case of thrombocytes, the rhythm is comparable to that of the other
indices, special mention being nevertheless made of the quite large difference,
maintained even after the treatment, between the values registered in the three
groups of patients and the normal physiological values (21% in mild anemy, 37%
in moderate anemy and 60% in severe anemy). Such data suggest a more ample
homeostatic involvment of the liver which, a hematologically, generally exceeds
the hemoglobinosynthesis and the erythropoiesis, being manifested at the level of
the thrombocytes, as well.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In the moment of their hospitalization, the patients affected by hepatic
cirrhosis evidenced a severe anemia manifested - as a function of the seriousness
degree - by a hemoglobin decrease up to 35-75 % and of the mean values of the
Hct, up to 39-82 % of the normal ones.
2. The thrombocytary failure observed in the beginning of hospitalization
is much more severe than the erythrocytary one, the initial number of red blood
cells being reduced up to 37-70 % of the normal, while thrombocytes decreased
up to 25-57 % of the normal mean physiological values.
3. Decrease of the hematocryte prior to the treatment was caused first by
the decrease in the number of red blood cells and secondly by the decrease of the
MCV values.
4. The post-treatment recovery of the initial hematological failure is also
active in patients with a cirrhotic liver, in all variants of initial seriousness of the
anemia.
5. The recovery rhythm of Hgb, Hct and of the red blood cells number is
more active, in a compensating way, in variant 3 (severe anemia), comparatively
with that observed in variants 1 and 2.
6. The homeostatic role of the liver, in a hematological perspective, is
also manifested in the regeneration of thrombocytes, besides its involvment in
Hgb biosynthesis and in erythropoiesis. Apart from the more severe initial
thrombocytary failure, recovery of the number of thrombocytes in cirrhosis is
relatively slower than that of the red blood cells, a quite significant difference
being maintained - even after the treatment - between the values recorded in the
three groups of patients and the mean normal values (21 % in mild anemia, 37 %
in moderate anemia and 60 % in severe anemia).
- 142 -
BACK
REFERENCES
1. Bladé, J.S., Desramé, J., Corberand, D., Lecoules, S., Blondon, H., Carmoi, T., Zyani, M.,
Béchade, D., Algayres, J.P., 2007: Diagnosis of anemia in alcoholic cirrhosis, Rev. Med.
Interne. 28(11), 756-765 (Review).
2. Bruno, C.M., Sciacca, C., Cilio, D., Bertino, G., Marchese, E., Politi, G., Chinnice, L., Pellicano,
R., 2005: Chronic anaemia and adhesion molecules in patients with liver cirrhosis. A
preliminary report, Minerva Gastroenterol. Dietol. 51(2), 187-191.
3. Gherasim, L., 2000 (sub red.): Medicina internă-Bolile digestive hepatice şi pancreatice, vol. III,
Ed. Med., Bucureşti
4. Haruta, I., Hashimoto, E., Kabutake, A., Taniai, M., Tokushige, K., Shiratori, K., 2007: Spur cell
anemia associated with a cirrhotic non-alcoholic steatohepatitis patient, Hepatol. Res.
37(6), 482.
5. Hilgard, P., Gerken, G., 2005: Liver cirrhosis as a consequence of iron overload caused by
hereditary nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia, World J. Gastroenterol. 11(8), 1241-44
6. Malik, P., Bogetti, D., Sileri, P., Testa, G., Blumenthal, S.A., Wiley, T.E., Layden, T.J.,
Benedetti, E., 2002: Spur cell anemia in alcoholic cirrhosis: cure by orthotopic liver
transplantation and recurrence after liver graft failure, Int. Surg. 87(4), 201-204.
7. Martín, M., de Las Heras, D., 2004: Spur-cell anaemia in a patient with cirrhosis, J. Hepatol.
41(1), 167.
8. Misăilă, C., Comănescu, Gianina, 1999: Elemente de Hematologie generală, Ed.Corson, Iaşi
9. Nacoulma, E.W., Zongo, S., Drabo, Y.J., Bougouma, A., 2007: Types of anaemia in patients with
cirrhosis at the Yalgado Ouedraogo hospital centre of Ouagadougou (Burkina Faso),
Sante. 17(2), 87-91.
10. Paşparan, Anca-Mirela, Misăilă, C., 2008: Connective physiological implications in
hepato-cellular affections
11. Păun, R., 1997 (sub red.): Tratat de Medicină internă-Hematologie, vol. I, Ed. Med., Buc.
The author’s address: „Alexandru Ioan Cuza ” University of Iaşi, B-dul Carol I, Nr. 20A, 700506,
Iaşi-Romania, e-mail: pcamanca@yahoo.com
- 143 -
BACK
NORMOLIPIDIC PORK MEAT –

A POSSIBLE WAY TO AMELIORATE THE RISK
FACTORS TO THE PORK MEAT HUMAN CONSUMERS
Cornelia PENCEA, R. LICHIARDOPOL, I. SURDU,
Veronica HEBEAN, Aurora CIOCÎRLAN
Lipids’ quality, the ratio of saturated over unsaturated fatty acids and
the apport of cholesterol play an important role in atherosclerosis disease
development and progression and subsequently in cardiovascular illnesses.
It is a known fact that saturated fatty acids influence blood cholesterol
content, while unsaturated acids are PG’s and Tx’s precursors, as involved in
cardiovascular diseases. It must not to be forgotten that a raised dietary level of
polyunsaturated fatty acids entails an equivalent apport of antioxidants,
especially E vitamin. Serious lipo-peroxidation processes are thus avoided in
organism, circumventing blood vessel degradation, atheromatous plaque and
thrombosis development.
Our main focus regarding this project was supported by all above mentioned
information, intending to evaluate short term effect in experimentally modified pork
meat (augmented fraction of saturated over unsaturated fatty acids, plus an enhanced
content in antioxidant) towards lipidic, proteic and glucidic metabolism, in human
subjects, with or without diabetes mellitus or diagnosed dislipidemia.
For this project were used 40 human subjects( with or without diabetes
mellitus, 25 women and 15 men), whom were clinical and biochemical monitorized
for short term (one month). The subjects were randomically splited in 2 equal groups
(2 x 20), depending on the type of meat gave it to be consumed during the monitoring
period. The first group ( 8 men and 12 women, 10 persons with diabetes mellitus- 4
men included) consumed “normal pork meat” and was named as “benchmark
group”, while the second group (9 persons with diabetes mellitus- 4 men included)
consumed “experimental pork meat” and was named “experimental group”. The
diagnosed patients with diabetes mellitus had, in average, an illness history of 7
years, for the first group, and 11.22 years, for the second group,. During this 30 days
study, the patients received a daily pork meat quantity of 200 grams.
At the end of 1 month of monitoring the “benchmark group”, it was
observed at the diabetes mellitus (DM) patients, as well as at non-diabetes
mellitus (NDM) patients, a slightly increase in medium value for serical
cholesterolemia, (190.63 vs 208.45 for DM patients and 191.67 vs 207.68 for
NDM), without support from other lipidic parameters.
At the end of 1 month of monitoring the “experimental group”, it was
noted a decrease in medium values of cholesterolemia (197.78 vs 182.63 in DM
and 221 vs 206.6 in NDM patients) and of LDL-cholesterol (124.23 vs 104.7 in
DM and 152 vs 145.36 in NDM patients). Same sense variation of
triglyceridemia (133.06 vs 114.86) accompanied these kind of modifications at
DM patients, although they maintained the same diet, same physical exam and, if
required, same hipolipemiant dosage, during the whole surveying time.
It can be concluded, based on obtained data, that patients consuming
experimental meat had a slightly improvement in the lipidic profile,
independently of the rate of glycemic control at DMs, without negative effects
towards other metabolisms.
- 144 -
INTRODUCTION
Based on the last statistics, metabolic syndrome and diabetes mellitus
affect more than half of the adult Romania’s population and could be an
explanation for the big number of deceases caused by the cardiovascular illnesses,
more than 50 % of the total deceases;
It is general accepted the fact that food is an important factor for the
healthiness in human being. The diet is considered to be an indispensable part of
illness prevention and/or cure process. More than that, for some kind of illnesses,
it represents the only therapeutically element.
The prescription of a diet is a specialist’s responsibility and it requests
from him/her to have a solid background of nutritional principles and take into
account the patient specific characteristics, such as : sex, age, physical and social
life, nutritional status and pattern, associated pathology and last, but not least, his
financial healthy. Establishing a therapy through diet follows very closely the
scientifically knowledge. The main idea is to refer to “correctional” alimentary
schemes, based on “soothing” the sick organism. Physiological and
psychopathological grounds for diet’s clues are consequently investigated. We are
already looking to a scientifically development regarding food habits.
Metabolic equilibrium is essential to the cell homeostasis and for the
individual human being healthy. By their nature, the food’s constituents are very
important in maintaining this equilibrium, through their quality and action.
Therefore, they are involved in all kind of biochemical processes, which are
affecting the metabolism and the cell defensive response and responsiveness.
As part of nutritional principles, lipids have gained a special role in the
nutritional process during the last decades. Besides playing their part as
energetically source, construction material for membranes and transports for
liposoluble vitamins, the lipids are also very important as source of
polyunsaturated fatty acids, phosphatides, sterides, and as basic material for
physiologically-active substances like prostaglandins (PG), prostaciclins,
tromboxanes (Tx).
Prostaglandins are involved in controlling and regulating the smooth
muscles tonus, inflammatory response, neural system functions and cell
multiplication.
Tromboxanes are engaged in platelet aggregation and prostaciclins in
controlling vascular tonus.
The role of lipids as nutritional factors is endorsed by all the facts
mentioned above, with great implications in cardiovascular illnesses. Lipids’
quality, the ratio of saturated over unsaturated fatty acids and the apport of
cholesterol play an important role in atherosclerosis disease development and
progression and subsequently in cardiovascular illnesses.
It is a known fact that saturated fatty acids influence blood cholesterol
content, while unsaturated acids are PG’s and Tx’s precursors, as involved in
- 145 -
cardiovascular diseases. It must not to be forgotten that a raised dietary level of

polyunsaturated fatty acids entails an equivalent apport of antioxidants, especially
E vitamin. Serious lipo-peroxidation processes are thus avoided in organism,
circumventing blood vessel degradation, atheromatous plaque and thrombosis
development.
Our main focus regarding this project was supported by all above
mentioned information, intending to evaluate short term effect in experimentally
modified pork meat (augmented fraction of saturated over unsaturated fatty acids,
plus an enhanced content in antioxidant) towards lipidic, proteic and glucidic
metabolism, in human subjects, with or without diabetes mellitus or diagnosed
dislipidemia.

For this project were used 40 human subjects (with or without diabetes
mellitus, 25 women and 15 men), whom were clinical and biochemical
monitorized for short term (one month). The subjects were randomically splited in
two equal groups (2 x 20), depending on the type of meat gave it to be consumed
during the monitoring period. The first group (8 men and 12 women, 10 persons
with diabetes mellitus- 4 men included) consumed “normal pork meat” and was
named as “benchmark group”, while the second group (9 persons with diabetes
mellitus- 4 men included) consumed “experimental pork meat” and was named
“experimental group”. The diagnosed patients with diabetes mellitus had, in
average, an illness history of 7 years, for the first group, and 11.22 years, for the
second group. During this 30 days study, the patients received a daily pork meat
quantity of 200 grams.
For the purposes of this study, a Monitoring Sheet was used for each
patient in both groups, containing the next information:
- personal data: family name, surname, PNC, complete address, phone
no.
- administrative hospital data: no. of, Monitoring Sheet
admission/releasing data
- anthropometric data: height (w/o shoes), weight (slightly dressed),
BMI, waist measure (cm), hips measure (cm), WHR
- inherited-related factors: IHD, AHT, CVA, DM, dislipidemia (first
degree relatives)
- smoking data (i.e.: duration, type of cigarettes, no. of cigarettes per
day; if he/she quitted, since when)
- personal pathological data: DM (type, duration, presence/type of
complications, no. of CAD chart)
- medicamentous treatment data before each visit (i.e.: normalizing
lipemia and treatment of comorbidities)
- pathological clinical exam data (short description)
- 146 -
- biological exam (a jeune, after 12 hours of nocturnal fasting):

glucose, AlcHb, insulin, cholesterol, triglycerides, HDL-cholesterol,
AGL, TGO/TGP, urea, creatinin, albumin/creatinin fraction
- glycemic profile (including a jeune, pre-prandial and postprandial
glycemia)
RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENT

“Benchmark group”
At the end of 1 month of monitoring the “benchmark group”, it was
observed at the diabetes mellitus (DM) patients, as well as non-diabetes mellitus
(NDM) patients, a slightly increase in medium value for serical cholesterolemia,
(190.63 vs. 208.45 for DM patients and 191.67 vs. 207.68 for NDM), without
support from other lipidic parameters. The anthropometric parameters (height,
waist and hips measure, BMI) remained practically constant during the study and
it was not noted a significant statistically modification of the biological
parameters reflecting the proteic metabolism (i.e. urea, creatinine, uric acid).
Some data regarding this group are shown in the table 1:
Table 1. Benchmark group

DETAILS DM* NDM**
Parameters Initially After Initially After
(medium) 1 month 1 month
Cholesterol 190.63 208.45 191.67 207.68
Triglycerides 144.36 151.53 148.24 149.25
HDL-Cholesterol 44.27 46.00 50.10 50.90
LDL-Cholesterol 137.80 138.00 132.70 116.70
Uric Acid 4.05 4.05 4.12 4.15
Creatinine 0.94 0.96 1.00 1.01
Glycemia 136.70 129.70 94.20 90.10
AlcHb 7.70 7.50 5.27 5.28
Waist measure 110.10 100.85 88.20 88.35
Hips measure 108.30 108.10 97.80 97.70
BMI 28.72 28.88 23.67 23.60
Weight 77.90 77.45 64.87 64.67
* DM = Diabetes Mellitus patients
** NDM = Non- Diabetes Mellitus patients
“Experimental group”
At the end of 1 month of monitoring the “experimental group”, it was noted
a decrease in medium values of cholesterolemia (197.78 vs. 182.63 in DM and 221
vs. 206.6 in NDM patients) and of LDL-cholesterol (124.23 vs. 104.7 in DM and
152 vs. 145.36 in NDM patients). Same sense variation of triglyceridemia (133.06
- 147 -
vs. 114.86) accompanied these kinds of modifications at DM patients, although they

maintained the same diet, same physical exam and, if required, same hipolipemiant
dosage, during the whole surveying time. As for the standard group, it were not
observed a significant statistically modification in biological parameters reflecting
proteic metabolism, i.e. urea, creatinine, uric acid.
Anthropometric parameters were constant. At DMs it was noted an
improved glycemic control, due to an enhanced lipidic profile, followed by a
secondary insulino-resistance (AlcHb 7.55 vs. 7.3; medium a jeune glycemia 145
vs. 108.5).
It can be concluded that patients have shown a slightly improvement of
lipidic profile, without any relationship to glycemic control in DM or negative
effects towards other metabolisms.
Some data regarding this group are shown in the table 2:
Table 2. Experimental group

DETAILS DM* NDM**
Parameters Initially After Initially After
(medium) 1 month 1 month
Cholesterol 197.78 182.63 221.00 206.60
Triglycerides 133.06 114.86 92.06 104.65
HDL-Cholesterol 45.11 45.40 47.83 49.27
LDL-Cholesterol 124.23 104.70 152.00 145.36
Uric Acid 4.23 4.50 4.40 5.80
Creatinine 1.02 0.98 1.00 0.97
Glycemia 145.00 108.50 87.58 83.50
AlcHb 7.50 7.33 5.20 5.10
Waist measure 101.18 100.85 88.20 88.35
Hips measure 115.52 115.03 106.70 106.82
BMI 29.53 29.44 72.50 72.04
Weight 83.88 83.55 25.82 25.64
* DM = Diabetes Mellitus patients
** NDM = Non- Diabetes Mellitus patients
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
Should be mentioned the fact that both groups patients had at the start at
the experiment a similar gliycemic equilibrium (AlcHb 7.5% - the experimental
group and 7.55 % - the benchmark group). The experiment had this requirement
in order to be able to note and measure the influence of quality and type in pork
meat consumption on the lipidic metabolism of the patients with similar gliycemic
equilibrium.
DM patients from the both groups have shown no significant modification
in glucidic metabolism, as proven by registering values for a jeune glycemia and
AlcHb.
- 148 -
It can be concluded, based on obtained data, that patients consuming

experimental meat had a slightly improvement in the lipidic profile,
independently of the rate of glycemic control at DMs, without negative effects
towards other metabolisms.
Another result of the experiment was the fact that the process of digesting
the normal or “Normolipidic” pork meat was good for both groups’ patients.
The current results obtained on analyzing the effects on human glucidic
and lipidic metabolism by consuming on short term the “ Normal/Normolipidic”
pork meat are still preliminary due to the fact that many other laboratory
investigation are in progress.
To facilitate significant statistically results it would be necessary to cover
a longer period of experimentation and use a bigger number of subjects. At least
for the moment, the lack of financial resources has made this goal impossible. We
are looking forward to fulfill our goals as soon as possible.
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BACK
MANAGEMENT OF PROCESSES WITHIN THE EUROPEAN

REGULATIONS ON QUALITY
Cecilia POP
The paper goal was to debate the main aspects which consist into the basis
of the process approach according European norms and as under the perspective of the
excellence, as a target to be reached through quality.
The processes and their management represent the central attractive and
interesting point within an organization. A desired result is achieved more efficiently
when activities and related resources are managed as a process.
The method “process based approaching”, for design of a quality
management system, should be have next steps: defining the objectives of the
organization’s processes; defining a process that will achieve specific objectives
(strategic processes, operative processes and support processes); establishing clear
responsibility, authority and accountability for managing the process; determining the
stages in the process necessary to achieve the results; determining the activities
required to accomplish each process stage; identifying the inputs and outputs of the
process; taking action to eliminate the cause of nonconforming inputs or outputs;
measuring process outputs, efficiency and effectiveness.
In conclusion, all these processes having a strong impact on any organization
competitiveness could to be controlled through the implementation of the ISO 9001
system procedures. The implementation of the system procedures, as required by the
standard (e.g. documents checking, non-conform product checking, internal audit etc.)
and of the operational procedures (e.g. personnel training, design-development,
customer satisfaction evaluation etc.), assures the achievement of a high efficiency
within the accomplishment of the management functions.
The experience of the high success companies, that continuous improved

the quality, across the ISO 9000 standards, demonstrates that the targets could be
accomplished only if the activities are managed as a process.
The processes and their management represent the central attractive and
interesting point within an organization.
Otherwise, some of the first steps in the design of a quality management
system should be the identification of the processes within the organization as
good as the establishing of the process’s owners (individuals having the control
on the process and on its interactions). It is essential that the employees should
manifest so called owner behaviors, in order to improve the quality related
performances. Thus, they must know the company’s business targets (sells, costs,
incomings, customer’s satisfaction etc.) and especially the exact way in which
their work could contribute to the achievements of these objectives; furthermore,
they must know the way in which the organization acts to reach that situation.
Once these elements are assured, “the owners” will be able to design their
processes in a manner that will lead to the best beneficial way to transform the
input element into output elements (the latter being frequently themselves input
elements for other processes).
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Within the management system of an organization there are three types of

processes: strategical processes, operative processes and support processes.
Strategical processes supporting the long existence of the organization, by
ensuring its competitiveness, by concentrating on the customers’ requirements
and of the legal and the regular ones, as well as on the interested parties, for
instance the stakeholders, the employees, the clients and the society, within the
long-term decisions. The strategical processes are superior processes having as
their aim the guarantee of the efficiency of the management system.
Operative processes having as their aim the product performing and being
directly connected to the customers’ requirements and expectations.
Support processes facilitating and supporting the strategical and operative
processes, their output data contributing to the raising of their efficiency.
Suitable these type of processes, within the management system of an
organization, there are three operating levels.
The first level within which the top management elaborates the strategy, the
policy and the objectives of the organization, so that there could be accomplished
the harmonization of the values and the internal rules designed to perform the
business objectives, both with the staff and the customers’ interests and with the
social interests, of labor and environment protection of the local community and
of society, generally.
The second level within which the executive management elaborates
medium and long-term strategical programmes and plans in order to reach the
organization strategy, policy and objectives (strategies of production, market,
human resources and relationships with customers, investment etc).
The third level within which the organization staff performs the
implementation of the strategic programmes and plans by developing the current
processes, including measuring the customers’ satisfaction.
The process based approaching, that supposes the identification, the
appliance and the management of a system of processes and of their interactions
within an organization.
The principle “process approach” is expressed as follows: “A desired
result is achieved more efficiently when activities and related resources are
managed as a process.”
Processes are the means transform inputs value into value added outputs.
They include all the materials, machines, environment, personnel, documentation
and techniques needed to covert given inputs into required outputs.
The method “process based approaching”, for design of a quality
management system, should be have next steps: defining the objectives of the
organization’s processes; defining a process that will achieve specific objectives;
establishing clear responsibility, authority and accountability for managing the
process; determining the stages in the process necessary to achieve the results;
determining the activities required to accomplish each process stage; identifying
the inputs and outputs of the process; taking action to eliminate the cause of
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nonconforming inputs or outputs; measuring process outputs, efficiency and

effectiveness.
A process is under control when actions induced cause variation in the
results. When variations in the results occur by chance, the process is not under
control. Therefore, a process that produces unpredictable results is out of control.
The spread of variation in results may exceed the limits or the requirements but, if
this is predictable, the process is under control. Process control is, therefore, about
understanding variation.
For many years quality management systems has been perceived as a
passive set of documents. Documents alone do not achieve results and, therefore,
cannot be regarded as a system. For a system to achieve results, it has to comprise
dynamic processes that bring resources, activities and behaviors together in the
right relationship, and focus effort on the achievement of objectives.
The main necessary processes for performing continuous improved the
quality of management system are:
o Defining the policy objectives by the top management in the field of
quality, including the target objectives and the internal communication. This is the
first process within sensibilizing, informing and motivating the personnel at all
the levels of organization regarding the intention of the top management to
implement and improvement management system.
Leaders establish unity of purpose and direction of the organization.
They should create and maintain the internal environment in which people can
become fully involved in achieving the organization’s objectives.
Unity of purpose is a state in which everyone in the organization knows
why the organization exists – they share the same purpose. Effective leaders
bring about this unity of purpose through the manner in which they communicate
both formally and informally. This principle is expressed in ISO 9001 trough the
requirement for a quality policy to be established, communicated and understood.
Unity of direction is when everyone pulls in the same direction. They
share common goals and objectives. ISO 9001 express this principle through the
requirement for quality objectives to be established at relevant functions and
levels within the organization. It also means that leaders constantly re-examine
the direction in which they are leading the organization and make adjustments to
keep the organization focused on its purpose.
Effective leaders motivate people to achieve their objectives and the
means of motivating people is to create an environment in which the needs of
people are respected, their efforts rewarded and their contribution encouraged.
o Documentation of the quality management system is other important
process. The activities which are connected to this process are as follows:
identification of the processes within the organization, of the relationships among
them and of the processes owners; establishing the limits for each process;
establishing the input and output data of the processes; integration of the aspects
specific to the quality management system within the processes existing in the
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organization; documentation the complying with the requirements in the reference

documents.
The development of a positive attitude, related to the quality management
documentation (quality manual, proceedings, technical specifications, recordings),
is a very important point. This documentation assures the conformity and the
technological discipline achievement in all the organization activities. The
position and the function of every individual into the system, in the team spirit
development, in the customer-supplier relationship internalization process etc.,
must be clearly specified.
All of these elements suppose the creation of a climate that encourage the
freely communication which will guarantee the personnel access to pertinent data.
The communication must be sharp, punctual, credible, based on real data and
facts. The involved data refers to costs, looses level, customers’
satisfaction/insatisfaction level, salary urges etc. When they belong to a quality
management system, the employees must act as process managers, solving
problems and having their own decisions; otherwise, they could not accomplish
these functions without accessing an appropriate data.
o Implementation of the documentation belonging to the quality
management system in all the organization compartments, with the active
involvement of the whole organization personnel.
People at all levels are the essence of an organization and their full
involvement enables their abilities to be used for the organization’s benefit.
An organization is a group of people that is formed for a particular
purpose. Without the people the organization does not exists; people are not
machines and when treated as such become dissatisfied, unproductive, ineffective
and de-motivated and are unlikely to fulfill the organization’s objectives.
Involving people in matters that affect what they do and how they do it will lead
to improved productivity. The people doing the job are more likely than anyone
else to know what is preventing successful achievement of their objectives than
anyone else.
o The last important process is the continues improvement of the
efficiency of the quality management system, documented and implemented
within the organization in order to satisfy the customers’ requirements referring to
the products quality.
The activities connected to this process could be: analysis of feed-back from
the customers; analysis of the rival organizations performances; establishing the
methods of improving the system; determination and analysis of the new
requirements applicable to the organization; implementing the revised
documentation ; implementation assessment.
Continual improvement of the organization’s overall performance should
be a permanent objective of the organization. Improvement means a beneficial
change and continual improvement means recurring beneficial change. The
beneficial change that this principle focuses on is the organization’s overall
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performance; this means the organization’s performance with respect to its

customers, its people, society and its investors. In reference to continual
improvement, ISO 9001 refers frequently to continually improving the
effectiveness of the quality management system, that one of the key outputs from
Quality Management System is product quality.
CONCLUSIONS
A system is a set of interconnected processes that achieve specific

objectives; therefore identifying the processes that comprise the system is critical
to its effectiveness. When the processes in an organization are not formed into a
coherent system, there will be disconnections and the outputs of one process will
not match with the input requirements of other processes. In practice, people
compensate for these inadequacies and it appears to top management that
operations are running smoothly. An organization applying the principle “system
approach to management” would be one in which people are: defining the
organization as a system that is established to achieve organizational goals;
defining the system by identifying or developing the processes that affect a given
objective; structuring the system to achieve the objective in the most efficient and
effective way; understanding the interdependencies among the processes of the
system; continually improving the system through measurement and evaluation;
establishing resource constraint prior to action so that system integrity is
maintained when changes are made.
The unstructured systems could not guarantee that customers would be
supplied with products and services that consistently met their expectations.
Unstructured systems are susceptible to unpredictable variation since the
processes that cause the result can be driven by personal motives, which may be
at variance with the goals of the organization. Internal competition can cause
friction and knowledge can be used to exert power over others, regardless of the
overall effect on the organization’s performance.
All the processes having a strong impact on any organization’s
competitiveness are easy to be controlled through the ISO 9001 procedures. The
implementation of the system procedures, as required by the standard (e.g.
documents checking, non-conform product checking, internal audit etc.) and of
the operational procedures (e.g. personnel training, design-development, customer
satisfaction evaluation etc.), assures the achievement of a high efficiency within
the accomplishment of the management functions.
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BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bayer M., Pirna I., Muraru Ionel C., Muraru V., 2004, Integrated management systems:
quality, environment. Quality assurance, nr. 38, Romanian Society for Quality Assurance,
Bucuresti.
2. Chang R. Y., 1995, Continuous process improvement. Kogan Press, Londra.
3. Hoyle David, 1998, ISO 9000 Quality system development handbook. Asystems
engineering approach. Buterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, U.K.
4. James F. Riley, Jr. - Managing Business Process Quality. Ed. Mc. Graw-Hill, New
York, 1992.
5. Hoyle David, 1998, ISO 9000 Quality system development handbook. A systems
engineering approach. Buterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, U.K.
6. Juran J.M., A. B. Goodfrey, (coord.), 1998, Juran’s quality handbook. McGraw-Hil,
New York.
7. Nigel Bauer & Asociaţii, 2005 - Evaluarea sistemelor de management al calitatii. Curs
de instruire certificat IRCA pentru formare auditor/auditor sef - seria ISO 9000:2000. TÜV Nord
Romania, Bucuresti.
8. Pop Cecilia. 2007, Managementul calitatii. Ed. Alfa Iasi.
9. *** ISO 9001:2000 Quality management systems - Requirements. European Commitee
for Standardization.
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BACK
ECOLOGICAL DATA REGARDING SOME PARASITOIDS

SPECIES WHICH ARE CONTROLLING THE PLUTELLA
XYLOSTELLA L. POPULATIONS
A. PRELIPCEAN, Gh. MUSTAŢĂ
Plutella xylostella or diamond back moth is a destructive pest of

Brassicaceae crops. The species has a highly adaptability potential to chemical
control. The present study is describeing the interrelations between the moth
parasitoid species. Tracking the parasitoid biocenosys dynamical evolution, I
observed Plutella xylostella` s populations, the parasitoids efficiency in controlling
the pest and the established trophical relations. 30 years ago the primary parasitoids
efficiency in limiting dimond back moth was 80 to 90 %. Today, the researches are
confirming that the parasitation levels have dropped to 66,8%. From the probes
gathered in different cabbage crops, obtained parasitoids, determination of the
biological matherial and data centralisation, I obtained important informations
regarding the actual situation of this pest. From the total of 29 parasitoids species,
19 were primary parasitoids and 9 acted as hyperparasitoids (seccondary
parasitoids). The main parasitoid species are Diadegma semiclausum, Diadegma
fenestrale and Cotesia plutellae.
Fitofague organisms have always been a problem for crops. In the

management of these insects, scientists have taken a series of measures for
improving crops production by using biological control. Even if it was successful
used for a long time, biological control remains mostly unknown to the large
public, especially to farmers.
The present research studyes the parasitoid complex that limits the
Plutella xylostella (diamond back moth) populations, harmful lepidopters in the
cabbage crops. The analisys were made in the some areas near the romanian
littoral of the Black Sea in 2006. It reveals interesting interaction aspects between
the parasitoid biocenosis species. The obtained informations compleate the
reasearches made in this area over the years, reflecting the integrity of the natural
balance in this type of biocenosis. It represents a useful scientific base for
development and applications in the biocontrol management, by using parasitoids
complexes.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

For compleating the targeted objectives we made a series of observations
outside, in the fields and in the laboratory. The probes have been gathered from
locations near Poiana, Agigea and Valu lui Traian. The selected crops were
chemical untreated.
In the small cultures (50-100 cabbage plants) the samples were taken by
controlling all the plants; in the larger ones the colections were made randomly.
- 157 -
In order to understand the parasitoid complex that controls Plutella

xylostella, the host-parasitoid interrelations, a rich biological material was
collected, represented by diamond back moth in larva and crisalid stage. There
were colected 1302 probes. These were colected in test tubes, with labels
containing the location and the date of the colection. Subsequent, in the
laboratory, the probes were precesed for parasitoids rearing.
The Plutella xylostella larvas were introduced in plastic boxes among
with cabage leafes – for the crysalid to develop. A series of measures were taken
to prevent the deterioration of the biological material: the boxes were designed
with air holes covered with textil material for ventilation and filter paper was used
to avoid the humidity excess.
The crysalids were also sorted by data and colection location; then
introduces in separated test tubes in order to obtain parasitoids. These were also
labeled. From pupas emerged Plutella xylostella adults and parasitoids.
Subsequent, the parasitoids were identified. On field, some parasitoids species
were recognized by the cocon aspect. The species determination was made
together with prof. dr. Mustaţă Gheorghe from “Alexandru Ioan Cuza”
University, and in the laboratory, using speciality literature.
The obtained informations have been introduced in table 1 and 2 by
colection place, date, number of obtained individuals for each species, the
parasitism/hyperparasitism degree.
Table 1. Plutella xylostella data situation
Plutella xylostella L.
Location and data
of collection Individs Obtained adults
Obtained adults
collected percent
Poiana
12.06.2006 58 31 53,44%
12.06.2006 30 12 40%
7.07.2006 118 27 23,07%
7.07.2006 29 10 34,48%
7.07.2006 42 8 19,04%
12.07.2006 24 5 20,83%
12.07.2006 13 5 38,46%
12.07.2006 48 21 43,75%
12.07.2006 42 13 30,95%
12.07.2006 50 17 34%
14.08.2006 48 15 31,25%
14.08.2006 108 36 33,33%
14.08.2006 57 18 31,57%
14.08.2006 123 42 34,14%
14.08.2006 73 31 42,46%
TOTAL Poiana 863 291 33,71%
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Agigea
8.06.2006 48 14 29,16%
16.06.2006 44 11 25%
16.06.2006 34 8 23,52%
16.06.2006 60 29 48,33%
27.07.2006 120 42 35%
1.08.2006 26 6 23,07%
1.08.2006 22 7 31,81%
TOTAL Agigea 384 123 32,03%
Valu lui Traian
12.08.2006 55 16 29,09%
TOTAL sites 1302 430 33,2%

In the researches made in 2006, the parasitoid complex actions were
monitorised. There have been identificated 26 parasitoid species from wich:
- 17 species – primary parasitoids: Diadegma semiclausum Hellén,
Diadegma fenestrale Holmgren Diadegma armillatum Gravenhorst,
Diadegma chrysostictos Gmelin, Diadegma rapi Cameron, Diadegma
salicis Horstmann, Diadegma tenuipes Thomson, Diadromus collaris
Gravenhorst, Diadromus subtilicornis Gravenhorst, Hemichneumon
elongatus Ratzeburg, Herpestomus brunnicornis Gravenhorst,
Phaeogenes bellulus Cresson (Ichneumonidae), Microchelonus
contractus Nees, Cotesia plutellae Kurdjumov, Cotesia rubecula
Marshall, Apanteles appellator Telenga (Braconidae), Oomyzus
sokolowskii Kurdjumov (Eulophidae)(figure 2)
- 9 species – secondary parasitoids: Pteromalus semotus Walker,
Trichomalopsis acuminatus Graham, Trichomalopsis peregrinus Graham,
Catolaccus ater Ratzeburg (Pteromalidae), Mesochorus anomalus
Holmgren Mesochorus acuminatus Thomson, Mesochorus curvulus
Thomson, Mesochorus gracilis Brischke, Mesochorus facialis Bridgman
(Ichneumonidae)(figure 2).
From the total of 1302 probes collected, 873 were parasited (table 2),
representing a parasitism rate of 66,8% (figure 1). From these, 817 were primary
parasitoids (93,62%) and 56 were secondary parasitoids (6,38%).
Three caracteristical species were identified amoung primary parasitoids:
Diadegma semiclausum, Diadegma fenestrale and Cotesia plutellae. These are
the same three species that developed hiperparasitoids. Their role is estabilishing
a throphical equilibrium in the parasitar complex, limiting the primary parasitoids
action. This natural selfadjusting system is initiated by the high abundance of
some species, determining a reduction in number of the primary parasitoids.
- 159 -
33,20% Plutel
adults
66,80% Paras
xylost
Figure 1. Parasitism rate in Plutella xylostella populations
Figure 2. The trophic relations in Plutella xylostella populations
- 160 -
- Diadegma semiclausum has registrated the highest number of secondary

parasitoid species. From the total of 873 parasitated individuals of
diamond back moth, 294 have been hosts to this parasitoid, representing a
parasitation degree of 22,58% (figure 2, table 2). The following species of
hiperparasitoids were obtained.
- 276 DBM have been hosts to Diadegma fenestraleand it has a parasitation
degree of 21,19%. It was hiperparasitated by Pteromalus semotus,
Mesochorus gracilis and Mesochorus facialis. (figure 2, table 2)
- Cotesia plutellae was hiperparasitated by Mesochorus anomalus and
Catalaccus ater (figure 2). It has a parasitation degree of 4,68%.
Table 2. The parasitoids complex wich limits Plutella xylostella populations

Total
Parasitoid species Poiana Agigea Valu lui Traian parasitoids
(per species)
Diadegma armillatum 9 5 2 16
Diadegma chrysostictos 11 10 21
Diadegma fenestrale 196 65 15 276
Diadegma rapae 1 2 3
Diadegma salicis 2 2
Diadegma semiclausum 231 49 14 294
Primary parasitoids
Diadegma tenuipes 6 1 7
Diadromus collaris 2 6 8
Diadromus subtilicornis 6 8 14
Hemichneumon elongates 1 1 2
Herpestomus brunnicornis 2 1 3
Phaeogenes bellulus 1 1
Microchelonus contractus 5 5
Apanteles appelator 13 24 37
Cotesia rubecula 3 18 21
Cotesia plutellae 34 25 2 61
Oomyzus sokolowskii 29 19 48
Pteromalus semotus 4 3 7
Trichomalopsis acuminatus 3 5 8
Secondary parasitoids
Trichomalopsis peregrinus 2 7 9
Mesochorus anomalus 1 2 3
Mesochorus acuminatus 2 2
Mesochorus curvulus 1 1
Mesochorus gracilis 1 1
Mesochorus facialis 3 1 4
Catalaccus ater 8 10 2 21
Total parazitoids 573 261 39 873
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
- It was analysed the afferent biocenotic complex of parasitoids of Plutella
xylostella.
- It was elaborated a sistematic list of species within the parasitoid
biocenosis that includes 26 species from 4 families (Ichneumonidae,
Eulophidae, Braconidae, Pteromalidae) of Hymenoptera order.
- The level of parasitation has recorded a maximum value of 66,8%
sustaining the importance of primary parasitoids in mentaining the
damage produced by Plutella xylostella under a accepted economical
threshold.
- From 17 species of primary parasitoids identified, 3 of them were
limitated by the action of 9 hiperparasitoids species.
- Relating with the researches made 30 years ago by prof. dr. Mustaţă
Gheorghe, when the parasitation level was 80 to 90 percents, we observed
a decrease to 66,8% in 2006. This is because of the excess use of
pesticides in chemical control. The research shows an increased
efficiancy in the existent complexes, fact that encourages practical use of
biological or integrated control.
- The obtained results are showing the importance of the knoledge of these
interrellations in order to apply biological control in a efficient way.
- This study represents a solid base for interdisciplinar research and
collaborations with institutes interested by this problem especially in
biological control, for educational programs development and for the
agroecosystem biodiversity protection methods.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Costea Gabriela, Mustaţa Gh., Lozan A., 2002 – Role of Braconidae (Hymenoptera) in limitation of
Lepidoptera cabbage pests populations in Romania. Parasitic Wasps: Evolution,
Systematics, Biodiversitz and Biological Control. Agroinform, Budapest
Costea Gabriela, Mustaţa Gh., 2003 Cercetări privind cunoaşterea complexului de parazitoizi care
limitează populaţiile de Lepidoptere dăunătoare culturilor de varză din sud-estul României –
phd thesis, Iaşi, Univ. “Al.I.Cuza”
Fitton, M.; Walker, Annette, 1992 – Hymenopterous parasitoids associated with diamonthback
moth: the taxonomic dilemma. Management of Diamondback Moth and Other Crucifer Pests:
Proceedings of the Second International Workshop. Shanhua, Taiwan, Asia Vegetable
Research and Development Center
Mustaţă, Gh., 1978 – The Parasite complex limiting Plutella maculipennis Curt.(Lepidoptera,
Plutellidae) populations in Moldavia. Stud. Cercet. Biol. Ser. Biol.Anim.
Mustaţă, Gh., 1992 – Role of parasitoid complex in limiting the populations of Diamondback Moth
in Moldavia, Romania, in: Management of Diamondback Moth and Other Crucifer Pests:
Proceedings of the Second International Workshop. Shanhua, Taiwan, Asia Vegetable
Research and Development Center, pp. 203-211.
Mustaţă, Gh., Mustaţă Mariana, 2001 - Rolul biocenozelor parazitoide în păstrarea echilibrului
natural. Ed. Univ. “Al. I. Cuza” Iaşi (bilingv român- englez)
- 162 -
BACK
DIAGNOSTIC STUDY REGARDING THE DEVELOPMENT

OF THE RURAL LOCALITIES FROM VRANCEA
DEPRESSION
Mihaela-Loredana RUSU, I.V. CIUREA
The research carried out proposes the analysis of the rural space of
Vrancea Depression by the opportunities and threats of region. The aim of the
scientific demarche is the rural development of the region in view of complying with
the demands imposed by the European Union. It was studied the territorial
administrative units from Vrancea Depression, used specific indicators for the
characterization of the rural space. The information sources were the applied fields
within the city halls of Vrancea county and the direct investigations from the field.
We used existent statistical data for every commune. The total surface of land of the
communes from Vrancea Depression is of 121,621.86 ha of which 95% represents the
surface outside the commune and 5% represents the surface within the commune.
Analysed the inhabitants of the communes of Vrancea Depression who is 28,709 of
inhabitants, it resulted structure according to the communes as fallows: Bîrseşti -
6,55%, Jitia - 6,22%, Năruja - 6,92%, Negrileşti - 12,40%, Nereju - 15,46%,
Nistoreşti - 9,11%, Păuleşti - 7,84%, Spulber - 5,22%, Soveja - 9,73%, Tulnici -
10,28%, Vrîncioaia - 10,27%. The SWOT analysis used in the scientific demarche
pointed out the fact that the region is prevalent agricultural with an extremely
important woodsy fund for the national wealth. Vrancea Depression hold an
important natural tourist potential who it is prefered by tourists for rural tourism
and agricultural tourism. Reduced access to grants with non-reimbursable credits ,
to activities carried out in the rural environment, the cause being represented by the
reduced access to information.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

It was studied the territorial administrative units from Vrancea
Depression. It was used specific indicators for the characterization of the rural
space. The information sources were the applied fields within the city halls of
Vrancea county and the direct investigations from the field.

The rural space characterized by the Recommendation 1296/1996 of the
Parliamentary Meeting of the European Council is composed of: agriculture,
sylviculture, aquaculture and fishing; the economic and cultural activities of the
inhabitances from these areas (handicraft, industry, services, etc.); territorial
arrangements in the non-urban areas for the leisure or entertainment (natural
reservations); other usages (with the exception of the inhabitance ones).
The researches carried out led to the conclusion that the rural areas must
accomplish three functions at the same time, namely: the economic function, the
ecological function, and the socio-cultural function.
The new philosophy of the European rural space promotes a precious
landscape space, fruit of a long history whose salvation is a live preoccupation for
- 163 -
the society. The rural romanian space will be competitive on the European market
only if it remains an attractive live and original space, endowed with: a developed
infrastructure, the deployment of viable activities in agriculture and sylviculture,
the development of small and middle-sized companies in the rural space;
protecting the environment, nature and landscape.
The components, which contribute to the development of the rural space,
are: agriculture, sylviculture, rural tourism, habitat and culture, small and middle-
sized companies, environment, nature and landscape.
It was chosen as a study from the Vrancea Depression because of the
economic, social , cultural and tourism importance.
Vrancea Depression, with the position of sub-Carpathian internal depression
and the most typically achieved geomorphologically, has the form of a deep slot
(with the bottom of 400-600 m), with width of 3-13 km, comprised between the
backfall of Vrancea Mountains at the west and the one of the internal sub-Carpathian
hills at the east and prolonged on a distance of about 60 km. The area is represented
by three Meso-depressions, namely: the Soveja Depression (in the superior basin of
Susiţa and its affluent Crimineţ). The proper Vrancea Depression (is compartmented
by the superior affluents of Putna in the micro-depressions: Negreşti-Tulnici,
Bîrseşti, Vrîncioaia, Năruja and Nereju) and Jitia Depression (Bisoca-Niculele). It is
presented, in figure 1, the map of Vrancea Depression.
Fig. 1 – The map of Vrancea Depression (according to Cotea, V., 2003)

Vrancea Depression is delimited by the following piedmonts : N –Soveja Depression, E –
Vrancea Sub-Carpathians S – Neculelor Depression, V – Vrancea Mountains.
The area is composed of : Soveja Commune (villages : Dragosloveni, Rucăreni); Negrileşti
Commune (village: Negrileşti); Tulnici Commune (villages: Tulnici, Coza, Lepşa, Greşu);
Bîrseşti Commune (villages: Bîrseşti, Topeşti); Păuleşti Commune (villages: Păuleşti,
Hăulişca); Vrîncioaia (villages: Vrîncioaia, Poiana, Spineşti, Muncei, Ploştina, Bodeşti);
Nistoreşti Commune (Nistoreşti, Bîtcari, Făgetu, Romîneşti, Ungureni, Vetreşti-Herăstrău,
Podu Şchiopului, Brădetu, Valea-Neagră); Năruja Commune (villages: Năruja, Podu Stoica,
Podu Nărujii, Rebegari); Paltin Commune (villages: Paltin, Ţipău); Spulber Commune
(villages: Tojanii de Sus, Spulber, Cipău, Carsocheşti-Corăbiţa, Păvălari, Tojanii de Jos,
Morăreşti) ; Nereju Commune (villages: Nereju, Nereju Mic, Săhăstru, Chiricari, Brădăceşti) ;
Jitia Commune (villages: Jitia, Cerbu, Măgura, Dealu Sării, Jitia de Jos).
- 164 -
Table 1
The total surface of Vrancea Depression and the distribution
according to communes
Total surface (ha)
Commune Surface within the Surface outside the
commune commune
Bîrseşti 48.00 1,407.00
Jitia 376.00 4,192.00
Năruja 296.00 5,041.00
Negrileşti 160.00 3,040.00
Nereju 735.00 17,545.00
Nistoreşti 343.00 24,717.00
Păulesti 203.00 17,141.00
Spulber 950.00 2,550.00
Soveja 82.00 9,330.00
Tulnici 1,422.86 26,153.00
Vrîncioaia 1,690.00 4,200.00
TOTAL 6,305.86 115,316.00
Table 1 presents the surfaces of land within and outside the communes
from Vrancea Depression. According to the statistical data, the total surface of
land is of 121,621.86 ha of which 95% represents the surface outside the
commune.
Surface within the commune

95% 5%
Surface outside the commune
Fig. 2 – The total surface of land of the communes from Vrancea Depression
- 165 -
Table 2
The population and structure according to the communes
Population
Commune %
(loc.)
Bîrseşti 1.880 6,55
Jitia 1.787 6,22
Năruja 1.986 6,92
Negrileşti 3.560 12,40
Nereju 4.437 15,46
Nistoreşti 2,615 9,11
Păulesti 2,250 7,84
Spulber 1,500 5,22
Soveja 2,793 9,73
Tulnici 2,951 10,28
Vrîncioaia 2,950 10,27
TOTAL 28,709 100.00
According to statistic data, table no. 2 reveals that the total number of
inhabitants of the communes of Vrancea Depression is 28,709 of inhabitants.
In what follows we present the main investment projects developed as a
consequence to SAPARD and regional development programs.
- Bîrseşti Commune – providing water supply and extending the water network
of the commune; drainage; modernizing the commune roads; setting up the
land meant for the organization of traditional fairs; possibilities for
agrotourism.
- Jitia Commune – providing the potable water supply in Cerbu, Jitia and Dealu
Sării villages, rehabilitating 12 km of National Road 2N; building two schools
by means of the funds from the World Bank.
- Năruja Commune – modernizing county road 205 A Năruja – Paltin and
Năruja – Nistoreşti; modernizing commune roads in Năruja, Podul Stoica,
Podul Nărujii and Rebegari villages by ballasting them with local material;
providing water supply in Năruja, Podul Stoica, Podul Nărujii and Rebegari
villages.
- Negrileşti Commune – rehabilitating commune roads - providing potable
water supply; building a folkloric creation center; modernizing county road
205 F Negrileşti – Soveja; developing mountain agrotourism.
- Nereju Commune – rehabilitating the rural infrastructure.
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- Păuleşti Commune – there has been no project here, as the commune was
founded in 2003.
- Spulber Commune – rehabilitating the commune and village roads; water
supply; creating a human and veterinary clinic; founding a kindergarten.
- Soveja Commune – a € 700,000 - worth depuration plant; completing the
drainage network; public-private partnership in order to introduce the €
65,000 - worth cottages into the tourism circuit and making new investments
in tourism in Poiana Punga; ski lift installation (€ 1,300,000).
- Tulnici Commune – providing the commune with potable water supply and
creating the ski slope.
- Vrîncioaia Commune – providing water supply in Poiana village; human
clinic and apartment for the medical doctor.
Vrancea Depression includes numerous natural, historic and cultural
objectives.
- Bîrseşti Commune – “Baba Vrîncioaia” (Old Woman Vrîncioaia) memorial
house, Stephan the Great’s Monument, the Museum of Bîrseşti village;
“Sfânta Cuvioasă Parascheva” (“Saint Parascheva”) Orthodox Church of
Bîrseşti, “Sfinţii Arhangheli Mihail şi Gavriil” (“Saint Archangels Michel and
Gabriel”) Orthodox Church of Topeşti.
- Jitia Commune – Poiana Mărului Monastery, over 200 years old; “Saint
Dumitru” Church of Jitia village; “Saint Nicholas” Church of Jitia de Jos
village; “Saints Peter and Paul” Church of Dealu Sării village; Vârful
Ulmuşoru (Ulmuşoru Peak), Vârful Măgurii (Măgurii Peak), Pădurea
Schitului (Schitului Forest), Poiana Negari (Negari Glade), Piatra Matei
(Matei Rock), Lacul Giurgiului (Giurgiului Lake).
- Năruja Commune – natural tourist reservations: Muntele Lapoş (Mount
Lapoş), Platou Podul Nărujii and Lunca Deasă; Historic monuments –
“Cuvioasa Parascheva” (“Saint Parascheva”) Church of Năruja village and
“Valea Neagră” Monastery.
- Negrileşti Commune – geographic settlement optimum for the development of
agrotourism, as the commune is situated in the lowland, surrounded by hills
with sylvan pine woods.
- Nereju commune - Lacul Negru – formed in 2005 being a natural lake with a
surface of 1 ha, depth of 10 m, altitude of 1350 m; Dealul Negru mountain
areas, altitude of 1400 m; Căldările Zăbalei representing a protected area
along the course of Zăbala river.
- Păuleşti commune – ecological area; picturesque places without pollution.
- Spulber commune – Old Church from Spulber locality, 200 years old; the
Buciumaşi Formation and the "Spulber" dance with masks.
- Soveja commune – tourism (Soveja resort); agrotourism; valorization of forest
fruits; and chlorous and sulphurous sources; strong ionized air (concentration
of negative ions), Matei Basarab Monastery; the Mausoleum of Heroes from
the First World War; The military Museum; The Statue of Simion Mehedinţi,
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the founder of modern geography; the place where Mioriţa balad was
discovered ; popular traditions.
- Tulnici Commune – Putna waterfall; Lepşa Monastery; The natural
reservation Cheile Tişiţeii; The Pine Reservation Silvestru Galaciuc; Trout
farm Lepşa.
- Vrîncioaia Commune – The seismological observatory "Dr. Cornelius Radu".
A SWOT analysis was performed at the level of the entire Vrancea

Depression.
The investigation based on the SWOT analysis is used as part of the
social and economic systems for the understanding of the phenomenes, for the
prevision and reaction of the external environment, at the same time with the
receptivity to the actions and with the capacity of projection of the organizational
strategies and processes.
The strong and weak points, the opportunities and the threats of the
researched area were identified .
Strong points
- Agriculture: the cultivation of the agricultural fields, husbandry, fruit farming;
- Processing of the animal origin products and their valorization;
- Existence of an extremely important woodsy fund for the national wealth;
- Forester works (tree planting, cleaning and setting free);
- Wood gross and finite exploitation and manufacture locally;
- Collection and manufacture of the forest secondary products (forest fruit,
mushrooms, medicinal plants, etc.);
- Existence of rural localities in the tourist circuit;
- Very beautiful and attractive tourist area - according to the data offered by the
Romanian National Agency of Travel Companies for the year of 2007, the
rural area of Vrancea was preferred both by national and international
tourists;
- Development of mountaineering tourism, of rural tourism, of agricultural
tourism;
- Activities of offering accommodation, alimentation, recreation;
- Valorization of the natural tourist potential: natural reservations, flora and
fauna reservations, landscapes, sulphurous water and medicinal plants
reservations, etc.;
- Field systematization for the organization of the traditional trades;
- Possibility of valorization of the local and county traditions;
- Manufacturing works (weaving, various sewing);
- Relatively cheap grounds and working force – ideal for the development of
the rural small and middle companies;
- Existence of the economic activity: commercial companies, retail commercial
activities, carpentry workshops, service supply companies.
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Weak points
- Low qualified or unqualified working force;
- Rural infrastructure less developed in comparison with the urban
infrastructure;
- Insufficient valorization and development of the natural tourist potential of
the Vrancea Depression due to the inexistent or weakly developed access
ways.
Opportunities
- Developing and modernizing the localities – extending the technical and
construction equipments;
- Elaborating and promoting some eligible programs for the local and regional
development with finances from the Structural Funds FEADR. The elaborated
programs will refer to :
- Instituting some administration services, support and counseling of
farms, and also some counseling services in the forest sector from
Vrancea Depression.
- Modernizing the agricultural exploitation existent in the rural
localities from Vrancea Depression;
- Improving and developing the necessary infrastructure for the
evolution and adapting the agricultural and forest sectors;
- Supporting the farmers in view of adapting to the imposed
standards, adopted based on the community legislation;
- Supporting the farmers who have unproductive investments;
- Supporting the reconstitution of the forest potential and adopting
some preventive measures;
- Supporting the constitution and development of micro-companies,
promoting the entrepreneurial spirit and consolidate the economic
tissue;
- Promoting and developing the villages in Vrancea Depression;
- Conserving and emphasizing the rural patrimony at the local level;
- Public-private partnerships at the local level, named “local action
groups”
Threats
- The weak competition of the profile companies from Vrancea Depression
with those from the member states of EU;
- The increase of the erosion degree of the soil because of the reduced
possibilities to carry out the works for land improvement;
- Reduced access to grants with non-reimbursable credits , to activities carried
out in the rural environment, the cause being represented by the reduced
access to information.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. The rural localities from Vrancea Depression have a high natural,
economic and tourism potential which can be competitive in the European
Union. Which is characteristic to the Vrancea village are numerous
natural resources represented by mineral resources: oligometallic waters
(Nereju, Lepşa), alkaline and alkaline earth waters (Tulnici, Nereju,
Paltin), chloride-sodium waters (Herăstrău, Nereju), iodide waters (Lepşa,
Nistoreşti, Herăstrău), sulphate waters (Nistoreşti), ferric waters (Lepşa,
Nistoreşti), carbonated waters (Greşu, Lepşa, Tulnici); salt.
2. The rural localities from the Vrancea depression gather, at the same time,
important picturesque, mountain, river place; inestimable religious and
cultural inheritances; very rich flora and fauna; old traditions: art and
crafts (music, poetry, dance, picture, sculpture).
3. A weak equipment of the infrastructure is maintained, especially, the
quality of the means of communications and the precarious character of
the Media means.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Cotea, Valeriu – Vidra – Poarta Vrancei – Bucureşti, Editura Academiei Române, 2003
2. Popescu, D; Traian, I. – Agroturismul si economia rurala –Editura Preuniversitaria,
Craiova, 2005
3. Otiman, P.I. – Dezvoltarea rurala durabila in Romania – Editura Academiei Romane,
Bucuresti, 2006
4. Otiman, P.I. – Dezvoltarea rurala in Romania – Editura Agroprint, Timisoara, 1997
5. http://www.afaceriagricole.net/primarii/judet/Vrancea.html (accessed on the 7th January
2008 )
6. http://www.ghidulprimariilor.ro/ (accessed on the 10th December 2007 )
- 170 -
BACK
THERMOGRAPHIC EXAMINATION FOR DETECTING

THERMAL IRREGULARITIES IN AGRICULTURAL
BUILDINGS ENVELOPES
Ioana TANASESCU, Marcela SIRBU
The paper presents optimized inspection of the heat insulation properties of

building envelopes ensured by combining thermo graphic express diagnostics, heat
transfer and air exchange measurements in existing buildings and mathematical
modeling of their heat balance. A special database of information about micro-
climate conditions in agricultural buildings in the 6-th North-West Region of
Romania has been created within the research project CEEX Nr.6108/2005 “Data
base integrate application for adapting and restructuring of Natural and Artificial
Environment Protection Factors in Agricultural and Animal Breeding Farms”. The
researches for inside environmental conditions were performed during 2005-2008, a
period when the climate in our country was very mild during winter, a fact that
determined the main micro-environment recorded parameters in the studied cases to
be, generally, in the permissible limits by the current regulations.
INTRODUCTION
For the European integration of our country, in the agricultural domain,
there are a series of measures to ensure the products’ quality and security. These
measures do not aim only the products’ obtain processes but, as evidenced in the
European Regulations, also the quality of the final product is given, in an equal
share, by the quality of the environment conditions, the applied technologies, the
impact of these on the built environment and the users.
Our project approaches the constructive component of these demands,
requirements and performance criteria specific for the agricultural - animal
breeding sector where vast documentation, analysis, expert appraisement of the
environmental factors, natural and artificial pollution factors that intervene during
the process activities take place.
Irregularities in the thermal properties of the components constituting a
building envelope result in temperature variations over the surfaces of the
structure [11]. The energy emitted by a surface at a given temperature is the
spectral radiance and is defined by Planck’s Law. Surface temperature
distribution can thus be used to detect thermal anomalies. A thermal anomaly
represents a thermal pattern of a surface that varies from a uniform color or tone
when viewed with an infrared imaging system. Infrared thermography is a process
in which an infrared imaging system (an infrared camera) converts the spatial
variations in infrared radiance from a surface into a two-dimensional image, in
which variations in radiance are displayed as a range of colors or tones. So the
objects in the image that are lighter in color are warmer and darker objects are
cooler. Infrared thermography locates moisture anomalies in building envelopes
- 171 -
by exploiting the thermal properties of water. The greater the specific heat (the
amount of heat required to raise the unit mass of material one unit of
temperature), the more energy is required to heat or cool a particular material. The
difference in temperature can be imaged and measured using an infrared camera.
The recorded visual image is a thermogram or thermal scan. The most accurate
thermographic images usually occur when there is a large temperature difference
(at least 10°C) between inside and outside air temperatures. In northern regions,
thermographic scans are generally done in the winter.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

A thermographic inspection is either an interior or exterior survey. The
specialist decides which method would give the best results under certain weather
conditions. Interior scans are more common, because warm air escaping from a
building does not always move through the walls in a straight line. Heat loss
detected in one area of the outside wall might originate at some other location on
the inside of the wall. Also, it is harder to detect temperature differences on the
outside surface of the building during windy weather. Because of this difficulty,
interior surveys are generally more accurate because they benefit from reduced air
movement.
Thermographic scans are also commonly used with an open door test
running. The method helps exaggerate air leaking through defects in the building
envelope. Such air leaks appear as black streaks in the infrared camera's
viewfinder (fig.1, 2.).
In general, thermography uses specially designed infrared video or still
cameras to make images (called thermograms) that show surface heat variations.
This technology has a number of applications. The most accurate thermographic
inspection device is a thermal imaging camera, which produces a 2-dimensional
thermal picture of an area showing heat leakage. By visually seeing heat with the
use of an infrared imaging camera it is possible to avert problems before they
become problems and make the necessary repairs or changes.
The thermography was performed using a FLIR Systems Thermovision
infrared imaging system. A visual record has been realized of each area surveyed
during the case study at Experimental Farm-“Sapca Verde” of University of
Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine in Cluj-Napoca.
Within the dairy cow shelter volume there are a number of moisture
sources such as moisture from the animals and their physiological mechanisms,
evaporating forage and manure moisture, open water tank, cleaning solutions and
other technological processes. The building volume exchanges air to and from
outside environment.
Because of the decomposition of the organic substances from the animal
wastes, appears the sulphuretted hydrogen, that also has a limited corosive effect
- 172 -
on concrete, while the reinforcements can be intense corroded forming iron

sulphide (FeS) in the case when the concrete cover is too thin.
As a result of the applying of desinfecting and washing substances,
appear the alkaline substances (pH > 7) with negative effects upon the
construction materials. To all these it's added the high relative humidity (frequent
values higher then 85%) that facilitate the appearance of the condensation
phenomena.
REZULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

Infrared thermographic observations of the dairy cow shelter were
conducted to identify moisture and thermal anomalies in the envelope. Several
test locations were chosen for infrared examination.Representative thermograms
and the corresponding photographs are shown in Figures 1 and 2.
This thermographic images taken at the interior sides of the elevation on
22 of January 2008 showed thermal anomalies in the brick walls and windows
surface. The suspected wet areas are relatively warm and clearly visible in this
thermogram as red, yellow and white areas. Cooler, dry areas are blue, green, and
black.
Photo 1. Dairy cow shelter- left (E)
- 173 -
Fig.1. Defects in the building envelope-left side.
- 174 -
Photo 2. Dairy cow shelter- right (W)
- 175 -
Fig.2. Defects in the building envelope-right side.
Moisture in building materials can destroy structural integrity and create

proper conditions for mold and insect infestations. Infrared cameras distinguish
between wet and dry materials by exploiting the thermal characteristics of wet
materials. These characteristics include the ability to store heat very well and to
warm up or cool down more slowly than dry materials. Mold in particular is a
growing concern for specialists, developers, and farmers because of the growing
number of filings of health-related claims. Certain molds can cause a variety
of adverse animal and human health effects.
Infrared thermography is a useful and effective tool for the detection of
moisture anomalies in building envelope systems; because of the complexities of
building construction and performance of infrared detection and measurement,
however, considerable care must be exercised in both collection and interpretation
of thermographic data.
These investigations demonstrate that qualitative infrared thermography
coupled with an informed visual inspection and quantitative substantiation using
moisture meters is an effective protocol to detect moisture anomalies in building
envelopes.
In very cold climates, poorly installed insulation and vapor barriers can
lead to condensation problems and the degradation of the building itself.
- 176 -
BACK
For agricultural and animal breeding farms with specialized technologies,

badly designed, poorly constructed, poorly maintained, leaky buildings are not
energy efficient and often have moisture and mold problems. In some cases,
damage to the building is caused by insufficient ventilation or an under-designed
evacuation system. Preventive maintenance in animal shelters of all types is very
uncommon.
For cattle shelters (were no additional heat sources exist) it has to be
taken into consideration the balance between animal heat, produced by
metabolism and the buildings’ capacity to assure the inside conditions required by
the technological needs of the species.
REFERENCES
[1] SR EN ISO 13187/2000 Performanţa termică a clădirilor. Detecţia calitativă a neregularităţilor
termice în anvelopa clădirilor. Metoda termografică
[2] EN ISO 7345/1995 Thermal insulation. Physical quantities and definitions. (Izolare termică.
Mărimi fizice şi definiţii).
[3] SR EN ISO 10077/1 Performanţa termică a ferestrelor, uşilor şi obloanelor – Calculul
transmitanţei termice. Partea I: Metoda simplificată.
[4] SR EN ISO 6946 Părţi şi elemente de construcţie - Rezistenţa termică şi transmitanţa termică -
Metodă de calcul.
[5] SR EN 12524 Materiale şi produse pentru construcţii - Proprietăţi higrotermice – Valori de
proiectare tabelate;
[6] SR EN ISO 9288 Izolaţie termică. Transfer de căldură prin radiaţie. Mărimi fizice şi definiţii.
[7] SR EN 22726 Ambianţe termice. Aparate şi metode de măsurare a mărimilor fizice.
[8] NP 048-2000 Normativ pentru expertizarea termică şi energetică a clădirilor existente şi a
instalaţiilor de încălzire şi preparare a apei calde de consum aferente acestora, B.C. nr.
4/2001.
[9] NP 049-2000 Normativ pentru elaborarea şi acordarea certificatului energetic al clădirilor
existente, B.C nr. 5/2001.
[10] NP 047-2000 Normativ pentru realizarea auditului energetic al clădirilor existente şi a
instalaţiilor de încălzire şi preparare a apei calde de consum aferente acestora, B.C. nr.
5/2001.
[11] International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Thermal Insulation—
Qualitative Detection of Thermal Irregularities in Building Envelopes—Infrared
Method. International Standard ISO6781-1995.
[12] Maldague, X.P. Theory and Practice of Infrared Technology for Nondestructive
Testing. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 2001.
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BACK
ASPECTS REGARDING THE MORPHOLOGY OF THE

REPRODUCTIVE APPARATUS OF THE DOMESTIC QUAIL
(COTURNIX COTURNIX JAPONICA)
(BIBLIOGRAPHICAL STUDY)
Anca TEUŞAN, V. TEUŞAN, A. PRELIPCEAN
Today, people are looking for new avian species that can be breed for
their production of meat and eggs because there is an accentuated need for food
caused by the continuous growth of population number. One of these species is
the domestic quail (Coturnix coturnix japonica) wich is breed especially for its
production of eggs. For a better understanding of the egg development
mechanism, different biological aspects of reproductive male and female
apparatus is necessary. Regarding the differences between domestic quails
reproductive apparatus and the other species reproductive organs there are
some peculiar aspects that can be mentionated. Thereby, the male’s testicles are
about 3,91 % of its weight, while the female reproductive apparatus represents 6
– 7 % of its alive weight. The female’s mature gonads weigh 4 – 4,5 grams that
represents 3,1 – 3,3 % of its alive mass.
The breeding of birds (aviculture) is one of the oldest human ocupation.

Over the years man has obtain and breed a large variety of hibrid birds specialised
on the production of eggs and meat.
The domestication of wild quails started in Asia at the begining of the
twelve century, first for their delighful songs and then for thir eggs.
Today domestic quails are breed intensivly in some of the most well
developed countrys of the world like Japan, China, United States of America etc.,
especially for their hight quality eggs.
For these birds breed mostly for their production of eggs it is necesary to
know some aspects regarding morphology and physiology of the reproductive
apparatus.
MALE GENITAL APPARATUS OF THE DOMESTIC QUAIL

The male genital apparatus is composed of two gonads (testicles), two
deferential tubes and one rudimentary penis (copulator organ).
The yellowish testicles are located in the abdominal cavity, under the two
kidneys; they have an apricotlike shape and they can reach 1,7 cm long and 1 cm in
diameter at full maturity. The average weight of the fully grown domestic quail
testicles is 1,7 – 2,25 g (3,5 – 4,5 g both testicles) wich represents 2,92 – 3,91 % of
the entire body mass of the adult male (115-120 g). In fact the weight of testicles
grows in the same time with the age and the body mass of the male (tab. 1).
- 178 -
Table number 1. The weight evolution of domestic quail testicles term age
Age Body Testicles weight Seminifer tube
(days) weight(g) mg % of body mass diameter(µ)
1 6,80 0,720 0,0106 19,0
43 108,70 1111,23 1,0223 171,0
The male gonads have a soft onsistence, a slide, elastic albuginea. The
testicular parenchym is composed of seminifer tubes wich measure 171 µ in
diameter at the age of 43 days. The epididimum is small and short, with a
vermicular aspect and it is followed by the deferent canal. These two sinuos
deferent canals have colour, are 5 cm long and they open inside of cloaca at the
limit of urodeum and proctodeum. The domestic quail male has a pink cloacal
gland vizible from outside because it is not covered with feathers. This cloacal
gland develops inside of the proctodeum, comunicates with cloaca and it is
composed of many glandular bags wich open inside of the cloaca and are covered
with a simple cylindric epithelium. After the process of castration this cloacal
gland regresses and the simple cilindric epithelium becomes simple cubic or
pavimentos epithelium. The cloacal gland whitish and foamlike secretion has a
very important role in the protection and transportation of the sperm. The
treatments with testosteron helps to develop the cloacal gland and to enhance its
specific secretion.
Spermatogenesis is developing slower until the age of 10 days but it is
accelerated between the age of 15 and 30 days. At the age of 30 days, in the
seminifer tubes, mature spermatozoon (sperm cells) already exist. However full
maturity may establish at the age of 63 days when the male’s fertility is complete.
Light is one of the factors that influence by hasten or retarding the
development of male gonads and the sexual maturation of the domestic quail
males (tab. 2).
Table number 2. Light influence over the growing of male quail gonade
Number of hours Age of male Testicle weight
of light/day (days) (mg)
12 35 110,50
14 35 159,70
16 35 283,60
24 35 454,40
Therefore the domestic quail male ckicks and young ones must be
provided with 24 hours of light per day with a intensity of 7-8 W/m2. Regarding
the fertility of the seminal material the literature records that the doemstic quail
sperm cells are very sensible and they are loosing thei mobility and fecundity in
several minutes while they are „in vitro”. On the other hand, while they are „in
vivo” (in the female cloaca and oviduct) they can survive for a longer period of
time (days).
- 179 -
FEMALE GENITAL APPARATUS OF THE DOMESTIC QUAIL

The same as the other birds, female domestic quails have an asimetric
genital apparatus, composed of the left ovary and oviduct only. The right side of
the female genital apparatus suffers a involution process therefore after hatching
these organs are some hardly visible rudiments.
The left ovary and the left oviduct are situated in the left side of the
abdominal cavity near the digestive and excretory organs. The grapelike ovary is
composed of a complex ovisacs wich are suspended with a short pedicle on the
ceiling of the abdominal cavity (fig.1).
Figure number 1. Female domestic quail genital apparatus (personal draw)

1 – collecting funnel(infundibulum); 2 – magnum; 3 – isthmus; 4 – uterus; 5 – vagina
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Each ovisac contains a Graafian follicle. The colour of the matture quai
female ovary is orange – yellow or even redish – brown.
The domestic quail oviduct is a 30-35 am long sinuous tube that makes the
connection between the ovary and cloaca; it captures the ovula wich is fecundated
and then it is civered by all three layers (albumen, shell and shell membrane). This
sinuous tube is composed of 5 (five) segments: infundibulum, magnum, isthmus,
uterus and vagina (fig.1). Each segment has a certain lenght (tab. 3).
Table number 3. Lenght proportion represented by the five component parts of the
oviduct at some domestical avian species
Avian UM Component parts of the oviduct
species Infundibulum Magnum Isthmus Uterus Vagina Total
oviduct
Turkey % 14,8 42,6 15,3 13,5 13,8 100,00
Hen % 9,6 45,0 13,4 16,0 16,0 100,00
Domestic cm 5,7 14,7 6,3 3,1 1,5 31,30
quail % 18,21 46,97 20,13 9,90 4,79 100,00
Source: Wodard, A.E.; Mather, F.B., 1964.
The infundibulum has a funnellike shape and represents the place where
the spermatozoon fecundates the ovula (the yolk or vitelus). Magnum is the
longest part of the oviduct (14,7 cm) and has a corion composed of albumen
glands. Domestic quail isthmus is a very well developed segment of the oviduct,
because at this point are a lot of glands wich synthetize colagen wich is the main
component of shell membrane. Inside of the uterus (a 3,1 cm long segment) the
shell is formed and pigmentated (with porfirinic pigments). The shell of domestic
quail eggs is thin and fragile. The shortest segment of the oviduct is vagina (1,5
cm) wich keeps the eg until it is expelled outside of the quail’s body.
All five segments of the oviduct measure 31,30 cm total lenght and wight
4-6 grams at the age of 49 – 51 days, while at the same age the approximate
weight of the ovary is 4 - 5 grams. Therefore the ttal weight of the genital
apparatus of the female domestic quail is 8-11 g wich represents 5 – 9 % from the
total body weight of the adult female quail (130-150 g).
Light is another factor that influences the development of female gonads
and the sexual matturation (tab. 4).
In the scientific literature regarding the process of ovulation, egg forming
and positioning there are some basic data such as: ovulation takes place after 10 –
30 minutes after oviposition (one egg has been laid). The ovula (yolk) crosses
through the infundibulum in maxim 30 minutes (table number 5), it is fecundated
and after that it is rolled inside of magnum where it is wraped in layers of
albumen during two hours. Then the yolk covered with albumen reaches isthmum
where it receaves two sheel membranes. Inside of utherus the egg will stay for 19
– 20 hours to form and pigmentate it’s shell (tab. 5).
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Table number 4. The influece of day light period over the development of
female genital apparatus
Age Light Body Ovary Oviduct Genital
(days) (h) weight weight weight apparatus
/day (g) (OW)(g) (OW*)(g) weight
(GA)(g)
mg % OW mg % OW* mg %GA
49 6 104- 26-38 0,0306 18-19 0,0177 44-57 0,0483
105
49 14 121- 4420 3,18- 2310-4140 1,91- 6730- 5,56-
139 3,65 2,98 8560 6,16
51 14 132- 4370 3,12- 50-70 3,62- 9440 6,74-
140 3,31 3,84 7,15
Source: Wilson, W.O.; Abplanalp, H.; Anrington, L., 1982.
In the scientific literature regarding the process of ovulation, egg forming

and positioning there are some basic data such as: ovulation takes place after 10 –
30 minutes after oviposition (one egg has been laid). The ovula (yolk) crosses
through the infundibulum in maxim 30 minutes (table number 5), it is fecundated
and after that it is rolled inside of magnum where it is wraped in layers of
albumen during two hours. Then the yolk covered with albumen reaches isthmum
where it receaves two sheel membranes. Inside of utherus the egg will stay for 19
– 20 hours to form and pigmentate it’s shell (tab. 5).
Table number 5. The trace covered by egg through genital apparatus of hen and
domestic quail
Avian species Biological developement
Hen Domestic quail of the egg
Oviduct
Time after the
segment Crossing Crosiing Ovulation and
preceding
time time fecundation
ovipositon
Wrapping of yolk in
Infundibulum 15-20 min 30 min 15-30 min several layers of
albumen
Shell membranes
Magnum 190 min 120 min 2,5-3,0 h
development
Shell development and
Isthmus 75 min 90-120min 3,0-5,0 h
pigmentation
Uterus 21 h 18-20 h 23-25 h Expulzation of the egg
through vagina and
Total oviduct 25-26 h 22-24,5h 22-25 h
cloaca
Hence we can say that the domestic quail egg it is completly formed
during 24 hours (with two hours less than hens)wich makes daily egg laying
possible.
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BACK
When domestic quails are beeing breed in safeand optimal conditions, they
can reach full sexual maturity at the age of 6 weeks and start egg laying. At the
begining of the laying period the domestic quail egg is smaller (22 – 25 mm-big
diameter; 15 – 18 mm-small diameter; 8 – 8,5 mm grams). At the age of 12 weeks the
egg measures 33 mm-big diameter, 22 – 25 mm-small diameters and 9 – 13 grams.
The weight of the egg and of its components are beeing presented in table number 6.
Table number 6. The weight and proportion of domestic quail egg and its
components
Specificare Greutate (grame) % din total ou
gălbenuş 4,07 30,74
albuş 7,89 59,59
coajă 1,28 9,67
Total ou 13,24 100,00
Source: Vacaru-Opriş, I., 2002; Van, I. and colab., 2003.
One can observe that the yolk reprezents 30 – 31 % from total egg weight,
almost the same as at hen eggs, while the albumen (egg - white) represents 66 %
and the mineral shell 9,67 – 9,70 %
CONCLUSION
Domestic quails are birds from the same category (order) as hens
Galliformes, Phasianidae family. Therefore their reproductive apparatus does not
differ from the one of hens or even of other birds.
The longest segment of the oviduct is magnum, while the shortest
segment is vagina.
Domestic quail egg shell and shell membranes are thicker at this species.
Regarding the structure of genital apparatus of the both sexes of domestic
quail, it is the same as at the other birds.
The weight of testicles, ovary and oviduct grows in the same time as the
weight body.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
CONSTANTIN, N. – 1993 – Fiziologie veterinară, Editura Veterinaria, Bucureşti.
CONSTANTIN, N. şi colab. – 1998 – Fiziologia animalelor domestice, vol. II, Editura Coral-
Sanivet, Bucureşti.
CONSTANTIN, N., COTRUŢ, M., ŞONEA, A. – 1998 – Fiziologia animalelor domestice, vol I-
II-III, A.M.C.-USA,Bucureşti.
MARCU, ELENA; PAVEL, GETA – 1999 – Fiziologie, Editura Vasiliană-98, Iaşi.
MICLEA, V. – 1997 – Biologia reproducţiei în creşterea păsărilor. Editura BAHA’I, Cluj-Napoca.
POLEN, T., − 2001 – Creşterea prepeliţelor, Rev. Ferma Timişoara, nr. 9; 10; 11; 12.
REECE, O.,W. – 1991 – Physiology of Domestic Animals, Lea Febiger, Philadelphia – London.
STOICA, LILIANA, MADALINA – 2005 – Bazele fiziologice şi nutriţionale ale producţiei de
ouă, Editura Coral-Sanivet, Bucureşti.
VACARU-OPRIS, I. şi colab. – 2002 – Tratat de Avicultură, vol. II, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti,
ISBN 973-40-0463-8; 973-40-0564-2.
- 183 -
BACK
STUDY REGARDING THE LABELLING OF SOME

SUGARLIKE PRODUCTS (CHOCOLATE)
COMMERCIALIZED ON THE MARKET OF IAŞI CITY
Anca TEUŞAN, Cecilia POP
The label represents a important instrument of the market by intervening

in the producer – consummer comunication through the esential informations
provided regarding that product.The regulations regarding the labelling and
marking of some products made of cocoa and chocolate consists of Order no.
335/2003 published in Monitorul Oficial number 661 from 18/09/2003, H.G. No.
511/07.04.2004, etc. There are some producers that do not respect the labelling
laws. For example, in the present study, Romanian brands like Baton, Galactic,
Rom-Autentic, Primola Zoo and Făgăraş do not have on their label any
nutritional informations, although the labelling law shows that nutritional values
are obligatory. The brand Primola Zoo does not have on its label any
informations about the storage conditions. There are also labels (Milka M-joy
brand) that respects the legislation, offering all the necessary informations, clear
an readable printed. Acording to the present study, the consumer has certain
preferences when he is looking through the informational message on the label.
He is interested in the product brand (24,11 %), minimal durability date (18,82
%), ingredients list (11,76 %) and nutritive values.
Acording to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights adopted by

O.N.U. in 1984 “any person has the right to live, to freedom, to feel safe,
regarding especially the food […] ”. Consequently, most of the experts in this
domain say that the label represents “the producer’s visit card”. The labelling’s
purpose is to give to the consumer all the necessary, adequate and verifiable
informations.
The legislation regarding the labelling of alimentary products which are
being commercialized in Romania includes some normative acts and a few
governmental resolutions:
- H.G. No. 511/07.04.2004
- H.G. No. 1719/14.10.2004
- H.G. No. 106/2002 which has been supplemented with others normative acts.
The regulations regarding the nature, content, origin, the labelling and
marking of some products made of cocoa and chocolate can be found in Order no.
335/2003 published in Monitorul Oficial number 661 from 18/09/2003. Acording
to this order, the name of „chocolate” can be given only to those products that are
made of cocoa and sugars and have a minimum 35 % dry cocoa matter and
minimum 16 % coca butter content. This name can be associated with another
name: „cuverture” or „coat” when the product cantains a minimum of 35 % dry
cocoa matter, minimum 31 % cocoa butter and minimum 2,5 % dry cocoa matter
without fat.
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The chocolate product may contain milk, dry matter from milk, almonds,
hazel nuts or other similar fruits, entire or even shreddered which do not pass 60%
of the product total weight. All these ingredients must be mentioned on the label
together with their weight in percents.
Acording to the normative acts upmentioned regarding the labelling of
chocolate products a list of ingredients is required in which these are mentioned in
decreased order, in percents.
The adding of animal fat and all its derivate matters which do not come
from milk, flour, granulated or powder starch in chocolate are forbiddened. These
are accepted only as ingredients for some products known as “a la taza
chocolate”. The quantity of these ingredients can not exceed 40 % of the total
product weight.
Also there are others mentions that must exist on the label: the lot; the
minimal durability date; depositing conditions; informations regarding the name
or the commercial name and address of the producer, wrapper or distributor; the
brand; the name under which the product is being selled.
“Filled chocolate”, “Chocolate filled with…”, “Chocolate with an interior
of…” (bar) are names accepted for those chocolate products that are filled with
cream and/or fruits, excepting those products that are filled with panification
products, wafer, biscuits, cakes, icecream .The chocolate coat of the bar must
represent 25 % from the product mass.
The bars are related with food that can be consumed anytime anywhere
because they are wrapped in small doses which makes them easy to be eaten. Bars
have a good consistency because they contain important quantity of chocolate,
nuts, peanuts, toffee etc.
The bars market is up to 20 millions of euro each year, which represents
about 20 % from the total market of chocolate. The main concerns that produce
chocolate bars are: Master Foods, Kraft Foods, Ülker, Excelent and Supreme
Chocolat. Which is way we have choosen for our study chocolate bars with
different stuffing produced by those firms under some brands like: Poiana Delicii
(Kraft Foods Romania), Maestro (Ülker), Baton (Bon Sweet Bon), Bounty
(Master Foods Romania), Galactic (Food Distributione), Milka M-joy (Kraft
Foods Romania), Rom-Autentic (Kandia - Excelent), Primola Zoo (Supreme
Chocolat), Kinder-country (Ferrero Romania), Făgăraş (Kandia - Excelent),
Milky Way (Master Foods Romania).
All these products can be included in chocolate bars category. There are
some brands that use the term „bar” to depict their products (Poiana Delicii,
Maestro, Baton, Rom-Autentic şi Făgăraş). Likewise some of the analised labels
have some words like „tender”, „cool”, „soft”, „light”, „soft” to describe the
properties of the product and its ingredients (tab. 1).
The ingredients list exists on all analised labels and it is preceded by the term
„Ingredients”, but for those brands that are produced in Romania only (Poiana
Delicii, Primola Zoo) this list it is mentionated only in romanian language.
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Table 1. The brands under which the bars are beeing traded
No. The brand The name of the product
1. Poiana Delicii „nougat and peanut bar wrraped in milk chocolate”
„milk chocolate coated bar with caramel,
2. Maestro
peanut and nougat”
3. Baton „bar with flavor of sour cherries and cream”
4. Bounty „tender and cool cocos heart wrraped in milk chocolate”
5. Galactic „milk chocolate with cocos cream”
6. Milka M-joy „chocolate with milk from Alpi and nuts”
7. Rom-Autentic „chocolate bar with rum cream”
8. Primola Zoo „milk chocolate with berry cream”
9. Kinder-country „delicate milk chocolate with milk and cereals stuffing”
10. Făgăraş „currant and rum bar”
11. Milky Way „milk chocolate with light and soft heart”
The brand maestro has the ingredints list writen in eight languages
including romanian.
Regarding the net quantity all the labels that have been analised had theirs
mentioned and preceded by letter „e”.
All the labels contain informations regarding the quantity of ingredients
expressed in percentage, in their ingredint list.
The minimal durability date must exist on any label, acording to the law.
For chocolate products producers must use words like: „best before end …:
day/mounth/year ”, because these group of products are seif to be consumed after
the date mentioned on the wrapping.
All the labels analised have the minimal durability date.
Table 2. Mentions regardin the storing conditions
No. Brand Storing conditions

1. Poiana Delicii „keep in dry place an dat a temperature of 18±3°C”
2. Maestro „keep in dry and cool place”
3. Baton „keep in dry and cool place”
4. Bounty „keep in dry and cool place”
„keep in dry place an dat a temperature of 10-18°C.
5. Galactic
Keep away from sunlight”
„keep at a temperature of 14-18°C and at a 65% air
6. Milka M-joy relative humidity. Keep away from direct contact
with sunlight”
7. Rom-Autentic „keep in dry and cool place”
8. Primola Zoo --
9. Kinder-country „keep in dry and cool place”
10. Făgăraş „keep in dry and cool place”
11. Milky-Way „keep in dry and cool place”
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Some brands like Maestro, Baton, Bounty, Rom-Autentic, Kinder country,

Făgăraş and Milky-Way do not have the temperature of storing mentioned on the
label (tab. 2). The most complete label regarding the storing conditions
(temperature, air humidity, sunlight) is comercialised under the brand Milka M-
joy. Primola Zoo does not have any lettering about the storing conditions.
The name and the adress of the producer, importer or distributer are
mentioned on each label analised. The most complete informations about the
address, phone and fax of the producer are offered by Maestro and Bounty. The
brand Galactic does not offer any data about its producer. Brands like Rom-
Autentic and Milka M-joy have also the web address of the producer.
Table 3. Data regardin the lot of the analised brands

No. Brand Lot
1. Poiana Delicii 2224BE/UO4 74772
2. Maestro 6347
3. Baton --
4. Bounty 742FINLD0105
5. Galactic --
6. Milka M-joy P231007
7. Rom-Autentic 05.07.2008/2
8. Primola Zoo 6106107
9. Kinder-country L254FA5
10. Făgăraş --
11. Milky-Way PF14
The lot of the product is comprised of numbers and sometimes letters.

Some brands (Baton, Galactic, Făgăraş) do not have any informations regarding
the lot (tab.3).
Regarding the nutritional facts, all the labels offer different data for 100
grams and for the weight of the product. These informations are disposed in
simple (Poiana Delicii, Maestro, Milka M-joy) or even coloured tables (Kinder
country) which makes these informations easy to read. Further, the label of
Kinder country offers informations about the recomanded daily doze and some
vitamins (E,B2, B12). There are also some label which do not offer nutritional
informations: Baton, Galactic, Rom-Autentic, Primola Zoo şi Făgăraş (they are
produced in Romania).
Informations regarding ingredients containing mutated organisms appear
only on two of the analised labels (Făgăraş, Rom Autentic): „Free from any
genetic modifications contents”.
The brand Poiana Delicii is represented through colours that appeals the
customer which makes the product easy to be observed on the store shelves.
Poiana Delicii with peanuts also has a sugestive desing of the label which shows
the interior of the bar meaning the most important ingredients. The combination
of light red and orange invites the customer to buy this product.
- 187 -
The brand Maestro has on its label a design that alows the customer to see
two of the most important ingredients of this chocolate coated bar. The bright
colours are used to make the product easy to see.
The brand Baton with flavor of sour cherries and cream shows its
ingredients with colours like bright red and pure white. The outline of the letters
that compose the brand’s name is dark blue and contrasts with the rest of the
label.
The brand Bounty has an original design: the letters of the brand’s name
are coconut shapelike. The colours, the coconuts from background makes the
customer think about a light, fresh cocos chocolate coated bar. There is a contast
between colours: white with light blue and green which offer a pleasing sensation
ans aspect of the label and the product.
The brand Galactic has an original font and together with the coconut and
the butterfly from background sugests that this bar is light and safe, but the
combination of colours is rather misfit.
The product comercialised under the brand of Milka M-joy is represented
by strong, bright colours – the well known Milka mauve – the „M” comes from
Milka and the word „joy” represents the feeling of the customers when they taste
this hazelnut and milk chocolate bar.
The brand Rom Autentic uses a word that is conected to a tasty product
comercialised some years ago in Romania: „Rom”. This word underscores the
main ingredient of the product. The combination of colours makes the product
easy to be observed by the interesed customers.
The name of the brand Primola Zoo is drawn with an original white font
on a dark red background that seems like red berrys, the main cream ingredient.
The brand Primola Zoo includes the rest of the labe’s design: wild african animal
cartoons.The combination of colours „speak” about the berry cream chocolate
coated bar, addressing mostly to childrens.
The brand Kinder country is represented with the well known font and
combination of white and red. Under the name of the brand is a coloured design
that shows all five ingredients of this product: milk chocolate, milk cream and
cereals (barley, rice, corn, grain, buckwheat).
The name of the brand Făgăraş is very simple with red letters on a white
background and black border to set the brand so that the buyers would be
interesed. Beside the original font Făgăraş has a mountain shape design referring
to the name of the brand and its importance (Făgăraş is one of the talest group of
romanian mountains).
Milky – Way is a well known brand due to the rich milk cream (white
letters) and its humorous graphic from the packing. The combination of colours
attracts the atention of the customers over this product.
This study is proposing also to determine the preferences of the customers
concerning chocolate and their need to be informed regarding the data that the
prodecers offers on the label. This analysis has been made on 85 persons from 8
- 188 -
to 70 years old. Most of these 85 persons (42,36 %) are eating sweets daily.
Among sweets the most consumed product is chocolate (60,83 %), the second
place is taken by toffee and jelly (23,32 %). From all the types of chocoate that
exist on the market today the customers favourite is milk chocolate (55,33 %).
Dark chocolate is situated on the second place. Regarding the chocolate
assortment consumption bars (the subject of our present study) are situated on
second place (27,27 %). The first place is taken by chocolate tablets.
When consulting the informational mesage on the label, customers are
interesed in some aspects that are important for them: the name of the brand
(24,11 %), minimal durability date (18,82 %), the ingredients list (11,76 %) and
the informations regarding the nutritive values. Only few customers dont read the
informations on the label at all.
CONCLUSIONS
Today there are labelling laws that are being observed In European Union.
For example, the term “identical natural flavour” is completely forbidden. But
romanian producers (part of European Union since 2007 ) does not respect this
law.
Brands like Bounty, Baton şi Milka M-joy do not have the ingredients list
translated to english language.
The brand Rom Autentic does not respect the legal measures regardind the
fact that the ingredient list must contain the quantity of each ingredient in percents
The most complete informations regarding the conditions of storage of the
product are offered by the label of brand Milka M-joy which contains data about
the storage temperature, air humidity and sunlight.
The brand Primola Zoo does not have on its label any informations about
the storage conditions.
Kandia-Excelent is the only producer that posts on the label of its products
(Rom-Autentic and Făgăraş in this case) informations about the ingredients that
contain or not geneticaly modified organisms: „Free from any genetic
modifications contents”.
The label of brand Galactic has a combination of colours (dark blue and
orange for the backround and golden or bronze for letters) that not alows the
customer to read easily the information data.
Romanian brands like Baton, Galactic, Rom-Autentic, Primola Zoo şi
Făgăraş do not have on their label any nutritional informations, although the
labelling law shows that nutritional values are obligatory.
The brand Milka M-joy produced by Kraft Foods has the most complete
informations on its label. It is notable also because of its distinctive colour that
atracts the interes of customers.
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BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Atanasie, I.; Ioraşcu, I.; Pâslaru, C. (coordonator) – 1996 – Dicţionar de merceologie – terminologie
generală, A.S.E., Bucureşti.
Bologa, N. – 2001 – Merceologia produselor alimentare, Editura Oscar Print, Bucureşti.
Deneş, Delia – 2004 – Merceologie alimentară şi industrială, Editura BURG, Sibiu.
Klein, L. – 2002 – Expertiză merceologică. Expertiza calităţii mărfurilor, Editura University Press
„V. Goldish”, Arad.
Mâlcomete, Otilia - 2003 -Merceologie, Ediţia a II-a, Editura Fundaţiei Academice „Gh. Zane”, Iaşi.
Olaru, Marieta; Schileru, I.; Pamfilie, Rodica; Purcărea, Anca, Negrea, N.; Atanase, Anca; Stanciu,
C. – 2001 – Fundamentele ştiinţei mărfurilor, Editura Economică, Bucureşti.
Pop, Cecilia – 2001 – Rolul prezentării informaţional estetice în promovarea produselor
alimentare, Lucrări ştiinţifice, Editura Ion Ionescu dela Brad, Iaşi.
Pop, Cecilia – 2002 - Merceologie generală, Editura TipoMoldova, Iaşi.
Pop, Cecilia – 2004 – Merceologia produselor alimentare, Editura TipoMoldova, Iaşi.
***Hotărârea Guvernamentală nr. 511/07.04.2004
***Hotărârea Guvernamentală nr. 1719/14.10.2004.
***Ordinul nr. 335/2003 pentru aprobarea normelor cu privire la natura, conţinutul, originea,
fabricarea, etichetarea şi marcarea unor produse din cacao şi ciocolată destinate
consumului uman.
- 190 -
BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE STRUCTURE

AND ULTRASTUCTURE OF SILVER FOX
(VULPES VULPES FULVA) OVARIES
V. TEUŞAN, Anca TEUŞAN, R.M. RADU-RUSU
In order to accomplish some studies regarding the gonads structure of

the silver fox (Vulpes vulpes fulva), there have been harvested ovaries from a
group of 16 to 18 months of age individuals, being in reproductive rest. The
gathered pieces have been processed using the paraffin sectioning technique
acquiring 20 histological blades. These have been studied using a binocular
photonic microscope MC3 type, previously calibrated. Histological and
cytometric assessments have been done in the microscopic field, the medium
diameter of the ovarian follicles has been of 552 µ; of ovocites 76,6 µ, and 19,23
µ for the ovocite nucleus. The polyovocitar aspect of the ovarian follicles at this
species was also revealed.
Keywords: silver fox, ovary, ovocyte, ovarian follicles
Fur animals rearing and husbandry proved to be economically beneficial

and efficient in most country applying it. Several fur species are raised in our
country, including silver foxes
. The systematic enclosure of these animals is listed below:
- Regnum: Animalia
- Phylum: Chordatha
- Class: Mammalia
- Order: Carnivora
- Family: Canidae
- Genus: Vulpes
- Species: Vuples vulpes fulva
Although the silver fox it is raised for 70 years in many countries, the
biology of the species is insufficiently known, mainly concerning those aspects
related to the reproductive system structure and functioning. Scientific references
provide wide range of data related to silver fox rearing technologies and fur
quality, but there are lacks of fundamental biological data, of anatomic and
physiologic kind. This is the conjuncture comprising our researches, which could
bring a modest contribution to the biological knowledge of the species.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Biological material consisted in the ovaries sampled from several
specimens of silver fox, slaughtered for their fur. These animals were 16-18
months old, passing a reproduction break period (diestrus), and an average
bodyweight of 5.0-6.5 kg. They have been raise in intensive farming conditions.
- 191 -
Histological samples (ovaries) reached 6-10 mm (8.14±0.26 mm) length

and 3-6 mm (4±0.29 mm) thickness. They have been processing through the
paraffin sectioning, resulting 20 smears. Trichromic “HEA” (haematoxylin, eosin,
methylene blue) coloration has been applied to proper express the structural
elements of the ovary. Histological smears have been studied using a binocular
microscope, MC3 type, previously adjusted and calibrated for several
ocularsXobjectives (OCXOB) associations. Microscope calibration has been
achieved by the computation of some micrometric values (MV): 15.000 µ for
OC6XOB10; 2.372 µ for OC10xOB10. They were used to calculate the
dimensions of the ovarian follicles and of other structural elements (ovocites,
nuclei, nucleoli, follicular cells etc.). A micrometric device has been introduced in
one of the oculars, serving to measurements run. Microphotography has been shot
using an 8MP digital camera.
Certain histometric and cytometric assessments have been carried on:
large and small diameter of 75 matured ovarian follicles (75 x 2 = 150); large and
small diameter of 155 mature (2nd order) ovocites (155 x 2 = 310); large and small
diameter of 84 ovocites nuclei (84 x 2 = 168); granulosa and corona radiata
thickness at 92 de mature ovarian follicles (92 x 2 = 184); diameter of 30 ovocites
nucleoli and the thickness of pellucid area in 77 mature ovocites. 994
measurements have been done. The average diameter of the ovarian follicles, of
the ovocites and of their nuclei has been calculated, while the amount of ovocites
comprised within ovarian mature follicles has been counted. All data achieved
through microscopic measurements and computation has been statistically
processed, obtaining: statistical average and its standard error, standard deviation,
variance and variation coefficient.

Exploration of the ovarian histological samples, within the microscopic
areas, revealed the existence, from outer to inner side, of the classical structural
formations, such as germinative epithelium, albuginea, ovarian parenkyma,
systemised by a thicker cortical area (preponderant) and by a thinner medullar
one. In silver fox, ovaries have ovoid like shape, with a convex free edge and with
a visible hilum on the medial edge. Their surface is smooth, while thecolour is
brown-red (Pamfilie, I.; Teuşan, V. at al., 1995).
Germinative epithelium, disposed at ovary periphery, is represented by a
single row of cubic cells, whose dimensions are of 4-6 µ, having a single nucleus
and being supported by a very thin basal membrane, of fibrous kind (delicate
reticulin fibrils) (Fig. 1).
Albuginea – it seems to be more likely a peripheral condensation of the
ovarian cortical, without all the structural characteristics of a conjunctive capsule.
Its thickness is variable, of 30-50 µ, the feature having low uniformity (Fig. 1).
- 192 -
Fig. 1 – Cortical area of the ovary in silver fox

(simple cubic germinative epithelium; albuginea)
Ovarian parenkyma – is structured in two distinguished areas: cortical and

medullar, each of them having different structures and proportions. Cortical area
is predominant, reaching at least 70-75 % from ovary structure; it comprises a
citogenic chorion which includes the ovarian follicles in several development
stages (primordial, primary, secondary, tertiary and matured). Connective stroma
has a multitude of collagen and reticulin fibres and cell elements as well, from
mesenchymal cells to mastocytes. In certain areas, collagen and reticulin fibres
are circularly disposed, forming some “vortexes”, which also comprise several
connective cells.
Matured ovarian follicles are organised similarly to those found in other
mammals, presenting two follicular cases, one granulosa, one thin Slawianski
membrane, a cavity with follicular liquid, one or more corona radiata. The
essential feature of the silver fox ovary is given by the preponderant occurrence of
the poly-ovocyte ovarian follicles, which seems to be the final maturation stage of
these ovarian formations.
From a total amount of 121 analysed ovarian follicles, 34.71 % (42) had a
single ovocyte, 46.28 % (56) had two ovocites; 6.61 % (8) had three ovocites;
6.61 % (8) had four ovocites and 5.79 % (7) had five or six ovocites (Fig. 2, 3).
Consequently, in silver fox, 65.29 % of all ovarian follicles had more than
one ovocyte and they were considered matured, prior to ovulation, the others
34.71 % being with a single ovocyte and considered secondary follicles (Fig. 4).
- 193 -
Fig. 2 – Polyovocitar ovarian follicles Fig. 3 – Ovarian follicle

in silver fox ovary containing 5 ovocites
Ovarian follicles dimensions are presented in Table 1. According to these

data, their large diameter varied between 345 µ and 1350 µ, with an average of
665.6 ± 28.02 µ. Small diameter was found within the 285 µ and 675 µ interval,
while the average issued from the 75 assessments reached 438.4±11.40 µ. Mean
diameter of the ovarian follicles in silver fox varied between 322.5 µ and 1012.5
µ, with a middle value of 552±18.67 µ (Table 1).
Fig. 4 – Monovocitar ovarian follicle
- 194 -
Very high values have been calculated for the variation coefficient (v =
22.52 – 36.46 %) at these features but the situation could be considered as normal,
knowing the wide variety of follicles dimensions within the microscopic field.
The biggest ovarian follicles contained more than one ovocyte (5 to 6 ovules) and
had pyriform appearance (fig. 2), while the other follicles are ovoid. This latter
shape is given by the ration existing between their large and small diameters,
which counted an average value of 1.511/1, with limits of 1.031/1 and
respectively of 2.286/1 (v = 22.46 %) (Table 1). The DM/Dm ratio reached values
of 2/1 – 2.25/1 at the pyriform follicles.
Table 1
Main statistical indexes related to some histometric assessments
of matured ovarian follicles in silver fox ovaries
Statistical indexes Variation limits
Variable n
x± sx s V(%) Minimal Maximal
Large diameter
75 665.6± 28.02 242.668 36.46 345.0 1350.0
(DM) (µ)
Small diameter
Maturated ovarian follicle
75 438.4± 11.40 92.719 22.52 285.0 675.0

(Dm) (µ)
Mean diameter
75 552± 18.67 161.654 29.29 322.5 1012.5
(D x ) (µ)
DM/Dm ratio
75 1.511± 0.04/1 0.339 22.46 1.031/1 2.286/1
(x/1)
Follicular
granulosa 91 41.12± 0.80 7.660 18.63 24.03 63.08
thickness (µ)
Corona radiata
90 28.06± 0.70 6.635 23.65 18.02 48.06
thickness (µ)
The follicular granulosa thickness has been also measured. Values

between 24.03 µ and 63.08 µ have been found, with an average of the 91
assessments reaching 41.12 ± 0.8 µ (v = 18.63 %) (Table 1) (Fig. 5).
Follicular surrounding corona radiata thickness was studied. The values
have been comprised within the 18.02 µ – 48.06 µ interval, with a mean of
28.06±0.7 µ (v = 23.65 %) (Table 1) (Fig. 6).
The dimensions of the ovocites contained by the mono-ovocitar and poly-
ovocitar follicles are presented in Table 2.
The large diameter of these cells varied between 60 µ and 117 µ, having an
average value of 88.79 ± 0.99 µ (v = 13.95 %). Ovocites small diameter has a
statistical mean of 76.6 ± 0.78 µ (v = 12.64%) (Table 2). The shape of these cells
was slightly oval, proved by the average value of the ratio between their large and
small diameters, which reached 1.391±0.015/1 (v = 13.56%) (Table 2) (Fig. 3; 7; 8).
Matured ovocites presented a very thick pellucid area, with a mean of 5.48±0.18µ
(v=20.16%) (Table 2) (Fig. 3; 7; 8; 11; 12). Ovocites of 2nd order are single nucleate
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cells, their nucleus having spherical or rather ovoidal shapes. Thus, both diameters
(large and small) have been measured and the average one has been calculated. The
acquired data are also presented in table 2 (Fig. 3; 7; 8; 9).
According to these, the large ovocyte diameter varied between 13.32 µ
and 30.64 µ, with an average of 22.23±0.43 µ (v = 17.90%). The small diameter
of the ovocyte nucleus was of 16.23±0.31 µ, while the 84 measurements varied
between the 10.21µ and 21.76µ limits (v=17.54%) (Table 2).
Table 2
Main statistical indexes related to some cytometric assessments
of the maturated ovocites (II). comprised within silver fox ovary structure
Variable n
x± sx s V(%) minimal maximal
Large diameter
155 88.79± 0.99 12.389 13.95 60.0 117.0
(DM) (µ)
Small diameter
155 64.42± 0.75 9.372 14.55 45.0 90.0
(Dm) (µ)
Ovocites II
Mean diameter
155 76.60± 0.78 9.685 12.64 53.25 100.50
(D x ) (µ)
DM/Dm ratio
155 1.391± 0.015/1 0.189 13.56 1.087/1 2.033/1
(x/1)
Pellucid area
(membrane) 77 5.48± 0.13 1.105 20.16 3.26 8.30
thickness (µ)
Large diameter
84 22.23± 0.431. 3.979 17.90 13.32 30.64
(DM) (µ)
Small diameter
84 16.23± 0.31 2.845 17.54 10.21 21.76
(Dm) (µ)
Ovocites nucleus
Mean diameter
84 19.23± 0.34 3.126 16.26 12.21 25.76
(D x ) (µ)
DM/Dm ratio
84 1.384± 0.023/1 0.211 15.22 1.026/1 2.225/1
(x/1)
Nucleolus mean
30 4.85± 0.12 0.680 14.02 2.97 5.93
diameter (µ)
Follicle cells mean
25 10.03± 0.32 1.579 15.75 4.74 11.86
diameter (µ)
Mean diameter of ovocyte nucleus varied between the minimal of 12.21µ

and the maximal of 25.76µ, while the intermediary value reached 19.23±0.34µ
(v=15.22%). The ratio between large and small diameters (1.384/1) has been
found closer to that of the ovocytes (1.391/1). Nucleus position within ovocites
could be central, eccentrically and peripheral (fig. 3; 5; 7; 8; 9). Thus, from the 84
studied nuclei, 47.62% (40) were centrally placed, 29.76% (25) were more or less
eccentrically disposed, while 22.62% (19) had peripheral disposition reaching the
vitelline membrane or laying near to it.
- 196 -
Ovocyte nucleus presented one or two nucleoli. In most cases they were
spherical and were centrally, eccentrically of peripheral disposed. Among the 30
nucleoli observed within the microscopic field, only 6.67 % (2) were centrally
placed; 33.33 % (10) were eccentrically disposed and 60 % (18) presented
peripheral disposition, reaching the inner side of nucleolema (Fig. 3; 7; 8; 9). As
shape, 63.33 % of them (19) were spherical and 36.67 % (11) were oval. Mean
nucleoli diameter reached an average value of 4.85 ±0.12µ (v=14.02%) (Table 2).
Fig. 5 – Three matured ovocites, surrounded by corona radiata,

comprised by a polyovocitar ovarian follicle
Fig. 6 – Two ovocites surronded by a very thick corona radiata,

comprised by a biovocitar ovarian follicle
- 197 -
Follicular cells constituting granulosa and corona radiata had ovoidal or

polygonal shape and an average diameter of 10.03±0.32µ (v=15.75 %) (Table 2).
They are mononucleated cells, with the nucleus centrally or quite
eccentrically disposed. Concerning the existence of these polyovocitar follicles as
matured ovarian follicles, we suppose that repeated mitoses occurred within,
followed by the reassembly of various accompanying structural elements (corona
radiata, proliger disc), as captured in microphotography (Fig. 10).
Fig. 7 – Oval shaped ovocyte, Fig. 8 – Two oval shaped ovocites

with visible nucleus and nucleoli, with visible nucleus, nucleoli and
into a monoovocitar follicle pellucid area, inside of a biovocitar
follicle
Fig. 9 – Nuclei and nucleols Fig. 10 – Ovocyte mitosis inside a

within ovovites monoovocitar ovarian follicle
This ovarian feature is related to the fact that fox is a monoestral species,
with spontaneous ovulation and with short-term rut exteriorisation, but giving 4–
10 cubs/birth. Consequently, the release of a relatively high amount of ovocites
from one or two matured ovarian follicles seems to be the “fortunate” and
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BACK
“rational” manner used by the Inteligent Designer, to solve this problem, in order
to prevent the brutal “riddling” of the ovarian cover. It might also exist, in silver
fox, a narrow ovulatory slit (within ovary) which serves for the ovulation,
beginning from 1–3 polyovocitar ovarian follicles.
Fig. 11 – Very thick pellucid membrane Fig. 12 – Ovocites presenting thick

at the studied ovocites pellucid membrane, inside of a
polyovocitar ovarian follicle
This partial description of the ovary in silver fox seems to be in

accordance with the interstitial gland appearance, which is formed of several
“balls” of endocrine cells, delimited by delicate stromal fibrilar elements (fig. 2).
Vascular arterial and venous and nervous terminations have been also identified
within this histological frame.
CONCLUSIONS
1) Ovary at silver fox (Vulpes vulpes fulva) presents a series of very interesting
histological features, perfectly matching the biological reproductive
performances of the species.
2) The existence of certain polyovocitar follicles (containing 2 – 6 ovocites)
prevents the brutal and futile riddling of the ovary, meantime providing
multiple and quick ovulation of matured ovules, prepared for fecundation and
specific fecundity achievement (4-10 cubs/parturition).
REFERENCES
COŢOFAN, V.; VALENTINA, HRIŢCU şi col. – 2007 - „Anatomia animalelor domestice”, vol II,
Editura Orizonturi Universitare, Timişoara, pg. 369-397.
GURAYA, S. – 1985 – „Biology of follicles in Mammals”, Springer, Verlog, Berlin, Germany.
PAMFILIE, I; TEUŞAN, V.; NEGREA, A.; ELENA, MAN – 1995 – „Particularităţi
morfostructurale ale ovarelor la vulpe argintie, crescută în captivitate”, Animel Science
Serie – Scientific papersm vol. 37, 38, pg. 346-350, U.S.A.M.V., Iaşi.
SÎRVU, V.; PĂSTÎRNAC, N. – 1980 – „Creşterea naimalelor pentru blană”, Editura Ceres,
Bucureşti, pg. 174-182.
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BACK
FIGURATIVE ELEMENTS STUDY AND HEMATOLOGICAL

VALUES AT RATTUS NORVEGICUS SPECIES
V. TEUŞAN, R.M. RADU–RUSU, Anca TEUŞAN
Vascular blood samples have been harvested from a couple of individuals of

Rattus norvegicus. A series of hematological values have been determined by
studying the prepared smears using a MC3 type binocular photometrical
microscope, previously calibrated. Some cytometry determinations have been
carried on using an ocular micrometer (in the microscopic field) on the main
figurative elements level. We obtained the following results: amount of red cells =
6821 x 103/mm3 blood; total white cells number = 7845/mm3; red blood corpuscle
diameter = 7.14µ and white cells diameter = 12.97µ; platelets amount =
239x103/mm3 blood; hemoglobin quantity = 13.7g/dl; hematocrit = 43.5%;
glycemia = 117.9mg/dl; total cholesterol quantity = 68.9 mg/dl; VEM=64.25µ3;
HEM=21.57pg and CHEM = 31.23 g/dl.
Keywords: Rattus norvegicus, blood, red blood cells, glycemia.
Human being, endorsed with a vivid wish of knowledge, always tried to

deepen the research of several physical, biological, cosmic, spiritual and of any
other kind phenomenon.
Among many challenges that humans meet across the time, the biological
phenomenon has been investigated with a major curiosity, studying many plant
and animal species, in order to make them able to be used for own purposes.
If man gathers food and other products from several live species, some
animals serve him as experimental material to study some diseases or to find
cures for them. These are animals for experimental laboratories. Mankind duty is
to protect them, to better know their biological features and to use them with
parsimony and respect. Among these species, it is comprised the white rat for
laboratory (Rattus norvegicus), which belong to the following systematic:
Regnum: Animalia Suborder: Sciurognathi
Phylum: Chordata Family: Muridae
Class: Mammalia Genus: Rattus
Order: Rodentia Species: Rattus norvegicus
White laboratory rat (Rattus norvegicus), posess a mean life length of 3 –
4 years, a 250-300 grams body weight as adult; it reaches sexual maturity at 50 –
60 days old; the estrus lasts 4 – 5 days, while gestation counts 21 – 33 days. It is
not difficult to rear this species in laboratory, with minor expenses, while it
provides real services to humans, being used in most of the medical researches
across the world.
Deepen knowledge of its biology and especially of its hematology
constitutes a high practical and theoretical scientific importance.
- 200 -
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The biological material we used is represented by 10 individuals,
belonging to Rattus norvegicus species, Wistar bloodline, male gender, aged 70 –
84 days (10 – 12 weeks), reared within the Iaşi Public Health Institute
experimental farm.
The animals were normally developed, in full health and accommodated
in optimal conditions, at a temperature of + 18 - + 20°C and relative air moisture
of 40 – 60 %. Their feeding diet consisted in: bread, milk, carrots and oat beans,
while water was ad-libitum provided.
The rearing coops have been well ventilated and isolated awaz from the
external environment factors.
From these 10 animals, there have been taken venous blood samples (6 – 8
ml/individual), from the orbital cavernous sinus, according to the method described
by Barna, I., 1999. The instruments and reactants used for blood sampling
comprised: Pasteur pipettes, well efilated; ether; cotton wool; crystallizers, and
EDTA as anticoagulant. These blood samples have been processed to assess the
hematological indexes and to obtain blood smears. Hematological indexes have
been assessed by specific methodologies, as listed below:
- „Potain” method, for erythrocytes amount assessment;
- „Sahli” method, for hemoglobin measurment;
- „May – Grünwald Giemsa” method, for blood smears preparation and
coloration;
- „Guest” method, for hematocrite measurement;
- „Brecher - Cronkie” method, for thrombocytes amount assessment;
- Mathematical methods (formulas) for VEM; HEM; CHEM calculation
and of statistical data processing.
Other experimental materials comprised: laboratory glassware; anatomic
instruments; oven; hemocytometer; Janetzky centrifuge; spectrofotometer,
„Bürker - Türker” device; Potain pipettes; hematocrite pipe; „Sahli”
hemoglobinmeter, micrometer; binocular „MC3” photonic microscope;
microphotography camera; computer; different reactants (clorhydric acid n/10,
cedar oil, „May – Grünwald” and „Giemsa” colorants, „EDTA” anticoagulant,
methyl blue, pure methylene alcohol, etc.); glass plates and lamelles, etc. The
microscope used in hemocytometric assessments has been calibrated for the
micrometric value of 2.372 µ, at ocular 10 x objective 40 association (OC10 x
OB40). Cytometry arrays have been carried on blood smears issued from 6 of 10
studied individuals. The acquired data have been processed for each individual
and for whole group. Statistical comparisons have been run between the 6
specimens (analysis of variance), Fisher and Tukey tests being calculated.
For hematological assessments (hematological indexes and plasma
chemical composition), the data have been statistically processed, without any
comparison between individuals.
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Overall, from the 6 studied specimens, 600 assessments for erythrocytes

and 1521 assessments for leucocytes have been carried on (2121 micrometric
measurements). Statistical processing comprised 56 analyses for the estimators
and 6 “ANOVA” analyses.

The results of our studies refer either to the aspect, amount or dimension
of the blood (venous) cells from the Rattus norvegicus species, either to certain
hematological indexes at the same species. The erythrocytes have been found in
the highest amount, the analyses (at 10 specimens) revealing values within the
6.070 – 7.840 millions/ml of blood. Statistical average of the 10 values reached
6.821 ± 0.19 millions/ml of blood, with low variability (v=8.79 %) (table 3). On
the „May – Grünwald – Giemsa” colored smears, the erythrocytes (red blood cells
– RBC) had brown – reddish color and an appearance of biconcave disk with
thicken and rounded edges. They are cells without nucleus (Fig. 1-12). Very low
amounts of equinocytes (erythrocytes with membrane expansions) and of other
erytrocytes shapes have been observed within the microscopic field. The diameter
of the red blood cell disk has been measured in all 6 individuals, the statistically
processed values being presented in table 1.
Thus, at the 1st specimen, the erythrocytes mean diameter reached
7.07±0.08µ (v=10.99%), the limits of the 100 measured values being of 5.34 and
of 9.25µ (table 1). At the 2nd individual, RBC had a mean diameter of 7.44±0.07µ
(v=9.07 %); at the 3rd specimen, these blood cells reached an average diameter of
7.09±0.06µ (v=8.12%); in the 4th rat blood, the erythrocytes mean diameter was of
6.94±0.07µ (v=10,37%); at the 5th specimen, the RBC measured 6.96±0.07µ as
diameter while, at the last studied individual, no. 6, the erythrocytes had a mean
diameter of 7.32±0.06µ (v=7,73%) (table 1). The average of all individuals,
related to erythrocytes mean diameter, was calculated at 7.14±0.08 µ (v=2.82%)
(table 1).
The achieved data were found to be closer to those specified in the
scientific literature. Thus, Barna, I. and Manolescu, N., 1999, specified values of
6,3–8,0µ for erythrocytes diameter, while their amount is comprised within the
6.0–10.0 millions/ml of blood, at the adult rat.
From the whole erythrocyte diameter (7.14µ), its thicken edge area (1.5–
2.0µ) represents 21.96%, meaning 1.568µ, while the central area, that is thinner
(0.5 µ), represents 56.09%, meaning 4.005µ.
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Table 1
Main statistical indexes, related to the size of erythrocytes
in the blood of the Rattus norvegicus species (white rat)
Notice UM n
x± sx s V (%) Min. Max.
1st specimen µ 100 7.07 0.08 0.777 10.99 5.34 9.25
2nd specimen µ 100 7.44 0.07 0.675 9.07 5.22 9.25
Erythrocytes
3rd specimen µ 100 7.09 0.06 0.576 8.12 5.46 9.01

diameter
4th specimen µ 100 6.94 0.07 0.720 10.37 5.46 8.78

5th specimen µ 100 6.96 0.07 0.744 10.69 4.74 9.25
6th specimen µ 100 7.32 0.06 0.566 7.73 4.74 9.01
All 6 specimens µ 6 7.14 0.08 0.201 2.82 6.94 7.44
Hemoglobin content in the Rattus norvegicus species blood has been

found at various levels between the 13 and 15 g/dl limits, while the average of the
10 assays reached 13.7±0.21 g/dl, their variability being reduced (v=4.93%) (table
3). As comparing to the reference values (11.9–13.5 g/dl), our findings were
approximately 8% higher. The hematocrite assessments revealed values from 42%
till 48%, with a statistical mean of 43.5±0.62% (v=4.50%) (table 3). The three
hematological indexes related to erythrocytes amount and hemoglobin quantity
(VEM, HEM & CHEM) have been measured on the 10 rats and the values are
presented in table 3.
Thus, for VEM, the 10 measurements gave values comprised between the
58.44µ3 and 73.33µ3 limits, their statistical mean reaching 64.255±1.50µ3
(v=7.38%). Values comprised within the 19.28pg and 23.02pg have been found
for HEM, with a statistical average of 21.572±0.405pg (v=5.94%), while for
CHEM, the assessed values oscillated between 30.02g/dl and 32.85g/dl, with an
average of 31.233±0.258g/dl (v=2.61%) (table 3). As compared to the values
reported in the „Coulter - Counter” table for this rodent species (VEM=52µ3;
HEM=16pg; CHEM=30g/dl), the values we found were 23.57%; 34.82%,
respectively 4.11 % higher.
As in other mammal species, in the Rattus norvegicus one, the leucocytes
types are very different, but all of them having globe, spherical appearance and
presenting nucleus (their nucleus is variable as shape, size, and intracellular
position). Several membrane expansions have been noticed, presenting amoeboid
movements and playing specific functions in the immunocompetence field
(diapedesis and phagocytosis).
In Rattus norvegicus species, white blood cells (WBC) comprise two
categories: granular and agranular. The first one includes: neutrophils, eosinophils
and basophils, while the second one comprises the lymphocytes and the
monocytes.
The neutrophils (Fig. 3, 6, 7, 8), characterized by a polylobular and
polymorph nucleus (matured cells), had diameter dimensions values from 10.44–
10.67µ till 14.23–15.89µ, in all 6 specimens, their average being calculated at
- 203 -
12.61±0.16µ (v=3.21%-9.01%) (table 2). Their amount reached a mean value of

1800.2±221.77/ml of blood (v=38.96%), representing thus 21.7±1.71% from the
total WBC count (v=24.87%) (table 4). These cells presented, within cytoplasm,
thin red granules. They act as active phagocytes, being rapidly interposed in the
inflamed tissues. Young neutrophils, imatured, had ring-shaped or 8-shaped
nucleus, being frequently observed in the microscopic field.
Table 2
Main statistical indexes, concerning leucocytes size in the circulating blood of
the Rattus norvegicus species (white rat)
M Statistical indexes Variation limits
Notice n
U x± sx s V% Min. Max.
st
1 specimen µ 100 9.90 0.13 1.253 12.66 7.12 11.86
LYMPHOCYTE
2nd specimen µ 100 10.31 0.12 1.187 11.51 8.30 14.23

S diameter:
3rd specimen µ 100 10.55 0.15 1.465 13.80 8.06 14.23

4th specimen µ 100 10.39 0.12 1.1237 11.91 8.30 13.99
5th specimen µ 100 9.96 0.12 1.169 11.73 7.35 13.05
6th specimen µ 100 10.19 0.13 1.288 12.64 7.59 14.71
All 6 specimens µ 6 10.22 0.10 0.252 2.46 9.90 10.55
1st specimen µ 100 12.28 0.10 0.912 7.43 10.67 15.42
NEUTROPHILS
2nd specimen µ 100 12.02 0.10 0.920 7.65 10.67 14.23

3rd specimen
diameter:
µ 100 12.99 0.11 1.024 7.88 11.27 15.47

4th specimen µ 100 12.58 0.13 1.133 9.01 10.44 15.42
5th specimen µ 100 13.06 0.12 1.037 7.94 11.62 15.89
6th specimen µ 100 12.74 0.12 1.088 8.54 10.67 15.86
All 6 specimens µ 6 12.61 0.16 0.405 3.21 12.02 13.06
1st specimen µ 100 13.24 0.16 1.035 7.82 11.39 16.13
2nd specimen
MONOCYTES
µ 100 13.20 0.13 0.866 6.56 11.86 14.47

3rd specimen µ 100 14.20 0.19 1.207 8.50 11.86 16.60
diameter
4th specimen µ 100 13.76 0.16 1.010 7.34 11.86 15.46

5th specimen µ 100 14.03 0.20 1.281 9.13 11.86 16.84
6th specimen µ 100 13.41 0.18 1.174 8.75 11.38 17.31
All 6 specimens µ 6 13.64 0.17 0.421 3.09 13.20 14.20
1st specimen µ 100 13.88 0.31 1.198 8.63 11.86 16.13
BASOPHYLES
2nd specimen µ 100 14.09 0.31 0.991 7.04 12.81 15.42

3rd specimen µ 100 15.58 0.32 1.233 7.91 14.23 17.79
diameter
4th specimen µ 100 14.98 0.34 1.080 7.21 13.64 16.60

5th specimen µ 100 16.07 0.37 1.653 10.29 13.05 18.98
6th specimen µ 100 16.21 0.44 1.947 12.01 13.05 21.34
All 6 specimens µ 6 15.13 0.40 0.992 6.56 13.88 16.21
1st specimen µ 100 12.97 0.38 1.465 11.30 10.67 15.89
EOSINOPHILS
2nd specimen µ 100 13.40 0.21 0.662 4.94 12.10 14.23

3rd specimen µ 100 13.94 0.23 0.982 7.05 11.86 15.42
diameter
4th specimen µ 100 13.28 0.22 0.981 7.39 11.86 15.42

5th specimen µ 100 13.20 0.35 1.370 10.38 11.62 16.60
6th specimen µ 100 12.59 0.22 0.998 7.93 10.67 14.23
All 6 specimens µ 6 13.23 0.18 0.450 3.40 12.59 13.94
- 204 -
From the blood of Rattus norvegicus species, the leucocytes shape,

cytometry and the leucocytes formula have been also assessed on the 5 cellular
species belonging to this hematological category.
Thus, the values concerning the whole leucocytes amount have been
found between the limits of 5250 and 10250 white cells/ml of blood, with a
statistical average of 8045±569.33 white cells/ml of blood (v=22.38%) (table 4).
Table 3
Main statistical indexes related to some hematological features of the white rat blood
(Rattus norvegicus)
Variation
Statistical indexes
Notice UM n limits
x± sx s V(%) Min. Max.
Erythrocytes amount Nx
10 6.821 0.190 0.5997 8.79 6.070 7.840
/1ml blood 106
Hemoglobin (Hb) g/dl 10 13.7 0.210 0.675 4.93 13.00 15.00
Hematocrit (HCT) % 10 43.5 0.620 1.958 4.50 42.0 48.0
Studied hematological indexes
Mean corpuscular
µ3 10 64.255 1.50 4.74 7.38 58.44 73.33
volume (VEM)
Mean erythrocytar
pg 10 21.572 0.405 1.282 5.94 19.28 23.02
hemoglobin (HEM)
Concentration of the
mean erythrocytar g/dl 10 31.233 0.258 0.815 2.61 30.02 32.85
hemoglobin (CHEM)
Glycerin mg/dl 10 117.9 4.615 14.594 12.38 103.0 147.0
Total cholesterol mg/dl 10 68.9 3.860 12.206 17.72 53.00 87.00
Triglycerides mg/dl 10 46.0 2.055 6.498 14.13 40.0 61.0
Total serum proteins g/dl 10 6.37 0.159 0.503 7.90 5.70 7.50
The eosinophils (Fig. 2, 4, 7, 10) are nucleated leucocytes, with bilobated

or trilobated nucleus and with small and uniform granules in the cytoplasm. Those
having bilobated or trilobated nucleus are predominant. This kind of nucleus has
been previously described as an U-shaped one. As absolute number, they were
found in very low amount, respectively of 100.5±22.73/ml of blood (mean value)
(v=71.53%) (table 4). Very high variations have been noticed between the 10
studied specimens. As proportion, the eosinophils represents 1.23±0.23%
(v=57.81%) from the whole WBC amount (table 4). Eosinophils size varied
between 10.67µ and 16.60µ, the average value reaching 13.23±0.18µ (v=3.40–
11.30%) (table 2). Eosinophils diemater was found 4.92% higher than that of the
neutrophils.
Basophils – at Rattus norvegicus species (Fig. 1), this cell type is the
highest among the granular leucocytes, but the fewest as amount and proportion.
Thus, related to their diameter, cytometry assessments revealed values between
11.86µ an 16.13 µ, with an average of 13.88±0.31µ (v=8.63%), at the 1st
specimen; from 12.81µ till 15.42µ, with a mean of 14.09±0.31µ (v=7.04%), at the
2nd rat; between 14.23µ and 17.79µ, with an average of 15.58±0.32µ (v=7.91%),
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at the 3rd individual; between 13.64µ and 16.60µ, with an average of 14.98±0.34µ
(v=7.21%), at the 47h specimen; from 13.05µ till 18.98µ,with a mean of
16.07±0.37µ (v=10.29%) at the 5th rat and from 13.05µ till 21.34µ,with an
average of 16.21±0.44 µ (v=12.01%) at the 6th specimen (table 2). The average of
all studied individuals reached 15.13±0.40µ (v=6.56%) (table 2). Their
appearance is spherical, the nucleus is often tri- or multilobated. Specific
metachormatic granules could be observed in the cytoplasm. The amount of these
leucocytes varied between a minimal value of 11/ml of blood and a maximal one
of 93/ml of blood (at 10 rats), the statistical mean reaching 36.2±7.95
basophils/ml of blood (v=69.41%) (table 4). As proportion, the basophils
represented 0.2%-1.0%, the average value of the 10 assessments being calculated
at 0.46±0.10% (v=68.13%) (tabelul 4).
Table 4
Main statistical indexes,
related to leucocytes formula at the white rat (Rattus norvegicus)
Notice UM n
x± S x s V(%) Min. Max.
Whole leucocytes amount n/ml 10 8045 567.33 1800.378 22.38 5250.0 10250.0
Absolute
Segmented n/ml 10 1800.2 221.77 701.309 38.96 689.0 2730.0
values
neutrophils
Relative
(PMNs) % 10 21.7 1.71 5.396 24.87 13.0 28.0
values
Absolute
n/ml 10 100.5 22.73 71.888 71.53 41.0 287.0
Eosinophils values
(Acidofile) Relative
% 10 1.24 0.23 0.717 57.81 0.50 2.80
Leucocytar formula
values
Absolute
n/ml 10 36.2 7.95 25.125 69.41 11.0 93.0
values
Basophils
Relative
% 10 0.46 0.10 0.313 68.13 0.2 1.0
values
Absolute
n/ml 10 5787.8 363.0 1147.926 19.83 4095.0 7215.0
values
Lymphocites
Relative
% 10 72.6 1.81 5.739 7.90 66.0 83.0
values
Absolute
n/ml 10 320.3 28.91 91.426 28.54 159.0 487.0
values
Monocytes
Relative
% 10 4.0 0.26 0.816 20.41 3.0 5.0
values
n x 103
Whole platelets amount in blood ml 10 239 21.830 69.033 28.88 120.0 320.0
The lymphocytes (Fig. 2, 3, 4, 8, 10, 11, 12) are the smallest agranular
leucocytes, but with the highest occurrence in whole WBC amount. According to
their variable size, the lymphocytes could be small, medium and large. From the
600 measured lymphocytes (at 6 individuals), 54.3% had sizes of 7-9,5µ,
belonging to the microlymphocytes category; 20.17% had the diameter comprised
between 9.5–11,5µ, belonging to mesolymphocytes type and 25.50% had the
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diameter within the 11.5–14.5 interval, belonging to macrolymphocytes category.

Thus, in the Rattus norvegicus circulating blood, the large and small lymphocytes
are predominant, representing together 74.5%. No matter their size, these cells are
spherical, mononucleated, without granules in the cytoplasm. The nuclei were
large, mainly spheroidal (also reniform or oval), appearing not to be compact as in
other mammal species (horse, cow etc.). Nucleus size was measured at an average
value of 8.54±0.37µ, representing thus 75.5±1.95% of the cells mean diameter.
When they were measured together, the three lymphocytes types (small, medium,
large), had a diameter that varied between 7.12µ and 14.71µ, with averages (as
related to each specimen) of 9.90–10.55µ and with variability values of 11.51%-
13.80% (table 2). Lymphocytes amount has been found at high levels,
respectively of 4095–7215 cells/1ml of blood (at 10 individuals), with an average
of 5787.8±363 cells/ml of blood (v=19.83%) (table 4). As proportion, the
lymphocytes represented 66.0–83.0% from the whole WBC count, with a mean
value of 72.6±1.81% (v=7.90%) (table 4).
The monocytes (Fig. 1, 5, 6, 9) are agranular cells with polymorphic
nucleus, with vacuolated basophil cytoplasm but presenting, in the studied
species, thin granulations that don’t occur in every monocyte. As size, monocytes
could be considered immediately after the basophils, in Rattus norvegicus species,
having diameters from 11.38µ till 17.31µ, while the averages of the 6 studied
individuals varied between 13.20±0.13µ (at I2) and 14.20±0.19 (at I3). The mean
value for all 6 specimens was calculated at the 13.64±0.17µ value (v=3.09%)
(table 2). The monocytes amount reached values comprised within the 159 – 487
cells/ml of blood interval, with an average of 320.3±28.91 cells/ml of blood
(v=28.54%) (table 4). As proportion, they represented 3 – 5 %, respectively an
average of 4.0±0.26% (v=20.41%) from whole leucocytes amount (table 4).
The platelets amount has been found between the 120 – 320 thousands/ 1
ml blood, with an average of 239 ± 21.83 thousands/ml of blood. A pronounced
variability occurred for all 10 studied specimens (v=28.88 %) (table 4). The
values we found for the whole leucocytes amount or for neutrophils, eosinophils
and basophiles proportions were lower than those specified in the „Coulter -
Counter” table for this species, while the values of lymphocytes and monocytes
were higher (Barna, I.; Manolescu, N., 1999). The significances of the differences
between the sizes of 6 cellular kinds have been tested. Thus, it resulted that 71
(78.89%) of all 90 comparisons (differences) were statistically insignificant; 17
(18.89%) differences were statistically very high significant; one difference
(1.11%) was statistically distinguished significant and another one was found as
significant (table 5). The study of the serum and plasma compounds revealed a
glycemy level of 117.9±4,615 mg/dl (v=12.38%) (table 3), at the 10 Rattus
norvegicus individuals. Mean cholesterol quantity reached 68.9±3.86mg/dl
(v=17.72%); average triglycerides quantity was found of 46.0±2.055mg/dl
(v=14.3%), while the whole serum proteins amount reached 6.37±0.159g/dl
(v=7.90%) (table 3).
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Table 5
Statistical significance of the differences between the 6 specimens of Rattus
norvegicus, related to the size of erythrocytes and leucocytes in blood
significance
Fα at: 5; 246 LD for:
Statistical
Variable
n1 Differences between F̂ at Tukey:

/n2 the 6 individual means 5; 246 W = 0.01
LD
p≤0.05 p≤0.01 p≤0.001
100 I1–I2 7.07–7.44= 0.370 ***

100 I1-I3 7.07-7.090=0.020 n.s.
100 I1-I4 7.07-6.94=0.130 n.s.
100 I1-I5 7.07-6.96=0.110 n.s.
Erythrocytes diameter (µ)
100 I1-I6 7.07-7.32=0.250 n.s.

100 I2-I3 7.44-7.09=0.350 ***
100 I2-I4 7.44-6.94=0.500 ***
100 I2-I5 7.44-6.96=0.480 8.600 2.210 3.020 4.100 0.324 ***
100 I2-I6 7.44-7.32=0.120 n.s.
100 I3-I4 7.09-6.94=0.150 n.s.
100 I3-I5 7.09-7.32=0.130 n.s.
100 I3-I6 7.09-7.32=0.230 n.s.
100 I4-I5 6.94-6.96=0.020 n.s.
100 I4-I6 6.94-7.32=0.380 ***
100 I5-I6 6.96-7.32=0.360 ***
100 I1-I2 13.88-14.09=0.210 n.s.
100 I1-I3 13.88-15.58=1.700 **
100 I1-I4 13.88-14.98=1.100 n.s.
100 I1-I5 13.88-16.07=2.190 n.s.
Lymphocytes diameter (µ)
100 I1-I6 13.88-16.21=2.330 n.s.

100 I2-I3 14.09-15.58=1.490 n.s.
100 I2-I4 14.09-14.98=0.890 n.s.
100 I2-I5 14.09-16.07=1.980 3.892 2.210 3.020 4.100 0.604 n.s.
100 I2-I6 14.09-16.21=2.120 n.s.
100 I3-I4 15.58-14.98=0.600 n.s.
100 I3-I5 15.58-16.07=0.490 n.s.
100 I3-I6 15.58-16.21=0.630 n.s.
100 I4-I5 14.98-16.07=1.090 n.s.
100 I4-I6 16.07-16.21=1.230 n.s.
100 I5-I6 16.07-16.21=0.140 n.s.
80 I1-I2 12.97-13.40=0.430 Tukey:
Fα at: 5; 474 G for: n.s.
F̂ W = 0.01
80 I1-I3 12.97-13.94=0.970 p≤0.05 p≤0.01 p≤0.001 ***
80 I1-I4 12.97-13.28=0.310 n.s.
Neutrophils diemeter (µ)
80 I1-I5 12.97-13.20=0.230 ***

80 I1-I6 12.97-12.59=0.380 n.s.
80 I2-I3 12.02-12.99=0.970 ***
80 I2-I4 12.02-12.58=0.560 ***
80 I2-I5 12.02-13.06=1.040 ***
80 I2-I6 12.02-12.74=0.720 12.588 2.210 3.020 4.100 0.544 ***
80 I3-I4 12.99-12.58=0.410 n.s.
80 I3-I5 12.99-13.06=0.070 n.s.
80 I3-I6 12.99-12.74=0.250 n.s.
80 I4-I5 12.58-13.06=0.480 n.s.
80 I4-I6 12.58-12.74=0.160 n.s.
80 I5-I6 13.06-12.74=0.320 n.s.
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significance
Fα at: 5; 246 LD for:
Statistical
Variable
n1 Differences between F̂ at 5; Tukey:

/n2 the 6 individual means 246 LD W = 0.01
p≤0.05 p≤0.01 p≤0.001
42 I1-I2 13.24-13.20=0.040 n.s.

42 I1-I3 13.24-14.20=0.960 ***
42 I1-I4 13.24-13.76=0.520 n.s.
42 I1-I5 13.24-14.03=0.790 n.s.
Monocytes diameter (µ)
42 I1-I6 13.24-13.41=0.170 n.s.

42 I2-I3 13.20-14.20=1.000 ***
42 I2-I4 13.20-13.76=0.560 n.s.
42 I2-I5 13.20-14.03=0.830 6.066 2.210 3.020 4.100 0.810 ***
42 I2-I6 13.20-13.41=0.210 n.s.
42 I3-I4 14.20-13.76=0.440 n.s.
42 I3-I5 14.20-14.03=0.170 n.s.
42 I3-I6 14.20-13.41=0.790 n.s.
42 I4-I5 13.76-14.03=0.270 n.s.
42 I4-I6 13.76-13.41=0.350 n.s.
42 I5-I6 14.03-13.41=0.620 n.s.
15/10 I1-I2 13.88-14.09=0.210 F̂ at 5; Fα at: 5; 84 LD for: 2.440 n.s.
15/15 I1-I3 13.88-15.58=1.700 84 LD p≤0.05 p≤0.01 p≤0.001 1.892 n.s.
15/10 I1-I4 13.88-14.98=1.100 2.440 n.s.
15/20 I1-I5 13.88-16.07=2.190 2.042 ***
Basophils diameter (µ)
15/20 I1-I6 13.88-16.21=2.330 2.042 ***

10/15 I2-I3 14.09-15.58=1.490 2.440 n.s.
10/10 I2-I4 14.09-14.98=0.890 2.317 n.s.
10/20 I2-I5 14.09-16.07=1.980 2.315 n.s.
10/20 I2-I6 14.09-16.21=2.120 6.884 2.338 3.272 4.624 2.315 n.s.
15/10 I3-I4 15.58-14.98=0.600 2.440 n.s.
15/20 I3-I5 15.58-16.07=0.490 2.042 n.s.
15/20 I3-I6 15.58-16.21=0.630 2.042 n.s.
10/20 I4-I5 14.98-16.07=1.090 2.315 n.s.
10/20 I4-I6 14.98-16.21=1.230 2.315 n.s.
20/20 I5-I6 16.07-16.21=0.140 1.638 n.s.
15/10 I1-I2 12.97-13.40=0.430 F̂ at 5; Fα at: 5; 93 GL LD for: 1.662 n.s.
15/19 I1-I3 12.97-13.94=0.970 93 LD p≤0.05 p≤0.01 p≤0.001 1.406 n.s.
15/20 I1-I4 12.97-13.20=0.310 1.390 n.s.
15/15 I1-I5 12.97-13.20=0.230 1.413 n.s.
Eosinophils diameter (µ)
15/20 I1-I6 12.97-12.59=0.380 1.390 n.s.

10/19 I2-I3 13.40-13.94=0.540 1.590 n.s.
10/20 I2-I4 13.40-13.28=0.120 1.576 n.s.
10/15 I2-I5 13.40-13.20=0.200 1.662 n.s.
10/20 I2-I6 13.40-12.59=0.810 3.086 2.326 3.246 4.573 1.576 n.s.
19/20 I3-I4 13.94-13.28=0.660 1.304 *
19/15 I3-I5 13.94-13.20=0.740 1.406 n.s.
19/20 I3-I6 13.94-12.59=1.350 1.304 n.s.
20/15 I4-I5 13.28-13.20=0.080 1.390 n.s.
20/20 I4-I6 13.28-12.59=0.690 1.224 n.s.
15/20 I5-I6 13.20-12.59=0.610 1.390 n.s.
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Fig. 1 – Monocyte, basophils and erythrocytes Fig. 2 – Eosinophil, lymphocyte and erythrocytes
Fig. 3 – Lymphocyte, neutrophil and erythrocytes Fig. 4 – Eosinophil, medium lymphocytes and erythrocytes
Fig. 5 – Monocytes and erythrocytes Fig. 6 – Monocyte, neutrophil, and erythrocytes
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Fig. 7 – Eosinophil, neutrophil and erythrocytes Fig. 8 – Lymphocyte, immature neutrophil and erythrocytes
Fig. 9 – Monocyte and erythrocytes Fig. 10 – Eosinophil, lymphocytes and erythrocytes
Fig. 11 – Lymphocytes during poiesis and erythrocytes Fig. 12 – Lymphocytes during poiesis and erythrocytes
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1) Some of the blood figurate elements values at Rattus norvegicus
species have been found similarly to those specified in the scientific literature
(erythrocytes diameter = 7.14 µ and their amount = 6821 x 103/mm3 of blood;
hemoglobin quantity = 13.7 g/dl etc.), while some parameters were higher or
lower than the reference.
2) As compared to other mammals, the Rattus norvegicus blood has
some specific features, such as: erythrocytes shaped as biconcave discs were
predominant, while their size had almost constantly values; lymphocytes
represented the most numerous leucocytes population (72.6 %); monocytes were
not the biggest leucocytes, being endorsed with thin granules in cytoplasm; many
unmatured neutrophils (with ring-shaped nucleus) were frequently enough in the
blood stream, while the small and medium size lymphocytes were predominant,
having a nucleus – plasma ratio of approximately 0.75/1.
REFERENCES
1) BERCEANU, ŞT.; MANOLESCU, N. – 1985 – „Hematologie Comparată”, Editura Medicală,
Bucureşti.
2) CIUDIN, ELENA – 1994 – „Biologia animalelor de laborator”, Editura „Ion Ionescu de la Brad”,
Iaşi.
3) CIUDIN, ELENA – 2005 - „Animale de laborator”, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
4) MARCU, ELENA; GETA, PAVEL – 1999 – „Fiziologie animală”, Editura „Vasiliană - 98”, Iaşi.
5) MANOLESCU, N. şi colab. – 1999 – „Tratat de hematologie animală”, vol. I, Editura Fundaţiei
„România de Mâine”, Bucureşti, pg. 201 – 214.
6) TEUŞAN, V.; RADU-RUSU, R.M.; VOICU, P.M. – 2005 – „Cercetări privind morfologia
elementelor figurate din sângele speciei Equus cabalus”, Simp. Ştiinţ. Stud., 13 – 27 mai,
USAMV, Iaşi.
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BACK
INTERCULTURAL EDUCATION OF AGRICULTURAL

STUDENTS FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF THE EUROPEAN
INTEGRATION
Carmen-Olguţa BREZULEANU
The education evolution is connected by the culture evolution, by the

system of representation and values that are offered in society. Agricultural
education from Iasi, uses these values as instruments witch are helping to enrich
the students spirit, their universe of knowledge.
In the context of accession to UE, the actual Romanian model of
agricultural education must be redefined and to take into account the
extraordinary dynamical of mutual knowledge. Thus, the universities must train
the young people in the spirit of intercultural education.
Within the context of Romania’s adhesion to the European Union, the

present model of agronomical education should take into account the
extraordinary dynamism of the mutual knowledge, which must be developed at
the education institutions of the European countries. The actual communicational
relations redefine the knowledge and cropping model specific to each European
country.
The right to education and the participation in the cultural life are
priorities for the Universal Statement of Humans Rights. Therefore, the
intercultural education should consider different lifestyles, adapt to the needs and
interests of each individual, making the individuals and societies be more
attentive to the cultural dimension of their existence.
The UNESCO Commission for education in the XXlst century, directed by
Jacques Delors, has promulgated four pillars of the education in the future:
• Learning to know
• Learning to learn
• Learning to live together.
Therefore, the challenges of intercultural education have a clear trump of
the pillar “Learning to live together”.

The agronomical universities must play an important role in the students’
education from the viewpoint of the European intercultural relations, teaching
them to respect the values represented by others, the multicultural diversity and
the tolerance and solidarity. The agronomical education is tightly connected to
culture and must capitalize all the cultural resources and solve the problems
issued from the impact of the new cultural model of the European society – inter-
culturality, because the European integration is a diversity cultural unit. After
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interviewing the students of the second and the third year of study, who attend the
D.P.P.D. courses, we found that most of them had no knowledge and experience
as concerns the intercultural relations.
The University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Iasi,
having a collaboration experience with over 20 universities of the same profile
from Europe, as concerns the exchange of teaching staff and students, it is
important for the young students to study in the European countries and to be
trained in the spirit of the intercultural education. Therefore, the teaching staff,
who teach not only psycho-educational but also other disciplines, must train the
students for knowing and accepting the cultural values brought by each country
into the Union, in order to become aware of, accept and respect the inherent
differentiations.
The goal of this work was to give methodological suggestions to the
agronomical students as concerns the intercultural education.
An important charge for the ones who take charge of intercultural
education and intercultural learning (professors and students) is the development
of critical thinking capacity. In order to make possible this process, all the people
involved must reflect permanently and find the best solution of communicating
with persons belonging to other culture or religion. Thus, acquiring knowledge,
skill training and modeling intercultural attitudes may be done interactively,
becoming potentialities for a “transformative learning”.

After the interpretation of the results on interviews with students
attending the D.P.P.D. courses, the organization of a round table was necessary
within the students’ circle The Romanian and European culture – mutual
knowledge through commune agronomical studentship projects. At the seminaries
within the discipline of Scientific Communication Techniques, debates were
organized, having the aim of forming the intercultural competence as a base
competence of the nowadays-European students. Therefore, “the transformative
learning” must have as goal:
• Development of students’ ability to think creatively as concerns
the knowledge of the national values and their comparison to the
ones from the European countries, having the aim of accepting
the cultural influences;
• Becoming aware of the fact that developing European cultural
exchanges contributes to a good knowledge and observation of
cultural values, in order to live together within the European
Union;
• Cultivating the European citizen conscience in the students
participating in the interuniversity studentship exchanges;
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• Learning English and the language spoken in the country students

go for training, in order to make possible the social intercultural
integration. By learning the respective language, understanding,
solidarity and dialogue between different countries and cultures
are being promoted.
For the success of the intercultural education, the teachers must also
experience the intercultural communication and be attentive at the following
elements, for ensuring this quality of the experience:
• To organize democratically the students’ group, which allow to
each of them learning and expressing;
• To offer each student different roles for experimenting (animator
or leader);
• To respect each student’s culture, ethical and religious belief and
abilities;
• To watch the place given by each student to languages, cultures,
ethic and religious believes and abilities;
• To extend the group’s views towards exterior, in order to develop
the intercultural knowledge.
Another successful activity for the intercultural education is the
Christmas show, performed by the students of our university. This performance is
a tradition, maintained and transmitted from one generation to another. This
shows that in the Romanian folklore, Christmas and New Year customs have a
special significance. The activity is done successfully, as a competition between
agronomical, horticulturist, zootechnist and veterinary students, deans, psycho-
educational professors and foreign languages professors. Every year, the quality
of the performance is increasing by its intercultural dimension. Among their
activities, the students sing carols in Romanian and foreign language, and have as
guests the dance formation of Greek students from Iasi. Students and professors
consider these moments as an applied means for knowing the intercultural living.
In the next years, in December, within the D.P.P.D. activities, student
debates will be organized on the theme “ How do different people meet the arrival
of the New Year”, which is a support for the intercultural discovery.
Every year, within the didactic practice of the zootechnist and veterinary
students in the lllrd and the lV th year of studies, who attend DPPD courses, a
didactic visit is being organized at the Museum of Agriculture from Moldavia –
“Prince Dimitrie Sturdza”, which is located in the courtyard of the
“M. Kogălniceanu” Agricultural Scholar Group of Miroslava. This visit gives the
students the opportunity of intercultural learning by visiting the exhibits –
products of peasants’ intercultural living on the Romanian land in the last
centuries.
Within this activity, there is a debate, named “Spreading knowledge and
impressions from the cultural viewpoint”. Its structure comprises:
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1. Tell your colleagues about the impressions on a certain museum or a

memorial house you have just visited. Use pictures or movies,
leaflets, books, albums, etc., for illustrating what you have found,
discovered, known, leant or felt on the occasion of the visit.
2. What do you think is there the guide’ role in a museum? How much
does he help us understanding what we see? Could the guide give us
all the necessary information on the objective we have seen?
Answer the above questions and argue your points of view.
3. Accumulate the materials concerning the different special museums
and the curiosities they present.
4. Make short information for your colleagues and discuss on what you
have found out. What are your proposals for “strange collections” ?
Could you achieve them?
5. What do you know about the activities developed in a museum? Is
this a proper place for the intercultural research work? Do you think
is it a proper place for the research work? How difficult (or simple)
do you think is it to make up a collection and to preserve it? What do
you know about the artwork restoration and the restoration
techniques?
6. This debate raises the students’ interest in knowing the intercultural
living of Romanians on these territories.
7. You are the ones who have the mission to defend in the future the
creation of all the past generations and the fortune of the museums
from Romania. You are also the future museum guiders and the
possible founders of museums.
Are you interested in making collections? Do you know how to set up an
exhibition showing your preoccupations in a certain field of activity?
CONCLUSIONS
As a result of the development of activities concerning the intercultural
education, the finalities are the following:
• They facilitated the understanding by professors and students of
the importance of intercultural education;
• The interest of students and professors in taking part in the
activities done for supporting the intercultural knowledge has
increased;
• They determined the degree of knowledge and respect of the
values of cultural societies by young students improving the
degree of intercultural perception;
• They pointed out the cultural values from the Romanian
traditional holydays;
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BACK
• They identified the Romanian own values and discovery of the

European values accepted by students and professors within the
intercultural changes;
• The results of intercultural projects, which are developed by the
presentation of dissertations and works within international
microzones, will be disseminated .
REFERENCES
1. Bâzea Cezar, 1994 – Les politiques educatives dans les pays en transition, Strasbourg, Concil
of Europe Press.
2. Brezuleanu Carmen-Olgu a, 2006 – Tehnici de comunicare Ştiinţifică, Iaşi, suport de curs pt.
I.D.P., U.S.A.M.V. – D.P.P.D.
3. Cucoş Constantin, 2000 – Educaţia. Dimensiuni culturale şi interculturale. Ed. Polirom, Iaşi.
4. Rey Micheline, 1999 – De la logica ”mono” la logica de tip ”inter”. Piste pentru o educaţie
interculturală şi solidară. În Educaţia interculturală. Experienţe, politici, strategii. Ed. Polirom,
Iaşi.
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BACK
METHODOLOGIES USED TO ASSESS THE

DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL AND AGRI-TOURISM IN THE
NE OF ROMANIA
Şt. BREZULEANU, Carmen Olguţa BREZULEANU, R.A. MORARU
The North Eastern administrative rural area presents the territorial

peculiarities of no less than 463 communes and 2445 villages from Bacău,
Botoşani, Iaşi, Neamţ, Suceava and Vaslui counties that host a number of
2,171,838 inhabitants, accounting for 56,6% of the total area population.
The rural area of the North Eastern region is a relatively autonomous
universe, whose analysis may be approached endogenously or exogenously. A
number of methods may be used in order to assess the rural tourism and agro-
tourism phenomenon and their management in the North Eastern Region, namely
statistic monograph, selective enquiry, statistic report, polls, extrapolation,
correlation, projection and questionnaire.
The analysis will resort to simple table methods, statistic procedures,
regression and factorial analysis. There are cases in which researchers fail for
not taking into account such problems, for there is the risk that the data they
have collected does not fit the analysis technique designed to lead to a certain
type of results.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The direct and correct information about the ensemble of agro tourism
and rural tourism in the North-Eastern Region is scarce and have a disparate
character.
At present, the partial and unilateral information about this activity,
especially that referring to the physical part of the phenomenon ( respectively the
number of localities with private agro tourist pensions, accommodation, seat
number for meals and even the number of tourists accommodated) has been
gathered from the National Commission for statistics, through the direct and
indirect help of County statistic governance, national authority for tourism
through the Office of Accrediting and Control in tourism, National Association of
Rural and Ecologic Tourism (ANTREC).
In studying the phenomenon of rural tourism, agro-tourism and its
management, in the North-Eastern Region there can be used a large number of
methods that can present the tourist phenomenon on the whole, such as: statistic
monograph, selective enquiry, statistic report, polls, extrapolation, correlation,
projection and questionnaire.

The rural area the administratively belong to the North-Eastern Region
comprise the territory peculiarities of no less that 463 communes and 2445
- 218 -
villages from Bacău, Botoşani, Iaşi, Neamţ, Suceava and Vaslui, where they
unfold their activity approximately 2.171.838 inhabitants, accounting for 56,6 %
of the region population.
The rural area of the North Eastern region is a relatively autonomous
universe, whose analysis may be approached endogenously or exogenously.
For the analysis there will be used simple charts, statistic methods, such
as regression or factorial analysis. There are cases when he researchers fail ij
dealing with these problems, existing the risk that the collected data didn’t match
the analysis technique desired in order to get a certain type of results.
The statistic monographs are done after there has been gathered some
statistic information on the main tourist objectives and which becomes an
interdisciplinary paper.
The statistic monograph aims at gathering information regarding a tourist
phenomenon: a tourist zone, a tourist locality with beautiful landscape, with forms
of rural tourism and agro tourism, the equipment within the agro tourist pensions,
tourist tour etc.
In doing the monograph of the North-Eastern Region from the agro
tourist point of view, there has been gathered information through discussions
with persons that are directly involved in the tourist phenomenon (tourists,
managers, hosts etc), thus making a selective research through the direct
observation of the localities and agro tourist pensions and researching all the
information, historic, economic, political and geographic materials.
Moreover, in the statistic monographs, an important role is held by the
researchers’ feeling at the researched place.
The monograph cannot remain only a means of registering the geographic
conditions, the historic monuments, landscapes that attract the tourists, customs,
monuments, tourist equipping, influencing factors on the local tourism etc, but it
has to make a point of the domains that have to be helped and suggests some
ways that should be undertaken.
The statistic monographs have a major importance as it is source of
information and data necessary in underlining the strategies of rural tourism.
We consider that in the present conditions of the agro –tourism evolution
it is important to intensify the monographic methods, due to the fact that the
development of agro tourist activity has rushed its scientific knowledge and
analysis. Also, a rigorous study of rural tourism implies a scientific underlining of
the gathering and registering systems, and an information analysis in this domain.
With the help of statistic monographs we have the opportunity to know
the structure, the level of development of rural tourism and agro tourism, the
connections of this domain with other segments of the rural activity as we deal
with a profound multi lateral research activity.
Although there are areas which are not tourist adapted, they still seem to
attract – through surroundings and customs – a lot of tourists. In order to discover
these zones, to take the necessary measures for tourist development, the only
statistic method that can underlie these decisions is the method of statistic polls.
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Among the objectives of the statistic poll we can mention the appreciation
of the service quality, knowledge of tourist behaviour, as well as the
determination of future tourist tendencies.
Necessary statistic polls in order to know the rural tourism can be done:
a)in the households that offer rural tourism services, b)places frequented by
tourists but not tourist adapted, c) as the foreign tourist leave abroad.
Selective polls done in households which offer tourist services that can be
done on the persons that offer services, either for local or foreign tourists.
Persons that offer rural tourist services can offer a some information
regarding: the type of services and proportions of the demand, forms of practiced
tourism, service quality, tourist behaviour as well as the number of tourists on
seasons .
Statistic reports are papers of total chronological registration that have as
basis the primary book keeping of the tourism units. The forms are official
documents done according to the law. They appreciate the followed indicators,
the way of calculation as well as the number of the copies. The persons from the
tourist institutions that fill in the forms are also in charge with the authenticity of
the filled-in data.
A lot of indicators of the rural tourist phenomenon are not included in the
present statistic reports.
The statistic analysis of the rural tourism bring necessary information in
deciding the future means of development, in foreseeing the ways that have to be
followed.
An important issue in rural tourism development is the living standard of
the population. Even if the people have free time necessary for practicing rural
tourism, as long as their incomes will not allow the unfolding of such activities,
not the tourism will not gain momentum.
The system of statistic reports is the fundamental form of data gathering
in tourism. The present form of organization and functioning of the information
statistic system uses three specific statistic reports: TOURISM 1A, regarding the
frequency of tourist receiving according to accommodation on trimesters,
TURISM 1B, regarding the capacity of tourist accommodation on 31st July and
TURISM 2, regarding the activity of tourism agents on trimesters.
Periodic registrations (registrations at a certain moment) are sketches of
the phenomenon at a certain moment and can take the form of statistic inventory
of fix means in economy, done with the aim of their evaluation and re-evaluation
, the inventory of different means etc.
In rural tourism, the current registrations take the form of statistic reports
used for gathering data from the tourist activity. Their filling out is done on the
technical-operative basis, on accountancy and statistic evidence at the level of
economic agent.
The indicators that characterize rural tourism are determined as : absolute
indicators (accommodation and alimentation capacity, total tourist request etc)
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and relative indicators presented as averages (average value of fix means, average
number of employees, average period of holiday etc), as structure (structure of
tourist requests according to the origin country of the tourists, to the used means
of transport etc), as coordination (monthly traffic coefficient, quarter traffic
coefficient, monthly concentration coefficient).
In order to do a prognosis within the tourist activity there is a varied range
of methods and techniques the will be presented.
Extrapolation is a means that consists of the prolongation of a statistic
series introducing after the old terms, a new term that is according to the series
law. From the graphical point of view, extrapolation is determined by the
coordinate of a point situated in the extension of the curve and which checks its
equation.
Extrapolation is thus based on the hypothesis that the future evolution of
the tourist phenomenon will be done on the same law as in the previous period.
As regards the territory of out study, there can be distinguished two types
of agro tourist units: agro tourist pensions and agricultural households where there
are practiced activities of agro tourism.
The agro tourist pension generally supposes special constructions, with
well established functions based on private investments or ones taken on credits
from banks. In order to finish these units, there have to be taken into account the
norm acts specific to the aim.
The second form, the agricultural household with tourist activity unfolds
their activity in the owner’s house where there have been done some adjustments
that correspond to the aim, i.e. equipping with specialised equipment and
necessary material in order to make sure that the services offered to the tourist are
appreciated and satisfactory.
In order to individualize the rural tourism and agro-tourism and especially
to capitalize it in a competitive tourist offer, the ANTREC subsidiaries from the
North-Eastern Region have analysed the natural, economic and cultural potential
of the are, its folkloric and ethnographic traditions, pastoral and agricultural
activities, the proximity of the well-known tourist zones, general elements of
infrastructure, psycho-social characteristics of the population from the North-
Eastern Region.
As regards the natural potential, the North-Eastern Region has a large
variety and alternation of the mountains (Rarău, Călimani, Cehlău, Tarcău)
imposing themselves through their originality regarding the tourist potential of the
zone, being noticed due to the beauty of woods and water rivers (Bistriţa,
Moldova) different mineral water springs (Slănic Moldova, Vatra Dornei, Poiana
Negri, Şarul Dornei) or other different hunting and fishing constructions (Valea
Putnei, Dragoş Vodă).
The hilly, meadow and plain zones offer favourable conditions that can be
capitalized in a complex way through a rural tourism oriented towards leisure,
hunting and fishing, being present a series of hydro-energetic accumulations
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(Bicaz, Răcăciuni, Stânca-Costeşti) or stock ponds (Orbeni, Soleşti, Podu Iloaiei,

Belceşti, Fălticeni, Drăcşani).
Moreover, in the North-Eastern Region we could see a multitude of
historic, architectural and art monuments that are destined to the tourist purpose.
There are a lot of monasteries and religious locations that can favour the
development of ecumenical tourism (Putna, Moldoviţa, Suceviţa, Voroneţ,
Humor, Secu, Agapia, Sihăstria, etc), medieval citadel and archaeological sites
(Suceava, Neamţ), museums and memorial houses of Mihai Eminescu, Alexandru
Vlahuţă, Ion Creangă, George Enescu, Mihail Sadoveanu. There also can be
added a series of localities that have a folkloric tradition (Tîrpeşti-Petricani,
Dărmăneşti, Ruginoasa, Marginea, Straja), that have a long tradition in handicraft
and manufacturing (ceramics, wood and stone processing).
As there is a large demand for a large variety of handmade articles,
tourism offers new perspectives of opening for the trades of the village. Thus, the
artisans from Bucovina are already integrated in the strategy of tourist
development of the member villages of Bucovina Association – Moldova Reţeaua
Verde, a strategy that bases on the patrimony capitalization and consolidation of
the managerial components of the artisans and the identification of promotion
tours.
Through the enumerated activities, the artisans and the service givers see
their interest merge. The crafts of the village contribute to the tourism
development and opening new tourist fluxes in the certain areas. It is especially
about the ceramic centres, selling expositions, ethnographic and folklore
collections, demonstrative lessons presented in front of the tourists etc, which
determine the space distribution of the tourist fluxes, but also the popularization
of some tourist objectives.
Using the poll method, in the North-Eastern Region we were able to
identify the following forms of rural tourism, in association with the tourist
potential as follows:
• Rural tourism developed around well-known tourist zones from the
counties of Suceava, Neamţ and Vrancea and which fills the tourist offer
of the tourism agencies;
• Rural tourism based on vine growing and tree culture (Bucium, Cotnari,
Odobeşti, Panciu, Vânători) which offers the possibility to participate in
the agricultural campaigns;
• Proximity rural tourism (around the large urban centres, county capitals)
where the town inhabitants can spend the week-end in the rural area in
order to rest and consume fresh agricultural products.
In the North-Eastern Region within ANTREC network there are homologated
130 agricultural pensions in different counties: 4 pensions in Iasi County, 84
pensions in Suceava County, 26 pensions in Neamţ County and 16 agro tourist
pensions in Bacău county. All these agro tourist pensions have adequate
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conditions for practising rural tourism, being classified according to the norms of
the Tourism Ministry and ranges from 2 to 4 daisies.
Analysing the territory repartition of the agro tourist pensions within the
North-Eastern Region we can notice that about 65 % are situated in Suceava
Coutny, thing that can be explained by the existence of historic monuments,
originality and variety of the traditions and also by the introduction of this
mountainous zone in the international tourist tour (Mănăstirile from Bucovina).
To all these we also could add the level of the social-economic development in
the mountainous villages, where the population have well –equipped houses and
chalets and need minimum investment in order to be homologated within the
ANTREC network. Numerous areas of the North-Eastern Region have natural and
cultural values that can be integrated within the natural and international tourism.
In order to supplement the incomes in the rural area, there have been developed
complementary activities such as rural tourism and agro tourism. Although
between the two forms of tourism there are significant differences, both have in
view the inter-conditioning the traditional side with the modern tourism demands
and suppose a superior value of the economic, natural and anthropological
valences of the zone.
In the latest 10 years new houses have been built in the rural area. Many
of the new constructions can be the upholder of some tourist activities. Tourism in
the rural area of the counties from the north-eastern region represent a means of
development and can take part in the increase of the local life standards through
some priority actions: the modernization of the existing road network, water
supply through pipes, canalization in the areas with high density of houses,
achievement of some district heating, development of processing activities of
agricultural products, insuring services and goods for the consumers’
consumption, improvement of hygiene, health, education, culture and information
activities. Achievement of such works also satisfies the demands of the local
population, but they will also be decisive factors in winning more segments of
tourists. On the other hand, all the leisure equipments at the level of rural
communities become goods that can be at hand for the members of the local
population, under the condition that it doesn’t bring negative influences on the
basic elements of traditional cultures. The meeting between this fragile medium
and the new dynamism imposed by the tourist phenomenon raises the problem of
de-structuring risk and imposes the choice of an evolution strategy.
CONCLUSIONS
Using different methods to analyse the development of rural tourism and
agro tourism and especially the method of social-statistic monographs can have in
view more restrict aspects, such as those connected to capital, material base used,
tourist tour etc, or can tackle a wider problem, such as history, culture, popular
architecture etc., in this case having to deal with more complex monographs. Of
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BACK
course, for efficient information and influence of the interested ones, the social-
statistic monographs have to offer a series of images of the presented objectives.
In the organization and unfolding of he tourism activities in the tourist
villages of the North-Eastern Region, an important part is the tackling of this
activity in a management –marketing system starting from the formation of the
tourist project on components and on the whole till the establishing of the costs,
ways and means of promotion and advertising.
The organization of the tourist product implies both the analysis of thee
tourist potential (natural and cultural-historic, geographic position, labour force,
psycho-social features of the population etc), human and financial material
(sources and means of financing) as well as the possibilities of capitalization, all
these make a competitive tourist offer.
In order to succeed it must be taken into account of: value and variety of
the tourist resources, agro-pastoral activities and ethno-folkloric traditions in the
area, the favourable position on an important tourist road or near some tourist
centres, close to the mountains, high social-economic development of villages
with good effect on hosting tourists, the psycho-structure of the population which
offer hospitality , honesty and morality and a large emancipation level of the
inhabitants (know foreign languages).
It is also necessary the listing of all the natural tourist resources that have
to continue with the detailed analysis of the capitalization possibilities. It
generally involves: designs for development of general infrastructure, rise of the
households comfort, technical equipments and for sport leisure ( for ski, sport
fields, tourist paths etc).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Biji, E.M., Roşca E., Şerban, D. 1999– Unele probleme cu privire la indicatorii resurselor
materiale din turismul rural, în volumul „Turismul rural românesc. Actualitate şi perspectivă“,
Editura Pan Europe, Iaşi.
2. Botez G., Lupu N., Miron A., Penciu A., Stoian M. , 1998 – Îndrumar pentru turismul rural,
Editura Rentrop & Straton, Bucureşti.
3. Bran Florina, Istrate I., Manole V. 1996– Agroturism şi turism rural, Editura Economică
Bucureşti,.
4. Brezuleanu, S. Ciurea I., Brezuleanu Carmen-Olguţa, 1999 -Agriculture in mountain and
submountain areas of Moldavia. Present and Development prospects. Revista Cercetări
Agronomice în Moldova, vol 3-4, S.C.A. Podu-Iloaiei, Iaşi.
5. Ciurea I.V., Brezuleanu S., Bodescu D., Mihalache Roxana 2004 - Studii privivnd valorificarea
potenţialului agroturistic în zona Caşin-Oituz, judeţul Bacău. Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole
şi Medicină Veterinară, Facultatea de Horticultură, Lucrări Ştiinţifice
6. Lanquar, R., Holtier, R. – Le marketing turistique, P.U.F. Paris, 1993
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BACK
THE FINANCIAL STABILITY ANALYSIS THROUGH THE

RATES AT S.C. VASCAR S.A. VASLUI
Z. BULIGA, Gabriela IGNAT
Any enterprise that guides itself on the market economys’ principles

must carry out its activity following its main objective – the extension of the
enterprise value in circumstances of profitableness. An enterprise activity must
generate positive effects that lead to the providing of the activity continuity,
which means that it has to be balanced.
The central objective of the company’s activity supposes a permanent
optimal employment of its capital, a carefull and close sizing of the funds needs
and the obtaining on time and in the necessary amount of resources that are the
most advantageous for the enterprise. This desiteratum concurs with the
requirement of the financial balance.

In order to describe the financial structure and the financial balance, the
composition, the debts and the liquidities rates as traditional indicators that can
bring more information are analysed.
RESULTS AND DISSCUSSION

The evolution of the active and passive elements’ composition, as well as
their influence on the financial balance, can be assessed relying on the functional
balance data.
Table 1
The evolution of the active’s structure at S.C. VASCAR S.A.
Year 2005 2006 2007
Immobilized actives rate 49,62% 48,08% 40,58%
Circulating actives rate 50,37% 51,91% 59,42%
Total 100% 100% 100%
In active, we can observe a progressive increase of the circulating actives

in the total actives from 50,37% in 2005 at 51,91% in 2006, reaching 59,42% in
2007, simultaneously with the decrease of the amount held by the immobil actives
in the total active. The imobil actives recorded a decrease in the analysed period,
from 49,62% in 2005, reaching 40,58% in 2007, which led to an increase of the
elasticity of the active of S.C. VASCAR S.A. It has also been found that the
circulating actives have a weight that is superior to the immobilized actives in the
- 225 -
total active, which can be interpreted as a normal situation from the active’s
structure perspective.
The evolution of the pasive structure can be analysed following the data
from table 2.
Table 2
The evolution of the passive structure at S.C. VASCAR S.A. Vaslui
Year 2005 2006 2007
Rsf = permanent
The financial constancy rate assets / Passive 54,15% 62,7% 63,18%
total x 100%
Short term debts /
Short term debts rate 48,85% 37,3% 36,82%
Passive total
Total 100% 100% 100%
The global financial Raf = Own assets /
54,15% 59,43% 63,18%
authonomy rate Total debts
Rig = Total debts /
The global debts rate 45,85% 40,57% 36,82%
Passive total
Total 100% 100% 100%
Regarding the passive structure, we can ascertain the progressive increase

of the permanent assets’ weight in the total passive, from 54,15% in 2005 at
63,18% in 2007, simultaneously with the decrease of the short-term debts, from
45,84% in 2005 to 36,81% in 2007, which leads to the increase of the elasticity
degree, determining the company to easily adapt itself to the external factors and
the decrease of the dependence degree upon third persons.
The global financial authonomy rate is superior to the 1/3 ratio, which
means that S.C. VASCAR S.A. holds assets that are sufficient to ensure its
financial authonomy, a premise of the financial balance. The globat debts rate is
subunitary and in reduction, meaning a decrease of the company’s debts,
simultaneously with the increase of the financial authonomy.
The debts rates point out the degree of the borrowed assets’ employment
in comparison with those of S.C. VASCAR S.A:
Table 3
The evolution of the debts rates at S.C. VASCAR S.A. Vaslui
Year 2005 2006 2007
The global debts CIG = Total debts / 36,81%
45,84% 40,57%
coefficient (CIG1) total passive
The global debts CIG = Total debts / 58,26%
84,65% 68,26%
coefficient (CIG2) own assets ≤ 2
On term debts CIT = On term debts / 0%
0% 5,51%
coefficient (CIT1) own capital ≤ 1
On term debts CIT = On term debts / 0%
0% 5,22%
coefficient (CIT2) permanent capital ≤ 1/2
- 226 -
The degree of the company’s dependency towards third persons, reckoned

with the global debts coefficient, shows an unfilled debts capacity of the
company, which is much more inferior to the superior bound established by the
banks, respectively 2/3 and 2.
We can also observe the decrease of the debts degree from 45,84% in
2005 to 36,81% in 2007, determined especially by the decrease of the short-term
credits contracted by the company.
Analysing the debts coefficient on term, one can notice the absence of
long-term debts in 2005 and 2007, and in 2006 the long-term debts do not
represent bank credits, but a credit granted by the purveyors.
The liquidity or treasury rates characterize the financial situation of the
enterprise, commencing with the financial balance structure. In fact, the rates
measure the enterprise’s payment ability, respectivelly the short-term solvency.
Table 4
The solvency reckoning at S.C. VASCAR S.A.Vaslui
Year 2005 2006 2007
Patrimonial solvency S = Cs / Eper + Cs x 100 24,55% 22,61% 81,86%
The long-term solvency Rstl = Own assets / total 1,18% 1,46% 1,71%
degree debts
Taking into account the fact that the patrimonial solvency indicator shows
a positive situation when it records values between 50% and 100%, we can notice
that in 2005 and 2006, S.C. VASCAR S.A. recorded a solvency that is inferior to
the minimum bound of the indicator, which influences the liquidity, as well as the
financial balance on the whole. In 2007, thanks to the company’s decision of
diminishing the short-term bank credits, the enterprise’s solvency increases,
oscilating between normal values.
The reckoning of the solvency degree on long-term shows that, although
it recorded increasing values, from 1,18 in 2005 to 1,71 in 2007, in the first two
years, respectively 2005 and 2006, the values are inferior to the 1,5 limit, which
means a deterioration of the solvency with negative effects on the financial
balance of the company. In 2007, the solvency degree goes beyond the minimum
value, leading to the straightening of the financial situation of the enterprise.
The liquidity represents the company’s ability to deal with the short-term
debts through its financial means, which have to be at least at the exigible
payments’ level. In order to emphasize the liquidity level at S.C. VASCAR S.A.,
different types of rates can be used: the general, relative and the immediate
liquidity rates.
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Table 5
The reckoniong of the liquidity rates at S.C. VASCAR S.A.
Year 2005 2006 2007
The general liquidity rate 1,09 1,39 1,61
The relative liquidity rate 0,14 0,21 0,37
The immediate liquidity rate 0,0043 0,10 0,16
The over-unitary general liquidity shows that the current passives have
been covered by the circulating actives transformed in liquidities, meaning that
the company succeeds to pay its short-term debts.
The evolution of this rate in 2005 – 2007 is increasing, from 1,09 in 2005
at 1,61 in 2007. In order to avoid the danger of an insufficient treasury, the rate
must be as high as possible, the optimum values of the indicator being situated
between 2 and 2,5.
However, the recorded values have an increasing tendance, which shows
an improvement of the S.C. VASCAR S.A liquidity.
The reduced liquidity rates offer important information on the liquidity
degree at S.C. VASCAR S.A., because it excludes the stocks from the circulating
actives, assessing the extent to which the other circulating active elements can
cover the debts.
This rate has also an increasing tendancy, from 0,14 in 2005 to 0,21 in 2006,
reaching 0,37 in the last analysed year. In spite of the increase of the rate’s value in
2005 – 2007, the recorded values do not reach the optimum level of 0,8 – 1.
This situation is generated by the important weight of the circulating
actives in comparison with the other circulating active elements – clients debts,
pecuaniary availabilities, investments.
The immediate liquidity rate has also recorded increasing, but insufficient
values, from 0,042 in 2005 to 0,15 in 2007, taking into account the fact that, in
order to guarantee the real liquidity of S.C. VASCAR S.A., the indicator must
have values between 0,2 and 0,3. We can notice that in 2007, the values are the
highest, getting closer to the normal state.
The insufficient values of the liquidity rates show that S.C. VASCAR S.A
does not hold enough availabilities on short-term (excluding the stocks) in order
to cover the repayment needs.
The liquidity state’s assessment of the company supposes a detailed
analysis of the operating cycle, because the way in which the material and the
pecuniary flows are developed, the rhythmicity of the provisioning, the
production and the sale, the way in which the resources are administred represent
factors that influence the liquidity.
- 228 -
A careful study of the liquidity supposes the knowing of the structure and
the circulating actives elements’ rotation relying on the stocks, the clients and the
purveyors rotation speed indicators.
Table 6
The evolution of the rotation speed of the total assets at
S.C. VASCAR S.A. Vaslui
Year 2005 2006 2007
Sales figure 29756126 32993367 47919405
Total assets 12247410 12200843 14251185
Number Number Number
Number Number Number
Speed of of of
of days of days of days
rotations rotations rotations
Total assets
2,42 148 2,7 133 3,36 107
rotation speed
Throughout the analysed period, the sales figure recorded an ascending

evolution, which had a positive effect on the evolution of the rotation speed of the
total invested capital, which increased from 2,42 in 2005 to 3,36 in 2007.
The increase of the sales figure had a positive influence on the length in
days of a rotation which diminished in 2007 at 107 days in comparison with the
148 days in 2005.
The analysis of the rotation speed of the total invested capital can be
continued by reckoning the fixed and the circulating capital rotation in the sales
figure.
Table 7
The reckoning of the rotation speed of the immobilized and circulating actives at
S.C. VASCAR S.A. Vaslui
Year 2005 2006 2007
Rotation Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of Number of
speed rotations days rotations days rotations days
Immobilized
4,89 74 5,62 64 8,28 43
actives rate
The
circulating 4,82 75 5,2 70 5,65 64
actives rate
The rotation speed of the immobilized actives, as well as the rotation of

the circulating ones is ascending during the analysed period, leading to the
diminishing of the number of days suitable to each rotation. The highest increase
was recorded by the rotation speed of the immobilized actives, which almost
doubled in 2007, in comparison with 2005, from 4,89 to 8,28. Also, the
circulating actives increased the speed of rotation from 4,82 in 2005 to 5,65 in
- 229 -
2007, proving their good administration and concuring in the reduction of the
discrepancy between the funds inputs and outputs.
The analyse of the efficiency of the operating capital employment can be
elaborated through the individual assessment of the rotation of each essential
element of the operating active, respectively the administration of the stocks, the
clients’ debts and the debts towards the purveyors.
Table 8
Year 2005 2006 2007

Sales figure 29756126 32993367 47919405
Medium stock 5543742.5 5342906 5920917
Number of rotations 5.36 6.17 8.09
The number of days
67 58 44
afferent to a rotation
The increase of the rotation speed of the stocks from 5,36 in 2005 to 8,09
in 2007 proves a good stocks administration. The increase was supported by the
progressive growing of the sales figure, of 10,87% in 2006, in comparison with
2005 and 45,23% in 2007 in comparison with 2006, which also led to an increase,
but to a smaller extent: with 0,46% in 2006 in comparison with 2005,
unsignificant increase. A more pronounced increase was recorded in 2007 in
comparison with 2006, of 21,12%.
The subtraction of days afferent to a stock rotation, respectively to a
period of time necessary in order to transform itself in money, will positively
influence the liquidity of S.C. VASCAR S.A.
Table 9
The reckoning of the rotation speed of clients and purveyors
Year 2005 2006 2007
Sales figure 29247410 32993367 47919405
Clients 549576 619076 1188751
Purveyors 2623175 1566352 1413321
Clients’ rotation speed 53.21 53.29 40.31
The humber of days that
7 7 9
correspond to a rotation
Total provisioning 16415324 16535617 28161247
The rotation speed of the
6.25 10.5 19.92
purveyors
The humber of days that
58 34 18
correspond to a rotation
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BACK
Analysing the rotation speed of the credits granted by S.C. VASCAR S.A
to its clients, in comparison with the credits that the enterprise obtains from the
purveyors, we can notice, as the table 3.1.2. shows, that the clients’ speed rotation
is superior throughout the whole analysed period of time to the purveyors’
rotation speed. From the evolution of the two rotation speeds we can observe a
decrease of the rotation speed of the clients from 53,21 rotations in 2005 to 40,31
rotation in 2007.
In accordance with the decrease of the rotations number, we can notice an
increase of the rotation speed of the purveyors from 6,25 in 2005 to 19,91 in 2007
(respectively the decrease of number of days in which de debts towards the
purveyors must be payed from 58 days to 18 days in 2005 – 2007). This will
negatively influence the company’s posibility to use the resources drawn relying
on the favourable difference between the period of time of the credit granted by
the purveyors and the one granted by the company to its clients.
CONCLUSIONS
Reaching the equilibrium state in only one year out of the three that were
taken into account in this analysis shows that the equilibrium is not a permament
state in the economic life of the enterprise. Thus, depending on the evolution of
the different factors that influence the enterprise, this can record financial lacks of
balance, whose exceeding, simultaneously with the reaching of the financial
equilibrium at another level, leads to the dynamic financial balance.
The financial balance or its lack represents the result of a process of
internal or external factors with positive or negative influence. Among the
elements that have a positive influence on the financial balance of S.C. VASCAR
S.A. we can mention:
- the domain in which the enterprise carries out its activity is the
meat products (alimentary industry), which leads to the diminishing
of the rotation speed of the stocks, as well as the gaining of clients,
with positive influence on the liquidity of S.C. VASCAR S.A.;
- the company’s markets network, whose cashing are daily deposited
in the unit’s pay office, ensuring a fast money circulation, with
positive impact on the financial balance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gratiela Ghic Analiza economico financiara, Editura Universitara, 2006
2. Isfanescu A Analiza economico financiaraa, Ed ASE, Bucuresti 2002
3. Stancu I, Finante, Ed. Economica, Bucuresti 2002
-
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BACK
THE ANALYSIS OF THE FINANCIAL-BOOK-KEEPING

RESULTS RELYING ON THE PROFIT AND LOSS
ACCOUNT AT S.C. GALMOPAN S.A
Z. BULIGA, Gabriela IGNAT
In order to achieve the accountancy roles of informing, decision and

control, the information generated by the accounts and the book-keeping
reckonings, following the actual accountancy works, should be periodically
synthetized in relevant and suggestive synthesis documents, approachable not only
by the specialists, but also by those who are interested in the patrimonial unit
administration, as an investor, a manager, a bank, a creditor, fiscality and other
economic and social structures. These synthesis documents represent the main
subject of the financial book-keeping, because they reproduce an accurate image of
the patrimonial situation, the results and the financial situation of the enterprise.
The book-keeping balance is considered to be the document that describes
an enterprise position at a certain moment, indicating the extent of the result.
However, the presence of another book-keeping modelling instrument that can
explain the way that the result is formed and allows to draw out some conclusions
over the enterprise activity performances, appears to be necessary. This instrument
is the second structure of the financial situations – the profit and loss account.

The financial analysis of the results obtained by the company in 2005 –
2007 is made relying on the elements given by the profit and loss account, which
supposes in a first stage drawing up the cascade indicators of the interjacent
administration debit balances, and implicitly of its draft during the whole period
of time, starting with the commercial interval, until the net result of the exercise.
The exercise output offers an accurate image of the real activity of the
enterprise during an administration period of time, including the sold production,
the stored production and the immobilized production.

The exercise output had a superior rythm of growing in comparison with
the growing rythm of the added value, and in 2006 the company recorded a
significant increase, of 124,5%, in comparison with the previous year, the rising
being considered as the result of the currency increase from one period of time to
another, the company using prices in Euros, at the current exchange rate, in 2007
diminishing with just 43% in comparison with 2006. The values of this indicator
are pointed out in figure 1.1.:
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250 224
200 181
150
100 The exercise
100 output
50
0
2005 2006 2007
Figure 1.1. The evolution of the exercise output.
The added value represents the overflow of cashing over the consumption
value proceeding from third persons, the richness created through the capitalizing
of the technical, human and financial resources of the enterprise.
If the sales figure represents the enterprise’s ability to sell, the added
value expresses the economic contribution, the production overflow resulting
from its own effort. Thus, the added value in this company has a growing rythm
that is inferior to the exercise output and this because of the expenses rising with
the consumptions coming from third persons from one year to another (the largest
increasing weight being recorded for the expenses of consumables and those for
works and services carried out by third persons). Thus, the highest increase is
recorded in 2005, increase that concurs with the obtaining of the biggest volume
of the net output of the exercise, creating the premises of the employees’, the
creditors’, the state’s remuneration, as well as for insurance of the sums for future
investments.
The gross operating surplus shows the gross accumulation from activities
that are strictly related to alimentary industrial, commercial and service
performing production, main resource of the enterprise, with determining
influences over the economical profitableness and the investments self-financing
potential ability.
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300
256
250
221
200
150
Added value
100
100
50
0
2005 2006 2007
Figure 1.2. The evolution of the added value.
In the case of the enterprise we analysed, the gross operating surplus varied
differently from one year to another, recording negative values in 2005, the main
cause being the increase of the expenses. The highest increase of this category of
expenses was recorded in 2006 and 2007, and the constant growing of the expenses
representing assimilated taxes and deposits. The positive values recorded in 2006
and 2007 points out, on one hand, the company’s profitableness increase in terms of
difference between the encashable operating incomes and the payable operating
expenses, and on the other hand, it emphasizes the sum remained at the disposal of
the company for the capital investors’ remuneration, after the employees’ payment
and after the elimination of the state’s influence, thus correcting the less favourable
situation from the commercial activity, especially in 2005.
The operating output concerns the normal and current operating activity
of the company and expresses the absolute size of the operating activity’s
profitableness, obtained through the deduction of all the expenses, from the
operating incomes. Although the operating incomes have increased from one year
to another, the operating output records negative values in 2005 and 2007,
decrease that is dued to the growing of the operating expenses in a faster rythm in
comparison with the increase of the incomes. A recurrence of the operating output
is recorded in 2006, when its value was 10.715.373 thousand lei.
The current output, determined by the normal and the current operating
output, as well as by the result of the financial activity, is an interjacent
administration debit that is not influenced by the extraordinary elements of the
company, which allows the effectuation of a dynamic analysis of the current
results.
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The current result records positive values throughout all the analysed
years and with higher values than the operating output, with one exception (the
year 2005), as a consequence of the positive influence generated by the financial
output of the enterprise.
The net output of the company, as well as all the other indicators from the
interjacent administration debit image is fluctuating. The net loss of 12.829.322
thousand lei, recorded by the company in 2005 is mainly dued to the increase of
the expenses liquidation, of 23.770.923 thousand lei, as an effect of the re-
estimation by the company of the fixed means in accordance with the legislation
in force. The net output of the exercise records positive values of 11.103.843
thousand lei in 2006 and 910.082 thousand lei in 2007, favourable aspect for the
enterprise.
The profit accumulated in the two financial years out of the three that
were taken into consideration in the present anlysis shows its profitableness, its
ability to cover the expenses proceeding from its own incomes without resorting
to external loans.
In addition to this, the company proceeded to the distribution of the profit
under the shape of divvies to its shareholders and so we can go on to the
determination of another indicator, which, although it is not a part of the
interjacent administration debits frame, the ability of self-financing representing a
global monetary surplus, it reflects the financial economic growing potential of
the company, respectively the internal general financing source by the production
and the commercial activity of the company after the decrease of all the expenses
payable at a certain date. The self-financing ability expresses the financial surplus
coming from the profitable activity of the enterprise. It displays an ascending
tendance, from 10.941.601 thousand lei in 2005 at 31.482.341 thousand lei in
2006, when the gross operating overplus and the net output of the exercise have
recorded the highest values. Substantial changes throughout the year 2006 are
determined by the incomes obtained from administration operations and from
capital operations through the resigning of the actives.
Analysing the self-financing indicator, we can see that the company
carried out a policy that is oriented towards re-investment during the three years,
as follows: in 2005 - 81%, in 2007 – 92%, so a restrictive policy concerning the
divvies distribution, except for 2007, where a concern for the allocation of the
whole profit under the shape of divvies towards shareholders and implicitly a
decrease of this indicator’s level is observed.
Through the size of the recorded values, the self-financing concurs with
the increase of the financial independence of this company and the consolidation
of its outstanding debts capacity. Being under the incidence of the two elements –
the self-financing ability and the distributed divvies, one can see that these have a
varying evolution, directly influencing the size of the self-financing indicator
(changing the self-financing ability leads to the increase of the self-financing,
while the increase of the divvies leads to its decrease).
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BACK
It is important to note that, through its evolution and size, the self-financing
represents a way of financing the company’s own activity, an independent and stable
source, a higher degree of freedom in choosing the investors, but also a decisive
factor in choosing the investors and reducing the financial expenses.
The evolution of the gross profit interval, the exploitation gross profit
interval and the net profit interval is shown in table 1.2.
Table 1.2.
The table of the evolution of the interval indicators
Indicators 2005 2006 2007
The gross profit interval -14.61 7.26 0.58
The exploitation gross profit interval -23.56 5.45 -2.79
The net profit interval -14.61 5.65 0.58
The gross economic profitability -1.57 11.67 1.79
The economic net profitability -31.98 1.66 -7.85
The whole system of economic financial performance indicators hows, once

more, the low level of the results obtained by the analysed company starting with
2005 until 2007.
The size of these indicators’ values, during the analysed period of time, can
also be influenced by the inflation we witnessed and that is why it would have
been necessary to compare the data:
- through the increase amount of the prices for the sold wares and the service
performing in the analysed company, method that would allow the showing of the
inflation’s effects on the atractiveness of the company’s field of activity;
- through the prices increase rates at the national economic level, updating it at the
entire economy’s level.
CONCLUSIONS
The financial analysis of the company’s results was made relying on the
elements given by the profit and loss account, which supposed the setting up in
cascade of the interjacent administration debits.
The profit gained by the company in two out of the three financial years
considered in the analysis, demonstrates its profitableness, its capacity to cover
the expenses from its own incomes without resorting to external loans. In addition
to this, the company distributed the profit as divvies to its shareholders, and so,
we can establish, through both methods, the self-financing ability indicator.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gratiela Ghic Analiza economico financiara, Editura Universitara, 2006
2. Isfanescu A Analiza economico financiaraa, Ed ASE, Bucuresti 2002
3. Stancu I, Finante, Ed. Economica, Bucuresti 2002
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BACK
THE CORRELATION BETWEEN THE MILK

ELECTRIC CONDUCTIVITY AND THE SODIUM
CHLORIDE CONTENT
Rodica CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CĂPRIŢĂ
The electrical conductivity (EC) of a solution is a measure its ability to

conduct electric current. It is a property attributable to presence of ions in the
solution. Milk electric conductivity is affected mostly by its mineral composition.
Conductivity is a nonselective measurement, any charged ion contributing to the
total conductivity. The goal of the study was to establish the correlations between
this physical parameter and some inorganic milk components. The experimental
data revealed no correlation between electric conductivity and Ca and K, and
positive correlation between electric conductivity and Cl and Na.
INTRODUCTION
Milk is isotonic with blood. The osmotic pressure is given by the
inorganic and organic components, especially by the ions and small molecules.
Although the two biological liquids have almost the same osmotic pressure (about
300 mOsmoles), the mineral content and the proportion of the ionized forms and
the bound ones is quite different. So, the calcium and potassium content is higher
in milk than in blood (Belitz. 1987, Ghergariu et al 2000).
Lactose is the main organic component whose concentration influences
the osmotic pressure. At lowered lactose concentration, the mineral ions content
increase, in order to maintain isotonia. The electrolytes content is estimated by
the electric conductivity. The electrical conductivity (EC) of a solution is a
measure of the ability of that solution to conduct the electric current. It is a
property attributable to the ions present in the solution. Electric current is
transported through solutions.

The experiment had in view the variation of the electric conductivity with
the milk ion concentration. We took into consideration the calcium, potassium,
sodium and chloride ions, which occur in higher concentration in milk, so that
their variation might influence significantly the electric conductivity.
The electric conductivity was determined with the conductivity meter
type OK-102/1 (Radelkis), the chloride ions were determined by the Mohr
method, calcium was determined by complexometry with EDTA, Na and K were
determined by flame photometry (Caprita 2001).
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The electric conductivity is in negative correlation with the lactose
content (Caprita 2001). From the determined experimental data and the graphic
representations of the conductivity variation as a function of the calcium and
potassium concentrations, it hasn’t been observed any correlation between these
milk parameters (Figures 1 and 2).
1.2
Ca g/L
0.8
0.4
y = 0.0824x + 0.2434
R2 = 0.1239
0
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 mS
Figure 1. The electric conductivity (milliSiemens) variation as a function of the calcium
ion concentration
2
K g /L
1.6
1.2
0.8
0.4 y = 0.3499 x - 0 .8 651

R 2 = 0.12
0
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5 mS
Figure 2. The electric conductivity (milliSiemens) variation as a function of the potassium

ion concentration
- 238 -
The graphic representations of the electric conductivity as a function of

the chloride and sodium ions (Figures 3 and 4) reveal a positive correlation
between these biophysical and biochemical milk parameters.
0.8
Na g/L
0.4
y = 0.1858x - 0.598
R2 = 0.5693
0
mS
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
Figure 3. The electric conductivity (milliSiemens) variation as a function of the sodium

ion concentration
1.6
Cl g/L
1.2
0.8
0.4 y = 0.2854x - 0.4314

R2 = 0.5028
0
mS
4 4.5 5 5.5 6 6.5
Figure 4. The electric conductivity (milliSiemens) variation as a function of the chloride

ion concentration
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BACK
These results may lead to the conclusion that the sodium chloride content
in milk induces the variation of the electric conductivity. In order to maintain the
osmotic pressure, the chloride ions and concomitantly the sodium ions are
transferred from blood in milk. These observations confirmed the presumption
that the equilibration of the osmotic pressure is due to the chloride ions,
transferred from blood, as NaCl.
CONCLUSIONS
There is a positive correlation between the electric conductivity and the

chloride ion (r = 0.709), respectively the sodium ion concentration (r = 0.7545).
The conclusion of these results is that the NaCl concentration in milk
induces the variation of the electric conductivity.
REFERENCES
1. Belitz, H. D., Grosch, W. (1987): Food Chemistry, Ed. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg
2. Caprita, R. (2001): Principii si tehnici in biochimie, Ed. Mirton, Timisoara
3. Căpriţă, A., Căpriţă, R. (2001): The effect of lactose content on the milk electric conductivity,
Ann. Western Univ. Tim., ser. Chem., 10 (2) p. 375-378
4. Ghergariu, S. et al (2000): Manual de laborator clinic veterinar, Ed. All Educational, Bucureşti
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BACK
BIOCHEMICAL STUDY ON THE TOTAL PROTEIN AND

PROTEIN FRACTIONS IN THE BLOOD SERUM OF
BROILER CHICKENS
Rodica CĂPRIŢĂ, A. CĂPRIŢĂ
The high basal metabolism and the high body temperature determine
great energetic demands in chickens. These induce both lower blood protein
values and albumin/globulin ratio in comparison with the mammalians. The
albumin/globulin ratio is important to determine whether there is an
overproduction or underproduction of gamma-globulin. The goal of the study
was to investigate the correlation between the plasma protein, the albumin
concentration and the albumins/globulins ratio in chickens. The absolute
increase of albumin is very rare because the albumin is used as substrate for
globulin production. The mechanism could be explained by the maintenance of
the colloid-osmotic pressure.
INTRODUCTION
Blood serum proteins are a significant indicator of the health condition

and production features of the organism because of their numerous physiological
roles. Relative and total amounts of plasma protein fractions are affected by
infections, inflammation, and the nutritional and physiological status, and are
therefore important health indicators in animals (Parvu 1992).
The albumin/globulin (A/G) ratio represents the serum albumin compared
to serum globulin level. The value is important to determine whether there is an
overproduction or an underproduction of gamma-globulin. A low A/G ratio may
be due to he overproduction of gamma-globulin (monoclonal/polyclonal
gammopathy, multiple myeloma or autoimmune diseases etc.) or due to low
albumin (low production as in cirrhosis or excessive loss as in nephrotic
syndrome or protein losing enteropathy etc.). In contrast, if the A/G ratio is high
then one should look for diseases with low gamma-globulin production such as
gammaglobulinemia.
The goal of the study was to investigate the correlation between the total
protein, the albumin content and the albumin/globulin ratio in the blood serum of
broiler chickens.
Blood samples were drawn from 49 days old broiler chickens fed with
combined feed according to NRC. Chicken blood collected during the slaughter of
animals. The blood samples were allowed to stay at 37°C for 60 min, and then
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the serum was decanted. Total protein was determined by spectrophotometry

with the biuret reagent (Caprita 2001). The globulins were separated by
precipitation with sodium sulfate and the albumins were then determined by the
biuret method. The globulin content was calculated by subtracting the albumins
from the total protein.
The catabolic processes in birds occur with high intensity. Their high
basal metabolism and their higher body temperature determine greater energetic
demands. These induce both lower blood values in total protein and in
albumin/globulin ratio in comparison with the mammalians.
The assessment of total blood proteins has a low diagnostic importance
because the pathological modifications of the proteins are very seldom and are not
specific. Instead, the pathological modifications of the protein fractions are of
diagnostic importance. Most of the proteins are permanently catabolised and
renewed, so that it is maintained a balance between the two metabolic pathways
(Caprita 2000).
The protein concentrations depend on the hormonal balance, the
nutritional status, the hydric balance, as well as other factors that affect the health
status.
The serum protein concentrations influence the protein metabolism; when
the albumin or γ/globulin is increasing, the catabolic rate is increasing too. On the
contrary in hypoproteinemia there is a prolonged time for replacing.
The experimental data are presented in Table 1.
Figures 1 and 2 reveal greater variations of the globulin concentrations
and of the albumin/globulin ratios in comparison with the protein and albumin
content.
The relative concentration of a protein fraction can change without the
modification of the total plasma protein. When the globulins increase, the
albumins decrease. The absolute increase of albumin is very rare because the
albumin is used as substrate for globulin production. The adjusting mechanism for
albumin synthesis by the liver is not well known although a possibility often
mentioned is the change in colloid-osmotic pressure (Schmid et al. 1985).
- 242 -
Table 1
The plasma protein and protein fractions
Sample Protein Albumins Globulins Protein/ Albumins/
g% g% g% Albumins Globulins
1. 2.35 1.45 0.95 1.62 1.52
2. 2.64 1.45 1.41 1.82 1.03
3. 2.64 1.54 1.12 1.71 1.37
4. 2.19 1.58 0.76 1.38 2.07
5. 2.35 1.58 0.85 1.48 1.85
6. 2.06 1.49 0.91 1.38 3.49
7. 2.39 1.50 1.03 1.59 1.45
8. 2.54 1.36 1.37 1.86 0.99
9. 2.57 1.30 1.30 1.97 1.00
10. 2.13 1.20 1.20 1.77 1.00
11. 2.69 1.49 1.24 1.80 1.20
12. 2.64 1.25 1.54 2.11 0.81
13. 2.35 1.36 1.17 1.72 1.16
14. 2.46 1.25 1.54 1.96 0.81
15. 2.68 1.36 1.43 1.97 0.95
16. 2.35 1.09 1.31 2.15 0.83
17. 2.45 1.54 1.12 1.59 1.37
18. 2.35 1.52 0.98 1.54 1.55
19. 2.64 1.45 1.34 1.71 1.08
20. 2.45 1.49 1.04 1.64 1.43
21. 2.35 0.90 1.57 2.61 0.57
Xm ±s 2.44±0.181 1.388±0.173 1.199±0.236 1.78±0.636 1.31±0.709
3 3
g% g%
2.5 2.5
2 2
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Protein Albumins Globulins
Figure 1. The variation of total protein, albumins, globulins
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BACK
3.5 4
3 3.5
3
2.5
2.5
2
2
1.5
1.5
1
1
0.5 0.5
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Potein/Albumins Albumins/ Globulins
Figure 2. The variation of protein/albumins and the albumin/globulin ratio
CONCLUSIONS
The protein catabolism in chicken is intense and therefore the proteinemia

has low values.
The changes in concentration of individual protein fractions were not
always consistent with the total quantity in the blood serum.
The protein and albumin values are lower than those in the literature,
maybe due to hepatic or renal dysfunctions.
Significant variations were observed in the globulins values. The
globulins and albumins are not highly correlated.
REFERENCES
1. Căpriţă, R. (2000): Biochimie animală, Ed. Mirton
2. Caprita, R. (2001): Principii si tehnici in biochimie, Ed. Mirton, Timisoara
3. Pârvu, Gh. (1992): Supravegherea nutriţional metabolică a animalelor, Ed.Ceres Bucureşti
4. Schmid, M. Schindler, R. and Weigand, K. (1985): Is albumin synthesis regulated by the
colloid osmotic pressure? Effect of albumin and dextran on albumin and total protein synthesis
in isolated rat hepatocytes, Journal of Molecular Medicine,
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BACK
OBSERVATIONS ON THE BIOCHEMICAL BEHAVIOUR OF

CERTAIN STRAINS OF YERSINIA ENTEROCOLITICA
M. CONDREA
Using biochemical tests, we investigated 60 strains of yersinia

enterocolitica from pigs (44), taurines (5) and dogs (11).
No matter the incubation temperature, all the studied strains
decomposed the following secondary layers (1% concentration), making the
environment more acid: L-arabinose, glucose, galactose, manose, L-sorbose,
laevulose, saccharose, maltose, D-trechalose, starch, glycerol, sorbitol, inositol,
manitol.
The strains of yersinia enterocolitica studied didn’t modify the following
secondary layers (1% concentration): L-ramnose, melibose, D-rafinose, dextrin,
inulin, D-adanitol, dulcitol. They didn’t decompose either sodium manolat,
phenylalanine, lysinehe, arginine.
From the secondary layers (tests) studied we think that the following
ones are especially important for identifying and biotyping yersinia
enterocolitica: saccharose, D-terchalose, D-sorbitol, D-ramnose D-rafinose,
melibiose, D-xilose, salicylic acid, esculin, ornitin, as well as the production of
indol, Voges-Proskauer reaction, use of sodium citrate as an only source of
carbon, the presence of lecithinase, the type of lactose metabolisation.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The 60 strains of Yersinia enterocolitica taken from swins, taurines and
dogs were investigated from the point of view of the biochemical behaviour,
using the classical method of Enterobacteriaceae.

The research on the enzymatic activity of these strains allowed on the one
hand the taxonomic classification of Yersinia enterocolitica and on the other hand
the metabolic variations towards some other secondary layers led to the sub-
division of this species into chemotypes and to their correlation with other
properties.
All the studied strains were catalase-positive and oxidase-negative, which
are peculiarities characteristic to the family of Enterobacteriaceae. Studying the
activity of these enzymes is a taxonomic criterion used on a large scale, being one
of the characteristics used by the group of taxonomic specialists (10) for
classifying Yersinia enterocolitica into the family of Enterobacteriaceae.
The property of producing acid out of glucose and other carbohydrates is
a characteristic of the family of Enterobacteriaceae.
No matter the incubation temperature, all the studied strains decomposed
the following secondary layers (1% concentration), making the environment more
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acid: L-arabinose, glucose, galactose, manose, L-sorbose, laevulose, saccharose,

maltose, D-trechalose, starch, glycerol, sorbitol, inositol, manitol.
The strains of Yersinia enterocolitica studied didn’t modify the following
secondary layers (1% concentration): L-ramnose, melibose, D-rafinose, dextrin,
inulin, D-adanitol, dulcitol. They didn’t decompose either sodium manolat,
phenylalanine, lysinehe, arginine.
The presence and the absence of the enzymatic equipment in the
secondary layers presented is comparable to the data in the specialty literature
(3,7,10,12).
From the secondary layers (tests) studied we think that the following ones
are especially important for identifying and biotyping yersinia enterocolitica:
saccharose, D-terchalose, D-sorbitol, D-ramnose D-rafinose, melibiose, D-xilose,
salicylic acid, esculin, ornitin, as well as the production of indol, Voges-Proskauer
reaction, use of sodium citrate as an only source of carbon, the presence of
lecithinase, the type of lactose metabolisation.
Saccharose: All the strains of yersinia enterocolitica were saccharose-
positive. In the research of Bercovier and his col, 1980, 12 presented positive
saccharose 98% for biotypes 1-4, while biotype 5 didn’t ferment this dicholoside.
Saccharose was a secondary layer used by Nilehn, 1969 and Bercovier, 1980 for
classifying yersinia enterocolitica into biotypes. Some researchers (1,2,11)
mention that saccharose is a secondary layer necessary for differentiating yersinia
enterocolitica within the gender of Yersinia (Yersinia frederiksenii, Yersinia
pseudotuberculosis) except biotype 5.
From the research effected, the result says that the secondary layers which
are constantly negative, L-ramnose, D-rafinose, melibose, Simmons citrate and
phenylalanine are important in identifying yersinia enterocolitica.
A statement says that L-ramnose, D-rafinose, melibose and Simmons
citrate participate in making the differences within the gender of Yersinia and the
research of phenylalaninedesaminase is a useful test for making the difference
within the other Enterobacteriaceae. (3,7)
Brenner, 1980 (6) mentions 7 strains of yersinia enterocolitica rafinose-
positive and two strains melibose-positive. He connects these reactions to the
existence of metabolic plasmids, plasmids which were isolated from yersinia
enterocolitica.
The same metabolic plasmids were described by Brenner (6) at 2 strains
citrate Simmons-positive, plasmids which were similar to the ones mediating the
use of citrate of Escherichia coli, described by Wachsmuth and Davis (quoted by
Brenner).
Towards the following secondary layers the strains under discussion had a
different behaviour: D-xilose, lactose, (O/F), salicine, esculine, lecitine, triptofan
(production of indol).
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D-xilose: From the 60 strains only 15 decomposed D-xilose, while the

rest of them were xilose-negative. The positive strains belonged to the biotypes 1
and 2 (serotype O4, O5, O6, O9, O10).
D-xilose is present in the 3 schemes of biotyping used by Nilehn, Wauers
and Bercovier, being considered a secondary layer efficient for the division of
yersinia enterocolitica into biotypes. Biotypes 1-3 are xilose-positive and biotypes
4-5 are xilose-negative (according to the 3 schemes).
Nilehn (9) found out that fermenting was faster at 22°C than at 37°C, a
phenomenon which was found out in one of studied strains as well. On the
environment oxidation-fermentation (Hough-Leifson), Nilehn noticed differences
regarding speed of xilose use.
Lactose: The first research regarding Yersinia enterocolitica presents this
bacterium as being lactose-negative(4,5). Mollaret (quoted by Jacober) shoros
thart there are strains which ferment lactose into peptoned water in aproximately
10 days. Nilehn (9) states that lactose decomposes on the oxidative way (Hough-
Leifson) for some strains, introducing this test in the biotyping scheme (biotype 1-
3 lactose- positive, oxidative), biotype 4-5 negative. These strains which
decompose lactose on the oxidative way are indolgene strains ( 10).
Among the studied strains only one fermented lactose on the Hajna and
Drigalski environment in 24 hours. Two strains were slightly positive lately on
the same environments. All the 3 strains belong to biotype 1. The rest oj the
strains were lactose- negative. We noticed via oxidative mechanism (environment
Hough-Leifson, lactose 1%) that 15 strains decomposed lactose. These strains
belonged to biotypes 1 and 2.
Brenner, 1980, (6) presents 7 strains lactose- positive from which
metabolic plasmids were isolated.
Salcine and Esculine: the metabolic behaviour of the isolated strains
towards thest glucosides is different according to the biotype, comparable to the
data in the literature ( 3,7). 13 strains decomposed salcine and esculine, all of
them belonging to biotype 1.
Production of indol: there was a test presented in the biotyping schemes,
separating biotypes 1-2 from 3-5 (3,10). In ourresearch, triptofanasa (renderd
evident in the production of indol from triptofan) was presented in 15 strains.
These indologene strains belonged to biotypes 1 and 2.
Lecitinase:The research of lecitinase in Yersinia enterocolitica was
introduced in the biotyping scheme by Wauters (1970) in order to separate
biotypes 1 and 2.
From the studied strains only 13 produced hydrolysis of lecitine from the
egg yolk. These strains were classified in biotype 1.
Voges-Proskauer reaction: Hu production of acetil-metil carbinol
therough the activity of Yersinia enterocolitica depends on temperature (3,5).
The results obatained show that all the strains studied were positive at 290
C and negative at 370 C.
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BACK
Nilehn, 1969, introduced this test at the tepmperature of 250 C in the

biotiping scheme to separate biotypes 1-4 from biotype 5, which is negative.
Bervovier, 1980, (3) presents 98% from the positive strains at 250 C.
Analysing the behaviour of the strains of Yersinia enterocolitica isolated
from swins, taurins and dogs, it results that the following tests are enongh for
making biochimical difference of this bacterium from the other
Enterobacteriaceae: Hajna (glucose, gas from glucose, lactose, sulfurate
hydrogen), MIU.(mobilety, indol, urease ); phenylalanine.
CONCLUSIONS
1.From analysis of the biochemical strains studied we of this bactrium.
2.The reserch on the biochimical behaviour of these strains of Yersinia
enterocolitica allowed us select some tests with diagnosis vaue.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Alonso M.J, Bejot J, Bercovier H, Mollaret H. H – Sur un groupe de souches de Yersinia
enterocolitica fermentant le rhamnose, Med. et mal. infect. 6,490-492, 1975
2. Bercovier H, Ursing J, Brenner D J, Steigerwald A G, Fanning G R, Carter G P, Mollaret H. H -
Yersinia Kristenseni: a New Species of Enterobacteriaceae Compased of Sucrose-Negative.
Curent Microb., 1980 ,4, 219-224
3 . Bercovier H., Brenner D. J., Ursing J., Steigerwalt A. G., Fanning G. R., Alonso J. M., Carter G. P.,
Mollaret H. H., - Characterization of Yersinia enterocolitica sensu stricto, Current Microb., 4,
201-206, 1980
4. Borgel Marceau, - Contribu]ii la studiul tulpinilor de Yersinia enterocolitica izolate în cursul
septicemiilor umane, Teza de doctorat, I. M. F., Bucuresti, 1971
5. Condrea Mihai Cercetar bacteriologice si serologice asupra Yersiniei enterocolitica izolata de la
animale. Teza de doctorat. UAMV Iasi, 1996
6. Brenner D. J., Ursing J., Steigerwalt A. G., Fanning G. R., Alonso J. M., Carter G. P, Mollaret H. H.,-
Deoxiribonucleic Acid Relatedness in Yersinia enterocolitica-Like Organism. Current Microb.
1980, 4,195-200
7. Constantiniu S., 1982 - Contribu]ii la studiul biologiei speciei yersinia enterocolitica, Teza de
doctorat, Univ. "Al. I. Cuza", Iasi
8. Cover T L., Aber R C, -Yersinia enterocolitica, New Engle, J.Med. 1989, 321, 1, 16-24
9. Jacober F. X., 1968 - L'infection e yersinia enterocolitica. Une zoonose d'avenir, These doctorat
vétérinaire, Paris
10. Nilehn B. Studies of Yersinia enterocolitica. Actha Path. Microb. Scand.,1967 69, 83-91
11. Rusu V, Bacteriologie medicala, ed, medicala, Buc. 1985, 345, 356
12. Weagant St., Feng P, Bacteriological Analytical Manual Online, 2007, 1-15
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BACK
THE RESOURCES AND PRODUCTION FACTORS IN THE

HILLY AREA OF THE IAŞI COUNTY
M. DĂSCĂLESCU, Ramona ALEXA-AIRINEI
In agriculture, the production process is on directly action of many

natural, biological, physical, financial and human factors. The optimization of
the binomial relation agricultural production-natural factors can be made by an
advisedly approach and finalization of the division into zones process of the
agricultural production. The problem of utilization of the material resources in
agricultural production process must be approached differently. (1)
The intensification of the agricultural production had determined, now
and in the future, the rising of the used material resources number. The level of
the agricultural production is directly dependent by the way that these resources
are used. How the production resources are generators of expenses, is raised the
problem of the optimization of the way that their are allocated and joined in the
process of agricultural production, in some way to assure the growth of the
production in parallel with the decrease of product unit expensive.
There can the present paper wish to identify the hilly area of Iaşi county and
the main natural, human, land, technical-physical and financial resources of the area.
On the surface of Iaşi county is interfered the areas of excessive temperate
continental climate in east, with moderate expressively in west side. These
characteristics are local influenced by the relief configuration, the variation of
vegetation and hydrographic reservoirs. A hotter climate is specific to high plain
area that is the same with the studied area. He is characterized by the average
annual temperature of 9.4 Celsius degree, and an lover precipitation regime (under
500 mm).In west side of county, the average annual temperature decrease at 9.1-
8.6 Celsius degree, and the precipitations grow at 565mm.-580 mm.
Regarding the population, in hilly area there are only 29.06 percent of
the county amount, from this 49.41 percent are represented by woman. This area
contain 52.6 percent of total county area, from that 66.77 percent is represented
by the agricultural land.
The great majority of specialty papers adjudge the resource and

production factor, as identically. How these two notions are not the same, appears
the necessity of their correct definition, because they have different coverage, at
least from economical point of view.
By sources or production resources we understand the natural, material,
financial and human potential of agricultural exploitation at one moment.
Production resources can be stoked and they have a static character in the same
time, and they are referring at the labor objects that can be transformed in work
process. From the moment that they are used in production process by the action
of human factor they become production factors. (3)
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MATERIAL AND METHOD

For drawing up this paper was used as work method diagnostic analysis,
and the informational source that was the base of this study elaboration is
represented by the dates from Statistical Direction of Iaşi County and from The
Pedological Institute of Iaşi.
In diagnostic analysis was used the fallowing criteria’s: physical-
geographic, demographics, economics, technical equipping, social and economic
criteria’s and human resources structure.

The Iaşi County territory is situated in northeast side of Romania, and
central-east side of Moldavia, and is traveled in centre by the meridian of 27018`
east longitude and by the parallel of 47022` north latitude.
From the administrative point of view the hilly area of Iaşi County is
extended on territory of 46 communes and three cities (Hârlău, Podu-Iloaiei and
Târgu-Frumos), from the total of 93 communes, three cities and two towns of Iaşi
County. (Fig. 1.)
Figure nr.1. Delimitation of the hilly area of Iaşi County
From figure 1 can be observed that the hilly area is extended by

administrative territory of cities: Hârlău, Podu-Iloaiei, Târgu-Frumos an of
communes : Andrieşeni, Aroneanu, Balş, Bălţaţi, Belceşti, Bivolari, Brăieşti,
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Cepleniţa, Coarnele Caprei, Costeşti, Cotnari, Cucuteni, Dumeşti, Erbiceni,

Fântânele, Focuri, Golăeşti, Gropniţa, Heleşteni, Holboca, Horleşti, Ion Neculce,
Leţcani, Lungani, miroslava, Movileni, Plugari, Popeşti, Popricani, Probota,
Rediu, Româneşti, Roşcani, Ruginoasa, Scobinţi, Strunga, Şipote, Trifeşti,
Ţigănăşi, Ţuţora, Ungheni, Valea-Lupului, Victoria and Vlădeni. So that the
administrative territory contains a number of 221 villages extended by an area of
288069 hectares, that represent about 52.61 percents from total area of Iaşi
County - 547600 hectares.
Natural resources
The high plain area is represented by the south sector of Moldavian Plain
(or Jijia-Bahlui) and contains central and northeast side of County. This plain is
characterized by a large and waved relief, with hilly interfluves or in shape of
lower planes with altitudes of 125-150 meters. The contact of this plain with
higher areas is made by some abruptness areas to 200-300 meters from north of
Hârlău, by Cotnari, Târgu Frumos, Strunga, Sineşti, Voineşti, Mogoşeşti,
Bârnova, till Tomeşti (at southeast of Iaşi)
The average annual air temperature is 9,10C, and the average annual
amplitude is 24,00C, the average temperature of the coldest month (January) is
about -3,80C, and the average temperature of the hottest month (July) is about
20,20C. The daily average temperature of 50C is being registered since the first
decade of April till the second decade of November and their sum is 32240C, on
the 232 days interval. The average duration of non freezing period is 181 days,
and the earliest rimes appears from the second decade of September and last
sometimes till the last decade of May.
The quantity of precipitation depends on the season; it has relatively big
fluctuations from one season to another and from a year to other. By the average
multi-annual values that has been measured by the Meteorology and Hydrology
Institute was identify a value scale from 300 mm to over 1000 mm.
The average sum of annual precipitations is 533.1 mm, and in vegetation
period (IV-IX), is registered 378.7 mm. In this area the droughts are very
frequently and appear from the end of July till September, and the precipitations
fall especially as rainfalls beginning with April-May and they are irregularly
represented in vegetation period. The real vapor-transpiration is 493 mm, the
hydro-climatic coefficient is 78-90, the aridity coefficient -27.9, and air relatively
humidity has an average value of 71% and doesn’t drops under 64%.
Regarding naturally soil fertility of Iaşi County, these can be grouped in
three categories:
1. -high fertility potential soils (cernozioms, cambic cernozioms, cernoziomoidals
soils, some alluvial soils that are not affected by erosion etc.) – they are find in
Moldavian plain and Siret Valley and them are good for cereal and technical
plants crops;
2. - moderate fertility potential soils (grey soils, brown and moderate affected by
erosion soils) their are find in north sector of Moldavian Central Plateau, and on
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the Siret and Moldavia Valley Flanks, them are good for cereal crops, potato’s,
sugar beet, and for vineyard and fruit growing plantations.
3. – lower fertility potential soils (soils that are under erosion, regosoil, and
hydromorphic soils) their are find in areas like: Cotnari, Deleni, Jijia Valley, Prut
Valley, Siret Valley and Moldavia Valley, and them are god for pasture, vineyard
and fruit growing and forests plantations.
Human resources
From total population of Iaşi County of 813943 inhabitants, in hilly area
are establish about 236549 inhabitants, which represent 29.06% from total
population of the county. (Tab. 1)
Table 1 The population of hilly area of Iaşi County on sex criteria

Year 2004 2005
Total population 235184 236549
Men 119028 119660
Women 116156 116889
There can be observed that in 2005 year the population has grown with
0.58 percents in comparison with 2004.
As regarding the population density, this is 82.11 inhabitants/km2, smaller
then total County density which is about 148.64 inhabitants/km2.
Table 2 Occupied population on national economy activities

(number of people)
%
Year 2005
From total
Total employers 17740 100
Agriculture 2018 11,38
Industry, from which: 5075 28,60
Processing industry 4142 23,35
Electrical and thermo energy, gas and water 927 5,23
Constructions 893 5,03
Trade 1746 9,84
Transport, mail, storage and communications 538 3,03
Financial and banking 97 0,55
Public administration 775 4,37
Education 3764 21,22
Health and social assistance 1500 8,46
Other national economi activities 407 2,29
As is shown in table 2 the biggest percent from population is working in

industry – 28.60%, the second place is taken by the population percent that works
in education and hardly on third place is located the percent of population that is
employed in agriculture – 11.38%
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Table 3 Natural movement of population of hilly area of Iaşi County

Absolute numbers Total
Borne - alive 3064
Deceased 2444
Natural growth 620
Married 1637
Divorced 211
Borne-dead 6
Deceased under one year age 44
Rates (at 1000 inhabitants)
Borne - alive 13,00
Deceased 10,33
Natural growth 2,67
Married 6,92
Divorced 0,89
Borne-dead at 1000 new-borne
0,66
(alive and dead))
Deceased under 1 year age at 1000 new alive borne 4,32
From the analyze of table 3 dates, is observed that natural growth in hilly
area of Iaşi County is positive, 2,67‰, at one average birth rate of 13,00‰ and an
average death rate of 10,33‰. At County level the average birth rate is 12,60‰,
and the average death rate is 10,10‰, from which results an average natural
growth of 2,50‰.
Land resources
From total of Hilly area of Iaşi County, 231.982 hectares is agricultural
surface, from which 66.77% is arable. A percent of 19.47% from total area is
nonagricultural area (Tab.4.)
Table 4 The structure of land resources from hilly area of Iaşi County
Specification Hectares %
Total Agricultural 231982 100
Arable 154898 66,77
Pasture 51432 22,17
Grazing 12219 5,26
Vineyards 6265 2,70
Orchards 4036 1,73
Forests 3132 1,35
Total Nonagricultural 56087 19,47*
Total 288069
• *percent from total area
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Table 5. The area that is cultivated with the main crops and their productions
Cultivated Total Average
Specification area production hectares
(hectares) (t) production (kg)
Wheat and rye 14446 14597 1010,4
Corn 69930 172639 2469,0
Potatoes 3865 31236 8082,0
Fruits 4036 30250 7495,1
From the 5th table can be observed that the average production on hectares
is reduced compared with the normal average, this thing is, at cereals in
particularity, because of later frosts which appeared in the spring of 2004 year,
followed by drought.
Regarding the zoo technique sector, the number of domestic animals in
hilly area of Iaşi County is revealed in table 6.
Table 6 The number of domestic animals from hilly area of Iaşi County
Specification Number of heads
Cattle 62599
Swine 78123
Sheep’s 189223
Poultry 2269712
The dates from table 6 have determined the calculation of the heads
number on inhabitant, and the results are: cattle 0.26 heads\inhabitant, swine 0.33
heads\inhabitant, sheep’s 0.80 heads\inhabitant and poultry 9.60 heads\inhabitant.
This number of domestic animals has determined a animal agricultural
production that is presented in table 7. (5)
Table 7 Animal agricultural production of hilly area of Iaşi County

Specification Total
Meat (tones alive height) 6005,0
Cow and buffalo cow milk 1022,5
(thousands hectoliters)
Wool (tones) 359,3
Egs (thousands pieces) 156646,0
Technical and material resources

The level of endowment that exists now in agriculture is not able to insure
the effectuation of mechanical works in the optimum time that is specified in
growing technologies (2). Structural deficiency that is generated by the
insufficiency of equipments is accentuated by the physical and moral
depreciation. Dates regarding the tractors and cars park afferent to the hilly area
are presented in figure 2. (4)
- 254 -
4000
3303 3201
2902 2608
3000
2000
1000 488 433
0
2004 2005
Total of physical agricultural tractors

Plough`s
Autopropulse d combine s for ce re als harve sting
Figure 2. The tractors and main vehicles park
Financial resources
Now one of the main finances for agriculture are the funds that are
received from European Agricultural Fund for Rural Development (EAFDR), this
is an financial instrument created by the European Union to help the members
country in Commune Agricultural Policy implementation.(8)
EAFDR represents a financial opportunity for Romanian rural space,
which values approximately 7.5 billions of euros, starting from 2007 year to 2013.
Like the SAPARD program it will be based on co financial principle of private
investment projects.
The priorities of the program are incarnated in four axis, these are:
Axis I “Improving Competitiveness of the Agricultural and Forestry
sector”- 45% from total funds of EU - 3.246.064.583 euros;
Axis II “Improving the environment and the countryside through land
management” 25% from total funds of EU - 1.805.375.185 euros;
Axis III “Improving the quality of life in rural areas and encouraging
diversification of economic activity” – 30% from total funds of EU -
2.046.598.320 euros;
Axis IV „LEADER” will receive 2.5% from allocation to any/all of the
three axes - 123.462.653 euros. (7)
CONCLUSIONS
¾ The County residence is Iaşi town, one of the most important cities of
Romania (with a population of 307377 inhabitants at the end of 2005 year,
this is on the 4th place, after Bucureşti, Constanţa and Timişoara).
¾ From an geographical point of view the hilly area of Iaşi County is
represented by Moldavian Plain, this plain is characterized by This plain is
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BACK
characterized by a large and waved relief, with hilly interfluves or in shape of

lower planes with altitudes of 125-150 meters. The natural growth of the area
is positive - 2,67‰, at one average birth rate of 13,00‰ and an average death
rate of 10,33‰.
¾ The main objective of Romanian agriculture is to reduce de productive and
economical delay that detaches us from developed countries. This objective
must not be obtained “all it costs”, we will have to not ignore the environment
and people health protection, to not pay in the future a bigger tribute for our
indifference.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Burloiu, P., 1997 – Managementul resurselor umane. Editura Lumina Lex, Bucureşti;
2. Ciurea, I.V., Brezuleanu, S., Ungureanu, G., 2005 – Management. Editura Ion Ionescu de la
Brad, Iaşi;
3. Filip, C., 1992 – Management. Universitatea Agronomică şi de Medicină Veterinară „Ion
Ionescu de la Brad“ Iaşi;
4. ***Anuarul Statistic al Judeţului Iaşi 2006, Editura Alfa.
5. ***Recensământul populaţiei şi locuinţelor din 18 martie 2002, Bucureşti,2004;
6. ***www.iasi.insse.ro;
7. ***www.infoeuropa.ro;
8. ***www.maap.ro;
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BACK
ASPECTS CONCERNING FINANCIAL BEHAVIOUR OF

POPULATION IN THE CENTRAL AND EASTERN
EUROPEAN COUNTRIES
D. DONOSĂ, Raluca Elena RADU
The actual period is very interesting for financial intermediary

institutions concerning the financial behaviour of the household. Thus, in the
context of overall economic growth and wages in the entire Central and Eastern
Europe it has been recorded a growth in real estate investments, financial assests
and stock exchange transactions. Based on these analisys it is considered a
further trend for the next period of time. Overall in the region economical growth
remained at 4 % with one exception: Hungary which is payng the price of a
neccesary fiscal corection. Strong economic growth has determined an increase
of the household income, the wages registering strong increase in average.
Althogh is covering the consuming and real estates investments, the
accumulation of new financial savings has continued in a fast pace. Financial
market experienced another year of strong profits, stock market increasing with
an average of 38 % year by year because of the external demand expansion.
There were strong revenues despite of lowering the growth of volatility. Once
again, financial wealth growth was stimulated by the accumulation of new
savings both in the compulsory and voluntary pension systems. From total
growth registered, aproximately 20 % is due to the contribution to the pension
funds. As a result of these factors, household financial wealth of CEE has grown
for the third year in a row, reaching aproximately 600 bilion euros which means
an increase of 14%. Household financial wealth continued to represent only 57%
from GDP, comparing with 206% level in the euro area.

The dynamic growth in households’ financial wealth of the region was
strongly sustained by the performance of their economies, increased asset price
and by the accumulation of the funds in pensions structures.
Since the year 2000, the GDP has registered accelerated growth rates
because of the grate domestic demand, particularly in the Baltic states (10%) and
in Slovakia, Romania and Russia. Also, great economic growth has increased the
households’ income recording strong growth in average. The accumulation of
new financial savings continued to record great rhythms, even after the
investments in real assets. Stock market went up on average by approximately
40%, due to an expanded external demand.

The increase of financial wealth was stimulated by the new savings and
pension systems (20 % of total growth). Due to these factors, household’s
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financial wealth reached 583 billion euros. So, household’s financial wealth
represented only 57 % of GDP in Central European Countries compared to Euro
area level of 206 %. The most substantial growth was registered in Croatia,
Poland, and Slovenia. In absolute terms, wealth creation was solid in fast growing
countries like Bulgaria, Romania and Russia (over 25 % in 2006).
In 2006, the lending activity was high; the household debit was with 33 %
higher than previous year. The boom in credit growth was sustained by good
liquidity and economic access to credit markets. Thus, financial liabilities in the
period of 2000 - 2006 doubled as a percentage of GDP.
One of the most visible effects of these favorable economic conditions
and the growth of household’s liabilities is the trend in net wealth. After an
increase of net wealth for 6 years, after 2005 it decreased slightly and got
stabilized. The stable net financial wealth penetration ratio is the effect of
increasing household preferences for real estate investments rather than lower
saving rates. Because of high demand for dwellings financed by mortgages, the
net financial wealth recorded a lower accumulation trend. It means that
households are continuing to save at the regional level, but their saving capacity is
redirected towards real estate market.
The process of a gradual switch from traditional toward alternative and
specialized products made further progress in the CEE region last year, helped by
strong increases in asset prices and a strong performance of the local capital
markets.
Increasing diversification of households’ holdings came in the context of
generally low deposit rates and high returns, underpinned by very lively stock
market activity. While traditional deposits continued to lose ground, equities and
mutual funds benefited the most.
The weight of equities over total household financial wealth increased by
almost 1% in one year, from 6,8 % to 7,9 % at the regional level. A similar
pattern was also observed in the dynamic of mutual funds, which was driven by
an intensified search for higher yields and pressures from the supply side
following the launch of several new funds in the market.
The increasingly stable macroeconomic environment also has a positive
effect on the insurance business. The industry is benefiting in particular from
economic growth, as the demand for insurance in these countries has been rising
faster than incomes. Faster growth especially in the segment of life insurance
products persists in those countries, where a fully reformed pension system is not
yet in place, as is the case in Romania (to be launched starting from 2008),
Slovenia, Turkey and, to a lesser extent, the Czech Republic (where a sizeable
third-pillar scheme has been in place for years).
Financial penetration on the assets side is more than matched by
increasing financial deepening of households on the liabilities side, with strong
demand for both mortgages and consumer credit. Credit expansion continues to
be grounded all over the region on an environment of strong economic growth
- 258 -
and generally falling inflation and interest rates. The transition process and EU
convergence suggest increasing demand especially for durables (given the low
ownership levels compared to west European countries), as income growth
expectations lead to an inter-temporal consumption smoothing. At the same time,
even though the average regional home ownership rate is quite high (69 per cent,
compared to 70 per cent at the Euro area level), housing investment demand (new
or restructuring) is increasing as incomes rise and rates decline, with old
apartments, built mostly in the socialist era, generally small and of poor quality.
On top of that, a positive one-off effect from demographical trends (baby boom
generation) is now adding to housing demand. The fast expansion in the level of
households’ indebtedness takes place in the context of fast rising housing prices,
which magnify the wealth effect and the households’ borrowing capacity as non-
financial assets are used as collateral.
CONCLUSIONS
If we take into account a longer period of time, it appears important
regional differences. In Bulgaria, Poland, Slovenia and Croatia, the investment in
housing and current consumption have not got fully crowded out financial wealth
accumulation. In the rest of the region was recorded a declining trend in net
wealth over GDP in the considered period. In the Czech Republic and Hungary,
this trend is due to a strong preference for real assets. Rapid expansion of
mortgages in Czech Republic was stimulated by a low interest rate environment
and in Hungary by attractive terms of FX loans. In Romania and Slovakia, both
net wealth are registering a declining trend, meaning that individuals are
increasingly wants to improve their living standards, benefiting from good
economic prospects.
The recent fast growth in household credit can still be considered an
equilibrium phenomenon, in which household credit soars rapidly from extremely
low levels as a consequence of increasing financial penetration and economic
convergence towards EU standards. From this perspective, it can be a driver of
long term growth for the economy. However, this does not imply that the process
is free from risks.
Banking institutions are forecasting some decline in the net-wealth-over-
GDP and in the corrected-net-wealth-over-GDP ratios in the 2007 – 2009 period
in Hungary, Romania and Russia. In Hungary, this may be explained largely as an
attempt of individuals to preserve their standards of living in a period of sluggish
economic performance by resorting increasingly to personal credits. In Romania,
consumer confidence regarding future economic stability is driving a high
demand for loans to finance not only house purchases or renovation but also the
acquisition of durable goods in an attempt to improve living conditions. However,
the expected development of households’ incomes suggests an increasing
vulnerability to adverse shocks as highlighted by the strong increase in both the
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BACK
leverage ratio (i.e. financial liabilities over financial wealth) and in household
debt over GDP, yet without generating systemic problems. A similar pattern is
also expected in the case of Russia, although any conclusion regarding the
average behavior of households should be taken with care given the marked
polarization of incomes.
Appetite for consumer/personal loans will also remain high throughout
the region, given the low level of durables ownership and the desire for a rapid
convergence towards higher living standards among the population. Nevertheless,
a more marked deceleration in the pace of growth of consumer loans may
materialize in some countries in the near future, given the already high level of
cumulated debt, even compared to the more developed west European market-as
clearly shown by a level of penetration of personal loans in terms of GDP that is
already in line with the Euro area.
REFERENCES
New Europe Households’ Wealth and Debt Monitor, May 2007, Published by UniCredit
Group/Bank Austria Creditanstalt Aktiengesellschaft
Banking in CEE and the role of international players, UniCredit New Europe Research Network,
July 2006
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BACK
ASPECTS OF HOUSEHOLDS’ FINANCIAL WEALTH IN

ROMANIA
D. DONOSA, Şt. GAVRIL
The pace of financial wealth accumulation continued to be sustained as

a fact of the favourable macro-conditions generated by a wealth effect because of
very strong stock market performance. On this background, increasing asset
holding by household was accompanied by a faster expansion of the level of the
indebtedness, leading to a reduction of net wealth rate over GDP. The rate of
financial wealth accumulation was sustained but high demand for both consmer
and mortgages loans is negatively affecting the evolution of net wealth over GDP
lowering it. Despite of the dominance of traditional savings products, it is
anticipated an increased potential of investments funds and of pension reform
system. The risks generated by the population are growing and also the incomes,
financial assets becoming more liquid and the credit concentration and the rate
of credit repayment delaying is dimishing. But the population financial risk
remains high, though the value of the real estate assets holdings has raised solely
because of the price but not of the quantity, financial assets being more liquid,
and the risk evolution is mixted, financial liabilities presenting a superior risk
profile. The risks of population indebtness is due to consuming goods loans for
longer terms. Because of these evolutions the value of the assets from loans is
depreciating more faster than loan repyment, negatively affecting the population
wealth. Concerning the population rate of indebtness speaking in terms of
dynamic this has generated two main risks: debt service has raised with a very
rapid pace and the position of net creditor of the population has significantly
lowered. The most promising segment remains long term vehicles and in
particular pension funds. It is expected that assests managed by pension funds to
increase in the next years. Retail loans growth was impressive in 2006 expanding
for the last two years by more than three times in absolute terms.

Regarding the accumulation of financial assets, it continues to increase
for 2006 reaching about 23 % from GDP. This is due to good economic
conditions that led to improved conditions on labour market, combination of low
tax rate and higher wages, and to increased remittances of romanian workers from
abroad. Adding the rise in share prices and high returns of mutual investments
fund.
On the other hand, increased asset holdings by population was followed
by a important expansion in the level of indebtedness reaching 12 % of GDP 2006
compared to 8 % in 2005. It means an increase of 80 % for the second year in a
row. This is the result of increased acces to credit, improved financial conditions
and of a strong need for durables and dwellings. For the next period of time,
because of high demand for both consumer and mortgage loans it is expected to
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affect negatively the accumulation of net financial wealth. Dynamic growth will
be sustained by the potential of real estate market and the faster increase for
mortgage loans compared to personal loans.

The composition of household’s gross financial wealth is formed by large
share of cash, close 13 % compared to around 3 % in the euro area is indicating a
low level of bancarization Traditional bank deposits continue to play an important
role accounting more than half of total wealth. Deposits in foreign currency
increased with 31 % being insensitive to the strong appreciation of the local
currency. This is the result of large amount of cash remittances from the
Romanian workers from abroad. Individual investments in shares at stock
exchange represent more than 25 % of total wealth overtaking the less developed
mutual funds market. It is expected that deposits will expand more due to the
favorable macro/conditions and increasing real returns sustained by receding
inflation.
The rate of financial wealth accumulation was sustained but high demand
for both consmer and mortgages loans is negatively affecting the evolution of net
wealth over GDP lowering it. Despite of the dominance of traditional savings
products, it is anticipated an increased potential of investments funds and of
pension reform system. The risks generated by the population are growing and
also the incomes, financial assets becoming more liquid and the credit
concentration and the rate of credit repayment delaying is dimishing. But the
population financial risk remains high, though the value of the real estate assets
holdings has raised solely because of the price but not of the quantity, financial
assets being more liquid, and the risk evolution is mixted, financial liabilities
presenting a superior risk profile. The risks of population indebtness is due to
consuming goods loans for longer terms. Because of these evolutions the value of
the assets from loans is depreciating more faster than loan repyment, negatively
affecting the population wealth. Concerning the population rate of indebtness
speaking in terms of dynamic this has generated two main risks: debt service has
raised with a very rapid pace and the position of net creditor of the population has
significantly lowered. The most promising segment remains long term vehicles
and in particular pension funds. It is expected that assests managed by pension
funds to increase in the next years. Retail loans growth was impressive in 2006
expanding for the last two years by more than three times in absolute terms.
The decreasing trend of money market rates expected in the forthcoming
periods will cause an increasing number of risk adverse households to invest in
the stock exchange and equity investments funds in search of higher returns. As a
result, listed shares and especially mutual funds are expected to keep expanding at
a fast pace in 2007, despite some impact of the recent turmoil in international
financial markets, with the rate of growth moderating only slightly in the
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following years. Although the relevance of mutual funds is still rather low in total
households portfolios, we expect they will gain in importance supported by future
developments in the Romanian financial market pointing to an yearly average
growth of 61 % over the next three years.
The most promising segment definitely remains long-term vehicles and in
particular pension funds. As of the beginning of 2008, a fully funded mandatory
pension system started to operate in addition to the recently reformed voluntary
pension scheme. In the interval from August to December, employees aged up to
35 joined one of the private mandatory pension funds. Contributions to the fund
have been fixed at 2 % for the first year, increasing by a yearly 0.5 % to reach 6
% after eight years. Despite the higher contribution rate, voluntary pension funds
will be less representative, given the lower number of contributors relative to the
2nd mandatory pension scheme. Some further delay may occur due to
imperfections in the process of transferring funds from state to private institutions
(as happened in the case of Poland), as recently declared by the National House of
Pensions and Other Social Insurance Rights (CNPAS) authorities. Overall, we
expect assets managed by pension funds (both 2nd and 3rd pillars) to increase by
54 % in 2009 from around EUR 0.3 billions in 2008.
Retail loans experienced impressive growth of 81 % in 2006, expanding
over the last two years by more than three times in absolute terms. Fast expansion
in the stock of debt continues to be stimulated by the ongoing high growth in
private consumption and positive expectations regarding further increase in the
level of permanent income. The attractiveness of loans denominated in foreign
currency remained high throughout 2006, sustained in part by the strong
appreciation of the RON. Increasing risks to financial stability stemming from
potentially negative shocks affecting the household sector (especially in
connection with rising exposure to FX risk) prompted the Central Bank to further
tighten requirements for the reserve ratio on foreign-currency denominated
credits. This measure proved to be quite effective, resulting in a significant
decline in the share of FX denominated loans to below 40 % of total liabilities at
the end of last year. Despite strong lending activity of the non-bank financial
institutions and expanding leasing activity (86 % connected to the car segment),
bank loans still represent 95 % of total household indebtedness. The small share
of non-bank financial liabilities is due to the fact that these institutions started to
focus on the retail market only recently. In the years to come, we do not expect
any significant changes in this respect as the newly introduced NBR regulation
forcing other financial intermediaries (OFIs) to fulfill the same regulatory
requirements as banks may reduce opportunities in this segment of the market.
In the short term, Romanian households are expected to show an ongoing
high propensity to take out consumer loans, considering the low level of durables
ownership. As a result, the growth in consumer lending will again outpace
mortgage growth in 2007. This trend should reverse, however, as of 2009.
Consumer lending is expected to moderate to an average yearly growth of 35 % in
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BACK
the forecasted period. Overall, growth in household liabilities is expected to

decelerate to 34 % year to year in the 2007 – 2009 period.
CONCLUSIONS
The pace of financial wealth accumulation continued to be sustained as a
fact of the favourable macro-conditions generated by a wealth effect because of
very strong stock market performance. On this background, increasing asset
holding by household was accompanied by a faster expansion of the level of the
indebtedness, leading to a reduction of net wealth rate over GDP.
For the next period of time, because of high demand for both consumer
and mortgage loans it is expected to affect negatively the accumulation of net
financial wealth. Dynamic growth will be sustained by the potential of real estate
market and the faster increase for mortgage loans compared to personal loans.
The risks generated by the population are growing and also the incomes,
financial assets becoming more liquid and the credit concentration and the rate of
credit repayment delaying is dimishing. But the population financial risk remains
high, though the value of the real estate assets holdings has raised solely because
of the price but not of the quantity, financial assets being more liquid, and the risk
evolution is mixted, financial liabilities presenting a superior risk profile. The
risks of population indebtness is due to consuming goods loans for longer terms.
Because of these evolutions the value of the assets from loans is depreciating
more faster than loan repyment, negatively affecting the population wealth.
Concerning the population rate of indebtness speaking in terms of dynamic this
has generated two main risks: debt service has raised with a very rapid pace and
the position of net creditor of the population has significantly lowered. The most
promising segment remains long term vehicles and in particular pension funds. It
is expected that assests managed by pension funds to increase in the next years.
Retail loans growth was impressive in 2006 expanding for the last two years by
more than three times in absolute terms.
Retail loans experienced impressive growth of 81 % in 2006, expanding
over the last two years by more than three times in absolute terms. Fast expansion
in the stock of debt continues to be stimulated by the ongoing high growth in
private consumption and positive expectations regarding further increase in the
level of permanent income
REFERENCES
New Europe Households’ Wealth and Debt Monitor, May 2007, Published by UniCredit
Group/Bank Austria Creditanstalt Aktiengesellschaft
Banking in CEE and the role of international players, UniCredit New Europe Research Network,
July 2006
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BACK
DILEMMAS IN DESIGNING PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

SYSTEMS
C-tin IATCO, Gabriela IGNAT
Investment in human resources represents an essential condition for

sustaining the competitiveness of any organisation.
In a context of ever-changing circumstances, the company success is
dependent, to a great extent, on the view that the personnel and especially the
manager have of the idea of efficiency by utilising available resources to their
maximum potential. The appraisal of professional performance consists of the
process of determining the manner and the extent to which employees fulfil their
duties and responsibilities related to the job they occupy compared with the
established standards, and communicating the findings to employees1.
A more detailed definition regards the performance appraisal system as
the whole range of methods, techniques and procedures which help to quantify
the individual or the group contribution and relate to the company performance.
It also includes the design of the programmes that assist the appraisal process.
The way in which the appraisal is conducted and the concrete manner of
tracking the effects (feedback) exercise considerable influence on the organisational
environment. Performance appraisal subsequently provides an opportunity to assess
the progress of the entity under consideration, this being the only way to verify
whether the organisation is on the right track to achieve its objectives.

The importance of appraisal resides equally in that it provides in a
practical manner a consistent attitude in relation to the entity’s strategies, which
results in a consolidation of and compliance with the organisational culture, with
visible effects in terms of productivity.
In the current economic environment, the concept requires a different
approach; otherwise the success of an entity consists in its capacity to adapt to
circumstances2.
The key elements on which are based the criteria for evaluating the
methods of assuring success have migrated towards labour productivity,
profitability, development, adaptability, planning, information management,
human resources value, and action planning. As a consequence, the specific time
allotted to a performance control or audit task is divided as follows:
1
A. Rotaru, A. Prodan: Managementul resurselor umane, Editura Sedcom Libris, Iaşi,
1998, page 195.
2
Gh. Bakacsi, A. Bokor, ş.m.d.: Stratégiai emberi eröforrás me riedzsment, Közgazdasági
es Jagi Könykiadó, Budapest, 1999, pag. 184
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• preparing the action 60%;

• carrying out the action 20%;
• quality analysis 20%.

The control of management has become a necessity, yet it is important to
note that the focus is on identifying the causes of failures to comply with
standards and programmes and not their motivation as was the case in the past.
J. Child has highlighted the existence of four types of control, namely:
centralised control, bureaucratic control, output control and cultural control3.
Chief among them is cultural control as it generates complete autonomy for each
member of the organisation who enjoys full rights, with a single condition, that
the employees of the entity in question all have similar characteristics in terms of
skills and as regards their attitude to work and values.
1. GOALS AND OBJECTIVES OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL

The practice of the big international companies has demonstrated that
where cultural control is exercised there are significant reductions in expenses on
activity supervision, as adjustment occurs automatically; this attitude has
generated medium and short-term advantages in relation to entities which are
managed according to anachronistic, outdated principles.
In these companies, performance appraisal has two important roles to
play, as follows:
• its first role is to classify or categorize the strategies and inform the
employees thereof;
• its second role consists in the transformation into an adjustment tool,
in this particular case the aim of the incentive and reward systems
being to subsequently strengthen adaptation rather than being the
chief intermediary of adaptation.
The goals of performance appraisal can be classified into several
categories, among which there are five that we consider to be particularly
noteworthy:
• notification regarding labour law;
• access to information related to business planning;
• data on human resources management;
• ascertaining the need to upgrade skills;
• personnel evaluation for administrative purposes.
3
J.Child: Organization: A Guide to Problems and Practice, Harper and Low, New York,
1984.
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In brief, one can argue that it is important for every employee to know
their prospects of promotion, how salaries are distributed, how posts are
organised, considering the limited resources, how human resources are planned
and in particular how the quality of human resource services is evaluated.
To achieve these goals, a series of guidelines have been identified, based
on performance standards, referring to the job requirements, the scope of work
duties, staff behaviour, self-assessment methods, handling complaints, reviewing
techniques. For reasons of objectivity, it is customary to resort to several
evaluators and not just one, in order to remove any internal or external bias.
In establishing the objectives of the appraisal a key role is played by the
analysis of the interests of the parties, i. e. the appraisers and the appraisee; in
general, opinion is influenced by organisational culture and one’s own values and
norms that guide one’s actions.
In view of the above, objectives can be classified in the following
categoires:
• objectives of the appraisee;
• objectives related to human relations and their interdependence;
• objectives strictly referring to the managed unit;
• internal objectives of personnel.
Objectives are usually established by taking into consideration the results
of the previous period; most managers have a tendency to increase the level of
performance, being of the opinion that past results will be anyway exceeded; this
is an anachronistic tendency because it is necessary first to try to maintain the
current levels and then aim for increased performance in agreement with the
unit’s strategy and the team’s level.
Eventually one is left to realise that the appraisal has been conducted in
agreement with the manager’s own opinions about the causes of unsatisfactory
results, while measures are influenced by the proportion of external and internal
influences, in such a case the objectives being focused more on professional
background than on the analysis of the actual skills and attitude of personnel.
The manager is very close to falling in the bias trap when he is overly
concerned with his own image and judges according to his own values. On the
contrary, if a manager has a participatory character or outlook and acts in a fair
manner, valuing the employee’s character and education, then he will definitely
strive to ensure well-organised quality-based feedback.
In such a situation, the appraisees will seek to obtain or provide
information to the manager and express their willingness to participate in
enhancing performance; the appraisees will then wait for the effect of their actions
(feedback) to make out their position, within or outside the manager’s close circle,
to learn the manager’s opinion of them, the potential for promotion, the position
in the entity’s ranking, and the unit’s prospects for development.
In some cases (when weak results are recurrent), the manager tends to
assign the negative results to internal dysfunctions, in a particularly biased
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manner, effectively overlooking the role and importance of external factors, due
to the fundamental attribution error4.
2. DECLARED OBJECTIVES AND PRIVATE OBJECTIVES

Another highly important issue for the manager in establishing the
objectives of performance appraisal is the double position he occupies, namely as
a consultant and also as a judge. In this respect, we consider it useful to make
clear the distinction between the publicly declared and the private objectives, as
well as the connections between them, given that they are rarely present
simultaneously in an appraisal system.
As a general rule, the design of an appraisal system will prove to be easier
when there are no differences between the declared and the private objectives, as
there have been cases when certain undeclared objectives were misunderstood by
the concerned parties, even though their influence was negative on the publicly
declared objectives.
Such situations occurred when it was attempted, to ensure good relations
with the participants in the appraisal, in an artificial manner, thus incurring the
unrealised risk of undermining the evaluation, because its key objectives are
overlooked along the way.
As regards the declared objectives, they include, on the one hand:
performance improvement, the analysis of potential, the assessment of
development needs and of professional training, the evaluation of the need for
certain organisational changes; and on the other, after a phase of preliminary
application for test purposes, the proposed objectives are: gathering information
on individual performance, communication at management level, process review,
human resources planning, ultimately one of the publicly declared objectives
being to control the efficiency of the entire appraisal system.
Undeclared objectives may include the following: strengthening one’s
leadership position, finding information on presumed problem areas, eliminating
non-compliant behaviour, appease internal tensions, reducing stress, consolidating
good relations with higher-level management, securing special rewards, on the
one hand; on the other hand, undeclared objectives comprise: the validation of
norms, assisting the hiring of personnel, consolidating one’s power.
To sum up, we can say that in order to identify certain relevant objectives,
it is necessary to establish the priorities and thus avoid conflicts between the two,
and to assess their contribution to medium and long-term programmes and equally
to boost fellowship and mutual trust among employees.
4
The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to emphasise the role of temperament
developing situational explanations (G. Johns: Comportament Organizaţional, Editura
Economică, 1998).
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3. RELATIONSHIPS OF PERFORMANCE APPRAISAL WITH OTHER

ORGANISATIONAL SYSTEMS
There is no perfect system of appraising performance, yet it is considered
necessary that the system be integrated in the processes of economic planning, in
full agreement with the human resources management system (from hiring,
through selection to dismissal), with the information system and the incentive and
reward system.
The process of integration or implementation of individual objectives and
of the entity’s objectives is achieved through two processes. The former is a top-
down process (decentralisation of objectives down to the individual level), the
latter being bottom-up (aligning personal interests to the development objectives).
Recruitment interviews must be scheduled during convenient, less busy
periods of activity, in order not to negatively impact on ongoing activity, while
final assessment must be performed towards the end of the planned activities.
This can be done only by people who have experience in identifying adequate
strategy, and who know when and how to carry out the appraisal.
A prerequisite for building a well-developed human resource system is to
set up a high-performing computer-based information system. The human
resources information system is an organised set of procedures and methods, used
to retrieve, process, store and transmit the data required for decision-making and
decision implementation in the area of human resources5.
A H. R. computerised information system must be able to provide the
required data for carrying out any analysis in all contexts and not only for
ongoing work related to salary, incentives, pay rolls, etc.
CONCLUSIONS
In Romania, the real issue is the lack of human resource databases or the
impossibility of correlating data on performance appraisal with data specific to
other relevant areas; this important impediment can be solved with the help of
modelling techniques.
The objective of the functional modelling technique is to fully and
accurately identify the functions of the business that are key to the sustainability
of the organisation or of a part of the organisation, in order to contribute to
meeting its objectives; the fundamental terms used in functional modelling are:
functional breakdown, functional classification, the business function, the basic
business function, the main function, the common function, the event6 .
5
R. Mathis, P. Nica, C.Rusu, coord.: Managementul resurselor umane, Editura
Economică, Bucharest, 1997, page 377.
6
O. Brudaru, C. Iaţco, M.Vieru: elemente de baze de date şi tehnici de analiză, Editura
Performantica, Iaşi, 2007, page 91.
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BACK
Therefore, knowing the official and unofficial structure of the

organization is a key element in the process of analysis involved in developing the
system and will provide crucial information for the planning and implementation
of the transfer to a new system.
The current study was intended as an attempt, from a strategic
perspective, at highlighting the current shift in the traditional approach of human
resource management from its focus on functional specialization to an integrative
approach, based on understanding the challenges of the internal and external
environment in order to support the company’s overall strategy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. A.Rotaru, A.Prodan: Managementul resurselor umane, Editura Sedcom Libris, Iaşi, 1998, page
195.
2. Gh. Bakacsi, A. Bokor, ş.m.d.: Stratégiai emberi eröforrás me riedzsment, Közgazdasági es
Jagi Könykiadó, Budapest, 1999, page 184
3. J.Child: Organization: A Guide to Problems and Practice, Harper and Low, New York, 1984.
4. Eroarea de atribuire fundamentală este tendinţa de a accentua explicaţiile temperamentale ale
comportamentului în dezvoltarea explicaţiilor situaţionale (G. Johns: Comportament
Organizaţional, Editura Economică, 1998).
5. R. Mathis, P. Nica, C.Rusu, coord.: Managementul resurselor umane, Editura Economică,
Bucureşti, 1997, page377.
6. O. Brudaru, C. Iaţco, M.Vieru: elemente de baze de date şi tehnici de analiză, Editura
Performantica, Iaşi, 2007, page 91.
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BACK
PERFORMANCE-RELATED PAY AND SKILL AND

COMPETENCY-BASED PAY
C-tin IATCO, Gabriela IGNAT
Performance-related pay is the process of providing a financial reward or

one that is measurable in financial terms, in direct relation to individual
performance, or that of the group or the organisation.1 Pay related to performance is
not the requisite consequence of the latter; practice has indeed demonstrated that in
many entities its results are not used for management purposes.
For example, in an English university, one of the objectives of
performance appraisal is to identify the need for development of the teaching and
administrative staff, the results of performance appraisal not being taken into
consideration when salaries are calculated. The focus is basically on whether
pay is adequately justified and whether it can lead to improved performance.

The article deals with one method of remunerating employees –
performance-related pay – focusing on its benefits, the scope of its application
and also its limitations

The main objective of the entity that uses this system of paying salaries
(payment in cash and related remuneration) is ultimately to increase performance,
as a result of improved competencies and the employees’ own effort.
To meet its objectives, the entity must be constantly focused on:
• increasing the level of engagement and identification with the
organisation;
• determining those aspects of performance that ensure the success of
the entity;
• coordinating effort and focusing attention on the required direction;
• engaging all employees, including those whom the entity most needs
or on whom it depends on;
• establishing a flexible salary system, in agreement with the
organisation’s objectives, that can facilitate the adjustment of pay to
costs, when necessary.
One long-established theory, which has turned into a kind of conviction,
is that money motivates. This deterministic view is the result of applying the
1
M. Armstrong, H. Murlis, Reward Management, Kogan Page, London, 1996, pg. 247.
- 271 -
principles of scientific management as promoted by F. W. Taylor2 who

maintained that: “It is impossible to cause a worker, over an extended period of
time, to work more than the average person around him, unless one gives him
substantial and constant”.
Another, more elevated argument for the importance of money as an
incentive was asserted by the instrumentalist theory, which stated that given that
money can suggest intangible targets their power is particularly stimulating. One
must stress that money acts upon the human person in different ways, depending
on several aspects, from one’s genetic background to one’s cultural level.
Various studies have been carried out in this area; prominent specialists
such as L. Porter and E. Lawler have stated that money is represents a measure of
the value of the individual, as each person considers that this is indicative of the
appreciation of the company where he works.We consider that pay related to each
person’s contribution is much fairer; it is not recommended that pay be based only
on the fact that the employee turned up at work.
This pay system also manages to deflect the risk of the interference of
competition in attracting the work force, without a clearly competitive and fair
system.In what follows, we have considered it necessary to make a series of
clarifications to eliminate the confusion between the concepts of incentive and
reward. The distinctions between the two concepts are obvious: incentives are
established ahead of action, whereas rewards are given after the action was
performed.
Financial incentives or of other kind (fully taxed) are established in
advance, constitute a source of extra motivation for personnel at all levels to meet
the performance levels and feature clear categorisation in terms of measurements
and time.
Rewards are given after the fixed objectives have been achieved, in
recognition of the effort made in addition to ordinary duties, based on the fairness
principle.M. Laugley formulated a series of 5 rules3 for the remuneration of
employees in relation to performance criteria:
1. Individuals and teams must have a clear picture of the required goals
and performance standards, regardless of their type;
2. Employees must be capable of monitoring performance in relation to
the tasks and standards used to evaluate performance, throughout the period;
3. They must be in a position to influence performance and modify their
behaviour and decisions accordingly;
4. Employees must be aware of the rewards that they will be offered after
they have obtained the projected outcomes
2
F.W.Taylor, Priciples of Scientific Management, Harper, New York, 1911.
3
M. Armstrong, op. cit., pg. 253.
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5. Rewards must be substantial enough for the effort to be worthwhile and

they must be transmitted in a positive manner.
The proposed pay system must be adjusted to the organisational needs in
order to create the conditions for the development of the organisation at a superior
level of performance. For that reason, before the implementation of the pay
system, it is necessary to study the entity’s strategies, the specific management
methods, techniques and procedures, focusing on the individual and collective
performance criteria.Practice has shown that the evaluation of the possibilities of
successfully implementing the performance-related pay system depends on the
nature of the organisation system, i. e. entreprenorial or participatory, on
condition that the objectives be agreed upon by both the employees and the
management.
Although in Romania the system based on the equality of pay is largely
preserved, lately, following the accession to the European Union, the large
companies have introduced performance-related pay. In this manner, the
management of change has become acutely important in the economic sector.
The research of specialist papers has exposed a unique situation, namely
the analysis carried out by F. Trompenaars and CH. Hampden-Turner4 on the
effects of cultural difference in over 50 countries, which has provided important
data on the features of Romanian organisational culture.
Thus, among the more than 30,000 interviewed participants, over 80% of
Romanians opted for the variant of individualism, the following elements being
particularly prominent:
a) the tendency towards universalism;
b) awarding status according to social background;
c) the option to control the forces of nature instead of considering the actual
state of nature.
Paradoxically, Romanians claimed to be in favour of pay grading in
relation to professional competence and work results, as an alternative to
egalitarianism and seniority; other statistics and analyses have indicated however
that the causes of high unemployment lie specifically in the lack of professional
competence, insufficient perseverance and promotion on extra-professional
criteria.In order to promote the performance-related pay system, the large
companies or public institutions have taken into consideration in designing their
development strategies the elements that generate increased quality, innovation
based on the latest technologies and best practices in their respective fields of
activity, so that the pay system be adapted in accordance with management
processes.
4
F. Trompenaars, CH. Hampden-Turner, Riding the Waves of Culture, Nicholas Brealew
Publishing, London, 2000.
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Consequently, in an entity organised and adjusted for the production of

goods using high-end assembly lines, it would certainly not be recommended to
decide that pay be made individually; on the other hand, if in such a company
work is distributed among several units, holding productivity as their basic
indicator, then a pay system based on shared team work is applicable.
In economic entities where production depends on orders that are
delivered immediately (to avoid the accumulation of stocks), payment can be
made on the basis of direct results correlated with the reduction of returned poor
quality items, going as far as offering a share in the distribution of profit.
One must note that in such companies the basic indicator for quantifying
results is the operating profit.
CONCLUSIONS
In highly automated enterprises, where the principle of total quality
management is applied, incentives can be particularly efficient for those who
propose solutions for the effective adjustment of machines to context or market
demands, which requires that the proposed system be sufficiently equipped from
the start; in other words, the upgrading expenses must be significantly lower than
the expenditure required to replace old machinery.
On the other hand, individual incentives must not lead employees to
discard team work spirit, which would ultimately cancel competitiveness; the
design of a performance-related system must always take into account the fact
that individual achievements contribute eventually to the increased performance
of the whole team.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. M. Armstrong, H. Murlis, Reward Management, Kogan Page, London, 1996, pg. 247.
2. F. W. Taylor, Priciples of Scientific Management, Harper, New York, 1911.
3. F. Trompenaars, CH. Hampden-Turner, Riding the Waves of Culture, Nicholas Brealew
Publishing, London, 2000.
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BACK
RESEARCHES ABOUT THE BLOOD BIOCHEMICAL

CONSTANTS MODIFICATION AT RABBIT DEPENDING
ON AGE
Roxana LAZĂR, P.C. BOIŞTEANU, M. LAZĂR
With rabbits patients, as in other species, analysing blood and urine

samples can be useful and informative, although interpretation of the results is
some times challenging.
The present study summarizes the interpretation of laboratory results
from rabbits. Haematological parameters can yield information about the red
cell population and leukocyte response to stress and pathogens. Biochemistry
evaluation can be used to investigate liver,kidney,and other organ function, and
urinalysis results may yield additional informationabout kidney function and
electrolyte imbalances.
This study was effected on a number of 12 rabbits. Food diet was made for
each category of rabbits that were taken in study, and there was made
haematological (WBC, RBC, HGB, HCT, PLT, MCV, MCH, MCHC) and
biochemical (glucose, cholesterol, triglycerides, urea, creatinine, total proteines,
amylase, alkaline phosphatase, calcium, iron, magnesium, ALT, AST)
determinations.
The obtained results belong to a research program from wich are
presented partial results of young rabbits in comparison with pregnants dams.
Key words: rabbits, haematological and biochemical values.
Blood it’s a complex who contains a variety of organic and anorganic

substances, being supposed a mesenchimal tissue made of fundamental substance
(sanguine plasma) and differential cells (figurate elements), who circulate through
artery, veins and capillary at animals and humans.
Blood system fulfill in organism functions so as cooperation between
figurate elements and some plasmatic constituents, as well with collaboration with
respiratory, digestive, excretory and neuro-endocrine apparatus.
Biochemical components of blood can be used for the interpretation of
nutrients quality, hematological compounds being very important in
monitorisation of food toxicity, especially of that who affects blood elements.
The dates from hematological and biochemical exams are used in
correlation, for the diagnostic the blood and haematopoietic organs diseases, or
some general diseases or some organ disease and also of some sub clinical phases.

The study was made on a number of six individs, raised in metal hutches.
Food diet was made for each class of individs taken in study. Nutritive norms for
the gestant female has assured the needful for individe/day of 150-200 g S.U.,
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PBD 30-35 g, 1,6 g Ca and 1,0 g P. For the young ones there was used rations of
food who assured 170 – 200g S.U, 27-30g PBD, 1,0g Ca, 0,7g P.
Figura 1. Tehnica de recoltare a probelor de la materialul biologic folosit
Figura 2. Tehnica de efectuare şi colorare a frotiurilor
Hematological and biochemical determinations were made in Physiology

laboratory of Breeding (Zootechny) Faculty Iasi.
RESULTS
The breeding technologies used leaded to a management changes in
animal exploiting, in this way more unconventional nutrients are used on large
scale. Aliments with higher content in carbon hydrates and less balanced in
proteins, vitamins and minerals.
The modification of homeostasis stability leeds to some disturbing, but
not always clinical manifested, witch determines some difficulty in establishing
the diagnostic.
Knowing the energetic needs for the asiguration of vital functions, it is
justified by the asiguration of the energetic metabolic needs of the organism and
also of the limits who can provide the reproduction, breeding and the growth.
- 276 -
The glucose it is indispensable for the good process of the cellular activity
(especially in nervous system), involve the utilization of glucids as a economical
form and as a available sources of power.
For of a diagnostication of the optimum level of glycemies, the organism
has a perfect mechanism for cover necessary.
The pathology of the metabolism of glucides is adverted to these disorder
which mechanisms assure the check of the level of the glucose in blood.
The basic components of the cells, proteins, constitute, the elemental
substances for the development of vital phenomenon. Among the features of the
proteins is their variability, due to every species, individual, weaved, cell disposes
of a protean specific structure, severally.
The global deficiency in protein or in qualitative deficiency in amino
acids is can owed of a disturbances of contributions, of absorptions and of
utilization.
The results obtained are part of an research program from which we will
present the partial results of the youth rabbits and gestant females.
Biochemical range
Obtained
Obtained values values at
Parameters UM Range values
at pregnant females youth
rabbits
Glucose mg/dl 75-140 34
mmol/l 4,2-8,9 7,3
Cholesterol mg/dl 10-80 40 16
mmol/l 0,1-2,0
Trigliycerides mg/dl 26-145 289
mmol/l 1,4-1,76 0,75
Urea mg/dl 38 20
mmol/l 9,1-25,5
Creatinine IU/l 140-372 0,7
Total protein g/dl 10-50 8,4 7,6
Amylase u/L 200-500 360 797,5
Alkaline u/L 10-70 34 40
phosphatase
Total Calcium mg/dl 5,5-12,5 10,0 12,0
mmol/l 3,0-5,0
Ionic Calcium mg/dl 1,71 1,2 1,4
mmol/l
Iron mg/dl 33-40 30 34
mmol/l
Magnesium mg/dl 3,3
mmol/l 0,8-1,2 1,01
ALT IU/l 25-65 25,5 54
AST IU/l 10-90 18,5 120
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To youth, the power needfulness depends on the age and of the

thermoregulations needs. The level of the glucose to were of 34mg/dl, impose
value by the fact that the power deficit is frequent to youth in the period of
weaning, when is passed from the milk breeding on the vegetable breeding.
The urea is a good qualitative indicator of the protean metabolism
because delivers us information’s about the contribution of crude protein from
ration. To the youth rabbits has been obtained values of 20mg/dl comparative
with gestant female witch the level of urea was 38mg/dl.
The profile of the mineral didn’t registered modifications, the level of
calcium in serum is relative stable, depending on the exogenous contribution of
fodders. The magnesium, steps in the synthesis of the protein, amino acids and in
the capitalization of the glucose, having to youth a value of 3.3 mg/dl.
Blood value
Obtained
Haematological Obtained values
UM Range values vaues at youth
parameters at pregnant females
rabbits
Erytrocites 106/mm3 3,8-7,9 5,4 4,8
Hb g/dl 9,4-17,4 11,8 11,4
Ht % 36-48 38 36
Leukocytes 103/mm3 6-17 8,2 5,8
3 3
Eosinophils 10 /mm 0-6 0,1 0,2
Analyzing the hematological values obtained, as much to gestant and to

youth, it can be noticed as the value of the constants it’s feats in natural limits.
The number of erythrocytes, hematocrit and the hemoglobin, presents the
modifications depending on the alimentations. The one of the three haematic
parameters diminish the feather to the limits of the anemia till the end of winter
and beginning of the spring, but not because of the season, but by the reason of
the nutrition and the quality of the ingerate food.
The total number of leucocytes to the gestant females were of 8,2 x 103
3
/mm , value who comes down toward inferior values limit of the reference once
with the activation of the lactation.
Erythrocytes presents the values contained between 4.8 and 5.4, reduce of
the ingestion of the water can cause haemoconcentration , respectively rising
values of the erithrom.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. The number of leucocytes totals bred commensurable to the age, the gestant
females had leucocytemia raised.
2. Eusinophyls didn’t presented large variations depending on the physiological
state.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Ahamefule F. O. Eduok G.O. – Blood biochemistry and haematology of wener rabbits fed
sundried, ensiled and fermented cassava peel based diets. Pakistan Journal of Nutriţion 5(3):
248 – 252, 2006.
2. Michael l. Jennings - Volume-sensitive k+/cl cotransport in rabbit erytrocites: analysis of the
rate-limiting activation and inactivation events- The Journal of General Psyiology, vol 114,
number 6, december 1, 1999
3. Uko, O.J., A.M. Ataja and H.B. Tanko,– Weight gain, haematologz and blood chemistrz of
rabbits fed cereal offals. Sokoto J. Vet. Sci., 2: 18-26, 2000.
- 279 -
BACK
STUDY ON THE USE OF BIOLOGICALLY ACTIVE

PRODUCTS FOR THE DECONTAMINATION AND
DISINSECTION OF SWINE RAISING SHEDS
Doina LEONTE, Vasilica ONOFREI, C. LEONTE, A. GRUBER
The use of chemical products as main preventive mean in the sector of

animals-growth has as immediate effect the pollution of residual waters, but also
the abatement of the period of equipment exploitation caused by these
substances’ corrosiveness.
An alternative to chemical decontaminated mean is represented by
active biological products which are composed by anaerobe and aerobe micro-
organisms. These products can also be applied when animals are presented
having remarkable effects on the reduction of organic substances, ammonia
emanation and the elimination of insects from shelters. The present paper brings
in the effects of using this product in halls of pigs-keeping.
The use of biologically active products in profilactic actions from
zootechnical field presents the great advantage of ensuring a healthy and safe
raising environment for animals, in conditions that do not pollute the environment,
by the reduction of ammonia nitrogen with about 90%, by the removal of organic
crust with about 72% and by the reduction of insects in sheds.
Conclusively, by applying biologically active products, one gains an
important control over the pathogenic agents responsible for different endemic
diseases in zootechnical field.
The intensive exploitation of animals implies special measures of

decontamination and disinsection, during the breeding itself and also at the end of
this process.
For this purpose chemical substances are widely used because of their
strong acid effect.
The disadvantages brought about by the use of chemical substances refer
mainly to their strong polluting effect upon wastewaters, their remaining in sheds,
as well as their corrosiveness.
As it is well known, the ideal chemical substance, able to fullfil both
economic and ecological requirements, has not been created yet.
A non-polluting alternative for profilactic measures in zootechnical field
is represented by biologically active products; even though these products are
more expensive than chemical substances, they do not pollute the environment
and are not toxic to animals and humans.
Lately there appeared on the market a series of companies producing such
products. Among these companies worth mentioning is the BIOMA company,
which proposes the product Kopros-B/P – a mix of microorganisms obtained
through Selected spontaneous culture. .
Of all the microorganisms contained, an important role is played by
Aspergillus orizae which produce such enzymes like lipases, cellulases, proteases,
which are more active when the pH is lower in comparison to the corresponding
- 280 -
enzymes, significantly stretching therefore the field of activity of those enzymes,

determining and accelerating the oxido-reduction reactions degrading organic
compounds.
Kopros-B/P also contains Bacillus thuringensis in lyophilized form
which produces endotoxins (biotoxins) for insect control, by means of direct
interaction between its own biochemical complex with the metabolism of the
insect in larvar stage.
Moreover this product contains hydrolitic catalyzers, such as amylases,
which hydrate, liquify and digest the substrate containing amides, transforming it
into simple soluble sugars.
In order to test the efficiency of this product, it has been sprayed in a hog
raising shed, with a total capacity of 500 animals.
Initially the product as dissolved in a reduced quantity of warm water (35-
40º C), afterwards being poured in 400 l of cold water.
After one hour, the solution thus obained was uniformly sprayed (by
means of a pump) on the floor, the walls and the lattices.
In order to emphasize the effect of this product, sanitation samples were
taken before and after the treatment.
The analyses were made by standardized methods:
- The organic charge, expressed through the chemical consumption of oxygen,
was determined by the potassium bichromate method, according to the
Romanian standard SR ISO 6060/96;
- The organic charge, determined by the biochemical consumption of oxygen
every 5 days, was established according to standard SR EN 1899 2/2002;
- The amount of nitrogen (total, ammonia, nitrites and nitrates) was analysed
according to standard SR ISO 7150-1/2001.
The results of the test are shown in table 1.
Table 1 Results of the tests done before and after the

Kopros treatment
Result of the analysis
Analysed parametres Measure unit before the after the
treatment treatment
pH 7.43 8.74
SST * mg/l 12 153 3 380
EST ** mg/l 10 650 2 520
OBC5*** mgO2/l 14 359 6 151
OCC**** mgO2/l 16 388 9 158
Phosphorus mgP/l 152.7 86.1
NTK mgN/l 1 938.0 134.4
Ammonia nitrogen mg/lNH4 1 257.0 61.6
Total nitrogen mgN/l 1 938.0 134.4
Nitrates mgN/l < 0.5 < 0.5
Nitrites mgN/l 0.27 0.53
SST = solid substances total;** EST = essential substances total;
***OBC5 = oxygen biochemical consumption every 5 days;
****OCC = oxygen chemical consumption.
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After analysing these tests, the following results were obtained:

- the reduction of total solid substances (SST) with about 72% (fig.1);
- content decrease in total essential substances (EST) with about 24 %
(fig.2);
- content decrease in OBC5 with about 57% (fig.3);
- content decrease in OCC with about 44% (fig.4);
- reduction of total amount of phosphorus with about 44% (fig.5);
- significant reduction of total amount of nitrogen with about 93.1%,
and of ammonia nitrogen with about 95.1% (fig.6);
These results show that after the Kopros treatment all analysed indicators
reached parametres stipulated by the valid legislation.
14000
12000
12163
10000 before treatment
8000
mg/l
before treatment
6000
after treatment
4000
2000 3380
0
SST *
Fig. 1 Total solid substances before and after the Kopros treatment
12000
10000 10650
8000
beforee
mg/l
6000
treatment
4000 after tratment
2000 2520
0
EST **
Fig. 2 Total essential substances before and after the Kopros treatment
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20000
15000 beforee
14359
mg/l treatment
10000
after tratment
5000 6151
0
OBC5***
Fig. 3 The biochemical consumption of oxygen before and after the Kopros treatment
20000
15000 16388 beforee
treatment
mg/l 10000 9158 after tratment
5000
0
OCC****
Fig. 4 The chemical consumption of oxygen before and after the Kopros treatment
1400
1938 1200
2000
1000 1257 beforee
1500 beforee
800 treatment
mg/l
treatment
mg/l 1000 600
after tratment after treatment
500 134,4
400
0 200 61,6
NTK 0
Ammonianitrogen
Fig.5 The level of total nitrogen and ammonia nitrogen before and after Kopros B/P
treatment
- 283 -
BACK
mg P/l
200
150
152,7
100
86,1
50
0
Fosfor
inainte de tratament
dupa tratament
Fig.6 The level of phosphorus before and after Kopros B/P treatment
CONCLUSIONS
- The use of biologically active products in profilactic actions from
zootechnical field presents the great advantage of ensuring a healthy and safe
raising environment for animals, in conditions that do not pollute the
environment, by the reduction of ammonia emissions, by the removal of
organic crust and by the reduction of insects in sheds.
- Kopros B/P product may be applied also in the presence of animals, since it
does not pose any threat to them.
- By applying biologically active products, one gains an important control over
the pathogenic agents responsible for different endemic diseases in
zootechnical field.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
***, 2007 – Presentation materials - BIOMA Co
*** - Law no. 5/29 June 1989 concerning rational management, protection and safeguard of water
quality
*** - Law concerning quality of drinking water 458/ 8 July 2002
*** - Law 311/28 July 2004 concerning changes and additions to Law 458/ 8 July 2002 concerning
quality of drinking water
*** - Emergency decree concerning environment protection 195/22 December 2005.
- 284 -
BACK
ARGUMENTS REGARDING THE UTOPIC CHARACTER OF

PLATO’S REPUBLIC
Roxana MIHALACHE
The study had as starting point the controversies which appeared during
the centuries regarding the utopic character of Plato’s Republic. The paper
presents the opinions of different authors who deny totally (E. Barker- Plato
wanted his work to influence the historical reality in which he lived by creating a
new public opinion in order to change the declining position of the Athenian
society.) or partially (Flashar) the utopic character of the work; they both consider
that the Republic is not an utopia because of the lack of the unattainable element
There have also been identified the opinions of some researchers (A. M.
Battegazzore, E. Bloch, L. Bertelli) who present the some partially convincing
arguments regarding the Republic’s belonging to the utopic literary trend such as:
the lack of the word utopia in Greek does not exclude the presence of a suitable
concept, there is no gap between the model and practical reality determined by the
utopic construction, it was written in order to draw the attention of the Athenians
on the consequences that could appear if the Spartan ideals presented in the
Republic came true, it is the paradox of the an utopia of the ruling class.
After studying the text carefully, there have been found other arguments
meant to support the idea that Plato’s work is utopic. One example is Plato’s
statement from Chapter IX, 592ab, that “there is no perfect state in any other
place on earth” and another one which refers to the content of the works Timaios
and Critias which give the mythical-historical support of the utopic proposals
elaborated in the Republic: the use of Atlantis’s myth and of the old Athens, the
miraculous elements but which do not render the work totally untrue etc.
The dream of creating Paradise on Earth has never stopped preoccupying

humanity, and the different attempts of creating perfect happy societies, even if
they failed, have remained in the collective memory. The problem of bringing the
Paradise from after life to this life is the great challenge of humanity. That is why
the utopic ideas of Antiquity, Renaissance and modern societies are of great
interest even nowadays.
Although most of the histories of utopia mention or refer to Plato’s
political project, and especially to his Republic, there are many researchers who
dispute the utopic character of his work. On the other hand, the supporters of the
utopic theory of Plato’s work consider it matter-of-course. The positions of those
who have studied Plato’s work range from denial to total acknowledgement of
Republic’s utopic character. The basis of all these different and sometimes
contrastive evaluations represents different meanings of utopia that the authors
take as criterion for judging the utopic character of the Platonian work. However,
it is not only that. Some authors may start from an outlook, which is rather close
to that of utopia and reach total opposite results. In this case, the sensibility of
each author plays a fundamental role.
- 285 -
So, for example, Barker1, who considers utopia as “a city in the clouds”, a
crepuscular image that “melts into the night”, and which has no connection with
the historical concrete reality, states that the Republic was not a “utopic society”,
like something that could not be accomplished under the historical conditions of
those times. That author considers that Plato wanted his work to influence the
historical reality in which he lived by creating a new public opinion in order to
change the declining position of the Athenian society.
Contrary to Barker’s ideas, another author, Flashar2 considers utopia as a
purely ideal project which, indeed, has roots in the historical reality in which it
appears, but does not want to have a practical materialization, representing a
guide for human actions. He admits the utopic character of the Republic, Plato
makes some suggestions about a perfect state that might not exist in any other
place on earth.
The fact that Flashar admits, unlike Barker, that utopias are generally
determined by concrete historical reality, does not prevent him from assimilating
the ideas of the utopian thought, the unattainable being present, at least from this
point of view, in Barker’s interpretation for whom the “city in the clouds” kind of
utopia must have, to a certain extent an unattainable character. Both these authors
admit that the unattainable is one of the special characters of the utopian thought.
However, starting from almost similar conceptions, they reached totally different
results as regards the utopic character of the Republic, each following a different
research method. In fact, the one used by Barker is an evaluation from a historical
point of view i.e. he tries to establish a connection between the Republic and the
historical reality in which the work appears, while Flashar’s method is an
evaluation from the philological point of view, appearing as a result of a
philological evaluation of the platonian text.
We could think that within the same perspective (historical and
philological) there could be reached results that are at least close, if not univocal.
But it is not like that. Another researcher who mooted the problem of Republic’s
utopian character is Battegazzore3 who consideres as “unique interpretative line
methodologically correct” what takes into account the relation between language
and culture and more exactly “that which makes an accurate examination of the
ways in which the Republic is part of the Platonian thought. He accepts that the
lack of the word utopia in Greek does not exclude the presence of a suitable
concept. Scrupulously analyzing that same fragment from the Republic that was
1
Cfr. E. Barker, Greek Political Theory Platon and his Predecessors, London Routbed
Printing Press, 1952
2
Cfr. H. Flashar, Formen utopischen Denkens bei den Griechen, in „Instrucker Beiträge
yur Kulturwissenschaft“, 1974, nr.3,
3
Cfr. A. M Battegazzore, La dimensione deontologica nella „Republica“ platonica, „Il
Pensiera politico“, Milano, 1975.
- 286 -
cited by Flashar (IX, 592 ab), he reaches the conclusion that we cannot talk about
the total denial of the utopic character of the work.
Of course, if the utopia is tackled only from the perspective of
“imaginary” and “unattainable” we can understand the opinion of another
researcher of antique utopian thought, Bertelli, who states that “ the biggest
mistake that can be done to Plato’s Republic is to consider it an utopia as
imaginary surrogate to reality. The text shows that “ between model and practical
reality there is no gap determined by the utopic construction, although there is a
continuous tension in order to adapt to reality, difficult to reach, but not
impossible. But, what is the most important is the premise that the utopian models
are “totally different” from the practical reality.
These argumentations almost led to the conclusion that the Republic was
written with the purpose of drawing the Athenians’ attention to the consequences
that could result if the Spartan ideals presented in the Republic could have
appeared. In this respect, Plato, rather than being considered the first utopist, was
the first to offer “a vaccine against the utopian tendency”. According to this
interpretation, the Republic would not be the first utopia, but in fact, the first
dystopia in history.
As it can be noticed from these succinct references, the problem of the
utopian character of Plato’s thinking has a long way till a satisfactory solution can
be reached. Even the great thinkers of utopian phenomenon face the same
difficulties. Mannheim in Ideology and utopia does not even mention the
Republic, as he hardly mentions other ancient utopic projects.
Instead, Ernst Bloch4 pays a special attention to it, showing that Plato’s
work is for sure a “utopic impulse”, but which manifests itself in an “overturned
direction”. The Platonian writing is fundamentally revolutionary, as instead of
those vague dreams of a lost Golden age, an “empiric pattern” is presented to the
Athenian society. The Republic is nothing else but the presentation of that
concrete model, the Spartan constitution itself, the very constitution which was of
high interest to the members of the oligarchic party, especially after the
Peloponnesian war. The Republic’s political structure is clearly inspired from the
“Spartan aristocracy”, and the people that are part of it are of a “Doric toughness”.
Bloch recognizes the “paradox of a ruling class utopia”, noticing the parallelism
between the Spartan polis, the “pigs’ state” and the Platonian Politeia. As he
noticed a certain “utopic impulse” in Politeia, he considers that Plato finally
diminishes this impulse till he makes it totally disappear.
In this context there appears the problem of explaining this “paradox of
an utopia of the ruling class”. It must be explained how Plato, as a representative
of the ruling class, whose fundamentally ideological thinking tends to manipulate,
to hide or to mystify reality, can also be the representative of the utopian thinking
4
Cfr Ernest Bloch, The Spirit of Utopia, , Stanford University Press, 2000
- 287 -
which mainly wants to set the society free from those ideological forms which are
used by the ruling class in order to maintain their power. Indeed, it is paradoxical
to think that a ruling class can elaborate a utopic model, a project of a better
happy and just society as long as the accomplishment of this project would mean
the end of any domination, thus implying the end of that very ruling class.
First of all, is it possible that the history of utopic projection might not
take into account the utopic ideas existing in Plato’s Republic? It stands to reason
why without him this history would be mutilated and irremediably
incomprehensible. So, how can we explain the fact that masters of utopia, such as
More, Campanella, Bacon and many others inspired directly or indirectly from the
Platonian thinking? Moreover, if Plato is not among the utopists, which is the
explanation of the fact that almost all researches of the utopian thinking made him
the object of their research? Can it be true that all these were victims of such a
collective error? As we can see, the attempt of expelling Plato from the area of
utopian thinking is rather difficult and hard to explain.
We cannot explain the position of those who admit the utopian dimension
of the Platonian thinking, but restrict it only to Timaios and Critias. Instead, the
Republic, if it were deprived by this characterizing element, the fabulness, it
would not be part of utopia as a literary genre, but it would be totally excluded
from the utopian thinking. In order to consider a work as “utopic genre” the
discrimination element was the presence of fabulness. This can be used only for
classification, but all this operation is arbitrary and in comparison with the old
rhetorical tradition of the literary genres, i.e. the form-content relation. Thus,
discovering an undoubtedly utopic content in the Republic, the reader would be
constrained to deny the utopic content of the work, for the very lack of the
“fabulness”, i.e. the “form”. It must also be noticed that there cannot be a proper
understanding of the first pages of Timaios and Critias without an utopic
evaluation of the Republic.
It is rather convincing and suggestive Bertelli’s appreciation, which
shows that “in comparison to the Republic, Timaios and Critias represent the
dramatization of the theory, while the myth is the “vehicle” through which the
rational presentation is accomplished and put to practice”5. Above all things, Plato
wants to give the mythical-historical support of the utopic proposals elaborated in
his Republic. The use of Atlantis’s myth and of the old Athens has as purpose to
render credible those institutions of the Republic that the common consciousness
places in the impossible and the absurd. In fact, in Timaios Plato states that what
Critias starts to tell is a “happening” (logos). He admits that this happening has its
“miraculous” elements, but this does not mean that it is totally unreal.
With its Politeia, Plato brings a decisive contribution to the search of the
“best constitution”. He wanted to make not a constitution for a new Greek colony
5
L. Bertelli, L’utopia greca, Torino, Ed. Silitti, 1982, p. 15.
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BACK
or for a proximate application, but a project that is valid regardless space or time.
The Republic is not a model, but the model of the optimum state; it is not the
paradigm of a determined society, but of any society that wants to be virtuous and
happy.
The fact that Plato tried to put to practice his utopic project in a “peculiar”
fortress such as Syracuse does not diminish its universal purpose and character.
He argues that his attempts to make Dionysus embrace his philosophy would have
been an advantage not only for the citizens of Syracuse, but for other peoples as
well, in that Dionysus had a vast empire. But this attempt proved to be both heroic
and futile. Time and consciousness were still immature for the Platonian
proposals to be put to practice.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Barker, E., Greek Political Theory Platon and his Predecessors, London Editura Routbed,
1952
2. Battegazzore, A. M., La dimensione deontologica nella „Republica“ platonica, „Il
Pensiera politico“, Milano, 1975
3. Bloch, E., The Spirit of Utopia, , Stanford University Press, 2000
4. Bertelli, L., L’utopia greca, Torino, Ed. Silitti, 1982
5. Flashar H., Formen utopischen Denkens bei den Griechen, in „Instrucker Beiträge yur
Kulturwissenschaft“, 1974, nr.3
6. Ciorănescu, Alexandru –Viitorul trecutului, Utopie şi literatură, Cartea Românească,
Bucureşti,1996
7. Mannheim, Karl, Ideology and Utopia. An introduction to the Sociology of Knowledge,
translated by Louis Wirth and Edward Shils, London, Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1979
8. Manuel, Frank E., & Fritzie P. Manuel, Utopian Thought in the Western World,
Cambridge, Massachussets, Harvard University Press, 1979
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BACK
THE AGRICULTURAL COOPERATION IN GERMANY

AFTER REUNIFICATION
R.-A. MORARU, D. DONOSĂ,
Şt. BREZULEANU, G. UNGUREANU
The aim of researches consists in the analysis and presentation of the

development of the cooperative movement after reunification, pointing out the
fact that, in comparison with Romania, the former agricultural cooperatives of
production from the eastern Lands have been not broken up, but successfully
transformed into cooperatives based on democratic principles.
In order to reach this aim, the authors studied a rich bibliographic
material from the German speciality literature, being selected informations
concerning: the organisational structure of the cooperative agricultural sector,
cooperative types, concerned activity sectors and the trends appeared in their
working, their economic results, the dynamic in the members’ number, the
cooperatives’ place on the market of agricultural products. The statistical data
about the main indicators of the German agricultural cooperatives covered the
period 1990 – 2005, also being presented the structure of the exploitations from
the agriculture in the former German Democratic Republic, before reunification.
On the Germany’s territory has been formed a cooperative agricultural
sector with three levels including: primary cooperatives, unions of cooperatives and
central offices, and cooperative national federations.Their activity has been focused
towards the down-stream and the upstream of the proper agricultural production:
collecting, processing and trading of agricultural products, supply with agricultural
inputs, granting of credits etc. In the eastern Lands, after 1945 these have been
replaced by the so-called “landwirtschaftliche Produktionsgenossenschaften”
(LPGs), which were agricultural production cooperatives of „kolkhoz” type,
established through the wellknown proces of forced colectivisation that occurred in
the most of the former comunist states. After reunification, being strongly supported
by the German State (financially and administratively), the eastern German former
agricultural cooperatives of production have been restructurated on the basis of the
authentic democratic principles of cooperation, continuing to work and to integrate,
beside the other co-operatives of western type, in the German agricultural landscape.
They gave birth either to classic cooperatives of western type or the most of them
remained active in order to use in common the agricultural land. All the types of
German agricultural cooperatives sufferred a strong concentration process, through
merging, fact that determined their decrease in number, in parallel with the decrease
in their members. However, this process positively influenced the level of the
cooperatives’ incomes, the most profitable being the cooperative slaughter-houses
and dairies. On the German market of agricultural products, the cooperatives have a
dominant position, holding 30% to 80% according to product.
RESEARCH MATERIAL AND METHOD

The authors studied a rich bibliographic material from the German
speciality literature, being selected informations concerning: the organisational
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structure of the cooperative agricultural sector, cooperative types, concerned

activity sectors and the trends appeared in their working, their economic results,
the dynamic in the members’ number, the cooperatives’ place on the market of
agricultural products.

When the cooperative movement apperared in Germany in the middle of
the XIX-th century, it developed quickly, including different sectors of activity:
cooperative dairies and slaughter-houses, cooperatives of agricultural credit and
sale, supplier-cooperative, cooperative of fruit and vegetables processing,
vinification cooperatives etc. Like in other western European countries, the
organisation of the cooperatives in the German agriculture covered three levels: the
basic level, represented by the credit – sale multivalent cooperative banks and by
the agricultural cooperatives established at local level; on the second level are
situated, by one hand, the central banks and the central cooperatives that play a role
in the wholesale trade for the basic cooperatives, and by the other hand, the regional
unions that assure the control, info-services, formation and representation of
cooperatives; the third level includes the federal head offices with economic profile,
the national federation and the enterprises associated with the cooperative system.
The basic cooperatives are members of the central cooperatives and together with
them have joint the regional unions. This structure of the cooperative network
continued to function and to develop after the end of the Second World War only
on the territory of the former German Federal Republic, while within the Lands of
the former German Democratic Republic, the forced collectivisation (1952-1960)
determined its replacement with cooperatives of kolkhoz type.
In the former German Democratic Republic have been established
several types of agricultural cooperatives, with different levels of joint use of the
work and production means. In 1989, in the Eastern Germany’s agriculture
dominated by the cooperative sector and by the owned-by-state sector, were
active 4530 agricultural cooperatives (LPGs) and 580 owned-by-state farms
(VEGs – Volkseigener Gut), that cultivated cca 90 % of the country’s agricultural
area (tabel 1). The average size of the cooperatives specialised on plant
production reached about 4282 ha, the cooperatives specialised on fruits and
vegetables production covered 75 ha, and the cooperatives with animal husbandry
profile had only 26 ha. Together with the owned-by-state farms with the same
profile, the specialised cooperatives on fruits and vegetables production occupied
only 0,5 % of the total agricultural area and they represented 3,6 % from the total
number of agricultural exploitation.
After reunification, the authorities from Germany decided to let the
cooperative’ members the decision concerning the fate of the agricultural
cooperatives, without to intervene for their liquidation. The practical experience, the
political class and the most of researchers in the field forsaw for the LPGs a very
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schort life in the EU market economy and expected the traditional family exploitation
to become dominant in the agriculture of the former German Democratic Republic.
Tabel nr.1
Structure of the agricultural exploitations

in the former German Democratic Republic, in 1989
% from
Nr. Type of agricultural Nr. % from . Average total
crt. exploitation units total nr. size (ha) agricultural
area
TOTAL agricultural
1. cooperatives (LPGs), from 4530 52,3 1120 82,2
which:
1.1 - plant production 1164 13,4 4284 80,0
1.2 - animal production 2851 32,9 26 1,2
1.3 - vegetables and fruits 199 2,3 75 0,2
1.4 - others 316 3,7 - -
TOTAL owned-by-state
2. 580 6,7 800 7,5
farms (VEGs), from which:
2.1 - plant production 152 1,8 2684 6,6
2.2 -animal production 312 3,6 125 0,6
2.3 - vegetables and fruits 116 1,3 147 0,3
3. Private exploitations* 3558 41,0 94 10,1
4. TOTAL agriculture 8668 100 712 100
Source: (5) Note: * includes individual householdings, the land belonging to the Church and the land
in private use
Despite the difficulties in adjusting to the new economic environment and

the inner problems of re-organisation, after few years, the most of the former LPGs
succeeded in becoming stable and in getting profit, receiving also a huge support
from the State (1, 2, 6). They have been named in the speciality literature „agrarian
cooperatives” (Agrargenossenschaften) or „productive cooperatives”
(Produktivgenossenschaften)*, in order to be clearly distinguished from the other
classic cooperatives in the German (and EU) agriculture, that are generic named
„agricultural cooperatives”. The German literature includes, also, all types of
cooperatives that are active in the agricultural sector of the newly reunited German
State (therefore also the cooperatives of production derived from LPGs, namely the
agrarian cooperatives) within the notion of „rural cooperative”(1, 2, 4, 6, 7).
*
Agrargenossenschaften (agrarian cooperatives) are named in the German speciality literature
the agricultural cooperatives from the former German Democratic Republic that either are the direct
successors of LPGs, or are newly established in direct connection with the LPGs. The name of
Produktivgenossenschaften (productive cooperatives) is seldom used by some researchers and has
a narrow meaning (4).
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Immediately after reunification, also agricultural cooperatives of western

type have been established in five new federal Lands, therefore up to the end of
1991 have been established 435 cooperatives of goods and services, from which
266 cooperatives for supply and sale, and 23 cooperatives for credit and
businesses with goods. Up to 1992, secondary agricultural cooperatives (also
named in Germany main cooperatives - Hauptgenossenschaften) did not exist on
the territory of the former German Democratic Republic, while in the most cases
the primary cooperatives from here joined a main cooperative from the old federal
Lands. After 1992, also associations of primary agricultural cooperatives,
respectively main cooperatives have been established in the eastern part of
Germany. These built an efficient supply and sale system. Firstly, in what
concerns the cereals’ sale and the fertilizers’supply, the cooperatives for supply
and sale from the eastern Lands have been successfully during the first years after
reunification (3, 2, 7).
The fact that, at the beginning, the agricultural cooperatives established in
the eastern Lands had no competitors, was propitious for their development since
the first years of existence. In the old Lands, also, did not exist a direct
competition among the cooperatives, because they were divided in regions where
different cooperatives were exclusively functioning. But this traditional rule,
known as „the territorial principle”, has been abrogated by the Constitutional
Federal Court in 1992. Also the Cooperation Law recommends the avoiding of
the direct competition: the Line 1 of the Paragraph 6 from this law clearly says
that a cooperative member may be excluded from the cooperative if it is, also,
member of another cooperative developing the same kind of business as that of
the initial cooperative (3). The reason for this fact is not necessarily the avoiding
of competition, but mainly the interest to maintain the cooperative’s credibility in
order to obtain credits.
From the functional point of view, the agrarian cooperatives are mainly
active in the primary agricultural production. In this respect, they are different as
the other agricultural cooperatives, focused on the trading and processing of
agricultural products.
The restructuring of the western German agriculture meant for the LPGs’
successors a new definition of the relations with the State. If in the past, they were
instruments of the state planned economy, now, in the same time with the
economic and currency unification, they are becoming agricultural enterprises
with legal status of registered cooperative. This meant a release from all social
tasks at communal level. The further evolution meant also that the State gave up
the direct influence upon the county authorities. This represented an important
gain in authonomy for these agricultural cooperatives (4). Despite all these
aspects, different state institutions had a significant influence upon the agrarian
sector from the Eastern Germany, the State giving a strong financial support in
the restructuring process of the agricultural sector in the new Lands: interest
restitutions for the old credits, cheap interests for loans, facilitation to obtain
- 293 -
lichidity credits, agricultural subsidies, as well as financial support named

compensation for transition and adjustment that were meant to balanced the
incomes decrease caused by the prices increase, following the economic and
currency unification after 1989 (4).
A garantee for the stability of the agrarian cooperatives and an essential
condition to obtain credits is represented by the obligation to be inclued in a so-
called asocciation / union of verification (Prufüngsverband). The union structures
of verification developed in the former German Democratic Republic are divised
in three types (tab. 2), namely:
Table. nr. 2
The agrarian cooperatives from the eastern Lands of Germany
related to the types of cooperative unions (31.12.1995)
Type Agrarian Members

Members
of Name of the cooperative union cooperatives nr. per
nr.
union nr. coop.
Union of speciality verification
of the productive cooperatives 297 22869 77
Tip A from the Central Germany e.V.
Union of verification of the
agrarian cooperatives and 133 8246 62
producers from Thuringen e.V.
Cooperatiste union Sachsen
Tip B (Raiffeisen/Schultze-Delitsch) 250 24300 97
e.V.
Cooperative union Northern –
251 11248 45
German e.V.
Cooperative union Berlin-
Tip C 313 16500 53
Hanovra e.V.
Cooperative union
Hessen/Rheinland- 103 12875 125
Pfalz/Thüiringen e.V.
Total 1347 96038 71
Source: (4)
o Type A: inclued 2 special unions of verification for the agrarian

coopratives and for other productive cooperatives;
o Type B: a cooperative union, with the activity focused exclusively in
Eastern Germany, representing cooperatives from different fields; it has
been re-established after the Germany’s unification.
o Type C: 3 former western German regional unions, that expanded in the
eastern part of the country.
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The position of the agrarian cooperatives within these unions is very

diverse. The majority belongs to the types A and B, therefore their problemes and
interests can be clearly taken into account, but, by the other hand, in these
asociations are missing the capacities to offer services. In the unions of type C,
the agrarian cooperatives represent, among other agricultural cooperatives from
the western part of the country, both from the numerical as well as from the
economic importance perspective, a marginal group. By the other hand, through
this alliance they have access and can take advantage form the large logistical
capacities (4).
On the 1st July 2006, the union of speciality verification of the productive
cooperatives in Central Germany joint Raiffeisen German Union (Deuscher
Raiffeisenverband), that thus became a top national union for the majority of
agrarian cooperatives in Germany and got more weight in representing their
interests (8). In 1992, in Germany existed 1464 agrarian cooperatives covering
44% from the agricultural area in use from the eastern Lands (4). In 2001, these
cooperatives managed almost 25% from the area in use and included 20% from
the employees’ number in the eastern German agriculture. Even in 2005, the
German agrarian cooperatives acted as important economic factors of the rural
area in the new federal Lands, managing 1/5 from their area in use, through 1010
cooperative units (8).
The most part of the agricultural production in Germany is harvested,
processed and delivered by cooperatives. In 2003, the market share of the German
cooperatives reached 80% in sugar beet industrialisation, 70 % in milk delivery
and processing, 50% in cereals’ delivery sector, 40% in the wine production and
fruits’ processing sectors, 30% in eggs and meat delivery and 28% in the
vegetables processing and sale (9). Taking into account the total incomes of the
agricultural cooperatives, Germany is one of the countries having the most
developed cooperative system in the EU and has a significant number of
cooperatives that conquered the EU market, like those supplying production
factors: Bay Wa, Agravis, RWZ Rhein Main, HaGe Kiel or Humana Milchunion
and Nordmilch dairies (9).
As the other types of agricultural cooperatives in Germany, the agrarian
cooperatives recorded a decrease in number and in the members’ number (tab. 3).
During the first years of functioning, a part of the restructured former LPGs
could not face the new situations, therefore they have been dissolved. The
majority of them followed the politics of concentration implemented by
Raiffeisen German Union, namely, after merging, the total number of the German
rural cooperatives decreased during 1990-2005 with 1859 cooperatives and their
central offices (36%). In the same time, the number of cooperative members
decreased by half, many of them being focused on more atractive economic
branches. In 2005, 1010 rural cooperatives from Germany included 2,2 mil.
members and about 105 000 collaborators, with a turnover of 37,6 bil. Euro,
meaning 11,2 mil. Euro per cooperative (tab. 3).
- 295 -
Almost half from these incomes belung to the cooperatives for supply and
delivery and to those for credit and businesses with goods (45%), 25% being
obtained by dairies, 15% by the cooperatives for cattle breeding and meat
production, 5% each obtained the agrarian cooperatives and the cooperatives for
fruits, vegetables and gardening and 2% each obtained the cooperatives for wine
production and other types of cooperatives (fig. 1).
Tab. nr. 3
The dynamic of rural cooperatives in Germany (1990-2005)
Specification 1990 2000 2005
I. Number of cooperative enterprises 5199 4249 3349
1. Primary cooperative 5146 3003 2315
a) for credit and goods businesses 1474 434 222
b) for supply and delivery 645 515 409
c) for milk 846 404 308
d) for fruits, vegetables and gardening 114 130 107
e) for wineyards 310 260 224
f) for cattle breeding and meat production 205 122 101
g) other types of cooperatives 1552 1138 944
2. Central offices 53 35 24
a) German Raiffeisen main cooperatives and 10 9 7
central offices for goods
b) dairy – central offices and Milk Central 11 7 5
Office
c) central offices for cattle breeding and meat 7 4 4
production
d) central offices for wine cellars 7 4 3
e) other central offices 18 11 5
3. Agrarian cooperatives - 1211 1010
II. Members (thousand) 4488 2875 2238
1. Cooperatives for credit and goods 3283 1953 1452
businesses
2. Cooperatives for supply and delivery 177 151 131
3. Cooperatives for milk 297 169 133
4. Cooperatives for vegetables, fruits and 60 47 37
gardening
5. Cooperatives for wineyards 68 62 58
6. Cooperatives for cattle breeding and meat 153 111 103
production
7. Other cooperatives 450 318 278
III. Collaborators (employees) 126399 135800 104700
IV.Turnover in mil. Euro* 76330 39065 37570
1. Primary cooperative 58498 26342 25271
2. Central offices 17832 10529 10444
Source: (8) Note: * DM in the year 1990
- 296 -
Others (760 mil. Milk (9302 mil.

Catle and meat euro)
euro)
(5717 mil. euro) 25%
2% Wine (786 mil.
15%
euro)
Agrarian 2%
1855 mil. Euro)
5% Vegetables,
Suply and
fruits and
delivery**
gardening (2000
(17150 mil euro)
mil. euro)
46%
5%
Fig. nr.1: Structure of incomes obtained by the German rural cooperatives*

(2005)
Source: (8 ); Note: *inclusively the central offices; **inclusively the cooperatives of

credit and businesses with goods
The highest average incomes have been obtained by the cooperatives for
cattle breeding and meat production, dairies and cooperatives for vegetables and
fruits collecting, processing and sale, while the agrarian cooperatives had the most
reduced economic power among the main rural cooperatives in Germany (fig. 2).
56,6
60
Venituri pe cooperativă (mil. €)
50
40
30,2
30 18,7
13,5
20
5,3
3,5 1,7 0,8
10
0
cattle and dairies fruits, suply and credit and wine cellars agrarian others
meat vegetables delivery businesses
and with goods
gardeninig
Fig. nr. 2: Average turnover (mil. Euro) in a German rural cooperative (2005)
Source: (8)
- 297 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
Up to the Second World War, the German agricultural cooperation has
been developed in third stages, being established both polyvalent and specialised
cooperatives covering activities belonging to the down-stream and up-stream of
the agricultural production. After 1945, in the eastern Lands have been imposed,
through forced colectivisation, agricultural cooperatives of kolkhoz type, named
LPGs, characterised by the joint use of the work and production means and the
joint exploitation of the agricultural land. In 1989, the LPGs covered 90% of the
total agricultural area and 52% of the total exploitations in the former German
Democratic Republic, having very large average surfaces, the most being focused
on animal production.
After reunification, the cooperatives from Eastern Germany were not
liquidate, being finacially and administrativelly supported by the German State.
One part of the former LPGs went bankrupt, but the majority of them have been
re-organised upon democratic principles, succeeding in becoming profitable,
adjusted to the market economy. The most of them remained active within the
primary agricultural production. They have been included in 3 unions for the
cooperatives’ verification, appointed to verify them and to guide their economic
activity. Favoured by the lack of competition during the initial phase of
development, in the eastern Lands appeared also the western type of clasic
cooperatives (processing, trading, supply), either newly establised or set up on the
structure of some former LPGs.
After 1990, all types of cooperatives in the Germany’s agriculture registered a
merging process that significantly reduced the number of cooperative members. From
the point of view of the achieved incomes, the most powerful are the cooperatives for
cattle breeding and slaughtering and the dairies, while the cooperatives of production
arosen from the former LPG have the lowest economic power.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Beckmann V. – 1993 – Zur ökonomischen Theorie der Transformation von

Produktivgenossenschaften, ZfgG. 43, Berlin;
2. Beckmann V. – 1997 – Interessen, Zielfindung und Entwicklungspfade in
Agrargenossenschaften, Berliner Beiträge zum Genossenschaftswesen 39, Berlin;
3. Kuschka Claudia - 1994 - Eigenkapitalfinanzierung ländlicher Warengenossenschaften in den
Ländern Nordwest- und Nordeuropa, Köhler Verlag, Giessen;
4. Laschewschi L – 1998 - Von der LPG zur Agrargenossenschaft, Ed.Sigma-Rainer Bohn
Verlag, Berlin;
5. Pletsch A. –1995– From an agrarian to an industrialised country; Bonn
6. Schöne U. – 1997 – Chansen und Risiken der weiterer Entwicklung der
Agrargenossenschaften in Deutschland, Berliner Beiträge zum Genossenschaftswesen, Institut
für Genossenschaftswesen an der Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, hers. Konrad Hagedorn;
7. Wirssing P. – 2000 – Entwicklungsstand und Zuckunftaussichten von Agrargenossenschaften,
Wissenschaftliche Beiträge, Neue Hallesche Genossenschaftskorrespondenz, Halle;
8. *** -2005, 2006- Die Deutschen Genossenschaften 2005, 2006 – Entwicklungen, Meinungen,
Salen. Deutscher Genossenschafts – Verlag, Wiesbaden;
9. *** -2005– Agricultural Co-operatives in the European Union, COGECA, Madrid (Spain), 22
november 2005;
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BACK
STUDY ON THE DIMENSIONAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL

ELEMENTS OF SOME BREAST AND LIMBS MUSCLES AT
COBB-500 HYBRID
R.M. RADU-RUSU, V. TEUŞAN,

M.G. USTUROI, I. VACARU-OPRIŞ
Several skeletal muscles, considered as representative for the

anatomical election area, have been sampled from 42 day old COBB-500
broilers and served as biological material – Pectoralis profundis (PP),
Pectoralis superficialis (PS), Biceps brachii (BB), Semimembranosus (SS) and
Gastrocnemius medialis (GCM).
Dimensional features comprised muscles weight, length, thickness and
wideness, while the morphological ones revealed muscular formations spatial shapes,
as they are related to the physiological role within the musculoskeletal system.
Gravimetric data, calculated as average between values of the pair
muscles issued from both genders, have been reported to carcass and anatomic
area weight. Thus, breast fillet reached 22.37 from whole carcass (17.95% PS and
4.37% PP), while Pectoralis superficialis formed 60.55% of the anatomic area.
Biceps brachialis muscles, as very thin ones, counted only 0.56% from carcass
weight and 6.20% from arms mass. Semimembranosus pair, reached just 7.49%
from thigh muscles, while the medial twins of calves have been found to participate
with 1.02% in entire carcass and with 7.77% in drumsticks formation.
Muscles had various shapes, as related to their insertions and role in
locomotor mechanics: triangular prism (PS), ellipsoid (PP), spindle (BB),
cylindroid (SM), rhomboidal-flabeliform (GCM).
Better developed musculature has been found in cockerels carcasses,
main differences could be noticed especially for Pectoralis superficialis muscles,
having more pronounced convexity in males, while those sampled from females
were flatter and slightly wider.
Keywords: broiler, breast fillet, limbs muscles, morphology
The paper presents the partial results of a wider study related to the
morphological, structural, physical, chemical and nutritional features of the
somatic muscles issued from chicken broilers. The researches main goal is to
achieve a general view on the quality of the poultry meat produced by the most
specialized hybrids of the moment, reared in Romania. Those results related to
muscles morphology, as reported to whole carcass structure and to their
locomotor role, are presented below.

Biological material was taken form 14 “Cobb 500” hybrid specimens
(7♂ + 7♀), aged 42 days, selected as representative for the entire flock. From
- 299 -
each chicken, the carcass and main trenched parts have been weighted. It
followed the sampling of five pairs of muscles from each significant anatomic
part: Pectoralis superficialis et profundis (breast), Biceps brachii (wings),
Semimembranosus (thigh) and Gastrocnemius medialis (shank) (Fig. 1).
A necropsy kit and other instruments have been used for sampling
muscles: knives, scalpels, retractors, twisters, cotton wool, gauze pads, distilled
water, Berzelius glasses of various capacities, Petri plates.
Gravimetric assessments have been run using a Shimadzu UX4200H
technical digital scales (0.01 g – 4200 g range) and a Denver Instruments Pinnacle
214 analytical digital scales (0.1 mg – 210 g range). A sliding caliper has been
used for dimensional measurements (muscles length, width and depth).
An 8MP digital camera served for pictures capture. Data achieved during
gravimetric and dimensional analyses have been algebraically and statistically
processed using the MsExcel table calculation application, respectively the
ANOVA single-factor algorithm, included within the previously specified
software.
Fig. 1 – Muscles which served

as biological material,
prior to sampling
- 300 -

Data related to muscles weight and their participation in whole carcass
and in anatomic election area are presented in table 1.
Concerning the superficial pectoral muscles, the weight average values
have been found between 299.79±6.10 g at females and 323.47±7.27 g at males,
with a mean value of 311.63±5.62g for both genders. These values led to the
computation of an average proportion of 17.95±0.05% from whole carcass,
respectively of 60.55±0.32% of the origin anatomic area weight. Statistical
significant differences have been revealed by ANOVA test for the results issued
from cockerels and pullets ( F̂ >F. tab. for 0.05 at 1;12 LD).
The pectoral profound muscles were also analyzed from breast fillet mass.
Their weight has been measured as lower than the other pectorals (79.18±1.84g at
males, 72.53±2.58g at females and a mean of 75.85±1.68g for all flock), leading
to reduced average participations within carcass (4.37±0.03%) and anatomic area
(14.72±0.10%). The differences between genders performances have been also
found as statistically significant ( F̂ >F. tab. for 0.05 at 1;12 LD). Meantime, for
pectoral muscles (superficial and profound), whenever the performances were
expressed per each gender or as the mean of both, variability coefficient varied
between 5.4-8.3%, suggesting homogeneity for the analyzed feature.
Overall, breast fillet (pectoral muscles, without bones and skin) reached a
mean value of 22.32±0.07%, slightly similar to those reported in 2006 by “Cobb
Vantress” company (22.36%).
The values measured and calculated for the other three somatic muscles
have been found lower, as compared to the breast fillet muscular mass. Wing
biceps muscles reached values within 9.38±0.32g (females) ÷ 9.95±0.39g (males)
interval (9.67±0.25g for both genders), meaning an average participation in
anatomic area formation (arm) of 6.20±0.07%. Thigh analyzed muscles
(Semimembranosus) reached a mean value of 20.40±0.48g (20.95±0.74g at
cockerels and 19.86±0.6g at pullets), resulting an average participation in thigh
formation of 7.49±0.13%. Finally, the Gastrocnemius lateralis muscles weight
participated with 7.77±0.06% (both genders) in drumsticks structure, while the
absolute values have been found of 18.23±0.36g (males) and of 17.72±0.69g
(females). Distinguished significant differences occurred between genders when
Biceps brachialis muscles values of participation in anatomic area have been
compared ( F̂ >F. tab. for 0.01 at 1;12 LD). Concerning the participation of red
muscles in whole carcass weight, the mean calculated values were below unit for
Biceps brachialis muscles (0.6±0.1%) and passed slightly over unit for the
Semimembranosus (1.17±0.01%) and Gastrocnemius muscles (1.02±0.02%).
- 301 -
Table 1
Muscles weight, as related to carcass and anatomic area weight
Males Females Both genders
Variable
x ± sx V (%) x ± sx V (%) x± sx V (%)
CARCASS weight, at 24 h post-slaughter (g) 1794.62 37.82 5.6 1676.68 33.40 5.3 1735.65 29.24 6.3
BREAST (bones and skin included) (g) 534.59 11.11 5.5 495.01 11.03 5.9 514.80 9.31 6.7
Petoralis superficialis muscles weight (g) 323.47 b 7.27 5.9 299.79 a 6.10 5.4 311.63 5.62 6.7
% of carcass 18.02 0.03 0.4 17.88 0.10 1.4 17.95 0.05 1.1
% of anatomic election area 60.50 0.37 1.6 60.59 0.55 2.4 60.55 0.32 1.8
Petoralis profundis muscles weight (g) 79.18 b 1.84 6.2 72.53 a 2.28 8.3 75.85 1.68 8.3
% of carcass 4.41 0.02 1.2 4.32 0.06 3.8 4.37 0.03 2.9
WINGS weight (g) 164.89 4.60 7.4 147.02 3.53 6.4 155.96 3.73 8.9
Biceps brachialis muscles weight (g) 9.95 0.39 10.2 9.38 0.32 9.1 9.67 0.25 9.9
% of carcass 0.55 0.01 5.2 0.56 0.01 5.7 0.56 0.01 5.3
% of anatomic election area 6.03 a 0.08 3.3 6.37 c 0.07 2.9 6.20 0.07 4.2
THIGHS weight (g) 275.05 8.91 8.6 270.16 7.15 7.0 272.60 5.53 7.6
Semimembranosus muscles weight (g) 20.95 0.74 9.3 19.86 0.60 7.9 20.40 0.48 8.8
% of carcass 1.17 0.02 4.1 1.18 0.01 2.8 1.17 0.01 3.4
CALVES weight (g) 237.17 6.81 7.6 225.95 7.71 9.0 231.56 5.18 8.4
Gastrocnemius medialis muscles weight (g) 18.23 0.36 5.2 17.72 0.69 10.3 17.98 0.38 7.9
% of carcass 0.98 0.03 8.8 1.05 0.02 6.2 1.02 0.02 8.1
ANOVA test – for each variable, compared between genders:
ab
significant differences ( F̂ >F. tab. for 0.05 at 1;12 LD); ac distinguished significant differences ( F̂ >F. tab. for 0.01 at 1;12 LD);
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If both genders performances are compared under the criteria of muscles

participation in whole carcass structure, it could be observed that males gave
better performances for breast fillet while females values were slightly superior
for wings, thighs and shanks muscles (fig. 2).
BB SM GCM PP PS
BB SM GCM PP PS
18.02
4.41 18.02
Males 0.98 4.41
Males 0.98
1.17
0.551.17
0.55
17.88
4.32 17.88
Females 1.05 4.32
Females 1.05
1.18
0.561.18
0.56
17.95
17.95
4.37
Both genders 1.02 4.37
Both genders 1.02
1.17
1.17
0.56
0.56
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
Participation of studie d muscle s in whole carcass (%)
Participation of studie d muscle s in whole carcass (%)
Fig. 2 – Participation of studied muscles in whole carcass structure

(BB = Biceps brachialis, SM=Semimembranosus, GCM=Gastrocnemius medialis;
PP=Pectoralis profundis; PS=Pectoralis superficialis)
Table 2 reveals the results concerning the dimensional assessments and

shape evaluation of the muscular studied parts. Thus, the superiority of males
muscles features could be noticed in almost every situation, but a single exception
occurred - average width of the Pectoralis superficialis muscles - which was
found as slightly superior (+4 mm). This value, corroborated with length and
depth measurements, facilitates a panoramic view on breast morphology.
Therefore, at males, pectoral muscular mass is more convex and longer, while at
females is shorter, widener and flatter. Otherwise, the maximal convexity of the
males superficial pectorals over sternum keel has been easily noticed during
necropsy, without undertake any measurement. Better somatic development, as
related to studied muscles dimensional features was also recorded when wings,
thighs and drumsticks muscles have been analyzed.
303
Table 2
Dimensional and morphological features of the studied muscles

Variable Males Females
Pectoralis superficialis muscles:
average length (cm) 18.6 17.3
average width (cm) 7.6 8.1
average depth (cm) 2.7 2.2
muscles shape Triangular prism
Pectoralis profundis muscles:
muscles shape Ellipsoid
Biceps brachialis muscles:
muscles shape Spindle
Semimembranosus muscles:
muscles shape Cylindroid
Gastrocnemius medialis muscles:
muscles shape Rhomboidal-flabeliform
Muscles shape was found as specific for each studied muscular group,
being straightly correlated to the physiological role during locomotors mechanics.
It was noticed the shape of triangular prism for superficial pectoral muscles, due
to the strength insertion on sternum body as well as on its keel. There are
considered to be reminiscences from the wild Gallus bankiva ancestor, which
frequently were utilizing the flight as locomotion way and from the paternal
Cornish strain (combatant breed at its origin).
CONCLUSIONS
1) Various participation degrees have been reached by the studied
muscles in anatomic areas formation (average values for all flock): 60,55%
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BACK
(superficial pectorals), 14,72% (profound pectorals), 6,20% (arm biceps muscles),

7,49% (semimembranosus muscles), 7,77% (medial shank twins).
2) Breast fillet (both pairs of pectoral muscles, without bones and skin)
reached 22.32±0.07% from whole carcass (average value for both genders).
3) Various shapes have been noticed for studied muscles, as related to
their insertions and role in locomotor system morpho-physiology: triangular prism
(Pectoralis superficialis), ellipsoid (Petoralis profundis), spindle (Biceps brachii),
cylindroid (Semimembranosus), rhomboidal-flabeliform (Gastrocnemius
medialis).
4) Muscles dimensions were higher in males than in females. Despite this,
in females, red muscles reached better proportions from whole carcass structure,
while for white muscles (pectorals) higher proportions have been found in males.
REFERENCES
GHEŢIE, V., CHIŢESCU, ŞT., COŢOFAN, V., HILLEBRAND, A. – 1976 – Atlas de
anatomie a păsărilor domestice, Editura Academiei R.S.R.
NICKEL, R., SCHUMMER, A., SEIFERLE, E. – 1977 – Anatomy of the domestic birds,
Editura Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin, Hamburg.
VACARU-OPRIŞ I. şi col. –2004 - Tratat de Avicultură, vol. III, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti
VACARU-OPRIŞ I., APOSTOL L., APOSTOL T.F., MOVILEANU G., USTUROI
M.G. – 2005 – Sisteme şi tehnologii de creştere a puilor de carne, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti
*** - 2006 – COBB 500 Broiler Management Guide - http://www.cobb-vantress.com
305
BACK
DECISIONAL MANAGEMENT
FROM DECISION TO DELEGATION
C. SĂLCEANU, Carmen Mihaela NECHITA
Making a decision requires intelligence, but, first of all, courage,

perceived as the capacity to choose a way and to give up the others, to resist against
the multiple psychological, social and institutional stress, which blocks the
considered solution. Therefore, the decisional process is inseparable of risk taking,
which is more difficult in the public administration field. Frequently, the people in
charge of the decisional process are concerned in finding the unique, perfect,
invincible SOLUTION, as if the professional life would be a kind of a determined
solution quest that we only have to discover. The suitable solution is the one which
helps us to acquire. This evidence means that the people who work for public
services are those who, together, build up the solutions. One would prefer a ”non –
perfect” decision, supported by those who initiated it, rather than an excellent
decision written on the paper, but an uncalled for one.
Decision making is an important management act; it is about a difficult action

that requires the choice of one solution from the existing ones, even though we do
not know that the chosen solution is an appropriate one. Therefore, to decide
means to give up all the other possibilities, except the chosen one.
Making a decision requires intelligence, but, first of all, courage, perceived as the
capacity to choose a way and to give up the others, to resist against the multiple
psychological, social and institutional stress, which blocks the considered
solution. Therefore, the decisional process is inseparable of risk taking, which is
more difficult in the public administration field, due to some specific aspects:
• the intention of the public functioning is not represented by the risk
taking, but by seeking for the public benefit, the compromise, the
arbitration, the accurate law application;
• the inevitable complexity of the structures and of the procedures
determines an extremely laborious decisional process;
• civil servants’ selection is based on different specific qualities (the
examination and the elaboration ability) and not on courage.
Basic Concepts
Defining the decisional process is quite simple: it is the action that consists of
choosing a solution from the existing ones in a precise manner. The “decision”
concept refers to the following distinct aspects:
• decision making system, that prevails within the company or the economic
unit taken into account, that is the way power is divided;
• individually decision making, that is the way a person invested with a
specific amount of power make its own decision.
Another aspect refers to the delegation concept, which is the action that consists
of the decisional power conveyance, from the person in charge, to another one.
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The Decisional System

When talking about decision, there is a risk regarding the confusion, as a result of
the lack of accuracy in defining this concept; therefore, it is important to set the
difference between three stages:
1. the decision preparation, which has to be, as possible, the objective of the
team effort (regrouping the existing data, team analysis, debating etc.).
2. the decision making is, on the contrary, an individual act; the decision will be
taken by the one who will be responsible for it and will assume its
consequences. Making a decision in a collective way leads to a limited
responsibility by the impossibility of the responsible identification (it is one
good reason for this frequently used method). These aspects do not refer to
the situation in which responsibility is, by its own nature, a collective one (an
association or a group of associates, except for the public administration).
3. the decision application is, generally, a collective one, since a decision
does not refer to a single person.
In such context, the consensus is a concept that requires becoming precise. It
refers to a method that consists of consulting all the persons affected by its
application and by the decision’s effects, before the last one is taken; of trying to
find a solution that should be accepted by a large number of people and to fix the
situation, because it is extremely difficult to find a solution totally accepted. The
consensus does not imply team decisions, this would lead, however, to
compromise, less compatible with efficiency.
Decision Categories
It is important to distinguish, within a company, the three main decision types:
1. Strategic decisions, that specifies where to go (the objectives), haw to act
(the strategy), which are the resources and the risks to avoid. This kind of
decision also includes extremely sensible or serious issues, which must be
solved on the upper level of the company. We state that every operational
leader should make such decisions; the strategy is not the exclusive
privilege of the upper administrative staff.
2. “Project type” decisions refer to “manufacturing device” – the public entity
taken into account: reorganization, informational process, edifice
reconstruction and new techniques and methods integration. Specific to
these actions are the existence of the short achieving terms, the lack of
productivity and a significant capacity of resources consuming (time,
money, equipment). It is about “investments” (material and intellectual),
destined to the subsequent improvement of the economic unit’s efficiency.
3. Operational decisions enable daily “production” of the unit taken into
account, production which represents its reason of being. These decisions
consist of accomplishing the assigned tasks, namely using the
“manufacturing device”, in order to accomplish the established objectives
in accordance with the existing strategy.
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The Subsidiarity Principle

There is, for every type of decision, a different level of responsibility, which
consequently requires the organization of the decisional system, by delegating the
decision to the appropriate level. The main principle must be the subsidiarity one,
which consists of delegating the decision to the first qualified level, namely the
one usually confronted with such decisions, having a surplus of experience and
information. However, this could be possible only if the objectives and the
strategy are precisely determined and spread.
Delegation Process
In terms of management, the delegation consists of entrusting the power from the
owner to another person. It is to be mentioned that:
• there is a co-responsibility between the two parts, but it is forbidden the
intervention from the person who delegated the power within the
preliminary established process;
• delegation represents an agreement between two persons, that can be
different, according to them. It is important for the agreement to be
precise and for the person who received the power to have the necessary
means in order to accomplish the tasks.
In the specific situation of public services it is important to distinguish between:
• signature delegation, which does not change the ordinary succession of
competences;
• responsibilities delegation.
From the exposed above point of view, the delegation represents not only a state
of mind, but also a means for the management. It is about delegation when a
partner is entrusted with tasks of his level and on condition that he accepts this
delegation.
Impediments, Resistances, Alibis That Impede or Limit the Delegation
Practice within the Administration Field
Frequently, the delegation is refused because of:
• the existing risk of power loss;
• the lack of the enough qualified persons to assume the task;
• the risk related to changes;
• maintaining the old manufacturing methods;
• it is thought that a good manager must solve all the issues;
• the manager’s tendency to control everything;
• the possibility for others to act in a different manner, which can put us in
a delicate position;
• new possible subsequent exigencies of the partners;
• frequently, the partners avoid to accept the delegation because the
uncertainty concerning their own abilities, of the fear of loosing the
authority to criticize, of the possibility of increasing obligation;
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• this is not a process that should be applied in public administration field;

• it is not admitted the right to be wrong;
• it is not known, nor wanted or it cannot be assigned a real control of the
delegated actions.
Delegation Advantages
There are some visible advantages of the delegation for the three types of actors,
from the perspective of interest reciprocities development:
1. For the upper responsible:
- to diminish the charge of his work and to develop his availability to
his specific job tasks;
- to set, between him and his partners, trustworthy connections;
- to use team resources in a better way and to obtain an increased synergy;
- to associate the persons who received the power to the process of the
results control.
2. For the civil servant who receives the power:
- the delegation offers him the possibility to improve his qualifying and
to form himself from a new personal experience perspective;
- the delegation represents for him an extension and an enrichment of
his own tasks;
- well done, the delegation can be conceived as a personal and
professional promotion;
- by using hid competences in a complete manner, the delegation
ensures a real engagement in action and a personal satisfaction.
3. For the economic unit:
- the tasks assessment depends not only on a jobs list, registered in an
impersonal company’s structure;
- delegation contributes to the adaptability growth and to the structure’s
dynamism of the economic unit;
- individual projects and company’s objectives can be connected in a
more efficient manner.
Individual Decisional Process
The first difficulty in the decisional process arises from the fact that, within this process
we must say not only what we want, but mostly, what we don’t, what we give up.
When we decide, we tend to judge as a rule, by comparison to the past, and not to
the present or to the future.
Confronted with a complex issue, we search, most of the time, for a solution
based on the given data and on our own logic. In such context, we often forget the
two basic elements that should guide our searching:
• the addressee of the original action;
• the determined objectives.
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Therefore, the tendency is to limit ourselves to the specified issue, which rarely
contains the solution.
Frequently, the issue is inappropriate defined. In this field, it is important for the
issue to be always well processed, asking ourselves, in a positive and negative
manner, the following questions:
- Which is / not the nature of the issue?
- When did it appear and on what circumstances the issue is not of
present interest?
- Where does / not the issue belong?
- Which are the importance and the extent of the issue and which are its
limits?
It is not enough a simple referent in order to find a solution to a problem, it is
necessary, as a rule, to define an upper referent. For example, in order to establish the
actions for the next year in my own department, I have to report on the main
orientation established for the period taken into account by the upper department but,
also, I have to specify my company’s goals to fulfill for the next 3 or 5 years (this
would be my upper referent). Actually, the activities that must be carried on next year
determine obviously what my department will become in the next 3 or 5 years.
The way that so called limited rationality scheme (Herbert Simon) shows that,
when we are confronted with an issue, we tend not to analyze different possible
solutions, but to keep, almost always, the first almost satisfactory solution for the
issue taken into account.
In the professional life, decisions lead to concrete actions, which must be carried
on. When we refer to the action, we also refer to the actors, namely those who
accomplish the actions. Therefore, it is very important in the decisional process not
to limit ourselves to the objective data, but to take into account these actors, with
all they require (interests and behaviors of the people and groups affected by the
decision application and its effects).
Frequently, the people in charge of the decisional process are concerned in finding
the unique, perfect, invincible SOLUTION, as if the professional life would be a
kind of a determined solution quest that we only have to discover. The suitable
solution is the one which helps us to acquire. This evidence means that the people
who work for public services are those who, together, build up the solutions. One
would prefer a ”non – perfect” decision, supported by those who initiated it, rather
than an excellent decision written on the paper, but an uncalled for one.
Required Elements for the Decisional System Improvement within Public
Administration Structures
1. The precise explanation of the responsibilities: there must be precise
definite responsibilities for every expected result.
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2. The application of the subsidiarity principle: every decision should be

given to the first existing qualified level.
3. The explanation of the concepts and, mostly, of the difference between the
three stages of the decisional process:
- the decision preparation;
- the decision making;
- the decision application and supervision.
4. The explanation and the discrimination against the three types of decision:
- strategic decisions;
- “project type” decisions;
- operational decisions.
5. The assertion and the demonstration of the fact that refusal to decide
approach will not be admitted anymore.
6. The clarifying of the economic unit’s mission, objectives and strategy; it
is interesting to see that, within the decisional process, the involved civil
servants have two important elements:
- the strategy of the economic entity they belong to (and its objectives);
- the organizational culture; in periods with emphasized changes, even
the culture itself can be argued so, the unique element of great
importance remains the company’s strategy.
The decisional system of an administrative entity (department, post, office)
The three The three stages of decisional process
types of The decision The decision making The decision application and
decision preparation supervision
Strategic The general The general The application: every person
decisions manager + manager in charge with an operational
the managers of the unit
operational units + Supervision: the general
external counselor manager of the unit taken into
(eventually) account
“Project Work groups per The responsible for the The application: the person in
type” project unit taken into account, charge with the unit taken into
decisions if the project refers to account, if the project refers
only one unit. to only one unit
N + 1 level, if the project The person in charge with the
refers to more units. project, if the project refers to
more units.
Supervision: the person in
charge with the project
Operational The responsible for The first qualified The application: the person
decisions the action taken existing level. who made the decision and
into account, his team.
together with his Supervision: the group leader
team.
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Basic rules used for acquiring a decisional system

• Not all the decisions are the same in the area of public services. It’s
important to distinguish between the strategic, the operational and the
“project type” decisions.
• The decisional process is an essential individual act; this doesn’t forbid
conferring with the people affected by the decision application. The
“wasted” time for the decision preparation will give important gains in
the application stage.
• Subsidiarity principle: the most qualified level in the operational decision
is the one that daily encounters and solves problems.
• Operational decisions can be “delivered” to the first qualified level only if
there is a good evaluation and control system (“reporting” in terms of
management)
Required Elements for the Delegation Practice Improvement
Before bringing in other elements, we can identify a check – list that consists of
11 essential points:
YES NO
1. Do I want to delegate?
2. Do I own all the means (the necessary power) to delegate this task?
3. Will the person who receives the task know how to accomplish it?
(theoretical and practical)
4. Does the person that I delegate the task to own the necessary means to
accomplish it?
5. Does the person that I delegate the task to want it?
6. Is he well enough informed (who, what, where, when, how, why)?
7. Have I well established the task period?
8. Has the delegate negotiated his task with me?
9. Have I informed my partners (or all the persons affected by this

delegation)?
10. Have these persons agreed with the delegation?
11. Have I established the evaluation period of the delegation?
After identifying the weaknesses and strengths, it is possible to develop a process

in three stages:
1. Before starting a delegation, you should meet the person in charge, in order
to:
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- prevent him from your intention and to ask for his permission,
because the delegation will not be imposed;
- establish together the rules of the “delegation agreement”: the
determined objectives, the available means, the area and the limits of
the delegation, methods of control, everybody’s participation.
2. During the delegation application everyone has to practice his own role:
• The partner should:
- act within his delegation;
- promote self – control;
- take part in evaluation in which the data and the means of
achievement have been previously stipulated;
- in cases of unexpected serious situations, start the evaluation / control
procedure and inform his manager.
• The manager should:
- let his partner to act by himself, observing his right to make some
mistakes;
- not interfere further more with the evaluation / control procedures,
previously stipulated;
- within this survey procedure, lighten the activities, by helping his
partner with counseling and support.
3. After the delegation application, it is necessary to estimate the result by

the means of a final control:
- the analysis of the differences between what it was scheduled and
what it was accomplished;
- the identification of the conclusions regarding this experience for the
future.
Basic Rules Used in Delegation Practice
• One should negotiate a delegation, not impose it.

• It’s no use to start a delegation unless there is, to begin with, a
precise description of the functions and a mutual confidence
climate.
• One should avoid the ambiguities and precisely specify the rules
regarding the delegation agreement.
• On the other hand, it should be avoided the tendency to predict
everything, the partner should be able to exert his autonomy.
Required Elements for the Decisional Process Improvement
1. Exercise ceaselessly within the decisional process; this is a distinct act,
which requires work and experience.
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BACK
2. Establish personal criterions for the decision: objectives, priorities,

strategy.
3. Decide in accordance with the present and the future (objectives to
fulfill) and not with the past.
4. Information is the “rough material”. Try to gather maximum of possible
information before making a decision; yet, avoid using the information
gathering as a justification for not deciding, even though it’s time you did.
5. Think in terms of “scenarios”, namely try to examine more solutions
concerning one problem.
6. Every time possible, test the chosen solutions.
Basic Rules for the Individual Decision
• Have your own criterions: a personal decisional system for the decisional
process (objectives, a strategy and a system of priorities).
• Don’t be a prisoner of the past: decide in accordance with the present and
the future.
• Decide when you need to. Use your available time to analyze the situation
better and then solve the problem, with no excuses for avoiding a
decision.
• Once the decision made, don’t waste your time asking ceaselessly if it is a
good thing what you have done. “The appropriate solution” is not written
before; it is the one that leads to the achievement of the objectives
preliminary established.
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BACK
ASPECTS OF THE CELLULAR, HORMONAL AND

METABOLIC REGULATION OF THE MUSCULAR MASS
DEVELOPMENT AT ANIMALS
P.C. BOIŞTEANU, Iolanda MĂRGĂRINT,
Cristina G. RADU-RUSU, Roxana LAZĂR
The article describes the control of somatic development and of muscular

mass increasing, as well as of the muscular tissue regeneration and homeostasis
in adult animals. Muscular mass development (muscular fibers hyperplasia and
hypertrophy) is mediated by cellular (activation of the satellite muscle cells) or
by classic hormonal mechanisms, or through some metabolically active
substances with paracrine/autocrine action.
Key words: muscular mass, cellular, hormonal and metabolic regulation
Skeletal muscle growth and development generated a special interest

among biologists, biochemists, geneticists, mainly due to the well known fact that
under normal physiological conditions, the adult striated muscular fibers do not
divide and muscular tissue has morpho-functional stability. Postnatal growth and
regeneration of the skeletal muscles influence myocytes amount, meat chemical
composition and its quality, as well.
Role of the myogenic stem cells in muscular growth

Maintenance of the skeletal muscle physiological features (posture-
locomotion) is conditioned by the tissual homeostasis which also depend to
muscular fibers amount, size, as well as to their contractile and metabolic
characteristics.
History of the research related to embryonic, fetal and postnatal growth of
the striated muscle known noticeable progresses, mainly through the deepen of
the involved cell and molecular biology mechanisms.
Lewis, 1917 (quoted by Zammit, 2006) and Katz, 1961, signaled for the
first time the increase of size and of nuclei amount in skeletal muscular fibers.
First identification of “satellite cells” in adult frog skeletal muscles has been done
in 1961 (Katz; Mauro). Subsequently, the satellite cells in skeletal muscles have
been reviewed and studied at the EM on samples issued from various vertebrates
–mammals, birds, fishes (Hawke, 2001; Reecy, 2003; Shi, 2006; Charge, 2004).
Sattelite cells contributes to the postnatal growth of the skeletal musculature,
having high proliferation and differentiation potentialities, involved in muscular
mass maintenance and regeneration, at adult animals (Hawke, 2001)
Satellite cells represent a myogenic cell line, having the same somitic
origin as the muscular fibers (Armand, 1983; Asakura, 2002); some scientists also
hypothesized on the endothelial origin of these cells (Charge, 2004).
- 315 -
Satellite cells are the precursors of the postnatal myogenesis, constituting

the cells reserve, peripherally situated at adult myofibers surface, between
sarcolema and basal lamina (fig. 1). They could be observed at the electronic
microscope, as small sized cells, undifferentiated, with a relatively lack of
cytoplasm organites, with a single nucleus that comprises high amount of
heterochromatin (Shi, 2006). They function as myogenic promoters, with
fundamental role in skeletal muscle maintenance, regeneration and functioning,
acting as tissual-specific cells, through the unique differentiation in myofibers.
Muscular satellite cells has been morphologically identified toward the

end of fetal period and last in relatively constant amount until the adult stage is
reached, then their quantity decreases (Asakura, 2002).
Satellite cells are considered as monopotential stem cells, that, by
activation, proliferate, differentiate, fusion in myotubes, finally forming adult
muscular fibers. Activation of the satellite cells (their entrance in the cellular
cycle) becomes possible through the action of certain growth factors, signal
molecules, which interfere in different myogenesis stages (fig. 2), establishing the
amount of muscular fibers (Picard, 2002; Zammit, 2006).
- 316 -
Skeletal muscle contains two kinds of stem cells, that act as myogenic
promoters: 1) “satellite cells” - monopotential stem cells (Mauro, 1961); 2) adult
multipotential “interstitial stem cells”, extralaminar situated, having a
remarkable capacity to differentiate both in muscular fibers or hematopoetic cells
(Asakura, 2002; Seale, 2001).
Complete regeneration of the skeletal muscle is also achieved by the
contribution of other non-muscular stem cells populations: hematopoetic cells, issued
from bone marrow (Ferrari, 1998; Seale, 2000), several mesenkime stem cells; nervous
stem cells (Charge, 2004), vascular progenitors –endothelial cells (Shi, 2006).
Endocrine-metabolic control of the muscular growth
Skeletal muscle is a dynamic tissue, able to growing and regeneration

processes, achieved through the increase of muscular fibers amount (cellular
hyperplasia) or by the increase of myofibers volume (cellular hypertrophy).
Growth of muscular mass ensure animals adaptation to the functional
requirements related to posture – locomotion – physical effort – endurance,
involving complex genetic, endocrine, nutritional and metabolic interactions.
Classic hormones role in growth regulation and regeneration of skeletal
muscles.
Activation, proliferation and differentiation of the myoblasts during
myogenesis (embryonic – fetal and postnatal) influences the myofibers amount
and, consequently, the whole muscular mass of the adult animal.
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Striated musculature growth during postnatal period is in fact a complex

biological process, resulting from an increase of myofibers amount (tissual
hyperplasia) and of muscular fibers volume (tissual hypertrophy), being regulated
by several hormones and growing factors presenting endocrine and
paracrine/autocrine action (Jarrige, 1992; Cassar – Malek, 1998).
Endocrine glands exert their physiological effect through the specific
receptors within the striated muscle, stimulating or inhibiting amino acids uptake
and their integration in proteins (fig. 3).
Excepting the glucocorticoids, most of the hormones have anabolic action

on muscular tissue, characterized by proteins synthesis stimulation, with straight
incidence on myofibers contractile and metabolic features.
Influence of the somatotrope hormones (growth hormone – STH and
growth factors - Insulin – like growth factor – IGF – I and IGF – II).
Growth hormone (STH) plays an important role in skeletal muscles
development (Pell, 1990). Secretion of anteropituitary STH is associated with an
increase in proteins synthesis and deposition rate, concomitant with the carcass
adiposity decrease. Effects generated by STH in vivo are considered to be mediated
by the somatostatin, secreted by the liver (Jarrige, 1992). STH effect exerts toward
the striated muscle tissue by an increase of the fibers cross section (hypertrophy)
- 318 -
and by a postnatal stimulation of the satellite cells proliferation (hyperplasia). STH

acts on the muscular tissue in direct manner or even by indirect way, through the
activation of the IGF – I secretion (Cassar-Malek, 1998).
Insulin – mimetic growth factors (IGF – I and IGF – II) have structural
and functional similarities with the insulin. IGF – I plays a determinant role
during the animals postnatal period, because of its anabolic effects, correlated
with the decrease of the protein muscular catabolism (Oddi, 1996); it also
contributes to growth process through the stimulation of the satellite cells
activation, proliferation and of the myoblasts differentiation (Florini, 1996). IGF –
I and IGF – II stimulates myoblasts the in vitro proliferation and differentiation,
revealing the paracrine/autocrine action way of these factors.
Iodine based thyroidal hormones (3,4,3´ Triiodthyronin - T3 and
Thyroxin - T4) are involved in postnatal regulation of skeletal muscle growth, as
Scow proved, for the first time, in 1951. Thyroidal hormones, under physiological
concentrations, exert nutritive action on the striated muscle, materialized by
increase of rat muscular fibers size and amount (Scurgie, 1985, quoted by Cassar
– Malek, 1998). Growth of fibers diameter is related to the stimulation of tissual
proteins synthesis and accumulation (Brown, 1981), while increase of fibers
amount is a consequence of the embryonic and fetal myogenesis stimulation
(Marchal, 1996). Thyroidal hormones also lead to the ARN concentration
increasing within skeletal muscles, followed by an amplification of proteins
synthesis1. However, high T3 concentration stimulates proteins catabolism.
Importance of the thyroidal hormones on muscular growth depends on their
physiological level, being already proved for several domestic animals. It has been
demonstrated that thyroidal hormones exert their effects by certain different ways:
regulation of somatomedins receptors production, through the influence on STH
synthesis and release and on epiphysis activity, as well (Jarrige, 1992).
Insulin stimulates the amino acids uptake and inclusion in muscular
proteins. It must be though specified that the straight involvement of this hormone
within the proteins metabolism is a minor one, comparing to its effects within
lipids metabolism, straightly related to the lipids deposition in muscles (Davis,
1982, quoted by Jarrige, 1992). Insulin exerts a permissive role during growth,
stimulating the STH anabolic activity, through the hepatic synthesis and secretion
of the somatomedins (during normal feeding conditions).
Sexual steroid hormones (androgen and estrogen hormones) induce
muscular mass growth by direct anabolisant actions and by indirect ones –
stimulation of STH release (Mayer, 1977; Meyer, 1985).
1
T3 stimulates metabolism, mainly the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorilation and
mithocondria multiplication within muscles (Gross, 1971 and Sterling, 1980, quoted by
Cassar-Malek, 1998)
- 319 -
The role played by the growth factors within postnatal myogenesis have
been proved by the identification during last years, grace to the molecular biology
advances, of several substances with biologic activity. Skeletal muscle
homeostasis and muscular regeneration phenomena require the presence of certain
growth factors or cytokines, that activate the satellite cells, through their initiation
into the cellular cycle (“competence factors”) and/or through myoblasts
proliferation and differentiation (“progression factors”) (Charge, 2004; Li,
2003). These metabolic signals act as paracrine and/or autocrine regulators of the
skeletal muscle development.
Experiments carried on in vivo and in vitro conditions demonstrated the
stimulation role of certain growth factors on the satellite cells activation and on
myofibers genesis: hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), fibroblast growth factor
(FGF), tumor necrosis - factor – alfa (TNF- α),... Myogenesis is also stimulated
by several cytokines, delivered by macrophage cells, eg. interleukina – 4 (IL – 4),
interleukina – 5 (IL – 5), interleukina – 6 (IL – 6) and so on (Charge, 2004).
Myoblasts activity is also regulated by the TGF – β (transforming growth
factor – β) family, which inhibits skeletal muscle growth, through TGF – β1, β2,
β3. Most recently, the inhibiting effect of myostatin (MSTN) on the satellite cells
proliferation has been proved.
Myostatin (MSTN), formerly known as “Growth and Differentiation
Factor 8” (GDF – 8), has been isolated for the first time in 1997, by McPherron,
which revealed its inhibiting role during myogenesis in mouse. It belongs to the
“Transforming Growth Factor – β (TGF – β)” superfamily, that comprises a lot of
factors involved in cellular growth and differentiation, which play important role
in embryonic development regulation, as well as in the maintenance of tissues
homeostasis at adult animals.
Myostatin has been identified in all vertebrate classes (Yang, 2007),
especially within skeletal muscle (Deveaux, 2002; Ji, 1998), during all
ontogenetic development stages, suggesting a preservation of myostatin functions
across the evolution of species2. It is considered as unique regulator (-) of striated
skeletal muscle growth, inhibiting, by paracrine/autocrine way, embryonic and
postnatal myogenesis (fig. 4)
Myostatin is a strong regulator (-) of the muscular tissue homeostasis, thus
of the muscular mass in adult animals, through the inhibition of cellular cycle
dynamics, associated with the cell apoptosis induction (Joulia, 2003; Yang, 2007).
Although the myostatin physiological effects have been in vitro and in vivo
proved, those molecular mechanisms used to limit the myogenic proliferation and
differentiation are not fully known yet (Thomas, 2000; Yang, 2007).
2
Myostatin is a protein that preserved its structure and biological function, being identical
in mouse, turkey, pig, cow (Rios, 2002).
- 320 -
Lack or inactivation of functional myostatin, as a consequence of some

mutations occurred in the gene that codifies myostatin, lead to the occurrence of
the “double – muscling” phenotype in mice (McPherron, 1997; Rios, 2002),
characterized by the 2-3 folds growth of the muscular mass, as compared to
normal development. In mutant mice, growth of skeletal muscles has been found
to be produced by an increase of muscular fibers amount (hyperplasia) and of
their volume (hypertrophy). A similar phenotype was observed in Blanc Belgian
Blue (BBB) and Piedmontese cattle breeds (Kambadur, 1997; Keele, 2001;
Bellinge, 2005; McPherron, 1997). Increase of muscular mass with approximately
20% is achieved, in this case, mostly by cell hyperplasia and less by hypertrophy
(Grobet, 1997). Cattle breed which express hypermuscular phenotype (ex. BBB)
are used in crossings with other breeds (eg. Romanian Mottled, Brown of
Maramureş), in order to produce cullard type hybrids, with high performances in
beef production.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Postnatal myogenesis, maintenance and regeneration of muscular mass in
adult animals are achieved through the involvement of the monopotential
satellite cells, of the interstitial multipotential stem cells and of the non-
muscular stem cells.
2. Development of striated musculature, a result of tissual hyperplasia and
hypertrophy, is regulated by many hormones and growth factors that act
through endocrine and paracrine/autocrine ways.
- 321 -
3. Postnatal myogenesis is directly or indirectly stimulated by the hormones

having anabolisant effect (STH, IGF – I and – II, T3, T4, insulin and sexual
steroid hormones) or by growth factors (HGF, FGF, TNF – α, IL – 4, IL – 5,
IL – 6 and so on), as well.
4. Myostatin (MSTN) is the only proved negative regulator of the myogenesis
and, consequently, of myogenesis and of muscular mass in adults, acting
through the inhibition of myoblasts activation, proliferation and
differentiation.
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BACK
INVOLVEMENT OF SOME PERIPHERAL ORGANS IN

ENERGETIC HOMEOSTASIS REGULATION AT ANIMALS
P.C. BOIŞTEANU, Iolanda MĂRGĂRINT,
Cristina G. RADU-RUSU, Roxana LAZĂR
The paper presents a synthesis related to the involvement of the

extrahepatic peripheral tissues – adipose tissue, pancreas and gastrointestinal
tract – in the energetic homeostasis regulation, through the feed intake
physiological adaptation at mammals, while body weight remains relatively
constant (,,set point”). There are analyzed those action mechanisms (endocrine,
paracrine and/or autocrine) of the biological active compounds secreted by the
adipose tissue (adiponectin, leptin, resistin), by pancreas (insulin, pancreatic
polypeptide) and by the gastrointestinal tract (ghrelin, peptide YY,
oxyntomodulin, cholecystokinin). The neuroendocrine and metabolic correlation
are specified, as well as their influence on the energetic balance – through the
stimulation or inhibition of feed intake, with consequences on the animals
adiposity and body weight.
Key words: energetic homeostasis, adiposity, peripheral tissues, leptin, ghrelin
Understanding the mechanisms involved in both feed intake control and

energetic balance regulation has a special importance, given by the influencing
possibilities on the feeding behavior, as good as on the meat and milk productions
of the animals.
Realization of meat production, achieved through muscular mass increase
and through animals fattening degree, is conditioned by the involvement of
nervous regulation – central and peripheral, by the classical hormonal regulation
mechanism and by those biological active substances secreted by certain
peripheral extrahepatic tissues and exerting endocrine, paracrine/autocrine
actions. The mechanisms involved in feed intake and energetic homeostasis
regulation insures the relatively constant maintenance of the body weight in adult
animals – co called set point – being permanently adapted to animals’ nutrition
and maintenance condition, playing a primordial role for survival.
Energetic homeostasis bases on a complex network of neuro-endocrino-
metabolic feed-back circuits, determinant for adipose mass maintenance as a
consequence of the balance between caloric intake and energy expenses. The
dynamics existing between energetic intake and expenses, even of nictemeral
kind, even of long lasting type, induces the initiation of certain specific
biochemical pathways: 1) anabolic ways, when energetic balance becomes
positive and fatty mass increases and 2) catabolic ways, when energetic balance
becomes negative and leads to the decrease of the adipose mass (fig. 1, after
Woods, 1998 - adapted). Lipostatic mechanisms represent in fact some metabolic
adaptations used for body weight and adipose mass regulation, considering that
proteins and carbohydrates reserves varies under relatively reduced limits in
- 324 -
adults and body weight regulation is especially related to the adipose tissue mass
(Jéquier, 1999).
The knowledge referring to homeostasis physiological regulation have

enriched mostly during last decade, through the description of the roles played by
certain biologically active molecules (metabolic signals), produced by some
extrahepatic peripheral tissues, such as adipose tissue, pancreas and
gastrointestinal tract. These compounds reflect the animals’ nutritional status and
influence the neural circuits in hypothalamus, brain stem and limbic system,
which modulate feed intake and energetic homeostasis by the releasing of certain
neurotransmitters.
1. The hormones of white adipose tissue

White adipose tissue plays a very significant role in regulation of
adiposity and of energetic balance, to reach optimal levels, through the secretion
of certain biologic active proteins, also known as adipokines.
1.1. The leptin

Leptin is the main polypeptidic hormone, synthesized and secreted by the
adipose tissue, made of 167 amino acids. It has an important function in feed intake
regulation, in body adiposity control and in tissual lipids distribution. Discovered in
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1994 by Friedman, quoted by Chilliard (1999), leptin is a lipostatic hormone, that

informs the CNS about the energetic supplyes. Leptin action mechanism (fig. 2)
completes and validates the lipostatic hunger theory (Kennedy, 1953), which states
that the adipose tissue releases a metabolic signal towards CNS, in order to limit
feed intake and body adiposity on long lasting term.
The self-control of adipose mass is done under leptin action, thus

contributing to the animals energetic balance modulation. It is secreted by the
adipose tissue as a response to the adypocites volume increase and is transported
by blood to brain, reaching the hypothalamus (ventro-medials nuclei) after it
passes through the blood-encephalon barrier. Leptin exerts its action on the leptin
receptors (Ob-R), inhibiting the neuropeptide Y (NPY), which is involved in feed
intake control, through the appetite stimulation (Houseknecht, 2003).
Consequently, the efferent way comprises cathecolamines secretion, realized by
the stimulation on the sympathetic nervous system, which mediates an increase in
energy release (Chilliard, 1999).
Leptin exerts its physiological effects (feed intake reduction, increase of
energy expenses, intensification of muscular anabolism) by classical endocrine
way, as well by paracrine/autocrine action on the adypocites, inhibiting the fatty
acids and triglycerides (TG) synthesis, through the inhibition of acetil-CoA
carboxylase activity (Vernon, 1999).
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The plasmatic level of leptin (leptinemy) reveals the adiposity degree and
the animals’ energetic balance level. Thus, prolonged feeding restriction leads to
decreases of circulating leptin levels, followed by the occurrence of feed seeking
behavior and of a decrease in energy expenses, while resume of feeding induces
leptinemy increasing and, consequently, the expression of its physiological effects
(Stanley, 2005). Recent studies revealed the relation existing between adipose tissue
mass and leptin secretion regulation. Leptin is considered to be an “adipostatic
signal”, which decrease during malnutrition-inanition periods and increases during
feeding and feed excess periods. For these reasons, it could be stated that leptinemy
reflects the level of energetic supplies within the adipose tissue (fig. 3).
1.2. The adiponectin

Adiponectin is a hormone synthesized by the adipose tissue, being
involved in the long term regulation of the energetic balance. It is a protein built
of 244 amino acids, which intensifies the tissual metabolism and oxygen expenses
(increases lipemy), without influencing feed ingestion. It is supposed that
adiponenctin action is mediated by the hypothalamus, some adiponenctin
receptors (adipo – R) being observed within (Stanley, 2005).
1.3 The resistin

Resistin is produced by the adipose tissue, seeming to increase its levels
as response to insulin. It remains to better clarify its role.
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2. The pancreatic hormones

2.1. The insulin
Insulin was one of the first metabolic signals described to have positive
correlation with long term energetic balance (Woods, 1974). Insulin acts as an
anorectic metabolic signal for the CNS, lowering the feed intake and body weight.
Insulin passes the blood-encephalon barrier and acts towards the specific insulin
receptors within CNS, especially on those hypothalamic nuclei involved in feed
ingestion (arcuate, ventromedial and ventrolateral, dorsomedial, paraventricular
nuclei,...) (Baura, 1993; Marks, 1990).
2.2. The pancreatic polypeptide (PP)

Pancreatic polypeptide (PP) is mainly produced by the endocrine
(Langerhans islets) and exocrine pancreas and less by the gastrointestinal tract.
Plasmatic PP concentration increases after feed ingestion and is kept at high
levels, for approximately 6 hours in humans. In also increases under ghrelin,
motilin, secretin and stomach distension influences (Stanley, 2005) and decreases
at somatostatin utilization. Plasmatic PP concentration seems to be conversely
proportional to adiposity, being increased in anorexic mice and lowered in obese
individuals (Lassmann, 1980, quoted by Stanley, 2005).
Physiological effects induced by PP on feed intake depend on its
administration way, so peripheral administration of PP decreases feed ingestion,
lowers body weight and energy release, while PP administration straight to the III
cerebral ventricle increases feed ingestion rate (Clark, 1984, quoted by Stanley,
2005).
3. The gastrointestinal hormones

3.1. The Ghrelin
Ghrelin has been isolated from rat stomach1 (Kojima, 1999), being in fact
a polypeptide built of 28 amino acids. Low quantities of ghrelin are also produced
in duodenum, ileum, caecum and colon (Van der Lely, 2004). Ghrelin synthesis
has been also identified in cattle ruminal and abomasal tissues (Gentry, 2003;
Hayashida, 2001 quoted by Wertz – Lutz, 2006). Till now, ghrelin is considered
as the only orexigenic known hormone, being identified as natural binder of the
growth hormone specific secretagogue receptors (Stanley, 2005).
The stomach role as endocrine organ has been proved by ghrelin
discovery, because its function is an essential one for growth hormone (STH)
release and for energetic homeostasis regulation in vertebrates.
Ghrelin is involved in short term body weight control, through appetite
and feed ingestion stimulation. There have been observed nictemeral variations of
ghrelinemy (in diurnal animals, ghrelinemy reaches maximal levels in the morning,
1
Full gastrectomy reduces ghrelinemy with approximately 60%
- 328 -
prior to feeding and minimal ones during night time, while in nocturnal animals,
grelinemy have inversed variations, eg. in mouse). Ghrelin also participates in the
long-term regulation of energetic reserves, as an effect of feed intake increase.
A high complexity action mechanism of ghreline towards the stomach has
been noticed (fig. 4).
Low ghrelin quantities are released in blood, pass the blood-encephalon

barrier and act as a “peripheral metabolic signal” for the specific receptors within
the hypothalamic paraventricular and arcuate nuclei. Ghrelin stimulates the
orexigenic neurons from the hypothalamic areas, increasing the appetite and feed
ingestion, through the stimulation of neuropeptide Y (NPY), the main orexigenic
signal in hypothalamus, besides galanin, endorfins, gamma-aminobutyric acid
(GABA),... Meantime, there are inhibited those hypothalamic anorexigenic
neurons and neurotransmitters (corticoliberin, neurotensin, melanocortin,...) that
decrease both feed ingestion and body weight. In vertebrates, ghrelin stimulates
stomach motility by the vagal afferent – efferent pathways (the vague-vagal
reflex), or by paracrine/autocrine ways, as well.
Ghrelin is one of the strongest lipogenic hormones ever known in
mammals physiology (Van der Lely, 2004), contributing with the leptin (which
acts complementary) in energetic homeostasis regulation.
- 329 -
Ghrelin contributes to the establishment of a (+) energetic balance,

stimulating lipids deposition within adipose tissue, using complex mechanisms of
feed intake increase and of tissual lipids oxidation decrease (inhibits the
lipolysis), acting either indirectly through the activation of those hypothalamic
centers involved in feeding behavior, either directly towards the adipose tissue
(fig. 5).
Ghrelin physiological effects occur at various levels:

1. at hypothalamus-hypophysis level, stimulating somatoliberin secretion
and, consequently, the growth hormone release;
2. at hypothalamic nuclei level, which are involved in feeding behavior
(arcuate n., paraventricular n.), leading to a positive energetic balance (+),
through the increase of feed intake, of adiposity or of body weight, as well;
3. at peripheral tissues level, which are endorsed with ghrelin specific
receptors, influencing the activity of endocrine glands, of pancreas, of
gastrointestinal tract and of adipose tissue (fig. 6).
- 330 -
Ghrelin plays, through its physiological effects, an essential survival role,

realizing together with leptin (complementary action to ghrelin) an adaptation
adjustment between feed intake regulation, adiposity and body weight,
synchronizing energetic balance regulation with body growth..
3.2. Other hormones

The gastrointestinal tract also secretes other substances influencing
energetic homeostasis in animals. Thus, there have been found various
compounds, such as: gastrin (in stomach pyloric antrum), secretin and
cholecystokinin (in duodenum), motilin, enterostatin, oxyntomodulin, peptide YY
(in jejunum), oxyntomodulin, peptide YY (in colon) and so on. These metabolic
signals influence feed intake on short term, activating the hypothalamic neurons
from the arcuate nucleus, which inhibit feed ingestion. These hypothalamic
neurons could also be activated through the action exerted by these metabolic
signals both on vagal afferences and on bulbar solitary tract.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Extrahepatic peripheral tissues (white adipose tissue, pancreas, gastro-
intestinal tract) play and essential physiological role in adiposity regulation and in
balancing the energetic balance in animals, through the secretion of some
biological active molecules which exert endocrine and paracrine/autocrine action.
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BACK
2. The leptin, secreted by the white adipose tissue and ghrelin, produced
by the stomach, through the complementary physiologic effects they possess, are
the most important tissual hormones that induce metabolic adaptation required by
long term maintenance of energetic homeostasis and of animal body composition
or weight, as well.
3. In-depth knowledge of energetic homeostasis regulation in animals has
special meanings, both theoretically and practically, related to the meat
production management and quality improvement.
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BACK
BODY MEASUREMENTS IN MARAMURES BROWN BREED

CATTLE AND TESTING OF TWO PROTOCOLS FOR
GENOTYPING THE LEPTIN GENE LOCUS
Crina Teodora CARŞAI, A. VLAIC, Viorica COSIER,
Antonia ODAGIU, Niculina ARMEANA
The body measurement of Maramures brown breed and testing two

protocols for emphasizing the leptine gene in order to perform associations with
some beef production traits within further studies were the aims of our research.
The blood DNA extraction was performed according to the protocols proposed
by Yves Amigues and Leifers. The body weight is within standards. The analyzed
protocols used for leptine gene emphasizing led to satisfactory results, which
will enable us to perform further research in order to make associations between
this gene and body traits.
INTRODUCTION
The Maramures brown breed is one of Romanian cattle breeds exploited
for mixed production, dairy and beef. The beef production potential of this breed
in Romanian rearing conditions must be tested. According to previous studies
performed in Romanian Spotted Cattle populations from Transylvanian areas, the
leptine gene represents a candidate for beef production control (Vlaic, A. et al.,
2001, 2003; Carsai et al., 2007). The gene of obesity and its product, leptine was
discovered in 1994. It is a proteic hormone synthesized in adipose tissues,
secreted in blood, and involved in regulation of body weight, fertility, and
immune function of the organism. In livestock, the control of body weight is of
great importance, because the excessive development of the adipose tissues has
negative influence on meat quality (Margetic, S. et al., 2002).
The body measurement of Maramures brown breed and testing two
protocols for emphasizing the leptine gene in order to perform associations with
some beef production traits within further studies were the aims of our research.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The research was performed on three locations the S.C Agrozootehnica
Seini, the Agricultural Association Petreşti, and S.C.A. Livada, all situated in
county of Satu Mare. Bloods samples collection and body measurements were
performed in young cattle males: 17 from S.C Agrozootehnica Seini, 34
individuals from Agricultural Association Petreşti, 18 individuals from S.C
Livada, during 10.07.2007 – 30.07.2007. The following parameters were
recorded: body weight, withers and croup height, oblique length, chest girth,
croup width, whistle perimeter, and breast width. The measurements were
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performed with specific instruments (balance – body weight, meter - whistle

perimeter, stick - withers and croup height, oblique length, croup width, compass
- breast width).
The DNA extraction from blood was performed according to the
protocols proposed by the Laboratory of Veterinary Genetics, University of
California, Davis, CA 95616, modified by Yves Amigues, INRA, Jouy-en-Josas
programme, and also according to the protocol proposed by Leifers et al., 2002. A
Two PCR – RFLP protocols were tested in order to detect the polymorphism of
the leptine gene. A 1820 DNA fragment was amplified according to Pomp et al.
(1997) using the following specific primer: 5’- GTCACCAGGATCAATGACAT-
3’, 5’ AGCCCAGGAATGAAGTCCAA 3’. In the second amplification test a 400
DNA fragment was amplified and according to Leifers (2002): 5’-
TGGAGTGGCTTGTTATTTTCTTCT-3’,5’GTCCCCGCTTCTGGCTACCTAA
CT-3’
In both protocols, two PCR reaction mixes were used, one with 10 µl
final volume, and other with 25µl final volume (fig. 3). The restriction of the 1820
bp PCR product was performed with Sau 3AI restriction enzyme at 370C, for 4
hours. 4% agarose gel was used for sample migration. The data were statistically
processed with WINSTAT v.0.6

The results of the body measurement performed in Maramures brown breed
analyzed young cattle populations are presented in tables 1, 2 and 3.
Table.1
Body measurements traits recorded in young Maramures brown breed individuals
from S.C Agrozootehnica Seini
Traits n X mediu ± SX s V%
Body weight, kg 17 338,82 ± 24,90 102,65 30,29
Withers height, m 17 1,20 ± 0,02 0,09 7,26
Croup height, m 17 1,29 ± 0,02 0,08 5,95
Oblique length of ±
17 1,37 0,04 0,16
the trunk, m 11,85
Thorax depth, m 17 0,60 ± 0,02 0,06 10,47
Croup width, m 17 0,42 ± 0,01 0,05 10,98
Chest width, m 17 0,60 ± 0,01 0,13 11,18
Thorax perimeter, m 17 1,67 ± 0,05 0,19 11,31
Leg perimeter, m 17 0,19 ± 0,01 0,02 11,82
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Table. 2
from S.C Livada Satu Mare
Body weight, kg 34 253,61 ± 13,18 55,94 22,06
Withers height, m 34 1,13 ± 0,02 0,10 8,70
Croup height, m 34 1,21 ± 0,02 0,09 7,48
Oblique length of the ±
34 1,25 0,02 0,10
trunk, m 8,02
Thorax depth, m 34 0,57 ± 0,01 0,04 7,91
Croup width, m 34 0,36 ± 0,02 0,08 20,68
Chest width, m 34 0,59 ± 0,02 0,14 9,27
Leg perimeter, m 34 0,16 ± 0,00 0,02 12,05
Table.3
from S.A Petreşti, Satu Mare
Body weight, kg 13 276,18 ± 14,13 82,38 29,83
Withers height, m 13 1,13 ± 0,02 0,10 8,47
Croup height, m 13 1,18 ± 0,03 0,20 17,31
Oblique length of the ±
13 1,24 0,05 0,29
trunk, m 23,11
Thorax depth, m 13 0,59 ± 0,01 0,06 10,45
Croup width, m 13 0,36 ± 0,01 0,07 18,47
Chest width, m 13 0,56 ± 0,01 0,11 13,37
Leg perimeter, m 13 0,17 ± 0,00 0,02 10,87
The measurement performed in young cattle from S.C Agrozootehnica

Seini revealed an average body weight of 338.82 kg, and coefficient of variability
recorded big variations between 5.95% in croup height and 30.29 % in body
weight (table 1). The young cattle reared at S.C Livada Satu Mare recorded an
average body weight of 253.61 kg, chest width 0.57 m, and coefficient of
variability recorded values between 7.48 % in croup height and 22.06 % in body
weight (table 2).
The main body measurements traits recorded in young Maramures brown
individuals from S.A Petreşti, Satu Mare (table 3) revealed values of 276.18 kg
body weight, 0.59 m breast width, high variability concerning body weight (29.83
%). I other measured parameters the coefficient of variability recoded big values
too, between 8.47 % (girth height) and 23.11 % (oblique length).
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BACK
Fig.1 a and b. The tested DNA analyzes protocols proposed by Pomp (a) and Leifers(b),
respectively, led to satisfactory results in emphasizing the leptine gene (fig. 1 and 2).
CONCLUSIONS
The average body weight recorded in analyzed young Maramures brown
individuals 253,61 kg, 276,18 kg and 338,22 kg is within standards stipulated by
international normative, 250 – 360 kg.The other analyzed body measurement
parameters recorded in young individuals are within standards (e.g. withers height
1.10 – 1.30 m, croup height 1.15 – 1.30 m, croup width 0.30 – 0.55 m, whistle
perimeter 0.15 / 0.21 m, chest girth 1.50 – 1.72 m, chest width 0.50 – 0.73 m,
oblique length 1.20 – 1.40 m). Further research is needed in order to elaborate a
real biometric picture of the present Maramures brown Transylvanian area. The
analyzed protocols used for leptine gene emphasizing, led to satisfactory results,
which will enable us to perform further research in order to make associations
between this gene and body traits.
REFERENCES
Carşai Crina, Vlaic A., Odagiu Antonia (2007). Biometric approach to Romanian beef cattleand
optimization of the protocol of emphasiuying the leptine gene. Proceedings of the 42nd
Croatian 2nd International Symposium on Agriculture, 534 - 537
Margetic, S., Gazzola, G.G. Pegg ; R.A. Hill (2002). Leptin: a review of its periperpheral actions
and interactions. Inter. J OBES, 1407 – 1433;
Pomp et al. (1997). Emphasizing the leptine gene with specific primer sequences. Inter. J OBES:
807– 809
Vlaic, A., Ciobanu, D.C., Antonia Odagiu (2001). Use of molecular genetic markers in the cattle
selection, 37th Croatian Symposium on Agriculture with International Participation,
Collection of Summaries, 322;
Vlaic, A., Ciobanu, D.C., Oroian, T. (2001). Preliminary Research Concerning the Association
Between the Genotypes at the Kappa – Caseine Locus and Milk Production Traits in Cattle, J.
Agric. Sci., Debrecen, Hungary, 1, 45-48;
Vlaic, A., D.C. Pamfil, Ioana Gaboreanu, B. Vlaic, R. Renaville (2003). Increasing milk production
in cattle using DNA marker assisted selection (Pit-1), Buletin USAMV Cluj-Napoca, Seria
ZB, Vol. 59, 188-191, ISSN 1454-2382.
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BACK
HORMONIC CONTROL OF THE REPRODUCTION

FUNCTION WITH THE VIEW OF BREEDING AND
IMPROVEMENT OF THE KARAKUL SHEEP
Elena FECIORU
More schemes of hormonic treatment were used on the basis on

progestagenes, prostaglandins, serumal gonadotropins and gonadorelins. The
animal organism answer was had in view applying different hormonic schemes
to induce the oestrus synchronization.
The results were acceptable. They show that the oestrus and ovulation
apparition in the Karakul sheep can be stimulated by oestral cycle blocking,
exogenous contribution of progesterone and administration of serumal
gonatropins or causing the luteolysis by means of prostaglandins.
The average weight at birth of lambs is directly correlated with the twin
lamb number and the useful surface of lamb pelts is influenced by the lamb
weight at birth.
The experimental results are better using hormonic treatment schemes
with progesterone and folligon in comparison with those in which the hormonic
treatment schemes use estrumate, oestrophan and enzaprost.
INTRODUCTION
The intensivisation of reproduction process in the Karakul sheep supposes

oestrus induction and its synchronization without of the natural reproduction
season, as well as the oestrus synchronization in the natural reproduction season
with the view of lambing grouping, because the Karakul sheep is a rustic breed
having an emphasized hereditary conservatism concerning the natural
reproduction season. The paper proposes several schemes of hormonic treatments
in sheep of the Karakul breed to increase their reproduction performances.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The researches were made in the Karakul ewes both in the natural
reproduction season and in extra season. More hormonic treatment variants were
tested to induce and synchronize the oestrus. The females were in different
physiological statuses.
The Ist variant – consists in the oestrus synchronization in natural
reproduction season (in the lapse of time September-October) by means of
specific hormonic substances to find a merging method of mating period in the
view of staggered assurance of sheep samples in oestrus and of lambing grouping.
- the lot 1; the produce Floavoliz (gonadoreline) was gave in 112 ewes;
the doze of 125 µg/female was gave in two times, the lapse of time being 9 days.
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In the day before the second Flavoliz giving the ewes were treated with 800 IU
serumal gonadotropin.
- the lot 2; the produce Floavoliz (gonadoreline) was gave in 156 ewes;
the doze of 125 µg/female was gave in two times, the lapse of time being 9 days.
In the day before the second Flavoliz giving the ewes were treated with 1000 IU
serumal gonadotropin (Serogonadin product).
Finding out the females in oestrus was made four consecutive days and
then all ewes were naturally mated with rams from the mating list. The oestrus
apparition in the next cycles, the daily grouping of females in oestrus and the
lambing grouping in spring were followed.
The IInd variant – consists in induction and synchronization of the
female oestrus which were in anoestrus. The experimental works were made in
the lapse of time March-April. The animals were of the same age and benefited of
the same maintenance conditions; they resulted from the ewes which aborted or
from those whose lambs were slaughtered. Before to begin the experience the
ewes were 20 days stimulatively foddered with 2.0 NU and 180 g DP for each
animal. At the end of preparatory stage the animals were divided in three lots:
- the lot 1 was constituted of 60 ewes which were injected with 100 mg
progesterone in four times, the lapse of time being tree days: 20 mg, 30 mg, 20
mg and 30 mg. The serumal gonadotropin (Folligon product) (600 IU for each
animal) was gave at two days lapse of time to stimulate the ovulation. After 48
hours from the Folligon injection the females in heat were registered. Indifferently
if the ewes were or not were in heat, all of them were naturally mated with rams
consecutively five days.
- the lot 2 was constituted of 30 females. The oestrus synchronization was
achieved by means of the Oestrophan given in two times, the lapse of time being
11 days. Each doze contains 1 ml (0.5 mg PgF2α) Oestrophan. After 72 hours
from the last Oestrophan giving, 4 ml Folligon (800 IU serumal gonadotropin)
were inoculated to each ewe. The females in heat were found out and were
naturally mated with rams consecutively five days.
- the lot 3 was constituted of 30 females. The oestrus synchronization was
achieved by means of the Chrono-Gest vagina pesaries (30 mg FGA) which were
kept 14 days in vaginal tractus. When the vagina pesaries were extracted, a doze
of 800 IU serumal gonadotropin (Folligon type) was inoculated to stimulate the
ovulation. After 48 hours from the Folligon injection, the females in oestrus were
registered. All ewes were naturally mated with rams consecutively five days.

The administration of hormonic substances was well tolerated by the
animal organisms and no adverse reaction was mentioned in any animal of any
lot. The results were acceptable.
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The results of the Ist variant:

● In the lot 1, from those 112 ewes, hormonical treated (table 1, 2):
- in the first oestral cycle, 28.5% females manifested oestrus and 71,8% from
them remained pregnant;
- in the second oestral cycle, 57.2% females manifested oestrus and 75.0%
from them remained pregnant;
- in the third oestral cycle, 14.1% females manifested oestrus and 50.0% from
So that, in this lot 82.2% ewes lambed and 17.8% ewes remained sterile.
The prolificacy was 119.5% being higher than the flock average (103-
105%) owing to the polyovulation effect of the serumal gonadotropin.
● In the lot 2, from those 156 ewes, hormonical treated (table 1, 2):
- in the first oestral cycle, 30.1% females manifested oestrus and 91.5% from
- in the second oestral cycle, 53.2% females manifested oestrus and 90.3%
from them remained pregnant;
- in the third oestral cycle, 16.7% females manifested oestrus and 46.1% from
Table 1
Frequency of oestrus apparition in the Karakul ewes which were
synchronized in natural reproduction season
Fema Frequency of heat apparition on oestral cycles
Lot / Treatment scheme -les I II III
(n) n % n % n %
Lot 1 / Flavoliz 125µg,
112 32 28,5 64 57,2 16 14,3
Serumal gonadotropin 800 IU
Lot 2 / Flavoliz 125µg,
156 47 30,1 83 53,2 26 16,7
Serumal gonadotropin 1000 IU
Table 2
Reproduction indicators in the Karakul ewes which were synchronized in the mating
season
Females Mated Lambed Fecun- Lambs Prolifi
Lot / Treatment in lot females females dity (n) cacy
scheme (n) (n) (n.) (%) (%)
Lot 1 / Flavoliz 125µg
Serumal 112 112 92 82,1 110 119,5
gonadotropin 800 IU
Lot 2 / Flavoliz 125µg
Serumal gonadotropin 156 156 130 83,3 160 123,0
1000 IU
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So that, in this lot 83.3% ewes lambed and 16.7% ewes remained sterile.
The prolificacy was 123.0% being higher than the one of ewes of the lot 1
(119.5%) owing to higher doze of the serumal gonadotropin which was inoculated
them.
The results of the IInd variant:
- in the lot 1, from those 60 ewes, hormonical treated, 81.6% females
manifested oestrus and 60.0% from them remained pregnant;
manifested oestrus and 36.6% from them remained pregnant;
manifested oestrus and 60.0% from them remained pregnant; (table 3).
Table 3
Frequency of oestrus apparition in the Karakul ewes which were synchronized in
extra season
Females Frequency of heat apparition on

Lot / Treatment Females in heat
in lot days
scheme
(n) n % I II III IV V
Lot 1 / Progesteron
100mg 60 49 81,6 27 11 6 4 1
Folligon 600 IU
Lot 2 / Oestrophan
0,5mg 30 11 36,6 2 7 1 1 -
Folligon 800 IU
Lot 3 / ChronoGest
30mg 30 21 70,0 5 15 1 - -
Folligon 800 IU
The prolificacy was 155.5% in the lot 1 (22 simple lambings, 10 twin
lambings, 3 triple lambings and 1 quintuple lambing), 145.0% in the lot 2 (only
with 5 quintuple lambings) and 144.4% in the lot 3 (1 triple lambings and the rest
being twin lambings) (table 4).
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Table 4
Reproduction indicators in the Karakul ewes which were synchronized in
extra season
Females Mated Lambed Fecun- Prolifi

Lot / Treatment Lambs
in lot females females dity cacy
scheme (n)
(n) (n) (n) (%) (%)
Lot 1 / Progesteron
100mg 60 60 36 60,0 56 155,5
Folligon 600 IU
Lot 2 / Oestrophan
0,5mg 30 30 11 36,6 16 145,0
Folligon 800 IU
Lot 3 / ChronoGest
30mg 30 30 18 60,0 26 144,4
Folligon 800 IU
The unipar lambings are more frequent than the pluripar ones in all three
lots, but the pluripar lambings are more in the lot 1 than in the lots 2 and 3.
The average weight of lamb at birth is influenced by the lambing type
(simple or multiple) being reverse proportional with the number of born lambs.
Thus, the smallest weight at birth is met in quintuple lambs and the biggest one is
met in lams resulted from simple lambings. Indifferently of lambing type, the
male lambs have a bigger weight at birth than the female lambs (table 5). Also,
having in view that the surface of lamb pelts is directly proportional with the body
weigh at birth, it comes out that the surface of lambs is smaller in the twin
lambings and biggest in the simple lambings.
Table 5
Sex ratio and body weight at birth of lambs obtained from the ewes which were
synchronized in extra season
Adult ewes Lambs at birth

Specification Male lambs Female lambs Total
n %
n Kg n Kg n Kg
Ewes with 5 lambs 1 2,5 2 1,4 3 1,6 5 1,5
Ewes with 3 lambs 3 7,5 4 2,2 5 2,0 9 2,1
Ewes with 2 lambs 12 30,0 13 2,9 11 3,2 24 3,1
Ewes with 1 lamb 24 60,0 12 4,4 12 4,2 24 4,3
TOTAL 40 100 31 3,3 31 3,3 62 3,3
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. The mating period in the Karakul sheep can be emerged in the view of
staggered assurance of ewe samples in oestrus and of lambing grouping by
application of hormonic treatments for oestrus synchronization in the natural
reproduction season.
2. In the Ist experimental variant, in both lots, the fecundity and
prolificacy of the ewes which were hormonic treated (Flavoliz and serumal
gonadotropin) were higher of those of the control sample owing to the
polyovulation effect of serumal gonadotropin.
3. The fecundity and prolificacy were higher in the lot 2 of the Ist
experimental variant because these ewes were treated with bigger dozes of
gonadotrop hormone than the ewes of the lot 1.
3. In the IInd variant, the ewes of the lot 1 (treated with progesterone and
Folligon) and of the lot 3 (treated with Chrono-Gest vagina pesaries and Folligon)
had the same fecundity, but higher than in the ewes of the lot 2 (treated with
Oestrophan and Folligon). The prolificacy had the highest level in the ewes of lot
1 being followed by those of the lot 2 and lot 3.
4. The body weight at birth of lambs and the surface of lamb pelt are
influenced by the lambing type (simple or multiple) being reverse proportional
with the number of born lambs.
REFERENCES
1. Bogdan A., M. Bistriceanu, C. Măjină, 1981 – Reproducţia animalelor de fermă. Editura Scrisul
Românesc, Craiova.
2. Boitor I., 1979 – Endocrinologia reproducţiei la animalele de fermă. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
3. Dumitrescu I., Bogdan A., Năforniţă M., Turliuc O., 1982 - Reproducţia animală. Ed. didactică şi
pedagogică, Bucureşti.
4. Gluhovschi N., Seiciu Fl., Drugociu Gh., Dumitrescu I., 1972 - Biologia şi patologia
reproducţiei, vol. 1, Ed. didactică şi pedagogică, Bucureşti.
5. Paraschivescu M., 1969 - Reproducţia la ovine, Ed. Agrosilvică, Bucureşti.
6. Paraipan V., 1982 – Hormonoterapia în reproducţia animalelor. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
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BACK
DESCRIPTION OF THE PHYLOGENETIC RELATIONS IN

SMALL RUMINANTS BY MEANS OF THE ISOENZYMES
Gh. HRINCA
This paper deciphers the genetic relations among different species,

genres and breeds of small ruminants: domestic sheep, wild sheep (mouflon,
argali, arkali), primitive sheep (aoudad, big horn sheep), native sheep (Kotlen)
and goats (domestic goat, Rocky Mountain Goat) by means of some polymorph
enzymes (isoenzymes) as: lactate dehydrogenase, NADH-diaphorase, superoxide
dismutase, malic enzyme, nucleoside phosphorilase, carbonic anhydrase,
catalase, arylesterase and alkaline phosphatase, determined by electrophoresis
or spectrophotometry methods.
The comparative analyses of the isoenzymatic phenotypes contribute to
some phylogenetic explanations of different taxonomic entities of small
ruminants concerning similarity or differentiation among them, historical
relations among them and their origin.
INTRODUCTION
The isoenzymes represent multiple molecular forms of a certain enzyme
which catalyses the same biochemical reaction. The polymorph character of
isoenzymes is owing to some primary structure peculiarities within the protein
sequence, as well as to the arrangement modality of different aminoacid residues
and to their stereo chemical configuration within the enzymatic molecule.
The signification of isoenzymes is remarkable for the molecular base
investigation of morphogenesis, cellular differentiation, ontogenetic evolution,
diagnosis of pathologic entities and their treatment, increase and diversification of
food sources etc. An extremely interesting application of isoenezymes is the
clearing up the phylogenetic relations among different breed or species of animals.
This paper describes the relations among the sheep breeds (wild,
primitive, native and domestic sheep) and between sheep and goat species using
the isoenzymatic polymorphism
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The description of some phylogenetic aspects within the small ruminants
(sheep and goats) was possible on the basis of the genetic variants of some
polymorph enzymes reported by certain researchers in different breeds of sheep or
goats. From the enzyme constellation, only 18 of them were found to present
polymorphism in small ruminants: domestic sheep (Ovis aries), wild sheep (Ovis
musimon, Ovis amon and Ovis vignei arkar), primitive sheep (Ammotragus lervia,
Desert bighorn sheep), native sheep (Kotlen), some hybrids and goats (Capra
hircus, Rocky Mountain Capra). For this study, the following isoenzymes were
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mentioned: lactate dehydrogenase, NADH-diaphorase, superoxide dismutase,

malic enzyme, nucleoside phosphorilase, carbonic anhydrase, catalase,
arylesterase and alkaline phosphatase. Some isoenzymes can be determined either
only by electrophoresis method or only by spectrophotometry method and other
isoenzymes both electrophoresis method and by spectrophotometry method.

Analysis of the Lactate dehydrogenase phenotypes
The lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) is a NAD+-dependent oxide reductase,
catalysing the reversible oxidoreduction reaction between lactic acid and pyruvic
acid; the Nicotinamid Adenin Dinucleotid is present either in oxidised status
(NAD+) or in reduced status (NADH).
The lactate dedydrogenases represent a set of five isoenzyme types,
electrophoretically separated, depending on the decreasing succession of
electrophoresis mobility, as follows: LDH1, LDH2, LDH3, LDH4 and LDH5.
The lactate dehydrogenase polymorphism in sheep is determined by
autosomal genes: Ldr1a controls the high isoenzymatic activity and Ldr1b is
responsible of low isoenzymatic activity level (Serov et al., 1975).
Both in domestic sheep and in mouflon the electrophoretic mobility
presents two bands of “fast” type. In aoudad and goat, beside the anodal zone
from sheep and mouflon, other three slower bands are observed. The Ovis amon
(argali) and Ovis vignei arkar (arkali) have not lactate dehydrogenase
polymorphism, only an electrophoretic band being visible at the level of the first
slow band from aoudad and goat (fig. 1) (Tucker and Clarke, 1980).
Fig. 1 - Lactat dehydrogenase phenotypes in sheep, mouflon, argali, arkari, aoudad

and goat
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Analysis of the NADH-Methaemoglobin reductase phenotypes

The NADH-Methaemoglobin reductase (Diaphorase) (Dia) belongs to the
NAD+-dependent oxide reductase group. Its role is the reduction of
methaemoglobin (HbM) which results from the haemoglobin (Hb) oxidizing and
which is toxic for animal organism. The red cells synthetize small quantities of
HbM, but the presence of methemoglobin redustase permanently moves
equilibrium Hb ↔ HbM towards the left of chemical equation, so that HbM
must not surpass the critical value 0.4% in the animal blood.
In the ovine species, in the electrophoretic field three migration zones are
distinguished, corresponding to three phenotypes; DiaA (DiaF) representing the
anodal segment (with fast mobility), DiaB (DiaS) representing the cathodal
segment (with slow mobility) and DiaAB (Dia FS) interpolated between the two
zones (with intermediary mobility). These phenotypes are determined by the
presence of two autosomal codominant alleles, DiaA (DiaF) and DiaB (DiaS),
which control three genotypes: homozygous DiaADiaA (DiaFDiaF) and DiaBDiaB
(DiaSDiaS) and heterozygous DiaADiaB (DiaFDiaS) (fig. 2) (Makaveev, 1978;
Tucker and Crowley, 1978; Cepica and Stratil, 1978).
A more emphasized polymorph table of the NADH diaforase was pointed
out in Ovicaprinae by Tucker and Crowley (1978) and Cepica and Stratil (1978).
They detected in the electrophoretic field two migration systems named Dia1 (in
anodal zone) and Dia2 (in cathodal zone). The Dia2 system did not manifest
polymorphism in any species, being of “slow” type. Instead, the Dia1 system
presented enzymatic polymorphism in almost all species and breeds, stood out by
bands Dia1F, Dia1FS and Dia1S, being determined by two codominant alleles
Dia1F and Dia1S. These alleles control three genotypes: homozygous Dia1FDia1F,
Dia1SDia1S and heterozygous Dia1FDiaS.
Fig. 2 - NADH-Methaemoglobin reductase phenotypes in sheep, mouflon, argali, arkari,

aoudad and goat
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The differences among species appear at the level at which the two
diaphorase systems are manifested. In the Dia2 system the “slow” bands are in
cathodal position in sheep and mouflon, and in goat and aoudad these bands are a
little advanced. In argali and arkali the Dia2 bands are found between the two
anterior groups but much nearer to the spots of aoudad and goat. In the Dia1
system, the electrophoretic mobility of mouflon is similar to the “fast” fraction of
domestic sheep, while in goat and aoudad the anodal band corresponds with the
anodal band of domestic sheep and mouflon, but the cathodal band is placed a
little at the back of the cathodal band of the domestic sheep and aoudad. The
argali and arkali do not present polymorphism at this locus and the electophoretic
band is situated between the slow bands of sheep and aoudad or goat (fig. 2). The
configuration of the diaphorase panel shows the genetic differentiations between
domestic sheep and mouflon, on the one hand, and argali, arkari, goat and aoudad,
on the other hand.
The diaphorase polymorphism seems to be more accentuated in some
native breeds. Thus, in the Kotlen local type sheep Makaveev and Aleksandrov
(1987) describes two types of this isoenzyme, Dia1 and Dia2. In this case, both
zones present enzymatic polymorphism each zone being determined by two
genes, DiaA and DiaB.
Analysis of the Superoxide dismutase phenotypes
The superoxide dismutase (SOD) is a very important enzyme that
functions as a cellular anti-oxidant. It is present in cell cytoplasm (copper-zinc
enzyme) and in mitochondria (manganese enzyme) in order to maintain a low
concentration of superoxide anion (O2–). It catalyzes the dismutation of
+
superoxide anion by acceptance of protons (H ) and then rapidly converting it in
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), simultaneously with formation of molecular
oxygen (O2), in the following manner:
2 O2– + 2 H+ → O2 + H2O2
The absence of this enzyme is lethal. It is implied in lowering or
annihilation of the oxidative stress. The oxidative stress is manifested by
metabolic unsettles caused of excessive production of anionic superoxide, leading
to the death of the cell. The amount of superoxide dismutase is controlled by
specific redox-sensitive genes in cells.
Shalimov and Rish (1978) found in sheep three distinct discontinuous
levels of superoxide dismutase: high, middle and low, representing the phenotypic
expressions of this enzyme: SOD-H, SOD-M and SOD-L. These phenotypic
variants are determined by two alleles (SODH and SODL) situated on an
autosomal chromosome which control three superoxide dismutase genotypes:
SODHSODH (homozygous for SODH allele), SODHSODL (heterozygous) and
SODLSODL (homozygous for SODL allele).
- 346 -
Tucker and Clarke (1980) described the same isoenzymatic pattern of the
superoxide dismutase, but by electrophoresis. Three electrophoretic mobility
zones of superoxide dismutase were found in sheep and mouflon. Also, three
migration fields were observed in goats and aoudad, but they are distinct of the
bands of sheep and mouflon: the fast bands of goat and aoudad are more advanced
against the fast bands of sheep and mouflon and the slow bands of aoudad and
goat are between the fast and slow bands of sheep and mouflon. The superoxide
dismutase polymorphism in argali and arkari is absent. The single electrophoretic
band is placed between the two bands of the sheep and mouflon (fig. 3).
Fig. 3 - Superoxide dismutase phenotypes in sheep, mouflon, argali, arkari, aoudad and
goat
Analysis of the Malic enzyme phenotypes

The malic enzyme (ME) is a NADP+-dependent oxidoreductase and acts
on the L-malate, resulting pyruvate and carbon dioxide.
The polymorphism of this enzyme in sheep and goats is pointed out by
three electrophoretical isoenzymatic phenotypes, ME-F, ME-S and ME-FS, for
the “fast”, “slow” and respectively “fast-slow” types (Baker and Manwell, 1977)
(fig. 4). These phenotypes are determined by two codominant alleles, codified
MEF and MES, which control three genotypes of malic enzyme: heterozygous
MEFMEF and MESMES and heterozygous MEFMES (Yaman and Tucker, 1981).
The electrophoretic lines show the similarity between the domestic sheep
and mouflon. The last presents a mobility of “fast” type being similar to that of
domestic sheep. Instead, the goat and aoudad have a band situated in front of all
bands met in domestic sheep and mouflon. In argali and arkari the single band and
observed between the band of mouflon and aoudad or goat (fig. 4). (Baker and
Manwell, 1977).
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Fig. 4 - Malic enzyme phenotypes in sheep, mouflon, argali, arkari, aoudad and goat
Analysis of the Nucleoside phosphorilase phenotypes
The nucleoside phosphorilase (NP) is a phosphotransferase and intervenes
in the catabolism of nucleic acids at the nucleoside level by phosphorolysis
cleavage, the product reactions going in the pentosophosphat shunt.
The nucleoside phosphorilase polymorphism in sheep and goats was
pointed out both by electrophoresis (Tucker and Young, 1976) and by
spectrophotometry (Makaveev, 1986) methods. Some individuals had high
enzymatic activity (NP-H) and others had low or null enzymatic activity (NP-L)
(fig. 5) (Tucker and Young, 1976). The isoenzymatic phenotypes are determined
by two alleles, NPH and NPl, the allele NPH being dominant against the allele NPl.
The allelic combination makes possibility to express three genotypes: NPHNPH
(dominant homozygotes) NPlNPl (recessive homozygotes) and NPHNPl
(heterozygotes) (Makaveev, 1986).
The mouflon presents an electrophoretic mobility that is similar to NP-H
type of the domestic sheep. On the other hand, in goat the electrophoretic band is
situated behind of the NP-H of domestic sheep and mouflon, while in the aoudad
this band is situated a little in front of the NP-H type of domestic sheep and
mouflon and the spots of argali and arkari are longer and are placed a little in
front of the NP-H type of goat (fig. 5).
Fig. 5 - Nucleoside phosphorilase phenotypes in sheep, mouflon, argali, arkari, aoudad

and goat
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At the same time, this nucleoside phosphorilase electrophoregram points

out the existence of the ontogenetic polymorphism of this enzyme in some
Ovicaprinae species, the neonatal types being distinguished of the adult
isoenzymatic types. The domestic sheep and mouflon do not present ontogenetic
polymorphism, constituting one more phylogenetic argument.
Analysis of the Carbonic anhydrase phenotypes

The carbonic anhydrase (Ca) belongs to the ligase class and catalyses the
cleavage of double chemical bound C=O in the presence of H2O with
achievement of a simple bound C-O. Particularly, the carboanhydrase catalyses
the hydration reaction of the CO2, resulting the carbonic acid.
In small ruminants, three migration types of carboanhydrase are
distinguished in the electrophoretic field: CaF (type with fast migration), CaFS
(type with intermediary type) and CaS (type with slow migration) (fig. 6). The
expression of these phenotypes is owing to the existence of the two alleles at the
Ca locus level: CaF and CaS. The two alleles control three genotypes: CaFCaF,
CaFCaS and CaSCaS (Tucker et al., 1967; Makaveev and Tjankov, 1972).
The domestic sheep, mouflon and goat have the same electrophoretic
mobility, while in aoudad, argali and arkari the electrophoretic spots are slower
than of the first species (fig. 6) (Tucker et al., 1967).
Fig. 6 - Carbonic anhydrase phenotypes in sheep, mouflon, argali, arkari, aoudad and goat
At the same time, in the electrophoretic field, in the anodal zone, some
spots can be observed determined of the presence of the so-called “X-protein”,
having the same migration characteristics with anhydrase carbonic. This
polymorph protein, electrophoretically associated with carboanhydrase, presents
phylogenetic importance: the electrophoretic migration types are similar in
domestic sheep and mouflon, but are different against those of goat and aoudad;
argali and arkari have only one band at the level of the slow bands of aoudad and
goat (fig. 7), constituting one more argument in the favour of the origin of
domestic sheep from mouflon.
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Fig. 7 - `X`-Protein phenotypes in sheep, mouflon, argali, arkari, aoudad and goat
Analysis of the Catalase phenotypes

Catalase (Cat) is a heme protein that catalyzes the reaction shown below
in which hydrogen peroxide is detoxified. It is usually found in peroxisomes
except in cells like erythrocytes that do not contain these organelles. In that case
catalase is a cytoplasmic enzyme. Catalase provides a protective role that is
similar to that of glutathione peroxidase because both are important means of
removing hydrogen peroxide. Both catalase and glutathione peroxidase are
important in hydrogen peroxide detoxification.
2 H2O2 → O2 + 2 H2O
Three catalase types were identified: the “fast” type CatF, the “slow” type
CatS and the “fast-slow” type CatFS with middle migration. These catalase
phenotypes are under the control of two codominant alleles, determining the
expression of three genotypes: CatFCatF (homozygous for CatF allele), CatSCatS
(homozygous for CatS allele) and CatFCatS (heterozygous) (Baulov, 1987).
The native sheep (Kotlen) present the same catalase structures but, if in
domestic sheep the allele CatS is prevailing, in native sheep the two alleles are
more uniformly spread (Makaveev and Aleksandrov, 1987).
Karoian and Antonian (1988) compared the genetic types of this
isoenzyme of the Corriedale breed with those of hybrids F1 of Armean Mouflon
with Corriedale sheep. A catalase variant was found in hybrids having a slower
electrophoretic mobility than the variant CatS of the domestic sheep. This wild
variant type was codified CatS ’.
Analysis of the Arylesterase phenotypes

The arylesterase (AEs) splits up esters of aliphatic carboxylic acids with
aromatic alcohols or phenols, esters of aromatic carboxylic acids with aliphatic
alcohols or esters of aromatic carboxylic acids with aromatic alcohols or phenols,
resulting acids and alcohols with aromatic cycles.
In domestic sheep, the arylesterase polymorphism is determined by two
alleles codified EstA+ and EstA–, which are in codominant status (Margetin, 1981).
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The arylestrase polymorphism is found in the native sheep (Kotlen), too.

Depending on the allele distributions and on some electrophoretical peculiarities,
the Kotlen sheep belongs to the European breeds and being different of the Asian
ones (Makaveev and Aleksandrov, 1978).
Analysis of the Alkaline phosphatase phenotypes
The alkaline phosphatase (Akp) is a phosphoesterase catalysing the
hydrolytic splitting up of the phosphoric acid esters (monoesters and diesters),
resulting alcohol and phosphoric acid.
The polymorphism of this isoenzyme is determined by two alleles, AkpB
and AkpO (the allele AkO being enough spread), and it is manifested in the
electrophoretical by two phenotypes, AkpB andAkpO (Baulov and Karceva, 1985).
Also, the posphatase polymorphism was pointed out in the native sheep
(Kotlen), the same genetic structures being found, but the ratio between the two
alleles is more wellbalanced (Makaveev and Aleksandrov, 1978).
CONCLUSIONS
1. The data of these investigations point out the genetic similitude
between the domestic sheep and mouflon, but also the genetic differences
between these two genres, on the one hand, and the others entities within the
Ovicaprinae (the other two wild sheep, primitive sheep, native sheep and goats),
on the other hand.
2. These results represent phylogenetic arguments concerning the origin
of domestic sheep from mouflon, as well the divergent evolutions of species
belonging to Ovis and Capra genres; besides the adult isoenzymatic types, some
isoenzymes possesses ontogenetic polymorphism too in most small ruminants;
only the domestic sheep and mouflon do not present ontogenetic polymorphism
constituting one more phylogenetic argument in this ration.
3. These observations point out the importance of the enzymatic
polymorphism (as well as of the protein polymorphism, generally) for studies of
speciation, phylogeny, descendants, characterization and comparison of different
taxonomic entities (genres, species, breeds, varieties, lines), elucidation of
interspecific relations, prognosis of their evolution, using instruments of
qualitative genetics.
REFERENCES
Baker C. M. A., Manwell C., 1977 – Heterozigosity of the sheep: Polymorphism of `malic enzyme`
isocitrate dehidrogenase (NADP+), catalase andesterase. Aust. J. biol. Sci., vol. 30: 127-
140.
Baulov M., Lazarov V., Antonova V., 1983 - Genetic polymorphism of haemoblobin, carbonic
anhydrase and catalase in Karnobat and Romanov sheep. Genetika i Selekţiia, vol.
16, nr. 5: 389-397.
Baulov M., 1987 - Genetic polymorphism of catalase and carbonic anhydrase in erythrocytes of
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BACK
different sheep populations. Genetika i Selekţiia, vol. 20, nr. 3: 263-268.

Cepica N, Stratil A., 1978 – Further studies on sheep polymorphic erythrocyte diaphorase. Anim.
Blood Grps. Biochem. Genet., vol. 9: 239-243.
Karoian A. A., Antonian A. Ş., 1988 - Comparison of polymorphism of proteins and cells in the
blood of sheep and their hybrids with the mouflon. Biolog. Jurnal Armenii, vol. 41, nr. 9:
748-752.
Makaveev.Ts., Tjankov S. 1972 - Genetiken polimorfizum na eritroţitarnata karboankhidraza
pri niakoi porodi ovtse, razvuzhdani v Bulgaria. Genetika i Selekţia, vol. 5, nr: 2:
141-147.
Makaveev Ts., 1978 – On the genetic polymorphism of NAD.H2-Methemoglobinreductase in the
erythtocytes of sheep, cattle and swine. XIV-th Internat. Conf. on Anim. Blood Grps. and
biochem. Polymorph., Leningrad: 20.
Makaveev Ts., 1986 - Genetic polymorphism of nucleoside phosphorylase (EC 2.4.2.1) in the
erythrocytes of sheep of different breeds. Genetika i Selekţiia, vol. 19, nr. 1: 55-63.
Makaveev Ts., Aleksandrov M., 1987 - Genetic polymorphism of non-catalytic proteins and
enzymes in local Kotlen sheep. Genetika i Selekţiia, vol. 20, nr. 4: 333-341.
Margetin M., 1981 - Geneticky polymorfizmus transferinu, plasmatickej arylesterazy a albuminu
u oviec. Zivoscisna Vyroba, vol. 26, nr. 6: 409-415.
Serov O. L., Glazko V. I., Korocikin L.I., 1975 - Geneticeskii kontroli ekspressii gena A
laktatdegidrogenazi v eritroţitakh oveţ. Genetika, vol. 11, nr. 9: 27-31.
Tucker E. M., Suzuki Y., Stormont C., 1967 – Three new phenotypes systems in the red blood
of sheep. Vox Sang., vol. 13: 246-262.
Tucker E. M., Young J. D., 1976 - Genetic variation in the purine nucleoside phosphorylase activity
of sheep red cells. Anim. Blood Grps and biochem. Genetics,.vol. 7, nr. 2: 109-117.
Tucker E. M., Crowley C., 1978 - NADH diaphorase as a genetic marker for sheep red cells. Anim.
Blood Grps and Biochem. Genet., vol. 9, nr. 3: 161-167.
S. W., 1980 - Comparative aspects of biochemical polymorphism in the blood of Caprinae
species and their hybrids. Anim. Blood Grps and biochem. Genet., vol. 11 163-183.
Yaman K., Tucker E. M.., 1981 - 'Malic enzyme' polymorphism in sheep erythrocytes. Anim. Blood
Grps and biochem. Genetics, vol. 12, nr. 3: 215-218.
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BACK
STUDY OF PHENOTYPIC CHARACTERS VARIABILITY

OF THE EGG AND LARVA FROM THE NATIVE
GENETIC STOCK OF THE SILKMOTH
BOMBYX MORI L. SP.
Alexandra MATEI, Magda ANDRONE,
Agatha POPESCU, C. UNGUREANU
This study aims the analysis of phenotypic characters variability within

the genetic stock of Bombyx mori sp., in the stages of egg and larva. The
biological material has been represented by the 72 races which are the gene
stock of silkmoth, grouped by their origin. The silkworm specific experimental
technique has been differently applied, by technological and biological
development stages. The main phenotypical and quantitative parameters of the
races that represent the gene stock of Bombyx mori sp., have the following
values: fecundity (230-710 eggs/laying), hatchability (80.6-100%), larval stage
duration (26-32 days), larvae weight (4.2-5.7 g), larvae pupation (80.8-96.6%).
Key words: Bombyx mori L., phenotypic characters, fecundity, hatchability
INTRODUCTION
The heredity, variability and selection represents the main factors of the
animal and vegetable organisms evolution. If heredity provides the resemblance
of the individuals from successive generations, the variability represent the
inconsistent side of heredity, determining the differences between individuals that
exists more or less to all the living beings groups. The presence of variability
makes the application of selection possible, action that leads to improving animal
populations (Hebean V., 1986; Matei A., 2005; Petkov N, 2004).
Taking into consideration the structure and functions of the organisms to
whom the variability operates to, there are being dinstinguished: morphological
variations including shape and size changes of the body regions or organs;
physiological variations which refers to physiological processes, especially to the
ones with implications upon some economical characters like production, food
conversion, fecundity; structural variations regarding the structure of organs and
tissues.
MATHERIAL AND METHODS

The biological material has been represented by 72 races consisting of the
gene stock of Bombyx mori sp., grouped by their origin.
The silkworm specific experimental technique has been applied,
differentiated by technological and biological development stages (Grekov D.,
2005). The sample size that were the base for phenotypic parameters
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determination as well as the working methods correspond to sericulture technical

standards.

1. The variability of egg phenotypic characters
1.1. The variability of egg morphological characters
Egg size (Table 1)
As Table 1 shows, the egg size at Bombyx mori races is presented as follows:
length 1.4 mm (native races), 1.3 mm (chinese races), 1.5 mm (japanese races) and
1.1 mm (tropical races), and the egg width varies between 0.89 and 1.02 mm.
The egg weight presented in Table 1 is 0.50 mg (native races), 0.49 mg
(chinese races), 0.54 mg (japanese races) and 0.39 mg (tropical races).
Table 1
The variability of egg size and weight
Egg size (mm)
Egg weight (mg)
Race groups Length Width
X ±Sx
X±Sx S±Sx
Native races 1.4±0.03 1.02±0.01 0.50±0.001
Chinese races 1.3±0.02 1.01±0.04 0.49±0.002
Japanese races 1.5±0.03 1.01±0.06 0.54±0.001
Tropical races 1.1±0.02 0.89±0.04 0.39±0.002
Races average 1.3±0.03 0.98±0.04 0.48±0.002
Fecundity (eggs/laying) (Table 2)

Concerning Bombyx mori sp., the eggs/laying ratio varies between 200
and 800.
This character is being influenced by race, food quality provided to larval,
temperature and humidity conditions during laying depose.
In case of the races existing within the genetic sericultural stock, the
fecundity by race group registered values between 490 and 710 eggs/laying
(native races), 276-562 eggs/laying (japanese races), 276-616 eggs/laying
(chinese races) and 230-450 eggs/laying (tropical races).
Table 2
Egg biological parameters
Fecundity (eggs/laying) Hatchability %
Race groups
Min Max Min Max
Native races 490±10 710±12 90.0±0.47 99.0±0.47
Japanese races 276±11 562±6 81.3±1.70 99.6±0.47
Chinese races 276±2 616±15 80.6±1.89 100±0.21
Tropical races 230±16 450±29 83.6±2.49 97.6±1.25
Races average 318±9 584±15 83.88±1.64 99.05±0.60
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Egg colour
During laying depose the egg colour is gradually yellow and in the next
3-4 days its colour becomes violet-pink and in the end the final colour is grey
with different shades: dark grey, light grey, greenish grey but also orange, pink
etc. All of these refers to embryonated egg colour.
The chorion colour, visible after larvae hatching, presents a serie of
mutants: white, light yellow or dark yellow, green, grey. Being a race character,
both the embryonated egg colour and chorion colour represent a silkworm
selection character.
The races existing in sericultural native genetic stock present the egg colour
in different shades: dark grey (japanese races), greenish-grey (chinese races),
meanwhile the chorion is white at the first races group and yellow at the second one.
1.2. The variability of egg physiological characters
The voltinism (generations/year) represent a physiological character
determined by environmental and genetical factors. Between environmental
factors, the temperature and light plays an essential part. Incubating eggs from
bivoltine races at the temperature 15-18 oC and short photoperiod (less than 12
hours), silkmoth appear and depose non-hibernated eggs, that is 2
generations/year, in case of incubating eggs at high temperature (25-26oC) for a
longer photoperiod (more than 12-14 hours), silkmoth appear and depose
hibernated eggs (one generation/year).
The genetical determinism of voltinism, is being attributed to a number of
3 multiple sex alleles (Hs, Hs2, hS) modified by a number of autosomal genes (H1,
h1, H2, h2, H3, h3).
The structure of sericultural native genetic stock includes bivoltine races
(tropical type).
The hatchability, by race group, varies between 90.0 and 99.0% (native
races), 8.06-100.0% (chinese races), 81.3-99.6% (japanese races) and 83.6-97.6%
(tropical races).
1.3. The variability of larva phenotypic characters
1.3.1. The variability of larva morphological characters
The larvae length is influenced by external factors, such as the rearing
conditions, feeding but it also represents a race character specific to breeding
races. By race group, the larvae average length is presented in Table 3.
Larvae weight is influenced by the factors that determined the previous
character and their variability by race group is presented in Table 3.
Table 3
The variability of adult larvae length and weight by races groups
Larvae length (cm) Larvae weight (g)
Race groups
X±Sx X±Sx
Native races 7.6±0.02 5.7±0.12
Chinese races 6.2±0.06 5.1±0.10
Japanese races 7.0±0.03 5.6±0.08
Tropical races 5.8±0.06 4.2±0.11
Races average 6.7±0.04 5.2±0.10
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Larvae colour represents a complex and variable character and refers to

the tegument cephalic capsule and eyes.
In the breeding works, tegument colour and larval marks are selection
criteria taken into consideration, as being race characters.
Body colour is normally white with a shade of light blue in chinese races
and pink in japanese races, visible to the union place of the larva body segments.
1.3.2. The variability of larva physiological characters
The moulting, respectively the moults number, represent one of the most
important physiological character of the larva. The primitive races are
characterized by 3 moults, while developed races have 4 moults.
The geneticists appreciate that the presence of 3 moults represent the
dominant character and the responsibles for hereditary transmition of the moults
number are 3 multiple alleles: M3 and M5, the dominant relationships being
tri>tetra>penta (Tazima, 1965).
At the same time, the moulting is controlled by the combined action of
the juvenile hormone secreted by corpora allata and the moulting hormone-
ecdysone-secreted by the prothoracic gland, both being under the control of
activator hormone secreted by neuro-secrethoris cells of the cerebroid ganglions.
The races existing within the sericultural native genetic stock, are
characterized by the presence of 4 moults, excepting “Three Molter” race with 3
moults.
The duration of larval stage characterizes every race group, being shorter
in tropical races (26-28 days), followed by native races (28-29 days) and longer in
japanese ones (30-32 days) (Table 4).
Table 4
The variability of larval stage duration and pupation rate
Race Larval stage (days) Pupation rate (%)
groups Min Max Average Min Max Average
Native
28 29 28.5 90.2 96.6 92.50
races
Chinese
28 30 28.6 80.8 93.8 89.14
races
Japanese
30 32 30.0 85.6 96.4 92.30
races
Tropical
26 28 27.0 90.0 92.6 91.3
races
Chrysalis transformation percentage- character which reflects the viability

state and their capacity of metamorphosis, have been high at the native race group
(90.0-96.6%) and inferior at the other groups, as follows: 88.2-96.4% at the
japanese races, 80.8-93.8% at the chinese races and 90.0-92.6% at the tropical
races.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
The main phenotypic parameters of the races which represent the gene
stock of Bombyx mori sp. present the following values:
Race group
Character
Native races Chinese races Japanese races Tropical races
Fecundity
490-710 276-616 276-562 230-450
(eggs/laying)
Hatching (%) 90.0-99.0 80.6-100.0 81.3-99.6 83.6-97.6
Larval stage
28-29 28-30 30-32 26-28
duration (days)
Pupation rate (%) 90.2-96.6 80.8-93.8 85.6-96.4 90.0-92.6
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. GREKOV D., KIPRIOTIS E., TZENOV P. (2005) – Sericulture training manual, Komotini-
Greece
2. HEBEAN V. (1986) – Study upon phenotipical and genotipical characters in the imposted
Phylosamia ricii race and possibilities to create native biological material – Ph.D. thesis.
3. MATEI AND COL. (2005) – Evaluation of the silkworm genetic resources in Romania –
International Workshop on Revival and Promotion of Sericultural Industries and Small Enterprise
Development in the Black, Caspian Seas and Central Asia Region, Tashkent, Uzbekistan, page 424-
430
4. PETKOV N., MATEI A., NATCHEVA Y., VASILEVA Y., PETKOV Z., CIULU M. (2004)
– The phenotipical characters of some Romanian silkworm Bombyx mori races in relationship to the
use of selection programmes-AGRAL Scientifical Symposium “Research upon chain from Romania
in a European Context, Romania, page 280-286
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CHANGES IN BOARS SPERMOGRAMM DEPENDING

ON SEASON
Elena MARANDICI, G. DARIE, Vera GRANACI,
Alisa MORARU, V. HAREA
Reproductive function boar, as well as others function of an

organism, is in interrelation with factors of an environment which have essential
seasonal fluctuations. Change of a season of year influences duration of light
day temperature, humidity of air and other parameters. The important factor
influencing on reproductive function is the temperature of air. At temperature
above 250C the volume ejaculate decreases, increase quantity dead and
pathological spermatozoa and Ph does not almost change. It is proved, that the
thermal stress has a negative effect on sperm but only during direct influence,
but also within 5-6 weeks after elimination of the temperature factor. Decrease in
quantity and quality spermoproductions male pigs because of a heat during a
true season is established and in our researches volume ejaculate and
concentration spermatozoa were the highest during the autumn and winter
periods. Studying of demonstrative enzymes – suctionatdeghidroghenaza and
citohromoxidaza which are key enzymes and the process of the energy which is
formed and are substantially connected with quantities, qualities and also
season. Meteorological conditions, etc. the Revealed activity of oxidizing
enzymes reflects an intensification of the processes of the energy which is formed
that is interfaced to mobility and concentration spermatozoa.
INTRODUCTION
An recent decades there appeared important date in the development of
artificial insemination, the field that makes already part of the modern
reproductive physiology. Altogether, unpublished aspects referred to the
spermagram studies are not exhaustive and, in this context, the information
concerning spermagram modifications by boars under the influence of
environmental factors, the growth and exploitation technology - all these generate
the greatest scientific and applied interest.
The totality of material and energetic transformations that occur in
living organism under the influence of the environment is directed to the
metabolic balance preservation with the homeosthesia realization and
maintenance that is needed for the normal course of all functions a living
organism fulfill, including the reproductive function (1,2,3,4).

Investigations were done at the research laboratory of the
Biotechnologies in Zoology Department, the faculty of Zoology and
Biotechnology of the Moldova State Agricultural University . the object of study
- 358 -
was the boars’ sperm, the southern Moldavian Beef Type. Examined were only
those boars that possessed specific morph functional sperms indexes / important
criteria while obtaining authentic. To show the changes of boars’ spermagram
depending on the season, a group of boars’ (12 heads) was formed. We examined
their volume of ejaculation, mobility, concentration and PH-index. Enzymatic
activity was appreciated in accordance with the method suggested by Zvereva
G.V. (1978).

The research of boars’ sperm during the whole year rand, established
that the ejaculation volume in winter and autumn was higher than in the spring
and summer periods (Table 1).
Table 1
Quantity and quality of the boars’ sperm during the whole year round
n.of The
Mobility, Concentrati
Season ejacula- ejaculation pH
points on mlrd/ml
tions volume, ml
Winter
(December,
15 271,0±11,59* 7,05±0,15 0,26±0,01 7,62±0,05
January,
February)
Spring
(March, 17 221,8±14,83 7,59±0,12 0,29±0,01* 7,71±0,02
April, Mai)
Summer
(June, July, 20 229,02±13,47 7,02±0,17 0,28±0,02 7,42±0,74
August)
Autumn
(September,
20 269,0±12,99* 7,21±0,10** 0,26±0,11 7,60±0,08
October,
November)
*P < 0,05; ** P < 0,001
The ejaculation volume during the winter, compared with the spring
period, was by 20 % (P<0,05) higher, but comparing with the summer period – by
17 % (P<0,05).
The highest spermatozoon concentration was in the spring period, the
lowest concentration was observed during the autumn, the difference in 17 %
(P<0,05) .
Essential differences were also observed in the spermatozoon mobility.
During the autumn and summer periods this index authentically higher than in
- 359 -
winter and spring. The difference between the spermatozoon mobility in autumn,
spring and winter was 10%.
The study of spermatozoon concentration in boars’ sperm depending
on the season, stated that the most dense sperm was obtained beginning with
September and till November, but the thinnest sperm was obtained during the
March - Mail period (P<0,05). There was not observed authentic difference in PH
sperm index depending on the season.
The enzymatic activity of sperm depending on the season is presented
in Table 2.
Tabelul 2
Activity of the oxidizing ferments
The ferments activity

n.of
Season ejaculati
Succitodehydroge- Citohromoxidics,
ons
nerics, min active unite
Winter (December, January, 15 10′19′′ ± 1′9′′ 0,21 ± 0,02
February)
Spring (March, April, Mai) 17 8′36′′ ± 1′ 3′′ 0,25 ± 0,04
Summer (June, July, 20 8′42′′ ± 1′ 2′′ 0,25 ± 0,02
August)
Autumn (September, 20 12′9′′ ± 1′ 6′′ 0,23 ± 0,03
October, November)
The increase of succitodehydrogeneric activity during the summer and

spring periods compared with the autumn period, the difference is 30% (P<0,05)
in winter the succitodehydrogeneric activity compared with autumn period was
insignificant.
The citohromoxidic activity in boars sperm suffered some
modifications during the seasons. The highest activity of succitodehydrogenerics
was observed in spring and in summer. At the same time the citohromoxidics in
this period was the lowest. This interrelation correlated with the spermatozoon
concentration. The interrelation correlates with the spermatozoon concentration.
The lowest spermatozoon concentration of the ejaculation (0,26 mlrd/ml) was
observed in autumn. The succitodehydrogeneric activity was moderate (P<0,05),
the citohromoxidics was moderate (0,23 un.act./mg).
The given research demonstrated that the season influences sufficiently
not only the quantity and quality of the gathered boars sperm, but also the
biochemical sperm indexes. These essential differences that take place during the
whole year round in boars spermagram need to be elaborated and implemented in
the production of some biotechnical methods to increase the sperma′s quality.
- 360 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
The quantity and quality of the sperm depend on the season> the
highest sperm indexes are observed in autumn and winter, that is why the
exploitation of reproductive boars in this period is the most effective.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Antoniuc V.S. Biotehniceskie sposobâ povâşenia ăfectivnosti oplodotvorenia
seliscohozeaistvenâh jivotnâh. Minsk, 1988.
2. Boronciuc G.V. Specificul modificărilor reacţiilor fiziologo-biochimice ale spermei diferitor
specii de animale în procesul conservării şi elaborării metodelor de sporire a criorezistenţei.
Chişinău, 1998, p.31.
3. Darie G. Adaptivnâi potenţial i vosproizvoditelinaea funcţia jivotnâh. Dubroviţâ, 1998, p.30.
4. Nauc V.A. Structura i funcţia spermiev seliscohozeaistvennâh jivotnâh pri crioconservaţii,
Chişinău, 1991.
5. Zvereva G.V. i dr. Vzaimosviazi activnosti ochislitelinâh fermentov v sperme bâcov s
fiziologhiceschimi pocazateleami spermiev. Docl.ВАСХНИЛ, nr.4, 1978, s.24-26.
- 361 -
BACK
RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE SPERM PRODUCTION

ACCORDING TO THE FREQUENCY OF COLLECTING
THE SEMINAL MATERIAL AT BOARS
G. NACU
We watched the level of sperm production at a number of 15 boars from

the Duroc, the Great White breed and PIC hybrid, according to the rhythm of
reproduction using. The collectings were made within an interval of 2, 3, 4 and 6
days.
The highest level of the medium daily production of spermatozoids was
when it was made a two days collecting (17,0 billions of spermatozoids). The
increasing of the interval among collectings lead to the collecting of a medium
daily production reduced with 11,76%.

In order to appreciate the medium daily production of spermatozoids we
examined 5 boars from the breeds Duroc, the Great White and the hybrid PIC
408. The observations were made between the ages of 14 and 17 months and
between the ages of 23 and 26 months. At each collecting it was taken into
consideration the volume of the ejaculation, the mobility of the spermatozoids and
the concentration. Those aspects were at the basis of determination of the total
number of spermatozoids/ejaculation, the medium daily production of
spermatozoids and the number of doses with 3 billions of mobile spermatozoids.
The concentration was determined with photometer and with the help of the
counting camera and mobility with the help of the microscopic examination
between the blade and slide of a drop of fresh seminal collected material.
During the examinations, we had four ways of collecting, the boars being
included in four groups, which were called according to the interval among
collectings: 2 days – L2, 3 days – L3, 4 days – L4, 6 days – L6.

The highest level of the medium daily production (MDP) of
spermatozoids resulted, for all the species, at boars from the L2 group (17,0 mld)
with fluctuations according to the species (table 1).
This production lead to the obtaining of a medium number of
spermatozoids /ejaculation of 34,1 mld, with variations between 30,1 mld for the
the Great White and 37,1 mld for boars PIC.
- 362 -
Table 1
Sperm production according to the frequency of collecting the seminal material
Duroc Great White SL 408 Average
Age Gametes/ Gametes Gametes/ Gametes/
Group MDP MDP MDP MDP
(months) ejaculate /ejaculat ejaculate ejaculate
(mld) (mld) (mld) (mld)
(mld) (mld) (mld) (mld)
L2 14 - 17 33,6 16,8 29,6 14,8 35,8 17,9 33,0 16,5
23 - 26 36,8 18,4 30,6 15,3 38,4 19,2 35,2 17,6
Average 35,2 17,6 30,1 15,0 37,1 18,5 34,1 17,0
L3 14 - 17 48,6 16,2 34,5 11,5 50,1 16,7 44,4 14,8
23 - 26 55,5 18,5 36,2 12,0 56,1 18,7 49,2 16,4
Average 52,0 17,3 35,3 11,7 53,1 17,7 46,8 15,6
L4 14 - 17 62,0 15,5 42,5 10,6 64,0 16,0 56,2 14,0
23 - 26 71,2 17,8 43,2 10,8 66,8 16,7 60,4 15,1
Average 66,6 16,6 42,8 10,7 65,4 16,3 58,3 14,6
L6 14 - 17 88,8 14,8 55,5 9,2 89,4 11,4 77,9 11,8
23 - 26 102,5 17,1 57,2 9,5 88,6 14,7 82,7 13,7
Average 95,6 15,9 56,3 9,3 89,0 13,0 80,3 12,7
Average 14 - 17 58,2 15,8 40,5 11,5 59,8 15,5 52,8 14,3
Average 23 - 26 66,5 17,9 41,8 11,9 62,4 17,3 56,8 15,7
Average 62,3 16,8 41,1 11,7 61,1 16,4 54,8 15,0
By reducing the frequency of the collectings for the L3, L4 and L6

groups, there were collected, on an daily average, decreasing productions, from
15,6 mld to 12,4 mld. That fact means that an increase of the interval between
collectings at 5 days leads to a loss of spermatozoids, in a medium value of
25,29%, although at each ejaculation an increase of 2,35 times more
spermatozoids. Each extra days between collectings leads to losses from the daily
medium production of spermatozoids, in a medium of 6,3% - 8,2%.
The losses of spermatozoids owned to the reducing of the frequency of
the collectings were different according to the breed. Thus, for L6 group were
collected with 9,6% less spermatozoids comparing with L2 group for Duroc, with
38% less for the Great White and with 29,7% les for SL 408.
Daily medium production of spermatozoids was quite appropriate at the
examined categories (table 1), the medium difference being only of 2,5% in
favour of boars with the age of 23-26 months.
By decreasing of the frequency of the collectings determined the stocking
of spermatozoids and the obtaining of a larger number of gametes/ejaculation.
Thus, by making a collecting at an interval of 2 days results/ejaculation, in an
average, of 34,1 mld of spermatozoids, a number that increases to 80,3 mld when
a 6 days collecting is made.
Efficiency of the different medium of collecting
The number of doses with 3 mld mobile of spermatozoids was situated
between 8 and 9 for L2 group, between 9 and 14 for L3 group, between 11 and 17
for L4 group and between 15 and 25 for L6 group. For all the frequencies of
collecting, the minimum number of doses was for boars from the Great White
breed and the maximum one was for boars from Duroc breed (table 2).
- 363 -
Table 2
The medium number of doses/ejaculation with 3 mld mobile spermatozoids
according to the frequency of collectings
Duroc Great White SL 408
Interval Mobil Mobil Mobil
betwen gametes/ Nr. gametes/ Nr. gametes/ Nr.
colectings ejaculate doses ejaculate doses ejaculate doses
(mld.) (mld.) (mld.)
2 days 26,4 8 24,0 8 26,9 9
3 days 42,2 14 28,3 9 42,9 14
4 days 53,4 17 34,6 11 52,6 17
6 days 76,9 25 45,6 15 71,0 23
Is obvious the fact that reducing the frequency of the collectings leads to
a larger number of doses/ejaculation. But after the examination of the monthly
medium number of doses, the situation is completely different, meaning that,
generally speaking, the medium number of doses is maximum at a minimal
frequency (table 3).
Table 3
The dynamic of the doses obtained monthly,
according to the frequency of collecting
Interval betwen
Duroc Great White SL 408
colectings (days)
2 135 120 135
3 130 90 140
4 119 82 119
6 125 75 120
CONCLUSIONS
We consider that the daily medium production of spermatozoids is best
appreciated at a frequency of collecting at 2 days. Taking into consideration the
conditions of our investigation, that value was, on an average, of 17,0 mld, with
differences according to the species (18,5 mld for PIC 408, 17,6 mld for Duroc
and only of 15,0 mld for the Great White boars).
The daily medium production of gametes was appropriate for those two
categories of ages, the medium difference being only of 2,5% in favour of the
boars with the age of 23-26 months.
The efficiency of collecting the sperm production decreases at the same
time with the increase of the interval between collectings. Thus, making a 6 days
collecting, roughly 25,3% from the total number of spermatozoids made by
testicle is lost. At this frequency, the greatest losses were noticed at the Great
White (38,0%) and SL 408 (29,7%), and the little ones were noticed at Duroc
(9,6%).
- 364 -
BACK
The medium number of doses collected monthly was maximum for the
highest frequency of collecting, but the frequency of collectings must be
correlated with the fecundity of the inseminated sows.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. BOGDAN, A. T., ŞT. MANTEA., DORINA BOGDAN, 1999, - Tratat de reproducţie şi
însămânţări artificiale la suine. Edit. Tehnică Agricolă, Bucureşti.
2. FEREDEAN, T., 1974, - Reproducţia la porcine. Edit. Ceres, Bucureşti.
3. HAFEZ, E.S.E., 1980, – Reproduction in farm animals. Auflage, Lea und Febiger, Philadelphia
4. KUNC, J., J. MRKUN, M. KOSEC, 2001, – Study of reproduction ability in boars. Animal
Breeding Abstract, vol. 69, nr. 5, p 465.
5. MICLEA V., M. ZAHAN, ILEANA MICLEA, ILONA VAJDA, 2007 – influence of harvest
frequency on the quality of boar semen. Lucr. şt. Seria Animal Science and Biotechnologies
Cluj,Vol. 63-64, p 90-95
6. NACU, GH., 2005, - Cercetari privind unele posibilităţi de optimizare a funcţiei de reproducţie la
suine. Teză de doctorat, USAMV Iaşi
7. SENGER, P.L., 2003, - Pathways to pregnancy and parturition. Washington State University
Research & Technology Park
8. TĂNASE, D., GH. NACU, 2005, - Biologia reproducerii animalelor. Edit. Pim Iaşi
9. TĂPĂLOAGĂ, DANA, 2004, – Cercetări de micromorfometrie computerizată asupra
spermatozoizilor de vier. Teză de doctorat, U.Ş.A.M.V. Bucureşti
10. VAISSAIRE, J. P., 1977, - Sexualité et reproduction des Mamiféres domestiques. Maloine S.
A., Edit. Paris.
- 365 -
BACK
THE STRATEGY OF SHEEP GENETIC IMPROVEMENT

AND EXPLOITATION IN ROMANIA
Gh. NEAŢĂ, C. ŞONEA, M. PETRESCU
The main goals in sheep genetic improvement are:- increasing the

efficiency of sheep breeding sector by targeting their exploitation towards meat
and milk production;- increasing the sheep flock at the national potential level
established by the pastures total area;- stimulating the associations in order to
improve the young sheep breeding and fattening aiming to provide meat for
internal and external market;- increasing the internal meat
consumption/inhabitant;- supporting the new slaughter houses founding and
organization, and introducing the new equipments in the old ones, according to
the EU requirements and standards;- increasing the breeders incomes by
marketing their productions;- genetic improvement in order to increase the meat
and milk productions;- intensive breeding by natural mating using authorized
stock rams;- import of breeding sheep, frozen semen and embryos;- founding of
new pilot centers for sheep breeding, genetic improvement;- seasonal grouping
of lambing;- training of sheep breeders in order to increase the meat and milk
productions;- conservation and support of sheep genetics.
The sheep breeding is a traditional activity of our country, thus allowing

Romania to be ranked among the first countries in Europe concerning this species
breeding and exploitation, taking into account the flock size and the production
level.
The integration of Romania in the EU structures and the sheep breeding,
exploitation and genetic improvement changes according to the EU economic
demands, can increase our country balance in the European flock structure and
production.
The sheep breeders are interested both in the meat and in the milk
production, thus a new breed structure being developed, which is targeted mainly
to the meat and milk production for the momment.
Nowadays in Romania the exploitation targets in sheep breeding have
been changed, and the genetic improvement programmes were modified, thus the
increase of the meat and milk production levels being in top.
For this purpose, Romania benefits from some reasons that allow the
achievement of the strategic goals of the genetic improvement programmes,
because it has both well preserved genetics adapted to the local conditions, and a
large area of pastures that may contribute to a significant increase both of the
meat, and of the milk production.
For the moment the breeeds bred and exploited in our country have
relative low meat and milk productions performances, because the flocks are
exploited in small farms by private owners, having small land areas and a
deficitary organization of this species breeding and exploitation.
- 366 -
Because EU represents and will represent the main market both for the
sheep carcasses, and for the light and heavy lambs raised in Romania, sustained
efforts are necessary, both from breeders, and from the specialists, in order to
achieve the carcasses quality standards (carcasse conformation, carcasse quality,
meat quality).
The sheep breeding and exploitation strategic programme in our country
must ensure both the increase of the flocks size, and the productivity/animal, the
productions quality, mainly for meat and milk, and an economic efficiency in
their making and use.
Thus, the sheep flocks genetic improvement process must go on, by
aplplying some efficient programmes that allow both the goals achievement and
the link of the Romanian genetics to the world one.
The official centralised data from A.N.A.R.Z. show that the ewe female
flock size mapped in 2008 was of 7.649.365 heads, with a rise of 314.811,
meaning 4,3% from the total, in comparison with 2007.
At the country level the ewe female flock size was of over 300.000 heads
in 6 counties, between 200.000 – 300.000 heads in 10 counties, between 100.000
– 200.000 heads in 20 counties and under 100.000 in 5 counties.
From the entire ewe female flock size, 7.311.724 heads are bred in pure
breed, meaning 95,6%, and 337.641 are mixed breeds, meaning 4,4%.
In Romania, the most preponderent breed is Tzurkana, meaning 54,8%,
from the pure bred flock, and 52,4% from the total flock, which is a very resistant
breed to the harsh climate, with a milk production of 70 - 110 l, from which 40 –
70 l amilked, the ewes weight is about 45 kg, the rams weight 75 kg, natality 102
%, and it is raised mainly in the highlands.
Tsigai represents 25,5 % from the pure bred flock, and 24,3% from the
total flock size, the ewes weigh is about 45 kg, the rams 70 kg, the milk
production is 80 – 90 l, from which 45 l amilked, natality 105 %, living mainly in
the hills and plains.
Merino sheep represent 9,4% of the pure bred flock and 9,0% of the total
sheep flock size, being a mixed breed raised for meat and wool, with an average
ewe weight of 65 kg, and 100 kg for the rams, the milk production is 60 – 80 l,
natality 130 %, having the best traits for the meat production, and they are raised
in the plains.
Karakul means 5,6% from the pure bred flock 5,4% of the total sheep
flock size, Spanca is 4,3%, from the pure bred flock and 4,1% of the total sheep
flock size, and a total of 0,4% from the pure bred flock (0,3% of the total sheep
flock size) is represented by other races.
The mixed breeds represent in this species 4,4%.
The sheep are distributed in Romania according to the territory, the most
favourable areas being those with permanent pastures. The sheep density/ha is
between 0,26 - 0,71 heads.
- 367 -
The largest sheep flocks are placed in the following areas:

- Centre: Sibiu, Mures, Brasov;
- East: Timisoara, Arad;
- North-East: Iasi, Botosani;
- South-East: Constanta, Tulcea;
- North-East: Cluj.
Romania has strong reasons in developing the sheep breeding:
- the flock size is ranked 3-4 in Europe;
- there are good genetics, concerning the local conditions adaptability;
- developed scientific research and a good conservation of the genetics;
- large pasture areas (5 million ha);
Romania has an agricultural area of 14.700.000 ha, ranked 6 in Europe,
with 4.900.000 ha pastures, ranked 7 in Europe, these meaning an exceptional
biomass source, which is not yet completely used in the zootechnical sector, and
6.800.000 ha forests.
An important natural food resource for our country is represented by
pastures, which can be exploited by grazing during the vegetation period, or as
forage such as hay or silage during the stabulation one.
The rational and efficient use of the natural resources implies an
organisational an exploitation strategy, with the following goals:
- establishing the size and production potential;
- establishing the structure and distribution/ landforms;
- the pastures grouping according to the limitative factors of the
greenmass production;
- the use of the native species adapted to the pedo-climatic conditions;
- the long-term cointeresation of the breeders by leasing or other forms
(up to owning) of the common village lands and alpine pastures;
- establishing of the technical measures necessary for the pastures
improvement;
- establishing the measures and actions for the pastures rational
exploitation;
- the apply of new ecological technologies of biomass maintaining and
conservation;
- the pasture use in order to obtain ecological products;
- organising the sheep flocks transhumance.
- average to high breed diversity (taking into account mixed breeds with
breeds from abroad);
- still cheap and insufficient labor;
- traditional areas of breeding and production (ex: Bran-Moeciu, Sibiu,
Covasna, Dobrogea, Oltenia – Vaideeni, Novaci, Banat, Arad, Hunedoara –
Sasciori, Hateg, Bistrita, Zalau or Botosani – for skins and pelts);
- a good sanitary-veterinary status – the lack of the major diseases.
- 368 -
The sanitary-veterinary status in sheep is under control for the moment.

An important gain of the sheep breeding in Romania is represented by the flock
sanitary-veterinary status. A huge progress has been achieved since ‘90:
- brucellosis lacks officially, at least the human transmissible form
(B.melitensis); there are only occurrences of B. ovis, a less dangerous form;
- Bluetongue – lacks as well;
- Paratuberculosis is still present, and rabies as well in the Carpathic Arch
area;
- tuberculination is used in prophylaxis and serologic analyses for BSE are
taken systematically;
- the only real problem is that the private breeders have not understood yet
the necessity of these tests.
There are some weak points as well in the sheep breeding, but which can
be corrected, such as:
- the genetic quality of the national populations which is low according to the
productions levels;
- the lack of the specialised breeds;
- the unproportional farm size (very large farms – with over 1000 heads, average
farms – under 200 heads and small farms - under 20 heads).
- low quality nutrition;
- extensive breeding system, almost permanent grazing from spring till late
autumn, even in winter from the pastures in ponds, plains and valleys;
- a lot of small breeders with small areas of private land;
- the low meat consumption of the national population that does not encourage the
increase of the productivity for the internal market;
- insufficient slaughter houses and slaughter points allow the marketing of live
animals at low prices, meaning low incomes for the breeders;
- the lack of the carcasses classification system does not stimulate competition for
high class carcasses and slows the genetic improvement with meat breeds;
- the poor mechanization of the dairy farms;
- the decrease of the number of dairy factories;
- the decrease almost to maximum of the gain from dairy products, the only
alternative being the traditional production;
- the decrease of the number of wool processing factories (there are traditional
manufacture areas);
- the lack of skin and pelts processing plants;
- poor marketing organisation;
- minimal mechanization, the equipments being still expensive;
- the sheep owners are still considered as owning rentals, without accessing
investments targeting the productivity increase and thus the decrease of the
production costs;
- there is a harsh climate mainly in the highlands which are isolated and far of the
communication axes;
- 369 -
- there are problems concerning the drinking water, mainly in the South, thus
difficulties in meeting the sanitary-veterinary standards being encountered;
- the milk market is different from year to year and from season to season.
The genetic improvement is based on the quantitative selection in order to
maintain the production and incomes of the private breeders, mainly from the
rustic breeds. The average performance is difficult to be established; evaluations
are made by ANARZ, the data concerning only the flocks in control, thus being
disparate: Tsigai – 115 l milk, daily average gain at 150 days of 200g, 105%
prolificity, Tzurkana – 125 l milk, daily average gain at 150 days of 180 g, 103%
prolificity.
These evaluations data will increase in the future, as long as the breeders
associations will take out the Official Productions Recording services.
The sheep genetic improvement and exploitation goals
- increasing in efficiency of the sheep breeding sector by targeting their
exploitation towards meat and milk production;
- increasing of the sheep flock at the national potential level established by
the pastures total area;
- long-term mutual interest of the breeders by land leasing or other forms
(up to owning) of common village lands, pastures or alpine grasslands;
- stimulating the associations or exploitations organization in order to
improve the young sheep breeding and fattening aiming to provide meat for the
internal and external market;
- increasing the internal meat consumption/inhabitant;
- supporting the new slaughter houses founding and organization, and
introducing of new equipments in the old ones, according to the EU requirements
and standards;
- increasing the breeders incomes by marketing their productions;
- modifying the prioritary aims in milk-meat productions;
- the sheep genetic improvement in order to increase the milk and meat
production, and their quality, using the artificial insemination and the improving
stock rams, and the extinct of the official productions recording, and breeding
animals testing for meat and milk productions;
- intensive breeding by natural mating using authorised stock rams and
using larger flocks for artificial insemination or other new biotechnologies,
mainly embryo transfer;
- import of breeding sheep (male and female), young sheep (male and
female), and frozen semen, mainly from breeds with high potential for milk and
meat production. Thus, there will be used methods like selection for milk and
meat production, and mixed breeds and lines with high productive potential,
according to the market demands and following the West European tendencies;
- founding of new pilot centers for sheep breeding, genetic improvement
and spreading;
- founding of new pilot centers for producing and spreading of ram semen;
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BACK
- concerning the biologic efficiency for sheep breeding and exploitation,

mainly for meat production, the people demands will be taken into account as
being mailny influenced by the breeding traits value. Thus, the sheep breeding can
be achieved by using:
- artificial puberty and heat inducing in the young ewes, which allow the
early use of the young ewes in breeding;
- lambing intensification, rhythmical obtaining of litters using a decreased
lambing interval;
- seasonal grouping of lambing according to the market demands;
- applying of the sheep carcasses classification system, EUROP system,
according to the European standard in meeting the correlation of the price-quality
for meat;
- training of the workers in the applying of sheep carcasses classification;
- training and specialization of sheep breeders towards the meat and milk
production increasing;
- specialization of the insemination operators and the breeding process
organization;
- conservation and support of the sheep genetics;
- according to ANSVSA, in our country there are 22 county laboratories,
and the National Reference Laboratory from IDSA, well equipped in order to
perform the specific laboratory tests for BSE, thus providing the necessary
surveillance for scrapie;
- the surveillance measures concerning this disease are provided and
achieved according to the provisions of the Programme of the surveillance,
prevention and control of animal disease actions, concerning the human
transmissible disease and the environment protection.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Programul de ameliorare a efectivelor de ovine din Romania; OM 309/2003;
2. Buletin tehnic informativ ANARZ – sectiunea ovine; 2000-2006;
3. Controlul oficial - ovine – publicatie ANARZ; 1990-2006;
4. Anuarul statistic – INS; 1990-2004.
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BACK
THE CROSSES EFFECT BETWEEN BALTATA

ROMANEASCA SIMMENTAL TYPE AND RED HOLSTEIN
BREEDS ON SOME CONFORMATION AND MILK
PRODUCTION TRAITS
T. OROIAN, R.G. OROIAN, Simona PASCALAU, N. PASCA
This study presents some aspects concerning the conformation and milk
production performances between Baltata romaneasca Simmental type and F1
hybrids (Baltata romaneasca x Red Holstain), R1 (75% Baltata romaneasca –
25% Red Holstein). The data were gathered from a total number of 46 cows,
belonging to the three genetical structures, being all in the third lactation, from
the farm Ernei, SCDB Targu Mures.
The biological material included 15 cows in the third lactation, written in

the Official Production Control, from Baltata romaneasca breed and R1 hybrids
with 75% genes from Baltata romaneasca and 25% genes from red Holstein. The
offsprings F1 were represented by 16 females in the third lactation, which resulted
from the crosses between the Red Holstein bulls (Don, Csinos, Triump, Dalweg
Eric) and Baltata romaneasca cows.
On the period studied, the cows in the third lactation were kept in the
same stable, grazed on the same pasture and received the same forages, which
included 3 kg of concentrated forages. We observed the withers height and body
weight evolution to all the individuals from the three genetic structures, as well as
some aspects corrrelated with the total milk quantity on total and normal lactation,
total fat quantity on total and normal lactation, total protein quantity on normal
lactation, length of total and normal lactation, Calving interval and mammmary
pause. The data were statistical analyzed, with the evidence of the average and
dispersal indices, on every genetical structure, the Student test being used for the
differences assaying.

The withers high, an important trait regarded in the selection process of
Baltata romaneasca Simmental type breed, and of their hybrids with other breeds,
has an average of 133,94 cm at Baltata romaneasca Simental type cows, a value
lower with 1,64 cm relative to R1 and with 2,73 cm relative to F1. The superiority
of the two types of hybrids is distinct significant to this trait. A significant
difference of 1,09 cm was observed also to the F1 hybrids respect to R1 hybrids
(table 1). Body weight is superior at Baltata romaneasca Simmental type relative
to the two hybrid forms, the differences observed being with not a statistical
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significance. The superiority of Baltata romaneasca Simmental type is also

observed to the thoracic perimeter. The differences at this trait are with not a
statistical significance between the analyzed structures (table 1).
Table 1
Average, dispersal indices and signification of withers height, body weight, thoracic
perimeter
Difeerence and
signification
Genetic
Trait n X±sx s V% % rela
structure
R1 F1 tive to
B.R.
B.R. 15 133,93±0,48 1,87 1,39 1,64** 2,73** 0
Withers
R1 15 135,57±0,33 1,29 0,95 0 -1,09* 1,22
height
F1 16 136,66±0,73 2,91 2,13 0 2,04
B.R. 15 640,33±15,88 61,49 9,60 21,26 39,33 0
n.s. n.s.
Body
R1 15 619,07±17,07 66,10 10,68 0 18,07 3,33
weight
n.s.
F1 16 601,00±13,19 55,77 8,78 0 6,14
B.R. 15 199,88±1,67 6,47 3,24 2,28 4,15 0
n.s. n.s.
Thoracic
R1 15 197,60±1,80 6,96 3,52 0 1,87 1,14
perimeter
n.s.
F1 16 195,73±1,43 5,70 2,91 0 2,08
After the analyses of the average and dispersal indices for the milk
production traits (table 2), we observed the following: Baltata romaneasca
Simmental type breed has an average of 5864,27 kg milk on the third lactation.
The F1 hybrids exceed distinct significant, with 1405,73 kg of milk BR form, and
R1 hybrids with 807,07 kg of milk. F1 hybrids exceed with 23,97% the milk
production of Baltata romaneasca, on the same lactation period.
The hierarchy also mantains the milk quantity on normal lactation, where
F1 hybrids have an average of 6720,8 kg of milk, superior with 19,38% relative to
BR. The fat quantity on total lactation, as well as on normal lactation, indicates a
distinct and very significant superiority of F1 hybrids relative to BR, with 34,05%
percent on total lactation, respectively 22,61% on normal lactation. A superiority
of 24,84%, distinct significant, have F1 hybrids relative to BR hybrids, respecting
the protein quantity on normal lactation.
After the analyses of the total lactation length, we observed that it
diversifies between 360,3 days at R1 hybrids and 323,73 days at BR hybrids. The
longest Calving interval was recorded to BR breed, with a value of 413,07 days,
and the shortest interval, of 395,73 days, to R1 hybrids. The analysis of this trait
gives the possibility of some conclusions respecting the reproduction problems of
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the three genetic structures. The performing of the mammary pause was made in
the technology limits, with average values of approximate 70 days and with not
statistical differences between the structures.
Table 2
Average and dispersal indices for the milk production traits
Difference and signification

Genetic %
Trait n X±sx s V%
structure R1 F1 relative
to B.R.
Q of milk B.R. 15 5864,27±280,74 1087,28 18,54 598,66 1405,73** 0
on total ns
lactation R1 15 6462,93±241,54 935,49 14,47 0 807,07 * 10,21
(kg) F1 16 7270,0±419,39 1624,27 22,34 23,97
Q of milk B.R. 15 5629,67±205,74 796,82 14,15 260,93 1091,21 * 0
on normal ns
lactation R1 15 5890,60±196,28 760,20 12,91 0 830,28 * 4,63
(kg) F1 16 6720,88±289,11 1156,43 17,21 0 19,38
Q of fat B.R. 15 234,15±10,71 41,49 17,72 40,91* 79,74*** 0
on total R1 15 275,06±13,39 51,86 18,85 0 38,83* 17,47
lactation F1 16 313,89±18,17 72,69 26,43 0 34,05
(kg)
Q of fat B.R. 15 236,40±12,62 48,84 20,67 13,92* 53,46** 0
on normal R1 15 250,32±10,74 41,61 16,62 0 39,54* 5,89
lactation F1 16 289,86±13,07 52,27 18,03 0 22,61
(kg)
Total Q of B.R. 15 180,30±7,20 27,88 15,46 14,48* 44,78** 0
protein on
normal R1 15 194,78±8,03 31,11 15,97 0 30,30* 8,03
lactation
(kg) F1 16 225,08±9,96 39,82 17,69 0 24,84
Total B.R. 15 323,73±11,66 45,16 13,95 36,60* 27,52* 0
lactation R1 15 360,33±16,47 63,78 17,70 0 9,08 ns 11,31
length F1 16 351,25±20,58 82,34 23,44 0 8,50
(days)
Normal B.R. 15 294,73±3,78 14,63 4,96 5,87 3,34 ns 0
lactation ns
length R1 15 300,60±2,43 9,41 3,13 0 2,53 ns 1,99
(days) F1 16 298,07±2,47 9,86 3,16 0 1,33
CI (days) B.R. 15 413,07±7,76 64,91 15,71 17,36* 8,57 ns 0
R1 15 395,73±14,35 55,57 14,04 8,77 ns 4,20
F1 16 404,50±22,17 88,67 21,92 0 2,07
Mammary B.R. 15 68,40±4,96 19,19 28,06 1,67 0,90 ns 0
pause ns
(days) R1 15 70,07±3,36 14,60 20,02 2,57 ns 2,44
F1 16 67,50±2,30 9.20 13,65 0 1,32
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. The use of Holstein bulls with withers height (over 140 cm) led to the
obtaining of a hybrid lineage which exceed significant and distinct significant
the BR Simmental type individuals;
2. The hybrids body weight and thoracic perimeter is lower relative to BR cows,
which confirms the speciality literature data concerning the Red Holstein
hybrids body weight reduction;
3. The milk quantity on total and normal lactation, as well as the fat total
quantity is superior, distinct or significant to the two types of hybrids relative
to BR individuals;
4. The total protein quantity on normal lactation exceeds distinct significant with
44,78 kg to the F1 hybrids, respectively significant with 14,48 kg to the R1
hybrids relative to BR;
5. The highest lactation length, with an average of 360,3 days is observed to R1
hybrids, a value higher with 11,3% relative to BR breed;
6. The normal lactation length is superior at the R1 hybrids with 1,99%, and to
the F1 hybrids with 1,33% relative to the BR breed;
7. Calving interval between the two hybrid structures is lower with 4,20% (R1)
and 2,07% (F1) relative to BR;
8. The mammary pause differences between the three analyzed structures are not
with a statistical relative significance.
REFERENCES
1. Oroian, T.E., D.D. Dronca, 2005, Valori genetice si selectia la animale, Ed. Mirton, Timisoara,
ISBN 973-661-769-6;
2. Oroian, T., A.Vlaic, 2004, Ameliorarea animalelor, Ed. AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca, ISBN
973-9750-65-8;
3. Oroian, T., A. Vlaic, Elvira Oroian, V. Cighi, 2003, Some performances of F1 hibrids between
Blanc-Bleu-Belge, Baltata romaneasca and Bruna de maramures, XXXVIII Croatian
Symposium on Agriculture, Opatija, Croatia, 513-518, ISBN 953-6135-39-6;
4. Oroian, T., A. Vlaic, 2000, Aspecte privind insuirile productiei de lapte la femelele hibride F1
dintre rasele Blanc-Bleu-Belge si Baltata Romaneasca. Cercetari de genetica vegetala si animala, vol.
VII, ICPCT- Fundulea. Lucrarile celui de-al XXI-lea Simpozion National de ”Genetica vegetala si
animala”, Cluj-Napoca, 27 – 29 sept., 64-68, ISSN 1224-0486.
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BACK
SOME RESULTS REGARDING THE USE OF RAMS ŢIGAIE

WITH BLACKHEAD FROM TELEORMAN IN
CROSSBREEDING WITH DIFFERENT ROMANIAN SHEEP
BREEDS
Paula POŞAN, Mirela SUSAN, Angela STOICA, M. SUSAN
For a rapid amelioration of sheep population there is used the method

of infusion crossbreeding. In order to increase the productive potential of the
ewes Ţigaie from Braşov there are used rams Ţigaie with BlackHead from
Teleorman (Carabaşă), until F 1. The purpose was to create sheep population
with mixt production milk-meat.
There was done infusion crossbreeding between ewes Ţigaie from
Braşov and rams Ţigaie with BlackHead from Teleorman and ewes White
Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie and rams Ţigaie with BlackHead from
Teleorman
There was analyzed the body weight at birth of lambs from simple and
twin gestations and the body weight of lambs at 6, 9, and 12 month
There was observed that F 1 crossbred animals had higher value for
prolificacy and birth rate. Also the body weight at birth, at 6, 9 and 12 weeks is
higher at F 1 crossbred lambs, at simple and also at twin gestation, for both
males and females.
INTRODUCTION
Sheep breeding, because of the biologic particularities and productive
performances and also because of the adaptation capacities to different
environment conditions, has a special appreciation in many of the world countries.
In our country, in actual conditions, it is estimated an increasing of the
livestock and of their productive performances, throw animal amelioration and
breeding conditions optimization, especially the nutrition.
For a rapid amelioration of sheep population there is used the method of
infusion crossbreeding. In order to increase the productive potential of the ewes
Ţigaie from Braşov there are used rams Ţigaie with BlackHead from Teleorman
(Carabaşă), until F 1. The purpose was to create sheep population with mixt
production milk-meat

There was done infusion crossbreeding between ewes Ţigaie from
Braşov and rams Ţigaie with BlackHead from Teleorman and ewes White
Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie and rams Ţigaie with BlackHead from Teleorman
There was analyzed the body weight at birth of lambs from simple and
twin gestations and the body weight of lambs at 6, 9, and 12 month
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F1 crossbred population has an harmonious corporal conformation, with
mezomorph corporal format and large, deep forms, strong bones, piriphorm
body, tan glow and white wool. The withers has a small but large bump, the
superior line has an ascendant antero-posterior direction, the back is straight,
long and large, the croup is long, large and oblique, the chest is large, the
abdomen is well developed, the legs long with correct soundness and the udder
with globular form and medium size.
In actual condition of sheep breeding intensivisation, the reproduction
rate is a synthetic index to appreciate the profitability of sheep exploitation, in
order to increase the animal livestock and their productions.
The reproduction performances of Ţigaie from Braşov and especially of
F 1 crossbred Ţigaie with BlackHead from Teleorman x Ţigaie from Braşov, are
estimated by calculating the reproduction indices: fecundity, prolificacy, birth
rate. These indices are at the base of economic parameters, in order to increase
the profitability of sheep management.
There was observed that for F 1 crossbred animals the reproduction
indices were influence by parental population
It can be observed a higher value of reproduction indices for F 1
crossbred animals Carabaşă x Ţigaie from Braşov (prolificacy – 132,51%, birth
rate – 162,62%). Exception is the fecundity index which is lower (figure 1).
140
fecundity 114,72 123,62
103,31 95,75
prolificacy 132,51
birth rate 62,96
70
Ţigaie from Braşov F 1 Carabasa x Ţigaie from

Braşov
Figure 1. Comparative reproduction indices at Ţigaie from Braşov and F 1

crossbred Carabaşă x Ţigaie from Braşov
Analyzing the dynamic of body weight it can be observed that the body
at birth is lower at lambs Ţigaie from Braşov than at F 1 crossbred lambs
Carabaşă x Ţigaie from Braşov, at simple (figure 2) and also at twin gestation
(figure 3).
- 377 -
w eight at birth 5
(kg)
4 4,58 4,21
3,77
3 3,44
2
F 1 Carabasa x Ţigaie de Braşov

1
Ţigaie from Braşov
0
m ales fem ales
Figure 2. Weight at birth of lambs Ţigaie from Braşov and F 1 crossbred lambs
Carabaşă x Ţigaie from Braşov, from simple gestations
w eight at birth 3,5
(Kg) 3,47
3,25 3,23
3,08
F 1 Carabasa x Ţigaie de Braşov
Ţigaie from Braşov
2,8
m ales fem ales
Figure 3. Weight at birth of lambs Ţigaie from Braşov and F 1 crossbred lambs
Carabaşă x Ţigaie from Braşov, from twin gestations
Comparing the body weight at young males (figure 4) and females

(fugure 5) Ţigaie from Braşov and F 1 crossbred lambs Carabaşă x Ţigaie from
Braşov at 6, 9 and 12 month there can be observed higher values at F 1 crossbred
animals.
F 1 Carabasa56x Ţigaie de Braşov

Ţigaie from Braşov 55,65
50,55
43,91
41,88
28
33,05 31,71
w eight (Kg)
0
6 m onth 9 m onth 12 m onth
Figure 4. Weight of male lambs Ţigaie from Braşov and F 1 crossbred lambs
Carabaşă x Ţigaie from Braşov, at 6, 9 and 12 month
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F 1 Carabasa48x Ţigaie de Braşov

Ţigaie from Braşov 46,22
37,85 39,96
32,13
24 29,68
27,27
w eight (Kg)
0
6 m onth 9 m onth 12 m onth
Figure 5. Weight of female lambs Ţigaie from Braşov and F 1 crossbred lambs
Carabaşă x Ţigaie from Braşov, at 6, 9 and 12 month
Analyzing the dynamic of body weight it can be observed that the body
at birth is lower at lambs Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie than at F 1 crossbred
lambs Carabaşă x Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie, at simple (figure 6) and also at
twin (figure 7) gestation, for both males and females lambs
w eight at birth 4,5
(Kg) 4,46 4,09

3,6
3,53
2,7 3,15
1,8
F 1 Carabasa x0,9Ţurcana from Gioagiu-Orastie

Ţurcana from Gioagiu-Orastie
0
m ales fem ales
Figure 6. Weight at birth of lambs Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie and F 1 crossbred

lambs Carabaşă x Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie, from simple gestations
weight at birth 4,5

(Kg) 4,42
3,6 4,06
2,7 3,11 3,01

1,8
F 1 Carabasa x Ţurcana from Gioagiu-Orastie
Ţurcana from
0,9 Gioagiu-Orastie
0
males females
Figure 7. Weight at birth of lambs Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie and F 1 crossbred

lambs Carabaşă x Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie, from twin gestations
- 379 -
Comparing the body weight at young males (figure 8) and females

(figure 9) Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie and F 1 crossbred lambs Carabaşă x
Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie at 6 and 12 month there can be observed higher
values at F 1 crossbred animals.
44
w eight (Kg)
43,8
33
35,62
28,95
22
24,35
F 1 Carabasa
11 x Ţurcana from Gioagiu-Orastie
0
6 m onth 12 m onth
Figure 8. Weight of male lambs Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie and F 1 crossbred

lambs Carabaşă x Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie, at 6 and 12 month old
44
w eight (Kg)
41,6
33
32,82
22
28,4
23,82
F 1 Carabasa
11 x Ţurcana from Gioagiu-Orastie
0
6 m onth 12 m onth
Figure 9. Weight of female lambs Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie and F 1 crossbred

lambs Carabaşă x Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie, at 6 and 12 month old
CONCLUSIONS
It can be observed a higher value of prolificacy (132,51%) and birth rate
(162,62%) for F 1 crossbred animals Carabaşă x Ţigaie from Braşov.
F 1 crossbred lambs Carabaşă x Ţigaie from Braşov had a higher body
weight at birth than lambs Ţigaie from Braşov, at simple and also at twin
gestation and at both genders.
F 1 crossbred lambs Carabaşă x Ţigaie from Braşov had a higher body
weight at 6, 9 and 12 month than lambs Ţigaie from Braşov, at both young
females and males.
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BACK
F 1 crossbred lambs Carabaşă x Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie had a

higher body weight at birth than lambs Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie, at simple
and also at twin gestation and at both genders.
F 1 crossbred lambs Carabaşă x Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie had a
higher body weight at 6 and 12 month than lambs Ţurcană from Gioagiu-Orăştie,
at both young females and males.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Grosu H., Drăgănescu C., Joiţoiu R. - Rasa Carabaşă (Ruda cu capul negru) în Republica
Serbia si Montenegru. Editura Conphys, Râmnicu-Vâlcea, 2005.
2. Grosu H., Drăgănescu C., Joiţoiu R. - Rasa de oi Carabaşă Românească (Ruda cu capul negru
Românească). Editura Conphys, Râmnicu-Vâlcea, 2005
3. Ioana T. - Încrucişarea Ţigaiei Capnegru de Teleorman cu Ţigaia de Braşov. Teză de Doctorat,
U.S.A.M.V. Bucureşti, 2004.
4. Susan M. – Rezultate parţiale privind încrucişarea oilor Ţurcane albe din zona Geoagiu-Orăştie
cu Ţigaiei Capnegru de Teleorman. Teză de Doctorat, U.S.A.M.V. Bucureşti, 2007.
5. Taftă V., Vintilă I., Zamfirescu Stela – Producţia, ameliorarea şi reproducţia ovinelor. Ed.
Ceres, Bucureşti, 1997
6. Taftă V. – Ameliorarea producţiilor de carne-lapte şi a prolificităţii la rasa Ţigaie, prin
încrucişarea cu berbeci Ţigaie Capnegru de Teleorman (Carabaşă). Rev. Zoot şi Med. Vet.,
9/2004
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BACK
I. THE GENE THEORY OF SEXUALITY OF GALINACEAE

Fl. PRICOP
The genetic determinism of sex in genetic recombination of Galinaceae

was explained in literature on the chromosomal level by the existence of the male
sex, homogametic ZZ, and of the female sex, heterogametic ZW, as well as by the
existence of genes within the chromosome Z and by the absence of genes within
the chromosome W1. In this paper we present the experimental results of direct
and reciprocal genetic recombination. The experimental design allows the
identification of the dominant sex gene linked to the gene that determines the
plumage color in the first generation females. Both these genes are located
within the chromosome W. In the same generation the recessive sex gene was
identified within the chromosome Z. The second generation was obtained by
cross of the males and females of the first generation. In each category of
genotypes of the second generation males and females are displayed equally.
Three categories of genotypes were produced, namely dominant homozygous,
heterozygous and recessive homozygous. The experimental results demonstrate
that within the chromosome W both the dominant sex gene and the gene
transmitting the plumage color are located. Our results are not in accordance
with the hemizygotic theory1.
Keywords: poultry genetic recombination; genetics of feather color of
Galinaceae; day-old chick’s sex screening.
Sex and plumage color inheritance of Galinaceae was explained so far

using the two levels of organization of the genetic material: the chromosomal
level and the gene level respectively. The genetic determinism starts form the
premise that the genes responsible for plumage color inheritance are located
within the chromosome Z and that they do not have any correspondent genes
within the chromosome W1. The chromosomal theory of sex determination by
heterosomes is still cited, mainly, because of lack of new investigations. Well
known scientists in poultry genetics always begin their studies assuming the
conclusion of the hemizygotic theory mentioned earlier1.
The investigations presented in this paper were started due to the
existence of major discrepancies between the experimental data from own
research and the chromosomal theory of sex determination by heterosomes, which
is why this paper relates to the paper of Morgan1. The cross of red Rhode Island
males with barred Marans females produced in generation F1 heterozygous
reddish-black females and heterozygous barred males. The plumage of the
heterozygous reddish-black females differs both from the plumage of the parents
and the plumage of the heterozygous barred males.
The results of our research are contradicting the hemizygotic mechanism1
and thus the necessity to review and correct Morgan’s theory is evident.
The use of proper crosses (recessive homozygous male, genotype bb ×
dominant homozygous female, genotype BB / heterozygous female, genotype Bb)
produces hybrid day-old chicks which can be sexed by the down color with an
- 382 -
accuracy that exceeds 99%. Consequently, our experimental results open new
research perspectives for the molecular genetics concerning the particular way of
action of the genes within the chromosome W of Galinaceae.
Direct cross: barred Marans male × red Rhode-Island female
The cross of barred Marans males with red Rhode-Island females
produced in generation F1 a number of 3218 day-old genetic recombinants which
were sexed using the cloacal method. The generation F1 contained heterozygous
barred males and heterozygous barred females (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. 18 weeks-old progeny of generations F1 and F2 produced from the cross of

barred Marans males with red Rhode-Island females
P = parent generation; F1 = generation 1 progeny; F2 = generation 2 progeny; SDW =
dominant sex gene; sdw = recessive sex gene; B = barred gene; b = gold gene; E = epistasy
a and b = heterozygous barred males; c and d = heterozygous barred females; e =
homozygous barred females and males; f = heterozygous barred females and males; g =
homozygous gold females and males; * unexpected subject in generation F2
The heterozygous barred males received from the father the chromosome Z
together with the recessive sex gene (sdw) linked to the barred gene (B) and from the
mother the chromosome Z together with the recessive sex gene (sdw) linked to the
gold gene (b). The recessive homozygous genotype sdwsdw determines the male sex,
while the heterozygous genotype Bb determines the plumage color.
The heterozygous barred females received from the father the chromosome
Z together with the recessive sex gene (sdw) linked to the barred gene (B) and from
the mother the chromosome W together with the dominant sex gene (SDW) linked
to the gold gene (b). The heterozygous genotype sdwSDW determines the female
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sex while the heterozygous genotype Bb determines the plumage color. Table 1
shows the statistic distribution of birds from generation F1.
Table 1. Down color and sex repartition of day-old and 18 weeks-old genetic
recombinants produced in generation F1 (♂ barred Marans × ♀ Red Rhode–Island)
Day-old 18 weeks-old
Phenotype and Nr. of % Sex Phenotype and genotype Nr. of %
genotype birds birds
Barred (Bb) 992 34.9
Black with a white
1601 49.8 M Barred body and red neck
spot on the head (Bb) 386 13.6
and head (Bb)
Barred (Bb) 1460 51.4
Black with a white
1617 50.2 F Barred body and red neck
and head (Bb)
Total number of Total number of males
3218 100 - 2840 100
males and females and females
We examined a number of 1601 heterozygous (Bb) day-old males and

1617 heterozygous (Bb) day-old females. Both sexes had black down with a white
spot of variable size on their head.
The day-old chicks were sexed using the cloacal method. The plumage
color of a number of 2840 birds of age 18 weeks was examined. From the 1378
males 34.9% had barred plumage and 13.6% had barred plumage on the body
with red feathers on the neck and head. From the 1462 females 51.4% had barred
plumage and 0.1% had barred plumage on the body with red feathers on their
neck and head. The sexually mature genetic recombinants from generation F1
were crossed to produce the generation F2. Table 2 shows the statistic distribution
of generation F2.
Table 2. Down color and sex repartition of day-old and 18 weeks-old genetic recombinants
produced in generation F2 (♂ barred heterozygous × ♀ barred heterozygous)
Sex, phenotype and Nr. of
Nr. of birds % Sex, phenotype and genotype %
genotype birds
Mixture of males and Barred males and females,
307 25.0
females with black down and homozygous (BB)*
a white spot on the head, 1158 75 Barred males and females,
homozygous (BB) and heterozygous (Bb)* 615 50.1
heterozygous (Bb)*
Males and females with red
Males and females with red down, homozygous (bb)*
386 25 305 24.9
down, homozygous (bb)*
Total number of males and 1544 100 Total number of males and
1227 100
females females
* In each phenotypic category the ratio males : females was equal to one.
According to the sex chromosomes segregation, the genetic recombinants

from generation F1 should contain four expected categories of genotypes in
generation F2, differing by sex and plumage color as follows: homozygous barred
males (sdwsdw BB), heterozygous barred males (sdwsdw Bb), heterozygous
barred females (sdwSDW Bb) and homozygous gold females (sdwSDW bb).
- 384 -
According to our experimental data the progeny of generation F2 (Fig. 1)

contained two more unexpected genotypes, detected for the first time worldwide,
together with the four expected ones: homozygous barred females (sdwSDW BB)
and homozygous gold males (sdwsdw bb).
The homozygous barred females should have received the barred gene
from the heterozygous barred females of the generation F1 but instead, they
displayed the gold gene linked to the dominant sex gene (SDW) rather than the
barred gene within the chromosome W. The homozygous gold males should have
received a gold gene from both parents together with chromosome Z. In Figure 1
is shown that the F1 females displayed the barred gene linked to the recessive sex
gene (sdw) rather than the gold gene within the chromosome Z.
The observed features in the inheritance of plumage color show that the
last two categories of genotypes that were detected should not be present since
they do not respect the pattern of sex chromosomes segregation in the genetic
recombinants of generation F1 and of their recombination in generation F2.
In a similar experiment, Morgan obtained in the generation F2 only
barred males, whereas half of the females were barred and the other half of
females were black.
Figure 2. 18 weeks-old progeny of generations F1 and F2 produced from the cross of red
Rhode-Island males with barred Marans females
P = parent generation; F1 = generation 1 progeny; F2 = generation 2 progeny; SDW =
dominant sex gene; sdw = recessive sex gene; B = barred gene; b = gold gene; E = epistasy
a and b = heterozygous barred males; c = heterozygous reddish-black females; d =
homozygous barred females and males; e = heterozygous barred females and males; f =
heterozygous reddish-black females and males; g = homozygous gold females and males
* unexpected subject in generation F2
- 385 -
In our experiments we produced in generation F2 three categories of

genotypes. The ratio males: females within each category of genotypes was 1 : 1.
These results can be explained as follows: a) in generation F1 the gold gene is
located within the chromosome W of the heterozygous females (Bb); it
determines the red feathers on the neck and on the head in 0.1% of the
heterozygous barred females and represents a particular way of action of this gene
within the chromosome W; b) the barred gene is located within the chromosome
Z of all F1 subjects and is transmitted to the progeny as any autosomal dominant
gene; c) the cross of F1 heterozygous males with F1 heterozygous females shows
that plumage color inheritance in generation F2 by the heterosomal genes is
similar to the inheritance of the traits determined by genes located within an
autosomal locus; d) the existence of 25% dominant homozygous females and
males, of 50.1% heterozygous females and males and of 24.9% recessive
homozygous females and males in generation F2 shows clearly that the F1
females are heterozygous rather than hemizygous.
Reciprocal cross: red Rhode-Island male × barred Marans female

Figure 2 and Table 3 show the results of the reciprocal cross between red
Rhode-Island males and barred Marans females.
Table 3. Down color and sex repartition of day-old and 18 weeks-old genetic
recombinants produced in generation F1 (♂Red Rhode – Island × ♀ barred Marans)
Phenotype and Nr. of % Sex Phenotype and Nr. of %
genotype birds genotype birds
Barred (Bb) 964 36.6
Black with a white
1636 50 M Barred body and red
neck and head (Bb)
Black body and
Black body and head
1639 50 F reddish-black neck 1291 49.0
(bB)
and head (bB)
Total number of Total number of
3275 100 - 2633 100
males and females males and females
The day-old progeny included 50% heterozygous males, genotype Bb,

with black down and a white spot of variable size on their head and 50%
heterozygous females, genotype bB (trade name Robar SL-2001) with black down
on the body and head. Day-old chicks sexing by the down color was explained by
the existence of a heterosomal epistatic gene located on chromosome W.
A number of 2633 birds of 18-weeks were examined. From the 1342
males 36.6% had barred plumage and 14.4% had barred plumage on the body
with red feathers on their neck and head. All 49% heterozygous (bB) reddish-
black females had black plumage on the body with reddish-black feathers on their
neck and head.
Correlating the results of plumage color inheritance of day-old chicks
with the results observed for those of 18-weeks old birds one can notice that the
- 386 -
phenotype of the F1 heterozygous females (bB) is different from that of their

parents and from that of the heterozygous males (Fig. 2). Based on the
macroscopic examination Pricop5 reasoned that the heterosomal gene noticed
previously within the chromosome W is the dominant sex gene (SDW) which
plays two roles: a) as a dominant sex gene in relation to its recessive allele, sdw,
located within the chromosome Z; b) as an epistatic gene that interacts with the
gene determining plumage color, located within the chromosome W.
The non-allelic interaction (E) of the dominant sex gene of the barred
gene occurs only in the W linkage group and modifies the allelic interaction of the
genes from the heterozygous genotype that determines the plumage color. The
plumage color of the F1 heterozygous reddish-black females was the phenotypic
marker that allowed the identification of the dominant sex gene. The cross of a
recessive homozygous males sdwsdw with a heterozygous females sdwSDW
produced 50% recessive homozygous males sdwsdw and 50% heterozygous
females sdwSDW. This explains the genetic determinism of sex inheritance and
the equal number of males and females obtained in the cross. Table 4 shows the
statistic distribution of generation F2 produced by the cross of heterozygous (Bb)
barred males with heterozygous (Bb) reddish-black females.
Table 4. Down color and sex of day-old and 18 weeks-old genetic recombinants
produced in generation F2 (♂ barred heterozygous × ♀ reddish-black heterozygous)
Nr. of Sex, phenotype and Nr. of
Sex, phenotype and genotype % %
birds genotype birds
Mixture of homozygous (BB) and Homozygous (BB) barred
345 24.7
heterozygous (Bb) males and males and females*
857 49.6
females with black down and a Heterozygous (Bb) barred
white spot on the head * 345 24.7
males and females *
Heterozygous (bB)
Heterozygous (bB) males and
435 25.2 reddish-black males and 351 25.1
females with black down*
females*
Homozygous (bb) red
Homozygous (bb) males and
436 25.2 males and females* 357 25.5
females with red down (bb)*
Total number of males and Total number of males
1728 100 1398 100
females and females
* In each phenotypic category the ratio males : females was equal to one.
Following sex chromosomes segregation in the genetic recombinants

from generation F1, one would have expected four categories of genotypes in
generation F2 (Fig. 2) differing by sex and plumage color: a) homozygous barred
females (sdwSDW BB); b) heterozygous barred males (sdwsdw Bb);
c) heterozygous reddish-black females (sdwSDW bB); d) homozygous gold males
(sdwsdw bb).
In generation F2 we evidenced four more unexpected genotypes, detected
for the first time ever, worldwide, together with the four expected ones: a)
homozygous barred males (sdwsdw BB); b) heterozygous barred females (sdwSDW
- 387 -
Bb); c) heterozygous reddish-black males (sdwsdw bB); d) homozygous gold

females (sdwSDW bb). The unexpected four genotypes do not respect the pattern of
sex chromosomes segregation in the genetic recombinants from generation F1 and of
their recombination in generation F2 and thus should not appear.
The homozygous barred males should have received the barred gene from
the heterozygous reddish-black females of generation F1 but instead of this they
displayed the gold gene linked to the recessive sex gene (sdw) rather than the
barred gene within the chromosome Z. The heterozygous barred females should
have received the gold gene together with chromosome W from the heterozygous
reddish-black females of generation F1 but instead of this they displayed the
barred gene linked to the dominant sex gene (SDW) rather than the gold gene on
chromosome W.
The heterozygous reddish-black males should have received the barred
gene from the heterozygous reddish-black females, but instead of this they
displayed the gold gene linked to the recessive sex gene (sdw) rather than the
barred gene within the chromosome Z. The homozygous gold females should
have received the gold gene from the heterozygous reddish-black females, but
instead of this they displayed the barred gene linked to the dominant sex gene
(SDW) rather than the gold gene within the chromosome W.
Morgan1 crossed the generation F1 progeny resulting from Langshan
males × barred Plymouth Rock females and obtained two phenotype categories in
generation F2: 50% barred males and females and 50% black males and females1.
In our experiments we obtained in generation F2 four categories of phenotypes
and three categories of genotypes which, together with the ratio males: female
equal to one for each category of genotype, reveal the following: a) in generation
F1 the barred gene is located within the chromosome W of the heterozygous
females (bB); it determines genetically the black plumage of the heterozygous
reddish-black females and represents a particular way of action of this gene within
the chromosome W; b) the gold gene is located within the chromosome Z of all
F1 subjects and is transmitted to the progeny as any autosomal recessive gene;
phenotypically. However, the red color appears only on the neck and head due to
the modified allelic interaction between it and the barred-hypostatic gene located
within the chromosome W; c) the cross of generation F1 heterozygous males with
generation F1 heterozygous females shows that the plumage color inheritance in
generation F2 by the heterosomal genes is similar to that of the autosomal genes.
One exception has to be noticed, namely that the 49.8% heterozygous progeny are
displayed in two phenotypic categories of plumage color summarizing (24.7%
heterozygous barred females and males and 25.1% heterozygous reddish-black
females and males); d) in generation F1 the females are heterozygous and not
hemizygous because of the following distribution: 24.7% dominant homozygous
females and males, 49.8% heterozygous females and males and 25.5% recessive
homozygous females and males.
- 388 -
The existence of the unexpected categories in generation F2 both in the

direct and reciprocal cross might be explained by the presence of a
pseudoautosomal2 region, similar with the one observed in Mammalian X
chromosome, where the genes determining the plumage color inheritance are
located. In that pseudoautosomal region the genes are recombining by crossing-
over just like in the autosomal regions, although this area is located in the
heterosomes.
The cross of red Rhode-Island males with heterozygous barred female
The generation F1 heterozygous barred females produced in the direct
cross (Fig. 1) was crossed with red Rhode-Island males and produced genetic
recombinants that can be sexed by the down color when day-old. The
heterozygous males’ genotype Bb had black down with a white spot of variable
size on their head, while the homozygous females’ genotype bb (trade name
Robar SL-2002) had red plumage, as shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Down color and sex repartition of day-old and 18 weeks-old genetic recombinants
produced in generation F1 (♂Red Rhode – Island × ♀ barred heterozygous)
Phenotype and Nr. of % Sex Phenotype and genotype Nr. of %
genotype birds birds
Barred (Bb) 1784 36.0
Black with a white spot
2702 50.1 M Barred body and red neck
on the head (Bb) 701 14.1
and head (Bb)
Red (bb) 2686 49.9 F Red (bb) 2473 49.9
Total number of males Total number of males and
5388 100 - 4958 100
and females females
The color of the heterozygous barred males down is due to the barred and
gold genes from the heterozygous genotype Bb. The color of the homozygous
gold females is due to the gold gene located both within the chromosome Z and
within the chromosome W.
The color differences of Robar SL-2001 and Robar SL-2002 females
show that they can be heterozygous, respectively homozygous for this trait. These
results are in contradiction with the hemizygous mechanism1: 36% of the
heterozygous males have barred plumage and 14.1% of them have red feathers on
the neck and head. 49.9% of the homozygous gold females have red plumage and
a recessive homozygous genotype (bb). Down color inheritance of day-old Robar
SL-2002 chicks is due to the action of the heterosomal genes barred (B) and gold
(b). Day-old Robar SL-2002 chicks sexing by the down color is determined by the
allelic interaction between the barred and gold genes from the heterozygous
genotype Bb that determines the black down color of the heterozygous barred
males. They have a white spot of variable size on the head. The recessive
homozygous genotype (bb) for the gold gene (b) determines the red down color of
the homozygous females that can easily screened from the males.
- 389 -
The Gene Theory of Sexuality of Galinaceae

The identification of the gene that determines the down color linked to the
dominant sex gene within the chromosome W and of the recessive sex allele
within the chromosome Z allowed, for the first time, a gene approach of sex
inheritance and the development of a new theory, “The Gene Theory of Sexuality
of Galinaceae”. The experimental results obtained by us require the revision and
amendment of Morgan’s chromosomal theory of sex inheritance through
heterosomes. Consequently we propose the following amendments of the
heterosome map modified by Hutt3,4, 6, based on the above described experiments:
1. the simplification of the heterosome map; We propose to replace the two
loci (barred-nonbarred and silver-gold) by one polyallelic locus, where
the silver (S), barred (B) and gold (s/b) genes should be located;
2. the introduction of the polyallelic locus for the genes within the
chromosome W, where the genes silver (S), barred (B) and gold (s/b),
responsible for the inheritance of the plumage color should be located.
This locus should be similar to the polyallelic locus located within the
chromosome Z;
3. the introduction in the heterosome map, both in chromosome Z and in
chromosome W, of the locus for the gene determining sex inheritance;
thus, the dominant sex gene, SDW, has been identified on chromosome
W, while its recessive allele, sdw, was identified on chromosome Z.
According to the new theory we conclude that: a) the gene determinism

of sex inheritance is explained by the cross of a recessive homozygous male
sdwsdw with a heterozygous female sdwSDW which produces 50% recessive
homozygous males sdwsdw and 50% heterozygous females sdwSDW; b) the
down color inheritance of the day-old hybrid chicks of generation F1 is due to the
heterosomal genes barred and gold within a heterozygous genotype, both in the
males (Bb) and in the females (bB); c) F1 day-old hybrid chicks sexing by the
colour of the plumage is determined by the allelic interaction modified in the
females by the epistatic (E) action of the dominant sex gene (SDW) on the barred
gene that turns hypostatic and by the non-modified allelic interaction in the males;
d) the colors difference of Robar SL-2001 and Robar SL-2002 females indicated
the existence of the barred, respectively gold genes within the chromosome W
and evidences the universal character of the homo- and heterozygotic mechanism,
in contrast to the hemizygotic mechanism; e) the presence of three categories of
genotypes in generation F2 demonstrates both the universal character of the
homo- and heterozygotic mechanism and the autosomal origin of the
heterosomes. The hemizygotic mechanism is not able to explain our experimental
results; f) the simplification of the heterosome map from two to just one
polyallelic locus is needed. Within this locus the genes silver, barred and gold
should be located and should be responsible for the plumage color inheritance; g)
the introduction in the heterosome map of the locus determining sex inheritance.
Both chromosomes Z and W should have the sex determining genes.
- 390 -
BACK
Method
We applied the method of the direct and reciprocal cross of galinaceae
using two different breeds in order to monitor the phenotypic expression of the
heterosomal genes responsible for the gene determinism of the plumage color and
of the sex. The cross of parent males and females produced generation F1, while
the cross of the males and females from generation F1 produced generation F2.
The parents originate from pure homozygous lines for the barred (B) and
gold (s) heterosomal genes which are responsible for the plumage color
inheritance. The parents belonged to the following breeds: barred Marans and red
Rhode-Island characterized as follows: phenotypically, the barred Marans birds
have barred plumage and their genotype is homozygous dominant (BB) for the
barred gene (B); phenotypically, the red Rhode-Island birds have red feathers and
their genotype is homozygous recessive (bb) for the gold gene (b). These pure
lines are reproduced each year in full pedigree and are used for the production of
the commercial layers sexable by the colour of the plumage.
The experimental groups consisted of over 3200 individuals which were
evaluated in generation F1 whereas over 1500 individuals were evaluated in
generation F2. The technological male to female ratio in the parent groups was 1 :
10. The macroscopic examination of the plumage color and of the sex of the
individuals was conducted twice, once for day-old and the second for birds at the
age of 18 weeks.
Acknowledgements
The continuous assistance and support of Dr Ursula Lucia Bologa,
Degussa Romania SRL and the financial support of Degussa AG, department of
feed additives are gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES
1. Morgan, T.H., (1919) The physical Basis of Heredity. J.B. Lippincott Company. On-line
Electronic Edition. Electronic Scholarly Publishing, prepared by Robert Robbins.
2. Henke, A. et al., 1993 - Genetic map of the pseudoautosomal region reveals a high rate of
recombination in female meiosis at the Xp telomere. Genomics 18: 478-485. NCBI PubMed
3. Hutt, F.B., (1936) Genetics of the Fowl. VI. A tentative chromosome map. Neue Forsch Tierzucht
Abstammungsl (Durest Festschrift), 105-12, Verbandsdruckerei AG, Bern.
4. Campo, J.L., (1991) Use of the Sex-Linked Barring (B) gene for Chick Sexing on an Eumelanotic
Columbian Background, Poultry Science, 70, 1469-1473.
5. Pricop, F., (2006) Procedure of genetic recombination for Galinaceae hybrids breeding, World’s
Poultry Science Journal, vol. 62 suppl.,
6. Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office London (1966) -
Sex-linkage in poultry breeding, 38, 1-10.
- 391 -
BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE DECREASE OF

PUERPERAL DISORDERS INCIDENCES AT DAIRY COWS,
BY DIFFERENT METHODS
Elena RUGINOSU, Mariana SOFRONIE,
M. PÎNTEA, Şt. CREANGĂ, Iulia COSTEA
The experiment had been developed in dairy farm, Black and White
Spoted breed from the Research and Development Station in Cattle Breeding
from Dancu Iassy, on two groups, 14 heads for each group (an experimental
group respectively control group) with the same physiological state: advanced
gestation (9th month) and puerperal period.
The feeding base of animals was identical for those two groups,
according to the necessary, with the difference that the experimental group had
received vitamins and minerals mixtures, a type for the dry period and others for
early lactation period. In postpartum period to the cows of experimental group
us had their given the treatments with an imunomodulator, Polidin, 8 ml./ head,
in the first day and then it has been repeated to 24 hours and 14 days
postpartum, s.c. in association with PGF2α , Proliz, 2 ml./ cow, i.m., at the 14
days and 28 days postpartum.
The cows from the control group had not benefited of vitamins and minerals
mixture nor others treatments for the stimulation of sexual function.
The analysis of the results recorded by experimental group shown a
decrease of puerperal affections incidence with 7,14 % (7,14 % towards 14,28
%); lower intervals between parturition and first artificial insemination
postpartum with 5 days (65 days towards 70 days), interval between parturition
and conception with 10 days ( 100 days towards 110 days); higher gestation
rates with 7,14 % and 14,28 % for the first artificial insemination (42,85 %
towards 35,71 %) and all artificial inseminations, respectively ( 71,42 %
towards 57,14 %), comparatively with control group.
The special diferent studies made evident that the nutrition factories
nutrition had a major implication to the etiopathogenity of diferent puerperal
dissorders with the negatively repercussions to the subsequent fertility of femeles
(BOITOR, I, 1984, GARY, B., HUMBLOT,P., CAPY,C., 1987, FABRY, L.
,1993, POILLY F., 1982, REVILLO,R. 1994, DUMITRU, M., 1996, MICHAEL
L. O' CONNOR- 1997 ).
Thus, it had been found from the end of gestation period and the
beginning of lactation that the fodder ration with small quantities of vitamines,
minerals produce of the series of metabolic, hormonal and immun disorders, who
affect negatively the health state of dairy cows and implicit their reproduction
function .
The aim of this work had been to study the complementary effect of
associate methods for the stimulation of sexual function by the administration of
vitamins and minerals mixtures to an optimum feedings for pregnant cows and in
- 392 -
early lactation and by the application of medicinal produces in puerperal period

with the imunmodulator or womb tonic effects.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experiment had been developed in dairy farm to the Research and
Develop for Bovine Breeding Station from Dancu-Iassy, who has un number of
450 cows and heifers, Black and White Spoted breed, bound system in the
stables, with good maintenance state and an average production of 6700 l. milk
/cow / normal lactation.
Us had made two lots of advanced pregnant cows in the nine month, with
14 heads for each lot, an experimental lot and others control lot respectively.
The feeding base of animals was identical for those two lots, the difference
been that, the experimental lot had received of vitamins and minerals mixtures, a type
for the dry period and others for early lactation period. This supplement had been
added of ration to the two individual feed of dairly fodder ration.
The cows ration had been composed by the following fodders: maize silo,
alfalfa hay, beer dregs, cereals mixture ( maize grinded, wheat waste, groat of sun
flower). The quantities of each fodder had been in according to dry and early
lactation period respectively, they respected to feeding required of actual rules.
In postpartum period the cows of experimental lot had received the
treatments with an imunomodulator, Polidin, 8 ml./ head, in the first day postpartum
and then it repeated to 24 hours and 14 days postpartum, s.c. in the association
with PGF2α , Proliz, 2 ml./ cow, i.m., at 14 days and 28 days postpartum.
The cows from the control lot had not benefited by the vitamins and
minerals mixture and nor of others treatments for the stimulation of sexual function.
They had composed the different fodder rations in raport with
physiological state, bodily weight and milk production level in early lactation.
They had followed the healthy state of genital apparatus of cows in
postpartum period by clinical examinations.
They had periodical made the determinations of bodily weitght of cows
in antepartum and postpartum period for the evaluation of retrieve from
parturition.
It had established the puerperal affections incidence and the subsequent
reproduction paramethers, regarding to the intervals of the first estrus postpartum
appearance, service-period and the gestations percentages.
RESULTES AND DISCUSSIONS

The fodder ration who it had given of cows from the two lots had assured
the nutrients required in relation with their physiological state.
Thus, in dry period ( the 9 month ) it had assured: SU 11,78 kg , UNL
9,66, Ca 78,4 g , P 44,9 g , UIDL 7,87 ( tab. 1 ).
- 393 -
For the early lactation period it had assured: SU 19,57 Kg, UNL 16,88,
Ca 114,32 g , P 76,3 g , UIDL 14,35 ( tab. 2).
The measures regarding the body weight dynamics distinguished different
variations of the values before and after the parturition.
First day after the deliver the body weight decreased with 81-90 kg,
towards the ante partum period (experimental group, respectively control group).
It was found increases of body weight at the cows belonging to both groups, and
after 2 months the cows from the experimental group achieved higher body
weights with 27-46 kg, towards the ones in control group (646-692 kg live weight
– experimental group; 624-651 kg live weight – control group) (fig. 1).
Table 1
The fodder ration for pregnant cows in the nine month
and 600 kg bodily weight
Fodders Kg Kg SU UNL Ca P UIDL
alfalfa hay 3,0 2,55 1,53 3315 6,38 2,78
maize silo 15,0 4,5 4,05 1575 11,25 5,09
wheat waste 1,0 0,87 0,80 1,39 12,18 -
maize grinded 2,0 1,72 2,18 0,52 6,02 -
groat of sun flower 1,0 0,89 0,72 27,59 9,16 -
beer dregs 5,0 1,25 0,38 - - -
assured 27,5 11,78 9,66 78,4 44,99 7,87
require 11,00 9,03 61,00 35,00 7,92
* experimental lot has received of 300 g vitamine- minerals suppliment /cow
for dry period
Table 2
The fodder ration for cows in early lactation ( the first month)
600 kg bodily weight and 20 milk litres / day
Fodders Kg Kg SU UNL Ca P UIDL
alfalfa hay 4,0 3,4 2,04 44,20 8,50 3,71
maize silo 25,0 7,5 7,42 26,25 18,75 8,47
alfalfa green 10,0 2,17 1,58 35,80 6,51 2,17
wheat waste 1,5 1,31 1,10 2,10 18,34 -
maize 3,0 2,60 3,27 1,82 10,40 -
grinded
groat of sun 1,5 1,34 1,09 4,15 13,80 -
flower
beer dregs 5,0 1,25 0,38 - - -
assured 50,3 19,57 16,88 114,32 76,30 14,35
require 16,70 15,10 115,00 62,00 16,50

* experimental lot has received of 300 g vitamine- minerals suppliment /cow
for lactation period
- 394 -
Fig.1 The dynamic of bodily weight of cows from experimental and control group
antepartum and postpartum period
The analysis of the results shown a decrease of the incidence of fetal

annexes retention and of the puerperal affections incidence with 7,14 % in
experimental group (7,14 % v.s 14,28 %), comparatively to control group
(tab. 3).
The reproduction parameters registered a decrease in experimental group:
the interval between parturition and first estrus – 5 days (30 days v.s 35 days),
the interval between parturition and first artificial insemination – 5 days (65 days
v.s 70 days), service-period – 10 days (100 days v.s 110 days), comparatively to
control group.
Fertility parameters in experimental group registered higher average
values, comparatively to the control group.
Therefore the gestation rates in experimental group registered an average
7,14 % and 14,28 % higher on first artificial insemination, respectively all
artificial inseminations (71,42 v.s 57,14%).
Similarly results have been indicated by other authors (GHERGARIU S.
and others, 1990, GOLFF and STABEL,PARVU GH., 1996, NICHITA
GEORGETA, 1984, TRIF R., VIOR C., 1996).
It was proved that the supplementary feeding with the vitamins and
minerals mixture before and after parturition in association with stimulation
treatments for sexual function has favorable effects on dairy cows’ health and
reproduction activity too, decreasing the incidence of the genital diseases and
raising further fertility parameters.
- 395 -
Table 3
The average of the reproduction paramethers in cows with/without treatments in
antepartum and postpartum periods
Specification UM Experimental Control Differences
group group between
group
E C E-C
Nr. of animals/group n 14 14
Cows with fetal annexes retention n 1 2
% 7,14 14,28 -7,14
Cows with genital affections n 1 2
postpartum % 7,14 14,28 -7,14
The average interval between days 30 35 -5
parturition and the first estrus
The average interval between days 65 70 -5
parturition and first artificial
insemination
The interval between parturition and days 100 110 -10
conception
Pregnant cows n 10 8 -2
total % 71,42 57,14 + 14,28
which:
at the first n 6 5
artificial insemination % 42,85 35,71 + 7,14
at the second n 3 2
artificial insemination % 21,42 14,28 +7,14
at the first and second n 9 7
artificial insemination % 64,28 50,00 + 14,28
at the third n 1 0
artificial insemination % 7,14 0 +7,14
over the third n 0 1
artificial insemination % 0 7,28
CONCLUSIONS
1. The feeding supplementary by vitamins and minerals mixture before and
after parturition had the effect to reduce the incidence of fetal annexes
retention and the incidence of genital infections with 7,14 % (7,14 % v.s
14,28 %), comparatively to control group,
2. The cows in experimental group which received a supplement of
vitamins and minerals mixture and the treatments for stimulation of
reproduction function stimulation had registered lower values regarding
the following intervals: from the parturition to first artificial insemination
with 5 days ( 65 days v.s 70 days) and fron the parturition to conception
with 10 days (100 days v.s 110 days), comparatively to control group,
- 396 -
BACK
3. The cows in experimental group registered of higher gestation

percentages with 7,14 % at the first artificial insemination (42,85 % v.s
35,71 %) and with 14,28 % at the total artificial inseminations ( 71,42 v.s
57,14%), comparatively to control group.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. BARNOUIN,J., CHASSAGNE, M., 1990- L´ association entre la retain placentaire and la
fevre du lait á la vaches- Rév. de Méd. Vét., no.8 ,
2. BOITOR, I., 1984- Puerperium normal şi patologic. Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti,
3. DUMITRU, M., 1996- Boli de nutriţie şi metabolism la animale.- Edit. Ceres, Bucureşti,
4. FABRY, L. 1993-Erreurs alimentaire et troubles de la reproduction- Les elevages belges, no.6,
5. GARY,F., HUMBLOT,P., CAPY,C., 1987- Facteurs de variation de la répris de láctivité
ovarienne aprés village et leurs effects sur les parameters de reproduction- Élevage et
insemination, 222, 13-28,
6. GHERGARIU, S. şi colab. 1990- Patologia nutriţională şi metabolică a animalelor domestice.
Ed. Academiei române, Bucureşti,
7. MICHAEL L. O' CONNOR- 1997- Causes of uterine infections, Dairy and Animal Science
Extension , USA,
8. NICHITA, GEORGETA, 1984- Cantitate şi calitate în nutriţia animalelor. Ed. Ceres,
Bucureşti,
9. PĂRVU, GH şi col. 1996- Nutritţia, răspunsul imun şi sănătatea animalelor,- Edit. Ceres,
Bucureşti,
10. POUILLY,F., and all, 1982- Risk factors for postpartum anoestrus cows, Preventive
Veterinary Medicine, 18, 305-314,
11. REVILLO, R. 1994- Effect of nutrition body weight and body condition on reproduction in
cattle. ref. in- Animal Breeding Abstract,no 9,vol. 162,
12. TRIF,R., VIOR,C., 1996- Patologia sistemului imunitar.- Edit. Brumar, Timişoara
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BACK
APPROACH REGARDING THE LEPTIN GENE ISOLATION

TECHNIQUES FROM SHEEP ADIPOSE TISSUE
Claudia Terezia SOCOL, A. VLAIC, Viorica COSIER
The isolation of the leptin gene and its amplification is one of the first
steps in the laboratory experiments of obtaining the recombinant leptin. An
optimized efficient method for the isolation of the ovine leptin gene, having as a
starting material RNA extracted from the ovine subcutaneous adipose tissue is
described in this paper; the cDNA obtained by reverse transcription is used for
the ovine leptin gene amplification by the PCR technique with specific primers
which have been designed according to ovine leptin gene mRNA encoding
sequence(U84247). The PCR product was purified by cutting the 438 bp band
from the agarose gel; being used in further cloning experiments in specific
vectors for producing the recombinant leptin in E. coli host cells.
The necessity of producing recombinant leptin is essential for the
possibility of realizing fundamental research works regarding the study of
different metabolic pathways, reproductive activity and for solving the problems
regarding the pathology of some animal and human systems (circulatory and
bony system, genital area affections). The main advantage of obtaining
recombinant proteins eliminates the risk of allergic and immunological reactions
and the contamination with viruses, present in classical methods of hormones
and protein extraction from animal tissues, and also the possibility of realizing
this processes in bioreactors, obtaining in this way a time and a space economy,
and also a significant financial profit.
The role of leptin in the organism has not yet been well established,
researchers having contraries opinions regarding the influence of the oscillating
levels of this hormone in the animal organism. The present and the future results
of this study can be applied to obtain other proteins of commercial interest for
the zootechnic, medical area and for the food and pharmaceutical industry.
INTRODUCTION
Leptin, the product of the ob gene, is one of the key molecules, that is
mostly produced in the adipose white tissues and that acts in the satiety center of
the brain to control appetite and food intake. Recent studies confirmed the fact
that leptin not only acts as a circulating signal molecule transmitting information
about the body fat mass to the brain, but that it is also involved in divergent
biological processes as in the inhibition of bone formation, the suppression of
stress responsiveness, or in the regulation of the immune system as well as in
protection of apoptosis or controlling sexual development and maturation of
reproduction organs. Recent researches show that leptin acts not only as a signal
circulating molecule, transmitting information related to the body fat mass to the
brain (Campfield L. A. and co.,1996), but also that leptin is involved in biological
processes such as bony formation inhibiting (Ducy P. and co.,2000), stress
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reaction suppression (Oates M.and co., 2000), immune system regulating (Martin-
Romero C., 2000; Matarese G., 2000), apoptosis protection (Howard J. K. and
co., 1999; Shimabukuro M. and co., 1998), sexual development control and
reproduction organs maturation ( Kiess W. and co., 1999). Till now it is not well
known the role of this molecule in the organism, researchers having contraries
opinions related to the effect of this hormone in the animal organism, especially
regarding the influence of the leptin in the reproduction area.
In this paper a rapid and efficient method for the isolation of the ovine
leptin gene is described, having as a starting material the RNA extracted from the
white ovine adipose tissue. The leptin cDNA was cloned by amplifying reverse
transcriptase products of RNA extracted from the subcutaneous adipose tissue.
The primers that were used in the PCR reaction were made according to the ovine
obese gene nucleotide sequence (GeneBank NCBI accession no.U84247). The
pairs of specific primers were designed to amplify DNA fragments of interest
based upon existing DNA sequence information.

Biological material
The biological material was represented by the white adipose tissue from
sheep (Turcana breed), as leptin is a hormone that is produced mainly at the fat
cells level.
RNA extraction
Samples of subcutaneous adipose tissue were isolated from mature sheep
from Turcana breed, by performing a biopsy in the lumbar region, according to
the methodological veterinary medical procedures and the aseptically conditions
post-procedurals. All the equipment and the instrumentals were treated before use
with RNase Zap solution (Sigma), in order to avoid any kind of contamination.
The adipose tissue samples were submerged immediately in the RNA later
solution (Sigma), which is an aqueous, non-toxic tissue storage reagent that
rapidly permeates tissue to stabilize and protect cellular RNA, being eliminated in
this way the need to process the adipose tissue immediately. Then, 300 mg of
adipose subcutaneous tissue were homogenized using an Ultraturax T8.0 (Ika
Labortechnik) tissue homogenizer. The method that was used for the extraction of
the RNA form the ovine adipose tissue was performed with Trizol, chloroform
and isopropanol solutions (Sigma), which are maintaining the integrity of the
RNA up to the destruction of the cellular components. After the addition of the
chloroform solution and the centrifugation step, the aqueous phase was discarded
and the RNA was extracted from the organic phase by isopropanol precipitation.
The working protocols were optimized, obtaining a total RNA amount up to 230
ng RNA from 300 mg subcutaneous tissue from Turcana sheep.
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Primers design
Specific primers have been designed for the ovine leptin gene, encoding
also the sequence for the restriction enzymes BamH1 (for the sense primer) and
EcoRI (for the antisense primer).
For the PCR primers design predictions as melting temperature (Tm) and
propensity to form dimmers in the amplification reaction were made. Primer3 (v.
0.4.0), Primo Oligo 1.0 and Oligo Properties Calculator programs were used to
perform these calculations for the primer sequence.
The primers design was made based on the nucleotide sequence of the mRNA of
the ovine leptin gene:
1 gtgcccatcc gcaaggtcca ggatgacacc aaaaccctca tcaagacgat tgtcaccagg

61 atcaatgaca tctcacacac gcagtccgtc tcctccaaac agagggtcac tggtttggac
121 ttcatccctg ggctccaccc tctcctgagt ttgtccaaga tggaccagac attggcaatc
181 taccaacaga tcctcgccag tctgccttcc agaaatgtga tccaaatatc taatgacctg
241 gagaacctcc gggaccttct ccacctgctg gccgcctcca agagctgccc cttgccgcag
301 gtcagggccc tggagagctt ggagagcctg ggcgtcgtcc tggaagcctc aggacatgtt
421 gacctcagtc ccgggtgctg a
(www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov, U84247)
The use of the above primers allowed to obtain the ovine leptin gene from
Turcana breed, ready to be inserted in further experiments in the cloning vector
(pGEMTeasy) and then in the expression vector (pETSUMO), for producing the
recombinant ovine leptin. Also by using the above set of primers the risk of the
dimmers formation has been decreased.
RT-PCR reaction and PCR product purification

The total RNA isolated was further used as a template for the RT-PCR,
transforming in this way the RNA fragment into cDNA using a reverse
transcriptase, followed by an amplification of the ovine obese gene using specific
primers for this sequence of interest. The reverse transcription process was
performed in a final reaction volume of 20µl, containing 2,5 mmol dNTP
(Promega), 10U Rnase Inhibitor (Invitrogen), 10U reverstranscriptase enzyme
(Promega), 2U reverstranscriptase (Invitrogen), 2,5 mmol MgCl2 (Promega), 2U
RNase H, random primers (Promega). The amplification program was 65ºC 5
minutes, 25ºC 5 minutes, 50ºC 60 minutes, and 70 º C 15 minutes.
The cDNA was amplified using the reaction mixture: 4U Taq polymerase
(Promega), 2,5mM MgCl2, and 100 pmol of specific primers (forward and
reverse primers) in a total volume of 50 µl.
The thermal cycle began with an initial denaturation at 94ºC for 3
minutes, followed by 30 cycles at 94ºC for1 minute, 68ºC for 30 seconds, 72ºC
for 1 minute and concluded with a final extension at 72ºC for 10 minutes.
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The PCR product was migrated on a 1% agarose gel, in TAE buffer and
stained using ethidium bromide solution, which intercalates between the two
strains of the DNA fragment and was visualized using a UV transilluminator.
The PCR product recovered from the agarose gel was purified with the
Wizzard SV Gel and PCR Clean-Up System according to the protocol of the
manufacturer (based on the mini-columns purification) and then the purified PCR
product was marked out by performing a second electrophoresis on a 1% agarose
gel and on a gel image analysis system, obtaining in this way the leptin gene
ready to be inserted in a cloning vector in further experiments.

The method discussed above allow to obtain a very good quantity and
purity of the ovine leptin gene from the adipose tissue, thus allowing further
cloning and expression of it, in specific vectors and bacterial strains.
The amplified and purified ovine leptin gene obtained in a RT-PCR
reaction from Turcana sheep subcutaneous adipose tissue was marked out by
staining with ethidium bromide after agarose gel electrophoresis.
Fig.1 The ovine leptin gene (438 bp)- migrated in agarose gel 1%: lane 1-
DNA Ladder 1 kb (Fermentas), lane 2: the purified amplification PCR product of
the ovine ob gene.
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BACK
The amplification of the reverse transcribed samples with primers specific

for the ovine leptin gene produced bands of the expected size, thereby confirming
the integrity of the reverse transcribed ovine leptin gene.
CONCLUSIONS
The quantity of genetic material obtained with the present method is
sufficient for preparation of large quantities of biologically active recombinant
ovine leptin which will allow further in vitro and in vivo experiments.
So far studies of leptin effect were mainly limited to rodents and the
effect of this protein on metabolism and nutritional behavior of farm animals,
witch require large quantities of the recombinant leptin, has not been yet
investigated. For this purpose, in this paper an efficient method for isolating the
ob gene from an animal tissue, which is one of the prior steps for the preparation
of the biologically active recombinant leptin, is exposed.
REFERENCES
1. Altmann S.W., Jackie C. Timans, Fernando L., Rock J., Bazan F., Kastelein R.A., 1995,
Expression and Purification of a Synthetic Human Obese Gene Product, Protein Express.
Purif. 6, 722
2. Guisez Y., Fache I., Campfiled A. L., Scmith F. J., Farid A., Plaetinck G., Van der Heyden J.,
Tavernier J., Fiers W., Burn P., Devos R., 1998, Efficient secretion of biologically active
recombinant OB protein (Leptin) in Escherichia coli, purification from the periplasm and
characterization, Protein Express. Purif. 12, 249
3. Hanchuan D., Liangqi L., Guang D., 2006, Molecular cloning of the obese gene from Cyprinus
carpio and its expression in Escherichia coli, Front. Biol. China 1, 50
4. Iwase M., Kimura K., Sasaki N., Komagome R., Ishioka K., Morimatsu M., Murakami T., Saito
M., 2000, Canine leptin: cDNA cloning, expression and activity of recombinant protein,
Research in Veterinary Science 68, 109
5. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov
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BACK
THE EFFICIENCY OF MICROELEMENT UTILISATION IN

THE FEEDING OF BULLS ON THE SPERM PRODUCTION
Gh. TATARU
In order to materialize the genetic potential of the body to synthesize

quantitatively and qualitatively a certain production it is necessary the animals,
concomitantly with the organic nutritive substances (proteins, lipids, glucides),
receive also other biologically active substances. Among them the group of
mineral elements – microelements, which can be found in fodder in very small
quantities, has a very important role.
The researches that have been carried out regarding the content of
microelements in the fodder utilized in the feeding for taurins in the conditions of
the Republic of Moldova have shown that they are scanty in one or more
elements, and that their content in a ration do not answer the animals’ necessity.
The purpose of the researches was the study of the impact of
microelements on the sperm production in bulls, the Baltata cu Negru breed, the
Moldavian type.
After the investigations it was determined that if sulfur salts of Cu, Zn,
Mn, Co, and potassium iodide are added to the main rations, the quantity of the
sperm fluid increases to 7.71% and the spermatozoon density to 10.79%. It has
permitted to obtain supplementary 413 doses of seminal material per bull.
INTRODUCTION
The improvement of upkeep technologies plays an important role in the
increase of taurin production that is one of the factors of our country’s food
security guarantee. The bulls play a major role in this improvement activity,
beacause with the seminal fluid of a bull it can be obtained hundreds and even
thousands of offspring a year. The obtaining of a sufficient quantity of seminal
material of high quality from breeding bulls depends at a great extent on the
correct organization of the feeding.
In order to reveal the body genetic potential to synthesize quantitatively
and qualitatively a specific production, the animals must receive other
biologically active substances together with organic nutritive substances. The
mineral elements group, namely microelements that can be found in forage in
very small quantities but which influence significantly the body development has
the most important role.
The researches on the microelement content in the fodder utilized in the
bull feeding shows that they are poor in one or more of these elements, and that
their quantity in the rations does not meet the animals’ necessities.
The addition of microelement salts to the rations can compensate the
deficiency in microelements in natural forage.
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The studies carried out by a lot of scientists permit to make the conclusion
that with the help of microelements it is possible not only to increase the animal
productivity but also to improve the production quality with a lower consumption
of fodder.
Thus, in accordance with A. Lodocichina’s data (1983) the quantity of Co
= 0.8 -1.2mg and of Mn = 67-70mg per kilo of dry substance in the ration
contributed to the increase of the quantity of ejaculated fluid to 7.07-14.88% and
of spermatozoon concentration to 4.00-4.26%.
When the bulls were fed with the addition of Mn in the quantity of 1040g,
Zn – 2000g, Cu – 450g, Co – 100g, and I – 176g to a ton of concentrate with
premix within ninety days the volume of the ejaculated fluid increased to 3.44%
in comparison to the witness lot. (V. Zoteev, 2005)
I. Savcenco, N.Musienco, M Savcenco (1989) states that the addition of
microelement salts to the rations for bulls contributes to the increase of volume of
ejaculated fluid to 16.9 –25.7% , and of the spermatozoon density to 5.83 –
14.17% in the experimental lots.
B. Brandis and V. Granaci (1990) affirm that the addition of
microelement salts to the rations for bulls contributes to the increase of volume of
ejaculated fluid to 16.67% , and of the spermatozoon density to 8.33%.
S. Cuznetov and V. Calasnic (2002) affirm that the utilisation of premix
with Fe, Zn, Mn, and I increases the quantity of ejaculated fluid produced by the
bulls in the experimental lot to 9.90% in comparison to the witness lot, and the
spermatozoon density to 7.13%.
At a quantity of Co being equal to 0.38mg/kg of ration dry substance the
quantity of ejaculated fluid produced by the bulls in the experimental lot increased
to 15.16% in comparison to the witness lot (L. Androsova, 2005).
According to S. Cosman’s data (2006) the addition to the rations for bulls
of premixes containing microelements contributed to the increase of the
ejaculated fluid to 2.7 – 8.0%, and of the spermatozoon density to 3.90%.
In connection with this fact, it is necessary to study the impact of the
enrichment of the rations for bulls with microelements on the quantitative and
qualitative indexes of the seminal material.
The bulls of Baltata cu Negru breed, the Moldavian type from the section
“elever”, at the experimental farm of the Animal Breeding and Veterinary
Medicine Institute, the village of Maximovca, the district of Anenii Noi served as
research material. The following scheme has been used.
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Table 1.
Experiment Scheme
Lot N of heads Feeding characteristics
I – witness 5 Main Ration (MR)
5 MR + sulphur salts of Cu, Zn, Mn, Co and potassium
II - experimental
iodide
The valid feeding norms (A. Calasnicov, 1985) for the bulls with the
weight of 900-1000kg and the moderate intensity of copulation were used as a
criterion of meeting animals’ need in nutritive and biologically active substances.
The composition and the nutritive value of the rations hat were identical
both in November and in December is shown in table 2.
Table 2
The composition and the nutritive value of the feeding rations for bulls (60 days)
Daily The norm of
Specification ±Per norm, mg
administering microelements, g
Lucerne hay 3.0
Vetch hay + oat 5.0
Corn silo 10.0
Fodder beet 8.0
Corn coarse flour 2.0
Oat coarse flour 0.63
Pea coarse flour 0.40
Sun flower residue 0.5
Cooking salt, g 70
Monosodium phosphate, g 234
The rations contain
Nutritive units 11.50
Metabolic energy, MJ 134.6
Dry substance, kg 13.96
Raw protein, g 2116
Digestible protein, g 1456
Calcium, g 126.9
Phosphorus, g 107.7
Iron, mg 1238
Copper, mg 87.36 115 - 27.64
Zinc, mg 396.18 475 - 78.82
Cobalt, mg 3.97 8.9 - 4.93
Manganese, mg 488.62 595 - 106.38
Iodine 4.905 8.9 - 3.995
From the data shown in table 2 it can be seen that in the animal feeding
there were utilised typical forages for bulls in the conditions of the Republic of
Moldova during the whole course of the experiment. The rations were balanced in
accordance with the valid norms according to the nutrition indexes.
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Because of the high quantity of calcium in the forages monosodium

phosphate was added to the rations in order to respect the ratio of Ca:P required
by the norms (1.18:1). At the same time the data in the table 2 show that the
main rations were poor in Cu with 31.64%, Zn with 19.89%, Co with 124.18%,
Mn with 21.77%, and I with 44.94%. The deficiency of microelements was
removed by adding to the rations of the experimental lot of sulphur salts of Cu,
Zn, Mn, Co, and potassium iodide, which in the composition of premix of wheat
husk were added to the mixture of concentrates, in the quantity of 50g per head a
day. The record of the collected seminal material was done individually for each
bull. The quantity of ejaculated fluid was determined with a graduated cylinder,
the spermatozoon density – using the Goreiav net. The number of doses of
seminal material was determined according to the total number of spermatozoon
divided to 12 million (the number of spermatozoon in a dose).
The date concerning the quantity of ejaculated fluid, the density of
spermatozoon, the total number of spermatozoon, the number of doses per
ejaculation were worked out biometrically using N. Polonski’s method (1969).
THE RESULTS OF THE RESEARCHES

The addition of salt microelements to the main rations of the experimental lot
has influenced positively the quantity and quality of seminal material (tab. 3). The
data in the tab.3 prove that at the bulls in the experimental lot the quantity of the
ejaculated fluid was 0.34cm3 or 7.71% greater, the spermatozoon concentration (the
number of spermatozoon per one cm3) – 0.15 mlrd or 10.79% greater, the total
number of spermatozoon – 1.24 mlrd or 20.59% greater in comparison to the witness
lot. The number of doses of seminal material at the bulls in the experimental lot was
103.3 doses or 20.60% greater than at the bulls in the witness lot.
Table 3
The efficiency of microelements utilization in bull feeding
Lots
Specification
witness experimental
Number of ejaculations 20 20
The quantity of the ejaculated fluid:
cm3 4,41±0,12 4,75±0,12
% 100,00 107,71
Spermatozoon concentration:
mlrd/cm3 1,39±0,07 1,54±0,05
% 100,00 110,79
Total number of spermatozoon per ejaculation:
mlrd 6,02±0,26 7,26±0,24*
% 100,00 120,59
Number of doses per ejaculation, 501,45±21,63 604,75±20,13*
% 100,00 120,60
Total number of doses per lot, 10029 12095
% 100,00 120,60
* - P<0.99
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The increase of the ejaculated fluid quantity and of the spermatozoon

concentration at the bulls in the experimental lot conditioned a veridical
difference (P<0.99) to the total number of spermatozoon of the ejaculated fluid
and the number of doses of seminal material compared to the witness lot.
The addition to the animal feeding of one or another fodder additive
which needs additional expenses is welcome when there is a supplementary profit.
The data concerning the efficiency of microelement utilization in the bull
feeding in the experiment mentioned above are shown in table 4.
Table 4
The economic efficiency of the utilization of microelement salts in the bull feeding
Signification
1. Number of doses:
total
witness lot 10029
experimental lot 12095
2. Doses of seminal material per bull in the
experimental lot was received 413
supplementary
3. Sale price of a dose, lei 6,0
4. Supplementary income per bull, lei 2478
5. The cost of the utilized premix per bull, 234
lei
6. Efficiency, lei
per bull 2244
per whole lot 11220
The data in table 4 show that the addition of microelements salts to the
rations of experimental lot leads to an income increase per bull of 2244 lei, and
per the whole lot to 11220 lei, owing to the increase of the quantity of the
ejaculated fluid and the spermatozoon concentration. It permitted to obtain a
greater number of doses of seminal material.
CONCLUSIONS
The addition to the main rations of microelements salts at the level

required by the valid norms of feeding increased the quantity of ejaculated fluid to
7.71%, and the spermatozoon concentration to 10.79%. It permitted to obtain
supplementary 413 doses of seminal material and an additional profit of 2244 MD
lei per bull.
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BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Coşman S. Optimizarea sistemului de alimentaţie a taurinelor în Republica Moldova. - Chişinău:
Elena, 2006.- p.70-86.
2. Androsova L. Normirovanie cobalita v raţionah bâcov na Sahaline. – Zootehnia, 2005, Nr.2.-
s.22.
3. Calaşnicov A., Cleimenov N., Bacanov V i dr. Normâ i raţionâ cormlenia seliscohoziaistvenâh
jivotnâh. Spravocinoe posobie. - Moscva: Agropromizdat, 1985.- s.352.
4. Brandis B., Granaci V. Vlianie premixa i belca jivotnogo proishojdenia na cacestvo spermâ
bâcov. – Zootehnia, 1990,Nr.6.- s.61-63.
5. Cuzneţov S., Calaşnic V. Affectivnosti ispolizovania premixov v cormlenii bâcov. – Zootehnia,
2002, Nr.2.- s.14-18.
6. Lodocichina A. Ispolizovanie cobalita i marganţa bâcam-proizvoditeleam. – Jivotnovodstvo,
1983, Nr.3.- s.53.
7. Plohinschui N. Rucovodstvo po biometrii dlea zootehnicov. – Moscva: Colos, 1969.- s.225.
8. Savcenco Iu., Musienco N., Savcenco M. Mineralinâe dobavchi v raţionah bâcov-proizvoditelei.
– Zootehnia, 1989, Nr.7.- s.37-38.
9. Zooteev V., Chiripov M., Cumarin S. Premixâ dlea bâcov-proizvoditelei. – Combicorma, 2005,
Nr.3.- s.46-47.
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BACK
RESYNCHRONISING OESTRUS AND OVULATION AFTER

NOT-PREGNANT DIAGNOSIS AT DAIRY COWS
M. COLĂ, Florica COLĂ, C. GĂVAN
Two protocols of resyncronising estrus and ovulation to non-pregnant

diary cows were experimented at SCDA Simnic Craiova. The experiment was
performed on cows at first lactation and with more than two lactations.
The females were given medication specific for“HEATSYNCH” and
“OVSYNCH” protocols absolutely at random.
The females in estrus after the initial treatment with GnRH were
artificially inseminated (AI) in order to increase their conceiving rate. The rest of
the females were inseminated at intervals of 65 and 74 hours after PGF2α,
treatment. On the whole, the conceiving rate was almost the same for both
females following “HEATSYNCH” protocol and “OVSYNCH” protocol.
Key words: estradiol, GnRH, PGF2α, resyncronizing estrus and ovulation
Abbreviations: YB = yellow body; A.I. = artificial insemination; E = estradiol;
GnRH = gonadotrophiu realeasing hormon; LH = luteinizing hormone; PGF2α,
=  P2α, prostaglandin.
The objective of this study is to determine fertilitity at cows of two or

more lactations, diagnosed non-pregnant, by applying resyncronising estrus and
ovulation protocols HEATSYNCH and OVSYNCH.
The gestation diagnosis is a profitable intervention if the detection of non-
pregnant cows is made as early as possible in order to shorten the period to a new
artificial insemination (A.I.). In fact, a certain number of the cows diagnosed non-
pregnant are cows whose post-insemination estrus was not detected, or cows
which were not inseminated correctly. Other cows may have anatomic anomalies
in the reproductive system, such as : double cervix, white heifer disease,
anomalies after cesarian delivery, anomalies of the oviducts, urovagina etc.
Estrus cycle in cows with active ovaries can be manipulated by
prostaglandins to induce an early regression of the yellow body. (Y.B.)
We have noticed that artificial insemination at estrus detected after
PGF2α, administration have better results, and it is recommended especially for
adult cows.
Administration of estradiol (E) at females in proestrus induces estrus,
amplifies secretion of Luteinizing Hormone (LH) preovulatory, induces ovulation
and determines the normal development of the yellow body (YB), both for heifers
(Lopes et al., 2000) and cows (Steyenson et al., 2004).
OVSYNCH and HEATSYNCH protocols to resyncronise estrus and
ovulation at cows diagnosed non-pregnant represent viabile options which are
worth taking into account (Bartolome, 2003; Stevenson, 2004). Both protocols
need administrating a dose of GnRH immediately after the diagnosis of non-
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gestant females (day 0), followed by PGF2α at 7 days (day 7). Next,
HEATSYNCH protocol implies administration of ESTRADIOL at 24 hours after
PGF2α, and OVSYNCH protocol implies GnRH administration at 48 hours after
PGF2α.
During the experiment the females detected in estrus are artificially
inseminated , at 56-64 hours after PGF2α administration in OVSYNCH group and
at 72 hours in HEATSYNCH group.
Lopes et al. (2000) did not find any difference between the conceiving
rate of heifers treated in HEATSYNCH protocol and the one of the heifers
inseminated after the detected estrus.
Stevenson et al. (2004) obtained a higher conceiving rate at heifers than at
cows in lactation ; the conceiving rate of females inseminated after the detected
estrus was higher than of those inseminated at 56-64, respectively 72 hours after
PGF2α administration.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experiment was performed at S.C.D.A. Simnic-Craiova farm of diary
cows, on 32 cows, 120 cows of first lactation and 118 cows of two and more
lactations, a total of 270 females of Holstein-Friza breed, diagnosed non-pregnant
within May 2006-31.01.2008. The gestation diagnosis was established on an
average of 54 days ± 4 days since the last artficial insemination..
After gestation diagnosis and ovary examination all non-pregnant females
received 100 mg of GnRH (day 0) intra-muscular.
After that, the females were grouped depending on the number of their
lactations as follows : cows (n=32), cows at first delivery (n=120) and cows of
two or more lactations (n=118). HEATSYNCH protocol was performed on 134
females (cows 16, cows of first lactation 58 and cows of two or more lactations
60), and OVSYNCH protocol 136 females (cows 16, cows at first lactation 62 and
cows at 2 or more lactations 58).
The females in HEATSYNCH protocol received a doze of PGF2α at
7 days (day 7) after GnRH and at 24 hours (day 8) received 1 mg of Estradiol (E).
The females in OVSYNCH protocol received a doze of PGF2α at 7 days (day 7)
after GnRH administration and after 48 hours (day 9) after PGF2α they received a
doze of GnRH.
Any female in estrus after the initial GnRH treatment was artificially
inseminated to maximize the gestation percent. The females were followed three
times a day to detect their estrus. The observations continued on the way from the
paddock to the milking (530-600 si 1600-1630).
The uninseminated females were programmed to artificial insemination at
56-72 hours after PGF2α treatment or at 8-16 hours after the second treatment
with GnRH (OVSYNCH), or 46-50 hours after E (HEATSYNCH).
Next, the gestation diagnosis was done at 55 days (± 3 zile).
- 410 -

The cumulated percent of the females in estrus and artificially
inseminated, since day 0 until day 10 is shown in Figure 1.
Since day 0 until day 8 (the day in which ESTRADIOL was injected)
4,5% of females in OVSYNCH protocol were artificially inseminated and 5,0%
of females in HEATSYNCH protocol. In day 9 (the day in which GnRH was
injected) 10% more of the females in HEATSYNCH protocol were artificially
inseminated and 7,3% of the females in OVSYNCH protocol.
35
35
30
Femele inseminate
25
(cumulat) %
19,2
20
15
15 11,8
10 4,5
5
5 2 2,25
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Zile dupa administrarea GnRH
OVSYNCH HEATSYNCH
Days after GnRH administration

Fig. 1 − The cumulated percent of the females inseminated in estrus detected
in day 0 until day 10
In day 10 20% of the females in HEATSYNCH protocol were artificially

inseminated and only 7,3% of the females in OVSYNCH protocol. In figure 1
there are not presented the females with programmed insemination (65% females
in HEATSYNCH protocol and 80,8% of the females in OVSYNCH protocol).
Programme artificial insemination was at 72 hours since PGF2α at the
females in HEATSYNCH and at 56-64 hours at the females in OVSYNCH.
The conceiving rate on the entire number of inseminations was of 29,8%
for the females in HEATSYNCH and of 30,1% for those in OVSYNCH, the
difference being insignificant (table no. 1).
- 411 -
Table no. 1
The conceiving rate after OVSYNCH si HEATSYNCH protocol
Specification Protocol
HEATSYNCH OVSYNCH
Conceiving rate for the total A.I. 29,8% 30,1%
- cows 44,0% 44,0%
- cows at first lactation 29,3% 30,6%
- cows with 2 or more lactations 26,6% 25,8%
Conceiving rate at the females with :
A.I. at detected estrus 40,4% 35,0%
Programmed A.I. 24,1% 29,0%
The cows had a higher conceiving rate than diary cows. Also, the
conceiving rate was higher at artificially inseminated females after the detected
estrus than at programmed inseminated cows.
Thus, we can say that it is very important to diagnose gestation as early as
possible to identify non-pregnant cows and to have a new insemination.
Fig. 2 Conceiving rate of females
The two protocols prevent the extension of the period between re-
inseminations, non-pregnant females can be re-inseminated in 10 days after the
gestation diagnosis.
That is why there were not significant differences between the two
protocols and they can be both used to obtain gestation. There can be, thus,
obtained more gestations at the females inseminated at detected estrus than at the
females with programmed insemination.
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BACK
The price of an ovulatory estrogen doze is lower than the one of an

ovulatory GnRH doze. Moreover, estrogens induce an estrus of normal
characteristics regarding the mucus secretion, uterine tonus and sexual behaviour.
CONCLUSIONS
− Re-insemination of non-gpregnant females as soon as possible after

gestation diagnosis can be done by “Ovsynch” and“Heatsynch”protocols as well.
− On the whole, the results of the two protocols were similar, the females
inseminated at detected estrus had a higher conceiving rate than those with
programmed insemination.
REFERENCES
1.Bartolome et al., 2003 – The use of Ovsynch and Heatsynch for resynchronization of
cows open at pregnancy diagnosis by ultrasonography. J. Dairy Sci. 85 (Suppl. 1): 99;
2. Compendium of Animal Reproduction 2nd revised edition 1995, INTERVET
INTERNATIONAL B.V.;
3. Lopes, F.L. et al., 2000 – Use of estradiol cypionate for timed insemination. J. Dairy
Sci. 83 (Suppl. 1): 216;
4. Stevenson et al., 2004 – Use of estradiol cypionate a substitute for GnRH in an
Ovsynch – like protocol for syncronization of ovulation in dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci. 87: 3298-3305.
- 413 -
BACK
OBSERVATIONS CONCERNING THE INFLUENCE OF

ENVIRONMENT FACTORS ON PARTRIDGE POPULATION
(PERDIX PERDIX) FROM PIŞCHIA HENNERY, FOREST
DISTRICT, TIMIŞOARA
D. DRONCA
In this work we are presently the technology of raising partridges in

captivity. We notice, that after hatching the partridge chicken, with a body weight
of 7 grams, are raised on sawdust ground, under thermostat at 32 degrees, then
following a decrease of one degree, each day plenty of water.
The nourishing takes place in the first three weeks with a diet that assures
29% crude protein annual 12 Mj/kg/EM. The content in protein decreases at 22-24%
at 5 weeks, then reaches 18% at 6 weeks and achieves 14-15% after 10 weeks.
After age of 6 weeks, the chickens are feed in the shelter with possibility
of movement during the day.
In July-August, the partridges are separated on sex and in February the pairs
are coming together and are brought in special caves with shelters for laying eggs.
The obtained eggs are gathered and kept at 7-10 degrees, and after that
they are incubated at a specific regime for partridges.
Key words: partridge, captivity, endangered species
The partridge is a feathered hunting species, but the number of individuals

reduces every year. The partridge is considered to be an “endangered species”
being under protection of hunting-poaching laws.
Although the hunting of the partridge had been forbidden more than 30
years ago, the number has never increased. The specialists say that the massive
use of DDT, a not biodegradable chemical product, used like insecticide, has lead
to the dramatic decrease of insects. In the first three weeks of age exclusively
insects represent the partridge chickens nutrition in natural conditions, their
survival on the hunting field being less probable, disposing by a reduced insect
population.
Repopulating the hunting fields with partridges can be made in two ways:
1) Its protection in its natural habitat by measures of supplementary feeding,
killing the birds of prey and avoiding the pollution of the soil with hard
biodegradable chemical products and by stopping their hunting.
2) The raising and reproduction in captivity of the partridge followed by
delivery of young individuals to the hunting fields.
3) Nowadays in many European and American countries, gray and red
partridge is raised in captivity.
The goal of this paper is to further transmit a few technological principles,
which we successfully experienced in Pischia farm ,from Timis County.
The technology of raising partridge chicken
The partridge chicken are produced in large capacity incubators, in similar
conditions to those of domestic hen eggs, but with little differences.
- 414 -
As soon as the chickens are dried up in the incubator, they are selected for
their quality and are brought to the chicken shelter. The shelters are divided into
boxes. Each box provides exit gates for the yard at the ground level. The yard is
long and enclosed by a wire net. It has three zones: the first zone is sand grounded
being shadow, the next zone is soil grounded followed by a larger zone with grass
and vegetable feed.
The interior design of the shelter

In each box there is a heating source, a feeder and a drinker. A thin layer of
woodensaw dust forms the bedding in the box. The windows should be dyed in
green not to let direct light through.
Before bringing the partridge chicken to the shelter, we should build a
cardboard pen under the heating source in order to limit spreading of heat and
light to the surroundings. The first day chickens are introduced in the pen and we
must provide a temperature of 32°C on the ground.
The feeder must provide the feed and the drinkers - clean drinking water.
Each day the temperature must be decreased 1 degree so that at 10 days of age the
chickens will be free in the shelter. The temperature here is to be 25°C.
Three weeks after, the cardboard pen should be removed and the chickens
are let free in boxes. At 4 weeks of age they are let out, taking care that on bad
weather (wind, rain) they should be reintroduced in the shelter.
The feeding of the partridge chicken

Because of the partridges don’t posses mature amilolytic enzymatic
equipment in the first three weeks of life, they must be feed prevalently with
proteins of animal origin.
The diet until 4-th week of age must have 28% crude protein and 12 MJ /kg
metabolizable energy. Between the 5–6 weeks of age, the content in proteins
could be decreased to22-24% and after the 6-th week to 18% protein.
Starting with the 10-th week of life the winter forage can have 14-15%
protein and there should be added 30-50% cereals. The young chickens destined
to populate the hunting fields should be accustomed, starting from the 9-th week
of age, with grains.
The reproduction
The partridges are separated for gender in July and they are brought to
stocking shelters provided with feeders, drinkers and “bathing pools“ with sand or
tiny soil ground. They will stay there until February when couples form. Because
the partridges are monogamic animals, each female will have a male and they are
put in special boxes provided with egg laying place. Females are divided into
three categories of quality: considering the body weight (I=400g, II=380-400g,
III= lower than 380g), head status and, feathering, the eye blood vessels, the leg
and the beak constitution. The pairing is made depending on the class of quality.
Each female has only one powerful male of high qualities.
- 415 -
After forming, the pairs there should be observed if the female accepts the
male. If it doesn’t, the male is changed by another one, which is more powerful
otherwise the eggs remain unfertilized. Starting with april the eggs are gathered
twice a day, they should be kept at 7-12°C and 60-65 % humidity. When
sufficient eggs are yielded they should be incubated.
The characteristics of raising and development of the partridge

chicken
In the first period of life the partridge chickens are covered with dawn and
have about 9 g. They grow up and develop very fast so that they reach the adult
weight in 110-120 days. In the first figure we show the curve of normal growing,
confirmed in the farm near Pischia, Timişoara county.
It should be noticed that the process of growing goes almost exponentially
and not in a line (straight) as in case of regular domestic chicken.
The mortality of chicken

The partridge chickens are very resistant to illnesses. The vaccines constitute
an immunology protection for them. The mortality during growth has two peaks:
one in the first 10 days of life because of the embryogenesis quality, and the second
one between 25-35 days. Then it appears the “down “ phenomenon. Between 8-14
weeks the “collective hysteria” of the partridge occurs.
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BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Biadi F: Lèlevage en captivite des pedrix grises. Revue nationale de la chasse 1970 nr.271.
2. Cota V., M.Bodea, I.Micu - Vânatul si vânatoarea în România. Editura Ceres Bucuresti 2001.
3. Dronca D. – Ameliorarea genetică a populaţiilor de animale, Editura Mirton, Timişoara, 2007
4. Nedici Ghe. - Ocrotirea vânatului mic, Editura Cartea Româneasca Bucuresti 1927.
5. Pringalle G. et Biadi F. - Elevage des pedrix grise, rouge, churkan - Bulletin special du conseil
superieur de la chasse, 1963, Nr.6.
6. Pringalle G. et Biadi F. - Elevage de la pedrix grise,(Pedrix pedrix L.) a Sain-Brnoit de 1965 a
1967 - Bulletin special du conseil superieur de la chasse, 1968, Nr.10.
7. Witting Otto – Economia vânatului, Editura Agrosilvică de Stat Bucureşti, 1960.
- 417 -
BACK
ESTIMATION OF THE SPECIAL COMBINATIVE

CAPACITY FOR LIVE BODY GAIN IN A GROUP OF
HYBRID RABBIT YOUNG STOCK DURING THE FIRST
NURSING PHASE
D. DRONCA, N. PĂCALĂ, Mihaela IVANCIA, I. BENCSIK,
Marioara NICULA, Liliana BOCA
Based on 117 rabbit hybrids, divided in two groups (A and B) having

different heterozygous degree, the paper intends to demonstrate in which extent the
different genetic structure, namely the heterosis effect, influences the weight gain
capacity of the rabbits during the suckling period. Results demonstrate the
superiority of the interracial double hybrids. There is a good specific combinative
capacity between Large Chinchilla and White New Zealand breeds; therefore we
recommend these hybrids for semi intensive (extensive) rearing.
Key words: heterozygosis, hybrid vigour, genetic structure
INTRODUCTION
Animal genetic improvement, funded on evolution theory, on quantitative

genetics and on population genetics belongs today to the applied sciences. It has
its own theory and practice, and is using investigation and interpretation methods
at a contemporary technical and scientific level.
The phenotypic average of a hybrid (group of hybrids) is given by the
1 1 
breeding value of the two parental forms  VASIRE + VADAM  to which is
2 2 
added the hybrid vigour effect (HSD) and mother’s effect on descendants’
evolution (maternal effect ME). Therefore:
1 1
Hybrid = VASIRE + VADAM + H SD + ME
2 2
It results that a hybrid is valuable only if the parental forms that participate
at the crossbreeding have a high level of the general combinative capacity and the
best specific combinative capacity, thus it should exhibit a high heterosis effect.
The aim of this paper was to study in what extent the genetic structure,
namely the hybrid vigour, influences the weight gain rate of the young rabbits
during the suckling period (from birth to 21 days of age).
- 418 -

Experiments were carried out on 117 hybrid descendants resulted from 3rd
parturition for group A and from 4th parturition for group B out of 7 Large
Chinchilla females (CH). The does were simple interlinear hybrids (CH x CH*).
Does were bred for the third gestation with a male belonging to one of the
parental forms (back-cross), and for the fourth gestation with a male from an
average-sized breed, namely White New Zealand (NZ).
Two cub groups was obtained, that is group A (CH x CH* x CH*) formed of
seven litters with a total of 56 double back-cross hybrids and group B (CH x CH*
x NZ) formed of seven litters with a total of 61 tri-population double hybrids. The
two groups were weighed every third day during the suckling period (birth to 21
days of age).
In order to minimize the stress conditions that could negatively influence
the phenotype expression of the mother and cubs, a special device with an
electronic weigh was used for weighing the seven litters.
During the studied period both hybrid groups were offered identical
environment conditions and the same maternal effect (EM), trying to reduce at the
minimum level the influences of the special environment.
The data was statistically computed in order to quantify the influence of the
different heterozygosis degrees on the growth rate from birth to 21 days of age.

Tri-population double hybrids (group B) had an advantage against the back-
cross double hybrids (group A) because they have their own higher heterosis
effect besides the heterosis effect of their interlinear simple hybrid mothers
(maternal effect).
Table 1 presents the measurements of the average birth weight, average
daily gain for 3-days periods, average weight at 21 days of age, total weight gain
and overall average daily gain of the two hybrid groups.
Analysing the data shown in Table 1, a superiority of the body weight in the
intense heterozygous hybrids (group B) could be observed right from the birth.
These hybrids were 5.20 g/head heavier than those in group A.
For the average daily gain, the tri-population double hybrids were superior
to the back-crosses, in all seven studied periods. The maximum difference was
observed in the period 13-15-18 days of age (+2.06 g/day) and the minimum
difference from 7 to 9 days of age (+0.80 g/day).
At the end of the suckling period, the intense heterozygous hybrids were
33.70 g heavier, thus the overall weight gain was 222.30g in group B comparative
to 193.80 g in group A.
Dividing the overall weight gain to the experimental days (21), the average
daily gain of the back-cross hybrids was 9.23 g and 10.58 g in the double tri-
population hybrids. The difference of 1.35 g/day in the favour of group B was
statistically significant (p=0.05).
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BACK
Table 1
Comparative dynamics of the average daily gain during the suckling period (birth to
21 days of age) in rabbit hybrids with different heterozygosis degrees
Group B
Group A
Intense Differences
Index Low heterozygosis
heterozygosis (g)
Average daily gain hybrids
hybrids B-A
CH x CH* x CH*
CH x CH* x NZ
Period (g/day)
5.65±0.63 6.85±0.67 +1.20
1-3 days
4-6 days 6.20±0.41 7.35±0.52 +1.15
7-9 days 8.85±0.72 9.65±0.88 +0.80
10-12 days 9.46±0.60 10.45±0.66 +0.99
13-15 days 10.24±0.38 12.30±0.41 +2.06
16-18 days 11.40±0.49 13.40±0.57 +2.00
19-21 days 12.80±0.98 14.10±0.86 +1.30
Individual weight at
55.30±0.56 60.50±0.61 +5.20
birth (g)
Body weight at 21
249.10±0.74 282.80±0.65 +33.70
days (g)
Overall weight gain
193.80±0.58 222.30±0.67 +28.50
0-21 days (g)
Average daily gain
9.23±0.49 10.58±0.57 +1.35
0-21 days (g/day)
CONCLUSIONS
The tri-population double hybrids, formed of two lines of Large Chinchilla
(CH x CH*) and one line of White New Zealand (NZ), showed a stronger hybrid
vigour due to the intense heterozygosis status. This offered superiority regarding
the growth capacity from birth to 21 days of age compared to the cross-back
double hybrids formed of the two lines of Large Chinchilla. The maximum
difference of average daily gain between the two hybrids was +2.06 g/day from
13 to 15 days of age.
While the back-cross hybrids had an overall individual weight gain of 193.80
g, the weight gain of the interracial hybrids was 28.50 g (14.70%) higher (222.30 g).
All these results demonstrate that the two breeds have a good specific
combinative capacity, the hybrids showing an evident heterosis effect; therefore
we recommend the use of this interracial crossbreeding (CH x NZ) for semi
intensive (extensive) rearing systems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.BURA M., BENCSIK I. – Ameliorarea genetică a iepurilor de casă. Ed.Mirton, Timişoara, 2000.
2.DRONCA D. – Ameliorarea genetica a populaţiilor de animale, Ed.Mirton, Timişoara, 2007.
3.DRONCA D. – Ameliorarea animalelor, Ed.Mirton, Timişoara, 2003.
4.VINTILĂ I – Bazele ameliorării genetice a populaţiilor de animale domestice, Ed.Facla Timişoara, 1988.
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BACK
REPRODUCTIVE TECHNIQUE APPLIED TO INCREASE

THE PROLIFICACY OF RABBIT SPECIES
Andrea HETTIG, M. BOTHA, M. ZĂHAN, I. ROMAN
The aim of this paper was to evidence the possibility of prolificacy

increase at rabbit species without expensive methods, using simple reproduction
techniques. For the experiment we use 7 White-Neozeelandez multipare females
with a 4.5-5 kg weight and a White-Neozeelandez male with 5 kg. The females
were kept in the same microclimate conditions and benefiting the same
composition of forage. Confronting the literature we know that the ovulation in
rabbit females is produced at 9-10 hours after the mating. Also, the oocytes
remain viable and can be fertilized for 6-8 hours and the swimming speed of the
spermatozoa is 2-3 mm/minute. We made our experiment following these
desiderates. Seven females were mated just once, considering them the control,
obtaining in average 7± 1.71 offsprings. The females were mated again after 3
weeks, but this time the reproduction technique was the repeated mating. The
second mating was done 6 hours after the first, considering this the experimental
lot. In the second condition we obtain in average 9 ± 2.11 offsprings. This result
shows that this reproductive technique gives better results increasing the
numbers of offsprings with 28% comparing to the usual techniques, which is very
useful in the intensive breeding systems.
Keywords: rabbit, reproduction, prolificacy,
INTRODUCTION
There are many articles which treats the rabbit species like: evaluation
and conservation of European rabbit (Oryctolagus Cuniculus)genetic resources
(Bolet G., Brun J.M., Monnerot M., Abeni F., Arnal C., Arnold J., et al.2000);
genetic and non-genetic factors affecting milk production and pre-weaning litter
traits of New Zealand White does (Ayyat M.S.,et al., 1995); evaluation of
application of the intensive rabbit production system (Ayyat M.S., Marai
I.F.M.,1998); effect of the genotype, day length, season and physiological stage
on the reproductive performance of doe rabbits reared in Guadaloupe (Depres E.,
et al.,1996); advances in bio stimulation methods applied to rabbit reproduction.
(Theau-Clement M., 2000); mortality in young rabbits, (Rashwan A.A., Marai
I.F.M., 2000); effects of heat stress and its amelioration on reproduction
performance of New Zealand White adult female and male rabbits, (Marai
I.F.M.,et al.,1996); Sensitivity of female rabbits to changes in photoperiod as
measured by pheromone emission (Hudson R., Distel H., 1990) and many others ,
but there are no information related to a reproductive technique to increase the
prolificacy at rabbit species, especially with repeated mating method. This is the
reason why we made our experiment from this point of view.
It is known that at rabbit species doesn’t exist spontaneous follicular
dehiscence like at the many other species, it is caused by the mating processes.
The ovulation is produced just 9-10 hours after the matting and getting in the
ampul via the uterine tube pavilion. The oocytes remain viable and they can be
- 421 -
fertilized 6-8 hours after ovulation (Szendrő1999). From the ovulation moment
till the moment when the female gametes meet the male’s gametes takes 4 hours,
considering that the swimming speed of the spermatozoids,is,2-3mm/minute. .
The number of young’s that get birth is less than the embryos which was
developed and embedding in uterus mucosa. A real important number of this
embryos getting resorbed in a different phase of his development, the phenomena is
defined like fetal atrophy. It is getting proved, that because of this event 20-25% of
the embryos get resorbed. This phenomenon is not yet explained, but some
researchers suppose to be genetic and medial factors at the origin (Holdas et al. 1975).
Holdas et al. (1975) talking about a repeated mating method, which could
increase the number of young’s/nest without stating in absolute or relative values
quantum of this.
On the strength of described reproduction characteristics, the repeated
mating technique, which spouse to repeat the mating after 6 hours, can be a
simple and an efficient method to increase the prolificacy at rabbit species.

The experiment took place in a private farm in Cluj-Napoca, Cluj County,
Romania, in the months of August-September-October, using like subjects 7
multipare females weighing between 4.5 and 5 kg and 1 buck weighing 5 kg,
from White-Neozeelandez breed.
We consider the control, the situation when the 7 females were mated
once, and the experimental lot, to verify the efficiency of repeated mating, when
those 7 females were mated second time after 6 hours.
The experiment was made in two repetitions.
Animals were housed in individual cages, with 50 x 80 x 50 cm
dimensions and they get the same alimentation conditions, respectively special
pellets for rabbits which have 40 % cereals, 15% vegetal protein, 40% lucerne
meal, 5% vitamin-mineral premix, in composition, the qualitative parameters are
showed in table 1.
Table 1
Composition of administrated forage
Crt. no. Trait M.U. Quantity
1. Crude protein % 15.91
2. Crude fat % 4
3. Crude cellulose % 17.10
4. Lysine % 0.62
5. Methionine % 0.29
6. Methionine + cysteine % 0.55
7. Calcium % 1.07
8. Phosphor % 0.47
9. Natrium % 0.19
10. A Vitamin U.I 7625
11. D3 Vitamin U.I 1525
12. E Vitamin mg/kg 26
13. Medication: Robenidin* mg/kg 53
* Sanitary waiting term 5 days
- 422 -

In a case of control we obtained an average prolificacy/female/birth like 7
± 1.71, this performance is one normal, just like literature says, being part of the
standard of this breed (Holdas and Szendrő, 2002).
The literature a total prolificacy and one called a live prolificacy
respectively viable between these, existing a difference like 0.5-1.5 individes. We
mention that in our experiment all of the offsprings get birth alive respectively
viable and every one of them were weaned without any exceptions. This fact
proves that the White Neozeelandez females have a really strong maternal instinct
even if these are one of the superspecializated breeds, and they have a very good
milking capacity.
Certainly these exceptional performances can be explained by the fact
that we had to observe and care a low number of animals comparing to industrial
farms.
Table 1
Reproductive performances at control
Pregnancy
Crt. Females Offspring’s Offspring’s
Trait duration
No. (individuals) no./parturition weight
(days)
Simple
1 mating 7 30 ± 1 7 ± 1.71 61.4 ± 15.32
(control)
The experimental lot proved the possibility of increasing the number of

offspring’s/kindling because of the repeated meting, when each females gives
birth to a superior number of young’s comparing to the control with 2 individuals
The increased number of youngs/kindling does’t modifies the gestation
lenght, engaged in the 30-31 days interval.
As we expected the wieght of offprings at birth was lower in the case of
the biger nests but without significant differences: 59g compared to 61g, the
corelation beeing negative.
Table 2
Reproductive performances at experimental lot
Pregnancy
Crt. Females Offspring’s Offspring’s
Trait duration
No. (individuals) no./parturition weight
(days)
Repeated mating
1 7 30 ± 1 9 ± 2.11 59.5 ± 18.16
(experimental)
Comparing the control with the experimental lot it can be observed the
quantitative superiority of young’s obtained with the repeated meting technique,
in average with 2 individuals (graph 1).
- 423 -
Graph1
9
10
9
8 7
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Simple mating Repeated mating
CONCLUSION
It has been proved that practicing the repeated meting the number of
offspring’s /kindling can be increased.
The results of the experiment prove a superior prolificacy with appreciative 2
individuals /birth at each female. At first view it doesn’t looks like a spectacular
result, but if we realize that in the intensive breading system the number of
females used in the reproduction are more numerous, such as thousands, the
results seams to be significant.Therefore, practicing the repeated meting
reproduction technique we obtained an increased prolificacy with 28 % higher
than the control.
This is possible because of the process of repeated mating, case when it
can be obtained a superior number of fertilized oocytes, respectively those
oocytes that were expulsed out of the follicle later will be fertilized by the
spermatozoids that arrives with the second meting. The second meting it has to be
done with 6 hours after the first.
Once increasing the prolificacy it is normal to be decreased the weight of
the offspring’s at birth, but it doesn’t represent a big disadvantage.
The negative correlation between the number of young’s and their weight at birth
does not influence negatively the reproduction performances. This is because
more young’s are born and weaned respectively.
REFERENCES
1. AYYAT M.S., MARAI I.F.M. (1998). Evaluation of application of the intensive rabbit
production system under the Sub-tropical conditions of Egypt. World Rabbit Sci., 1: 213-217.
2. AYYAT M.S., MARAI I.F.M., EL-SAYIAD GH.A. (1995). Genetic and non-genetic factors
affecting milk production and pre-weaning litter traits of New Zealand White does, under
Egyptian conditions. World Rabbit Sci., 3: 119-124.
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BACK
3. BOLET G., BRUN J.M., MONNEROT M., ABENI F., ARNAL C., ARNOLD J., (2000).
Evaluation and conservation of European rabbit (Oryctolagus Cuniculus) genetic resources.
First results and inferences – Proc. 7th World Rabbit Congress. Valencia (E), A: 281-315.
4. DEPRES E., THEAU-CLEMENT M., LORVELEC O. (1996). Effect of the genotype, day
length, season and physiological stage on the reproductive performance of doe rabbits reared in
uadaloupe (F.W.I.)., 4: 181-185.
5. HOLDAS SÁNDOR, CSIKVÁRY LÁSZLÓ, SZIKORA ANDRAS, 1975, Rabbit breeding
handbook, Agricultural Publishing house, Budapest.
6. HOLDAS SANDOR, SZENDRŐ ZSOLT, 2002, Rabbit, Farmer Publishing house, Budapest.
7. HUDSON R., DISTEL H. (1990). Sensitivity of female rabbits to changes in photoperiod as
asured by pheromone emission. J. Comp. Physiol., A, 167: 225-230.
8. MARAI I.F.M., AYYAT M.S., GABR H.A., ABDEL-MONEM U.M. (1996). Effects of heat
stress and its amelioration on reproduction performance of New Zealand White adult female
and male rabbits, under Egyptian conditions. Proc. 6th World Rabbit Congress, Toulose,
France, 2: 197-202.
9. MICLEA VASILE, (1997), Biologia reproducţiei şi însămânţări artificiale. Editura Tipo
Agronomia, Cluj-Napoca.
10. MICLEA V., LADOŞI I., (1997), Biologia reproducţiei animalelor de fermă. Editura Baha’I,
Cluj-Napoca.
11. RASHWAN A.A., MARAI I.F.M. (2000). Mortality in young rabbits: a review. World Rabbit
Science, 3: 111-124.
12. THEAU-CLEMENT M. (2000). Advances in biostimulation methods applied to rabbit
reproduction. Proc. 7th World Rabbit Congress. Valencia(E), A: 61-79.
13. SZENDRŐ ZSOLT, 1999, Rabbit rearing, reproduction, breeding, Farmer Publishing hous,
Budapest.
14. THEAU-CLEMENT M., POUJARDIEU B., BELLEREAUD J. (1991). Influence des
traitments lumineaux, du mode de reproduction et de l’état physiologique sur la productivité
des lapines multipares. Cuniculture, 18 (4): 181-186.
15. UZCATEGUI M.E., JOHNSTON N.P. (1992). The effect of 10, 12 and 14 hours continuous
and intermittent photopériods on the reproductive performance of female rabbit. Proc. 5th
World Rabbit Congress. Corvallis Oregon (USA), 62-66.
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THE INFLUENCE OF CYSTEINE, GLYCINE AND

METHIONINE ON IN VITRO MATURATED SWINE
OOCYTES
Andrea HETTIG, M. ZĂHAN, Ileana MICLEA, M. BOTHA, I. ROMAN
The aim of this paper was to determinate the effect of some amino acids
on in vitro maturation process on swine oocytes. A total of 180 oocytes were
places in 4 experimental lots in 3 repetitions. The control contains maturation
medium without any addition and 45 oocytes. The experimental lots contains
cysteine (0.57mM) and lysine (0.50mM), another contains glycine(0.97mM)and
methionine(0.55mM).The last contains all the amino acids together with the
mentioned measures. These 12 droplets was covered with mineral oil and
incubated 42 hours at 370 C and in an atmosphere containing 5% CO2 in air. The
most number of maturated oocytes (95.55%) were in the droplet with all the
amino acids together, high percentage obtained because of the presence of
cysteine and lysine especially of cystein’s.
Keywords: oocyte, maturation, amino acids, in vitro, pig
INTRODUCTION
The swine operations are very receptive to the use of technologies to
reduce labor costs as well as a basis for increase production efficiency. Therefore
the combined interest in swine reproductive technologies by both the medical
field and the swine industry creates an increased effort for the development of
new technologies as well as for the implantation for the existing ones. One of the
more rapid technological advancement this decade has been the progress in in
vitro production of swine embryos. Major advancement have been made on the
development of procedures for production of large numbers of embryos from
oocytes collected at slaughter houses which are than maturated (IVM) and
fertilized in the laboratory (B.N. Day 2000).
In vitro manipulation of porcine eggs to produce viable embryos has
become important for developing innovative technologies. The first step to obtain
viable embryos is to get first of all maturated oocytes whit follicular cells
expanded and germinal vesicle breakdown. For all these it is very important to
ensure a similar maturation medium to oocytes like in the follicles in vivo. It is
very hard to simulate the in vivo medium in which the eggs get maturated and
becomes ready to fertilization because of the unknown mechanism that takes
place in organism. Many research teams try to get close to the follicular medium
content combining several hormones and amino acids to see there effect on
maturation in vitro, to get the best medium combination for the eggs.
In the present there are several articles related to in vitro swine oocytes
maturation. Abeydeera et al. (1998) use a protein-free culture media for in vitro
maturation of porcine eggs. Some authors use 17 beta estradiol in protein-free
- 426 -
maturation (Quing et al. 2004). Jyuer-Ger Yang et al. (1999) observes the effects
of glucocorticoids, Funahashi et al. (1994) supplement the medium with different
hormones (OMWM and OMM199). In 2005, Wongsrikeao et al. (2005)
experiments the effect of the removal of cumulus cells on the nuclear maturation.
Also a few researchers try to establish, with good or less result, the
influence of some amino acids on maturation in vitro with good or less results
using for example cystamine by C.G. Grupen et al. 1995, Ka et al in 1997 use
essential and nonessential amino acids (glutamine, cysteine).
In our experiment, we use amino acids combined to see there effect on oocyte-
cumulus complex maturation using glycine, methionin, cysteine and lysine in
different combination in the experimental lots.

The experiment took place in the research laboratory of the Department
of Animal reproduction of the University of Agriculture Science and Veterinary
Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
Culture medium
The basic medium used was TCM medium supplemented with sodium
pyruvate 0.1mg/ml, penicillin G 100 U.I/ml, streptomycin sulfate 100 µg/ml, FSH
10 U.I/ml, LH 10 U.I/ml and BFS (bovine fetal serum) in 10% proportion. In each
experimental lot was added the amino acids: cysteine, glycine, lysine and
methionin in proportion of 0.57mM, 0.93mM, 0.55mM respectively 0.50mM.
Oocytes collection
Ovaries from prepubertal gilts were collected at the slaughter house from
Valcele near Cluj-Napoca and transported to the laboratory within 40 minutes in
physiological serum supplemented with antibiotics (100mg/ml streptomycin, 100
U.I/ml penicillin) maintained at a temperature of 23o C. Oocytes were aspirated
from antral follicles (2-6mm in diameter) with a recovering pipette (Pasteur) and
washed twice with recovering medium(TCM medium without any addition of
hormones and amino acids ) and once with a with the maturation medium (Yang
et all 1999).
Only oocytes surrounded by at least two-three uniform layers of compact
cumulus cells were selected using a microscope with inversion. The oocytes were
harvested from 14 porcine ovaries and were taken in total 180 oocyte-cumulus
complex which were than placed in droplets.
In vitro maturation
The basic medium used was TCM medium supplemented with sodium
pyruvate 0.1mg/ml, penicillin G 100 U.I/ml, streptomycin sulfate 100 µg/ml, FSH
- 427 -
10 U.I/ml, LH 10 U.I/ml and BFS (bovine fetal serum) in 10% proportion. In each
experimental lot was added the amino acids: cysteine, glycine, lysine and
methionin in proportion of 0.57mM, 0.93mM, 0.55mM respectively 0.50mM.
The 180 oocytes were placed in 4 experimental lots: the first is the control
containing 3 droplets considering them repetition. Each droplet contain 30µl
maturation medium in which was placed 15 oocytes. The second(3 droplets) has
the same maturation medium with the same number of oocytes supplemented with
cysteine and lysine combined in proportion of 0.57 mM respectively 0.50mM.
The third has also the same configuration but this time the medium was
supplemented with glycine 0.93mM and methionin 0.55 mM combined. The
fourth experimental lot has maturation medium with the all the amino acids used:
cysteine, lysine, glycine and methionin in the same proportion. These 12 drops
placed in 4 Petri dihes was covered with mineral oil (2 ml/dish). They were
incubated 46 hours at 370 C in an atmosphere containing 5% CO2 in air (L.R.
Abeydeera et all 1998).

The sign for maturated oocytes is given by the germinal vesicle, the
position of it. One with the maturation the vesicle migrate to the centre of the
ooplasm and its membrane becomes discontinue process entitled germinal vesicle
breakdown (GVBD) (Ladosi I. 1999) But this process it is very hard to observe at
this specie (porcine) so that we based on another very important and visible aspect
of a maturation which is the cumulus cells expansion and the granulose cells are
near the zona pelucida. So, we exanimate the oocytes on these desiderates.
Unmaturated oocytes are showed in fig.1 and in the fig. 2 a maturated egg. Each
was made with a magnitude of 10X. (Olympus Microscope with inversion).
Fig.1 Unmaturated oocytes Fig. 2 Maturated oocyte
After co culturing the cumulus-oocytes complex 46 hours at 370 C they

were examinated to see which of the group of the amino acids has the major effect
on the maturation process.
At control (lot without any addition of amino acids) from 45 oocytes
placed in the droplets a number of 30 oocytes were maturated with cumulus cells
- 428 -
expanded showed in fig.1. This number of maturated oocytes represents a 66.66

% proportion from the total.
In the experimental lot containing droplets with maturation medium
suplimented with cysteine and lysine from 45 oocytes a number of 43 eggs were
maturated and the rest of 2 were unmaturated with the cumulus cells enclosed not
expended like it has to be in a completed maturation process. This number of 43
oocytes represents 95.55% from the total.
In the third experiment containing the same number of oocytes in the
medium in which was added glycine and methionine combined results maturated
oocytes in 68.88% proportion. This result is a little bit better than the control
(66.66 %) the difference being one oocyte. In the control we obtain 30 maturated
eggs and in the medium containing glicine and methionine 31 eggs.
In the last experimental lot the results are superior to the others. In this
case we obtained 43 oocytes maturated which means a 95.55% proportion. This
proportion is the better, comparing to control and the other experimental lot
obtaining the highest percentage from all, shown in the table 1.
Table1
Evaluation of oocytes (eggs) stage
Specification Control Cystein+Lysine Glycine +Methionin C+L+G+M*
Total no. of eggs 45 45 45 45
No.maturated eggs 30 42 31 43
No. unmaturated eggs 15 3 13 2
4% maturated eggs 66.66 93.33 68.88 95.55
%unmaturated eggs 26.67 6.67 24.45 4.45
*C+L+G+M = cystein +lysine+ glycine+methionin
The numbers of maturated and unmaturated oocytes shows that, among

the experimental lots using different combination of amino acids the most
efficacy was the combination of all the amino acids together (cystein, lysine,
glycine and methionin) reaching 95.55% maturated eggs. Remarcable is the result
obtained in the experimental lot using cystein and lysine with 93.33% maturated
oocytes which let us think about that the major effect in the maturation process
has the cystein and lysine (Andrea Hettig et al., 2007) This fact is explained by
the cause that in the lot in which was used glycine and methionin increased non-
significantly compared to the control. The difference is just one maturated oocyte
between the control and lot with glycine and methionin.
We also explain this high percentage caused by the presence of cystein
especially, that because we made another experiment using cystein and glycine
single in experimental lots and combined. The results were favorable in that case
for the cystein lot with a percentage of 86 compared to 60% in case of glycine.
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BACK
CONCLUSION
It is generally accepted that the relationship between cumulus cells and
oocytes is important not only in the process of maturation to the metaphase II
stage of oocytes but also in the cytoplasmic maturation needed for development of
oocytes after fertilization. The effect of cumulus cells may be due to the local
production of glycosaminoglycans, steroid hormones and other factors that
support cytoplasmic maturation, which is responsible for male pronuclear
formation, mono-spermic fertilization and early embryonic development.
In our experiment the highest percentage was in the lot containing the all
the amino acids. But this fact can be explained because of the presence of cystein
and lysine. The difference between the 2 lots is one maturated oocyte, so we can
affirm that the most efficient amino acid in a maturation medium is cystein and
lysine especially cystein.
This can be explained with the fact that the synthesis of glutatoin is
dependent on the availability of cysteine in the maturation medium found that the
addition of cysteine in medium, supported a level of glutation syntheses in
porcine oocytes comparable to that observed in in vivo maturated oocytes
(Gruppen et al. 1995), cited by Andrea Hettig et al. (2007)
The other amino acids seams to be non-significantly in a maturation
medium, so their presence can be missed, and also we get a lower cost in the
medium preparation.
References
1. Abeydeera L.R., Wei-Ha Wang, Randal S.Pradher, BillyN.Day, (1998) Maturation in vitro of
pig oocytes in protein-free culture media :fertilization and subsequent embrio development in
vitro, Biology of reproductoin 58,1316-1320.
2. B.N. Day (2000) Reproductive biotechnologies: current status in porcine reproduction. Animal
reproduction science, 60-61, 162-172.
3. C.G. Grupen, H.Nagashima, M.B. Nottle,(1995) Cysteamine enhances in vitro development of
porcine oocytes matured and fertilized in vitro, Biology of reproduction 53, 173-178.
4. Funahashi H., Thomas C. Cantley, Todd T. Stumpf, Steven I. Terlow, and Billy N. Day, (1994)
In vitro development of in vitro-maturated porcine oocytes following chemical activation or in
vitro fertilization.Biology of reproduction 50, 1072-1077.
5. Hettig Andrea, M. Zahan, M.Botha, Ileana Miclea (2007) The influence of some amino acids
on in vitro maturation of swine oocytes. The 36th International session of scientific
communications. The scientific papers of the Faculty of Animal science, Bucharest, ISBN 978-
973-8905-22-1, PG.: 165-168.
6. Ka HH, Wang Wh, Im Ks, Niwa K (1997), Amino acids in maturation medium and presence of
cumulus cells at fertilization promote male pronuclear formation in porcine oocytes matured
and penetrated in vitro. Biology of Reproduction 57, 1478-1483.
7. Ladosi I.(1999) Embriotehnologie animală Editura Victor Melenti, Cluj-Napoca
8. Li Q., Koji Niwa and M. G. Hunter (2004) Effects of 17 beta estradiol on in vitro maturation medium of
pig oocytes in protein-free medium. Journal of Reproduction and Development, vol. 50, no. 3.
9. Yang J.G., Wei-Yi Chen, P.Shirley Li (1999), Effects of glucocorticoids on maturation of pig
oocytes and their subsequent fertilizing capacity in vitro, Biology of reproduction 60, 929-936.
10. Wongsrikeao P, Y. Kaneshige, R. Ooki, M Taniguchi, B. Agung, M. Nii and T Oto (2005,)
Effect of removal of cumulus cells on the nuclear maturation, fertilization and development of
porcine oocytes. Reproduction Domestic animals 40, 166-170.
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BACK
RESEARCH CONCERNING THE USE OF ANTIOXIDANTS

IN THE MATURATION MEDIA OF OOCYTES
Ileana MICLEA, V. MICLEA, M. ZĂHAN,
Andrea HETTIG, I. ROMAN
The goal of this study was to establish the influence of certain vitamin C
and E concentrations on swine oocyte maturation. Pig oocytes were cultured for
48 hours at 37°C in an atmosphere with 5% CO2, in M199 containing several
vitamin C (50, 150, 250, 500, 750 mM) and vitamin E (5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 mM)
concentrations. The addition of vitamin C to the maturation medium lead to an
increase in the number of matured oocytes, which proved to be significant for
500 mM (p<0,05) and distinctly significant for 50, 750 mM (p<0,01). The
addition of vitamin E had a negative effect but that can be ascribed to the solvent
used, polietilenglicol ricinoleate.
Free radicals, namely oxygen and nitrogen reactive species are generated
by metabolic activity or by exogenous agents (radiation, heavy metals, pesticides)
(Kovacic and Jacintho, 2001). Although cells possess enzymatic and non-
enzymatic defence mechanisms, the balance between them can be overturned, the
result of which is oxidative stress. This causes cellular damage that leads to
atherosclerosis, diabetes, neurodegenerative and malignant disease. In the cell,
free radicals function as signal molecules by activating transcription factors and
enzymatic reactions. They play significant parts in the physiological processes
happening in the ovary such as steroidogenesis, folliculogenesis, corpus luteum
progesterone release and degeneration, and follicle rupture during ovulation
(Agarwal et al. 2006). Besides defence weapons such as vitamins C and E, Cu,
Se, Mg, Zn living organisms and cells can employ plant pigments such as
carotenoids (Socaciu, 2002).
Vitamin E (tocopherols), the most important lipid soluble antioxidant in the
cell can be found in significant amounts in the ovary and the follicular fluid
(Attaran et al., 2000). It protects membranes against free radicals (Tao et al.,
2004) and improves the development of bovine embryos (Olson and Seidel,
2000).
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is the most important antioxidant outside the cell
(Warren et al., 2000) and can improve swine oocyte development and prevent
apoptosis in cultured mouse follicles (Tao et al., 2004). Ascorbic acid functions as
a reducing agent of oxygen and cytocromes c and a. It also protects membranes
against peroxidation by reducing the tocopheroxil radical and recycling so that it
can function in a new reaction. Thus the cause of oxidative stress is transferred
from the lipid to the aqueous compartment of the cell (Sies and Stahl, 1995; Niki
et al., 1995).
- 431 -
Both vitamins improve swine oocyte maturation (Tao et al. 2004), are
embryotrophic (Kitagawa et al. 2004), and improve development of swine
embryos (Hossein et al., 2007; Wang et al., 2002).

The protocols described by Grupen et al. (1995) and Tao et al. (2004) were
used for oocyte collection and maturation.
Collection and maturation media

The medium used for harvest was M 199 supplemented with L-glutamine
(0,1 g/l), NaHCO3 (2,2 g/l), Hepes (25 mM), penicillin (100 µg /ml) and
streptomycin (100 IU/ml) and with the pH adjusted to 7.
For oocyte maturation M 199 was supplemented with Chorulon (10 IU/ml),
Folligon (10 IU/ml), fetal calf serum 10%, penicillin (100 µg /ml) and
streptomycin (100 IU/ml). Vitamin E solution was added to the maturation
medium in order to arrive at concentrations of 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 mM of active
substance. The same procedure was used for vitamin C but the final
concentrations were of 50, 150, 250, 500 and 750 mM. Vitamin E was dissolved
in polietilenglicol ricinoleate 50 mg/ml and vitamin C in distilled water at 10%
concentration.
Oocyte collection and maturation

Porcine ovaries were collected from pre-pubertal gilts and transported to the
laboratory in a thermal container containing sterile saline solution (NaCl 0,9%) at
37°C supplemented with penicillin (100 µg /ml) and streptomycin (100 IU/ml).
The contents of follicles of 2–6 mm in diameter on the ovarian surface were
aspired with a 10 ml syringe equipped with an 18-gauge needle and collected a
Petri dishes containing harvest medium. Oocytes with a uniform ooplasm and
compact cumulus cell mass were washed 2 times with harvest medium and then
placed in 30 µl droplets of maturation medium containing the various vitamin
concentrations. All the droplets were covered in paraffin oil and incubated for 48
hours at 37°C in an atmosphere with 5% CO2. Then they were evaluated using an
Olympus inverted phase contrast microscope, in order to assess cumulus ooforus
expansion and/or the presence of the second polar body. The differences between
treatments were analyzed by ANOVA and interpreted using the Student test.

The goal of this study was to establish the influence of certain vitamin C
and E concentrations on swine oocyte maturation. These were of 50, 150, 250,
500 and 750 mM for vitamin C and 5, 10, 20, 40 and 80 mM for vitamin E.
- 432 -
Fig. 1 Oocyte with the first polar Fig. 2 Cumulus cells expansiot
body (arrow) as a sign of around an oocyte
nucleus maturation (magnification 100)
(magnification 200)
As can be noticed by comparing averages between the control and the 5

concentrations, in the droplets containing vitamin C the number of mature oocytes
was higher. The cumulus ooforus was greatly expanded (figure 2) and in certain
cases the first polar body could be noticed (figure 1). The differences proved to be
not significant for C150 and C250, significant for C500 and very significant for
C50 and C 750.
Table 1
The differences for vitamin C concentrations and their significance
Variant Variant Number of Average The value of Significance

number oocytes t of differences
1 M 75 1,73 - -
2 C 50 75 3,33 3.336 **
3 C 150 80 2,5 1.277 ns
4 C 250 100 2,55 0.653 ns
5 C 500 75 3,2 2.448 *
6 C 750 75 3,86 3.348 **
ns – non significant (p>0,05); * - significant (p<0,05); **- distinctly significant (p<0,01);
*** – very significant (p<0,001)
The 50 mM vitamin C concentration in the maturation medium lead to a

significant increase in the number of oocytes with highly expanded cumulus
ooforus. The presence of vitamin in the medium has a positive influence on
cumulus expansion due to its antioxidant properties and the ability to protect the
DNA of cumulus cells from oxidation by free radicals (Tao et al. 2004). An
increase in concentration to 150 mM and 250 mM lead to a decrease in the
number of mature oocytes, which even though remained higher than the control
was non significant statistically. The reason could be the buildup of vitamin C in
- 433 -
the cumulus cells, which could interfere with the function of cellular signaling
that free radicals have and their involvement in the destruction of gap junctions
between cumulus cells. Another increase in vitamin C concentration to 500 mM
and then 750 mM resulted in a greater number of mature oocytes, the differences
being significant and very significant. This phenomenon can be ascribed to the
prooxidant action of vitamin C when present in high concentrations (Chepda et
al., 1999).
As is apparent from the following table, the number of mature oocytes in
the medium containing vitamin E is smaller than the one for the control.
Therefore it would seem that vitamin E is not beneficial, but even harmful to
oocyte maturation.
Table 2
The differences between averages for vitamin E concentrations
Variant number Variant Number of oocytes Average of matured oocytes

1 M 50 2,4
2 E5 50 0,3
3 E 10 50 0,1
4 E 20 50 0,2
5 E 40 50 0
6 E 80 50 0
This effect could be ascribed to the solvent and not the α-tocopherol itself.
Polietilenglicol ricinoleate, although common in the food and drug industry could
have a negative effect on in vitro cultured cells which are much more sensitive to
the adverse effects of chemicals. To eliminate this problem ethanol could be used
as a solvent. This raises the problem of testing the solvents used for food
processing on cell cultures.
CONCLUSIONS
Adding vitamin C to the maturation medium has had a positive effect and
resulted in an increase in the number of mature oocytes. Despite this very
interesting development, further research is needed to establish the exact amount
to be added, so as to arrive at the optimum concentration for the best results.
For vitamin E, the opposition with the results of other experiments can be
avoided by using another solvent such as ethanol.
REFERENCES
1. Agarwal, A, S. Gupta, S. Sikka, 2006, The role of free radicals and antioxidants in
reproduction, Current Opinions in Obstetrics and Gynecology, 18: 325–332.
2. Attaran, M., E. Pasqualotto, T. Falcone, J. Goldberg, K. Miller, A. Agarwal, R.K. Sharma,
2000, The effect of follicular fluid reactive oxygen species on outcome of in vitro fertilization,
- 434 -
BACK
Int. J. Fertil. Womens Med, 45: 314–20.

3. Chepda, T., C. Perier, Annette Chamson, J. Frey, 1999, Effets pro- et antioxidants de
l’ascorbate, Nutr. Clin. Metabol., 13 : 115-120.
4. Grupen, C.G., H. Nagashima, M.B. Nottle, 1995, Cysteamine enhances in vitro development of
porcine oocytes matured and fertilized in vitro, Biology of Reproduction, 53: 173-178.
5. Kovacic, P., and J. D. Jacintho, 2001, Reproductive toxins: pervasive theme of oxidative stress
and electron transfer, Current Medicinal Chemistry, 8: 863-892.
6. Hossein, M.S., M.A. Hashem, Y.W. Jeong, M.S. Lee, Sue Kim, J.H. Kim, O.J. Koo, S.M.
Park, E.G. Lee, S.W. Park, S.K Kang, B.C. Lee, W.S. Hwang, 2007, Temporal effect of α-
tocoferol and L-ascorbic on in vitro fertilized porcine embryo development, Animal
Reproduction Science, 100: 107-117.
7. Kitagawa, Y., K. Suzuki, A. Yoneda, T. Watanabe, 2004, Effects of oxygen concentration and
antioxidants on the in vitro developmental ability, production of reactive oxygen species
(ROS), and DNA fragmentation in porcine embryos. Theriogenology 62: 1186–1197.
8. Niki, E., N. Noguchi, H. Tsuchilashi, N. Gotoh, 1995, Interaction among vitamin C, vitamin E
and β-carotene, American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62: 1322S-1326S.
9. Olson, S.E., G.E. Seidel Jr., 2000, Culture of in vitro-produced bovine embryos with vitamin E
improves development in vitro and after transfer to recipients, Biology of Reproduction 62:
248–252.
10. Sies, H., W. Stahl, 1995, Vitamins E and C, β-carotene, and other carotenoids as antioxidants,
American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 62: 1315S-1321S.
11. Socaciu, Carmen, 2002, Antioxidant phytochemicals: chemical characterization, functions and
actions, Buletinul USAMV-CN, 57: 22-29.
12. Tao, Y., B. Zhou, G. Xia, F. Wang, Z. Wu, M. Fu, 2004, Exposure to L-ascorbic acid or α-
tocopherol facilitates the development of porcine denuded oocytes from metaphase I to
metaphase II and prevents cumulus cells from fragmentation, Reprod. Dom. Anim. 39 52–57.
13. Wang, Xia, T. Falcone, M. Attaran, J.M. Goldberg, A. Agarwal, R.K. Sharma, 2002, Vitamin
C and vitamin E supplementation reduce oxidative stress–induced embryo toxicity and improve
the blastocyst development rate, Fertility and Sterility, 78(6):1272-1277.
14. Warren, S., S. Patel, C.M. Kapron, 2000, The effect of vitamin E exposure on cadmium
toxicity in mouse embryo cells in vitro, Toxicology, 142, 119–126.
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THE SOW AGE INFLUENCE AND FARROWING ORDER

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE SUCKLING PIGLETS
I. PAŞCA, R. MORAR, Dana PUSTA, T. OROIAN, R. OROIAN,
Antonia ODAGIU, Claudia BAGITA
The main production in swine rearing and fattening unities is meat

production. The quality of the reproduction sows, the sows’ age that influences
the number of the farrowed and weaned piglets, respectively, have very important
role in meat production.
Our research emphasizes that the number of the farrowed piglets
increased in the mean time with sow ageing, but the body weight at parturition
decreases in multiparous. This is a disadvantage because the body weight of the
piglets at parturition is positively correlated to the piglets’ body weight at
weaning. Concerning the influence of the farrowing order on the body weight at
parturition, results that the first two farrowed piglets have bigger body weight
compared to the third. The best developed are those from the middle of
parturition.
INTRODUCTION
The economical importance of the swine rearing is determined by the
biological traits of this specie, which is characterized by prolificacy, high
fecundity, special precocity and special capacity of feeding use. At parturition, a
sow can farrow up to 10 – 18 piglets, and short gestation period allows 2.2
parturitions by year. Due to the special precocity, the body weight of the piglets at
farrowing became double after first week of age, reaching 90 – 100 kg at 6 weeks
of age.
The piglets that have bigger body weight at farrowing are more vigorous
and recorded higher surviving rate, bigger body weight up to farrowing and at
slaughtering age.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The research was performed in maternity sector, using F1 sows, resulted
from crossings performed between Large White and Landrace boars, as biological
material. The F1 sows were crossed with Mangaliţa boars (Hamshire x Pietrain).
The research was performed on piglets from five sows: one primiparous,
at the third, fourth, six, and seven parities respectively. The parturition
monitoring, piglets marking in farrowing order were performed for achieving the
proposed objectives - recording the influence of the farrowing order on the body
weight of the piglets at farrowing and its evolution up to weaning. The piglets
were weighted at farrowing and at weaning.
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RESULTS
The data from table 1 results that the primiparous sow farrowed 10
piglets, the second and the ninth were crushed, and the tenth was dead, even
normal developed without pathological alterations.
Table 1 Average body weight of the piglets at parturition and weaning function of
farrowing order (Kg)
Order no. Primiparous Sow at Sow at Sow at Sow at Average

of sow third fourth sixth seventh weight
piglets’ parturition parturition parturition parturition
farrowing
Farrowing
Farrowing
Farrowing
Farrowing
Farrowing
Farrowing
Weaning
Weaning
Weaning
Weaning
Weaning
Weaning
1 1.7 7.9 1.6 7.9 1.1 9.8 1.1 9.5 1.3 9.5 1.36 8.92
2 2 - 1.7 8.3 1.7 8.6 1.2 10.5 1.1 8.2 1.54 8.90
3 1.4 9.2 0.9 - 1.8 11.1 1.1 7 0.9 - 1.22 9.10
4 1.6 9.1 1.5 9.2 2 11.5 1.2 - 0.8 - 1.42 10.15
5 1.7 8.9 1.7 7.8 1.6 9.8 1.2 8.2 1 7.8 1.44 8.50
6 2 9.7 1.5 8.9 1.7 10.2 - - 1.1 8 1.57 9.20
7 1.7 10.6 1.3 9.6 1.8 10 - - 1.2 8.3 1.50 9.62
8 1.1 9.8 1.5 9.8 1.7 8.2 1.2 9.6 0.7 - 1.24 9.35
9 1.7 - 1.8 11.3 1.2 7.5 1.1 10.2 0.9 - 1.34 9.66
10 - - 1.7 10.6 1.5 8.7 1.4 7 - - 1.53 8.76
11 - - 1.5 8.8 1.4 7.4 1 - 1.2 9.1 1.27 8.43
12 - - 1.3 9.3 1.3 8.3 1 7.8 0.8 - 1.10 8.46
13 - - 1.8 8.8 - - 0.7 - 0.8 6 1.10 7.40
14 - - - - - - 1 8 1.1 8 1.05 8.00
15 - - - - - - - - 1 9 1.00 9.00
Average 1.65 9.31 1.52 9.19 1.56 9.25 1.1 8.64 1.07 8.21
The piglets recorded good development with body weight over 1 Kg,
considered satisfactory for a good future development and high viability (1.1 Kg
piglet no. 8 and 2 Kg in piglets no. 2 and 6).
The piglets from the sow at third parity recorded bigger body weight with
an average of 1.5 Kg, high viability, except the third piglet that recorded small
body weight (0.9 Kg), and low viability. These determined the elimination of this
piglet from production group.
The sow at fourth parity farrowed 12 piglets with body weight over 1 Kg,
and average of 1.56 Kg.
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DISCUSSIONS
According to literature (Spădaru, 1997; Christensen, 1993), the sow
productivity increase up to fourth or fifth parturition, the piglets’ body weight
decrease in the mean time with ageing, but the number of piglets farrowed at sixth
and seventh parities increase. The number of piglets is bigger for the sow at sixth
parity (14 piglets) and at seventh parity 915 piglets) but with low viability, both
weaning only 9 piglets.
Analyzing the influence of the sow age on the body weight at farrowing
and weaning, bigger average weight in piglets from the primiparous sow (1.65
Kg) was recorded. The average body weight of the piglets decreased in the mean
time with ageing, reaching and average body weight of 1 Kg by group in sows at
sixth and seventh parity. This small body weight by group was recorded at
farrowing and weaning, when in piglets from primiparous sow an average body
weight of 9.3 Kg was recorded, and in those from sixth and seventh parities,
values of 8.64 Kg and 8.21 Kg, respectively.
Analyzing the results concerning the piglets’ viability determined by the
difference between the number of farrowed and weaned piglets, results that it is
lower with ageing. The sows at sixth and seventh parity recorded a bigger number
of farrowed piglets (14 – 15) weaning 8 – 9 piglets, while the sows at third and
fifth parity farrow 13, and 12 piglets respectively, both weaning 12 piglets.
The influence of the farrowing order on the body weight at parturition is
the following: in primiparous sow, the body weight of the first two piglets
increased with the farrowing order, 1.7 Kg in first and 2 Kg in second. The third
farrowed piglet recorded 1.4 Kg, while the following three recorded bigger body
weight (1.6 Kg, 1.7 Kg, 2 Kg), the fifth recorded the same body weight as the first
(1.7 Kg), and the followings 2 Kg and 1.1 Kg respectively, and piglets from the
end of the parturition had the same body weight as the first.
The body weight of the piglets from the third parturition had similar
evolution as previous, with an increase of 1.6 Kg and 1.7 Kg in the beginning
followed by decrease of the body weight in the third piglet to 0.9 Kg, 1.7 Kg in
fifth (equal with the body weight of the second piglet). The 7 – 12 piglets
recorded the weakest body development (1.3 Kg), the ninth having the biggest
body weight (1.8 kg), followed by decrease of the body weight, the last having the
same body weight as the ninth (1.8 Kg).
The piglets from the fourth parturition had an increased development up
to the fourth piglet, from 1.1 Kg up to 2 Kg, then a slight decrease to 1.7 Kg, and
last four (9 – 12) being less developed with body weight of 1.2 – 1.5 Kg.
The piglets from the sixth parturition recorded small body weight
variation, between 1 – 1.2 Kg, the last recording the smallest body development,
and the 13th having 0.7 Kg even the tenth is most developed (1.4 Kg).
The piglets of the sow at the seventh parity recorded smaller body weight.
The first with 1.3 Kg, and in following three the body weight decreased up to 0.8
Kg, then it increased up to the seventh piglets which recorded 1.2 Kg and last (8,
12, 13) being the less developed with body weight of 0.7, 0.8 and 0.8 Kg.
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Analyzing the influence of the farrowing order on the body weight at

weaning, we find that the first piglet of the primiparous sow had high vitality,
even they recorded the smallest body weight at weaning (7.9 Kg), and the biggest
body weight was recorded by the seventh piglet - 10.6 Kg (with 2 Kg at
parturition). Overall, at weaning, the body weight of the piglets from the
primiparous sow increase in the mean time with farrowing order.
At weaning, among piglets from the sows at third parity, the first and fifth
recorded almost similar body weight, of 7.9 – 7.8 Kg that is almost alike the
situation at farrowing (1.6 – 1.5 kg). They had the smallest body weight at
weaning. The weaning body weight values increased from the second piglet that
had 8.3 Kg up to the ninth with 11.3 Kg.
The piglets from the sow at the fourth parity recorded at weaning an
increasing body weight up to the fourth piglet, from 9.8 Kg up to 11.5 Kg, then
decrease of the body weight of the piglets no. 5, 6 and 7 where the body weight
recorded values around 10 Kg. The body weight of the piglets from the second
half of the parturition and of those up from the seventh is smaller compared to
those from the first half, with average values of 8 Kg similarly to the evolution of
the parturition body eight values (similar values of the body weight).
The piglets from the sixth parturition recorded at weaning body
development with large variation, even at parturition the body weight recorded
small variation. Big values of the body weight were recorded in first, second,
eighth, and ninth piglet (9.5, 10.5, and 9.6 Kg), the others recording smaller
values with an average of 7.5 Kg with significant difference.
The biggest weaning body weight was recorded in piglets’ no. 1, 11 and
15 (9.5, 9.1 and 9 Kg) from the sow at seventh parity, and the lowest value of 6
Kg was obtained in 13th piglet. The other piglets from the litter recorded similar
body development of 8 Kg.
Table 2 The influence of the farrowing order on the viability of the suckling piglets
Farrowing Number of farrowed Number of weaned
Mortality (%)
order piglets piglets
1 5 5 0
2 5 4 20
3 5 3 40
4 5 3 40
5 5 5 0
6 5 4 20
7 5 4 20
8 5 4 20
9 5 3 40
10 5 3 40
11 4 3 25
12 4 3 25
13 3 2 33.3
14 2 2 0
15 1 1 0
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BACK
Table 2 shows the results of the research concerning the viability of the
piglets function of farrowing order. The highest viability 100% was recorded in
first piglets from the litter, and in fifth piglet. Low viability is recorded by the
piglets no. 3, 4, 9 and 10 with values between 40 – 60%. Mortality is higher in
piglets from the last third of parturition.
The mortality reasons in studied piglets were: weak body development,
body weight under 1 Kg. These reasons led to piglets’ mortality in first 24 hours
of life.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The number of the piglets increase in the mean time with sow ageing (10
piglets in primiparous, 15 piglets in seventh parturition).
2. The average body weight of the piglets at parturition decrease in the mean
time with sow ageing.
3. The average body weight of the piglets at weaning recorded identical
evolution with parturition evolution, and decrease with sow ageing.
4. The number of the weaned piglets increases up to the fourth parturition
(12), and in the mean time with ageing (sixth parturition) the number of
the weaned piglets significantly decreases (9).
5. Concerning the influence of the farrowing order on the body weight
beginning with parturition, the first two farrowed piglets usually have the
bigger body weight compared to the third. The most developed are those
situated in the middle of parturition order, the piglets no. 4 – 8 have
bigger body weight, and over piglet no. 11 the body weight decreases.
REFERENCES
1. Christensen J. (2003). Giving gilts a longer lactation. Pig International, no. 21.
2. Groza I., Muntean M. (2002). Elemente de fiziologia reproducţiei la animale. Ed. AcademicPres,
Cluj – Napoca.
3. Mark C., valezare M. (2000). Weight watchers from birth. Pig International, no. 12 – 13.
4. Morar R., Cozma V., Pusta Dana, Paşca I. (2006). Practicum de creşterea suinelor şi patologie
parazitară. Ed. Risoprint, Cluj – Napoca.
5. Spădaru F. (1997). Tehnologia creşterii şi exploatării suinelor. Ed. Tipo Agronomia, Cluj –
Napoca.
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BACK
OBSERVATIONS REGARDING SOME REPRODUCTIVE

PERFORMANCES AT F 1 CROSSBRED FEMALE ŢIGAIE
WITH BLACKHEAD FROM TELEORMAN AND WHITE
ŢURCANA FROM GIOAGIU-ORĂŞTIE
Mirela SUSAN, Paula POŞAN, Angela STOICA, P. TĂPĂLOAGĂ

The observations were done in a private sheep farm from Gioagiu-
Orăştie region, during 3 years long (2004-2006).
The biologic material was represented by ewes White Ţurcană from
Gioagiu-Orăştie, Ţigaie BlackHead from Teleorman and F 1 crossbred animal
Ţigaie BlackHead from Teleorman x Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie.
There was registered the number of mated sheep, delivered sheep and
number of lambs. There was calculated and analyzed: fecundity, birth rate and
prolificacy.
The result shown that F 1 crossbred females are a viable alternative to
improve reproductive performances of Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie, in order
to obtain a higher number of lambs with high quality, which can be breed with a
maximum of income.
INTRODUCTION
Sheep breeding, because of the biologic particularities and productive
performances and also because of the adaptation capacities to different
environment conditions, has a special appreciation in many of the world
countries.
Utilization of reproductive particularities in stimulant feeding conditions,
based on grass, with high content of phyto-estrogens, using photoperiodism and
“ram effect”, can transform the autumn polycyclic season in annual polycyclic
reproduction. This will help to organize the extra-season parturitions, to satisfy
the meat and milk request on market.
These methods are the base of reproductive intensivisation (estrus
synchronization, 1 parturition/year in 2-3 seasons, 3 parturition/2 years,
increasing prolificacy throw selection, infusion crossbreeding and increasing the
precocity).
If these techniques are associated with a good preparing of the
reproductive animals, there will be registered parturitions in group, with uniform
developed lambs, with intense growing rhythm and homogeneous carcasses.
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Also there will be assured the extend of ewes lactation period and/or the
organization of a new reproductive cycle.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The observations were done in a private sheep farm from Gioagiu-Orăştie
region, during 3 years long (2004-2006).
The biologic material was represented by ewes White Ţurcană from
Gioagiu-Orăştie, Ţigaie BlackHead from Teleorman and F 1 crossbred animal
Ţigaie BlackHead from Teleorman x Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie.
There was registered the number of mated sheep, delivered sheep and
number of lambs. There was calculated and analyzed: fecundity, birth rate and
prolificacy.

Reproductive performances at F 1 crossbred female Ţigaie BlackHead
from Teleorman x Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie are shown in the following
tables (tables 1, 2 and 3).
Table 1
Reproductive indices at females Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie
Breed Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie

Year 2004 2005 2006 T
n 150 140 145 435
Mated sheep 145 133 139 417
Delivered sheep 134 124 129 387
No. of lambs 141 130 135 406
Fecundity (%) 92,41 93,23 92,8 92,8
Prolificacy (%) 105,22 104,83 104,64 104,90
Birth rate (%) 97,24 97,74 97,12 97,36
Table 2
Reproductive indices at females Ţigaie BlackHead from Teleorman
Breed Ţigaie BlackHead from Teleorman

Year 2004 2005 2006 T
n 160 150 143 453
Mated sheep 155 144 139 438
No. of lambs 198 185 180 563
Fecundity (%) 95,48 96,52 96,40 96,11
Prolificacy (%) 133,78 133,09 134,30 133,72
Birth rate (%) 127,4 128,4 129,4 128,4
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Table 3
R eproductive indices at F 1 crossbred female Ţigaie BlackHead from Teleorman x
Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie
Breed F 1 crossbred female

Year 2004 2005 2006 T
n 30 60 90 108
Mated sheep 29 58 87 174
No. of lambs 33 69 103 205
Fecundity (%) 96,55 98,27 97,7 97,7
Prolificacy (%) 117,85 121,05 121,17 120,58
Birth rate (%) 113,7 118,9 118,3 117,8
There was observed that for F 1 crossbred animals the reproduction

indices were influence by parental population White Ţurcana from Geoagiu-
Orăştie and Ţigaie BlackHead from Teleorman (figure 1).
133,72 128,4
140 120,58 117,81
120 97,7 104,9
92,8 96,11 97,36
100
80
60
40
20
0
Fecundity (%) Prolificacy (%) Birth rate (%)
White Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie
Ţigaie BlackHead from Teleorman.
F 1 crossbred
Figure 1. Reproductive indices at Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie, Ţigaie BlackHead

from Teleorman and F 1 crossbred female (Ţigaie BlackHead from Teleorman x
Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie)
During the 3 years of observations the higher fecundity value (97,7%)

was registered at F 1 crossbred. The higher prolificacy value (133,72%) and birth
rate (128,4%) were registered at females Ţigaie BlackHead from Teleorman.
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BACK
It can be seen that the F 1 crossbred females had intermediary values for
prolificacy and birth rate and a high value for fecundity, comparing to the
parental breeds. This demonstrate a good adaptability of crossbred animals to
environment conditions from Geoagiu-Orăştie region and the good influence of
heterosis on prolificacy index.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The mated sheeps percent is higher with 8% at F 1 crossbred females
compare to females Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie and the delivered
sheep percent is higher with 10%
2. The prolificacy percent is higher with 15,68% at F 1 crossbred females
compare to females Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie
3. From the total parturitions 86% were of F 1 crossbred females,
comparing to just 79% of Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie
4. Ţurcana from Geoagiu-Orăştie had 92,8% fecundity, 104,9% prolificacy
and 93,33% birth rate.
5. F 1 crossbred females had the highest value for fecundity, comparing to
the parental breeds. This demonstrate a good adaptability of crossbred
animals to environment conditions from Geoagiu-Orăştie region and the
good influence of heterosis on prolificacy index.
6. The birth rate at F 1 crossbred females was 117,81% which is
appreciated as very good.
7. It can be appreciated that the F 1 crossbred females are a viable
alternative to improve reproductive performances of Ţurcana from
Geoagiu-Orăştie, in order to obtain a higher number of lambs with high
quality, which can be breed with a maximum of income.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. BOGDAN A.T., TÎRNĂVEANU I., DORINA BOGDAN-SALANŢIU. – 1985.
Fertilitatea, natalitatea şi prolificitatea în zootehnie. Ed. Dacia, vol. 2.
2. DRĂGĂNESCU C. – 1964. Heterozisul in ameliorarea animalelor.. Editura Agrosilvica,
Bucureşti.
3. GHIŢĂ ELENA si colab. – 2000. Studii preliminare in vederea omologării ca rasă a
Ţigăii cu Capnegru de Teleorman. Sesiune de comunicări ştiinţifice USAMV Bucureşti.
4. JOITOIU RUXANDRA, DRAGANESCU C. – 2002. Tigaia româneasca cu Capul negru.
Universitatea Agricola Bucureşti.
5. SAPERA I. si colab. – 1989. Cercetări privind determinismul genetic al precocităţii
reproductive in relaţie cu potenţialul productiv la tineretul ovin femel din rasele cu lâna
fina. Lucrări Ştiinţifice Palas- Constanta, vol. VI.
6. Susan M. – Rezultate parţiale privind încrucişarea oilor Ţurcane albe din zona Geoagiu-
Orăştie cu Ţigaiei Capnegru de Teleorman. Teză de Doctorat, U.S.A.M.V. Bucureşti,
2007.
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BACK
ASPECTS REGARDING THE EVOLUTION AND

PERSPECTIVE OF THE MEAT MARKET IN ROMANIA,
IN THE CONTEXT OF THE INTEGRATION IN THE
EUROPEAN UNION
Ramona-Vasilica BACTER, C. BACTER,

I. CHEREJI, Elena GÎNDU, A. CHIRAN
After a period of obvious meat market crash in Romania, generated by the

drastic drop in the animal stocks in the total production of live meat, but also due to
the insufficiency of the possibilities and sources of financing, after the year 2000
comparing to the period 1990-1999, we have witnessed a slight tendency of
reinvigoration in the production of local meat, fact which also led to the improvement
of the index of self-supply of the demand of meat consumption of the population.
The study was achieved in Romania and was based on the analysis of a
system of indicators focused on the following aspects: stocks of animals, species;
animal production, per species; meat annual consumption per inhabitant;
import-export of meat and meat products.
The analysis was done during 2000-2005 and had as purpose the
familiarization with the features of meat market from Romania after the year,
but, especially, during the period after the year 2000.
The indicators analyzed have highlighted several trends regarding the
evolution of the national market at meat, with obvious differentiations between
species. Aspects related to the evolution and structure of Romania’s import-
export for alive animals, meat and meat products were also revealed, insisting on
the inadequate report between import and export, which, in 2006, reached
3,25:1, generating an unbalanced and adverse payment balance.
Also, a series of measures regarding the possibilities to extend the meat
market and to increase the food safety for meat and meat products were taken, in
the context of accession to the EU and Romania’s alignment to the technical and
legislative regulations of the European Union.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study was done in Romania and was based on the analysis of a system
of indicators focused on the following aspects: stocks of animals, per species;
animal production, per species; meat annual consumption per inhabitant; import-
export of meat and meat products. The analysis was done between 2000-2006.

At the level of each country, a major concern of the management of the
civil society, within the general economic and social policies, is represented by
the food safety of the population. An important role in drafting these policies is
- 445 -
held by the scientific research, in which the study of offer and consumption of
agricultural food products occupy one of the first places (3, 6, 13).
The majority of specialty studies accept the idea that the promoter of food
safety is the insurance of an access to a normal nutrition of each individual at any
moment (1, 4, 6, 7, 9).
VOLUME AND CONSUMPTION OF ECONOMY’S CAPACITY TO SATISFY

STRUCTURE OF POPULATION THE NEEDS
NEEDS - STRUCTURE -
Naţional income
Distribution
Investments
Agriculture
Industry
Other
h
b
FACTORS:
- Economic CONSUM- Consumption fund
PTION
Development fund
- Biological
Agriculture
Commerce
DEMAND
Industry
- Demographic
- Psychological
- Other factors
PURCHASE PRIORITY OF SPECIFIC MERCHANDIS

CAPACITY NEEDS FACTORS E OFFER
Conjunctural
Non-nutrition
Populaţion
phenomena
Nutrition
Incomes
Services
Industry
factors
Prices
Other
Mode
Quantity Network
new Merchandis
products e Serving
methods
Fig. 1 – The factors influencing the consumption demand
At the end of 2006, the numbers of animals, per species, in comparison

to the year 2000, had a negative evolution, with the exception of caprinae and
poultry breeding (table 1).
During the period analyzed, the numbers of horned cattle and sheep
presents insignificant decreases, very large decreases being registered at porcines
(- 20,4 % in comparison to the year 2000), during which, at poultry breeding, the
increase of the number was of 24,6 %, and at caprinae was of 26,0 % .
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Table 1
The evolution of number of animals from Romania during 2000-2006
(thousands heads)
No. Species 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
1. Horned 2.870 2.800 2.878 2.897 2.808 2.862 2738
cattle
2. Porcines 4.797 4.447 5.058 5.145 6.495 6.622 3819
3. Sheep 7.657 7.251 7.312 7.447 7.425 7.611 7306
4. Caprinae 538 525 633 678 661 687 678
6. Poultry 70.076 71.413 77.379 76.616 87.014 86.552 87320
breeding
The reduced level of subventions that is insufficient to cover the

production costs, correlated to the increase in prices for fodder determined by the
drought in the past few years, have influenced negatively the evolution of animal
stocks.
The meat represents a valuable food from a nutritional point of view,
due to the presence of Carbon and energy (glycogen, acid lactic resulted through
glycolisis), nitrogen sources (assimilated proteins), mineral serums, vitamins, a
content of free water of 67 % (beef meet), respectively 71 % (poultry meet).
According to the calculations done by the Research Institute in the Field
of Labour and Social Protection, for the urban population, the food ratio for the
human consumption must contain 47,5 Kg/inhabitant/year meat and meat
products, to which it is added 5,0 Kg fish and fish products.
The percentage of total consumption expenses is interesting at the level
of a household in the year 2005, depending on the status of labour force (table 2)
Table 2
Structure of total consumption expenses in the year 2005 (%)
No. Destination Total Employees Agriculturer Unemployed Retired
of expenses households
1. Expenses 47,2 42,0 62,5 51,7 50,7
with food
products
2. Expenses 28,8 30,5 25,5 24,5 27,3
with other
merchandise
3. Expenses 24,0 27,5 12,0 23,8 22,0
with the
payment of
services
Source: Statistical yearbook of Romania, 2006
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The total meat production destined to consumption made in Romania

followed a decreasing trend after the year 1989.
Thus, in comparison to the year 1990, when 2,42 mil. tons were made, at
the end of the year 2005 the reduction was drastic (-912 thousand tons),
representing a decrease of 37,69 % from the production of the year 1990.
During 2000-2005, the total production of alive meat had an uneven
evolution, per species, as well as in what concerns the dynamics (table 3).
In comparison to the year 2000, the highest reductions were registered in
fish and porcines meat, while, at the other species, the meat production was
superior.
Evolution and structure of the annual medium consumption of meat
per inhabitant made during 2000-2005 was growing (table 4).
Table 3
The evolution of agricultural production of animals made in Romania during
2000-2005 - thousand tons alive weight
No. Specification 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 %/2000
1. Meat – total, 1.447 1.385 1.503 1.659 1.561 1.508 104,2
from which:
2. Horned cattle meat 330 295 319 378 391 383 116,1
3. Porcine meat 670 613 635 710 627 605 90,3
4. Sheep and 116 114 118 135 166 114 98,3
caprinae meat
5. Poultry breeding 324 355 425 430 372 401 123,8
meat
6. Fish 17,1 13,4 16,2 10,1 13,1 13,4 78,4
Source: Statistical yearbook of Romania ,2006
Table 4
Evolution of medium annual meat consumption made in Romania during 2000-2005
Specification M.U. 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 %/2000

Meat and meat Kg/loc 42,5 40,5 43,6 45,6 46,4 109,2
products, from which:
- horned cattle meat Kg/loc 7,1 6,8 7,0 7,4 8,0 112,7
- % from the total % 16,7 16,8 16,1 16,2 17,2 -
consumption of meat
- porcine meat Kg/loc 20,5 23,3 23,3 24,3 24,4 119,0
- % from the total % 48,2 57,5 53,4 53,3 52,6 -
consumption of meat
- poultry breeding Kg/loc 12,7 13,3 13,3 13,9 14,0 110,2
meat
- % from the total % 29,9 32,8 30,5 30,5 30,2 -
consumption of meat
Source: Processed after the Statistical yearbook of Romania, 2006
- 448 -
Thus, the highest increase was registered at porcine meat, followed by

horned cattle meat and poultry breeding meat.
In Romania, the porcine meat is a traditional product, with a higher
consumption during the winter holidays. Due to the reduction of porcine stock,
the total meat production decreased from 1.023 thousand tons in the year 1989, to
605 thousand tons in the year 2005.
After the year 1989, the total poultry meat production was very much
reduced, phenomenon which created the opportunity to massively enter on the
national market of poultry breeding meat imports.
In the same time, the aviary crisis present in Romania accentuated this
phenomenon, leading to the accelerated reduction of internal consumption.
Despite that, bringing the Romanian agriculture to European standards
may improve the index of covering the consumption from internal production at
the animal origin products and, in the same time, the increase of Romania’s
export capacity for these products (table 5).
Table 5
Self sufficiency in the animal production made in Romania during 1989-2003 (%)
No. Specification 1989 1990 1998 2000 2001 2002 2003 2003/1989
(+/-%)
1. Beef meat 131 125 89 97 95 96 98 74,8
2. Pork meat 109 105 95 93 99 100 107 98,2
3. Ovines/caprinae 106 132 104 100 100 105 112 105,7
meat
4. Poultry meat 100 126 84 77 83 86 93 93,0
Source: DG AGRI; Agricultural situation in the candidate countries – Country report, Romania, 2003
For the pork and beef meat, the level of minimum and maximum prices
done at the end of August 2007 was differentiated on counties (table 6).
We notice the fact that the price of the alive pork meat practiced in the
month of August 2007 was very fluctuant, starting from minimum values of 2,2 –
2,5 lei/kg, in the counties Bistriţa Năsăud, Botoşani, Hunedoara, Iaşi, Mureş and
reaching maximum values of 5 – 8 lei/kg in the counties Covasna, Galaţi, Ilfov,
Mehedinţi, Teleorman (variation between the minimum value of 2,2 lei/kg and the
maximum value of 8 lei/kg is of 363,64 %).
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Table 6
Minimum and maximum prices practiced for the alive pork and beef meat,
on counties, in the month of August 2007 (lei/kg)
No. County Alive pork meat Alive beef meat

1. Alba 3 – 3,5 2,5 – 3,5
2. Arad 3 – 3,5 2,0 – 2,5
3. Argeş 3,5 – 4,0 3,4 – 3,6
4. Bacău 2,8 – 3,0 1,5 – 2,8
5. Bihor 3,0 – 3,5 4,0 – 5,0
6. Bistriţa Năsăud 2,5 – 3,5 2,4 – 2,5
7. Botoşani 2,4 – 2,6 2,7 – 2,8
8. Braşov 3,5 – 4,0 2,0 – 2,8
9. Buzău 2,7 – 3,0 2,0 – 3,5
10. Cluj 3,0 – 3,5 3,0 – 4,0
11. Covasna 4,5 – 5,0 2,0 – 4,5
12. Galaţi 4,0 – 5,0 4,5 – 5,0
13. Giurgiu 4,0 – 4,5 4,0 – 4,5
14. Gorj 3,5 – 4,5 1,8 – 3,0
15. Harghita 3,3 – 4,0 2,0 – 5,0
16. Hunedoara 2,5 – 3,0 2,5 – 2,8
17. Iaşi 2,2 – 3,0 2,5 – 3,0
18. Ilfov 6,5 – 8,0 5,0 - 5,5
19. Mehedinţi 6,0 – 6,5 5,5 – 6,0
20. Mureş 2,5 – 4,0 3,0 – 5,0
21. Prahova 3,3 – 3,6 2,0 – 3,8
22. Sălaj 3,8 - 4 3,8 – 4,1
23. Satu Mare 3,0 – 3,5 2,7 – 3,0
24. Sibiu 3,2 – 4,0 3,2 – 3,8
25. Suceava 3,0 – 6,5 2,4 – 3,5
26. Teleorman 6,5 – 7,0 5,5 – 6,5
27. Timiş 3,0 – 4,0 2,5 – 2,6
28. Tulcea 3,4 – 4,5 -
29. Vâlcea 3,5 – 4,5 2,8 – 3,5
30. Vaslui - 3,2 – 3,4
31. Vrancea - 4,0 – 5,0
Source: Lumea Satului Magazine no. 18 – September 2007
The same situation is maintained also at the beef meat, during the same
period, with minimum values of 1,5 – 2,0 lei/kg in the counties Arad, Bacău,
Braşov, Buzău, Covasna, Gorj, Harghita, Prahova and maximum values between
5,5 – 6,5 lei/kg, in the counties Ilfov, Mehedinţi şi Teleorman.
At the beginning of the year 2006, the situation of comparative price for
the poultry meat (alive chicken, carcass griller) at the level of EU states was as
follows (table 7):
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Table 7
Prices for the alive chicken meat and griller in sme EU countries (2006)
No. Country Medium price/ Medium price Report price

alive chicken carcass griller carcass/ price
(eurocents/kg) (eurocents/kg) alive chicken
1. Czech Republic 68,5 138 2,01
2. Slovakia 66,5 152 2,28
3. Hungary 64,0 140 2,19
4. Poland 62,0 95 1,53
5. Germany 64,0 171 2,67
6. The Netherlands 62,3 141 2,26
7. Belgium 60,3 123 2,04
8. Denmark 52,3 158 3,02
9. Average of the 8 states 62,5 139,5 2,23
10. ROMANIA 71 154 2,17
Source: Avicultorul Magazine, no. 3, September, 2006
From the dates presented before it results that, in Romania, the alive
chicken price was with 13,6 % larger than the average of the 8 EU states,
respectively with 10,4 % higher for the carcass griller (65 % profitability rate).
This is due, first, to the reduced productivity rate registered in Romania in
comparison to the developed EU states, as well as to the influence of subventions
for the production of poultry meat, which, in the EU countries is much larger, thus
contributing to the reduction in the production cost.
The main causes determining these very large variations for the alive pork
and beef meat are as follows:
- Financial instability at the level of areas and at a national level;
- The atmospheric conditions – lack of spring – summer rains during
long periods in connection to short blasts of abundant rains and
floods which affected the crops necessary for feeding the animals;
- The elevated price of fodder;
- Area differences between the consumption habits;
- Development differences between the regions from national and
county level etc.
In perspective, in Romania, the beef meat market will be characterized
by the following features:
- Increase of the medium weight at killing of the animals;
- A slight revigoration of the consumption of beef meat per inhabitant;
- Development of the production financing systems, by accessing
European funds;
- Sustaining the producers by promoting the rural credit and creation
of conditions favourable to the development of the production;
- Implementation of sustainable development programs in the
disadvantaged areas, so on.
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The pork meat market will be characterized by the following aspects:

- the number of killings will be determined by the duration of production
cycle (10 months), correlated with the percentage of porcines fattened in
the total of livestock;
- the medium weight of porcine at killing will tend to grow easily, getting
close to the present average registered on the market of the European
Union (90 kg/animal);
- rectification of consumption/inhabitant;
- decrease of internal self-supply degree with pork meat, due to the high
level of consumption and the increase of import.
In the context of Romania’s accession to the EU, the development of the
poultry meat market will align to the general policy of relaunching the Romanian
animal breeding. The main objective of the strategy for the development of
Romanian poultry breeding will pursue the insurance of a medium consumption
per inhabitant from the urban environment will ensure a medium consumption per
inhabitant from the urban environment of 20 kg poultry meat and 235 eggs, from
which 95-97% from the internal production.
In the future, the poultry meat market will be characterized by the
following aspects:
- an increase of production, to the level of 400 thousand tons, following an
increase of the medium weight at slaughter, to 2,0 – 2,4 kg/poultry;
- an increase of consumption, but in a more rapid rhythm than the one
of the production;
- maintaining the imports at a constant level.
On medium term, the meat consumption will have a growing tendency,
oriented especially to the fresh or refrigerated meat for the human diet
(approximately 74 %) and only in proportion of 20 %, for industrial processing.
During 2004-2006, the import-export of foods and alive animals had a
growing trend, with a completely uneven report (table 8).
For example, in the year 2006 the foods and alive animals import
represented 4,5 % from the total of imports, while, in the same year, the export of
foods and alive animals occupied only 2,2 %. Also, the ratio between the export
and the import, for „foods and alive animalsi”, was of 1:3,25.
Also, the ratio between the export-import was also fully inadequate at
„meat and preparations of meat”, which, in the year 2006 reached 1: 13,81. At
the „export-import of „alive animals”, the phenomenon was inversed, being
registered a report between 4,13 : 1.
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Table 8
Evolution of the import-export of Romania, with foods and alive animals,
during 2004-2006
No. Denomination of product 2004 2005 2006 %/2004
IMPORT – mil. Euro
1. Total import, from which: 26281 32568 40746 155,0
2. - foods and alive animals, from 1297 1528 1833 141,3
which:
3. - alive animals 24 35 37 154,2
4. - meat and meat products 270 490 511 189,3
5. - fish 48 71 88 183,3
6. - other products and food 955 932 1197 125,3
preparations
EXPORT – mil. Euro
7. Total export, from which: 18935 22255 25850 136,5
8. - foods and alive animals, from which: 404 489 563 139,4
9. - alive animals 141 142 153 108,5
10. - meat and meat preparations 32 34 37 115,6
11. - fish 2 2 3 150,0
12. - other products and food preparations 229 311 370 161,6
CONCLUSIONS
1. During 2000-2006, the evolution of animal stock had a decreasing trend, with
the exception of caprinae and poultry, at which the stocks were growing.
2. The percentage of expenses with food products was pretty high, ranging
between 42,0 % (for employees) and 62,5 % (for agriculturers), expressing a
low life level.
3. The total production of alive meat was fluctuant, with the amplitude of 1385 –
1659 thousand tons, the highest increases being registered for the poultry
meat.
4. The annual medium consumption of meat per inhabitant marked an increase
of 9,2 %, with differentiations ranging between 10,2 %, for the poultry meat
and 19,0 %, for the pork meat.
5. The level of prices for the alive meat (minimum and maximum) was
differentiated per species and per counties.
6. Import – export of foods and alive animals was dominated by import (with the
exception of alive animals), the medium report in the year 2006 being of
3,25 : 1, and for meat and meat preparations it reached 13,81 : 1.
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BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Avarvarei I., Macovei Gh., 1997 – Agriculture and market economy in the context of EU
accession. Scientific paper, U.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 40, series Agronomy.
2. Bacter Ramona-Vasilica, Ruge Maria, Gîndu Elena, Chiran A., Roşoga D., 2005 –
Marketing planning at S.C. AVICOLA S.A. Oradea, Bihor County. Scientific paper U.S.A.M.V.
Iaşi, vol. 48, series Animal breeding.
3. Bacter Ramona-Vasilica, Bacter C.-F., Ruge Maria, Gîndu Elena, Chiran A., 2007 – Some
aspects regarding the consumer and product relationship on the market of Oradea city.
Scientific paper U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 50, series Animal breeding.
4. Bacter Ramona-Vasilica, Bacter C., Gîndu Elena, Chiran A., 2007 – Marketing planning
for supply with meat products of the Oradea municipal town market, in 2010. Scientific paper
U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 50, series Agronomy.
5. Brad, I., 2002 – Political and agrarian regulations regarding the price policy in Romania.
Price policy. Scientific paper U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 45, series Agronomy.
6. Bran Florina, Apostol Gabriela, 1997 – Food policy – an absolute priority. Tribuna
economică Magazine, no. 16, Bucharest.
7. Chiran A., Ciurea I.V., 1996 – Organisation du marché de produits agroalimentaires en
Roumanie: présent et tendances futures. Dans vol. „La gestione dell’ impresa agricola
rumena nella transizione verso l’economia di mercato”. Ed. Conquiste, Bologna, Italia.
8. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, 1999 – Theoretical approaches regarding the establishment, policy
and strategy of prices within market economy. Scientific paper U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 42, series
Agronomy.
9. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, Banu A., Ciobotaru Elena-Adina, 2004 – Market of agricultural
and agroalimentare products – a theoretical and practical approach. CERES Publishing
House, Bucharest.
10. Dona, I., 2002 – Management of rural development. Economica Publishinh House, Bucharest.
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perspective of European agrarian approach. Scientific paper, U.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 38, series
Agronomy.
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dans la perspective de l’adheration de la Roumanie a l’Union Européenne ( II. – L’élevage des
animaux ). Scientific paper, U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 43, series Agronomy.
13. Gîndu Elena, Chiran A., 1998 – Aspects regarding the offer and consumption of the main
poultry breeding products worldwide and in Romania. Scientific papers, U.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol.41,
series Agronomy.
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paper U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 47, series Agronomy.
15. Otiman, I.-P., 1999 – Reorganization of agriculture and rural development of Romania in the
view of accession to the European Union – points of view. Agroprint Publishing House,
Timişoara.
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BACK
THE EFFICIENCY OF THE UTILIZATION OF

ELEMENTARY SELENIUM ADDITION TO THE RATIONS
OF WATER AND FODDER FOR CHICKENS
Larisa CAISÎN
Almost all off the fodders don't provide necessity in selenium.

Micro supplements of selenium salts into chicken’s ration favor
stimulation of growth. Necessity in producing of mixed food with
supplement of selenium for chickens are obvious.
In order to study the efficiency of the utilization of selenium
addition in the chicken rations we have done a scientific and farm
experiment. During the experiment an addition of selenium at the level
0.25mg/kg of dry substance with fodder and water was added to the
rations of the chickens in the experimental group. The data on the live
mass have shown that the live mass of the chickens in the experimental
groups was greater in comparison with that in the control group.
In our experiments, in using selenium supplements in mixed
food for quick-growing chickens we also got positive results in body
mass, spending of fodders and preservation, but it is necessary to
continue research.
INTRODUCTION
The biological qualities of selenium have been used as a basis for a large
utilization in prevention and treatment of many diseases. Its influence on different
functions of the body depends much on the strong binding of this microelement
with a component part of the body, namely sulphur.
Selenium has the capacity to replace the sulphur in sulphuretted bindings, and
to influence intensively the proteinic metabolism of sulphuric amino-acids.
There is a synergy between the selenium and alphatocopherol which is
characterized by reciprocal decrease of the necessary quantity in them, but it
doesn’t lead to the replacement of the activity of each other (2).
The diseases brought about by the deficiency in selenium are wide spread and
cause considerable economic losses. These diseases are: myopia, diathesis,
arthritis, parodentosis, etc.
The rations for fowls and chickens are poor in selenium. Many authors
consider that the minimum necessary quantity of selenium for fowls must be of
0.08 mg/kg (7,8,9,10,11).
In Grobovschi’s experiments the best results were obtained when to the rations for
chickens of the age from one to sixty days sodium selenite in the quantity of 0.2 mg
and vitamin E in the quantity of 10 mg per 1 kg of dry fodder were added (3).
Odinet’s and Tomschih’s researches (1976) (6) proved that when the sodium
selenite (0.2 mg/kg) was added to the complex fodder the chickens received extra
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0.1 mg of selenium per head a day. Selenium given per bone in the same quantity
did not influence negatively on the hematological indexes, anatomical system of
internal organs, and productivity. At an admissible norm for a person, namely
0.05 mg of selenium per 24 hours, its content in the poultry meat and liver is of
admissible limits. Therefore, the fowls that have been fed with the addition of
sodium selenite (0.2 mg/kg of complex fodder) can be used in alimentation
without restrictions (5).
Selenium poisoning is registered when the quantity of selenium is more than
15 mg/kg per body mass (12). In USA, Canada and England the selenium quantity
for broiler chickens is of 0.10-0.15 mg/kg (16).
In connection with this fact, it is necessary to determine the quantity and
methods of adding selenium to the fodder for chickens. The study of the impact of
elementary selenium admixture on the fowls growing was the aim for these
researches.

In order to study the efficiency of the elementary selenium addition (with
water and fodder) for chickens in the conditions of an individual farm researches
were carried out during the period from 08.03.07 till 06.06.2007.
To perform the experiments there were used chickens, the crossbreeds of two
hen breeds of mixed productivity – Silvery Adler and Jubilee Cucinsc, reared at
the individual enterprise “Victor Harin”.
The chickens for the experiment were selected using the method of analogues
groups (of a single breed, age, weight, etc.) taking as a guide the “Methodical
directions regarding the undertaking of scientific and experimental researches on
fowl feeding (15).”
The researches lasted ninety days which were divided into two periods: I
period – 41 days; II period – 42-90 days.
The selected chickens were divided into three lots 20 heads each.
The scientific and experimental researches regarding the efficiency of the
impact of the selenium addition to the rations of fodder for chickens were carried
out using the following scheme (Table1).
Table1
The scheme of scientific and experimental researches
Lots n Alimentation characteristics

witness 20 BR – Basic ration
I – experimental 20 BR + Selenium (0.25 mg/kg of dry substance) given
together with fodder
II – experimental 20 BR + Selenium (0.25 mg/kg of dry substance) given
together with water
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One of the peculiarities of the chicken feeding in the first experimental lot was the
fact that they were given in addition to the main fodder ration elementary selenium in
the proportion of 0.25 mg/kg of dry substance of the total quantity of fodder.
The difference of the chicken feeding in the second experimental lot was that
they were given elementary selenium in the proportion of 0.25mg/kg of dry
substance together with water.
The breeding conditions of the chickens in the witness lot as well as of those in
the experimental lots were similar.
It was used the breeding on permanent floor/ground with the air humidity of
70-75% and an average air temperature of 24-26°C.
The feeding was done by balanced rations in accordance with the “Norms and
rations of agricultural animals breeding (4)
The live mass of the fowls was appraised by individual weighing at the
beginning of the experiment (at the age of one day), after 7 days, and at the end of
each experimental period.
The used quantity of fodder for the specific consumption was calculated on
the basis of the data about the live mass and fodder consumption.
The chicken viability was appraised keeping a record of dead chickens.
The slaughter of the chickens was done in accordance with the “Methodical
recommendation for undertaking scientific researches on fowl feeding (15)”, and
the poultry quality was appraised in accordance with the “Methodical studies of
poultry meat and poultry meat products” (1).
The obtained results were worked out statistically.
THE RESULTS OF THE RESEARCHES

The chicken feeding was done according to the complex rations which were
prepared purposefully for the given studies taking into consideration each period
of age and live mass. Fodder grown and spread in the given climatic zone was
utilized to prepare them.
The quantity of selenium in the rations was calculated using the data from
different books.
The data about the quantity of selenium in the rations for chickens with the
record of the utilized selenium addition are shown in the following table (table 2)
The daily minimum consumption of fodder and nutritive substances by a
chicken every experimental period showed that a chicken in the witness lot ate on
the average 45.15 g during one experimental period, and during the second
experimental period – 93.27 g; in the first experimental lot 45.39g and 93.49g
respectively; in the second experimental lot – 45.31g and 93.55g. The quantity of
the nutritive substances and the metabolic energy which were consumed
corresponded to the necessary norms.
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Table 2
The content of selenium in the rations (mg/kg of dry substance)
Indexes Groups
witness experimental
The quantity of selenium in the main experimental rations, 0.0073 0.0073
mg/kg of dry substance
The quantity of elementary selenium added to the rations of - 0.25
the I experimental period, mg/kg dry substance
The total selenium quantity in the main experimental rations, 0.0073 0.2573
mg/kg dry substance
The quantity of selenium in the rations of the II experimental 0.0085 0.0085
period, mg/kg dry substance
The quantity of elementary selenium added to the rations of - 0.25
the II experimental period, mg/kg dry substance
The total quantity of selenium in the rations of the II 0.0085 0.2585
experimental period, g/kg dry substance
The data about the live mass shows (table 3, diagr. 1) that it was bigger
(B=0.999) at the chickens in the first experimental lot. Generally, during the
experimental period the live mass in the first and second experimental lots in
comparison to the witness lot increased respectively with 36g and 22g or 3.4% and
2.1%; the average daily growth in the witness lot being 11.64g, and in the first and
second experimental lots – 12.01g and 11.86g respectively, which is 3.1% and 1.9%
greater. The difference of the body mass between the first and second experimental
lots was 14g (B=0.999); taking into account that the daily average growth in the
first experimental lot was 1.2% greater than in the second experimental lot.
Table 3
The live mass (M±m) and the daily average growth of the experimental chickens
Live mass of a chicken, g
Experimental periods witness I II
experimental experimental;
At the beginning of the experiment 35.9±0.15 36.02±017 36.05±0.03
At the age of 7 days 77.10±0.36 77.13±0.24 77.02±0.17
At the end of the first experimental 468.3±0.68 472.17±0.95 471.12±0.69
period (41 days)
At the end of the second experimental 1081±0.99 1117±0.64* 1103±0.79**
period (90 days)
The mass growth, g:
total 1045 1081 1067
average 11.61 12.01 11.86
*B = 0.99 **B = 0.999

* – in comparison with the witness group;
** – in comparison with the first experimental group.
- 458 -
1117
1081 1103
1200
1100
1000
900
800
700
grams
468,3 472,17 471,12

600
500
400
300
77,1 77,12
200 77,1 36,05
35,9 36,02
100
0
wotness lot experimental lot I experimental lot
At the beginning of the experiment At the age of 7 days

At the end of the first period (at 41 days) At the end of the second period (at 90 days)
Diagram1. The dynamic of the live mass and the daily average growth of the
The data about the body mass and fodder consumption gave the possibility to
calculate the fodder utilization per a growth unit of live mass (tab. 4).
Table 4
Fodder consumption per one kg increase in weight of body live mass
Lots
Indexes
witness I experimental II experimental
Fodder consumption per 1 kg of increase:
kg 3.65 3.48 3.55
% 100 95.3 97.2
In table 4 it can be observed that the fodder consumption in the first and
second experimental lots was lower with 4.6% and 2.7% respectively in
comparison with the witness lot.
The analysis of the table 4 shows that the chicken viability in the first
experimental lot was greater in comparison with the two others with 2.5%.
At the end of the researches the chickens were slaughtered. On this purpose
three heads which had the same live mass, age and fattening capacity were
selected from each lot. In table 4 and diagram 2 there are given the data about the
chicken carcass weight obtained at their slaughter.
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Table 4
The results of chicken slaughter, g
Lots
Indexes witness I experimental II
experimental
The weight of uneviscerated carcass 989.4±4.9 1023.8±4.7 1011.4±4.9
The weight of semieviscerated carcass 808.3±4.6 836.4±4.0 826.3±3.9
The weight of eviscerated carcass 719.4±3.6 744.4±3.4 735.4±5.1
*B = 0.95
The analysis of the results of the chicken slaughter showed that the eviscerated
carcass weight in the first experimental lot was 744.4±3.4g, in the second
experimental lot it was 735.4±5.1g, which is 3.4% and 2.2 % greater respectively
in comparison to the witness lot (B=0.95). The difference between the eviscerated
carcass weight in the first and second experimental lots was 9g or 1.2%.
1200
989 1023,8 1011,4
1000
808,3 836,4 826,3
800
gram
600 719,4 744,4 735,4
400
200
0
Control group I experim ental group II experim ental group
The mass uneviscerated chicken The m ass of sem ieviscerated chicken

The mass of eviscerated chicken
Diagram 2. The results obtained at the chicken slaughter
At the addition of elementary selenium in the chicken rations the mass of the
internal organs increased together with the body live mass and the carcass mass. In
the table 5 it can be observed that the chickens in the second experimental lot have
the largest weight of liver and predominate the witness and the first experimental
lots with 3.5g (B=0.999) and 0,6g respectively. The greatest heart weight was
observed in the first experimental lot which is greater than in the witness and
second experimental lots with 5.1g and 4.1g. The muscular stomach weight as well
as the liver weight is greater in the first experimental lot, in comparison to the
witness and the second experimental lots with 2.5g and 0.2g respectively.
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Table 5
Weigh difference of the edible and inedible parts of the carcass
Lots
Indexes witness I experimental II experimental
The mass of edible parts:
- liver 24.8±0.15 27.7±0.19 28.3±0.23
- heart 17.5±0.11 22.6±0.69 18.5±0.51
- muscular stomach 39.3±0.21 *41.6±0.45 41.8±0.38
The mass of inedible parts:
- head 51.3 51.3 53.0
- legs 54.3 52.7 54.1
- wings (until the elbow) 51.6 52.6 51.6
The chemical composition of the chicken meat was found calculating the
quantity of water and dry substance in order to appreciate the meat quality.
The results of the appraisal are shown in the next table.
The appraisal of the chemical composition of the chicken meat showed that a greater
quantity of water was found in the chickens in the first experimental lot – with 1.8%
more (B=0.95), which is 0.73% higher in comparison with the two other lots.
Table 6
Composition of chicken meat
Lots Marking numbers It contains, in %
of chickens water dry substance
4 73.2 26.8
Witness 7 69.5 30.5
11 71.6 28.4
On the average 71.4±1.07 28.6±0.78
3 73.5 26.5
I experimental 5 72.4 27.625.9
9 74.1
On the average 73.2±0.51 *26.7±0.49
1 70.6 29.4
II experimental 7 74.1 25.9
8 72.7 27.3
On the average 72.47±1.02 27.5±1.02
*B = 0.95
The assessment of the chicken meat quality was also done. The water binding
capacity in the chicken meat was appraised using the pressing method (table 7).
The percentage of the bound water in the test was appraised using the
formulas:
X1 = (M- 8.4S) x 100/m°
X2 = (M- 8.4S) x 100/M
where X1 is the percentage of bound water in the minced chicken meat, % per
chicken meat mass; X2 – the same at the total quantity of water; M is the total
mass of water in the test, mg; S is the surface of the moist spot, mg; m is the mass
of the chicken meat test, mg.
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Table 7
The results of the assessment of the water binding capacity in the chicken meat
The The proportion of bound The proportion of
Lots No. of surface of water in the minced bound water, % per
chicken the moist chicken meat, % per total water
spot, cm2 chicken meat weight
7 6.6 54.7 74.7
Witness 4 5.6 53.8 77.4
11 5.8 55.3 77.3
On the 6.0±0.3 54.6±0.43 76.5±0.88
average
3 8.5 49.7 67.6
I 5 8.4 48.9 67.5
experimental 9 8.7 49.7 67.1
On the 8.6 ±0.1 49.4±0.26 *67.4±0.15
average
1 6.4 52.7 74.6
II 7 7.1 54.2 73.2
experimental 8 6.7 53.9 74.2
On the 6.7±0.2 53.6±0.45 **74.0±0.42
average
*B = 0.99 **B = 0.999
Using the results of the assessment of the water binding capacity it was found
that in the first and second experimental lots the proportion of water bound on the
average with 107% and 2.5% (B = 0.99) was lower that in the witness lot. To assess
the capacity of water retaining a test of chicken meat well minced with the weight
of 6 grams was placed on the interior large part of a butyrometer, than it was
hermetically closed with a rubber tube and the narrow part of it was introduced into
a water bath at a boiling temperature for 15 minutes, after which the mass of the
eliminated moisture was appraised according to the butyrometer gradation.
Table 8
The results of the appraisal of the chicken meat
The capacity of The capacity of
Lots No. of chicken chicken meat to retain chicken meat to
water, % eliminate water, %
4 53.4 21.3
Witness 7 51.7 25.7
11 51.2 26.1
On the average 52.2±0.67 24.3±1.53
3 46.4 21.2
I experimental 5 46.6 20.9
9 46.5 20.6
On the average *46.6±0.81 20.8±0.18
1 51.5 23.1
II experimental 7 50.9 22.3
8 51.3 22.9
On the average 51.2±0.18 22.8±0.24
*B = 0.95
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BACK
The analysis of the data in the previous table 8 shown that on the average the
capacity of water retaining in the first and second experimental lots was more
reduced than in the witness lot with 109.7% (B = 0.95) and 1.9% respectively.
The difference between the experimental lots according to this index was 9.8%.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Elementary selenium addition to the chicken rations at a level of 0.25mg/kg
of dry substance influences well their growth and development; it also prevents
the illnesses caused by selenium deficiency.
2. Under the action of selenium addition the increase of live mass in the first
experimental lot in comparison to the witness one rose with 36g (3.4%) and in
comparison to the second lot – with 14g (1.2%); at a daily average increase in
weight of 11.61g in the witness lot, 12.01g in the first experimental lot, and
11.86g in the second experimental lot.
3. The utilization of elementary selenium at a level of 0.25mg/kg of dry
substance with fodder and water brings a supplementary income of 0.87 lei in the
first experimental lot and of 0.48 lei in the second experimental lot per chicken.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. L.V., Antipova, I.A., Glotova, I.I. Rogov “Metodâ isledovania miasa I miasnâh productov”,
Moscva, Colos, 2001, p. 376
2. W.C. Dutterman and R.D. Brown, Jr. Selenium Mineral Commoditz Profiles, 2004, p.20.
3. A.M., Grobovschii “Puti obespecenia ptiţâ selenom I vitaminom E”, Trudâ Vsesoiuznogo
zaocinogo seliscohozeaistvennogo institute, vâp. 71, 1973, p. 56-57.
4. A.P., Calaşnicov i dr. “Normâ I raţionâ cormlenia seliscohozeaistvennâh jivotnâh”, Moscva.,
Agropromizdat, 1985, p. 352.
5. S.N. Casumov. “Osnovâ primenenia selena v cormlenii seliscohoyeaistvennîh jivotnîh i ptiţî”, 1981.
6. R.N., Odâneţ Iu. I.Tomskih „Soderjanie selena v necotorâh organah ţâpleat i cur i scorosti ego
vâvedenia iz organisma”, Frunze, 1976, p. 236.
7. V.G. Sidiovschi. „Vlianie selena na iaiţenoscosti, vîlupleaemosti ţâpleat i sohrannosti”, 1973
8. N. Şcarin „Controli defiţita selena i vitamina E v organizme priţî”, Ptiţevodstvo № 1, 2004, p. 24.
9. N. Stutman “O metaboliceskih cviazeah vitamina e I selena”. Materialu po boihimii vitamina E I
selena I ih primeneniu v meditsine I jivotnovodstve. Kiev, 1973, p. 82.
10. A.R. Validman “Stimulriruişee deistvie solenovogo premixa na biologhiceschie pocazateli I
productivnosti cur”, 1979.
11. M. Voshida c. a. “Slenium content in single cell proteins and selenium deficiency in cicks feil
them as a sole protein sourse Yananese Poultry Sci, 1977, V 14, №6, p. 284-289.
12. I.V. Petruhin Primenenie selenita natria i selenometionina na ptisefabrike OGUP
«Sredneyraliskaia». Ptisevodstvo, 2003, № 3, p. 6.
13. I.I. Tsals E.E. ,Pelekis “Opredelenie selena v organah I tkaniah kur”. Veterinaria, 1973, №8, p.108.
14. N. Plohinski “Rucovodstvo po biometrii dlea zootehnicov”, Moscva, 1969, p. 135
15. Metodiceskie recomendaţii po provedeniu naucinâh isledovanii po cormleniu
seliscohozeaistvennoi ptiţâ”, Moscva, 1988, p. 15
16. vak.ed.gov.ru/announcements/selhos/shevchencovSA.DJC=
http://rds.yahoo.com/_ylt=Aogeu7ty
OnJGElsBkBVXNyoA
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BACK
THE EFFECT OF REPLACING THE ALFALFA MEAL

FROM THE COMPOUNDED FEED OF WHITE NEW
ZEELAND RABBITS WITH THE ARBOCEL PRODUCT
C. COMAN, Elena POPESCU – MICLOŞANU,
Cristina PÎRVULEŢ, Dorina PĂTRU, Minodora TUDORACHE
Considering the particular nutritive needs of the rabbits for the

level of the cellulose into the mix fodder, it was tried to find a new way
to satisfies those needs with a low price and a better profitability. In this
experiment it was replaced 8% of the alfalfa meal from the compounded
feed with the arbocel product. This is a source of celluloses obtained as
a wood sub product. At the end of the 4 weeks experiment, resulted that
the using of the arbocel product in the mix feed was good for the rabbits
production. He reduced the mortality rate by 15%, the weight gain and
the specific consumption were meaningful better The final conclusion is
that the compounded feed with arbocel can bee used in the alimentation
of the rabbits, but it is necessary to repeat the experiment for forded
clarifications of all aspects regarding his using.
INTRODUCTION
Modern technologies are using unconventional solutions for the
alimentation of the farming rabbits or for the human pharmaceutical industry.
Arbocel is one of those substances. It is made from wood and it can be use to
replace the lactose in the pharmaceutical tablets or to replace the alfalfa meal in
the animal nutrition.
Arbocel is a product lignin – cellulose, made from untreated wood. The
proportion of its composition is 2 to 1 (two parts of cellulose and one part of
lignin). The chemical and the physical proprieties of arbocel make this product
easy to be used in the fabrication of the compounded feed. He has a characteristic
yellow color and a granulate structure with a size of the granule of 8 mm, the
density is 380 – 500 g/l, the pH is between 4,5 – 6,5 and the hygroscopic point is
of 450 – 650 %. Arbocel brings to the animal nutrition a height level of lignin
(23%) and o small quantity of protein (1%). The proportion used in the
compounded feed of the rabbits is around 2 – 6 %.
In the rabbits nutrition this product was introduced in the 2005 ear by the
French researchers. At the end of the experiments was demonstrated that the
administration of 2% arbocel in the compounded feed of the rabbits has a lot of
advantages:
1. arbocel has a good gastric security and the majority of blind gut diseases
disappear. He has a big capacity of swelling and a good satiety;
2. Mortality percent drops with 17%;
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3. Animals are more stabile in the critical periods of the growing when
arbocel is putted in the compounded feed;
4. Weight gain is the same, but it is possible that the using the arbocel
product induces a better homogeneity of the rabbits body weight. In the
end it is expected to obtain a good percentage of quality carcasses;
5. Body weight of the rabbits was bigger in the stocks who use the
compounded feed with arbocel.
Taking in to consideration the presented advantages, this paper want to
analyze this new product to see the influence of the arbocel on the nutrition of the
rabbits, and to know if there are any secondary problems when it is used arbocel.
This product is use in our country for the first time in the 2007 ear in this
experiment

The experiment took place in the experimental station of the „
Cantacuzino Institute”. A population of rabbits represented the biological material
is represented by a population of White New Zeeland rabbits breed. The research
was made on a stock of 200 animals. 100 of them were fed with usual
compounded feed that contains alfalfa meal and the rest of them, were fed with
compounded feed who had the unconventional source of cellulose. This source
was the arbocel product.
The control diet with alfalfa contended 32% alfalfa meal and the
experimental one had 8% alfalfa meal and 8% arbocel. In the second diet it was
saved 8 percent of alfalfa because the researchers wanted to do an economic and
profitable compounded feed for the rabbits. Both diets had the protein level
between 15 – 16% and the cellulose one between 14 – 15%.
The animals were raised in an intermediary system between the
semiintensive and intensive one in a closed house with natural organized
ventilation and natural light, without heating, in wire mash cages.
The experiments tock place for a period of 4 weeks long and it was
registries: the initial weight, week weight, the amount of the used feed, the
mortality and the cause of mortality. The date have been processed by the usual
methods, calculating: the weekly corporal weight, the weight gain, the amount of
feed consumed daily, and the feed conversion.

The body weight evolution during the entire experiment is presented in
the table 1. Even the average body weight of the two batches were different in the
beginning of the experiment, the difference between them was no significant
assured.
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Table 1
The body weight evolution
Period Control stock Experimental stock

Week I 1.2971 ± 0.129 1.4407 ± 0.144
Week II 1.5515 ± 0.162 1.7335 ± 0.179
Week III 1.7637 ± 0.194 1.900 ± 0.207
Week IV 1.9582 ± 0.223 2.073 ± 0.227
In the final, resulted a living average weight of 1.9582 kg in the stock that
used the traditional feed and of 2.073 kg in the stock were the arbocel was used.
At the application of one Student test it was visible that in this case the
differences between the weekly averages bodies weights of the two batches where
not significant.
The main analyzed parameters had a steady evolution in the four weeks
experimental period. So, the weight gain was great in the first week in both
stocks. It reached 0,130 g/day in the control group and 0,258 g in the
experimental one. In the next tree weeks the weight gains were lower in the
control group, the differences between them being significant assured. In the
control stock, with alfalfa meal, the weight gain was lower, of 0.056 g in the
second week, and in the experimental stock, with arbocel, the weight gain was of
0.146g/day, almost triple. This situation was maintained in the following weeks.
2.5
1.5
0.5
0
I II III IV
Control stock Experimental stock
Figure 1 – The evolution of the body weight in the experimental period
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Table 2
The evolution of the analyzed parameters
Week Total
Stock
I II III IV period
Weight gain (g/day)
Control stock 0,130 0,056 0,052 0,044 0,071
Experimental 0,258 0,146 0,139 0,123 0,166
stock
Mixed feed consumption (g/head/ day)
Control stock 107,62 109,12 118,64 114,14 112,38
Experimental 119,01 113,73 111,2 109,35 113,32
stock
Feed conversion (kg/kg gain)
Control stock 5,78 6,26 6,10 7,00 6,29
Experimental 3,23 5,44 5,56 5,43 4,92
stock
The consumption of mixed feed on the entire period had approximate

equal values; the animals from the control stock registered an average value of
112.38g/head/day and the experimental stock a value of 113.32g/head/day. The
difference between the two stocks was of 0.94g, meaning 0.84%.
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
I II III IV
Control stock Experim ental stock
Figure 2 – The weekly evolution of the feed conversion
In figure 2 it is presented the week evolution of feed conversion. Feed

conversion was higher in the case of the rabbits fed with the diet with full alfalfa
meal and a lower level in the rabbits fed with arbocel. To realize one kilogram
gain weight, the rabbits from the control group need in average 6.29kg feed. The
rabbits from the experimental stock need only 4.92 kg. The difference between
the two stocks was significant of 1.37 kg.
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The analysis of the mortality is important for the experiment but also for
raising rabbits. So, it can be observed the bigger causes of mortality and to find
the solutions for the impediment
The percent of total mortality was higher in the control group, of 11.5
percent and lower in the experimental stock, of only 8.5 percent. It is remarkable
that on the first week the mortality was null in both analyzed batches. Total
percent of mortality of the total stock was big, of 20%.
The principal causes of mortality in the control stock where resulted from
metheorism and in the experimental stock both by the metheorism and other
unknown cases. Cannibalism is a rear cause who appeared in the experimental
stock, to a value of 1.5 % in the second week and 2.5 % in the third week.
Table 3
The percent of mortality from the initial stock (%)

Specification
I II III IV I II III IV
Metheorism - 3 2,5 - - 2 2 -
Cachexy - 0,5 - 3 - - - 0,5
Diarrhea - 0,5 1,5 - - - - -
Cannibalism - - - - - 1,5 2,5 -
Unknown causes - - 0,5 - - - - -
TOTAL on week 0 4 4,5 3 0 3,5 4,5 0,5
TOTAL on stock 11,5 8,5
TOTAL 20
0
I II III IV
control stock Experimental stock
Figure 3 – The evolution of the mortality from the initial stock
From the total mortality, the control stock recorded 57.5% and a lower
proportion in the experimental stock of 42.5%. The analyze of the weekly
mortality shows that the bigger part of mortality is recorded by the both stocks in
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the third week being of 22.5% from the entire stock. The mainly causes seem to
be metheorism and cachexy, with percentages of 15% each. The evolution of the
weekly mortality is presented in figure 4.
Table 4
Mortality percent by cause from total mortality (%)

Specification
I II III IV I II III IV
Metheorism - 15,00 12,50 - - 10,00 10,00 -
Cachexy - 2,50 - 15,00 - - - 2,50
Diarrhea - 2,50 7,50 - - - - -
Cannibalism - - - - - 7,50 12,50 -
Unknown causes - - 2,50 - - - - -
TOTAL on week 0 20,00 22,50 15,00 0 17,50 22,50 2,50
TOTAL on stock 57,5 42,5
(%)
TOTAL (%) 100
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
I II III IV
Figure 4 –The proportion of mortality by group
CONCLUSIONS
1. The body weight advanced relatively steady during the entire experiment for
both batches. At the application of one Student test it was visible that in this
case the differences between the weekly averages bodies weights of the two
batches where not significant;
2. The weight gain was great in the first week in both stocks. It reached 0,130
g/day in the control group and 0,258 g in the experimental one. In the next
three weeks the weight gains were lower in the control group, the differences
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BACK
between them being significant; for the entire four weeks period the feed
consumption was lover by 42.77% in the control group compared with the
experimental one;
3. Feed conversion was higher in the case of the rabbits fed with the diet with
full alfalfa meal and a lower level in the rabbits fed with arbocel. To realize
one kilogram gain weight, the rabbits from the control group need in average
6.29kg feed. The rabbits from the experimental stock need only 4.92 kg. The
difference between the two stocks was significant of 1.37 kg.
4. The percent of total mortality was higher in the control group, of 11.5 percent
and lower in the experimental stock, of only 8.5 percent. It is remarkable that
in the first week the mortality was null in both analyzed batches. Total
percent of mortality of the total stock was big, of 20%. The mainly causes
seem to be metheorism and cachexy, with percentages of 15% each.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bura M. – Ghidul crescătorului de iepuri de casă, Ed Ferma, Timişoara , 2004;
2. Bura M. - Iepurii de casă, creştere şi valorificare, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti, 1995;
3. Popescu - Micloşanu Elena - Creşterea iepurilor şi animalelor de blană, Ed. Tehnică Agricolă,
Bucureşti, 1998;
4. Popescu – Micloşanu Elena coord., coautori Bura M., Bud I., - Tratat animale de blană şi
iepuri, Ed. Bioterra, Bucureşti, 2002;
5. Stoica I., Liliana Stoica – Bazele nutriţiei şi alimentaţiei animalelor, Ed. Coral Sanivet,
Bucureşti, 2001;
6. www appropedia. Org/Back_Yard_and_Commercial_Rabbit_Production_3
7. www. rawfibreconcentrate. Com
8. www. jrspharma. de / Pharma / wEnglisch / PDF / Newsletter_ARBOCEL_0610. pdf
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BACK
RESEARCHES CONCERNING GRAZING CAPACITY AND

PASTORAL VALUE OF MEADOW FESCUE GRASSLAND
FROM SURDUC'S HILLS
Carmen Claudia DURAU, Al. MOISUC, I. PĂDEANU
This work presents a study on the pastoral value and grazing capacity
dynamics of grassland dominated by Festuca pratensis Huds. Vegetation
inventory is realized during three years. Even the pastoral value and grazing
capacity decrease a year to another, this grassland is framing in category of
good pastures from economic forage point of view.
INTRODUCTION
A distinct signification for grasslands has pastoral value as synthetic
indicator. In this way. this is used for the elaboration of the studies for grasslands
evaluation, and represents an important objective in evaluation ant typesetting of
the grasslands from our country (ANGHEL G.etal, 1978).
MATERIAL AND METHOD

This study is realized in Surduc's Hills area. Surduc's hills are places at
the base of the Poiana Ruscăi Mountains, being delimited hi east by Bega-
Luncani River, and in north by Bega River. Southern limit, to the mountains, is
following the alignment of the next localities: Crivina, Hauzesti, Gladna, Zolt,
and Tomesti. This limit is formed also from Sasa River valley to Crivina de Sus.
The contact with the mountain is realized through a powerful delineation and
through a series of contact depressions.
Festuca pratensis grassland is placed at 123 m altitude, south-west
exposition, having the coordinates 45°46'33" northern latitude and 22°05'51"
eastern longitude.
Determination were realized in the third decade of May, first decade of
July and first decade of September, obtained values being presented in table no. 1.
Vegetation is determined through square meter method (DAGET et
POISSONET, 1977) that leaded to the pastoral value calculation.
Pastoral value has next steps:
- multiplying specific volume (VS) for every species with its own quality specific
index (IS).
- Values obtained for every species are summed;
- total is divided to maxim mark accorded 5;
The index obtained for pastoral value (VP) has values from 0 in grassland without
forage value to 100 for seeded grassland (ideal).
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With the help of pastoral value can be determined grazing capacity after the next
formula:
Cp = VP x c (UVM/ha) in that:
VP - pastoral value ; c (coefficient) = 0.02 - 0.03 (for VP calculated with specific
contribution).

Usually plant communities dominated by Festuca pratensis may contain
species good or forage as are Poa pratensis, Agrostis capillaries, Trifolium
pretense, Trifolium repens, Lotus corniculatus, Medicago lupulina, Plantago
lanceolata. (POPESCU & BUJOREAN, 1957; GRIGORE, 1971).
0
60,00
1
9,50
2
17,00
3
3,00
4
6,00
5
4,50
% IS
Fig. 1.1 Species percentage from total number in function of economic importance
From those 29 inventoried species most of them (17%) have IS = 2, as are

Plantago lanceolata L., Taraxacum officinale Webe.,, Achilea milefolium L.,
Holcus lanatus L.,fig.1.1.
45
40
35
30
25
%
20
15
10
5
0
Fa r a
M ed. M el i fer e Da un. Toxi ce
va l oa r e
% 11 45 17 4 23
Fig. 1.2 Species percentage from total number in function of economic importance
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Near to the dominant species of this grassland Festuca pratensis Huds.,

were determined other species with excellent forage value (IS = 5), and very good
for forage as are Dactylis glomerata L. Trifolim repens L., Poa pratensis L., these
representing together 13.8%. Evaluating species after their economic importance
results that meliferous plants as Cichorium inyibus L., Mentha pulegium L.,
Myosotis arvensis, Vicia vilosa, Trifolium repens L., Symphytum officinale L.
Taraxacum officinale .Weber. were representative (45%) (figure1.2).
Table I. Pastoral value of Festuca pratensis Huds. grassland during three years of study
2005 pastoral values 2006 pastoral values 2007 pastoral values
May July September May July September May July September

47 46,5 46,3 42,3 42 41,9 39 38,5 38,3
Near to the dominant species of this grassland Festuca pratensis Huds, Were
determined other species with excellent forage value (IS = 5), and very good for
forage as are Dactylis glomerata L. Trifolim repens L., Poapratensis L., these
representing together 13.8%.
38,3
2007 38,5
39
41,9
2006 42
42,3
46,3
2005 46,5
47
M ai Iuli e Septembrie
Fig.1.3 Pastoral value dynamics of Festuca pratensis Huds. grassland
Fodder value of the participant species in vegetation carpet of the meadow fescue
grassland has an important role in pastoral value determination, and the dynamics
of pastoral value during these three years can be noticed in. table 1 and figure 1.3
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51
0 37
31
4
1 5,2
7
10
2 15
16
IS
1
3 1
2
10
4 13,8
14
24
5 28
30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
VS %
2005 2006 2007
Fig. 1.4 Graphic representation of specific volume of the plant species from Festuca
pratensis Huds. grassland in function of IS
BARBULESCU & MOTCA (1987) consider that pastoral value of Festuca pratensis
grasslands is high (50-75, respectively 2.5-4.5 (after coverage).In our case VP
reach at 47 in 2005, at 42 in 2006 and 38 in 2007, that is explained through the
analysis of the specific volume that is modified from a year to another figure 1.3.
In figure 1.4 can be noticed that species with excellent forage value in 2005 have
a specific volume of 30%, 28% in 2006 and 24% in 2007, species with very good
forage value that have decreased their specific volume.
1,15
2007
2006
1,26
2005
1,39
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6

UVM/ha
Fig. l.5 Graphic representation of grazing capacity (UVM/ha) during three years of study
With the help of pastoral value was possible to determinate the grazing capacity
that in 2005 was 1.39UVM/ha, in 2006 was 1.43 UVM/ha, and in 2007 was 1.2
UVM/ha (fig. 1.5).
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
Specific volume of the species with forage value is decreasing from a year
to another, this fact being explained through the vegetation degradation process.
After the pastoral value and grezing capacity analysis during three years
of study we can conclude that Festuca pratensis Huds. grassland can be framed in
the category of good grasslands from economic - forage point of view.
REFERENCES
1.ANGHEL GH., RAVANUT M., TURCUGH., 1971 - Geobotanica, Ed. Ceres, Bucuresti;
2.BĂRBULESCU C., MOTCĂ GH., 1987, Pajiştile de deal din Romania, Ed. Ceres Bucuresti;
3.BĂRBULESCU C., MOTCĂ GH., PU1A I., MOISUC AL., 1991, Culture pajiştilor si a
plantelor furajere, Ed. Didactică .si Pedagogică Bucuresti;
4.BORZA AL., BOSCAIU 1965, - Introducerea in studiului covorului vegetal, Ed. Acad. R.P.R.,
Bucuresti;
5. IONESCU I., 1997 - Cultura pajistilor si a planteior furajere, Reprografia Universitaţii din
Craiova.
6. MOISUC A., SAMFIRA I., CARRERE P.,2001- Pajisti naturale si exploatatii ecologice, Ed.
Agroprint,Timişoara;
7.SAMOILĂ Z. A., SAFTA I., GRIGORE S., POPA T., LAUER C., TEACI D., CR1ŞAN I.,
COSTE I., ARVAT N., OLTEANU D., CRISTOI L., 1979 - Pajistile din Banat, sporirea
producţiei si imbunataţirea calitaţiilor, MAIA Bucuresti;
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BACK
RESEARCH UPON ORAL ADMINISTRATION OF ORGANIC

SELENIUM TO DAIRY COWS
N. FLEANCU, I.M. POP
The researches related to selenium deficit in soil- plant- animal relation

are an important present-day topic at the international level due to the
development registered as regards the establishment of the biological role of this
oligo-element. Therefore, some tight correlations were established between
selenium deficit and the evolution of some diseases at taurines (as well as at
some other species), such as: nutritional miodystrophy, dietetic hepatosis,
miopathy and dispnea syndrome, abortions, infertility.
Moreover, it was noticed that Se has a very important role in
maintaining the efficiency of the antioxidant system; as a seleno-cysteine form,
Se forms the active centre of seleno-proteins. These proteins are completely
functional when the animal organism does not present selenium deficits, but this
requires a sufficient administration of this essential element within daily feed.
Assuring the biological necessary of Se significantly increases the level of
production, the reproduction indices and ameliorates animal health.
Taking into account that some geographical regions in Romania present
Se deficits, direct selenium supplementation for animals became a must being
considered an ordinary practice in breeding animals; still, if we consider the
latest researches related to Se, its administration form shall be reconsidered, as
nowadays the mostly used form of administration is anorganic. Still, the organic
form of administration is recommended in the future, especially as this form was
discovered to be very biodisponibility.
INTRODUCTION
The researches related to selenium deficit in soil- plant- animal relation
are an important present-day topic at the international level due to the
development registered as regards the establishment of the biological role of this
oligo-element. Therefore, some tight correlations were established between
selenium deficit and the evolution of some diseases at taurines (as well as at some
other species), such as: nutritional miodystrophy, dietetic hepatosis, miopathy and
dispnea syndrome, abortions, infertility.
Moreover, it was noticed that Se has a very important role in maintaining
the efficiency of the antioxidant system; as a seleno-cysteine form, Se forms the
active centre of seleno-proteins. These proteins are completely functional when
the animal organism does not present selenium deficits, but this requires a
sufficient administration of this essential element within daily feed. Assuring the
biological necessary of Se significantly increases the level of production, the
reproduction indices and ameliorates animal health.
Taking into account that some geographical regions in Romania present
Se deficits, direct selenium supplementation for animals became a must being
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considered an ordinary practice in breeding animals; still, if we consider the latest

researches related to Se, its administration form shall be reconsidered, as
nowadays the mostly used form of administration is inorganic. Still, the organic
form of administration is recommended in the future, especially as this form was
discovered to be very bio-available.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study, which results are presented in what follows, has aimed to
establish the efficiency of supplementing through oral administration with a
compound based on organic selenium (selenit yeast) for bovines. With this aim,
there have been made two groups/lots:
• group 1-cows and young cows experimental group : 12 gestant or/and
calved cattle
The animals from group one were administered a premix consisting of
organic Se and vitamin E on starch support. Each animal received on oral way
through administration in the first place of bran and combined forage, 25 grams
premix. Given the fact that 1 kilo of premix contains 0,16 g Se and 20000 units
Vitamin E, results that each animal has received a daily dose of 4 mg Se and 500
UI Vitamin E. The treatment on cattle lasted 8 months.
• group II-10 untreated cattle (witness lot).
At the experimental group the following were taken under observation:
► the dynamics of the seric content of Se and vitamin E compared to the
witness group
► the dynamics of selenium content in the milk compared to the witness
group
► the comparative evaluation of the Se status in hair samples taken from
the two lots
From the animals of both lots samples of blood were taken for blood
serum at 1, 2, 4, 7 and 8 months from the beginning of the study and it was
proceeded for the following conclusion:
◙ the Se content through the fluorimetric method with 2,3 diaminonaphtaline
◙ the vitamin E content through the modified Hashim method
As well, 8 months after the initiation of the treatment, there were taken
integrally from the animals from both groups blood samples. There were made
hematological and biochemical exams on the blood samples and blood serum
collected after 8 months of treatment.
In the same time with the blood samples from 2,7, and 8 months from the
beginning of the study, there have also been collected milk samples, both from the
experimental group and for the witness group and the content of Se was determined.
After 7 months of treatment, hair samples from the cattle were taken both
from the experimental lot and the witness lot and the content of Se was
determined.
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After finishing the 8 months of treatment, the administration of premix

with Se and vitamin E was stopped. After 30 days from finishing the treatment,
there were taken, both from the treated cattle and the untreated ones, blood
samples for blood serum and milk samples and the content of Se was determined.

The results obtained after the determination of selenium content for blood
serum samples, are presented on phases in table 1.
Table 1
Seric contents of Se in the experimental group
and in the witness group, on stages
Lot E3 Lot M3
Usage
period Variation Variation T Test
X s CV,% X s CV,%
interval interval
1 0.009- 0.006-
0.017 0.007 42.12 0.007 0.002 24.47 p<0.001
month 0.022 0.012
2 0.008- 0.006-
0.024 0.012 47.82 0.009 0.002 24.47 p<0.001
months 0.030 0.012
4 0.014- 0.003-
0.022 0.007 33.68 0.006 0.002 31.34 p<0.001
months 0.037 0.009
7 0.005- 0.007-
0.025 0.015 59.29 0.012 0.03 26.55 p<0.001
months 0.059 0.018
8 0.013- 0.006-
0.028 0.010 34.23 0.016 0.007 42.80 p<0.001
months 0.050 0.026
The obtained results emphasize the progressive increase of the seric

content of Se, at the experimental group E3, during the study. In this manner, after
only 30 days of administration an increase of the seric level of Se was recorded, at
the group E3treated (0,017 ± 0,007 ppm), compared to the witness group M3 (0,007
± 0,002 ppm), (p < 0,001).
After two months of administration, the seric content marked a new
increase, at the experimental lot E3 (0,024 ± 0,012 ppm), compared to the witness lot
M3 (0,009 ± 0,002 ppm). The maximum recorded value was of 0,022 ppm, after a
month of administration and 0,030 ppm after two months of administration.
The content of Se at the blood serum samples resulted from experimental lot E3
was after four months of administration of 0,022 ± 0,007 ppm, going far beyond
(p<0,001), the seric content of Se of the witness lot M3 (0,006 ± 0,002 ppm).
The maximum recorded value of the experimental E3 lot was 0,037 ppm,
compared to the M3 witness lot, when the latter did not go beyond 0,009 ppm. The
following laboratory investigations were done after seven months from the
beginning of the study.
From the data presented in table 104, it can be observed that the average
value of the selenium content at the experimental group E3 (0,025 ppm), recorded
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a small increase, but insignificant (p = 0,5) compared to the value determined

after the previous prelevation (0,022 ppm).
In comparison with the witness lot M3 , the Se seric content for the treated
lot E3 was significantly increased (p < 0,001).
The analysis on the individual values of Se seric content at the
experimental E3 lot , emphasized that 7 samples from 12 surpassed the minimum
level of 0,04 ppm (58,33 % from samples).
The maximum recorded value was, this time of 0,059 ppm, compared to
the previous prelevation, when it had the value of 0,037 ppm, which demonstrates
a slow accumulation, but progressive, of the selenium in the organism of the
animals taken under study.
The average value of the Se content increased slowly (with 0,028 ppm), but still
insignificantly (p = 0,38) compared to the previous prelevation at the experimental E3
lot, the difference from the witness M3 lot being very significant (p < 0,001).
The dynamics of the seric selenium content at the experimental E3 lot, of
cows treated is presented in figure 44, where it can be observed that, during the
period of administration of the premix based on organic selenium and vitamin E,
on starch support, the evolution of the selenium content at the cows from the
experimental group has recorded increasing values.
Thus, at the witness M3 group, little variations were recorded, due to the
diet differences unavoidable on a long period of time, when it was passed from
stabulation to grazing.
The recording of values almost unchanged for the Se seric concentration at
the untreated lot (witness M3 lot), constitutes a clue of a constant contribution, but
insufficient of Se, for the animals fed with forages to which supplements based on
Se were added.
0,03
0,025
Se seric(ppm)
0,02
0,015
0,01
0,005
0
1 lună 2 luni 4 luni 7 luni 8 luni
Lot E3 Lot M3
Fig. 1 The comparative dynamics of the seric contents of Se ( X ) for the cows in
groups E3 and M3
CONCLUSIONS
After the analysis of the obtained results regarding the administration of
compounds based on selenium, the following were recorded :
► the inorganic compounds have a reduced capacity to increase the content
of selenium in milk and colostrum, due to the reduced biodisponibility;
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BACK
► using organic supplements with organic selenium is more efficient for

metabolic transformations due to the increased biodisponibility;
► the transfer of selenium through the mammary gland during the first 10
days of life, is naturally enriched, the maternal organism mobilizes, even in
deficiency conditions, important quantities of selenium in colostrum and milk in
the first 10 days after calving.
► the supplementing of the oral compound which contains organic
selenium led to seric concentrations of selenium much bigger compared to the
control group, at the end of the study.
► the increased transfer of Se from milk, after supplementing with organic
Se assures an increased contribution in the organism, of this mineral for calves,
during the first days of life, assuring the premises for the improvement of the anti
oxidizing system for new-calved, in an important stage of the ontogenesis, when
the over production of free radicals can be extremely dangerous. This thing is
transposed in a better immunocompetency, thermoregulation, a better viability,
the growth of the corporal weight and development;
► the increase in the Se content from milk contributes to the improvement
of the nutritional value of the milk for the human too, which constitutes a better
argument in maintaining this choice of supplementing;
► the highly significant differences between the selenium concentration in the
hair samples, at the witness lot and the lot treated with organic selenium, is another
aspect which demonstrates the increased efficiency of this form of supplementing.
► the oral administration on a long period of the supplements with Se and
vitamin E led to a status of the microelement, at levels significantly increased and
constant in the organism, compared to the parenteral administration of compounds
with selenium and vitamin E;
► inorganic Se does not accumulate as selenomethionine in the muscular
tissue, but is passively absorbed at the intestine level and used for the immediate
synthesis of some selenoproteins, the rest being eliminated through urine;
► organic Se accumulates as reserves of selenomethionine in the muscular
tissue, and when the organism is under estates of stress and the Se requirement is
very increased, the respective reserves are mobilized through cellular proteazoms
of the proteic catabolism, preventing in this way the negative effects of the
overproduction of free radicals.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. M.P., 2002, Microelementele organice: drumul înainte, În: Ciclul de conferinţe Alltech pentru
Europa, Orientul Mijlociu şi Africa;
2. Pop I.M., 2002, Aditivi furajeri, Ed. Pim, Iaşi;
3. Pop I. M., 2006, Aditivi furajeri, Ed. Pim, Iaşi;
4. Reilly C., Selenium in Food and Health, Blackie Academic and Profesional, London, 1996;
5. Serdaru M., Vlădescu L., Avram N. J., 2003, Agr. Food Chem., 51, 4727;
6. Serdaru M., Vlădescu L., Vior Elena, Rev. de chimie, 2003 b, 54, 303;
7. Surai P. F., 2000, Organic selenium: benefits to animals and humans, a biochemist’s view. In:
Biotehnology in the Feed industry. Proceedings of 16th Alltech’s Annual Symposium, Edited
by Lyons, T.P. and Jacques, K.A., Nottingham Univesity Press, Nottingham, UK, p. 205 – 260.
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BACK
INVESTIGATION CONCERNING THE EFECT OF

ADMINISTRATION BioR PREPARATION ON BLOOD
LIPIDS METABOLISM IN SIRE BULLS
Vera GRANACI
The efficiency of microalgal preparation BioR administration in sire’s

bulls in the bloods lipids metabolism and androgens hormones synthesis was
studded. The BioR extract from Spirulina platensis have a more powerful
influence on lipids homoeostasis. BioR reduce considerably peroxidation of
bloods lipids, the amount of cholesterol and increase the blood concentration of
triglycerides and ß-lipoproteins. The results of the testosterone quantity show the
significantly increase when the BioR is administrated on dozes 0,1 and 0,4 ml/
100 kg bodily weight/day during 10 days.
INTRODUCTION
The investigation of micro algal preparation from Spirulina platensis was
successful placed on evidence numerous physiological and biochemical features
[1;3; 4] and an impact of the algal origin’s biological preparations on the
production [3; 5] and reproduction [1;3] performance of farm’s animals.
The purpose of our investigation is to be foreseeing the influence of
biopreparation – BioR from Spirulina platensis administration on bloods lipids
metabolism and the homoeostasis of the male sexual hormones in sire bulls.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

We have been investigated the effect of intramuscular administration of
biopreparation from Spirulina platensis on two groups, each of 5 bulls, formed
following the analogical principle considering the weight, age and usual
spermogram indexes. The preparation was administrated intramuscular on the
shape of the 5 % water solution, during 10 days in volume 0,1 and 0,4 mlo/100 kg
bodily weight/day.
Hawing as purpose the research of the bioprepartion effect from alga on
the bloods lipids homoeostasis and the genesis of steroids in both experimental
groups have been studded: the blood concentration of MDA, triglycerides, ß-
lipoproteins, the cholesterol and the testosterone. All these indexes have been
tested in the preexperimental period (50 days) and in the experimental period (60
days): 10 days of BioR administration + 50 days after ceasing of BioR
administration (the length of bull’s spermatogenesis cycle). For laboratory
analysis it was harvested the blood samples from the experimental sire bulls in the
respectively periods.
Triglycerides was established through method using the reagents from
”La Chema” (Brno) firm. The concentration of blood cholesterol has been
measured in accordance with the Illk method [2]. Blood’s lipoproteins
concentration has been estimated through nefelometry method [2]. The DMA
concentration in the gathered samples have been measured in accordance with the
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[7] method into the Biochemistry Laboratory of the Republican Center for extern
control of laboratory analysis quality.
The endocrine activity of testicles has been assessed in accordance with
the results of concentration measurement of circulating testosterone.
The testosterone’s concentration in the blood serum was determined in
accordance with the radioimmunological method utilizing the reagents “Ria-
testosterone”, (Minsk)on beforehand deproteinisation on the ether [6] in the same
Biochemistry Laboratory of the Republican Center.
RESULTS AND DISCUSIONS

Both, spares lipids and those circulates, considered a long time as relative
inert fulfils the relevant function on the intermediate and power metabolism. Under
lipids influence, in the body, there are stored or degraded to determining the
liberation of fates acids in the blood circuit [4]. The literature accounts denote that
the biological active preparation from microalga was influenced significantly the
metabolism of lipids, establishing the decrease of totals lipids concentrations, of the
cholesterol, of phospholipids and of triglycerides. In our case, the study of lipids
homeostasis is interesting for the following characteristics:, as a component part of
the plasmatic membranes, the composition of which predetermine the cryo resistance
of the seminal cells and as a forerunner of the androgynous hormones synthesis,
these being of steroid origin, there have the important physiological functions.
In accordance with the suggested purposed, we are analyzed the force of
circulating lipids peroxidation in the harvesting blood samples from bulls in the
preexperimental and the experimental periods (diag. 1).
Diag.1. The dynamic of blood lipid peroxidation on sire bulls under

influence of the BioR administration
3,74
4
3,12
3,5 2,95
3
DMA concentration, nmol/l
2,5 2,9 2,94 2,87
1,5
I gr (0,1 ml)
1
II gr. (0,4 ml)
0,5
0
PEP 10 days of BioR 50 days after ceasing BioR
administration administration
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The obtained data (diag. 1) denote that the most relevant modification of
the frees radicals chain reaction after administration of preparation BioR from
Spirulina platensis was detected on the sire bulls from the first experimental
group, which was received intramuscular, 0,1 ml bioextract/100 kg weight/day
during 10 days. The DMA concentration in the blood samples after 10 days of
administration of bioextract decreased with 16,58% given the preexperimental
period. Dosing the DMA concentration in the blood samples drayed 50 days after
ceasing the administration of biopreparation denote that the lipids peroxidation
has been continued to decrease with a difference of 5,45% comparative with
results registered after ceasing of biopreparation administration and with 21,12%
given the preexperimental period. When the volume of administrated doze was
increased till 0,4 ml/100 kg weight/day, the mooed effect under the chain reaction
of the blood lipids vas more poor. The content of DMA in the blood samples of
the experimental bulls has a tendency to increase with 1,38% given the
preexperimental period. DMA concentration in the blood samples of experimental
bulls, 50 days after ceasing of biopreparation’s administration, was decreased
given preexperimental period with 1,04% and adequate with 2,38% given
established value of this index at the end of administration. The doze dependent
effect of obtained results may be explained bye the effect of the light doze or
throughout individual features of the organism given stressresistance of
experimental bulls, because on the formation of the experimental groups was not
taken in consideration the type of nervous activity.
The effect of biopreparation from Spirulina platensis under the
homoeostasis of blood lipids was estimated more profound in accordance with the
dynamic of results of some lipids fractions, especially of the ß-lipoproteins,
triglycerides and cholesterol (diag. 2; 3; 4).
The obtained statistical materials relive that the biopreparation
administration effect manifests the dependence from the value of introduced doze.
In case when the volume of doze was constituted 0,1 ml the influence was more
relevant comparative with the effect produced by the administration of the volume
0,4 ml concerning all studded lipids fractions. On the bulls from I group has been
established an increase of blood ß-liporoteins content with 31,67% given the
preexperimental period. In the same conditions this index on the entertained bulls
with the more doze the efficiency was constituted 21,23% suitable (diag.2). The
same tendency has been noticed concerning the metabolism of blood triglycerides
(diag. 3) on the experimental sire bulls. The value of studded index in the blood
samples from the bulls of first group have been increased with 20% while in the
bulls from group II treated with the more dozes the increase constituted 5,13%
only.
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Diag.2. The dynamic of blood beta-lipoproteins under the

influence of BioR administration
60 52
44,25
50 39,5
36,5
beta-lipoproteins, un/l
40
30
20
10
0
I gr. (0,1 ml) II gr. (0,4 ml)
Preexp-l period Experim-l period
Diag. 3. The dynamic of blood triglycerides in experimental

sire bulls
0.39 0.41
0.45
0.4
0.3
0.35
triglycerides, mmol/l
0.3 0.25
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
I gr. (0,1 ml) II gr. (0,4 ml)
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The promising modifications where established given dynamic of blood

cholesterol concentration (diag. 4) after administration of biopreparation. In this
situation it was certified a meaningful decrease of cholesterol concentration on
the experimental period in blood of the sire bulls from first group with 24,30%. In
bulls from II group the increase constituted 11,92% comparative with the
preexperimental period. Thus the preparation BioR, modulate different the blood
lipids fractions taken in evidence, manifesting the anabolic effect given
triglycerides, ß-lipoproteins and the catabolic effect concerning the cholesterol.
Because the male sexually hormones are of steroid origin the decrease of blood
cholesterol after administration of BioR has been suggested the idea to study the
serumal androgenic phone in the experimentally bulls. In this context we was
studded the concentration of the principal male sexual hormone – testosterone
(diag. 5).
Obtained dates relive that the administration of biopreparation from
Spirulina platensis was favored the testicular steroid genesis, expressed through
increase of concentration of circulating testosterone in the experimental sire bulls.
In accordance with the increase of degree of metabolisation of cholesterol in the
bulls from first group with 19,55% has been intensified the synthesis of
testosterone from the Leydig cells and consequently the circulate testosterone
concentration was increased with 150%. In the same conditions the circulate
testosterone on the sire bulls from II group was increased with 47,78% only on
the phone of decrease of blood cholesterol in the preexperimental period and with
10,66% reported to the preexperimental period.
Diag.4. The influence of BioR administration under blood cholesterol

concentration
4,91
5
4,5 3,95
Cholesterol concentration,
4 3,19
3,5 2,8
3
mmol/l
2,5
2
1,5
1
0,5
0
I gr. (0,1 ml) II gr. (0,4 ml)
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BACK
Diag.5. The dynamic of circulating testosterone concentration
25 20,1
15,47
20 13,54
cholesterol, nmol/l
15
6,39
10
0
I gr. (0,1 ml) II gr. (0,4 ml)
Preexper-l period Experim-l period
CONCLUSION
The algal BioR preparation:
◄ produce an beneficent effect given the physiological blood antioxidant system
consequently, inhibit the chain reaction of frees radicals of blood lipids
peroxidation and thus reduce the blood quantity of DMA;
◄ reduce considerably the amount of cholesterol and increase substantially the
blood triglycerides and ß-lipoproteins concentration;
◄ has an stimulatory effect on the hypothalamus-hypophysis-testicle system for
the testosterone secretion and the initiated effect persist during 50 days after
ceasing of the BioR adsministration;
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Caragia Svetlana Homeostazia lipidelor, proteinelor, glucidelor sanguine şi funcţia sistemului reprouctiv
masculin sub influenţa preparatelor biologic active de origine algală. – Chişinău, 2001. – 24 p.
2. Dinu V., Truţă E., Popa-Cristea A., Popescu A. // Biochimie medicală. Mic tratat. – Bucureşti:
Ed. Med., 1996. – p. 448 – 456.
3. Macari V. Aspecte fiziologo-metabolice ale acţiunii preparatului BioR de origine algală asupra
organismului porcin //Autoref. Tezei d-r hab.]n ;tiin’e biologice. – Chişinău,2003. – 48.
4. Ramammorthy A., Premakumari S. Effect of supplementation spirulina on
hipercholesterolemic patients// J.Food. Sci. Tech, 1996, V. 33. N 2, p. 124 – 128.
5. Rudic V.F., Macari V., Gudumac V.S., Buza V. Influenţa preparatului BioR asupra sănătăţii şi
productivităţii iepurilor de puf //Tez. Conf. Jib. 25 ani de învăţămînt superior med. veterinar în
RM, Chişinău, 1999. – p. 55 – 34.
6. Липатова Л.В. Лабораторные критерии фертильности эякулята //Клиническая
лабораторная диагностика, 1998, № 5. – с. 11 - 15.
7. Pоманова Л.А., Стальная И.Д. Современные методы в биохимии. – М.,1977. – с. .6 3 - 66.
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BACK
FEEDING SOLUTIONS TO IMPROVE PIG MEAT QUALITY

Veronica HEBEAN, Mihaela HĂBEANU, Ionelia ŢĂRANU,
Daniela MARIN, Mariana ROPOTĂ, Viorica TAMAŞ
To increase to content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω3) in the meat

pig lipids and to avoid the lipid peroxidation processes, the compound feed for
fattening-finishing pigs was supplemented Camelina oil and an antioxidant
premix obtained from plants (buckthorn meal, flax seeds meal, topinambur flour,
kettle). Thirty Large White pigs with an average weight of 67 kg were assigned to
3 groups of 10 pigs each and fed for 42 days three compound feeds formulations:
group C received a compound feed made of conventional ingredients (corn,
sunflower meal, soybean meal, toasted soybeans); group E1 received a
compound feed made of ecological feed ingredients grown in certified ecological
farms (corn, sunflower meal obtained by cold pressing, toasted soybeans)
supplemented with Camelina oil (containing over 47% linolenic acid) obtained
by cold pressing; group E2 received the same compound feed as group E1,
supplemented with an antioxidant premix made from plants. The antioxidative
activity of the antioxidant premix made from plants was determined by assaying
the extracellular synthesis of superoxide anion, which was lower in group E2
than in group E1, and by assaying the content of triglycerides which was
significantly lower in E2 than in E1. The fatty acids profile of the pig meat (leg
and longissimus dorsi) was assayed; a significant (three fold) increase of
linolenic acid (ω3) was determined in group E2 compared to group C.
INTRODUCTION
Among the nutritional components of the pig meat, lipids are the nutrients
with the most implications in cardiovascular diseases. Their quality, the ratio
between the saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, can modify the technological,
organoleptic and dietetic characteristics of the animal foods (Chilliard, 1999)
having a great importance in the development and progression of atherosclerosis.
The saturated fatty acids favour cholesterolemy, while the polyunsaturated fatty
acids (PUFA) increase the serum concentration of lipoproteincholesterol, growth
hormone and insulin and „HDL” intrafollicle cholesterol concentration.
The linoleic acid (ω6) is essential and it is precursor for the eicosanoids
and the linolenic acid (ω3) palys an important role in the structure of the lipid
membrane, particularly in the nervous tissue and the retina (Conquer and Holub,
1998). The lack of dietary linolenic acid (ω3) produces clinical symptoms of
deficiency, dermatitis included (The National Academy of Science, 2002). Due to
these benefits, the current recommendations is to increase the human consumption
of ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids up to a ω6 : ω3 ratio of 5 : 1 (Wiseman, 2006).
PUFA ω3 level can be increased by feeding the pigs flax seeds whose oil
has 50% PUFA ω3 (M. Kouba, 2003). The high level of polyunsaturated fatty
acids can produce reactions of lipoperoxidation, processes which affect seriously
the organism (blood vessel degradation, formation of aterom plaque and
thrombosis processes).
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Taking into account the fact that in Romania, pig meat consumption is
very high and the possibility to improve the fatty acids composition of the pig
meat changing thus the consumption of pig meat in the human diet, in this paper,
the compound feed for the finishing-fattening was supplemented with camelina
oil (feed plant related to the flax) which has over 46% linolenic acid and with an
antioxidant made of plants rich in polyphenols (buckthorn meal, flax seeds meal,
topinambur flour, nettle flour).
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Thirty Large White pigs from the experimental farm of INCDBNA-IBNA
Baloteşti, weighing in average 67 kg were assigned to 3 groups fed for 42 days
three types of compound feeds formulation, as follows:
- group C received a compound feed formulation based on conventional feed
ingredients (corn, sunflower meal, soybean meal, toasted soy meal);
- group E 1 received a compound feed formulation based on ecological feed
ingredients from farms with organic certification (corn, sunflower meal obtained
by cold pressing, toasted soybeans) supplemented by Camelina oil obtained by
cold pressing;
- group E 2 received the same compound feed formulation with similar feed
ingredients as in group E1 supplemented with an antioxidant made of plants by
S.C Hofigal Export-Import S.A: 60% buckthorn meal, 20% topinambur flour,
10% flax seeds meal, 10% nettle flour. Table 1 shows the chemical and
microbiological properties of the antioxidant premix.
Table 1. Physical-chemical and microbiological properties of the antioxidant premix

Characteristics Admitted traits
Aspect Granulated powder
Colour Brownish-green, pigmented
Taste Pleasant-sour
Smell Characteristic
Loss by drying g%, max. 9.0
pH of the watery extract at 450C 5.2-6.5
Heavy metals Admitted level in F.R. X
Identification
- carotenoids (β-carotene) According to pct.4.2.1.
- APFC According to pct.4.2.2.
Dozing :
- carotenoids (β-carotene) mg%, min 10.0
- ascorbic acid g%, min 0.1
- vitamin E mg.%g min 9.0
- total and reducing sugars g%, min 18.0 and 6.0
- total protein g%, min 17.0
- gross fibre max. g % 11.0
- APFC g%, min 0.3
Microbial contamination:
Total count of viable aerobe microorganisms:
- bacteria/g max. 104
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Table 2 shows the structure and quality parameters of the compound feeds
formulations based on NRC norms.
Table 2. Compounds feed formulation
Variant
Ingredients
C E1 E2
Corn* 69.60 59.60 57.60
Sunflower meal ** 8.00 15.00 15.00
Soybean meal 8.00 - -
Full fat soybean (toasted soybeans)*** 9.00 17.00 17.00
Camelina oil - 3.00 3.00
Antioxidant premix made from plants - - 2.00
Choline premix 0.10 0.10 0.10
Monocalcium phosphate 2.45 2.45 2.45
Feed grade limestone 1.45 1.45 1.45
Salt 0.40 0.40 0.40
Vitamin-mineral premix 1.00 1.00 1.00
Total 100 100 100
Calculated
Crude protein (%) 14.71 14.40 14.44
Metabolisable energy Kcal/kg 3107 3170 3146
Mj/kg 13.0 13.26 13.16
Lysine % 0.68 0.66 0.68
Methionine + Cystine % 0.55 0.54 0.58
Calcium % 0.99 1.02 1.04
Total phosphors % 0.85 0.90 0.94
* For groups E 1 and E 2 we used corn from farms with organic certification
** For groups E 1 and E 2 we used sunflower meal obtained by cold pressing from farms with organic certification
*** For groups E 1 and E 2 we used soybeans from farms with organic certification
Table 3 shows the fatty acids profile of the feed ingredients and finished
feeds.
Table 3. Fatty acids profile of the feed ingredients and finished feeds
Fatty acids Full fat Sunflower Camelina Antioxidant CF – E CF – E
Corn CF – C
(g/100 g GB) soybean meal oil premix 1 2
Saturated fatty acids: 11.29 11.82 6.05 4.45 21.06 11.46 8.70 9.37
- myristic (14:0) 0.28 0.07 0.07 0.00 1.26 0.46 0.09 0.10
- palmitic (16:0) 11.01 10.02 4.68 4.45 19.80 10.66 7.18 7.81
- stearic (18:0) 0.00 1.73 1.30 0.00 0.00 0.34 1.43 1.46
Unsaturated fatty acids: 88.71 88.19 93.61 95.55 78.60 88.22 91.30 90.63
- monounsaturated: 18.43 16.69 12.70 16.13 53.72 22.95 15.44 15.20
-myristoleic (14:1) 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 30.24 0.00 0.00 0.00
-oleic (18:1) 18.43 16.69 12.70 16.13 23.48 22.95 15.44 15.20
- polyunsaturated: 70.28 71.5 80.91 79.42 24.88 65.27 75.86 75.43
-linoleic (18:2) 70.28 65.20 80.86 24.51 9.06 62.51 67.61 64.65
-linolenic (18:3) 0.00 6.30 0.05 46.71 15.82 2.76 6.83 9.05
-arachic (18-4, n:3) - - - 8.20 - 0.00 1.42 1.73
Other fatty acids - - 0.31 - 0.34 0.32 - -
Saturated fatty acids /
1/7.83 1/7.46 1/15.47 1/21.47 1/3.79 1/7.69 1/10.49 1/9.67
Unsaturated fatty acids
Monounsaturated fatty
acids / Polyunsaturated 1/3.81 1/ 4.28 1/ 6.37 1/ 4.9 1/ 0.46 1/ 2.84 1/4.91 1/ 4.96
fatty acids
Fatty acids ω 6/ω 3 - - - 1.9 : 1 - 22.64:1 9.90:1 7.14:1
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The animals had free access to the feed (given in two meals) and water
throughout the experiment. Feed intake was recorded daily. The animals were
weighed individually at the beginning and end of the experiment.
The antioxidative activity of the premix was determined by the metabolic
activity of the neutrophils, extracellular synthesis of superoxyde anions and
biochemical determinations. Blood samples were collected every 20 days and in
the end of the experiment from 6 animals of each group. The following methods
of analysis were used:
1. Metabolic activity of the neutrophils. The blood was collected by
puncture of the jugular vein in Li-heparin vials. The lymphocytes were
removed by gradient separation in Ficoll-Histopaque; the lysis of
sediment erythrocytes produced neutrophils after successive rinsing with
PBS-gelatine (1% sol.). The cells were counted under the microscope
after staining in tripan blue and seeded on culture plates at 5x 106
cells/ml. MTT testing was done after 2h of cultivation in CO2 thermostat
(at 37oC, in atmosphere of 5% CO2) and the metabolic activity was
measured by reading the optical density at 570 nm wavelength.
2. Extracellular synthesis of superoxyde anions. The neutrophils were
isolated as shown above and the following reaction mixture in final
volume of 500uL was used.
Buffer Cytochrome Cells PMA
(10ug/mL)
No-cells control 400 100 - -
Cell control 300 100 100 -
M1-18 295 100 100 5
The reaction mixture was incubated for 20 at la 37 0C, in a water bath.
Reaction was stopped by centrifuging at 4oC, for 5 min. The result of
reaction was evaluated by DO reading at 535 and 550 nm. The results are
expressed in nmols superoxyde anions /1x107cel/20 min.
3. Biochemical determinations. They were made on blood serum using the
standard methods for the determination of triglycerides, cholesterol,
glycaemia, serum albumin and urea.
In the end of the experiment, 6 animals each were slaughtered from groups
C and E2 and samples of shank and longissimus dorsi were collected for analyses
to determine the dry matter, crude protein, fatty acids an cholesterol levels.
The experimental data were processed statistically and the Student test
was applied to determine the significance of the difference between groups.

The determination of the fatty acids in the feed ingredients (Table 3)
showed a high level of linolenic acid (46.71%) in the camelina oil, followed by
the antioxidant premix (15.82%, probably due to the flax meal).
- 490 -
The compound feeds had 6.83% linolenic acid for group E1, 9.05% for
E2 and just 2.76% for C. The higher levels of linolenic acid in groups E1 and E2
were due particularly to the higher level of linolenic acid due to the Camelina oil,
higher than the one obtained by C. O Leskanich et al. (1997) by adding rapeseed
oil and fish oil.
The antioxidative capacity of the premix made of plants was tested first
by evaluating the effect of the treatments on the metabolic activity of the
neutrophils. Even though the treatments didn’t produce a significant effect, Fig.1
shows that the Camelina extract determined a tendency of cell proliferation
increase, same as the concomitant administration of Camelina extract and
antioxidant mixture.
30
25
20
DO (λ=570 nm)
15
10
Control E1 E2
Fig. 1. Effect of the Camelina oil and of the antioxidant preparation on the metabolic
activity of neutrophils assayed by MTT test (after 42 days of treatment)
The effect of treatments on the oxidative stress was determined

subsequently. Fig. 2 shows that the Camelina extract increased significantly the
concentration of superoxyde anions (O2-) in the end of the experiment. The
presence of antioxidants decreased the concentration of these anions.
Gladine et al. (2007) obtained similar results by using as antioxidant an
extract of plants rich in polyphenols (rosemary, grapes, citrus and marigold fed to
mice treated with 15% dietary flax seeds oil.
- 491 -
O2- synthesized by the neutrophils (nmols)
0.7
Extracellular concentration of
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
Control E1 E2
Fig. 2. Effect of the Camelina oil and antioxidants on the synthesis of superoxyde anions
(O2-) by the neutrophils isolated from peripheral pig blood (after 42 days of treatment)
The supplementation with the oily Camelina extract didn’t have a

significant effect on the investigated serum parameters (cholesterol, glucose,
triglycerides, albumin and urea) (Table 4). The antioxidants depressed, however,
significantly the serum triglycerides in E2 compared to E1.
Table 4. Biochemical determinations
C E1 E2
20 days 42 days 20 days 42 days 20 days 42 days

Cholesterol 1.6 ± 2.3 ± 1.5 ± 1.9 ± 1.4 ± 2.2 ±
(mmol/L) 0.58 0.34 0.45 0.34 0.36 0.30
Tryglicerides 0.7 ± 0.8 ± 0.6 ± 0.8 ± 0.6 ± 0.6 ±
(mmol/L) 0.15 0.31 0.18 0.31 0.21 0.16
Glycaemia (mg/dL) 80.8 ± 97 ± 79.6 ± 77.6 ± 79.1 ± 88.4 ±
23.8 15.41 8.24 17.88 6.24 0.75
Albumin (g/L) 28.5 ± 29 ± 22.0 ± 36.2 ± 28.4 ± 32.1 ±
5.27 3.11 4.62 6.01 6.18 3.74
Urea (mmol/L) 5.6 ± 5.9 ± 5.4 ± 6.2 ± 5.5 ± 5.7 ±
0.82 1.35 1.78 1.30 0.97 1.92
Triglycerides are simpler lipids which compose the fats and they supply
energy. The increase of their concentration is produced by the same causes which
produce the increase of the total lipids, but the excess triglycerides are a much
higher risk for atherosclerosis. In our experiment, the decrease of the triglycerides
concentration resulted from the administration of antioxidants which suggests that
- 492 -
the used antioxidants play an important role in reducing the risk of

atherosclerosis.
The oxidative stress is one of the early signs of cell sufferance due to any
type of stress. The oxidative stress is characterised by the synthesis of free
radicals ROS which are usually degraded by the organism. When the capacity of
the organism to neutralise them is exceeded, ROS determines cell destruction by
cell oxidation. The superoxyde anion is one of the most important ROS. The
Camelina oil induced in our experiment the increase of superoxyde anions due to
the high concentration of polyunsaturated fatty acids, which favours oxidation.
The supplemental antioxidants determined the reduction of oxidation as shown by
the decreased level of superoxyde anions.
Carcass quality (Tables 5 and 6), which was the objective of this
investigation, was different in the two groups, particularly as concerns the fatty
acids profile and the cholesterol level.
Table 5. Gross chemical composition of Longissimus dorsi (LD) and shank
Specification C E2
Longissimus Shank Longissimus Shank
dorsi dorsi
Dry matter (%)* 29.62a 30.47a 29.95a 25.49b
Crude protein* 23.29a 19.45a 23.51a 20.89b
a a
Ether extractives* 4.95 9.38 5.13a 3.50b
a a
Gross ash* 1.06 3.58 1.11a 1.08b
* different superscripts, significant differences (P≤0.05)
The dry matter, protein, fat and ash content were closer between the two
groups for the LD, but for the shank, E2 had a significantly lower dry matter, fat
and ash content and a significantly higher protein content.
The protein and lipid content of the LD and shank from E2 and of the LD
from C were within the limits determined by Banu C. 2003, but lower than the
data reported by Favier 1995.
The supplement of Camelina oil and of antioxidant premix for group E2
modified significantly (P≤0.05) the fatty acids profile. The saturated fatty acids
(SFA) from the LD were in lower amount in group C, mainly due to the palmitic
acid. In the shank, the amount of SFA was significantly lower in E2. SFA amount
was lower in both groups to the values of Bout 1988, of 40.74 for the Large White
breed, and even below the average values of Rampon 1994, of 34.6% (cited by
Dinu I. et al. 2002). The amount of SFA in the meat from the two groups is close
to the values reported by Leskanich et al. in 1997, who tried to modify the fatty
acids profile in the pig meat by adding fish oil and rapeseed oil. Warmants, 1999
used full fat soybeans in growing-fattening pigs and obtained lower values for the
saturated fatty acids in some groups.
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Table 6. Fatty acids profile in longissimus dorsi (LD), shank and cholesterol level
C E2
Fatty acids g/100g fat Longissimus Shank Longissimus Shank
dorsi dorsi
Saturated, of which: 33.58a 30.23 a 36.44 b 25.73 b
- myristic 1.17 a 1.30 a
1.55 b 1.03 b
- palmitic 27.13 a 28.21 a
33.76 b 24.70 b
-stearic 5.28 a 0.72 1.13 b 0.00
Unsaturated, of which: 65.05 a 69.22 a 61.64 b 74.03 b
- monounsaturated: 54.51 a 54.94 a 49.91 b 52.51 a
- palmitoleic 2.23 a 2.59 a
2.79 b 1.89 b
-oleic 52.28 a 52.35 a
47.12 b 50.62 a
- polyunsaturated: 10.54 a 14.28 a
11.73 b 21.52 b
a
- linoleic 9.42 17.79 10.34 b 18.79 b
a
- linolenic 0.33 0.54 0.98 b 1.56 b
a
- C20: (4n=6) 0.79 0.95 0.41 b 1.17 b
a
Other fatty acids 1.37 0.55 1.91 0.24 b
Saturated fatty
1:1.94 1:2.29 1:1.69 1:2.88
acids/Unsaturated fatty acids
Monounsaturated fatty
acids/Polyunsaturated fatty 5.17:1 3.85:1 4.25:1 2.44:1
acids
Linolenic acid: linoleic acid 1:28.5 1:23.69 1:10.55 1:12.04
Cholesterol (mg la 100 g a a a
37.60 36.80 32.90 16.40 b
sample)
*different superscripts = significant differences (P≤0.05), the significance was calculated
between groups for the same meat quality
The content of unsaturated fatty acids was significantly lower in the LD of

E2 group than in group C. This is due to the content of oleic oil, but the content of
polyunsaturated fatty acids is significantly (P≤0.05) higher for all types of fatty acids
both in the LD and in the shank of group E2. Higher differences were noticed for the
linolenic acid (ω3), which is about three times higher in E2 compared to C. These
values are close to those reported by Warmants 1999, Busboom 1991, who used
Canola seeds in pig feeding and by Leskanich 1997, but are not in excess of the
highest level recommended by Rampon, cited by Dinu I. 2002.
The analysis of the entire fatty acids profile in the pig meat from the two
groups shows an improvement of the fat quality which exceeds the 0.30 ratio of the
saturated fatty acids to the polyunsaturated fatty acids indicated by NLSMB 1992.
The ω3: ω6 ratio following the introduction of the Camelina oil was much
improved in E2, being of 1:10.55 and 1:12.04 in the LD and shank, but it higher
than the ratio reported by M.J. Azain ,2004, of 1:1 towards 1:4.
The cholesterol level in both groups decreased, 37.6 and 36.8 mg/100 g
sample in group C; 32.9 and 16.4 mg/100 g sample in group E 2, the differences
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BACK
between groups being significant (P≤0.05). These values are lower than the values
reported by Favier 1995, of 61 mg/ 100 g.
CONCLUSIONS
• The use of 3% Camelina oil produced by cold pressing, with 46.71% linolenic
acid, produced a compound feed for the finishing pigs with 9.05% linolenic acid.
• The supplementation of antioxidant from plants rich in polyphenols reduced
the synthesis of free radicals and diminished the triglycerides content in the
animal organism and implicitly in the pig meat.
• The high content of linolenic acid in the compound feed modified
significantly, in a favourable way, the ω3 to ω6 ratio in the pig meat,
decreasing it from 1:28.55 in the LD and 1:23.69 in the shank of group C to
1:10.55 and 1:12.04, respectively, in group E 2.
• Correlated negatively with the amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids, the
cholesterol level of the pig meat from group E2 was significantly lower.
This allows us to conclude that the supplementation of Camelina oil in the
compound feeds for the finishing pigs can be used to modify the fatty acids
profile and to reduce pig meat cholesterol, improving thus its quality.
REFERENCES
1. Azain M., 2004 - Role of fatty acids in adipocyte growth and development, J. Anim. Sci. 82:916-924;
2. Banu C., 2003 - Procesarea industriala a carnii, Ed. Tehnica, Bucuresti, p 896;
3. Busboom J.R., 1991- Growth, carcass characteristics and lipid composition of adipose tissue and
muscle of pigs fed canola, J. Anim. Sci. 69:1101-1108;
4. Chilliard Y., 1999 - Lipogenese et qualite des produits animaux, Numera special Production
animale, INRA;
5. Conquer, J.A., and B.J. Holub, 1998 – Effect of supplementation with different doses of DHA on
the levels of circulating DHA as non-esterified fatty acid in subjects of Asian Indian
background. J. Lipid Res. 39:286-292
6. Dinu I. si col., 2002 - Suinicultura, Tratat de crestere a suinelor, Ed. Coral Sanivet, Bucuresti, p 202-203;
7. Favier J.C., 1995 - Repertoire General des Aliments, Talbe de composition, INRA, p 879;
8. Gladine C. and col., 2007 – The antioxidative effect of plant extracts rich in polyphenols differs
between liver and muscle tissues in rats fed n-3 PUFA rich diets. Animal Feed Science
and Technology, 257-272.
9.Kouba M., Enser M., 2003 - Effect of a hight linolenic acid diet on lipogenic enzyme activities,
fatty acid composition and meat quality in the growing pig, J. Anim. Sci. 81:1967-1979;
10. Leskanich C.O., 1997 - The effect of dietary oil containing (n-3) Fatty acids on the Fatty acid,
Physicochemical and Organoleptic characteristics of Pig Meat and Fat, J. Anim. Sci.
75:673-683;
11. Warnants N., 1999 - Incorporation of Dietary Polyinsaturated Fatty Acids into Pork Fatty
Tissues, J. Anim. Sci. 77:2478-2490;
12. Wiseman J., 2006 - Aspecte practice privind calitatea carcasei la porci si pasari, Seminar
organizat de American Soybean Association;
13***. NRC, 1998 - Nutrient requirements of swine;
14***. The National Academy of Science, 2002 - Dietary reference intakes for energy, carbohydrates,
fiber, fat, protein and amino acids (Macro nutrients); Dietary fats: total fat and fatty acids.
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BACK
EFFECTS OF DIFFERENT DIETARY FAT SOURCES ON

GROWTH PERFORMANCES AND CARCASS FATTY ACID
COMPOSITION OF BROILER TURKEY
D. MIERLIŢĂ, I. CHEREJI, Cristina MAERESCU
The research aims to study the effect of the concentration and source of
PUFA supplying in turkey chicken BUT Big 6, on production performances and
profile of the fatty acids from some tissues (breast, legs and liver), using different
fat sources with variable degree of saturation (PF-pig fat, SFO-sunflower oil,
SO-soybean oil, FFS-full fat soya). The increase of the PUFA share in the
structure of the fats included in turkey chicken feeding led to the significant
improvement of the production performances (weight gain, forage intake and
degree of fed valuation), and carcass traits (the breast share in carcass structure
increased, and fat deposition -decreased). The PUFA concentration in feeding
was positively reflected on the profile of the fatty acids from breast, legs and
liver structure, and on some blood parameters (decreased the level of the
tryglicerides and total cholesterol). The best quality meat, analyzed from the
point of view of the influence on humans’ health (low fat content, high PUFA
share and an optimum n-6/n-3 fatty acids ratio) was recorded in breast meat,
when FFS was used were superior to those obtained with SO, concerning the
fatty acids from n-3 series, especially, considered deficient in humans nutrition.
Key words: broiler turkey, fat sources, growth, carcass fatty acid composition
INTRODUCTION
The research in the field of human nutrition emphasized the important
role of the food PUFA in prevention and even fight against cardiovascular
diseases, obesity, and other associated diseases (Simopoulos A.P., 2000; Hu, F.B.,
2001). Now, the research emphasized the role of the PUFA (from n-3 series,
especially) in suppression of the tumoral growing, cancer prevention,
improvement of the immunitary system and diminishing the inflammatory
phenomena in rheumatoid polyartritis (Tanmahasamut P. et. al. 2004). In this
context the enrichin animal products in PUFA and reducing the share of the
saturated fatty acids (SFA), represents a priority for the modern research in the
field of the biotechnology applied in animal breeding (Meluzzi A, 2004). They
demonstrated the lack of the influence of the nature of food fat (vegetal or animal)
on the production performances of the broiler chickens, but the modify the profile
of the fatty acids from the carcass (Mussadeq Y et al., 2001; Rondelli S.G. et al.
2004; Palfy T. et. al. 2005; Mierliţă D. et. al. 2006). Our investigations aim to
study the effect of the PUFA concentration and source in turkey chicken feeding
on production performances and profile of the fatty acids from some tissues
(breast, legs and liver), using different sources of fat with different degree of
saturation: pig fat (PF), sunflower oil (SFO), soybean oil (SO), full fat soy (FFS).
- 496 -

The investigations were performed on 200 turkey broiler chickens,
males, hybrid BUT Big 6, aged of 21 days, randomly divided on 4 groups with 50
individuals each. The trial duration was of 120 days, included 5 phases with 4
weeks each, except first phase, which lasted only one week (21-28 days). The
maintaining system, the parameters of technological confort and the level of the
factors of microclimate were identical for all parameters of the technological
confort and level of microclimate factors were identical for all experimental
groups (Verstegen M, 2002).
The structure and nutritional value of the combined forage was
correspondent to recommended nutritional requirements in all phases (McDonals
P. et al. 2002) being similar in all four groups, but the fat source, PUFA
supplying, respectively, differ from one group to another as follows: pig fat-PF;
sunflower oil-SFO; soybean oil-SO; full fat soya-FFS. The dynamics of the body
weight, and feed consumption were recorded, and in the end of the experimental
period (at 140 days of age) control slaughters were performed (n=6). The
slaughter yield, and share of the main carcass components (Roberson K.D. et al.
2004) were determined. Blood and tissue samples (from breast, legs and liver)
were harvested in order to determine the profile of the fatty acids. Blood and
whole liver were collected during slaughter. Sigma kit methods were used to
analyze plasma cholesterol and triglycerides levels. Lipids were extracted from
duplicate 10 g samples with chloroform : methanol (2:1, v/v) and methylated
(Folch et. al. 1957). Fatty acid methyl esters were analyzed using a gas
chromatography (HP 5890) fitted with a fused silica capillary column (CP-SIL-
88; 50 m x 0.25 mm i.d.; 0.20 µm film thickness of polyethylene glycol). The
colomn temperature programmed 1700C to 2050C in 10C/min., and 15 min. at
2050C. The injector temperature was set at 2500C and the detector (FID)
temperature was set at 2700C. The carrier gas was hydrogen at a fow rate of 2.25
ml/min. The fatty acids were identified by comparison of the retention times of
the sample with those of standards. The obtained results were analyzed
statistically with the STATISTICA program version 6. The significance of
differences was determined with Duncan’s test at a significance level of p<0.05.

In all groups, isocaloric and isoproteic feeding was used. It correspondent
to each experimental period, the combined forage was realized using the same
row materials, except fat source, which was different for each group. In group
where FFS was used as fat source, the structure of the combined forage differs
only concerning maize and soy share, in order to supply constant nutritional value
(table 1).
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Table 1
Composition of diets for broiler turkey from 21 to 140 days
Ingredients (%) 21 to 28 29 to 56 57 to 84 85 to 112 113 to
d d d d 140 d
Maize (8.1% CP) 41.34 41.90 50.71 56.90 66.00
(36.64) 3 (35.60) (44.91) (49.6) (64.7)
Sunflower meal (28.4% CP) 8.00 10.00 10.00 12.00 5.00
Fish meal (72.5% CP) 7.00 2.50 - - -
Soybean meal (47.4% CP) 37.00 38.00 32.00 23.50 21.50
(25.0) (22.00) (15.50) (3.00) (-)
Full fat soya (18.0% fat) 2 - - - (22.30) - -
(16.70) (22.30) (27.80) (27.80)
Fat sources: PF, SFO, SO 1 3.00 (-) 4.00 (-) 4.00 (-) 5.00 (-) 5.00 (-)
L-Lysine HCl 0.29 0.20 0.14 0.10 -
DL-Methionine 0.27 0.20 0.15 - -
Monocalcium phosphate 1.20 1.30 1.50 1.00 1.00
Salt (NaCl) 0.30 0.30 0.40 0.40 0.40
Antioxidant (Ethoxyquin) 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.10
Anticoccidial Avatec 0.50 0.50 - - -
Vitamin-mineral premix 4, 5 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00
TOTAL 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Calculated nutritional value 6
E.M. (kcal/kg) 2824 2920 2965 3074 3221
Crude protein - % 28.22 26.06 22.11 19.14 16.94
Lysine-% 1.90 1.64 1.30 1.00 0.84
Metionine + cistine-% 1.22 1.04 0.87 0.71 0.67
Crude fat-% 5.30 6.35 6.49 7.71 7.62
Crude fiber-% 4.10 4.21 4.54 3.91 4.75
1. PF-pig fat, SFO-sunflower oil, SO-soybean oil; 2. Full fat soya was used as fat sources only in
feed administered to turkey from group FFS; 3. Values from parenthesis correspond to turkeys from
group FFS; 4. Supplied per kg of diet: vit. A 16 000 IU; vit. D3 4 200 IU; vit E 38 IU; thiamin 4 mg;
riboflavin 8 mg; pyridoxine 4 mg; niacin 75 mg; Ca-pantothenic acid 17 mg; choline chloride 1000
mg; cobalamin 23 µg; menadione 4 mg; vit C 10 mg; acid folic 1 mg; biotin 130 µg; Co 0.2 mg; Se
(organic Se) 0.1 mg; I 0.8 mg; Zn 60 mg; Fe 50 mg; Cu 10 mg; Mg 90 mg; lasalocid-Na 90 mg;
dimetridazol 125 mg. 5. Supplied per kg of diet: vit. A 12 000 IU; vit. D3 2 500 IU; vit E 25 IU;
thiamin 3 mg; riboflavin 7 mg; pyridoxine 3 mg; niacin 70 mg; Ca-pantothenic acid 15 mg; choline
chloride 1000 mg; cobalamin 20 µg; menadione 2 mg; vit C 10 mg; acid folic 1 mg; biotin 120 µg;
Co 0.2 mg; Se (organic Se) 0.1 mg; I 0.8 mg; Zn 50 mg; Fe 40 mg; Cu 10 mg; Mg 80 mg; lasalocid-
Na 90 mg; dimetridazol 125 mg (until 85 d of age). 6. Nutrient content calculated based on NRC
(1994) feed composition tables.
The pig fat has a higher content in saturated fatty acids (40.34%),
compared to vegetal fats (SFO, SO, FFS), which are characterized by a 2-3 folds
higher PUFA content (28.09% in SFO and 57.40-57.18% in SO and FFS,
respectively). The fats from FFS have a total PUFA content similar to SO
(57.40%; 57.18%), but a high linoleic acid content C18:3 in FFS (with 30.80%
higher), with a mor balanced C18:2/C18:3 ratio (table 2).
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Table 2
Fatty acid composition of the dietary fat sources and the experimental diets
(% total fatty acid)
Fatty acid Dietary fat sources Experimental diets
PF SFO SO FFS G1 - G2– G3- G4-
PF SFO SO FFS
C 14:0 2.72 2.12 1.27 1.20 1.10 1.21 1.36 1.30
C 16:0 20.12 15.45 13.43 11.12 24.21 8.37 7.70 7.61
C 18:0 17.50 4.29 3.40 4.84 6.73 4.15 3.97 3.63
SFA TOTAL 40.34 21.86 18.10 17.16 32.04 13.73 13.03 12.54
C 16:1 1.74 5.93 0.30 0.12 2.04 3.62 3.91 3.70
MUFA C 18:1 34.20 36.12 20.10 19.54 19.14 21.66 16.40 16.12
C 20:1 0.72 3.54 0.96 0.87 1.10 0.86 0.91 0.80
TOTAL 36.66 45.59 21.36 20.53 22.28 26.14 21.22 20.62
C 18:2 n-6 15.60 22.51 44.45 45.27 26.62 41.81 45.51 45.18
C 20:4 n-6 0.17 0.91 1.76 1.95 2.14 2.36 2.41 2.39
Total n-6 15.77 23.42 46.21 47.22 28.76 44.17 47.92 47.57
PUFA
C 18:3 n-3 1.12 1.47 4.12 5.39 4.07 4.16 6.47 7.04
C 20:5 n-3 0.89 2.27 3.89 3.41 5.73 5.92 6.18 6.05
C 22:6 n-3 0.22 0.93 1.18 1.16 2.43 2.19 2.34 2.32
Total n-3 2.23 4.67 11.19 9.96 12.23 12.27 14.99 15.41
TOTAL 18.00 28.09 57.40 57.18 40.99 56.44 62.91 62.98
PUFA
PUFA n-6/n-3 7.07 5.01 4.12 4.74 2.35 3.59 3.19 3.08
PUFA : SFA 0.49 1.28 3.17 3.33 1.27 4.11 4.82 5.02
(MUFA+PUFA)/SFA 1.35 3.37 4.35 4.52 1.97 6.01 6.12 6.66
PF-pig fat, SFO-sunflower oil, SO-soybean oil; FFS-full fat soya; SFA=Saturated fatty acids,
MUFA=Monounsaturated fatyy acids, PUFA=Polyunsaturated fatty acids.
The fatty acid structure of the fats from the combined forage (determined
by an average sample correspondent to 5 phases, by groups) was strongly
influenced by the nature of the fat source in feed. It has a high PUFA content, due
to the influences of fats from the maize and fish meal.
Analyzing the influence of the different fat sources in turkey chickens on
production performances, the positive influence of the vegetal fats, of those from
FFS (p<0.05) especially was analyzed (table 3). The increase of the PUFA share
in feed in disadvantage of the SFA, had as consequence the increase of the
average daily gain up to 5.12% and increase of the body weight, respectively. An
improvement of intake was also recorded, and of degree of feed valuation
(p<0.05), when PUFA share in feed increased, when they were supplied by FFS,
respectively. These results are similar with those obtained by Lessire M. (2001);
Azman M.A. (2004), Miroslawa K. (2004); Palfy T. (2005). He mention the
improvement produced by vegetal fats included in poultry feeding in forage
consumption and degree of feed valuation. The increase of the PUFA share in fats
structure administered in turkey chicken feeding did not influenced the slaughter
yield, but determined the increase of the breast share in carcass structure (p<0.05)
- 499 -
and decrease of fat storages (abdominal and gizzard fat) (table 3). The best results
were obtaind when PUFA source was FFS.
Table 3
Effects of different dietary fat sources on growth performances of strain on carcass
and component yields
Parameter Dietary fat sources Dietary fat sources
PF SFO SO FS PF SFO SO FS
Body weight (kg) Weight gain (g/day)
21 days 1.01 0.97 0.98 1.00 - - - -
28 days 1.49 1.48 1.50 1.53 68.57 72.85 74.28 75.71
56 days 4.47a 4.57b 4.54b 4.66b 106.4a 110.36b 108.5ab 111.78b
84 days 8.37a 8.45ac 8.56cb 8.78b 139.2 a
138.5 ab
143.5 b
147.14b
a a
112 days 13.41 13.50 13.79ba 14.23b 180.1 a
180.3 ac
186.8 c
194.64b
140 days 19.36a 19.6ba 19.74b 20.29b 212bc 218.21a 212.5ba 216.43c
a ab b
21-140 days - - - - 152.9 155.3 156.3 160.75b
Feed intake (g/day) Feed conversion ratio (kg feed/kg gain)
21-28 days 101.48 105.64 105.71 106.76 1.48a 1.45ba 1.42bc 1.41c
29-56 days 183.1b 183.19b 181.3a 180.3a 1.72 a
1.66 b
1.67 b
1.61c
ac a cb
57-84 days 303.64 307.62 307.24 306.06 2.18 2.22 2.14 2.08b
85-112 days 489.6d 492.37c 502.4b 508.0a 2.72a 2.73a 2.69ac 2.61c
113-140 day 667.2b 676.46a 658.7c 664.4bc 3.14 3.10 3.10 3.07
21-140 days 389.41 393.42 391.10 393.21 2.55a 2.53a 2.50a 2.44b
Cold
carcass: Dietary fat sources: PF-pig fat, SFO-
- kg 15.16 15.60 15.77 16.24 sunflower oil, SO-soybean oil; FFS-full
-% 79.07 78.95 79.32 79.72 fat soya;
Components
(%)1: a,b,c,d: values in the same row and
- breast 35.11a 34.80ac 35.36cb 36.43b variable with no common superscript
- thighs 18.14 17.80 17.99 18.80 differ significantly
- drumstick 12.82 12.67 13.00 12.98 1 – procentage of cold carcass;
- wings 10.21 10.94 10.76 10.76 2 – represents abdominal and outer
- fat2 2.43a 2.16bc 2.20bca 2.10c gizzard fat.
The structure of the fatty acids of the fat structures used in turkey
chicken feeding (PF, SFO, SO, FFS) was reflect at the level of blood plasma. A
decrease of the level of the triglycerides, total cholesterol and SFA (C16:0, C18:0)
was recorded in the mean time with the increase of the PUFA in feeding. The
effects were more evident when PUFA were supplied in feed as. A similar
situation was recorded in liver, where a significant increase of the PUFA share in
feed did not influence the liver weight and its fat content (table 4; fig.1 and 2).
The increase of the PUFA in the structure of the fat administered in
turkey chickens’ feeding led to the decrease of the fat proportion in meat (up to
32.17% in breast and 21.35% in legs) and radical improvement of the fatty acids
profile in muscular tissue from breast and legs, with the increase of the PUFA
share up to 60.70% in breast and 74.20% in legs, in detriment of SFA (table 5).
The lowest fat content and the best fat quality was recorded in breast meat from
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the turkey chickens with the highest PUFA concentration (chickens from the
groups which received feed with SO and FFS fat sources).
Table 4
Plasma triglyceride, total cholesterol, weight liver and the composition on free fatty
acids
Parameter Dietary fat sources Dietary fat sources
PF SFO SO FS PF SFO SO FS
Plasma Liver
Triglyceride 51.42a 48.19a 47.23a 44.06b - - - -
Cholesterol 181.6a 171.21b 170.17b 123.29c - - - -
Liver weight - - - - 581.4 590.3 576.1 583.6
Crude fat % - - - - 3.31 3.32 3.60 3.42
Fatty acid composition Fatty acid composition
(µg/ml plasama) (% tatale fatty acid)
C 18:0 104.3a 102.8a 96.1a 81.4b 22.1a 17.52c 18.19c 11.4b
C 16:0 143.0a 151.9a 144.5a 93.7b - - - -
C 18:1 127.4b 163.5a 164.6a 141.3a 19.21 20.43 19.87 17.67
C 18:2 n-6 52.9c 86.4b 82.6b 102.7a 16.1b 19.21c 20.43a 24.2a
b c c a b c c
C 18:3 n-3 9.12 17.31 18.13 21.17 1.12 1.75 1.93 2.79a
b a c
C 20:4 n-6 - - - - 2.78 4.12 3.98 5.29a
Dietary fat sources: PF-pig fat, SFO-sunflower oil, SO-soybean oil; FFS-full fat soya;
a,b,c,d: values in the same row and variable with no common superscript differ significantly
200 35
180
30
160
140 25
120 20
100
15
80
60 10
40 5
20 1,12 2,79
1,75 1,93
G1-fat pig G2-sunfl. Oil G3-soy oil G4-full fat 0
soy G1-fat pig G2-sunfl. G3-soy oil G4-full fat
Oil soy
Triglyceride Cholesterol
PUFA Linoleic C18:2 Crude fat(%) C 18:0
PUFA n-6 PUFA n-3
Fig 1. Plasma trygliceride, total cholesterol of Fig. 2. Crude fat and the fatty acids
the fatty acids structure (µg/ml plasma) structure of liver (%)
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Table 5
Fatty acid composition of breast and thigh muscle lipids, % total fatty acid
Fatty acid Breast muscle lipids Thigh muscle lipids
PF SFO SO FFS PF SFO SO FFS
Crude fat
content % 3.17b 2.92ab 2.85ab 2.15a 8.43b 7.82ab 8.1ab 6.63a
SFA - Saturated fatty acids
C 14:0 3.86b 2.80b 1.57a 1.70a 0.77 0.70 0.70 0.66
C 16:0 23.31b 21.40c 21.54 c
19.1a 21.46a 20.38b 19.9b 19.36c
C 18:0 13.50b 10.12ca 10.43c 8.40a 15.91a 11.70c 10.8cb 10.23b
TOTAL SFA 40.67b 34.32c 33.54 c
29.2 a
38.14 a
32.78b 31.5bc 30.25c
MUFA - Monounsaturated fatyy acids
C 16:1 4.62b 4.20b 2.41a 2.53a 5.92a 3.59b 3.9b 2.75b
C 18:1 22.14b 24.90b 21.53b 18.4a 29.31a 26.71b 27.0b 22.82c
C 20:1 0.73 0.54 0.59 0.46 0.72a 0.55b 0.48b 0.50b
TOTAL
MUFA 27.49c 29.64c 24.53b 21.4a 35.95a 30.8ab 31.5ab 26.07b
PUFA - Polyunsaturated fatty acids
C18:2n-6 14.80 15.34 14.74 14.81 14.61b 19.40c 20.5ac 22.49a
C20:4n-6 3.67b 3.84b 6.00a 7.74a 1.52b 2.77dc 3.3d 4.18a
Total n-6 18.47b 19.18 b
20.74 a
22.5 a
16.13 b
22.2ac 23.8a 26.67a
C18:3n-3 1.76b 1.93b 3.80ca 4.55a 2.32b 4.17a 5.00c 5.78a

C20:5n-3 4.83 5.12 7.46ab 9.37a 1.22c 1.80b 1.99a 2.05a
C22:6n-3 2.50b 4.32c 4.33c 5.82a 2.60b 3.10b 2.40b 4.30a
Total n-3 9.09b 11.37c 15.59d 20.7a 6.14b 9.07c 9.39c 12.13a
TOTAL 27.56b 30.55b 36.33c 44.3a 22.27b 31.24c 33.2c 38.80a

PUFA
PUFA n-6/n-3 2.03a 1.69a 1.33ab 1.09b 2.62 2.44 2.53 2.20
b b ab
PUFA : SFA 0.68 0.89 1.08 1.52a 0.58b 0.95b 1.06a 1.28a
MUFA+
PUFA/SFA 1.35b 1.75b 1.81ab 2.25a 1.53b 1.89b 2.06a 2.14a
Dietary fat sources: PF-pig fat, SFO-sunflower oil, SO-soybean oil; FFS-full fat soya;
a,b,c,d: values in the same row and variable with no common superscript differ significantly
Among both fat sources rich in PUFA (SO and FFS) FFS supplied a
better meat quality, with a higher content in fatty acids belonging to omega 3
series (with 33.03% and 29.17%, respectively), considered deficitary in humans’
food, and a better ratio between the n-6/n-3 fatty acids. The better results
determined by FFS compared to SO (even had the same PUFA concentrations), in
SO case are mainly due to de alteration of the normal cis- configuration of PUFA
in trans- as consequence of the high temperature produced by the rafination
during heating (over 1800C). The trans- PUFA have a similar behavior with
saturated fatty acids (Udo E. et. al. 1991; Tanmahasamut P. et. al. 2004).
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. The tested vegetal fats (SFO, SO, FFS) contain 2-3 fold many PUFA,
compared to animal fat (PF); for the same PUFA content, the fats from the FFS
contain about 30% more linolenic – C18:3 acid, considered deficitary in poultry
and humans’ nutrition, compared to SO.
2. The increase of the PUFA share in the structure of the fats
administered in turkey chicken feeding led to the significant improvement of the
production performances (weigth gain, forage intake and degree of feed
valuation), carcass traits (increased the breast share in carcass structure and
decreased the fat deposition – abdominal and gizzard fat), and meat quality.
3. The best meat quality, analysed from the point of view of the influence
on humans’ health (low fat content, high PUFA share and an optimum ratio of the
n-6/n-3 fatty acids) was recorded in breast meat, when PUFA concentration in
feeding was high (SO and FFS situation); when both PUFA rich fat sources were
used, the best results were obtained for FFS concerning n-3 (C18:3, C20:5,
C22:6) acids, especially, considered deficient in humans’ feeding.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Azman M.A., V. Konar, P.T. Seven, 2004,: Effects of different dietary fat sources on growth
performances and carcass fatty acid composition of broiler chickens. Revue Med. Vet., 156 (5): 278-
286.
2. Folch L.M., S.A. Stanley, 1957,: A simple method for the isolation and purification of total
lipids from animal tissues. J. Biol. Chem., 226: 497-509.
3. Hu, F.B., Manson, J.E., Willett W.CC., 2001,: Types of dietary fat and risk of coronary heart
disease: A critical review. J. Am. Col. Nut. 20, 5-19.
4. Lessire M., 2001,: Matieres grasses alimentaires et composition lipidique des volailles. INRA
Prod. Anim. 14 (5): 365-370.
5. Meluzzi A., F. Siri, 2004,: Functional eggs: Fortification with n-3 PUFA, CLA and
antioxidants. J. Food Sci., 14: 159-166.
6. Mierlita D., B. Gergescu, Antonia Odagiu, I. Chereji, 2006,: Research concerning improvement
of broilers feed with the aim on enhancing carcass content in PUFALL with positive impact on
human health. Simozion stiintific, Iasi, 4-5 mai 2006.
7. Miroslawa K., D.O Marzena, J. Borowski, 2004,: The effect of oxidized fat added to feed
mixture on selected quality attributes of turkey meat. J. of Nutr. Pakistan 3 (4): 213-221.
8. Mussaddeq Y., S.E. Nisa, A. Rehman, 2001,: Effect of substitution of soybean meal with
sunflower and canola meal on dressing of broilers. J. of Biol. Sci. 1(3): 152-154.
9. Palfy T., I. Erdelyi, 2005,: The effects of different fat sources on broiler performance and fatty
acid composotion. Sustainable agriculture across borders in Europe, p: 234-238.
10. Roberson K.D., J.L. Kalbfleisch, D. Dransfield, 2004,: Comparison of growth performance and
carcass component yeld of a new strain of tom turkeys to outher commercial strains. J. of Poul. Sci.
3 (12): 791-795.
11. Simopoulos A. P., 2000,: Human requirement for n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Poultry
Science 79: 961-970.
12. Tanmahasamut P., J. Liu, L.B. Hendry, N. Sidell, 2004,: Conjugated linoleic acid blocks
estrogen signaling in human breast cancer cells. J. Nutr., 134: 674-680.
13. Udo E., 1991, Fats and Oils: The complete guide to Fats and Oils in Health and Nutrition,
(Vancouver BC, Canada) Alive Books.
14. Veldkamp T., 2002,: Heat stress and diet utilization in male turkeys: the role of dietary energy
and amino acids. Ph.D. Dissertation, Wageningen Institute of Animal Sciences, Dep. Of Anim.
Nutr. P: 11-37.
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BACK
“NUTRITIONAL SOFTWARE TO FORMULATE AND

EVALUATE HUMAN DIETS –NUTRIMEN”
I. SURDU, Cornelia PENCEA, R. LICHIARDOPOL,
Gh. BUDAN, Aurora CIOCÎRLAN
To elaborate a software application for conception and evaluation,

regarding a diet in human consumers, infers to the creation of applicative modules
which are acting for:Evaluation of nutritional characteristics for ingredients
contained by human diets; Defining a nutritional data base; Calculating a human
nutritional requirements, depending on age, physiological status and risk factors;
Conception and calculus for the age selected by user, on a diet; Efficiency
estimation for a chosen diet, on a particular age, for some risk factors.
This software application is an important logistical support to
consequently develop a ground research and also an efficient tool for
nutritionists and medical doctors, in order to improve the effect of nutrition and
to ameliorate their state of healthiness.
With the purpose of fulfilling the above mentioned functions, the
software for conception and calculus on a diet, involves 3 modules: Evaluation
for nutritional values in food; Calculus for nutritional requirements; Conception,
calculus and estimation on a diet’s efficiency.
The first module, which relates to evaluation for nutritional values in
human food, contains a data base with specific items for nutritional metabolism
in human being. Food supplies are divided on multiple level, generally noted as:
Group, Subgroup, Type, Subtype, Product, Subproduct.
The main nutrients considered to evaluate nutritional values in human
food are: brute energy, total proteins, total nitrogen, aminoacids, total fats,
saturated fatty acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids,
available carbohydrates, total carbohydrates, saccharides, cellulose, ashes,
humidity, vitamins and minerals. The data basis includes two parts: a references
data base, including standard values for products with established values, given
by the reference materials, and an user data base with complete access regarding
adding or correcting data given by the lab tests.
The reference data provides evaluation methods for nutrient calculus,
conforming to the methods elaborated in cooperation with specialists at IDNBM
Bucharest. This module formulates the calculus for nutritional requirements,
based on mathematic models, and performs the selection for nutritional
requirements from a data base with nutritional specifications.
The module for conception, calculus and estimation on a human diet’s
efficiency permits to set up a meal conforming to nutritional requirements
established by the model, physician or user and to establish a degree of
fulfillment for nutritional requirements in a diet. An efficiency report shows the
lack or excess of nutrients, so the user could take a corrective measure. Diets are
calculated in grams for each meal and luncheon.
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INTRODUCTION
An impact settlement relating food chain fodder-animal-human on lipidic
transformation towards the human state of healthiness and diminution of the
frequency of metabolic and nutritional diseases is a complex process which
requires to integrate a large volume of data and information.
A human diet’s conception and evaluation, by elaborating a software
application, refers to creating applicative modules which are acting as:
- Defining a nutritional data base
- Evaluation of nutritional characteristics for ingredients contained by
human diets
- Calculating a human nutritional request
- Formulation and evaluation on a diet
This software application is an important logistical support to
consequently develop a basis research and also an efficient tool for nutritionists
and physicians, in order to improve the effect of nutrition and to ameliorate the
state of healthiness in persons suffering for diabetes, metabolic diseases or
cardiovascular risk factors.
The nutritional software NUTRIMEN, created in a team effort with
specialists from Institute of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases ”N.
Paulescu” Bucharest, represents the reference element to create a usefull
simplified nutritional instruments.

This research intend to elaborate and develop scientifically sustained
methods and instruments for calculus and formulation on nutritional human diets,
planning to reduce the risk factors of nutritional and metabolical diseases. This is
a complex investigation, including characteristics related to studying and
elaborating of a scientific support, as parts of the human nutritional system, as
well as to practical applicability by designing and elaborating a software to
formulate and calculating a daily diet.
With the purpose of fulfilling the above mentioned functions, the software
for conception and calculus on a diet, involving the lipidic structure of food,
includes 3 modules:
- a module for evaluation of nutritional values in food
- a module for calculus of nutritional requests
- a module for conception and estimation on a diet’s efficiency
The first module, which relates to evaluation for nutritional values in
human food, contains a data base with specific items for nutritional metabolism in
human being. Food supplies are divided on multiple level, generally noted as:
Group, Subgroup, Type, Subtype, Product, Subproduct.
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The main nutrients considered to evaluate nutritional values in human

food are: brute energy, total proteins, total nitrogen, total fats, saturated fatty
acids, monounsaturated fatty acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, available
carbohydrates, total carbohydrates, saccharides, cellulose, ashes, humidity, A
vitamin, retinol, β-carotenes, D vitamin, D3-cholecalciferol, D2-ergocalciferol, E
vitamin, α-tocopherol, K vitamin, B1 vitamin (thiamin), B2 vitamin (riboflavin),
equivalent niacin, niacin, tryptophan, B6 vitamin, pantothenic acid, biotin, folates,
B12 vitamin, C vitamin, L-ascorbic acid, L-dehydroascorbic acid, sodium,
potassium, calcium, magnesium, phosphor, iron, copper, zinc, iodine, manganese,
chromium, selenium, nickel, total saccharides, amidone, total nutritional cellulose,
C 4:0, C 6:0, C 8:0, C 10:0, C 12:0, C 14:0, C 15:0, C 16:0, C 17:0, C 18:0, C
20:0, C 22:0, C 24:0, total saturated fatty acids, C 14:1, C 16:1, C 18:1 n-9, C
18:1 class n-7, C 20:1 n-11, C 22:1 n-9, C 22: 1 n-11, total monounsaturated fatty
acids, C 18:2 n-6, C 18:3 n-3, C 18:4 n-3, C 20:4 n-6, C 20:5 n-3, C 22:5 n-3, C
22:6 n-3, total polyunsaturated fatty acids, total fatty acids n-3, total fatty acids n-
6, trans fatty acids, cholesterol, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, cistine,
phenylalanine, tyrosine, threonine, tryptophan, valine, arginine, histidine, alanine,
aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glicine, proline, serine, C 24:1 n-9, other fatty acids,
25- hydroxycholecalciferol.
The nutritional characterizations of human food supplies are based on a
specific metabolism and include a wide range of lipidic compounds, especially
fatty acids, which give a way to define the quantitative and qualitative parameters
of lipidic metabolism.
The data basis includes two parts: a references basis, including standard
values for products with established values, given by the reference materials, and
an user basis, with complete access regarding adding or correcting data given by
the lab tests. The number of considered nutrients is highly enough to permit a
hypothesis formulation and a fair analysis towards studied effects.
A software’s structure is an important factor establishing an easy access
to a data basis. For our application, the data base requires a MICROSOFT
ACCESS format.
Food requirements represents the minimal quantities of nutritional
principles to be administrated by food to a human being, in order to ensure the
necessary for support, body weight modification, fulfilling some physical and
intellectual activities, pregnancy and breast-feeding. Energetic requirements are
calculated for the totality of human functions: support, physical and intellectual
activities, growth, body weight modification, pregnancy and breast-feeding,
depending on the age and state of healthiness.
Basal metabolic rate – BMR – is the amount of energy expended to
maintain the vital processes in organisms, without considering food processing. In
practice, in stead of BMR, is usually measured the consumed energy in a steady
state – REE. Energy requirements are estimated as total daily energy expenditure
(TEE). TEE is calculated in MJ/day or kcal/day, as required.
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The energetic cost for considered activities is included in a specific data

base, being estimated as a multiple of BMR (PAL) or as Physical Activity Ratio
(PAR). All the requirements in proteins, essential amino acids, vitamins, macro
and micro elements, are calculated for a total of functions: support, physical and
intellectual activities, growth, body weight modification, pregnancy and breast-
feeding, depending on the age and state of healthiness.
The reference data provides evaluation methods for nutrient calculus,
conforming to the methods elaborated in cooperation with specialists at IDNBM
Bucharest. This module formulates the calculus for nutritional requirements,
based on mathematic models, and performs the selection for nutritional
requirements from a data base with nutritional specifications.
The module for conception, calculus and estimation on a human diet’s
efficiency permits to set up a meal or a luncheon conforming to nutritional
requirements established by the model, physician or user and to establish a degree
of fulfillment for nutritional requirements in a diet. Based on this module, it can
be established for an application the distribution of daily food requirements, on 3
principal meals and maximum 3 luncheons. This distribution can be formulated as
a proportion from the total requirements, or as a single figure for each
meal/luncheon. An efficiency report shows the lack or excess of nutrients, so the
user could take a corrective measure. Diets are calculated in grams for each
nutrient, by meal or luncheon.
The software modules are written with MICROSOFT VISUAL C, have a
dynamic character and promotes the development as an user application.
RESULTS AND COMMENTS

The nutritional software NUTRIMEN is an application written with
MICROSOFT VISUAL C and uses Windows specific tools and controls.
NUTRIMEN includes seven menus: File, Edit, Entry, Tools, View, Window and
Help. File, Edit, View and Window comprise submenus, with standard Windows
associated functions and commands. Entry and Tools have submenus used to
select a particular window and specific commands to elaborate file proceedings
on nutrient requirements, diet formulation and evaluation; Help menu contains the
interactive on-line manual.
The following is a description of the main dialog windows, including
associated functions and commands.
The module for evaluation of nutritional values in food is conceived as

a view and edit screen for data basis. It represents an unmodal dialog, with tab
controls associated to nutrients group and some universal controls.
a. Tab controls allow dealing with nutrient’s characteristics, as grouped:
Brute Chemical Composition, Saccharides, Amino Acids, Macro-
elements, Micro-elements, Vitamins, Saturated Fatty Acids, Mono-
unsaturated Fatty Acids, Poly-unsaturated Fatty Acids, other Fatty Acids.
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b. Universal controls include: Selection controls for current data base;

Nutritional tree; Data basis navigation controls (first, last, previous, next,
any leap); Viewing controls for data basis status (current position in data
basis, total number of categories and nutrients, code, ID, nutrient situation
on the tree); Searching and sorting controls, considering particular
characteristics; Adding, modifying and deleting controls (categories and
nutrients); Other controls (copy, past, reread, “white” article
(=uninitialized)).
Example: Brute chemical composition for a nutrient:
Fig. 1.” Brute chemical composition” Tab
The module for calculus of nutritional requests is carried out as a

necessary evaluation screen (energy, protein, etc.), based on an individual
description. It is realized with tab controls, including:
a) An initialization tab;
b) An individual physical description tab. It will host: anthropometric
factors (sex, age, height, weight); physiological status; data on the
state of healthiness.
c) A daily description activity tab, including: the list and the tree for
daily activities in the data basis; the list for daily activities on selected
subject, stored in a file; command controls to add, modify, erase over
the data basis and files; status viewing controls for data basis and file;
moving controls.
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Example: Daily activities tab:
Fig. 2. ”Daily description activity” Tab
d) A results tab, including: a complete results list; controls to select the

unit of measure; specific controls to show the main parameters; the
possibility for the user to introduce PAL.
Fig. 3. ”Results” Tab
The module for conception and estimation on a diet’s efficiency is

done by the daily menu screen. It involves tab controls, as follows:
a. A menu initialization tab, which allows to bring in: nutrient necessity
obtained from the previous screen (different modalities); parameters to
be visualized at results.
b. A tab to conceive the menu (3 principal meals and maximum 3
luncheons), which includes: the tree nutrient to establish a nutrient list;
a selection control for current meal (could be modified); nutrient list
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for each meal and luncheon; commands (move, add, delete, copy,
past); viewing controls (ID, code, situation on the tree).
c. A tab to establish the quantities corresponding to each nutrient in the
created lists. To manage it, are stipulated many utilities: percentage
calculus, total calculus, showing situation in the tree, temporary
elimination (marking box) of the nutrients, including temporary
eliminated nutrient back in the list.
d. Two tab for results (one for meals and the other for luncheons),
similarly organized. Those are including: a nutrient list; a 4 lines list
for partial totals; a 4 lines list for general total; buttons to modify the
unity of measure for the energy and to commute between variable
(depends on given quantity) and constant proportion of nutrients.
Example: the tab to conceive the menu (6 meals and luncheons totally).
Fig. 4.”Menu” Tab
CONCLUSIONS
NUTRIMEN informatics presents a scientific and practical utility. It
allows a lipidic nutritional characterization for human nutrients and takes into
consideration the human metabolism, by defining particular quantitative and
qualitative parameters for lipidic metabolism.
For this application it can be used 3 data basis for nutrients, all having an
unitarian structure. One of the data basis can be personalized and contains specific
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BACK
nutrients for a particular user. New nutrients or categories of nutrients could be

added within this data base and any nutrient value could be modified.
Nutritional requirements could be estimated for children, youths and
adults, depending on the physical and intellectual activity completed, including
correction factors for individuals with risk factors. Healthy persons comprise
default values with correction factor 1.
Nutritional software NUTRIMEN is an application intended to be used by
nutrition specialists and physicians in order to formulate diets for persons affected
by diabetes and/or cardiovascular risk factors.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Beghin L, Michaud L, Guimber D, et al., 2002, Assessing sleeping energy expenditure in
children using heart-rate monitoring calibrated against open-circuit indirect calorimetry: a pilot
study. Br J Nutr ,88:533–43.
2. CDC – Nutrient Database for Standard reference,1990;
3. Charrondiere U.R. et al., 2002, The European Nutrient Database(ENDB) for Nutritional
Epidemiology. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 15, 435-451;
4. Duro D, Rising R, Cole C, et al., 2002, New equations for calculating the components of
energy expenditure in infants. J Pediatr; 140:534–9;
5. European Food Information Resources Network;
6. Goran MI, Hunter G, Nagy TR, Johnson R., 1997, Physical activity related energy expenditure
and fat mass in young children. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord ;21:171–8;
7. Goran MI, Kaskoun M, Johnson R., 1994, Determinants of resting energy expenditure in
young children. J Pediatr;125:362–7;
8. Instituto Superior Technico Lisbon, 1997 – Chemical Reaction of Oil, Fat and Fat Based Product ;
9. John C. Klensin, 1992. INFOODS - Food Composition Data Interchange Handbook;
10. Microsoft Visual Tools – Users guide;
11. Microsoft Visual Tools – MSDN Library;
12. Microsoft Visual Studio – Developing for Windows and Web;
13. Rana Conway et col., BJN, 2004, 91, 765-771. Standardized coding of diet records :
experiences from INTERMAP UK;
14. Rodriguez G, Moreno LA, Sarria A, et al., 2002, Resting energy expenditure in children and
adolescents: agreement between calorimetry and prediction equations. Clin Nutr ;21:255–60;
15. Siaˆn Robinson*, Ria Skelton, Mary Barker and Clare Wilman, 1999, Assessing the diet of
adolescent girls in the UK , Public Health Nutrition: 2(4), 571–577;
16. Stefano Lazzer, Yves Boirie, Abdelali Bitar, Christophe Montaurier, Jean Vernet, Martine
Meyer, and Michel Vermorel, 2003, Assessment of energy expenditure associated with
physical activities in free-living obese and non-obese adolescents, Am J Clin Nutr, 78:471–9;
17. The National Academies Press- Building North American Feed Information System, 1995;
18. Tommy G. Thomson, 2003 – Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling, Nutrient Claims, and
Health Claims;
19. Torun B, Davies PS, Livingstone MB, et al. , 1996, Energy requirements and dietary energy
recommendations for children and adolescents 1 to 18 years old. Eur J Clin Nutr ;50:S37–80;
20. US Nationl Swine Registry – Meat Quality;
21. Vermorel M, Vernet J, Bitar A, Fellmann N, Coudert J., 2002, Daily energy expenditure,
activity patterns, and energy costs of the various activities in French 12–16-y-old adolescents
in free living conditions. Eur J Clin Nutr;56:819–29;
22. WHO and FAO of the UN, 2004, Vitamin and mineral requirements in human nutrition;
23. Wells JC. , 1998, Energy metabolism in infants and children. Nutrition,;14:817–20;
24. W.P.T. James & E.C. Schofield, 1990, Human Energy Requirements. Oxford University Press;
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RESEARCHES REGARDING QUALITY IMPROVEMENT

OF CONSUMPTION EGGS’ YOLK BY INTRODUCING
SPECIAL FODDER ADDITIVES TO POULTRY
NOURISHMENT
Madlen Lăcrămioara ŞTEFLEA
The research has been finished within Avicola Lumina Company

Constanta, on a total number of 1000 hens belonging to the commercial hybrid
Roso-SL 2000, which have been divided into 5 experimental allotments (Lc, L1
exp, L2 exp, L3 exp and L 4 exp). The feeding has been done using mixed fodder
especially for top egg laying, with the specification that in the food used for the
experimental allotments different fodder additives have been used for yolk
colouring as follows: for L1 exp Oro Glo Layer Dry additive has been use in a
doses of 100 g/t; for the L2 exp allotment Klem Glo 5 Dry has been used in a
doses of 1 kg/t; for L3 exp allotment a mixture of additives was introduces form
by Oro Glo Layer Dry 150 g/t and Klem Glo 5 Dry 1,2 kg/t; for the L4 exp
allotment Carophyll Yellow additive has been used in a doses of 35 g/t.
After the current experience, it has been noticed that the additives used had
no influence on the production of eggs or on the food consumption, but only on the
intensity of the yolk colouring, determining an improvement of 91.75 – 121.64 %.
Key words: yolk, colour, additives, hens, poultry
MATERIAL AND METHOD

According to the experimental plan, presented in table 1, the study has
been developed on egg laying poultry producing consumption eggs belonging to
the commercial hybrid Roso-SL 2000, 25 weeks of age which have been divided
into 5 experimental allotments.
The variable factor was the food administered to the poultry, which
contained different fodder additives for the egg’s yolk colouring.Thus, the poultry
belonging to the control allotment received no additives in their food, while for
the poultry in the first experimental allotment (L1 exp) the Oro Glo Layer Dry
additive has been used in a doses of 100 g/t, for the second experimental
allotment (L2 exp) Kem Glo 5 Dry additive has been used in a doses of 1 kg/t; for
the third experimental allotment (L3 exp) a mixture of Oro Glo Layer Dry, 150g/t
and Kem Glo 5 Dry, 1,2 kg/t additives has been introduces in the food; and for the
fourth experimental allotment (L4 exp) Carophyll Yellow additive has been used
in a doses of 35 g/t. The administration doses for the fodder additives are the ones
recommended by the production companies.
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Table 1
Experiment organizing diagram
Experimental allotments Lc L1exp L2exp L3exp L4exp
Hybrid type "ROSO-SL 2000"
Poultry’s age at the
beginning of the 25 weeks
experimental period
Poultry’s age at the end of 50 weeks
the experimental period
Mixed Mixed Mixed Mixed fodder + Mixed
fodder fodder + fodder + Oro Glo Layer fodder +
without Oro Glo Kem Dry: 150 g /t + CAROPH
Food given fodder Layer Glo 5 Kem Glo 5 Dry: YLL
additives Dry: 100 Dry: 1 1,2 kg/t YELLOW:
g/t kg/t 35 g/t
Number of hens 200 200 200 200 200
INDEXES FOLLOWED:
- the egg laying curve for every experimental allotments
- food consumption: average food consumption (g n.c./hen/day) and specific consumption
(g n.c./egg) – weekly data determined
- yolk colouring intensity: weekly data determined
The process of determining yolk colour has been unrolled by comparing

the yolk with the La Roche standard scale (Fig. 1). The La Roche scale includes
15 colour samples numbered from 1 to 15. for the first two samples, the colour is
very light yellow, between the second and the seventh the colour is yellow with
more and more dark shades and after the seventh sample the colour curves
towards orange.
Figure 1. “La Roche” Scale for determining the yolk’s colouring intensity
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Egg laying dynamics
The egg production registered during the 25 weeks of experiment has not
presented important differences between the 5 allotments formed during the
experiment, but shown differences from the standard egg laying curve for the
hybrid on which the experiment was developed.
Thus, the intensity of egg laying has reached the production peak at the
31 weeks old hen age, 4 weeks later than the stipulations of the poultry farming
guide for the Roso SL commercial hybrid. Also, there has not been registered a
clear plateau of the egg laying curve, as it is stipulated in the poultry farming
guide (fig. 2).
Starting with the thirty – second week in the studied hen’s life, their egg
production started to decrease more intensily compared to the standard
stipulations. Thus, if in the 32 – 34 weeks period the standard egg laying
percentage is of 94% for the studied poultry the precentage was between 92.5 –
92.6% in the 32nd week; a percentage of 92.3 – 92.4% in the 33rd week and in the
34th week of 91.8 – 92.2%.
96
94
92
90
Intensitatea de ouat (%)
88
86
84
Lc
82 L1exp
L2exp
80 L3exp
L4exp
78
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Săptămâni
Figure 2. The egg laying intensity curve for the studied poultry
Egg laying intensity (%)
Weeks
This type of dynamic can be observed in the following period reaching at

the end of the experiment, when the hens have touched the age of 50 weeks, to an
egg laying percentage of 84.6% for Lc, 84.8% for L1 exp, 84.6% for L2 exp,
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84.8% for L3 exp just as in the case of L4 exp. These values have been with 2.52
– 2.75% lower than the standard value of 87% stipulated in the growth guide for
the Roso – SL hybrid.
Not even this time can it be said that mixing poultry’s nourishment from
the experimental allotments with certain fodder additives for a more intense yolk
colouring had any influence on the studied parameter – the intensity of egg laying.
Taken as a whole, the results obtained from the five experimental
allotments in what regards the egg laying intensity, it can be said that these results
have not measured up to the productive potential of the studied commercial
hybrid , due to several objective factors which can be related both to the
zootechnical value of the poultry series introduced in the experiment as well as to
some technological factors, such as: a lower quality, on certain occasions, of the
raw material used to produce the mixed fodder, inadequate climate control of the
experimental hall, etc.
Nourishment consumption
Regarding nourishment consumption for the poultry studied within this
experiment there have not been big differenced noticed between the values of the
different allotments not from the point of view of the average nourishment
consumption, nor from the point of view of the specific consumption (fig. 3 and 4).
130
Consum mediu de hrană (g/cap/zi)
125
120
115
110 Lc
L1exp
105 L2exp
L3exp
L4exp
100 Standard
95
25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
Săptămâni
Figure 3. The average nourishment consumption for the hens studied

Average food consumption (g/hen/day)
Weeks
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Figure 4. The standard consumption for the hens studied

Specific food consumption (g/egg)
Weeks
Thus, at the beginning of the experiment, when the poultry were 25 weeks
of age, the daily average food consumption (g/hen/day) was between 107.14 for
the Lc allotment and 107.68 for the L3 exp allotment; and the specific
consumption (g n.c. / egg) was between 117.28 for the L2 exp allotment and
118.08 for the L3 exp allotment.
The differences were very small also in the case of comparing the average
food consumption values for the poultry studied and the standard consumption
values. Thus, at the same age of 25 weeks, the daily average food consumption
stipulated in the growth giude has a value of 106 g n.c./hen/day.
The differences between the daily average food consumption values and
the standard consumption for the studied poultry have increased once the poultry
started to grow old. Thus, at the age of 31 weeks, when the peak of the egg laying
curve was registered, the daily average food consumption values were between
119.21 g n.c./hen/day in the case of the L1 exp allotment and 119.60 g
n.c./hen/day for the L4 exp allotment; these values were with 2.76 – 3.10% higher
than the standard value – 116 g n.c./hen/day.
Regarding the specific consumption at the same age it can be noticed that
it was between 127.36 g n.c./egg for the L1 exp allotment and 127.82 g n.c./egg
for the Lc allotment.
At the end of the experiment, when the poultry were 50 weeks of age, the
specific food consumption registered had values between 145.42 for the L3 exp
allotment and 146.27 for the L2 exp allotment.
As far as the daily average food consumption (g n.c./hen/day) is regarded,
at the end of the experiment is can be said that values higher with 3.72 – 3.99%
than the standard value have been registered.
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Yolk colouring intensity

The egg colour content is closely related to the poultry food consumption.
Poultry are unable to artificially produce carotenoids, but in exchange they can
easily store them in the yolk. The food fed to the poultry contains pigments
(already existing in the fodder raw materials used or added) which allow adjusting
yolk colour according to the consumer’s requirements. A colouring effect on the
yolk is given also by xantophyils (carotenoids which contain an oxygen formation
(Nys, 2000, 2001) however, if the xantophyils show a provitamin A activity, these
carotenoids loose their yolk colouring property by transforming into vitamin A
(Nys Y, Sauveur B., 2004).
In practice, the desired yolk colour, from light yellow to almost red, is
easily obtained. The synthetic xantophyil colour is nowadays a fluently used
source for the yolk colouring control. Thus, a level of aproximately 7-8 g of
xantophyil colour / ton( 7-8 ppm) guaranties obtaining a frequently asked yolk
colour. A level of under 5 ppm in the poultry food results in obtaining low
coloured yolks, refused by the consumers (Leeson S., 1997).
Yolk colour intensity assessment in the case of the eggs obtained from the
studied poultry has been done using the Roche scale. 20 eggs have been weekly
gathered / taken from each experimental allotment and the yolk colour intensity
has been graded.
The results obtained at the end of the experiment indicate the fact that
there are significant differences between the grades from the Lc allotment and the
grades from the experimental allotments. Thus, the average grade for the yolk
colour intensity in the case of the Lc allotment was of 3.88+0.32, with 91.75-
121.64% lower than the average grades established for the experimental
allotments (table 2).
Table 2
Grade average for yolk colour intensity
Experimental allotments
Statistic estimators
Lc L1exp L2exp L3exp L4exp
x ± sx 3,88±0,32 7,44±0,41 8,36±0,48 8,60±0,52 8,44±0,39
V% 11,51 12,08 11,59 12,37 13,04
Fisher Test F5%=2,37; F1%=3,32; F0,1%=4,62; F̂ =6,22 > F0.1=4.62

The statistic differences are significant (***)
L3exp-Lc ***
L3exp-L1exp n.s.
L3exp-L2exp n.s.
L3exp-L4exp n.s.
L4exp-Lc ***
Tukey Test
L4exp-L1exp n.s.
L4exp-L2exp n.s.
L3exp-Lc ***
L2exp-L1exp n.s.
L1exp-Lc ***
Note: n.s. – unsignificant; *** - very significant.
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The allotment homogeneity / unifomity was an average one (V%=10-20).

The best results were obtained in the case of the L3 exp allotment, which
received mixed in the food two fodder additives – Oro Glo Layer Dry and Kem
Glo 5 Dry; the incorporating doses were of 150g/t for Oro Glo Layer Dry and of
1.2 g/t for Kem Glo 5 Dry.
From the fodder additives separately used in the studied poultry’s food,
the best accomplishments were obtained in the case of the Carophyll Yellow
additive, used in a doses of 35 g/t. The average grade for the L4 exp allotment,
which was given this additive, was of 8.44+0.39, higher than the one of the other
allotments with: 117.52% for the Lc allotment; 11.84% for the L1 exp allotment;
0.95% for the L2 exp.
CONCLUSIONS
The egg laying registered during the entire period of 25 experimental
weeks showed no significant differences between the five allotments formed for
the experiment, but showed differences from the standard egg laying curve of the
studied hybrid.
Thus, the egg laying peak of the studied poultry was reached at the age of
31 weeks, four weeks later than stipulated in the poultry farming guide for the
Roso SL commercial hybrid. Also, the egg laying curve plateau was not well
accentuated.
Assessed as a whole, the results obtained from the five experimental
allotments of poultry from the point of view of egg laying intensity can be said to be
under the productive potential of the commercial hybrid used, due to several
objective factors which can be related both to the zootechnical value of the poultry
series introduced in the experiment as well as to some technological factors, such
as: a lower quality, on certain occasions, of the raw material used to produce the
mixed fodder, inadequate climate control of the experimental hall, etc.
By adding fodder additives to the experimental allotments poultry’s food
with the purpose of intensifying yolk colouring (Oro Glo Layer Dry, Kem Glo 5
Dry, Carophyll Yellow) no influence on the egg laying intensity was noticed.
As far as the food consumption for the hens used in this experiment, there
are no differences between the allotments; thus, at the beginning of the
experiment, the average daily food consumption (g/hen/day) was between 107.14
for the Lc allotment and 107.68 for the L3 exp allotment; and the specific food
consumption (g n.c./egg) was between 117.28 for the L2 exp allotment and
118.08 for the L3 exp allotment. The average food consumption registered in the
case of the studied poultry group was with 1.07 – 1.58% higher than the food
consumption stipulated in the poultry farming guide of the Roso SL hybrid.
At the end of the experiment, no significant differences were noticed
between the specific food consumption values for the five experimental
allotments, the values registered being between 145.42 for the L3 exp allotment
and 146.27 for the L2 exp allotment.
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BACK
As far as the average daily food consumption values, at the end of the
experiment the values registered were higher than the standard value by 3.72 –
3.99%.
As a result of mixing three fodder additives Oro Glo Layer Dry, Kem Glo
5 Dry, Carophyll Yellow into the food of the egg laying hens part of the
experiment, an improvement in the yolk colouring intensity has been obtained.
Thus, the average grade for the yolk colour intensity in the case of the Lc
allotment was of 3.88+0.32, with 91.75-121.64% lower that the average grades
established for the experimental allotments.
The best results were obtained in the case of the L3 exp allotment, which
received a mixture of two fodder additives in the food – Oro Glo Layer Dry and
Kem Glo 5 Dry in the doses mentioned abe\ove in the text.
Between the fodder additives separately used in the studied poultry’s
food, the best results were obtained in the case of the Carophyll Yellow additive,
used in a doses of 35 g/t. The average grade for the L4 exp allotment, which was
given this additive, was of 8.44+0.39, higher than the one of the other allotments
with: 117.52% for the Lc allotment; 11.84% for the L1 exp allotment; 0.95% for
the L2 exp.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Leeson S., Summers J.D., 1997 - Comercial Poultry Nutrition, Second Edition, ed University
Books, Poultry Science 62:499-504.
Nys Y., 2001 - Recent developments in layer nutrition for optimizing shell quality. 13tn European
Symposium on Poultry Nutrition. Blankenberge, Belgium
Nys Y. şi col., 1999 - Avian eggshell mineralization, Poultrv Avian Biol. Rev. 10:143-166
Nys Y., 2000 - Dietary carotenoids and egg yolk coloration. A review. Arch. Geflugelk-, 64, p. 45-
54.
Nys Y., Sauveur B., 2004 - „Valeur nutritionnelle des oeufs". INRA Prod. Anim. 17
Pop I.M., 2006 – Aditivi furajeri,, Editura Tipo-Moldova, Iaşi
VACARU-OPRIŞ, I. şi col., 2000 – Tratat de avicultură, vol. I. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
VACARU-OPRIŞ, I. şi col., 2002 – Tratat de avicultură, vol. II. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
VACARU-OPRIŞ, I. şi col., 2004 – Tratat de Avicultură, vol. III. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
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NITRATE/NITRITE RESIDUE LEVELS IN SOME DAIRY

COW FEED INGREDIENTS AND THEIR TOXICOLOGICAL
SIGNIFICANCE
Aida ALBU, O. POPESCU, Cecilia POP, I.M. POP
Nitrates/nitrites are potentially toxic especially for ruminants as they are

used to amend soil from which they are absorbed by plants. If in excess of the plant
metabolic needs to build up its aminoacids and proteins, they reach the ruminant
digestive tract as such where they are reduced to nitrites. The nitrites are the
essential toxic form that cause methemoglobinemia with acute effects or some
metabolic disturbances in the long run e. g. hypovitamonosis A, infertility etc.
The goal of the present work was to evaluate the nitrate/nitrite residue
levels in various dairy cow fodders during one year and to assess their potential
toxic effects to the dairy cows.
The mean values of the residues ranged from 0.66 to 38.17 mg/kg dry
matter for nitrates and from 0.23 to 1.26 mg/kg dry matter for nitrites. The
analytical results were significantly lower than those showed in literature to have
harmful effects to the dairy cows.
Key words: nitrate/nitrite residues, fodders, dairy cows.
Soil amendment with nitrogen fertilizers can increase the nitrate and
nitrite residues in crops. The content of nitrogen absorbed by plants in the form of
either ammonium (NH4+) or nitrate (NO3−) depends on species and age of plants,
soil condition etc (8).
Nitrate level can go up and down rapidly in plants. It accumulates mainly
in the vegetative parts of plants, but less in the grain or fruit (2, 3).
Nitrates that are absorbed from the soil by plant roots are normally
incorporated into plant tissues as amino acids, proteins and other nitrogenous
compounds, but beyond a critical value they remain as such in plants.
Many species of animals are susceptible to nitrate/nitrite poisoning, but
cattle are affected most frequently (4). In the digestive tract, nitrates are reduced
to nitrites (10 times more toxic than nitrates) and in turn they oxidate
haemoglobin forming methemoglobin, a stable chimical compound, which is
unable to work as an oxygen carrier (1, 5, 7).

Various fodders in a dairy farm were analised during year 2007.
Sixty samples of grass, vetch, alfalfa, Sudan grass, alfalfa hay, hay, corn
sillage, corn meal, bran, sunflower meal, brewery dregs and mixed cereal meal were
analised for their nitrate/nitrite content.
The samples were harvested and prepared according to the legal standards
(SR ISO 6498:1999) and veterinary regulations.
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The nitrate/nitrite content was determined according to the SR 13175-93

norm, a spectrophotometric method using the Griess reagent.
The standard curve method was applied using an UV-VIS Shimadzu UV
mini 1240 and appropiate nitrate/nitrite standard solutions.

The contents of the nitrates/nitrites residues in various substrate are shoun
as NO3 mg/kg dry matter and NO2 mg/kg dry matter in tab. 1 and 2.
The mean values of the nitrate residues in samples ranged from 0.66 to 38.17
mg/kg dry matter and from 0.23 to 1.26 mg/kg dry matter respectively for nitrites.
Table 1
Average content of nitrates in fodders
No.
NO3 mg/kg dry matter
No. crt. Sample lim
sample X ± sx min/max
V%
1. Grass 5 15.18±0.75 13.13/17.33 11.06
2. Vetch 5 38.17±1.09 35.62/41.54 6.37
3. Alfalfa 5 21.19±0.35 20.05/22.15 3.73
4. Sudan grass 5 12.23±0.39 11.45/13.62 7.08
5. Alfalfa hay 5 5.59±0.13 5.35/5.93 5.17
6. Hay 5 0.95±0.02 0.92/1.01 4.01
7. Corn sillage 5 5.74±0.13 5.39/6.10 4.88
8. Corn meal 5 1.73±0.04 1.58/1.82 5.05
9. Bran 5 0.66±0.03 0.58/0.74 9.10
10. Sunflower meal 5 1.40±0.02 1.36/1.46 2.79
11. Brewery dregs 5 1.40±0.04 1.33/1.53 6.13
12. Dairy cow mixed feed 5 1.76±0.03 1.69/1.83 3.62
Table 2
Average content of nitrites in fodders
No.
No. crt. Sample lim
V%
1. Grass 5 1.26±0.03 1.16/1.33 5.38
2. Vetch 5 0.78±0.02 0.73/0.86 6.38
3. Alfalfa 5 1.03±0.04 0.91/1.11 8.24
4. Sudan grass 5 0.47±0.02 0.43/0.54 10.29
5. Alfalfa hay 5 0.73±0.01 0.72/0.73 0.75
6. Hay 5 0.78±0.03 0.72/0.86 7.76
7. Corn sillage 5 0.80±0.01 0.77/0.83 2.60
8. Corn meal 5 0.52±0.01 0.50/0.55 3.93
9. Bran 5 0.37±0.01 0.35/0.39 3.98
10. Sunflower meal 5 0.23±0.01 0.22/0.23 1.00
11. Brewery dregs 5 0.29±0.01 0.28/0.30 1.95
12. Dairy cow mixed feed 5 0.32±0.01 0.31/0.33 2.77
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Comparing the data in the present investigation with those presented by

(table 3) (4), shows that the dairy cows fed with any of the investigated substrates,
were out of the risk regarding the nitrate/nitrite toxicosis.
Table 3
Safe and toxic nitrate (NO3) levels in forages*
Nitrate ion,
Recommendations
mg/kg dry matter
0 – 4.400 Safe to feed.
Usually safe to feed with balanced diet. Limit
4.500 – 8.800
to 50% of DM intake in pregnant animals.
Limit intake to 20-25% of DM intake. Use
8.900 – 15.000
caution. Do not feed to pregnant animals.
> 15.000 Toxic!
* Limin Kung, Jr., 2007, Management of Drought Stressed Corn for Silage, University of Delaware
Certain plants are more likely to accumulate toxic levels of nitrate than
others: oats, alfalfa, Sudan grass, wheat, corn etc (6). It seems that the high content of
nitrates in vetch (38.17 mg/kg dry matter) was tributary to its content in oats
(fig.1).
Fig. 1 – Average content of nitrates in fodders (mg/kg dry matter)
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BACK
In other forages, the nitrate residue levels are relatively hight, like grass
(15.18 mg/kg dry matter), alfalfa (21.19 mg/kg dry matter), Sudan grass (12.23
mg/kg dry matter) but far from an imminent risk to dairy cows.
The mean values of nitrite residues were also low, so that their toxic
potential/risk was a minimal one.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The higest and lowest value of the nitrate residues in the harvested
samples along the year 2007 were 38.17±1.09 mg/kg dry matter in vetch and
0.66±0.03 mg/kg dry matter respectively in bran.
2. The higest and lowest value of the nitrite residues in the harvested
samples along the year 2007 were 1.26±0.03 mg/kg dry matter in grass and
0.23±0.01 mg/kg dry matter respectively in sunflower meal.
3. The nitrate and nitrite residues in all samples feeds were within the
limits accepted as toxicologically safe for dairy cattle, that is under 4.400 mg/kg
dry matter.
REFERENCES
1. V. Beasley,1999, IVIS Books, Ed.Veterinary Toxicology, (online), U.S.A, p.725
2. Dennis W. Hancock, 2007, Nitrate toxicity, Extension Forage Agronomist, The University of
Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences and the U.S. Department of
Agriculture cooperating
3. Nolan R. Hartwig, 2006, Nitrate toxicity, Extension Veterinarian, Iowa State University
4. Limin Kung, Jr., 2007, Management of Drought Stressed Corn for Silage, University of Delaware
5. Osweiler G., Clinical and Diagnostic Toxicology, 3rd Ed.Dubuque, Kenda/Hunt Publ.Co., 1984,
p.460
6. B.W. Pinkerton, D.J. Understander, R.E.Wright, 1988, Nitrate poisoning, Forage Leaflet,
Clemson University
7. Popescu, O., Enache, Tr., 1996, Medicina legală veterinară, vol.II, Edit. ALL, Bucureşti
8. E.V.S. Prakasa Rao, K. Puttanna, 2000, Nitrates, agriculture and environment, Current Science,
vol.79, no.9, p:1163-1168
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NITRATE/NITRITE RESIDUES IN FEEDSTUFFS AND

BROILER MIXED FEEDS AND THEIR POTENTIAL TOXIC
EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
Aida ALBU, O. POPESCU
Too high nitrate/nitrite levels in diets can cause health problems in

animals. These problems can be avoided by proper management of feedstuffs and
livestock. Toxicological analysis of feedstuffs is thus very important for farmers.
The goal of present research was the evaluation of the nitrate/nitrite
residue levels in some feedstuffs and chicken broiler mixed feeds.
Thirty five samples of starter, grower, finishing feed, corn meal, wheat,
soymeal, fullfat soylmeal to determine the residual nitrate-nitrite levels were
investigated.
Feed samples were harvested according to SR ISO 6498:1999 and
analysed according to SR 13175-93 method using a UV-VIS Shimadzu UV mini
1240 spectrophotometer.
Mean values of the residues ranged from 1.30 to 2.28 mg/kg dry matter
for nitrates and from 0.23 to 1.26 mg/kg dry matter for nitrites. The analytical
results were significantly lower than those showed in literature and were under
the maximal limits estabilished by the ANSVSA Ord. no. 18/2007 to have harmful
effects to broilers and can used without restriction.
Key words: nitrate/nitrite residues, feeds, chicken broilers
Inorganic nitrogen fertilisers of the soils can increase the NO3/ NO2
residue levels in plants, the more so in case of excess ammendments (5, 8).
The absorbtion of nitrate/nitrite nitrogen by plants depends on some
variables such as: nitrogen chemical form, soil humidity, pH, temperature,
bacterial content, light intensity etc.; some plants are also more likely to
accumulate nitrogen than others (6, 7).
Many animal species are susceptible to nitrate/nitrite poisoning,
especially ruminants as their digestive tract have the forestomacs, particularly the
rumen a significant biotop containing simbionts (bacteria and ciliates). Bacterial
nitroreductases and anaerobic conditions lead to the conversion of nitrates to
nitrites. The latter are the real toxic forms as they oxidise haemoglobin to
methemoglobin in acute cases and cause rapid death of the subject due to tissue
hypoxia (2).
There are also other species susceptible to NO3/ NO2 poisoning: horses,
swine, chicken, man (1, 6, 7).
The highest NO3/ NO2 residue levels can be found in leaves and stalks
of plants but also in grains. To keep their levels low in cereals, seeds and mixed
feeds they must be stored at a moisure up to 12% in the substrate (3).
Toxic levels of the nitrates for different species are shown in tab.1.
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Table 1
Toxic levels of nitrates/nitrites for different species of animals(mg/kilocorp) *
No. crt. Species Nitrates Nitrites
1. cattles 300-500 100-150
2. sheeps and goats 600-800 130-160
3. horses 600-700 30-50
4. swine 800-1000 50-70
5. rabbits 1500-2000 50-80
6. chickens 2000-3000 100-150
*Iacub, G., G., 1991, Intoxicarea animalelor cu plante furajere şi otrăvuri

In 2007, 35 samples of starter, grower, finisher feed, corn meal, wheat,
soymeal, fullfat soymeal were investigated. The levels of residual nitrites and
nitrates were analysed through a spectrophotometric method using a UV-VIS
Shimadzu UV mini 1240 spectrophotometer according SR 13175-93.
The samples were harvested and prepared according to the legal standards
(SR ISO 6498:1999) and veterinary regulations.
The Griess reagent was used to derivatise the NO3 in samples and a
spectrophometric method was applied to quantitate the nitrates on a standard curve plot.

The contents of the nitrate and nitrite residues in various substrates are
shown as NO3 mg/kg dry matter and NO2 mg/kg dry matter in tab. 2 and 3.
The mean values of the nitrate residues in samples ranged from 1.30 to 2.28
mg/kg dry matter and from 0.23 to 2.25 mg/kg dry matter respectively, for nitrites.
Table 2
Average content of nitrates in feedstuffs and mixed fodders
No.
No. crt. Sample lim
V%
1. Starter feed 5 2.17±0.04 2.06/2.27 4.44
2. Grower feed 5 1.55±0.01 1.51/1.58 1.75
3. Finisher feed 5 1.30±0.03 1.21/1.36 4.75
4. Corn meal 5 1.43±0.01 1.40/1.46 1.67
5. Wheat 5 2.28±0.17 1.82/2.82 17.26
6. Soymeal 5 1.45±0.05 1.27/1.61 8.69
7. Fullfat soylmeal 5 0.86±0.01 0.83/0.89 2.83
- 525 -
Table 3
Average content of nitrites in feedstuffs and mixed fodders
No.
No. crt. Sample lim
V%
1. Starter feed 5 0.37±0.02 0.31/0.41 10.94
2. Grower feed 5 0.80±0.01 0.78/0.82 1.98
3. Finisher feed 5 0.71±0.01 0.70/0.73 2.12
4. Corn meal 5 0.43±0.01 0.42/0.44 1.01
5. Wheat 5 2.25±0.01 2.21/2.28 0.99
6. Soymeal 5 0.23±0.01 0.22/0.25 5.04
7. Fullfat soylmeal 5 0.26±0.01 0.25/0.27 1.69
Comparing the data in the present investigation with those presented in

tab. 4 (4), shows that the broilers fed with any of the investigated substrates, were
out of the risk regarding the nitrate/nitrite toxicosis.
Table 4
Safe and toxic nitrate (NO3) levels in forages*
Nitrate ion,
Recommendations
mg/kg dry matter
0 – 4.400 Safe to feed.
Usually safe to feed with balanced diet. Limit to 50% of
4.500 – 8.800
DM intake in pregnant animals.
Limit intake to 20-25% of DM intake. Use caution. Do
8.900 – 15.000
not feed to pregnant animals.
> 15.000 Toxic!
* Limin Kung, Jr., 2007, Management of Drought Stressed Corn for Silage, University of Delaware
Laboratory analyses can be reported in several way: nitrate, potassium,

nitrate, sodium nitrate etc. in: ppm (mg/kg), %, in dry matter, at 12% moisure etc.
We reported the results in mg/kg at dry matter for all the samples. For mixed
fodders the results are reported also in mg/kg at 12% moisure to be comparable
with maximal limits (15 mg/kg at 12% moisure) estabilished by the ANSVSA
Ord. no. 18/2007 (tab. 5 and 6).
Table 5
NO3 mg/kg at 12% moisure
No.
No. crt. Sample lim
V%
1. Starter feed 5 1.90±0.04 1.84/2.01 4.48
2. Grower feed 5 1.36±0.01 1.33/1.39 1.82
3. Finisher feed 5 1.15±0.02 1.07/1.20 4.76
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BACK
Table 6
NO2 mg/kg at 12% moisure
No.
No. crt. Sample lim
V%
1. Starter feed 5 0.33±0.02 0.27/0.36 11.22
2. Grower feed 5 0.71±0.01 0.68/0.72 2.29
3. Finisher feed 5 0.63±0.01 0.61/0.65 2.36
The nitrate and nitrite residues levels in the mixed feeds samples were
found within the limits according the ANSVSA Ord. no. 18/2007 (15 mg/kg at
12% moisure).
CONCLUSIONS
1. The higest and lowest value of the nitrate residues in the harvested
samples along the year 2007 were 2.28±0.17 mg/kg dry matter in wheat and
1.30±0.03 mg/kg dry matter, respectively in finisher feed.
2. The higest and lowest value of the nitrite residues in the harvested
samples along the year 2007 were 2.25±0.01 mg/kg dry matter in wheat and
0.23±0.01 mg/kg dry matter, respectively in soymeal.
3. The nitrate and nitrite residues levels in all sample feeds were within
the limits accepted as toxicologically safe for broilers, that is under 4.400 mg/kg
dry matter and 15 mg/kg at 12% moisure according the ANSVSA Ord. no.
18/2007 for mixed fodders.
REFERENCES
1. V. Beasley, IVIS Books, Ed.Veterinary Toxicology, (online), U.S.A, p.725
2. Blood, D.C., J.A. Henderson, 1974, Veterinary Medicine, 4th Ed, Williams & Wilkins Co.,
Baltimore, USA, , p.817
3. Iacub, G., G., 1991, Intoxicarea animalelor cu plante furajere şi otrăvuri, Edit. Cartea
Moldovenească, Chişinău
4. Limin Kung, Jr., 2007, Management of Drought Stressed Corn for Silage, University of Delaware
5. O.E.Olson, R.J. Emerick, E.I.Whitehead, 2002, Forage nitrate poisoning, Cooperative Extension
Service South Dacota State University U.S. Department of Agriculture
6. Osweiler G., Clinical and Diagnostic Toxicology, 3rd Ed.Dubuque, Kenda/Hunt Publ.Co., 1984,
p.460
7. Popescu, O., Enache, Tr., 1996, Medicina legală veterinară, vol.II, Edit. ALL, Bucureşti
8. T.L. Stanton, J.Whitter, 2006, Nitrate poisoning, Livestock series, University Cooperative
Extension, Colorado State
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BACK
THE QUALITY OF GALEGA–GRASS SILAGES

Ligita BALEŽENTIENĖ, Sabina MIKULIONIENĖ
The biomass of legume fodder galega (Galega orientalis L.) has high protein
content (14–26%), especially at budding–flowering stages. This crop is suitable for
making different sorts of forage: silage, hay, haylage, ground hay etc. Chemical
composition of fodder galega is more valuable forage than traditional fodder plants
red clover and timothy. For supplying livestock with succulent forage during the year
and for producing high quality silage galega mixtures with grasses containing many
water–soluble carbohydrates (WSCs) were ensiled. Possibilities to ensile early
flowering stage fodder galega’ mixtures (1:1) with orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata
L.), timothy (Phleum pratense L.), wheat–grass (Elytrigia repens L.), milk stage maize
and sugar beet leaves were studied at Research Station and Training farm of
Lithuanian University of Agriculture in 1998–1999. Fresh matter was cut at a length
of 12–13 mm, thoroughly pressed and hermetically packed in 3 l jars. All silage kept
6.5 month at (3–5)0C under laboratory conditions. 0.3% formaldehyde pitch of
carbamide was applied in pure galega and galega–maize (1:1) silages. The chemical
composition was determined by standardized methods at Agrochemical laboratory of
LAU as well as metabolic energy (ME) and netto energy of lactation (NEL) of DM
feeds were calculated. Examined crops and dry matter (DM), pH, neutral detergent
fibre (NDF), saccharose and acids of silages were determined according Wender
forage analysis in ‘Tempus’ laboratory of Lithuanian Agricultural University. Element
concentrations in DM were analysed using near–infrared reflectance (NIR)
spectroscopy according to the database of research plants.
The results indicate that quality of pure galega and galega–wheat–grass
silages was bad because unbalanced ration of protein and WSCs. It was
concluded that fodder galega profitable to ensile with grass component which
accumulated not less than 30 % DM.
Keywords: galega, grass, silage, chemical composition
Cropping of fodder grasses, particularly legumes, which compose only

20–30 % of annual forage ration of livestock, has great significance to attain
sufficient amount of forage as well as forage with proof enough protein supply.
Fresh fodder needs to be made into silage or other kind of forage seeking to
supply cattle by succulent forage during year in climate condition of Lithuania.
Long–term legume fodder galega (Galega orientalis L.) is characterized as
high protein rich (14–26 %) crop, especially at budding–flowering stages and is
suitable for making different sorts of forage: silage, hay, haylage, ground hay etc.
(Adamovics, 2000 ; Baranauskas, Mikulionienė, Kulpys, Stankevičius, 1998;
Барановский, Курак, 1990). High level of feed value and mineral content, abundance
of non–fallen leaflets, soft and non–wooden stems are characteristic to galega at this
stage. Delayed harvest of galega or other fodder crops have resulted decreasing of
nutritious materials due to increasing cellulose content and diminishing of protein and
other feed materials synthesis (Chamberlain, Wilkinson, 1996; Juraitis, 1998).
Protein–rich flowering galega could be dried up to 40–55 % moisture and
ensilaged to supply of crude forage during year. The moisture of ensiled mass
- 528 -
influences quality of silage (Marco et al., 2002; Yahaga et al., 2001). Too dry
ensilage mass (60 % and more DM) pressed badly, could became heat and
increased losses of dry matter. In case of low DM content the Clostridium spp.,
which occur butyric fermentation, start to grow. This anaerobic bacteria
decompose saccharose and protein into butyric acid and ammonium. These
compounds increased pH up to 5.0 and silage quality decreased. The high
moisture increased acetic acid content and pH, decreased the fermentation process
and quality of silage. It is recommended the optimal 28–30 % DM content of
ensilage mass (Jeroch et al., 1999).
The quality and fermentation of silage are influenced not only by DM
content but also by protein content. The silages of pure maize or grasses have been
the main forage feed to livestock in many countries during winter period (Steidlová,
Kalač, 2002). But the deficiency of the dietary amines content reduced the feed value
of maize and pure grasses silages. This problem could be solved by adding legumes
into silage mass (Mikulionienė, Stankevičius, 2002). Grass–legumes mixtures solve
the problem of low content of water–soluble carbohydrates (WSCs) in legumes
(Cozzi, Burato, Berzagi, Andrighetto, 2002). WSCs indispensable and implicate
fermentation of silage. Ensilaging protein–rich, but with low saccharose content
plants the sufficient amount of lactic acid isn’t produced, therefore silage acidity
increased from 6.0 to 5.0 pH as well as acetic and butyric acids content. These
processes determined decomposing of silage. The high quality silage could be
produced in case of profitable carbohydrates and protein ratio. As Jeroch et al.
(1999) report the minimal WSCs content must be not less than 100–140 g kg –1 DM.
Galega contains protein (1.8–2.3 %) twice more in compare with maize, but maize
exceed galega by 2–4 times in WSCs.
The main aim of this work is a survey of possibilities to ensilage galega
with various cereals grasses and leaves of sugar beet and produce high quality and
feed value silage. Galega’s mixtures (1:1) with good–ensiling crops: maize,
orchardgrass, timothy, wheat grass and leaves of sugar beet were examined in
order to determine the most profitable.

Silage preparation
Fodder galega (Galega orientalis L.) and grasses (orchadgrrass Dactylis
glomerata L., timothy Phleum pratense L., wheat grass Elytrigia repens L.) were
harvested during the early flowering stage around August end at the Research
Station of Lithuanian Agricultural University. Maize harvested at the milky
ripeness stage. The leaves of sugar beet ensilaged at root–crop harvesting. At
these stages amount of dry material (DM) reach the optimal content for ensiling.
The fresh matter (FM) of crops was cut at a length of 12–13 mm, thoroughly
mixed, accurate pressed and ensilage hermetically to achieve better extraction of
soluble carbohydrates and to raise preservation of silages (Davies, Merry,
- 529 -
Williams, Baekwell et al. 1998, Yahaya Kawai, Takahashi, Matsuoka, 2000). The
silages stored 6.5 month in 3 liter hermetical jars in two replications at 3–5 0C
temperature. Silage of galega–maize preserved by 0.3 % formaldehyde pitch of
carbamide, produced in Jonava chemical factory, Lithuania. Other silages were
preserved by spontaneous fermentation. When jars have been opened silage
estimated by sense method and have been taken samples for quality analysing.
DM and silage analyses
Examined crops and dry matter (DM), pH, neutral detergent fibre (NDF),
saccharose and acids of silages were determined according Weender forage analysis
in ‘Tempus’ laboratory of Lithuanian Agricultural University (Nauman, Baasler,
1983). Element concentrations in DM were analysed using near–infrared reflectance
(NIR) spectroscopy according to the database of research plants.
Losses of materials and energy estimated by compare fresh mass and chemical
composition of silage. Quality of silage estimated by usability (very good, good,
satisfactory and bad) according pH and organic acid content (DLG–Information, 1999).
Metabolic energy (ME MJ kg –1) of silages and examined forage grasses was
express by a formula (Nauman, Bassler, 1983; Baranauskas, Mikulionienė,
Kulpys, Stankevičius, 1998):
ME = 14.07+0.0206 x CR–0.0147 x CF–0.0114 x CP;
Netto energy of lactation (NEL MJ kg –1) of DM forages was calculated:
NEL = 9.10+0.0098 x CR – 0.0109 x CF – 0.0073 x CP;
means:
CR– crude fat g kg-1;
CF– crude fibre g kg-1;
CP– crude protein g kg-1.
Statistical methods
The level statistical confidence of the data was calculated by the method
of dispersion analysis using the statistical package ANOVA. The least significant
difference (LSD) method was used to evaluate differences between the studied
crops chemical composition, ME and NEL.

Determined concentration of crude protein is enough abundant – average
231 g kg1 in galega fresh mass. Not only total protein amount, but them composed
amino acid, particularly essential, as well as their composition and quantity, have
high importance. The biggest amount determined of these amino acids:
asparagines – 18.83, glutamine – 15.06 and phenilalanine –10.09 mg kg-1. Protein
content of galega is rather high. Mentioned above amino acid constitute 68.22–
56.37 % of amino acid content of soy–bean cake (Baležentienė, Mikulionienė,
2006). Determined high content of amino acid in fresh mass of fodder galega
indicated that this crop could be used to increase protein of livestock ration and
successfully could replace imported soy–bean cake.
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Examined chemical composition of galega at flowering stage is better

than traditional forage crops in Lithuania. The highest protein, fibre, fat and ash
content (231, 245.8, 29.5 and 105 g kg-1 respectively) determined in galega dry
matter and indicated the good feed value of this crop.
As Mikulionienė, Stankevičius (2002) report, pure legumes is not suited
for ensiling due to low amount of WSCs, which guarantee good silage
fermentation. Therefore the chemical composition and fermentation of legumes
could be improved by their ensiling in mixtures with graminaceous. Fresh mass of
fodder galega ensiled at budding – early flowering stage, when the most efficient
of nutritious materials and optimum amount of DM were accumulated. Before
ensiling the fresh mass of galega accumulated sufficient supply – 221g kg-1 of dry
matter which, as Jeroch et al. (1999) reported, isn’t enough to produce the best
quality of silage (Table 1).
Table 1
Influence of chemical conservant on quality of galega and galega– maize (1:1) silages
Galega Galega–maize
Indices of DM without with without with LSD05
conservant conservant conservant conservant
DM g kg-1 221 227 214 225 14.0
CP g kg-1 219 226 164 181 8.12
CF g kg-1 203 212 194 205 0.81
C. fat g kg-1 37 31 37 23 4.65
C. ash g kg-1 94 88 87 73 10.3
Carotene mg kg-1 12.0 27.6 34.7 37.7 0.94
Saccharose g kg-1 5 5.5 6.4 7.2 7.31
P g kg-1 3.5 3.5 3.3 3.2 0.25
K g kg-1 36.0 36.4 19.4 18.5 4.51
Ca g kg-1 12.16 12.30 11.77 11.75 0.11
ME MJ kg-1 10.78 10.58 10.99 10.70 0.19
NEL MJ kg-1 SM 6.42 6.48 6.71 6.56 0.10
Silage pH 5.3 4.9 4.4 4.7 0.3
Organic acid %:
Lactic 35.9 69.7 65.2 64.1 7.6
Acetic 37.2 29.0 34.8 35.9 0.23
Butyric 26.9 1.3 – – 0.54
The silage of flowering stage galega suggested the high content of protein
(219 g kg-1), carotene (12 mg kg-1), mineral materials and produce the high ME
(10.78). The losses of nutritious materials during galega ensiling without additive
constitute 6 % of protein, 82 % of carotene and 72 % of saccharose, but increased fat
and mineral K content. Silage of pure galega without additives fermented weekly due
to low amount of saccharose (5 g kg-1) and high pH value. After 6.5 months
fermentation pure galega silage produced rather high pH (5.3) and low lactic acid
content (35.9 %). The content of butyric acid was found high – 26.9 %, therefore the
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silage quality became of bad quality. 0.3 % FPC improved quality of pure galega
silage by decreasing butyric acid up to 1.3 % and significantly increasing acidity up to
4.9 pH. Pure galega silage with preservative 0.3 % FPC evaluated as good quality.
As analysis indicated, the galega ensiling with maize at ratio 1:1 produced
the better quality silage than pure galega ensiling. In this case the best balanced
according to protein and saccharose ratio (2:1) silage was produced. The neutral
detergent fibre content (531.3 g kg-1) was the highest in galega–maize silage in
compare with other silages (Fig. 1).
23.4
1.13
LSD 05 42.1
21.1
21.5
422
11.07
Galega+wheat grass 275
149.5
220
354.4
35.9
Galega+s.beet 190.9
228
Silage
113.4
436
22.3
Galega+orchardgrass 269.9
114.1
190
419.2
27.3
Galega+timothy 293.1
111.2
227
531.3
27
Galega+maize 263.2
154.3
208
419.2
31
Galega 251
219
271
0 100 200 300 400 500 600

g kg-1
NDF C. fat CF
Figure 1. Concentration and organic compound of silages
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Quality indices increased in case of ensilaging of galega–maize mixture

(1:1) with 0.3 % FPC preservative. Adding of 0.3 % FPC to galega–maize silage
hasn’t significant influence on DM (225 and 225g kg-1), mineral elements content
and pH (4.7 and 4.4) in compare to galega–maize silage without preservative. But
CP (181 g kg-1), carotene (37.7 mg kg-1) content significantly increased in galega–
maize silage with adding FPC.
The positive indices of galega mixtures with timothy, orchardgrass, sugar
beet leaves and wheat–grass (1:1) fresh mass and silages confirm that the pure
galega isn’t profitable for silage (Fig.1, 2 and 3).
0.21
LSD05 1.63
1.61
1.03
4.01
Galega+wheat grass 28.2
12.34
4
Galega+s.beet
Silage
11.33
2.74
1.7
Galega+orchardgrass 27
14.94
5.5
0.4
Galega+timothy 16.7
13.77
5.3
Galega+maize 16.8
9.72
2.87
1.7
Galega 16
22.16
3.5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
g kg-1
Mg K Ca P
Figure 2. Mineral content of silages
- 533 -
12
10.78 10.71 10.77
10 9.61 9.4 9.68
8
6.81
6.22 6.14 6.31 6.32 6.32
6
MJ kg-1
4
2
0.74 0.5
0.3 0.14 0.14 0.21
0
Galega Galega+maize Galega+timothy
Galega+orchardgrass
Galega+s.beet
Galega+wheat grass
ME NEL
Figure 3. ME and NEL of silages
- 534 -
Quality indices of fresh mass and silage of galega–timothy mixture (1:1)

concluded that pure galega better ensiling in mixtures with graminaceous. The
content of DM (293 g kg-1) of timothy fresh mass is optimal for ensiling, but
protein content – 129.9 g kg–1 is too small for formation balanced livestock diets
(Jeroch et al.,1999).
Ensiling galega–timothy mixture (1:1), the losses of DM consist only 15.7
and protein – 30.5 %. Silage pH was 4.1 and indicated the right fermentation of
silage, good chemical composition and quantity of organic acids. Galega–timothy
silage has the biggest content of NDF among tested silages. Lactic acid
predominated among acids and composed 73.4 %. The butyric acid content was
low – 0.2%, therefore galega –timothy silage has good quality.
The similar fermentation process occurs in galega–orchardgrass silage.
The losses of DM, protein and energetic value content of galega–orchardgrass
silage rate 23.2, 28.6 and 7.2 % respectively. This silages has the high K content.
Galega–orchardgrass silage was good quality due to the lower pH – 4.0, but has
higher butyric acid content 3.3 % in compare with galega – timothy silage.
Galega–wheat–grass silage has less quality than galega–orchardgrass
silage. This silage fermented weekly due to law saccharose content (3 g kg-1) and
acidity – 4.8 pH. According to Feroch et al. (1999), the optimal content of
carbohydrate is 8–10 % for producing good quality silage. The bad
carbohydrates–protein ratio for fermentation determined accumulation big content
of butyric acid – 14.3 %, therefore galega–wheat–grass silage became bad quality.
In the end of October galega was ensilaged with sugar beet leaves
enriching galega mass with water soluble carbohydrates and increasing silage
fermentation due to high saccharose content. Galega–beet leaves silage has the
highest ME (10.77 MJ kg-1), but pure content of mineral elements. Acidity of this
silage was the highest –3.9 pH among tested silages as well as NEL (6.81 MJ kg-
1
) therefore sugar beet leaves are good component for ensiling in mixture with
galega.
CONCLUSIONS
chemical composition of fodder galega is better than treated traditional forage
graminaceous timothy and legume red clover therefore galega is more valuable
for feeding. The 0.3% formaldehyde pitch of carbamide recommended apply as
preservative because decreased losses of nutritiuos materials and guarantee good
fermentation of pure galega and galega–maize mixture. Pure galega and galega–
wheat–grass mixture aren’t profitable for ensiling because too law content of
sugars, but galega is acceptable to ensilage with maize, timothy, orchardgrass or
sugar beet leaves in ratio 1:1.
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BACK
REFERENCES
1. Baležentienė, L., Mikulionienė, S. Chemical composition of galega mixtures silages.
Agronomy research, 2006, 4, 2, 483-492.
2. Baranauskas, S., Mikulionienė, S., Kulpys, J., Stankevičius, R., 1998 Energinis pieninių galvijų
pašarų įvertinimas pagal Hohenheimo vertinimo testą. Veterinarija ir zootechnika. 6 (28), 62–65.
3. Chamberlain, A.T., Wilkinson, J.M. (1996) The ideal silage quality. In: Feeding the Dairy
Cow. Linkol: Chalcombe Publications, 28–30.
4. Cozzi, G., Burato, G.M., Berzaghi, P., Andrighetto, I., 2002 Evaluation of pellets from
different industrial processing of dehydrated lucerne in dairy cattle feeding. Animal Feed Science
and Technology. 99. Iss.1–4, 13–24.
5. Davies, D.R., Merry, R.J., Williams, E.L., Baekwell, D.K. et al., 1998 Proteolysis during
ensilage of forages varying in soluble in sugar content. Journal of Dairy Science. 81, 444–453.
6. Grudfuttterbewertung, 1999 Teil A: DGL–Schüssel zur Bewerhyng von Grünfutter, Silage und
Hilfe der Sinnenbewertung. DGL–Information. 2, 16.
7. Jeroch D, Drochner W., Simon O. (1999) Ernährung landwirtschaflichen Nutztiere, Springer
Verlag. Berlin , , 544 S.;
8. Juraitis, V., 1998 Maisto medžiagų ir cheminių elementų kiekio kitimas daugiametėse
ankštinėse žolėse per vegetaciją. Veterinarija ir zootechnika. 5 (27), 98–101.
9. Mikulionienė, S., Stankevičius, R., 2002 Žolinių pašarų ir siloso cheminė sudėtis. maistinė
vertė ir virškinamumas. Veterinarija ir zootechnika. 18 (40), 94–99.
10. Mikulionienė, S., 2001 Kukurūzų siloso maistinė ir pašarinė vertė. Veterinarija ir zootechnika.
15 (37), 81–83.
11. Nauman, C., Bassler, R., 1983 Die chemische Unterschung von Futtermilteln. Methodenbuch.
Band III. VDLUFA. Damstadt. 256.
12. Steidlová, Š., Kalač, P., 2000 Levels of biogenic amines in maize silage. Animal Feed Science
and Technology. Vol. 102, 197–205.
13. Yahaya, M.S., Kawai, M., Takahashi, J., Matsuoka, S., 2000 The breakdown of structural
carbohydrates of lucerne and orchardgrass during different length of ensiling and its effects on
nutritive value of silage. Australian Journal of Animal Science. 13 Suppl. Asian, 147–153.
14. Барановский, М., Курак, А., 1990 Травяная мука из галеги восточной. B: Сельское
хозяйство Белоруссии. 1, 17.
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BACK
THE IMPACT OF DIFFERENT GROWING SYSTEMS ON

FORAGES QUALITY
Ligita BALEŽENTIENĖ, Sabina MIKULIONIENĖ
Intensification of agriculture induced applying of heavy amounts of

mineral and organic fertilizers and various pesticides about 60 yrs ago in the West
Europe countries. Due to the chemical load the animated part of soil started to
decline. Intensive farming system influenced decreasing both different soil fauna
(insects, earthworms) and microorganisms (bacteria, actinomycetes, algae, fungi
and protozoa). By way of alternative of such aggressive farming integrated,
extensive and organic agriculture systems began spread inherently. The main aim
of this research was to determine and compare chemical composition of forage
cereals (barley, wheat, rye, out and triticale) cropped in different farming systems.
Dry matter (DM), crude ash (CA), crude fat (CR), neutral detergent fibre (NDF),
acid detergent fibre (ADF), acid detergent lignin (ADL), content of mineral, trace
element and heavy metals were determined for estimation of feed value of tested
cereals grain. The highest content of important essential amino acid
methionine+cystine (5.0 g kg -1 DM) and lysine (4.7 g kg -1 DM) was determined in
chemical composition of out. The equal content of triptofane (1.2) was determined
in wheat, out and barley. Tryptophan is a precursor of the neurotransmitter
serotonin. The smallest content (0.95 g kg -1 DM) of this amino acid was found in
rye. Mineral and trace elements concentrations in DM ranged: Ca– 0.3–0.9, P –
3.3–3.7, Mg – 1.1–1.2 and Na – 0.16–0.35 g kg -1. Organically cropped grain
contented less of protein and fat, but crude fiber content increased in compare with
intensive cropped ones. CP varied from 8.2 (triticale) to11.5% (out) in organic
cropped grains. CP content was a markedly higher of intensive cropped grain and
constituted from 11.9–14.5%.
Keywords: cereals, organic and intensive farming, chemical composition
INTRODUCTION
Intensification of agriculture induced applying of heavy amounts of
mineral and organic fertilizers and various pesticides about 60 yrs ago in the West
Europe countries. Due to the chemical load the animate part of soil started to
decline. Intensive farming system influenced decreasing both different soil fauna
(insects, earthworms) and microorganisms (bacteria, actinomycetes, algae, fungi
and protozoa). By way of alternative of such aggressive farming integrated,
extensive and organic agriculture systems began spread inherently. Chemical
supplies of intensive/conventional agriculture transgressed safe delimitations
therefore organic agriculture groundswell arose (EEC Reg. 2092/91; EC Doc
AGRI/2007/64351).
Organic agriculture expressed by different characters and formats. It
started in West Europe: Britain, Switzerland, and Holland. Organic farming has to
be understood as part of a sustainable farming system and a viable alternative to
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the more traditional approaches to agriculture (EU Regulation 1257/99). Since the
EU rules on organic farming came into force in 1992, tens of thousands of farms
have been converted to this system, as a result of increased consumer awareness
of, and demand for, organically grown products. Although it only represented
around 3 % of the total EU utilised agricultural area (UAA) in 2000, organic
farming has in fact developed into one of the most dynamic agricultural sectors in
the European Union. The organic farm sector grew by about 25 % a year between
1993 and 1998 and, since 1998, is estimated to have grown by around 30 % a year
(EC Doc AGRI/2007/63506). In some Member States, however, it now seems to
have reached a plateau.
The first organic farms were registered 15 yr before in Lithuania
(www.Ekoagros.lt). In nowadays there are 5 000 of them in Lithuania with area of
125 000 ha. This area mostly occupied under cereals for feeding and for human
food. The recovery is pronounced at the market of organic grain. In contradiction
of organic grain consumption for self needs in previous years, inscribed stocks of
them for processing enterprises increased today. Part of organic grain was
exported abroad already in 2007.
Organic forages are produced at stock company “Kauno grūdai”, but fish
forages compose greater part of production (www.allgrain.lt).
Production cropped in organic farms without assessment of quality is punk.
Therefore the main aim of this research was determine chemical composition of
cereals (barley, wheat, rye, out and triticale) cropped in organic farms
(www.eko.laei.lt).
Requisition of cereals, cropped in organic farms, for forages needs to get
not only the hardest yield, but to get the good quality also. Quality hinge both on
content and ratio of food materials in forges. Former researches determined that
quality of cereals was not as expected one (Pekarskas, Sliesaravičius, 2004). Also
it was established that yield and quality of winter wheat rely on meteorologic
conditions (Pekarskas, 2005; Rutkovienė at al., 2003).
METHODS AND MATERIALS

Tested cereals for livestock forage were cropped at organic farm (S.
Gecas) during 2004–2007. Chemical composition (ChC) and feed value of grain
barley Aura, wheat SW Maxi, rye Joniai, triticale Tornado, and out Migla DS
were tested and estimated its relevance for making forage. Crops were fertilized
with 40 t ha-1 of manure. Get data of cereals chemical composition at organic farm
were compared with cropped ones at intensive farm.
Examined crops and dry matter (DM), crude ash (CA), crude fat (CR),
neutral detergent fibre (NDF), acid detergent fibre (ADF), acid detergent lignin
(ADL) of grain were determined according Weender forage analysis in ‘Tempus’
laboratory of Lithuanian Agricultural University (Nauman, Baasler, 1993).
Mineral and trace elements concentrations in DM were analysed using near
- 538 -
infrared reflectance spectroscopy (NIRS) according to the database of research

plants and atomic absorbance method.
Brutto metabolic energy (BE MJ kg -1) of grains was expressed by a formula
(Jeroch, 1993):
BE = 0.0239 x CP + 0.0398 x CR + 0.0201 x CF + 0.0175 x NEM;
means:
CR– crude fat g kg-1;
CF– crude fibre g kg-1;
CP– crude protein g kg-1;
NEM – nitrogen–free extractives
The level statistical confidence (p<0.05) of the data was calculated by the
method of dispersion analysis using the statistical package ANOVA. The least
significant difference (LSD) method was used to evaluate differences between the
studied cereals chemical composition, ME and NEL.

The main index of forage quality is content of protein. The highest
protein content (95.5–97.0 g kg-1 DM) determined in dry mater of winter wheat in
compare with other examined cereals (Table 1). Therefore other cereals overtake
wheat with amino acid content. As reports many authors, amino acids play
important role both in the building blocks of proteins and in different metabolism
processes, giving a guarantee of normal livestock physiology (Dozier et al., 2008;
Yin et al., 2008; Shan et al., 2007). The highest content of important essential
amino acid methionine+cystine (5.0 g kg -1 DM) and lysine (4.7 g kg-1 DM) was
determined in chemical composition of out. The equal content of triptophan (1.2)
was determined in wheat, out and barley. Tryptophan is a precursor of the
neurotransmitter serotonin. The smallest content (0.95 g kg-1 DM) of this amino
acid was found in rye.
Table 1
Protein content (g kg-1DM) of cereals cropped at organic farm
Cereal n Crude protein g Lysine, g Methionine+ Triptophan,
kg-1DM kg-1DM cystine, g kg- g kg-1DM
1
DM
Wheat 3 95.5–97.0 2.9 4.7 1.2
Rye 3 80.5–83.0 3.6 3.8 0.95
Out 3 85.0–88.0 4.2 5.0 1.2
Barely 3 108.0 3.1 4.0 1.2
Zn was found in the highest amounts both in rye (22.2 mg kg-1DM) and
wheat (18.5 mg kg-1DM) (Table 2). As Kan and Meijer (2007) report, depending
on physico–chemical characteristics, some substances are metabolized into
naturally occurring and generally harmless constituents, but heavy metals are not
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metabolized at all. Some metals irreversibly are bound to body tissues, e.g. lead to
bone or cadmium to kidneys. Possible sources and causes of contamination by
heavy metals and other toxins through the diet are also addressed (Pulina et al.,
2006). Content of harmfull for health and environment heavy elements (Ni, Pb
and Cd) not exceed safe norms in and wheat and rye DM were healthy for
livestock nutrition (86/278/EEC Council Directive).
Table 2
Content (mg kg-1DM) of trace elements and heavy metals in cereals cropped at
organic farm
Cereal Cu Zn Ni Pb Cd
Wheat 21.6 18.5 0.13 0.11 0.0457
Rye 32 22.2 0.13 0.10 0.037
LSD05 3.21 3.16 0.01 0.01 0.0014
Content of fibre has important dietary and feed value in forages (Clóvis et
al., 2008; Nader and Robinson, 2008). As Baurhoo et al. reports (2008), lignin,
the second most abundant natural compound after cellulose, is a high–molecular
weight polymer of phenolic compounds that occurs naturally in plants. It is
mostly present in the cell wall, conferring structural support, impermeability and
resistance to microbial attack. High content of NDF was found in out (295 g kg-1
DM), less in barley (171 g kg-1 DM), rye (139 g kg-1 DM) and wheat (129 g kg-1
DM) cropped organically (Table 3). In compare with NDF, ADF content
determined less and ranged between 43–157 g kg-1 DM in different cereals. As
Baurhoo et al. (2008) suggest that purified lignin may exert health benefits in
monogastric animals and could potentially be considered as a natural feed
additive. Adversary, lignin is the least digestible fiber, therefore its big amounts
are not preferred in forages. Lignin content in organically cropped cereals
composed 13–31 g kg-1 DM and gained traditionally cropped cereals. Total
content of cellulose determined the highest in out grain (126 g kg-1 DM) and in
other cereals it ranged between 28–53 g kg-1 DM. Due to the references
(Mäntysaari et al., 2007), concentration of all types of fibers (NDF, ADF, ADL
and cellulose) in organically cropped cereals gained traditionally cropped cereals
and is partly digested, DF provides negligible amounts of digestible or
metabolisable energy. As Noblet and Le Goff reported (2001), components of DF
are digested differently: lignin is undigested while pectins are almost totally
digested; hemicellulose tends to be more digested than cellulose, although both
are partly digested. Digestion of DF is also associated with energy losses as
methane. Consequently, increased concentration of DF makes a negative
contribution to feed value and energy supply of forages cropped in organic farm.
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Table 3
Fiber matter content in cereals, cropped at organic farm
g kg-1 DM
Cereal Sample, un.
DM NDF¹ ADF² Hemicelluloze ADL³ Celluloze
Barley 4 880 171 71 100 18 53

Out 4 890 295 157 138 31 126
Rye 4 860 139 47 92 19 28
Wheat 4 870 129 43 86 13 30
LSD05 9.10 8.36 2.75 10.50 2.90 11.08
1
– neutral detergent fiber (NDF)
2
– acid detergent fiber (ADF)
3
– acid detergent lignin (ADL)
Minerals and trace elements potential impact on animals productivity and

healthy should not be ignored. Many reports (Laswai et al., 2008; Leeson and
Caston, 2008) concluded that mineral is effective in improving the nutritive value
of low quality roughage and short time feeding and no detrimental effect on the
concentration in the urine and blood of the animals. Ca content ranged 0.3–0.9, P
– 3.3–3.7, Mg – 1.1–1.2 and Na – 0.16–0.35 g kg -1 DM of tested cereals (Table
4). The concentrations of minerals obtained very small, because cereals were not
fertilized additionally with mineral fertilizers.
Table 4
Average minerals concentration (g 100 g -1 DM) in cereals grain, cropped organically
Cereal Sample, un. Ca P Mg Na
Barley 4 0.6 3.6 1.2 0.31
Out 4 0.3 3.5 1.1 0.16
Rye 4 0.9 3.7 1.1 0.35
Wheat 4 0.7 3.3 1.1 0.20
LSD05 0.01 0.04 0.01 0.02
It was determined that organically cropped grain contented less of protein

and fat, but crude fiber content increased in compare with intensive cropped ones
(Table 5). CP varied from 8.2 (triticale) to11.5% (out) in organic cropped grains.
CP content was a markedly higher of intensive cropped grain and constituted
from 11.9–14.5%. Presumably, decreased of protein and fat concentration of
cereals under organic farming was caused by insufficient fertilizing. Irrespective
of better chemical composition of intensive cropped grain, the counted
generalized index of brutto metabolic energy–BE significantly was better only of
out grain in compare with grain cropped at organic farm. BE differences between
organic and intensive farming was not significant in all other treatments.
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Table 5.
Comparing of chemical composition and energetic value of cereals
at organic and intensive farms
Crude BE,
Cereal Farming system Crude protein, % Crude fat, % Crude fiber, % ash, NEM, MJ kg –1 MJ
% kg –1
Organic 9.6 2.0 3.4 2.3 82.7 18.16
Wheat
Intensive 13.9 2.1 2.9 1.9 79.3 18.54
Organic 8.2 1.7 3.1 2.4 84.6 18.06

Triticale
Intensive 14.5 1.8 2.8 2.2 78.7 18.52
Organic 9.8 2.2 5.8 3.2 79 18.2

Barley
Intensive 11.9 2.3 5.2 2.7 77.9 18.43
Organic 11.5 4.8 12.8 3.8 67.1 18.97

Out
Intensive 12.1 5.3 11.6 3.3 67.7 19.16
LSD05 0.10 0.08 0.09 0.01 0.91 0.89
CONCLUSIONS
Protein content decreased, but increased fiber, ash of all organically
cropped cereals grain in compare with intensive cropping.
Poor concentrations of minerals determined in organically cropped grain
due to not fertilized additionally with mineral fertilizers.
Content of harmfull for health and environment heavy elements (Ni, Pb
and Cd) not exceed safe norms in and wheat and rye DM were healthy for
livestock nutrition.
Irrespective of better chemical composition of intensive cropped grain, the
counted generalized index of forage energetic value–BE significantly was better
only of out grain in compare with grain cropped at organic farm. BE differences
between organic and intensive farming was not significant in all other treatments.
REFERENCES
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farm animal–A review Animal Feed Science and Technology, In Press, Corrected Proof, Available
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2. Clóvis, C.D. Senger, G., Kozloski, V.,Luis, M., Sanchez, B., Mesquita, F.R., Alves, T. P.,
Castagnino, D. S., 2008 Evaluation of autoclave procedures for fibre analysis in forage and
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3. Dozier, W.A., Kidd, M.T., Corzo, A., Owens, P.R., Branton, S.L. 2008 Live performance and
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4. Jeroch, H. , 1993 Futtermittelkunde. Berlin, 502.
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7. Leeson, S., Caston, L., 2007 Using minimal supplements of trace minerals as a method of
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Corrected Proof, Available online 8 November.
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solubles as feedstuffs for Ayrshire dairy cows Animal Feed Science and Technology, Vol. 135,
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10. Nauman, C., Bassler, R., 1993 Die chemische Unterschung von Futtermilteln. Methodenbuch.
Band III. VDLUFA. Damstadt. 256.
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ūkiuose. Ekoūkis, Nr.2 (19), 11-12.
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grūdų kokybės tyrimai // Maisto chemija ir technologija. Kauno technologijos universiteto Maisto
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STUDIES ABOUT THE INFLUENCE OF SOME

VEGETATIVES ADDITIVES USED ON THE GROWTH
PERFORMANCES AND BROILERS MEAT QUALITY
P.C. BOIŞTEANU, I.M. POP, Cecilia POP,
Lenuţa FOTEA, M.G. USTUROI
Two medical and spicy herbs, Satureja hortensis (thyme) and Anethum
graveolens (dill) were studied in order to test their biostimulating potential and
possible influence on the carcass and meat quality, when used as supplement in
animal feed, like botanical feed additives.
The herbs were administered as powder in the compound feed.
The experiments were made on broilers Ross 308, organised in 3
experimental groups: one control group (C), first experimental group with control
feed + thyme 0,6% (E1) and second experimental group with control feed +
thyme 0,6% and dill 0,3% (E2), during 0 at 42 day of age.
The results concerning the final body weight were significant higher at
the both experimental groups (more than 6%, like the daily body gain) in
comparison with control; the feed conversion was better in experimental groups
(FCR less 3.35% than control). The weight of carcass, main trench portions and
internal organs was in relation with the medium body weight.
Meat quality, expressed through organoleptic, physical and chemical
properties, was not obviously influenced by the use of the two botanicals additives.
Key words: botanicals, feed additives, broilers, performances, meat quality.
Introduction
Various medical and spicy herbs were studied to test their biostimulating
potential when used like feed additives (so called botanicals), as alternative to
antimicrobial growth promoters (Hertampf, 2001; Heindl, 2002).
Some active constituents from herbs, like phenols, glycosides, alkaloids,
alcohols, cetones, acids or terpenoids, interact with each other and are in direct
relation with the digestion and health in animals, especial in young monogastrics
(Pop, 2006).
Within the organism, these active substances from herbs play several
roles: antibacterial, bacteriostatic, antiviral, antimycotic, stomachic, carminative,
antihelminthic, antioxidant, immunostimulant and biostimulator, with positive
effects on animal digestion, feed conversion and growth performances (Clayton,
1999; 2000).

Two spicy medicinal plants, Satureja hortensis (thyme) and Anethum
graveolens (dill), were taken in study looking for the most efficient way of
administration in minimal dozes.
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The experiments were made on broilers Ross 308, during 0 at 42 day of

age. Were chose 3 experimental groups: a control group (C), an experimental
group (E1) whith control feed +thyme 0.6% thyme and an second experimental
group (E2) whith control feed + 0.6% thyme and 0.3% dill. Was used mixed
feeds, specific for three growing period: starter (22% CP, 3005 ME kcal/kg),
growing (20% CP, 3100 ME kcal/kg) and finishing (18% CP, 3153 ME kcal/kg),
which added the herb supplements (dry powder, mixed).
In order to appreciate meat quality, several determinations were made:
individual growth weight evolution, average daily weight gain, feed consumption
and feed conversion (FCR), weight of carcass, main trench portions and some
internal organs, chemical composition of meat. The primary results for growth
weight was statisticaly treated.

The results concerning the growth weight evolution and average of daily
weight gain, feed consumption and feed conversion results (tab. 1) shows that the
supplementation with thyme or thyme and dill has good influence on the growth
performances of broilers.
Table 1. Body weight evolution of broilers, feed consumption and feed conversion
Determination \ Treatment C E1 E2
Average Body Weight (g/chicken) at:
40.1 40,0 40,0
1 day old
14 days old 380a 420b 410b
28 days old 1380 1410 1390
42 days old 2399a 2554b 2550b
Average Daily Weight Gain - g 56.17 59.85 59.77
-% 100 106.6 106.4
Average Feed Consumption - g/broiler 4222 4349 4343
-% 100 103.0 102.9
FCR (kg of feed / kg of weight gain) 1.79 1.73 1.73
-% 100 96.65 96.65
* - differences between means values with different superscript letters are statistic
significantly
The final body weight were 6.5 % higher to the experimentals groups then
the control group, with a better feed conversion in the body weight gain.
Comparative with the control group, the FCR was smaller by 3.35 % in
both E1 and E2 groups, demonstrating that 0.6% thyme or 0.6% thyme and 0.3%
dill used as feed additives leads to an improvement on growing performance and
to a superior conversion of feed, like some biostimulators.
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The results obtained in case of feed supplementation with 0.6% thyme

indicates the fact that the thyme had the semnificative action, probably due to it’s
capacity to stimulate digestive secretions directly implicated in feed digestion; the
literature show that thyme determines a raise in the level of the main digestive
enzymes, and, through his antibacterial properties, maintains an intestinal
environment favorable to the envelopment of the benefic intestinal
microorganisms; also, it is possible that it’s antioxidant properties greatly
contributes to stress diminishing.
Organoleptic characteristic of poultry meat were not modified by the use
of botanicals; all of this indicators proved to has values included in romanian
standards (STAS 6997/74 and STAS 7031/83) in all experimental groups.
The average of carcass weight was determined by weighing the whole
group.
The dressing percentage for each group were: 71.5% in the control group,
71.8% in E1 and 71.5% in E2.
All the carcasses were designed as first quality, in relation with the
romanian standards.
The figures proved to be in concordance with the body weighs of the days
old broilers, but the values in E2 were close to those of the control group.
Analyzing and comparing the results about the body carcass and tranch
portions weight averages (tab. 2), it is possible to put in evidence that the broilers
from group E1 (+ 0.6% thyme) had better results than both E2 and the control
group, but without significant differences for carcass quality. The evaluation was
made by studying the general aspect of the carcass as well as the organoleptic,
physic and chemical properties of meat.
Table 2. Body carcass and tranch portions weight averages
Specification C E1 E2
Carcass -g 1716 1833 1760
-% 100 106.8 102.4
Chest -g 429 457 438
-% 100 106.5 102.1
Calf of the leg - g 549 585 563
-% 100 106.6 102.5
Wing -g 205 219 211
-% 100 106.8 102.9
Cover -g 533 569 547
-% 100 106.7 102.6
Comparing the data about the weight of the main organs (tab.3), is
possible to notice that the values registered to the broilers from E1 group was with
2.4% up to 6.8% higher than the specific values from control group, but without
truly significant difference.
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All internal organs were studied from clinical point of view: adipose
deposits on internal organs were bigger in the witness group; the colour of the
adipose tissue was a light yellow in the other group, compared to an intense
yellow in the other groups, the liver appeared normal, with modifications bile
appeared normal the pancreas was normal as well as the spleen.
Table 3. Average weight of the main internal organs
Organ \ Group C E1 E2
Liver - g 46 47.2 46.7
-% 100 102.6 101.5
Heart - g 10.5 11.2 10.9
-% 100 106.7 103.8
Gizzard - g 34.1 34.8 34.4
-% 100 102.1 100.9
Chemical composition is one of the most important indicator to evaluate

meat quality. Because in birds the chest meat has good quality and represents an
important proportion in the carcass, chemical determinations were made in
fragments taken at that level.
Table 4. Chemical composition of broilers meat
Composition Dry Crude

Water Fatt Ash Others
\ Matter Protein
% % % %
Group % %
C 71,7 28.3 22.4 4.2 1.2 0.5
E1 71,2 28.8 22.6 4.8 1.2 0.2
E2 71,8 28.2 22.1 4.5 1.2 0.4
The results concernig the chemical composition of broilers meat (tab.4)

indicated that the values of the all groups was around to those presented in the
literature; in this case, the use of the studied supplements in feed did not
influenced the chemical composition of broilers meat.
CONCLUSIONS
The results concerning the final body weight were significant higher at
the both experimental groups (more than 6%, like the daily body gain) in
comparison with control; the feed conversion was better in experimental groups
(FCR less 3.35% than control). The weight of carcass, main trench portions and
internal organs was in relation with the medium body weight.
Meat quality, expressed through organoleptic, physical and chemical
properties, was not influenced by the feed supplementation with .
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BACK
The results prove the fact that some herbs like thyme and dill,
supplemented in broilers feed, can have biostimulating effect, determining better
growth performances.
SELECTIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY
Clayton G. 1999. Herbs and plant extracts as growth enhancers. Feed Int., vol. 19, nr.4.
Clayton G. 2000. Botanical feed additives. Feed Int., vol.21, nr.4.
Heindl, U., 2002 – The use of feed additives in animal nutrition: consequences for feed and food
quality.
Hertrampf, J.W., 2001 - Alternative Antibacterial Performance Promoters. Poultry Int. vol.40 nr.1.
Pop I.M., 2006 - Feed additives. Edit. TipoMoldova, Iasi.
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RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE CONVERSION OF

NUTRITIVE SUBSTANCES FROM MULBERRY TREE
LEAFS USED IN THE BOMBYX MORY LARVAE
SUSTENANCE
M. DOLIŞ
During the experiments performed upon different the silkworm larvae

hybrids, the mean ratio between the dry substance from the ingested leaf and the
dry substance gathered by larva in the form of body matter, during all the larva
period, was 4,5417, in this case, the efficiency of conversion of ingested food in
the body matter of larva (ECI-body matter) being 22,02%. As regarding the
utilization of sustenance from the mulberry tree leaf in the silk shell of cocoons,
the mean ratio between the ingested dry substance and the dry substance from the
silky shell of cocoons was 10,5317, the efficiency of conversion of ingested food
in silk shell (ECI-silk shell of cocoons) being, in this case, 9,50%.
Keywords: mulberry tree, nutrient, larvae
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The vegetable biological material used in the following experiments was
represented by one hybrid of mulberry tree (The selected hybrid of mulberry tree).
The animal biological material was represented by silkworm hybrids of Record
Băneasa Super, Triumf, Zefir.
The efficiency of utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf was
expressed by:
- Ingested dry matter (DM) needed for the increase of body matter of
g ingested DM leaf
larva with 1 gram ( );
g DM body matter larva
- Digested DM needed for the increase of body matter of larva with 1
g ingested DM leaf
gram ( );
- Ingested DM needed for the production of 1 gram of silk shell
g ingested DM leaf
( );
g DM silk shell
- Digested DM needed for the production of 1 gram of silk shell
g ingested DM leaf
( );
g DM silk shell
- The efficiency of conversion of integrated substances (ECI) into body
matter
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larva body matter

(ECI = x 100);
ingested leaf
- The efficiency of conversion of digested substances (ECD) into body
matter
larva body matter
(ECD = x 100);
digested leaf
- The efficiency of conversion of integrated substances (ECI) into silk
shell
silk shell
(ECI = x 100);
ingested leaf
- The efficiency of conversion of digested substances (ECI) into silk
shell
silk shell
(ECD = x 100).
digested leaf
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The data referred to the efficiency of utilization of sustenance from
mulberry tree leaf by silken larva, depending on larvae hybrid , were centralized
in table 1 (fig. 1-2).
Table 1
The efficiency of the mulberry tree leaf utilization by the silkworm larvae
(experiences basing on the silkworm larvae hybrid as variation factor)
Specification The silkworm larvae hybrid

Băneasa Mean
Zefir Record Triumf
Super
Ingested DM/ body matter
4,6332 4,4811 4,5642 4,4884 4,5417
DM
Digested DM/ body
2,7357 2,6503 2,6676 2,6292 2,6707
matter DM
Ingested DM/ silk shell
10,7486 10,4019 10,4563 10,5201 10,5317
DM
Digested DM/ silk shell
6,3465 6,1520 6,1112 6,1624 6,1930
DM
ECI body matter 21,58 22,32 21,91 22,28 22,02
ECD body matter 36,55 37,73 37,49 38,03 37,45
ECI silk shell 9,30 9,61 9,56 9,51 9,50
ECD silk shell 15,76 16,25 16,36 16,23 16,15
- 550 -
Ingested DM/ body matter DM Digested DM/ body matter DM

Ingested DM/ silk shell DM Digested DM/ silk shell DM
11,000 10,748
10,401 10,456 10,520
10,000
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,346 6,152 6,162
6,111
6,000
g
5,000 4,633 4,481 4,564 4,488
4,000
3,000 2,735 2,650 2,667 2,629

2,000
1,000
0
Băneasa Super Zefir Record Triumf
Fig. 1 The utilization of the mulberry leafs’ nutritional substances by the

silkworm larvae, depending on the silkworm hybrid
ECI body matter ECD body matter ECI silk shell ECD silk shell
40
38 37.73 37.49 38.03
36 36.55
34
32
30
28
26
24 22.32 22.28
22 21.58 21.61
% 20
18 16.25 16.36 16.23
16 15.76
14
12
10 9.3 9.61 9.56 9.51
8
6
4
2
0
Băneasa Super Zefir Record Triumf
Fig. 2 The efficiency of the food utilization by the silkworm larvae,

depending on the silkworm larvae hybrid
CONCLUSIONS
During the experiments performed upon different the silkworm larvae
hybrids, the mean ratio between the dry substance from the ingested leaf and the
dry substance gathered by larva in the form of body matter, during all the larva
- 551 -
BACK
the body matter of larva (ECI-body matter) being 22,02%. %. As regarding the
silk shell of cocoons was 10,5317, the efficiency of conversion of ingested food in
silk shell (ECI-silk shell of cocoons) being, in this case, 9,50%.
The best utilization of sustenance from the mulberry tree leaf ingested in
the body matter of larva was recorded at Zefir hybrid (ECI-body matter=22,32%).
As regarding the utilization of sustenance from the digested mulberry tree
leaf, in the body matter of larva, the mean ratio between the digested dry
substance from leaf and the dry substance deposited in the body matter of larva
was 2,6707, the efficiency of conversion of digested food in the body matter of
larva (ECD-body matter), being, in this case 37,45%.
The efficiency of conversion of digested food in body matter of larva was
better at Triumf hybrid (ECD-body matter=38,03%), being followed by Zefir
hybrid (ECD-body matter=37,73%), Record hybrid (ECD-body matter=37,49%),
and by Băneasa Super hybrid (ECD-body matter=36,55%).
The best results regarding the conversion of sustenance from mulberry
tree leaf, in silk shell of cocoons, were obtained at Zefir hybrid (ECI-silk shell of
cocoons=9,61%), followed by Record hybrid (ECI-silk shell of cocoons=9,56%),
Triumf hybrid (ECI-silk shell of cocoons=9,51%), and Băneasa Super hybrid
(ECI-silk shell of cocoons=9,30%).
The mean ratio between the digested dry substance and the dry substance
from the silk shell of cocoons was 6,1930, resulting thus, an efficiency of
conversion of digested food in silk shell (ECD-silk shell of cocoons=16,15%).
In this case, the best results were obtained at Record hybrid (ECD-silk
shell of cocoons=16,36%), followed by Zefir hybrid (ECD-silk shell of
cocoons=16,25%), Triumf hybrid (ECD-silk shell of cocoons=16,23%), and
Băneasa Super hybrid (ECD-silk shell of cocoons=15,76%).
REFERENCES
Miranda J. E.; Takahashi R., 1998 - Efficiency of food utilization by the silkworm, Bombyx mori
L. (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae) feed on artificial diets. Sericologia, vol. 38, nr. 4, p. 601-610.
Rath S. S.; Narain R.; Prasad B. C., Roy G. C., Sinha B. R. R. P., 2003 – Food allocation
budgeting in tropical tasar, Antheraea mylitta feed on Terminalia tomentosa. Sericologia vol. 43, nr.
4, p. 557-564.
Rahmathulla V. K. ; Suresh H. M.; Mathur V. B.; Geetha Devi R. G., 2002 – Feed conversion
efficiency of elite bivoltine CSR hibrids silkworm Bombyx mori L. reared under different environ
mintal conditions. Sericologia, vol. 42, nr. 2, p. 197-203.
Sarkar A., 1993 – Efect of feeding different races of silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) with Mulberrry
(Morus indica L.) leaves varying in ploidy level. Sericologia, vol. 33, nr. 1, p. 25-34.
Tzenov P., 1993 - Study on the food utilization in genetic sex- limited breeds for egg and larval
traits of the silk worm, Bombyx mori L., at moderate, reduced and excess feeding amounts.
Sericologia, vol. 33, nr. 2, p. 247-256.
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BACK
RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE EFFICACY OF

MULBERRY TREE LEAFS USAGE BY BOMBYX MORY
LARVAE
M. DOLIŞ, D. SIMEANU, I. GÎLCĂ
During the experiments performed upon different types of mulberry tree,

the mean ratio between the dry substance from the ingested leaf and the dry
substance gathered by larva in the form of body matter, during all the larva
the body matter of larva (ECI-body matter) being 21,81%. As regarding the
silk shell of cocoons was 10,5633, the efficiency of conversion of ingested food in
silk shell (ECI-silk shell of cocoons) being, in this case, 9,47%.
Keywords: mulberry tree, nutrient, larvae
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The vegetable biological material used in the following experiments was
represented by two types of mulberry tree (Kokuso 21 şi Eforie) and one hybrid
(The selected hybrid of mulberry tree).
The animal biological material was represented by simple hybrid of
Record silkworm.
The efficiency of utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf was
expressed by:
- Ingested dry matter (DM) needed for the increase of body matter of
g ingested DM leaf
larva with 1 gram ( );
- Digested DM needed for the increase of body matter of larva with 1
g ingested DM leaf
gram ( );
- Ingested DM needed for the production of 1 gram of silk shell
g ingested DM leaf
( );
g DM silk shell
- Digested DM needed for the production of 1 gram of silk shell
g ingested DM leaf
( );
g DM silk shell
- The efficiency of conversion of integrated substances (ECI) into body
matter
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larva body matter

(ECI = x 100);
ingested leaf
- The efficiency of conversion of digested substances (ECD) into body
matter
larva body matter
(ECD = x 100);
digested leaf
- The efficiency of conversion of integrated substances (ECI) into silk
shell
silk shell
(ECI = x 100);
ingested leaf
- The efficiency of conversion of digested substances (ECI) into silk
shell
silk shell
(ECD = x 100).
digested leaf
EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The data referred to the efficiency of utilization of sustenance from
mulberry tree leaf by silken larva, depending on mulberry tree type, were
centralized in table 1 (fig. 1-4).
Table 1. The efficiency of utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf by silken
larva, depending on mulberry tree type
Mulberry tree type
Specification Mean
Kokuso 21 Eforie Selected hybrid
Ingested DM/ body matter DM 4,4227 5,0833 4,5642 4,6901
Digested DM/ body matter DM 2,4708 2,8340 2,6676 2,6575
Ingested DM/ silk shell DM 10,2343 10,9992 10,4563 10,5633
Digested DM/ silk shell DM 5,7176 6,5117 6,1112 6,1135
ECI body matter 22,61 20,90 21,91 21,81
ECD body matter 40,47 35,29 37,49 37,75
ECI silk shell 9,77 9,09 9,56 9,47
ECD silk shell 17,49 15,35 16,36 16,40
- 554 -
5,100 Ingested DM/ body matter DM

4,900 5,083 Digested DM/ body matter DM
4,700
4,500
4,564
4,300
4,422
4,100
3,900
3,700
g
3,500
3,300
3,100
2,900
2,700 2,834
2,500 2,667
2,300
2,470
2,100
Fig. 1. The efficiency of utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf in body
matter of silken larva, depending on mulberry tree type
ECI
41
40
39
38
40.47 EC
37
36
D
35 37.49
34
33 35.29
32
31
30
% 29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
22.62 21.91
19 20.6
18
17
Kokuso 21 Eforie Hibridul selecţionat
Fig. 2. The efficiency of conversion of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf in body
mass of silken larva, depending on mulberry tree type
ingested DM/ silk shell DM

11,000
10,700
digested DM/ silk shell DM
10,400 10,999
10,100
9,800 10,456
9,500 10,234
9,200
8,900
8,600
8,300
g 8,000
7,700
7,400
7,100
6,800
6,500
6,200
5,900
6,511
5,600 6,111
5,300 5,717
5,000
Fig. 3. The utilization of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf in silk shell of cocoons
depending on mulberry tree type
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18 ECI
17 ECD
16
17.49
15 16.36
14 15.35
13
12
% 11
10
9 9.77 9.56
8 9.09
7
6
5
Fig. 4. The efficiency of conversion of sustenance from mulberry tree leaf in the silk
shell of cocoons, depending on mulberry tree type
CONCLUSIONS
During the experiments performed upon different types of mulberry tree,
the mean ratio between the dry substance from the ingested leaf and the dry
substance gathered by larva in the form of body matter, during all the larva
the body matter of larva (ECI-body matter) being 21,81%.
The best utilization of sustenance from the mulberry tree leaf ingested in
the body matter of larva was recorded at Kokuso 21 type (ECI-body
matter=22,61%), being followed by the selected hybrid (ECI-body
matter=21,91%) and Eforie type (ECI-body matter=20,90%).
As regarding the utilization of sustenance from the digested mulberry tree
leaf, in the body matter of larva, the mean ratio between the digested dry
substance from leaf and the dry substance deposited in the body matter of larva
was 2,6575, the efficiency of conversion of digested food in the body matter of
larva (ECD-body matter), being, in this case 37,75%.
The efficiency of conversion of digested food in body matter of larva was
better at Kokuso 21 type (ECD-body matter=40,47%), being followed by the
selected hybrid (ECD-body matter=37,49%) and by Eforie type (ECD-body
matter=35,29%).
As regarding the utilization of sustenance from the mulberry tree leaf in
the silk shell of cocoons, the mean ratio between the ingested dry substance and
the dry substance from the silk shell of cocoons was 10,5633, the efficiency of
conversion of ingested food in silk shell (ECI-silk shell of cocoons) being, in this
case, 9,47%.
The best results regarding the conversion of sustenance from mulberry
tree leaf, in silk shell of cocoons, were obtained at Kokuso 21 type (ECI-silk shell
of cocoons=9,77%), followed by selected hybrid (ECI-silk shell of
cocoons=9,56%) and Eforie type (ECI-silk shell of cocoons=9,09%).
- 556 -
BACK
The mean ratio between the digested dry substance and the dry substance
from the silk shell of cocoons was 6,1135, resulting thus, an efficiency of
conversion of digested food in silk shell (ECD-silk shell of cocoons=16,40%).
Also, in this case, the best results were obtained at Kokuso 21 type (ECD-
silk shell of cocoons=17,49%), followed by the selected hybrid (ECD-silk shell of
cocoons=16,36%) and Eforie type (ECD-silk shell of cocoons=15,35%).
REFERENCES
Miranda J. E.; Takahashi R., 1998 - Efficiency of food utilization by the silkworm, Bombyx mori
L. (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae) feed on artificial diets. Sericologia, vol. 38, nr. 4, p. 601-610.
Rath S. S.; Narain R.; Prasad B. C., Roy G. C., Sinha B. R. R. P., 2003 – Food allocation
budgeting in tropical tasar, Antheraea mylitta feed on Terminalia tomentosa. Sericologia vol. 43, nr.
4, p. 557-564.
Rahmathulla V. K. ; Suresh H. M.; Mathur V. B.; Geetha Devi R. G., 2002 – Feed conversion
efficiency of elite bivoltine CSR hibrids silkworm Bombyx mori L. reared under different environ
mintal conditions. Sericologia, vol. 42, nr. 2, p. 197-203.
Sarkar A., 1993 – Efect of feeding different races of silkworm (Bombyx mori L.) with Mulberrry
(Morus indica L.) leaves varying in ploidy level. Sericologia, vol. 33, nr. 1, p. 25-34.
Tzenov P., 1993 - Study on the food utilization in genetic sex- limited breeds for egg and larval
traits of the silk worm, Bombyx mori L., at moderate, reduced and excess feeding amounts.
Sericologia, vol. 33, nr. 2, p. 247-256.
- 557 -
BACK
RESEARCHES OBSERVING THE INFLUENCE OF

UTILIZATION IN FEEDING OF DIFFERENT LEVELS OF
MEDICINAL HERBS - CAPSICUM ANNUUM, SATUREJA
HORTENSIS AND ANETHUM GRAVEOLENS – ON TO THE
BROILERS GROWING PERFORMANCE
Lenuţa FOTEA
New concepts and new products are used as alternatives to antibiotics in

new millennium. This research was made to determine the use of medicinal plants
(botanicals additives) as a natural growth promoting sources instead of antibiotics
in broiler nutrition. Different levels of medicinal plants were added to standard
diet to determine its effects on weight gain, and feed conversion ratio, slaughtering
efficiency and mortality, compared to control groups. One hundred day-old
broilers (Ross 308) were divided in to groups of 25 birds. Experimental groups
were as follow: E1 (Capsicum annuum 0.05 %), E2 (Satureja hortensis 0.7%), E3
(Anethum graveolens 0.5%) and M control group without additives. The highest
weight gain was observed on the E2 group with 4.23%, followed by E3 with 3.34%
and E1 with 2,84% compared to the control group; the feed conversion ratio was
improved by 9.55% E2, 6.34% E1 and 4.2% E3 compared to the control group; the
slaughtering was similar in groups. In conclusion Satureja hortensis 0. 7% could
be considereded as a potential natural grow promoter for poultry.
INTRODUCTION
After the use of the antibiotic growth promoters as feed additives was
banned, scientists have researched for alternatives to antibiotics. The following
study was conducted to investigate the antibacterial and feed additive potential of
medicinal plants. The effects of plants is windely know in human and in animal
use, because those plants and their components are percived as safe by consumers.
Medicinal and aromatics plants are more active compounds (terpenoides, phenols,
terpenoids etc.) and have an antimicrobial effects and stimulating on animal
digestive systems and improved feed intake, feed conversion ratio. This research
was made to determine the use of medicinal plants (botanicals additives) as a
natural growth promoting sources instead of antibiotics in broiler nutrition. As an
aromatic and medicinal plant, red pepper (Capsicum annuum), is an annual herb
indigenous to Brazilia and Mexic, the fruits has a capsaicin 0.27-1.12 % as active
ingredient and also it has contained limonen and linalool. As a medicinal plant red
pepper has been used as a stimulating effect of digestion, antidiarreheic, anti-
inflammatory and antibacterial. As an aromatic medicinal and spyce plant, savory
(Satureja hortensis), is an annual herb indigenous to mediteranean region, the
savory has a carvacrol 39-40-90 % and thymol as active ingredient and also it has
contained terpinen, camfren, linalool. As a medicinal plant savory has been used
as a stimulating effect of digestion, coleretic, hepatotonic, antiparasitic,
- 558 -
antiinflammatory and antibacterial. The dill (Anethum graveolens) is a aromatic

medicinal plant indigenous to Asia and Europa has been used a stimulating effect
of digestion, coleretic, hepatotonic, antiparasitic, antiinflammatory and
antibacterial, antidiarreheic, imunomodulatory. The dill has a carvona (25-40%),
dilleter, limonen. The prezent researche was to investigate the possible effect a
red pepper, a savory and a dill feed aditive on overal performance of broiler
chickens compared to control group and posible alternative to antibiotics.
MATERIAL AND METHODS.

One hundred day-old broilers (Ross 308) were divided in to groups of 25
birds (E1, E2, E3 and M). In the all group the bird were fed a standard diet, the
ingredient and chemical composition of the diets are presented in table 1. The
different levels of plants (botanicals additives) a powder forms were added to the
standard diet to generate the tree groups: E1(Capsicum annuum 0,05%), E2
(Satureja hortensis 0,7%), E3 (Anethum graveolens 0,5%) and M control group
without additives. The diets were prepared on each period of time and diet has
isocaloric and isonitrogenus. The birds were kipt in the pyramidal ecological
battery, a photopheriod of 24 h/24d in total period 0-42 day. The body weights of
the birds were measured at 14, 28 and 42th days of the experiment. Feed intake was
recorded a biweekly. Feed conversion ratio was calculated at the end of the 42 day
experiment. The mortality in eny group was calculleted at the end experimental
period.The end experimental period a 5 birds per groups are slaughtered and carcass
weight was checked. Data collected were subject to analisis of variance where
significant differences were observed to ANOVA system.
Table 1 Structure and nutritional composition of standard diets

Feed ingredients UM 0-14 15-28 29-42
Corn % 61.00 65.00 65.00
Soybean meal % 28.00 23.00 23.00
Full-fat soybean % 2.00 4.00 7.00
San flowers % 1 - -
Gluten de porumb % 1.00 1.00 -
Fish meal % 400 3.50 -
Vegetable oil % - 0.50 1.50
L-Lysine % 0.05 0.10 0.05
DL- methionine % 0.20 0.20 0.20
Carbonat de calciu % 0.45 0.45 0.75
Dicalcium phosphate % 1.10 1.00 1.15
Salt % 0.15 0.20 0.30
Vitamin and minerals %
1.00 1.00 1.00
premix
Kemzyme VP dry % 0.05 0.05 0.05
Total % 100 100 100
- 559 -
Analysis
kcal /kg 2995 3100 3153
Crude protein % 23 20 18
Crude fiber % 3.25 3.33 3.01
Eter extract % 4.51 4,01 6,01
Ash % 6.12 6.05 6.33
Lysine % 1.36 1.17 1.00
Methionine +Cistine % 1.00 0.90 0.82
Ca % 1.03 0.95 0.91
P % 0.76 0.66 0.61

All dats rezultated is presented in table 2
The effect of medicinal plants (botanical additives) on live weight gain
was obseved and at the end of 6week live weight gains differed (p<0.05) between
a E2 (Satureja hortensis 0.7%), and the control group M. The highest live weight
gain was determined in a E2 group (2086.47g), following the E3 group
(2068.37g), E1 group (2057.20g) and M group (2001.97g). The addition of 0.7 %
savory to the diets was improveg live weight gain by 4.23 % compared to the
control group, following an addition of a dill 0,5% wis a 3.34% and 2.84 red
papper group.
Table 2 The effects of different level of medicinal plants (red pepper, savory and a
dill) feed aditive on overal performance of broiler chickens
E2 E3
E1
M Satureja Anethum
Results Capsicum
- hortensis graveolens
annuum 0.05 %
0,. % 0.5 %
Initial average
35.07±0,53 34.40±0.53 35.14±0.45 35.41±0.53
weight g
Final average
2001.7±42.58a 2057.20±31.19a 2086.47±32.82b 2068.37±39.58a
weight 42 day g
Total daily
weight gain 0-42 1976.90a 2022.80a 2051.33b 2032.96a
days g
Feed conversion
1.90 1.78 1.72 1.82
ratio kg/kg
Slaughtering 70.20 70.33 70.58 70.41
efficiency %
Mortality % 4 1 - 1
a-b s. (p<0.01) diferenţe semnificative
The effect of different levels of medicinal plants on feed conversion

ratio determined in a 1 to 6 weeks and was observed a different in groups.The
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BACK
addition a savory 0.7% to the diets was improved feed conversion ratio by 9.5%
compared to the control group. The addition a red pepper 0.05% to the diets was
improved feed conversion ratio by 6.3% and additionally a dill 0.5% was
improved feed conversion ratio by 4.2%. These difference among to control group
may be due to active ingredient containdet by medicinal plants, because these
bioactives ingredients has digestive stimulating affects. The improved feed
utilisation with 0.7% a savory in our study could be due to these positive effects
on the digestive system. The slaughtering was similar in groups. Mortality was
reported a control group 4%.The rezults in this study reported that a diferent
levels of medicinal and aromatic plants have improved feed intake feed
conversion and carcass yield.
CONCLUSIONS
This study showed that supplementation a 0.7% savory in broiler diets
significantly improved the live weight gain, feed conversion ratio amd viability of
broilers after a growing period 6 week. The savory could be considered as a
potential growth promoter for poultry. As a rezult savory may be use natural
growth promoter substance instead of antiviotics due to the effects of digestive
stimulating effect and antimicrobial effect, and positive effect on performance.
REFERENCES
1. BALCHIN-LIS, M., 2003 - Feed additives as alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters:
botanicals. 9th Symposium on digestive phisiology in pigs Canada. vol. 2, pg 25-31.
2. BAUVAREL, I., AUBERT C., 2001 – Le point sur les formules vegetables. Scinece et
Technologues avicoles no.37 (octombre) pg. 6.
3. BOIŞTEANU P.C., POP, I.M., POP Cecilia, FOTEA, Lenuţa, USTUROI M.G.,. The
influence of some botanical feed additives use on the growth performances, carcasse and meat
qualities in broilers. International Congres on Food and Nutrition, 24-25 october, 2007,
Istambul, Turkey, pg. 95.
4. DENLI, M., OKAN, F., ÇELIK, K., 2003 – Effect of probiotic, organic acid and antibiotic
supplementation to diets on broiler performance and carcass yeld.Pakistan Journal of nutrition
2 (2): 89-91.Asian Network for Science Information.
5. FRIEDMAN M., HENIKA P.R., MANDRELL R.E., 2002 –Bactericidal Activities of Plant
Essential Oils and Some of Their Isolated Constituents against Campylobacter jejuni,
Escherichia coli, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enterica Journal of Food Protection
Volume 65, Number 10, 1 October , pg. 1545-1560.
6. ISLAM, S.M.K., – 2005. Dose titration tolarance and compatibility of some feed additives in
broiler. Doctoral thesis to the Faculty Agricultural Science Dhaka, Bangladesh. Institute of
Animal Nutrition , University of Hohenheim and Institute of Animal Nutrition, Nutrition
Diseases and Dietetics, University of Leipzig.
7. LEE, K.W., EVERTS, H., KAPPERT, H.J., FRECHNER, M., LOSA R., BEYNEN, A.C.,
2004 – Effects of dietary essential oil components on growth performance, digestive enzymes
and lipid metabolism in female broiler chickens. Pub.Med. Br. Poltry.Sci., Jul, 45 (4):452-14
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BACK
DATA CONCERNING MELLIFEROUS AND MEDICINAL

VEGETATION IN HILLY AND MOUNTAINOUS AREAS OF
ROMANIA
Nicoleta ION
In the last time, there are more and more discussions about the possibility
of appearance of new kind of apiaries near the conventional and ecological ones,
respectively apitherapeutic apiary, which are specialized in providing the
apitherapeutic chemists and doctors with the different apiculture products that are
pure and not unpurified (for instance, pollen of dandelion, mint honey, buck wheat
etc.). In view to develop such an apiary, the beekeepers need to know very well the
melliferous flora and the proportion of the medicinal and melliferous plants.
Moreover the classical kind of acacia and lime honey there are other honey sorts,
and in the same time, there are some specific kinds of pollen coming from the
medicinal and melliferous plants, but the beekeepers has to know very well where to
go with their beehives in view to get these kinds of honey and pollen.
That is why the present paper has the aim to promote the areas with
medicinal and melliferous plants from the hilly and mountain areas from
Romania in view to rationally valorize this economic potential even by the
development of the stationary apiaries or by the development of pastoral ones.
For determination and promotion melliferous and medicinal vegetation
in hill and mountainous areas of Romania with a view to acknowledge their
contribution to a superior valorisation there were studied different bibliographic
materials that are characterising the hilly and mountains zones.
Taking into account the climatic conditions from our country and the
good results the local beekeepers obtained, we consider that the hilly and
mountain areas from our country are very favorable for the development of the
apitherapeutic apiaries. The medicinal and melliferous flora from these areas
can contribute to the increasing of the apiaries productivity and the promotion of
the specialized apiculture in our country.
For determination and promotion melliferous and medicinal vegetation in

hill and mountainous areas of Romania with a view to acknowledge their
contribution to a superior valorisation there were studied different bibliographic
materials that are characterising the hilly and mountains zones, but also there were
realised the stock-taking and the classification of the melliferous and medicinal
species, by orders and families, been realised their geobotanical, melliferous and
medicinal characterisation, on different purposes using categories as follows:
I. Mountain meadows.
II. Alpine meadows.
III. The valley, riverside and basin meadows.
IV. Harvests (false acacia, tillia, sweet chestnut).
V. Mildew harvests.
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Because of the great variability of land configuration, our country
possesses three main vegetation areas, namely:
o Plain vegetation 36%;
o Hill vegetation 33%;
o Mountainous vegetation 31%.
The economic and ecologic importance of hilly and mountainous
vegetation is hard to underestimate. These enormous green surfaces, amounting at
64% of the total area of our country represent:
o A food source for livestock;
o A habitat and food source for wild animals;
o A mean to prevent and control soil erosion;
o A mean to enrich soil structure and fertility;
o A source of herbs;
o A food source for honey bees;
o A source of alternative incomes.
Due to the richness and great diversity of flora and vegetation, hilly and
mountainous regions constitute a highly valuable melliferous area, which insures
abundant nectar and pollen for honey bees’ families during the harvesting season.
A proof of this is that within these areas the largest number of honey bees’
families in Romania is concentrated. Most of these areas are covered with natural
meadows and forests.
Natural or permanent meadows are lands covered with naturally occurred
vegetation, on places with grubbed forests and on wastelands. In Romania,
permanent meadows amount are to around 30% of the total agricultural area and
to about 20% of the total area. Their distribution is not homogeneous, with the
largest permanent meadows found in counties with significant mountainous areas.
At county level there are 13 counties where permanent meadows represent more
than 40% of the agricultural area, notifying large areas in counties like
Hunedoara, Harghita, Maramures and Caras-Severin.
Permanent meadows in the Romanian hilly and mountainous areas is
characterised by a great variety of flora, as a result of the standing factors variety,
of the use and care methods. Weather conditions specific to hilly and
mountainous areas influence the composition and development of vegetation, and
the valorisation of these resources for apicultural purposes. Besides soil, moisture
and general climate conditions, the micro relief plays an important role in the
composition, structure and distribution of vegetation. Natural meadows are,
besides the main fodder source, an important honey source, which, if properly
valorised in apicultural purposes could bring important additional incomes to
neighbouring apiaries.
From the hilly area to the mountains and alpine storey, in valleys, eroded
fields or extra moist areas many different meadows are found; meadows where
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graminaceae along with leguminous plants (valuable honey plants) are dominant
plants. Many other species from different genres are found alongside these
species. Their participation in meadow vegetation ranges according to standing
conditions, manner of maintenance and use (pasturing or mowing). Generally, the
value of a meadow is estimated by the percentage of these species. Therefore, the
greater the participation percentage the more devalued the respective meadow is.
This manner of appreciation/estimation is based on the fact that most species of
other botanic genres are economically inferior; this is why they are rarely
described under the generic name of meadow weeds. Yet, research emphasized
the high nutrient content in certain species of these botanic families. It is also
estimated that some of them are utterly needed on meadows, as, because of their
high content in microelements and generally because of their chemical
composition, contribute to the balance of nutrients in animal food, and others give
fodder a specific scent that increases animals’ appetite. Examples of many such
botanical species are as follow: Burnet Saxifrage (Pimpinella saxifraga L. – fam.
Umbeliferae), Autumn Hawk bit (Leontodon autumnalis L. – fam. Compositae),
English plantain (Plantago lanceolata L. – fam. Plantaginaceae), lady’s mantle
(Alchemilla ssp. – fam. Rosaceae), Meadow Salsify (Tragopogon pratensis L. –
fam. Compositae), Carpathian harebell (Campanula carpatica Jacq. – fam.
Campanulaceae), fireweed (Chamaerion angustifolium Holub. – fam.
Onagraceae), spotted gentian (Gentiana punctata L. – fam. Gentianaceae), St
Peter’s wort (Hypericum maculatum L. – fam, Hypericaceae), groundsel
(Senecio subalpinus Koch. – fam. Compositae), woundwort (Solidago virgaurea
L. – fam. Compositae) etc.
It is notable that all these species, generically named meadow weeds are
recognized as good honey and officinal plants, contributing to the production of
the so much appreciated meadow honey. They are also known as herbs,
conferring a distinct flavour and scent to meadow honey. According to the orders
of the Minister of Agriculture, Food and Forestry no 356 and 357/2001, aligned to
the provisions of community directives 96/23/CEE, 74/409/CEE and 98/179/CEE
„... therapeutic, nutritional and alimentary virtues of honey depend exclusively on
the botanical species it pertains to” and „...doctors and nutritionists prescribe it
for various diseases according to the botanical species it was obtained from”.
Besides the fact that we posses a honey flora endowed with true officinal
virtues, we also hold bio apiarian ecologic areas where practices of ecologic
beekeeping could be applied with the possibility to obtain an ecologic and
officinal honey.
Romanian honey is known and appreciated abroad, a proof being the
medals granted along time to different varieties of Romanian honey on the
occasion of their presentation within international exhibitions. But, in the present,
after 15 years of transition, Romanian beekeeping shows a low productivity and
little chances to impose itself on the European market. We should benefit from the
fact that there are great opportunities to define some ecologic, non polluted
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perimeters on our country, where to apply practices of ecologic beekeeping.

Thousands hectares of pastures and forests in mountainous and hilly areas could
easily be certificated and then exploited as a melliferous base for the families of
honey bees in the area that are employed for the production of ecologic apiarian
products.
Aware of the necessity to preserve natural habitats, for the protection of
wild flora and fauna, as well as of the fundamental role on the environment in
preserving the ecologic balance, EU member states have signed a convention in
this respect named NATURA 2000. All new member states are obliged to meet
this objective. Our country will have a significant contribution to the development
of the Natura 2000 ecologic network, for it is the single EU member state holding
five of the 11 European bio geographic areas. The five types of regions - alpine,
continental, pannonian, pontic and prairie (the last two ones being exclusively
Romanian) place Romania among the most important countries within this
programme. Almost all the regions in our country are potential sites. Many of
them are concentrated in Transilvania, Danube Valley and Danube Delta. An area
designated as Natura 2000 site equals the image of a brand.
Up to now, 400 Natura 2000 sites have been identified in Romania,
whose surfaces amount to 17,84% of the national territory. The fact that these
sites are recognised at European level as special natural European values will
create new opportunities for the valorisation of local natural products, which
could become well known brands.
Honey or any other apiarian product obtained in a Natura 2000 site or in
another ecologic site will certainly have a higher price and a sure market in the EU.
All these features require a thorough knowledge of the species composing
the melliferous flora on meadows and forests within hilly and mountainous areas
in Romania that could become valuable resources for the economy and
environment.
Summarised, the main types of meadows on hilly and mountainous area
in Romania are the following:
Hilly and coline meadows cover over 2.000.000 ha, amounting to 50%
of the total meadow areas in Romania. Hills and plateaux form the transition zone
between plain and mountain and cover the largest surface throughout Romanian
territory, laying at altitudes from 200 to 800 m.
Grassy vegetation ranges a lot because of the complexity of environmental
factors. Dominant species are graminaceae and leguminous plants, among which
the following species occur more: red clover (Trifolium pratense L.), yellow clover
(Trifolium campestre Schreb.), Trifolium hybridum L., Trifolium montanum L. etc.
Many other botanic species with melliferous and officinal potential are also, mainly
on weedy meadows, among which the following species draw the attention Ox-eye
daisy (Crysanthemum leucanthemum L. - sin. Leucanthemum vulgare Lam. – fam.
Compositae), chicory (Cichorium intybus L. – fam. Compositae), silverweed
(Potentila anserina L. – fam. Rosaceae), Ribwort Plantain (Plantago lanceolata L.
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– fam. Plantaginaceae), common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale Web. – fam.

Compositae), etc. Woody vegetations made up of bushes with melliferous and
officinal potential occur on waste meadows and pastures, along with grassy
vegetation, among which Dog Rose (Rosa canina L. – fam. Rosaceae), Singleseed
Hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq. – fam. Rosaceae), Blackthorn (Prunus
spinosa L. – fam. Rosaceae).
Mountain meadows cover over 900.000 ha, which represents 23% of the
total permanent meadow area in our country. They are situated on different forms
of relief, from altitudes of 600 to 800 m up to the plateaux storeys, to about 1.500-
1.800 m. Mountain meadows range a lot in flower species depending on standing
conditions and the manner of care and use.
Alpine meadows cover a significant area of about 12.000 ha and form the
pastures of high mountains. The vegetation occurring on these pastures display
several characteristics, namely: lack of forests, the existence of some small woody
species or bushes and the great variety of meadows. Vegetation occurring in these
meadows is made up of a small number of species.
The valley, riverside and basin meadows are intra-zonal meadows,
spread both in the hilly and in mountainous area, where there are specific
conditions, and firstly a permanent humidity regime. Riverside meadows have a
special economic and apiarian value, determined by large and constant honey
yields. Favourable conditions of humidity allow the occurrence of certain
mesophyll species extremely valuable as honey sources. Even if vegetal groups
consist of floristic composition with a more restraint number of species, the
abundance-dominance and frequency of certain species somehow balance this
lack. In these meadows leguminous plants get to cover great surfaces, sometimes
even up to 30-40%, being represented by Trifolium repens L., Trifolium pratense
L., Trifolium fargiferum L. (strawberry clover), Trifolium hybridum L., Lotus
corniculatus L. (bird's-foot trefoil), Medicago lupulina L. Species from other
botanic families occur. These are represented by: Creeping Yellow Cress
(Rorippa sylvestris Bess. - fam. Cruciferae), comfrey (Symphytum officinale L. –
fam. Boranginaceae), water mint (Mentha aquatica L. – fam. Lamiaceae),
Potentila reptans L. - fam. Rosaceae, common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale
L. – fam. Compositae). The most numerous herbs occur also on very large areas.
The most frequent are: Crown Vetch (Coronilla varia L. – fam. Leguminosae),
goat's rue (Galega officinalis L. – fam. Leguminosae), cursed buttercup
(Ranunculus sceleratus L. – fam. Ranunculaceae) etc.
Simultaneous massive flowering of some species create true seasonal
physiognomic aspects, when the meadows appear in a specific dominant colour
(yellow, white, mauve, pink, violet), aspects that alternate in time and have a great
practical importance for harvesting honey bees.
Likewise, the nectar and pollen reserve in hilly and mountainous areas is
completed by other melliferous and officinal resources, a great part of which
pertain to the forest.
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Sources given by harvests and production or honey bees keeping,

pertaining to the forest, are as follow:
Month Source of harvesting

February - Cornelian Cherry Dogwood (Cornus mas L.)
Natural forest fauna
March Hazel (Coryllus avelana L.)
Goat Willow (Salix caprea L.)
April Natural forest fauna White willow (Salix alba L.)
Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.)
Field maple (Acer campestre L.)
May Natural forest fauna
Locust Tree (Robinia pseudacacia L.)
June Natural forest fauna Tilia (Tilia ssp.)
Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.)
July Natural forest fauna
Fireweed (Chamaerion angustifolium L.)
Locust tree or false acacia (Robinia pseudacacia L. – fam. Leguminosae)

is the most important melliferous and officinal species as melliferous potential
and as the frequency of yield harvests. It gives significant quantities of monofloral
honey each year. In hilly and mountainous area, acacia forms natural patches only
mingled with other deciduous species, on which a successful pastoral beekeeping
is practiced.
Tilia (Tilia ssp. – fam. Tiliaceae) is the second most important
melliferous- officinal species in our country. Flowering occurs in 15-20 days after
the flowering of locust tree ends. It forms natural patches, like:
- pure patches, in several centres in Banat Mountains and Central Plateau
of Moldavia. The patches from Moldavia (about 22.000 ha) is considered the
most important, as it insures constant harvesting, is very large and give the
possibility to obtain important honey yields.
- mingled with other deciduous species. Tilia is mingled about 50% with
hazel, dogwood, chess apple, hawthorn, oak, hornbeam which produces enough
pollen and nectar to insure keeping and production harvesting. This is the reason
why there are beekeepers that place the beehives adjacent to the forests in March.
Sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa L. – fam. Fagaceae) is spread under the
form of:
- pure orchards, alike those in Maramures county, which cover an area
of around 2500 ha and gives the largest sweet chestnut forest area in our country;
- mixed orchards, mingled with other botanic species, alike those in the
sub Carpathian basin in Oltenia.
Chestnut honey has a special chemical composition being the object of
many researches. There is still need of thorough studies on the importance of
chestnut.
Besides the described species, there are a series of melliferous and
officinal bushes occurring in our forests, which form large shrubs surrounding
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glades and pastures in the hilly and mountainous area. From the great number of
melliferous and officinal bushes, dogwood, hazel, sea buckthorn, raspberry,
fireweed and blueberry are the species that draw the attention.
Cornelian Cherry Dogwood (Cornus mas L. – fam. Cornaceae) and hazel
(Coryllus avellana L. – fam. Rosaceae) form large shrubs in the forest area,
providing along with herbaceous plants in the natural flora the first harvesting
sources. Moreover, during summer time hazel produces the greatest quantities of
manna for honey.
Sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L. – fam. Eleagnaceae) occurs in
large patches or shrubs, in the subcarpathian area in Muntenia and Moldova.
Among the good melliferous and officinal plants covering large areas,
mainly in cuttings of beech and spruce forests, a special attention should be given
to raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.), fireweed (Chamaerion angustifolium L.) and
blueberry (Vaccinium ssp.).
Raspberry (Rubus idaeus L. – fam. Rosaceae) is a honey officinal plant; it
is largely spread in natural patches, in the sub mountainous and mountainous are,
where it forms the so called mountain raspberry canes, with great value for the
beekeeping. Most of the time raspberry harvest is associated with the hay making
and pastures, thus obtaining a special honey with a smooth flavour and special
taste.
Fireweed (Chamaerion angustifolium L. – fam. Onagraceae) is another
melliferous and officinal species highly appreciated for the hill and mountain
harvesting. It occurs at altitudes of 600-700 m and even above 1.500 m.
Vaccinium plants (Vaccinium sp. – fam. Ericaceae) are mainly spread in
Transilvania (Cluj, Bihor, Braşov counties), Banat (Hunedoara), Oriental
Carpathians, Vrancea Mountains, Suceava and Ciucas Mountains. Their
melliferous value lays not in the honey yields but in that they cover a very large
area insuring an echeloned harvesting, from spring to fall. Among the melliferous
Vaccinium species there are: bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L. – fam. Ericaceae),
lingonberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. – fam. Ericaceae) and brugo (Calunna
vulgaris L. – fam. Ericaceae).
It is very important that there are mildew harvests frequently in the
mountainous area, mainly in fir and spruce forests. The mildew is a sweet clear
sticky matter, excreted by insects that feed with the sap of certain plants from
which they retain water and proteins, eliminating all that sugar and minerals. The
alimentary and therapeutic value of honeydew is superior to the honey produced
from floral nectar, and this is due to it high content in minerals, yeasts and natural
antibiotics. The favourable area for mildew producing insects lay in the deciduous
woods in counties like Harghita, Cluj, Maramures, Alba, Hunedoara, Bistrita-
Nasaud, Brasov, Cluj, Covasna, Mures, Neamţ, Arges, Bacau, as well as in
deciduous woods in the hilly and mountainous area. The recent recognition of
alimentary and therapeutic virtues of honeydew is a further reason to support the
superior valorisation of these national values. Moreover, in the forest area mildew
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BACK
harvest is associated with the pasture harvest, thus achieving in favourable years
great honey yields.
CONCLUSIONS
From the above mentioned information it results that:
- In the hilly and mountainous area of Romania there are meadows and forests
composed of many valuable melliferous and officinal species that give the
opportunity of obtaining abundant and highly qualitative honey productions.
- Besides meadows and forests, an important contribution to the melliferous
potential of the hilly and mountainous area have the melliferous and officinal
shrubs, melliferous and officinal crops, fruit trees, ruderal weeds etc., which
balance to a large extent the seasonal distribution of nectar and pollen
resources with the needs and the productive activity of honey bees.
- Considering the climate conditions and the results of local beekeepers on
honey production, the hilly and mountainous region in our country could be
considered as a very favourable region for beekeeping.
- According to the conditions in our country, honeydew honey harvest in
hayfields and in hilly and mountainous areas is associated with other main
harvests like: raspberry canes, fireweed etc.
- Honeydew honey has a nutritious and therapeutic value at least equal to floral
honey, having, besides the high content of sugar and minerals a special
flavour and taste.
- Beekeeping in hilly and mountainous flora, associated with honeydew honey
beekeeping, contributes efficiently to the improvement of productivity per
honey bee family and renders Romanian beekeeping more profitable.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Cârnu I., 1980. Flora meliferă, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
2. Cocirdan I., 2005. Ecosisteme forestiere montane, Centrul de Formare şi Inovaţie pentru
Dezvoltare în Carpaţi, C.E.F.I.D.E.C. Vatra Dornei.
3. Constantinescu C., şi colab., 1967. Plante medicinale din flora spontană, Editura
Centrocoop, Bucureşti.
4. Păun E., 1995. Sănătatea carpaţilor, Editura « Arta grafica SA », Bucureşti.
5. Pârvu C., 2005. Enciclopedia plantelor din flora României, Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti.
6. Prodan I., Al. Buia, 1958. Flora mică ilustrată a RPR., Editura Agro-Silvica de Stat,
Bucureşti.
7. Stănescu V., Sofletea N., Popescu Oana, 1997. Flora forestieră lemnoasă a României,
Editura CERES, Bucureşti.
8. Stângaciu Stefan, 2008. Revista Lumea Apicolă, nr. 9
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BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE REMANENT EFFECT OF

FERTILIZATION WITH VINASSA ON THE QUALITY OF
FODDER YIELD ON PERMANENT MEADOWS FROM
MOLDAVIAN PLATEAU
A. IONEL, Irina TALPAN, Mihaela BALAN-SURMEI
The present paper was on the results obtained in an experiment set up in

2000, on a meadow of Lolium perenne L., Poa pratensis L., situated on a slope of
8-10 %, with a south-western exposition, on a preluvosoil with a clayeysandy
texture. In the period 2005-2007 the researches were carried out regarding the
remanent effect of fertilization with vinassa, manure and mineral fertilzers on the
chemical composition of the fodder. The researches have established that the
remanent effect on the fodder quality was influenced by the assortment and doses
of the fertilizers which had been applied, by the climatic conditions from the period
mentioned above the time interval elapsed after fertilizer application.
As compared to 2004, in 2005 the fodder content in raw protein slightly
decreased in the majority of the variants. This aspect can be explained by the
quantities of vinassa applied till 2004, and by the fact that 2005 was a more
favourable year for the permanent meadows from the region as compared to 2004.
By increasing the time interval from the latest applications of vinassa, the fodder
content in raw protein significantly decreased.
Thus, in 2007 the content of raw protein decreased in the variant with 3 t/ha
vinassa from 12.96 % to 11.88 %, at 7 t/ha vinassa from 14.10 % to 12.40 %, and
in the variant with 7 t/ha vinassa + P75 from 14.54 % to 12.10 %.
The content of raw cellulose was more influenced by the climatic conditions
of the years from the research period and less by the time period after 2004.
Key words: permanent meadows, remanent effect, chemical composition,
fertiliyation, vinassa.
Permanent meadows represent an important potential source of forages,

on condition that they are properly managed and improved, parallel with their
rational use.
The organic and mineral fertilizers generally have a strong influence on
the fodder quality, materialized in the changes of the chemical composition,
consumption, digestibility and histo-anatomical structure of the plants, with
implications on the nutritive and energy value.
Although the chemical composition of each species is genetically
determined, one can notice that it may largely vary depending on certain factors.
The chemical composition of the fodder, give us an indication on its quality,
representing a starting point for the scientific evaluation of the fodder rations for
the different categories of the livestock.
The measures applied on the meadows in order to increase the quality of
the yield are numerous and they differ from one case to the other, and their
economic efficiency has an essential role in the profitableness of fodder
production with positive effects on animal raising.
- 570 -
MATERIAL AND METHOD
In the paper were used the results obtained in an experiment set up in

2000, located on a meadow of Lolium perenne L.
Poa pratensis L. situated on a slope of 8-10 %, with a south-western
exposition, on a preluvosoil with a clayey-sandy texture, pH ranging between 6.9
and 7.1, and a humus content of 4.52 - 4.60 %, 16-17 ppm P2O5, 256-270 ppm
K2O, 120-124 ppm CaO and 59.6 ppm MgO.
In the period 2004-2004 the researches were carried out to establish the
influence of fertilization with vinassa, manure and mineral fertilizers on the yield,
and in the period 2005-2007 the authors of the paper studied the remanent effect
of the fertilization on the chemical composition of the fodder.
The experiment was monofactorial set up according to the method of
randomized blocks in four repetitions with the following variants: V1 - control
(non-fertilized), V2 - 2 t/ha vinassa, V3 - 3 t/ha vinassa, V4 - 4 t/ha vinassa,
V5 - 5 t/ha vinassa, V6 - 6 t/ha vinassa, V7 - 7 t/ha vinassa, V8 - 2 t/ha vinassa +
P50, V9 - 3 t/ha vinassa + P50, V10 - 4 t/ha vinassa + P50, V11 - 5 t/ha vinassa + P75,
V12 - 6 t/ha vinassa + P75, V13 - 7 t/ha vinassa + P75, V14 - 15 t/ha manure, V15 - 30
t/ha manure, V16 - 15 t/ha manure + P50, V17 - 20 t/ha manure + P50, V18 - 15 t/ha
manure + P50 + K40, V19 - 20 t/ha manure + P50 + K40, V20 - N32P18, V21 - N64P36,
V22 - N128P72, V23 - N32P18K40, V24 - N64P36K40, V25 - N128P72K40.
In the period 200-2004 vinassa was yearly applied, early in spring
before the beginning of vegetation, the manure was given once at three years, that
is in the autumn of the years 200 and 2003. Mineral fertilizers were applied
yearly, those with phosphorus and potassium in autumn, and those with nitrogen
early in spring.
Beginning with the autumn of 2004 no fertilizers were applied and the
researches were done to establish the remanent effect of the fertilization with
vinassa, manure and mineral fertilizers on the yield quality.
The harvesting was done in the form of hay, when graminaceae were
eared and leguminous plants were budding. From the harvested biomass from
each variant samples were taken to determine the chemical composition.

In 2004, at fertilization only with vinassa, the fodder content in raw
protein increased from 10.85 % at control variant, to 13.65 % at fertilization for a
period of four years with 4 t/ha vinassa and at 14.54 % at the variant with 7 t/ha
vinassa. At the variants were vinassa was applied on a background with
phosphorus, the fodder content in raw protein had values close to those from the
variants were only vinassa was applied, being of 12.89 % at fertilization with
2 t/ha vinassa + P50, of 13.89 % at 4 t/ha vinassa + P50 and of 14.54 % at the
variant with 7 t/ha vinassa.
At fertilization with manure the fodder content in raw protein was about
12.25 % at 15 t/ha manure and of 12.93 % at 20 t/ha manure.
At fertilization with chemical fertilizers with nitrogen applied on a
background with phosphorus, the fodder content in raw protein increased
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simultaneously with the increase of nitrogen doze from 12.1 %, at fertilization

with N32P18, to 14.45 % at N128P72. the fodder content in raw cellulose did not
present significant changes at the fertilization only with vinassa, neither at
fertilization with vinassa on a background with phosphorus.
When increasing the vinassa dose, the fodder content in raw cellulose
increased from 28.24 % in control variant, to 29.68 % at 4 t/ha vinassa and to
30.15 % at 7 t/ha vinassa.
The fodder content in phosphorus increased simultaneously with the
increased of vinasse dose from 0.48 % at control variant to 0.54 % at 7 t/ha vinassa.
At fertilization with chemical fertilizers the fodder content in
phosphorus increased simultaneously with the increase of nitrogen and
phosphorus doses from 0.52 % at N32P18 to 0.58 % at N128P72 (table 1).
Table 1
The remanent effect of fertilization with organic and mineral fertilizers on the
chemical composition of the fodder in the period 2004-2007
K2O % CaO% Ca/P
Varianta
2004 2005 2006 2007 2004 2005 2006 2007 2004 2005 2006 2007
Martor (nefertilizat) 2,75 2,57 2,63 2,86 0,83 0,83 0,84 0,83 1,73 1,77 1,83 1,77
2 t/ha vinassa 3,41 3,22 3,09 2,93 0,81 0,80 0,82 0,83 1,59 1,71 1,79 1,81
3 t/ha vinassa 3,88 3,55 3,39 3,18 0,79 0,79 0,81 0,82 1,55 1,68 1,76 1,79
4 t/ha vinassa 4,05 3,82 3,48 3,61 0,74 0,76 0,79 0,81 1,43 1,56 1,68 1,80
5 t/ha vinassa 4,25 3,75 3,50 3,68 0,69 0,73 0,77 0,80 1,33 1,49 1,68 1,78
6 t/ha vinassa 4,41 3,96 3,44 3,70 0,68 0,71 0,75 0,79 1,29 1,45 1,60 1,76
7 t/ha vinassa 4,62 4,02 3,61 3,76 0,67 0,70 0,73 0,78 1,24 1,40 1,59 1,74
2 t/ha vinassa+ P50 3,12 2,85 2,87 2,91 0,77 0,79 0,81 0,83 1,43 1,65 1,76 1,85
3 t/ha vinassa+ P50 3,51 3,10 2,75 2,96 0,74 0,78 0,80 0,82 1,35 1,60 1,78 1,83
4 t/ha vinassa+ P50 3,95 3,74 3,09 3,27 0,71 0,76 0,79 0,81 1,27 1,49 1,72 1,80
5 t/ha vinassa+ P75 4,26 3,72 3,15 3,34 0,67 0,73 0,75 0,79 1,16 1,38 1,57 1,68
6 t/ha vinassa+ P75 4,78 3,91 3,41 352 0,65 0,71 0,73 0,77 1,14 1,32 1,56 1,68
7 t/ha vinassa+ P75 4,87 3,95 3,41 3,63 0,61 0,68 0,71 0,76 1,04 1,24 1,55 1,66
15 t/ha gunoi 3,71 3,19 2,94 3,18 0,78 0,80 0,81 0,83 1,53 1,60 1,76 1,84
20 t/ha gunoi 3,83 3,50 3,19 3,39 0,77 0,79 0,80 0,81 1,43 1,52 1,67 1,75
15 t/ha gunoi + P50 3,85 3,39 3,07 3,21 0,79 0,79 0,80 0,82 1,47 1,55 1,57 1,71
20 t/ha gunoi + P50 3,66 3,48 2,82 3,16 0,76 0,78 0,80 0,81 1,36 1,50 1,60 1,66
15t/ha gun.+P50K40 3,18 3,03 2,87 2,96 0,79 0,80 0,81 0,83 1,47 1,57 1,66 1,80
20t/ha gun.+P50K40 3,29 3,25 32,91 2,98 0,78 0,79 0,80 0,82 1,37 1,52 1,60 1,71
N32P18 2,65 2,51 2,54 2,79 0,80 0,81 0,80 0,83 1,54 1,66 1,71 1,81
N64P36 2,28 2,35 2,41 2,48 0,78 0,80 0,81 0,82 1,37 1,49 1,66 1,71
N128P72 2,16 2,29 2,10 2,36 0,75 0,77 0,79 0,81 1,30 1,38 1,55 1,59
N32P18K40 3,27 2,89 2,52 2,61 0,81 0,81 0,82 0,84 1,50 1,56 1,71 1,79
N64P36K40 3,05 2,76 2,36 2,49 0,79 0,80 0,80 0,82 1,39 1,49 1,57 1,64
N128P72K40 2,84 2,49 2,21 2,33 0,76 0,79 0,79 0,81 1,29 1,41 1,49 1,59
- 572 -
The fodder content in potassium increased from 2.75 % at control

variant, to 4.05 % at fertilization with 4 t/ha vinassa and to 4.62 % at 7 t/ha
vinassa.
The fodder content in calcium at fertilization with vinassa decreased
from 0.83 % at control variant, to 0.74 % at 4 t/ha vinassa and to 0.67 % to 7 t/ha
vinassa.
In the period 2005-2007, the remanent effect of fertilization with
vinassa, manure and mineral fertilizers on the structure of the grass cover and
fodder chemical composition was studied.
At the variant with fertilization the chemical composition of the fodder
was influenced by the climatic conditions of the years under study by the
evolution of the grass cover structure, by the stage of development of the grass
cover structure, by the stage of development of the main species from the grass in
the moment of harvesting.
At the variant without fertilization the percentage of raw protein ranged
between 10.42 % in 2007 and 11.88 % in 2005, which was a favorable year for
the permanent meadows in the region.
At the variants fertilized only with vinassa in the period 2005-2007, it
was noticed a tendency of increasing the fodder content in raw protein
simultaneously with the increase of vinassa dose in the period 2001-2004, but the
percentage of protein in the fodder decreased from one year to the other. Thus, if
in 2004, raw protein represented 12.75 % at the variant with 2 t/ha vinassa,
14.02 % at 5 t/ha vinassa and 14.54 % at 7 t/ha vinassa, in 2005 the content of raw
protein decreased from 12.44 % at the variant with2 t/ha vinassa, to 13.58 % at
5 t/ha vinassa and to 14.12 % at 7 t/ha vinassa, in 2006 raw protein, decreased
from 12.31 % at 2 t/ha vinassa, to 13.44 % at 5 t/ha vinassa and to 13.75 % at
7 t/ha vinassa, but in 2007 the decrease of raw protein content was more
significant being of about 11.79 % at 2 t/ha vinassa, of 12.36 % at 5 t/ha vinassa
and of 12.81 % at 7 t/ha vinassa.
At the variants where vinassa was applied on a background with
phosphorus, the fodder content of raw protein decreased from one year to another
in a proportion similar with the decrease of raw protein quantity from the variants
where only vinassa was applied.
At the variants with manure the content of raw protein, decreased from
12.25 in 2004, to 11.56 % in 2007 at the variant with 15 t/ha manure, and at
20 t/ha manure from 12.93 % to 11.66 %.
The decrease of raw protein percentage was also recorded at the variants
with mineral fertilizers with nitrogen and phosphorus, the decrease being more
significant at average and high doses.
The fodder content in raw cellulose did not show significant changes
from one year to the other as compared to 2004 (table 2).
- 573 -
Table 2
The remanent effect of fertilization with organic and mineral fertilizers on the
chemical composition of the fodder in the period 2004-2007
PB% CB% P%
Varianta
2004 2005 2006 2007 2004 2005 2006 2007 2004 2005 2006 2007
Martor
18,85 11,88 11,15 10,42 28,24 28,80 28,65 29,36 0,48 0,47 0,46 0,47
(nefertilizat)
2 t/ha vinassa 12,75 12,44 12,31 11,79 28,85 29,75 28,78 29,61 0,51 0,47 0,46 0,46
3 t/ha vinassa 13,28 12,81 12,67 11,88 29,03 29,84 28,94 30,12 0,51 0,47 0,46 0,46
4 t/ha vinassa 13,65 13,20 12,96 12,15 29,61 29,73 28,99 30,38 0,52 0,49 0,47 0,45
5 t/ha vinassa 14,02 13,50 13,44 12,36 29,90 30,11 29,32 30,72 0,52 0,49 0,46 0,45
6 t/ha vinassa 14,12 13,50 13,30 12,52 30,05 30,38 29,63 30,96 0,53 0,49 0,47 0,45
7 t/ha vinassa 14,54 14,12 13,75 12,81 30,15 30,78 30,33 31,28 0,54 0,50 0,46 0,45
2 t/ha vinassa+ P50 12,89 12,56 12,25 11,53 30,62 30,11 29,87 30,51 0,54 0,48 0,46 0,45
3 t/ha vinassa+ P50 13,36 12,85 12,40 11,61 30,68 31,20 31,10 31,20 0,55 0,49 0,45 0,45
4 t/ha vinassa+ P50 13,89 13,06 12,75 11,68 30,61 31,75 30,62 32,16 0,56 0,51 0,46 0,45
5 t/ha vinassa+ P75 14,50 13,38 12,98 11,83 30,95 32,10 30,83 32,43 0,58 0,53 0,48 0,47
6 t/ha vinassa+ P75 14,83 13,89 13,26 11,89 31,20 32,45 31,54 32,76 0,57 0,54 0,47 0,46
7 t/ha vinassa+ P75 14,95 14,06 13,88 12,10 3,28 32,61 32,14 33,18 0,59 0,55 0,46 0,46
15 t/ha gunoi 12,25 12,20 11,88 11,56 29,28 29,20 28,56 30,71 0,51 0,50 0,46 0,44
20 t/ha gunoi 12,93 12,85 12,46 11,66 29,42 29,33 28,78 30,86 0,54 0,52 0,48 0,47
15 t/ha gunoi + P50 12,17 11,76 11,52 11,41 29,55 31,63 29,32 30,97 0,54 0,51 0,51 0,48
20 t/ha gunoi + P50 12,81 12,95 12,05 11,52 29,35 31,85 29,89 31,14 0,56 0,52 0,50 0,49
15 t/ha g.g.+P50K40 12,89 12,72 12,44 11,61 29,28 32,33 30,41 31,48 0,54 0,51 0,49 0,45
20 t/ha g.g.+P50K40 13,18 12,56 12,60 11,53 29,30 32,75 31,22 31,56 0,57 0,52 0,50 0,48
N32P18 12,15 11,90 12,07 11,46 29,41 29,76 29,25 30,73 0,52 0,49 0,47 0,46
N64P36 13,28 12,75 12,48 11,55 29,44 29,95 29,72 31,12 0,57 0,54 0,49 0,48
N128P72 14,45 12,96 12,82 11,66 29,25 31,44 30,76 31,28 0,58 0,56 0,51 0,51
N32P18K40 11,94 12,75 12,28 11,26 29,50 30,42 29,78 31,08 0,54 0,52 0,48 0,47
N64P36K40 13,56 12,85 12,65 11,48 28,82 31,15 30,12 32,41 0,57 0,54 0,51 0,50
N128P72K40 14,42 13,28 13,09 11,72 28,71 31,75 30,91 32,73 0,59 0,56 0,53 0,51
It was noticed that at the variants with average and high doses of
vinassa, the fodder content in raw cellulose remained high at the variants with
average and high doses of vinassa.
Te fodder content in phosphorus decreased in the period 2005-2007 at
the variants with vinassa and also in the variants where vinassa was given on a
background with phosphorus but it ranged between the optimum limits, at all the
variants under study. At the variants with higher doses of phosphorus the decrease
of fodder content in phosphorus was much smaller from one year to the other.
The fodder content in potassium was in 2005 of about 3.22 % at 2 t/ha
vinassa, of 3.82 % at 4 t/ha vinassa and of 4.02 % at 7 t/ha vinassa, but in 2007
- 574 -
the potassium content decreased from 2.93 % at 2 t/ha vinassa, to 3.61 % at 4 t/ha
vinassa and to 3.76 % at 7 t/ha vinassa.
At the variant with 20 t/ha manure + P50K40, the fodder content in
potassium decreased from 3.29 % in 2004, to 2.98 %.
The fodder content in calcium in 2004 decreased simultaneously with
the increase of vinassa doses given in the period 2001-2004, from 0.83 % at the
variant without fertilization, to 0.80 % at 2 t/ha vinassa, to 0.76 % at
4 t/ha vinassa and to 0.67 % at 7 t/ha vinassa, to 0.76 % at 4 t/ha vinassa and to
0.67 % at 7 t/ha vinassa. At the variants where vinassa was applied on a
background with phosphorus the fodder content in calcium was very close to that
from the variants were only vinassa was given.
At the variants with manure or manure associated with phosphorus and
potassium, the fodder content in calcium decreased very little, but in 2007 its
value was close to the values registered at the control variant.
The proportion CaO/P2O5 was in 2004 below the minimum limit of
1.5 at the variants with 4-7 t/ha vinassa, which points out that when average and
high doses of vinassa were applied four year consecutively, the fodder quality
became worse by the decrease of proportion between calcium and phosphorus. In
the years 2005-2007 the proportion CaO/ P2O5 became better and better from one
year to the other, the data suggesting us that vinassa in high quantities should be
applied once in two years.
CONCLUSIONS
The remanent effect of fertilization on the chemical composition of the
fodder was influenced by the assortment of fertilizers applied (vinassa, manure,
mineral fertilizers), by the given doses, by the number of consecutive years when
these doses were applied, by the climatic conditions of the years under study, as
well as by the time interval elapsed from the latest application of the fertilizers.
The fodder content in raw protein increased simultaneously with the
increase of vinassa doses applied in the period 2001-2004, from 10.85 % at the
variant without fertilization to 13.65 % at 4 t/ha vinassa and to 14.54 % at
7 t/ha vinassa.
In the period 2005-2007, when the remanent effect of fertilization was
analysed, the content of raw protein decreased from 13.65 % at 4 t/ha vinassa in
2004, to 12.96 % in 2006 and to 12.15 % in 2007, and at the variant with 7 t/ha
vinassa from 14.54 % to 13.75 % and to 12.81 5 respectively.
At the variant with manure and fertilizers with nitrogen and phosphorus,
the fodder content of raw protein decreased from one year to the other, this being
of about 12.93 % at 20 t/ha manure in 2004 and of 11.66 % in 2007, but in the
variant with N128P72 the content of raw protein decreased from 14.45 % in 2004 to
11.66 % in 2007.
- 575 -
BACK
The content of raw cellulose slightly increased simultaneously with the

increase of vinassa doses, but it was also influenced by the climatic conditions
from the years under study.
The content of phosphorus and potassium increased simultaneously with
the increase of vinassa doses, and the calcium content decreased. The remanent
eff4ect being visible in 2007 as well.
The proportion CaO/P2O5 decreased simultaneously with the increase of
vinassa doses applied four years consecutively, but this proportion decreased
below the accepted limit only at the variants with high doses of vinassa.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ionel A. şi col., 1990 - Efectul fertilizării de lungă durată, cu îngrăşăminte minerale asupra
pajiştilor permanente de Festuca velesiaca şi Poa pratensis din Silvostepa Moldovei.
Lucr. şt. U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, Seria Zootehnie şi Medicină Veterinară.
2. Ionel A., Talpan Irina, Balan (Surmei) Gabriela, Rusu Mihaele, 2006 - Influenţa fertilizării cu
vinassa asupra producţiei de furaj pe pajişti permanente din Podişul Moldovei. Lucrări şt.
U.Ş.A.M.V. Iaşi, Seria Agonomie, vol. 49, nr. 2.
3. Ionel A., Balan (Surmei) Gabriela, Talpan Irina, Rusu Mihaele, 2006 - Influenţa fertilizării
cu vinassa asupra calităţii furajului pe pajişti temporare cultivate în Podişul Moldovei.
Lucrări şt. UŞAMV Iaşi, Seria Agonomie, vol. 49, nr. 2.
4. Ionel A., Vîntu, V., Halga P., Iacob T., Samuil C., 2000-2001 - Vinassa - fertilizant si aditiv
furajer. Lucrări şt. UŞAMV Iaşi, Seria Zootehnie, vol. 43, 44.
5. Rusu Mihaela, 2005 - Cercetări cu privire la influenţa vinassei asupra producţiei, evoluţiei
covorului vegetal şi fertilităţii solului pe pajiştile permanente din Podişul Moldovei, Teza
de dcotorat.
6. Vîntu V., Ionel A. şi col., 2003 - Posibilităţi de imbunătăţire a pajiştilor permanente prin
folosirea ca fertilizant a subprodusului vinassa. Lucrări şt. UŞAMV Iaşi, Seria
Agronomie, vol. 46.
7. Weigand E., 1983 - Composition of various molasses residues and their feeding value for
ruminants. Commision of the European communities - Report EUR 8918.
- 576 -
BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE REMANENT EFFECT OF

FERTILIZATION WITH VINASSA ON THE FODDER YIELD
ON PERMANENT MEADOWS FROM MOLDAVIAN
PLATEAU
A. IONEL, Mihaela BALAN-SURMEI, Irina TALPAN
The present paper was based on the results obtained in a experiment set
up in 2000, located on a meadow of Lolium perenne L. – Poa pratensis L., situated
on a slope of 8-10 %, with a south-western exposure, on a preluvosoil with a
clayey-sandy texture. In the period 2005-2007 researches were carried out
regarding the remanent effect of fertilization with vinassa, manure and mineral
fertilizers on the fodder yeild. The researches pointed out that the remanent effect
was influenced by the climatic and by the doses of the fertilizers applie, by the
climatic conditions from the period under study as well as by the time interval
elapsed after the fertilizer application. In the first year under study (2005)
regarding the remanent effect of fertilization, it was noticed that the yield gains
were higher at all the variants as compared with theyield gains from 2006, and
these gains in their turn were higher as compared with the yield gains from 2007.
At the variant with 2 t/ha vinassa the remanent effect was noticed only
in 2005, when the yield gain was statistically ensured, and at the variants with 3-
7 t/ha vinassa the yield gains were also obtained in 2006, but these were smaller
as compared with those obtained in 2005.
In 2007, which was a very droughty year, the fodder yields at all the
variants were much smaller as compared with the yields obtained in 2005 and
2006, and the remanent effect of fertilization materialized itself in reduced yield
gains, these being statistically ensured only at the variants with average and
high doses of fertilizers.
At the variants with vinassa on a background with phosphorus the
remanent effect distinguisled itself in yield gains higer as compared with the
variants where vinassa was given on a background with phosphorus.
Key words: permanent meadows, remanent effect, fodder yield, vinassa,
mineral fertilizers.
Permanent meadows represent an important potential source of forages as

condition that they are properly managed and improved, simultaneously with their
rational use. The high amplitude of the variation of the abiotic factors as well as
of biotic ones, represent the decisive element of the large variety of permanent
meadows on the teritory of our country, differing by floristic aspect and by
extension, by evolution and their economic value, and the methods of
management and improvent witch have been applied, depend on the abiotic and
biotic factors and socio-economic possibilities. The measures applied on
meadows in order to obtain increased yields, of good quality are numerous,
differing from one situation to another. Some of these measures are periodically
- 577 -
applied at 4-5 years, others are yearly applied, or at 2-3 years depending on their
remanent effect.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The author on the paper have used the result obtained in an experiment set
up in 2000, located on a meadow of Lolium perenne L. - Poa pratensis L. situated
on a slope of 8-10 %, with a south-western exposure, ona preluvosoil with a
clayey – sandy texture, pH ranging between 6.9- 7.1, with a humus content of
4.52-4.60 %, 16-17 ppm P2O5, 256-270 ppm K2O, 120-124 ppm CaO and 596
ppm MgO.
In the period 2001-2004 researches weredone to determine the influence
of fertilization with vinassa, manure, mineral fertilizers on the yield, and in the
period 2005-2007, the remanent effect of fertilization was studied.
The experiment was monofactorial, set up according to the method of
randomiyed blocks in four repetitions with the following variants: v1- control (non
- fertilized), V2 - 2 t/ha vinassa, V3 - 3 t/ha vinassa, V4 - 4 t/ha vinassa, V5 - 5 t/ha
vinassa, V6 - 6 t/ha vinassa, V7 - 7 t/ha vinassa, V8 - 2 t/ha vinassa + P50, V9 - 3
t/ha vinassa + P50, V10 - 4 t/ha vinassa + P50, V11 - 5 t/ha vinassa + P75, V12 - 6 t/ha
vinassa + P75, V13 - 7 t/ha vinassa + P75, V14 – 15 t/ha manure, V15 – 30 t/ha
manure, V16 – 15 t/ha manure + P50, V17- 20 t/ha manure + P50, V18 - 15 t/ha
manure + P50+K40, V19 – 20 t/ha manure + P50+K40, V20 – N32P18, V21 – N64P36, V22
– N128P72, V23 – N32P18K40, V24 – N64P36K40, V25 – N128P72K40.
In the period 2000-2004 vinassa was annually applied, early in spring
before the beginning of vegetation, the manure was given once in three years, that
is in the autumn of the years 2000 and 2003. Mineral fertilizers were applied and
researches every year, those wits phosphorus and potassium in autumn, those with
nitrogen – early in spring.
Beginning with the autumn of 2004, no fertilizers were applied and
researches were done to determine the remanent effect of fertilization with
vinassa, manure and mineral fertilizers on the yield.
The harvesting was done in the form of hay, at the time of graminaceae
earing and the budding of the leguminous plants. From the biomass harvested
from each variant, samples were taken to determine the dry matter.

Analysing the average yields obtained in 2004, four years after the
application of the organic and mineral fertilizers, it was noticed that the fodder
yield was influenced by the fertilizer assortment and the given doses.
At the variants only with vinassa the yield increased from 5.69 t/ha at
control variant, to 7.76 t/ha d.m. (136 %) at the variant with 4 t/ha vinassa and to
8.69 t/ha (157 %) at 7 t/ha vinassa.
- 578 -
At the variants where vinassa was asociated with phosphorus fertilizers,

the yields were higher as compared with the variants in which only vinassa had
been applied being of about 7.83 t/ha d.m. (138 %) at the variant with 2 t/ha
vinassa + P50, of 8.67 t/ha d.m. (152 %) at 4 t/ha vinassa+P50 and 10.07 t/ha d.m.
(177 %) at 7 t/ha vinassa associated with phosphorus fertilizers were 17 % higher
as compared with the variants only with vinassa.
At the variants with manure, the yields were much smaller as compared
with the variants with vinassa the yield gains being significant when applying 15-
20 t/ha manure and very significant at the variants with vinassa where the manure
was associated with phosphorus or with phosphorus and potassium. The average
yield at the variants with manure was 18 % higher as compared with the control
variant.
At the variants with mineral fertilizers the fodder yields were below the
level of the yields of the yiels obtained at the variants with vinassa, but higer as
compared with the variants with manure.
In 2005 and 2006 the quantities of rainfall were higer than the
multiannual mean, which created favourable conditions for the growing of the
vegetal cover.
Year 2007 was a very droughty year being considered the most droughty
year from the last hundred years.
At the control variant the d. m. yield was about 6.50 t/ha d.m. in 2005 and
of 6.66 t/ha d.m. in 2006, being with 14 % and respectively 16 % biger than the
yield from 2004.
In 2007 the fodder yield at the control variant was of 3.9 t/ha d.m.,
representing about 60 % from the yield of the control variant from 2006.
In 2005 the remanent effect of vinassa on the fodder yield was stronger
depending on the higer doses of vinassa applied in the previous years.
In the variant with 2 t/ha vinassa the remanent effect distinguished itself
in 2005 by a yield gain of 0.62 t/ha d.m. At the variants where in the previous
years the quantities of vinassa applied were biger, the gains obtained as a result of
the remanent effect were also higher, but these gains were smaler as compared
with those obtained in 2004.
As compared with the variant without fertilization in 2005, the yield was
21 % higer at 4 t/ha vinassa and 32 % at 7 t/ha vinassa. The average yield at the
variants with vinassa was 22 % higer as compared with the control variant. In this
year favourable for the permanent meadows in the region, the yields at the
variants with vinassa were quantitatively close to those obtained in 2004.
At the variants where vinassa was associated with phosphorus fertilizers,
the yields obtained were higer as compared with the variants only with vinassa,
the yield gains being of 1.22 t/ha d.m. (19 %) at 2 t/ha vinassa + P50, of 2.02 t/ha
d.m.(31 %) at 4 t/ha vinassa + P50 and of 2.83 t/ha d.m. (44 %) at the variant with
7 t/ha vinassa + P75 (table 1).
- 579 -
Table 1
The remanent effect of fertilization with mineral fertilizers on the yield of dry matter
(t/ha) in the period 2004-2007
2004 2005 2006 2007
Variants
t/ha % Dif. Sem. t/ha % Dif. Sem t/ha % Dif. Sem t/ha % Dif. Semn
Control (non-
5,69 100 - - 6,50 100 - - 6,66 100 - - 3,97 100 - -
fertilized)
2t/ha vinassa 6,52 115 0,83 ** 7,12 110 0,62 * 7,20 108 0,54 - 4,21 106 0,24 -
3t/ha vinassa 7,46 131 1,77 *** 7,60 117 1,05 ** 7,59 114 0,93 ** 4,28 108 0,31 -
4t/ha vinassa 7,76 136 2,07 *** 7,89 121 1,39 *** 7,86 118 1,20 *** 4,56 115 0,59 *
5t/ha vinassa 8,08 142 3,11 *** 8,00 123 1,50 *** 8,11 122 1,45 *** 4,69 118 0,72 *
6t/ha vinassa 8,42 148 2,73 *** 8,31 128 1,81 *** 8,28 124 1,62 *** 4,62 116 0,65 *
7t/ha vinassa 8,96 157 3,27 *** 8,60 132 2,10 *** 8,47 127 1,81 *** 4,94 124 0,97 **
2 t/ha vinassa+ P50 7,83 138 2,14 *** 7,72 119 1,22 *** 7,58 114 0,92 ** 4,42 111 0,45 -
3 t/ha vinassa+ P50 8,25 145 2,56 *** 8,17 126 1,67 ** 7,86 118 1,20 *** 4,58 115 0,61 *
4 t/ha vinassa+ P50 8,67 152 2,18 *** 8,52 131 2,02 *** 8,36 126 1,70 *** 4,51 114 0,54 -
5 t/ha vinassa+ P75 9,23 162 3,54 *** 8,62 133 2,12 *** 8,39 126 1,73 *** 4,75 120 0,78 *
6 t/ha vinassa+ P75 9,58 168 3,89 *** 9,07 140 2,57 *** 8,48 127 1,82 *** 4,86 122 0,89 **
7 t/ha vinassa+ P75 10,07 177 4,38 *** 9,33 144 2,83 *** 8,63 130 1,97 *** 4,83 122 0,86 **
15 t/ha manure 6,17 108 0,48 * 6,85 105 0,35 - 7,11 107 0,45 - 4,42 111 0,45 -
20 t/ha manure 6,28 110 0,59 * 7,31 112 0,81 * 7,46 112 0,80 * 4,58 115 0,61 *
15 t/ha manure +
6,72 118 1,03 *** 7,25 111 0,75 * 7,37 111 0,71 * 4,66 117 0,69 *
P50
20 t/ha manure +
7,09 125 1,40 *** 7,35 113 0,85 ** 7,66 115 1,00 ** 4,75 120 0,78 *
P50
15t/ha
6,91 121 1,22 *** 7,36 113 0,86 ** 7,53 113 0,87 ** 4,86 122 0,89 **
manure+P50K40
20t/ha
7,23 127 1,54 *** 7,78 120 1,28 *** 7,93 119 1,27 *** 4,83 122 0,86 **
manure+P50K40
N32P18 6,31 111 0,62 * 6,62 102 0,12 - 6,79 102 0,13 - 4,02 101 0,05 -
N64P36 6,67 117 0,98 *** 7,33 113 0,83 * 6,96 105 0,30 - 4,26 107 0,29 -
N128P72 7,81 137 2,12 *** 7,79 120 1,29 *** 7,46 112 0,80 * 4,57 115 0,60 *
N32P18K40 6,51 114 0,82 ** 6,91 106 0,41 - 6,97 105 0,31 - 4,28 108 0,31 -
N64P36K40 7,41 130 1,72 *** 7,77 119 1,27 *** 7,35 110 0,69 * 4,62 116 0,65 *
N128P72K40 8,41 148 2,72 *** 8,22 126 1,72 *** 7,59 114 0,93 ** 4,79 121 0,82 **
DL 5% = 0,47 t/ha SU DL 5% = 0,60 t/ha SU DL 5% = 0,65 t/ha SU DL 5% = 0,59 t/ha SU
DL 1% = 0,65 t/ha SU DL 1% = 0,84 t/ha SU DL 1% = 0,87 t/ha SU DL 1% = 0,82 t/ha SU
DL 0,1% = 0,84 t/ha SU DL 0,1%= 1,10 t/ha SU DL0,1%=1,16 t/ha SU DL0,1%=1,06 t/ha SU
At the variant with manure the remanent effect distinguished itself by

smaller yield gains, these being signyficant at 20 t/ha manure + P50.
- 580 -
The remanent effect of the mineral fertilizers materialized itself in higer

yield gains at the variants with relatively high quantities of nitrogen and
phophorus as well as those with nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
In 2006 the gains obtained at all the variants under study were smaller as
compared with those from 2005. As compared with the control variant, the fodder
yields were 14 % higer at 3 t/ha vinassa, 22 % higer at 5 t/ha vinassa and 27 %
higer at the variant with 7 t/ha vinassa.
At the variants where vinassa was associated with phosphorus fertilizers,
the yields were higer as compared with the variants only with vinassa, the yield
gains being of 0.92 t/ha d.m. (14 %) at the variant with 2 t/ha vinassa + P50, of
1.70 t/ha d.m. (26 %) at 4 t/ha vinassa + P50 and of 1.97 t/ha (30 %) at 7 t/ha
vinassa + P75.
At the variants with manure the remanent effect materialized itself in
smaller yield gains, these being of 0.80 t/ha d.m. (12 %) at the variant with 20 t/ha
manure and of 1.0 t/ha d.m.(15 %) at 20 t/ha manure + P50.
When applying mineral fertilizers, the remanent effect materialized itself
in small yield gains only at the variants with relatively high quantities of
fertilizers. Thus, at the variant with N128P72 tha yield gain was 0.80 t/ha d.m. (12
%), and at the variant with N128P72K40 the yield gain was 0.93 t/ha d.m.(14 %).
The average yield of the variants with mineral fertilizers in this year was 8 %
higer as with the variant without fertilization.
In 2007 which was a very droughty year, the fodder yields at all the
variants were much smalleras compared to the yields from 2005 and 2006, and the
remanent effect of fertilization materialized itself in reduced yield gains only at
the variants with average and high doses of vinassa (table 1).
At the variants where vinassa was associated with phosphorusfertilizers,
the yield gains were slightly higer as compared with those from the variants only
with vinassa, ranging between 0.61 t/ha d.m. at 3 t/ha vinassa + P50 and 0.89 t/ha
d.m. at the variant with 6 t/ha vinassa + P75.
CONCLUSIONS
The remanent effect of fertilization on the fodder yield was influenced by
the assortment of the fertilizers applied (vinassa, manure, mineral fertilizers), by
the given doses, by the combinations of the fertilizers used, by the climatic
conditions from the research period, as well as by the time interval elapsed from
the latest application of the fertilizers.
In 2005 the yield gains, as the result of the remanent effect, were higer at
all the variants as compared with the yield gains obtained in 2006, and in 2007 the
yield gains were the smallest.
At the variants with vinassa an a background with phosphorus, the
remanent effect manifested itself in yield gains higer as compared with the
- 581 -
BACK
variants only with vinassa, the yield gains decreasing simultaneously with the
increased of the time interval from the application of the fertilizers.
In 2007, which was a very droughty year, the fodder yields were much
smaller at all the variants as compared with the yield obtained in 2005 and 2006,
and remanent effect of fertilization materialized itself in reduced yield gains, these
being statistically ensured only at the variants with average and high doses of
fertilizers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Ionel A. şi col., 1990 - Efectul fertilizării de lungă durată, cu îngrăşăminte minerale asupra
pajiştilor permanente de Festuca velesiaca şi Poa pratensis din Silvostepa Moldovei.
Lucr. şt. UŞAMV Iaşi, Seria Zootehnie şi Medicină Veterinară.
2. Ionel A., Vîntu, V., Halga P., Iacob T., Samuil C., 2000-2001 – Vinassa - fertilizant si aditiv
furajer. Lucrări şt. UŞAMV Iaşi, vol. 43, 44, Seria Zootehnie.
3. Rusu Mihaela, 2005 - Cercetări cu privire la influenţa vinassei asupra producţiei, evoluţiei
covorului vegetal şi fertilităţii solului pe pajiştile permanente din Podişul Moldovei, Teza
de doctorat.
4. Sava D., Ionel A., Samuil C., 2005 - The influence of vinassa Rompak fertilization on the
production of the fodder beet cultivated in the Central Moldavian Plateau. Lucrări şt.
UŞAMV Iaşi, Seria Agricultură, vol. 48. Editura “Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi.
5. Vîntu V., Ionel A. şi col., 2003 - Posibilităţi de imbunătăţire a pajiştilor permanente prin
folosirea ca fertilizant a subprodusului vinassa. Lucrări şt. UŞAMV Iaşi, Seria
Agricultură, vol. 46.
6. Weigand E., 1983 – Composition of various molasses residues and their feeding value for
ruminants. Commision of the European communities - Report EUR 8918.
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BACK
OPTIMIZATION OF FORAGES RATION IN THE ORGANIC

FARMING CONCERNING SOME IRREPLACEABLE
AMINO ACIDS
Stasys JUKNEVICIUS, Jolanta STANKEVICIUTE, Nomeda SABIENE
Supposedly, soya cakes are mostly valuable albuminous supplements in

the animal diet as contain about 40 % of proteins. But soya beans are
unrepresentative fodder crops in the Lithuania and their processing is
economically disadvantageous for the organic farms. The aim of the research
was to investigate Lithuanian forages concerning amino acids Histidine,
Izoleucine, and Valine amounts in order to compare them with soya cakes and to
optimize animal feeding with local forages.
INTRODUCTION
Recently in the member states of the European Union (EU) as well as in
the Lithuania number of the organic farms is increasing rapidly. In 2007 year
there were 2 348 certificated organic farms with 12 529 livestock units in
Lithuania. Area of the certificated organic farms covers about 4 % of all
agricultural lands.
One of the most important specifications in organic animal breeding is the
qualitative forages. According to the Regulation 2092/91 EEB, animals in organic
farming system must be fed with local forages. Therefore in order to get organic
animal production of high quality it is important searching of local and efficient
albumen organic forages (Stanek et al., 2005; Stein et al., 2006). Moreover, in EU
is lack of albuminous forages still, especially for monogastric ruminants.
Proteins are the essential nutritional substances and their can not be replaced
by any other substances. Lack of proteins in forages result in animal physiological
and functional disorders, low growth and development, has negative influence on
animal production quality (Teye et al., 2006). The main albuminous forages are
leguminous plants. There leguminous crops take 29 % cereal crops in the Lithuanian
organic crops while the major part take buckwheat, barley, and wheat. Quantity and
quality of animal production depend not only on quantity of proteins but also on the
amounts and ratio of irreplaceable amino acids (Andries et al., 1987).
Some amino acids, such as Lysine (Lys), Methionine (Met), Arginine
(Arg), Tryptophan (Trp), Histidine (His), Threonine (Thr), Leucine (Leu),
Isoleucine (Ile), Valine (Val), and Phenylalanine (Phe) are irreplaceable. Their
must be in the forages in optimal amounts especially for the productive cows and
calfs (Engelhard, 2002).
Histidine (His) is relevant for the synthesis of haemoglobin. Valine (Val) and
Isoleucine (Ile) are essential for the muscle formation. Also, Val, Ile and Leu are the
main source of the brain energy in the periods between feeding (Voet et al., 2005).
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Supposedly, soya cakes are mostly valuable albuminous supplements in

the animal diet as contain about 40 % of proteins. But soya cakes depending on
technology of soya oil production have more or less amounts of even 13
antinutritional substances (Bliznikas et al., 2001). Moreover, soya beans are
unrepresentative fodder crops in the Lithuania and their processing is
economically disadvantageous for the organic farms. Last year in Lithuania it was
found that soya flour can be successively replaced with pea flour in pig nutrition
(Juknevicius et al., 2007).
The aim of the research was to investigate Lithuanian forages concerning
amounts of amino acids His, Ile, and Val in order to compare them with soya
cakes and to optimize animal feeding with local forages.

There were investigated amino acids His, Ile, and Val in 42 various
Lithuanian forages using analyzer T-339 after protein hydrolysis performed for 24
h in 6N HCl at 104oC.

Results of the research (Tables 1, 2 ir 3) can be a valuable guide
composing the forages ration. According to Ile amounts the soya cake was the
second following the sunflower cake (Table 1).
Table 1. Ile amounts in the investigated forages comparing with soya cakes
Ile, Comparing with Alternate 1 kg
No. Forages
g/kg soya cake, % of soya cakes
1. Sunflower cake 19.30 100.52 0.,995
Helianthus annuus
2. Soya cakes 19.20 100.00 1.000
Glycine L. max
3. Fodder beans 10.30 53.65 1.864
Vicia faba L.
4. Lupines 9.94 51.77 1.932
Lupinus
5. Vetch 9.86 51.35 1.947
Vicia sativa
6. Peas 9.14 47.60 2.101
Pisum sativum
7. Lentils 7.66 39.90 2.507
Lens culinaris
8. Pigweeds 6.67 34.74 2.879
Amaranthus
9. Green pease 5.51 28.70 3.485
Pisum sativum
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10. White clover "Atoliai" 5.28 27.50 3.636

Trifolium repens
11. Liucerne 4.99 25.99 3.848
Medicago falcata
12. Cockshead 4.73 24.64 4.059
Onobrychis Caput-galli
13. Annual clover 4.71 24.53 4.076
Trifolium dubium
14. Bird’s-foot 4.36 22.71 4.404
Ornithopus perpusillus
15. Corn cernels 4.26 22.19 4.507
Zea mays L.
16. Barley flour 4.16 21.67 4.615
Hordeum vulgare
17. Wheat 3.97 20.68 4.836
Triticum spp
18. Green beans 3.93 20.47 4.885
Phaseolus vulgaris
19. Bird's-foot trefoil 3.35 17.45 5.731
Lotus corniculatus
20. Liucerne hay 3.35 17.45 5.731
Medicago
21. Clover hay 2.96 15.42 6.486
Trifolium
22. Meadow hay 2.73 14.22 7.033
23. Pea vine straws 2.71 14.11 7.085
Pisum sativum
24. Pasture hay 2.68 13.96 7.164
25. Clover boons 2.58 13.44 7.442
Trifolium
26. Italian ryegrass 2.07 10.78 9.275
Lolium multiflorum Lam.
27. Liucerne aftercrop 1.91 9.95 10.052
Medicago
28. Clover silage 1.60 8.33 12.000
Trifolium
29. Potatoes 1.59 8.28 12.075
Solanum tuberosum
30. Red clover aftercrop 1.55 8.07 12.387
Trifolium pratense
31. Pasture grass 1.45 7.55 13.241
32. Red clover 1.32 6.88 14.545
Trifolium pratense
33. Alsike clover 1.30 6.77 14.769
Trifolium hybridum L.
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34. Withered pasture grass 1.30 6.77 14.769

silage
35. White clover 1.27 6.61 15.118
Trifolium repens
36. Oat straws 1.00 5.21 19.200
Avena sativa
37. Barley straws 0.97 5.05 19.794
Hordeum vulgare
38. Pasture grass silage 0.91 4.74 21.099
39. Timothy grass 0.72 3.75 26.667
Phleum pratense
40. Maize grass 0.63 3.28 30.476
Zea mays L.
41. Maize silage 0.47 2.45 40.851
Zea mays L.
42. Fodder beet 0.25 1.30 76.800
Beta vulgaris L
In order to optimize the Ile amount in the animal nutrition 1 kg soya cakes
can be replaced by 1.9 kg fodder beans, 2 kg lupines or vetch. The smallest
amount of Ile (0.25 g/kg) was found in the fodder beat.
According to His amounts, soya cakes were only the third (Table 2) while
more His contained lentils and green beans, respectively 11.05 g/kg and 10.82 g/kg.
Table 2. His amounts in the investigated forages comparing with soya cakes
His, Comparing with Alternate 1 kg of
No. Forages
g/kg soya cake, % soya cakes
1. Lentils 11.05 108.33 0.923
Lens culinaris
2. Green beans 10.82 106.08 0.943
Phaseolus vulgaris
3. Soya cakes 10.20 100.00 1.000
Glycine L. max
4. Lupines 9.42 92.35 1.083
Lupinus
5. Sunflower cake 9.10 89.22 1.121
Helianthus annuus
6. Pigweeds 8.88 87.06 1.149
Amaranthus
7. Vetch 8.25 80.88 1.236
Vicia sativa
8. Annual clover 7.56 74.12 1.349
Trifolium dubium
Trifolium repens
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10. Green pease 7.48 73.33 1.364

Pisum sativum
11. Liucerne 7.20 70.59 1.417
Medicago falcata
12. Peas 7.08 69.41 1.441
Pisum sativum
13. Bird’s-foot 6.89 67.55 1.480
14. Cockshead 6.82 66.86 1.496
15. Fodder beans 6.76 66.27 1.509
Vicia faba L.
Lotus corniculatus
18. Barley flour 2.63 25.78 3.878
Hordeum vulgare
19. Corn cernels 2.53 24.80 4.032
Zea mays L.
20. Wheat 2.42 23.73 4.215
Triticum spp
21. Liucerne hay 2.30 22.55 4.435
Medicago
22. Meadow hay 1.43 14.02 7.133
23. Pasture hay 1.41 13.82 7.234
24. Pea vine straws 1.36 13.33 7.500
Pisum sativum
25. Clover hay 1.26 12.35 8.095
Trifolium
26. Clover boons 1.21 11.86 8.430
Trifolium
Medicago
28. Clover silage 0.87 8.53 11.724
Trifolium
29. Withered pasture grass silage 0.83 8.14 12.289
30. Pasture grass 0.79 7.75 12.911
Trifolium pratense
32. Oat straws 0.75 7.35 13.600
Avena sativa
33. Red clover 0.72 7.06 14.167
Trifolium pratense
34. White clover 0.71 6.96 14.366
Trifolium repens
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35. Alsike clover 0.65 6.37 15.692

36. Timothy grass 0.51 5.00 20.000
Phleum pratense
37. Barley straws 0.49 4.80 20.816
Hordeum vulgare
39. Maize grass 0.25 2.45 40.800
Zea mays L.
40. Potatoes 0.23 2.25 44.348
Solanum tuberosum
41. Fodder beet 0.22 2.16 46.364
Beta vulgaris L
42. Maize silage 0.18 1.76 56.667
Zea mays L.
After that followed lupines (9.42 g/kg) and sunflower cake (9.1 g/kg).
Poor in His were maize silage (0.18 g/kg), fodder beet (0.22 g/kg), and potatoes
(0.23 g/kg).
The biggest Val amount (20.6 g/kg) was determined in sunflower cake
(Table 3). After that followed the soya cakes (17.7 g/kg), lupines (10.6 g/kg),
vetch, lentils, fodder beans, peas and white clover „Atoliai“ (9.17-10.4 g/kg).
Table 3. Val amounts in the investigated forages comparing with soya cakes
Val, Comparing with Alternate 1 kg
No. Forages
g/kg soya cake, % of soya cakes
1. Sunflower cake 20.6 116.38 0.859
Helianthus annuus
2. Soya cakes 17.7 100.00 1.000
Glycine L. max
3. Lupines 10.6 59.89 1.670
Lupinus
4. Vetch 10.4 58.76 1.702
Vicia sativa
5. Lentils 9.96 56.27 1.777
Lens culinaris
6. Fodder beans 9.94 56.16 1.781
Vicia faba L.
7. Peas 9.76 55.14 1.814
Pisum sativum
Trifolium repens
9. Pigweeds 8.74 49.38 2.025
Amaranthus
10. Liucerne 7.58 42.82 2.335
Medicago falcata
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11. Annual clover 7.48 42.26 2.366

Trifolium dubium
12. Cockshead 7.25 40.85 2.448
13. Bird’s-foot 7.14 40.34 2.479
14. Green pease 7.01 39.60 2.525
Pisum sativum
Lotus corniculatus
16. Green beans 5.51 31.13 3.212
Phaseolus vulgaris
17. Barley flour 5.46 30.85 3.242
Hordeum vulgare
18. Wheat 4.83 27.29 3.665
Triticum spp
19. Corn cernels 4.82 27.23 3.672
Zea mays L.
20. Liucerne hay 4.32 24.41 4.097
Medicago
21. Pea vine straws 3.85 21.75 4.597
Pisum sativum
22. Clover hay 3.76 21.24 4.707
Trifolium
23. Meadow hay 3.69 20.85 4.797
24. Pasture hay 3.61 20.40 4.903
25. Clover boons 3.06 17.29 5.784
Trifolium
Medicago
28. Clover silage 2.11 11.92 8.389
Trifolium
Trifolium pratense
30. Pasture grass 1.90 10.73 9.316
31. White clover 1.63 9.21 10.859
Trifolium repens
32. Alsike clover 1.58 8.93 11.203
33. Withered pasture grass silage 1.55 8.76 11.419
34. Red clover 1.54 8.70 11.494
Trifolium pratense
35. Oat straws 1.39 7.85 12.734
Avena sativa
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36. Barley straws 1,38 7,80 12,826

Hordeum vulgare
38. Timothy grass 0.96 5.42 18.438
Phleum pratense
39. Maize grass 0.70 3.95 25.286
Zea mays L.
40. Maize silage 0.65 3.67 27.231
Zea mays L.
41. Potatoes 0.48 2.71 36.875
Solanum tuberosum
42. Fodder beet 0.29 1.64 61.034
Beta vulgaris L
Thus, 1 kg soay cakes in animal diet according Val amount could be

replaced by 0.9 kg sunflower cake, 1.7 kg lupines or 1.8 kg lentils. The smallest
amount of Val (0.29 g/kg) contained the fodder beet.
Results of the research showed that animal nutrition diet concerning Ile,
His and Val amounts could be optimised by sunflower cake, lentils, peas, lupines,
vetch, liucerne, clover, etc. According to the Val amounts 1 kg soya cakes could
be replaced by 0.8 kg sunflowe cake, 1.8 kg lentils, 1.7 kg vetch. His amount in
the animal diet could be wellbalanced if replacing 1 kg soay cakes by 1 kg
lentils or fodder beans, and 1.1 kg lupines. Meanwhile Ile amounts could be
optimised instead of 1 kg soay cakes using 1 kg sunflower cake, 1.9 kg fodder
beans or 2 kg lupines, vetch or peas.
The protein rich mixed green forages, silage is recommended to be
produced from the various leguminous and cereal grasses, such as vetch, lupines,
peas, bird‘s-foot, sunflower, oat, as they contain the irreplaceable amino acids
(Tables 1, 2, 3).
CONCLUSIONS
1. Amino acids demand in organic farms can be satisfied by local leguminous
forages.
2. According to the Ile, Val, His amounts soya cakes can be successfully
replaced by sunflower cake, lentils, peas, fodder beans, lupines, vetch, clover
and some other forages. Animal diet must be composed according the demand
and the irreplaceable amino acids amounts in various forages guiding by order
of priority in the presented tables.
REFERENCES
1. Andries I., Buysse F. X., De Brabander D. L. , Cottyn G. Isoacid in ruminant nutrition: Their
role in ruminal and intermediary metabolism and possible influences on performances – A
review. Animal Feed Science and Technology. Vol. 18. Issue 3, October. 1987. P. 169-180.
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BACK
2. Bliznikas S., Uchockis V., Tarvydas V. Feeding value of Lithuanian soya beans. Veterinarija ir
zootechnika. 2001. T.15(37). P.19-22, ISSN 1392-2130 (in Lithuanian).
3. Commission Regulation (EC) No. 1294/2005 of 5 August 2005. OJ No. L205, P16, 6.8.2005
4. Council Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91 of 24 June 1991 on organic production of
agricultural products and indications referring thereto on agricultural products and
foodstuffs. OJ L 198, 22.7.1991, P. 1–15.
5. Engelhard Th. Aminosäuren an Hochleistungskühe füttern? 2002. Top agrar 5, R10 - R12.
6. Juknevicius S., Baranauskas S., Stankeviciute J., Laucevicius Z. The influence of soybean and
pea meal supplements on pig performance and meat yield. Veterinarija ir zootechnika. 2007. T.
37 (59). P. 28-33, ISSN 1392-2130.
7. Stanek M., Purwin C., Matusevičius P. The influence of faba bean seeds and enzymes on
nutrient digestibility and nitrogen balance in pigs. Veterinarija ir zootechnika. 2005. T. 30 (52).
P. 72-76, ISSN 1392-2130.
8. Stein H., Everts A., Sweeter K., Peters D., Maddock R., Wulf D., Pedersen C. The influence of
dietary field peas (Pisum sativum L.) on pig performance, carcass quality and the palatability of
pork. J. of Anim. Sc. 2006. Vol. 84. P. 3110-3117.
9. Teye G. A., Sheard P. R., Whittington F. M., Nute G. R., Stewart A., Wood J. D. Influence of
dietary and protein level on pork quality. 1. Effects on muscle fatty acid composition, carcass,
meat and eating quality. Meat Science. Vol. 73. Issue 1, May. 2006. P. 157-165.
10. Voet D., Voet J.G., Pratt Ch.W. Fundamentals of Biochemistry: Life at the Molecular Level.
Wiley; 2 edition, 2005, P.77-93.
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RESEARCHES REGARDING THE QUALITY AND

NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF THE CORN SILAGE
Roxana MIRON, I.M. POP
The researches had as purpose the assessment of the nutritive value of

the corn green mass and the eventual modifications that occur in the fodder
subject to the pickling. The studied material was represented by corn green mass
( A experimental lot) harvested at the beginning of the period; the harvested
green mass was deposited in two different silage bunkers, one being covered with
foil and achieved in an optimal period of time (the B experimental lot) and in the
other the green mass was introduced at a more advanced stage of vegetation,
closed for 14 days and covered with chopped straws (C experimental lot). The
technical quality determination emphasized a very good quality of the B and C
lots . The dry matter quantity suffered losses due to the ensiling of 7.5 %
reported to the dry matter quantity introduced in the silage. The significant
differences between the values obtained for the B and C lots compared with the A
lot in the case of the protein content was meaningful, respectively an increase of
the protein quantity with approximately 20%. The differences registered
regarding the chemical composition of the A lot and the B and C lots were
determined by the environment factors, by the vegetation phase in which the
harvesting took place and not lastly by the fermentation processes.
INTRODUCTION
The silage is a very valuable forage in the alimentation of bulls,
substantially contributing through its high energetic value to the production
increase. The quality of this forage mainly depends on the quality of the green
mass and is influenced by the ensiling success. The nutritive quality and value of
the pickled fodder depend, to a great extent, on the modifications that occur in the
fodders subject to pickling, and on the other hand, on the losses of nutritive
substances which can be registered during the pickling. (Cristea et. al, 2004)
The pickling constitutes one of the oldest methods of conservation of the
humid fodders, and its origin is lost in antiquity; the pickling has as purpose the
conservation at high humidity, with a minimum of losses.
The pickling is achieved in the absence of oxygen, in order to impede the
development of the aerobe flora (putrefaction flora) and at a high acidity in order
to inhibit or reduce the development of the butyric flora, which degrades the
proteins (resulting amines, NH3, fat volatile acids). This acidity is obtained
thanks to the lactic bacteria, present on the fodder, which transform the sugars
from the plans in lactic acid.
The entire plant corn produces the highest quantity of nutritive substances
/ha , compared with the green crops (Perry 1988). The main characteristics of the
corn for the silage, according to Struick, Deinum (1990) consist in the high levels
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of production, dry matter percentage and cobs, and digestibility of the organic
matter from the green ensilaged mass.
Under the nutritional aspect, the corn silage keeps its quality for a long
period of time, and thus favorably influences the milk production, ensures a
constancy of the forage for the entire year, reduces the quantities of concentration
which must be administered to animals.
The corn silage, achieved through the pickling of corn in the phase of wax
milk is characterized through a content of 300 g/ kg gross DM, 79 g/kg DM
crude protein, 30 g/kg DM crude fat , 244 g/kg DM gross fiber and 580 g/kg DM
nitrogen free extract (Burlacu, 2002).
The carbon hydrates are prevailing in the constitution of corn grains, of
which the highest proportion is constituted by the starch (over 70% from the SU);
the contents in the starch associated with a sensitively higher proportion in fats
(compared with other cereals), make the corn and implicitly the corn silage an
important energetic source.
In this study, we proposed the assessment of the quality of the corn silage
and of its nutritive value through the organoleptic and laboratory methods.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experiment took place within S.C ROLEX S.R.L Bacău; the material
studied within the experiments was made up of two corn hybrids for the Florencia
and Monalisa silage and a corn hybrid for the PR38V91 grains.
The harvesting of corn occurred during the period 11-25.08.2007, period
in which the corn was in the phase of wax milk. The harvesting took place at a
height from the soil of 10-12 cm, for the harvested mass being chopped at the
dimension of 10 mm, state in which the cobs were well fragmented and the grains
well broken.
The studied material was represented by corn green mass (A experimental
lot) harvested at the beginning of the period : the green mass harvested was
deposited in two different silage bunkers , one being covered with foil and
achieved in optimal time (B experimental lot) and in the other we introduced
green mass in a more advanced vegetation state, closed for 14 days and covered
with chopped straws (C experimental lot).
The number of samples and the harvested quantity for the sample was
established according to: the quantity of product deposited in silages, the
cultivated surface, the manner of presentation of the vegetal composition
(ensilaged fodder, green mass). The preparation of the analysis samples was made
in conformity with the norms established in the standard : SR ISO 6498/2001
Fodders. The preparation of analysis samples.
For the achievement of the organoleptic control, we monitored the
characteristics: color, structure, taste, smell and pH of the corn silage.
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The gross chemical tests were carried out on ensilaged corn samples and
the green mass from the three experimental lots.
The gross chemical composition of the studied forage was established in
conformity with the ISO standards in force, for the determination of the water
quantity and the dry substance, the crude protein, the gross fiber, the crude fat, the
crude ash. For determining the chemical composition, we used the following
standards :
• ISO 6496/2001 Fodders. Determining the humidity and other volatile
substances contents.
• ISO 5984/2001 Fodders. Determining the crude ash.
• ISO 6492/2001 Fodders. Determining the fat contents.
• SR 13325/1995 Fodders. Determining the nitrogen contents and the
calculation of the protein contents.
• SR EN ISO 6865/2001 Fodders. Determining the gross fibre.

The organoleptic control allowed an expedient and rather exact evaluation
of the ensilaged fodder quality. After the tests carried out (tab. 1), we ascertained
that the structure of the ensilaged fodder from the B and C lots is similar with the
corn green mass that the silage was composed of, the color of the silage sample
from the B experimental lot was light green which corresponds with a very good
quality fodder compared with the color of the silage sample from the C
experimental lot which was yellow-green, which indicates an ensilage of the
plants in a more advanced vegetation phase, but of a better quality.
Table 1 Organoleptic characteristic of corn silage

Experimental Organoleptic characteristic
lots Structure Colour Taste Smell pH
Lot B The same Light green Sweetly-sourish Ripe apple 3,78
with the corn
plant
Lot C The same Light green Sweetly-sourish Ripe apple 3,92
with the corn
plant
The taste of the pickled fodder is exactly correlated with the smell, from
where we conclude that the studied silage samples were of good quality;
respectively they presented a sweet-sour taste and a smell of ripe apples. The pH
values obtained comprised between 3,78 and 3,92, values that confirm the good
quality of the studied silage.
The nutritive quality and quantity of the pickled fodder depends on the
one hand, on the modifications that occur in the fodder subject to the pickling,
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and on the other hand, on the losses of nutritive substances which can be
registered by means of and during pickling. The breathing of plants and the
production of CO2, and by the action of microorganisms determine the main
modifications that the nutritive substances from the fodders suffer during the
pickling. After the tests carried out, we noticed that the medium values resulted
for the dry matter(fig. 1), of the assayed samples from the experimental lots, were
similar to the ones found in the specialized literature, respectively for the B lot of
280.6 g/kg gross, the C lot gross 304 g/kg and the A lot gross 03.1 g/kg, quantity
of dry matter which ensures a good conservation.
The qualitative and quantitative losses in the pickled forage can occur,
largely, during the stocking of fodders in the silages. From this point of view, in
the case that the picked fodders are of good quality, the silage being successful,
the losses are appreciated at about 8% for the dry matter and 2-3 % for the crude
protein, from the silage mass. In the case that the silage is less successful, the
losses are extremely varied, oscillating between 1.2 and 72.6 % for the dry
material and until 68.5% for the gross protein (Zelter, 1973 quoted by Pop et al,
2006)
310
303,1 304
300
290
280,6
280
270
260
250
Lot A Lot B Lot C
D.M. g/kg gross
Fig. 1 Quantity of the dry matter of the studied samples
The significant differences between the values obtained for the B and C
lots compared with the A lot in the case of the protein content (fig. 2) can be
attributed to the climatic factors, the quantity of the precipitations in the first half
of 2007 being very small, the green mass samples being sampled at the beginning
of the corn harvesting period, and during the period we registered rain showers
which determined the viridescence of plants, in addition, this increase can be due
to the lactic bacteria that are found in the B and C lots content after the
fermentation process and respectively an increase of the protein quantity with
approximately 20%.
- 595 -
The higher cellulose quantity found in the chemical composition of the C

lot compared with the A lot is due to the advanced vegetation stage in which the
harvesting occurred, the values being situated within the limits found in the
specialized literature.
The modifications, which occur in the B and C experimental lots subject
to pickling, determine losses of nitrogen free extract in a proportion of 9.7 % in
the case of B lot and of 9.2 % for the C experimental lot, due to the lactic bacteria,
presented on the fodder, which transforms the sugars from plants in lactic acid.
The quantity of nitrogen free extract remained in the silage mass has increased
values compared with those found in the specialized literature, where it results
that the ratio between the quantity of grains and the entire plant is a very good
one.
Quantity of the ash retrievable in chemical composition of lot A was the
45,86 g/kg DM, with 16,14 g/kg DM less than in determinate ash quantity at B
and C lots. Crude ash had in shes composition small quantity of impurities due to
inadequate ensilage.
616,7
N.F.E 613,7
679,62
61,84
C.A. 62
45,86
207
G.F 212,8
195
24,35
C.F. 22,5
23,2
90,46
C.P. 90
66,32
938,16
M.O. 938
954,14
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Lot A Lot B Lot C
Fig. 2 The gross chemical composition of the studied lots
We must notice the fact that the application of any method of

conservation or preparation of fodders determines both a modification of physical
–chemical characteristics of fodders, the variable modification as intensity
according to the conservation technology used and from which nutritive value
losses, can result.
- 596 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
The differences registered regarding the chemical composition of the A
lot and the B and C lots were determined by the environment factors, by the
vegetation phase in which the harvesting took place and not lastly by the
fermentation processes.
The technical quality appreciation situates the studied corn silages (one
being covered with foil and achieved in an optimal period of time (the B
experimental lot) and in the other the green mass was introduced at a more
advanced stage of vegetation, closed for 14 days and covered with chopped straws
(C experimental lot).) as being of good quality.
The dry matter quantity suffered losses due to the ensiling of 7.5 %
reported to the dry matter quantity introduced in the silage.
The nutritive value of the studied silages has proved to be superior to the
values found in the specialized literature, taken into account that the climatic
factors from the agricultural year 2007 did not have a favorable impact on the
corn production.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Burlacu G., 2002 – Potentialul productiv al nutreturilor si utilizarea lor, Editura Ceres,
Bucuresti.
2. Cristea M., Căbulea I., Salca T.,2004 - Porumbul, Sudiu monografic. Editura Academiei
Române, Bucureşti.
3. Perry, T.W., 1988 – Corn as a livestock feed.Corn and corn improvement. 3rd edition 951-
956.
4. Pop, I.M., şi col., 2005 – Nutriţie şi alimentaţie animală. Ed. Alfa, Iaşi.
5. Struik P.C., Deinum B., 1990 – The ideotype for forage maize, Proc. of Maize and Sorghum
Eucarpia 15th Congres. Baden. Austria, 223-242.
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BACK
COMPARATIVE DATA ON THE USE OF DIFFERENT

SELENIUM (Se) SOURCES IN LAYER DIETS
Tatiana PANAITE, Carmen CIURESCU, Ana CISMILEANU,
Anca BERCARU, Constantin RADUCANU, Rodica Diana CRISTE
An experiment conducted for 6 weeks on 4 groups of Lohmann Brown

layers (36 layers/group) evaluated comparatively the effects of diet formulations
supplemented with different forms of Se on layer bioproductive performance and
on egg quality (physical and chemical parameters). All groups received the same
corn-soybean meal basal diet (17.45% CP; 11.6 MJ, EM). The groups were
different by the source of dietary Se: Se enriched corn and peas (group 1),
Selplex (group 2) and sodium selenite (group 3). There was no dietary Se added
to the basal diet of the control group. The experiment was conducted within
CEEX projects SELENPLUS 16/2005. Selplex (organic source) displayed the
best Se absorption in the egg, with values 3.5 times higher (0.516 ppm Se) than in
the control group (0.147 ppm Se). Our data show that the use of selenium-
enriched feeds didn’t produce comparable results, as Se level in the egg, with the
Selplex and sodium selenite groups.
INTRODUCTION
Selenium (Se) is an essential element for the organism, mainly because it
is a component of glutation peroxidase (Rotruck, 1973) which detoxifies lipid-
peroxidase favouring cell and subcellular membrane protection against
peroxidizing. Being an essential element, Se must be supplied through the daily
diet. The selenium-enriched egg is a suitable food to improve tre Se status in
humans. The production of selenium-enriched egg is quite easy, by feeding, The
Se requirement of layers is 0.05-0.08 ppm (NRC, 1994) according to the dietary
formulation, but in the practice this level is supplemented. Rutz et al. (2003)
conducted a study which confirms the observations of the Japanese researcher
Wakebe (1999), that a 0.3 ppm Se/kg supplementation increases GSH-Px activity
both in the egg yolk and egg white, which makes the eggs to stay fresh longer
(Haugh scale). The Se sources used currently are inorganic (ex. Sodium selenite)
but it was observed that despite high dietary levels of selenite, no substantial Se
enrichment of the egg was noticed (Surai, 2002). On this background manifested
the need to study the organic sources of Se (ex. Se-methionine) which have a
better bioavailability (Surai et al., 2004). Beilstein and Whanger (1986), as well as
Kelly and Power (1995) proposed the use of selenium-enriched yeasts. Pan et al.
(2004), showed that the use of organic compounds such as Se-methionine
increases Se level in all egg components. Another source might be raw vegetal
feeds rich in selenium fed to the layers. The problems rising are related to the
resulting level of Se concentration and to Se availability from the forms it is
found in some plants.
- 598 -
The purpose of the paper is to evaluate the effects of dietary formulations for
layers supplemented with Se under different forms, on the bioproductive layer
performance (laying percentage, intake) and on egg quality (physical and
chemical parameters). The following sources of Se were used: corn and peas
enriched in selenium (produced by INCD Fundulea), an organic source (Sleplex,
Alltech), the usual inorganic source (sodium selenite). The experiment was
conducted within CEEX contract (16/ 2005): Prevention, control and
management of the selenium deficiency in the trophic chain plant-animal-human.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experiment was conducted in the experimental farm of IBNA Balotesti
for 6 weeks, on 144 Lohmann Brown layers aged 56 weeks. The layers were
assigned to 4 groups (36 layer per group) with 12 replicates (one replication
consists of one cage with 3 layers). The layers were kept in two-tier battery cages.
Throughout the experiment, light was provided with electric bulbs between 04:30
and 20:30hrs (16 hrs). All specific microclimate parameters were provided
according to the rearing technology and layer age. The layers had free access to
the water and feed.
The layers received 4 diet formulations as follows: control diet (C), no
additional Se; experimental 1 (E1, Se-enriched feeds); experimental 2 (E2,
Selplex); experimental 3 (E3, sodium Se). The Se-enriched feeds used for E1
were corn and peas produced by INCD Fundulea. Diet optimization (Table 1) was
done using the chemical composition of the raw ingredients and the mathematical
model of Burlacu et al., 1999. The following parameters were considered:
- feeds level of: digestible energy (DE, MJ/kg DM); digestible crude protein
(DCP g/kg DM), digestible crude fiber (DCF g/kg DM), digestible nitrogen-free
extractives (DNFE g/kg DM), starch (A, g/kg DM); sugar (Z g/kg DM);
- the content of each feed in limiting digestible amino acids (AA dig./kg DM);
- norms of metabolisable energy (ME, MJ/day), available protein (AP, g/day),
net protein for maintenance (Pm, g/day), retained net protein (Pr g/day).
The diets were balanced as level of total sulphur amino acids, available
calcium and phosphorus and they were in agreement with the feeding
requirements for the intensive layer rearing. The chemical analysis of the
compound feeds is shown in Table 1. The average values presented in the table
(per kg DM) show that the diets were isocaloric, the differences not being
significant (P.≥0.05).
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Table 1: Diet formulation
Ingredients C E1 E2 E3
Corn, % 60.63 59.83 60.63 60.63
Sunflower meal, % 10 - 10 10
Soybean meal, % 13 15.9 13 13
Corn gluten, % 3 3 3 3
Peas, % - 10 - -
Oil, % 2 - 2 2
Monocalcium phosphate, % 1 1 1 1
Calcium carbonate, % 8.8 8.8 8.8 8.8
Salt, % 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3
DL – methionine, % 0.08 0.12 0.08 0.08
Lysine 0.14 - 0.14 0.14
Choline HCl 60%, % 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05
Zoofort A5 *, % 1 1 1 1
TOTAL 100 100 100 100
Analysed
Real SM, (g) 90.17 89.32 90.23 90.28
CP, (g) 17.45 16.98 17.36 17.64
EE, (g) 4.75 3.32 4.64 4.71
CF, (g) 5.21 4.31 5.73 5.62
Ash, (g) 12.5 11.34 12.14 12.25
NFE, (g) 50.26 53.37 50.36 50.06
OM, (g) 77.67 77.98 78.09 78.03
Se, (ppm) 0.081 0.036 0.305 0.109
* premix produced by IBNA Balotesti
Throughout the experiment we monitored the intake (recorded daily);

egg production (recorded daily and expressed as laying percentage); average egg
weight (determined by the daily weighing f eggs); physical-chemical parameters
of egg quality (component weight, intensity of yolk color, pH, Se level in the
egg).
During the experimental period the eggs were samples 4 times, randomly, 9
eggs/group. The eggs were used to form average samples of egg white and egg
yolk (3 eggs/sample). The samples were assayed for Se with the fluorometric
method with diamin naphthalene) (by the Pasteur Institute) and for the chemical
composition of the egg (specific analyses by the standardized methods used in the
chemistry laboratory of IBNA Balotesti).
All data were processed statistically with StatView.
- 600 -

The nature of the selenium source didn’t affect the productive
performance of the layers; no significant differences were noticed in the laying
percentage, average egg weight and feed conversion ratio (Table 2). Similar
results were also reported by Utterback et al., 2005, who didn’t observe
significant differences in egg production, egg weight, feed intake or mortality
when selenium-enriched yeasts were used.
Table 2: Layer performance

Specification C E1 E2 E3
Feed conversion ratio, 172.13± 175.22± 170.32± 175.45±
g CF / egg
% laying / experimental 82.87 ± 2.89 83.32 ± 2.01 83.09 ± 2.29 81.84 ± 1.59
period
Average egg weight, g 61.31 ± 7.03 59.16 ± 6.79 61.17 ± 6.93 59.14 ± 5.14
Table 3: Physical-chemical parameters of egg quality

Specification M E1 E2 E3
d
Egg shell weight, g 6.95 ± 0.253 7.12 ± 0.270 7.25 ± 0.348 6.82 ± 0.272c
Egg mass, g 55.4 ± 3.046 55.41 ± 1.879 57.01 ± 3.961 56.27 ± 3.541
Egg white weight, g 36.02 ± 2.461 36.62 ± 1.706 38.03 ± 2.819 37.67 ± 2.665
Egg white pH- 8.73 ± 0.08b,c,d 8.6 ± 0.07a,c,d 8.43 ± 0.154a,b,d 8.54 ± 0.031a,b,c
Egg yolk weight, g 19.37 ± 1.450 18.79 ± 1.165 18.987 ± 1.247 18.60 ± 1.011
Egg yolk pH 6.17 ± 0.100c 6.16 ± 0.054c 6.31 ± 0.116a,b 6.23 ± 0.122
Egg yolk colour
intensity (Hoffman - 7.67 ± 1.211b 9.00 ± 0.00a,c,d 7.83 ± 0.408b 7.50 ± 0.548b
La Roche colour
scale)
Se concentration in 0,147± 0.064c,d 0,136±0.039c,d 0,516±0.063a,b,d 0,431±0.065a,b,c
the egg, ppm
Where:a = significantly different (p ≤ 0.05) from M; b = significantly different (p ≤ 0.05)
from E1; c = significantly different (p ≤ 0.05) from E2; d = significantly different (p ≤
0.05) from de E3
Egg weight decreased towards the end of the experiment (Fig. 1). This is
due to the relation between layer age and egg weightr.
Group E1 showed significantly (p≤0.05) lower concentrations of Se in the
eggs (Table 3) than in E2 and E3. Chart 2 shows that Sleplex had a higher
bioavailability than the socium selenite. This shows that the use of Selplex
(selenoprotein) in layer diets improved significantly the egg content of Se, as
supported by other researches (Allan et al., 1999). The main reason why Se
deposits increase when Se is administered in an organic form is the predominant
presence of the selenium-methionine. Latshaw and Biggert (1981) show that
- 601 -
selenium-methionine can be absorbed actively and incorporated directly into the

protein, while the inorganic sources of selenium are absorbed passively into the
organism.
Egg weight, g
70.00
60.00
50.00
40.00
g
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
C E1 E2 E3
groups
58 weeks 60 weeks 62 weeks
Fig. 1
Concentrations of Se in the yolk eggs
0.6
0.5
0.4 M
Se, ppm
L1
0.3
L2
0.2 L3
0.1
0
0 12 25 34
period
Fig. 2
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
9 No significant differences were noticed in layer performance after feeding
different Se sources
9 Selplex (organic source) displayed the best Se absorption in the egg, with
values 3.5 times higher (0.516 ppm Se) than in the control group (0.147
ppm Se)
9 Our data show that the use of selenium-enriched feeds didn’t produce
comparable results, as Se level in the egg, with the Selplex and sodium
selenite groups.
SELECTIVE REFERENCES
1. Allan, C.B., Lacourciere, G.M., Stadtman, T.C.; 1999; Annu. Rev. Nutr.; 19; 1-16.
2. Beilstein, M.A., Whanger, P.D.; 1986; J.Nutr.; 116; 1701-1710
3. Huyghebaert G., (1995) – Incorporation of polyunsaturated fatty acids in egg yolk fat at
varying dietary fat livels and compositions. - Archiv fűr Gellűgelkde, 59, 145-152
4. Kelly, M.P., Power, R.F.; 1995; J. Dairy Sci.; 78; 237
5. Paton, N.D., Cantor, A.H., Pescatore, A.J., Ford, M.J., Smith, C.A.; 2002; Poultry Science; 81;
1548-1554.
6. Richardson, S.M., Siciliano, P.D., Engle, T.E., Larson, C.K., Ward, T.L.; 2006; J.Anim.Sci.,
84, 1742-1748
7. Surai, P.F., Sparks, N.H.C.; 2002; Trends in Food Science and Technology; 12; 7-16.
8. Surai, P.F.; 2002; Natural Antioxidants in Avian Nutrition and Reproduction.; Nothingam
University Press, Nottingham.
9. Surai PF, Pappas AC, McDevitt RM, Acamovic T, Sparks NH., (2004), The effects of selenium
and PUFA supplementation in the diet of young broiler breeders on the incorporation of
selenium in the egg and in the tissues of the day old broiler chick, Br Poult Sci. , Apr;45 Suppl
1:S26-7.
10. Utterback, P.L., Parsons, C.M., Yoon, I., Butler, J.; 2005; Poultry Science; 84; 1900-1901.
- 603 -
BACK
EFFECTS GENERATED BY ASCORBIC ACID USAGE IN

LAYING HENS FEEDING, DURING HEAT STRESS
CONDITIONS
Cristina RADU-RUSU, I.M. POP
Main goal of the researches was to assess the effects generated by

ascorbic acid feed supplementation of the hens approaching the end of their
laying period, in thermal stress conditions.
In order to reach the target, a flock of 60 ISA Brown 56 days old laying
hens gas been used. The biological material was divided in two groups: a control
one (C), fed with standard mixed fodder and an experimental group (E) fed with
mixed fodder, added with 250 mg ascorbic acid/kg. Following parameters have
been studied: live weight and feed intake dynamics, laying intensity; eggs weight,
Haugh index; eggshell weight, percentage of shell from whole egg weight,
eggshell thickness, proportion of intact shell eggs, percentage of eggs with
cracked or soft shell, proportion of eggs without shell..
Addition of ascorbic acid in laying hens feeding positively influenced feed
intake and egg production, on both quantitative and qualitative sides. Thus, laying
intensity of E was 5.8% improved, while favourable changes have been noticed for
eggs quality parameters (+3.69% eggs weight, +3.04% shell weight, +5.70% shell
thickness). Proportion of eggs with deficiencies also decreased, as compared to the
results obtained by control group. Considering the beneficial achieved results, acid
ascorbic feed supplementation could be recommended to apply for laying hens
approaching the end of laying, mainly during heat stress periods.
Keywords: laying hens, ascorbic acid, heat stress, eggs quality
Animals stressed due to environmental temperature are found to have

reduced ascorbic acid, α tocopherol and retinol concentration in plasma and blood
cells (McDoweell, 1989). Moreover, ambient temperature impairs absorption of
vitamins A, E and C, and increases the dietary requirement of these vitamins
(Klasing, 1998). It has been reported that ascorbic acid synthesis and utilization
are inadequate under stress condition such as low or high environmental
temperatures, humidity, high productive rate, and parasite infection (McDowell,
1989, Cheng et al., 1990).

The experiment was set up within the Animal Husbandry Micro
Experimental Farm in Iasi, during 30 days (14 June-15 July), corresponding to the
56-61 weeks of the birds’ age.
The biological material was represented by 60 hens, ISA-Brown laying
hybrid, 56 weeks old, accommodated in 3 levels pyramidal type batteries, a hen
per each coop, allowing thus an individual control of the experimental parameters.
- 604 -
The flock was divided in two groups, called control and experimental
groups. The control group (C) included 30 hens that received mixed fodder (corn-
soymeal type). The 30 birds within the experimental group (E), were fed with the
same fodder receipt, but added with 250 mg ascorbic acid/kg.
The poultry house environment temperature, measured with a
thermometer hung above the cages, ranged between 26°C and 31°C (average
28.6°C) during the experimental period.
The parameters we have studied are listed below: living weight dynamics,
during the entire experiment, feed intake, laying percentage – as fowl’s morpho-
productive features; egg weight; eggshell weight; eggshell thickness; eggshell
participation in the entire egg weight – as shell quality features; Haugh index – as
egg internal quality parameter.
Feed intake was daily recorded, through the weighting of the given feed
and of the remnants at the end of the day.
Egg yield percentage was calculated according to the relation:
% laying=(egg peaked/birds in flock) X 100
Eggs weight was daily measured, using an electronic scale.
Eggs’ quality parameters were weekly assessed, on a sample of 10 eggs
per each group, randomly chosen. Eggshell thickness and weight were measured
after shell drying, during 24 hours, at ambient temperature. Shell thickness was
measured with the micrometric comparative device, on shell fragments, sampled
from the round and sharp poles of the egg and from its median area. The mean
was calculated for all three values.
Haugh index, as egg’s internal quality assessment method, was calculated
using the relation which include the dense albumen height (h) and the egg’s
weight (G): U.H. = 100log (h-1.7 X G0.37 + 7.57).
The experimental data were statistically processed, and the Fisher test was
applied, in order to appreciate the significance between the existing differences.

The results concerning the morpho-productive performances of the hens
are displayed in table 1. Thus, birds living weight at the experiment closure
moment was +1.11 higher in the E group (2093.00 ±47.23g), comparing to the C
group (2070.00±78.24 g), but the differences between those values were not
statistically significant. The variability coefficient indicated higher homogeneity
within the experimental group.
The slightly higher living weight of the birds in the experimental group
could be positively correlated with the daily feed intake that was also higher. Thus,
the birds received 250 mg ascorbic acid supplemented feed had 16.57% higher feed
intake, comparing to those that consumed classical mixed fodder. The uniformity
was better within the E group but the differences were found as statistically
significant ( F̂ >F α at 0.05).
- 605 -
Table 1
Effects of 250 mg ascorbic acid feed supplementation
on the hens’ morpho-productive performances
Statistical parameters
Assessed characters Studied groups ± sX V%
X
C* 2070.00 78.24 11.95

Hens’ living weight at the
E** 2093.00 47.23 7.14
end of the experiment (g)
± E diff. to C (%) +1.11 - -
C 96.04a 2.51 13.82
Daily mean feed intake
E 111.96b 1.87 8.84
(g/day)
± E diff. to C (%) +16.57 - -
C 70.00 2.12 14.03
Laying intensity (%) E 73.29 1.74 10.90
± E diff. to C (%) +3.29 - -
* C=Control group; ** E=Experimental group. a, b – significant differences between
the means with different exponents ( F̂ >F α at 0,05 for 1;38 LD)
The average laying intensity per period was about 70.00±2.12% in C

group and about 73.29±2.27%, in the E group. The homogeneity of both groups
was slightly identical) (v=14.03-14.23%). Although the hens in E group had a
laying intensity higher 3.29% than the one recorded by the birds in the control
group, the differences were not found significant.
The results concerning eggs quality parameters are displayed in table 2.
The average weight of the eggs produced by the hens belonging to the E
group was of 64.34±1.12 g, meaning 3.69% higher than that of the eggs produced
by the hens in the control group (62.5±1.66 g). Flock uniformity, as traced by this
parameter was better (v=7.81%) in experimental group, comparing to the control
one (v=11.98%). The difference was found not statistically significant.
Following the same trend as the eggs weight, shell weight was found higher
(+ 3.04%) in the group received ascorbic acid, comparing to the control group.
However, this difference was established without statistic significance.
Concerning the other analyzed variable, shell thickness, an average value of
0.37±0.01 mm was found in the experimental group, being 5.70% higher than the
average shell thickness found in control group eggs (0.35±0.01 mm). The difference
between the average values of both groups was found without statistic significance.
Higher values at the experimental group, comparing to the control group were also
found, concerning the proportion of the eggshell in the entire egg weight.
The significant differences concerning eggshell thickness, as well as the better
performances of the E group, compared to those obtained by the C group referring to
the other characters related to the mineral shell, due to the 250 mg ascorbic acid
supplement, which stimulated 1.25 dehydroxcholecalciferol and increased calcium
metabolization from bone, suggesting that vitamin C has an important role in eggshell
formation, thus on egg quality (Demir et. al., 1995 quoted by Kucuk, 2003).
- 606 -
Table 2
Effects of 250 mg ascorbic acid feed supplementation on the eggs’ quality
Studied Statistical parameters
Assessed characters M.U. ± sX V%
groups X
C* 62.05 1.66 11.98

Eggs weight (g) g E** 64.34 1.12 7.81
± E diff. to C +3.69 - -
C 5.91 0.17 13.00
Eggshell weight (g) g E 6.09 0.18 13.01
± E diff. to C +3.04 - -
C 0.35 0.01 9.78
Shell thickness (mm) mm E 0.37 0.01 10.47
± E diff. to C +5.70 - -
C 9.54 0.17 7.94
Shell participation in the
% E 9.48 0.23 10.97
entire egg weight (%)
± E diff. to C -6.32 - -
C 88.60 2.13 10.74
Haugh index (U.H.) H.U. E 89.78 1.33 6.65
± E diff. to C +1.13 - -
* C=Control group; ** E=Experimental group.
Haugh index shown average values sensibly identical in both groups

(E=89.78 U.H. and C = 88.60 U.H.), meaning that ascorbic acid did not influence
that characteristic. The values measured and calculated for the Haugh index are
situated within the references limits (Vacaru-Opris et al., 2002).
The results achieved by the experimental group, concerning eggshell
quality parameters directly influenced the ratio between adequate/inadequate
eggs, qualitative speaking (intact shell, cracked shell, shell less eggs) (table 3).
Table 3
Egg production obtained during the 55th-60th week of birds age
Experimental group
Control group
Studied parameters (+ 250 mg ascorbic acid)
pieces % pieces %
Total eggs yield, including: 665 100.00 690 100.00
-intact shell eggs 625 93.98 675 97.82
-cracked shell eggs 10 1.50 2 0.30
-broken shell eggs 30 4.51 13 1.88
Thus, in C group, from a total number of 665 eggs, produced during

whole experiment, 625 eggs had intact shell (≈ 94%), 30 eggs were broken
(4.51%) and 10 eggs were cracked (1.50%). Into the group received feed
supplemented with 250 mg ascorbic acid, the total amount of eggs was of 690
pieces, with 675 intact eggs (97.82%), 2 cracked eggs (0.30%) and only 13
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BACK
broken eggs (1.88%). These results show a higher quality, due to the production
of improved hells into the experimental group, comparing with the control one.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The production performances of the hens belonging to the experimental
group (250 mg ascorbic acid addition) were higher than those recorded by the
hens in the control group.
2. Addition of ascorbic acid in laying hens feeding positively influenced
feed intake and egg production, on both quantitative and qualitative sides. Thus,
laying intensity of E was 5.8% improved, while favourable changes have been
noticed for eggs quality parameters (+3.69% eggs weight, +3.04% shell weight,
+5.70% shell thickness
3. Considering the beneficial achieved results, acid ascorbic feed
supplementation could be recommended to apply for laying hens approaching the
end of laying, mainly during heat stress periods.
REFERENCES
Cheng T. K., Coon C.N., Hamre M.L. – 1990- Effect of environmental stress on the ascorbic
acid requirement of laying hens, . Poult. Sci. 69:774-785
Klasing K.C. – 1998 – Comparative Avian Nutrition, University Press, Cambridge. 277-299
Kucuk O., Sahin N., Sahin K., Gursu M.F., Gulcu F., Ozcelik M., Issi M. - 2003 – Egg
production, egg quality, and lipid peroxidation status hens maintained at a low ambient temperature
(6°C) and fed a vitamin C and Vitamin E-supplemented diet, Vet. Med. – Czech, 48, 2003 (1-2):33-40
Vacaru-Opris I. et al. - 2002 – Compendium of Poultry Science – vol. II, Editura Ceres,
Bucuresti
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BACK
YIELD EFFECT GENERATED BY ENZYMATIC

SUPPLEMENTATION OF LAYING HENS FEEDING
D. SIMEANU, M. RUSSELL, I.M. POP, M. DOLIŞ
The experiment goal was to establish the effects onto the eggs
production of an enzymatic complex feed to Lohman Brown laying hybrids. Three
experimental groups have been formed, including 11800 hens each: a control
group – C and two experimental treatments – E1 and E2; the researches have
been conducted within the SC Avicola Şiviţa SA Company in Galaţi. Three
different halls, endorsed with pyramidal coop batteries served for flock rearing.
During the trial, a corn-wheat-soymeal feed type was used. Supplemental doses
of Avizyme 1500 have been included in feed, respectively of 0.75 kg/t at the E1
group and of 0.5 kg/t at the E2 group.
Enzyme supplementation lowered feed intake with 4.49-6.59%, while FCR
was improved by 5.76-7.81%. The best results have been achieved by the hens in the
E1 group, whom feed has been added with 0.75 kg/t enzymatic complex.
Using of enzymatic product in laying hens feeding did not significantly
influences with the body weight dynamics, with the laying intensity or with flock
looses but. However, it decreased feed intake levels, leading to better FCR results.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The researches have been carried on within the SC Avicola Şiviţa SA
Galaţi company, using a flock of 35400 Lohmann Brown laying hens, during 15
weeks; three groups have been formed, including 11800 hens each (tab. 1). Halls
endorsed with BP-3 type cage batteries have been used for rearing, while the feed
was appropriate to the age period (30-45 weeks) and was optimized in accordance
to the specifications of the Lohmann technological guide (tab. 2).
Table 1. Experimental design

Experimental groups
Notice
C E1 E2
Poultry flock (heads) 11800 11800 11800
Poultry age 30-45 weeks
* NC* + 0,75 kg/t NC* + 0,50 kg/t
Feed type NC
Avizyme 1500 Avizyme 1500
Studied variables:
- hens’ body weight (g);
- laying intensity (%);
- flock looses (%);
- eggs weight (g);
- daily feed intake (g);
- feed conversion ratio (kg feed/kg eggs)
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Feed given to experimental groups E1 and E2, has been supplemented

(„on top”) with Avizyme 1500 product, dosed in 0.75 kg/t and 0.5 kg/t. The
experimental factor, Avizyme 1500, is a enzymatic complex containing amylases,
xylanases and proteases, which is recommended to be used in broilers and layers
hybrids.
The variables studied during the experiment are listed below: poultry
body weight, laying intensity, flock looses, eggs weight, daily feed intake and
feed conversion ratio.
Table 2. Feed structure and nutritional features

Raw matters (%) C E1 E2
Corn 48.300 48.300 48.300
Wheat 10.000 10.000 10.000
Soymeal 26.800 26.800 26.800
Sunflower oil 2.950 2.950 2.950
DL-Methionin 0.200 0.200 0.200
Limestone 8.300 8.300 8.300
Dicalcium phosphate 2.200 2.200 2.200
Avizyme 1500 - 0.075 0.050
Salt 0.250 0.250 0.250
Premix 1.000 1.000 1.000
Total 100.000 100.000 100.000
Nutritional features
EM kcal/kg 2274 2274 2274
CP % 16.80 16.80 16.80
M+C% 0.77 0.77 0.77
L% 0.93 0.93 0.93
GF % 3.33 3.33 3.33
Ca % 3.72 3.72 3.72
Available P % 0.42 0.42 0.42
Egg yield and feed intake have been daily recorded, while twice a week a
survey has been run in order to assess the average eggs weight. Hens’ weights
have been measured through the weighting of the birds within control coops (72
coops for each group).
Statistical calculation has been applied to the achieved data.

The body weight values, recorded at the experiment on-set (hens of 30
weeks old), varied between 1.50 kg/hen (E1 group) and 1.52 kg/hen (control
group). Statistical significance has not been found between groups for this
variable (tab. 3).
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Table 3. Production performances of the studied hens

Experimental groups
Analyzed parameters
C E1 E2
Initial body weight (kg) 1.52±0.144 1.50±0.136 1.51±0.142
Final body weight (kg) 1.59±0.152 1.57±0.148 1.57±0.147
Flock looses (%) 2.14 2.10 2.12
Laying (%) 88.10 88.95 88.75
Daily feed intake (g) 128.9 120.4 123.1
Eggs’ average weight (g) 60.1±0.45 60.2±0.52 60.4±0.48
Feed conversion ratio (FCR kg feed/kg egg) 2.43 2.24 2.29
At the end of the experiment (hens aged 45 weeks), the body weight has
been found increased: +4.60% at C group, 4.66% at E1 group and 3.97% at E2
group; there were not also recorded statistical significances of the differences
between groups mean values.
Flock looses values have been found slightly lower at the groups received
supplemented feed, respectively 0.93-1.86% decrease, as compared to control.
Laying intensity did not reach the standard level, as it is specified within
the Lohmann Brown Management Guide (92-94%), the recorded values being
4.23-5.37% lower. Eggs yield was 0.73-0.96% higher in experimental groups than
that achieved by the control group. Average eggs weight varied around 60 g all
across the period, without significant differences between treatments.
Daily feed intake has been measured at 128.9 g/head/day at C group,
while the experimental groups consumed 4.49-6.59% less feed, mainly due to the
supplementation with the Avizyme 1500 product. The lowest feed intake value
has been reached by the hens within the E1 group, whom feed was added with
0.75 kg/t enzymatic product.
The lower values of the daily feed intake led to the decrease of those for
the feed conversion ratio. Thus, the calculated FCR reached 2.43 kg feed/kg eggs
in control group, while in experimental treatments it was found 5.76-7.81% lower,
the best performance being recorded at the E1 group.
CONCLUSIONS
Usage of enzymatic product in laying hens feeding did significantly
interfere with the body weight dynamics, with the laying intensity or with flock
looses but. However, it decreased feed intake levels, leading to better FCR results.
Improvement of digestion processes for the corn-wheat-soymeal feed, as a
consequence of Avyzime 1500 product usage, led to the decreasing of the feed
intake with 4.49-6.59%, while the feed conversion ratio has also been reduced
with 5.76-7.81%.
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REFERENCES
Douglas M.W. and col., 2000 - Effect of various soybean meal sources and Avizyme on chick
growth performance and ileal digestible energy. J. Appl. Poult. Res., 9: 74-80.
Halga P. şi col., 2005 – Nutriţia şi Alimentaţia Animalelor. Editura Pim, Iaşi.
Jackson M.E. and col., 1999 - Effects of mannanase in corn-soybean meal diets on laying hen
performance. Poult. Sci., 78: 1737-1741.
Jaroni D. and col., 1999 - The effect of dietary wheat middlings and enzyme supplementation. 1.
Late egg production efficiency, egg yields, and egg composition in two strains of leghorn hens.
Poult. Sci., 78: 841-847.
Lazaro R.M. and col.,2003 - Effect of enzyme addition to wheat-, barleyand rye-based diets on
nutrient digestibility and performance of laying hens. Br. Poult. Sci., 44: 256-265.
Pop I.M, 2007 – Aditivi furajeri. Editura TipoMoldova, Iaşi
Simeanu D., 2004 – Biostimulatori în alimentaţia păsărilor. Editura Alfa, Iaşi.
Stan Gh., Simeanu D., 2005 – Alimentaţia păsărilor. Editura Alfa, Iaşi.
Yörük M.A. and col., 2006 - Multi-enzyme supplementation to peak producing hens fed corn-
soybean meal based diets. Revista International Journal of Poultry Science 5 (4): 374-380.
*** 2003 – Layer Management Guide – Lohmann Brown Classic.
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CONTRIBUTIONS TO INCREASE THE FODDER

SORGHUM GRAIN PRODUCTION
M. VOLF
Sorghum fertilization for grains with organic and mineral fertilizers

influences the production level, getting increases up to 72% at Fundulea 21,
hybrid 52 % at Tinca hybrid and 43% at Fundulea hybrid 32.
The highest grain productions were recorded at Fundulea 32, hybrid in
conditions of fertilization with manure on a N65 and P50 base.
1000 grain mass had large values at Fundulea 32 hybrid when
fertilization was made with manure on a N65 and P50 ,basis and the hectoliter
mass had modifications according to the fertilization, higher modification
being recorded at Fundulea 32 hybrid on mixed fertilization.
The grain sorghum is a high perspective cereal that demonstrated its

qualities in various application, by the high productivity and moderate
requirements compared to the vegetation, climate and soil [1-4].
The nutritive value of the sorghum grains is equal to the corn grains and
can be used as concentrate fodder for all the animal species [2-3]. The
inconvenient of the sorghum grains is the fact that they have a low content of
essential amino acids – lysine, tryptophan, metionine [1].

In order to increase the productive potential, it was organized at the Iasi
Didactic Station a bifactorial experience of the type 3 x 3 x 8, aiming at:
- Differentiate fertilization influence in interaction with pedoclimatic
factors on grain production;
- Sorting out the best hybrids in conditions of silvo-steppe of Moldova;
- Determination of some qualitative indexes.
Experimental factors:
- A factor – hybrids:
a 1 - HS Fundulea 21 ; a 2 - HS - Tinca; a 3 - HS - Fundulea 32;
- B factor – fertilization with graduations:
b 1 - non-fertilized witness;
b 2 - cattle manure - 20 t/ha;
b 4 - N 65 ;
b 5 - P 50 ;
b 6 - N 65 P 50 ;
b 7 - cattle manure 20 t/ha + N 65 P 50 ;
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Sorghum sowing was made at a distance of 70 cm between the lines,

annually on April 25, providing a density of 100.000 cropping plants on hectare.
OUTCOME AND DEBATES

Fertilization influence on grain production
Fertilization with organic and mineral fertilizers had a positive effect,

production increases being of 33 -72 % at HS - Fundulea 21, 10 -52 % at HS -
Tinca and 4 - 43 % at HS – Fundulea 32. (tab.1)
At the Fundulea 21 hybrid, the productions or of 4,8 – 5,5 t/ha at
fertilization with cattle manure 20 şi 30 t/ha, lower at fertilization with N65 and P50
(4,9 – 4,1 t/ha) and higher at fertilization with N65 and P50 and manure 20 and 30
t/ha on N65 and P50 base (5,4 t/ha, 5,8 t/ha and 6,2 t/ha).
Table 1
Fertilization influence on sorghum grain production
(average 2003 - 2005)
Fertilization HS Fundulea 21 HS Tinca HS Fundulea 32
t/ha % Semn. t/ha % Semn t/ha %
Non-fertilized 3,6 100 4,2 100 4,7 100

witness
Cattle manure 4,8 133 5,1 121 5,4 115
20 t/ha
annually
Cattle manure 5,5 153 5,8 132 5,9 126
30 t/ha annually
N65 4,9 136 5,1 121 5,3 113
P50 4,1 105 4,6 110 4,9 104
N65 P50 5,4 150 5,9 140 6,0 127
Cattle manure 5,8 161 6,1 145 6,6 138

20 t/ha annually +
N65 P50
Cattle manure 6,2 172 6,4 152 6,7 143
30 t/ha annually +
N65 P50
At Tinca hybrid, manure fertilization has lead to a production of 5.1 – 5,8

t/ha; at administration only of the mineral fertilizers the productions were of 5,1 –
5,9 t/ha and at combined applications of farm manure on a base of nitrogen and
phosphorus, the productions were higher(6,1 – 6,4 t/ha).
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The Fundulea 32 hybrid showed to be the most productive obtaining 5,4 –

5,9 t/ha at farm manure fertilization, 5,3 – 6,0 t/ha at applying the mineral
fertilizers and 6,5-6,7 t/ha at manure fertilization on base of N65 and P50.
The fertilization influence on MMB and MH
Organic – mineral fertilization influenced also the mass of 1000 grains

(MMB) and the mass
Table 2
Hybrid and fertilization influence on MMB and MH at grain sorghum
Hybrids Fertilization MMB(g) MH(Kg)

Non-fertilized witness 18 56
Cattle manure 20 t/ha annually 20 58
N65 24 64
Fundulea 21 P50 21 60
N65 P50 26 66
Cattle manure 20 t/ha annually + 27 68
N65 P50
N65 P50
N65 27 66
Tinca P50 23 63
N65 P50 29 68
N65 P50
N65 P50
N65 31 68
Fundulea 32 P50 26 64
N65 P50 33 69
N65 P50
N65 P50
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At the Fundulea 21 hybrid, was of 18 grams at witness, 20-29 grams at the

manure fertilization and the higher at combined fertilization with organic and
mineral fertilizers (27-29 grams).
At Tinca hybrid, MMB was higher than the Fundulea 21 hybrid (20-33
grams compared to 18-20 grams), better results were obtained at fertilization with
N65 and P50 (29 grams) and at manure fertilization on a base of N65 and P50 (31 –
33 grams).
The Fundulea 32 hybrid recorded the highest values of MMB (23 – 38
grams) at the same doses of fertilization similar to the other two hybrids (33 – 38
grams).
The hectoliter mass was also influenced by the fertilization type and level
58 – 69 Kg. at Fundulea 21, 62 – 71 kg., at Tinca and 63 – 72 Kg. at Fundulea 32 .,
higher values were recorded at combined fertilization ( 68 – 69 Kg., 70 -71 Kg.,
respectively 71 – 72 kg.
CONCLUSIONS
1 – Sorghum grain fertilization with organic and mineral fertilizers
influences the production level, obtaining increases of 33 – 72% Fundulea 21
hybrid, 10 – 52 % at Tinca hybrid and 4 – 43% at Fundulea 32 hybrid.
2 – The highest grain productions were recorded at Fundulea 32 hybrid, of
6,5 -6,7 t/ha at manure fertilization on a base of N65 and P50.
3 – The 1000 grain mass had different values depending on the hybrid
and on the fertilization level, the highest values being recorded at Fundulea 32
hybrid when the fertilization was made with manure 20 -30 t/ha + N65 and P50 (33
– 38 grams).
4 – The hectoliter mass had modifications depending on the fertilization,
higher being at Fundulea 32 hybrid, at combined fertilization ( 70 – 72 kg.).
5 – The Fundulea 32 hybrid showed to be the best, both from a production
point of view and from a quality point of view and is the most suitable to be
cultivated in conditions of Moldova silvo-steppe.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Didier G.,1987 – Ensilage de sorgo bien adapté aux zones séches. I.T.E.B. Sud – Ouest
“Cultivar” nr.207.
2. Iacob T.,Vîntu V., Samuil C., 2000 – Tehnologia producerii şi conservării furajelor (Fodder
production and preservation technology). Ed. “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi.
3. Munteanu L., Roman Gh., Borcean I.., Axinte M., 2003 – Fitotehnie (Phytotechny). Ed. . “Ion
Ionescu de la Brad”, Iaşi.
4. Smith G.A., Bughéens M., and. col.,1987 – Evaluation of sweet sorghum for fermentable
sugar - production potentiel. Crop Sci.
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SORGHUM FOR SILO – CONTRIBUTION TO IMPROVING

THE CULTIVATION TECHNOLOGY
M. VOLF
The sorghum can present a valuable source of food in conditions of

ensilage if hybrids are used offering the highest productions in conditions of
organic fertilization and organic and mineral fertilization. The resulting silo
should have a high content of raw cellulose in case an adequate fertilization is
used. The best results are obtained in the conditions of Moldova silvo-steppe at
Fundulea hybrid 32 fertilized with farm manure 20 -30 t/ha + N65P50 , at which
the increases in production compared to the non-fertilized witness should reach
12-12,6 t/ha with a high content of raw protein ( 13.16 – 13,66 %) and a low
content of raw cellulose 21,06 – 21,88%
Sorghum ensilage represents a preserving procedure by green plant

acidifying, aiming at keeping for a longer time of the nutritive principles
contained in the plant necessary for animals in winter time [1,2-5].
The bio-thermal processes taking place in silo ensilage have a three phase
succession: preliminary, fermentation and stabilization [3-4].

During 2003-2005, it was organized at Iasi Didactic Station, Ezăreni
farm, an experiment with sorghum for ensilage, where it was observed the
influence of farm manure and mineral fertilizer fertilization on production an on
other quality indexes, at three hybrids.
Experimental factors:
- A factors: hybrids: a1 - Fundulea 21; a2 - Tinca; a3 - Fundulea 32 ;
- B factor: fertilization with graduations:
b 1 - non-fertilized witness;
b 4 - N 65 ;
b 5 - P 50 ;
b 6 - N 65 P 50 ;
b 8 - cattle manure 30 t/ha + N 65 P 50.
Sorghum sowing was made on a distance of 70 cm between lines,
annually on April 25, providing a density of 100.000 cropping plants on hectare.
The cropping for ensilage was made in the stage of milk-wax ripening on
the grains. The statistical processing of the production results was made by
variance analysis..
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OUTCOME AND DEBATES
Fertilization influence on production
The fertilization contributed to increase the production of dry substance of

the ensilage sorghum, the highest increases were obtained in the case of
fertilization with farm manure or with farm manure on a base of N65 P50 , 27 –
51% (tab.1).
Table 1
Fertilization influence on production (s.u.) at ensilage sorghum
(average 2003 – 2005)
HS Fundulea 21 Tinca HS Fundulea
Fertilization 32
t/ha % t/ha % t/ha %
Non-fertilized witness 8,5 100 7,8 100 8,5 100
Cattle manure 20 t/ha annually 10,8 127 10,1 129 11,0 129
N65 11,7 138 11,2 144 11,7 138
P50 9,5 112 9,8 126 9,6 113
N65 P50 10,9 128 11,0 141 11,5 135
+ N65 P50
Cattle manure e 30 t/ha 12,1 142 11,8 151 12,6 148
annually + N65 P50
By analyzing the average productions on the course of three years of

experiments the following are obtained:
-At Fundulea 21 hybrid, production increases were recorded of 12 – 42 %
compared to the witness. The productions oscillated between 8,5 t/ha(s.u.) at
witness and 12,1 t/ha (s.u.) at farm manure fertilization 30 t/ha + N 65 P50.
The annual fertilization with manure 20 and 30 t/ha have lead to obtaining
increases of 27 – 28 %; at using only mineral fertilizers, the productions were
lower.
At using phosphorus, increases of 9,5 t/ha were obtained, and at nitrogen
fertilization an increase of 38% was recorded compared to the witness;
By combined use of farm manure and mineral fertilizers, resulted higher
productions (11,3 – 12,1 t/ha) – the increases being of 33 – 42% ;
-At Tinca hybrid, the productions were lower compared to the Fundulea 21
hybrid, and increases of 26 51 % were recorded compared to the witness.
At manure fertilization 20 – 30 t/ha the production increases were of 29 –
40 %; at fertilization with P50 an increase of 26 % was recorded, at nitrogen
fertilization the increase was of 44 %, and at combined use of farm manure with
mineral fertilizers, the increases were of 46 -51%;
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-At Fundulea 32 hybrid higher productions resulted than to other hybrids.

Therefore, the farm manure use favoured the obtaining productions of 11,0-11.2
t/ha (increases 29 – 32 %).
Manure and mineral fertilizers fertilizations have lead to higher
productions (12,0 – 12,6 t/ha), the increases compared to the witness being of 41
– 48 %.
The solely used nitrogen or together with phosphorus have lead to
obtaining some production increases of 35 – 38 % compared to the witness.
Fertilization influence on chemical composition at ensilage sorghum

The ensilage sorghum quality was different depending on the fertilization
and the hybrid (tab.2). The analyses were carried out on the entire plants which
were harvested at 85 zile from sowing.
Table 2
Raw chemical composition of the sorghum hybrids, cropped for silo
zi Chemical Extracts
Hybrids composition s.u. Raw Fats Cellulose without Ash
Fertilization protein nitrogen
Non-fertilized witness 20,00 11,25 1,50 24,75 56,25 6,25
Cattle manure 20 t/ha 20,55 11,68 1,70 23,845 56,94 5,84
annually
F-21 Cattle manure 30 t/ha 20,70 11,84 1,84 22,71 57,18 6,43
annually
N65 21,20 12,50 1,79 21,93 57,88 5,90
P50 21,35 10,77 1,87 22,72 58,32 6,32
N65 P50 21,20 12,97 2,12 22,17 56,61 6,13
annually +N65 P50
annually +N65 P50
annually
Tinca Cattle manure 30 t/ha 20,55 12,90 1,70 22,87 56,30 6,23
annually
N65 20,85 12,95 1,92 22,78 56,11 6,24
P50 21,05 11,16 1,99 22,71 57,49 6,65
N65 P50 21,35 13,35 2,11 21,78 56,44 6,32
annually +N65 P50
annually +N65 P50
Annually
F-32 Cattle manure 30 t/ha 20,50 13,66 2,20 22,89 54,91 6,34
annually
N65 28,85 13,19 2,30 23,02 55,02 6,47
P50 21,10 12,09 2,37 22,75 53,92 6,87
N65 P50 21,25 13,41 2,82 21,88 55,21 6,68
annually +N65 P50
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The raw protein had values of 11,25 – 13,47 % at Fundulea 21 hybrid, 11,9
- 13,49 % at Tinca and 11,47 – 13,66 % at Fundulea 32 .
Higher percentage was recorded at all hybrids, at fertilization with N65P50
and at that with manure + N65P50 , respectively 12,64 – 13,47 % at Fundulea 21,
13,35 – 13,49 % at Tinca and 13,16 – 13,66 at Fundulea 32 .
Fat content is higher to the same fertilization doses, as well as to the raw
protein, beinf of 1,84 – 2,12 % at Fundulea 21, 2,11 -2,22 % at Tinca and 2,82 –
3,15 % at Fundulea 32 .
The raw cellulose recorded slight modifications, at the three hybrids,
being lower at the same fertilization doses, 21 – 22,17% at Fundulea 21, 21,25 –
21,78 % at Tinca and 21,06 – 21,88 at Fundulea 32.
CONCLUSIONS
• The sorghum for silo fertilization with organic and mineral fertilizers is
leading to production increases, compared to the witness, of 27 – 42 % at
Fundulea 21, 26 – 51% at Tinca and 13 – 48% at Fundulea 32 .
• Lower productions were obtained at Fundulea 32 hybrid, fertilized with
manure 20 – 30 t/ha + N65P50 (12,0 t/ha, respectively 12,6 t/ha)
• The highest content of raw protein was recorded at Fundulea 32, when the
fertilization was made with N65P50 and manure + N65P50 , being of 13,16 –
13,66%.
• The lowest raw cellulose content was obtained at Fundulea 32, at the same
fertilization level, as well as at raw protein and namely 21,06 – 21,88%
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Didier G.,1987 – Ensilage de sorgo,bien adapté aux zones séches. I.T.E.B. Sud – Ouestt
“Cultivar “, nr.207.
2. Iacob T.,V. Vîntu, C. Samuil, 2000 – Tehnologia producerii şi conservării furajelor (Fodder
production and preservation technology). Editura”Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi.
3. Munteanu L., Gh. Roman, M. Axinte, 2003 – Fitotehnie Phytotechny.- Editura ”Ion Ionescu de
la Brad” Iaşi.
4. Smith G.A., M.Bugéens M., and col., 1987 – Evaluation of sweet sorghum for fermentable
sugar – production potentiel. Crop Sci.
5. Şuţă V. -1976 - Modernizarea conservării furajelor prin însilozare (Fodder preservation
modernization by ensilage) Editura CERES, Bucureşti..
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DEVELOPING AN INTERNET-BASED LEARNING

ENVIRONMENTS AND A VIRTUAL MICROSCOPE FOR
ENHANCING TEACHING AND LEARNING OF THE
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF PRODUCTION ANIMALS
A. N. ABDELFATTAH
The Internet has made the dissemination of information across

geographical boundaries a relatively easy task. Apart from text-based materials,
the Internet provides an easy means to transmit images, sound, video, and other
multimedia content to a global audience, thus lending itself as a medium for
establishing distance learning programs in multiple languages. In this
presentation, we describe the features learning environments we designed and
summarize our experiences in designing and conducting web-based learning.
Creation of these learning environments can provide Interactive multimedia
applications, as educational tools; can maximize the potential for successful
teaching and learning in today’s educational systems. By allowing students to
learn at their own pace in a stimulating setting, interactive multimedia
environments can help students acquire knowledge of basic medical sciences.
Animal science and veterinary students are showing an increasing interest in
learning about production animals. Yet few course offerings on structure
(anatomy) and function (physiology) are available on-line as resources for
teachers and learning environments for students. Comparative functional anatomy
courses are important foundation for understanding the production animal.
In recent years, the Internet has become an effective and accessible
delivery mechanism for distance education. In 2003, 81% of all institutions of
higher education in the USA offered at least one fully online or hybrid course. In
2005, the proportion of institutions that listed online education as important to
their long-term goals increased 8% over those that had done so in 2003. This
growth in available online courses and their increased convenience and flexibility
have stimulated dramatic increases in enrollment in online programs, including
Distance Learning Programs at Purdue. Regardless of the obvious benefits,
distance learning (DL) can be frustrating for the learners if course developers are
unable to merge their knowledge about the learners, the process of instructional
design, and the appropriate uses of technology and interactivity options into
effective course designs.
Comparative functional anatomy teaching has been facing several
challenges, including expanding information, the cost of different animal species,
embalming, storage and dissection, and issues related to the use of animals in
teaching. In addition, certain species may not be available for students due to the
geographical location or unavailability of enough funds. Interactive multimedia,
applied as an educational tool, can maximize the potential for successful teaching
and learning in today's educational systems. Also, it is becoming more important
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as the emphasis continues to be placed on the application of the information for

solving problems rather than route memorization of facts about functional
anatomical differences of different production animals.
Using internet-based resources or CD-ROMs/DVDs, learners can study
functional anatomical facts step by step without the constraints of the laboratory
time of pressure. A well designed interactive program can make learners learn
quicker, appreciate pronunciations of difficult terms. The key to such a program is
excellent images, video clips, audio, interactive drills, and instruction ally sound
design. The incorporation of function in discussions of anatomy make it easier for
students to appreciate how structures are adapted for the functions they perform.
To demonstrate the feasibility of this approach, we also designed an electronic
dissection guide of the goat.
In this presentation we describe strategies that we have used to increase
students’ learning of physiology content in an online environment. We will also
describe the virtual microscope we designed. While some of the strategies are
describing are similar, if not identical, to strategies that might be used in a face-to-
face (FTF) environment (e.g. case studies, videos, concept maps), additional
strategies (e.g. animations, virtual microscope) are needed to replace or
supplement what might normally occur in a FTF course. We describe how we
have addressed students’ needs for instructional interactions, specifically in the
context of two foundational physiology courses. Although the teaching and
learning strategies we have used have led to increasingly high levels of
interaction, there is an ongoing need to evaluate these strategies to determine their
impact on students’ learning of physiology content, the development of problem
solving skills, and the retention of information. In addition, the virtual microscope
we designed provides a description of the basic structures and functions of
different body systems, using chickens as our initial example. We are now
adapting this technology to encourage participation to use this virtual
microscope for teaching functional histology of other production animals.
The Virtual Microscope, an interactive tool that allows users to control a
microscope in order to learn avian histology. By exploring slides of the various
organs and organ systems of the chicken, veterinary students learn avian
functional anatomy in a simulated environment. By providing an easily
accessible resource, we hope to encourage instructors to integrate more avian
functional anatomy in teaching veterinary students. Students using the virtual
microscope will not only learn histology but learn how to use a real microscope.
The virtual microscope will be adapted to develop a resource that may be used for
teaching veterinary mammalian histology. We conducted usability testing to
provide a method for improving the user-friendliness of interactive virtual
microscope design and development through quality control procedures.
We are hoping, by this presentation to stimulate interest in collaboration
for developing Internet-based learning environments for enhancing teaching and
learning not only of functional anatomy of production animal but also other
production sciences, for example, dairy, meat and poultry.
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RESEARCHES REGARDING POLY-PARASITICAL

POLLUTION IN SHEEP FARMS
Doina ARDELEANU, Gabi-Marilena NEACŞU,
Carmen-Ana PIVODĂ, C. NEACŞU, I.-C. ARDELEANU
The purpose of our researches was the determination of parastical

pollution degree of pastures which were exploited with the sheep, because the
parasitical infestation has negative repercussions about pastures (environment),
these infesting themselves with parasitical elements which where eliminated of
infested animals. In order to realising proposed aim we were followed some
objectives: the establishment of infestation degree with exogenous parasitical
elements of pasture surfaces, the influence of ecological factors about pollution
degree of enviroment and the calculation of correlation coefficients existing
between these variables.The parasitical examination was carried out through
Baermann larvoscopical method. Based on obtained lab results it comes out
that: the pasture surfaces exploited with sheep are infested with exogenous
parasitic elements (infesting strongyloide larvae in third stage of development);
the parasitical pollution degree of pastures during grazing season presents a
monthly dynamics influenced by environmental factors; the correlation
coefficients which exist between the level of infestation on pastures and the
weather factors have positive values, wicth different statistical significances,
depending on the weather conditions for every year.
Key words: pasture, sheep, infesting strongiloide larvae
INTRODUCTION
The parasitic infestation of sheep has negative repercussions on pastures,
which are infested with the parasitic elements eliminated by infested animals. The
dissemination of parasitic elements constitutes a biological polluting factor,
altering the hygienic situation of the environment with grave results as concerns
health of men and animals. Some stages of the biological cycles of parasites
(eggs, larvae) evolve on the surfaces of the pasture and in intermediary hosts,
until they reach the infesting stage. The pasture represents a reservoir which
preserves the infesting forms of the parasites for a long time.
The principal objectives of our researches were:
- the determination of the parasites on sheep and their intermediary stages
on pastures;
- the research of pasture - sheep interrelations, as well as of their seasonal
dynamics;
- the calculation of correlation coefficients existing between the
intensivity of parasitical infestation on sheep and the number of infesting
strongyloide larvae/kg grass, as well as between these and the values of weather
factors.
- 623 -
The parasitological determinations were effected at Research-

Development Institute for Growth of Sheep and Goats - Palas, Constantza, on
sheep of Palas Merino Breed. On the basis of the obtained results by
parasitological examination of coprology samples follwing indicator was
calculated:
The intensiveness of parasitical infestation (I) – is the ratio between the number
of parasitical elements (eggs and larvae) found in a sample and the quantity of
excrements that make the said sample, expressed in grams:
I = the number of parasite elements
grams of sample
The degree of parasitic pollution of pastures which were exploited with

sheep, was investigated in Palas Experimental Field. Monthly, during grazing
season were harvested grass samples off different surfaces of pastures cultivated
with graminaceae plants (Gramineae family)-80% and leguminous plants
(Leguminosae family) - 20%. The parasitological examination of grass samples
was effected larvoscopically by Baermann method. The results which were
obtained through parasitological determinations on sheep and pastures were
correlated in order to establishing the correlation coefficient existing between
parasitical infestation of sheep and pasture. The statistical calculus was performed
by using well-known statistical methods (Student, Fisher and Cochran tests ).
THE RESULTS OF RESEARCH

PASTURE-SHEEP INTERRELATIONS
The degree of parasitical infestation at a lot of grown-up sheep which are
infested with gastro-intestinal nematodes from Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus,
Strongiloydes, genres and pulmonary nematodes (Protostrongylus,
Dictyocaulus) presents seasonal variation (Table 1), depending on the degree of
parasitical pollution on pastures and the hydro-climatic conditions, which have an
important role in the development and the survival of sheep parasites.
Table 1
The seasonal variation of the parasitical infestation degree with nematodes on sheep
The Average intensivity of the parasitical infestation (Im)

drawing Spring Summer Autumn
period of March April May June July August Sept. Oct.
samples
Monthly 37,5 88,0 145,5 136.7 166.5 152,5 105,0 67,0
Season 90,3 151,9 86,0
- 624 -
The maximum values of parasitical intensivity on sheep are determined

for the contact with the pasture which was infested in the previous year (the
greater value of intensivity in May-145, 5) and the pasture super-infestation in the
current year (the maximum value of the intensivity was registered in July-166, 5).
The infestation curve of the sheep in the grazing season presents the greatest
values during summer. In the most part, this is due to the need of the parasites for
heat and humidity necessary for their transformation in infesting forms.
In the summer months, due to favorably conditions, the life cycle of the
parasites is shorter and a greater number of larvae survive. The larvae of
helminths (nematodes from Trichostrongylus, Strongyloides, Nematodirus,
Protostrongylus, Dictyocaulus genres) developed on pastures from eggs
disseminated in the last ten days of April and are maintained viable during the
whole grazing period. The infestation of pastures with strongyloide larvae in the
third evolution stage presents a seasonal variation / months and seasons (Table 2).
Between the seasonal dynamics of parasitical infestations on sheep and
pastures exist an interdependence reflected in the aspect of infestation curve (Fig.
1). As well as the sheep, the pastures are infected with larvae of parasitical
nematodes which presents a seasonal dynamics with a maximum point registered
in August (3 600 larvae/kg grass) and the second, in July (3200 larvae/kg grass).
Also, it comes out that the infestation degree of the pastures has greater values
during summer, comparatively with the other seasons. The parasitical elements
(eggs, larvae) eliminated on pasture in May determine the appearance of a greater
value of infestation degree with larvae L3 on pasture in July.
Table 2
The seasonal variation of the infestation degree on pasture exploited with sheep
The Average larval load of the pasture (number of larvae /Kg grass)
drawing Spring Summer Autumn
period March April May June July August Sept. Oct.
of
samples
Monthly 800 1250 2000 2950 3250 3600 2750 1600
Season 1350 3266 2175
The meteorological factors especially the best temperature in the first

summer months give the possibility to incubation, hatching and development of
eggs, until the infesting stage. The larvae L3 are eaten by sheep together with the
grass. In the body of sheep the infesting larvae develop to L4 and L5 stages,
afterward they transform into grown-ups thus the biological cycle begins again.
The interdependence sheep -pasture results from the specificity of the biological
cycle of sheep parasites, which consists in a succession of endogenous and
- 625 -
exogenous development stages. In July, when the infestation of the pasture with
larvae is great, the sheep again become contaminated, their infestation being
massive; thus, appears the second peak of the infestation curve on sheep in July.
The greatest value of infestation on pasture registered in August derives from the
super-infestation with sheep in June-July months.
Result therefore, the existence of inter-relations between sheep and
pasture: the contamination source of pastures is represented by the infested sheep,
but the sheep become contaminated again while grazing, the pasture being thus,
the infection source of the sheep
180
160
140
Average intensivity on sheep
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct
4000
3500
Number of larvae/kg grass
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct
Fig. 1 – The seasonal dynamics of parasitical infestation on sheep and pastures
Through processing the data with the computer it comes out that between
the infestation of sheep and of pastures there is a positive correlation, with
distinct significance (r = +0, 85).
- 626 -
CORRELATIONS BETWEEN THE DEGREE OF PARASITICAL

POLLUTION ON PASTURES AND ECOLOGICAL FACTORS
In those which follow shall be presented the influence of environmental

factors on the development and survival of the exogenous parasitic elements
calculating the correlation indices which exist between the dependent variable
(number of exogenous parasitic elements /Kg grass) and the independent
variables (temperature, humidity, rainfall). In the period 2004-2006 were
obtained different values of the correlation coefficients between the quantity of
larvae L3 on pastures and the values of weather factors (Table 3).
Table 3
The correlation coefficients between the number of parasitic elements on pastures and the
values of weather factors in period 2004 –2006
Temperature Rainfall Humidity

Years (° 0 C) (l/m ²) (%)
2004 + 0,71*** + 0,49** + 0,30*
2005 + 0,97*** + 0,47** + 0,24*
2006 + 0,95*** + 0,39** + 0,14*
Average /3 years + 0,88*** + 0,45** + 0,23*
The analysis of obtained results included in this table shows that :

● the positive correlations between the number of larvae/kg grass and
temperature, in the period 2004-2006, have variable values which are included
between +0,71 and +0,96 (very significant), the average in three years being equal
with +0,88 (very significant), which proves that temperature had an important role
in the development process of parasitic elements;
● the positive correlations between the number of larvae /kg grass and quantity of
rainfall, in the three years, were varied between +0,39 and +0,49, with an average
of +0,45
(distinctly significant);
● the correlation indices between the larval load and humidity were calculated,
obtaining values which were varied between +0,14 and +0,30, with an average of
+0,23
(significant).
The comparative analysis of the correlation indices which were obtained
in the years 2004 -2006, praised the existence of differences between the 3 types
of correlations. The results which were presented previously are showed in the
following picture (Fig. 2)
- 627 -
1
Correlation coefficients
0.8
0.6
2004
0.4 2005
2006
0.2
0
Te mpe rature Rainfall Humidity
Fig. 2 - Correlations between parasitical infestation of pastures and

environmental factors
It comes out that the graphic aspect is descending, with maximum values
of the correlation indices between temperature and the degree of parasitical
infestation on pastures. Thus, between all weather factors which were monitoring
3 years in succession, temperature plays the most important role.
3. CONCLUSIONS
Based on our researches and lab results presented in this paper it

comes out that :
1. The sheep of Palas Merino Breed present the infestations with helminths
(gastro-intestinal nematodes from Trichostrongylus, Nematodirus,
Strongyloides genres and pulmonary nematodes – Protostrongylus,
Dictyocaulus)
2. The pastures in Palas – Constantza area, are infested with larvae of
strongyloide type in third development stage, characteristic of parasitical
nematodes on sheep, these being infesting elements for these animals;
- between the parasitical infestation of sheep and of pastures exists a positive
correlation with distinct significance ( r = +0, 85)
- the existence of interdependence between sheep-pasture may be constitute the
starting point in elaborating of methods for anti-parasitical protection in sheep
farms.
3. The parasitical pollution on pastures presents a monthly dynamics during
grazing season, the infestation curve showing diaphasical aspect with the
maximum values in June and August or in July and August, depending on the
values of weather factors for respective years.
- 628 -
BACK
3. Between the quantity of larvae existing on pasture and the temperature there is
a intense positive correlation very significant (r = + 0, 88, the average /3 years).
4. Between the number of larvae/kg grass and quantity of rainfall are positive
correlations distinct significant (r = + 0, 46, the average/3 years).
5. The existence of positive correlations between the quantity of exogenous
parasitical elements on pasture surfaces and values of weather factors
demonstrates the intervention of ecological factors in the biology of parasites and
implicitly in the dynamics of parasites populations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. ARDELEANU D.–Infestarea poliparazitară a ecosistemului păşune-ovine în Dobrogea -
TEZĂ DE DOCTORAT, Universitatea „OVIDIUS”, Constanţa, 2002
2. DULCEANU N. - Parazitozele animalelor de fermă, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, 1986.
3. MAGE C.-Strongylose gastro-intestinale, Reussir Patre- La revue des eleveurs de moutons,
Juin–Juillet, No. 455, 1999.
4. OLTEANU Gh., GHERMAN I., ŞUTEU I., RĂDULESCU S. şi alţii - Poliparazitismul la om
, animale, plante şi mediu, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti, 2001.
5. SANDU Gh. - Inginerie în exploatarea ovinelor, Editura Alutus D., Bucureşti, 1995.
6. ŞUTEU I.- Zooparaziţii şi mediul înconjurător, Vol.I –II, Editura Academiei Române, 1992.
- 629 -
BACK
THE ACTUAL SITUATION AND PROSPECTS OF THE

LIVESTOCK SECTOR IN THE REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
T. BAJURA, S. CHILIMAR
The analysis of development of animal breeding in the Republic of

Moldova for the period 2001- 2006 was made. In the period of 2000 - 2006 years
the livestock of bovines was reduced from 394 up to 299 thousand heads, including
cows from 269 up to 207 thousand heads. Annual production of cows for the 2006
has made only 2913 kg of milk. For the specified period total production of milk in
the Republic of Moldova has increased slightly (9,2%), but the beef production
was reduced with 16,7 %. Measures up to reanimate the current critical situation
of these important branch for a national economy are determined.
INTRODUCTION
Although the mass privatization of soil and agricultural heritage was finished
in Moldova eight years ago, the present situation did not become better in
comparison with 2000, the last year of the reform.
The economic growth rate of the agricultural sector in the post privatization
period was unstable. The greatest decline of the production volumes, caused by
natural calamities, is observed in 2003, 2006, and obviously in 2007. As a result,
the average rate of the global agricultural production growth in post privatization
years is no more than 2% annually. The pace of agricultural products import is
alarming, the export of these products decreases.
The stock-raising sector may be characterized as being in relatively better
conditions. This finding is based at the fact that animal production progressed
from 26.6% in 2000 to 31.1% in 2006 that is the share of the stock-raising sector
in agricultural production raised by 4.5 units during the analyzed period. At the
same time, both absolute and relative volumes of the stock-raising sector may be
classified as insufficient and the level of the economic effectiveness is reduced.

The research of the stock-raising development in the Republic of Moldova is
based at the total analysis of statistic data and publications of researchers in the
field of economy and zoology. There were analyzed parameters of the given
branches and directions. The perspective of the stock-raising sector development
was appreciated in accordance with the Strategy of the national economy
development in the period of 2008 - 2015 years.

The situation analysis. The biggest problems in the period of post
privatization development are met in the cattle-breeding sector. The true price of
- 630 -
the scenario fulfilled by the privatization became in reality too high. According to
some indexes (for example, cattle livestock) the given branch, if not completely
destroyed, was sent back at a distance of minimum 50 years. (Tab. 1, Pic.1, 2).
Table 1
Dynamics of cattle number, thousand heads (on the 1st of January)
Years The year 2007
in % compared
1991 1996 2001 2005 2006 2007 with 1990
Cattle 1061 644 394 331 311 299 28,2
as well as cows 395 342 269 231 217 207 52,4
including the
private
agricultural
enterprises
Cattle 868 282 37 20 20 19 2,2
as well as cows 296 113 15 8 8 7 2,4
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1991 1 9 96 20 0 1 20 0 5 2 0 06 2 0 07
C at t le, t h o us an d s o f h ead s A s w ell as co w s
Picture 1. Dynamics of cattle number (households of all categories)
- 631 -
900
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1991 1996 2001 2005 2006 2007
C a ttle , th o u s a n d s o f h e a d s A s w e ll a s c o w s
Picture 2. Dynamics of cattle number (big agricultural enterprises)
If we appreciate the results of privatization in the cattle-breeding sector from

the technical point of view, we will find no essential changes. It is natural that
everyone has a cow in his household. The transition of animals from complexes
and dairy farms to peasant farms did not cause much trouble both by the authors
of the reforming scenario and direct participants of this process. However, the
final results are almost dramatic, but the situation is still going on to worsen from
year to year.
The decline of animals’ number is followed by low productivity both cattle
milk and meat. (Tab. 2, pic. 3-4)
Table 2
The Indexes dynamics of cattle productivity
Years the year 2007 in

% compared with
1990 1995 2000 2005 2006
1990
Average annual
production of milk per 3975 1919 2179 3018 2913 73,3
cow, kg
Milk (average annual
production), thousands 1511 761 574 659 627 41,5
of tones
Cattle’s daily increase
515 223 217 321 323 62,7
in weight, g
Volume of cattle meat
production, thousands
114,3 42,3 18,0 15,6 15,0 13,1
of tones (weight after
slaughtering)
- 632 -
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2006
Milk (average annual production), thousands of tones

Volume of cattle meat production, thousands of tones (weight after slaughtering)
Picture 3. Dynamics of milk and cattle meat production volume
4500
4000
3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
1990 1995 2000 2005 2006
Average annual production of m ilk per cow, kg Cattle’s daily increase in weight, g
Picture 4. Dynamics of productivity (milk and cattle meat)
- 633 -
It is necessary to mention, that in comparison with the pre-reform period it is

not taken into consideration the fact of division of the Republic of Moldova that is
the counted regional percentage on right bench of the river Dnestr make only 12-
15 % from the total amount of the given parameters. In the rest the decline
processes of the absolute and relative indexes are almost the same at both benches
of the river Dnestr and there is no need in specifications.
Before the end of the privatization period (1991 - 2000 years) the decline of
cattle number in big corporate households was followed by their growth in
number in auxiliary households. After the reforming process was finished, the
decline of cattle livestock is obvious by both productive sectors. The disturbing
decrease of the cattle number may be observed in the year 2003 (37 000 heads or
9%) including the auxiliary households - 30 000 heads or 7.9%.
In the next years the decline tempo of cattle number were more moderate
(18 500 heads or 5.0% annual), though it provoked the reduction of both cattle and
cow number. In its turn being spread over auxiliary households and small farms (a
cow per calf in a household) the number of cattle has lost its value as a food
producer. If we produce a little of meat or milk, it is more like for self-breeding.
The internal market needs are satisfied with the help of import mechanisms. The
external market in the same conditions is obviously lost long ago. (tab. 3, pic. 5)
Table 3
Dynamics of import-export indexes by living animals and animal products
(thousand US dollars)
Years the year 2007
2007 in % compared
2000 2005 2006
(6 months) with 2000
External trade of
living animals and
22793,6 17204,0 16227,3 5200 45,6
animal products
- export (E)
as well as milk and
dairy products 8026,7 13135,3 10375,2 - -
- import (I) 10744,5 57194,1 51930,6 25000 465,4
as well as milk and
dairy products 806,3 10584,2 15146,0 - -
The factor of import
by export covering
(K=E/I):
Sum production 2,12 0,3 0,31 0,21 9,9
as well as milk 9,95 1,24 0,68 - -
- 634 -
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
2000 2005 2006 2007
export (E) Import (I)
Picture 5. Dynamics of the factor of import by export covering
Taking in consideration the fact that the annual costs for raising a milk cow in
a peasant household are too high, minimum 8-9 000 lei, (the workers’ efforts or
salary payment is not calculated there at all) we learn that not every family has a
possibility to spend such money. As a result we ascertain the quantity reduction of
milk cows. The low level of profitability and milk and cattle meat distribution are
the main reasons.
To conclude the present analysis we should say that the profitability of milk
distribution in the private sector equals almost zero; the owners try to solve a
permanent problem: to raise or not to raise a cow in a household.
The situation with meat production is not better. Although the given product
is included in the group of well-demanded dietary products (especially in the Near
and Middle East), the absolute volumes of meat production remain to be at the
lowest level, illustrating the absence of welcome growth tendency.
Together with low animal productivity (according to the last statistic data
275-321 g of daily growth per head) the decrease of animals that put on weight is
the cause of volume decline in meat production.
Considering the fact that daily growth in weight is too little, it would be better
if the number of young animals that put on weight was about 350 heads per 100
milk cows. The reason is that if we want the average weight to be about 400 kg,
we should breed young animals for at least 3.5 years. In reality in the middle of
the current year (2007) there are raised only 44-45 young animals per 100 milk
cows (at the auxiliary and peasant farms). Half of these animals are young bulls
- 635 -
and their applicability is to be raised for reproduction. So, the number of young
animals that will put on weight (and they do in fact) is only 22-23 heads per 100
milk cows. Concluding the present analysis, we should mention that nowadays the
agricultural sector is occupied more with cattle decrease than with their increase.
Before the reforming period we had 177 heads of young animals per 100 milk
cows. The annual volume of meat production amounted 284.3 kg per cow. Today,
in accordance with the results of the given research, we get annually only 72 kg of
meat per cow. The majority of young animals are sold (or even slaughtered)
before they are 1 year old and weigh 100 kg.
Together with the absence of financial maintenance (or because of it), the
producers’ deliverance from young cattle is caused by lack of forage needed to
raise them. We refer, first of all, to the absence of such types of forage that is
specific to cattle, these are: corn for silage, alfalfa (green mass, hay), mangel-
wurzel, etc. Evidently, it is impossible to organize the production of silage or
forage for one single cow with a young. These products are not produced because
of stable market absence. They are not even sold at the territory of the Republic of
Moldova. As a result, the production of cattle meat, as some specialists consider,
appears to be one of the greatest losses. Although, the price of the cattle meat is
permanently growing at the market, it does not cover 2/3, at the best ¾ of its cost.
Many countries, meeting the same problems, assure producers of cattle-
breeding sector with subsidies or other forms of financial assistance, including the
offering of considerable investigations from the state budget expense, creation of
proper infrastructure, scientific assurance, etc. The same attempts were performed
by the Republic of Moldova in the past years (direct subsidies for milk
producers). At present they are absent at all.
In contradistinction to cattle, the poultry-keeping sector, reformed by the
same scenario, demonstrates sufficient abilities to develop during the whole post-
privatization period. Furthermore, the multitude of poultry on the 1st of January
2007 has in comparison with the year 2000 by 80%. It is important that identical
tendencies of poultry multitude growth were demonstrated by both poultry
subsections: the corporate (poultry farms - 106%) and auxiliary households and
peasant farms on the other hand (they produce more than 63% of the whole eggs
and poultry meat production).
CONCLUSIONS
Thanks to almost double, during the post privatization period, decline of
export volumes of living animals and animal products and the increase more than
in 4.5 times of these goods import, the factor of import by export covering fell
more than in 10 times. Furthermore, being only at the beginning of the post-
privatization period, the Republic of Moldova became a country that imports
living animals and animal products with the exterior trade deficit at this position
proclaimed for the year 2007 at the level of 39.6 million US dollars. A great part
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of this deficit belongs to the cattle-breeding sector. During a very short period of
time this sector became a provoker of the exaggerated import, possessing the
priority of the export sector in the past. The whole situation caused the increase of
exterior trade deficit for 10 million US dollars.
Enormous damage was brought to the cattle-breeding sector in the reforming
period and in the first years after the end of privatization. We mean the
destruction of techno-material part of the sector, the decline in several times of the
animals’ multitude, the disappearing from the crop rotation the most precious
forage crops (corn for silage, alfalfa, mangel-wurzel, etc.). A big part of these
crops was cultivated on the irrigated areas, nowadays they are damaged too.
Being constantly looking for a job, former workers of the zoological sector
lose step by step their professional skills. A part of these workers breed animals in
order to provide their families’ members with the most valuable food (meat and
milk). The absolute majority of the former farmers look for another jobs, the
young generation follow their parents’ example, they work abroad, construct
buildings, organize their own business etc.
The decline of cattle multitude may be observed in the last years at the
peasant farms and auxiliary households. This happens because of exaggerated
costs people spend on animal breeding, low animal productivity, complete
absence of means on work mechanization, often because of market absence.
Measures that were taken to support this sector proved to be insufficient.
The reduced rates for volumes of commercialized meat and milk exceed the
reducing rates of production volumes. The quality of commercialized products
does not often correspond to the demands quality control organizations make to
similar products. It is impossible to follow the entire standard animal breeding
technologies in house conditions. Consequently, the obtained products can not be
appreciated as standard products.
The revision of the cattle-breeding sector became a national problem. Its
operational and adequate solution demands considerable efforts from every
implemented institution - local and state administrative authorities, urban and
countryside business, producers and consumers, etc.
It is necessary to elaborate and implement a program of organizational,
administrative, economic-financial, social measures and measures for our
environment preservation. They should be directed to the introduction of small
and middle farms, specialized in dairy and meat production, oriented to the
production of goods that will be able to satisfy the needs of our internal market
and to win once lost pieces of the external market.
The design and adoption by means of Government decision of a National
Program for Cattle Breeding should be the first step made in this direction.
- 637 -
BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bajura T. Economia agrară şi dezvoltarea spaţiului rural. Ed. CEP USM, Chişinău, 2007.
2. Bajura T. Gospodăriile casnice auxiliare în cadrul agriculturii privatizate. Buletin analitic
trimestrial IEFS, Ed. a II-a aprilie- iulie 2007.
3. Buletin statistic. Biroul Naţional de Statistică al Rep. Moldova. Vol. III, Chişinău, 2007.
4. Chilimar S., Coşman S. Modele de creştere a taurinelor. Simpozion internaţional, Chişinău,
UASM,2005.
5. Chilimar S. Situaţia şi perspectivele producerii cărnii de taurină în Republica Moldova.
Simpozion internaţional, Iaşi, 2005.
6. Chilimar S. File din istoria şi perspectivele dezvoltării sectorului zootehnic în Republica
Moldova. Simpozion internaţional, Bucureşti, 2005.
7. Chilimar S. Dezvoltarea sectorului creşterii taurinelor în perspectiva integrării Europene.
Simpozion ştiinţific internaţional, Iaşi, 2006.
8. Chilimar S. Producerea cărnii de bovină poate fi profitabilă. Rev. „Agricultura Moldovei”, Nr. 1,
2006.
9. Bajura T., Dumbrăveanu N., S. Chilimar et all. Argumentarea tehnico - ştiinţifică a investiţiilor
capitale şi proiectelor tip de afaceri pentru întreprinderile mici şi mijlocii în sectorul
agro-alimentar. Rev. „Economie şi dezvoltare rurală”, nr. 3(6) 2006, Chişinău.
10. Chilimar S., Bajura T., Dumbrăveanu N. Normative pentru fermele de lapte
- 638 -
BACK
STUDIES ON THE NEW OPPORTUNITIES OF

DEVELOPING ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN THE ŢIBĂNEŞTI
MICROZONE, IAŞI COUNTY, BY DRAWING
STRUCTURAL FUNDS
Liliana BIŢIC, Elena GÎNDU, A. CHIRAN
The Ţibăneşti microzone includes four communes (Ţibana, Ţibăneşti,

Tansa and Dagâţa), with a total area of 24.769 ha and a population of 23.150
inhabitants.
In the structure of land area, the farming land occupies 61.6 %, of
which 69.5 % represent the arable land.
Nowadays, animal husbandry is weakly developed within microzone,
especially in case of bovine and poultry. The highest stocks of animals found in
the ownership of inhabitants were of cattle (62,140 heads), followed by swine.
The capitalization of farming production (inclusively, animal
production) is carried out on the free market, organized as fairs, according to the
schedule established by the mayor offices in each commune. According to the
analysis of data on forage reserve and animal stock from the Ţibăneşti
microzone, the following aspects are pointed out:
- The arable area occupies the first place in the structure of the
farming field, with a percentage of almost 70 %;
- Nowadays, in the structure of the arable land, forage crops occupy
a slightly reduced percentage and the level of productions obtained
is inadequate;
- Natural grasslands also occupy a low area, have a high
degradation degree and a reduced production potential;
- In the field of animal husbandry, as well as in vegetal production,
the individual organization system is applied, with quite low areas
and animal stocks, showing the practicing of a subsistence
agriculture, for self consumption, with non performing traditional
production technologies;
- There is no permanent farming market in the microzone or an
organized system of distributing and capitalizing the products
obtained by landowners and farm breeders.
Within the context, the aim of authors was to analyse the situation found
in the microzone and to design a complex plan of the future agriculture
development, based on the new opportunities of the financial support, by drawing
structural funds, according to the new regulations of the European Union.

The research methodology is specific of the economic-social field and
includes data gathering, selection, processing, interpretation and formulation of
conclusions and recommendations.
- 639 -
The research area concerned the territory of Ţibăneşti microzone, Iaşi

County, which is an integrated part of the NE 1 Development Region of Romania.
The total area of the microzone contains 24769 ha, and the number of inhabitants
reached 23150, of which 1324 are employees. The territory of Tibăneşti
microzone, including Ţibana, Ţibăneşti, Tansa şi Dagâţa communes, has
favourable conditions for the development of agriculture (inclusively, animal
husbandry), which may result in a sustainable and efficient rural development.

Conforming to the Recommendation 1296/1996 of the Parliament
Assembly of the European Council on the European Chart of rural area, the rural
area has an internal zone containing small villages and communes, where the
greatest part of the field is used for
• Agriculture, forestry, aquaculture and fishing;
• Economic and cultural activities in the households of these areas
(handcrafts, industry, services, etc.);
• Arrangements of non urban areas for free time and entertainment (or
natural reservations);
• Other uses (excepting those for living).
In Romania, where the notion of “rural area” includes only communal
territories, the studies show that rural area is 89.2 % (212.7 thousand km2) of the
total area of Romania and represents 45 % (10.13 mil. inhabitants) of the total
population.
Most of the professions practiced in rural environment are practical,
manual professions, some of them requiring professional polyqualification. The
greatest part of the population works in agriculture, while the population integrated
in administrative activities and services has a more reduced percentage.
Nowadays, in the rural area of Iasi County, there are 435231 inhabitants,
representing 53% of the population of the county (tab. 1.).
Table 1
Dimension of rural area in Iasi County (2006)
Area Density of
Population
population
Specification
Km2 % Thousands of % People/km2 %
people
Total –Romania, 238391 100.0 21.733 100.0 91.0 100.0
of which
- national rural 212715 89.2 10.133 45.4 47.6 52.3
area
Total – Iaşi 5476 100.0 821 100.0 150.0 100.0
County, of
which:
- rural area 5185 94.7 435 53.0 84.0 56.0
Source: CNS
- 640 -
The index of population ageing in Iasi County has the value of 1.12 in
rural environment, while in municipalities and villages it is of 0.64 and in the
entire county, of 0.72, being lower to those achieved at the level of country (0.96,
with differentiations between 1.22 in rural environment and 0.66, in
municipalities and cities).
The private farming in Iasi County, as within in the Ţibăneşti
microzone, is characterized by excessive land crumbling, areas between 1 and 3
ha being due to each landowner.
The process of landowners association is weakly represented in the last
years, their percentage being of 3 – 5 % from the total farming area of Iasi County. In
Ţibăneşti microzone, the development of rural area will be mainly based on
agriculture. From this point of view, the farming potential is obvious (fig. 1).
5% Arable land
20%
Orchards and
nurseries
Vineyards and
2% nurseries
4% Pasteures
69%
Hayfields
Fig. 1. Structure of land areas on categories of usage, in Ţibăneşti microzone, Iasi

County - %
In order to point out the productive potential of arable land, we present

the level of mean yields/ha achieved at the level of the four communes and on the
entire studied microzone (tab. 2):
Table 2
Average yields per ha obtained in main crops in the Ţibăneşti microzone (Kg/ha)
Nr. Crops Ţibana Ţibă- Tansa Dagâţa Total
neşti microzone
1. Wheat and rye 510 1274 568 417 692
2. Grain maize 1680 1764 1850 1275 1642
3. Potato 12250 7500 13000 4167 9229
4. Sunflower 1085 1284 1410 - 1260
5. Sugar beet 16000 17533 - 10000 14511
6. Vegetables -total 13200 20690 8717 15667 14568
7. Grapes 5470 6947 4762 5487 5666
8. Fruits 3620 1758 10604 4945 5232
9. Fodder plants – hayfield 3315 3364 3730 3618 3507
- 641 -
The quite low level of the production per ha is explained by practicing

traditional technologies, with an extremely low level of production factors,
showing a subsistence farming, directed to self-consumption, very few farmers
having a certificate of farming producer and the farming produces, which are
commercialized in local markets and fairies being insignificant. In most of
countries with intensive agriculture, well balanced, focused on high quality
products, the percentage of animal production is over 58 % – 60 % from the total
of farming production.
In 1989, in Romania, the animal production had a percentage of 45 %
from total farming production, with clear differentiations from one region to
another. Thus, while in Timiş County, this indicator was of 58.3%, in Suceava
and Iaşi counties, of 54.7 %, and in Arad County, the animal production was of
only 32.9 % (I. P.Otiman, 2006). The total animal stocks, as well as the animal
load per 100 ha field, were relatively constant, but with an increased diminution
tendency in the last period.
Nowadays, in the Ţibăneşti microzone, the animal stocks are entirely in
private ownership (tab. 3).
Table 3
Animal stocks from the Ţibăneşti microzone (2007)-heads
Indicators Ţibana Ţibăneşti Tansa Dagâţa Total
microzone
Cattle - total, of which : 1150 1552 614 1120 4436
- in households of population 1150 1552 614 1120 4436
Swine - total, of which: 1450 1350 580 1400 4780
Sheep - total, of which: 3600 3210 2528 1594 10932
Poultry - total, of which: 17100 9000 17400 18640 62140
From data presented, we noticed that in the studied microzone there was
no private of public livestock farm, the total stocks of animals and poultry
belonging to individual households.
The natural grasslands present in the studied area have a high degradation
degree and a reduced production potential, influencing on the conversion in
animal products, which have low indices. At the end of 2006, the animal
productions had the values presented in tab. 4.
- 642 -
Table 4
Animal production obtained in Ţibăneşti microzone (2006)
Indicators UM Ţibana Ţibăneşti Tansa Dagâţa Total
microzone
Total meat production Tons live 396 391 264 238 1289
(slaughters ) weight
Dairy and sheep milk Hl. 23345 27935 14688 21175 87143
production physic
Wool production Tons 5570 7020 3200 2520 18310
physic
Egg production Thousand 2529 1540 2340 2418 8827
pieces
The capitalization of animal production, obtained in the households of the

population is done in fairy days, which are scheduled for each commune, at a very
low rate.
CONCLUSIONS
The rural development of the Ţibăneşti microzone must be analysed from
the prospect of the future, not as a resolution of problems from the past: “the rural
area must not be considered only a problem, but also an opportunity. The policy
of rural development must include agriculture within the wide socio-economic
and ecological context”.
The Ţibăneşti microzone must initiate a future development program
based on the structural funds, which implement the following measures:
- Investments in the field of animal breeding, which increase the
economic value and create new employments for the zonal
population;
- Intensifying the collaboration between farmers and local mayor’s
offices in order to improve the degradation of pastures and natural
hayfields, found in the private ownership;
- Applying measures for increasing animal production and ensuring
high incomes within the households;
- Environment protection by forbidding forest deforestations and
increasing the degree of social infrastructure (especially, in Tansa
Commune, where sewage is lacking);
- Finding and supporting by communal authorities of potential
investors in different fields (vegetal production, animal husbandry,
services, etc).
The application of this development program of the Ţibăneşti microzone,
by drawing structural funds and local co-financing, will result in diversifying and
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BACK
increasing the local economy and radical improvement in the life of local
population.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Avarvarei I., Macovei Gh., 1997– Agricultura şi economia de piaţã în contextul integrãrii
europene. Lucr. şt., U.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 40, seria Agronomie.
2. Chiran A., Ciurea I.V., 1994 – Tendences concernant l'organisation du marché des produits
agroalimentaires de Roumanie dans la période de transition a l'économie de marché.
Lucr. şt., U.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 37, seria Agronomie.
3. Chiran A., Jitãreanu G., 1994 – Le processus de réorganisation et de privatisation du secteur
agricole de la Roumanie. Lucr. şt., U.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 37, seria Agronomie.
4. Chiran A. şi colab., 1998 – The policy of rural development in Romania. Rev. Cercetări
agronomice în Moldova, vol. 3-4, Iaşi.
5. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, Ştefan G., Lokar A., Doga V. , 1999– Agromarketing, ediţia a II-a.
Ed. Evrica, Chişinău, Republica Moldova.
6. Chiran A. şi colab., 2000 – Aspecte tehnico-economice privind fermele familiale specializate în
creşterea taurinelor în zona de nord a Irlandei. Rev. Cercetări agronomice în Moldova, vol.
3-4, Iaşi.
7. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena , 2007– Zooeconomie –Ediţia a II-a. Ed. PIM, Iaşi.
8. Chiran A., Dima Fl.-M., Gîndu Elena, 2007 – Marketing în agricultură.Ed. Alma Print, Galaţi.
9. Chiş Margareta, Merce Elena, 1999 – Agricultura spre economia de piaţã -concepte, cerinţe,
strategii. Ed. Aletheia, Bistriţa.
10. Dima Fl.-M., Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, 2006 – Agricultura în zona agroecono-mică Galaţi :
prezent şi tendinţe de viitor. Lucr. şt. USAMV Iaşi, vol 49, seria Agro-nomie.
11. Gîndu Elena, Biţic Liliana, Chiran A., 2007 - Dezvoltarea rurală în microzo-na Ţibăneşti :
prezent şi perspective . Lucr. şt. USAMV Iaşi, vol 49, seria Agrono-mie.
12. Lagrange L., 1995 – La comercialisation des produits agricoles et alimentaires. Ed. Lavoisier,
Paris, France.
13. Otiman I.-P., 1997 – Dezvoltarea rurală în România. Ed. Artprint, Timişoara.
14. Pekar V.,1996 – Strategii de marketing. Ed. Sedcom Libris, Iaşi.
15. Petrache A., 2001 – Investiţiile în agricultură pe criterii de eficienţă. Rev. Tribuna economică,
nr. 49, Bucureşti.
16. Timariu Gh., 1998 – Superioritatea economică şi socială a exploataţiilor mari asociative – din
experienţa germană. Rev. Tribuna economică, nr. 38, Bucureşti.
17. Zahiu Letiţia, 2001 – Dezvoltarea durabilă a agriculturii şi a spaţiului rural. Rev. Tribuna
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BACK
THE PRODUCTION PERFORMANCES FROM S.C. STAZOO

S.R.L FARM FROM ALBA COUNTY
S. BOCA, Marcela SÎRBU, Ioana TĂNĂSESCU
The researches conducted for the present paper are integrated into the
Phd activity with the title:”Researches regarding the morfo-productive
characters of cattle in the context of some constructive solutions from
Transilvania farms”, that follows the dairy cow’s morfo-productive performance
in S.C Stazoo S.R.L farm from Teiuş town.
Into S.C Stazoo S.R.L farm with 124 dairy cow Romanian spoted with
black breed and young, we followed: the biological material component, keeping
the breeding technologies, material and forage basis and the production
obtained.
As a result analysis that were made we came to the conclusion that
reaching the productive performances of E.U. Normes imposes: ventilation
problem resolve, separate maternity arrangement from dairy cow house, where
the comfort conditions, deseases and poison gas prevention; all these following
the economical efficiency increase.
INTRODUCTION:
The researches were carried out in S.C Stazoo S.R.L. farm, in Teius city.
The unit is specialized in dairy cow breeding for milk production.
The farm disposes of a total livestock of 241 animals (tab.1) from which
124 cows and 10 heifers, all Romanian spoted with black breed .
Table1. Livestock structure

Specification Age in months Nr. of
animals
Cows - 124
Heifers - 10
young females 0-6 23
young females > 18 19
young males 16
MATERIAL AND METHOD:

The existing livestock presents the folowing zoo-economical indicators:
age of the first succesfull mating (A.F.M) is realized at 21 months and first birth
(F.B) at 30.36 months.
- 645 -
Replacement of the initial livestock is assured by the young reproduction

females existing in the farm, the rest are bought.
One of the most important problems in the farm is represented by
reproduction that influences: the cattle reproduction rhytm, reproductions level,
the genetic structure of the populations, the state of health and not at last the
economical efficiency.
The cows are inseminated at the second and respectively third heat cycle
after getting birth. The reproductive material is maintained into a „reproduction
condition” continuously and permanent.
The animals present a vivid temper and a perfect healthy state,
characteristics that are influenced by a good feeding technique and accomodation
and by the exercise system assured. The artificial insemination was addopted
because of the advantages realized by applyng „ male pressure” and the low costs
level.
The shelter assures housing for 124 cows in tide system, on two rows
head to head. Feeding is realized manually allong a 2,40 m width alley in height
manger. Animal housing is on medium stalls with wooden floor over wich is saw
dust or straw. The waste disposal is mechanic with scrapers into open chennels
and urine is collected into surface discharge gutters with floor sinkwater traps
connected to de sewer system.
Milking is mechanic on stalls, the milk is collected into the dairy through
pipes. The dairy is placed at the end of the shelter, it contains a single room for
milk reception and temporary storage. Inside the dairy is placed the milking
equipment “type Banat”. The milk is deliver to Albalact.
The farm has beside the shelters the folowing constructions: store for
concentrates storage, surface silo, forage kitchen(cereal mill), mechanical sector,
manure platform, locker; farmer’s house
The farm is indowed with 4 tractors, trailers, clip machine,combine for
corn silo etc.
Forage basis:
The agricultural surface of the exploitation is represented by the 186 ha of
land with: 20 ha with lucern,12 ha barley, 48 ha wheat, 50 ha corn for silo, 20 ha
artificial meadow, 20 ha sorghum sudanense and 16 ha oats.
Milk production:
The total milk production vary between 3208-10327 l with a media of
6217,53 l during the analyzed lactation period (fig.1), and 3,89% fat content
(fig.2) and 242,34 kg pure fat.
- 646 -
Fig.1Milk production
8000 7104
7000 6323 6657 6525 6451
6217 6248 6157 5961 6266 5953
5521 5647 5800
6000
Lapte/Milk-kg
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Lactaţia/Lactation
Lactaţia totală Lactaţia normală
Fig 2. Fat content
5.00
4.00 3.89 3.95 3.87 3.87 3.92 3.85 3.89

3.29 3.37 3.26 3.24 3.25 3.19 3.27
3.00
%
2.00
1.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Lactaţia/Lactation
Gr./Fet.-% Prot./Prot.-%
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMANDATIONS

The exploitation technologie from SC Stazoo SRL farm is characterized by an
intensive breeding system through an efficient practical application of the food
resources an existing conditions, together with the assurance of an optimum
selection program, animal health care and appropriate techical rigging.
As a result of the studies we came to the conclusion that for the best
funcioning of the farm it can be intervened as follows:
Biological material and breeding technology:
- increasing the milk production by increasing the livestock
and their productive potential;
- adequate organization of the reproduction activities;
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BACK
- total respect for the imposed technological rules.

Material basis:
- separate maternity arrangement from dairy cow house,
where the comfort conditions, deseases and poison gas
prevention;
- ventilation problem resolve are neccesary inside the dairy
cow shelter, to eliminate the high level of manual labour and
to maintain the micro-climate conditions between the limits
imposed by the Normes.
All these aspects lead to the increase of economical efficiency by

improving the medium ratio between the labour costs and production volume,
also obtained by increasing the total production, the marchandise one and the
individual one.
REFERENCES:
Onaciu., G. 1999, Rasa Bălţată Românească, Teză de doctorat, Cluj-

Napoca
Sîrbu Marcela 2001, Construcţii Agricole, Editura Risoprint Cluj- Napoca
Stanciu G. şi col. 1999, Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor, Editura Brumar,
Timişoara.
Şara A. , D. Mierliţă 2003, Nutriţia şi alimentaţia animalelor de fermă, Editura
Academic Pres, Cluj-Napoca.
Velea C. 1983, Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor, Editura Dacia, Cluj-
Napoca.
Velea C. şi col. 1985, Îndrumător pentru creşterea şi îngrăşarea tineretului
taurin, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
Velea C. 1999, Producţia, reproducţia şi ameliorarea taurinelor, vol I
şi II,EdituraTehnică Agricolă, Bucureşti.
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BACK
THE MILK PRODUCTIONS AT THE PEICA FARM

BISTRITA-NASAUD DISTRICT, OBTAINED WITHIN THE
EXISTING CONSTRUCTIVE SOLUTIONS
S. BOCA, Marcela SÂRBU, Ioana TĂNĂSESCU, R. OLAR
The paper present the researchings results performed at a farm of the

Bistriţa-Năsăud district, between 2005…2008, concerning the milk productions,
obtained in the existing constructive solutions. The essential changings produced
in the last decades, concerning the dairy cattle raising and exploatation
technologies, food, reproduction and amelioration, at one time with the technique
development wich allow the mechanization of some production processes,
imposes, also, our intervention in the constructive variants of accommodation
through the actual shelter modernization, existing in this farm.
MATERIAL AND METHOD:

The researches was accomplished in the Peica farm, situated in the
Orheiul Bistritei village, at 10 km S from the Bistrita city.
The unit is specializated in cows growing for the milk production, the
milk being processed in unit, the products obtained being selled through the own
shop. The owner has began the zootechnical activity in the year 1993 with an
effective of 4 cows having average individual productions of 3000 liters/lactation,
arriving today to an effective of 40 heads of dairy cattle with average individual
productions between 6000 - 6500 liters/lactation.
The farm disposes by an total livestock of 74 cows Baltata Româneasca
infused with Red Holstein, as shown in the table 1.
Table. 1. The livestock’s structure

Specification Age in months No.of animals
Cows - 40
Heifers - 10
Young females 0-3 4
Young females 3-6 2
Young females 6-12 4
Young females 12-18 6
Young males 0-3 8
The studies was mainly centred on the dairy cattle effective, included in
the official production control, following up the main production and
reproduction parameters obtained in tide accomodation system conditions.
The animals care in the accomodation period is realised in closed shelters,
divided by the age structure. The dairy cattle shelter (fig.1,2) house an effective of
- 649 -
40 heads in the tide accomodation system, on medium stall, on two raws, head to
head. The foraging is realised by the wagon, on 2,40m width alley, in high
manger. The stall pavement is realised from wood and above it is a sawdust layer,
sometimes straw. The stalls have separating grids wich sustain the watering-
trough. Manure’s disposal is manual done in open channels.
Figure 1. Exterior view of the shelter Figure 2. Interior view of the shelter
The milking is mechanized on stall and the milk is collected by pipe in

dairy. The dairy is placed at the shelter’s end and give the milk reception and
temporary storing possibility. In diary are placed also the Banat type milking
installations and the milk tank. The milk is transported in the cistern to a point of
the milk based products preparation.
In summer time, the cows and heifers maintenance is done permanently
on the pature in the summer camp.
The summer camp is organized in a shed and a padock, being enclosed
with a fence wire, and one side is placed a manger for voluminous forage and an
waterspout, supplied from an approaching fountain. To assure the necessary
minerals for animals, the sand balls are placed in a concrete manger. The milking
is mechanized with a mobile milking platform.
Besides shelters, the farm dispose also by the followings:
surface silo;
cereals mill;
haircut machine;
2 tractors, trailers, agricol equipaments;
maize silo combine;
cloakroom, the farmer house;
milk based products processing point;
- 650 -
storeroom for concentates;

mechanical workshop;
the manure platform.
The results obtained by the biological material exploatation are relatively

good, due to this cawkind amelioration and specialization for milk production.
The Peica farm is present also in the amelioration process of the Bălţata
Românească cattle populations.
A very important factor in the obtaining of milk acceptable productions was
the animals alimentation. Thus, the cows and heifers are special feeded in the
period of mammary rest and in the period before lambing because in this period
can be realised the necessary reserves for the first lactation months when the
animal realise 45% by the total lactation production and, respectively, for a good
fetus development with important repercussions on the next generations.
The cows and heifers ration in the period of mammary rest is composed by :
very good quality hays of cereals and pulverize, thick and concentrated; in the
second part of gestation because the calf gain 75% by his lambing weight, the
concentrates proportion increase and the fodder volum decrease, and it is avoided
the mouldy, debased, frosty forage wich can provoke abortion.
After lambing, it is assured a stimulant foraging with a concentrates
supliment of 15-20% comparatively by the production period.
The cows in the production period are feeded with maize silo, lucerne hay
and a blend of concentrated forages (maize, bran, barley, oat and PVM).
The foraging base is assured by the growing of 100 ha terain: 80 ha lawns
and meadows, 20 ha arable land, from wich 16 ha with corn for silo, 2 ha barley,
2 ha oat. The corn silo is very important because its high production per ha and
because it is an forage well consumed by the dairy cows. The production cost is
relatively low, due to high production and the low work volume.
The existing livestock presents the folowing zoo-economical indicators: age

of the first succesfull mating (A.F.M) is realized at 26,18 months and first birth
(F.B) at 35,29 months.
The total milk production vary between 4385,00-5387,19 l with a media of
4870,75 l on the total lactations studied, with a 4.09% fat content and 199.36
kg pure fat.
The reserches was realised on a number of 40 heads with a number of 72
ended lactations. The biological material is represented by the Bălţata
Românească breed infused with Red Holstein with satisfactory production
performances.
- 651 -
Hereby, we have analysed age of the first succesfull mating and the age of
first birth, the calving interval and the mammary rest, as the milk production and
milk mains components evolution, respectively the fat and the protein at normal
and total lactation.
The dates regarding the milk production evolution per lactations was obtained
from the database of the National Agency of Amelioration and Reproduction in
Zootechny – the Reproduction and Selection District Office Bistriţa-Năsăud. We
have statistical analysed and processed by the average calculation, the average’s
error, the standard deviation and variability for all the appropiations investigated. It
was statistical processed the average per total lactations and separately for each
lactation, to the V lactation, aiming the duration of normal and total lactation, the fat
quantity and protein per normal and total lactation, as the fat and protein percents.
6000 5449 5260

4703 4853
5000 4444 4588
4225 4263 4095
3993 4023 3791
Lapte/Milk-kg
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Lactaţia/Lactation
Lactaţia totală Lactaţia normală
Figure 3. The milk quantity dynamics per total and normal lactation at Peica farm.
5.00
4.03 4.09 4.16 4.09 4.21 4.12

4.00
3.57 3.65 3.62 3.59 3.76 3.64
3.00
%
2.00
1.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6
Lactaţia/Lactation
Gr./Fet-% Prot./Prot.-%
Figure 4.The values for the qualitative index of the milk production per total lactation at
Peica farm.
- 652 -
5.00
4.00 3.96 3.95 3.99 4.03 4.02 3.99

3.52 3.53 3.55 3.68 3.54
3.40
3.00
%
2.00
1.00
0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6
Lactaţia/Lactation
Gr./Fet-% Prot./Prot.-%
Figure 5. The values for the qualitative index of the milk production per normal lactation
at Peica farm.
From the dates presented in the anterior diagrams (fig.3, fig.4, fig.5) we can
observe that:
it is a difference of 7,57% between the production per normal lactation
and the production per total lactation,
as a milk production dynamics per total lactation, it is a maxim
production in the lactation no.I,
per normal lactation, it is a maxim production in the no.III lactation, and
the production in the first lactation represents 95,05% of that from the
maxim lactation,
from the production perspective, the milk quantity over 4852,72 l is
satisfactory because of long lactation period, of the rest period between
lambing, as well because this production is situated as average breed
production.
the fat in the milk content, in average 4,11%, is light superior to the breed
characteristics.
One of the multiply factors wich affect the milk production is the
accomodation system. This is the reason wich bring us to interfere for the
functions changing – from the tide accomodation system in the free one. Our
dilemma is to propose for the dairy cows a cold or warm shelther.
The cold shelters, with a diary cow’s free accomodation is frecvently used
because the investments are much lowers compared with thermical insulated
shelters. The longitudinal walls are replaced with mobile tarpaulin, assuring the
natural ventilation, organized. The fresh air enter through this created halls and exit
by the roof crest, wich is provided with a slot to the entire length of the shelter.
The temperature and humidity mensurations performed by us in farms
endowed with such as buildings shown that in the period of december 2007 –
january 2008, when it was recorded negative temperatures of –11ºC, in the
- 653 -
shelders interiors the manures was frozen, the interior temperatures floating
between –2 and –7ºC, fact that caused a careful supervision of the way the surface
rake blades can be capable to dispose the manure. The water in the nonheated
shelders was also frozen, the farmers being forced to heat the waterings or to
protect this with electrical resistances.
In the period when the mobile tarpaulin completely close the fresh air
admission halls, to provide the livestock biological heat, the humidity increase
very much, motive for the apparition of the dew phenomena, with effects on the
building elements (wood or metal).
In the summer time the sun produce a overheating of the building,
temperature at wich the cows reacts by reducing the forage consumption. Once
the night coming, the shelter is sudden colded. The cows feels this temperature
variation. The farmers wich works in this conditions feels the thermic stress more
prononced as the animals.
Some researches from USA shown that the milk production of the dairy
cattle is not affected by an interior temperature variation between –5ºC and
+30ºC, and the excesive humidity has no effect on the milk production, but
sometimes can produce diseasings. The opinions of the europeans researchers are,
sometimes, contradictories, regarding the influence of the low tempetetures on the
milk productions. In our country, this buildings are available since a short time,
the results of our researches are not decisives, and for that we recommend the
modernization of the studied farms by maintaining the existing buildings and the
changing of the tide accomodation of the cows to the free accomodation function.
For the Peica farm we propose the modification of the accomodation
system(fig. 6), from the tide one to the free one, with the rest zone individual, in
pens. In the variant of increasing of the livestock from 40 to 60 heads, as the
farmer stipulate for the next years, we can design a shelter where the dairy cows
are placed in pens head to head, on two raws, with isolation possibility of the
nomilkig cows from the milking cows.
The building with the length of 54,00 m keep the opening of the existing
shelter of 10,80m . The opening, relatively small, had imposed the foraging alley
emplacement to the shelter exterior on a concreted alley, beeing protected against
the weather by the large eaves of the building.
The manures disposal is realised by surface drains using a rake blades.
From the shelter, the manures are directly transported to the manure platform,
twice surface as the actual one, wich has not enough storage volum.
The shelter has at one end a dairy groupe, containing the milking room,
the milk tank and the machines room. The dairy groupe is placed beside the
farm’s main alley, with acces possibilities for the milk delivery.
- 654 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
The beneficiary accept the modernization solution with the hoppe for a
good evolution of the production parameters. The choosed constructive system
offer the free space for the animals and good social relations. The large feeding
alley offer the posibility to feed the cows with “total mixed rations” with good
effects on the milk production.
Figure 6. The proposed constructive solution
REFERENCES:
Onaciu., G. 1999, Rasa Bălţată Românească, Teză de doctorat, Cluj-

Napoca
Sîrbu Marcela 2001, Construcţii Agricole, Editura Risoprint Cluj- Napoca
Stanciu G. şi col. 1999, Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor, Editura Brumar,
Timişoara.
Şara A., D. Mierliţă 2003, Nutriţia şi alimentaţia animalelor de fermă, Editura
Academic Pres, Cluj-Napoca.
Velea C. 1983, Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor, Editura Dacia, Cluj-
Napoca.
Velea C. şi col. 1985, Îndrumător pentru creşterea şi îngrăşarea tineretului
taurin, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
Velea C. 1999, Producţia, reproducţia şi ameliorarea taurinelor, vol I
şi II,EdituraTehnică Agricolă, Bucureşti.
- 655 -
BACK
THE STUDY OF PRODUCTIVE AND REPRODUCTIVE

PERFORMANCES OF PINZGAUER CATTLE FROM
THE FAMILY FAMRS FROM DORNA’S BASIN
AND CAMPULUNG MOLDOVENESC
Mioara BOCĂNICI
Introduction
Preservation of Pinzgauer breed must be done for production reasons
(otherwise it is expensive) and has to be adapted to the production of meat as
well. Also, the preservation of this breed has to be adapted to the marketing
production with low inputs (organic farms) in the current breeding areas.
In Campulung Moldovenesc and Vatra Dornei Basins the average
production set for normal lactations was of 3062 kg of milk and 112.59 kg of fat,
but we noticed the existence of some plus-variants with productions of more than
4000 kg of milk, aspect that show the future possibilities to improve this breed, by
breeding pure breeds and by selection, using improving tested bulls;
The Pinzgauer breed in the studied area, resulted from the transformation
crossings, is different from the improving breed, by the size of the body, which is
smaller with about 4%, as a consequence of the breeding conditions and lack of
selection;
MATERIAL AND METHOD

In order to assess the productive and reproductive characteristics of the
Pinzgauer population from Bukovina, the cattle from Vatra Dornei and
Campulung Moldovenesc area, bred in the most representative communes from
this area, has been studied. The study has been conducted on a number of 824
lactations, out of which 420 lactations in Campulung Moldovenesc Basin and 404
lactations in Dorna’s basin.
In this context, the following elements have been analyzed:

- Duration of total lactation (DLT)
- Quantity of milk per normal lactation
- the percentage of fat
- the percentage of proteins
The research methods used were:

• Data collecting, using databanks, questionnaires, enquiries and so on
- 656 -
• Calculation of variability, parameters and statistics regarding the production

and reproductive characteristics, using the usual zootechnics methods and
following a program conceived for the subject The technology of breeding cattle
by Vasile Ujica and Vasile Maciuc.

Duration of total lactation (DLT) was of 325.12 ± 1.82 days, with limits
between 214 and 604 days. One can notice that for the population studied the
average values of these characteristics have exceeded with more than 20 days the
duration of a normal lactation, there has been the tendency to extend the lactation,
especially at the cows with a good milk production.
The variability of DLT is less accentuated, highlighted by the values of
the standard deviation (s=52.37 days) and of the variation coefficient
(V%=16.10). The homogeneity of the studied population, regarding the duration
of the total lactation is also demonstrated by the average values recorded per
successive lactation and which were between 299.56 days in the VIII th lactation
and 335.08 days in the VI th lactation.
3700
3600
3500
kg lapte
3400
3300
3200
3100
3000
2900
Media Vatra
VI
IV
V
III
II
I
II
ii
VI
at
VI
Dornei
ct
la
Media C-lung
l
ta
To
Moldovenesc
Media populatiei lactatii
Fig. 1. Comparative results of the milk production from the two basins studied
The quantity of milk per normal lactation has an average value of

3365.31 ±21.33 kg, with limits of individual variability between 1305 and 5921
kg of milk.
The curve of normal lactation, per successive lactation, presents an
ascendant trend up to the VI th lactation, which also represents the maximum
- 657 -
value of 3582.21 kg of milk, after which there is a descending curve up to the VIII
th lactation, when the average production is of 3260.78 kg of milk. The milk
production is situated at a high level right from the first lactation, which
represents 89.61% of the maximum lactation, indicating a good productive
precocity, but the maximum lactation is in the VI th lactation, an aspect that must
be taken into consideration when it comes to the optimum exploitation period of
Pinzgauer cattle.
The aspect of lactation curve suggest the division of the Pinzgauer
population from Bukovina, which would correspond to the sub-populations from
the two breading basins: Vatra Dornei and Câmpulung Moldovenesc but also the
sub-division of the opulation from Dorna’s basin, one with a maximum
production of 3649.18 kg of milk and the other with a maximum production of
3640.88 kg of milk.
The percentage of fat from the milk presents the same high variability,
with an average value of 3.83±0.16% and individual limits between 3.14 and
4.85%. Depending on the succession of lactation, the maximum percentage of fat
is recorded during the V and VI lactation (3.89%).
The percentage of proteins was of 3.26±0.16%, with a high individual
variability, the amplitude of variability having limits between 2.44% and 3.99%.
Corresponding to the quantity of milk and the percentage of fat and proteins, the
quantity of fat per entire population was of 129.19±0.83 kg, respectively
112.74±1.58 kg proteins.
The dispersion indexes for the milk production, fat and proteins highlight
a high variability in the population studied, the standard deviation having a value
of s=611.69 kg milk, s=23.87 kg fat and s=45.05 kg proteins.
THE AVERAGE VALUES AND THE VARIABILITY OF

REPRODUCTION INDEXES, PER SUCCESSIVE LACTATIONS, FOR
THE PINZGAUER POPULATION FROM BUKOVINA
In our research performed on the Pinzgauer cattle population from

Bukovina, we recorded the main reproduction indexes (VP, RM, CI and SP) for
the animals from the two basins (Vatra Dornei and C-lung Moldovenesc), per
successive lactation, by areas and by the entire population, which allowed us to
have a general view on the state of normality, from the physiological, health and
the exploitation conditions of the livestock from the private farms.
There are no significant differences between the two basins studied (Vatra
Dornei and C-lung Moldovenesc), due to the relief and pedo-climatic conditions,
as well as to the similar technologies used by the breeders from Bukovina to
breed their animals.
The age at first giving-birth (VP) of Pinzgauer cattle from Bukovina
was 956.95 days (31 months and 27 days), with differences between 999.29 days
- 658 -
(33 months and 9 days) for the population from Dorna’s basin and 931.44 days
(31 months and 2 days) from the population from Câmpulung Moldovenesc basin,
but insignificant from the statistical point of view.
The variability of these characteristics is very accentuated, with minimum
limits of 16 months and maximum of 68 months. From the point of view of the
age at first giving-birth, the data recorded show animals with a poor reproductive
precocity, the average value for the population from Bukovina being below the
average values of this breed (29 months and 2 days), according to data from the
official control of production for 2005.
VP
1000,00
999,29
956,95
931,44
zile 900,00
800,00
Bucovina Vatra Dornei C-lung Moldovenesc
VP 956,95 999,29 931,44
Fig. 2.
Mammary repose
Analyzing the average values of RM per successive lactation, one can
notice that these fit into the normal limits, situated between 49.38 days in the VII
th lactation and 64.55 days in the V th lactation.
The dispersion indexes indicate a very high individual variability, the
values of the standard deviation being somewhere between s=11.40 days and
s=79.77 days and the variation coefficient between V%=22.75 and V%=123.59.
For the studied population there were cows with a mammary repose of only 5
days and some with 204 days or even 787 days. These numbers cannot be real
because there is no correlation with the duration of gestation and the interval
between giving-births. Registering cows with a duration of mammary repose of
414 days or 787 days means keeping barren animals within the livestock and in
the animal husbandry records these animals would wrongly appear as being in
mammary repose. This situation must be fixed, by a proper registration of a
period of mammary repose, prior to a giving birth.
- 659 -
VIII
VI
IV
II
0,00 10,0020,0030,0040,0050,0060,0070,0080,00 zile
II III IV V VI VII VIII IX

C-lung Moldovenesc 61,73 53,45 53,19 77,44 57,60 29,00
Vatra Dornei 52,48 55,51 60,85 56,43 52,56 60,88 49,38 50,14
Bucovina 58,02 54,50 57,62 64,55 53,17 57,46 49,38 50,14
Fig. 3
Examining the average values of RM for the population of Pinzgauer

cows from the two areas (Vatra Dornei and C-lung Moldovenesc), the differences
are not significant, which means that, as far as the exploitation technology is
concerned the breeders have a similar behavior for this reproduction index.
The interval between giving-births (CI) for the entire population has
average values between 359.43 days (lactation VII-VIII) and 396.95 days
(lactation V-VI).
VIII-IX
VII-VIII
VI-VII
V-VI
IV-V
III-IV
II-III
I-II
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 zile
I-II II-III III-IV IV-V V-VI VI-VII VII-VIII VIII-IX
Vatra Dornei 377,12 380,46 373,42 379,94 377,03 392,68 391,69 359,43
Bucovina 387,62 380,52 386,79 390,89 396,95 394,07 391,69 359,43
Fig. 4.
- 660 -
The average values highlight the fact that the reproduction activity at the
population studied can be evaluated as optimal, the breeders trying to obtain a calf
from every cow, annually. However, the dispersion indexes show a high
individual variability, the values of the standard deviation being between s=23.59
days and s=107.24 days.
Between the cow populations from the two studied basin there are no
significant differences, except the fact that the cows from C-lung Moldovenesc
basin had a slightly higher interval between giving-births than the ones from
Dorna’s basin, with a maximum limit of 486.63 days (lactation V-VI).
The Service period (SP) is the period between the giving-birth and the
settlement of a new gestation that can influence the duration of CI and of having
calves from every cow, annually.
For the studied population one can notice that the cows were pregant in
the optimal period after the giving-birth, the average values of SP being between
70 and 96.55 days. There are no significant differences for this reproduction index
between the populations from the two areas, except the fact that the Pinzgauer
cows from C-lung Moldovenesc area had a slightly higher SP, with the maximum
limit of 120.50 days, average values that correlate with the duration of the interval
between giving-births for this population.
Our research shows that in the private farms they are losing a high
number of calves, by not achieving fecundation and it’s the same case for the
pregnant cows, as a result of some organizational deficiencies and the exploitation
of pregnant females in less favorable technological conditions.
IX
VIII
VII
VI
V
IV
III
II
0,00 20,00 40,00 60,00 80,00 100,00 120,00 140,00 zile
II III IV V VI VII VIII IX

Vatra Dornei 83,40 86,63 83,65 91,39 99,66 94,38 70,00 78,50
Bucovina 87,62 95,25 87,72 88,64 96,55 96,38 70,00 78,50
Fig. 5.
- 661 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
• In Dorna’s Basin and in Campulung Moldovenesc Basin the average

production set for the normal lactations was of 3062 and 112.59 kg of fat,
but we also noticed the existence of some plus-variants with productions
of more than 4000 kg of milk, aspects that show the further possibilities
to improve this breed, by using a pure breed and by using selection, with
certified bulls.
• The study made by Fisteag and collaborators (1956) show that the body
weight noticed as a result of the research (480.6 kg) is up to 13.9 % lower
than the one obtained in other regions of the country but up to 21% higher
than the one for the same area (396 kg)
• Over viewing the results of the researches made, one can conclude that
the studied Pinzgauer population represents a valuable genetic material
that can be improved, through proper technical measures, the main strong
point being the fact that this material is adapted to the current breeding
areas and is proper for the extensive use it was made for.
• The expression of the characteristics of adult organisms is determined by
their genetic structure and at the same time by the environmental
conditions in which the genotype has to manifest itself.
• The fulfillment of the objectives regarding the improvement of the cattle
breeding implies, besides ensuring proper environmental conditions and
avoiding inconsistencies, establishing a hereditary base necessary for a
high potential.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. UJICĂ, V. şi col. – 1989 – The parameters of the program for improving the Pinzgauer cattle
from Vatra Dornei – Câmpulung Moldovenesc area and the necessity to preserve the genetic
fund of this breed, Lucr.-Simp. “ Current problems in the improvement and use of farm
animals, the pathology of reproduction”, Inst. Agr. Timişoara
2. UJICĂ, V. şi col. – 1996 – 1997 – The use of linear description in the genetic improvement of
Pinzgauer cattle from Northern Moldavia, Lucr. Şt., vol. 39-40, UŞAMV Iaşi
3. UJICĂ, V. şi col. – 2000 – Aspects of Cattle Breeding in Small and Medium Family Farms in
the Hill and Mountains Zones of Moldova -Romania Buletin FAO, Rev. Technical Series 57
4. UJICĂ, V. şi col. – 2005 – Pinzgauer breed in Romania, Ed. Alfa, Iaşi
- 662 -
BACK
INTERDEPENDENCE BETWEEN AMBIENT FACTORS AND

KINDLING EVOLUTION AT CHINCHILLA LANIGERA IN
THE SPRING AND SUMMER MONTHS
M. BOTHA, I. BUD
The aim of this paper is to analyze the impact of the microclimate

factors (temperature and relative humidity, so far) upon the reproductive
performances (fecundity, kindling) of the chinchillas’ female. Our research are
focused so far to record the temperature and the humidity from a chinchilla farm
from November 2006 to August 2007 and to confront them with the reproductive
performances. After processing the recorded data we obtained a grouping
kindling in March-May and July-August. The fecundity seems to not following
strictly the temperature and humidity curve. It is also necessary a better
microclimate management to can maintain comfort in the reproductive sector.
Keywords: Chinchilla lanigera, ambient, factors, kindling.
The present paper present data’s that is a part of an PhD thesis experiment,
which propose to evaluate the fecundity of chinchilla females during a year,
respectively in function of seasons in strict interdependence with the microclimate
of the shelter. After a year of monitoring this factors and reproduction
performances, we propose to fix all the microclimate parameters in function of the
maximum performances to see if we can exteriorize the maximum genetic potential
regarding the female utilization index. Theoretical we could maximize this index
from 2-2.5 (SIMON, 2006), how is in present in the Romanian farms and not only,
to 3. That would be an important performance, because of the low prolificacy, an
average 1.8-2.0/female/birth (LANSZKY, 1999) and long gestation duration of the
species, which is 111 days (BUD, 2006, 2003, 2001; BURA 2003; LANSZKY,
1999; POTHÁCZKY, 1990; HOLDAS, 1981).
Therefore farmers could increase their yearly production and implicit the
incomes.

The experiment takes place in a middle size farm in Reghin, Mureş
county, Romania. The animals belong to Chinchilla lanigera type, standard
variety; they are kept in harem, in bedded cages, arranged in four levels.
The harem system means a 1:5 sex ratio (1 male + 5 female).
We choose random 20 families, in total 120 animals (20 males + 100
females) and place them together in a room where we monitoring so far the
temperature and the humidity with a digital hygrometer, printing the parameter
values in every 180 minutes.
The cages material is a zinc-coated wire net, soldered in dots, with 2 mm
diameter and with 1.5 x 6 cm stitches. Cages are provided with paletted feed
- 663 -
trough and with tunnel for rough forage. On the door, that is placed on the front
part of the cage, is hanged the sand dust bath tray. The cage is provided with
nipple type waterier.
The individual cage has 40 x 50 x 40 cm dimensions, the visiting passage
for male have 17 x 17 cm.
It’s a one time/day feeding system, practiced in the morning hours. The
mixed pellet forage administrated have a pelleted form, with a 15 mm length with
3 mm diameter, with a yellow-green color, the nutritive characteristics, showed
below.
Table 1. Nutritive characteristics of mixed pellet forage for Chinchilla

(BUD, 2006)
Crt. Specification M.U. Quantity

nr.
1. Maximum moisture % 14.400
2. Crude protein % 18.510
3. Maximum D.E. MJ/kg 10.550
4. Maximum cellulose % 9.200
5. Maximum fat % 3.100
6. Crude ash % 4.800
7. Minimum Ca % 1.050
8. Minimum P % 0.910
9. Minimum Na % 0.220
10. Vitamin A U.I./kg 9990.000
11. Vitamin D3 U.I./kg 2025.000
12. Vitamin E mg/kg 80.000
13. Minimum Lysine % 0.810
14. Minimum Methionine % 0.328
The roughage as a grass-clover hay is administrated in quantity of 280

g/tronson once at two days. A tronson mean 5 cages, belong to one family.

Following the kindling evolution since January to August 2007 we
observed a significant grouping for two periods, from March to May and from
July to August (Graph 1).
For our first period is corresponding the results obtained by LANSZKY
(1998, cited in 1999) with maximum kindling period from the whole year in
spring from February to May.
- 664 -
30
25 25
20 20
15 16 16 Parturitions
10 12
9 9
5 4
0
ry
ry
ly
t
il
ay
ne
ch
us
pr
Ju
ua
a
M
ar
Ju
nu
ug
A
br
M
Ja
A
Fe
Graph 1. Giving birth evolution during the spring and summer months
The more interesting aspect is that we obtained almost the same results
(fecundity) in very different temperature and humidity conditions (Graph 2), that
means that exists another factor that influence significant this reproductive
parameter.
Fecundity Temperature Humidity

60
50 50.2 48.25
47.25 46.15
43.4 43.25
40
30 25
16.25 17 19.4
17.25
20 16.15
16.6
16 20 12
10 16
9
0
November December January February March April
Graph 2. Fecundity evolution function of temperature and humidity
CONCLUSION
In average the temperature was bordered by the 16.25˚C in November and
25.3˚C in July extreme limits (Graph. 3.). The temperature has a natural gradual
ascendant evolution corresponding to seasons.
The big amplitude of the temperature likes 16-25˚C, is prove to be too large. Even
if doesn’t happens suddenly temperature changing, this big amplitude entailing
series of difficulty, especially when we talking about temperature like 25˚C. If the
temperature reach and/or pas by 25˚C, exist the thermo shock risk, talking about
four animals.
- 665 -
Temperature
30
25 24.8 25.3 25.1

20 19.4 19.5 19.78
16.25 16.6 17 17.25 17.43 17
15 16.15
10
0
Nov Dec Ian Feb Mar Apr May Iun Iul Aug Sept Oct Nov
Graph. 3. Temperature evolution in the shed November 2006- November 2007
Because of this reasons I recommend to farmers to consider the advantage

of the air conditioning installations, because the ventilators assembled in the
windows of the halls couldn’t make more than air streams, but these could not
decrease the temperature bellow the critical threshold, in case when the outside
values are more above 30˚C.
In conclusion in a hall, a simple ventilator couldn’t diminish the temperature more
than 7-8˚C comparing to the outside.
In the shelter the relative humidity evolutes in limits of 43.25-50.2 %
(Graph. 4.), making a balanced sinuous curve from November till the end of
August. This value seems to be more inferiors like the literature recommend,
where the optimum is between 50 and 60 %, with the maximum of 70 % (BUD,
2006, 2003, 2001; BURA 2003; POTHÁCZKY, 1990; HOLDAS, 1981). This
low humidity from the chinchilla’s shelter recorded during this year spring and
summer is because of the dryness of this year, and the management of the unit
doesn’t resort to artificial correction of this parameter.
It is imperious that in the scorching summers, to place in the halls containers with
water, and through evaporation to balance the humidity of the air, and to prevent
the drastic decreasing under 50 %.
The results showed that the temperature and the relative humidity of the
shelter do not influence decisive fecundity of the females.
Seems like the season with his consequencies (day light duration,
atmosferic pressure) could have a major influence to the fecundity of the
chinchillas female.
- 666 -
BACK
Humidity
70
60 57.85 60.11
55.54
50 50.2 49.35 48.53 48.22 51.22
47.25 46.15 48.25
43.4 43.25
40
30
20
10
0
Nov Dec Ian Febr Mar Apr May Iun Iul Aug Sept Oct Nov
Graph. 4. Humidity evolution in the shed November 2006- November 2007
In the next stage of our research we will studying also the influence of the
atmospheric pressure and a day light duration in strictly correlation with the
fallowed factors (temperature and the relative humidity), to can form a more
complex view about the factors and they limits which influence the fecundity of
the Chinchilla females.
Like a final conclusion for the obtained results, it is necessary to
underline the necessity of the air conditioning installations, especially in the torrid
summer months to don’t risk the exaggerated temperature increasing, which in the
case of the fur animals can be fatal, and to succeed to maintain the relative
humidity from the shelter between tolerable limits which doesn’t influence
negatively the reproduction performances. In the cold period of the year the
central heating network can assure more secure (constant) and cheaper thermal
comfort compeering with the air conditioning installations.
REFERENCES
1. Bud I., Réka Ştefan, (2006), Animale de blană – Creştere, reproducere, valorificare, Editura
Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca.
2. Bud I., Anca Boaru, V. Vlădău, (2003), Iepuri, animale de blană şi vânat, Editura
academicPres, Cluj-Napoca.
3. Bud I., (2001), Animale de blană. Creştere, întreţinere, reproducere şi valorificare, Editura
AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca.
4. Bura M., (2003), Chinchilla, biologie, întreţinere, nutriţie, reproducere, ameliorare,
valorificare, patologie, Editura Agroprint, Timişoara.
5. Holdas S., (1981), A csincsilla tenyésztése, Mezőgazdasági Kiadó, Budapest.
6. Lanszki J., (1999), A korszerű prémesállat-tenyésztés gyakorlata, Mezőgazdasági Szaktudás
Kiadó, Budapest.
7. Rebreanu L., (1982), Creşterea chinchilelor, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
8. Rebreanu L. Şt., (2002), Animale ierbivore cu blănuri preţioase, Editura de Vest, Timişoara.
9. Simon L., (2006), Posibilităţi de creştere, înmulţire şi valorificare a chinchillei în ferme de tip
familial, Lucrare de diplomă, Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară, Cluj-
Napoca.
- 667 -
BACK
MICROCLIMATE FACTORS EVOLUTION IN A MIDDLE

SIZE CHINCHILLA BREEDING FARM
M. BOTHA, I. BUD
Following the recorded data’s we obtained a big amplitude of the

temperature like 16-25˚C, which is not desirable in a Chinchilla farm. If the
temperature reach and/or pas by 25˚C, exist the thermo shock risk, talking about
four animals.
In a most of the cases (months) the relative humidity was lower that would
be consider optimum for this species. In this order in sultry summers it is necessary
to intervene for the artificial correction of the temperature and the humidity.
For the observed period we didn’t recorded any air streams, the
absence of this it is a primordial condition for an adequate microclimate.
The toxic gases concentration proved to be really low, in case of the
NH3 we found just some traces and the CO2 the concentration didn’t pas over
0,1%. H2S absent, because in the shelter did not exist conditions for anaerobic
fermentation. All this values shows an impeccable hygienic state of the shelter.
Because the farm practiced the bedded breeding system (with pine
shavings) we also measured the sedimentabile materials quantity, which indicates
an middle to strength pollute microclimate, respectively 18,20-33,80 g/m2/30 days.
The motivation of a thoroughgoing study regarding Chinchilla’s breeding

conditions was that in a last few years systematic breeding of this species get
proportion in our country because a presence of some firms which conclude firm
contracts for middle and long term, in this way ensuring the final products sell.
This species breeding commit oneself for family farms, like a secondary activity
with supplementary incomes, but also for setting up big (intensive) farms as
principal activity and substantial incomes.
The aim of this study is to monitoring the microclimate factors evolution
during a year and to identify the most favorable moments for successful mating
regarding the monitored factors, to can increase the rate of female reproduction
cycles in order to expose the maximum genetic potential of the females and to
find the ways and methods to increase the labor productivity and economic
efficiency in chinchillas breeding farms.

Because for fur production 90% of furs are provided by standard variety
and also having enough subjects for the experiment we decided to use exclusively
the standard Chinchilla (Chinchilla lanigera) for our purposes.
From the entire stock of the farm (60 families) of standard chinchillas we
choused randomly 20 families for this project, this families were placed in a room
for a better observing and monitoring of the microclimate factors.
A family means a 1:5 sex ratio (1 male + 5 female).
- 668 -
For the animals comfort and for a better absorption the farm practice the
bedded breeding system (with pine shavings). The cages are bedded weekly,
when the dust bath trays are cleaned and disinfected also, in a case when they get
dirty because of adhering solid excrements.
The individual cage has 40 x 50 x 40 cm dimensions, the visiting passage
for male have 17 x 17 cm, arranged in four levels.
For a permanent monitoring of the microclimate factors we placed in a
breeding hall a printing digital hygrometer (thermometer-humid meter) with 20°
C - +60° C / 0,1° C respectively 5 - 95% / 0,1 % RH (relative humidity)
measurement domain/resolution. Accuracy ± 0,4°C, ± 2% RH and the printable
and memorable intervals of the data’s 1; 2; 5; 10; 15; 30; 60; 120; 180 minutes, in
0 - 50° C till 98% RH (without condense) ambient conditions. The digital
hygrometer are provided with a liquid crystal display which shows separate or
simultaneously the humidity and/or temperature, controlled by a microprocessor
with exterior probe. Therefore we adjust the thermo-hydrometer to print the
recorded data’s in each 3 hours.
To can evaluate the sedimentabile materials quantity from the shed, we
placed indoor Petri glasses with 7cm diameter, which are weight first (empty) and
then they are exposed in a room for 30 days. After this period they are weight
again with an analytic balance with 0,01g resolution and after this we determined
the quantity of dust/m2 using the formulas from below:
Petri glass weight with dust – empty Petri glass weight = dust weight g
Sglass = Пr2 cm2
dust = 10 000 x dust quantity / Sglass g/m2/30 days
We start monitoring the sedimentabile materials quantity to see if these have or
not some influence in animal’s reproductive activity respectively reproductive
life. This studies stars because of the high quantity of dust in the hall because of
the bedded breeding system.
We did measure the air streams speed weekly with a catathermometer,
having factor = 495, using next formula:
H = F/a
Legend: H-index of catathermometer
F-factor of catathermometer
a-cooling time (in seconds) from 38ºC to 35ºC
Q = 36,5-t
Legend: Q-differences between catathermometer average temperature (36,5ºC)
and the ambient temperature at the measurement moment
V = [(H/Q-0,02)/0,04]2 m/s
- 669 -
For toxic gases level identification we used a Dräger pomp and indicating
tubes for CO2 with values from 0,03-1% and for NH3, tube with the first scale
from 0,017mg/l.

Monitoring of microclimate factors (temperature and relative humidity)
get start at 1st November 2006 till November 2007, in this way we get enough
data’s to can form an idea regarding the evolution of this parameter during an
entire year in a middle size Chinchilla farm. In generally the temperature is
strongly influenced by the outside temperature values, therefore during summer
we recorded really high temperatures in the shed (Graph. 1.).
30 24.8 25.3 25.1

25 19.4
17 19.5 17.43
20 16.25
15 19.78
16.6 16.15 17.25 17
10
5
0
Temperature
Graph. 1. Temperature evolution in the shed November 2006- November 2007
Like in a temperatures case, the relative humidity of the air from the barn
following strictly the levels from the outside (Graph. 2.). In this order in a
plentiful raining period increasing the indoor humidity and vice versa. This
fluctuation can be avoided by using air condition installations, which can be set in
function of claims.
70 57.85 55.54
60 48.22 60.11
43.4 46.15 43.25
50
40 50.2 49.35 48.53 51.22
47.25 48.25
30
20
10
0
Humidity
Graph. 2. Humidity evolution in the shed November 2006- November 2007
- 670 -
48.25 57.85
100 50.2 47.25 49.35 48.53
80
43.4
60 46.15 43.25
16.6 19.4
16.25 17 19.5 20.8
40 16.15 17.25 25.3
16 20
20 9 12 14 13
16 25 5
0
Nov Dec Ian Feb Mar Apr May Iun Iul
Fecundity Temperature Humidity
Graph. 3. Fecundity evolution function of temperature and humidity
Heaving the cumulated effect of two parameters upon a fecundation we

can form a more clear idea about the correlation between of this regarding the
followed reproduction indicator.
The best performances (25 fecund mating) were obtained at 16.6˚C in
average and 43.4% relative humidity, respectively at 19.4˚C and 48.25%
humidity. At the other extreme at 16.15˚C temperature and 46.15% humidity we
recorded 9 fecund mates.
Because the recorded data’s didn’t show a concluding positive or negative
correlation with the fertility of this species and following the kindling evolution in
function of months respectively seasons, we can affirm that a strength influence
come from the season with everything what suppose this (daylight during,
atmosphere pressure, etc.).
After processing recorded data’s regarding the air streams speed from the
shelter, following the methodology described at Material and methods chapter, we
ascertained the absence of any air streams, respectively a 0,000625m/s speed
indifferent when we measured this (Table 1.).
Table 1. Air streams speed in the shed during September – December 2007
Month
September October November December
week week week week
I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV I II III IV
average = 0,000625 average = 0,000625 average = 0,000625 average = 0,000625
m/s m/s m/s m/s
In absence of the air streams from the barn we didn’t observed any
problems in animals health and implicit in reproduction because of this.
- 671 -
An air streams free environment is essential condition in Chinchilla

breeding technology, the specie being very sensitive for the most week intensity
of this factor (BUD, 2006; HOLDAS, 1981).
Because of high density of the animals at the surface unit, respectively at
3
m , it is naturally to record toxic gases in the air of the shelter, and the control of
this it is very important especially in a case of fur animals, regarding the NH3
quantity. In this order we made weekly measurements to determine the
concentration of the CO2 and NH3 from microclimate. Like at the air streams
measurements we obtained really low values of these concentration Table 2 and 3.
This low concentration of the measured toxic gases shows an impeccable
hygienic state of the hall, the farm couldn’t be a model for any animal breeding
farm or farmer.
Table 2. CO2 concentration in the barn during September – December 2007

Month
week week week week
average = 0,1% average = 0,1% average = 0,1% average = 0,1%
Table 3. NH3 concentration in the barn during September – December 2007

Month
week week week week
traces* traces* traces* traces*
* 0.00283 mg/l air
We start to monitoring the sedimentabile dust from September 2007,

observing a really big variation of these from a month to month, the principal
reason is the quality of the bedding, which can be finely chopped (with more dust)
or thick (with larger parts).
The samples for sedimentabile materials identification are harvested once
a month after a 30 days exposure of the Perti glasses.
Regarding the sedimentabile materials which are under suspension dust in the
shed atmosphere we can affirm after data’s report that we observed a middle to
strongly pollute air (Table 4.).
Table 4. Sedimentabile materials quantity from the barn

20,22 g/m2/30 days 18,20 g/m2/30 days 33,80 g/m2/30 days 19,43 g/m2/30
days
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Even if we had an pollute microclimate regarding the sedimentabile

materials an implicit in suspension we didn’t recorded any negative influence
because of regarding the life quality and reproduction behavior of the animals.
Following the kindling evolution from November 2006 to November
2007, we observed a significant grouping of these in March-May respectively
July-August., with ascendant evolution from January till the half of April, and
from a second half of June to first half of July, with a relative constant tableland
from the half of August till the firs half of October (Graph.7).
30
25 25
20 20
15 16 16
14 13
12
10 9 9
5 4 5
0
Ian Feb Mar Apr May Iun Iul Aug Sept Oct Nov
Parturitions
Graph. 4. Kindling evolution during January-November 2007
CONCLUSIONS
The big amplitude of the temperature likes 16-25˚C, is prove to be too
large. Even if doesn’t happens suddenly temperature changing, this big amplitude
entailing series of difficulty, especially when we talking about temperature like
25˚C. If the temperature reach and/or pas by 25˚C, exist the thermo shock risk,
talking about four animals.
Because of this reasons I recommend to farmers to consider the advantage
of the air conditioning installations, because the ventilators assembled in the
windows of the halls couldn’t make more than air streams, but these could not
decrease the temperature bellow the critical threshold, in case when the outside
values are more above 30˚C.
In conclusion in a hall, a simple ventilator couldn’t diminish the
temperature more than 7-8˚C comparing to the outside.
In the shelter the relative humidity evolutes in limits of 43.25-60.11%
(Graph. 2.), making a balanced sinuous curve from November 2006 till the end of
November 2007. This value seems to be more inferiors like the literature
recommend, where the optimum is between 50 and 60 %, with the maximum of
70 % (BUD, 2006, 2003, 2001; BURA 2003; POTHÁCZKY, 1990; HOLDAS,
1981), in situation when we recorded optimal humidity just in a case of four
months (June, September, October and November).
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BACK
This low humidity from the chinchilla’s shelter recorded during this year
spring and summer is because of the dryness of this year, and the management of
the unit doesn’t resort to artificial correction of this parameter.
It is imperious that in the scorching summers, to place in the halls containers with
water, and through evaporation to balance the humidity of the air, and to prevent
the drastic decreasing under 50 %.
The results showed that the temperature and the relative humidity of the
shelter do not influence decisively the fecundity of the Chinchilla females,
because we obtained the same reproductive performances in a case when the
microclimate parameter values was at the opposite extreme (Graph. 3.).
Talking about the air streams sped in the shelter we can assert that we have
a perfect microclimate, because we didn’t recorded any air streams (Table 1.).
Toxic gases concentration regarding CO2 and NH3 has really low values, in a
case of NH3 we found just some traces, and a CO2 concentration didn’t pas over 0,1%.
Even if the sedimentabile materials indicate middle to intense pollute
microclimate, we didn’t occurred any drawbacks that could be because of this.
The most probable problem couldn’t be the rinite incidence, but was no any kind
of situations.
Like a final conclusion we can affirm, that the really serious problem in the
middle size farms is to maintain between the optimal limits the temperatures and the
relative humidity, special in the summer months. In the situation when we bedding
weekly, as it is showed in Table 2 and 3, the toxic gases will not pollute the
microclimate. If the barn closing elements are good isolated will be not any air
streams that could disturb the animals health and implicit the reproductive process.
If the applied technology is with bedded cages we can aspect a pollute microclimate
with sedimentabile materials, but how the results showed with no drawbacks.
REFERENCES
1. BUD, I. şi REKA ŞTEFAN (2006), Animale de blană, creştere, reproducere, valorificare,
Ed. Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca.
2. BUD, I., ANCA BOARU, V. VLĂDĂU (2003), Iepuri, animale de blană şi vânat. Ed.
AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca.
3. BUD, I. (2001), Animale de blană, Ed. AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca.
4. BURA, M. (2003), Chinchilla, biologie, întreţinere, nutriţie, reproducere, ameliorare,
valorificare, patologie, Ed. Agroprint, Timişoara.
5. BURA, M. şi D. DROANCĂ (2003), Ameliorarea şi valorificarea animalelor de blană
erbivore: nutrie, bizam, chinchilla, Ed. Orizonturi Universitare, Timişoara.
6. HOLDAS, S. (1981), A csincsilla tenyésztése, Ed. Mezőgazdasági Kiadó, Budapest.
7. POTHÁCZKY, L. (1990), Csincsillatenyésztés mesterfokon, Ed. Szūv Nyomda, Budapest.
- 674 -
BACK
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF CATTLE

BREEDING OF RACE BALTATA NEAGRA ROMANEASCA
IN DOBROGEA
S. BULANCEA
Cattle breeding represent a major production branch in agriculture. The

milk is one of the important products in Romanian agriculture, and the
contribution of this sector to the global value of agriculture was in 1999 of 15%.
Approximately 95% of the milk production is obtained in the private sector,
which offers the most important part of the processed milk.
This study presents an analysis of the evolution of milk production from the
official control, and also an analysis of the cattle number in the past years in
Dobrogea region.
Taking into consideration the current state of cattle breeding in the studied area,
the form of propriety, the size and the endowment of agricultural exploitations,
the genetic value of the biologic material reared in these exploitations, we
distinguish the following common objectives for the studied exploitations:
1. Increase the total number of selected in exploitations;
2. Increase the milk and meat production to the European standards of
quality;
3. The biologic material offered for reproduction has to be
correspondingly dimensioned to size of the existing farms, but also to
new cattle farms;
4. Attentively elaborate the legal frame to allocate financial stimulants;
5. Recognition, encouragin and help offering from authorities for the cattle
breeding associations.
In what follows we will go deeply into the segment of superior capitalization
of the milk production and the realization of this desideratum by a superior
management of exploitations.
INTRODUCTION
Cattle breeding represent a major production branch in agriculture. The
milk is one of the important products in Romanian agriculture, and the
contribution of this sector to the global value of agriculture was in 1999 of 15%.
Approximately 95% of the milk production is obtained in the private sector,
which offers the most important part of the processed milk.
This study presents an analysis of the evolution of milk production from
the official control, and also an analysis of the cattle number in the past years in
Dobrogea region.
The milk cattle from the race BNR (baltata cu negru romaneasca) in
Dobrogea is realized in small industrial exploitations, with semi-intensive rearing,
and in family farms, the last one becoming more and more used in the last years,
- 675 -
in Dobrogea. Milking cattle rearing in private family farms and the consolidation
of associative farms are actual objectives in this area.
The research in this paper was made on biologic material from BNR race
in intensive, semi-intensive exploitations, and in family farms. The animals were
included in official programs of milk production control. The most important
farms studied were the following: Valul lui Traian, Confido, Celacob Cobadin
(known as LEX system now), CEZOTOR Tortomanu, Baby Beef Tortomanu
(now Diary Farms), Agroholding Ovidiu - Poarta Alba Farm, and an individual
farm, owned by Stoleac Gheorghe, in the years 2000-2004.
In applying the methodology of research I used data from the database of
D.A.D.R. Constanta, the Unit for Amelioration of Reproduction in Zootechny, but
also data taken directly from the analyzed agricultural exploitations.
All these data, centralized, computed, and processed were analyzed also
through the eye of actual data observed in the field.
The exploitation of milking cattle is based on the knowledge of individual
and population particularities and the interrelations between phenotype and
genotype. We need to determine demographic parameters according to the
structure and dynamics of populations.
Climate Conditions in the Interval 2000-2004
Between the years 2000 and 2004 the climate was different than normal
periods, with other climate cycles, having prolonged droughts, and variations of
temperature. These variations of temperature have broken the natural lifecycle of
plants, and diminishing the production – as an example in 2003 the wheat crops
were compromised in Dobrogea.
Medium temperatures recorded in this period of time were high,
especially in the agricultural years 2001/2002 and 2002/2003. Temperatures
closed to the years’ average were recorded in 2003/2004.
Tracking the graph for precipitations the agricultural year 2003/2004
stopped the drought. |In this year there were recorded precipitations closed to the
multi-annual average for many months, while in some months they were over the
average, see for example may 2004, when we had more than 100mm / m².
In the other years included in the study the precipitations were low, not uniformly
distributed, and they determined long periods of drought.
About the relative humidity of the air the registered values were between
70% and 95%, in the multi-annual average.
Technological Particularities Specific to Each Exploitation Based on
the Rearing System (Intensive, Extensive in Family Farms)
1. S.C. Baby Beef Tortomanu
The animals are sheltered in shelters of hall type, every shelter is divided
into individual berths, their floor is made of concrete with a grid form, and the
bed is made of rubber carpets.
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Dejections and garbage collection is based on the water pillow system,

they leak in collecting basins and they are afterwards evacuated in depositing
basins.
The milking is made in two milking groups (milking rooms of type
Gascogne Mellote) with a capacity of 20 places each. The milk is automatically
measured and then it is pushed in a central pipeline to the cooling and tanking
room, made of steel tanks.
The cattle are fed mechanical, with fodders from farm’s own stock. In the
summer the silo is replaced with green chopped fodders. The concentrated
nutriments are administered based on production groups. The water is in
abundance, in troughs with constant level.
S.C. Confido Conacu
At this farm the cattle are reared is semi-intensive system. They are tied
in shelters with manual evacuation of dejections.
Below are some characteristics of this farm with a capacity of 110 heads:
- The animals are placed head to head with a central alee used for feeding;
- The feeding process is made with trailers. The animals are taken in the
summer to the pasture and supplementary hay from stock is administered.
Concentrated nutriments are administered during the milking process. In the
winter the fodders include hay, corn silo, and concentrated obtained in the farm,
using farm’s machines;
- The water is administered in shelters with constant level;
- The milking is made mechanically, in cans. At the end of each hall there
is a reservoir for milk.
S.C. DA Valul lui Traian
This farm uses the tied system as rearing technology; the cattle are tied,
head to head with a central alee used for feeding the animals, the fed is takes
place manually, the water is system is automatic and dejections are manually
evacuated.
The fodders in the cold season include forage produced in the farm, corn
silo obtained when the plant is not matured; in the summer the fodders include
chopped green materials, hay and concentrated produced inside the farm.
The milking is made mechanically, in cans.
Stoleac Gheorghe Farm
The rearing technology used is tied (head to head), with manual
evacuation of dejections and manual milking. The fed is also made manually, with
hay and greens (chopped corn plant) in the summer and in the cold season the
meals include hay of alfalfa, forage pumpkins manually chopped and
concentrated produced inside the farm (corn, barley etc.). The concentrated
nutriments are administered individually, based on the milk production.
All the studied exploitations deliver the milk to contracted processors; the
prices vary based on the season and milk quality (density and fat percent).
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BACK
The Milk Production in 2004 in the 4 Exploitations Analyzed by This

Paper
From 2001 till 2004 the number of cattle are increasing in the analyzed
farms, excepting for S.C. Baby Beef. The milk production obtained in 2004 is
presented in the following table:
Farm Milk Production (hl) Merchandised Milk
S.C. Baby Beef Tortomanu 10.136 9.730
S.C. Confido Conacu 2.994 2.786
S.C. DA Valul lui Traian 1.851 1.293
Stoleac Gheorghe 561 293
The total milk production obtained in 2004 in Constanta was 796.278 hl,
of which 65% was processed, 520.763 hl, and 253.087 hl were subsidized. The
average production per head of cattle was in 2004 in Constanta of 3.300 l / per
animal.
CONCLUSION
Taking into consideration the current state of cattle breeding in the
studied area, the form of propriety, the size and the endowment of agricultural
exploitations, the genetic value of the biologic material reared in these
exploitations, we distinguish the following common objectives for the studied
exploitations:
1. Increase the total number of womb cattle in exploitations, to an
optimal loading;
2. Increase the milk and meat production to the European standards of
quality, by improving the exploitations conditions;
3. The biologic material offered for reproduction has to be
correspondingly dimensioned to size of the existing farms, but also to
new cattle farms;
4. Attentively elaborate the legal frame to allocate financial stimulants;
5. Acknowledgement, encouraging and help offering from authorities
for the cattle breeding associations.
I have analyzed in this paper the segment of superior capitalization of the

milk production and the realization of this desideratum by a superior exploitations
management.
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BACK
PARTICULARITIES OF CATTLE BREEDING

IN SMALL FAMILY FARMS, IN THE SPECIFIC
CONDITIONS OF DOBROGEA REGION
S. BULANCEA
Before 1990 in the agricultural structures in Romania, besides state

owned agricultural enterprises and agricultural cooperatives of production
existed as agricultural entity of production also the small household farms.
The milk productions obtained in this last sector were mainly used for
family consumption and only a small part was collected by the state.
After 1990 these small household farms were called family farms.
Taking into consideration over 50 years of experiences in countries with
advanced zootechny, and in comparison with the natural, social and economic
conditions in Romania, we can conclude that the Romanian zootechny can be
based on performance, competitive and profitability only in family farms, but in
such a way that the farmer exploits alone or together with his family members all
the animals reared and the afferent land, without employing other person,
excepting maybe some peak periods of time.
In order to present the offer of Dobrogea region in the context of cattle
breeding and exploiting in the private sector we have to account for the following
important aspects:
- Study the specificity of family micro farms in Dobrogea area and to
determine its economical efficiency;
- Evaluate the allocated expenses and incomes obtained in micro farms
of different dimensions;
- Case study on the technical-managerial elements in family owned milk
cattle farms in Dobrogea region;
- Fundament the production cost for milk and diary products producers
by emphasizing the influence of intermediary links in the production
chain;
- Study the possibilities of integrating the milk production, identify and
emphasize the integration poles in Dobrogea.
INTRODUCTION
Before 1990 in the agricultural structures in Romania, besides state
owned agricultural enterprises and agricultural cooperatives of production existed
as agricultural entity of production also the small household farms.
The milk productions obtained in this last sector were mainly used for
family consumption and only a small part was collected by the state.
After 1990 these small household farms were called family farms. Taking
into consideration over 50 years of experiences in countries with advanced
zootechny, and reporting it to the natural, social and economic conditions in
Romania, we can conclude that the Romanian zootechny can be based on
- 679 -
performance, competitive and profitability only in family farms, but in such a way
that the farmer exploits alone or together with his family members all the animals
reared and the afferent land, without employing other person, excepting maybe
some peak periods of time.
Modern Technological and Managerial Basis Regarding Cattle

Breeding in Family Farms
The animals are fed manually, water recipes are inside the stable, when
the weather is good the paddock is used for walking. The evacuation of dejections
is manually made, by transporting them to the garbage platform from inside the
farm.
In all the analyzed exploitations the reproductive activity is continuously
recorded, artificial inseminations are used and milk production is officially
controlled.
Exploiting Cattle in Tied System
In new or modernized shelters the cattle are exploited on a bed with the
length between 160-180 cm and a width between 110 and 115 cm, with metal bars
to separate the place for each two cows.
The interior design of the stable must assure optimal conditions for
breeders and comfort and wellness for the animals. Currently when designing
family farms the shelters are two-sided, with a central alee used to administer
fodders. This type of shelter maintains the biological heat necessary to rear young
cattle in distinct compartment under the same roof in free system.
Exploiting cattle in tied system increases productivity, maintains a good
micro-climate by a good hygiene of the animals, and increases the comfort of the
animals on the resting bed.
The linking system of the animals of type "grabner" permits tie and
disjoin of all animals at once.
In the ten family exploitations analyzed I've observed that in the cold
season the breeding system is the one tied, with central alee used to feed the
animals.
Indeed many breeders of milk cattle practice this system because it
reduces the risk of harming the cattle, influencing implicitly the health state with a
negative influence on the milk production.
The system of contention of the animals must permit the ease of linking
and unlinking, while creating sufficient space for free movement of the head and
neck.
In this system we must assure to each animal a minimum of 25 cm of
movement in front and behind.
The position of the animal in stand must be such that the urine and fecal
materials to not reach the resting bed; they must be evacuated through a collecting
channel covered with a metal grid or on water pillow.
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From the micro-climate factors, the air quality plays an important role,
especially at this rearing system, as the air quality degrades easy with noxious
gas, and it needs to assure corresponding natural ventilation, avoiding the forming
of air currents directed to the animals.
With this technology the best milking system is the one on pipeline, but
we can also use milking pails. In both system, at the ends of the stable there must
be cooling tanks in order to keep the milk at 4°C.
Both in free and tied systems, the whelping takes place in a distinct
compartment, with special amenities, where gestation cattle have a straw bed.
The sustenance of calves is made in individual docks until 4-5 days of
age; they are fed with feeding bottle or bucket.
The Stable and the Necessary Conditions for Technological Comfort for
Milk Cattle
The stable must assure a corresponding micro-climate for the
technological comfort of milk cattle.
In the ten exploitations analyzed by this paper, in the pasture season the
animals stay in paddocks, while the stables are cleaned and disinfected, repairs are
made and preparing the shelters for the cold season.
Milk cattle are accommodated there in the cold season. The micro-climate
needs to be in optimal parameters, and the biological heat is one of the most
important factors.
The ventilation is assured by doors, windows, but also by chimneys
positioned such that they avoid air currents.
Micro-climate and the assurance of optimal parameters
In the cold season the micro-climate in the stables must be constant, with
very slight variations of temperature and humidity. The variations of these factors
would lead to discomfort of the animals and a negative effect on the milk
production and rearing of the young cattle.
In the exploitations analyzed I observed that the stables were prepared for
the cold season by tightening the doors and the windows, and by a corresponding
use of the vertical ventilation system.
Illumination and luminosity coefficient in the stables
I remarked that in the family farms analyzed the natural light was on the
first option, so the windows were well maintained. Also, during the cold season
the days are shorter and the electrical illumination is used to assure proper
conditions for the animals in the exploitation.
Principal Technological Links and Managerial Conduct in Raising
Milk Cattle in Family Farms
Principles of Nutrition of Milk Cattle
In an exploitation of rearing cattle for milk the factors which might
influence the profitability of the farm are many, but we might highlight the
following:
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1. Quality of the genetic material which populates the farms, expressed by

the existence of potential of maximized productivity, of which we need to assure
the genetic progress;
2. The feeding of milk cattle must sustain the maximal expressing of the
genetic potential included, through the activity of continuous improvement of the
capacity of production;
3. Optimal conditions of technological comfort both in the pasture season
and in the cold season.
Types of Feeds by the Productive Season and by Season
In small, family farms we must take into account modern, efficient
proceedings; without them the technical performance and efficiency is not
possible:
- To give up on fodder sources as straws, corn cobs, creeping stems,
leguminous, empirical paste;
- In the feeding of milk cattle there must be administered an important
quantity of dried substances of quality, with a complete structure. It must assure a
high degree of consumability of all the volume fodders and concentrates. It must
reduce at a minimum the water content of the administered fodders and assure a
high level of their energetic, protean, vitamins, and minerals content. The fodders
have to be administered in accordance with the animals’ behavior, assuring the
necessary digestive capacity.
- It is necessary to assure both in stabulation and paste times’
concentrated protean-vitamin-mineral premix;
- The animals must be taken to pasture in ameliorated, parceled pastures.
The race BNR ("baltata neagra romaneasca") was ameliorated in the

sense of realizing productive enhancements like: a well developed digestive
system capable of storing 20 kg of dried substance, a mammary gland with
volume, uniformity of quarters and tags capable of producing 20-50 kg of milk,
also for mechanical milking.
In the daily feed of milk cattle the major part should be formed by fibber
fodders and juicy ones, approximately 65-70% from the total of nutritive total.
The difference, 30-35% are represented by concentrated nutriments administered
as concentrated fodders.
The daily feed administered in the ten exploitations analyzed slightly
differs by the season. In the pasture season the share of concentrated nutriments
lowers to 10-15% from the daily ratio, and in the stabulation season their share
gets to 30-35%. The daily ratio is make up based on the season, taking into
account the level of production; the feeding is differentiated on production
batches such that for 10 kg weight to assure 1 kg of forage and for 100 kg of
animal to assure a necessary of 3 kg of dried substances per day.
Assuring the necessary quantity of water, no matter the season is a strict
necessity as the contrary would lead to decreasing the milk production.
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BACK
The water quantity necessary in 24 hours is based on feed, temperature,

milk production etc. Generally for cattle a necessary of 50-70 l / day or an average
of 4-6 l / kg of consumed dried substance.
In the pasture season in the exploitations analyzed the water is mainly
taken from phreatic waters, springs, creeks. It should be unpolluted, clear, with no
particular tastes, and with a temperature between 12-16°C.
In the cold season the water is provided in the stable, in water trough or
with automatic watering places.
Milking Technology
In the family farms analyzed and in the period observed in this paper we
remarked that from the ten exploitations only three owns automatic installations
of can milking: two in Tulcea and one in Constanta.
The rest of the exploitations still use the old style manual milking, a
method that is hard, inefficient and non-hygienic.
Management and Evacuation of Dejections
The evacuation of dejections in family farms is not a real problem; they
are evacuated manually and are deposited in special platforms inside the farm.
Liquid dejections are deposited in basin (drying connecting well). They
are taken from there and used in fertilizing land.
Measurements imposed by the Medium Agency are meant to protect the
area around the farm in the contingency of possible pollution with nitrite and
nitrate.
CONCLUSIONS
In order to present the offer of Dobrogea region in the context of cattle
breeding and exploiting in the private sector we have to account for the following
important aspects:
- Study the specificity of family micro farms in Dobrogea area and to
determine its economical efficiency;
Evaluate the allocated expenses and incomes obtained in micro farms of
different dimensions;
- Case study on the technical-managerial elements in family owned milk
cattle farms in Dobrogea region;
- Fundament the production cost for milk and diary products producers by
emphasizing the influence of intermediary links in the production chain;
- Study the possibilities of integrating the milk production, identify and
emphasize the poles of integration in Dobrogea.
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THE ORIGIN OF HUŢULA BREED PRODUCTS

OBTAINED AT LUCINA HERD
M.V. BURLICĂ, D. SIMEANU
From the beginning, in Lucina Herd, Huţulul grew in a pure breed, on the
basis of lines this form being considered an organization form of improving works.
To avoid the consangvinisation too close of breed part now are 5
genealogical lines: Hroby, Goral, Petrosul. Ouşor and Prislop.
The research was made at Lucina Herd taking in calculation the
stallions products representing those 5 lines, beginning with the year 1976 till
2006 studying 1680 products, from which 823 males and 857 females.
From the entire products obtained at Lucina Herd has been restrained
for reproduction just 388 animals from which 349 females and 39 males.
The highest number of products has obtained in the Hroby line (484
products, 236 males and 248 females) then succeed the lines Ouşor (355
products from which 176 males and 176 females), Goral (289 products from
which 139 males and 150 females), Prislop (279 products from which 141 males
and 138 females) and final the Pietrosu line with 273 products from which 131
males and 142 females.
Keywords: Huţul, Hroby, Goral, Pietrosul, Ouşor, Prislop.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The research was made at Lucina Herd taking in calculation the stallions
products representing those five lines (Pietrosu, Hroby, Goral, Ouşor and Prislop),
starting with the year 1976 till 2006.

The Pietrosu line
The Pietrosu line is representing in this research by the stallions products
Pietrosu III, Pietrosu IV, Pietrosu V, Pietrosu VI, Pietrosu VIII, Pietrosu IX,
Pietrosu X and Pietrosu XI. On the entire line, in this period has resulted a total
number of 273 products from which 131 males and 142 females.
During this line the stallions Pietrosu VIII and Pietrosu VI has noticed 24,
respective 15 mothers mares. At the opposite pole are Pietrosu V stallions with a
number of 3, respective 4 mothers mares. From the stallion Pietrosu II has
resulted two reproductive stallions: Pietrosu IV (1960-1972) and Pietrosu VI
(1964-1975).
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Fig. 1. The products number from Pietrosu line, males and females which became
reproductive stallions and mothers mares in the period 1976-2006
The Hroby line

The Hroby line is representing by the stallions products Hroby X, Hroby
XI, Hroby XII, Hroby XIII, Hroby XIV, Hroby XVI, Hroby XVII, Hroby XVIII,
Hroby XIX, Hroby XX, Hroby XXI, Hroby XXII and Hroby XXIII. In the period
1976-2006 has resulted 484 products, 236 males and 248 females.
Fig.2.The products number of Horby line, males and females which became
At this line has noticed the stallions Hroby XIV, Hroby XVI and Hroby
XXI with 17, 15 and 18 products which became mothers mares, and the stallion
Horby XVI with 3 products which became reproductive stallions: Hroby XVIII,
Hroby XIX and Hroby XXI.
- 685 -
The Goral line

The products origin in the Goral line case, for the period 1976-2006 is
representing by the stallions Goral IX, Goral X, Goral XII, Goral XIII, Goral XV,
Goral XVI, Goral XVII, Goral XVIII and Goral XIX. In this period the Goral
stallions has produced 289 products, 139 males and 150 females.
Fig.3. The products number from the Goral line, males and females, which became
At this line has noticed the stallions Goral XIII with 19 products which
became mothers mares, and Goral XVI 20 products and Goral XII with none male
product which can became reproductive.
The Ouşor line
In this period, the Ouşor stallions line, respective Ouşor IV, Ouşor V,
Ouşor VI, Ouşor VII, Ouşor VIII, Ouşor IX and Ouşor X has produced 355
products from which 176 males and 179 females.
Fig.4. The products number of Ouşor line, males and females which became
- 686 -
The Ouşor IV stallion represent the origin for 20 mothers mares and 3
reproductive stallions (Ouşor V, Ouşor VI and Ouşor VII). At the opposite pole
are the stallions Ouşor VIII and Ouşor X with a mother mare and without none
reproductive stallion.
The Prislop line
Regarding the Prislop line, the stallions of this line has produced 279
products, 141 males and 138 females, the line being represented by the stallions
Prislop VI, Prislop VII, Prislop VIII, Prislop IX and Prislop X.
Fig.5. The products number of Prislop line, males and females which became
This line has had for this period the littlest number of mothers mares – 42.
the most prolifics from this side of view are the stallions Prislop VI and Prislop
IX with 10 mothers mares and Prislop VIII with 13 mothers mares. Prislop III
gave 3 reproductive stallions: Prislop IV, Prislop V and Prislop VI.
CONCLUSIONS
In the studied period (1976-2006) at Lucina Herd has obtained 1680

products from which 823 males and 857 females.
The most products has proceded from the Hroby line – 484, from which
236 males and 248 females. From the entire products ao this line 107 has been
restrain for reproduction 11 males and 96 females.
Then followed the Ouşor line with 355 products, from which 176 males
and 179 females. From this effective 76 products became reproductive (5 males
and 71 females).
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BACK
The Goral line has had in the studied period 289 products from which 139
males and 150 females; for reproduction has been restrained a number of 76
products, 8 males and 68 females.
In the Prislop line has been obtained in this period 279 products, 141
males and 138 females. In the fundamental herd has been restrained just 49
products (7 males and 42 females).
The littlest number of products has been obtained in the Pietrosu line –
273, 131 males and 142 females. For reproduction has been restrained 80
products (8 males and 72 females).
From the reproductive stallions which has activated at Lucina Herd the
biggest number of mothers mares has had Pietrosu VIII – 24. At the opposite pole
has situated Ouşor VIII and Ouşor X which has had mothers mares.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bennett D.K., 1986 – The origin of horse breeds. Equus 110 p. 33.
2. Brandsch H, Gerber J., 1988 – Beiträge zur Vererbung der Abzeichen bei Pferden. Archiv für
Tierzucht 31 p. 385-390.
3. Călinescu E. şi col., 1956 – Munca de ameliorare a calului Huţul în cei 100 ani de la înfiinţarea
Hergheliei Lucina. Probleme Zootehnice nr. 11, Bucureşti.
4. Călinescu E., Ujică V., 1982 – Producerea unui nou tip de cal utilitar pentru zona montană:
„Calul de Bucovina”. Cercetarea în sprijinul producţiei, MAIA, Bucureşti.
5. Gassebner H., 1896 – Die prerdezucht, vol. I, Wien.
6. Marcenac L.N., 1980 – Encyclopédie du cheval, Ed. Maloine, Paris.
7. Rădulescu I., 1957 – Calul Huţul din R.P.R. Ed. Agro-Silvică, Bucureşti.
8. Ujică V. şi col., 1977 – Parametrii fenotipici la tipul actual al calului Huţul crescut în
Herghelia Lucian. Lucrare ştiinţifică, seria Zootehnie-Med.Vet., I.A. Iaşi.
9. Ujică V. şi col., 1986 – Calul de Bucovina – un nou tip utilitar pentru zona montană. Revista
de Creştere a animalelor, nr. 5, Bucureşti.
10. Wendling Chr., 1930 – Cercetări asupra cailor Huţuli, Bucureşti.
11. *** - Registrele de montă şi fătări şi toate celelalte evidenţe din cardul Hergheliei Lucina.
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RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE MOTHER SHEEP AGE

EFFECT ON WEIGHT OF MERINOS FROM PALAS LAMBS
AT BIRTH AND WEAN
Maria CORDUNEANU
Researches concerning the mother sheep age effect on weight of merinos
from palas lambs at birth and wean were done at I.C.D.C.O.C. Palas –
Constanţa on 884 Merinos from Palas sheep, which gave birth one lamb and rise
one lamb, divided in 4 groups of age:
- mother sheep from 2 years age including 228 sheep between 1 ½ - 2 ½ year;
- mother sheep from 3 years age including 219 sheep between 2 ½ - 3 ½ year;
- mother sheep from 4 ½ years age including 246 sheep between 3 ½ - 5 ½
year;
- mother sheep from 6 ½ years age including 191 sheep between 5 ½ - 7 ½
year;
On this number of sheep was studied the age’s effect of sheep mother on
weight Merinos from Palas lambs at birth and wean through genetics analysis.

The age’s sheep mother concerning weight of lams from birth to wean but
the same like other mother effects, her concerning are decrease once with the age
of lambs.
S H E L T O N and C A M P B E L L , base on research as regards the effect
of the effect of age’s sheep mother between 2 – 10 years about weight’s lambs at
wean from Rambouillet breed, they see a continual increase at lamb’s weights till
at 5 years age at sheep, after that was follows a decrease. Using like comparison
term the lambs emanate from mother of 2 years age, they estimated an increase
with 9,2% for the lambs emanate from sheep with 5 years old and a decrease with
5,5 % for lambs emanate from old sheep, over 10 years.
Research concerning the age’s effect of sheep mother on lamb’s weight at
birth and wean was done at I.C.D.C.O.C. Palas – Constanţa on 884 Merinos from
Palas sheep, which gave birth one lamb and breed one lamb, divided in 4 groups
of age:
- sheep mother from 2 years age including 228 sheep between 1 ½ - 2 ½ year;
- sheep mother from 3 years age including 219 sheep between 2 ½ - 3 ½ year;
- sheep mother from 4 ½ years age including 246 sheep between 3 ½ - 5 ½
year;
- sheep mother from 6 ½ years age including 191 sheep between 5 ½ - 7 ½
year;
- 689 -

On this number of sheep was studied the age’s effect of sheep mother on
weight Merinos from Palas lambs at birth and wean through genetics analysis.
The weight of lambs at birth, wean and at a sheep mother at bring forth in
accordance with age’s sheep are presented in table number 1.
Table 1
THE WEIGHT OF SHEEP AT BRING FORTH, OF LAMBS AT BIRTH AND
WEAN IN ACCORDANCE WITH SHEEP AGE
The weight of sheep The weigh of lambs The weight of lambs
Category n at bring forth at birth at wean (60 days)
x±sX s x±sX s x±sX s
2 years 228 46,45±0,256 6,552 4,15±0,020 0,795 21,32±0,198 4,125
3 years 219 50,70±0,358 7,562 4,21±0,026 0,842 21,72±0,150 3,869
4 ½ years 246 53,05±0,234 7,031 4,28±0,019 0,868 21,80±0,120 3,799
6 ½ years 191 52,94±0,210 6,008 4,02±0,020 0,732 21,18±0,197 3,826
It was found that once with the age of sheep mother grow up, it grow up
the weight at birth and wean till 4 ½ years after that their weight will suddenly
decline. We can mention that both the weight at birth (4,02, respective 4,28) and
at wean (21,18, respective 21,8) are almost equal, the difference has been
insignificant. It is possible that age to influence from different weight at sheep
mother at different age.
The lamb’s weight at birth and wean related at weight of sheep mother
decrease once with age advancement of sheep (table 2).
Table 2
THE PARAMETER OF PRODUCTIVITY OF SHEEP MOTHER IN
ACCORDANCE WITH THEIR AGE
The weight of lambs at birth / The weight of lambs at
Category of sheep
The weight of sheep at bring wean / The weight of sheep
mother’s age
forth (kg) at bring forth (kg)
2 years 0,0893 0,4590
3 years 0,0830 0,4284
4 ½ years 0,0807 0,4109
6 ½ years 0,0759 0,4001
Regression between weight’s sheep at bring forth on the one side and the
weight’s lambs at birth and wean on the other side are presented in table 3 and 4.
- 690 -
Table 3
COEFFICIENT OF ESTIMATION (r2), REGRESSION (b) AND EQUATION OF
REGRESSION (v’) BETWEEN THE WEIGHTS OF SHEEP AT BRING FORTH
(B) AND THE WEIGHT OF LAMBS AT BIRTH (v) IN ACCORDANCE WITH
SHEEP MOTHER’S AGE
Coefficient Equation of
of b ± Sb regression
Age n Meaning
estimation (g) v = a + bB
(r2), % (kg)
2 years 228 7,44 + 32±5,33 p<0,001 v=2,30+0,0319 B
3 years 219 11,85 + 46±5,99 p<0,001 v=1,45+0,0462 B
4 ½ years 246 7,44 + 29±4,09 p<0,001 v=2,33+0,0294 B
6 ½ years 191 0,04 + 3±6,46 p>0,05
Table 4
COEFFICIENT OF ESTIMATION (r2), REGRESSION (b) AND EQUATION
OF REGRESSION (w’) BETWEEN THE WEIGHTS OF SHEEP AT BRING
FORTH (B) AND THE WEIGHT OF LAMBS AT WEAN (w) IN ACCORDANCE
WITH SHEEP MOTHER’S AGE
Coefficient Equation of
of b ± Sb regression
Age n Meaning
estimation (g) w’ = a + bB
(r2), % (kg)
2 years 228 5,36 + 149±29,35 p<0,001 w'=14,12+0,149 B
3 years 219 12,55 + 205±28,80 p<0,001 w'=9,09+0,205 B
4 ½ years 246 1,56 + 62±22,09 p<0,05 w'=17,98+0,062 B
6 ½ years 191 0,00 + 1,98±32,01 p>0,05
Coefficient of estimation grows up till at 3 years age of sheep mother.

From analysis of coefficients of estimation (r2, %) results that at 3 years of sheep
mother’s age, 12 – 13% from variants of lambs weight at birth and wean are thank
to variants of weight mother’s sheep at the bring, at 2 and 4 ½ years this percent
represent about ½, but at 6 ½ years, the weight of mothers doesn’t have any
meaningful effect on weight of lambs.
The positively correlation between the level of her milk shows the
possibility of shorten maternal handicap through a better food at sheep with twins,
at young sheep and old sheep. The source of variation at weight and rate of weight
from birth at wean of lambs at older sheep can be founded into the incidence
bigger of defective udders.
The principal conclusions which come off from the upper part are that about
possibility of intervention more efficacies from maternal environment, for the
genetics calculation, the age of 3 years at sheep, confer biggest assurance. It is
probably that at this age the sheep are in whole plenitude of her productive function.
Regarding the connection between the weight of lambs at birth and wean
although the intensity of this connection decrease once with advancement in age
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of sheep, the coefficient of estimation at all ages is very meaningful (p<0,001). In

the same time it was founded a decrease of installment influence conditioned by
develop of fixed variable (r2, 7,24; 4,24; 3,01; 2,64).
Table 5
COEFFICIENT OF ESTIMATION (r2), REGRESSION (b) AND EQUATION OF
REGRESSION (w”) BETWEEN THE WEIGHTS OF LAMBS AT BIRTH (v) AND
WEAN (w) IN ACCORDANCE WITH SHEEP MOTHER’S AGE
Coefficient
of b ± Sb Equation of
Age n Meaning
estimation (g) regression
(r2), %
2 years 228 7,24 + 1409±203,80 p<0,001 w"=15,01+1,41 B
3 years 219 4,24 + 1001±196,10 p<0,001 w"=17,01+1,00 B
4 ½ years 246 3,01 + 789±163,10 p<0,001 w"=18,00+0,79 B
6 ½ years 191 2,64 + 910±204,90 p<0,001 w"=17,20+0,91 B
The influence of mother’s age presents importance and about the weight
at birth and wean, but the same like other maternal effect her influence are
decreased with age. Though sometimes is observed and at one year age.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, once with increase of age of sheep mother till at 4 ½ years
it increase the lamb’s weight at birth and wean after that the lamb’s weight
decrease.
The weight of lambs at birth and wean retrospect to sheep’s wean
decrease once with advance of sheep’s age.
The intensity of positively connection meaningful (p < 0,001) between the
weight of sheep mother at bring forth and the weight of lambs at birth and wean
grow up till at 3 years, then decrease, and at 6 ½ years, this aren’t meaningful (p >
0,05). For the genetics calculation, the age of 3 – 4 years at sheep confer biggest
assurance.
The intensity of positive connection (p < 0,001) between the weight of
lambs at birth and wean decrease once with increment of sheep’s age.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. MARSICO G., VICENTI I. – 1993. Influence of weaning age on productive performance of
lambs slaughtered at 107 days of age. Small Ruminant Research, December, Vol. 12, nr. 3,
pag. 321;
2. MOCHNACS M. – 1989. Efectul matern asupra calităţii descendenţilor. III. Efectul vârstei
oilor mame. Lucrări Ştiinţifice ale Institutului de Cercetare şi Producţie pentru Creşterea
Ovinelor şi Caprinelor Palas – Constanţa, Bucureşti, vol. VI;
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COMPARATIVE STUDY CONCERNING SOME

PHENOTYPIC PERFORMANCES IN SHEEP OF TIGAIE
AND ROMNEY-MARSH BREEDS
V. CIGHI
The technological medium conditions, the economic demands and the

biological particularities of species are factors, which have major influence on
main breeding directions of sheep.
The Tigaie breed frames inside the mixed morpho-productive type, of
semi-fine wool-milk-meat one having intermediate body development,
dolicomorphous or mesomorphous format. The body weight of adult sheep is 35-
45 kg, and of rams 57-76 kg, and the wool production is 2.5-3.5 kg.
The sheep population of Romney-Marsh breed was imported from New
Zeeland, being a breed with good aptitudes for the meat production. The lambs’
birth body weight is not great (3.5-4 kg), but is characterized by the fact that it
exists a strong influence of the parturition season and of the technological
medium conditions on quantitative and qualitative performances in sheep.
Having in view these considerations, in this work paper we followed the
parturition year influence, the breed and the sex ones on body weight at birth,
respective of body weight and wool production at one-year age.
The biological material is represented by individuals’ samples of Tigaie
and Romney-Marsh breeds, birthed in 2001-2003 period, and belonging to
Research and Development Station for Pasture, Jucu, Cluj County.
The crude data, which were obtained, were processed establishing the
average and dispersion indices, and the results’ interpretation statistically
concerning was done by Student test (t).
Analyzing the body weight averages at birth, at one-year age, and also
the wool production at the same age, in sheep of the two breeds, both in females
and males, we ascertain next aspects. There exist differences statistically ensured
among values of body weight at birth in Tigaie breed female products (0.170-
0.366 kg). There are not significant differences among values of body weight at
birth in Tigaie breed males. This fact we consider to doe to increased number of
observations that we disposed of this category (17 heads in 2001 and 2002,
respective 9 heads in 2003).
In Romney-Marsh breed, there are not significant differences among
body weight at birth, in females born in different years, but in males the
differences are very significant (0.483 kg).
At one-year age, statistically, there are significant differences among
Tigaie breed females, born in 2001 and 2003 in rest, no ones. Same situation was
also in males.
There are not significant differences among values of body weight in
one-year age Romney-Marsh breed products, derived from different seasons.
The total crude wool production presents an average of 3 kg in Tigaie
breed and 3.3 kg in Romney-Marsh breed.
In conclusion, the parturition season with its specific conditions, the breed
and sex are evident sources to influence the followed characters.
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HYPOTHESIS
As idea to develop and perfect continuously the breeding and exploitation
technologies, the ovine forces must correspond by their genetic potential to these
conditions, realizing productions permanently in correspondence with invested
material efforts. The human society development rhythm reclaims some modern
investigation method introduction in practice of animal genetic potential
investigation and their improvement. In this context, there imposes ovine
populations’ improvement from our country, by orientation of selection works
and crossing supervision in close connection with exploitation directions.
In the specialty literature is signaled the fact that exist strong and positive
correlations (rG = 0.40-0.65) between lambs’ birth weight and one-year and adult
age weight, in conditions when the animals are appropriate maintained (Pop A., E.
Miresan, A. Petre, 1998). It is evident the fact that exists a major influence of
birth season, both on quantitative performances and also of wool qualitative
aspects in different breeds (Pop A., E. Miresan, 1998).
Through this study we followed the birth season, the breed and sex
influence on birth body weight, body weight and wool production at one-year age.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The biological material as subject of the study is part of Tigaie and
Romney-March breeds, which belong to Research and Development Station for
Pastures Jucu, Jucu County.
In table 1 is presented the situation of forces taken in study on breeds,
years and sexes.
Table 1
Number of individuals taken in study
Breed Sex Birth year n Evaluation year n

2001 80 2002 70
F 2002 86 2003 76
Tigaie 2003 60 2004 55
2001 17 2002 15
M 2002 17 2003 15
2003 9 2004 9
2001 26 2002 24
F 2002 22 2003 20
Romney- 2003 22 2004 20
Marsh 2001 6 2002 5
M 2002 13 2003 10
2003 - 2004 -
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The data were processed establishing: average, variance, standard

deviation, average standard error, and variation coefficient. The differences’
testing and statistic interpretation were done with Student test (t) help.

Analyzing the differences among average values of birth body weight
depending on birth years, inside Tigaie breed (table 2) can be observed next
aspects.
Between female individuals born in 2001 and those one born in 2002
exists a difference of 0.170 kg, in favor of those ones of 2002, that is a significant
difference statically concerning. Statistically very significant difference, of 0.366
kg, can be observed between individuals from 2001-2003 years, this difference
being favorable for those ones born in 2003. Statistically distinct significant
difference (0.196 kg) is registered in favor of descendants from 2003 in
comparison with those ones born in 2002.
If in female products inside Tigaie breed we observe differences from a
year to another, statistically provided, in males of this breed born in different
years, the differences are statistically insignificant. These statistic insignificant
differences, as concerns the body weight at birth, in males’ case can be doe to
sample error determined by the small number of effectuated observations.
Table 2
Differences between birth body weight averages on years inside Tigaie breed
Birth Signifi-
Sex n X ± sx s V% t d
year cance
2001 80 3,292 ± 0,061 0,298 16,573
2,538 -0,170 *
2002 86 3,462 ± 0,029 0,072 7,768
2001 80 3,292 ± 0,061 0,298 16,573
4,099 -0,366 ***
F 2003 60 3,658 ± 0,062 0,231 13,129
2002 86 3,462 ± 0,029 0,072 7,768
3,145 -0,196 **
2003 60 3,658 ± 0,062 0,231 13,129
2001 17 3,600 ± 0,195 0,266 14,331
0,192 -0,043 n.s.
2002 17 3,643 ± 0,109 0,083 7,916
2001 17 3,600 ± 0,195 0,266 14,331
1,312 -0,333 n.s.
M 2003 9 3,933 ± 0,165 0,245 12,586
2002 17 3,643 ± 0,109 0,083 7,916
1,376 -0,290 n.s.
2003 9 3,933 ± 0,165 0,245 12,586
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The testing of differences between birth body weights on years, in

Romney-March breed, is evident in Table 3. We find that unlike the differences
observed in Tigaie breed, between years, in female sex of Romney-March breed
the differences are statistically insignificant. Very significant differences are
found in favor of the males born in 2002 given to those born in 2001.
Table 3
Differences between birth body weight averages on years
inside Romney-March breed
Birth Signifi
year cance
2001 26 3,438 ± 0,087 0,197 12,903
0,363 +0,038
2002 22 3,400 ± 0,051 0,057 7,021 n.s.
2001 26 3,438 ± 0,087 0,197 12,903
F 0,087 -0,012
2003 22 3,450 ± 0,116 0,296 15,771 n.s.
2002 22 3,400 ± 0,051 0,057 7,021
0,393 -0,050
2003 22 3,450 ± 0,116 0,296 15,771 n.s.
2001 6 3,438 ± 0,079 0,037 5,223
M 3,374 -0,517
2002 13 4,000 ± 0,153 0,070 6,625 ***
Analyzing the data from table 4 comes out that exist differences between
body weight averages at one-year age inside Tigaie breed.
In females comes out differences statistically significant between
individuals evaluated in 2002 and 2004 (1.342 kg). In males of Tigaie breed
comes out differences statistically significant between years of 2002 and 2004.
Testing the differences between body weight average on years inside
Romney-March breed (table 5) comes out that both in males and females the
differences are statistically insignificant with maxim values of 1.525 kg and
minim values of 0.206 kg.
In table 6 is presented the wool production situation and differences tested
between evaluation years of females and males forces from Tigaie breed. We
establish that are registered distinct significant differences of 0.210 kg in favor of
females evaluated in 2002 given to 2004. Statistically there are not registered
significant differences between females and males evaluated in other years.
- 696 -
Table 4
Differences between body weight averages at one-year age
inside Tigaie breed
Birth
Sex n X ± sx s V% t d Significance
year
2002 70 37,925 ± 0,349 9,744 8,231
2003 76 37,314 ± 0278 6,647 6,909 1,377 +0,611 n.s.
2002 70 37,925 ± 0,349 9,744 8,231
F 2004 55 36,583 ± 0,431 11,146 9,125 2,441 +1,342 *
2003 76 37,314 ± 0,278 6,647 6,909
2004 55 36,583 ± 0,431 11,146 9,125 1,492 +0,731 n.s.
2002 15 42,00 ± 0,873 5,622 5,661
2003 15 42,429 ± 0,896 3,862 4,527 0,343 -0,429 n.s.
2002 15 42,000 ± 0,873 5,622 5,661
M 2004 9 43,889 ± 1,006 4,495 5,037 1,369 -1,889 *
2003 15 42,429 ± 0,896 3,862 4,527
2004 9 4,495 5,037 1,050 -1,460 n.s.
43,889 ± 1,006
Table 5
Differences between body weights at one-year age
inside Romney-Marsh breed
Birth Signifi
year cance
2002 24 41,885 ± 0,465 5,335 5,499
2003 20 43,410 ± 0,419 5,619 5,587 2,396 -1,525 n.s.
2002 24 41,885 ± 0,465 5,335 5,499
F 2004 20 42,091 ± 0,450 9,108 6,876 0,315 -0,206 n.s.
2003 20 43,410 ± 0,419 5,619 5,587
2004 20 42,091 ± 0,452 9,108 6,876 2,141 +1,319 n.s.
2002 5 46,330 ± 1,145 7,900 6,067
M
2003 10 47,650 ± 0,882 2,334 3,205 0,752 -1,340 n.s.
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Table 6
Testing the differences between total wool production averages on years
inside Tigaie breed
Birth Signifi
Sex
year
n X ± sx s V% t d
cance
2002 70 3 , 089 ± 0 , 052 0,216 15,053
2003 76 3 , 019 ± 0 , 057 0,279 17,489 0,887 +0,070 n.s.
2002 70 3 , 089 ± 0 , 052 0,216 15,053
F 2004 55 2 , 870 ± 0 , 052 0,162 14,034 2,899 +0,219 **
2003 76 3 , 019 ± 0 , 057 0,279 17,489
2004 55 2 , 870 ± 0 , 052 0,162 14,034 1,844 +0,149 n.s.
2002 15 3 , 257 ± 0 ,196 0,270 14,634
2003 15 2 , 986 ± 0 ,145 0,234 7,192 1,111 +0,271 n.s.
2002 15 3 , 257 ± 0 ,196 0,270 14,634
M 2004 9 2 , 911 ± 0 ,123 0,151 12,959 1,562 +0,346 n.s.
2003 15 2 , 986 ± 0 ,145 0,234 7,192
2004 9 2 , 911 ± 0 ,123 0,151 12,959 0,394 +0,075 n.s.
In table 7 are presented differences between evaluation years for the

females and males of Romney-March breed. The difference of 0.550 kg of wool
in favor of females evaluated in 2002 given to those ones evaluated in 2004 is
statistically very significant. Statistically significant is also the difference of 0.309
kg of wool observed in favor of females evaluated in 2002 comparatively with
those ones evaluated in 2003.
Table 7
Testing the differences between total wool production averages on years
inside Romney-March breed
Birth Signifi
Sex
year
n X ± sx s V% t d
cance
2002 24 3 , 554 ± 0 ,102 0,268 15,922
2003 20 3 , 245 ± 0 ,103 0,147 4,923 2,107 +0,309 *
2002 24 3 , 554 ± 0 ,102 0,269 15,922
F 2004 20 3 , 004 ± 0 , 083 0,136 4,677 4,068 +0,550 ***
2003 20 3 , 245 ± 0 ,103 0,147 4,923
2004 20 3 , 004 ± 0 , 083 0,136 4,677 1,817 +0,241 n.s.
2002 5 3 , 450 ± 0 , 438 1,151 31,098
M
2003 10 3 , 633 ± 0 ,145 0,063 9,913 0,283 -0,183 n.s.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Analyzing the averages and variability of body weight at birth and after
evaluation at one-year age, as well the wool production at one-year age in sheep
of the two breeds we can conclude:
1. There is a difference statistically very significant between the Tigaie breed
females born in 2001 and 2003. Between the rest of years the differences are
distinct significant or significant. There are not observed differences
statistically significant between Tigaie breed males born in different years.
2. In Romney-March breed there are not observed differences statistically
significant between the females born in different years, but the differences
between males are very significant (0.517 kg).
3. The average values and body weight variability at evaluation age present
differences statistically significant between Tigaie breed females evaluated in
2002 and 2004. Same situation is also in males.
4. There are not observed significant differences between body weight at one-
year age in females and males of Romney-March breed.
5. The total fleeced crude wool production is in average of 3 kg in Tigaie breed
females and of 3.3 kg in Romney-March breed females.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Oroian Teofil, A. Vlaic ( 2004) – Ameliorarea animalelor, Ed. Academic_Pres Cluj-Napoca,
ISBN-973-7950-65-8.
2. Pop A. (1984) – Cresterea ovinelor si caprinelor, Ed. Didactica si Pedagogica Bucuresti.
3. Tafta V. (1983) – Cresterea si exploatarea intensiva a ovinelor, Ed. Ceres Bucuresti.
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BACK
RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE MAIN

CONFORMATION FEATURES IN A BUFFALO
POPULATION FROM SCDP JUCU
V. CIGHI
The fact that buffalo milk production is not submitted to quotas imposed
by E.U. and also the fact that this species is not affected by bovine spongyform
encephalopathy, determined much more farmers from country and Europe to
keep attention for this species. Inside buffalo populations from Transylvania, the
most spreading important zone of species in our country, exist nuclei with
valuable morpho-productive features, which by an appropriate improvement
program application, can constitute the biological material requisite for
improvement work start of buffalo population from Romania.
Starting from this premise, we effectuated study on a buffalo population
from SCDP Jucu, following the main conformation features. The studied
biological material is represented by a nucleus of 30 heads of buffalo female
youth aged of 26 months. Were effected measurements for next conformation
features: body weight, withers’ height, croup height, trunk oblique length, croup
width, chest width, thorax depth, thorax perimeter and radius perimeter. The
measurements were done in accordance with methodology and with votive
specialty instruments.
The observation data were processed establishing average values and
variability indices for followed features.
The average values and variability indices established for studied
features frame inside the values presented in specialty literature for the age
category to which the chosen material apart.
The wither height (stature) registers an average value of 136.58±0.44
cm, the trunk oblique length 128.41±0.76 cm, croup width 51.850±0.36 cm, chest
width 35.41±0.45 cm, thorax depth 65.08±0.76 cm, thorax perimeter 186.83±045
cm, radius perimeter 21.08±1.914 cm, and body weight 367.5±0.82 kg.
The values represented by the biological material for studied characters
convinced us of the species availability for exploitation for meat and milk
production, of utility initiation of some improvement programs to put in value
this species.
HYPOTHESIS
In the context of preoccupations concerning the force breeding and
optimization of exploitation technologies, a special role has the improvement
activity, the knowledge of morphological and productive features of our country
bovine breeds. In the same time, must give more attention also to the Bubalus
genus, which on national level represents an alternative to obtain some good
productions in some zones less productive as concerns the agricultural point of
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view and in which the individuals of Bos genus are more difficult to exploit or
can not express all production potential.
The zoo-economical importance of buffalos must be translated by it self
and no by continuous comparison with the other species that belongs of Bovinae
family. As competitiveness, the cattle have qualities superior to buffalos, but in all
cases the advantages must be filtered through technical-economical efficiency
reported to biological particularities of adaptability to diverse breeding and
development conditions, in some zones the buffalos proving to be more provident.
The great attention that should be make in present day for this species consists in
the fact that the buffalo milk production is not submitted to quotas imposed by
E.U. The fact that the buffalo milk production is not legislatively limited by the
E.U. norms, in present days determined more and more farmers to keep attention
on this species. Another argument in favor of buffalo breeding development is
that the species is not affected by the bovine spongyform encephalopathy, and
could be a viable alternative to bovine meat, in many zones in which is present
this disease.
As concerns the buffalo spreading area we must reveal the fact that over
95% of forces detained of Romania are in Transylvania, the greatest weight being
in Salaj, Cluj, Maramures, Bihor, Arad, Brasov and Satu-Mare Counties.
Inside buffalo populations of Transylvania exist nuclei with valuable
morpho-productive features, which by application of an appropriate improvement
program can constitute the starting primary biological material in improvement
and which in a future stage can be improved also by other valuable buffalo
breeds’ participation.
Starting from this premise, we have done a study on a buffalo population
from Jucu, Cluj County, which belongs to Research and Development Station
for Pastures, and we followed some conformation features.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The studied biological material is represented by a nucleus of 30 heads of

buffalo female youth of 36 months age, which belong to S.C.D.P. Jucu. Initially,
this material was purchased at one-month age from private farmers of Cluj
County, especially from Mera locality, their mothers being registered in Official
Control of Productions. On this force were effectuated next measurements: body
weight, wither height, croup height, trunk oblique length, croup width, chest
width, thorax depth and radius perimeter.
The measurement making was done in accordance with methodology and
as instrument we used Lydtin stick for: wither height, croup height, trunk oblique
length, thorax depth; the ribbon for: thorax perimeter and radius perimeter; the
compass for: croup width, chest width.
The primary data were processed calculating the average, standard error
of average, standard deviation and variability coefficient.
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In table 1 are presented the average values and dispersion indices for the
main exterior characters.
As concerns the wither height can be observed the fact that has an
average value of 136,58 ± 0,44 cm, value that is situated over average values
presented in specialty literature for other populations from Romania (131.40-
134.80 cm. Velea C., Bud I., 1983). Must be mentioned the fact that the values
presented in literature refer to adult age, while the studied force values are for 36
months age. This specification must be done because the buffalos end their body
development at 7 years age so the Jucu force has yet great availabilities for this
purpose. Given to stature values registered by Murrah breed (142 cm), the Jucu
force values are inferior, but must have in view the mention of age correlation.
Analyzing the character variability through variation coefficient prism, it comes
out that this one frames between normal limits mentioned by literature for this
character.
Table 1
The average values and variability for main exterior characters in buffalos
Nr.crt. Character n X ±s s V%
x
1. Wither height 30 136,58 ± 0,44 2,46 1,80
2. Croup height 30 138,33 ± 0,54 2,96 2,13
3. Trunk oblique length 30 128,41 ± 0,76 4,16 3,23
4. Croup width 30 51,50 ± 0,36 1,97 3,82
5. Chest width 30 35,41 ± 0,45 2,50 7,06
6. Thorax depth 30 65,08 ± 0,76 2,74 4,21
7. Thorax perimeter 30 186,83 ± 0,45 4,66 2,49
8. Radius perimeter 30 21,08 ± 1,91 2,21 10,48
9. Body weight 30 367,5 ± 0,82 16,58 4,51
The croup height is characterized by an average value of 138.33 cm,

which is very closed to that mentioned by Velea and Bud, 1983, for our country
buffalo population. The variability value for this character expressed by the
variability coefficient is in normal limits.
Analyzing the stature values and those of croup height we observe that
trunk superior line is oblique from down to up and anterior-posterior. The wither
height and that of croup one became equal around 6 years age.
The trunk oblique length has an average value of 128.41 ± 0.76 cm being
over average values presented by other sources for the same age (124.80cm Faur
R. 2000).
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BACK
The croup width is a character that provide an easy parturition and that in
studied population has an average value of 51.50 ± 0.36 cm, which represents
about 80% of the character average value for adult stage.
The chest width (35.41 cm) presents values of the variability coefficient
situated to superior limit for this character.
The thorax depth is preferable to be great because this character has
important morpho-functional implications. Taken into consideration the ratio
between stature and thorax depth can be established the thoracic depth index.
Depending on age this ratio put into evidence values ascendant from birth to adult
stage, respective from 33-35% at birth, it increases to 45% at one-year age, to 50-
51% at 4 years and stabilizes to 53% at 7 years. In the studied force this index is
47%, framing between the values presented by the literature for this age. Of
course, this ratio evolution is strongly influenced by the alimentary diet.
The thorax perimeter has an average value of 186,83 ± 0,45 cm that
represents about 95% from the character value for adult stage, presented by the
specialty literature (Velea and Bud 1984).
The radius perimeter ( 21,08 ± 1,91 cm). The ratio between radius
perimeter and thorax perimeter emphasizes values descendant from birth
(16.50%), to adult age of 10.65%. In our case the value of this ratio is 11.28%. In
improved populations the ratio value is 10-11% and smaller than 10% in no-
improved populations.
The body weight, in case of the studied force, is situated over an average
value of 367.50 ± 0,82 kg, value that represents 80% from the adult body weight
mentioned in specialty literature. The ratio between radius perimeter and body
weight is 5.7%.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The average values and the variability indices for studied characters are
situated on the average values presented in specialty literature and by their
dimensions can convince us for the great availability of this species for meat
and milk production.
2. We consider as necessary the elaboration of some improvement programs to
standardize the population and increasing the performances.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Faur R (2000) – Cercetari privind parametrii fenotipici ale principalelor insusiri de conformatie
la o populatie de bubaline din judetul Salaj, Proiect de diploma USAMV Cluj-Napoca
2. Vlaic A., Oroian T. (2002) – Elemente de genetica pentru zootehnisti, Ed. Academic-Pres,
Cluj-Napoca
3. Velea C. si colaboratori (1983) – Cresterea bivolilor, Ed. Ceres, Bucuresti
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BACK
MORPHOLOGICAL AND PRODUCTIVE

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
SURA DE STEPA CATTLE FROM S.C.D.C.B. DANCU IASI
Iulia COSTEA, M. PÎNTEA, Şt. CREANGĂ,
Elena RUGINOSU, Mariana SOFRONIE
The research was performed based on 28 dairy cows belonging to Grey

breed, proceeding on describing the body development extent and the indices of
milk production.
The variability of the morphological traits is very accented, with values
of the variation coefficient over 10 % in most cases and reaching even 58,17 %,
being very obvious the lack of the selection, but also the possibility of a
subsequent improvement regarding the body development and conformation.
The production average registered the following values: Ist lactation –
1468,14 kg milk, IInd lactation – 1607,81 kg milk, IIIrd lactation – 1829,00 kg
milk, IVth lactation – 1758,58 kg milk, Vth lactation – 2198,00 kg milk. The
average period of the total lactations is generally short, from 248,75 days (Ist
lactation) to 260,25 days (Vth lactation).
Making a comparison of the production performances with the data
included in the manuals in the last 50 years, we can see that Grey breed didn’t
evolve in a genetic way, being excluded from the selection programs. However
this genetic content must be reconditioned, preserved and consolidated because
of the valuable traits this breed possess (accommodation to environment
conditions, organic resistance, milk quality, health and remarkable resistance to
diseases and bad weather).
Key-words: morphological parameters, milk production, variability

The research was performed in SC.D.C.B. Dancu Iasi based on 28 dairy
cows belonging to Grey breed. The aim of this research was to describe the most
important morphological and productive traits and to estimate the variability of
these traits.
The study of the morphological and productive traits was supported by
the information registered in female individual card. All primary dates have been
statistically discussed using specific methods and the results are synthetically
presented in tables and figures.

Table 1 presents the average values and variability of the most important
morphological traits in dairy cows from Grey breed.
The obtained results have showed that the analyzed cows had an average
height of 115,74 ± 1,96 cm and a body weight of 503,50 ± 13,92 kg. The upper
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line of the body is slightly ascending, the back lower and the sacrum protruding.
Width and depth dimensions describe a little wide chest (59,18 cm), little wide
and pointed rump, fine and resistant bones.
The cows have a poor developed udder, with short and relative thin teats
(4,22 cm, respectively 7,33 cm).
The variability of the morphological traits is very accented, with values of
the variation coefficient over 10 % in most cases and reaching even 58,17 %,
being very obvious the lack of the selection, but also the possibility of a
subsequent improvement regarding the body development and conformation.
Table 1
The average values and variability of the most important morphological traits
in dairy cows from Grey breed in S.C.D.C.B. Dancu Iasi
Specification n X ± Sx s V% Min. Max.

Height at withers 23 115,74±1,964 9,42 8,13 91 128
Height at back 23 114,35±1,813 8,69 7,60 91 124
Height at rump 23 117,91±1,874 8,98 7,62 92 130
Height at tail basis 23 119,91±1,875 8,99 7,50 94 132
Thorax depth 22 59,18±1,778 8,33 14,07 42 72
Sloping body length 22 139,05±3,408 15,98 11,49 100 164
Horizontal body length 22 141,09±3,403 15,96 11,31 102 165
Thorax length 22 70,52±2,129 9,98 14,15 54 85
Head length 22 43,36±0,908 4,24 9,79 33 50
Rump length 22 45,14±1,300 6,09 13,50 32 52
Thorax width 22 36,36±1,450 6,80 18,70 22 46
Chest width 22 34,59±1,068 5,00 14,45 22 42
Head width 22 20,23±0,389 1,82 9,01 16 23
Rump width at hips 22 40,95±1,553 7,28 17,79 27 50
Rump width at thighbone 22 38,73±1,185 5,57 14,39 27 48
joint
Rump width 22 18,27±0,574 2,69 14,74 12 22
Thorax perimeter 22 166,59±4,633 21,73 13,04 121 497
Shinbone perimeter 22 17,50±0,399 1,871 10,69 13 20
Udder circumference 9 51,44±5,725 17,17 33,38 29 81
Fore semi circumference 9 22,67±3,240 9,72 42,88 6 40
Hind semi circumference 9 28,78±2,886 8,65 30,08 21 43
Udder circumference 9 26,00±3,930 11,79 45,34 14 49
Fore udder depth 9 10,67±2,068 6,20 58,17 5 21
Hind udder depth 9 31,44±2,853 8,56 27,22 19 49
Teats length 9 4,22±0,324 0,97 23,01 3 5
Teats perimeter 9 7,33±0,441 1,32 18,03 6 10
Body weight (kg) 12 503,50±13,928 48,24 9,58 447 610
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The values concerning the milk production have been analyzed during
five successive lactations (table 2).
The average period of the total lactations was generally short, Ist lactation
– 248,75 days, IInd lactation – 254,38 days, IIIrd lactation – 254,20 days, IVth
lactation – 259,75 days, Vth lactation – 260,25 days; therefore the normal lactation
were even shorter, from 248,75 days (Ist lactation) to 260,25 days (Vth lactation).
Table 2
The average values and variability of milk production

in dairy cows from Grey breed in S.C.D.C.B. Dancu Iasi
Specificare n X ± Sx s V% Min. Max.

Days of 28 256,14±12,370 65,46 25,56 144 450
lactation
Milk (kg) 28 1505,04±105,913 560,44 37,24 677 2612
Fat (%) 28 4,54±0,082 0,44 9,70 3,69 5,32
Total Fat (kg) 28 68,00±4,727 25,01 36,78 25 110
Protein 28 3,58±0,041 0,20 5,59 3,26 3,91
(%)
Protein 28 53,00±3,848 17,64 33,28 27 80
Ist (kg)
LACTATION Days of 28 248,75±9,693 51,29 20,62 144 305
lactation
Milk (kg) 28 1468,14±95,448 505,06 34,40 677 2296
Fat (%) 28 4,54±0,082 0,44 9,70 3,69 5,32
Normal Fat (kg) 28 66,43±4,349 23,01 34,64 25 107
Protein 28 3,58±0,042 0,20 5,59 3,26 3,91
(%)
Protein 28 52,71±3,762 17,24 32,70 27 80
(kg)
Days of 21 268,86±16,579 75,97 28,26 133 530
lactation
Milk (kg) 21 1683,48±149,422 684,74 40,67 478 3565
Fat (%) 21 4,55±0,089 0,40 8,78 3,70 542
Total Fat (kg) 21 75,10±5,663 25,95 34,56 23 132
Protein 21 3,62±0,042 0,17 4,70 3,20 3,90
(%)
Protein 21 59,38±6,282 25,13 42,32 17 132
IInd (kg)
lactation
Milk (kg) 21 1607,81±119,227 546,37 33,98 478 2803
Fat (%) 21 4,54±0,088 0,40 8,81 3,80 5,42
Normal Fat (kg) 21 72,00±4,845 22,20 30,83 23 111
Protein 21 3,62±0,042 0,17 4,70 3,20 3,90
(%)
Protein 21 59,38±6,282 25,13 42,32 17 132
(kg)
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Days of 15 256,93±15,195 58,85 22,90 116 345

lactation
Milk (kg) 15 1839,80±151,128 585,32 31,81 434 2627
Fat (%) 15 4,59±0,098 0,37 8,06 4,00 5,28
Total Fat (kg) 15 84,40±7,365 28,52 33,79 22 139
Protein 15 3,57±0,085 0,32 8,96 3,09 4,27
(%)
Protein 15 65,31±5,550 20,01 30,64 19 98
IIIrd (kg)
lactation
Milk (kg) 15 1829,00±148,499 575,13 31,45 434 2627
Fat (%) 15 4,59±0,098 0,39 8,50 4,00 5,28
Normal Fat (kg) 15 83,87±7,277 28,18 33,60 22 139
Protein 15 3,57±0,085 0,32 8,96 3,09 4,27
(%)
Protein 15 65,31±5,550 20,01 30,64 19 98
(kg)
Days of 12 260,33±11,008 38,13 14,65 194 309
lactation
Milk (kg) 12 1761,75±192,773 667,79 37,90 853 2866
Fat (%) 12 4,68±0,100 0,35 7,48 4,09 5,28
Total Fat (kg) 12 82,50±9,457 32,76 39,71 40 138
Protein 12 3,62±0,068 0,24 6,63 3,21 4,09
(%)
Protein 12 62,08±6,978 24,17 38,93 30 104
IVth (kg)
lactation
Milk (kg) 12 1758,58±192,323 666,23 37,88 853 2854
Fat (%) 12 4,68±0,100 0,35 7,48 4,09 5,28
Normal Fat (kg) 12 82,33±9,457 32,76 39,79 40 138
Protein 12 3,62±0,068 0,24 6,63 3,21 4,09
(%)
Protein 12 62,00±6,981 24,18 39,00 30 104
(kg)
Days of 8 269,75±22,327 63,15 23,41 190 369
lactation
Milk (kg) 8 2229,75±453,61 1283,01 57,54 675 4087
Fat (%) 8 492,00±0,102 0,28 5,69 4,62 5,28
Total Fat (kg) 8 112,00±24,384 68,97 61,58 32 212
Protein 8 3,67±0,024 0,07 1,91 3,54 3,79
(%)
Protein 8 81,75±16,667 47,14 57,66 25 150
Vth (kg)
lactation
Milk (kg) 8 2198,00±440,738 1246,59 56,71 675 4019
Fat (%) 8 4,93±0,105 0,30 6,09 4,62 5,32
Normal Fat (kg) 8 110,50±23,747 67,17 60,79 32 209
Protein 8 3,67±0,024 0,07 1,91 3,54 3,79
(%)
Protein 8 80,88±16,370 46,30 57,25 25 150
(kg)
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The variability of this trait was very accented because the values lied in
very large limits (116-530 days).
The milk production on normal lactation was reduced enough with
average performance between 1468,14±95,448 kg milk (Ist lactation) and
2198,00±440,738 kg milk (Vth lactation).
In the first three lactations, the milk production describes an ascending
curve, slightly decrease in the IVth lactation and rise again in the Vth lactation (fig.
1). The ascending curve in the first three lactations shows that the Grey breed
registers a maximum of production in subsequent lactations, having a poor
productive precocity.
Fig. 1. Milk production dynamics
2500 2198
1829
2000 1758,58
MILK PRODUCTION
1468,14 1607,81
1500
(kg)
1000
500
0
I II III IV V
LACTATION
The variability of the quantitative production in very accented, with

values between 31,45 % (IIIrd lactation) and 56,71 % (Vth lactation); in the
population existed plus-variants with individual productions of 2803 kg milk (IInd
lactation) and 4019 kg milk (Vth lactation).
The qualitative production is not homogenous also. The fat percent is
superior to other native breeds: average values are 4,54 % (Ist lactation) and 4,93
% (Vth lactation). The protein content of milk has average values of 3,58 % (Ist
lactation) and 3,67 % (Vth lactation). The variability of the qualitative production
has values 5,59 % (Ist lactation) and 8,50 % (IIIrd lactation) for the fat content and
1,91 % (Vth lactation) and 8,96 % (IIIrd lactation) for the protein content.
Making a comparison of the production performances with the data
included in the manuals in the last 50 years, we can see that Grey breed didn’t
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BACK
evolve in a genetic way, being excluded from the selection programs. However
this genetic content must be reconditioned, preserved and consolidated because of
the valuable traits this breed possess (accommodation to environment conditions,
organic resistance, milk quality, health and remarkable resistance to diseases and
bad weather).
CONCLUSIONS
In assessing this study, the following remarks are to be made:
− The variability of the morphological traits is very accented (the
values of the variation coefficient are between 10 – 58,17 %);
− The average period of the total lactations was generally short: 248,75
(Ist lactation) – 260,25 days (Vth lactation);
− The cows from Grey breed have a poor productive precocity;
− The variability of the quantitative production has values between
31,45 % (IIIrd lactation) and 56,71 % (Vth lactation); there are plus-
variants in the population with individual productions of 2803 kg
milk (IInd lactation) and 4019 kg milk (Vth lactation);
− The average values for the fat percent are 4,54 % (Ist lactation) and
4,93 % (Vth lactation) and for the protein content - 3,58 % (Ist
lactation) and 3,67 % (Vth lactation).
Taking into account the discussed characteristics we can talk in the future
about the possibility of improvement regarding one side the body development
and conformation and the other side the milk production in order to preserve and
consolidate this breed.
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BACK
THE POTENTIAL OF MERINOS BREED OF CLUJ

FOR MEAT PRODUCTION
S. DĂRĂBAN, A. POP, C. COROIAN
The Merinos breed of Cluj, formed during 1957-1988 period inside Dr.
Petru Groza Agronomic Institute by a team leaded by the refined professor dr.
eng. Augustin Pop, brings together in its genetic fond the two Romanian breed
genes, such is Transylvanian Merinos breed on paternal line and the white
variety of Turcana breed, Sibian ecotype on maternal line, being catalogued as a
breed that apart to mixed morpho-productive type for fine wool-meat-milk. After
1989, the breed registered, concomitantly with Romanian ovine breeding, a
pronounced force retrogression, in present days being in genetic preservation,
but also an alignment to European production orientation, so actually being a
mixed breed with production weight of 61.70% for meat, 30,10% for milk and
8,20% for wool and leathers from the total values’ of obtained productions. It is
significant to be mentioned the fact that Merinos breed of Cluj presents good
features for the milk production, so the total production average on 2004-2006
lactations was over 100 liters.
To put into evidence the production potential for meat, were effected
fattening experiments in different systems, both on pasture and intensively in
section or non field, the total body weight gains having average values of
16.06±0.30 kg, 24.82±0.40 kg, respectively 25.31±0.68 kg. The registered
slaughter indices permit to situate in the 1st quality class depending on slaughtering
efficiency, the STAS applied in our country for youth ovine category, in the class of
fattening ovine youth by European normative, and the carcass mass permits to
situate them in 16.00-19.00 kg average carcasses’ group.
In conclusion, we can affirm that the Merinos breed of Cluj represents
an important gene source for meat production, whose expression level can be
increased either by technological optimum providing, or by crossing with
specialized breeds for meat production.
INTRODUCTION
Romania, a country with tradition and experience in ovine breeding
domain, known during 1970-1989 years a prosperous period of this agriculture
branch, thus in 1989 were registered about 18 million of ovine heads, with a
judicious structured breed structure, so the breeds with semi-fine wool were over
62% of the total ovine force, occupying the appropriated agro-pedo-climatic area
for these breeds. Today, when the Romania ovine force reached sensible almost 8
million heads, we assist to an undesired phenomenon such is Romania re-
population with Turcana breed, this one having in present over 65% of the total
ovine force, about 73% from the ovine force being in the official control and 29%
from the exploited forces in elite farms (figure 1). This breed structure, in which
Turcana one has over 65% of exploited force, determines that from this point of
- 710 -
view to find us to XVIIIth century level, when for that period characteristic was
the breeding predominantly of ovine forces characterized by rusticity, mixed
productions and rough wool (Pop A. 1983, Tafta V. 1997, 2007).
Fig. 1. The structure of

ovine forces in 01.01.2007
a. in total force being in COP
b. in force exploited in elite
farms
MJ = Merinos of Cluj
The Romania breed structure, correlated with productions’ orientation of

ovine species to European level, reveals an important postponement given to the
main productions’ level (table 1), meat and milk, allowing the fact that breeds
with some specialization degree and with an increased level for certain
production, such could be those of Merinos ovine group, lost field in favor of
Turcana breed, that is a breed with mixed aptitudes, but more less competitive,
either do to some biological particularities or exploitation and breeding
technologies.
- 711 -
Table 1.
Structure evolution of incomes realized from ovine exploitation in C.E.E. countries -%

(after A. Nabrady 1999, cited by D. Mierlita 2001)
Production
Period
wool meat milk
1965 70,00 20,00 10,00
1975 39,00 60,00 1,00
1985 25,00 72,00 3,00
1995 7,00 90,00 3,00
Also in the study effectuated in Romania was put into evidence the fact
that the value weight is net superior to weight of wool and hides’ production
(table 2), fact that imposes the breed structure re-orientation in such way to
provide a level of this competitive with this one of countries with tradition and
increased technological level.
Basis on those presented previously, we believe to impose in a first stage
the reconsideration of breed structure to national level and ovine zoning,
respecting the breeds’ biological particularities, correlated with agro-pedo-
climatic conditions of breeding zones, Turcana breed restriction in mountain and
high hill zones and occupation of plateau, hillock and field zones with ovine with
fine and semi-fine wool, characterized by increased improvement level for meat
or milk production, or with specialization in these production directions. The
judicious capitalization of existent breed structure, more precisely of native
breeds, provides also the principles of ovine durable development, as well the
species biodiversity maintaining, by all ecotypes and native species varieties’
exploitation.
Tablel 2.
The value weight of productions in some Romanian ovine breeds -%

(after ICDOC Palas-Constanta, 2000, for Merinos of Cluj updated by authors, 2006)
Production
Breed
Wool and hides meat milk
Merinos de Palas 9,80 61,50 28,70
Merinos
9,70 64,50 25,80
transilvănean
Merinos de Cluj 8,20 61,70 30,10
Tigaie 5,50 43,60 50,90
Turcană 3,50 37,20 59,30
- 712 -
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experiments were effectuated during 1996 - 2006 on ovine of Cluj
Merinos, by organizing fattening lots both in intensive system in section and on
field, series of 100 days, and lots on pasture with 150 days fattening duration.
From Merinos breeds exploited in Romania, the Merinos of Cluj is a
breed adapted to agro-pedo-climatic conditions of Transylvania, especially for hill
zones with accented pluviometric level, improper for other breeds with fine wool.
The effectuated investigations by the team of discipline of Ovine and goat
breeding technology from dr. Petru Groza Agronomic Institute of Cluj, leaded by
refined professor dr. eng. Augustin Pop concerning the native ovine genofond
from Transylvania, have as result selection as genitors to form a new sheep type
of Transylvanian Merinos breed on paternal line, and of Sibian ecotype of
Turcana breed on maternal line. By selecting these genitors is followed the
grafting on same individual of wool valuable features from Transylvanian
Merinos and of special resistance to environment conditions from Turcana breed,
that is in fact the oldest native breed.
In breed formation period, which lasts almost 30 years, until certification
moment as ovine breed new formed by OSIM in 1988, the breed names were “M
type”, “Cluj sheep”, “Manastur sheep”, and after homologation Merinos of Cluj.
Corresponding to formation stages of a breed, the desired type in Merinos
of Cluj, initially was mixed one for fine wool-meat-milk, and the breed presents
next morpho-productive features, synthetically presented in table 3.
Tabelul 3.
Synthetic presentation of main morpho-productive indices of Cluj Merinos breed
Indicele Sheep Rams

Body weight – kg - 48 – 57 75 – 85
Wool quantity – kg - 3,5 – 4,5 6,5 – 7,0
Wool fineness - µ - 22 – 24
Strand length – cm - 8,0 – 8,3
Number of waves on cm 7,0 – 9
Milk quantity – l - 85-95 (100,68 l average of 2004 – 2006 years)
Prolification - % 112 – 115
Birth rate - % 94 – 96
Percent of weaning lambs - % 95 – 98
Production character mixed: meat-milk-fine wool
Rezistance and adaptability good
Breeding zone hill zone
After 1990 year, when the wool production started to loose of its
economic value, the selection preoccupations inside the breed were directed for
- 713 -
meat production, not neglected the milk one, and in the conditions to maintain the
wool production inside breed standard.

To emphasis the production potential, for meat, were effectuated fattening
experiments in different systems, part of results being presented in table 4. from
presented data can be observed that in case of 100 days intensive fattening, both
on field, on permanent bedding (Miresan Vioara 1996), and also in classical
fattening shelter of section type (Coroian C. 2006), the total body weight gains
have averages of 24.82±0.40 kg, respectively 25.31±0.68 kg. The daily body
weight gain registered during 100 days of the experimental cycle has values over
200 grams, being of 248.23±4.59 g in case of lot fattened on field with permanent
bedding and of 253.13±22.20 g in case of lot fattened on section. These values are
comparable with those ones registered in other breeds from the same group, but
inferior to specialized breeds.
In case of fattening exclusively on pasture, without supplementary food
addition, during 150 days, and with medium pasture productive and qualitative
level the total body weight gain was of 16.06±0.30 kg, and the daily average one
of 107.06±2.02 g. These values are net superior to those registered in Turcana and
Tigaie breeds, two rustic breeds, which could have a better pasture capitalization
capacity, but both breeds have realized daily average gains less over 90 grams.
Table 4.
Total and daily average gain of body weight registered in ovine youth
of Cluj Merinos intensive fattened and on pasture
Body weight –kg Gain Specific consumption

Authors/year Fattening Fattening Daily Ruminant net Digestible
Total -kg
start end average -g energy, kcal protein -g
Mireşan V.,
24,82 ± 248,23 ±
1996, SDE 15,22 ± 0,1840,04 ± 0,51 7782,50 850,50
0,40 4,59
Mănăştur
Dărăban S.,
16,06 ± 107,06 ±
2004, SCDP 21,69 ± 0,3937,75 ± 0,30 13088,75 970,70
0,30 2,02
Jucu
Coroian C.,
2006, SC 25,31 ± 253,13 ±
15,47 ± 0,4640,78 ± 0,75 7924,00 822,27
Seradria 0,68 22,20
Răscruci
Besides the good fattening indices, the breed registered also increased
slaughter indices, expressed by cold carcasses’ weight, slaughtering efficiency,
chop and leg of mutton weight in carcass (table 5).
- 714 -
BACK
Table 5.
Main slaughter indices registered in ovine youth of Cluj Merinos

intensive fattened and on pasture
X ± sx, after
Breed Index Mireşan Coroian C*., Dărăban
V*., 1996 2004 S**., 2004
Carcass weight - kg 19,90 ± 0,67 18,76 ± 0,37 18,14 ± 0,14
Merino of Slaughtering efficiency - % 48,75 ± 0,39 46,35 ± 0,29 48,07 ± 0,06
Cluj Chops and leg of mutton from 48,00 ± 0,51 49,69 ± 0,26 46,50 ± 0,01
carcass - %
(*- intensive fattening of 100 days
(** - fattening on pasture, 150 days
The registered abattoir indices permit to frame in I class of quality after

slaughtering efficiency, the STAS applied in our country for ovine youth
category, in ovine youth of fattening farm class after European normative, and the
carcasses’ weight permit to frame these ones in group of average carcasses of
16.00-19.00 kg.
CONCLUSIONS
Basis on experimental data, of great scientific accuracy, we can affirm
that Merinos breed of Cluj represents an important gene source for meat
production, which expression level can be increased either by providing the
technological optimum or by crossing with breeds specialized for meat
production.
BIBLIOGRAFIE:
1. Coroian, C., 2006 – Contribuţii la cunoaşterea capacităţii de îngrăşare intensivă a tineretului ovin
din diferite structuri de rasă. Teză de doctorat, USAMV Cluj.Napoca;
2. Dărăban, S., 2004 – Contribuţii la cunoaşterea capacităţii de îngrăşare pe păşune a tineretului
ovin din diferite structuri de rasă. Teză de doctorat USAMV Cluj-Napoca;
3. Mireşan Vioara, 1996 – Influenţa unor structuri furajere asupra performanţelor de îngrăşare
intensivă a tineretului ovin din rasele Ţigaie, Merinos de Cluj şi Corriedale. Teză de doctorat
USAMV Cluj-Napoca;
4. Pascal C., 2007 – Creşterea ovinelor şi caprinelor. Ed. Pim, Iaşi;
5. Pădeanu Ioan, (2002) – Producţiile ovinelor şi caprinelor. Ed. Mirton, Timişoara;
6. Pop, A., E. Mireşan, 1991 – Îndrumător pentru creşterea şi îngrăşarea mieilor. Ed. Ceres
Bucureşti;
7.Taftă, V şi col., 1997 – Producţia, ameliorarea şi reproducţia ovinelor. Ed. Ceres Bucureşti.
- 715 -
BACK
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE FEATURES OF EGGS

PRODUCTION ISSUED FROM SOME GALINACEAE
POPULATIONS IN BIHOR COUNTY
Monica DODU, I. CHEREJI
The paper presents some partial results issued from the identification and
characterization of some domestic fowl populations in Bihor County, belonging to
Galliformes order, Gallus domesticus species, Leghorn and Hamburg breeds.
Chickens from five private breeder farms in Oradea city and surroundings have
been evaluated. A flock of 197 birds, including 151 hens and 46 cocks have been
inventoried for Leghorn breed, while Hamburg population counted 174 birds,
respectively 35 males and 139 females. Among the studied morpho-productive
features (bodyweight dynamics in youth and adults, feed conversion ratio, eggs yield
and laying curve during 21-70 wks. period, incubation eggs quality and incubation
analysis), this paper reveals some data related to quantitative and qualitative eggs
production. Thus, in Leghorn breed, eggs yield, expressed as mean of the 5
populations, reached 6329 pcs., respectively 229 eggs/hen/period while laying peak
(82.52%) occurred during wk. 28. Quality parameters of the incubation eggs
oscillated between laying initiation and its ending. Eggs weight has been found
within 47.7±0.6g – 64.6±0.7g range and shell thickness between 0.425±0.007 mm ÷
0.328±0.015 mm limits. Values between 72.5% and 74.3% have been found for the
Egg format index, while Haugh index has been comprised within 77.5 U.H. and 80.5
U.H. variation interval. Hamburg hens produced an average amount of 4062.8
eggs, meaning 163 eggs/hen/period, with a maximum level of 70% laying intensity,
reached during wk. 28. eggs weight values have been found between 48.2±0.5g and
52.5±0.8 g limits while shell thickness decreased toward the end of laying period
(0.429±0.008 mm ÷ 0.332±0.014 mm). Eggs format index oscillated between 72.9%-
74.1% limits, while the Haugh index values have been found within the 80.3-81.6
U.H. interval. Overall, the assessed features showed average values comprised
within the interval specified by the standard of the studied populations.
Keywords: Leghorn, Hamburg, eggs yield, eggs quality
A series of researches, passed during 2006-2007 years, tried to bring new

elements concerning the actual productive and reproductive status of some
chicken pure-breed population within the Bihor county area. Thus, the flocks
from 5 farms belonging to private breeders have been studied, following some
morpho-productive parameters of juvenile and adult fowl: body weight dynamics,
feed intake, flock looses, egg production, incubation eggs quality, incubation
analysis, quality of the new hatched chickens. The paper presents the results
concerning egg yield and its qualitative features.

Ten populations of laying type breeds were analyzed, respectively 5
populations of Leghorn (197 birds, 151 females and 46 males) and 5 populations
of Hamburg (174 birds, 139 hens and 35 cocks).
- 716 -
The biological material also consisted in the eggs harvested from both
breed females. Quantification of eggs yield served to the laying intensity
computation and to the graphical representation of laying curve. It was used the
mathematical relation presented below:
Q × 100
I.P. = , where:
N×K
- I.P. = laying intensity (%);
- Q = egg amount produced by a hen in K days
- N = hen flock size.
Eggs weight (g) was measured by gravimetry, using individual eggs
weightings at electronic scales, during four laying periods: beginning, peak,
plateau and finishing.
Eggshell thickness was assessed by individual measuring with a caliper,
in three egg points (sharpen pole, round pole and median area), during the four
laying moments, as listed for eggs weight assessments.
Two synthetic indexes were also calculated to better express the
morphological and internal quality of the incubation eggs: Format index and
Haugh index, according to the following relations:
dm
I.F. = × 100 , where:
DM
- I.F. = egg format index (%);
- dm, DM = small and large diameters of the eggs (cm).
U.H. = 100log (h-1,7 X G0,37 + 7,57), where:

- U.H. = Haugh index (Haugh Units);
- h = dense albumen height (mm);
- G = egg weight (g).
The results were compared to the reference values from the scientific
literature
Eggs yield and laying intensity

Performances recorded by Leghorn hens are presented in Fig. 1 and Tab.
1, while those observed for Hamburg hens are listed within the Tab. 2 and Fig. 2.
Thus, for Leghorn populations, laying intensity was of 15.38% during 21st
week of age (laying beginning) and laying peak was reached during wk 28th
(82.52%). Egg yield maintained at relatively constant level, within the 81.8-
77.4% interval, during 9 weeks. From that moment laying intensity continued to
decrease, reaching finally 53.3% in wk 70. Peak production was found within
reference interval (80-87%) (Sauveur B., 1999). Finally, an average amount of
229 eggs was produced by a hen during laying period, value corresponding to the
breed standard (180-270 eggs/year) (Vacaru-Opriş, 2007). Best performances
were observed by the fowl in the Farm 3 (233.3 eggs/period/hen).
- 717 -
‫‪Universitatea de Ştiinţe Agricole şi Medicină Veterinară Iaşi‬‬
‫‪Table 1‬‬
‫‪Eggs yield and laying intensity calculated for Leghorn populations‬‬
‫‪C1‬‬ ‫‪C2‬‬ ‫‪C3‬‬ ‫‪C4‬‬ ‫‪C5‬‬ ‫‪Populations average‬‬
‫‪Age‬‬
‫)‪(wks.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬
‫‪Hens‬‬ ‫‪Hens‬‬ ‫‪Hens‬‬ ‫‪Hens‬‬ ‫‪Hens‬‬ ‫‪Hens‬‬
‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬ ‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬ ‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬ ‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬ ‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬ ‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬
‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪14.29‬‬ ‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪16.00‬‬ ‫‪36‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪16.67‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪14.29‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪15.79‬‬ ‫‪28.6‬‬ ‫‪4.4‬‬ ‫‪15.38‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪82.14‬‬ ‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪84.00‬‬ ‫‪36‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪83.33‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪80.00‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪84.21‬‬ ‫‪28.6‬‬ ‫‪23.6‬‬ ‫‪82.52‬‬
‫‪29‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪78.57‬‬ ‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪84.00‬‬ ‫‪36‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪83.33‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪80.00‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪84.21‬‬ ‫‪28.6‬‬ ‫‪23.4‬‬ ‫‪81.82‬‬
‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪78.57‬‬ ‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪84.00‬‬ ‫‪36‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪83.33‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪80.00‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪78.95‬‬ ‫‪28.6‬‬ ‫‪23.2‬‬ ‫‪81.12‬‬
‫‪31‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪86.96‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪29‬‬ ‫‪82.86‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪79.41‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪22.2‬‬ ‫‪81.02‬‬
‫‪32‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪86.96‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪29‬‬ ‫‪82.86‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪79.41‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪22.2‬‬ ‫‪81.02‬‬
‫‪33‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪86.96‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪29‬‬ ‫‪82.86‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪79.41‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪22.2‬‬ ‫‪81.02‬‬
‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪82.61‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪80.00‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪79.41‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪21.8‬‬ ‫‪79.56‬‬
‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪74.07‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪82.61‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪80.00‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪76.47‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪21.4‬‬ ‫‪78.10‬‬
‫‪36‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪74.07‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪82.61‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪80.00‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪76.47‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪21.4‬‬ ‫‪78.10‬‬
‫‪37‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪74.07‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪78.26‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪80.00‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪76.47‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪21.2‬‬ ‫‪77.37‬‬
‫‪38‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪74.07‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪78.26‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪77.14‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪25‬‬ ‫‪73.53‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪77.78‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪20.8‬‬ ‫‪75.91‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪50‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪66.67‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪69.57‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪68.57‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪64.71‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪66.67‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪18.4‬‬ ‫‪67.15‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪55‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪62.96‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪65.22‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪65.71‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪61.76‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪66.67‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪17.6‬‬ ‫‪64.23‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪60‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪59.26‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪65.22‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪60.00‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪58.82‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪61.11‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪16.6‬‬ ‫‪60.58‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪65‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪55.56‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪60.87‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪57.14‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪52.94‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪61.11‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪15.6‬‬ ‫‪56.93‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪70‬‬ ‫‪27‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪51.85‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪56.52‬‬ ‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪54.29‬‬ ‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪50.00‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪55.56‬‬ ‫‪27.4‬‬ ‫‪14.6‬‬ ‫‪53.28‬‬
‫‪Total eggs 6062.00‬‬ ‫‪5607.00‬‬ ‫‪8211.00‬‬ ‫‪7532.00‬‬ ‫‪4235.00‬‬ ‫‪6329.40‬‬
‫‪Eggs/hen‬‬ ‫‪222.9‬‬ ‫‪239.6‬‬ ‫‪233.3‬‬ ‫‪220.2‬‬ ‫‪232.7‬‬ ‫‪229.0‬‬
‫‪C1…C5 = the five private farms‬‬
‫‪I.P.% = laying intensity‬‬
‫‪- 718 -‬‬

‫‪Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 51 seria Zootehnie‬‬
‫‪Table 2‬‬
‫‪Eggs yield and laying intensity calculated for Hamburg populations‬‬
‫‪C1‬‬ ‫‪C2‬‬ ‫‪C3‬‬ ‫‪C4‬‬ ‫‪C5‬‬ ‫‪Populations average‬‬
‫‪Age‬‬
‫)‪(wks.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬ ‫‪Eggs‬‬ ‫‪I.P.‬‬
‫‪Hens‬‬ ‫‪Hens‬‬ ‫‪Hens‬‬ ‫‪Hens‬‬ ‫‪Hens‬‬ ‫‪Hens‬‬
‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬ ‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬ ‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬ ‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬ ‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬ ‫‪/day‬‬ ‫)‪(%‬‬
‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪11.54‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪15.00‬‬ ‫‪32‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪15.63‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪14.29‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪12.50‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪3.6‬‬ ‫‪13.85‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪69.23‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪70.00‬‬ ‫‪32‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪68.75‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪71.43‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪70.83‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪18.2‬‬ ‫‪70.00‬‬
‫‪29‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪69.23‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪70.00‬‬ ‫‪32‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪68.75‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪67.86‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪66.67‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪17.8‬‬ ‫‪68.46‬‬
‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪65.38‬‬ ‫‪20‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪65.00‬‬ ‫‪32‬‬ ‫‪21‬‬ ‫‪65.63‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪64.29‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪16‬‬ ‫‪66.67‬‬ ‫‪26‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪65.38‬‬
‫‪31‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪62.50‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪63.16‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪63.33‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪64.29‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪65.22‬‬ ‫‪24.8‬‬ ‫‪15.8‬‬ ‫‪63.71‬‬
‫‪32‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪62.50‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪63.16‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪63.33‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪64.29‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪65.22‬‬ ‫‪24.8‬‬ ‫‪15.8‬‬ ‫‪63.71‬‬
‫‪33‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪62.50‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪63.16‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪63.33‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪64.29‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪65.22‬‬ ‫‪24.8‬‬ ‫‪15.8‬‬ ‫‪63.71‬‬
‫‪34‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪62.50‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪63.16‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪63.33‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪64.29‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪65.22‬‬ ‫‪24.8‬‬ ‫‪15.8‬‬ ‫‪63.71‬‬
‫‪35‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪62.50‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪63.16‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪63.33‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪60.71‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪60.87‬‬ ‫‪24.8‬‬ ‫‪15.4‬‬ ‫‪62.10‬‬
‫‪36‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪62.50‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪63.16‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪63.33‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪60.71‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪14‬‬ ‫‪60.87‬‬ ‫‪24.8‬‬ ‫‪15.4‬‬ ‫‪62.10‬‬
‫‪37‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪62.50‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪63.16‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪63.33‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪60.71‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪56.52‬‬ ‫‪24.8‬‬ ‫‪15.2‬‬ ‫‪61.29‬‬
‫‪38‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪62.50‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪63.16‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪63.33‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪17‬‬ ‫‪60.71‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪56.52‬‬ ‫‪24.8‬‬ ‫‪15.2‬‬ ‫‪61.29‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪50‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪50.00‬‬ ‫‪19‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪47.37‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪15‬‬ ‫‪50.00‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪46.43‬‬ ‫‪23‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪43.48‬‬ ‫‪24.8‬‬ ‫‪11.8‬‬ ‫‪47.58‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪55‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪41.67‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪44.44‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪13‬‬ ‫‪43.33‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪12‬‬ ‫‪42.86‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪40.91‬‬ ‫‪24.4‬‬ ‫‪10.4‬‬ ‫‪42.62‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪60‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪33.33‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪38.89‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪11‬‬ ‫‪36.67‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪10‬‬ ‫‪35.71‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪36.36‬‬ ‫‪24.4‬‬ ‫‪8.8‬‬ ‫‪36.07‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪65‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪7‬‬ ‫‪29.17‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪33.33‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪9‬‬ ‫‪30.00‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪8‬‬ ‫‪28.57‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪27.27‬‬ ‫‪24.4‬‬ ‫‪7.2‬‬ ‫‪29.51‬‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬ ‫׀‬
‫‪70‬‬ ‫‪24‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪16.67‬‬ ‫‪18‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪22.22‬‬ ‫‪30‬‬ ‫‪6‬‬ ‫‪20.00‬‬ ‫‪28‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬ ‫‪17.86‬‬ ‫‪22‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪18.18‬‬ ‫‪24.4‬‬ ‫‪4.6‬‬ ‫‪18.85‬‬
‫‪Total eggs 3941.00‬‬ ‫‪3185.00‬‬ ‫‪5082.00‬‬ ‫‪4501.00‬‬ ‫‪3605.00‬‬ ‫‪4062.80‬‬
‫‪Eggs/hen‬‬ ‫‪161.5‬‬ ‫‪169.4‬‬ ‫‪167.2‬‬ ‫‪160.8‬‬ ‫‪158.1‬‬ ‫‪163.3‬‬
‫‪C1…C5 = the five private farms‬‬
‫‪I.P.% = laying intensity‬‬
‫‪- 719 -‬‬

100.00
90.00 82.52
75.91
Laying intensity (%)
80.00
67.15
70.00 61.31
60.00
54.55
50.00 53.28
40.00
30.00
20.00
15.38
10.00
0.00
wk 21
wk 24
wk 27
wk 30
wk 33
wk 36
wk 39
wk 42
wk 45
wk 48
wk 51
wk 54
wk 57
wk 60
wk 63
wk 66
wk 69
Laying period (weeks)
Fig. 1 - Laying curve of the Leghorn populations (mean laying intensity)
For Hamburg populations, it could be noticed a reduced value of laying

intensity during laying onset (13.85%), which gradually improved till reached
70.0% during wk 28 (laying peak). Egg production maintained at 62.5% during
plateau stage and finally dropped at 18.85% at 70th week of age.
100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
70.00 61.29
60.00 50.81
50.00 40.16
40.00 41.54
30.00
20.00
13.85 18.85
10.00
0.00
wk 21
wk 25
wk 29
wk 33
wk 37
wk 41
wk 45
wk 49
wk 53
wk 57
wk 61
wk 65
wk 69
Laying period (weeks)
Fig. 2 - Laying curve of the Hamburg populations (mean laying intensity)
Best individual performance was achieved by the Hamburg hens in Farm 2

(169.4 eggs/period/hen), while the average yield for all farms counted 161.5
eggs/period/female, reaching the upper limit of the breed standard (Vacaru-Opriş I. et
al, 2007).
Data regarding the incubation eggs quality is presented in table 3 for
both layer breeds.
- 720 -
Table 3
Dynamics of the eggs quality parameters at Leghorn and Hamburg populations
Laying C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 Farms mean
moment x ± sx V% x ± sx V% x ± sx V% x ± sx V% x ± sx V% x ± sx V%
Beginning 48.5 0.6 9.2 47.9 0.3 11.7 47.2 0.5 18.3 46.7 0.3 15.6 48.1 0.9 21.3 47.7 0.6 14.3
Peak 58.2 0.5 6.7 57.2 0.6 4.4 56.8 0.4 8.9 55.9 0.5 10.2 57.5 0.3 11.7 57.1 0.8 8.3
Plateau 61.3 0.2 7.8 59.5 0.4 6.5 59.1 0.5 9.1 58.3 0.4 8.2 60.2 0.6 7.3 59.7 0.4 7.9
Leghorn
Ending 65.4 0.8 9.4 64.7 0.7 8.1 64.1 0.3 9.3 63.6 0.6 7.5 65.1 0.2 8.1 64.6 0.7 9.1
Beginning 47.8 0.5 8.9 47.3 0.4 10.2 48.1 0.6 13.4 48.7 0.4 12.8 49.2 0.8 15.7 48.2 0.5 12.4
Peak 48.9 0.4 6.8 48.4 0.5 9.7 49.5 0.3 7.6 50.1 0.6 8.4 50.3 0.4 10.1 49.4 0.4 8.6
Eggs weight (g)

Plateau 50.8 0.3 8.1 50.4 0.6 7.2 51.2 0.7 9.5 51.9 0.6 9.2 52.4 0.7 7.8 51.3 0.6 8.2
Hamburg
Ending 51.7 0.7 9.3 51.4 0.8 8.6 52.4 0.9 9.9 53.2 0.8 10.1 53.8 0.7 9.2 52.5 0.8 9.1
Beginning 0.418 0.009 10.7 0.424 0.008 15.4 0.427 0.010 12.3 0.433 0.015 14.1 0.421 0.008 18.2 0.425 0.007 13.7
Peak 0.370 0.006 13.2 0.377 0.005 12.9 0.382 0.008 16.4 0.387 0.009 13.5 0.372 0.012 16.7 0.378 0.009 14.2
Plateau 0.331 0.010 11.8 0.335 0.013 14.2 0.339 0.006 13.1 0.341 0.008 12.7 0.333 0.009 13.8 0.336 0.011 15.1
Leghorn
Ending 0.322 0.007 15.6 0.328 0.006 19.7 0.331 0.014 15.5 0.336 0.005 16.8 0.324 0.011 14.5 0.328 0.015 17.6
Beginning 0.422 0.007 10.2 0.415 0.008 15.4 0.429 0.011 13.4 0.438 0.013 13.9 0.441 0.010 17.9 0.429 0.008 14.7
(mm)
Peak 0.357 0.009 12.9 0.349 0.005 12.7 0.366 0.009 15.8 0.372 0.008 13.1 0.380 0.013 16.1 0.365 0.007 13.8
Shell thickness
Plateau 0.336 0.011 11.6 0.331 0.013 14.7 0.342 0.007 13.6 0.350 0.007 12.7 0.353 0.009 13.4 0.342 0.011 13.1
Hamburg
Ending 0.327 0.008 15.5 0.322 0.007 19.5 0.330 0.013 15.8 0.337 0.004 15.7 0.343 0.008 14.9 0.332 0.014 16.2
Beginning 75.2 1.3 12.1 73.8 0.9 9.8 73.1 0.8 10.5 72.8 0.9 11.4 74.1 1.2 15.2 73.8 1.3 11.8
Peak 75.1 1.5 5.7 74.7 0.7 7.2 74.0 0.7 6.8 72.8 0.5 9.1 74.9 1.4 10.5 74.3 0.9 8.7
Plateau 74.9 0.9 9.1 73.1 1.4 8.4 72.4 1.1 9.5 71.2 1.4 10.2 74.2 1.1 8.3 73.2 1.7 7.6
Leghorn
Ending 74.5 1.7 7.4 72.4 0.8 8.2 71.4 0.6 8.5 70.9 1.1 9.7 73.2 0.9 8.9 72.5 1.1 8.4
(%)
Beginning 74.5 1.1 13.2 74.9 1.2 9.6 73.4 0.9 11.1 72.6 1.2 11.5 72.3 1.3 14.4 73.5 1.1 12.1
Peak 73.9 1.6 5.4 74.2 0.9 7.1 72.8 0.8 6.5 71.9 0.7 9.2 71.8 1.5 10.7 72.9 1.2 8.1
Egg format index

Plateau 75.1 0.7 8.7 75.3 1.5 8.5 74.1 1.2 9.3 73.2 1.5 10.4 72.9 1.2 8.4 74.1 1.3 8.9
Hamburg
Ending 74.8 1.4 7.1 75.5 0.9 7.9 73.6 0.9 8.8 72.9 1.2 9.8 72.5 1.0 8.8 73.9 1.2 8.4
Beginning 85.3 1.4 11.3 79.6 1.1 10.5 77.8 0.9 12.1 76.5 0.6 11.4 82.9 1.3 13.2 80.5 1.1 12.1
Peak 89.3 1.5 14.9 85.6 1.2 12.3 83.2 1.1 11.4 80.9 0.9 10.9 87.8 1.3 14.2 85.5 1.2 12.7
Plateau 83.7 1.2 12.7 81.7 1.0 11.4 78.4 0.9 10.8 77.9 0.8 10.5 84.1 1.2 13.5 81.2 1.1 11.8
Leghorn
Ending 81.2 1.1 11.5 75.7 0.6 10.1 75.2 0.5 10.3 74.6 0.5 12.7 80.6 1.0 11.8 77.5 0.9 11.4
Beginning 85.5 1.3 12.1 79.9 1.1 10.8 77.4 0.8 12.6 75.7 0.7 11.6 82.5 1.2 12.9 80.3 1.0 12.3
Peak 89.2 1.5 14.8 88.2 1.2 12.4 85.5 1.2 11.7 82.8 0.9 10.4 87.7 1.1 14.6 86.8 1.3 12.8
Plateau 86.9 1.0 12.5 84.6 1.1 11.3 81.1 0.9 10.9 80.2 0.7 10.9 86.4 1.3 13.4 83.9 1.1 12.4
Haugh index (U.H.)

Hamburg
Ending 85.4 1.2 11.3 80.4 0.8 10.2 79.3 0.7 10.6 78.3 0.6 12.4 84.2 1.1 11.6 81.6 1.0 11.1
C1…C5 = the five private farms
Laying moments, related to flock age: Beginning: week 21; Peak: week 28; Plateau: week 38; Ending: week 70
- 721 -
BACK
Eggs weight. For Leghorn populations, it modified, from 47.7±0.6g

(laying onset), till 64.6±0.7g (laying end). Biggest eggs were produced by the
hens in Farm 1, while the smallest issued from Farm 4. Homogeneity has also
modified, the highest variability being recorded at laying onset (v=14.3%). Breed
standard specifies an average eggs weight of 55 g, the closest value being
achieved during peak production (57.1±0.8 g). In Hamburg fowl, eggs weight also
increased with ageing, starting from 48.2±0.5g and reaching 52.5±0.8 g toward
laying ending. Hens from Farm 5 gave biggest eggs (49.2-53.8g).
Eggshell thickness, studied for Leghorn birds, followed a descendant trend
as reported to eggs weight, decreasing from 0.425±0.007 mm, till 0.328±0.015 mm,
at laying ending. Variation coefficient showed values within the 13.7-17.6%
interval. Best shell quality was achieved by the hens in the C4 population,
considering they produced the smallest eggs. At Hamburg hens, shell thickness also
decreased, while laying advanced and eggs gained weight, varying between the
range of 0.429±0.008 mm (laying onset) and of 0.332±0.014 mm (laying end).
Eggs shape index values have been modified during laying, at Leghorn
hens, oscillating between 72.5% and 74.3% (populations averages), existing
minor deviations from scientific specifications (73-74%, Bălăşescu, 1999). For
Hamburg populations, the same index varied between 72.9%-74.1%, limits, an
average value of 73.9% being calculated for the entire period, while maximal
values were observed in Farm 2.
Haugh Index, which better reveals eggs quality, showed values
comprised within 77.5 U.H. and 80.5 U.H. range, at Leghorn hens, highest value
being noticed during peak of production (85.5 U.H.), situation that confirms the
quality of the produced eggs. In Hamburg hens, Haugh index was found with and
average value of 81.6 U.H. during the entire production period, with maximal
performance during laying peak. Best results were observed at C1 population. The
achieved values for this index showed that the eggs from both breeds could be
successfully used either for incubation either for human consumption (standard
range: 74.5-89.5 U.H., Usturoi M.G., 1999).
CONCLUSIONS
The mean value of the laying intensity during laying peak reached 82.5%
at Leghorn populations, respectively 70.0% at Hamburg hens.
Average eggs yield/production cycle was found of 229 eggs/Leghorn
hen/period and of 163.3 eggs/Hamburg female/period.
Incubation eggs quality, as represented by certain indexes such as weight,
shell thickness, egg format index, Haugh index has been found within variation
limits specified in the reference literature. However, Hamburg eggs quality was
superior to that observed in Leghorn populations, mainly concerning shell
thickness and Haugh index.
REFERENCES
Bălăşescu M., Bâltan Gh., Dascălu Al., Vancea I. – 1980 – Avicultură. Ed. Didactică şi Pedagogică,
Bucureşti.
Sauveur B. Et al – 1988 – Reproduction des volailles et production d‫׳‬oeufs. Institut National de la
Recherche Agronomique, Paris.
Usturoi M.G. – 1999 – Incubaţia la păsările domestice, Ed. Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Iaşi.
Vacaru-Opriş I. et al – 2007 – Tratat de Avicultură, Vol. I, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
- 722 -
BACK
EUROPEAN HIPPOLOGICAL STUDIES OF THE RACE

HORSE IN EQUESTRIAN COMPETITIONS
I. DULUGEAC
The present paper uses a rich bibliography of specialty, as well as

scientific own considerations made on the occasion of the authors participation in
hippic congresses, symposiums, biennials, conferences. The 8 lines of Lipizzan
horses are presented in this paper, as well as a short history of this race
appearance, evolution and distribution, followed by systems of evaluation,
cataloged registration, classification and certification of the Lipizzan horses, based
on morphological criteria, to end with references made on the use of this horse
flesh in equestrian sport events, four-in hands in different European countries.
The paper equally presents the history of the appearance of this race
horse, the existence of the 8 Lipizzan pure lines, the organization of the stud
farm, the various results of the research studies of the biological material, the
breed structure of the race horse at national level and the results obtained by
each category of horses, as it was evaluated with the race horses meant for
participation in hippic sports events, in domestic and international competitions,
for which these categories of horses are specially trained. The morphological
characteristics of the Lipizzan horses existing in the European stud farms, the
genetic variation and the heritage morphological characteristics of the horse
population herewith under observation have been studied during various periods.
Considering the modern hippologists studies, one can state that the hippic
sports have lately become ever more important and world wide spread, being
differently organized from continent to continent, or from country to country.
Anyhow, in spite of it, the scientific classifications in the horse domain, the name this
field of activity is denominated by the great world hippological specialists, divide the
hippic sports in three main groups, taking into account the domain of interest and the
spreading area, as it follows:
A.Equestrian sports
B.Hippical races
C.Hippical games.
Out of this classification, we shall present you the first group, namely the
equestrian sports, since this is the most world widely spread one, out of the three
groups of hippical competitions, taking place in 98% of the world countries. Thus, the
hippical sport is practiced at planet level, under the organization of the International
Equestrian Federation, or in co-organization with the National Equestrian Federations,
within sports competitions organized for different horse ages, or for various disciplines
of the equestrian sports, where an important number of horses of a high genetic
heritage is used, and where the amount of money involved can reach billions of Euro.
The equestrian sports represent the mostly developed group of hippical
sector, at world level. They are divided into sports disciplines, which the International
Equestrian Federation organizes under the form of World Championship, Olympic
- 723 -
Games or European Championships, and National Championships that takes place in

the affiliated countries, through National Equestrian Federations that are part of this
world organization.
Consequently, the equestrian sports are world-wide organized in accordance
with the following disciplines:
1. Jumping
2. Dressage
3. Three Days Event
4. Driving
5. Endurance
6. Voltage
7. Reining
The International Equestrian Federation organizes, through the National
Federations, championships for all these seven disciplines of the equestrian sport, but
there are some countries that are not interested or do not have competitors for all seven
disciplines, and therefore they organize championships only for some of these.The most
frequently met competitions are: Jumping, Dressage, Three Days Event and Driving.
National championships are organized in Romania for these disciplines, as well.
1.Jumping is the most world-widely practiced equestrian discipline, being
organized under the form of championship in all countries affiliated to the International
Equestrian Federation, that take place in 116 countries. This discipline is organized
under the form of championship taking into account the age of horse riders and of
horses, the jump hight reached during the competition, individually and by teams as
well.As a rule, these competitions are National Championships and each of their stages
brings points for the designation of the year champion in the respective country.
The contest takes place on a field covered by grass or sand, whose
dimensions are from 25/60 m up to 60/120 m, within its boundary the cours disegner
chief sets the track with 12-15 obstacles, for 15-18 jumping, and respectively for 18-
20 jumping(fig. 1).At these contests, sportsmen and their horses, that, technically
speaking, form a couple will compete following the track set by the cours disegner,
jumping over the obstacles raised from 0.80 m up to 1.60 m, in accordance with the
category and difficulty of the respective race.
This track should be run in a limited period of time, in keeping with the horse
speed, and for each bar thrown down the competitor gets a 4 points penalty, as well as
for the time exceeding when he gets one point penalty for every 4 seconds time
exceeding.These rules are observed by all countries affiliated to the International
Equestrian Federation, in conformity with the Regulations set by this international
organization, adopted with small exceptions by each country.
If at the termination of the race, two or several competitors register an
equal number of points, in order to make the classification, they will run a new
race, named barrage race, that will have only 30-40% of the obstacle number of
the first one, the obstacles being raised by 10 cm higher and widened by 10- 20
cm as compared with the first race.
- 724 -
Fig.1. Jumping in the Nationale Champhionships, in

Sânnicolaul Mare 2005, sportswomen Cristina
Dulugeac with stallion Rock of the Club of
Equestrian Academie to Mogoşoaia
Foto: Ion Dulugeac
The horse is equally penalized for its derogations within these

competitions, by 4 points for each derogation and, in case of two derogations
during one track racing, the couple is eliminated. Equally, the horse rider is
disqualified when, by various reasons, he falls down before he reaches the arrival
line.The prizes granted at obstacle jumping competitions, in conformity with the
General Regulations of the International Equestrian Federation, art. 128 belong to
the horse owner, as a form of reimbursement of his travel expenses or of the horse
maintenance expenses.
2.Dressage. This discipline is an Olympic one, together with jumping and

the three day event, the three of them being Olympic Equestrian Games.
Fig.2. General Decarpentry the cheef of

L’Ecole d’Équitation and after, the
commandante of l’École de Cavalerie de
Saumur. On the dressage academique,it
is the best in France, but is an
authorityon in many of the country.
General Decarpentry, on the piaffer,
with horse Professeur
Foto: Equitation française

The size of the race field should be minimum 20/60 m, and the surface
should be covered with sand, cinders or grass and should be bordered by a fence
and work points.
- 725 -
At training competitions, the sportsmen’clothing is more academic like

and they are obliged to wear tail coat, shirt and tie, white riding trousers and black
spurred training boots, and silk hat.
The competition field is bordered by a wooden white fence, high of 20-
25 cm , the long sides being surrounded by letters, where the competitors should
execute certain imposed movements, by the pace according to the progressive
exercise they execute, subject to the competition level( fig. 2).
The training competitions are organized under the form of championship
and cup, where a national champion is designated further to national
championships, or an European or Wordl champion is designatedc further to
European or World competitions.
3.Three days event

This performance takes place during three days, since the name of Three Day
Event, that means a three days competition, or a military event, whose origin comes
from the competitions organized by the English knight officers, during their spare
time between two knight charges during India occupation and colonization
The complete event is performed by the same horse and rider couple, for the
entire three days duration, when they perform the fol.lowing competition program:
The first day, training event of a certain level of difficulty, in keeping
with the competition grade.
The second day, they perform the long-distance race, in four phases.
The third day of the competition, they perform the jumping race, with
obstacles raised from 1.10 to 1.40 m , subject to the difficulty of the track, noted
with stars(fig. 3).
Fig.3. Viorel Bubău with stallion

Carnaval, on the jumping contest,
for the Olympic Games to Athène in
to 2004
Foto: Paco
These competitions take place in accordance with age criteria, both for horses
and riders, and with performance level, being open for boys, juniors and seniors, being
organized individually, as well as by teams.For the complete event, the number of
horses that are rode by the same rider is limited to 2 for each competition, and the
minimal period of repose of each horse in view of a new race is 30 days.
- 726 -
4.Driving
This discipline takes place in the same way as the complete event, that is
three competition days, three different events, one for training, one for marathon
and one for obstacles.Pairs of horses (carriages) of one, two or four horses perform,
each competition stage taking place for a period of three competition days.
The competitors are 2 sportsmen, out of which one is the carriage driver
and the second one is his assistant, the latter one playing an important role in the
carriage conduct during the training, the obstacles, and the marathon.
The carriage competitions are classified into one, two or three stars,
pending on the difficulty and length of the track, and only seniors participate,
being a more difficult sports to practice on a longer distance and varied land.9
clubs out of the 36 ones affiliated to the Romanian Equestrian Federation
participate in this Championship, being groups that have a carriage section,
participating in one, two (fig.4) or four horses carriage championship, and having
a reserve horse as well.
Fig.4. Driving with two Lipizzan

horses in the Nationale
Champhionships of Roumania, on
Temeşeu, Bihor, in to 2002
Foto: Ion Dulugeac
5. Endurance
The endurance competitions are, generally speaking, open events, for
Arab Toroughbred race or other horse races resistant to big efforts generated by
long distances covered by the horse when ridden by his sportsman, such as the
Turkmenistan Akal Teke horse or the Berber horse in North Africa. For a horse or
a driver to be able to participate in the World Equestrian Games it is not necessary
to form a couple, but they should have performed an International Equestrian
Federation endurance raid (140 km or more) from January 1, during a period of
two years, preceding the World Equestrian Games(fig.5).
If the horse/rider did not qualify in conformity with the norms stipulated
in the above paragraph, the horse or the rider should, at least, perform an
International Equestrian Federation endurance raid of 120 km (two stars
category), during a period beginning with January 1 till the date of the Nominal
Arrangements of the respective Games.
- 727 -
Fig. 5. The stallion Pigale, son of

Piruet, product to Haras Nationales
de France, winner on the European
Championsips of Endurance in 2003
- La Baule
Foto: L’Eperon
6. Voltage
The discipline named voltage is a discipline that represents in fact a
gymnastic round performed on the horse back while the horse is in movement, by
boys, but especially by girls, the latter ones boasting an athletic structure,
necessary for such movements and coregraphic gymnastic exercises, made while
the horse moves in rounds.
This horse, specially trained for trap and gallop, runs in circle, on the left
hand so that the competitor girls may perform the compulsory exercises on the
back of this horse.
Fig. 6. The Roumanie

delegation in to stage of
tehniqual preparation, on the
International Contest of
Voltage to Saumur
Foto: L’Eperon
The horse has a special harness, with a special voltage girth and with two
handles similar to the horse handles, which are necessary elements for the young
competitor girls to sustain themselves during their evolution at the
- 728 -
competition.This discipline is practiced in championships that are organized all

over the competitionl year, both inside, as well as outside, being practiced by
children, young people and seniors(fig. 6).
7.Reining or Western Equitation

The Western equitation has been the heir of a long traditional
characteristic of the daily activity of cow-boys, since more than two centuries.
This type of equitation, which was practiced on vast territories, is today an official
equestrian discipline, recognized as such by the International Equestrian
Federation, on Aprilie 14, 2000. From that moment on, reining has become the
seventh official discipline, represented at international level.
Fig.7. The Reining on the

Equestrian Games in to Jerez –
Espagne, on 2002.
Foto: Le Cheval Magasin
It was present at the Olympic Games in Sydney in 2000, at the World

Equestrian Games in 2002, that took place in Spain, as well as at the Olympic
Games in Athens in 2004(fig 7).
All these equestrian events or disciplines largely use sports horses, of
Anglo-Arab origin, where the English Thoroughbred has been, in most cases, the
main ameliorating element that transmitted to descendants improved characteristics,
such as: speed, elegance, elasticity, strong croup, an element which is essential for
jumping.
To conclude with, we can say that the English Thoroughbred is destined to
gallop races and that, further to a long rigorous selection and to a good matching of
the pairs , which sometimes was providential, he represents the engine of the gallop
race, as well as of the equestrian disciplines all over the world.
- 729 -
BACK
REFERENCES
Albrecht, K., 1996 – Reit wissen, Frankkh Kosmos Verlag Stuttgart.
Alecu, I., Ciurea, I.V. şi colaboratorii 2001 – Management în exploatările agricole, Ed. Ceres,
Bucureşti.
Arnason, T., 1983 – Prediction of Breeding values in horses by the BLUP method. 34-th
Annual Meeting of the EAAP, Madrid.
Bade, B., 1977 – Leistungsprüfungen als Selectionsgrundlage in der Pferdezucht. Handbuch Pferde
Gramatzki; Verlag; Osnabrüch.
Biron, R., G., 1975 – Travail à la longe et dressage à l’obstacle, Édition Hezan, Paris
Bongianni, M., 1998 –Guide to Horse & Ponie of the World. Etitiones Artes Grafices, Toledo.
Brandt, A., 1977 – Das Reitpferd, Haberbeck, Lage-Lippe, 2, Auflage.
Buletin F.E.I, nr.9/1996 – Federation Equestre Internationale, Impresso Baddruk AG,Laussane.
Buletin F.E.I, nr.8/2001 – Fédération Equestre Internationale, Édition Imprimerie Reunies,
Laussane.
Cadiot,P.,J., Lesbayries, G., 1925 – Traité de médécine des amimaux domestiques. Édition Vigott,
Paris.
Călinescu, E., Velea, C., Marcu, N., Ujică, V., David, V., 1984 – La fondamentation des
certains critères de sélection utilisés aux races de chevaux de Roumanie. Bulletin de l’Academie des
Sciences Agricoles et Forestières, nr. 11, Bucureşti.
Constantinescu, G.K., 1924 – Originea raselor de cai, Bibl. Zoot., 1, Bucureşti.
Dan,V., Dulugeac, I., 1993 – Lipiţanul - 70 de ani la Herghelia Sâmbăta- Făgăraş , Editura
Romhelion, Bucureşti.
Dusek, J., 1971 – Zür Heritabilität des Körperbanes und des Ganges bei Pferden. Tierzüchtung
und Züchtungs biologic, 87, p.14.
Georgescu, Gh., 1970 – Creşterea cabalinelor, Edit. Ceres, Bucureşti
Hartley, E., 1993 – Horses, D.K. Publising, New York.
Larousse , 1966, Le cheval – équitation et sports hippiques, Édition Laousse, Paris.
Marcenac, L.N., Aublet, H., 1969 – Enciclopédie du cheval, Libraise Maloine S.A., Paris.
Neuman, K., 1995 – Pferde, tessloff Verlag, Nurenberg .
Onslow, R., 1994 – Royal Ascot, Crowood Printing houde Edingorough.
Preaudeau, F.,B., 1991 – Chevaux d’Europe, Édition Perron, Alleur, Franţa.
Salanţiu, V., Ulici,V.,I.,- 1998 – Comportamentul animaleleo domestice, Editura Oelty, Cluj.
Schwark, J., H., - 1984 – Pferde – Zucht, Berlin.
Simonof, L.,Moerder,M., J., 1894 – Le rase chevaline. Éditions Agricole, Paris.
Ţopescu, F., 1978 – Călăreţi, obsacole, victorii. Ed. Sport Turism, Bucureşti
Ujică, V., 1981 – Curs de tehnologia creşterii cabalinelor. Lito, A.M.D., Inst. Agronomic Iaşi.
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cabalinelor în Moldova. Lucr.şt., seria Zoot. - Med.Vet., Inst. Agr. Iaşi.
Velea, C.,Târnoveanu, I.,Marcu,N., 1980 – Creşterea cabalinelor, Ed. Dacia, Cluj-Napoca.
Wrangel, G., 1895 – Das Buch vom Pferde. Edner Verlag AG, Stuttgart.
- 730 -
BACK
LIPIZZAN RACE LINES AND THE STUDY OF THE

MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
ROMANIAN LIPIZZAN HORSE
I. DULUGEAC
The present paper uses a rich bibliography of specialty, as well as

scientific own considerations made on the occasion of the authors participation in
hippic congresses, symposiums, biennials, conferences. The 8 lines of Lipizzan
horses are presented in this paper, as well as a short history of this race
appearance, evolution and distribution, followed by systems of evaluation,
cataloged registration, classification and certification of the Lipizzan horse, based
on morphological criteria, to end with references made on the use of this horse
race in equestrian sport events, four-in hands in different European countries.
The paper equally presents the history of the appearance of this horse
races, the existence of the 8 Lipizzan pure lines, the organization of the stud
farm, the various results of the research studies of the biological material, the
flesh structure of the race horse at national level and the results obtained by each
category of horses, as it was evaluated with the race horses meant for
participation in hippic sports events, in domestic and international competitions,
for which these categories of horses are specially trained. The morphological
characteristics of the Lipizzan race horses existing in the European stud farms,
the genetic variation and the heritage morphological characteristics of the horse
population herewith under observation have been studied during various periods.
As a rule, when we speak of imperial horses, we, evidently, think of the

Lipizzaner thoroughbred horses. They are nominated by this name, since they have
been long associated with the Habsburg monarchy and with the Spanish Equitation
School in Vienna. Even today, these horses are to be found in many countries that
were part or neighbours of the vast Austro-Hungarian empire.
Lipizzanner horse, produced and ameliorated in keeping with the European
and world zootechnic trend in academic training, individual and in pair, is a
thoroughbred horse with strong Arab influence, whose morphological corrections and
improvements were achieved in Karst region, his origin couny. Subsequently,
Lippizaner breed knew some ameliorations due to stallions from the Austro-
Hungarian empire, that led to the improvement of his size, speed and body, but
especially of his resistance, suppleness and impulses. We shall make an incursion in
the tumultuous history of the creation of the Lippizaner breed, analysing the craddle
of the creation of this breed.
LIPIZZA STUD. The Lipizzaner thoroughbred horse was produced by a
group of monks in Lipizza, and this magic name designates a village in Trieste region,
a real oasis place, in the bosom of a carstic tableland (the Celtic word “karst” means
stone dessert), where the icy North wind Crivăţ blows in winter, but where the nice
summer micro climate determined the archbishops of Trieste to settle their residence
there. Belonginning to Austria, Italy and then to the old Yugoslavia, this place is the
cradle of one of the most impressive thoroughbred horses in Europe.
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The region boasts an old equine tradition and an extremely strong horse was
bred there, at the beginning of our era, who participated in famous Roman chariot
races. In the 16th centuary, archbishop Carol de Styrie decided to lay the basis of a
stud farm and he negotiated in this respect the purchase of Lipizza. The archbishop
will hire a Slovak, Frank Jurko, to carry on his project and he will buy 9 stallions and
24 mares. Then he will buy other Italian stallions from Polesine region.
This activity will prove successful and the stud will progress and will be able
to provide high quality horses for the Vienna imperial court and for the Equitation
School that was located in the capital of the Empire and that was symbolically named
Spanishe Reiteschule(due to the fact that it possessed horses of Spanish origin at its
opening in 1572), beginning with 1735, during the reign of emperor Carol 16th.
Fig.1 Lipizzan to line Maestoso
Foto: Ion Dulugeac

In the 18th century, Lipizza will reach its apogee, due to five high class
stallions, whose descendant lines still exist today. They are: Frederiksburgul
white Pluto, born in 1765, the Italian horses Conversano (black, 1765),
Neapolitano (dark bay, 1790) and Kladruber of Boemia Maestoso (dark bay,
1773) and Favory (violet-blue, 1779)
The Lipizza stud farm will suffer because of the Napoleon wars, when the
horses will often have to be displaced. Many of them will get refuge in Hungary, at
Mezöhegyes, from where they will be moved to Transilvania, at Făgăraş. However,
Lipizza will recover in 1815, with a sufficient number of horses, to which a new Arab
stallion, Siglavy (white, born in1810) will be added. He will become the founder of
the 6th Lipizzaner line, less refined and lighter than the preceding ones, and
considered by some perfectionist specialists to be somehow altered.
The classical Lipizzaner horse is rather small (1.50 m), he has noble head,
aquiline profile, arched neck, strong croup. He has hard limbs, hard hoofs, he is
highly resistant and has a docile nature, but one can reproach him the lack of withers
and his often arched back.The Lipizzaner horse has an hereditary walk ”Spanish
pace”, a characteristic that has been carefully preserved.
Each line of the Lipizzaner breed has its particularities, thus, the Pluto line
has a somehow hoked head, a long neck and a long back; the Conversano line, more
aquiline like, is stronger shaped; the Neapolitano line has a rather convex head and a
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higher look. Speaking about the Maestoso line, it has a slightly broken nose, is
heavier, has a strong croup and a solemn pace; the Favory line is lighter; the Siglavy
line has rectilinear head , long and thin neck, evident withers (Dan V., Dulugeac I.,
1993 –Lipizzaner horse)
Fig.2. Lipizzan to line Conversano
Foto Ion Dulugeac
At the end of the 19th century, a white English thoroughbred, Northern

Light, will have a progeny who will exceed the normal size of the breed and will
have a „flatter” look. This experience, however, was not continued .
Emperor Franz-Joseph 1st will support the Lipizzaner horses, in the sense
that he gave an example by riding a white Maestoso when he received the Hungary
royal crown, and later on the famous Empress Elisabeth, left in history as Sissi, was a
perfect horse rider and used to ride Lipizzaner horses. In the 20th century, the sud farm
life will be disturbed by the First World War. In 1915, 300 horses will be evacuated
and taken to Luxemburg, near Vienna and to Kladrub in Bohemia. In 1919, Lipizza
was annexed to Italy, that will negociate the return of the horses. It will get back 109
horses, that will be used to produce military horses of adequate size and weight. As
for the Lipizzaner horses left in Austria, they will be saved by the Ministry of
Agriculture. They will be taken, in 1920, to the military stud farm in Piber, in Stayer.
During the second World War, in 1943, the nazy troops will occupy Lipizza
and will send its horses to Hostau. After Germany defeat, Lipizza will be annexed to
Yugoslavia that will be tempted to recuperate maximum of subjects. In spite of
difficulties, by the 50s, the stud will enjoy a certain vitality. A lighter horse than the
old ones will be bred and therefore use will have to be made of some Arab stallions.
Although an equitatio and pairs of horses school will be founded, Lipizza
has nearly disappeared and the one who has saved it was president Tito who paid to
ride a horse of his stud farm. Since that time, the public will get interested in the stud
and therefore international training competitions will be organized and thus this
charming place will live a new life.
Lipizzaner breed has an equal origin in Pieber stud farm, which was in fact an
old monastery by the time of Emperor Josif 2nd, son of Mary-Therese and brother of
Mary-Antoinette, where military horses and Arab horses were interbred. Beginning
- 733 -
with 1920, Lipizzaner horses will be brought there and they will luckilly not lose their
rustic characteristics, in spite of those fertile circumstances. Becoming sort of the
second mother country of the Lipizzaner breed, Pieber stud farm will be in charge of
exclusively providing horses for the Spanish School in Vienna.
In 1934, the old Lipizzaner stallions will be replaced by the ones born in
Piber, but the circumstances were not favourable, since in 1938 the stud will fall
under the control of the German army, thus in 1941 the stud farm will become a
reproduction place for army horses and the Lipizzaner horses themselves will be sent
to Hostau (Nurenberg H.,1980 – Lipizzaner)
Fig.3. Lipizzan to line Pluto
Foto: Ion Dulugeac

Thus, the Lipizzaner horses formed a sort of international group in Bohemia,
fortunately under the control of doctor Rau, the owner of everything that was a
“horseman” in Germany. In 1945, the Red Army reached the gates of Vienna and
colonel Podhajsky, who was the commander of the Spanish School, decided to
evacuate the horses and to save the Lipizzaner ones to Hostau. But the American
army penetratedto territory of this stud farm and took one thousand horses. They will
return 215 Lipizzaner horses to colonel Podhajsky, who will put them temporarily at
Wimsbach, in Austria and the Piber stud farm will be reopened in 1952.
The modern Lipizzaner horse preserves elements of the horse produced in
ex Yugoslavia, Hungary, Romania and ex-Czechoslovakia, that have been carefully
preserved, as a result of a long time strong selection process. He has a specific white
colour (sometimes the colour is darker at foal, but it rapidly gets lighter) and he is a
perfect horse for training. He boasts international reputation at Hofburg imperial
manege in Vienna.
Among the Lipizzaner horses that were remarked in the big training
competitions, we mention Pluto Theodorosta, with whom Aloys Podhajsky will
win a big interrnational prize in Hamburg, as well as the Olympic Conversano-
Caprice, ridden by the English horsewoman Joan Hall in Rome, Tokyo and
Mexico. We will equally mention the half Lipizzaner horse Stephan, an Olympic
horse of the Swiss horsewoman Marianne Gossweiler. Pluto Theodorosta had the
honour to be ridden, at Buckingham Palace, by Queen Elisabeth II, of Great
Britain (Boldt, H., 1987 – Das Dressurpferd).
- 734 -
Besides Lipizza and Piber, the Lipizzaner horses were produced in many
other places, they were subject of a real diaspora. Regarding Europe, the main
breeding centers are in ex-Yugoslavia (Djakovo, Vucijak şi Karadjorgevo), in Italy
(Monterotondo), in Hungary (Szilvasvarad), in ex Czechoslovakia (Topolcianky), in
Romania (Sâmbăta de Jos-Făgăraş, Beclean, Covasna, Carei Târgu Mureş, Ploieşti şi
Joseni).Each of these places has a specific brand, printed on the horse by hot iron.
This enables the identification of the origin province of the respective horses.
Djakovo Stud. The stud farm is located in Djakova in Croatia and it is one of
the oldest stud farms in Europe, dating back to 1506. Initially, oriental horses were
bred at this stud farm. Since 1845, it has been dedicated to Lipizzaner horse breeding,
due to Monseignor Strossmayer, equally known as ”the archbishop of horses”. He
worked with the six traditional lines, as well as with the Croatian line of Tulipan
stallion, who is the offspring of a Lipizzaner stallion and a Hispano-Italian mare from
the old Teresovac stud farm. Here thoroughbred and interbred horses are bred, they
are specialized for agriculture.
Vucijack Stud. 100 km west of Djakova, there is the Vucijack Stud Farm, in
Northern Bosnia. It was founded in 1946, with specially selected stallions, of small size,
to produce mountain horses. In the present, the stud continue to increase in number.
Karadjordjevo Stud is located in Servia, on the Danube side, 100 km east
from Djakovo. Founded in 1903, it got oriented towards Lipizzaner horses in 1946,
bringing horses from Lipizza and Djakovo. The objectives are essentially agriculture
oriented (Karadordevo Ergela, 2003 – Udruyenza odrajivaca lipicansca rase konija).
Fig.4. Lipizzan toline Favory
Foto: Ion Dulugeac

Monterotondo Stud. Strong horses destined to army were bred in Lipizza,
between the two world wars, when the place was under Italian domination. Conversano,
Maestoso and Favory lines were in use. While the region was hold by the Slovaks, the
Italian moved the horses in Piemont, to Pinerola, then to Montemaggiore, near
Monterotondo, close to Rome. There they will effectuate breeding experiments, such as
to take 3 years old mare to covering, which resulted in the loss of one of the most
important characteristics of the breed, namely the belated maturity.
- 735 -
Fig.5. Lipizzan to
line Siglavy Capriola
Foto: Ion Dulugeac

Topolcianky Stud. It is situated in Slovakia, in Nitra county, it was
inaugurated in 1921, with horses of different breeds, especially Arab and
Lipizzaner.Here an Arab-Lipizzaner horse will be bred, much appreciated in this
mountain region. In our days, the production got oriented towards a relatively big
horse (1.60 m), white, from the Neapolitano line, and black, from the Conversano
line. This horse is equally strong and extremely elegant. He is appreciated in
equestrian sports and he is renowned for his aptitude and malleability when in pais, be
he an utilitarian horse or a competition one.
Szilvasvarad Stud. The Hungarian stud farm at Szilvasvarad, situated in the
mountain massif of Bukk, in the North of the country, brought Lipizzaner horses from
Făgăraş, in 1951. Besides the traditional six thoroughbred lines, horses of Tulipan line
(fig. 6) and of Transilvanian Incitato line (fig. 7) are bred.
Fig.6. Lipizzan to line Tulipan
Foto: Ion Dulugeac

The Hungarian Lipizzaner horses are bigger in size (sometimes they reach
1.67m-1.70m) and their hair is generally white. They are remarkably good in pairs,
and one of the persons in charge of the stud is the world champion of pair race:
György Bardos (Sanrel, E., 1966 – Le cheval).
- 736 -
Sâmbăta de Jos-Făgăraş Stud. The Romanian Lipizzaner stud farm is

situated at Sâmbăta de Jos, at the foot of the Făgăraş mountains, in the middle of the
country. It is the oldest Lipizzaner stud farm in the world, being placed in the old
palace of Transilvania’s governor, Bruchenntal count. The edifice was built during
the regin of empress Mary – Therese.
Lipizzaner horses of the seven traditional lines, including Tulipan line, are
bred here, but, paradoxically, the Transilvanian Inciato line (fig. 7) does not exist. But,
due to the private horse breeders’ care, this line has been brought from Hungary, being
bred at the private Dalnic stud farm, then at Hermenean and Dulugeac stud farms.
Fig.7.Lipizzan to line Incitato
Foto: Ion Dulugeac

Thus all 8 Lipizzaner thoroughbred lines are bred in our country, namly:
Maestoso (fig. 1), Conversano (fig. 2), Pluto (fig. 3), Favory (fig. 4), Siglavy-Capriola
(fig. 5), Tulipan (fig. 6), Incitato (fig.7) şi Neapolitano (fig. 8).
Fig. 8. Lipizzan
to line Neapolitano
Foto: Ion Dulugeac
In Romania, the Lipizzaner horse is either thoroughbred or interbred, for

agriculture use. The perfectly white hair is rare, but the light colours are dominant in
the Lipizzaner population of our country, followed by the dark bay colour, while the
black colour is rather rare. The watchword among the Lipizzanear horse breeders in
the stud farms in our country is“well done work, academic walk and beautifull look in
- 737 -
competitions”, but to turn it into account it is imperiously necessary to work daily and
to exercise the academic and cadenced walk (“Lipiţanul”, C. Dan, I. Dulugeac).
In October 2001, this stud and the other studs in the possession of the state
were transferred into the patrimony of the National Woods Administration within
which the Direction of Thoroughbred Horse Breeding, Expoitation and Reproduction
was organized. Unfortunately, this Direction is under the control of specialists in
sylviculture, who do not understand horses at all. Thus, the Lipizzaner horses
belonging to the state stud farms are not qualified for sports in pairs, due to a big
management mistake, but mostly due to a wrong approach of the qualification and
classification activities destined to this thoroughbred horse.
The balance has been positively inclined towards this breed by the
management of the private breeders who, beginning with 1995, have produced real
genetic values in the Lipizzaner horse breed, values that had their word to say on the
occasion of the big international competitions of pairs of horses.
This beautiful horse is bred in many places in Romania. Thus, one of the
most powerful Lipizzaner stud farms is at Carei, where there is Jacab Stud, then
mention of other stud names should be made: Hermenean at Întorsura Buzăului,
Dulugeac at Gherghiţa in Prahova, Kelemen in Târgu Mureş, Pall Vilmos in Joseni.
Beautifull horses are also bred in Bartha Stud in Sfântu Gheorghe, Isac Stud
in Timişoara, Oros Laslo Stud in Miercurea Ciuc, Spinciu Stud in Feteşti, Nica Viorel
Stud in Poiana Braşov or Mădăraş Andrei Stud in Borsec( Buletin Informativ SNIC).
Out of the European countries that take an interest in the Lipizzaner horse,
special mention should be made of Germany, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, England,
France. USA are also interested into this breed whom they reproduce at Temples
Farms near Chicago.
“The imperial horses”, whose past times were equally bright and agitated,
seem to look forward to living a special future.
Research on the biological material of the Romanian Lipizzaner horse breed

The biological material was investigated in private stud farms and in
equestrian clubs from Romania, Serbia and Montenegro (an exemplar was measured
in the latter country, to provide a comparative basis of the physico-morphological
characteristics of the studied horses )
The used method consisted in the study and analysis of the subjects examined
by the research team, whose charge was to measure the observed values and to
register them on scientific tables, for each of the respective horses. The research study
of the horse population participant in equestrian sports in Romania was carried out on
379 horses belonging to the following breeds: Romanian Race Horse, German Race
Horse, France Race Horse, Hungarian Race Horse, English Thoroughbred Horse,
Lipizzaner Horse and Romanian Trotter Horse (tab. 1 şi fig. 9)..
Out of 427 horses for obstacles, trening and complete riding event, who were in
the ownership of 28 equestrian clubs and associations registered with the Romanian
Equestrian Federation, 379 horses were put under study, which represents 88,75% of
- 738 -
the national effectives, out of which 41 Lipizzaner horses, therefore 10,81% of the
Romanian effectives inlisted for national and international competitions
Breed n % of the total
Romanian Race Horse 41 10,8
German Race Horse 73 19,3
France Race Horse 9 2,4
Hungary Race Horse 9 2,4
English Thoroughbred 38 10,0
Lipizzaner Horse 41 10,8
Romanian Traotter Horse 168 44,3
Total Race Horses 379 100,0
Tabel 1. Breed structure of the equestrian population participating in equestrian sprots
in Romania
The identification of the biological material was made by direct

inspection and inquiry among the owners, the data were completed with the
primary registrations existing at the selection centers at S.N.I.C., ANARZ, as well
as at the Romanian Equestrian Federation.
Trăpaş Românesc
Cal de Sport Germania
2,4
2,4
10 44,3
10,8 Cal de Sport Românesc
Lipiţan
Pur Sânge Englez
Cal de Sport Franţa
10,8
19,3 Cal de Sport Ungaria
Fig.9 Breed structure, in percentage, of the Romanian equestrian population participationg

in equestrian sports
Research studies were effectuated on the basis of the biological material

regarding the morphological characteristics, the body conformation, the constitution
and the temperament, the colours and the colour particularities, the external qualities
and defects, the aptitudes and the results obtained in the equestrian competitions the
respective horses participated in.
The working method used during the research work consisted in studies at
macroeconomic level and studies based on samples taken at equestrian club and
association level, using various sources of information.The selective working method
- 739 -
based on samples consisted in interviews taken to each owner, in order to obtain

complete information which, as a rule, is not to be found in the primary zootechnic
registrations or in the current statistics. The gathered information was registered on a
card, which lies at the basis of this study , the data being completed with direct
measurements and personal observations. At an incipient phase, the primary data were
classified per equestrian clubs and associations, per breeds and per the entire equestrian
population, pending on the type of aptitude:obstacles, training, complete event, pairs,
trotting and gallop race. All values were statistically worked upon by using the
methodology indicated in the litterature of speciality regarding the zootechnic research.
The electronic data processing was made according to a program elaborated on
the basis of calculation algorithms by I. Dulugeac, V. Ujică, V. Maciuc and others from
the Faculty of Zoothechny of the University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary
Medicine in Iasi, where the average values, the variation of the morphological
characteristics of the studied population and the body indexes were estimated, the data
were synthetized in tables, completed by graphic presentation and photos, most of them
originals. The high diversity of the subjects broached in the present tome necessitated
the diversification of the methodology of research, of data processing and interpretation,
pending on their peculiarity; in order to establish the scientific truth the authors
combined the analysis with the synthesis, the induction with the deduction, the general
with the particular, the simple with the complex. All the research results were analysed
from biology, technology, management and market points of view. The specific
methodology of the criteria and objectives in view was presented in details and it is
available in the chapters dedicated to the research work that was carried out.
Average values and variation of the main morphological characteristics of

the Lipizzaner horse
The equine population of Lippizaner breed participating in the Romanian
horse sports is characterized by medium size (153.83 ± 1.30 cm) and body weight
(452.86 ± 11.39 kg). The body form is slightly rectangular (101.44%), favourable to a
horse that participates in pairs race and in high class training. The body proportions
indicate a harmonious horse, with finely tied body parts, elastic and strong pace,
associated with full of life temperament.
While comparing the morphological indexes of Lippizaner breed with the
data registered by other authors in the course of time (tab. 2), we notice that
Lippizaner thoroughbred preserved the standard characteristics of the breed; the
results obtained by us, out of the research work done upon the biological material
studied in 2004, are close to the ones obtained by Bredow, at Babolna Stud farm, in
1927, or by Madroff, at Sâmbăta de Jos Stud farm in 1935.The Lipizzaner breed
population under study is characterized by body massiveness (119,85%), robustness
(118,14%), strong system of bones (13,14%) and resistance (4,46%). These
characteristics scientifically illustrate the adaptability of these exemplars to pairs of
horse competitions and to training, competitions where this excellent breed excel in,
as compared with other horse breeds destined to equine sports.
- 740 -
Table 2. Morphological indexes of Lipizzaner breed in European studs at different

periods
de Jos, 1967
Madroff, in Suciu, in
Bredow, in Suciu and Ion Dulugeac,
Sâmbăta de Sâmbăta de
Babolna Stud, Comarovschi, private Studs,
Jos Stud, Jos Stud,
1927 in Sâmbăta de 2004
Specification 1935 1953
Jos Stud, 1967
% % % % %
x din x din x din x din x din
talie talie talie talie talie
Withers height (cm) 152,60 100,0 150,13 100,0 148,78 100,0 151,09 100,0 151,39 100,0
Back height (cm) 141,30 92,60 - - 139,59 93,82 143,02 93,4 144,52 95,4
Croup height (cm) 150,20 98,40 149,91 98,85 149,03 100,1 151,42 99,5 151,83 100,2
Chest length (cm) 72,90 47,80 68,39 45,55 67,99 45,69 72,14 47,1 71,91 43,5
Sternum void (cm) 79,70 52,20 81,74 54,45 80,69 54,23 80,95 52,80 79,70 52,6
Trunk length (cm) 157,30 103,1 153,65 102,3 157,68 105,9 159,52 104,2 158,61 101,4
Chest width (cm) 41,80 27,40 - - 39,77 26,73 41,09 26,8 42,61 25,5
Croup length (cm) - - - - 52,72 35,43 54,19 35,3 54,91 32,96
Croup width (cm) - - - - 53,29 35,81 55,77 36,4 56,35 33,25
Head length (cm) - - 63,00 41,96 58,50 39,31 59,69 38,9 59,89 39,03
Neck length (cm) - - - - 64,91 43,62 63,88 41,7 63,95 42,04
Chest perimeter 181,20 118,7 181,54 120,9 183,49 123,3 188,70 123,2 187,91 118,1
(cm)
Tibia perimeter 18,90 12,38 - - 18,81 12,64 19,41 12,60 19,50 12,88
(cm)
Body weight (kg) - - 460,09 - 467,39 - 509,00 - 480,48 -
The genetical amelioration of animals, generally speaking, and of equine

population particularly speaking, represents an activity both technical and
management; it is a priority in the development strategy of this breed and it is done
through selection based on the results obtained in domestic and international equine
competitions and on the results obtained in the controlled reproduction. To ameliorate
the equine population, in our country there are yearly organized reproduction centers
of mare covering, where stallions of ameliorated breeds and of renowned genetical
value are disposable. This network has developed, and actually its privatization
process has begun and it should be finalized as soon as possible.
The use of artificial insemination, as a sure genetical amelioration method is
practically non-existing in Romania and it is sporadically used, for the race horse, by
some private breeders. Taking into account the new orientation in the equine
breeding, where the race horse belongs too, the genetical amelioration programs
should be adjusted and adapted from organization, management, economic and
financial points of view, as well as from methodology and science points of view, that
are dictated by the privatization process and the fund changes in the structure of
ownership of the equine population which, for the most part of it, belong to the
private sector.
Generally, the race horse gets more and more the attributes of the modern
means of production, which are of economic interest and profit generater, not to
forget the emotional and affective side; these attributes should be continuously
improved, in keeping with the quantity, quality and economic performances obtained.
- 741 -
The continuous generalization and improvement of the data administration and

processing system make it possible to stock and to use an impressive volume of
technical information, as well as to turn it to quick benefit in the activity of equine
selection and genetical amelioration .
On this basis, it bas been possible to determine the genetical parameters
(heredity, repeatability, phenotypical, genetical, ambiental correlations, amelioration
value of the stallions, selection indexes) of the main selection characteristics, an
action preceeding the elaboration of the genetical amelioration programs of the equine
population.
Turning to good account my own accumulated experience, the reference
contributions of leader scientists, as well as the results of the theoretical and applied
research work at international level, in order to appreciate the amelioration genetical
value of the equine population used in equine sports, I used BLUP method (Best
Linear Unbiased Prediction), an index that guides the specialist or the breeder to
genetically choose a certain animal model for reproduction.
Equally, these genetical determinations and predictions of the future horse
destined to a certain sports segment can be done by using one of latest and most
modern methods: REML (Restricted Maximum Likelihood), which means that the
horses will previously be marked with „chips”. REML method is based on an
intensive process to maximize a certain function. The calculation techniques vary in
accordance with the chosen optimize algorithm, but they all request, for each
iteration cycle, BLUP solutions, for different effects of the model.By these technical
actions, the Romanian zootechnics get more and more in line to the international
programs of selection and of horse genetical amelioration, demands imposed by the
adherence to the European Union. In conformity with the Protocol of Research, the
equine population used in horse sports and exploited in private stud farms and sports
associations was carefully studied.
This biological material served to determine and to analyse the main
mophological and conformation-constitution characteristics, the breed and age structure,
the belonging to sports clubs and associations from the country, the colour and the
colour particularities, the performances during the domestic and international
competitions. The origine and the genetical structure of the population were equally
analysed, identifying genetical families of minimum 3 paternal half-brothers and half-
sisters. In the following stage, the share of the genetical variation in the population was
established, using as working method the variation analysis by groups of paternal half-
brothers and half-sisters, as well as REML method, whose results will be presented.
Genetical variations and hereditary coefficients

The fenotypic variation, expressed by the total value variation established for
each morphological characteristic, was demonstrated to differ at the Lipizzaner and
Romanian Trotter breeds; hereditary was estimated on its basis (h2). In table 3 fig. 10,
the coefficient values of hereditary are presented for the analysed morphological
characters. Examining the coefficient values of hereditary for the analysed
- 742 -
morphological characters, it results that they have a different degree of genetical

determination, as a result of the own genetical inter-relations of each characteristic
and of the variations of the genotypes that form the animal groups under study.
A mutual characteristic of the hereditary characters belonging to Lipizzaner
and Romanian Trotter breeds is represented by the strong degree of genetical
determination of the analysed characteristics, which concordes with the data
mentioned in the litterature of speciality. The high quota of genetical determination
for the morphological characters reflects, on one hand, the genetical variation of the
female biological material, and, on the other hand, the high genetical variation among
the male reproducers. The ambient, in the case of these characteristics, has a more
reduced participation quota in the determination of the total variation, which
determines different orientations, methods and management system in the process of
genetical selection and amelioration, as compared with the weak hereditary
transmision characteristics.
Table 3. Heredity (h2) of the morphological characteristics of the studied equine

population
Specification Lipizzaner
horse Romanian Trotter horse
Withers height 0,77 0,66
Cannon lenght 0,74 0,71
Oblique lenght of body 0,86 0,82
Head length 0,68 0,69
Neck length 0,59 0,49
Croup length 0,63 0,33
Crest width 0,81 0,74
Head wight 0,70 0,70
Croup hidht at hips 0,84 0,80
Breast perimeter 0,91 0,52
Withers hight 0,58 0,54
While examining these values, it results the agreement of appreciations

made on the basis of the fenotype characteristc of t Lipizzaner and Romanian
Trotter horses; the h2 measure order does not differ too much for the
characteristics under consideration.The stronger determination of the hereditary
variation of the morphological characteristics put into evidence the reduced
influence of the ambient factors and the high genetical determination quota of the
variation of the respective characteristics.
We can consider that the genetical amelioration actions within the
analysed populations were conducted in the sense of fixing the hereditary
characteristics that determine the body form and massiveness, and increase the
energetical capacity; the higher genetical variation among these equine
populations assures a quick effect of the selection and a higher degree of security
- 743 -
in obtaining the desired effect of the selection, both for obstacle jumping horses
and for the trotter horses.
Withers height
Cannon lenght
Oblique length of body
Head length
Neck length
Romania
Croup lenght
Trotter
Crest wight
Lipizzan
Head widht
Croup widht at hips
Brest perimeter
Withers high
0 0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
Table 4. Fenotype and genetical correlations among morphological characteristics of

the Lippizaner and Romanian Trotter breeds
Consequently, the use of the own fenotype values in order to appreciate

the genotype for these characteristics is very efficient and useful in zootechniques,
in the activity of breeding the Lipizzaner breed in Romania.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
Baratoux, G., 1992 - Splendeur du Cheval, Édition Molière, Paris
Boldt, H., 1987 – Das Dressurpferd, Edition Haberbeck, Berlin.
Chaubry, P., 1982 – Le debourage du cheval de sélle. Édition Lavauzelle, Paris.
Constantinescu, G.K., 1924 – Originea raselor de cai, Bibl. Zoot., 1, Bucureşti.
Dan,V., Dulugeac, I., 1993 – Lipiţanul - 70 de ani la Herghelia Sâmbăta- Făgăraş , Editura
Romhelion, Bucureşti.
Diffloth, P., 1923 – Races chevalines. Édition G. Bailliése, Paris.
Guy Baratoux, Victor Siméon, F.B., - „Splendeurs du CHEVAL” Ed. Molière
Guibant, Jacinte, 1985 – Pourquoi les couleurs différemmentes aux chevaux, Le chèval Magazine,
februarie, Paris.
Hawcroft, T., 1996 – Firs aid for horses, Konemann Verlag, Koln.
Henriquet,M., 1999 – Le tarvail à pied, Édition Cavalcade, Strasbourg.
Heidrum Werner 1993 – Lovak-Fajták – Tartás – Kiképzés – Sport , by Falken Verlag.
Jacoulet J., Chomel C., 1895 – Traité d’Hippologie, tom II, Édition Maison Milton, Saumur. 118.
James, A., 1996 – Institut du Cheval - Services des Haras, des Courses et d’Equitation, Édition
Bull, Poitiers.
Jean-Pierre Digard – „Le cheval, force de l’homme”, Ed. Gallimard.
John Moore 1991 – „Chevaux d’Europe” Ed. du Perron.
- 744 -
BACK
Karadordevo Ergela, 2003 – Udruyenza odrajivaca lipicansca rase konija-Sebia.Editura Dinex,

Beograd.
Knopfhart, A., 1988 – Beursteilung und Auswahl von Reitpferden. Paul Parey Verlag, Hamburg.
Lampe, m.,A., 1908 – Das Pferd, Croft Verlag AG, Leipzig.
Lesbre,F., 1993 – Précis d’extérieur du cheval, Édition Vigot Fréres, Paris.
Lungulescu, Gh., 1981 – Curs de tehnologia creşterii cabalinelor. A.M.D., Inst. Agr. Timişoara.
Lux, C., 1997 - Bien nourrir son cheval, Édition Maloie, Paris.
Magiaru, Ghe., 1936 – Studiu biometric asupra rasei Lipiţan. Editura Graiul Românesc, Bucureşti.
Marcenac, L.N., Aublet, H., 1969 – Enciclopédie du cheval, Libraise Maloine S.A., Paris.
Monerin,F.,H., 2002 – Annuaire de Cheval de Sport. Édition Konnou, Paris.
More O Ferall, G.J., Cunnigham, E.P., 1974 – Heritability of racing performance in thoroughbred
horses. Livestock Production Sci., 1, p.87.
Moldoveanu, Gh., 1953 – Creşterea Cailor, Edit. Agrosilvică, Bucureşti.
Moldoveanu, Gh., 1971 – Calul, utilitate şi sport. Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
Nature, A., 2000 – Le cheval du monde, Édition Atlas, Franţa.
Nürnberg, H., 1980 – Lipizzaner, Deuthsher Ldw. Verlag, Berlin.
Pierre Rousselit – Blanc 1975 – „Larousse du Cheval” Ed. Librairie Larousse Paris
Podhajsky, A., 1960 – Die spanische Reitschule Wien, Wien
Radnai,I., 1997 – Lovaszótár-Horse Rider’s Dictionary. Mezögazda, Kiedó.
Robinson, R., 1989 – Genetic defects in the horses. J. Anim. Breed. Genet. 106, p.475.
Salanţiu, V., Ulici,V.,I.,- 1998 – Comportamentul animaleleo domestice, Editura Oelty, Cluj.
Spînu, P., Moldoveanu, Gh., 1958 – Creşterea ecvinelor (curs mic). Lito M.A.S., Bucureşti.
Ţopescu, F., 1983 – Al doilea prieten. Ed. Ion Creangă, Bucureşti.
Ujică, V., Apahidean, I., Călinescu, E., Bărbătei, Tr., 1980 – Valoarea biologică a armăsarilor
din depozitul Homorod şi contribuţia acestora la ameliorarea cabalinelor din zonă.
Lucr.şt., seria Zoot. - Med.Vet., vol.24 Inst.Agr.Iaşi.
Ujică, V., 1981 – Curs de tehnologia creşterii cabalinelor. Lito, A.M.D., Inst. Agronomic Iaşi.
Ujică, V., 1988 – Efectul ameliorativ al armăsarilor de rasă asupra populaţiilor de cabaline din
Moldova. Lucr. şt., seria Zoot. – Med. Vet., vol.31, Instit. Agr. Iaşi.
Velea, C.,Târnoveanu, I.,Marcu,N., 1980 – Creşterea cabalinelor, Ed. Dacia, Cluj-Napoca.
Wrangel, G., 1895 – Das Buch vom Pferde. Edner Verlag AG, Stuttgart.
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BACK
THE STUDY OF THE VARIETY OF SOME MORPHO-

METRIC INDICES OF HONEY BEES
N. EREMIA, Iulia MIHAILOVA
The knowledge of morpho-metric indices of honey bees, and their

variety during the year, allow to determine the pure breed, and using these
information for selection work what is very important. It is necessary to mention
that for selection work it is very important study of morpho-metric indices,
accordingly to what the selection work is done.
The aim of the held researches was to determine the variety of morpho-
metric indices of honey bees from the apiary – Hartopul Mare, during the active
season. There were formed three family groups of honey bees at apiary -
Hartopul Mare: group I – family wither the honey queens from Romania; group
II – families with honey queens from the first generation; group III – families
with the local queens. During the active season on each 12 th date of each month,
from every family there were taken the samples of 20-30 bees there were studied
their morpho-metric indices.
Reading the results, it is necessary to mention that the honey bees from
the families with the queen from Romania on 12 th of April had the average of the
proboscis length – 6,09 mm, and the honey bees from the families with first
generation queens – 6,17 mm, and the honey bees from the local queens – 6,22
mm, in May the indices were correspondingly 6,23; 6,16 and 6,21 mm.
In September – November the honey bees had the average of proboscis
length between 6,27- 6,42 mm, at the same time the individual limits during the
active season vary between 6,0 and 6,7 mm.
The working bees had the proboscis length in August – 0,12 – 0,26 mm, but
the working bees from September – October correspondingly longer rather than
those from April with 0,07 – 0,33 mm (*B > 0,95; **B > 0,99; ***B > 0,999).
On the basis of the performed researches it was established that the
individual limits of the morpho-metric index varied at working bees during the
active season: proboscis length 6,0-6,7 mm, the dimensions between prominentes
at tergite-3 – 3,6-4,9 mm, tergite-3 length 1,8-2,8 mm, sternite-3 length 3,2-4,5
mm and the width 2,1-3,2mm, the length of the wax mirrors 1,8-2,6 mm, the
width 1,2-1,5 mm, the length of the big right wing 8,0-9,2 mm and the width 2,7-
3,2 mm, the corresponding tars 1,7-2,2 mm and 0,9-1,2 mm.
It is very important to consider the phenotypic changes of morpho-
metric indices during the active season when the pedigree work is held for
selecting the families for queen’s reproduction.
INTRODUCTION
The perspectives of apiculture development are close connected to the
bees family using, not just for the pollination of agricultural plants, honey
production, beeswax, and for receiving such a products as propolis, sealed, jalea
real, poison too. The receiving of the bees products depends on the bees families
- 746 -
cheeping conditions and on breeding and selection work organisation. Knowledge

of the morpho-productive and phonotypical indices of carpatic bees, as well
improving and using them in selection work. Alpatov B.B. (1948), showed that the
proboscis length - the most studied bees index it is innate and cheeps its character
with the moving of the queen to the other place. L.Al. Margitas, D.S. Dermizean
(2003), L.Al. Margitas (2005), mentioned that carpatic bee has been formed in
special climate conditions, relief and melliferous base in Romania. There are three
varieties: valley, hill and mountain bee. It looks like grey mountain bee from
Caucaz, but the variety from valley Dunarii looks like Italian bee. The proboscis
length is between 6,30 mm at bees from Moldavian plateau and valley Dunare, 6,35
mm at bees from Western valley of the country and 6,44 mm at the population from
Transilvania plateau (the index which place the bee between grey mountain from
caucaz and italian bee). The morpho-metric study of the bees from Romania has
been done for different areas by Cornoiu I., Petre A., Margitas L. (1993, 1994), and
there were dimension two indices (front wing and third pear of feet). There were
held studies of some indices with the bee from steppe area in 1995 (Radoi Cecilia).
Radoi Cecilia (2004) determined that the average of breadth of wax narrow for
whole population was 1,44 mm with the individual limits between 1,10 and 1,99
mm. The average of wax narrow was 2,37 mm with the limits between 2,00 and 2,8
mm. The breadth sternit-3 was 2,87 mm with the variation 2,1-3,30 mm. It is
necessary to study the seasonal changes of bees induces, because they can change
after different cases of feeding, climate factors and peculiarity honey base. The
study of the morpho-metric indices of local bees will allow to choose the most
important material for breeding work which will stay on forming base of new line
of high productivity bees and adapts to the conditions of Republic of Moldova. The
knowledge of morpho-metric indices of honey bees, as well their variety during the
year allows to determine exactly the thoroughbred, and using them for breading
work what is very important. It is necessary to mention that for breading work is
very important the study of morpho-metric indices accordingly to which the whole
pedigree work is done.

To active the aims of study, as the subject of the study were the bees
families from the apiary – Hartopul Mare. The studies of morpho-metric indices
were held accordingly to the well-known methods recognized in bee-keeping.
There were studied some morpho-metric indices of honey bees such as:
proboscis length, length and width of sternit and tergit, wax’s glands of sternit,
large right wing and tarsus. There was as well studied the index cubital and disc
dislocation. There were formed three family groups of honey bees at apiary -
Hartopul Mare: group I – family wither the honey queens from Romania; group II
– families with honey queens from the first generation; group III – families with
the local queens. During the active season on each 12 th date of each month, from
- 747 -
every family there were taken the samples of 20-30 bees there were studied their
morpho-metric indices.The samples were prepare in the laboratory conditions by
using the microscope MBS-9, there were studied the morpho-metric indices of
honey bees. Using the ocular point has done the dimensions, which have been
transformed in millimeters. The cubital index has been determine as a ratio fibers
“a” and “b” of discoidal cell, and expressed per cent. The received results have
been worked biometricly accordingly to the statistical variation, after N.
Plohinsckii (1971), N. Bucataru (1993) using the computer programs.

The studies showed that the morpho -metric indices during year are not
the same and they change a lot. At the same time it is necessary to consider that
phenomenalism in pedigree work when the reproduction groups are formed, as
well for choosing of the mother and father families for breading the queens.
After the study of the received results, we can mention the at the apiary
from Hartopul Mare, the honey bees from the families with the queens from
Romania on 12th of April, the average of proboscis length was 6,09 mm, those
from the families with the queens from the first generation – 6,17 mm, and the
honey bees from local queens 6,20 mm, but in May they have accordingly – 6,23,
6,16 and 6,21 mm (tab.1).
Table 1
The proboscis length dynamic of honey bees during the active season, mm
The time of The groups of honey bees families
samples
collecting I II III
April 6,09±0,03 6,17±0,08 6,20±0,04
May 6,23±0,08 6,16±0,06 6,21±0,05
June 6,18±0,03 6,18±0,05 6,13±0,03
July 6,15±0,009 6,22±0,02 6,18±0,02
August 6,35±0,02*** 6,31±0,02* 6,32±0,03**
September 6,33±0,01*** 6,31±0,03* 6,27±0,03
October 6,42±0,02*** 6,41±0,01*** 6,40±0,01***
November 6,42±0,01*** 6,39±0,01** 6,41±0,02***
*В ≥ 0,95; **В ≥ 0,99; ***В ≥ 0,999
The average of proboscis length of honey bees in September-November

were between 6,27-6,42 mm, at the same time the individual limits during the
active season varied between 6,0 and 6,7 mm.
The proboscis light of honey bees in August had with 0,12-0,26 mm, and
the honey bees in September-October had the proboscis length longer rather than
those from April with 0,07-0,33 mm (*B>0,95; **B>0,99; **B>0,999).
- 748 -
The dimensions between distances of the terghit-3 during the active

season varied between 3,6 and 4,9 mm, the terghit-3 length – 1,8-2,3 mm, sternit-
3 length 3,2-4,5 mm and breadth 2,1-2,8 mm.
The length of large right wing of honey bees from families with the local
queens (group III) in April was 8,77 mm, in the first group I – 8,59, and in group
II – 8,57 mm.
During the active season the honey bees from local queens, group III had
the longest wings rather than those which were received from Romanian queens
with 0,02-0,12 mm and with 0,05-0,2 mm – from those received from the first
generation queens (diagram 1). At the same time the individual limits during the
active season the length of right wing varied between 8,0 and 9,2 mm and breadth
2,7 and 3,2 mm.
I lot
II lot
8,83
III lot
8,78
The dimensions, mm
8,73
8,68
8,63
8,58
8,53
ap
iu
iu
au
se
oc
no
n.
l.-
ai
p.
t.-
r.-
g.
v.
.-0
-0
07
-0
-0
-0
0
0
7
7
7
7
The date measurements
Diagram 1. The length of the large right wing

.
- 749 -
I lot
II lot
2,42 III lot
2,4
2,38
The dimensions, mm
2,36
2,34
2,32
2,3
2,28
2,26
2,24
ap
iu
iu
au
se
oc
no
n.
l.-
ai
p.
t.-
r.-
g.
v.
.-0
-0
07
-0
-0
-0
0
07
7
7
7
7
The date measurements
Diagram 2. The length of wax glands dinamic
I lot
II lot
1,45
1,44 III lot
The dimensions, mm
1,43
1,42
1,41
1,4
1,39
1,38
1,37
1,36
ap
iu
iu
au
se
oc
no
n.
l.-
ai
p.
t.-
r.-
g.
v.
.-
-0
07
-0
-0
-0
0
07
07
7
7
7
7
The date measurementsr

Diagram 3. The breadth of wax glandes dinamic
The average of wax mirror length of sternit-3 was between 2,25-2,28 mm in

April, in May-June – 2,23-2,33 mm, in November – 2,36-2,40 mm (diagram 2)
and breadth (April-November) – 1,37-1,43 mm (diagram 3).
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BACK
During the active season the wax mirror length of sternit-3 varied
between 1,8-2,6 mm and breadth 1,2-1,5 mm and tarsus accordingly 1,7-2,2 mm
and 0,9-1,2 mm
It is necessary to consider the phonotypical changes of morpho-metric
indices of honey bees during the active seasons for pedigree work when these
work is connected to families selection and queens reproduction.
CONCLUSIONS
1. There were established that the individual limits of morpho-metric indices
of honey bees during the active season varied: proboscis length 6,0-6,7 mm,
the dimensions between distances terghit-3 3,6-4,9 mm, the terghit-3 length –
1,8-2,3 mm, sternit-3 length – 3,2-4,5 mm and breadth 2,1-3,2 mm, the large
right wing length – 8,0-9,2 mm and breadth 2,7-3,2 mm, tarsus accordingly
1,7-2,2 mm and 0,9-1,2 mm.
2. It is necessary to consider the phonotypical changes of honey bees during
the active season, what is important for pedigree work and selection of mother
and father families for queens reproduction.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Алпатов, В.В. Породы медоносной пчелы. – М.: Издательство Московского общества
испытательной природы. - 1948. – c. 3-168.
2. Bucătaru, N. Genetica. Chişinău: Universitas. – 1993. - 350 p.
3. Cornoiu, I., Petre, A., Mărghitaş, L. Insuşri morfologice ale aripii anterioare la populaţiile de
albine din Transilvania, Românie Apicolă, 1993. - nr.12.
4. Cornoiu, I., Petre, A., Mărghitaş, L. Insuşri morfologice ale perechii III de picioare la
populaţiile de albine din Transilvania, Românie Apicolă, 1994. - nr. 4.
5. Mărghitaş, L.A. Albinele şi produselor lor. – Ceres: Bucureşti. – Ediţia II. – 2005. – 391 p.
6. Mărghitaş, L.A., Dezmirean, D.S. Apicultura. – UŞA MV. – Cluj-Napoca. – 2003. – 82 p.
7. Rădoi, Cecilia Date privind studiul morfo-metric al albinelor din ecotipul de stepă. România
Apicolă. – 1995. - nr. 2.
8. Rădoi, Cecilia Studii asupra unor caractere morfo-metrice la albina românească Apis mellifera
carpatica. România apicolă. – 2004. – nr. 10. – p. 13-15.
9. Плохинский, Н.А. Руководство по биометрии для зоотехников. M.: Kolos. – 1971. - с. 3-
259.
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BACK
SOME ASPECTS REGARDING THE DEVELOPMENT OF

ANIMAL BREEDING OF SURROUNDING AREA OF ORADEA
Elena GÎNDU, Alina-Emilia-Maria MOŞOIU, A. CHIRAN
After 1990, in Romania, animal effectives were reduced drastically,

excepting the increase of the caballines that was obvious.
This phenomenon became manifest also in the surrounding area, which
include seven villages and it owns 8% from the agricultural area of Bihor country.
From 1990 till 2000, the animal effectives showed an ascendant trend, after
witch there was a slight development in sheep species and more obvious in poultry.
In the future, as a result of the support offered by the EU, the animal
effectives and their production will mark an important event. The highest
headway is being anticipated for the poultry species.
An essential role in accomplishing this desideratum it will be played by
the politics of investments destined to modernize the existing farms and to set up
new ones specialized in pisciculture, snail-keeping, apiculture and fur animals, etc.
Key words: development, animals, investments
INTRODUCTION
The roumanian village is in a crisis of its evolution.New regulations
appeared, standards and institutions consonant with the comunitar aquis, fact that
impose counciling measures to the roumanian animal breeder for to assimilate the
new changes and put them into practice.
The animal breeding, at this beginning of the millennium, benefits of a lot
of knowledges in the domain of nutrition and alimentation, the technologies of
growth and exploitation, the production selection and process, management and
marketing based on the technology of the information etc.
The Oradea’s surrounding area includes a number of 7 communes, with
29 villages, with a total surface of 61 thousands hectar, representing about 8%
from the Bihor’s surface.
In the studied regions, the animal breeding is well represented by the
species of bovines,porcines, ovines and birds, with a significant ponderosity in the
structure of the effectives from the district of Bihor,because of the surface
occupied with the naturals lawns and the tradition of the population from the area
concerning the animal breeding.
MATERIAL AND METHOD SYSTEM

The research took place in the Oradea’s surrounding area and the object
of the study was to emphasize some aspects concerning the development of the
animal production in the studied regions.
- 752 -
The used methodology is specific to the European Union and it is

orientated towards the achievement of the direct research in the location, and the
analysis period took in three years (2004-2006).
The observation units of the research concerning the animal production
realized in the Oradea’s surrounding area were represented by the agricultural
exploitation(individually and with juridical personality) from every region level.
A system of indicators was used to emphasize the main elements that
characterize the animal breeding in the research area , that is to say:
- the animal effectives , on species;
- the total animal production (meat, milk, eggs) on species;
- the investments and other assistance forms for breeders.

From 2001 till 2006, the evolution of animal effectives, on species,in the
district of Bihor is like this (tab.1):
Table 1
The evolution of animal effectives, on species,in the district of Bihor, from 2001 till
2006
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Specifi-
cations Thousands Thousands Thousands Thousands Thousand Thousands %/2001
heads heads heads heads heads heads
Bovines 105,5 106,6 109,4 118,7 98,8 106,9 101,3
Ovines+
123,9 132,5 137,4 178,4 172,8 178,5 144,1
caprines
Porcines 203,3 249,8 262,4 325,7 221,2 328,5 161,6
Poultry 2.096,7 2.402,3 2.467,8 2.607,4 2.285,3 2752,6 131,3
From the analysis of the presentated data, we can see a significant

increase at porcines, ovines+ caprines, and birds meanwhile , at “bovines-total”,
the increase was insignificant.
In Oradea’s surrounding area , excepting porcines and birds, where the
effectives grow up, at the other species the evolution followed with a descending
trend.
The biggest reduction of the effectives were registered at the bees,
bovines and caballines, meanwhile at caprines, the effectives remained at the
same level, and at ovines they were reduced with 5,8%.
At ovines and caprines the purpose is keeping the effectives , and at birds
it was registrated the biggest effectives increase, specially at the birds for meat,
with a multiply demand on Oradea’s market.
The increase of the effectives at poultry and porcines it is also explained
through the specialization of the inhabitants from the area in intensive growth of
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chickenmeat and pigs, in elive-stock farms that applies new technology in

breeding and fattening.Still, the birds ponderosity is extremely reduced and it is
explained through the abolition of the most poultry farms, which belonged to the
formal Oradea Avicola State Entreprise and other poultry units with juridical
personality.At the other species, the ponderosity of the entire effectives in the
district is pretty elevated.
In agreement with the development of the animals effectives and the
influence of another factors, the animal productions presented a decrease
tendency (tab.2).
Table 2
The evolution of the main animal products realized in the Oradea’s surrounding
area from 2004 till 2006
% from
Specification UM 2004 2005 2006 %/2004 district
total
Meat aggregate output –on tonnes 3503 3276 3354 95,7 7,4
the hoof
Bovin meat tonnes 697 1032 897 128,7 8,2
Porcine meat tonnes 1717 1541 1534 89,3 6,0
Ovines and caprines meat tonnes 130 147 121 93,1 10,5
Ovines meat tonnes 123 112 98 79,7 10,2
Poultry tonnes 929 840 887 95,5 11,9
Cow and buffalo cow milk Th hl 345 298 370 107,2 16,1
Sheep and goat milk Th hl 17 11 8 47,1 8,5
Wool tonnes 30 39 37 123,3 9,8
Eggs mil.pcs 32 45 38 118,8 14,5
Extract honey tonnes 63 98 74 117,5 14,6
From the analysis of dynamics of animal products it is noticed the fact,

that in 2006, in Oradea’s surrounding area production benefit was realized only at
the bovine meat, cow and buffalo cow milk, wool, hen eggs, and extracted
honey.At the other products the decrease was obvious.
On structural level towards total district, the biggest ponderosity is
owned by :cow and buffalo cow milk,hen eggs, extracted honey, poultry, ovines
and caprines meat etc.
Otherwise, the animal production represents 44,3% from the Oradea’s
surrounding area yield, and it is the main supplier of milk,meat and eggs for this
market. Some centres with tradition in bovine’s breeding can be exemplified
(Nojorid, Sântandrei, Palota, Oradea, Santaul Mic) , porcine’s breeding (Palota,
Oradea and Sânmartin).
Oradea is a leader in poultry breeding for meat and for eggs (S.C.Avicola
S.A. Oradea is a national producer), whereas other centres where poultry breeding
occupy an important place are added (Palota, Cihei, Cordău and Nojorid).
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For the development of husbandry in Oradea’s surrounding area a

decisive factor is the financial support from comunitars and national funds
offered to the zootechnic sector (OUG nr. 125/2006).
The beneficiars of these measures are the agricultural producers, physical
or juridical persons, who own, grow and exploit the production animals, identified
and registered in the national system.
The support system is represented by the nationals directs
complementaries payments (PNDC) offered to the zootechnic sector from The
State Budget through the budged of the Agriculture and Rural Development
Ministry (MADR) for some species and animal categories, to the breeders that
respect some conditions , differentiated on species and animal categories:
- at bovines breeders – for exploitation with minimum 3 bovines heads and
mini-mum age of 6 mounth at 31 january 2007, inscribed in the Agriculture
Registry;
- at ovines breeders – for exploitation with minimum 50 adults ovines at 31
decem-ber 2006, inscribed at the Agriculture Registry;
- at caprines breeders – for exploitation with minimium 25 adults caprines at 31
december 2006 , inscribed at the Agriculture Registry.
The accorded sums are established through a government decision.
Another support form is refering to the maintenance of the animal
population amelioration:
a) the management of the genealogical registers for:
- bovines 7,5 lei/ head - total value 1.690 thousands lei;
- ovines 3,69 lei/head – total value 368 thousands lei.
b) the effectuation of the official control at milk production at ovines and
caprines – total value 613 thousands lei
- the official control of milk production at ovines and caprines 5,18
lei/ head;
- the official control of wool production at ovines 0,50 lei/ head;
- the official control of skin production at ovines 1,0 lei/ head;
- the official control of ovines and caprines meat production 0,80
lei/ head;
c) the introduction, on farms level, of technicals , biotechnicals and modern
reproduction practices at animal species, respectively the acquisition of
containers for the conservation of the freezen seminal material with a
capacity over 20 liters and a dynamic autonomy over 90 days – 3500 lei /
piece – total value 3.500 thousands lei;
d) the costs maintenance for testing the reproduction males, respectively:
- bull – 1.000 lei/ head – total value 50 thousands lei
- wethers/goat – 50 lei/ head – total value 500 thousands lei;
e) the costs maintenance for prosecution of dissection national test, for the
authorization of classification equipment for porcine carcass according to
EUROP clasification system and for fixing the mathematics formula for
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calculating the percent of muscular tissue in the carcass, for porcines from
Romania – 800 lei/ head – total value 100 thousands lei.
The maintenance of improvement for the products of animal origin’s quality
constitute another support possibility for animal breeders:
a) the improvement of meat production’s quality by financial support for
implementation of carcasses’s classification system, respectively:
- total value porcines – 80 000 thousands lei - porcines carcasses E –
120 lei/carcass
- porcines carcasses U –
100 lei/carcass
- total value bovines - 5.000 thousands lei - bovines carcasses –
100 lei/ carcass
b) the improvement of quality and production parameters in effectives
growth by maintenance the production of meat and eggs for consum, like
this:
- gilts from reproduction farms of pure breed, reproduction gilts from
cross breedining farms and gilts from commercial farms, which proceed
from reproduction farms in pure breed or cross breeding, at first farrow –
150 lei/ head – total value 3.000 thousands lei
- poultry – broiler chicken 1,6 lei/ head – total 114.779 thousands lei;
- eggs for consumption
c) the improvement of quality at honey production by maintenance of bee
families – 20lei/ bee family – total value 7.000 thousands lei.
d) the improvement of quality and hygiene at milk cow intended for
processing to reach the quality standards from European Union,
respectively the maintenance of delivered milk with a total number of
germs less or equal with 100.000 / ml and a number of somatic cells less or
equal with 400.000 / ml – 0,3 lei / liter – total value 78.400 thousands lei.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The favorable naturals and social-economics conditions for the

development of animal breeding in Oradea’s surrounding area will ensure the put
in practice of zootechnic’s development measures in concordace with the
directives and standards that exists in the European Union.
2. The analysis of results from 2004 till 2006, points out the fact that, even
if the area combines proper conditions for animal breeding, the development level
that it was accedeed emphasize unused resources, great retentions for investitions
in new zootechnics farms, profiled on pisciculture, bee culture, breeding animals
for wool,etc.
3. For the development, in the future, of breeding animals in Oradea’s
surrounding area a special role will have the attraction of investment funds from
European Union, and the support that the romanian state will give to the animal
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BACK
breeders, by conferring some direct cover charges, in the conditions of respecting

the parameters established through juridical settlement.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Chereji I., 2004 – Tehnologii de creştere a animaelor, Ed. Universităţii din Oradea, Oradea.
2. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, 2000 – Zooeconomie şi marketing. Ed. « Ion Ionescu de la Brad »,
Iaşi.
3. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, Banu A., Ciobotaru Elena-Adina, 2004 - Piaţa produselor agricole
şi agroalimentare-abordare teoretică şi practică. Editura CERES, Bucureşti.
4. Chiran A., Ciurea I.V., Gîndu Elena, Ignat Gabriela, 2006 – Management, marketing şi
gestiune economică. Ed. Performantica, Iaşi.
5. Chiran A., Dima Fl.-M., Gîndu Elena, 2007 - Marketing în agricultură. Ed. Alma Print, Galaţi.
6. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, 2007 – Zooeconomie – ediţia a II-a. Ed. PIM, Iaşi.
7. Gavrilescu D., Giurcă Daniela, 2000 – Economie agroalimentară. Ed. Expert, Bucureşti.
8. Kotler Ph., Dubois B., 1989 – Marketing et management. Ed. Publiunion, Paris.
9. Zahiu Letiţia (coordonator), 2006 – Agricultura Uniunii Europene sub impactul politicii
agricole comune, Ed. CERES, Bucureşti.
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BACK
RESEARCHES CONCERNING REPRODUCTIVE

PERFORMANCES RECORDED TO BOARS PIC 402 AND
PIC 408 EXPLOITED IN SC SUINPROD SA ROMAN
G. HOHA, B. PĂSĂRIN, Elena COSTĂCHESCU,
Gh. TĂRĂBOANŢĂ, Roxana Teodora STĂNESCU
The competent management of boars farm is very important for the

success of which pig keeping farms.
In these paper we propose to mark aut the reproductive performances
(quantity and quality of semen) to boars PIC 402 and 408 exploited in SC
SUINPROD SA ROMAN to obtain a commercial PIC hybrid intended exclusive
for slaughterhouse.
The value of the major semen index (volum, sperm concentration,
mobility and number of doses per ejaculation) the oscillation in boars lines,
individual and boars age, the variation limits being close to the other
researchers at different breds, hybrids or synthetic lines.
The production level and the spematic properties on record to boars PIC
402 and 408 gives the possibility to breeders to exploit a small male population, with
a high genetic value, this way obtaining a advanced economical efficiency.

The researches were on nunber by 10 boars, exploited currently in SC
SUINPROD SA ROMAN, on which 5 boars belongs to line PIC 402 and 5 boars
belongs to line PIC 408. The seminal material derived from the both lines of
boars is used in company for the artificial insemination of Camborough sows, the
resulted produces being exclusive intended for the abattoir.
The accommodation and exploitations conditions were similar for all the
studied boars, the age differents between of them being very nearly.
The boars activity has been analized from entrance moment in
reproduction activity and till the culling of those. The 3 first weekly series of
ejaculations, obtained begining with 8 months age hasn’t been evaluated, the using
intensity on reproduction being by an collection on day followed by 5 days resting.
After the collection, each ejaculation was been submited to quantitative
and qualitative evaluation in the company laboratory, the laboratory being
adequate endowed the demanding standards of seminal material analizys,
appreciating the ejaculative volume, the semen concentration in spermatozoids
and the doses number resulted from one single ejaculation.
OBTAINED RESULTS
1. Data concerning the ejaculative volume
a) On PIC 408 boars
In table 1 are presented data concerning the quantitative and volume
evolution of ejaculation, on PIC 408 boars studieds, in age order. It’s observes the
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fact that the ejaculation volume has oscillates between very larges limits, from 90
to 625 ml, the maximun value being touched in 25-36 months interval. The
medium ejaculative volume, for the 5 boars of line 408, on the all period was
342,4 ml, inscribing in the ceilings presented by speciality literature.
Table 1
The ejaculative volume depending on age interval at PIC 408 boars
Statistical
Age (months) Average
Parameters
Value
8-12 13-24 25-36 37-42
Minimum (ml) 90 145 205 196
Maximum (ml 350 560 625 622 342,4
Average 224,3 358,4 382,5 404.4
Sx 6,9 8,1 7,1 12,4
V% 20,4 24,1 21,2 25,3
Analizyng in dynamics the ejaculative volume, from the boars entrance in

reproduction and till the end of exploitation period (42 months) it’s observe a
upward bend to the ejaculative volume. This way, in the 8-12 months interval
the volume it was by 224,3 ml mean, it followed a continue increase, so that in
age interval 37-42 months it registered a mean by 404,4 ml. This situation
congruents with the values presented in speciality literature, according to, the
male genital organs function it is interrelated vith the age of breeding stock
(Feredean T., Bogdan AT., 1999, Nacu G.,2005).
The ejaculative volume has registered differents also in point of the
individual variation (table 2).
Table 2
The individual variation of the ejaculative volume on PIC 408 boars
Statistical
Boar 1 Boar 2 Boar 3 Boar 4 Boar 5 Average
Parameters
Value
Minimum 105 110 90 105 114
Maximum 560 630 580 620 580
Average 338,6 380,2 315,4 360,5 322,3 342,4
Sx 9,8 10,6 11,9 10,9 10,9
V% 25,8 26,2 30,2 27,6 26,8
From the data presented in table 2 it’s observes a vast variability, to the
ejaculative volume, who expressed through his coefficient of variation says values
upwards of 25% for all the studied boars. It’s obvios the fact that, for the same
boar, the spermatic production volume varies from one collection to other, being
conditioned by numerous factors (Stan T, 2001).
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b) On PIC 402 boars

The quantitative and volume evolution of ejaculation, on PIC 402 studied
boars, in age order, it was relative suchlike with a PIC 408 boars (table 3). It’s
observes the fact that the ejaculative volume has oscillated between very larges
limits, from 90 to 640 ml, the maximum value being attached in 37-42 months
period. The mean ejaculative volume, by 351,6 ml, for the 5 PIC 402 boars, as
well has registered in the superior limits presented by the speciality literature.
Table 3
The ejaculative volume depending on age interval at PIC 402 boars
Statistical
Parameters
Value
8-12 13-24 25-36 37-42
Minimum(ml) 90 160 190 210
Maximum (ml 380 565 630 640 351,6
Average 235,4 366,4 398,6 406,0
Sx 7,6 8,4 9,1 13,6
V% 22,4 24,8 22,3 26,3
Comparative, between those boars studied lines, it has observed the fact
that, the maximum volume of the semen is attached between 25-36 months on
PIC 408 boars and after 3 years on those from PIC 402 line. As well, it’s obvios
that the most modicum values it was registered on both lines at the begining of the
reproduction activity, following than the spermatic production to increase due to
the progress of genital system.
Individual oscillations of the ejaculative volume were observed also to
PIC 402 boars (table 4).
Table 4
The individual variation of the ejaculative volume on PIC 402 boars
Statistical
Boar 1 Boar 2 Boar 3 Boar 4 Boar 5 Average
Parameters
Value
Minimum 90 110 95 105 92
Maximum 550 625 590 640 580
Average 345,5 378,8 338,3 366,5 328,9 351,6
Sx 9,5 11,7 10,6 12,9 9,9
V% 22,7 24,5 23,2 28,4 22,8
From the presented data in table 4 it’s observes also to on the PIC 402
boars it’s registers a big variability of the ejaculative volume, which expressed by
the coefficient of variation designates values over by 20% for all the studied
boars.
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2. Data concerning the semen concentration in spermatozoids

a) On PIC 408 boars
The semen concentration in spermatozoids is the prime paramether of
which is realizing the semen dilution. In the case of the 5 PIC 408 boars these has
registered a mean by 302,3 mil. of spermatozoids/ml (table 5), being superior to a lot
of presented data by the speciality literature, being in the same time in the limits of the
scientific papers in the last years (Kunk J.,2001, Stoica Angela 2003).
Table5
The semen concentration in spermatozoids on PIC 408 boars
(x 106 spermatozoids/ ml)
Statistical
Parameters
Value
8-12 13-24 25-36 37-42
Minimum (ml) 180 215 190 180
Maximum (ml 480 510 560 550 302,3
Average 285,6 298,4 320,2 305
Sx 13,8 7,9 8,8 12,6
V% 25,6 22,8 23,6 25,4
From the analysis data presented in table 5 it’s remarks the fact that, in
the first analized period, in 8-12 months interval, the concentration in
sprematozoids was more modicum, a mean by 285,6 mil. spermatozoids/ml, than
growing up, untill the 25-36 months interval to 320,2 mil. spermatozoids/ml, due
to gradual intensification of spermatogenesis, whereupon, in 37-42 months
interval, coming down till 305 ml.
b) On PIC 402 boars

The semen concentration in spermatozoids has a mean by 311,5 ml (table
6), being in the presented limits by the speciality literature. Although the
maintenance and collection conditions were simillar on all the expliotation
period, the concentration of the ejaculations in spermatozoids has oscillates much
from one collection to other, the coefficients of variation having values between
21,6% and 26,5%.
Table 6
The semen concentration in spermatozoids on PIC 402 boars
(x 106 spermatozoids/ ml)
Statistical
Parameters
Value 8-12 13-24 25-36 37-42
Minimum (ml) 180 205 195 185
311,5
Maximum (ml 460 550 565 540
Average 292,3 306,6 330,8 316,3
Sx 13,4 6,9 6,5 12,8
V% 24,6 22,2 21,6 26,5
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The semen concentration in spermatozoida had approached values on

both studied lines, the different between the line PIC 402 and the line PIC 408
being by 3,04%.
3. Data concerning the spermatozoids mobility and the realized

number of doses
a) On PIC 408 boars
The mean mobility of spermatozoids from the crude semen material,
determinated imediatly after the collection, it was by 78,95%, these not being
induced obviosly by the boars age or by the collection sezon. Expressed in
absolute values, the differents between the maximum level attached in 13-24
mnonths interval (79,9%) and the others ages were between 0,63% and 2,63%
(fig.1).
80.5
80
79.5 79.9
79.4 78.95
79
Mobility (%) 78.5 78.7
78 77.8
77.5
77
76.5
8-12. 13-24 25-36 37-42 Average
Age (months)
Fig.1 The spermatozoids mobility depending on ageinterval at PIC 408 boars
The mobility values registered on PIC 408 boars are approached by those
quatation by the speciality literature for the boars from differents synthetic lines
and pure lines (Watson PF, 2002, Thibault 1991).
Considering a spermatozoids mobility by minimum 75% in the moment

of using doses for the sows insemination, and the spermatozoids number on dose
by 4 thounsand millions it has determined the mean number of doses on
ejaculation, this thing seing in fig. 2.
- 762 -
25
23.3 22.5 20.35
20
20.2
Number of 15
15.3
doses 10
0
8.-12 25-36 Average
Age ( months)
Fig.2 The mean number of obtained doses on PIC 408 line
From figure 2 it’s observes the fact that, for all analized period the mean
number of obtained doses was by 20,76 on ejaculation, being bigger in 25-36
months exploitation interval (23,3 doses/ejaculation) and smaller on the boars
who are at the begining of the exploitation period (15,3 doses/ejaculation).
b) On PIC 402 boars

The mean mobility of spermatozoids was by 79,4%, the maximum value
registering in 13-24 months interval (fig.3).
81
80.5
80 80.4 80.2
79.4
Mobility (%) 79.5
79 79
78.8
78.5
78
8-12. 13-24 25-36 37-42 Average
Age (months)
Fig.3 The spermatozoids mobility depending on age interval at PIC 402 boars
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The spermatozoids mobility value was only with 0,5% bigger on boars
from line PIC 402 regard those from line pIC 408, the differets between those
lines being insignificant.
On PIC 402 boars the mean number of doses on ejaculation was by 21,12.
More doses were obtained from the boars in 25-36 months interval(25,2 doses),
and the littlest, from the boars finded at the begining of exploitation period (16,2)
(fig.4).
30
25
25.2 21.12
20 22.5
Number of 20.4
15
doses 16.2
10
5
0
8.-12 25-36 Average
Age (month)
Fig.4 The mean number of obtained doses depending on age interval

at the studied boars
As for the number of obtained doses on ejaculation, it’s registered small

differents between the analized lines, by 3,78% for PIC 402 line. Comparative,
between those two lines of studied boars, it has observed the fact that, the
maximum number of obtained doses on ejaculation has registered on both lines in
25-36 months interval, and the smallest number on the begining of reproduction
activity.
CONCLUSIONS AND REFERENCES

1. The principal index values of spermatogram had oscillated depending
on the type of boar and the boars age, individual and season, the variation limits
being close by those registered by others researchers, on different breeds, hybrids
or synthetic lines.
2. The registered differents as for the ejaculative volume, the
concentration in spermatozoids and the the number of doses on ejaculation, on
those 2 analized lines are very small, in favor of PIC 402 boars.
3. Due to the higher concentration of spermatozoids on ejaculation,
registered on all exploitation period, on both analized lines, the using intensity on
reproduction a PIC 408 and PIC 402 boars it might increase so that the duration
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BACK
between collections to be smaller on 3 or 4 days comparative with the 5 days

which is in present.
4. The standard and the property of the spermatic production on PIC boars
allows exploitation to a small number of males, this situation having a good
zootechnical and economic implications.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Feredean T. 1974 – Reproducţia la porcine, Editura Ceres Bucureşti
2. Bogdan A.T. şi col., 1999 – Tratat de reproducţie şi însămânţări artificiale la suine, Editura
Tehnică Agricolă Bucureşti
3. Nacu G., 2005 – Cercetări privind unele posibilităţi de optimizare a funcţiei de reproducere la
suine, Teză de doctorat
4. Stoica Maria Angela, 2003 – Biologia şi patologia reproducţiei animalelor, Editura Granada
Bucureşti
5. Kunk J. and col., 2001 – Study of reproduction abilitz in boars, Animal breeding Abstract,
vol.69, no.5, page 465
6. Stan T. şi Păsărin B., 2001 – Creşterea suinelor, Editura Vasiliana 98, Iaşi
7. Watson P.F., Behan J.R., 2002 – Intrauterine insemination of sows with reduced sperm
numbers: result of a commercially based field trial, Theriogenology, vol.57, page 1683-1693
8. Thibault C., Levasseur M.C., 1991 – La reproduction chez les mammiferes et l”home, Editure
Marketing, Paris
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EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR DIFFERENT HOUSING

DENSITIES AND RECIPES OF COMBINED FEED
FOR BROILERS
Cristina IONESCU, I. VACARU-OPRIŞ
The experiment was carried out on a number of 46,000 broiler which

were separated in four groups: a control group (CG) consisting of 12,150
chickens, and three experimental groups (EG1 ÷ EG3), of which EG1 had 12,150
chickens, EG2 had 12,960 chickens and EG3 had 11,340 chickens. The stocking
density in the housing unit varied from 15 birds per m2 for CG and EG1, to 16
birds per m2 for EG2 and 14 birds per m2 for EG3.
The combined feedstock administered to the studied birds was
isoenergetic and isoproteic and their nourishing properties were very close to the
standards and recommendations of “Ross Breeders”. The feedstock of the
broilers in the control group contained fodder additives (probiotics and
enzymes), while the feedstock given to the broilers in the experimental groups did
not contain such additives.
Administering combined feedstock without fodder additives to the
studied broilers in the experimental groups proved to be inappropriate.
Furthermore, increasing the housing density from 14 birds per m2 to 16 birds per
m2 was not beneficial in terms of the broilers’ growth, development and feed
consumption because the broilers in EG2 obtained the worst results for all
parameters that were analysed.
Keywords: broiler, density, combined feedstock

The experiment was carried out at AVIS 3000 S.A., in Mintia, Hunedoara
county on a number of 48,600 one-day-old broilers belonging to the “Ross-308”
commercial hybrid. They were divided into four groups, as follows: a control
group (CG) consisting of 12,150 broilers, and three experimental groups (EG1 ÷
EG3), of which EG1 had 12,150 broilers, EG2 had 12,960 broilers and EG3 had
11,340 broilers.
The stocking density in the housing unit varied from 15 birds per m2 for
CG and EG1, to 16 birds per m2 for EG2 and 14 birds per m2 for EG3.
Due to the fact that some of the studied parameters could not be
determined for such a big number of birds, as was the case for the dynamics of
weight-gain, several control groups were formed, one for each experimental group
(control group 1, control group 2, control group 3 and control group 4), each
comprising 200 birds. All the broilers in the control groups were individualised.
The marked broilers which died during the experiment were replaced with others
from the housing unit, with around the same body weight as the group average.
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The broilers were kept on permanent litter until they reached the age of
42 days, when they were directed to the slaughterhouse.
The units housing the broilers belonging to the experimental groups were
equipped with Big Dutchman kits.
The organisation of the experiment is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Experiment organisational plan

Experimental
CG EG1 EG2 EG3
group
Number of one day
12,150 12,150 12,960 11,340
old broilers
Control group No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4
Number of broilers
200 200 200 200
per control group
Broilers growth
0 – 42 days
time
Combined Combined Combined Combined
Characteristics of
feedstock feedstock feedstock feedstock
the administered
with fodder without fodder without fodder without fodder
combined feedstock
additives additives additives additives
Housing density
15 15 16 14
(birds/m2)
Studied parameters
Dynamics of weight gain for studied broilers
Feed consumption
Deaths and their causes
The European efficiency factor.
The recipes of the combined feedstock administered to the experimental

broilers were isoenergetic and isoproteic and their nourishing properties were very
close to the standards and recommendations of “Ross Breeders”, a company from
Great Britain, targeting the “Ross-308” commercial broiler hybrid (Table 2).
Table 2. The studied combined feedstock

Starting point Growth period Finish point
EG1 EG1 EG1
Raw materials (%)
CG EG2 CG EG2 CG EG2
EG3 EG3 EG3
Corn 46.46 37.89 40.21 37.19 41.46 39.48
Soy grits 39.81 53.83 26.10 9.12 12.02 0.43
Full fat soy - - 18.36 38.74 24.78 38.52
Corn gluten 3.00 3.00 6.00 6.00 8.00 8.00
Barley - - 5.00 5.00 10.00 10.00
Fish flour 7.00 - - - - -
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Soy oil - 0.54 - - - -

Monocalcium phosphate 0.90 1.67 1.22 1.05 0.98 0.86
Calcium carbonate 1.35 1.57 1.43 1.52 1.45 1.51
Premix 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50
Rhodiment - methionine 0.20 0.24 0.20 0.20 0.10 0.10
ADM L-Lysine-HCl 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.21 0.11 0.16
Salt - 0.20 0.15 0.15 0.09 0.09
Coline 0.12 0.12 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.08
BioPlus 2B 0.10 - 0.10 - - -
Sodium bicarbonate 0.11 0.24 0.23 0.22 0.28 0.27
AVATEC (lasalocid sodium) 0.10 - 0.10 - - -
KEMZYME MS dry 0.05 - 0.05 - 0.05 -
MYCOSORB 0.10 - 0.10 - 0.10 -
ADM L-Threonine 0.10 0.10 - - - -
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00
Nourishing properties
EM kcal/kg 3071 3010 3175 3175 3225 3225
PB % 24.50 24.50 22.50 22.50 21.00 21.00
GB % 6.59 7.49 7.87 9.69 7.84 9.08
CB % 4.09 4.80 4.33 4.12 4.09 3.96
Ca % 1.05 1.05 0.90 0.90 0.85 0.85
Available P % 0.50 0.50 0.45 0.45 0.42 0.42
Na % 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16
Cl % 0.20 0.20 0.22 0.22 0.22 0.22
Lisine % 1.50 1.45 1.28 1.33 1.10 1.14
Methionine-Cystine % 1.09 1.09 1.05 1.01 0.95 0.93
Threonine % 1.12 1.11 0.96 0.95 0.93 0.91
Tryptophane % 0.27 0.28 0.24 0.24 0.21 0.21

The dynamics of weight gain
Determining the body weight of the broilers participating in the
experiment was performed weekly by individual weighing of the whole group of
marked birds.
At the starting point of the experiment, very similar values were recorded
in terms of the average broiler body weight for each experimental group, ranging
between 40.52±0.49 g for the EG3 and 40.71±0.34 g for the CG.
The homogeneity of all of the experimental groups was very good, having
% values of less than 10%.
The variance analysis showed that at this age there were no statistically
significant differences among the groups involved.
At the second weighing, when the broilers were one week old, for EG2
and EG3 there were recorded values higher with 1.91÷2.02% than for the CG,
- 768 -
while for EG1 the weight of the broilers was with 0.38% lower than its
corresponding control group.
The analysed groups had a medium homogeneity, as the variance
coefficient was higher than 10%.
The Fisher test calculations did not show statistically significant
differences among the experimental groups.
At this age of the broilers, the different housing densities applied for the
experimental housing units did not significantly influence the development of the
studied chickens. Similarly, administering combined feedstock without fodder
additives did not generate statistically significant differences among the
experimental groups.
At the age of 14 days, it was noted that the differences among the groups
deepened. Thus, for the control group an average weight of 414.91 g was
recorded, while for the experimental groups the values with 1.39÷4.16 % higher
than the control group.
Taking into account the value of the variance coefficient, an average
homogeneity (V%=11.08-12.71) was noted for the four experimental groups.
There were recorded statistically significant differences among the
groups.
The best results were recorded for EG3, for which combined feedstock
without fodder additives was used and which had the lowest housing density – 14
birds per m2.
At the fourth weighing corresponding to the age of 21 days, weight
differences among the experimental groups were also recorded. Thus, for the
experimental groups (EG1÷EG3) the average body weights recorded were with
0.13÷5.22 % higher than the constant value recorded for the control groups –
804.35 g.
The homogeneity of the groups was medium (V% = 15.81-19.18).
Significant differences were recorded between EG3 and CG and EG2,
while for the other groups there no statistical differences were registered.
At the age of 28 days (fifth weighing), the control group (CG) reached an
average body weight of 1311.24±13.27 g, which was with 0.14÷0.96% lower than
the values corresponding to the experimental groups (Table 15).
In this case as well, the homogeneity of the groups was medium (V% =
17.38-18.22).
The Fisher test did not reveal statistically significant differences among
the experimental groups.
At the age of 35 days (sixth weighing), the broilers of the control group
CG had an average body weight of 1920.64±19.54 g, with 0.11-0.33 % higher
than the values obtained for the broilers in experimental groups EG1 and EG2; at
the same time, EG3 showed a higher average body weight, exceeding the CG
values by 1.88% and the EG1 and EG2 by 2.00-2.23%.
- 769 -
The homogeneity of the two groups analysed was medium (V% = 16.74-
19.87).
There were statistically significant differences between EG3 and EG1 and
EG2.
At the last weighing (the seventh), when the broilers became 42 days old,
the best result was registered for the control group with 2370.80 g, higher by
0.56-10.3 % than the average weights obtained within the experimental groups.
The variance coefficient was under 20 %, indicating a medium
homogeneity for this parameter (V% = 17.83-19.37).
Statistically significant differences were recorded among the following
groups: CG-EG2, CG-EG1, EG3-EG2, and EG3-EG1.
By analysing these last values it can be concluded that feeding the
chickens with combined feedstock without fodder additives (EG1, EG2 and EG3)
did not have a beneficial effect on the body weight of the studied broiler chickens.
The experimental groups obtained lower body weights by 0.56-10.3%.
The lowest result was registered in the case of EG2, a group in which the
housing density was the highest – 16 birds per m2.
The same dynamics of broilers weight gain is shown in Figure 1.
2500
CG
EG1
average body weight (g)
2000 EG2
EG3
1500 EG4
1000
500
Figure 1. Dynamics of body weight for the studied broiler chickens
Comparing the average values of the studied broilers body weights with
the standard weights mentioned in the “Ross-308” chickens breeding guide, it can
be noticed that lower body weights were obtained at the end of the 42 days, but,
during the growth period, for some of the weightings the standard values were
exceeded.
As such, at the age of 7 days, the broilers in groups EG2 and EG3 had
higher average body weights by 1.33-1.44% than the standard; at the age of 21
- 770 -
days all groups recorded higher values than the standard ones by 1.17-6.46%. The
same situation was recorded at the age of 28 days, when the broilers participating
in the experiment had higher average weights than standard by 2.52-3.50%; the
same situation was encountered at the age of 35 days, when the difference was
4.82-7.16%.
Unfortunately, at the end of the experiment, the broilers in the
experimental groups did not manage to exceed the standard value for this hybrid –
2400 g. However, broilers in two of the groups came very close – CG – 2370.80 g
and EG3 – 2357.34 g.
Feedstock consumption
The rate of feedstock consumption corresponded to the achieved body
weight. As we know, there is a positive correlation between the speed of growth
and the specific feedstock consumption, in the sense that the animals with better
growth performances have lower specific feedstock consumption and vice-versa.
At the end of the 42 days of growth for the studied broilers the feedstock
consumption index was calculated to a value of 1.809 kg c.f./ kg growth in the
case of the control group and with 3.59-4.69% higher for the experimental groups
(Table 3).
Table 3. Specific feedstock consumption

Average ±%
Experimental Total growth FCR (kg c.f./
consumption compared to
groups (kg/bird) kg growth)
(kg/bird) CG
CG 2.330 4.217 1.809 -
EG1 2.229 4.218 1.892 + 4.58
EG2 2.085 3.951 1.894 + 4.69
EG3 2.316 4.341 1.874 + 3.59
Bird losses and their causes

The bird deaths registered for the entire duration of the experiment did
not exceed 3.5% for any of the experimental groups (Table 4).
The lowest losses were recorded in particular during the first week of life,
being accidental. Other causes for these losses were enteritis and coccidiosis.
Throughout the observation period there were signalled no specific illnesses.
Table 4. Evolution of bird losses

Experimental No. of broilers at the No. of broilers at the
Losses %
groups start of the experiment start of the experiment
CG 12150 11747 403 3.31
EG1 12150 11768 382 3.14
EG2 12960 12533 427 3.29
EG3 11340 10974 366 3.22
- 771 -
European efficiency factor

At the end of the experimental period, when the broilers were 42 days
old, the European efficiency factor (EEF) was calculated. It was then used to
estimate the growing efficiency of the studied broiler chickens pertaining to the
experimental groups.
Several parameters were used to determine the EEF: slaughtering age of
the broilers, in days, the average live weight recorded at the slaughtering age per
group (kg), the observed viability per group (%) and the feedstock conversion
index (FCR kg c.f./ kg growth). Table 5 presents the calculus elements and the
results obtained for the EEF using the formula below:
Viability (%) × weight (kg)
EEF = × 100
Age (days) × CI (kg c.f./kg growth)
Table 5. The European Efficiency Factor

FCR (kg
Experimental Age Average live Mortality
c.f./kg EEF
groups (days) weight (kg) (%)
growth)
CG 42 2.370 3.31 1.809 301.63
EG1 42 2.273 3.14 1.892 271.49
EG2 42 2.126 3.29 1.894 258.35
EG3 42 2.357 3.22 1.874 289.84
By analysing the values calculated for the EEF, it can be observed that a
higher value was recorded for the control group by 3.90-14.34 % compared to that
obtained for the experimental groups (EG1, EG2 and EG3); this fact can be
explained especially by considering the higher weights at the time of the slaughter
of the studied broilers from CG, with 0.54-10.29 % higher compared with those
of the experimental groups.
CONCLUSIONS
The research performed revealed that the broilers in the control group CG
obtained better results that those in the experimental groups (EG1, EG2 and EG3)
in terms of live weight, average daily growth and the feedstock consumption
index.
From an economic perspective, the control group registered the highest
value of the European Efficiency Factor (EEF), with 3.90-14.34 % higher than in
the case of the experimental groups.
Therefore, administering combined feedstock without fodder additives to
the studied broilers in the experimental groups (EG1, EG2 and EG3) proved to be
inappropriate. Similarly, the increase of the housing density from 14 birds per m2
to 16 birds per m2 was not beneficial in terms of growth, development and
feedstock consumption, because the broilers in EG2 obtained the lowest results
for all analysed parameters.
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BACK
BIBLIOGRAFIE
BORMAN, K.N. and col., 1999 – British Poultry Science, vol. 40, CARFAX, UK.
ELWINGER. K. and TEGLOF, B., 1991 – Performance of broiler chickens as influenced by a
dietary enzyme complex and without antibiotic supplementation. Arch. Geflügelk 55:69-
73.
FERKET, P.R., 2004 – Alternatives to antibiotics in poultry productions: responses, practical
experience and recommendations. Proceeding of Alltech’s 20th Annual Symposium.
Nottingham University Press, pag. 53-67.
FOTEA, LENUŢA, P. HALGA, I.M. POP, VIORICA POPA, 2003 - Folosirea aditivilor
botanici în alimentaţia animalelor, concept nou referitor la aditivii furajeri. Lucrări
ştiinţifice, seria zootehnie, vol. 46, USAMV-Iaşi.
KAMEL, C. şi col., 2002 - Feed International vol. 23 nr. 3.
LARBIER, M. şi LECLERCQ, B., 1994 – Nutriţia şi alimentaţia păsărilor. Editura Alutus D,
Bucuteşti.
MIERLIŢĂ, D., SĂLĂJAN, Gh., GEORGESCU, B., 2002 – Influenţa probioticelor bazate pe
acizi organici asupra performanţelor productive şi a microflorei digestive la puii de carne.
Lucrări Ştiinţifice, seria zootehnie, vol. 45, USAMV-Iaşi.
PERIS SILVIA şi col., 2002 - Additives for animal performance: Organic acids plus botanicals.
Feed International vol. 23 nr. 3.
POP, I.M., 2006 – Aditivi furajeri. Editura TipoMoldova, Iaşi.
VACARU-OPRIŞ, I. şi col., 2002 - Tratat de avicultură, vol. II. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
VACARU-OPRIŞ, I. şi col., 2005 – Sisteme şi tehnologii de creştere a puilor broiler de găină.
Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
- 773 -
BACK
PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS OF IMPLEMENTING BATCH

FARROWING SYSTEMS IN PIG FARMING
I. LADOŞI, M.Gh. BEREŞ, G. POPA, Ileana BEREŞ,
Paula MUNTEAN, Daniela LADOŞI
Applying batch farrowing can becom a highly usefull management tool

in pig farms with 150 – 1000 sows. Through the present paper we would like to
outligth the field experience accumulated in the last year within several
Romanian farms working in close partnership with PIC. Fore a better
comparison considered farms were the ones with similar size, between 200 and
250 sows.
Main conclusion is that applying batch farrowing can bring several
advantages to farmers, but only where farm staff management skills are well
developed and where farm routines are rigurously followed.
INTRODUCTION
Current batch farrowing systems are applied is several forms and
implementing methods (Alison Spencer, J. Hargreaves, 2001). Main reason for
switching from continous flow to batches is the possibility to improve farm
performance and hence, profitability (Goss J., 2006).
Research studies and practitioners demonstrated that batch farrowing can
be implemented in differen ways depending on sow herd, available space and
staff. Most common batch farrowing system is the 3 week batch, due to the
similarity of timing with the length of sow estrous cycle (Lank, T, and Hurnik,
D.,1996; Ladoşi I., 2006, 2007).
The major advantages induced by the batch system are: a) health status
improvement, with positive impact on farm performance (ADG, FCR, etc.) and
hence on profitability; b) it is well designed to addapt „all in / all out” rule in
farrowing and nursery; c) higher uniformity of the pigs, ease of grouping based on
weigth and age, ease of applying climate control, feeding scheemes, treatments
and delivery to slaughter, etc.; d) more efficient use of the staff and its skills
(McNaughton, C.,1993)
It is worth mentioning that batch farrowing has its disadvantages as well.
Therefore not all farms are suitable for implementation. Major limiting factor is
the quality of the staff, which should be fully aware about the objectives and strict
rulest to be followed (Roese G., 2004). Switch from continous flow to batches can
also have an early transition phase during whitch usually farm performance are
lower.
- 774 -
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Within the present paper 3 Romanian farms with batch farrowing system
were analised (A, B, and C), having a sow herd size between 200 and 300 scroafe,
mated gilts being included. It is worth mentioning that in one of the farms the
batch system was implemented following a long period of continuos flow, while
the other two started the production under this scheeme. During the trial, Farm C
was within the transition period from flow to batches.
Farm A has a different batch system where farrowing group is realised in
10 days. Actual grouping consist in a 10 day period designated for AI, followed
by a 10 day break. Then the batch 2 is starting following the same patern. Within
those 10 AI days number of inseminated sows is variable, most of the AI is done
in days 5 and 6. In order to even this in the first and last days gilts are usually
inseminated or returns from previous cycles. Here can be introduced as well
hormonally stimulated sows or gilts (not recomended). Reason behind this
original batch model was acctualy imposed by the existing farm design.
Trial was conducted during summer and autumn in order to identify
seasonal differences, over 5 full months. For comparison reproductive and
productive results in farrowing and nursery were considered. All performances
were reported according to PIC system, including mated gilts in the sow herd.
Worth mentioning that all farms have the role to produce hybrid breeding
stock not slaughter generation. Therefore lower performance than in a comercial
farm using Camborough gilts and terminal sires was quite expected. Moreover in
some of the farms sire lines are multiplied, with obvious effect on reproductive
performance.
Targeted weaning age in all farms is 28 days. However, in Farm A
weaning is performed at the average age of 35 days, with variation between 27
and 37 days.

Considered reproductive and productive parameters during the 5 month
trial were farrowing rate (FR%), total number born alive per litter (TBA/L), total
number weaned per litter (TW/L), number of piglets weaned by each sow / year
(W/S/Y) and pre-weaning mortality (%M-PV).
Periods P1, P2 and P3 were during summer. None of the farms was
equiped with air cooling systems while outside temperatures were several times
over 350C.
Looking at the above parameters in Farm A we can see a constant FR%
over 80 % for the entire trial (Table 1, Graph 1), over 11 TBA/ L and an average
of 10.6 weaned piglets / litter, while mortality was higher than 5% only in P3, the
hotest month of the trial.
- 775 -
Table 1
Production parameters in Farm A
Farm A P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Average
FR% 81 84 81.2 80.6 80.1 81.4
TBA/L 11.2 11.1 11.1 11.1 11.2 11.1
TW/ L 10.8 10.6 10.5 10.6 10.7 10.6
W/S/Y 20.15 23.18 23.34 23.34 19.85 22.0
%M-PV 3.57 4.5 5.4 4.5 4.46 4.5
Graph 1. Dynamics of production parameters in Farm A
90
80
70
60 FR%
50 TBA/L
40 TW/L
30 W/S/Y
%M-PV
20
10
0
P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Average
In Farm B it seems to be the same patern for FR%, average being over 81%
during the trial. However, we notice that the TBA per litter is lower with 0.8 piglets.
One of reasons could be the differen genetic combination but also the fact that in
this specific case propostion of first parity sows in the herd was much higher.
Average weaned per litter is again lower probably for the same reasons.
We can also see a higher mortality in P4 and P5, apparently due to management
incidents concerning ventilation and feeding systems.
Table 2
Production parameters in Farm B
Farm B P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Average
FR% 84 88 83.4 74 76 81.1
TBA/L 10.71 9.6 9.6 10.8 10.6 10.3
TW/ L 10.26 9.4 9.1 9.1 9.8 9.5
W/S/Y 22.26 20.22 24.45 22.69 20.42 22.0
%M-PV 4.41 2.08 4.16 15.74 7.54 6.8
- 776 -
Graph 2. Dynamics of production parameters in Farm B
90
80
70
60 FR%
50 TBA/L
40 TW/L
30 W/S/Y
%M-PV
20
10
0
In Farm C reproductive and productive performances are at the lowes

levels by comparison with A and B. Main reasons for this situation are that all
most 50% of the sows are sire line females with obvious lower nursing ability and
prolificacy. Even in this situation average FR% is still over 80 percent, hence with
large variations during hot season. Average TBA per litter is high if we take into
consideration the high proportion of sire line females. Same conclusion is valid
for W/S/Y as well. It is quite clear that in Farm C there is a problem regarding
pre-weaning mortality, looses being double than in Farm A and with an extra 3%
than Farm B. One of the reasons could be that Farm C was populated with pigs 8
year earlier than Farms A or B. During this time the accumulating patogens could
affect performances.
Table 3.
Production parameters in Farm C
Farm C P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 Average
FR% 83 78 76 75 89 80.2
TBA/L 10.2 10.1 10.3 10.3 10.1 10.2
TW/ L 9.1 9.3 9.2 9.2 9.2 9.2
W/S/Y 19.62 20.52 20.58 20.55 20.15 20.3
%M-PV 10.78 7.92 10.67 10.67 8.91 9.8
- 777 -
Graph 3. Dynamics of production parameters in Farm C
90
80
70
60 FR%
50 TBA/L
40 TW/L
30 W/S/Y
%M-PV
20
10
0
Overall image of the performance and its dynamics during the trial is
presented as a summary in Table 4 and graph 4.
Table 4
General image and production parameters evolution in all analysed farms
Period Farm FR % TBA/L TW/L W/S/Y % M-PV

1 A 81 11.2 10.8 20.15 3.57
B 84 10.71 10.26 22.26 4.41
C 83 10.2 9.1 19.62 10.78
2 A 84 11.1 10.6 23.18 4.5
B 88 9.6 9.4 20.22 2.08
C 78 10.1 9.3 20.52 7.92
3 A 81.2 11.1 10.5 23.34 5.4
B 83.4 9.6 9.1 24.45 4.16
C 76 10.3 9.2 20.58 10.67
4 A 80.6 11.1 10.6 23.34 4.5
B 74 10.8 9.1 22.69 15.74
C 75 10.3 9.2 20.55 10.67
5 A 80.1 11.2 10.7 19.85 4.46
B 76 10.6 9.8 20.42 7.54
C 89 10.1 9.2 20.15 8.91
Average A 81.38 11.14 10.64 21.97 4.48
B 81.08 10.17 9.62 22.1 5.4
C 80.4 10.2 9.2 20.14 9.8
Average A,B,C 81.19 10.5 9.82 21.4 6.45
- 778 -
Graph 4. Dynamics of production parameters in Farms A, B and C
90
80
70
60 FR%
50 TBA/L
40 TW/L
30 W/S/Y
%M-PW
20
10
0
A B C A,B,C
Performance differences among farms are not surprising or unusual, one

of the main influencer being the human factor, the staff quality. It is posible as
well that differences are due to the fact that in Farms A and B, batch farrowing
started as soon as the first animals arrived while in Farm C this system is a
transition one from the continuos flow. The original system implemented in Farm
A, with 2 groups of 2o sows seems to work as confirmed by the production
performances. Main challenge for all farms using batch farrowing is dealing with
sows entering estrous outside the group. In these situations farm manager has do
take difficult decisions, as extra gilts to be mated in order to keep the targeted
mating plan. Main risk here is to have more gestating females than the actual
capacity of the farrowing department. However, the main task for the manager is
to keep a constant number of sows/ gilts in each group, depending on the
physiologic status. In order to accomplish this task it is crucial that sows are
correctly prepared for weaning and further insemination. Eliminating the sows
with abnormal cycling or the ones with long interwal between weaning and
estrous is important as well. In order to accomplish all these tasks farm manager
needs to organise daily and weekly routines. If not, one of the main risk is the
unacceptable growth of non-productive days affecting overall profitability of the
farm.
CONCLUSIONS
From presented data it seems to be clear enough that implementing batch
farrowing system is welcomed in farms with herd size similar to the ones
analysed within this paper. Obvious addvantages underlined by the farm
managers are as follows:
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BACK
- System needs a highly performing management considering that work is

done on groups of femeles with the same phisiology satus;
- In farrowing house betweene 2 batches all required cleaning, disinfection
and heating can be performed properly;
- Same all in / all out rule can be applied in nursery as well, with positive
impact on piglets health and growing performances;
- All piglets produced within the same batch have close age and can be
nursed and vaccinated in larger groups. The same rule is valid for the
gestating sow group;
- This system is even more convenient in breeding units were selection and
testing is made in comparison with siblings;
- Were unwanted heath issues arise the pathogen cycle is easy to be broken
and stopped
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alison Spencer, J. Hargreaves (2001) - Batch farrowing, Pigpen magazine, Queensland, Australia
Armstrong D. (2003) – Batch farrowing, U.K. Meat and Livestock Commission (MLC)
Goss J. (2006) - Success with Batch Farrowing, PIC UK Newsletter
Ladoşi I. (2007) – Econometrica exploatării profitabile a porcilor, Revista Ferma, Anul IX, Nr. 8
(52), Septembrie 2007, p. 71.
Ladoşi I. (2006) - Creşterea porcului – o ecuaţie cu mult prea multe necunoscute (I) (2006) ; Revista
Ferma, anul VIII, nr.2 (40), p.64.
Lank, T, and Hurnik, D. (1996) - The potential for batch farrowing and weaning as an alternative to
weekly SEW methods. American Association of Swine Practitioners Annual Meeting,
Nashville.
McNaughton, C. (1993) - Batch farrowing systems. Swine Housing Seminar, Shakespeare;
(Available - OMAF, Fergus)
Roese G. (2004) - Tool simplifies change to batch farrowing, NSW Agriculture Journal
- 780 -
BACK
CONTRIBUTIONS TO THE STUDY OF THE MORPHO-

PRODUCTIVE FEATURES AT A ”FRISIAN” TYPE CATTLE
POPULATION, EXPLOITED IN THE N-E AREA
OF THE COUNTRY
V. MACIUC
The examination paper has the achieve fenotipical knowing, also the
actual situation of cattles type ”Frisian”breeding into NE region farms
described among a slight economical increasement and reduced technical end
owment and capitalization of caws exploitation. On these population it was up
for debate man yaspects: genetical form and ascendancy veiling productive
performances on the exploiting period (5-8 lactations), principal reproduction
coefficients, bodily evolution, technologies used in exploitation etc.
The population tipe ”Frisian” has a cantitative milk production
approximate to 5.500 kg in the first two lactations and 6.000 kg in the last
lactations, to the VII lactation . The population has a good bodily evolution the
caws size being 131,29-135,16 cm, obliquity perch of trunk 149,14-159,58 cm ,
thoracic circumference 198,75-212,36 cm and bodily weight 535,50-624,99 kg,
averages acquired in the first three lactations.
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The biological material which was studie dis represented by 1450 cows
tipe ”Frisian” exploiting in extensive and intensive sistem, in many county from
NE region : Iaşi, Vaslui, Suceava, Galaţi, respectively farms: Dancu, Jora, Podu
Iloaiei, Badeana, Pogăneşti, Natanael, Matca/Tecuci, also the analysed
population.
On thes e population was analysed many aspects : genetical form and
ascendancy veiling , productive performances on the exploiting period (5-8
lactations) , principal reproduction cofficients, bodily evolution, milk coefficients,
fat and proteins, milk’s constant productive longevity and genetical parameters
(interrelation reproductibility), ameliortion calibre of reproductives , sanitary –
veterinary states, the technology practiced in farm, the processing way and the
milk refinement. The primordial dates was extracted from Zootechnic
Amelioration and Reproduction Units evidence. (UARZ). The analyses of these
dates was made with some observations in farms and with formally statistics
dates, relating with the requirement of transition period at the economy and the
UE adherence.
Growing the genetical potential and the population productivity and
actual cattles breeds, concomitantly with adaptive control optimization of
exploitation technologies into small and middle family farms.
- 781 -

Among that seven studied population are semnificative contrasts
concerning the acquirements of milk productions and exploited technologies
.Ergo are necessary programs of amelioration for each population and program of
amelioration for population tipe ”Frisian”from Moldova region which are distinct
characteristics comparatively with similary population from other region.
Analizing the ascendence value ( MM) of Frisian population from NE zone of the
country ( table1 ) we notice that the cows descending from mothers with a
medium performance of 5758,95 kg milk,230,58 kg pure fat and 219.31 pure
protein, the percentage of fat is 4,04 %. The grandmothers on the paternal line
(MP) have the superior performance to the mothers (MM), having 9093,27
milk,386,11 kg pure fat and 299.36 pure protein, existing the posibility to obtain
bulls with a superior genetical potential.
Table 1
Averages and variability of production acquirement to population asecendancy tipe

Frisian from NE region (Moldova)
MT MM
Statistic Milk Fat Fat Protein Milk Fat Fat Protein
(kg) (%) (kg) (kg) (kg) (%) (kg) (%)
X 9093.27 4.15 386.11 299.36 5758.95 4.04 230.58 219.31
±sx 102.92 0.01 5.39 7.49 55.37 0.01 2.25 4.71
s 1854.31 0.49 79.49 63.41 1571.22 0.32 62.21 53.75
V% 31.38 12.02 32.71 27.86 30.75 8.14 31.31 24.5
Min. 4238 3.29 160 170 455 3.07 17 16
Max. 19941 5.51 757 435 13202 5.85 530 355
The production performances for the first 8 normal lactations ,whose

population existing in NE region country (table2), was in I lactation of 5463,47 kg
milk, 223,44 kg pure fat and 180,06 kg pure protein. With the lactations
interchange , the production has a forwardness VI lactation when was achieved
the averages 6832,10 kg milk, 286,74 kg pure fat and 231,05 kg pure protein and
afterwards, easy diminuation accuers so in VIII lactation is reduce dat 4836,67 kg
milk , 239,99 kg pure fat and 161,67 kg pure protein. Entirely looking , the
population for this character is 25 and 34 %.
- 782 -
Table 2
Averages and production acquirement, on lactation,to population tipe Frisian from NE Romania region (Moldova)
Total lactation Normal lactation
Lactation Statistics Term Milk Fat Fat Protein Protein Term Milk Fat Fat Protein Protein
(days) (kg) % (kg) % (kg) (days) (kg) % (kg) % (kg)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
X 365.08 6376.12 4.14 263.07 3.35 250.80 290.71 5463.47 4.12 223.44 3,29 180,06
±sx 3.4 76.87 0.01 3.1 0.03 11.59 1.23 47.52 0.01 1.96 0,006 1,59
L1 s 102.09 1906.33 0.31 93 0.19 96.34 24.82 1539.83 0.31 63.7 0,18 49,41
V% 27.96 34.17 7.16 35.35 5.88 38.41 8.53 28.18 7.55 28.51 5,73 27,44
Min 50.00 591.00 2.67 27.00 2.9 75.00 99.00 685 2.95 27 2,83 19,00
Max 1064.00 20315.00 6.41 781.59 3.96 492.00 305.00 12465 6.36 530 4,01 236,00
X 360.06 6439.64 4.14 266.74 3.32 226.86 292.43 5704.5 4.13 233.9 3,29 205,23
±sx 400 110.16 0.01 4.37 0.02 10.6 1.32 69.79 0.01 2.9 0,008 2,43
L2 s 98.77 1816.44 0.34 107.95 0.11 89.41 20.91 1705.07 0.32 79.12 0,2 54,01
V% 27.43 37.18 8.22 38.47 6.21 37.2 7.15 33.39 7.78 33.82 6,23 29,82
Min 54.00 458.00 3.07 35.00 2.4 38.61 184.00 772 3.02 35 2,00 36,00
Max 995.00 23662.00 7.95 898.00 3.89 484.00 306.00 12893 5.29 526 4,07 399,84
X 360.06 6644.13 4.2 275.91 3.22 278.38 292.67 6000.83 4.17 245.62 3,3 210,44
±sx 5.77 146.34 0.02 6.03 0.06 14.4 1.68 92.79 0.01 3.86 0,009 8,59
L3 s 99.33 1769.02 0.21 102.18 0.18 162.15 21.55 1680.11 0.29 84.5 0,18 83,54
V% 30.36 31.67 8.4 32.11 5.79 35.43 7.36 30.41 7.18 32.10 5,44 37,21
Min 36.00 631.00 2.9 27.00 2.99 18.00 144.00 631 2.24 21 2,50 17,00
Max 951.00 17849.00 6.02 417.60 3.50 400.11 305.00 12681 4.89 478.00 4,00 400,00
X 354.2 6534.35 4.14 271.05 3.11 116.50 292.04 5750.81 4.13 236.61 3.28 139.35
±sx 8.19 165.2 0.02 8.17 0.03 14.50 3.7 125.03 0.02 5.33 0.01 4.30
L4 s 109.69 1911.66 0.33 98.39 0.04 20.50 32.67 1912.68 0.33 81.75 0.17 66.28
V% 30.97 33.96 8.14 34.36 1.36 17.60 11.18 33.25 7.97 34.55 5.25 34.28
Min 24.00 137.00 3.29 34.00 3.08 102.00 42.00 137 3.09 15.00 2.90 10.00
Max 841.00 17267.00 5.58 706.00 3.14 131.00 305.00 11458 5.85 469 3.89 363.00
- 783 -
Table 2 ( continue)
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

X 335.46 6379.15 4.06 257.09 3.11 82.67 290.54 6174.14 4.06 230.11 3.1 206.08
±sx 11.57 232.4 0.033 13.58 0.05 17.83 5.27 183.06 0.03 10.5 0.02 6.42
L5 s 99.52 1859.41 0.28 106.83 0.09 30.89 35.74 1896.99 0.28 94.6 0.17 69.46
V% 29.66 36.82 7.01 37.83 2.92 37.37 12.3 32.34 6.96 34 5.25 33.70
Min 91.00 1039.00 3.47 31.00 3.01 55.00 108.00 1039 3.47 31 2.97 30.00
Max 618.00 15645.00 4.83 640.00 3.89 116.00 305.00 11075 4.53 564 3.99 360.00
X 382.12 8612.00 4.21 300.19 3.41 231.05 299.38 6832.10 4.230.05 286.74 3.41 231.05
±sx 20.54 282.11 0.06 21.37 0.02 9.60 3.14 250.30 0.05 13.32 0.02 9.60
L6 s 104.75 1958.30 0.30 103.00 0.14 59.96 16.04 1737.17 0.28 84.29 0.14 59.96
V% 27.41 28.54 7.22 29.93 4.34 25.95 5.35 25.12 6.71 29.39 4.34 25.95
Min 234.00 4994.00 3.40 187.00 3.04 125.00 234.00 3831.00 3.36 157.00 3.04 125.00
Max 751.00 15105.00 4.83 600.00 3.76 351.00 305.00 9980.00 4.83 438.00 3.76 351.00
X 380.20 7737.00 4.36 335.80 3.50 230.55 304.40 6721.61 4.39 280.01 3.50 230.55
±sx 43.71 434.16 0.13 43.49 0.04 12.19 0.06 323.54 0.08 14.43 0.04 12.19
L7 s 97.75 2004.45 0.29 97.25 0.14 51.74 0.25 1372.70 0.25 73.98 0.14 51.74
V% 25.71 29.88 6.77 28.96 4.02 22.44 2.44 20.42 5.82 26.42 4.02 22.44
Min 302.00 3948.00 3.86 176.00 3.19 141.00 302.00 3885.00 3.74 173.00 3.19 141.00
Max 351.00 10087.00 4.59 439.00 3.65 322.00 305.00 8836.00 4.61 385.00 3.65 322.00
X 304.67 4832.67 - 239.99 - 161.67 304.67 4836.67 - 239.99 - 161.67
±sx 0.33 1103.86 - 12.60 - 17.55 0.33 1103.86 - 12.60 - 17.55
L8 s 0.57 1911.95 - 64.86 - 65.04 0.57 1911.95 - 64.86 - 65.04
V% 0.19 34.56 - 28.60 - 33.23 0.19 34.56 - 28.60 - 33.23
Min 304.00 2639.00 - 180.11 - 87.00 304.00 2639.00 - 2639.00 - 87.00
Max 305.00 6145.00 - 394.00 - 206.00 305.00 6145.00 - 6145.00 - 206.00
- 784 -
The reproduction coefficients (table3) analyses relieves these aspects: age

of the first was 916,76 ± 6,71 days (30,5 months) so late for studied breed ,the
continuance of calving interval with values 389 and 439 days, exceeding the
optim limit to every lactation, with exception of V lactation (389 days), and the
mamar repaose with values in normal limits 61 and 77 days.
Table 3
Averages and production acquirement,on lactation,to population tipe Frisian from
NE Romania region (Moldova)
Calving
Lactation Statistics Age of first interval Mamar repose
kidling (days) (days) (days)
X 916.76 439.86 77.13
±sx 6.71 4.17 2.16
L1 s 169.15 95.81 54.79
V% 18.45 21.05 61.03
Min 669.00 302.00 4.00
Max 1491.00 1010.00 565.00
X - 429.02 74.97
±sx - 4.92 1.95
L2 s - 96.55 38.41
V% - 22.50 51.24
Min - 292.00 2.00
Max - 939.00 365.00
X - 429.59 75.20
±sx - 7.89 3.02
L3 s - 98.83 41.45
V% - 25.33 55.12
Min - 258.00 5.00
Max - 948.00 339.00
X - 422.20 72.70
±sx - 9.81 3.45
L4 s - 87.75 30.69
V% - 20.78 42.22
Min - 310.00 10.00
Max - 702.00 212.00
X - 389.63 61.89
±sx - 14.89 4.25
L5 s - 77.37 22.09
V% - 19.85 35.70
Min - 260.00 22.00
Max - 634.00 108.00
X - 408.67 73.67
±sx - 15.38 10.63
L6 s - 46.16 31.91
V% - 11.29 43.32
Min - 353.00 45.00
Max - 507.00 154.00
- 785 -
The results of corporal development at analysed effective are presented

in tab.4. The population tipe Frisian from last region of county has a good
corporal development, the cows having the mean size of 131,29cm in I lactation,
and in III lactation 135,14cm, the bevel lenght of trunk 149,25cm in I lactation
and 159,58 cm in III lactation,thoracic circumference 198,75 cm in I lactation
Table 4
Averages and corporal development,on lactation,to population tipe Frisian from NE
Romania region (Moldova)
Corporal Withers Croup Thoracic Obliquity Udder Exterior

Lactation Statistics weight hight hight perimeter length Points Points
kg cm cm cm cm
X 535.50 131.29 138.52 198.75 149.23 28.97 83.21
±sx 1.20 0.16 0.34 0.66 0.48 0.08 0.16
L1 s 34.80 4.90 5.35 10.20 7.48 1.28 2.51
V% 6.50 3.73 3.86 5.13 5.01 4.43 3.02
Min 470.00 120.00 126.00 138.00 130.00 24.00 69.00
Max 906.00 143.00 148.00 220.00 205.00 30.00 88.00
X 581.22 133.62 143.58 207.46 155.74 28.32 81.72
±sx 2.18 0.23 0.19 0.65 0.42 0.10 0.20
L2 s 55.47 5.76 2.48 8.53 5.42 1.25 2.30
V% 9.54 4.31 1.72 4.11 3.48 4.42 2.82
Min 480.00 121.00 135.00 165.00 145.00 24.00 78.00
Max 780.00 147.00 150.00 230.00 170.00 30.00 88.00
X 624.99 135.14 145.80 212.36 159.58 27.50 80.01
±sx 3.71 0.33 0.26 0.65 0.45 0.13 0.20
L3 s 66.23 6.77 2.57 6.42 4.30 1.18 1.77
V% 10.59 4.98 1.76 3.02 2.69 4.30 2.21
Min 510.00 123.00 139.00 198.00 150.00 24.00 76.00
Max 751.00 158.00 159.00 229.00 187.00 30.00 84.00
CONCLUSIONS
After the analysed study achieved of population tipe Frisian from NE
region country are presented some generale conclusion:
1)The analysed population from NE region,seven ,are defined through

semnificative differents of cantitative production of milk,hierarchical order is
next: ferm Natanael, county Suceava with 10.000 kg milk; ferm Bădeana, county
Vaslui with 7.400 kg milk; ferm Pogăneşti, county Vaslui with 7.000 kg milk;
ferm SCPCB Dancu, county Iaşi with 6.700 kg milk, ferm Matca county Galaţi
with 5.500 kg milk, ferm Jora, county Iaşi with 4.000 kg milk and ferm Podu
Iloaiei with 3.500 kg milk.
- 786 -
BACK
2) The population tipe Frisian has a cantitative production of milk of

approximately 5.500kg in the first two lactation and above 6.000 kg in next
lactation, relative into VII lactation. Owing to acquirement productions of milk,
the population is heterogene (V>25 %) with big possibility of amelioration
through selection and uses of valorous seminal material.
3) The age of first kidling (916,76 ± 6,71 zile) and calving interval
(>410 zile) exceed the optim limit for this breed. It is cared to a better and
organised reproductio activity.
4)The population tipe Frisian has a good bodily development ,the cows
size 131,29 – 135,14 cm, obliquity perch of trunk 149,15 – 159,58 cm, thoracic
circumference 198,75 – 212,36 cm and corporal weight 535,50 – 624,99 kg,
averages obtained in the first three lactation.
BIBLIOGRAFY
CUCU GR. I., MACIUC V., MACIUC DOMNICA 2004 - Cercetarea ştiinţifică şi elemente de
tehnică experimentală în zootehnie. Edit. Alfa, Iaşi
GROSU, H. – 2003 – Programe de ameliorare. Edit. Tehnică Agricolă, Bucureşti
MACIUC, V. – 1999 – Studiul comparative asupra principalelor elemente de genetică cantitativă şi
imunogenetică la unele populaţii de taurine Bălţată cu negru din R. Moldova şi zona de
est a României. Teză de doctorat, Chişinău, R. Moldova
MACIUC, V., UJICĂ, V., NISTOR, I. - 2003 – Ghid practic de ameliorare genetică a bovinelor
pentru producţia de lapte. Edit. Alfa, Iaşi.
MACIUC VASILE 2006 – Managementul creşterii bovinelor. Edit Alfa, Iaşi
- 787 -
BACK
RESULTS OF GENETIC ESTIMATION FOR FRISIAN TYPE

CATTLE’S FROM NORTH-EASTERN ROMANIA
V. MACIUC, Şt. CREANGA, M. SCHUTZ,
S. ACATINCAI, N. BUCATARU
Growing the genetic potential and population productivity for actual

breed of cattle in small and middle family farms using exploitation technologies
optimization, management optimization and right economical control represent
important means for milk – meat production growth. Profit increases with the
growth of effective and amelioration. The essay size up genetic population of
cattle’s type Frisian from NE region the analyses at genetic parameters
(heritability, repeatability and correlations into different acquirement) approve
interesting aspects. The superior heritability of Frisian breed regarding fat
content (h 2=0.67) and protein (h2 =0.59) from the milk, the croup height (h2
=0.55) and the exterior points (h2 =0.56) and regarding the body development
they have a genetic strength developed in a medium intensity. From the various
pairs of characters is good to notice the positive and intense phenotypic and
genetic correlations between milk yield and fat quantity (rpg =0.93-0.96),
proteins (rpg = 0.75-0.72) and not the last the withers height (rpg = 0.77- 0.89).
MATERIAL AND METHOD
The biological material of the study is represented by 1450 cows

”Frisian” type exploited in extensive and intensive systems, in many areas from
NE region: Iaşi, Vaslui, Suceava, Galaţi, respectively farms: Dancu, Jora, Podu
Iloaiei, Badeana, Pogăneşti, Natanael, Matca/Tecuci, also the entire analyzed
population from Moldova area.
On studied population many aspects were analyzed: genetic form and
ascendancy veiling, productive performances with parity (5-8 lactations),
principal reproduction coefficients, corporal evolution, milk coefficients, fat and
proteins, milk’s production longevity and genetic parameters (heritability,
repeatability and correlation into different acquirement), amelioration caliber of
reproductive, sanitary – veterinary states, the technology practiced in farm , the
processing way and the milk refinement. The primordial data was extracted from
Zootechnic Amelioration and Reproduction Units evidence (UARZ). The REML
method (Restricted Maximum Likelihood) was used in genetic parameters
estimation. This is based on a maximization process of a function. The calculus
techniques vary in function of optimization algorithm chosen, BLUP solutions, in
different effects of the model. Likewise the data processing cycles are many till it
ends to convergence. Data analyze was made with some observations in farms
and with formally statistics dates, related with the requirements in the economy
transition and the adherence to the EU.
- 788 -

The analyses inside population structure of center from NE region
presents 51 genetic groups of pattern semi sisters which fluctuate from 5 to 47
gentry. It was considerate only the genetic groups with five gentry, at first normal
lactation. In those 51 genetic groups existed 32 genetic groups which realized
performances above mean of the population in first lactation (5463 kg milk) and
two genetic groups above 8000 kg of milk, the genetic groups 8H2178 with
9585.6 kg of milk and genetic groups Stardust with 8080 kg milk both from
Natanael farm from Suceava that have at their origin Holstein-Frisian animals
imported from U.S.A in 1991. The Holstein-Frisian herd population imported
from U.S.A. (50 gentries, today are about 100 gentries) has a very good
adaptability and have very high productive performances.
Table 1
The values for heritability coefficients in principal morpho-productive
acquirement, to first normal lactation at Frisian population type
Varian. Varian. Varian. Varian. Varian.
Character Heritability
total inter intra inter. ferm intra. ferm
Age of the 28613.2
0.12 18551.89 14277.82 14188.00 3048357.00
first calving 2
Dry period 0.13 1718.26 1723.73 1607.39 1666.00 2880.00
Calving 11196.7
0.30 9879.63 14230.06 10883.00 42587.00
interval days 7
Normal
lactation 0.28 616.48 522.32 646.36 560.00 11605.00
length (days)
Milk yield 2371088 220706948.
0.20 1105698.97 1130028.72 1109762.00
(Kg) .57 00
Fat (%) 0.67 0.09 0.06 0.11 0.00 1.00
Fat (kg) 0.26 4058.13 2089.96 2036.04 2081.00 345348.00
Protein (%) 0.59 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 1.00
Protein (kg) 0.31 2442.14 1266.03 107.61 1077.00 219000.00
Body weight 0.41 1211.62 850.15 727.73 603.00 101344.00
Height at
0.42 33.20 19.50 41.19 6.00 3198.00
withers (cm)
Obliquity
0.45 29.38 20.24 31.18 26.00 641.00
length (cm)
Hearth girth
0.40 72.79 76.94 59.13 69.00 773.00
(cm)
Rump length
0.55 6.62 7.71 5.85 6.00 18.00
(cm)
Udder Points 0.24 1.65 1.73 1.44 2.00 7.00
Exterior
0.56 6.34 5.33 8.17 6.00 1.00
Point
- 789 -
Analyses of genetic parameters (heritability, repeatability and correlation

into different acquirement), reveals interesting aspects for the herd population
from NE Romania region. Parameters such as milk production, pure fat quantity,
lactation length, reproduction acquirements and udder points present a small
genetic determinism (Table 1).
Superior values of heritability for fat content (h2 = 0.67), milk protein (h2
=0.59), rump height (h2 =0.55) and exterior points (h2 =0.56) are remarked.
The rest of characters, protein quantity h2 =0.31 and acquirement of body
development (size, length, weight etc.) have a genetic consolidation with an
average intensity.
Table 2
Coefficient values of phenotypic and genotypic correlation for the main morpho-
productive characters, on first lactation, at Frisian type population from NE region
(Moldova)
Couple of characters rp±srp rg±srg
Fat content -0.25 ± 0.01 -0.22 ± 0.01
Fat quantity 0.93 ± 0.00 0.96 ± 0.00
Protein content -0.27 ± 0.02 -0.25 ± 0.01
Protein quantity 0.75 ± 0.01 0.72 ± 0.01
Age at first calving 0.23 ± 0.02 0.20 ± 0.02
Calving interval 0.13 ± 0.02 0.17 ± 0.02
Body weight 0.45 ± 0.03 0.40 ± 0.02
Milk content
Height at withers 0.34 ± 0.02 0.29 ± 0.02
Obliquity
Length cm 0.36 ± 0.03 0.31 ± 0.03
Hearth girth 0.40 ± 0.03 0.33 ± 0.03
Rump length 0.28 ± 0.03 0.27 ± 0.03
Udder Points 0.20 ± 0.03 0.16 ± 0.03
Exterior Points 0.39 ± 0.03 0.36 ± 0.03
Height at withers 0.77 ± 0.01 0.89 ± 0.00
Thoracic perimeter -0.13 ± 0.03 -0.09 ± 0.03
Corporal Obliquity length -0.13 ± 0.03 -0.10 ± 0.03
weight Rump length -0.13 ± 0.03 -0.09 ± 0.03
Udder Points -0.13 ± 0.03 -0.09 ± 0.03
Exterior Points -0.13 ± 0.03 -0.11 ± 0.03
Obliquity length 0.26 ± 0.02 0.25 ± 0.02
Hearth girth 0.28 ± 0.02 0.27 ± 0.02
Withers
Croup height 0.28 ± 0.02 0.26 ± 0.02
height
Udder Points 0.27 ± 0.02 0.27 ± 0.02
Exterior Points 0.22 ± 0.02 0.23 ± 0.02
Table 2 presents phenotypic and genetic correlation for analyzed

characters with different values and significations. From the various pairs of
- 790 -
characters under study we notice the intense and positive phenotypic and genetic
correlations between milk yield and fat (rpg = 0.93 – 0.96) and protein quantity (rpg
= 0.75 – 0.72) and between height at withers and body weight (rpg = 0.77 – 0.89).
The same positive correlations with a medium intensity are noticed between the
milk production and the body development. Correlations are smaller for the udder
points, the rump height and reproduction assets with a positive intensity.
The classic correlation between the milk production and the fat and
protein percentage from milk is negative (-0.22 -0.27). The negative correlations
between the body weight and some corporal development assets can be explained
through an environmental influence in the 4 counties where the population was
studied. These values are from small and positive to small and negative.
The height at withers is weak and positive correlated with some corporal
development assets as: obliquity length, hearth girth, rump height, udder points
and exterior points.
Continual determination of performances extends the knowing time and
the time needed to take a decision by reservation or rejection in the selection case.
In order to be certain of these performances we can use genetic parameters that
gave indications about the similitude of values for characters among
measurements, parameter named repeatability.
Repeatability is referring to the phenotypic evolution of the same
character in different periods of individual life.
At the Frisian type population from NE region repeatability coefficients
(Table 3) are greater for body development (0.48-0.70), fat and protein quantity
(0.64-0.51). The rest of the reproduction and production characters are weak to
average repeatable.
Table 3
Values of repeatability coefficients for the morpho productive acquirement in
Frisian type population from NE region (Moldova)
Character R
Normal lactation length 0.32
Milk kg 0.35
Fat % 0.64
Fat kg 0.4
Protein % 0.51
Protein kg 0.31
Calving interval 0.3
Dry period 0.22
Body weight 0.48
Height withers 0.5
Obliquity length 0.53
Udder Points 0.62
Exterior Points 0.7
- 791 -
Among all linear and undisplaced parameters, BLUP has the smaller
variant of error .With the acquired solution BLUP waits that the knowing values
are equal with the authentic values, like M( û ) = M (u). That’s why we used the
BLUP methodology to estimate the amelioration value for reproductive
parameters used in Frisian type population from NE region (Tables 4-6.).
Table 4
Sires amelioration values for milk yield and fat content at first normal lactation for
Milk Kg Fat %
Sires Transmitting Value of Sires Transmitting Value of
ability amelioration ability. amelioration
16200 998.1495 1996.29 50878 0.5586 1.11
8H2178 700.5000 1401.00 51131 0.5461 1.09
13470 536.5608 1073.12 50892 0.4817 0.96
14467 228.9977 577.99 50877 0.4744 0.95
51028 245.8939 491.78 18059 0.4709 0.94
18988 224.178 448.35 18546 0.4354 0.87
51024 216.2693 432.53 0 0.2537 0.5
17864 193.6584 387.31 18070 0.2349 0.47
50701 133.0711 266.14 15156 0.2195 0.44
15290 125.6837 251.36 8H2178 0.1847 0.37
51027 123.2205 246.44 51024 0.1314 0.26
50879 54.0547 108.1 50880 0.1241 0.25
19165 53.3795 106.75 19445 0.0694 0.14
15952 41.6375 83.27 19165 -0.0087 -0.01
50882 19.7376 39.47 51023 -0.0358 -0.07
51096 6.087 12.17 19623 -0.0597 -0.11
18277 -6.2669 -12.53 51036 -0.0871 -0.17
15156 -13.4492 -26.89 14467 -0.1355 -0.27
19445 -29.6929 -59.38 51096 -0.1408 -0.28
50880 -59.629 -119.25 8800561 -0.1492 -0.29
50705 -62.7636 -125.52 50881 -0.1843 -0.36
19201 -65.3113 -130.62 50879 -0.1897 -0.37
50881 -69.8992 -139.79 18146 -0.1977 -0.39
51075 -85.3145 -170.62 18277 -0.2444 -0.48
50888 -95.4612 -190.92 18955 -0.2472 -0.49
- 792 -
Table 5
Sires amelioration values for fat and protein content at first normal lactation for
Fat Kg Protein Kg
Sires Transmitting Value of Sires Transmitting Value of
ability amelioration ability amelioration
16200 54.5171 109.03 16200 57.6976 115.38
8H2178 43.7770 87.55 13470 25.4077 50.8
13470 33.8521 67.7 19623 14.2746 28.54
51024 15.0175 30.03 14467 13.8304 27.66
14467 11.8615 23.72 18988 10.0955 20.18
17864 9.1892 18.37 51028 9.8793 19.74
18988 8.0297 16.05 50701 8.4676 16.92
15290 6.6626 13.32 17864 7.2597 14.51
50701 6.1381 12.27 19165 6.7752 13.55
50879 6.0405 12.08 15290 6.0937 12.18
51027 4.9715 9.94 51027 4.1261 8.24
51028 3.8548 7.7 50882 2.6408 5.28
19165 3.1019 6.2 51024 2.2622 4.52
15952 2.3143 4.62 50880 1.9825 3.96
18277 1.5491 3.08 19201 0.9239 1.84
51096 0.961 1.92 18277 0.6878 1.37
15156 0.389 0.76 19445 -0.4902 -0.98
50882 -0.1585 -0.31 Stardust -0.5174 -1.03
19445 -1.4186 -2.83 15952 -0.7759 -1.54
50880 -2.4884 -4.97 50705 -0.8718 -1.74
51075 -2.8139 -5.62 50881 -1.8458 -3.68
50705 -2.8261 -5.65 50888 -1.9898 -3.96
19201 -3.4872 -6.97 51075 -2.9125 -5.82
50881 -3.8391 -7.66 50890 -3.0025 -6
50888 -4.5325 -9.06 15156 -3.4653 -6.92
0 -5.2491 -10.49 51023 -3.6608 -7.32
51032 -5.3016 -10.6 19802 -4.0374 -8.07
50890 -5.9116 -11.82 920103 -4.6012 -9.2
920103 -6.7493 -13.48 930249 -4.6012 -9.2
50838 -6.7493 -13.48 50838 -4.6012 -9.2
50886 -7.2583 -14.51 51032 -4.8969 -9.78
50892 -8.0026 -16 51026 -5.5722 -11.14
51023 -9.4979 -18.98 50886 -5.8751 -11.74
930249 -9.7244 -19.44 0 -7.1527 -14.3
- 793 -
Table 6
Sires amelioration values for body weight at the first normal lactation for Frisian
type population from NE region (Moldova)
Body weight (kg)
Sires Transmitting ability Value of amelioration
50878 28.9748 57.95
50877 15.7778 31.54
50880 12.5565 25.1
51027 9.2904 18.58
16200 8.6339 17.26
18059 7.455 14.9
19165 7.4218 14.84
18955 7.0589 14.11
18070 6.9894 13.97
19348 6.7406 13.48
19201 5.9781 11.94
50881 5.3375 10.66
51026 4.575 9.14
50882 3.8125 7.62
18546 2.6814 5.36
18584 0.3642 0.72
50888 -1.5382 -3.07
18146 -3.4318 -6.86
50879 -4.3067 -8.66
0 -5.4875 -10.96
19802 -6.5427 -13.08
51023 -6.7055 -13.4
15156 -7.8982 -15.78
50886 -8.7787 -17.54
51075 -9.1896 -18.36
16208 -12.0890 -24.16
18277 -12.6159 -25.22
50892 -13.1842 -26.36
50890 -13.2637 -26.52
18988 -19.6182 -39.22
51032 -21.3815 -42.76
17864 -21.5185 -43.02
13470 -29.6298 -59.24
51024 -32.3344 -64.66
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions resulted from the study made on Frisian population from N-E
area of the country are:
1. Analyzing the inside population structure , we came up with a result of 51
genetic groups of paternal semi sisters that have a variable measure between 5
and 47 gentries, rest of the groups with less than 5 cattle members have not
been taking into account. From these genetic groups taking into study, 32
have realized performances over the media at first normal lactation and 2
groups have produced over 8000 kg of milk (8 H 2178 and Stardust).
2. Genetic parameters analyze (heritability, repeatability and correlations
between different characters) reflects very interesting aspects. Very important
to be taken into consideration are the superior values of heritability for fat
content (h= 0.67) and protein (h=0.59) from milk, rump height (h=0.55) and
global note (h=0.56). Body development has a genetic consolidation with a
medium intensity. From the various pairs of characteristics taken into
consideration captures our attention the positive phenotypic and genetic
correlations between milk yield and fat (r= 0.93-0.96), protein (r=0.75-0.72)
and between body weight and height at withers (r = 0.77- 0.89).
3. The repeatability coefficients had greater values for the economic characters:
body development (0.48-0.70), fat and protein quantity (0.64- 0.51). The rest
of the reproduction and production characters are weak to average for
repeatability.
4. The bulls grading after improvement value for milk yield and fat quantity are
the bulls with tags no.16.200 and 8H2178. In case of body development bull
with tag no. 50878 with 57.9 kg for weight and no. 13470 with the 7.50 cm
for height at withers.
BIBLIOGRAFY
SCHAEFFER L. R. 1993 – Linear models in animal breeding. Course notes, University of Guelph,
Canada.
TOSH J. J. AND WILTON J. W. 1994 – Effects of data structure on variance of prediction error
and accuracy of genetic evaluation. J. Anim. Sci. 72:2568
WOODS P. D. P. 1967 - Algebraic model of the lactation curve in cattle. Nature.
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BACK
PROGRAM FOR THE MANAGEMENT AND

DEVELOPMENT OF BEEF CATTLE IN NEAMT COUNTY
DURING 2008-2009
Margareta MIHAILESCU
Analysis performed by DADR in Neamt county regarding the current

situation of the cattle farmers shown that most of them are highly unprofitable,
being at the border of subsistence on a daily basis.
These farms are located in those areas where the cows are sent far away
for grazing, without milking possibilities, as well as in farms without milk quota
allocation or with low productivity animals.
By having as a basis the “Strategy for beef cattle production” developed
by the national Agency for Amelioration and Reproduction in Animal Husbandry,
the conversion of these farms toward beef breeds could solve the efficiency
problem for the small sized farmers, as well as strengthen the role of the
farmers’ associations in representing the farmers’ interests, by getting them
involved into the program.
The Program will be implemented by the Association of Cattle farm
Managers during 2008 and 2009, under the coordination of the Direction for
Agriculture and Rural Development Neamt.
This will include the purpose and the objectives to be achieved, the
participants and their functional responsibilities, action means, financing and
schedule of activities, relationship chart and the structure of the steering
committee, and the annexes (needed for developing the database).
The results obtained by cross-breeding the local breeds with beef breeds
will form the basis of a scientific research for further development of the
“Medium- and Long Term County Program for Improving the Cattle Breeds”.
PROGRAM FOR THE MANAGEMENT AND

DEVELOPMENT OF BEEF CATTLE IN NEAMT COUNTY
DURING 2008-2009
Analysis performed by DADR in Neamt county regarding the current situation of
the cattle farmers shown that most of them are highly unprofitable, being at the border of
subsistence on a daily basis.
By having as a basis the “Strategy for beef cattle production” developed by the
national Agency for Amelioration and reproduction in Animal Husbandry, the conversion
of these farms toward beef breeds could solve the efficiency problem for the small sized
farmers, as well as strengthen the role of the farmers’ associations in representing the
farmers’ interests, by getting them involved into the program.
PERSPECTIVE OF BEEF MEAT PRODUCTION IN NEAMT COUNTY

Cross breeding of local breeds with beef ones for generating commercial
hybrids for abattoirs and export.
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Managing a core of beef specialized cow populations.

Benefiting from the products through direct sales, skipping middle
salesmen.
EXISTING ENVIRONMENT FOR IMPLEMENTING THE BEEF
CATTLE PROGRAM IN NEAMT COUNTY
Existence of a large enough core population for allowing the structuring
by functions (dairy and beef breeds), without affecting the milk quota county
wise.
Existence of large areas for grazing purposes.
Existence of large agricultural areas needed for cultivating crops destined
to nurture the cow adult and young populations during the growth period.
Existence of human resource in the rural area.
Existence of farms for managing cow population destined for fattening
purposes.
SCOPE OF THE PROGRAM
Making value out of the biological potential of the cow population in
Neamt county;
Increasing the meat production within individual exploitations and
making the farms efficient;
Selling the meat production at higher prices.
OBJECTIVES OF THE PROGRAM
Awareness rising among co farmer regarding the necessity and
opportunity of making faming efficient by introducing and managing beef breeds.
Strengthening the role of the Associations in representing and supporting
the cow farmers.
Obtaining and selling 3500 beef animals on the local and foreing markets,
without middle salesmen.
Running a scientific research for assessing the data generated by the
implementation of the Program, for a middle and long term.
MEANS OF ACTION
Informing the cow farmers about the program.
Identifying the cow owners and the cows to be included in the program.
Artificial insemination of the selected cows and following up the
gestation period.
Identifying the products.
Setting up the fattening procedure and following up its correct
implementation.
Making value out of the products.
Creating the database.
Regular check-ups and bringing needed corrections for the running
program.
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PARTICIPANTS
Direction for Agriculture and Rural Developmenta;
County Association of Cow Farmers;
Unit for Amelioration and Reproduction in Animal Husbandry;
County Office for Consultancy in Agriculture;
Local Association of Cow farmers;
SC BOVISELECT SRL;
SEMTEST;
Artificial insemination operators;
Cow farmers;
Veterinary;
Products’ processors;
Mass – media.
FARMER CATHEGORIES TO WHOM THE PROGRAM IS ADDRESSED
Farmers without milk quota or with small quotas, who live at long
distances to the milk collection locations, who own animals with small milk daily
productions, who send the cows to hers during the summer season, old farmers
who cannot work hard anymore, young (and to become) farmers interested in
farming beef cows.
PATERN BEEF BREEDS USED IN THE PROGRAM
Aberdeen Angus; Blanc Belgian Blue; Charolais; Limousine; Piemontese.
LOCAL BREEDS USED IN THE PROGRAM
Brown Swiss; Baltata Romaneasca (Romanian Spotted); Baltata cu Negru
Romaneasca (Romanian Black Spotted); Pinzgau.
THE REPRODUCTION SYSTEM
Biotechnology used – artificial insemination
Number of planned calves – 3 500
Needed Artificial Insemination Material per total county – 7 000 doses
Insemination period: March, April, May, June 2008.
Calving period: December 2008, January, February, March 2009.
BEEF INSEMINATION MATERIAL FOR 2008
Total for the county - 7 000 doses (BBB–2700; Li–2000; AA –1100; Ch–
1000; Pi–200)
CTRZ PIATRA NEAMT - 2700 doses (BBB –1000; Li–800; AA–400;
Ch–400; Pi-100)
CTRZ TIRGU NEAMT - 2700 doses (BBB –1000; Li–800; AA –400;
Ch–400; Pi-100)
CTRZ ROMAN -1600 doses (BBB –700; Li–400; AA–300; Ch–200)
CROSS BREEDIND VARIANTS FOR NEAMT COUNTY AND THE
INTENSITY OF GENETIC TRANSMITION OF BEEF
CHARACTERISTICS
VARIANT 1
Brown Swiss (B) ♀ X Aberdeen Angus (AA) ♂; Limousine (Li) ♂; Blanc
Belgian Bleu (BBB) ♂.
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VARIANT 2
Baltata cu negru romaneasca (BNR) (Romanian Back Spotted) ♀.X
Aberdeen Angus (AA) ♂; Charolaise (Ch) ♂; Blanc Belgian Bleu (BBB) ♂.
VARIANT 3
Baltata romaneasca (BR) (Romanian Spotted) ♀ X Charolaise (Ch) ♂;
Blanc Belgian Bleu (BBB) ♂; Piemontese (Pi) ♂.
SYSTEMS FOR GROWING AND FEEDING
INTENSIVE SYSTEM
Fattening period: 14-17 months (400-500 days). Reaches 450 – 500 kg in
weight. Records an average increment of 0,9 – 1,2 kg / animal / day. Accounts
with a specific consumption of 7 U.N. / kg increased. Able to consume: 400 kg
milk; 1355 kg mixed feeding material; 760 kg fibers; 2030 kg silos.
HALF-INTENSIVE SYSTEM - recommended
Fattening period :18 -24 months. Reaches 550– 650 kg in weight.
Records an average increment of 0,7 – 0,9 kg / animal / day. Accounts with a
specific consumption of 8-10 U.N. / kg increased.
Includes an accommodation phase (15 – 30 days).
Fattening phase (300 – 420 days): based on silo; secondary industrial
products; root plants, pumpkin-like; green mass and concentrates; hay, silo and
concentrates.
Finishing phase (25 – 35 days)
EXTENSIVE SYSTEM
Feeding is in season system. Fattening season : 24 – 30 months. Reaches
450 – 600 kg in weight. Recorda and average increase of 0,5 – 0,6 kg / animal /
day. Accounts for a specific consumption of 12 - 15 U.N. / kg increased.
Exemple of portion: in the summer 120-150 days green mass (40-60
kg/day/animal); in th winter: fibers 1 – 1,5 kg/ 100 kg body weight; gross food 1 –
1,5 kg/ 100 kg body weight; juicy 5 – 6 kg/ 100 kg body weight; supplement of
concentrates 1 – 2 kg/ 100 kg body weight; feeding will take place through the 2-
3 season period.
KEEPING SYSTEMS
Roped or free.
ALGORITM FOR THE ECONOMIC CALCULATION COW

Expenses during the calving period, during the milking period, and other
material ones.
Benefits from milk, farmyard manure.
CALF
Expenses during the milking period, feeding, after weaning, after
materials.
Benefits from value of calf at calving time, farmyard manure, value of
calf when selling.
- 799 -
ECONOMIC CALCULATION / CALVING COW

Feeding expenses (60%) = 1480 lei
In winter:
120 days x 6 kg hay/day x 0,5 lei/kg = 360 lei
120 days x 20 kg juicy/day x 0,2 lei/kg = 480 lei
120 days x 2 kg cereals mix/day x 0,5 lei/kg = 120 lei
120 days x 1 kg concentrated fodder/day x 0,8 lei/kg = 96 lei
Total expenses = 1056 lei
In summer:
180 days x 55 kg green mass/day x 0,1 lei/kg = 100 lei
180 days x 2 kg cereals mix/day x 0,5 lei/kg = 180 lei
Sanitation and veterinary expenses (5%) = 65 lei
Expenses with other materials (20%) = 261 lei
Management expenses (15%) = farmer’s activity
Income:
Value of calf when calving = 100 lei
milk: 240 days x 12 kg milk/day x 1 leu/ kg = 2880 lei
farmyard manure: 200lei
Total income = 3180 lei
ECONOMIC CALCULATION / COW IN MILKING PERIOD /
3 MONTHS
In winter:
90 days x 2 kg cereal mix/day x 0,5 lei/kg = 90 lei
Income:
milk : 90 days x 6 kg milk/day x 1 leu/ kg = 540 lei
farmyard manure = 60lei
ECONOMIC CALCULATION CALF AT 3 MONTHS
In winter:
90 days x 6 kg milk/day x 1 lei/kg = 540 lei
- 800 -
90 days x 0,5 kg hay/day x 0,5 lei/kg = 22 lei

90 day x 0,5 kg bran/day x 0,8 lei/kg = 36 lei
Income:
Value of calf : 150 kg x 8 lei/kg = 1200 lei
ECONOMIC CALCULATION / COW IN MILKING
PERIOD / 6 MONTHS
Feeding expences (60%) = 1539 lei
In winter:
In summer:
90 days x 55 kg green mass/day x 0,1 lei/kg = 495 lei
Income:
milk: 180 days x 6 kg milk/day x 1 leu/ kg = 1080 lei
farmyard manure = 200lei
ECONOMIC CALCULATION CALF – 6 MONTHS
In winter:
180 days x 6 kg milk /day x 1 lei/kg = 1080 lei
180 days x 2 kg hay /day x 0,5 lei/kg = 180 lei
180 days x 1 kg barn/zi x 0,8 lei/kg = 144 lei
Income:
Value of calf: 230 kg x 8 lei/kg = 1840 lei
Variant 1 – Calf weaned at 90 days
Calving cow: expenses – 1850 lei; income – 3180 lei.
Milking cow: expenses – 1102 lei; income – 600 lei.
- 801 -
BACK
Calf: expenses – 598 lei; income – 1200 lei.

Benefit = 1430 lei
Variant 2 – Calf weaned at 180 days
Benefit = 1122 lei
Variant 3 – Calf sold at 21 days
Benefit = 1380 lei
METHOD FOR GENERATING VALUE
In abattoirs; selling on domestic or foreign market; family consumption.
Slaughtering in abattoirs will be done based on body classification.
Farmer’s advantages of classifying the body:
Receiving a price according with the quality of the body.
Product selling secured through contract.
Better control over the management of the product value chain.
Selling will be possible at: 7 – 21 days; 3 months; 6 months; 12 months; 18months.
BEEF PRICE IN THE EU in Octombrie 2007
(according to Magazin bovis, Revista a crescatorului de bovine din Romania, nr.6/2007)
Average beef price for Price for living animals 6 Price for calves 1 – 4
100 kg bady - € / 100 kg – 12 weeks - € / 100 kg weeks - € / animal
Italy - 337,79 Italy - 239,00 Italy - 168,86
Spain – 315,98 Spain – 166,13 Spain – 221,34
France – 307,91 France – 248,00 France – 133,30
Poland – 234,47 Ireland – 137,22 The Netherlands – 82,18
CONCLUSIONS
The management and development of beef cattle program in Neamt county
for the period 2008-2009 will be successful only by implementing the principles of
genetic amelioration, ensuring an optimal feeding, using a scientific management
method, all based on the knowledge and experience of the specialists.
The result of the cross breeding between local and beef breeds will set up
the basis for further research for the developing the “County program for the
amelioration of cattle in the medium and lon
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BACK
THE STRATEGY FOR CATTLE MEAT PRODUCTION

Gh. NEAŢĂ, C. ŞONEA, E. CIURESCU
The main goals in cattle genetic improvement are:

- selection, using the performances official records and the selected
breeding, focusing on artificial insemination;
- using those breeds with high genetic potential for meat production,
local and imported ones;
- increasing the meat competitivity on national and international
markets and adapting the different breeds and hybrids to the pedoclimatic
conditions from different areas of the country;
- raising the average level of performances/animal head, and the genetic
potential for meat production according to the different breeds;
- improving the breeding, maintenance and exploitation technologies;
- improving the factors which influence the total meat production, such
as the cattle number (density/ha), and the average production/head of animal
slaughtered.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Number of animals slaughtered and meat production in 2006-2007 years
Tabel nr.1
UM 2006 2007 (ian.-nov.)
Bovine slaughters thou. heads 1115 1039
Weight in live thou. tones 391 351
Average weight Kg/head 351 338
Weight of carcass tones 194380 180280
Average weight of carcass kg 174 173,5
Efficiency % % 50 50
Source: Institutul National de Statistică
The average slaughter weight was 351 kg/head in 2006 and about
340 kg/head in 2007 which means a system of uncontrolled slaughter of males
and females.
This system is in use mainly in those areas where the specialized
processing plants were not interested in contracting or the optimal slaughter
weight (450-500-600 kg), and the breeders are not associated focusing the main
goals: meat, milk etc.
- 803 -
Meat production by development region, in 2005

Tabel nr.2
Development Meat -total Beef meat %
region (tones live weight) (tones live weight)
1.North-East 287100 91536 32
2.South-East 182011 32513 18
3.South Muntenia 309895 66035 21
4.South-West 148464 36493 25
5.West 136703 28286 21
6.North-West 206604 65326 32
7.Center 209574 58716 28
8.Bucharest-Ilfov 27400 3859 14
TOTAL 1507751 382764 25
Source: Institutul National de Statistică
Unfortunately (with some exceptions in the NE, SW, NW and central

areas) the result of cattle breeding focused on breeds is the same as following the
uneconomical valorification practices of young males at low weight. Inside the
area where Baltata Romaneasca – Simmenthal (a breed specialized on meat-milk
productions) is raised, there can not be mentioned superior results in comparison
with other areas of the country, where Baltata Neagra or Bruna are raised.
THE MEAT PRODUCTION VALORIFICATION

According the the market demands, the valorification is maintained by the
specific system for each product or group of products. Thus, in our country, there
can be noticed the following specific markets: the free market of agricultural
producers specialized on animal breeding; the integrated plant market which
buy live animals in order to sell the products; the live animals for breeding and
selection market.
The structure of cattle meat offer is furnished by: adult animals 30-
35% (aged, low quality); semiadult animals 50-55% (from extensive systems,
with high quality traits); young animals 10-15% (18 months of age, high quality).
Meat production valorification in year 2005

Tabel nr.3
Nr. Specificare M.U. 2006**) 2007*) % 2006/2007
crt.
1 Bovine slaughters – total thou.heads 1115 1206 +8,16
of which: in specialized 156 211 +35,26
plants
2 Production tonnes 194010 211204 +8,86
3 Saled to specialized plants tonnes 33119 43466 +31,24
4 Average weight of carcass kilos 212,3 206,0 -3,0
in specialized plants
*Date provizorii: datele pentru unitatile industriale specializate s-au obtinut prin cercetari statistice exhaustive,
iar pentru exploatatiile agricole individuale de la Ministerul Agriculturii si Dezvoltarii Rurale
**Date definitive
- 804 -
In 2007 – in comparison with 2006:

- the total number of slaughtered cattle raised by 8,16%;
- the total production raised by 8,86%.
The slaughtered cattle raised by 35,26% heads, but the carcasses average
weight decreased by 3,0%.
Exports and imports of beef meat in 1999-2006

Tabel nr4.
Evoluţion of
Years
trade (%)
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 99/06 05/06
Beef meat exports (including live animals) – thou. tons -
Total 18 26 9,4 14 24 25 21 27 +47,2 +28,9
In U. E. - 25 8,9 11 5,4 5,6 7 7,9 7,3 7,2 -19 -1,2
Beef meat imports (including live animals) - thou. tons -
Total 4,9 2,8 18 10 4,8 6,2 35 56 +57,5
From U.E. - 25 1,5 2,7 18 10 4,8 6,1 8 5 228 -37,1
The total export of cattle meat (including live animals) raised by 28,9% in
2006 in comparison with 2005; the export in EU decreased by 1,2%.
The total cattle meat import (including live animals) raised by 57,5% in
2006 in comparison with 2005; the import from EU decreased by 37,1%.
The cattle meat import for intern consumption was:
- in 2003 – 2%;
- in 2004 – 2%;
- in 2005 – 8%;
- in 2006 – 16%.
There can be noticed a warning decrease of the percentage of cattle meat
import for intern consumption.
THE AIMED CATTLE MEAT PRODUCTION

In order to achieve the main goals in cattle breeds genetic improvement a
coordinated united system must be followed, on basis of genetic improvement
programmes. There must be mentioned:
1. raising of cattle stocks from specialized breeds for meat production.
2. industrial crossbreeding of hybrid local breeds with meat breeds in
order to obtain commercial hybrids for slaughter. These crossbreeding
can be simple or multiple according to the main goals targeted for
slaughter percentage, but mainly for the meat quality and the breeding
economic traits (cost/kg, live weight).
- 805 -
Fig. nr.1
CROSSBREADING PROGRAMME IN ORDER TO OBTAIN CATTLE MEAT HYBRIDS
Blanc Bleu Belge x Romanian Black and White – Holstein Friza
Limousine x Romanian Spotted
Charolaise x Brown Swiss
1. All breeds cows (Brown Swiss, Romanian Spotted and Romanian Black and
White – Holstein Friza) annually replaced according to the milk production
trait (selective replacement) can be used in industrial crossbreeding of first
generation with breeding meat production tested sires from breeds such as
Romanian Spotted – Simenthal, or from specialized breeds for meat:
Charolaise, Liomousine and Blanc Bleu Belge, the resulting products being
raised, fattened and slaughtered for meat production.
2. Romanian Spotted cows annually replaced according to the milk
production trait (selective replacement), with body capacity traits
favourable for meat production and part of their offspring heifers, can be
maintained in exploitation and artificial inseminated with frozen semen
from Romanian Spotted – Simmenthal breeding meat production tested
sires or from meat production specialized breeds such as Limousine.
3. Brown Swiss cows annually reformed can be crossbred with Charolaise
sires: the offspring males are slaughtered; the heifers (F1) are inseminated
with Piemontese semen; the offspring males are slaughtered; the heifers
(F2) are inseminated with Charolaise semen; the offspring males are
slaughtered; the heifers (F3) are crossbred with a parental breed according
to the National breeding system with very good results for meat quality
and daily gain.
4. The same scheme is to be applied for Romanian Black and White –
Holstein Friza with Blanc Bleu Belge.
THE RESEARCH RESULTS

Meat production estimation:
1. Cattle distribution share in order to achieve 3,2 mil l milk = 800.000
heads
- 806 -
Breeding herd = 1.700.000 heads

1.700.00 – 800.000 = 900.000 heads
Annually necessary replacing stock = 25%
900.000 heads x 25% culled = 225.000 replacing heifers
900.000 heads x 80%N x 85% S = 612.000 calves
612.000 heads – 225.000 replacing culled stock = 387.000 calves for fattening
387.000 heads x 450 kg/head = 174.150 tones alive
174.150 tones x 60% culled = 104.490 tones carcasses youth
225.000 culled heads x 50 kg/head = 123.750 tones adult cattle
123.750 tones x 50% culled = 61.875 tones adult cattle carcasses
2. Dairy herd for milk quote = 800.000 heads

Average exploitation period = 4 lactations
Natality = 80%
Losses until mating = 15%
Average exploitation period = 4 years
25% culled x 800.000 heads = 200.000 heads culled/year
The breeding stock is established using the formula:
BS = 2 x R%/N% X S%
BS = 2 X 200.000 heads/80% x 15% = 588.235 heads pure breed cows
Available for AI with meat breed 200.000 heads/year
200.000 heads x 80% N x 85%S = 136.000 heads calves for slaughter
136.000 heads x 450 kg/head = 61.200 tones live animals
61.200 tones x 60% culled = 36.720 tones calves carcasses
200.000 culled heads x 550 kg/head = 110.000 tones live adult cattle
110.000 tones x 50% culled = 55.000 tones adult cattle carcasses
3. Artificial insemination in cattle in order to replace the milk quote breeding

herd is to be done for the first insemination with semen from meat breeds
(Aberdeen Angus)
200.000 heads x 80%N x 85%S = 136.000 heads
136.000 heads x 450 kg/head = 61.200 tones live animals
61.200 tones x 60% culled = 36.720 tones carcasses
Calves ; 104.490 tones + 36.720 tones + 36.720 tones = 177.930 tones calf
meat
Adult cattle: 61.875 tones = 55.000 tones = 116.875 tones adult cattle meat
Total carcasses meat = 117.930 tones + 116.875 tones = 294.805 tones ~

300.000 tones
- 807 -
Fig. nr. 2 Connection between producer, processing, distribution and consumer
Producer Live animal Live weight
Slaughtering and
Processing Carcass weight
Net marketable beef

Distribution
Consumer
The interrelation between producer, processor, sales agent and consumer

shows the correlation between three levels of quality, corresponding to the meat
processing chain.
The live animals processor is interested by the body capacity, slaughter
percentage.
The sales agent is interested in the total carcasses value.
The consumer is interested in the products with a pleasant taste, the low
fat quantity and the meat tenderness.
According to these principles, the breeder must take into account to
improve the exploitation technologies for meat production, due to the market
demands.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The “weak” points are:
- the decrease of the stocks and meat production, the poor breeding system
and the sanitary-veterinary standards;
- the lack of a strong meat producing sector;
- a low consumption/inhabitant head and high self consumption in rural areas;
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BACK
- the low productivity in the forage sector;

- the lack of an organized system for slaughter houses supply;
- difficulties in stocking and refrigerating meat system;
- deficiencies in quality of forage, optimal slaughter weight, storing and
packing;
- the high cost of meat processing;
- low performances for offer and market demands;
2. The “strong” points are:
- the large areas of pastures and grasslands;
- high capacities of breeding and exploitation for fattening cattle;
- high capacity of cereals producing in order to feed the young cattle and the
adult finishing cattle;
- a large breeding herd in order to structure the cattle productions for meat
and milk with no poor results for the Romanian milk quote;
- human resources in the rural areas.
3. The EU support for the meat sector in Romania is realized on the basis of
the actual EU politics for agricultural support. The financial support is
granted for:
- the market discipline;
- organizing of producers associations;
- raising the animal breeders incomes;
- the infrastructure up-dating in rural areas;
- quality products for the intern market;
- facilitating the export of meat and meat products.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gh.Georgescu, V.Temisan, C.Podar, C.Velea – Tratat de crestere a bovinelor, Ed. Ceres, 1995;
2. Gh.Georgescu, Gh.Marginean, I.Vintila, H.Grosu, C.I.Draganescu – Tratat de crestere a
bovinelor, Ed. Ceres, 1998;
3. Gh.Georgescu,C.Velea, Gh.Marginean, A.Alexoiu – Monografia rasei Baltata Romaneasca,
Ed. Tritonic, 2001;
4. Programul de ameliorare a efectivelor de taurine din Romania – OM 309/2003
5. Institutul Naţional de Statistică – Anuar Statistic 2006, Buletine informative lunare 2006-2007
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BACK
STUDY OF INTERDIGITAL TILOMA IN BOVIDAE FAMILY

O. NEGREA, Z. MARCHIŞ
Researches done in October – November and December 2007, on a

dairy cows stock of 42 cows, BR and MH breeds, in a private semi intensive unit,
regarding interdigital tiloma incidence, put in evidence a progressive
diminishment of disease frequency, of 16,6 % in October to 4,8 % in December.
The significant reduction of podal affection is correlated with the beginning of a
prophylaxis and curative measures program (grazing stop on accidental land,
stubble field and other areas, shelter hygiene, therapeutic and surgery protocol
and adequate medication in sick animals, using of good quality fodder.
Also, the presence of tiloma in anterior feet comparative to posterior
feet presents important variations. So, it is ascertained a higher incidence of
failing ill in posterior feet (8 %) comparative to that in anterior feet (2,4 %).
INTRODUCTION
The presence of podal affections in dairy cow stocks favours a partial
diminishment, sometime total, of milk production. In the same time it appears
negative influences on reproduction process by sexual appetite diminishment, low
fecundity percent, weakly unviable products. Podal affections in cows are the un-
respecting consequence of zoo-hygienic conditions, housing and alimentation and
also the lack of cleaning and care of nails. Interdigital tiloma (or inter-nails
vegetative dermatite) is a chronic inflammation of skin in interdigital space with
derm pappila hypertrophy. Regularly the disease appears as consequence of
traumatism produced in the interdigital region. In initial stage the skin of nail
anterior face and the interdigital space is strong congestion made and painful in
pressing. Tiloma is more or less voluminous , pediculous or with large base and is
bleeding lightly when it has escoriate surface. The surface of tiloma is
keratinizated in time and does not bleed anymore and the limping is diminished
and can disappear.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Study of interdigital tiloma incidence in cows has be done on a 42 heads
stock in dairy cows of bovidae family , Romanian Spotted breed and Holstein
crossbred, aged of 5 – 12 years, bred and maintained in semi – intensive system,
in Aghires locality, Cluj county. Researches were done in dynamic, in the months
of October, November and December 2007. The animals are kept in a shelter
which has common fodder trough, concrete floor, manual evacuation of manure
and gutter of slurry discharge into a concrete open ditch. Cow stock feeding
consists in administration of succulents ( fodder beet, beer roughages), vegetable
- 810 -
and grass hay, concentrates (mixture of corn, barley meal and wheat bran).
Milking is made mechanic, using individual milking device.
Diagnosis of affection was established on the basis of anatomy-clinical
table (presence of limping and of interdigital lesions, hemorrhagic or
hyperthrophic).
Also, it was followed tiloma frequency in posterior feet compared with
anterior feet, and the cases were centralized monthly. It must be mentioned the
fact that with disease clinic forms diagnosis it was initiated also therapeutic act,
surgery and medicinal.

Results on interdigital tiloma incidence obtained in dynamic, in October,
November and December months of 2007, in 42 bovidae family livestock, dairy
cows category, are presented in the table 1.
Table 1.
Interdigital tiloma variation, in dynamic, in cows
Period of time Livestock Sick animals %

October 42 7 16,6
November 41 4 9,7
December 41 2 4,8
Total 124 13 10,8
Data presented in table 1 put in evidence a progressive diminishment of

interdigital tiloma incidence in existed animal livestock, from 16,6 % cases in
October to 4,8 % in December. Between principal causes which conduct to the
progressive diminishment of cases number of bovidae with tiloma, in dynamic, in
the period of time taken in study, we mention :
- institution of a adequate therapeutic protocol, surgery and medicinal, in
animals with podal affections.
- zoo hygienic conditions of suitable microclimate (clean litter, avoiding
the sick animal moving on accidental grounds, stubble fields, good quality fodder
administration).
- institution of a prophylactic toilet program of nails in all cow livestock (
cleaning and cutting of nails to prevent leg soundness modifications).
In the nearly graphic it is presented interdigital tiloma incidence in dairy
cows, in dynamic (picture 1) and tiloma typical lesion aspect (picture 2).
- 811 -
20
16.6
15
9.7
10
4.8
5
0
octombrie noiembrie decembrie
Picture 1. Interdigital tiloma incidence in cows, in dynamic.
Picture 2. Interdigital tiloma, typical form.
Tiloma frequency in posterior feet compared to anterior feet is presented

in table 2.
Table 2.
Tiloma frequency in posterior feet compared to anterior feet
Anterior feet Posterior feet

Period Stock positive % % %
positive positive
October 42 7 16,6 2 4,7 5 11,9
November 41 4 9,7 1 2,4 3 7,3
December 41 2 4,8 - - 2 4,8
Total 124 13 10,8 3 2,4 10 12,4
Doing the analysis of data from table 2 it is ascertained a higher

frequency of disease in posterior members compared to anterior members by the
fact that animals are standing with posterior feet in a near continuous humidity .
- 812 -
Also, the position of anterior members facing to stance line, with the age of
animals, becomes more and more feet outturned.
In picture 3 is presented interdigital tiloma variation in posterior members
compared to anterior members.
5 4.7
4
3 2.4
2
1
0
0
1 2 3
M anterior
11.9
12
10
8 7.3
6 4.8
4
2
0
1 2 3
M posterior
Picture 3. Interdigital tiloma variation in anterior members compared to

those posterior.
CONCLUSIONS
Researches done in October – December 2007, on 42 cows livestock of
Romanian Spotted breed and Holstein crossbred, in a private unit semi-intensive
type, regarding interdigital tiloma incidence, put in evidence the following
aspects:
1. Podal affection frequency diminish progressively from 16,6 % in
October to 4,8 % in December
2. Significant diminishment of podal affection, in dynamic, is correlated
with severe institution of a prophylactic and curative measure program (pasturing
stop, on accidental fields and stubbles, shelter hygiene, clean litter, adequate
- 813 -
BACK
therapeutic protocol,surgery and medicinal in sick animals, using of good quality

fodder).
3. The presence of interdigital tiloma in anterior feet, compared to
posterior feet presents important variations. So, it is ascertained a higher
incidence of disease in posterior members (8,0 %) compared to anterior members
(2,4 %).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Adameşteanu I.(1975) Tehnopatii la animalele domestice.Editura Ceres.Bucureşti.
2. Adameşteanul I.Căpăţână V.(1973) Urgenţe în medicina veterinară.Editura Ceres. Bucureşti.
3. Baba A.I. (1996) Diagnostic necropsic veterinar. Editura Ceres Bucureşti.
4. Mateş N., (2004) – Patologia chirurgicală a animalelor domestice. Ed. Medicală Universală
"Iuliu Haţieganu" , Cluj-Napoca.
- 814 -
BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE IMPROVEMENT OF

SYSTEM OF GATHERING AND PRESERVING THE SHEEP
AND GOAT MILK
Alina NICOLESCU, Carmen Ana PIVODA, Camelia Zoia ZAMFIR,
I. NICOLESCU, Ana ENCIU, Daniela JITARIU, Maria SAUER
The paper work has aimed the improvement and experiment of an

installation of mechanical milking appropriate to the breeds of sheep and goats
with aptitudes for the milk production and elaboration of technology of
mechanical milking. It was elaborated the methodology of selecting sheep and
goats for mechanical milking, determining the symmetry of teats, established by
us as being optimum between 45-55%. By making the biometry of the mammal
gland it was established that the superior diameter of the muffs of the milking
glass must be of 18 mm, the length of 200 mm, for the sheep breeds from
Romania, and for goats the diameter of the muffs must be of 20 mm and the
length of 200 mm. The vacuum pump must make adjustable levels between 300
and 500 mm Hg, and the pulsar a frequency of pulsations between 80 and 100
pulses /minute. For the safety of sheep and goats’ contention during milking, the
compartment of the contention equipment must be of 12 cm, the width of the
milking platform of 108 cm, the length of 200 cm, and the width of the spaces of
access at the foddering pipes must be of 10 cm.
With the purpose of lining the Romania’s policy regarding the food safety
at the requirements of European Union in the field of food industry it is necessary
that the mechanical milking to be introduced end extended in the sheep and goats
exploitations.
By introducing the mechanical milking a series of economical effects are
produced: the increase of the quantity of extracted milk with 18% comparatively
to the quantity manually extracted, it is assured a supplementary profit in the
milking period, it is decreased the microbial loading of the milk, the physical
effort is reduced and also the consumption of labor force with 50%.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

For making the work it was made a documentary study regarding the actual
estate of the mechanical milking on world level, it was elaborated the
methodology of selection of the sheep and goats, appropriate for mechanical
milking, it was appreciated the shape and size of udder, from a distance, from
lateral position from right and left and from back part, it was made the biometry
of mammal gland and measurements of the body dimensions in order to establish
the constructive parameters of the milking machines and of the equipment of
contention that are adequate to the sheep and goat breeds in Romania. There wee
elaborated the working protocol and methodology for experimenting the milking
- 815 -
aggregates with 2 and 4 milking apparatuses for sheep and goats. It was
determined the milk quantity at a milking and the speed of ceasing the milk.
During milking it was aimed the maintenance of the same level of vacuum during
the whole experimental period, and also the same frequency of pulsations and it
was controlled the health estate of the udder after the finishing of milking (finding
diseases of udder and mammillae). It was established the technology of washing
and disinfecting the mechanical milking machine. It was elaborated the
implementation of the HACCP European system of protecting the quality of milk
and food products on the way of sheep and goat milk from the producer to the
processor, identification of potential dangers for each stage from the technological
flow, with the purpose of establishing the prevention measures in order to
eliminate such risks or reducing them until acceptable levels.

It was elaborated the methodology of selecting sheep and goats for mechanical
milking, which has the following activities: appreciation through inspection,
determining the size or volume of udder, the size and symmetry of the halves and
mammillae, the distance between mammillae, the way of holding the udder, the
degree of vascular extinction of the udder, hair covering, symmetry of the
mammillae, established by us as being optimum between 45-55%; serious problems
are considered the following: small udder, wild udder, highly held and hairy, too
big udder, hanging (very low under the level), udder with serious asymmetry
(especially at goats), too small mammillae, or too big, too narrow or too large ones,
udder with the mammillae too close one to another; palpation of the udder
bimanually made appreciates each half, watching the glandular tissue, the
conjunctive and adipose tissue and also the eventual presence of certain
„indurations” due to old affections; to complete or finish the conclusions of this
examination it will be made an appreciation of the udder after milking by
inspection, watching the difference of volume of the udder after milking beside the
volume before milking and also the number and size of the folds of skin in the back
of the udder (milk reserves); there are seriously amended the udders which keep the
same size also after milking or at which folds do not exist or they are a few; it is
considered an exceptional udder a big udder before milking and reduced as volume
and with many reserves after milking, very good symmetry both of the halves or of
the mammillae, with oval shape of the mammal body, with obvious vascular
extinction; the functional testing is the most important stage of the examination
because of the „objectiveness” of the data and because of their direct link with the
aptitudes for mechanical milking; it is appreciated the milking speed and the
productive (functional) symmetry of the udder halves, the milk being extracted
separately from each mammillae; the ideal udder for mechanical milking is that
which produces a quantity sensibly equal from each mammilla; the quantitative
determination of the milk production, very important criterion in appropriation of
- 816 -
sheep and goats for mechanical milking, it being efficient at a milk production of
over 300 ml at a milking at sheep and of over 450 ml at goats. On the basis of the
mentioned criteria the selection of sheep and goats is made to introduce the
mechanical milking so that they have the udder appropriate to mechanical milking,
to have the milk production sensibly equal and to cease the milk.
Determining the milk quantity obtained at a milking at the sheep breeds
from Romania it was noticed that from them it was obtained a quantity between
300-550 ml, and the speed of ceasing the milk was between 700-1200 ml, and the
milking speed between 0.820-0.850 ml/min.
It was experimented the milking machine, provided with milking
platform, with equipment of contention of sheep and goats, with foddering pipe
and access ramps and of getting down the animals. The technical characteristics
of the milking aggregate are: the power of electrical engine 0.33 kw/220 V,
rotation of engine of 1420 rot/min, the debit of air in the pump of 120 l/min,
adjustable level of vacuum, 0-800 mm Hg, adjustable number of pulsations, 0-160
pulsations; the pump is connected to the vacuum pipe, on which the vacuum-
meter and pulsar are fixed; the milk bucket is connected to the vacuum pipe and
the pulsar, and on the bucket the milking glasses are connected (with the interior
diameter of 40 mm, the exterior diameter of 48 mm, the muffs have the total
length of 200 mm, the length of the art with the muff of 142 mm, the diameter at
the superior part of 20 mm, the diameter at the inferior part of 12 mm, the exterior
diameter of the collar for fixing by the glass of 56 mm, the interior diameter of
50 mm), the capacity of the bucket is of 25 liters.
It was also experimented the small aggregate of milking sheep and goats,
for small exploitations (100 animals), consisting in a frame for steel pipe,
provided with two wheels and on which the electric pump, the bucket, the pulsar,
the valve for adjusting the vacuum and the vacuum-meter are mounted. The
power of the electric engine is of 0.55 kw, the rotation of 1420 rot/min, the power
input of 220 V, the debit of the pump is of 120 l/min, the capacity of the bucket is
of 30 liters. The small aggregate of milking is provided with a bucket and two
apparatuses, replacing the manual milking, it being made in tandem.
To establish the diameter of the muffs of milking machines it was made the
biometry of the mammal gland, being observed that the perimeter of the udder has
varied depending on the lactation between 37-42 cm, the perimeter of the mammillae
has varied between 4-6 cm, the length was between 4-5 cm, and the distance
between mammillae between 15-18 cm. On the basis of the made determinations it
was established that the diameter of the muff of milking apparatuses at sheep to be of
18 mm, and at goats of 20 mm, and the length of 200 mm.
During the function of the mobile aggregate for producing vacuum in the
moment of detaching and attaching the milking machines the level of vacuum
decreases and produces the falling of the milking glasses from mammillae. The
aggregate for producing vacuum, being provided with two buckets and four milking
apparatuses, makes difficult their placement to the sheep and goats on the platform.
- 817 -
It was provided a tank of equalizing the vacuum, provided with safety valve to
adjust the level of vacuum and connect the bucket for milk at a pipe mounted on the
frame of the platform of the installation on which the pulsar was also mounted.
As a result of experimenting the installation it was elaborated the
technology of mechanical milking which assures the foddering during milking,
the accommodation of sheep and goats with the platform of 8-9 days and
attaching the milking apparatuses starting with the sheep with the odd number and
after that the attaching is restarted with the sheep with par number. At attaching
and detaching the milking machines on and from mammillae it is made an easy
massage of the udder by pressing it to the mammillae.
From the measurements of the body mass it resulted that the width of
chest is between 20-24 cm, and the length of body between 66-78 cm. depending
on these data there were established the constructive parameters of the contention
equipment which to permit the access of sheep and goats at the foddering pipes,
so the distance between the vertical supports to be of 10-12 cm, and the width of
the platform of 108 cm. It was noticed that for the safe contention at the sheep and
goats from Romania with aptitudes for milk production, the width of spaces of
access at the foddering pipes must be of 10 cm. It was also noticed that, for the
clear and successive access of the sheep and goats, respectively contention, must
be made from the end opposite to the ramp of lifting on the platform by
successive deliverance of spaces.
On the basis of the resulted notices the equipment of contention, the
aggregate for producing the vacuum and the dimensions of the platform were
redesigned, improving the installation. The equipment of contention was designed
constructively and functionally which permit the access of the sheep and goats at
the foddering pipe only from the opposite end of the platform in report with the
ramp of lifting on the platform and the mobile platform was eliminated because it
blocked at the movement on the fixed platform. The improved installation is
provided with 6 milking seats with platform and the ramps from profiled iron-
sheet to facilitate the lifting, getting off and moving the sheep and goats on the
platform. The level of vacuum was maintained constant during milking and also
the frequency of pulses.
Counting the duration of lifting the sheep and goats on the milking
platform and for the contention of the five lots of sheep and goats, it was noticed
that it was decreased from 15.20 minutes in the first day to 10.25 minutes in the
eighth day due to stimulation with fodders and animals becoming used to the
milking machine, resulting that the accommodation period lasts 8 days.
The increase of the milk quantity mechanically extracted and reducing the
effective time of milking in the situation of feeding with concentrated fodders is
determined by the fact that the sheep and goats are without the stress produced by
the pulses of the milking machines.
Comparing the quantity of milk mechanically extracted after the
accommodation of sheep with the milking machine comparatively to that obtained
through manual milking it was noticed an increase of 18%.
- 818 -
During experimenting the installation it was aimed the efficacy of the

contention equipment and the functionality of the mobile aggregate to produce
vacuum, noticing that there did not appear defections and deregulations. It was
also watched if the mechanical milking affects the udder or mammillae, noticing
that it did not appear any disease at any sheep or goat, fact that emphasized that
the level of vacuum and the frequency of pulses were well determined, and also
the constructive parameters of the milking machine.
It was made the determination of the optimal functional parameters to
extract the milk at the sheep with aptitudes for milk production, maintaining
constant the value of the vacuum level and it was modified the number of pulses
to establish which is the optimal value of the frequency of pulses at which the
biggest quantity of milk is obtained, the data being presented in table 1.
Analyzing the data in table no.1 it results that the optimum frequency at
which the biggest milk quantity is obtained, is between 85-95 pulses per minute,
at a vacuum level of 300 mm Hg (0.42 Barr), the milk quantity being of 321 ml
and respectively of 330 ml.
Table 1
The milk quantity obtained at various frequencies of the pulses and constant level of
vacuum
Level of Number of pulses/minute
Milk quantity UM vacuum
80 85 90 95 100
(mmHg)
Milk mechanically
ml 300 280 231 330 320 310
extracted
Residual milk ml 300 53 64 38 41 49
Maintaining constant the optimum frequency of 90 pulses per minute, it

was determined the optimum value of the vacuum level, the data being presented
in table no. 2.
Table 2
The milk quantity obtained at various frequencies of pulses and constant level of
vacuum
Level of Number of pulses/minute
Milk quantity UM vacuum
300 340 360 325
(mmHg)
Milk mechanically
ml 90 330 340 360 325
extracted
Residual milk ml 90 38 29 23 68
From the data in the table it can be concluded that the optimum level of
vacuum at which the biggest quantity of milk is extracted, that of 380 ml, is of 80
mm Hg.
- 819 -
To assure the food quality and safety of the milk during collecting,
preserving and processing the milk there were included the HACCP norms which
are a systematic novelty of identification, evaluation and control of the dangers
associated to production, transport and deposit of food products. During
manipulation and transport of milk, there must be eliminated the risks of
contamination with foreign bodies and pathogen germs, operations that must be
critical points of control.
The keeping of milk until processing must be made in freezing tanks at
the maximum temperature of 140C which stops the maximum development of the
microorganisms.
At the acceptation of the milk at the centers of processing must be made
by the analysis of quality according to the law in force.
Processing the milk technology is the stage with the most important critical
points of control. At manufacturing the milk products there can be identified critical
points of control at cooling and storing the milk at pasteurization, at inoculating
with cultures of lactic bacteria at the add of the coagulant enzymes, in the case of
cheeses and at the packing and depositing of products.
There are noted as critical limits, the temperature of cooling and
depositing, the pH (acidity of milk), the temperature and duration of
pasteurization.
During the technological process there can appear as critical points, the
washing and disinfecting of installations, the work practices of workers and cross
contamination (internal traffic). The atmospheric air when the technological
process is developed is also a critical point of control.
Monitoring the critical points it is made through observation or
measurements made on samples taken in certain phases of the technological
process. The main modalities of monitoring the critical points are: visual
observation; sensorial appreciation; physical measurements; chemical tests;
microbiological analyses.
The sheep and goats farms must identify which are the critical points of
control, and the programs of hygienic cleaning are consisted of cleaning the
equipment, the control of insects and damagers.
To assure the alimentary quality and safety of the sheep and goat milk, a
special importance is held by the introduction of mechanical milking and the
implementation of HACCP system.
To notice if by mechanical milking it is obtained a qualitative milk in the
hygienic point of view comparatively to the manual milking, there were made
physical – chemical and microbiological analyses resulting the following: milk
mechanically milked has a microbial loading of 5500 microorganisms/ml milk
comparatively to the milk manually milked where the microbial loading was of
20000 microorganisms/ml milk at the morning milking and of 18300
microorganisms / ml at the evening milking, which emphasize that the maintenance
of sheep and goats during the night must be made on a clean shelter of straw.
- 820 -
The technology of mechanical milking supposes the making of fold for

the sheep that are to be milked and one for the milked sheep. The stages of the
work process are the following:
Adapting the sheep and goats at the milking platform, stimulating them to
get on, by feeding at the pipe of the contention equipment with
concentrated fodders; sheep contention;
Attaching the milking glasses simultaneously with a massage of the two
halves of the udder;
Watching the collection of milk in the collector and observing the end of
milking;
Detaching the milking apparatuses simultaneously with the action with
two fingers of each mammilla to the supplementary extraction of the milk
in the milking glass;
Simultaneous discontenting of sheep and evacuation from the milking
platform;
Introduction of a new sheep lot on the platform, introduction which is
made easier by observing the milked sheep in the opposite fold and the
operations are repeated.
After the end of the milking it is effected the washing of the milking
machine with alimentary detergent. Firstly it is a washing with cold water and
then with solution of detergent and then again with cold water. The washing is
made by mounting the milking glasses at two connecting pieces connected too the
vacuum of the pump which absorbs the washing solution in a recipient and
circulate it through the collector and the milking bucket. To wash and disinfect
the milking machine it was established to be made in three stages, washing with
cold water extracted with the milking machines from a recipient of 10-15 liters.
The mechanical milking has the advantage that, besides obtaining hygienic
milk, assures the increase of the quantity of extracted milk with 18% besides normal
milking. Applying his percent to the quantity of milked milk during lactation of 57
liters obtained fro a sheep, it results an increase of 10 liters. At an exploitation with
100 milking sheep there are obtained 1 000 liters of milk more.
In an exploitation with 100 milking goats from which manually are
obtained 150 liters of milk per lactation, applying the same percent of increasing
the milk quantity obtained more through manual milking it is obtained per
exploitation a quantity of 2 700 liters more.
By introduction and extinction of the mechanical milking in the sheep and
goat exploitations the productivity is in the peak period of lactation at sheep, between
60-62 sheep/hour, because the milk production is bigger, and respectively the duration
of milking, and in the last month of lactation between 85-94 sheep/hour depending on
the breed, because the milk production is reduced with 50-55%.
At goats, the productivity of mechanical milking is of 46 goats / hour in
the peak period of the lactation curve, and in the last month of lactation of 72
goats / hour.
Taking into account the obtained results and the requirements of the
European standards regarding the assurance of the food quality and safety of milk
- 821 -
BACK
it is required the introduction and extinction of the mechanical milking in the

exploitations of sheep and goats in Romania.
CONCLUSIONS
At experimenting of the prototype of installation it was determined the
optimum level of vacuum at which the biggest quantity of milk is extracted and
the optimum frequency of pulses resulted as the aggregate for producing vacuum
to be adjusted at a level of 380 mm Hg, and the pulsar at 90 pulses per minute.
By feeding the sheep and goats with concentrated fodders during milking
it increased the quantity of milk mechanically extracted and it was reduced the
effective time of milking, the animals are not stressed because it is diminished the
stress made by the pulses of the milking machines.
Comparing the milk quantity mechanically extracted after the
accommodation of sheep with the milking installation comparatively to that
obtained through manual milking it was noticed an increase of 18%.
The important advantage of the application of mechanical milking is the
assurance of the food quality and safety of the sheep and goat milk, requirement
of the European standards regarding the quality of alimentary products to protect
the consumers’ health.
Applying the mechanical milking, besides a hygienic milk, leads to the
decrease of consumption of labor force, of physical efforts, which contributes to
the profitability of sheep and goats breeding.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. AKAM D., 1977 – Description and performance of components. In: THIEL C.C., DODD F.H.
(Ed.), Machine milk-ing, 45, NIRD, Reading, Grande-Bretagne.
2.CASU S., CARTA R., 1974 – Influence de la vitesse de pulsation sur l’efficacite de traite chez la
brebis Sarde. In: Proc.1er Symp.Traite Mecanique Petits Ruminants, 7-11 mai 1973, Millau, France,
Ann.Zootech., numero hors serie, 201-203.
3.CICOGNA M., SANGIORGI F., 1984 – Comparaisions des caracteristiques de traite de chevre
avec six types de fais-ceaux-trayeurs, In: Proc.3e Symp.Int.Traite Mecanique Petits Ruminants, 16-
20 mai 1983, Valladolid, Espagne. Ed.Sever Cuesta, Valladolid, Espagne, 485-491.
4. DARRACQ J., Le MENS P., PERROT C., 1978 – Caracteristiques des machines a traire les
chevres utilisees en France et leur controle en ferme. In: Proc.2e Symp.Int.Traite Mecanique Petits
Ruminants, 22-27 mai 1978, Alghero, Italie. Ed.FNOCL, Paris, 324-345.
5.DISSET R., 1974 – Les differents systemes de traite des chevres. Organisation du travail de la
traite. In: Proc.1er Symp.Int.Traite Mecanique Petits Ruminants, 7-11 mai 1973, Millau, France,
Ann.Zootech., numero hors serie, 267-280.
6.DOANE M., NATKE R.P., SCOTT N.R., DELWICHE M.J., BRAY D.R., 1980 – Air flow
utilization in milking parlours. Cornell University, Ithaca, Etats-Unis, paper 80-3027, ASAE, 28 pp.
7.DODD F.H., GRIFFIN T.K., 1977 – Milking routines. In: THIEL C.C.DODD F.H. (Ed.),
Machine Milking, 179-200, NIRD, Reading, Grande-Bretagne.
8.LABUSSIERE J., COMBAUD J.F., DOUAIRE G., 1978 – Effect des conditions de sevrage sur
la production laotiere et le comportament a la traite des brebis Prealpes du Sud. In: Proc.2e
Symp.Int.Traite Mecanique Petits Ruminants, 22-27 mai 1978, Alghero, Italie. Ed.FNOCI, Paris,
146-163.
9.*** - Guide for the management of food safety according to the principles of HACCP system.
Nev Systems, Bucureşti, 2005.
- 822 -
BACK
INCREASING THE MILK PRODUCTION AT SHEEP AND

GOATS BY INTRODUCING THE VEGETAL LECITHIN IN
THE FODDER RATIO
Carmen Ana PIVODA, Camelia Zoia ZAMFIR, Ana ENCIU,
R. RADUCU, Ida AURELIAN, Daniela JITARIU, Maria SAUER
It was aimed the increase of milk production at sheep at goats by

administrating the vegetal lecithin in the ratios, a residue from the
manufacturing of soy and sunflower oil. It was produced an increase of the milk
production at the sheep and goats in the experimental lots, increase which has
varied between 10 and 22% during the lactation curve. At the qualitative
examination of the milk production, at the experimental lots there were noticed
higher values of dry substance, fat and protein, anyway the changes were not
constant during determinations. It was noticed that the vegetal lecithin did not
significantly influence the content in lactose. The analysis of the structure of the
milk fat reveals an increase of the content of unsaturated fat acids. By
determining the biochemical parameters of the blood serum of sheep and goats it
was noticed an increase of the total protein, a decrease of the content in uric
acid, of the quantity of urea and of creatinine, an increase of creatine – kinesis, a
decrease of triglyceride, of alkaline phosphates and acid phosphates, a decrease
of TGP and TGO at the sheep and goats from experimental lots, and the other
constants had close values at the experimental and witness lots.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The researches were made at ICDCOC Palas and at a private breeder of
sheep and goats (Techirghiol - Constanta). The animals which were subject to the
works were individually watched under the report of their own performances,
registering data regarding: the control of productions; main reproduction
indicators; evolution of body weight at lambs and kids; control of milk production
and qualitative determinations of milk. The control of milk production was made
on the basis of Romanian method of the coefficient of de control, elaborated by
Nica-Dermengi, through which it is controlled both sheep and lambs, so both
those which are milking and also those which weaned the lambs.
The maintenance of sheep and goats was made in the stable for 150-160
days and for 205-215 days in the pasture. For sheep and goats, there were assured
fodder ratios depending on the physiological estate of the animals. The foddering,
during table period was made with hays of vegetables, 0.5-1 kg/animal and day;
with juicy fodders, warehoused, 1.5-2 kg/ animal and day; with mixture of
concentrated fodders, in whose structure there have entered, an average of 25-
30% barley, 50-60% corn, 8-12% grist of sunflower or soy, 1% salt, 2% fodder
chalk. The control of fodder consumption was made. There were watched the
daily quantities of consumed fodders and not consumed rests, which were
- 823 -
weighed in the end of the day. The watering of pregnant sheep and goats during
the first period after dropping was made only with potable water, from the net,
assuring 65 liters/ animal. Supplementary much salt balls were administered. The
sheep and goats grazed on lots sewed with a mixture of 70-75% grains and 25-
30% perennial leguminous plants, with high degree of consumption, of 94.12%,
administering also a mixture of 0.5-0.7 kg, from chopped hays and concentrated.
For the qualitative determinations of the milk there were used: Gerber
method for the fat percent; Kjeldahl method for the protein percent; the method of
thermosetting (6-7 hours at 105±2°C), for the percent of dry substance;
determination of fat acids was made with the Fully Vet analyzer, the
microbiological analysis of milk (inseminations on special and usual environments),
number of somatic cells/ml. There were determined the main microbiological
parameters: aerobe mesa-file bacteria (NTG) and coli form bacteria.

The sheep and goats in lactation received a supplement of vegetal
lecithin, residue (mucilage) from the made of soy oil, acquisitioned from S.C.
ULEROM Constanta, accompanied by the certificate of quality which attests its
chemical composition: 50 %water and volatile substances, 20-22 % fat substances
(oil), 18-20% lecithin. The vegetal lecithin was administrated in the morning, in
the drinking water, after a previous dilution with warm water, in proportion of
1/1. It was observed that the vegetal lecithin does not modify the palatability of
water and it is well supported by sheep and goats.
It was determined the milk production at sheep and goats by twice-a-
month control, after Nica-Dermengi method (tables no. 1-2).
At the sheep from the experimental lots, the average total milk production and
the average production of milked milk was bigger comparatively too these
productions at the witness sheep lots. From the data of the table also it results an
increase of the lactation period at the sheep from experimental lots comparatively
to that of witness lots.
- 824 -
Table 1
The average total milk production, the average production of merchandise-milk and
the duration of lactation at the sheep treated with lecithin and at the witness lots
Average Duration of
Average total milk
Sheep breed or production of lactation
n production (liters)
population /lot milked milk (liters) (days)
X ± sx V% X ± sx V% X ± sx V%
Merinos of Palas- 58 117,51± 3,1 20,16 48,66 ±1,85 28,95 112,9±3,1 20,91
Experimental lot
Merinos of Palas- 38 84,2 ± 3,4 24,96 24,05 ± 1,01 25,89 97,4± 2,6 16,65
Witness lot
Prolific 46 137,2 ± 4,6 22,74 56,2 ± 2,6 31,37 161,8±3,9 16,34
Population of
Palas -
Experimental lot
Prolific 25 110,25 ± 2,1 9,75 42,75 ±1,63 19,06 156,3± 4,1 13,11
Population of
Palas - Witness lot
Milk Population 25 217,3 ± 7,8 17,94 81,6 ± 2,8 17,15 203,6± 3,9 9,57
of Palas-
Experimental lot
Milk Population 70 197,6±10,3 43,61 72,8 ± 3,9 44,82 184,7±6,3 28,53
of Palas – Witness
lot
Tigaie - Reghin- 87 153,6 ± 6,9 41,90 54,7 ± 3,2 54,56 190,5±3,4 16,64
Experimental lot
Tigaie - Reghin- 83 141,8 ± 4,7 30,20 55,2 ± 3,4 56,13 193,5±3,8 17,89
Witness lot
Ţigaie - Bacău – 65 140,9 ± 3,7 21,17 55,1 ± 2,8 40,96 191,5±3,4 15,31
Experimental lot
Ţigaie - Bacău 72 132,6 ± 4,9 31,36 53,8 ± 2,8 44,16 195,8±4,4 9,06
Witness lot
Merinos- crescător 25 110,25 ±2,15 9,75 42,75 ± 1,63 19,06 106,3 ± 2,1 9,87
– Experimental lot
Merinos- crescător 42 94,44± 3,01 20,65 28,26 ± 0,42 9,63 97,9 ± 2,3 15,25
– Witness lot
Karakul – 36 129,6 ± 4,9 22,68 55,1 ± 2,8 30,49 119,7±2,1 10,52
Experimental lot
Karakul – Witness 32 102,91± 4,1 22,81 38,76± 1,64 23,93 102,5±3,5 19,32
lot
Turcan – 36 143,6± 5,9 24,65 74,7± 3,2 25,70 141,5±3,4 14,41
Experimental lot
Turcan – Witness 25 123,6 ± 4,9 19,82 64,7 ± 3,7 28,59 124,6±3,4 3,64
lot
- 825 -
Table no. 2
The average total milk production, the average production of merchandise-milk and
the duration of lactation at the goats treated with lecithin and at the witness lots
Average Duration of
Average total milk
production of lactation
Breed /Lot n production (liters)
milked milk (liters) (days)
X ± sx V% X ± sx V% X ± sx V%
Carpathian - 25 233,01±8,7 18,67 147,42±3,7 12,54 211,44±4,5 10,64
experimental lot -
Palas
Carpathian - witness 49 227,49±6,3 19,38 128,47±2,8 15,25 184,65±5,1 19,33
lot - Palas
Carpathian - 25 146,73±3,91 13,32 82,56±2,20 13,32 177,18 ±3,64 10,27
experimental lot
Reghin
lot -Reghin
Carpathian - 30 283,89±7,5 15,85 124,81±3,8 16,68 201,76±4,55 12,35
experimental lot -
Caransebeş
lot -Caransebeş
White of Banat - 20 285,15±4,7 7,37 172,8±2,5 6,47 221,12±4,22 8,53
experimental lot-
Caransebeş
White of Banat – 24 270,76±4,1 7,42 164,61±2,7 8,04 204,34±5,13 12,29
witness lot
Caransebeş
As at sheep, at the experimental lots of goats from Carpathian breed and

White of Banat breed, the total milk production and the average production of
milked milk was bigger comparatively to the productions from the witness goat
lots. It is also noticed an increase of the lactation period at the goats in the
experimental lots comparatively to those in witness lots.
It was determined the chemical composition of the sheep and goat milk
per months and per experimental and witness lots which is given in the tables no.
3 - 4.
At the qualitative examination of the milk production, at the experimental
lot consisted of sheep of Merinos de Palas breed, there were observed a little
higher values at dry substance, fat and protein, however the changes were not
constant during determinations, during the lactation curve.
At the qualitative examination of the milk production, at the goats of
Carpathian breed, at the experimental lot it was observed an increase of the
percents of dry substance, fat and protein, also here the changes were not constant
during determinations, during the lactation curve.
- 826 -
Table no.3
Chemical composition of milk from sheep of Merinos breed to which vegetal lecithin
was administrated
Lot Date of Dry substance % Fat % Protein %
control X ± sx V% X ± s x V% X ± s x V%
Experimental 10.03. 16,41±0,25 7.61 4,97±0,33 33,19 5,24±0,25 23,85
n=25 10.04. 16,12±0,29 8,99 4,65±0,24 25,81 5,03±0,21 20,87
10.05. 16,89±0,27 7,99 5,12±0,26 25,39 5,68±0,28 24,64
10.06. 17,61±0,31 8,81 6,02±0,23 19,11 5,82±0,22 18,90
25.06. 17,84±0,28 7,84 6,09±0,28 22,98 5,77±0,21 18,19
10.07. 18,26±0,25 6,84 6,45±0,35 27,13 5,97±0,28 23,45
10.08. 19,56±0,28 7,15 7,15±0,24 16,78 6,21±0,33 26,57
25.09 21,67±0,25 5,76 8,57±0,26 15,16 6,32±0,32 25,31
10.10. 21,98±0,52 1,82 8,86±0,22 12,41 6,58±0,29 22,03
Total 18,48±0,31 8,38 6,43±0,24 18,86 5,84±0,23 19,69
Witness 10.03. 16,12 ±0,21 5,21 4,35±0,21 19,31 5,02±0,23 18,32
n=16 10.04. 15,66±0,21 6,71 4,15±0,24 23,13 5,07±0,28 22,09
10.05. 16,69±0,17 5.09 4,82±0,28 23,23 5,38±0,28 20,81
10.06. 17,01±0,21 4,93 5,67±0,23 16,22 5,89±0,41 34,81
25.06. 17,22±0,26 6,03 6,05±0,29 23,96 5,85±0,21 14,35
10.07. 17,56±0,25 5,69 6,15±0,35 22,76 5,91±0,28 18,95
10.08. 19,12±0,26 5,43 7,05±0,22 12,48 6,17±0,15 9,72
25.09 21,57±0,35 8,11 8,25±0,27 13,09 6,37±0,32 20,09
Total 17,61±0,28 6,36 5,81± 0,29 19,96 5,71±0,15 10,51
Table no.4
Chemical composition of milk from goats of Carpathian breed to which vegetal
lecithin was administrated
Lot Months Dry substance % Fat % Protein %
of X ± sx V% X ± sx V% X ± sx V%
Lactation
Experiment May 13,25± 0,35 10,23 3,57± 0,35 37,97 3,61± 0,51 54,72
al June 13,22± 0,22 6,29 3,34± 0,25 28,99 3,24± 0,33 39,45
n=15 July 13,27± 0,82 23,93 3,39± 0,31 35,42 3,42± 0,32 36,34
August 13,32± 0,63 18,32 3,55± 0,71 77,45 3,67± 0,49 51,71
September 13,67± 0,23 6,53 3,72± 0,12 12,46 3,86± 0,36 36,12
October 14,01± 0,19 5,25 4,02± 0,24 23,12 3,92± 0,43 42,48
Average 13,45± 0,41 11,81 3,59± 0,33 35,61 3,62± 0,41 43,87
Witness May 13,12 ± 0,22 6,49 3,57± 0,21 22,78 3,43±0,21 23,71
n=15 June 13,10± 0,24 4,14 3,55± 0,71 77,45 3,22± 0,29 34,88
July 13,14± 0,16 4,72 3,57 ± 0,21 22,78 3,27± 0,27 31,98
August 13,22± 0,22 6,29 3,68 ± 0,17 17,89 3,65± 0,25 26,52
September 13,29± 0,41 11,67 3,72 ± 0,12 12,46 3,85± 0,47 47,28
October 13,39± 0,32 9,26 3,92 ± 0,23 22,77 3,92± 0,31 30,63
Average 13,21± 0,24 7,07 3,67± 0,27 28,49 3,56± 0,31 33,73
- 827 -
At the determination of content of fat acids from sheep and goat milk it was
noticed a decrease of the content of saturated fat acids in the case of milk obtained
from the animals fed with vegetal lecithin and an increase of non-saturated fat
acids.
Table no.5
Determination of fat acids from the sheep milk from the witness lot and
experimental lot
Fat acids Fat acids

Fat acids Fat acids
(%m/m ) (%m/m )
(%m/m ) (% m/m )
No. Name of fat acid sheep lot goat lot
witness witness
treated with treated with
sheep lot goats lot
lecithin lecithin
1 C4:0(butyric) 4,51 1,77 2,49 1,40
2 C6:0( caproic) 1,59 0,63 1,90 1,55
3 C8:0( caprilic) 1,45 0,49 1,87 1,64
4 C10:0( capric) 4,00 1,24 4,54 4,54
5 C12:0(lauric) 2,41 1,11 1,62 1,86
6 C14:0(miristic) 7,97 4,58 4,94 5,56
7 C14:1(miristoleic) 0,55 0,59 0,19 0,25
8 C15:0(pentadecanoic) 1,51 1,12 0,87 0,96
9 C16:0(palmitic) 25,96 26,83 25,91 25,77
10 C16:1(palmitoleic 0,74 0,77 0,68 0,93
cis+trans)
11 C17:0(heptadecanoic) 0,81 0,63 0,69 0,96
12 C17:1( cis10 ) 0,14 0,17 0,14 0,27
13 C18:0(stearic) 14,80 15,20 15,89 16,46
14 C18:1(oleic cis+trans) 25,26 35,37 29,50 30,61
15 C18:2(linoleic cis+trans) 4,80 5,83 5,56 4,81
16 C20:0(arahidic) 0,21 0,40 0,35 0,35
17 C18:3(linolenic) 0,61 0,58 0,37 0,48
18 Not identified 2,68 2,69 2,49 1,60
Determination of the biochemical parameters for the blood serum of

sheep and goat (ICDCOC Palas), as a result of administrating vegetal lecithin, as
addition in the fodder ratios, a series of changes of blood constancies was
observed,; they are presented in the table no. 6.
- 828 -
Table no. 6
Biochemical parameters for the blood serum of sheep and goat after administration
of vegetal lecithin i
Specification sheep goats
Experimental Witness lot Experimental Witness lot
lot lot
Total Protein g/dl 11,02±1,1 8,61±0,9 17,69±0,8 11,53±0,7
Uric Acid mg/dl 2,17±0,19 3,02±0,17 1,96±0,11 2,81±0,15
Urea g/dl 11,73±0,4 22,74±0,6 17,08±0,9 22,78±0,8
HDL- cholesterol 22,55±1,1 29,66±1,2 16,48±1,3 18,25±1,1
mg/dl
LDL- cholesterol 51,37±2,3 57,82±2,1 51,37±2,5 55,82±2,8
mg/dl
Creatinine mg/dl 18,03±2,3 10,3±1,1 12,88±1,2 9,22±0,9
Creatinkinazis U/L 86,32±3,5 74,15±4,1 133,57±9,5 128,45±11,2
Alkaline phosphate 593,79±25,5 568,25±28,7 717,17±29,1 648,5±22,9
UL
Acid phosphate UL 24,26±1,6 27,39±1,3 22,45±1,1 24,57±1,4
Calcium mg/dl 21,23±1,1 22,45±1,2 21,04±0,9 22,65±1,3
TGP U/L 81,67±3,5 117,17±4,1 91,22±2,5 109,61±3,7
TGO U/L 71,39±7,5 95,44±6,8 99,71±5,1 103,32±11,8
Triglyceride mg/dl 2,1±0,1 3,88±0,2 2,02±0,1 2,96±0,2
Analyzing the data of table no. 6 it can be noticed at the sheep and goats
from the experimental lots, an increase of the total protein, a decrease of the
content in uric acid, a decrease of the quantity of urea, a decrease of the
creatinine, an increase of creatine - kinazis, a decrease of triglycerides, a decrease
of alkaline phosphates and of the acid phosphates, the decrease of TGP and TGO,
the other constants having close values.
CONCLUSIONS
- The sheep which received the addition of vegetal lecithin in the ratio had a
higher average total milk production and an average production of milked milk
comparatively to such productions at the witness sheep lots.
- It was also noticed an increase of the lactation period at the sheep from
experimental lots which received in the ratio the addition of vegetal lecithin,
comparatively to that from witness lots.
- At the experimental lots of goats from Carpathian breed and White of Banat
breed, which received addition of vegetal lecithin in the ratio, the total milk
production and the average production of milked milk was bigger comparatively
to the productions from the witness lots of goats.
- It was also noticed an increase of the lactation period at the goats in the
experimental lots comparatively tot that from witness lots.
- 829 -
BACK
- At the qualitative examination of the milk production, at the experimental lot

consisted of sheep of Merinos de Palas breed, there were observed a little higher
values at dry substance, fat and protein, however the changes were not constant
during determinations, during the lactation curve.
- At the qualitative examination of the milk production, at the goats of Carpathian
breed, at the experimental lot it was observed an increase of the percents of dry
substance, fat and protein, also here the changes were not constant during
determinations, during the lactation curve.
- At the determination of content of fat acids from sheep and goat milk it was
noticed a decrease of the content of saturated fat acids in the case of milk obtained
from the animals fed with vegetal lecithin and an increase of non-saturated fat
acids.
- At the sheep and goats from the experimental lots, an increase of the total
protein, a decrease of the content in uric acid, a decrease of the quantity of urea, a
decrease of the creatinine, an increase of creatine - kinazis, a decrease of
triglycerides, a decrease of alkaline phosphates and of the acid phosphates, the
decrease of TGP and TGO, the other constants having close values.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Barillet, F. and team – 1994 -An evaluation of milk yield and milking ability in French Range
de l'Ouest ewes. Smoll Ruminant Research, January, vol.13,nr.1,pag.1.
2. Bas, P. ; Morand-Fehr P. and Sauvant D. - 2005- The influence of the types of lipids from
the fodder ratios upon the composition of the fat acids from the adipose tissue and muscles of
sheep. Physiology of Nutrition and Alimentation, INRA-INA Paris-Grigon, 16 rue Claude
Bernard 75231 Cedex 05, Franţa.
3. Demarquilly, C.; Faverdin, P.; Geay, Y.; Vérité, R.; Vermorel, M. – 1996- Bases rationeles
de l'alimentation des ruminants. INRA Prod. Anim. Hors série, 71-80.
4. Jarige, R. – 1990 - Alimentation des bovins, ovins et caprins. INRA, Paris.
5. Jenkins, T.C.,- 2003 - Nutrient digestion, rumen fermentation, and plasma lipids in steers fed
combinations of hydrogenated fat and lecithin, J.Dairy Sci.,73: 2934 – 2939
6. Sălăgeanu, Gh.; Bota, A.; Liuba, Ghelţu; Oana, Nica; Nicoleta, Lemne; Mariana,
Tataomir – 1998 - The action of supplementing the ratio with lecithin for the reproduction
bubaline youth, - Cattle, Scientific Works, volume 16, Ed. S.C. Agris – Redaction of
Agricultural Magazines, p. 311-315.
7. Wettstein, H.R.; Quarella Formi; Kreuzer, M.; Sutter, F. -2001 - Influence of plant lecithin
partly replacing rumen-protected fat on digestion, metabolic traits and performance of dairy
cows. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, volume 84, pag 165.
- 830 -
BACK
POLYSACCHARIDE STORAGE MYOPATHY IN

AMERICAN DRAFT HORSES
M. RUSSELL
Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy (PSSM) occurs in many breeds of

horses and the signs include muscle soreness, reluctance to engage the hind
quarters muscle atrophy, weakness, difficulty in backing up, and picking up
hind feet. There are many myopathies in horses, but in a recent review of
muscle biopsies of 1,251 horses with a suspected neuromuscular disease, 40%
of were diagnosed with PSSM. 63% of horses with PSSM were of the American
Quarter Horse related breeds but 12 % draft breeds. Many horses are
reported to have PSSM when amylase-sensitive glycogen is used as a
diagnostic criterion for PSSM. These criteria result in up to 80% of Draft
horses and 33% of all horses outside of draft and Quarter Horse bloodlines
being diagnosed with PSSM. The classic diagnostic feature of PSSM has been
the very dark periodic acid Schiff's (PAS) stain of the biopsy taken from
semimembranosus muscle. indicating a large amount of glycogen is present in
the horse's muscle. Measurements of glycogen are usually 1.5 to 4 X higher
than normal horses. The classic or type 1 form of PSSM is caused by a
mutation and dominantly inherited in a gene that is highly associated with the
presence of abnormal polysaccharide in muscle biopsies of more than 90% of
PSSM cases in some horse breeds. These horses can be managed on a high-
quality grass or oat hay. Eliminate grain and sweet feed from the diet and
replace these calories with a fat supplement with non-soluble starch (NSC) as
the sources of energy. A vitamin and mineral supplement that contains Vitamin
E and Selenium is also beneficial. The more severe the signs of Exertional
Rhabdomyolysis (ER), the lower the starch content of the diet should be.
INTRODUCTION
For decades, some draft horses in the United States have had difficulty
with muscle soreness, tying up, and inability to work regular schedules. Until
recently horsemen and feed consultants believed that this was a problem of
feeding too much soluble carbohydrate with inconsistent working schedules and
an accumulation of muscle glycogen and thus muscle lactic acid. Now we know
that this is also associated with a genetic problem called Polysaccharide Storage
Myopothy (PSSM) in Draft, Draft crossbreeds warmbloods (drafts crossed with
light breeds of sport horses). The signs found in draft horses include muscle
soreness, reluctance to engage the hind quarters muscle atrophy, weakness,
difficulty in backing up, and picking up hind feet.
There are many causes of tying-up in horses. In light horses, tying-up
often comes from Recurrent Exertional Rhabdomyolysis. Several different
acronyms have been used to describe this disorder including PSSM, EPSM and
EPSSM. The variety of acronyms used are in part related to preferences of
- 831 -
different laboratories, as well as to differences in the criteria used to diagnose

polysaccharide storage myopathy. Many breeds of horses are reported to have
PSSM when amylase-sensitive glycogen is used as a diagnostic criterion for
PSSM. These criteria result in up to 80% of Draft horses and 33% of all horses
outside of draft and Quarter Horse bloodlines being diagnosed with PSSM. Draft
horses and warmbloods are the breeds most affected with PSSM when amylase-
resistant abnormal-polysaccharide is a required diagnostic criterion. Of 1,251
horses with a suspected neuromuscular disease, 40% were diagnosed with PSSM
in a recent review of muscle biopsies. Although > 50 equine breeds were included
in the study, 63% of horses with PSSM were of Quarter Horse related breeds,
12% draft breeds and 9% warmblood breeds. This is amylase-resistant abnormal-
polysaccharide seems to be the most accurate criteria to use to diagnose PSSM.
SIGNS OF PSSM
Horses with PSSM have signs typically associated with tying-up. These
signs are most commonly muscle stiffness, sweating, and reluctance to move.
The signs are most often seen in horses when they are put into initial training or
after a lay-up period when they receive little active turn-out. Episodes usually
begin after very light exercise such as 10-20 minutes of walking and trotting.
During an episode, horses seem lazy, have a shifting lameness, tense up
their abdomen, and develop tremors in their flank area. When horses stop moving
they often stretch out as if to urinate. They are painful, stiff, sweat profusely, and
have firm hard muscles, particularly over their hindquarters. Some horses will try
pawing and rolling immediately after exercise. Most horses with PSSM have a
history of numerous episodes of muscle stiffness at the commencement of training;
however, mildly affected horses may have only one or two episodes/year.
Rarely, episodes of muscle pain and stiffness can be quite severe, resulting
in a horse being unable to stand and being uncomfortable even when lying down.
The urine in such horses is often coffee colored, due to muscle proteins being
released into the bloodstream and passed into the urine. This is a serious situation,
as it can damage the horse's kidneys if they become dehydrated. Very young foals
with PSSM occasionally show signs of severe muscle pain and weakness. This
usually occurs if they have a concurrent infection such as pneumonia.
METABOLIC MECHANISMS
Polysaccharide storage myopathy (PSSM) is characterized by the
abnormal accumulation of the normal form of sugar stored in muscle (glycogen)
as well as an abnormal form of sugar (polysaccharide) in muscle tissue. About
200 horses of Quarter Horse and warmblood/draft horse breeding have been
identified with tying-up associated with polysaccharide accumulation in muscles.
This disorder is inherited in Quarter Horses and breeding individuals with PSSM
has produced affected offspring.
- 832 -
Horses with PSSM accumulate muscle glycogen due to an unregulated uptake of

sugar (glucose) into their muscles and the synthesis of its storage from in the
muscle called glycogen. One aspect of the defect involves enhanced sensitivity of
the muscles to insulin, resulting in more transport of sugar from the bloodstream
to skeletal muscle. The diet can be adjusted to decrease the amount of insulin and
sugar in the bloodstream. Carbohydrates that are high in starch, such as sweet
feed, corn, wheat, oats, barley, and molasses, should be avoided and extra calories
can be provided in the form of fat. An important part of the management of PSSM
horses is daily exercise. This suppresses glucose uptake, enhances glucose
utilization, and improves energy metabolism in skeletal muscle. If only the diet is
changed, we found that approximately 50% of horses improve. If both diet and
exercise are altered, then 90% of horses have had no or few episodes of tying-up.
An old theory about tying-up is that it is due to too much lactic acid in the
muscle. Many exercise studies have proven that this is absolutely not the case
with PSSM. PSSM is actually a glycogen storage disease and there are several
diseases in other species and in human beings that also result in the storage of too
much glycogen in skeletal muscle. In these other diseases, glycogen accumulates
because the muscle lacks an enzyme (protein) necessary to burn glycogen as an
energy source. These similarities led us to test PSSM horses for the disorders in
glycogen metabolism identified in human beings. We found that PSSM is a
unique glycogen storage disease because the PSSM horses have all the necessary
enzymes to burn glycogen as a fuel in their muscles. With exercise, PSSM horses
show the expected decrease in muscle glycogen as it is burned as fuel.
The unique feature of PSSM is that the muscle cells in PSSM horses
remove sugar from the blood stream and transported into their muscle at a faster
rate, and make more glycogen than normal horses. Our recent research shows that
the reason for this is that PSSM muscles are very sensitive to insulin beginning as
early as 6 months of age. Insulin is a hormone released by the pancreas into the
bloodstream in response to a carbohydrate meal. It stimulates the muscle to take
up sugar from the bloodstream. Once inside the cell the muscle’s of PSSM horses
make much more glycogen than a normal horse.
GENETIC OR METABOLIC CONDITION?

Currently, PSSM type 1 can be diagnosed with a genetic test, however, at
present PSSM type 2 must be diagnosed with a muscle biopsy. In draft horses
with symptoms of tying up that one suspects to be related to polysaccharide
storage problem, it is advised to rely on a DNA test to determine if a horse has the
genetic mutation that causes PSSM type 1. The PSSM mutation is inherited in an
incomplete dominant fashion, meaning that homozygous P/P horses are often
more severely affected and harder to manage than the heterozygous P/N. Not all
cases of tying up are caused by the PSSM mutation. If a horse is N/N but is
showing signs of tying-up or muscle pain, it is possible that the horse has another
muscle disorder which must be diagnosed by muscle biopsy.
- 833 -
If a muscle biopsy is indicated, the sample is taken from the

semimembranosus muscle and using the periodic acid Schiff's (PAS) stain,
laboratories evaluate the amount of sugar stored as glycogen in the muscle. With
PSSM, the intensity of this stain is very dark indicating a large amount of
glycogen is present in the horse's muscle. Measurements of glycogen are usually
1.5 to 4 X higher than normal horses. A large amount of glycogen, however, is
not uncommon in trained horses, and not a basis for diagnosing PSSM. In
addition to storing excessive normal glycogen, horses with PSSM have deep
purple inclusions of an abnormal complex sugar stored in fibers. This is the
classic diagnostic feature of PSSM muscle.
A normal biopsy (left) and a biopsy from a horse with PSSM (right) stained with
PAS.
Horses with unusually large accumulation of glycogen in muscle cells

with a granular appearance are diagnosed with mild PSSM. In this case, the
amount of abnormal polysaccharide is considered low, which may be associated
with the horse being less than two years of age. In horses older than two, we
advise veterinarians to ensure no other lameness issues may be contributing to
signs of muscle pain.
Moderate to severe PSSM reflects the degree of accumulation of amylase
resistant abnormal polysaccharide. The amount to abnormal polysaccharide does
not always match the severity of clinical signs or prognosis.
NUTRITOINAL MANAGEMENT NEEDED REGARDLESS OF CAUSE

It is very important to let horses move about as they choose as soon as
their muscle stiffness has disappeared. Horses recover very slowly if left in a
stall. Hand walking is not advised, because it often leads to another episode of
tying-up even if done for 10 minutes or less. Without additional changes in the
daily exercise routine, horses with PSSM will continue to have problems, with or
without a fat supplemented diet. Exercise in PSSM horses burns the stores of
muscle glycogen, appears to decrease the muscles heightened sensitivity to insulin
and increases the enzymes necessary to burn fat as a fuel. To prevent muscle
stiffness, horses with PSSM should be turned-out as frequently as possible and
- 834 -
exercised regularly. If they have been laid-up for more than a few days, they
should be returned to work very gradually. Stall rest or an irregular exercise
program may result in another episode of tying-up.
Table 1.
Feeding recommendations for an average-sized horse (500 kg) with chronic
exertional rhabdomyolysis at varying levels of exertion.
Maintenance Light Exercise Moderate Intense
Exercise Exercise
Digestible 16.4 20.5 24.6 32.8
Energy
(Mcal/day)
% DE as NSC <10% <10% <10% <10%
PSSM horses
% DE as fat 20% 20% 15%-20% 15%-20%
PSSM horses
Forage % bwt 1.5- 2.0 % 1.5- 2.0 % 1.5- 2.0 % 1.5- 2.0 %
Protein 697 767 836 906
(grams/day)
Calcium (g) 30 33 36 39
Phosphorus (g) 20 22 24 26
Sodium (g) 22.5 33.5 33.8 41.3
Chloride (g) 33.8 50.3 50.6 62
Potassium (g) 52.5 78.3 78.8 96.4
Selenium (mg) 1.88 2.2 2.81 3.13
Vitamin E (IU) 375 700 900 1000
From: 2003. McKenzie EM, Valberg SJ and Pagan J. Nutritional Management of
Exertional Rhabdomyolysis. In: Current Therapy in Equine Medicine 5. ed , 2003, pp
727-734.
Minimizing stress and providing regular routines and daily exercise are
highly beneficial. Keeping the horse fit will change the muscle metabolism, and
this seems the best prevention against further episodes of tying-up. Adherence to
a strict diet will also help horses with PSSM. A high-quality grass or oat hay
should form the basis of the diet. If feeding alfalfa hay, a mixture (half alfalfa and
half grass or oat hay) may be best. A vitamin and mineral supplement that
contains Vitamin E and Selenium is also beneficial, however, make sure that there
is not already enough Selenium and Vitamin E in the feeds you are using.
Eliminate grain and sweet feed from the diet and replace these calories
with a fat supplement. There are a number of fat supplemented commercial diets
available, but it is very important to find out what the non-soluble starch (NSC) or
starch content is in the diet before using them. In general, research suggests that
the more severe the signs of Exertional Rhabdomyolysis (ER), the lower the
starch content of the diet should be.
- 835 -
Many horses with this muscle disorder have recurrent episodes of tying-
up. At present, the best we can do is to manage the condition so that recurrence is
kept to a minimum. Several of the horses on a low starch-high fat diet and this
training regime have responded well and are competing or working routinely.
When the described diet and exercise routines were followed we found
that all horses improved, and >75% of horses stopped tying-up. PSSM horses,
however, will always be susceptible to this condition and if their exercise
schedule is disrupted. If they become ill from other causes, they may again
develop clinical signs again. If this occurs, they should go back to the fitness
program described above using longeing or round pen work. Many horses with
this condition are happy trail horses, successful pleasure horses, and useful ranch
horses. The greatest difficulty in owning a horse with PSSM is the time
commitment to keep the horse fit and the moderate expense of special feeds.
Table 2.
Potential rations for a 500-kg horse with polysaccharide storage myopathy.
Light Exercise Moderate Exercise Intense Exercise
FORAGE 7-9 kg quality grass 7-9 kg quality grass 7-9 kg quality grass
PLUS: hay or pasture hay or pasture hay or 20:80 mix
alfalfa/grass
DIET 1 1.5 kg rice bran 2.25 kg rice bran Cannot achieve
example required DE intake
with rice bran alone
DIET 2 1.8 kg alfalfa pellets + Combination cannot Combination cannot
example 475 ml oil achieve required DE achieve required DE
intake intake
From: McKenzie EM, Valberg SJ and Pagan J. Nutritional Management of Exertional
Rhabdomyolysis. Current Therapy in Equine Medicine 5. ed 2003, pp 727-734.
SUMMARY
The discovery that a horse health problem we have had in draft horses for
decades should not be a surprise. As we have worked and expected more of
horses while becoming less consistent in their digestive management creates more
challenges. The realization that we can not evaluate the DNA and diagnose a
genetic cause for a metabolic disease is progress. This allows horsemen to select
against the disease and in theory we could eliminate a dominantly inherited
disease rather easily. However, there seems to be an ongoing need to manage
genetic problems that we are willing to treat. The need for increased quality
forages in horse diets, and increasing digestive energy through forages and lipids
is healthier than through and increase in soluble carbohydrates. As nutritionists,
we need to be prepared to formulate diets for specific needs of horses and thus
increase the health of the horse and the economic sustainability of their owners.
- 836 -
BACK
REFERENCES
1. Valberg SJ, MacLeay JM and Mickelson JR. Polysaccharide storage myopathy associated with
exertional rhabdomyolysis in horses. Comp Cont Educ 1997;19(9)10:1077-1086.
2. Perkins G, Valberg SJ, Madigan JE, Carlson GP, and Jones SL. Fluid, electrolyte and renal
abnormalities associated with acute rhabdomyolysis in four neonatal foals. J Vet Int Med
1998;12:173-177.
3. Valberg SJ, Townsend D, MacLeay JM and Mickelson JR. Glycolytic capacity and
phosphofructokinase regulation in horses with polysaccharide storage myopathy Am J Vet Res
1998;59:782-785.
4. Valberg SJ, MacLeay JM, Billstrom JA, Hower-Moritz MA and Mickelson JR. Skeletal muscle
metabolic response to exercise in horses with polysaccharide storage myopathy. Equine Vet J
1999;31:43-47.
5. De La Corte FD, Valberg SJ, Williamson S, MacLeay JM and Mickelson JR. Enhanced
glucose uptake in horses with polysaccharide storage myopathy (PSSM). Am J Vet Res
1999;60;458-462.
6. DeLaCorte FD and Valberg SJ. Treatment of polysaccharide storage myopathy. Comp. Cont.
Educ. 2000;22(8):782-788.
7. Park, H.B Marklund, S. Jeon, J.T , Mickelson J.R. Valberg S.J, Sandberg K, and Andersson L.
Molecular characterization and mutational screening of the PRKAG3 gene in the horse.
Cytogenetics and genome research. Cytogenet Genome Res 2003;102:211-216.
8. Annandale EJ, Valberg SJ, Mickelson JR and Seaquist ER. Insulin sensitivity and skeletal
muscle glucose transport in Equine Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy. Neuromusc Disorders
2004;14(10):666-674.
9. Ribeiro W, Valberg SJ, Pagan JD and Essen Gustavsson B. The effect of varying dietary starch
and fat content on creatine kinase activity and substrate availability in equine polysaccharide
storage myopathy J Vet Int Med 2004;18:887-894.
10. Firshman AM, Baird JD and Valberg SJ. Prevalence and clinical signs of polysaccharide
storage myopathy and shivers in Belgian Draft Horses. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2005;227:1956-
1964.
11. Firshman AM, Valberg SJ, B Bender JB, Annandale EJ, Hayden DW. Comparison of
Histopathologic Criteria and Skeletal Muscle Fixation Techniques for the Diagnosis of
Polysaccharide Storage Myopathy in Horses. Vet Pathol. 2006 May;43(3):257-69.
12. Brojer J, Valberg SJ, Essen Gustavsson B. Skeletal muscle pro- and macroglycogen, glucose
and glucose-6-phosphate in horses with polysaccharide storage myopathy performing Light
exercise. Am J Vet Res 2006;67(9):1589-1594.
13. McCue, M, Ribiero W, Lewis S and Valberg SJ. Prevalence of polysaccharide storage
myopathy in horses with neuromuscular disorders. Equine Veterinary Journal Suppl.36
2006:340-344.
14. Valberg SJ. Polysaccharide Storage myopathy. In-Depth Muscle Disorders. 52nd Proc
American Assoc Equine Pract 2006;373-380.
- 837 -
BACK
THE EFFECT OF FLUSHING UPON FERTILITY AND

PROLIFICACY IN EWES
L. STĂNCESCU
Nourishment is the vital factor for the debut and development of sexual
cycle. Adult ewes must be properly nourished according to their physiological
state, the present reproduction cycle and the available forage at the time. The level
of nutrition and maintenance state of ewes before copulation are essential factors
that influence fertility and prolificacy. Flushing nutrition applied to ewes during a
3 - 4 weeks period before copulation and by approximately one week after
copulation may contribute to substantial increase of ovulation ratio and implicitly
of number of lambs. The use of good quality green forage (mixture of peas and oat)
and the supplement of concentrated mixtures well balanced energetically and
proteically, during the preparation for copulation and the copulation itself, may
result in increase prolificacy and fertility index. Therefore, the prolificacy index
grows from 117.8% at control lot, to 131.0% at the experimental lot, and the
fertility index raises from 110% to 130.3%. The indexes are greater than the
average of the herd by 16.6% for prolificacy and by 20.1% for fertility.
Nourishment is the vital factor for the debut and development of sexual
cycle. Adult ewes must be properly nourished according to their physiological
state, the present reproduction cycle and the available forage at the time. The level
of nutrition and maintenance state of ewes before copulation are essential factors
that influence fertility and prolificacy. The technique which is normally used to
prepare the animals for copulation is named „flushing”, which is an Anglo-Saxon
word translated by „emergency”, „excitement”. This technique was first applied
to sheep and than generalized to other species (cattle, pigs).
Even since 1955, Wallace and Gerring (quoted by Bogdan, Al., 1985)
confirm the positive effects of nutrition over (on) reproduction (breeding),
showing that „flushing” conducts to an increase of the number of released mature
ovule (61% of multiple ovulations if compared to 38% in the case of control lot)
so that an increase of prolificacy is obtained.
Torrel D.T., 1974, quoted by Bogdan Al., 1985, have demonstrated that the
„flushing” reaction is correlated with changes in weight of ewes before copulation,
and this is obtained by the enhancement of nutrition beginning with three weeks
before copulation and during copulation, by using different levels of protein and
energy, comparable with the previous level (before preparation). By analyzing the
experimental data, the author draws the conclusion that the “flushing” effect is due to
35-61% supplementary intake of protein and 32-44% to their association.
Okulicev, also quoted by the same author has demonstrated that the
flushing has a favorable effect, both on increase of twin births, and on decrease of
number of sterile sheep.
Other experiments have also been carried out and they highlighted the
relative importance of components of nutrition ratio as mediators of nutritional
- 838 -
effects upon production of twins (King, G.J., Arkinson, B.A. and Robertson,
H.A., 1979), (Mc Call, D. and Hasel, W., 1985) (Jaskowski, J.M. and Rogozie-
Wicz, M., 1990) (Hansen, N.E., 1992) quoted by Halga, P., 1999. All experiments
have suggested that energy would have a more important role than protein in
preparation of animals for copulation.
Some other authors, quoted by Stoica, I., 2001, have noticed the favorable
effect of nutrition upon the percentage of ovule. There is also an effect of state of
maintenance of ewes during copulation. El Sheikh et al. (1955) have noticed that
te total number of ovule and that of inseminated ovule is significantly greater at
sheep which received a supplement of food before copulation.
The answer of organism to flushing is variable, without an obvious reason.
It is supposed that there is an association between the high level of hepatic enzymes
which metabolizes steroids and the high speed of removal of steroids, in one hand,
and the low level of steroids is associated with an increase generation of gonad fine
and the stimulation of ovulation, on the other hand (Thomas R. quoted by Neacsu
C. et al., 2007). It was concluded that the ratio of twin births raises by 20% for each
5 kg additional weight. Forage administration of “flushing” type may result in an
increase of ovulation rate and prolificacy by 10-20%, so that there is a complex
interaction between condition and corporal weight of mothers during reproduction
(Moor, R.M. and Crosby, I.M., 1985; Hasen, N.E., 1992).
There is a general agreement among different authors regarding the
positive influence of “flushing” on prolificacy, but opinions are hesitating when it
comes to duration and period of application. Huler et al. (1962) quoted by Stoica
(2001) has established that a “flushing” of 17 days prior to copulation (warm up,
covering) resulted in an increase of prolificacy by 8-16%, while continuous
“flushing” did not influenced positively the prolificacy. Tribe and Seebec (1962)
quoted by Stoica (2001) go to the conclusion that a “flushing” of 3-4 weeks
before covering is the most appropriate and allows (provide) an increase of
prolificacy by 7-19%.
According to Halga et al., 1999, the duration of “flushing” nutrition must be
of at least 3-4 weeks. The reduction of “flushing” nutrition period and application of
the so called “short flushing” has no effect on ewes; recent studies show that the
trimming (wool cut) performed prior to covering (copulation) results in growth of
forage consumption and might be considered as an “flushing” effect.
The efficiency of “flushing” nutrition is the greatest at the beginning and
at the end of sexual season, and is minimal during the climax of sexual season
(MC Kelvey, W.A., 1992).
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Results which are about to be presented in this paper comes both from
observations during the production process, which were considered as a preliminary
experiment (EP1), and from two scientific experiments carried out in 2005 and 2006.
Results from EP1 illustrates data recorded in three years (2002, 2003 and 2004).
- 839 -
All data resulted from the production process or experiments were

obtained within RDCSEC Perieni, Vaslui County, where special efforts have been
carried out after 1990 in order to meliorate a great number of sheep. RDCES
Perieni is actually one of the few agricultural research centers which have such a
valuable livestock from the genetic point of view.
Animal on which research was carried out belong to Merinos of Palas
ecotype. The maintenance state of sheep involved in reproduction process was in all
cases very good, 2.5 - 3.0 on Bocquier scale (INRA, 1988), and as physiological
stage they were in the period of preparation for copulation or even copulation.
During this period, nutrition of “flushing” type was applied by
improvement of energetic supply and this was realized by appropriate supply of
concentrated forage. The energetic supplement given during this period was,
depending on condition, by 10-30% over the maintenance requirements. The
application of nutritional flushing has taken into account the idea that it must last
2 - 3 weeks before copulation had to continue a week after. This stimulation was
realized by improvement of quality an d quantity of basic ratio (green
mass/weight) and by nutritional supplement accorded to mother sheep.
Research regarding the effect of flushing upon certain indexes of
reproduction was carried out for two consecutive years on ewes belonging to
Merinos of Palas ecotype.
Values of corporal weight were homogenous and varied between 46 – 49
kg on different lots and the age of sheep ranged between 3.5 – 4 years and 4.5 – 5
years, respectively.
During the years before those in which experiments E1 and E2 were
carried out, that is the years 2002, 2003 and 2004, observations were made on
large numbers of mother sheep (1350 heads) regarding the food consumption and
the main reproduction indexes. This data was used for comparison with data
recorded during the main experiments and were considered as preliminary (PE).
In 2005 the experiments were carried out on two lots of animals of 30
heads (L1 and LM). Animals belonging to L1 were administered Bromus inermis
green mass obtained from the RDCSEC pastures during the period of preparation
for copulation and during the copulation itself. After mowing and light paling, the
forage was administered to sheep in a sheep yard specially constructed for
individual food consumption monitoring/control. Besides the green mass, sheep
were administered a concentrated mixture of cereals, leguminous plants and a
premix mineral-vitaminic (Table 2), which was meant to provide an appropriate
input of energy and protein. Animals from LM were administered during the same
period only Bromus inermis green mass.
The raw chemical composition and the nutrition value of this green mass
is shown in table 1. By analyzing the data in this table one can notice that the
quality of Bromus green mass was mediocre. Qualitatively, the percentage of raw
protein (13.2% of D.S) was relatively low, and the one of raw cellulose (35% of
D.S.) was too high, and this determined a reduced content of both energy (0.53
UFL/kg D.S.) and digestible protein (43.9 g PDIN and 51.0 g PDIE per kg D.S.).
- 840 -
The ratios of sheep belonging to lots of E1 experiment are illustrated in

table 4 and they consisted of 6.5 kg of Bromus green mass and 250 g of
concentrated mixture. These amounts of forage insure a input of energy and
protein beyond the international recommendations / norms (INRA, 1988).
In the case of control lot of experiment no. 1, the food ratio was formed
only by green mass (bromus) (table no. 3).
In 2006, the experiments were carried out on the same lots of animals
(L1.1. and LM1), but they were administered during the preparation period for
copulation and the copulation itself “borceag” (mixture of peas and oat) green
mass and concentrated mixture to L1.1. and “borceag” green mass to LM1.
Table no. 1
Raw composition and nutritional value (average data) of green mass used in
nutrition ratios of sheep in experiment E1
D.S. Raw Organic Raw Raw Raw S.E.N.A

ash substance Protein fat cellulose
%
of raw 28,0 2,4 25,6 3,7 0,9 9,8 11,2
nutrients
%
100,0 8,6 91,4 13,2 3,2 35,0 40,0
of D.S.
Nutritional per raw kg Per raw kg of D.S.
value
UFL, g 0,15 0,53
PDIN, g 12,3 43,9
PDIE, g 14,3 51,0
Ca, g 0,9 3,5
P, g 0,8 3,0
Note: The nutritional value was calculated and expressed according to INRA system, 1988.
Table no. 2
Composition and nutritional value of concentrated mixture used in nourishment of
ewes during the main experiments, E1 and E2, respectively
Forage used % SU UFL PDIN, g PDIE, g Ca, g P, g

Corn grain 40,5 0,35 0,44 29,84 44,06 0,08 0,93
Wheat bran 20,0 0,17 0,07 5,84 6,28 0,06 0,26
Oat 20,0 0,17 0,17 12,76 13,34 0,24 0,62
Peas 18,5 0,16 0,18 27,42 17,83 0,40 0,74
Premix mineral-
1,0
vitaminic
Nutritional value
- per raw kg 0,85 0,86 75,86 81,51 0,78 2,55
- per kg of D.S. 1,00 89,3 95,9 0,91 3,00
- 841 -
Table no. 3
Ratios of food administered to sheep belonging to Control Lot (2005)
Components 1,6-
Nutritional value per kg kg 0,98 95 95 3,5 2,5
of ratio 2,1
SU PDIN PDIE Ca P SU PDIN PDIE Ca P
UFL UFL
G g g g g g g g g G
Green mass:
0,28 0,15 12,3 14,3 0,9 0,8 7,0 1,96 1,05 86,1 100,1 6,3 5,6
bromus
Table no. 4
Ratio of food administered to sheep of L1 (2005)
1,6-
Nutritional value per kg 0,98 95 95 3,5 2,5
Compo- 2,1
kg
SU UFL PDIN PDIE Ca P nents of ratio SU UFL PDIN PDIE Ca P
g g g g g g g g g g
Green mass
0,28 0,15 12,3 14,3 0,9 0,8 6,5 1,82 0,97 80,0 93,0 6,4 5,5
bromus
Concentrated
0,25 0,21 0,21 18,9 20,4 0,2 0,6
0,86 0,86 75,8 81,5 0,8 2,5 mixture
TOTAL 2,03 1,18 98,9 113,4 6,6 6,1
The nutritional value of green mass (“borceag”) used as basic forage in

experiments carried out during 2006 (table no. 5), illustrates the fact that this
forage was of good quality, and this was especially true from the energetic point
of view (0.91 UFL /kg D.S.) and relatively well balanced energy / protein.
Table no.5
Nutritional value of “borceag” components and “borceag” itself, used as food for
sheep in experiment E2
D.S. PDIN, PDIE,
Phase (Stage) UFL UFC Ca, g P, g
Stage % g g
of vegetation
Peas
Beginning of
S1 18,0 0,18 0,17 20,0 18,0 2,4 0,5
bud formation
S2 Pods formation20,0 0,22 0,20 22,5 20,0 2,7 0,6
S3 Grain formed 33,0 0,31 0,28 36,5 30,0 4,3 0,8
Oat
S1 Growing 17,0 0,16 0,15 12,5 14,5 0,8 0,6
S2 Blossom 20,0 0,17 0,16 13,5 16,0 0,9 0,7
S3 Paste 32,0 0,21 0,18 13,0 20,0 1,0 0,7
Borceag (Peas and oat mixture)
S1 18,0 0,17 0,16 17,5 16,8 1,9 0,5
S2 20,0 0,20 0,18 19,5 18,7 2,1 0,6
S3 32,0 0,27 0,24 28,7 27,7 3,2 0,8
Average borceag 23,0 0,21 0,19 21,9 20,8 2,4 0,6
1000
Valuse per kg of D.S. 0,91 0,90 89 96 10,4 2,6
g
Note: Stage of vegetation established according to INRA system (1988).
- 842 -
As it was the case of the first experiment (2005), at control lot (LM1) it
was administered only green mass “borceag” (Table no. 6). At L1.1. it was
administered “borceag’ green mass and a corresponding amount of concentrated
mixture (Table no. 7).
Table no. 6
Ratios of food administered to sheep in control lot (2006)
Compo-
1,6-
Nutritional value per kg nents of kg 0,98 95 95 3,5 2,5
2,1
ratios
SU PDIN PDIE Ca P SU PDIN PDIE Ca P
UFL UFL
G g g g g g g G g g
Green
0,23 0,21 21,9 20,8 2,4 0,6 mass 5,0 1,15 1,05 109,5 104,0 12,0 3,0
borceag
Table no. 7
Ratios of food administered to sheep in lot L1 (2006)
1,6-
Nutritional value per kg Compo- 0,98 95 95 3,5 2,5
2,1
nents of kg
SU UFL PDIN PDIE Ca P ratios SU UFL PDIN PDIE Ca
Pg
g g g g g g g g g
Green
0,23 0,21 21,9 20,8 2,4 0,6 mass 4,5 1,03 0,94 98,5 93,6 10,8 2,7
borceag
Concen-
trated 0,25 0,21 0,21 18,9 20,4 0,2 0,6
0,86 0,86 75,8 81,5 0,8 2,5
mixture
TOTAL 1,24 1,15 117,4 114,0 11,0 3,3
It was specified previously the fact that during three years before the year
of E1 experiment, observations were made and determinations regarding the food
consumption and results and the results regarding the reproduction indexes
monitored during the experiments carried out in 2003 and 2004. These
observations were made on large numbers of sheep, practically on the entire herd
of mother sheep. During all the three mentioned years of observations in the sheep
food was used the same type of ratio formed of pasture and a concentrated
mixture. The multi year ratio is illustrated in table no. 8, and the composition and
nutritional value of concentrated mixture in table no. 9.
Table no. 8
Multi year average ratio (2000-2002) administered to sheep during the preparation
period for copulation and copulation period
1,6-
Nutritional value per kg D.S. Compo- 0,98 95 95 3,5 2,5
2,1
nents of kg
SU PDIN PDIE Ca P ratios SU PDIN PDIE Ca P
UFL UFL
g g g g g kg g g g G
Green
0,18 0,12 10,6 11,1 2,0 0,4 mass 7,90 1,42 0,95 83,8 88,0 15,8 3,2
pasture
Concen-
0,85 0,53 43,4 52,5 0,3 1,54 trated 0,18 0,15 0,09 7,8 9,4 0,09 0,28
mixture
TOTAL 1,57 1,04 91,6 97,4 15,9 3,5
- 843 -
Table no. 9
Composition and nutritional value of concentrated mixture used in sheep food
during preliminary experiments (2002-2004)
PDIN PDIE Ca P
% SU UFL
g g g G
Corn grain 32,5 0,28 0,35 23,95 35,36 0,06 0,74
Wheat bran 22,5 0,19 0,08 6,57 7,06 0,07 0,30
Oat bran 30,7 0,27 0,07 8,44 7,18 0,09 0,34
Peas debris 13,4 0,11 0,03 4,50 2,9 0,05 0,16
Premix mineral-vitaminic 1,0
Nutritional value
- per raw kg 0,85 0,53 43,46 52,50 0,27 1,54
- per kg of D.S. 0,62 51,1 61,7 0,32 1,81

Results obtained regarding the main reproduction indexes which were
monitored are illustrated in table no. 10 and figure no. 1. In order to make a more
accurate assessment of results obtained during the experiments in 2005 and 2006,
it was considered necessary to show first the results recorded in the years prior to
exeperiments described here. The average indexes during the three years of
observations are as follows:
- Fertility index 108.5%;
- Fecundity index 97.55;
- Natality index 96.2;
- Prolificacy index 113.3.
As it was specified previously these data have been obtained from large
numbers of ewes and represents the average of values recorded in three years of
observations. Consequently, it is considered that the mentioned results might be a
basis for comparison in order to assess more accurately the effects of nutrition
applied to sheep during the two experiments regarding their reproduction.
Table no. 10
Results regarding some reproduction indexes recorded
at sheep during 2005-2006
LOT
Indicators
L1 LM L1.1. LM1
Fertility 113.3 106.6 130.3 110.0
Fecundity 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0
Natality 93.3 93.3 96.6 93.3
Prolificacy 121.4 114.3 131.0 117.8
The most relevant indicator in this case is prolificacy, which is

determined mostly by the rate of ovulation. By analyzing the data in table 10 one
can see that the lowest values of this indicator (114.3%) were recorded at control
lot in 2005, which is explained by the lack of concentrated supplement from the
ratios of this lot. The fact is confirmed by the results in preliminary observations
in production conditions between 2002-2004.
- 844 -
BACK
140.0
120.0
100.0
80.0 Fertility
Fecundity
Natality
60.0
Prolificacy
40.0
20.0
0.0
L1 LM L1.1. LM1
Figure no. 1 Results regarding some reproduction indicators recorded between 2005-2006
The change of level of nourishment in a stimulating way influences

positively the fertility and prolificacy. That is, the index of fertility increases from
106.6% at LM (control lot) to 113.3% at L1 in 2005, and from 110% at LM1 to
130.3% at L1.1. in 2006. Also, the index of prolificacy increases from 114.3% at
LM to 121.4% at L1 in 2005 and from 117.8% at LM1 to 131.0% at L1.1. in 2006.
These indicators are superior to the average of the herd in the period 2002-2004.
CONCLUSIONS
¾ Flushing nutrition applied to sheep for a period of 3 – 4 weeks before
copulation and about one week after the copulation may contribute to
substantial improvement of ovulation ratio, of fecundity and implicitly of
number of lambs obtained.
¾ The use of good quality green forage (“borceag”) and the supplementing with
concentrated mixtures well balanced energetically and proteically, during the
preparation period for copulation and copulation period, may result in a
increase of index of fertility and prolificacy.
REFERENCES
1. Bogdan, Al., Târnoveanu, I., Bogdan, D. (1985) - Fertilitatea, natalitatea şi prolificitatea în
zootehnie, Vol. II, Ed. Dacia, Cluj-Napoca;
2. Halga, P., Confederat, M., Bădeliţă, C., Stan, Ghe. (1999) – Alimentaţia şi reproducţia la
erbivore domestice, Ed. Dosoftei, Iaşi;
3. Halga, P. (2002) – Alimentaţia animală, Ed. Pim Iaşi;
4. Halga, P., Pop, I. M., Avarvarei, T., Popa, V. (2005) – Nutriţie şi alimentaţie animală, Ed. Alfa, Iaşi;
5. Neacşu, C., Neacşu, M., Vicovan, G. A., Răducu, R. (2007) – Tehnologia de furajare, creştere
şi exploatare a ovinelor specializate pentru producţia de lapte, Ed. Muntenia, Constanţa.
6. Stoica, I., Stoica, L. (2001) – Bazele nutriţiei şi alimentaţiei animalelor, Ed. Coral Sanivet, Bucureşti.
- 845 -
BACK
THE GENETICAL CALIBRE OF SURĂ DE STEPĂ BREED

FROM S.C.P.C.B. DANCU, IAŞI
V. UJICĂ, V. MACIUC, Şt. CREANGĂ,
M. PÂNTEA, Rodica DĂNĂILĂ, I. NISTOR
The Sură de stepă breed, on disappearance means,is into a conservation

programm of a genetical animal resources,breeding into a reduced center to
Development and Research Stock Station-Dancu Iasi.
The Sură de stepă breed doesn`t have recently dates of morpho-
productive characters and actual genetical calibre,so our collective check over
the center of Stock Station-Dancu.The used productives have a lean genetical
calibre and with unknown ascendancy. In genetic structure of studied effective it
was identified three groups of patern half-sisters with a genetic value between
1548,22 kg (registration 79009) and 1752,33 kg (registration 79005), which
prooves little genetic value of male reproducers related to milk production index.
The center of Sură de stepă breed from Dancu farm presents a genetical
valorous funds, beeing a rustic population, which must cured and ameliorated
for meat-milk mixt production and developed up to a number of 50 cows in order
to avoid the genetical drift and tight consacvinization.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The research was made on 28 Sură de stepă cows where were follow:
• The milk production coefficients on consecutive lactations(the
first six lactation)
• Bodily development coefficients at the adult cattles
• Intrapopulation genetical structure
• heritabilitaty, reproducibility, fenotipical and genetical
correlations into the principal morpho-productive characters
The dates came from direct observations and determinations in Dancu
farm and UARZ Iasi.
All the data was worked out statistacly after a program elaborated inside
the discipline of Technologie of cattle raising and sintetized in the following
tables and garfics:

In table.1 are presented the averages and the variability of milk
production of coefficients,on consecutive lactation,at Sură de stepă breed.The
milk quantify on a normal lactation was contained between 1411 kg (lactation VI)
and 2499,14 in VI lactation which represented the maxim lactation.
- 846 -
In the first lactation, it was produced 1493,36 kg milk, about

milk,59,75% from maxim lactation value that shows the Sură de stepă breed is a
tardy breed.
Averages values and estimates of the variability of milk production on
successive lactation on Sură de stepă breed.
- 847 -
Table 2
Medium values and variability of principal morpho-productive acquirement ,on genetical groups to the Sură de stepă cattles
Cod 79005 Cod 79009 Cod 87027
Specification UM
n X ±s x s V% n X ±s x s V% n X ±s x s V%
Calve
days 3 284,67 1,76 3,05 1,07 9 283,78 1,50 4,52 1,59 10 278,30 1,51 4,78 1,72
lenght
Normal
Lactation days 3 281,33 13,28 23,00 8,17 9 247,89 12,42 67,27 27,13 9 270,33 17,72 53,18 19,67
lenght
Milk quantity kg 3 1752,33 269,80 467,31 26,66 9 1548,22 226,46 679,40 43,88 9 1558,11 138,47 415,42 26,66
Fat content % 3 4,70 0,20 0,34 7,37 9 4,74 0,11 0,33 7,07 9 3,98 0,09 0,27 6,85
Fat quantity kg 3 81,10 10,05 17,40 21,46 9 73,00 10,38 31,14 42,65 8 62,44 5,98 17,95 28,74
Withers
cm 3 122,00 3,00 5,19 4,25 9 123,17 0,74 1,83 1,49 8 121,75 1,26 3,57 2,93
height
Thoracical
cm 3 198,33 5,20 9,01 4,54 9 193,33 1,90 4,67 2,41 8 189,75 3,00 8,49 4,47
circumference
Corporal
kg 3 626,67 49,10 85,04 13,57 9 580,50 17,68 43,33 7,46 9 549,38 26,10 73,84 13,44
weight
- 848 -
The variability of milk cantitative production is very pronounced ,the

standard excursion means are among s=403,035 kg milk in VI lactation and
1150,89 kg in V lactation , and the variability coefficients among V% = 28,58 and
V%=46,05. The pronounced variability to the studied center prouve the selection
absence after parameter of base and genetical amelioration possibility through
volorous genotipe multiplication. Into the center were existed gentries with a
maxim production of 4080 kg milk on normal lactation on 4019 kg and 3080 kg.
Into the genetical structure was detected three groups of paterne
semisisters (tab.2) have a genetical means between 1548,22 kg (cod 79009 )and
1752,33 kg (cod 79005), that prouve little genetical means of male reproducers
looking at milk production coefficients.
It exists a good corporal development of genetical groups, with means for
corporal weight added in 626,67 kg (cod79005) and 549,38 kg (87027). These
dates are favourable to studied center selection for meat production amelioration
of grizzzle steppe breed.
In table 3. are presented the averages and the variability of corporal
development.
Table 3
Medium values and corporal progress variability at the Sură de stepă cattles
Specifications %
UM n X ±s x s V% Min Max Withers
higts
Withers higth
cm 22 122,27 0,70 3,29 2,69 115 128 100,00
Heigth at Cross cm 22 121,86 0,73 3,46 2,84 116 129 99,66

Croup hight cm 22 125,36 0,76 3,58 2,85 119 132 102,52
Hight at tail base cm 22 126,45 0,70 3,30 2,61 120 132 103,41
Thoracic depth cm 22 71,55 0,71 3,34 4,68 65 79 58,51
Obliquity length of the body cm 22 159,18 1,30 6,10 3,83 148 169 130,18
Horizontal length of the body cm 22 134,91 1,29 6,07 4,50 121 148 110,33
Total length of the body cm 22 198,82 1,99 9,33 4,69 178 216 162,60
Thorachic length cm 22 88,59 1,09 5,15 5,81 77 99 72,45
Croup length cm 22 50,32 0,58 2,75 5,46 47 59 41,15
Head length cm 22 49,64 0,37 1,73 3,49 47 53 40,59
Shoulder length cm 22 47,59 0,68 3,21 6,75 42 53 38,92
Chest width cm 22 41,73 0,59 2,78 6,66 37 47 34,12
Croup width of hips cm 22 50,36 0,45 2,12 4,22 47 57 41,18
Width of coxo femural croup cm 22 44,36 0,45 2,12 4,79 41 51 36,34
Width of the ischial croup cm 22 17,27 0,49 2,33 13,51 13 22 14,12
Width of head cm 22 22,00 0,19 0,92 4,20 20 23 17,99
Toracic perimeter cm 22 192,64 1,76 8,28 4,30 176 207 157,55
Leg perimeter cm 22 17,93 0,15 0,71 3,97 17 19 14,66
Corporal weight kg 22 575,59 15,78 74,05 12,86 435 710 -
- 849 -
The cows from the studied center had the mean size of 122,27 cm and
corporal weight 575,59kg , values which relieve a good corporal massiness.
The size corporal is a little pronounced ,the lot is sufficiently of omogen
(s=3,29cm,V%=2,69). The corporal weight has a big variability , with maxim
limit of 710kg and the leakage coefficients s=74,05kg,V%=12,86.
In table.4-5 are presented the values of heriability coefficients,
reproducibility and correlation into the principal morpho productive character.
.
Tabelul 4
Heritability (h2) and repetability (R) principal morpho productive, at the Sură de
stepă breed
Specification Heritability Repetability
Kidlig lenght 0,13 0,13
Normal lactation
0,28 0,30
lenght
Milk quantity 0,32 0,35
Fat procent 0,73 0,75
Fat quantity 0,34 0,40
Withers height 0,38 -
Thoracic perimeters 0,34 -
Corporal weight 0,39 -
0,8 0,75
0,8 0,73
0,7 0,7
0,6 0,6
0,5 0,38 0,39
0,34 0,34 0,5
0,32 0,4
0,4
h2
0,28
R 0,4 0,35
0,3 0,3
0,13
0,2 0,3
0,1 0,2 0,13
0
0,1
0 0 0
a ce lu i
la pte
0
lapte
celui
C a n tita te a de
P e r im e tr ul tor
Perime trul tora

Can titatea de
Caractere Caractere
2
Fig. 1: Heritability (h ) Fig. 2: Repetability (R)
- 850 -
BACK
Table 5
Fenotipical correlation (rp) and genetical(rg) into the Sură de stepă breed relation
Corelate acquirement rp rg rg±srg
Milk quantity and:
Kidling lenght 0,18 0,07 0,25 0,04
Lactation lenght -0,26 0,03 -0,27 0,05
Fat procent -0,20 0,02 -0,13 0,01
Fat quantity 0,97 0,01 0,90 0,03
Size 0,32 0,06 0,35 0,01
Thoracic perimeter 0,40 0,06 0,32 0,01
Corporal weight 0,39 0,06 0,40 0,01
Kidlind lenght and:
Lactation lenght 0,03 0,08 0,13 0,06
Fat procent 0,04 0,08 0,08 0,07
Fat quantity 0,10 0,07 0,53 0,09
Size -0,12 0,01 -0,33 0,05
Thoracic perimeter -0,10 0,07 -0,30 0,04
Corporal weight -0,04 0,09 -0,17 0,02
The heriability analyses of principal morpho productive characters

presents middle means for milk and fat quantify , that prouve a good genetical
confirmation of studied center .
Reproductibility of characters prouves that good genetical confirmation to
Sură de stepă breed and the amelioration posibility through a fenotipical selection.
CONCLUSIONS
The analyses morpho productive coefficients into the Dancu Iasi farm
results an actual genetical means and the necessity of capable selections for
growing the productive performance.
The Sură de stepă breed center to Dancu farm presents a valorous
genetical fund which must conserved and ameliorate dat direction of meat – milk
mixte production.
BIBLIOGRAFY
UJICĂ V., GÎLCĂ I. 1994 – Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor. Lucr. Practice. Uz intern, U.Ş.A.M.V.
Iaşi
UJICĂ V., MACIUC V., NISTOR I. 2007 – Managementul creşterii vacilor de lapte. Edit Alfa,
Iaşi.
- 851 -
BACK
AMELIORATION PROGRAM OF PINZGAU

BREED FROM BUCOVINA
V. UJICĂ, V. MACIUC, I. NISTOR, D. LUCACI,
Rodica DĂNĂILĂ, Şt. CREANGĂ
Breed Pinged from a compact population in north- west Suceava district

and eastern district’s of Maramures, and Bistrita Nasaud and a part of Apuseni
Mountains and district’s Hunedoara and Mehedinti. More homogeneous than
breed Brown with regard to production and morphologic and reproductive traits,
Pinzgau population from Bucovina presents the characteristics of mixt type,
more obvious flesh meat- milk. Following the milk evolution production for
Pinzgau breed of Romania between 1992- 2004 is recording an amelioration of
productive performances from 2613 kg milk in 1992 to 3750 kg milk on standard
lactation and of fat content from 3,75% to 3,81% and also protein content from
3,17% in 2001 to 3,19 in 2004. In the active population, the best cows of Pinzgau
breed have accomplished performances of 5500- 6800 kg milk, which shows the
genetic potential of biological material raised in Romania. Knowing the genetic
parameters of the main selection characters, the bulls used for reproduction and
their genetic value of amelioration, in fact of main factors that help to ameliorate
a bulls population, I created a project program of zonal amelioration by joining
the amelioration factors of selection, respective a plan with suited pairing and
the technological factors of exploitation and management.

It were studied 150 cows in first finished lactation from the private farms
located in: Vama, Sadova, Vatra Moldoviţei, Fundu Moldovei, Colacu,
Moldoviţa, Frumosu, Deia, Câmpulung Moldovenesc – oraş, Vatra Dornei,
Ortoaia, Dorna Arini, localities situated in region Campulung Moldovenesc and
Dornelor.
It was studied healthy animals and witch had finished their first lactation
in the same yesr, and for the whole material it was established the origin and it
was formed groups of relationship- half-sisters by father for each zone apart,
using the liniar description for the characters and appropriations for Pinzgau
breed. It was determined the medium phenotypic values and estimated
variabilities, on the whole population, on successive lactation and analised
appropriations, on breeding areas and on genetic families of paternal half-sisters,
variations and heritability coefficients, phenotypic and genetic correlations
between the main morfo-productive appropriations and of reproduction, the
amelioration value through BLUP methodology of some reproducers from
Pinzgau population, Bucovina. All these information helped us to elaborate the
zonal amelioration program of Pinzgau breed witch is included in National
Program of Cattle Amelioration.
- 852 -
RESULTS AND DISCUTIONS

Phenotypic and genotypic parameters on Pinzgau population from
Bucovina
Knowing the genetic structure of Pinzgau population from Bucovina, genetic
and phenotypic parameters of the main selection characters, the bulls used for
reproduction and their genetic value of amelioration, witch means the main factors
that contributed to the amelioration of cattle population, I conceived a project of zonal
amelioration program by joining the amelioration factors, the plan of selection by
combining the pairs and the technologic factors of exploitation and management.
The efficiency of the amelioration program can be estimated by specific
calculation methods, such as “stimulating” use for the first time by Lindhe (1968).
By consulting the expert bibliography, it result that in researchers
effectuated by different authors on milk or mixt breed’s from different countries,
important isn’t just maximization of genetic progress in a program of amelioration
factors management but also finding a connection between the technical side(
genetic progress) and the economic side.
Regarding Pinzgau population from Bucovina, it was effectuated previous
researches by V. Ujica and col (1968/ 1998, 2002) and recently by V. Maciuc, Mioara
Bocanici and F. Cotos ( 2000, 2004, 2005, 2006), therefore it was obtained the
necessary information for making a project program for amelioration on long time of
the breed, which is very well represented in individual forms the area, but their
productive performances were modest when the researches were made.
To accomplish a management program of genetic resources from the
private farms in the area, in terms presented above, is necessary to dispose of the
next population parameters:
- the size of effectives for selection and the active population( the
effectives in official control of production)
- medium values and the variability of productive, reproductive and
body development parameters, conformation, constitution, genetic
structures involved in amelioration program
- genetic parameters for actual and initial type for the breed in the grow area
- the size of selection lot and productive parameters
- genetic value of male reproducers used in amelioration process
- intensity of selection, difference of selection, generation interval and
genetic profit estimated.
By analyzing the dynamic evolution of Pinzgau breed from Bucovina in
period 2004- 2010 it resulted that the effectives from studies areas will grow with
1395 animals in 2010 in comparison with 2004, witch represents 6,14% growth.
The effectives of Pinzgau cattle taken in official control will be 10,25%
from the effective existent at the end of 2010 and it will be able to ensure the
genetic base for realizing the zonal amelioration program.
Following the milk production evolution at Pinzgau breed in Romania
between 1992- 2004 is visible a amelioration of productive performances from
2613 kg milk in 1992 to 3750 kg milk per standard lactation and fat content from
3,75% to 3,81% also protein content from 3,17% in 2001 to 3,195 in 2004.
- 853 -
The reproduction index at the first burn was 33 months and 17 days in
1990 and in 2004 it lowed to 30 months, registering a significant amelioration.
The same aspect is in case of calving interval witch is reduced from 451 days in
1990 to 398 days in 2004.
In the active population, champion cows of Pinzgau breed had
accomplished performances of 5500- 6800 kg milk, which shows the genetic
potential of biologic material raised in Romania.
Parameters of amelioration structure for Pinzgau population in Bucovina:

- base effective of Pinzgau breed ( cows and heifer): the total that will
be accomplished in Bucovina area in 2010 will be 24087 animals;
- the population in official control of production will be 6022 animals,
which means 25% from the base effective;
- the population structure on lactation after official control will be:
lactation I= 2228 animals( 37%);
lactation II= 1927 animals( 32%)
lactation III and over= 1867 animals( 31%)
- the active population must form 70% from checked population,
representing 4215 animals/ area. It must have the next structure:
population for testing( 80% from active population)=
3372 animals;
population for reproduction (20% from active population)
= 843 animals;
Projected parameters of amelioration program regarding

reproducers necessary and selected effectives
In Bucovina area, for 2005- 2010, must be realized the next parameters
regarding reproducers necessary and selected effectives for Pinzgau breed:
- total effective= 24087 animals;
- IA effectives( 50%) from total= 12043 animals;
- natural inseminated effective( 50%) from total= 12044 animals;
- IA effective with m.s.c. from tested ameliorators bulls( 74%) from total=
8912 animals;
- IA effective with m.s.c. from waiting bulls(26%) from total= 3131 animals;
- the necessary of tested ameliorators bulls( 10000 cows/ bull) total= 1 animal;
- the necessary of bulls/ year from nominalizated pairs, total in one year( 1/ 12)
= 12 animals;
- the necessary of bulls candidates for descending test, total in one year= 6
animals;
- the necessary of bulls/ year for natural insemination( 70 cows/ bull) total in
one year= 172 animals;
- the necessary of cows, bull mothers( 1/ 4) total in one year= 48 animals;
- the necessary of cows in elite farms( mothers X 2) total in one year= 96
animals.
- 854 -
Selection parameters for mother- bull cows and selection centers

The parameters of selection factors which will contribute to chose and
nominalization of mother bulls cows, chosen for the principal norm selection
(total quantity of fat in milk) are next( tab 1).
Table 1
Minimum exigence for nominalisating mother- bulls cows based on the main norm of
selection
Medium of active Intensity of selection Minimum exigence
Lactation
population ( X ) (R%) (Kg fat)
I- st 122,09 5 161,19
II- nd 126,04 10 155,98
III- rd 134,25 15 159,38
In Pinzgau population studied in Bucovina, at first lactation, the medium

production was 3213,83 kg milk, with a dispersion of s= 622,89 kg milk and the
type which will be realized is 4200 kg milk( EM).
To realize this objective, evolution of selection and amelioration papers
will be realized as we present below.
Establishing of genetic parameters of actual type and the projected type
for Pinzgau breed in Bucovina and the difference of selection average at first
burned are the technical papers necessary for start, whose synthesis is presented in
tables 2 and 3.
Table 2
Morfo- productive caracteristics of „ ideal type” animals of Pinzgau breed in
Bucovina
Productive type
Specification UM
Actual type 2004 Ideal type
Milk quantity (305 days) Kg 3253 4200
Fat quantity Kg 121,54 164
Fat content % 3,73 3,9
Protein quantity Kg 103,77 137
Protein content % 3,19 3,25
Milk speed Kg/min - 1,8
Udder simetry % - 44
Size cm 128 130
Weight Kg 480 520
- 855 -
Table 3
Establish the medium difference of selection at first- borned
Specification UM 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010
Efective Head. 22692 22919 23148 23379 23612 23849 24087
Natality % 85 85 85 85 85 85 85
Total obteined calfs,
Head. 19288 19481 19676 19872 20070 20272 20474
from which:
Calfes Head. 9644 9740 9838 9936 10035 10136 10237
% 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
Reform calfes
Head. 1447 1461 1476 1490 1505 1520 1535
Candidate calfes Head. 8197 8279 8362 8446 8530 8616 8702
Effective % - 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0 1,0
Replacement spore Head. - 227 229 231 234 236 238
necessar % 20 20 21 22 23 23 23
reform
Head 4538 4584 4861 5143 5431 5485 5540
Total necessar for
Head 4538 4811 5090 5374 5664 5721 5778
replacement
Holding proportion % 55,36 58,11 60,87 63,62 66,40 66,4 66,40
Difference standard
S 0,719 0,764 0,644 0,612 0,519 0,519 0,519
selection
Difference selection Kg 434 465 392 371 316 316 316
Years average
difference selection Kg 373
2005-2010
Those parameters estimated for studied cattle population will be used for
projecting the zonal amelioration program of Pinzgau breed in Bucovina.
The first step- it was calculated intensity of selection in the whole
population, which can be realized with:
E
R= ;
F
Where:
R= intensity of selection( percent of animals stopped for reproduction)
E= percent of replacement of base effective
F= number of products of female sex, anualy obteined from each cow by
sex report and natality percent(85%)
For the analised situation F= 0,4
The repalcement percent was calculated with:

100
E= ;
V2 − V1
- 856 -
Where:
V2 = medium age of reform (8,5 years for the analised situation)
V1 = medium age of the first birth (2,6 years)
Replacing this dates in formula, we obtain:
100
E= = 16,94% ;
8,5 − 2,6
16,94
R= = 42,25%
0,4
So, on total population for mentaining the dimension of the effective is
possible that the next generation to be produced with 42,35% from mentioned
effective.
Next step in elaborating the zonal amelioation program of Pinzgau breed

from Bucovina was calculation of minimum exigence (E min) corresponding for
the main three characters( milk, fat, protein) that the cows must realize to be
accepted in the selection centre using:
Emin = X ± K × s, where:
X = population value;
K = percent coeficient of normal distribution with standard values( 80%)
s= standard deviation
For cattle population of Pinzgau breed, Bucovina the numeric parameters

are:
Emin=3253 + 0,80 x 1103 = 4135Kg milk
Emin=121,35 + 0,80 x 34,84 = 149,41 Kg fat
Emin=110,69 + 0,80 x 18,32 = 125,34 Kg protein
From de ecuation abouve results that in the selection lot must be included
all Pinzgau cows from population which realized 4135 kg milk, 149,41kg fat,
125,34 kg protein.
To eliminate the influence of the medium factors and to appropriate as
much as possible the phenotypic value to the genotypic values, milk production
was corrected by age and born season with coefficients help from especial
literature for Pinzgau breed( by V. Ujica, 2000).
Having this values it was calculated probably production capacity( CPP):
CPP = X p +b1( X s- X p)
- 857 -
n× R
b1 =
1 + (n − 1) × R
The regression coefficient for the milk production index estimated in

Pinzgau population from Bucovina have the next values:
b1milk = 0,37
b1fat = 0,45
b1protein = 0,47
Having all the necessary elements it was calculated the potential
productiv capacity for Pinzgau population from Bucovina in this way:
CPPmilk=3253 + 0,37(4135-3253) = 3579 Kg milk
CPPfat=121,53 + 0,45(149,41-121,53) = 134,07 Kg fat
CPPprotein=110,69 + 0,47(125,34-110,69) = 117,57 Kg protein
Next step: calculating probably amelioration values(VAP) by:
VAP = X p + b1 ( X s- X p)
For one lactation b1 = h2 for analised character and for more values of b1
will be:
n × h2
b1 = ;
1 + (n − 1) × R
In case of Pinzgau population from Bucovina h2 values in first lactation
will be:
h2 = 0,27 for milk
h2 = 0,21 for fat
h2 = 0,40 for protein
Using this dates, regresion coefficients values will be:
8 × 0,27
b1 milk = = 1,32;
1 + (8 − 1) × 0,09
8 × 0,21
b1 fat = = 0,98;
1 + (8 − 1) × 0,1
8 × 0,40
b1 protein = = 1,88.
1 + (8 − 1) × 0,1
And the probably amelioration values( VAP) for milk production index of
Pinzgau breed from Bucovina will be:
- 858 -
VAP = 3579 + 1,32 (3579-3253) = 4009 kg milk

VAP = 134,07 + 0,98 (134,07-121,53) = 146,35 kg fat
VAP = 117,57 + 1,88 (117,57-110,69) = 130,50 kg protein
It means that the probably amelioration value of Pinzgau population from
Bucovina will be: 4009 kg milk, 146,35 kg fat and 130,5 kg protein.
To accomplish the proposed objectives with the zonal amelioration

program, which means 4200 kg milk, 164 kg fat and 137 kg protein is necessary
to accomplish a genetic progress of 191 kg milk, 17,65 kg fat and 6,5 kg protein.
Realizing this genetic progress is possible by the selection intensity
applied and difference of selection used in Pinzgau population from Bucovina
(tab 4).
Obtaining the genetic progress proposed for accomplished involves using
some selection differences as:
∆g 191
S= 2
= = 707 kg milk;
h 0,27
∆g 17,65
S= = = 84,04 kg fat;
h2 0,21
∆g 6,5
S= 2
= = 16,25 kg protein.
h 0,40
To accomplish the propoused targets for milk productions index in next

generation, will be used m.s.c. from bulls which were tested as ameliorators by
descending test and had medium performances/ descendents of at least 6500kg
milk, 254 kg fat and 211 kg protein.
Knowing the probable medium value of amelioration of selection group
and genetic value of male reproducers used in population can be calculated total
selection difference by:
PT + PM
ST+M = - X p;
2
For this situation ST+M will be:

6500 − 4009
ST+M = - 3253 = 2001 kg milk
2
254 + 146,35
ST+M = - 121,53 = 78,64 kg fat
2
211 + 130,50
ST+M = - 110,69 = 60,06 kg protein
2
- 859 -
Table 4
Possible genetic profit (∆g) in 2010 in
Pinzgau population from Bucovina depending on intensity selection (R %) aplicated
Selection
Selection efect
Selection difference
Active Meximum (∆g)
Selection group difference kg
population exigence of Selection
average in From a
average selection group intensity
standard generation to Annual
R% Milk Fat
units another
s kg kg
Milk Fat Milk Fat Milk Fat Milk Fat Milk Fat
kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg kg
3342,34 129,34 2278,80 64,45 3504,36 136,36 90 0,195 162,06 7,02 93,14 6,98 16,93 1,27
2478,21 91,84 3570,00 139,21 85 0,274 227,66 9,87 103,77 7,78 18,86 1,41
2644,39 97,84 3633,15 141,95 80 0,350 290,81 12,61 114,00 8,39 20,72 1,52
2777,33 104,82 3694,63 144,62 75 0,424 252,29 15,28 123,97 9,29 22,54 1,69
2910,27 110,59 3755,29 147,25 70 0,497 412,95 17,91 133,79 10,03 24,32 1,82
3558,37 138,71 3815,94 149,88 65 0,570 473,60 20,54 143,62 10,77 26,11 1,95
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BACK
Using this selection diferences in Pinzgau population from Bucovina we

can obtain a genetic profit of:
∆g= h2 x S
∆g= 0,27 x 2001 = 540,27 Kg milk
∆g= 0,21 x 78,64 = 16,51 Kg fat
∆g= 0,40 x 60,06 = 24,02 Kg protein
Genetic profit proposed for accomplish is: 191 kg milk, 17,65 kg fat and
6,5 kg protein and by calculated estimates, possible genetic profit will be: 540,27
kg milk, 16,51 kg fat, 24,02 kg protein.
By reporting calculated genetic profit to proposed genetic profit can be
obtain number of necessary generations to accomplish the initial targets:
540,27 : 191 = 2,82 generations or 15,51 years for milk production ;

16,51 : 17,64 = 0,93 generations or 5,11 years for fat quantity;
24,02 : 6,5 = 3,69 generations or 20,29 years for protein quantity.
This operations are valid only if we take in consideration actual

productive performances of Pinzgau breed from Bucovina and interval between
generations of 5,5 years.
CONCLUSIONS:
By improving the exploitation technologic factors( especially food) and
management, by using reproducers with raised genetic values, including genetic
engineering(embryo transfer, sexed sperm and, others) accomplishing of
projected parameters could be obtained in short time periods, by shorting the
generations interval, than those resulted from planning for Pinzgau population
from Bucovina.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
UJICĂ V., GÎLCĂ I. 1994 – Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor. Lucr. Practice. Uz intern, U.Ş.A.M.V.
Iaşi
UJICĂ V., MACIUC V., NISTOR I. 2007 – Managementul creşterii vacilor de lapte. Edit Alfa, Iaşi
- 861 -
BACK
SIMMENTAL BREED RECURS AGAIN IN THE

REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA
Irina VASILACHE, S. CHILIMAR
The Simmental race for the first time was imported in Republic of
Moldova in some farms on the north in period of the second part of XVIII
century. But this race suffers essential modifications. At first the Simmental race
was breeding as a pure race but now is cross with other race in our country as
Black and White race, Jersey and Holstein race. In 2007 were imported 30
animals from Germany with aim to improve the local population.
MATERIAL AN METOD
The creation a population of Simmental race in the Republic of Moldova

is investigated on the base of publications. It is studied some indexes of
populations of Simmental race which was delivered from Germany to Republic of
Moldova.
THE RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
For the first time the Simmental race was imported in some farms on the
north of Republic of Moldova in period of the second part of VIII century. These
races suffer essential modifications in process of adapt, creation a new population
of Simmental race.
At first, the Simmental race was breeding as a pure race and the
reproduction bulls was use in cross with local cattle, which was represent the half-
breeds of different generation of local cattle. In period of XIX century and the
first part of XX century on the North of Republic of Moldova was created a local
population of Simmental race, which was considered as a milk race.
In accordance with researches of professor Chilimar S., lecturer Lupan
V.(1967) and other colaborators ( Miron I., Duschevici V., Dudnic I.) the cattle of
this type are docile animals with robust build, are resisting to stress. These
animals are acclimating to local conditions and well value the pastures and the
residues in industry of processing the raw material. The weight of calves at birth
is 30 - 40 kg, at age of 6 months -- 170 - 180 kg, the weight of grow-up caws is
475 - 560 kg. The milk production of caws is 2650 kg and of grow-up caws -
2875 - 3125 kg milk. The youth realise a daily spore 900 - 1000 g, but at age of
15 - 16 months the weight was 500 kg.
In period of years 1960 - 1970 the selection activity was to increase the
milk production, it was crossed the caws of Simmental race with bulls of pure
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Jersey race and the half-breeds which were got through cross the Jersey race with
Black and White race, which were imported from experimental farm "Gorchi
lenlinschie" from Agricultural Academy in URSS. But the researches from
Institute of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine proved that milk
production and percent of fat in milk didn't increase, but weight and meat
production decreased (Chilimar S., Dudnic I., Lupan V. 1967).
In 1974 in Republic of Moldova was investigated a new population of
type Black and White race through cross Simmental race with Black and White
race and Holstein race. Thus it was obtain a new population with Simmental,
Jersey, Black and White and Holstein genes. Half-breeds of III and IV generation
were breeding «in self".
The new type of Simmental race in Republic of Moldova has stature
130 - 131 cm, weight of caws is 520 - 600 kg and weight of bulls is 850 - 950 kg,
the weight of calves at birth is 32 - 38 kg. The daily spore of bulls is 750 - 1000 g.
At age of 16-18 months has the weight 380 - 400 kg. The milk production of caws
of new type was 4500 - 5000 kg in one year with 3.5 - 3.6 % fat and 3.2 - 3.3 %
of protein in milk.
The forage conditions, the weight and milk production of local
population of Simmental race worsen when cattle passed from big farms to
particular farms. For improvement milk and meat production it was decide to
import and use the milk-meat type of Simmental race from Germany. In 2007
year was imported 30 animals from Germany, 9 animals is find at Institute of
Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Medicine. The milk production of their
mothers is 5521 - 9126 kg milk with 3.26 - 4.76 5 fat and 3.2 - 3.76 % of protein
in milk. The milk production of their grandmothers is 4635 - 9644 kg with 3.45 -
4.09 % of fat and 3.3 - 3.86 % of protein in milk. It's investigate to acclimatize the
imported cattle, their productive and reproductive quality that permit to use the
population of Simmental race which was import from Germany with aim to
improve the local population of Simmental race.
CONCLUSION
Using the imported cattle in Republic of Moldova in period of XVII

century contribute to creation a new population. This population, which include
animals which had genes from Simmental, Jersey, Black and White and Holstein
race are considered as a milk type of population. In Republic of Moldova was
imported a population from Germany whi SUMMARY ch was considered as
meat-milk type.
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BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chilimar S., Dudnic I., Lupan V. Vârascivanie pomesnoho i simmentaliscoho molodneaca na
miaso. Rev. Selisacoe hozeaistvo Moldavii, nr. 12, 1967, paj. 24 – 25.
2. Lupan V., Chilimar S., Ujică V. Tehnologia creşterii b ovinelor. Manual F.E.P. Tipografia
centrală, Chişinău, 1907, 356 paj.
3. Chilimar S., Lupan V., Dudnic I. Creşterea intensivă şi îngrăşarea bovinelor. Ed. Cartea
moldovenească, Chişinău, 1974, 114 paj.
4.Chilimar S., Duşchevici V. Tehnologia vârascivania i otcorma crupnogo rogatoho scota., Ed.
Timpul, Chişinău, 1986, 84 paj.
5. Proizvodstvo goviadinî na promâşlennoi osnove v M.S.S.R., Chişinău, 1987, 57 paj.
6. Chilimar S. Tehnologii de creştere a tineretului taurin. ACSA, Chişinău, 2003.
- 864 -
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TECHNOLOGIES OF EXPLOITING YOUNG SHEEP AND

GOATS IN VARIOUS PEDI-CLIMATIC AREAS OF
ROMANIA
Camelia Zoia ZAMFIR, Carmen Ana PIVODA, Alina NICOLESCU,
Ana ENCIU, N. CUTOVA, Daniela JITARIU
It was aimed the increase of quantity of lamb and kid meat, the increase
of the quality of carcasses by industrial crossbreeding which determine the
improvement of performances of the obtained products, associating the quality of
two breeds, having benefit from the effect of complementary and of heterosis,
using the technologies of intensive (100-120 days) and semi-intensive (180 -200
days) fattening, using cheaper fodders, obtained ecologically from fields
fertilized with natural fertilizers. There were made weight increases of more than
200 g/day at lambs and of more than 140 g/day at lambs, with a final weight of
35-38 kg at lambs, 32-34 kg at kids, with the slaughter output of over 50%. At
commercial chopping of the carcass the meat of 1st quality had values of 50-55%
at lambs and of 50-51% at kids, making high values at the report of meat-bones
(meat quantity 52.6%-56.2%, bones quantity 23.8%-25.3%, at lambs and kids the
meat quantity was of 62.7%-63.5%, and of bones it was of 20.51%-22.8%). The
percent of collagen reported to the content of protein. From the dry substance
was of 3.09% - 2.12% at the lambs intensively and semi-intensively fattened.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The researches were made at ICDCOC Palas and at the institute’s
stations. The animals in the works were watched individually under the report of
own performances, registering data regarding: the control of productions; the
main reproduction indicators; the evolution of the body weight at lambs and kids;
control of milk production and qualitative determinations of milk. For the sheep
and goats there were assured fodder ratios depending on the physiological estate
of animals.
It was made the breeding and fattening of the young sheep and goats in
semi-intensive system, assuring the fodders and the surfaces of pastures necessary
to apply the scheme of breeding and fattening: in the stable - accommodation -15
days, breeding and fattening 35 days; at pasture - accommodation 15 days,
breeding and fattening 90 days; in the stable - accommodation 10 days, breeding
and fattening 35, total 200 days. The intensive fattening of lambs and kids was
made in a period of fattening of 100 days, structured in 3 stages: accommodation
15 days, the youth was accustomed with the new diet of feeding and with the way
of administering the fodders, chopped and mixed, unique mixture, administrated
ad libitum, in three daily meals, with a nutritive content of 0.7 UN /kg and 100 g
PBD/kg fodders; fattening –60 days, administering an „unique mixture” with
0,75 UN/kg and 140 g PBD/kg fodders; finishing 25 days with unique mixture
- 865 -
"ad libitum" in 2 meals, containing 0,80 UN and 200 g PBD /kg fodder; it was
made the control of fodder consumption.
The control of fattening was made by individual periodical weighing,
establishing the average total increase on the three stages of the fattening period
and by the average daily increase. In the end of the fattening period it was made
the control slaughter, calculating: the slaughter output and the commercial
output. The chopping of the carcass on commercial zones was made after the
French system.

It was made the breeding and fattening of the young sheep and goats in
semi-intensive system providing the necessary fodders and surfaces. The semi-
intensive fattening of the lambs from Merinos de Palas breed and of the crossbred F1
Texel x Merinos de Palas fattened in semi-intensive system is given in table no. 1.
Table no. 1.
Fattening of the young sheep in semi-intensive system

Merinos de Palas Texel x Merinos de Palas F1
System of Stage of Weight in Weight Average Weight in Weight Average
Maintenance fattening the in the daily the in the daily
beginning end of increase beginning end of increase
of the the (g) of the the (g)
period period period period
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Stable Accommodation 12,0 14,1 140 13,2 15,9 160
Breeding and 14,1 19,7 160 15,9 23,25 200
fattening
Pasture Accommodation 19,7 21,6 126 23,25 25,42 145
Breeding and 21,6 33,5 132 25,42 38,75 148
fattening
Finishing 35,0 41,5 185 40,05 47,08 201
Total - 12,0 41,5 147 13,2 47,08 169
Fattening
period
Taking into account that the industrial crossbreeding allows the

improvement of performances of the obtained products, associating the qualities
of two breeds, benefiting from the effect of complementarities and the heterosis
effect, we compared the average daily increases of the two lots of lambs fattened
in semi-intensive system. The F1 Texel x Merinos de Palas crossbreds during the
all periods of fattening registered bigger average daily increases, the average daily
increase being of 169 g/day at the crossbred F1 lambs and of 147 g/day at the
- 866 -
Merinos de Palas lambs and the final weight was of 47.08 kg at the crossbred F1
lambs and of 41.5 kg .
The semi-intensive fattening of the kids from Carpathian breed and of the
F1 Alba de Banat x Carpathian crossbreds, fattened in semi-intensive system is
given in table no. 2.
Table no. 2.
The fattening of the young kids in semi-intensive system
Carpathian Breed Alba de Banat x Carpathian
System of Stage of F1
Maintenance fattening Weight in Weight Average Weight in Weight Average
the in the daily the in the daily
beginning end of increase beginning end of increase
of the the (g) of the the (g)
period period period period
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)
Breeding and 13,5 17,17 105 14,1 17,98 111
fattening
Pasture Accommodation 17,17 18,44 85 17,98 19,37 93
Breeding and 18,44 26,54 90 19,37 28,1 97
fattening
Finishing 27,54 31,39 110 29,15 33,07 112
Total - 12,0 31,39 97 12,5 33,07 103
Fattening
period
Like the lambs’ fattening, at kids, the F1 crossbreds Alba de Banat with
Carpathian breed have registered in all fattening periods, bigger average daily
increases, the average daily increase being of 103 g/day at F1 crossbreds, Alba de
Banat x Carpathian and 97 g/day at Carpathian breed, and the final weight was of
31.39 kg at the F1 crossbreds from Carpathian breed of 33.07 kg.
At fattening the kids in intensive system, of 100 days (table no. 3) the
lambs of Merinos de Palas breed mad an average daily increase, on the whole
period, of 167 g/day, having in the end of fattening the weight of 34.35 kg, and
the Texel x Merinos de Palas crossbred lambs had the final weight of 39.90 kg
and an average daily increase on the whole fattening period, of 225 g/day.
It was made the intensive fattening of the kids of Carpathian breed and of
F1 crossbreds, Alba de Banat x Carpathian, and the results of intensive fattening of
the kids are shown in table no. 4.
- 867 -
Table no. 3.
Fattening of the young sheep in intensive system (100 days)
Breed/ Initial Fattening phases – duration in days Total
population Weigh Accommodation Average
Fattening (60 Finishing daily
t (15 days) days) (25 days)
(kg) increase
Weight Average Weight Average Weight Average (g/day)
(kg) daily (kg) daily (kg) daily
increase increase increase
(g/day) (g/day) (g/day)
Merinos 17,70 19,18 98,46 29,45 170,50 34,35 197,67 167
de Palas
Texel x 17,35 20,15 186,6 33,86 228,5 39,90 241,6 225
Merinos
de Palas
F1
Table no. 4.
Fattening of the young goats in intensive system (100 days)
Lot Weight in the Weight in the Total weight Average
beginning of end of increase daily
fattening fattening (kg) increase
(kg) (kg) (g)
Kids of Carpathian 14,72 30,23 15,51,07± 155,1
breed (n=20)
Kids of F1 Alba de 15,01±0± 32,45 17,44±0,57± 174,4
Banat x Carpathian
(n=20)
The kids from Carpathian breed made an average daily increase, during
the whole period of fattening of 155,1 g/day, having in the end of the fattening
period the weight of 30,23 kg, and the F1 Alba de Banat x Carpathian kids made a
n average daily increase of 144.4 g/day, having in the end of the fattening period
the weight of 32,45 kg.
After finishing the period of fattening there were made the control
slaughters and the appreciation of the obtained carcasses. In table no. 5 there are
shown the weight of carcass and the output at sloughing of lambs and kids.
Table no. 5.
Weight of carcass and the output at sloughing of lambs and kids
Specification Live Weight of Output (%)
n weight carcass Slaughter Commercia
(kg) (kg) l
Merinos de Palas Lambs 10 34,35 15,06 43,84 51,90
Texel x Merinos de Palas F1 10 39,90 19,36 48,52 55,77
Kids of Carpathian breed 10 31,39 13,75 43,80 51,76
Kids of F1 Alba de Banat x 10 33,07 14,87 44,96 52,52
Carpathian
- 868 -
At the lambs and kids intensively fattened obtained bigger outputs at

crossbreds, both the slaughter and the commercial one. So, at F1 Texel x Merinos
de Palas crossbred the slaughter output was of 48.52% and the commercial
output was of 55.77 %, and at the Merinos de Palas lambs the slaughter output
was of 43.84% and the commercial one is of 51.90%. At the F1 Alba de Banat x
Carpathian crossbred kids the slaughter output was of 44,96%, and the
commercial one, of 52,2%. At the lambs of Carpathian breed the slaughter output
was of 43,80% and the commercial output, of 51,76%.
At the lambs and kids intensively fattened it was made the chopping of
carcasses, and the rate of the commercial areas is presented in table no. 6.
Table no. 6
The commercial chopping of the lambs and kids intensively fattened
Meat quality Merinos de F1 Texel x Carpathian F1 Alba de
(%) Palas Merinos de Breed Banat x
Palas Carpathian
1st Quality - leg 35,98 35,18 32,12 33,14

-filet 7,10 10,14 9,15 10,19
-cutlet I 8,48 10,30 8,98 8,45
st
Total 1 Quality 51,56 55,62 50.25 51.78
2nd Quality - cutlet II 7,66 6,81 7,15 7,22
- back 17,40 21,24 25,1 23,9
Total 2nd Quality 26,51 28,05 32.25 31.12
3rd Quality - chest 11,53 9,83 10,7 10,3
- neck 10,40 6,50 6,8 6,80
Total 3rd Quality 21,93 16,33 17.5 17.1
The rate of the commercial of 1st quality was of 51,56% at Merinos de

Palas kids, and at the F1 Texel x Merinos de Palas crossbred lambs, of 55,62%.
The 2nd quality was 26,51% at the Merinos de Palas lambs, and at the F1 Texel x
Merinos de Palas crossbred lambs, 28,05%. The 3rd quality was 21,93% at
Merinos de Palas lambs and 16,33% at the F1 Texel x Merinos de Palas crossbred
lambs.
At the kids of Carpathian breed the rate of the commercial areas of 1st
quality was of 50,25% and at the F1 Alba de Banat x Carpathian crossbred of
51,78%. Regarding the rate of the commercial areas of the 2nd quality was of
32,25% at the kids of Carpathian breed and of 31,12 at the F1 Alba de Banat x
Carpathian crossbreds. The 3rd quality was 17,5% at the kids of Carpathian breed
and 17.1% at the kids of F1 Alba de Banat x Carpathian.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
¾ At the semi-intensive fattening the F1 Texel x Merinos de Palas crossbreds
registered bigger average daily increases, 169 g/day at the F1crossbred lambs
and of 147 g/at the Merinos de Palas lambs, and the final weight was of 47,08
kg at F1 crossbred lambs and at the lambs of Merinos de Palas breed, 41,5 kg.
¾ At the fattening in intensive system, the lambs of Merinos de Palas breed had
an average daily increase, of 167 g/day, making in the end of fattening the
weight of 34,35 kg, and the Texel x Merinos de Palas crossbred lambs had the
final weight of 39,90 kg and an average daily increase of 225 g/day.
¾ At the fattening in intensive system, the kids from Carpathian breed made an
average daily increase of 155.1 g/day, having in the end of the fattening
period, the weight of 30.23 kg, and the F1 Alba de Banat x Carpathian kids
had an average daily increase of 144.4 g/day, having in the end of the
fattening period, the weight of 32.45 kg.
¾ The output at sacrifice was: at F1 Texel x Merinos de Palas crossbred the
slaughter output, of 48,52% and the commercial output was of 55,77 %; at
Merinos de Palas lambs, the slaughter output, of 43,84% and the commercial
one, of 51,90%; at the F1 Alba de Banat x Carpathian crossbred kids, of
44,96, the commercial one, of 52,2%; at the kids of Carpathian breed, the
slaughter output, of 43,80% and the commercial output, of 51,76%.
¾ The rate of the commercial regions of 1st quality at the Merinos de Palas
lambs was of 51,56%, at the F1 Texel x Merinos de Palas crossbred lambs, of
55,62%; at the kids of Carpathian breed, of 50,25% , at the F1 Alba de Banat
x Carpathian crossbreds, of 51,78%.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. ANDRIEU, J.; DEMARQUILLY, C. - 1987, Valeur nutritive des fourages: tables et

prevision. Bull.Tech. CRZV Teix, INRA, 70 , 6-73.
2. BURLACU, GH. – The Nutritive Value of Fodders, Norms of Feeding and Ratios. Ceres
Editor, Bucharest, 1983.
3. CORCY, CJ. -L'elevage de Caprins.Sirc, Marigry de Chatel. France 1991.
4. DARABAN, S. 2006 – Technology of Sheep Breeding, Ed. Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca,
5. JARRIGE, R. ; RUCKEBUSCH, Y. ; DEMARQUILLY, C. ; FARCE M.H. JOURNET
M. -1995. Nutrition des ruminats domestiques -ingestion et digestion INRA Paris.
6. NEACSU, C. and team. 2005- Technology of foddering, breeding and exploiting goats, Ed.
Muntenia, Constanta.
7. OUIN, S. - Le niveau genetique des troupeaux permet-il une amelioration des rezultats tehnico-
economiques . La Chevre, 202, 23-25, 1994.
8. PASCAL, CONSTANTIN - 2000 – Goats breeding, Editor of “AXIS“ Foundation, Iasi.
9. PADEANU, I.- 2000- Productions of sheep and goats, Ed. Mirton, Timisoara.
10. TAFTA, V. – Production and reproduction of Goats. Ceres Editor, Bucharest, 1996.
11. TAFTĂ V. – Technique of evaluating the productive performances at sheep. Ceres Editor,
Bucharest, 1998.
12. TAFTĂ V. and team. – Production, Improvement and reproduction of sheep. Ceres Editor,
Bucharest, 1997.
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A STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF MEASURE 3.1 –

INVESTMENTS IN AGRICULTURAL HOLDINGS
WITHIN THE S.A.P.A.R.D. PROGRAMME
IN THE 1ST NORTHEASTERN REGION
Anca COSOVANU, E. TICAU, T. ROBU
The paper points out the impact of measure 3.1 – Investments in agricultural
holdings within the S.A.P.A.R.D. Programme in the 1st Northeastern region.
It presents the results of the studies undertaken regarding the yearly
evolution of project submission, the number of projects and their value for each
department, the proportion of plant farms and livestock farms in the region, the
distribution of animal species for each department and the weight of measure
3.1 among the other measures.
The general conclusion is that, by means of the investments made with
S.A.P.A.R.D support, agricultural holdings registered a satisfactory progress,
absorbing 123 209 836 EUR, but it is still necessary to accelerate the
development of agricultural farms in order to be able to achieve a competitive
sustainable agriculture.
Agriculture is a strategic field in the European Union, as it represents a

means of subsistence for the population of all member states, but also because it
solves key problems such as: market balance, social stability, food safety,
protection of life and environment.
Once rural population will be involved in efficient activities, adapted to
current standards, the competitiveness discrepancies between Romania and the
European Union will be substantially reduced.
The need to reorganize this field according to European Union standards
supposes adopting new planning, organization, motivation, coordination and control
models for each one of its mechanisms. Thus, it is necessary to create adequate
management structures that follow these new directions in order to comply with the
demands and requirements of the Common Agricultural Policy (Zahiu Letitia,
2006; Margareta Oancea, 2003; Manolescu Irina, 2006; Tracy M., 2000).
The Special Pre-Accession Programme for Agriculture and Rural
Development (S.A.P.A.R.D.) was initiated based on Council Regulation no.
1268/1999 regarding the support for the pre-accession measures in the field of
agriculture and rural development in the candidate countries in Central and
Eastern Europe.
Measure 3.1 – Investments in agricultural holdings, represents the most
important component of the S.A.P.A.R.D. programme for agriculture.
This support is justified by the poor equipment in Romanian agriculture,
by the lack of adaptation to production conditions, which are very diverse (soil
type, slope, climate, etc) and also by the inability to carry out mechanical work in
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the optimum periods as indicated by the production technologies. Moreover, the

physical capital is still characterized by a high degree of deterioration, being also
technically obsolete.
This measure will ensure the financial support for investments in private
agricultural plant and livestock holdings that will rationalize and reorient
production towards improving product quality by applying competitive
technologies, which could also limit environment-related damages.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The research was carried out between 2004 and 2006 in the Regional
Payment Centre for Rural Development and Fishing and its aim was to study the
impact of the S.A.P.A.R.D. Programme in the 1st Northeastern region.
This study included drawing up the research plan for data collection,
bibliographic research, monitoring statistic data and centralizing questionnaires
designed for promotion.
In order to obtain eloquent results, the following factors were taken into
account:
¾ The yearly evolution of project submission;
¾ The number of projects and their value;
¾ The proportion of plant and livestock farms in the region;
¾ The distribution of animal species for each department;
¾ The classification of beneficiaries according to age groups;
¾ The weight of measure 3.1 among the other measures.
RESULTS AND COMMENTS

Number of projects
Figure no. 1. The yearly evolution of project submission
By analysing Figure no. 1, we can notice an ascending trend resulting

from several factors such as: regional, departmental and local promotion, the
increasing confidence in the S.A.P.A.R.D. Programme, the procedure
simplification, the experience acquired by consultants, the easier access to
financial resources by means of “The Farmer” Programme, the Guarantee Fund
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for Rural Credit, The Guarantee Fund for Small Business Credits and, last but not
least, the need to absorb European funds.
Table no. 1.
Compared application of measure 3.1 in different departments in terms of number
and value of projects
No. Department No. of projects Value Percentage
1. Iasi 123 28 887 839 23.92%
2. Bacau 52 13 640 958 10.11%
3. Botosani 107 25 168 231 20.81%
4. Neamt 70 16 494 295 13.61%
5. Suceava 82 16 478 193 15.95%
6. Vaslui 80 22 540 320 15.56%
Total 514 123 209 836 100%
According to the situation presented in Table no. 1, the department of Iasi

is registered with the highest number of projects (123), but also with the highest
value. This situation is determined, among others, by the following factors:
¾ It has the largest number of inhabitants in the 1st Northeastern
region;
¾ It has the largest agricultural area;
¾ The projects submitted were of high value.
Iasi is followed by the department of Botosani, with 107 projects and an

amount of 25 168 231 EUR and the department of Suceava, with 82 projects and
an amount of 16 478 193 EUR.
Comparative situation of livestock and

plant farms in the 1st Northeastern region
Livestock farms
Plant farms
Figure no. 2. Comparative situation in terms of types of farms in the 1st Northeastern
region
- 873 -
Figure no. 2 presents the proportion of livestock and plant farms in the 1st
Northeastern region. We can notice that the number of plant farms is 10.12%
higher than livestock farms.
Table no. 2.
Allocation according to animal species depending on districts
Livestock farms – number of
projects
District Other
Sheep, Common types
Cattle Pigs Poultry
goats snipes of
farms
Iasi (46 projects) 36 1 - 7 2 -

Bacau (26 15 - - 7 3 1
projects)
Botosani(52 projects) 46 3 1 2 - -
Neamt (24 projects) 19 1 - 2 2 -
Suceava (60 projects) 56 1 - 3 - -
Vaslui (23 projects) 9 1 3 9 1
Total 181 7 1 24 16 1
In the Suceava district there have been registered the most livestock
farms from the 1st Northeastern region.(60), from which 56 cattle farms. An
important contribution to this result has SC Dorna SRL which has supported the
locals in starting some businesses with cattle farms. Also the geographical and
social characteristics of the area are favourable for the development of this field.
In the Botosani district there have been registered 52 livestock farms,

from which 46 cattle farms, a result which puts the area on the second place in the
regional classification.
In the Iasi district through the S.A.P.A.R.D. program there have been 46
livestock farms founded, the biggest share representing the cattle farms with a
number of 36. This is owed to the possibilities that the relief offers being an area
with hills thus determining the economic function that sets accent on tree
viticulture and the raising of animals.
On the last three places there were the Neamt, Bacau and Vaslui districts
with a umber of 24, 26 and 23 livestock farms, the beneficiaries being oriented
mostly on the vegetable farms, investing in agricultural cultures and fruit farming.
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Age of the beneficiaries
Beneficiaries under 35 years old

Beneficiaries over 35 years old
Figure 3: Allocation according to the age group of the beneficiaries.
The difference between the beneficiaries under 35 years old and the ones
over 35 years old is not very significant, this being motivated by the following
aspects: through the S.A.P.A.R.D. program there was desired the supporting of
young farmers, who received in comparison to the farmers over this age, an
extra10 points to the selection criteria. The farmers over 35 years old have
compensated in other selection criteria such as the total eligible value of the
projects, in the detriment of the young farmers.
COMPLIANT PROJECTS-REGION1
No. Of Projects - 1 .264
600
514
500
400 M 1.1
296 293 M 3.1
M 3.4
300
M 3.5
M 1.2
200 132
M 2.1
100
26
3
0
M 1.1 M 3.1 M 3.4 M 3.5 M 1.2 M 2.1
Figure no. 4 – The weight of measure 3.1 as number of projects among the other measures
By analyzing figure no. 4 we notice that Measure 3.1 rests with 514
project registrations, which places it on the first place. This situation takes place
as a result of some determining factors such as:
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¾ It is addressed to a broad category of beneficiaries - individual

agricultural producers, family agricultural associations, private
agricultural associations, commercial companies;
¾ The values of the projects are accessible 5000 – 2000000 E;
¾ The area of activity is very familiar being part of the traditions of
the area;
¾ It represents a way of life.
COMPLIANT PROJECTS-REGION1
Value of the projects -610.941.533 EURO
242.445.701
250.000.000
200.000.000 179.278.477
M 1.1
150.000.000 123.209.836 M 3.1
M 3.4
M 3.5
100.000.000
M 1.2
41.780.388 M 2.1
50.000.000
18.227.186
5.999.944
0
M 1.1 M 3.1 M 3.4 M 3.5 M 1.2 M 2.1
Figure no.5 – The average of measure 3.1. among the other measures as project value.
According to figure no. 5 the value of the projects for measure 3.1 is of
123.209.836, being situated on the third place. We can make the following
observations:
¾ The value of the projects within the measure 3.1 is lower
compared to measures 2.1 and 1.1;
¾ Within measure 2.1 the beneficiaries represented by the Local
Councils received a public contribution of 100% and also the
projects targeted infrastructure modernizations, representing very
high values;
¾ Within measure 1.1. the beneficiaries represented by commercial
companies have a high capital which determined the accessing of
high value projects.
CONCLUSIONS
Following the analysis performed at CRPDRP 1 on the impact of measure
3.1 we can formulate the following conclusions:
1) As a result of the accumulation of experience, of effective advertising and
of the facilitation of the access to financial resources by the beneficiaries,
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BACK
the absorption process of the European funds has been accentuated at an

alert pace;
2) The main arguments which determine the classification of some districts
on the first places are: the existence of capital, the degree of information,
the characteristics of the area, but also tradition;
3) As a result of the investments made with the S.A.P.A.R.D. financial
support, the agricultural holdings have succeeded to make a few steps for
the adaptation to the current needs of the market;
4) Next the acceleration of the restructuring and modernization of the
agricultural holdings is imposed, considering their economic, ecological
and social importance, for ensuring the development of a competitive and
lasting agriculture, in accordance with the requirements of eco-
conditionality.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Manolescu Irina, 2006, Project Management (Managementul proiectelor), Alexandru loan Cuza
University Publishing House, Iasi;
2. Oancea Margareta, 2003, Modern Management in the Agricultural Units (Managementul
modern in unitatile agricole) , Ceres Publishing House, Bucharest;
3. Tracy M., 2000, Alimentary products and agriculture in the market economy (Produsele
alimentare si agricultura in economia de piata), Impex Publishing House 92;
4. Zahiu Letitia, Dachiu Anca, Ion Raluca, Istudor N., Manole V., Popescu Adelina, Poenaru S.,
2006, Agriculture in the European Union under the impact of the Common Agricultural Policy
(Agricultura Uniunii Europene sub impactul politicii agricole comune), Ceres Publishing
House, Galati;
5. http://www.S.A.P.A.R.D..ro
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BACK
RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE COMPARISON OF

MILK YIELD BETWEEN PINZGAU BREED IMPORTED
FROM AUSTRIA AND PINZGAU OF TRANSYLVANIA
I. GÎLCĂ, C. PASCAL, Mihaela IVANCIA,
B. PĂSĂRIN, M. DOLIŞ, T. ROBU
The main aim of this study was to compare the milk performance
realized by cattle of Pinzgau breed (P) imported from Austria and Pinzgau of
Transylvania (PT) - indigenous breed. The analysis was performed in two herds
at the first and second lactations. In herd 1, the imported dairy cattle (P) were
compared with contemporaries indigenous breed (PT) calved in the same period.
Both breeds were kept in the same conditions and with the same feeding. The first
lactation records were analyzed according to the following linear model: Yij =µ
+ Hi + Cj + eij. The second lactation records were analyzed according to the
following linear model: Yijk =µ + Hi + Cj + Jk + eijk. The difference in milk
production between Pinzgau and Pinzgau of Transilvania breeds, at first and
second lactations, were not statistically significant. The Pinzgau breed cattle
achieved higher fat, protein and lactose percentage at the first lactation (4.22%
and 3.96%, 3.39% and 3.21%, respectively 4.63% and 4.51%) and at the second
lactation (4.28% and 4.01%, 3.41% and 3.23%, respectively 4.58% and 4.46%).
These differences were statistically highly significant (P<0.01).
Key words: milk yield, cattle, Pinzgau breed, Romanian condition
After 1990 in Romania has developed the import of pregnant heifers of

Pinzgau breed, especially from Austria. The subject of this research was to
compare the milk yield traits of the cattle of Pinzgau breed imported from Austria
(P) with the Romanian breed Pinzgau of Transilvania (PT).

The analysis was performed in two herds. At the first lactation the
imported dairy cows of Pinzgau breed imported from Austria were compared with
contemporaries of Romanian breed – Pinzgau of Transilvania calved in the same
period. Both breeds were kept in the same stall with the same feeding and grazed
during the summer period.
Linear models with fixed and random were used for the statistical
analysis of milk yield traits data records. First lactation records were analysed
according to the following model:
Yij = µ + Hi + Cj + eij where,
Yij: a milk yield observation
µ: an overall mean
Hi: a herd effect
Cj: a cow effect
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eij: a residual error effect, which contains effects of factors that we

have not considered in the model
At the second lactation the imported dairy cows of Pinzgau breed were
compared with contemporaries of the Romanian Pinzgau breed. The breeds were
kept separately in two stalls with the same technology. The basic feed ration was
the same for both breeds as the feed was prepared in one feed mixing wagon from
identical components. The animals of both breeds grazed together during the
summer period.
Second lactations were evaluated according to the following model:
Yijk =µ + Hi + Cj + Jk + eijk where,
Yijk: a milk yield observation
µ: an overall mean
Hi: a herd effect
Cj: a cow effect
Jk: a year of calving effect (the environment is always different each
year)
eijk: a residual error effect
The analyses of covariances were processed and calculated the production
of fat-protein corrected milk (FPCM) and energy content in milk (ECM) out of
the estimated values of the studied parameters according to the following
formulae.
FPCM= 0.22M + 7.5F + 15P
ECM = 37.68F + 16.75P + 16.54L
where: M - quantity of milk in kg

F - quantity of fat in kg
P – quantity of protein in kg
L - quantity of lactose in kg
RESULTS
Least square mean values of the studied traits in cattle of Pinzgau and
Pinzgau of Transilvania breeds are given in tables 1 and 2. Statistically significant
differences (P < 0,01) were found only with the content and production of fat,
lactose content and weight of dairy cows which were better in the imported breed.
Higher content of proteins in milk was noticed in the Pinzgau of Transilvania
breed, however, the difference was not statistically significant. We noticed a
marked increase in yield in the second lactation compared with the first lactation
in both breeds. The Pinzgau dairy cows produced more milk compared with the
Pinzgau of Transilvania, however the difference was not statistically significant.
Only the differences in lactose percentage in milk and weight after the second
calving were statistically significant (P < 0,01), which were better in the Pinzgau.
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The highest milk production was achieved in the Pinzgau breed in both lactations.
The production of fat-protein corrected milk (FPCM) and the energy in milk
(ECM) in cattle according to breeds are given in the figures 1 and 2. The highest
production of fat-protein was achieved in the Pinzgau breed. This breed achieved
also the highest production of energy in milk.
Table 1
Least square means estimation and standard errors for milk yield traits according to
breeds – 1-st lactation (comparison Pinzgau and Pinzgau of Transilvania breeds)
Pinzgau Pinzgau of Transilvania
Breed
n = 14 n = 25 F value
Trait X ± sx X ± sx
Milk (kg) 3219.61±87.00 3046.09±82.94 1.14-
Fat (g/100g) 4.32±0.06 3.99±0.10 21.36++
Fat (kg) 139.06±3.98 121.53±6.99 10.13++
Protein (g/100g) 3,25±0,02 3,20±0,04 2.70-
Protein (kg) 104.61±2.63 97.47±4.62 0.36-
Lactose (g/100g) 4,64±0,02 4,42±0,04 7.26++
Lactose (kg) 149.36±4.40 134.63±7.73 2.16-
Live weight (kg) 538.89±1.63 517.87±2.87 43.20++
+P<0,05; ++P<0,01
Table 2
Least square means estimation and standard errors for milk yield traits according to
breeds – 2-nd lactation (comparison Pinzgau and Pinzgau of Transilvania breeds)
Pinzgau Pinzgau of Transilvania
Breed
n = 11 n = 28 F value
Trait X ± sx X ± sx
Milk (kg) 3980.36±89.16 3679.85±77.2 2.74-
Fat (g/100g) 4.16±0.15 4.00±0,.00 0.71-
Fat (kg) 165.57±11.81 147.16±6.31 0.89-
Protein (g/100g) 3,40±0,06 3.36±0.00 0.37-
Protein (kg) 135.32±7,85 123.61±4.19 3.49-
Lactose (g/100g) 4,72±0,04 4.59±0.00 13.45++
Lactose (kg) 187.85±12.12 168.86±6.48 1.14-
Live weight (kg) 590.22±3.29 565.58±1.70 17.35++
+P<0,05; ++P<0,01
DISCUSSION
The imported animals of Pinzgau breed achieved lower milk production

in the production conditions in Romania than in Austria. The content of proteins,
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fat and lactose in milk was also lower. On the contrary, the milk production and
the content of proteins, fat and lactose in milk was higher at Pinzgau breed than
Romanian breed. The high content of lactose in milk of Pinzgau and Pinzgau of
Transilvania breed cows can be evaluated positively, and it can be related to the
better shape of udder.
It is necessary to take into account the high value of energy in 1 kg milk
of the Pinzgau breed. The milk yield achieved in the generation born and raised in
the production conditions of Romania could be important for further spread of the
Pinzgau breed in Romania.
5000
4000
FPCM (kg)
FPCM (1-st
3000 lactation
2000 FPCM (2-nd
lactation
1000
0
P PT
Breed
Figure 1. FPCM at the Pinzgau (P) and Pinzgau of Transilvania (PT)

at the 1-st and 2-nd lactations
12
10
ECM (Mj/kg)
8 ECM (1-st
lactation
6
ECM (2-nd
4 lactation
2
0
P
PT
Breed
Figure 2. ECM at the Pinzgau (P) and Pinzgau of Transilvania (PT)

at the 1-st and 2-nd lactations
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BACK
REFERENCES
1. GILCA I, H. VOS, A.F. GROEN, V. UJICA, I. VACARU-OPRIS, I.M. POP, M.G. USTUROI,
B. PASARIN, C. PASCAL, 1993 - Contribution to study of relation between cell count and
lactose in breeding experiment. Wageningen Agricultural University. Department of Animal
Breeding. The Netherlands. Publication No 3/march.
2. GILCA I., V. UJICA, ST. CREANGA, A.F. GROEN, H. VOS, 1994 - Breeding value estimation
of sires using the modern methods. Univ. Agr. Iasi. Lucr. stiintifice, Seria Zootehnie, vol. 37,
p. 90.
3. GILCA I., V. UJICA, I.M. POP, ST. CREANGA, 1995 - Bovine mastitis - some aspects of the
production and quality of milk. Univ. Agr. IaSi. Lucr. stiintifice, Seria Zootehnie, vol. 38, p.
82.
4. GILCA I., V. UJICA, I. VACARU-OPRIS, I.M. POP, ST. CREANGA, 1996 - Inheritance of
somatic cell count and its genetic relationship with milk yield and lactose in different parities.
Book of the 47th Annual Meeting of the European Association for Animal Production,
Lillehamer, Norway, p. 61.
5. GILCA I., 2003 - The study of the main technological condition of grow of the Black and White
breed cows in the private exploitation of North-East part of Romania. . Univ. de St. Agr. si
Med. Vet. Iasi, Lucr. stiintifice, seria Zootehnie, vol. 47. Edit. “Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi.
6. HERMAS A.S., C.W. YOUNG, J.W. RUST, 1987 - Genetic relationship and additive genetic
variation of production and reproductive traits in Guernsey dairy cattle. J. Dairy Sci.,
Champaign, 111. 70.
7. SCHAEFFER L.R., B.W. KENNEDY, 1996 – Linear models and computing strategies in
Animal Breeding. University of Guelph, Ontario.
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PROFITABLENESS IN BEEKEEPING AND

ITS INFLUENCE FACTORS
Şt. LAZAR, D. BODESCU, O.C. VORNICU
Although beekeepers are aware of the economical, ecological and

social role of the bees, their motivation for growing bees is determined, in an
overwhelming way, by the profitableness of this preoccupation.
Through this study, the influences of the exploitation dimensions, the
structure and the mode of commercializing the output over the profitableness
degree of the branch have been followed.
The beekeeping profitableness exploitation grows in the condition of
product diversification, bee family number on the exploitation and of the direct
opening on the market of the honey production.
Key Words: Beekeeping Profitableness, Direct Selling, Agro Alimentary
Market, Pastoral.
INTRODUCTION
The importance of the existence and development of bees in satisfactory
parameters has been proved for a very long time by the social, economic,
scientific and psychological role in maintaining the health of people and in
protecting the environment. This last function becomes more and more significant
because the natural pollinators record a continuous decrease due to the industrial
and agricultural pollution [1].
In this context, the bee families kept by people have an important
competitive advantage in comparison with the other pollinating species owing to
the fact that they are protected by the bee-keeper in order to obtain bee products
and consequently some profit. This is the one who makes significant effort in
order to provide food resources when they can’t be found in nature and especially
to maintain the healthy condition of bee families through prophylactic and
curative treatment against diseases and pests but especially through the reduction
of pollution impact on the bee colonies which they own.
The bee-keeper is, in fact, the one who makes possible the existence of
the bee as a species and allows it to express its effects on the environment even
though most frequently this role is not conscious enough.
This motivational circumstance may be continued only by providing the
bee-keepers’ wealth through the activity that they achieve supposing a satisfactory
economic efficiency of the efforts that they make.
The present work has in view the estimation of economic profitableness
of bee exploitation regarding the production diversity degree, the number of bee-
families and the way of trading the bee products.
The hypotheses from which research starts are centred round statements
of this kind:
• if the degree of production diversity develops, the economic
profitableness develops, too;
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• the development of bee exploitation brings about its profitableness;

• trading bee products on food markets or directly at the consumer,
provides economic results superior to while sale trading.
Such preoccupations are not claimed to be the first and they will certainly
not be the last ones, but they bring about some new elements, the way the results
have been appreciated and the economic efforts which have been made to
establish the profitableness of bee-keeping.
RESEARCH METHOD
This scientific attempt has as a starting point, the establishing of the
quantity of the average honey production, as well as the production of wax,
pollen, propolis and swarms on the basis of recent data which have appeared in
speciality literature [2].
The trading prices of bee products were identified by random sampling at
the markets and the wholesale acquisition price was established consulting the
Bee-Keepers’ Association.
The personnel expenses were established by correlation of the working
force necessary for a bee family on different dimensions of exploitation, the level
of production diversification, the way of trading products and the average gross
salary on economy. So, the gross salary per day was established (52.3 RON) as a
ratio between the monthly salary and the average number of working days. This
was multiplied by the necessary work for each bee family, which varied according
to different methods of bee keeping (stationary – 1.99 days/person and pastoral –
1.29 days/person). The production structure had an important influence on the
level of the expenses on the personnel because the necessary work time to gather
products such as pollen, propolis from each bee family and to obtain artificial
swarms gets about 38% longer.
Material expenses include those with bio stimuli, carbohydrates,
medicines, materials for maintaining the bee-keeping implements and other
things. The price for these materials was established as the average of the market
prices and the quantity used and was determined by making the sum of the
necessary materials on the technological file of the apiary [2].
The consuming with the repayment of the fixed capital was established
relating the investment elements to the average period of usage, differentiated for
the capital elements according to the peculiarities they own. Practically every
fixed means such as the hive, the centrifugal machine the bee-keeping shelter, the
tools, was related to the period when it was used and after that, the obtained
results were summed up. The cost of the bee family was not repaid because of its
specific characteristic that of reproducing itself in time [3].
The financial expenses represent the differences in currency which bee
keepers pay at the acquisition of some production factors coming from imports
and the charges for credits. The total volume of these expenses was estimated at
about 3% from the value of the material expenses [4].
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The expenses on taxes and duties sum up the expenses on the indorse
taxes of the pastoral transport, the trading taxes in food markets, duties on the
means of transport and buildings, etc.
The external labour conscription represents the expenses on the services
carried out by the third persons for bee exploitation such as the transport of the hives;
honey the turning of the wax into artificial honey combs or the veterinary checking.
The previous research support the fact that the more expanded the bee
exploitation gets, the more significant the profitableness becomes.
The total income on the exploitation, certainly increases together with the
capacity of the production (the number of bee families) which implies the increase
of the total production.
In exchange, in order to establish the profitableness of bee-keeping on
structure variants of production and methods of trading, the gross profit and the
rate of profitableness were necessary to establish.

The data taken from speciality literature have proved that the honey
production is different for the stationary system of bee-keeping as compared to
the pastoral one because the apiaries which are not moved can benefit from only
one important gathering (lime or acacia) while mobile apiaries are transported to a
lot of production gathering. So if the stationary apiaries can obtain an average
production of about 13.6 kg/family, the mobile ones can get over 29.5 kg/family.
The was production is generally related to the honey production, the ration being
of about 3.5 kg of was for 100 kg of honey, depending on the technological
methods used and the interest of the bee-keeper in obtaining this product.
The other products do not register significant variations from a system of
keeping to another and they do not depend on the dimensions of the apiary except
for the production of swarms which is lower for the apiaries which leave for the
pastoral due to the transport losses, the stress suffered by the bee families and
their wearing.
In order to establish the income obtained from every bee family, the same
selling prices were used to make this analysis possible, even though there are
some variations caused by the fact that some medium size or large farms sell a
part of the production obtained directly to the consumers and the rest to acquirers.
Firstly the economic results on bee families were established when the
bee keeper gathers the majority of bee products and obtains swarms, so that the
influence of the reduction of the production structure could be established in order
to notice the changes profitableness that appears Table 1).
When bee-keepers trade the honey in food markets or directly at the
consumes (at their places, at their work or at the bee-keeper’s own place) the
average income of the six variants of exploitation is about 447.1 RON/family with
values from 324.7 RON/family for the stationary variant with 30 bee families to
595.9 RON/family, for 100 bee families in pastoral.
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The average income for the stationary variants is of 353.8 RON/family,

getting bigger when the dimensions of the apiary get bigger, up to the critical
stage given by the limitations of the exploitation potential of the area after which
it decreases.
The average income of the apiaries which move for the pastoral is 52.8 %
higher than that of the stationary apiaries a linear growth of the number of bee
families being noticed. This growth is due to the difference in professional
training and experience of bee-keepers according to the number of the hives they
own.
Table 1.
The economic analysis of bee exploitations, which trade bee products, on the
food market or directly to consumers.
Specification UM Stationary system Pastoral system
Apiary family 30 50 100 30 50 100

acacia honey kg/family 6.0 7.8 6.7 8.3 8.7 8.9
baste honey kg/family 4.1 4.4 3.2 11.2 13.0 12.6
multi flowers honey kg/family 2.8 3.2 2.4 6.8 7.5 11.4
wax kg/family 1.5 2.3 2.8 2.0 2.8 3.3
Production
pollen kg/family 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

propolis kg/family 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
swarms swarms/family 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
acacia honey RON/kg 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0 15.0
baste honey RON/kg 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0 12.0
multi flowers RON/kg 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0 10.0
wax RON/kg 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0
pollen RON/kg 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0
Prices
propolis RON/kg 300.0 300.0 300.0 300.0 300.0 300.0

swarm RON/swarm 150.0 150.0 150.0 150.0 150.0 150.0
Total income RON/family 324.7 383.0 353.6 483.5 542.2 595.9
personal RON/family 135.6 135.6 134.7 161.2 161.2 161.2
materials RON/family 42.7 41.9 41.0 46.0 46.9 47.8
repayment RON/family 17.4 15.2 11.8 24.3 21.9 20.3
taxes, income taxes RON/family 1.3 2.1 1.2 2.3 3.3 2.4
external service RON/family 16.2 19.1 17.7 24.2 27.1 29.8
financier RON/family 3.0 2.9 2.9 3.2 3.3 3.3
Costs
others RON/family 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6

total RON/family 216.7 217.3 209.9 261.8 264.3 265.5
Gross profit RON/family 108.0 165.6 143.8 221.7 277.9 330.4
Profit rate (1) % 49.8 76.2 68.5 84.7 105.1 124.4
Profit rate (2) % 13.8 44.6 36.7 64.7 87.7 109.3
- 886 -
The average gross profit for all the variants is of 207.9 RON/family, 98.8
% higher for mobile apiaries (276.7 RON/family) as compared with the stationary
apiaries (139.1 RON/family).
This phenomenon is due to the fact that although the expenses are 22.9 %
higher, the income is 52.8% higher for the mobile version than for the stationary
one.
The profit rate is of 84.8 % as average of all variants in the stationary
system with an average of 64.8 % and in the pastoral system of 104.8 % (39.9 %
bigger).
This indicator reflects growth profitableness together with the growth of
the dimensions of the apiary, from 49.8 % for the small stationary apiaries (30
families) to 124.4 % for the mobile big apiaries (100 families).
The results point out a satisfactory profitableness for any bee exploitation.
On the other hand if the production structure is limited to producing
honey and was (production structure characteristic to much exploitation) the
profitableness gets considerably lower. In this case the average rate of profit gets
to 25.3 % lower; the small stationary system is of about 31.7 % and for the
pastoral system of 87.2 %.
However, there should be mentioned that since the integration in E.U.,
bee keepers cannot trade their own products in the food markets without having
authorized places and gathering and processing devices, investment which
determines a significant growth of the costs.
If the bee-keepers whose exploitations have been analysed are these
studies sell the obtained production to acquirers, processors or exporters, the
economic results are significantly changed (Table 2).
In this case the gross income decreases to 207.9 RON/family, with an
average of 233.9 RON/family for the stationary system and 288.8 RON/family for
the pastoral system. This reduction is due to the low level of the prices offered by
acquirers.
The total expenses for the bee family maintaining relatively unchanged
(except for the personnel ones and for the material ones) the gross benefit
decreases from 207.9 RON/family for the previous variant (with direct trading) to
57.7 RON/family, with 52.3 RON/family for the stationary system and 63.1
RON/family for the pastoral system.
The average rate of profit is of 28.8 % with a minimum for the small
apiaries which move for the pastoral and a maximum for the big apiaries with the
same system of keeping.
- 887 -
Table 2.
The economic analysis of bee exploitations which trade the bee products at the
acquirers.
Specification UM Stationary system Pastoral system
Apiary family 30 50 100 30 50 100
acacia honey kg/family 6.0 7.8 6.7 8.3 8.7 8.9
baste honey kg/family 4.1 4.4 3.2 11.2 13.0 12.6
multi flowers honey kg/family 2.8 3.2 2.4 6.8 7.5 11.4
wax kg/family 1.5 2.3 2.8 2.0 2.8 3.3
Production
pollen kg/family 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

propolis kg/family 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1
swarms swarms/family 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2
acacia honey RON/kg 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6 5.6
baste honey RON/kg 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9 3.9
multi flowers RON/kg 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
wax RON/kg 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0
pollen RON/kg 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0 50.0
Prices
propolis RON/kg 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

swarm RON/swarm 300.0 150.0 150.0 150.0 150.0 150.0
Total income RON/family 241.1 232.3 228.4 248.5 284.1 312.6
personal RON/family 108.5 108.5 107.8 129.0 129.0 129.0
materials RON/family 42.7 41.9 41.0 46.0 46.9 47.8
repayment RON/family 17.4 15.2 11.8 24.3 21.9 20.3
Taxes, income taxes RON/family 1.3 2.1 1.2 2.3 3.3 2.4
external service RON/family 12.1 11.6 11.4 12.4 14.2 15.6
financier RON/family 3.0 2.9 2.9 3.2 3.3 3.3
others RON/family 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.6
Costs
total RON/family 185.4 182.7 176.7 217.8 219.1 219.1

Gross profit RON/family 55.7 49.6 51.7 30.7 64.9 93.5
Profit rate (1) % 30.0 27.1 29.3 14.1 29.6 42.7
Profit rate (2) % -34.8 -11.7 -7.4 -12.7 4.7 19.2
If for this type of trading products the bee-keeper has reduced the
production of structure at honey and was, all the stationary apiaries would register
losses and this would happen to the small apiaries which move for the production
gathering.
Only the medium and big apiaries would register profit, but their
profitableness is not satisfactory (4.7 % and respectively 19.2 %), reflecting a
precarious economic equilibrium which can be influenced by any decrease of the
bee products prices or increase of the production factors
- 888 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. The greatest influence on the profitableness of bee-keeping consists of
the trading method of bee products, direct trading or in food markets being the
most profitable, but since the integration in E.U.; bee-keepers have to fulfil
supplementary conditions. There is a huge difference between the acquisition
price and the retail selling price. In this matter the bee-keepers’ Association
should make considerable efforts for the growth of the level of the acquisition
price by efficiently promoting the Romanian honey.
2. The keeping system has a significant influence on the growth of
economic profitableness and bee exploitation; the apiaries which move for the
pastoral register superior results to those of the stationary ones on condition that
the former should be bigger than 50 bee families.
3. The diversification of the production has a significant role on providing
profitableness to the exploitation, regardless their dimensions especially for those
which practise the stationary keeping system.
REFERENCES
1. Bodescu D.- 2007-Cercetări privind organizarea şi rentabilitatea stupinelor din judeţele Iaşi şi
Neamţ – teză de doctorat USAMV Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Iaşi.
2. Gate J.-2001-Beekeeping plan, Planning for profit, Vancouver.
3. Lazăr Şt. 2002. - Bioecologie şi tehnologie apicolă. Ed. Alfa Iaşi.
4. Ştefan G, Caia A., Bodescu D.-2004.-.Economie agrară, Editura Pim, Iaşi.
- 889 -
BACK
GENERAL ASPECT REFERRING THE TECHNICAL –

ECONOMICAL PARAMETERS IN THE FAMILY FARMS IN
CONSTANTA COUNTY
Gh. NEAGA
In the Dobrogea’s area specific conditions, respectively of Constanta’s

department, and keeping in mind the geographical structure’s harmony and of
the agrarian productive potential starting with the labor force and ending with
the incomes realized in the milk cows exploitations in Constanta department I
seek to accentuate the department’s agrarian character.
Analyzing the labor force in the 27 milk cows exploitation we find that
from the total 115 family members, from it 71 adults (61, 73%) in the farm are
working 72 family members, and 53 people had different occupations. In the
agricultural period this exploitations are hiring daylabourer.
By the mechanizing point of view for the agricultural works and in the
zootechnical sector we are finding a low work’s mechanization, which is
requiring more labor force.
The agricultural field and the revaluation way
The studied exploitations are holding 6993 agricultural hectares, from
this 6907 agricultural fields (98, 77%). From this total surface, are hold only
1098 hectares (15,7%), the rest of 5895 are rented fields.
Following the agricultural field’s using mode, in 2006 is ascertained that a
high percent is the vegetal culture, in the fodder’s culture detriment (8, 29%).
Zootechical’s sector development
All the studied exploitations have a mix character, holding land,
agricultural cultures and different animals’ species. Except the milking cows (20,
51%), we encounter sheep (31, 33%), horses (1,23%), pigs (17,18%) and 112
chickens.
For hosting the horned cattle every exploitation has a shelter with 58
heads minimum capacity.
The maintenance system is the tied one, settled in one or two rows.
Administrating the fodder is made by hand, the watering 100 %
mechanized, evacuating the manure is made by hand, and milking in 8
exploitations is made only by hand, and in 19 exploitations only mechanically.
Every exploitation owns hayracks, silages, material storages rooms and
other additions to structures.
Reproduction activity. Are made only artificial insemination, with
aborigines Romanian Black Spotted and imported Frisian seminal material.
The obtained milk production and its revaluation is presented in table 1.
It is revaluated in this way:
- 86, 1 delivered for processing to specialized units.
- 6, 1 % directs selling.
- 5, 9 % consumed by the calves.
- 1, 8 % consumed by the family.
- 890 -
In Dobrogea’s area are distinguished next micros – farms types:

- Micro – farms proceed by transforming in parts or entirely the biological
material and some investments resulted by abolishing the old corporatist
structures but whiteout to own feeding base.
- Pluriactive micro – farms with traditions in milk cow’s growing, which are
using simple buildings, made of local materials, family labor force and its
own feeding sources, placed on different distances to the micro – farm’s
headquarter. This type of micro farm’s technical endowment’s rate is modest,
and the milk’s valuable is made partial in the market, in during the highest
percent is for the family’s own use.
- Milk cow’s exploitations that are delivering the production’s biggest part to
the specialized processing unit, the rest going for the family’s use.
Next I will present the main technical – economical parameters in the 27
family exploitations:
• Labor force.
• Zootechical’s sector developing.
• Land surface.
• Land’s property form.
• Land’s using mode.
• Shelters and maintaining system.
• Service system.
• The addendums inside the exploitations.
• Reproduction system.
• Milk’s production valuable.
• Realized incomes.
Labor force: the 27 analyzed exploitations have totally 115 family

members, from it 71 adults (61, 73%). In the farm are working 62 family
members (53, 9%), and 53 people (46%) had different occupations.
In the agricultural periods and in the top periods these exploitations are
hiring daylabourer.
Analyzing the mechanizing rate for the agricultural work and in the
zootechnical sector is find a low work’s mechanization in the zootechnical sector,
which is requiring more hand work, hard to find in the area and with high prices.
The land and its revaluation mode

The studied exploitations own a total surface of 6693 land, from this 6907
(98, 77 %) agricultural fields.
From the total surface are owned only 1098 (15, 7) hectares, the rest the
rest of 5895 hectares are rented (84, 3%).
Analyzing the land and the agricultural field results that each
exploitations owns, in average, 259 hectares land and 255, 81 agricultural fields
but only 40, 66 hectares are owned, and 218, 33 hectares represents rented lands.
Meaning the agriculture’s using way land in 2006 is ascertain that 45, 86 %
was cropped with wheat, 17, 5 % with corn for grains, 7 % with barley, 8, 78 % with
- 891 -
sunflower, 5, 34 % with corn for silos, 4, 11 % with alfalfa, 0, 31% with oat, the
adowmes representing only 1,14 %. This crop’s structures shows that only 8, 29 % of
the agricultural lands is designated for fodders crops in owned land, while in France,
for example, the this percent goes to approximated 26% (V. Ujica, 2005). We observe
the very small surfaces with alfalfa (4, 11 %) and corn for silos (5, 34%), but also of
the adowmes (1, 14), and total lack of mangel-wurzel bases fodder crops in milk
cow’s exploitations. Is an observation that must conspicuous owners for the necessity
of improving the crop’s structures, by increasing till the optimum level of the corn
and alfalfa crops, eventually introducing the b mangel-wurzel’s crops and bean for
fodder, winter fodder, Sudan grass, foot trefoil, also increasing the oat surface. These
are valuable fodder crop’s and are very well adapted in Dobrogea’s area.
Zootechical’s sector developing

Al the studied exploitations have a mix character, holding land, crops, and
diffent animal species.
Referring the animals, mostly are horned cattle, with a total of 690 cows
and heifers in the 27 studied exploitations. In average, on the exploitation are
growths 20, 521 cows and 4, 29 heifers, with differences from one exploitation to
another: 46 cows and 5 heifers in Matei Florea’s exploitation, 6 cows and 3
heifers in Chirila Cristian’s exploitation.
These exploitation are owing also, in average 31, 33 sheep, 1, 23 horses,
7, 18 pigs (1,6 reproduction female), and 112 chickens. We observe that all the
private exploitations owns horned cattle, pigs and chickens, and only one
exploitation doesn’t have horses (Solomon Constantin’s exploitation), and 13
exploitations doesn’t owns sheeps.
For hosting the horned cattle each exploitation has a shelter with 58 heads
minimum capacity, enough for satisfying the owned animals’ hosting necessities.
Most of the shelters are old, taken from the structures before 1989 (CAP and
AEI), but were modernized and facilitated as you can notice in the next pictures.
The maintenance system is the tied one, settled in one or two rows. The
shelters have paddocks outside for the animals to move.
The serving system is different, depending to technological flux’s work.
Though, administrating the fodder is made by hand, the watering 100 %
mechanized, evacuating the manure is made by hand, and milking in 8
exploitations is made only by hand, and in 19 exploitations only mechanically.
During the summer, when the cows are taken on the adowmes, the milk is made
by hand and also mechanically, in different proportions.
Next to the animal’s shelters, each exploitation owns some appendices:
hayracks, silos, creamery, storage rooms for materials, machines and other
appendices. We evidence that all the exploitations own hayracks for keeping the
fibered fodder, the harsh fodder, storages for materials, machines, fertilizers.
From the 27 exploitations only 6 have a creamery where is made the
milk’s primary processing and keeping it till the delivery in cooling tanks.
- 892 -
Tabelul 1
Harvest situation and disposal of milk production in Dobrogea exploatation
Harvest sistem Valorificarea producţiei
Total
Farm Total Cattle Family
Exploitation Manual prod. deliveri sales
code bull cap. Mechanical% consuption consuption
% -lt-
litri % litri % litri % litri %
F1MI MIHALE IANCU 16 - 100 81700 78050 95,5 - - 3650 4,5 - -
F2CI COJOCARU ION 17 - 100 87260 78000 89,4 4360 5,0 2860 3,3 1560 1,8
SOLOMON
F3SC 16 - 100 70950 - - 64210 90,5 3640 5,1 3100 4,4
CONSTANTIN
F4SM SILEANU MOISE 19 - 100 95040 81930 86,2 7630 8,0 4400 4,6 1080 1,2
F5DC DINESCU C - TIN 26 - 100 127350 104710 82,2 15970 12,5 4800 3,8 1870 1,5
F6DS DIMCICĂ STERE 25 - 100 123935 115349 93,0 - - 4800 3,9 1690 1,4
S.C. CONCORDIA
F7CM 29 - 100 133918 118353 88,4 6240 4,6 6180 4,6 2145 1,6
MERENI
F8AN ANGHEL NICOLAE 24 - 100 119234 94930 79,6 18404 15,4 4800 4,0 1100 0,9
F9HI HORNEŢ ILIE 18 - 100 95740 74284 77,6 18256 19,0 3200 3,3 - -
TOHĂNEANU
F10MI 18 - 100 76200 67380 88,4 - - 3660 4,8 5160 6,8
NICOLAE
F11ŞV ŞTEFANCU VASILE 31 - 100 158100 147100 93,0 - - 9200 5,8 1800 1,2
F12CC CHIRILĂ CRISTIAN 4 100 - 20800 9600 46,2 8200 39,4 1600 7,7 1400 6,7
F13MF MATEI FLOREA 41 - 100 213200 198700 93,2 - - 12400 5,8 2100 1,0
CARATANĂ
F14CV 17 - 100 85400 67350 78,9 10200 12,0 6000 7,0 1850 2,1
VANGHELE
F15TS TASE SULTANA 14 100 - 69800 63980 91,7 - - 4800 6,9 1020 1,4
F16ŞG ŞTOLEAC GHEORGHE 25 100 - 147500 136200 92,3 - - 9200 6,2 2100 1,4
SELOVIS M.
F17SMK 38 - 100 203000 176350 86,9 10500 5,2 14400 7,1 1750 0,8
KOGĂLNICEANU
F18DH DOGA HRISTU 37 - 100 196100 180500 92,0 - - 14000 7,1 1600 0,8
F19SI SLAV ION 10 100 - 49000 43050 87,8 - - 4000 8,2 1950 4,0
F20SD STĂNICĂ DANIEL 12 - 100 54720 47920 87,6 - - 4800 8,8 2000 3,6
F21GN GÎRŢU NICOLAE 11 - 100 48200 42050 87,2 - - 4000 8,3 2150 4,5
F22GC GUGU CORINA 10 100 - 45800 36300 79,2 3700 8,0 4000 8,7 1800 3,9
F23AM AGROSAT MEDGIDIA 29 - 100 156600 144150 92,0 - - 10800 6,9 1650 1,1
F24ŞL ŞTEFAN LENUŢA 8 100 - 42400 37600 88,7 - - 3200 7,5 1600 3,8
F25OM OLTEANU MARIUS 20 - 100 104000 94300 90,7 - - 7600 7,3 2100 2,0
F26PG POPA GEORGE 15 100 - 64000 56300 87,9 - - 6000 9,4 1700 2,7
F27SC SILVESTRU COSTEL 17 100 - 89600 81400 90,8 - - 6400 7,1 1800 2,1
TOTAL 547 29,6 70,4 2.759.547 2.375.836 86,1 167.670 6,1 164.390 5,9 48.075 1,8
- 893 -
Tabelul 2
THE MAIN STUDIED TEHNICAL-ECONOMICAL INDEXES OF HEIFER EXPLOITASION
IN CONSTANTA COUNTY
Evacu Income actual
Ground To admini-
Number Plant Shelter ation Cattle (lei)
Member Total Others agricul ster Dairy Repro-
exploit- cultiva- Fodder % manual to
family bull species tural manual milk duction
tation tion system the obtain Total Average
absolute the shelter
afluents farm cow
1 5 19 197 185 165 20 100 100 100 - 100 9 54635 3414,7
2 4 21 99 210 200 10 100 100 100 - 100 7 57652 3391,2
3 4 18 256 98 79 19 100 100 100 - 100 9 44947 2809,2
4 5 24 115 210 202 8 100 100 100 - 100 11 62692 3299,5
5 3 34 87 275 262 13 100 100 100 - 100 12 84476 3249,0
6 6 31 195 310 285 25 100 100 100 1 100 12 80744 3105,5
7 4 36 114 370 342 28 100 100 100 - 100 15 87215 3007,4
8 4 27 60 518 483 35 100 100 100 1 100 12 66451 2768,8
9 4 21 160 720 685 35 100 100 100 1 100 8 64778 3598,7
10 3 23 190 205 190 15 100 100 100 - 100 9 47166 2620,3
11 6 37 52 210 190 20 100 100 100 - 100 230 102970 3321,6
12 3 7 215 100 78 22 100 100 100 - 100 4 12460 3115,0
13 4 46 47 270 252 18 100 100 100 - 100 31 139090 3392,4
14 5 21 140 185 157 28 100 100 100 1 100 15 54285 3193,2
15 3 18 342 260 242 18 100 100 100 - 100 12 44786 3199,0
16 3 29 115 210 190 20 100 100 100 - 100 23 95340 3813,6
17 4 45 290 350 310 40 100 100 100 1 100 36 123445 3248,5
18 4 41 180 220 190 30 100 100 100 - 100 35 126350 3414,8
19 5 13 90 180 168 12 100 100 100 - 100 10 30135 3013,5
20 4 16 120 210 197 13 100 100 100 - 100 12 33544 2798,3
21 5 16 90 350 315 35 100 100 100 - 100 10 29435 2675,9
22 5 14 90 170 147 23 100 100 100 - 100 10 28000 2800,0
23 4 36 60 540 482 58 100 100 100 1 100 27 100905 3479,4
24 4 11 100 220 193 27 100 100 100 - 100 8 26320 3290,0
25 5 24 81 150 127 23 100 100 100 - 100 19 66010 3300,5
26 4 18 45 130 100 30 100 100 100 - 100 15 39410 2627,3
27 5 19 51 180 152 28 100 100 100 - 100 16 56980 3351,7
- 894 -
BACK
Reproduction activity:
In all the analyzed exploitations is made only artificial insemination, with
aborigines Romanian Black Spotted and imported Frisian seminal material by the
specialized SEMTEST units. In 2006 were obtained 423 calves, from this 13 not
viable calves and dead at birth (3, 07 %). On total exploitation was realized a 76,
35 % fertility wich can be appreciated as modest.
Milk yield and its revaluation

The 27 family exploitation produced in 2006 27595, 47 hectoliters of
milk, which was revaluated in this way:
- 86, 1 delivered for processing to specialized units.
- 6, 1 % directs selling.
- - 5, 9 % consumed by the calves.
- 1, 8 % consumed by the family.
Analyzing the milk’s revaluation way is ascertain that the biggest quantity
was designated for processing or direct selling, situations wished in all the horned
cattle farms.
The milk’s using for the calves and for family’s use is under 10%, wich
conditioned obtained a total income from milk’s selling of 1760221 thousand old
lei or an average on exploited cow of 3217, 945 thousand old lei.
If we compare the studied farm’s situation with the milk’s revaluation
way at the country level, this exploitation’s situation appears like idealistic one,
the milk’s revaluation at the national level is only 20 % for processing and 60 %
for family use, the rest of 20 % representing the technological use.
This revaluation way is totally abnormal for every milk cow’s
exploitation, where the main purpose must be realizing incomes from milk’s
revaluation, but the situation in the analyzed exploitation is very favorable (86,1
at the processing).
Is although surprising that in the studied exploitations the family using is very
low 48075 liters (1, 8 %), and in two exploitations wasn’t registered family using,
which is putting a question mark referring the yield’s records at the exploitation’s
level, according to breeder’s declarations. A special situation is represented also by
breeder Solomon Dumitru’s exploitation, (F3SC), which are revaluation their milk to
the Department’s hospital, for this he has a special authorization.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
BOHATERET, V., GEMENE, GH., 1989 – Eficienta economica a aplicarii progresului ethnic –
ferma pilot, vaci de lapte CCPCB Dancu. Jud. Iasi, Uz intern, Iasi.
CHIRAN, A., GANDU, ELENA, 1998 – Zootehnia – Aplicatii practice, Ed. “Ion Ionescu de la
Brad”, Iasi.
DASCALU, CULAI, 1990 – Studiul tehnico-managerial privind tehnologia de crestere a vacilor
pentru lapte in exploatatii mijlocii si mici din zona Vrancei. Teza de doctorat, USAMV, Iasi.
GEMENE, GH., 1994 – Eficienta economica a microfermelor familiale pentru cresterea vacilor de
late in zona colinara si montana din Moldova, Uz intern. Iasi.
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BACK
THE PRODUCTIVE LONGEVITY IN SOME DAIRY COWS

EXPLOITATION IN CONSTANTA COUNTY
Gh. NEAGA
In the studied exploitations was analyzed the productive longevity for

156 cows heads that finished the exploitation period analyzing the productive life
time, milk production, at and protein on productive life time, and the using
parameters, to which medium values are presented in table 1.
The milk production on productive life time was in average, 9802,565
kg. milk with limits between 46 243 kg milk in Mihale Inacu’s breeder
exploitation and 19948, 28 kg. milk in Olteanu Marius’s breeder exploitation.
From the 27 analyzed exploitations 14 exploitations had the production
on productive life time under the population average and in 13 exploitations
more than the average.
The best results were obtained in exploitations F3SC, F5DC, F10TN,
F12CC, F18SG, F23GN, F26OM, with total yield over 12000 kg. milk
In the analyzed population were over 20 cows with a good productive
longevity, the best performance was obtained by the cow with register number
950005 with 30396 kg milk that belongs to breeder Solomon Constantin. This
exploitation had many cows with a production over 20000 kg milk on productive
life time, being detached to other exploitations.
The using parameter (%) in the studied population was only 27, 5 %,
which is proving an insufficient cow’s using, if we direct to this parameter’s
optimum value (80% at least, according to V. Ujica).
In the studied population were identified 11 genetically groups of half-
father sisters with at least 5 daughters that had a productive longevity between
19194, 6 kg. milk (code 19486) and 5547, 92 kg. milk (code 51454).
Analyzing this information, the conclusion is that the exploitation time
in the Romanian Black Spotted population in the studied farms is too short, and
the cows couldn’t express the maximum productive potential.
Taking the cows out of the herd before realizing the maximum lactation
has negative economical effects but also to the genetically ameliorating activities
by emigrating some valuable genes.
Is ascertaining however that the drying period is too long, the animals
being kept in the herd without producing milk. These aspects are due less to the
animal’s genetically value, but more to the exploitation’s drawbacks and
technological parameter’s management deficiencies.
In the studied exploitation was analyzed 156 cow’s longevity that ended
their exploitation period, analyzing the life time period, the productive life time,
the milk yield, fat and protein on productive life time, and the using parameter, to
whom medium values are presented in table 1
- 896 -
Tabelul 1
Productive longevity in the Romanian Brown population from on the family
exploitation in Constanta departament
Specificare n X ± sx s V% Min Max

Live time period - day 156 2256,03±60,19 739,65 32,78 1110 5118
Productive live time
156 621,23±28,03 348,96 56,17 229 1869
period - days
Total milk quantity - kg 156 9417,94±486,05 6070,86 64,46 1881 30396
Total fat quantity - kg 156 352,22±17,35 216,76 61,54 89,60 1095,30
Total proteine quantity-kg 156 296,56±15,38 192,11 64,78 74,50 995,00
/ live time lapte-kg 156 4,34 - - - -
period - day: grăsime-
156 0,15 - - - -
kg
proteine-
156 0,13 - - - -
kg
/ productive lapte-kg 156 15,77 - - - -
live time grăsime-
156 0,56 - - - -
period - kg
days: proteine-
156 0,47 - - - -
kg
Using %
156 27,53
parameter
Analyzing the next table’s parameters we can retain the next essential
aspects:
The life time period for the entire population was 6, 18 years, with limits
between 10, 34 years in the Caratana Vanghelie breeder’s farm (F1CV) and 4, 27
years in the Anghle Nicolae’s farm. This information can be appreciated as by the
point of view of maintaining a cow into exploitation. But if we are analyzing the
productive life time and milk yield’s parameters keeping in sight the first
calving’s age, the situation is unsatisfactory.
The productive life time period was 2, 03 normal lactations on the entire
population with limits between 1, 01 normal lactations in the Mihale Iancu
breeder’s exploitation (F1M1) and 3,95 lactations in Chirila Cristian’s
exploitation (F12CC). The medium values obtained for this parameter are
revealing a not- economical exploitation, the cows being kept in the farm a short
period, whiteout being able to evidence their maximum productive capabilities
during the life time.
If we compare the life time period with the exploitation period by
calculating the using parameter can be easily discovered some management
deficiencies, specially the late period of the heifer’s first pregnancy, that are
registering an exaggerated drying period, like in the case of the farm F1SV,
F1MF, F16CV, F23GN, F24GC, F25PG.
- 897 -
The milk yield on productive life time, was, in average 9802, 56 kg. milk
with limits between 4643 kg. milk in Mihale Iancu breeder’s exploitation (F1M1)
and 19948, 29 kg. milk in Marius Olteanu’s exploitation. (F26OM). From the 27
studied exploitations, 14 exploitations had the milk yield on productive life time
under the population’s average, and 13 exploitation over the limit.
The best results was obtained in exploitations F3SC, F5DC, F10TN,
F12CC, F18SC, F23GN, and F26OM, with total production of over 12 000 kg.
milk.
The milk quantity variability on productive life time, is very large, with
the standard deviation’s values S = 9802, 56 kg. milk and of the variability
coefficient V% = 88, 72.
Variabilitatea cantităţii de lapte pe viaţă productivă

Frecven]a Frecven]a
Max
30.00 2 8.2 1 Min absolut\ relativ\
1881 4733 34 21,80
4734 7585 44 28,21
7586 10437 31 19,87
25.00 10438 13289 17 10,90
13290 16141 10 6,41
16142 18993 6 3,85
1 9.8 7
18994 21845 3 1,92
20.00 21846 24697 4 2,56
21.80 24698 27549 5 3,20
27550 30396 2 1,28
15.00
%
10.00 10.90
5.00
6.41 3 .20
2.5 6
1.92
1 .28
3.85
0.00
4734-7585
10438-13289
16142-18993
24698-27549
1881-4733
7586-10437
13290-16141
18994-21845
21846-24697
27550-30396
Clase
Fig. 1 Milk quantity variability on productive life time
Between the exploitation was registered the same high variability, with
standard deviation’s maximum values of s =12057, 26 kg. milk and minimum of s
= 393, 15 kg. milk.
In the analyzed population were more than 20 cows with a good
productive longevity, the best performancy being obtained by the cow with
register number 950005 with 30396 kg. milk, cow that belongs to breeder
Solomon Constantin. This exploitation had the most cows with over 20 000 kg.
milk yield on productive life time, being detached of all the other exploitations.
- 898 -
Variabilitatea cantităţii de grăsime pe viaţă productivă

30.00 Frecven]a Frecven]a
26.93 Min Max
absolut\ relativ\
89,60 190,17 36 23,07
190,18 290,74 42 26,93
25.00 290,75 391,31 30 19,23
391,32 491,88 14 8,98
491,89 592,45 14 8,98
19.23 592,46 693,02 6 3,84
23.07
20.00 693,03 793,59 4 2,56
793,60 894,16 4 2,56
894,17 994,73 4 2,56
994,74 1095,30 2 1,28
15.00
%
10.00
8.98
8.98
5.00 2.56 2.56
1.28
3.84
2.56
0.00
89,60-190,17
190,18-290,74
290,75-391,31
391,32-491,88
491,89-592,45
592,46-693,02
693,03-793,59
793,60-894,16
894,17-994,73
994,74-1095,30
Clase
Fig. 2 Fat’s quantity variability on productive life-time

Variabilitatea cantităţii de proteine pe viaţă productivă
30.00 27.57 2 7.5 6 Frecven]a Frecven]a
Min Max
absolut\ relativ\
74,50 166,55 43 27,57
166,56 258,60 43 27,56
25.00 258,61 350,65 25 16,02
350,66 442,70 19 12,18
442,71 534,75 9 5,77
534,75 626,80 4 2,56
20.00 626,81 718,85 3 1,92
718,86 810,90 6 3,84
810,91 902,95 2 1,28
902,96 995,00 2 1,28
15.00
%
16 .02
10.00 1 2.1 8
3 .84
5.00 5.77 2 .56
1.9 2
1.28 1.2 8
0.00
74,50-166,55
258,61-350,65
350,66-442,70
534,75-626,80
626,81-718,85
718,86-810,90
902,96-995,00
166,56-258,60
442,71-534,75
810,91-902,95
Clase
Fig. 3Protein’s quantity variability on productive life time
- 899 -
If we are analyzing the milk production’s parameters correlated with the life
time period and the productive life time we find out that is receding each day 4,34 kg.
milk with 0, 15 kg. fat and 0,13 kg. protein, with limits 1,62 kg. milk in Mihale Iancu’s
exploitation and 8, 10 kg. milk in Solomon Constantin’s exploitation.
On productive life time day the situation is much better, the milk yield on
the entire population being 15, 27 kg. milk, with 0, 56 kg. fat and 0,47 kg. protein.
In Solomon Constantin’s exploitation was realized the highest production on
productive life time day, respectively 22, 75 kg. milk, 0, 83 kg. fat, and 0,74 kg.
proteins, and in Tohaneanu Nicolae’s exploitation was realized 20, 62 kg. milk,
0, 3 kg. fat, and 0, 53 kg. proteins.
In the same time, Silvestru Costel’s cows realized only 10, 31 kg. milk on
productive life day, and Tase Sultana’s ones 10, 86 kg. milk.
In the analyzed population, in only 9 exploitations were realized yields on
the productive life day over the population’s limit (15, 77 kg. milk), the most
registering medium values of 12 – 14 kg. milk.
The using parameter (%) in the studied population was only 27, 53 %,
which is proving and insufficient milking cow’s using, if we are directing to this
parameter’s optimum value (at least 80%, according to V. Ujica).
The rate of cow’s use in production was very low in all the analyzed
exploitations. Thus, the lowest using was registered in exploitation F16CV, the
use parameter being of 18, 01 %, and the best in exploitation F26OM, with an
44, 64 % parameter.
From the 27 analyzed exploitations 14 exploitations had the production
on productive life time under the population average and in 13 exploitations more
than the average. The milk cow’s low use in production is found also in case of
analyzing different genetic families as it can be observed in the table 3’s dates.
In the studied population were identified 11 genetically groups of half-
father sisters with at least 5 daughters that had a productive longevity between
19194, 6 kg. milk (code 19486) and 5547, 92 kg. milk (code 51454).
From the 11 groups of half father sisters 4 groups realized a milk yield on
productive life time over the population’s limit (9417, 94 kg.), the most valuable
being the aboriginals bull’s group register number 19186, being followed of the
imported bull’s groups, code 51036 and code 51125. The same valor hierarchy is
kept also for the fat and proteins quantity during the productive life time.
Analyzing this information, the conclusion is that the exploitation time in
the Romanian Black Spotted population in the studied farms is too short, and the
cows couldn’t express the maximum productive potential.
Taking the cows out of the herd before realizing the maximum lactation
has negative economical effects but also to the genetically ameliorating activities
by emigrating some valuable genes.
Is ascertaining however that the drying period is too long, the animals
being kept in the herd without producing milk. These aspects are due less to the
animal’s genetically value, but more to the exploitation’s drawbacks and
technological parameter’s management deficiencies.
- 900 -
Tabelul 2
Medium values and longevity’s productive variability on the farms for the studied Romanian brow’s populations BNR
on the family exploatation from Dobrudja
life time period - day productive life time - days Total milk / productiv market
Farme
code n X ± sx s V% Min Max n X ± sx s V% Min Max n X ± sx s V% Min Max
F1MI 4 2848,75±108,13 216,27 7,59 2662 3156 4 309,25±21,26 42,52 13,75 251 353 4 4643,00±485,89 971,78 20,93 3735 5694
F2CI 3 3003,00±510,00 883,34 29,41 2055 3803 3 610,00±193,31 334,82 54,88 284 953 3 10436,33±3641,28 6306,88 60,43 4399 16982
F3SC 3 2036,33±246,37 426,72 20,95 1553 2361 3 725,67±312,28 540,89 74,53 360 1347 3 16513,67±6961,26 12057,26 73,01 8657 30396
F4SM 5 2300,60±377,42 843,95 36,68 1164 3252 5 421,80±99,50 222,49 52,74 253 798 5 5793,20±1386,10 3099,43 53,50 2966 10265
F5DC 4 2445,25±274,17 548,35 22,42 2054 3231 4 730,50±91,96 183,93 25,17 584 998 4 12493,00±1511,02 3022,04 24,19 8913 16308
F6DS 4 1823,00±87,41 174,83 9,59 1596 1998 4 368,00±62,68 125,36 34,06 291 554 4 5501,00±907,01 1814,01 32,97 3157 7579
F7CM 7 2990,71±439,78 1163,56 38,90 1871 5118 7 947,00±183,19 484,69 51,18 288 1568 7 11383,14±2137,74 5655,94 49,68 4077 19796
F8AN 3 1560,00±155,32 269,02 17,24 1252 1749 3 376,00±65,00 112,58 29,94 261 486 3 6103,33±977,27 1692,69 27,73 4149 7106
F9HI 5 1647,80±82,40 184,25 11,18 1476 1951 5 481,60±73,43 164,21 34,09 284 628 5 8522,00±1598,97 3575,42 41,95 4400 11926
F10TN 7 3153,29±203,35 538,03 17,06 2688 4020 7 622,57±127,83 338,22 54,32 273 1095 7 21841,71±3388,19 8964,31 69,80 3999 29700
F11TN 10 2247,30±182,99 578,68 25,75 1110 2911 10 490,10±59,93 189,51 38,66 229 864 10 6571,10±1107,17 3501,17 53,28 2738 13664
F12CC 4 2768,50±236,73 473,47 17,10 2178 3307 4 1207,00±108,57 217,15 17,99 1035 1508 4 14942,00±2297,74 4595,49 30,75 9806 20814
F13AM 3 1648,33±170,05 294,54 17,86 1344 1932 3 495,33±50,28 87,09 17,58 406 580 3 7231,00±592,19 1025,70 14,18 6047 7849
F14ŞL - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
F15MF 7 2255,86±251,09 664,34 29,45 1204 3148 7 855,29±228,58 604,78 70,71 283 1810 7 11358,00±3283,73 8687,94 76,49 3679 23913
F16CV 2 3775,00±350,00 494,97 13,11 3425 4125 2 680,00±64,00 90,51 13,31 616 744 2 11785,00±1562,00 2209,00 18,74 10223 13347
F17TS 1 1752,00±0,00 0,00 0,00 1752 1752 1 529,00±0,00 0,00 0,00 529 529 1 5746,00±0,00 0,00 0,00 5746 5746
F18SG 11 1990,18±156,03 517,52 26,00 1367 2800 11 748,18±150,51 499,18 66,72 278 1865 11 12534,82±2675,05 8872,16 70,78 3408 26880
F19SMK 22 1971,95±109,80 515,04 26,11 1135 2921 22 596,57±57,18 262,03 43,92 301 1293 22 8943,36±912,99 4282,30 47,88 3403 19421
F20DH 23 1995,13±141,65 679,33 34,05 1148 3516 23 435,22±30,07 144,22 33,13 273 737 23 6201,39±472,05 2263,89 36,50 3097 12515
F21SI 3 1847,33±315,48 546,44 29,58 1314 2406 3 517,00±52,50 90,94 17,59 412 571 3 7268,33±935,94 1621,09 22,30 5549 8769
F22SD - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
F23GN 4 3361,25±286,14 572,29 17,02 2604 3955 4 870,50±105,88 211,77 24,32 555 996 4 13026,75±1543,76 3087,53 23,70 8749 15844
F24GC 6 2040,50±513,50 726,19 35,58 1527 2554 6 524,50±45,83 112,28 21,40 422 627 6 6592,00±401,15 982,61 14,90 5695 7489
F25PG 2 1667,00±0,00 0,00 0,00 1667 1667 2 352,50±9,50 13,43 3,81 343 362 2 4975,00±278,00 393,15 7,90 4697 5253
F26OM 7 2306,00±244,66 647,31 28,07 1327 3255 7 1029,57±165,62 438,20 42,56 287 1587 7 19948,29±2881,63 7624,07 38,21 6430 26656
F27SC 6 2336,50±280,67 687,67 29,43 1142 3209 6 678,83±115,27 282,35 41,59 265 996 6 7004,33±1708,19 4184,19 59,73 1881 11977
Medium 156 2256,03±60,19 739,65 32,78 1110 5118 156 621,23±28,03 348,96 56,17 229 1869 156 9802,56±696,30 8696,81 88,72 1881 30396
population
- 901 -
continuare tabelul 2
Fat’s quantity variability on productive life-time kg Protein’s quantity variability on productive life time kg / live day / productive live day
Farme
Lapte Grăs Prot Lapte Grăs Prot
code n s V% Min Max n s V% Min Max
X ± sx X ± sx kg kg kg kg kg kg
F1MI 4 184,43±22,45 44,90 24,35 140,40 225,30 4 148,30±15,24 30,49 20,56 118,70 183,20 1,62 0,06 0,05 15,01 0,59 0,47
F2CI 3 373,70±131,21 227,26 60,81 149,70 604,10 3 322,23±117,04 202,72 62,91 124,60 529,70 3,47 0,12 0,10 17,10 0,61 0,52
F3SC 3 605,77±245,07 424,47 70,07 339,90 1095,30 3 539,33±228,44 395,67 73,36 282,60 995,00 8,10 0,29 0,19 22,75 0,83 0,74
F4SM 5 217,94±59,22 132,43 60,76 105,30 421,10 5 192,45±52,87 118,22 61,43 93,70 372,20 2,51 0,09 0,08 13,73 0,51 0,45
F5DC 4 487,78±52,66 105,33 21,59 358,30 611,00 4 406,28±49,89 99,79 24,56 273,00 513,00 5,10 0,19 0,16 16,64 0,66 0,55
F6DS 4 208,68±38,80 77,61 37,19 117,50 307,30 4 155,00±19,87 39,74 25,64 97,00 182,00 3,01 0,11 0,08 14,94 0,56 0,42
F7CM 7 420,14±81,51 215,65 51,32 143,20 733,40 7 361,43±68,03 180,00 49,80 118,10 636,90 3,80 0,14 0,12 12,02 0,44 0,38
F8AN 3 215,63±53,44 92,57 42,92 109,50 279,70 3 179,67±38,72 67,08 37,33 102,40 223,00 3,91 0,13 0,11 16,23 0,57 0,47
F9HI 5 338,88±62,25 139,19 41,07 177,00 474,20 5 277,66±50,94 113,91 41,02 147,50 385,40 5,17 0,20 0,16 17,64 0,70 0,57
F10TN 7 397,06±78,07 206,56 52,02 140,90 703,10 7 333,87±64,62 170,97 51,21 117,90 574,20 4,07 0,12 0,10 20,62 0,63 0,53
F11TN 10 238,12±43,69 138,18 58,03 92,00 542,10 10 193,11±36,82 116,43 60,29 79,80 450,20 2,92 0,10 0,08 13,40 0,48 0,39
F12CC 4 565,80±68,43 136,87 24,19 438,60 759,40 4 486,53±62,74 125,48 25,79 391,00 668,70 5,39 0,20 0,17 12,37 0,46 0,40
F13AM 3 278,77±30,21 52,33 18,77 229,50 333,70 3 236,43±31,30 54,22 22,93 194,60 297,70 4,38 0,16 0,14 14,59 0,56 0,47
F14ŞL - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
F15MF 7 432,67±126,68 335,17 77,46 124,60 913,20 7 367,21±110,81 293,17 78,83 111,40 808,40 5,03 0,19 0,16 13,27 0,50 0,42
F16CV 2 476,35±65,05 91,99 198,31 411,30 541,40 2 364,80±60,30 85,27 23,37 304,50 425,10 3,12 0,12 0,09 17,33 0,70 0,53
F17TS 1 212,90±0,00 0,00 0,00 212,90 212,90 1 175,40±0,00 0,00 0,00 175,40 175,40 3,27 0,12 0,10 10,86 0,40 0,33
F18SG 11 445,75±93,52 310,18 69,58 112,90 944,80 11 386,83±79,45 263,51 68,12 102,60 803,30 6,29 0,22 0,19 16,75 0,59 0,51
F19SMK 22 342,88±35,65 167,25 48,77 140,80 774,80 22 274,28±29,62 138,96 50,66 110,60 635,30 4,53 0,17 0,13 14,99 0,57 0,45
F20DH 23 239,98±18,68 89,58 37,33 99,40 494,80 23 197,84±15,67 75,14 37,98 88,00 396,30 3,10 0,12 0,09 14,24 0,55 0,45
F21SI 3 261,53±32,68 56,60 21,64 199,10 309,50 3 218,33±25,00 43,30 19,83 169,40 251,70 3,93 0,14 0,11 14,05 0,50 0,42
F22SD - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
F23GN 4 527,00±67,18 134,36 25,49 349,20 671,40 4 430,58±60,79 121,59 28,24 267,30 550,20 3,87 0,15 0,12 14,96 0,60 0,49
F24GC 6 238,90±12,03 29,46 12,33 212,00 265,80 6 199,40±9,16 22,45 11,26 178,90 219,90 3,23 0,11 0,09 12,56 0,45 0,38
F25PG 2 151,10±4,20 5,94 3,93 146,90 155,30 2 151,10±4,20 5,94 3,93 140,90 155,30 2,98 0,09 0,08 14,11 0,42 0,40
F26OM 7 735,86±103,25 273,19 37,12 233,70 996,20 7 671,91±97,74 258,61 38,49 206,80 910,90 8,53 0,31 0,29 19,37 0,71 0,65
F27SC 6 318,78±56,94 139,48 43,75 89,60 456,00 6 267,25±48,13 117,90 44,11 74,50 372,80 2,99 0,13 0,11 10,31 0,46 0,39
Medium 156 352,22±17,35 216,76 61,54 89,60 1095,30 156 296,56±15,38 192,11 64,78 74,50 995,00 4,34 0,15 0,13 15,77 0,56 0,47
population
- 902 -
Tabelul 3
Structure inside populations and productive longevife of the geneticaly families of half father sisters
Genetical milk-kg fat-kg proteine-kg productive life time - days
family n X s min max n X s min max n X s min max n X s min max
18982 7 8495,43 3214,30 4428 14406 7 309,84 114,64 179,10 530,4 7 260,93 93,43 133,0 423,3 13 1636,15 255,34 1135 1888
19021 6 6592,00 982,61 5695 7489 6 238,90 29,46 212,0 265,8 6 199,40 22,45 178,9 219,9 6 524,50 112,28 422 627
19219 8 7677,25 4253,40 3403 16459 8 305,66 163,16 140,8 627,6 8 243,36 132,40 110,6 509,6 8 508,88 192,32 301 805
19837 11 9708,00 6692,84 1881 26880 11 380,18 196,03 89,6 854,1 11 319,84 167,10 74,5 722,8 11 735,64 440,82 265 1869
19486 5 19194,60 8548,19 6430 25828 5 697,88 303,25 233,7 932,2 5 648,88 297,13 206,8 910,9 5 1067,40 518,62 287 1587
51036 6 16328,50 8146,22 8657 30396 6 604,10 289,44 339,9 1095,3 6 526,32 265,23 282,6 995,0 6 1080,17 474,80 360 1568
51124 6 8152,33 2939,42 4400 11849 6 317,83 116,45 177,0 474,2 6 266,00 93,85 147,5 376,0 6 426,33 140,26 284 597
51125 24 13884,83 5775,54 3999 29700 24 415,86 176,55 140,9 774,8 24 342,12 145,32 117,9 635,3 24 683,54 281,33 273 1293
51132 12 6298,17 2843,19 3097 12515 12 239,87 112,01 99,4 494,8 12 203,35 92,85 88,0 396,3 12 447,75 160,57 273 737
51451 12 5547,92 2247,65 2738 9310 12 204,93 85,97 92,0 359,3 12 166,13 74,85 79,8 276,8 12 408,50 144,00 229 656
51455 6 5195,67 2606,88 2966 10265 6 185,25 117,31 105,3 421,1 6 168,63 102,30 93,7 372,2 6 417,67 197,35 253 798
Medium
156 9417,94 6070,86 1881 30396 156 352,22 61,54 89,60 1095,3 156 296,56 192,11 74,5 995,0 366 1002,28 216,95 662 1719
population
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. BRANDS, AL., 1996 – Longevita e caracteri morfologici. Bianco Nero, nr. 8-9, pag.55.
2. FLORESCU, ELENA, 1999 – Studiu privind posibilitatile de ameliorare genetica si consolidare a populatiei de taurine Baltata
cu Negru din Romania. Teza de doctorat, USAMV, Iasi.
3. GEORGESCU, GH., SI COLAB., 1998 – Studiul corelatiilor intre principalele caractere ale productiei de lapte Lucrari
Stiintifice Seria D, Zootehnie , USAMV., Bucuresti.
4. PIPERNEA, N., UJICA, V., SI COLAB, 1977 – Studiul actual si perspectivele ameliorarii taurinelor in Moldova, Revista
Cercetari Agronomice in Moldova, vol. IV, Iasi.
5. UJICA, V., 1997 – Tehnologia cresterii bovinelor , Lucrari practice, Universitatea Agronomica “Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iasi.
BACK
- 903 -
BACK
THE MILK YIELD APTITUDES OF THE “CARPATINA”

GOAT BREED REARED IN ROMANIA
C. PASCAL, Mihaela IVANCIA, I. PĂDEANU,
C. CIPRIAN, N. IFTIMIE
The researches we’ve done on the milk yielding potential of the goats
shown that the individuals within the studied species could produce, within usual
conditions, during normal milking periods, more than 15 times milk quantity than
their own body weight.
According to the researches set up on “Carpatina” breed goats, reared in
Romania, the milk yield of those females is not quite similar to that obtained by the
females belonging to some high milk specialized breeds, although the Romanian
goats gave average yields of 200 l per lactation, during the 3rd, 4th and 5th lactation.
Within a milking period, the milk secretion process follows the same evolutions like
in ovine species, increasing during the first three months and reaching monthly
productions over 30 l, continuing with a plateau period, during two months and
following a gradual decreasing until the end of the milking period.
Milk quality was evaluated through monthly assessments on its chemical
composition, especially concerning the protein and fat contents, reported straight
to the dry matter of the milk.
The proteins in milk were found at a 3.35±0.12 % level in March and at
a maximum level of 3.80% during the June-August period.
According to the analyses on the milk issued from the studied
specimens, fat content evolution was characterized by an incipient value of
2.90±0.11% in March, being increased afterwards at 3.81%±0.09% in
September (an increasing of 23.88% comparing to the reference month) and at
3.98±0.14% during October (an improvement with 26.71%).
According to the analyzed data, it could be stated that the values of the
three main components of the milk increased toward the final period of the lactation,
maximal values being recorded during its two last months. The high values given by
the variability coefficient leaded us to state that the chemical composition of the milk
depends on the analyzed individual as good as on the milking month.
The main conclusions show that the “Carpatina” breed is characterized
through a high heterogeneity, concerning the quantitative and qualitative milk
yield. Par consequence, it imposes to elaborate competent breeding programs for
the goat populations in Romania, in order to improve their milking potential.
Key words: quality, goats, milk yield, “Carpatina” breed
Introduction
Although this species is wide spread in Romania, goat husbandry
represented, almost ever, not a main activity, this situation leading to a high
heterogenic level of the local goat populations, concerning their quantitative and
qualitative yield or their morpho-productive characteristics (Pascal, 2006). During
recent time, some practical and economical reasons brought out the species into
- 904 -
the focus area of the breeders. Considering this, in order to design and setup some
efficient breeding programs, it imposes to reevaluate the milk yield potential and
the quality of the milk given by the goats belonging to the “Carpatina” breed,
which represents approximately 75% of the entire Romanian goat flock.
Increasing the milk yield potential and the goats’ milk quality represents
an actual European trend, the results obtained by several researchers (Raustein,
2002; Vermeglio, 1998; Chilliard, 1997) confirming the multiple possibilities to
be used to increase their productive performances. Moreover, the researches
shown that the goat milk, having great nutritional value, is considered to induce
beneficial effects, with long lasting action, acting toward several diseases and
syndromes. Par consequence is usually recommended to be consumed by old, sick
and recovering people as well as by children.
All across the Europe, goat husbandry lives its rebirth and an
improvement of its economic position, within the developing countries,
dominated by the well known “famine of the animal origin protein”, as good as in
the western countries, especially those belonging to the Mediterranean area,
which gave some breeds that are able to produce over 500 litres of milk per
lactation and which have traditions for processing and consuming the well
appreciated goat milk products (Taftă, 2006).
The goal of the researches we made was to identify and to establish the
role and the practical significance of some factors which induce a straight
influence on the quantitative and qualitative milk yield, issued form the
“Carpatina” breed goats, reared within some North-Eastern areas of Romania.

In order to fulfill the research objectives, several goats, belonging to
multiple farms and having different ages and lactation periods, were studied.
The whole milk yield, during the studied lactation, was assessed
according to the Romanian official methodology, which supposes that the 1st
control occurs after 40 days post partum. In order to estimate the quantitative milk
yield, controls were setup every 28 days.
Milk quality was assessed through its chemical content, the dry matter,
the ashes, the fat and the protein content being analyzed. Thus, the dry matter
quantity was assessed using the oven drying method; the mineral content was
assessed through calcinations. The Kjeldahl method was used to find out the
protein contend and the Soxhlet method was used to determine the total amount of
fats.
The REML (REstricted Maximum Likelihood) method was used for the
statistical analysis, obtaining thus some estimators within the normal space of the
parameters.
- 905 -

Quantitative milk yield
Concerning the milk yielding potential, most of the references state that,
in casual conditions, a goat could produce, during a normal length of lactation, a
milk quantity which could pass over 15 times its own body weight (Taftă, 2006).
Knowing the importance and the role of the milk production onto the animal
breeding, we assessed the milk yield of the “Carpatina” breed goats, during the
entire lactation, for every lactation month and on every group separated according
to its zootechnical period. The results, centralized and statistically analyzed, are
shown into the tables 1 and 2.
Data analysis suggests that the average monthly milk yield increase
during the first three month and decrease progressively toward the end of the
lactation. Thus, during the 2nd month of lactation, corresponding to the May
month, the average yield of the entire flock was 30.72% superior, compared to the
precedent month and 7.28% inferior when refers to the average yield of the next
month, whose quantity – 32.502 kg of milk – represented the maximum average
milk yield.
Table 1. Average monthly and total milk yield obtained from the “Carpatina” breed,
during the entire lactation
Milk yield (kg)

Specification % of Limits
X ±sx V%
total min. max.
1st control (April) 21.010 ± 0.128 10.58 9.95 15 24
2nd control (May) 30.134 ± 0.089 15.12 14.29 24 39
3rd control (June) 32.502 ± 0.102 13.25 14.45 25 48
4th control (July) 29.371 ± 0.077 14.47 13.92 26 51
5th control (August) 27.184 ± 0.303 12.26 12.89 23 44
6th control (September) 26.722 ± 0.155 11.58 12.66 19 41
7th control (October) 25.191 ± 0.251 13.68 11.94 18 38
8th control (November) 20.886 ± 0.155 13.95 9.90 13 29
Total 211.00 ± 0.122 13.21 100.0 137 278
Generally speaking, the average milk yield progressively increased form

21.01 kg during April, to 30.134 kg during May and to 32.502 kg in June, then
decreased according to the lactation end approaching, although the average
monthly yield kept a high level (fig. 1).
Because during the first three months, approximately 40% of the total
average milk quantity per lactation was obtained, this consist in an important fact
that could offer valuable indicators concerning the goats selection, in order to
improve their milk yielding aptitudes.
- 906 -
35.00 32.502
30.134
29.371
30.00 27.184 26.722
25.191
25.00
20.00 21.01
20.886
15.00
1st C 2nd C 3rd C 4th C 5th C 6th C 7th C 8th C
Note: C - control
Figure 1. The dynamics of the average monthly milk yield, according to the lactation
month
The entire goat herd used in the researches was structured on 7

zootechnical generations, which were different by the age they had during the
lactation we studied; the goats belonging to the 2003 generation were during their
1st lactation. The data from the table 2 reveals that during the same lactation,
within the same experimental conditions (feeding, accommodation, herd
management), the highest milk yield is obtained from the goats having their 2nd,
3rd or 4th lactation. This finding could offer valuable clues, as good as in the case
of the monthly production, on the milk yielding potential of the females in the
breeding groups, during the first three or four lactations, situation which allows
choosing the best decision for goat inbreeding, even from their first years of life.
Table 2. Average milk yield, according to the lactation month and to the goats’ age group
Goats generation (year of birth)

Specification
2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997
1st control (March) 19.39 22.47 24.83 23.77 20.84 18.81 16.93
2nd control (April) 25.30 31.20 37.77 35.78 32.45 25.57 22.94
3rd control (May) 33.15 36.69 37.28 35.85 31.62 27.20 25.57
4th control (June) 30.22 37.95 32.85 30.26 27.13 24.75 22.24
5th control (July) 27.37 33.12 30.88 28.68 25.65 23.74 20.68
6th control (August) 26.97 33.06 30.66 27.50 24.81 23.69 20.49
7th control (September) 24.60 30.87 28.70 26.77 22.91 21.44 20.91
8th control (October) 23.72 28.82 26.55 25.89 21.42 20.58 19.02
Total 210.72 254.18 249.52 234.5 206.83 185.78 168.78
- 907 -
300
254.18
249.52 234.5
250
206.83
200 185.78
210.72 168.78
150
100
2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997
Figure 2. The dynamics of the monthly average milk yield, according to the goats’
zootechnical age group
During the researches, it was also found that a well pronounced variability
exists within the “Carpatina” breed. Thus, 38% of the individuals yield under 150
kg of milk, 46% yield between 150 - 200 kg of milk and only 17 % give yields
over 250 kg, from which 3% over 275 kg. The data suggests good milk yielding
potential but a poor selection onto this character. The data are quite similar to
those obtained by Taftă (1996), on the same breed.
The quality of the goat milk

The goat milk quality is considered to be higher than to the milk provided
by other species, due to its chemical, sensorial, nutritional and tonic properties,
which confer its good “skills” to fight against rachitic syndromes, anemia, and
several infectious processes. The goat milk color is white or light yellow, due to
the lack of pigments and to the lipid particles, which have a pronounced thinness
(less than 4 µ) and that are well disseminated among the other milk compounds
(Taftă, 1993; Pascal, 2006).
The chemical composition of the goat milk is particularly different from
those found in other species. Thus, it differs from the cow milk mainly due to its
higher content in proteins and carbohydrates. There are also differences,
concerning some physical and sensorial properties.
During the entire lactation, the average water content was about 86.977 ±
0.320 %, with oscillating values given by the lactation month or by the quantity of
milk obtained. Considering these conditions, the average dry matter percentage
was about 13.023 ± 0.025 %, the highest proportion being achieved by the
carbohydrates. According to other authors, the dry matter content within the goat
milk is of 14%, with 3.5% fat, 2.4% casein, 4.4% lactose etc. (Dubeuf, B. and
Vermeglio M, 1998; Jauber, 2005, Pascal, 2006, Taftă, 1996). Par consequence, it
could be state that the chemical composition of the goat milk is easy to be
influenced by a wide range of factors, such as (the most important): breed and
individual related factors, geographical area, feeding specific.
- 908 -
Table 3. The main chemical components assessed in the goat milk, during the entire
lactation
Statistical values (%)

Specification
X ±sx V%
Water 86.977 ± 0.320 8.78
Dry matter 13.023 ± 0.025 9.01
Total protein 3.772 ± 0.028 7.55
Fats 3.851 ± 0.056 10.01
Carbohydrates 4.312 ± 0.221 9.09
Ashes 1.088 ± 0.057 6.56
Calories/100 g 72 -
In order to study the evolution of the main components percentage into

the goat milk, some assessments were made, during the period between
parturition and 10 days post partum, table 3 showing the experimental data.
Table 4. Variation of the main goat milk components within the interval: parturition-10
days post partum
Post partum interval (hours)

Components
Just
(%) 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240
after
Water 78.61 76.70 77.12 77.06 77.18 76.87 77.47 82.75 83.81 84.15 84.95
Dry matter 21.39 23.30 22.88 23.94 23.92 23.13 22.53 17.25 16.19 15.85 15.05
Acidity 26 29 26 22 17 18 16 14 15 17 16
pH 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5 6.5
Protein 0.58 0.66 0.92 0.96 0.99 1.01 0.43 0.48 0.51 0.49 0.49
Ashes 1.38 1.09 1.24 1.77 2.32 2.78 3.47 0.78 0.55 0.53 0.84
Thus, the main milk components met a pronounced fluctuation degree,

during the studied period. While the water content tended to increase after 120
hours post-partum, the dry matter content was counterbalanced; the acidity
decreased after 48 hours, while the protein and mineral contents decreased after 7
days and the pH kept a constant value.
During the same lactation, the dry matter content increased, thus
confirming the positive correlation established between this character and the
milk quantity produced. The whole protein shown and increasing trend till the
month of August then decreased to 3.83%, respectively to 3.67%, during the last
two months of the study (table 5).
The whole fat content followed an increasing trend, its percentage being
23.88% superior in September and 27.13% superior in October, when comparing
to the reference month, March.
- 909 -
Table 5. Monthly dynamics of the main chemical components proportion in the goat milk
Chemical components %
Specification Dry matter Protein Fats
V% V% V%
X ±sx X ±sx X ±sx
st
1 control (April) 12.09 ± 0.03 13.4 3.35 ± 0.14 7.9 2.90 ± 0.11 7.7
2nd control (May) 12.57 ± 0.09 14.6 3.40 ± 0.15 8.6 3.25 ± 0.16 8.3
3rd control (June) 12.85 ± 0.08 15.8 3.52 ± 0.21 9.9 3.77 ± 0.25 9.1
4th control (July) 13.08 ± 0.15 14.4 3.77 ± 0.23 8.4 3.80 ± 0.17 9.7
5th control (August) 13.17 ± 0.22 15.5 3.80 ± 0.16 8.5 3.77 ± 0.24 10.3
6th control (September) 13.29 ± 0.07 15.8 3.84 ± 0.31 9.1 3.68 ± 0.08 9.5
7th control (October) 13.24 ± 0.15 15.7 3.83 ± 0.22 8.6 3.81 ± 0.09 8.9
8th control (November) 13.33 ± 0.12 15.9 3.67 ± 0.08 8.2 3.98 ± 0.14 8.7
Thus, the total amounts of dry matter, protein and fat were extremely
variable, during the analyzed lactation, the data being presented within the Table
6. According to experimental results, all the differences were positive and
statistically significant, straight related to the dry matter content, in the period of
the 1st control.
Table 6. Monthly evolution of the quantity of the main chemical components in the goat
milk
Chemical components %
Dry matter Dry matter Dry matter
Specification Difference Difference Difference
Kg from the kg from the kg from the
1st C 1st C 1st C
1st control (March) 2.54 - 0.703 - 0.609 -
2nd control (April) 3.78 + 32.80 1.024 + 31.34 0.976 + 37.60
3rd control (May) 4.17 + 39.08 1.144 + 38.54 1.225 + 50.28
4th control (June) 3.84 + 33.85 1.107 + 36.49 1.116 + 45.43
5th control (July) 3.58 + 29.05 1.032 + 31.87 1.024 + 40.52
6th control (August) 3.55 + 28.45 1.026 + 31.48 0.983 + 38.04
7th control (September) 3.30 + 23.03 0.965 + 27.15 0.961 + 36.62
8th control (October) 2.74 + 7.29 0.766 + 7.83 0.831 + 26.71
Total 27.506 - 7.767 - 7.724 -
Note: 1st C – 1st control
Highest differences were found in the assessments done during the 3rd
control period (month of May), when comparing to the data obtained from the 1st
one. Thus, while the total amount of milk produced increased just with 35.35%, the
entire protein amount was 38.54% higher and the total fatty content was 50% higher.
However, it could be interesting to further finalise a study concerning the
genetic and the environmental causality which straight influences the milk yield or
the quality of the milk issued by the goats belonging to Romanian “Carpatina” breed.
- 910 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
1. The milking curve of the “Carpatina” breed reach its maximum after the first
four months of lactation, when the total milk yield amount was 35.35% higher
than the yield in the 1st control period and also 35.73% higher, when compared to
the last control period.
2. When goats’ age and the number of lactations were quantified, the data shown
that highest yields were obtained from the goat passing through their 2nd and 3rd
lactation. More specific, during our experiments, the goats gave approximately
250 l of milk per capita, when the environmental and feeding conditions were
similar for the entire herd.
3. The main milk components presented high variability just after the parturition.
Thus, while the water content trended to increase at 120 hours post partum,
counterbalancing the dry matter (DM) content, the acidity decreased after 48
hours interval, the proteins and the ashes contents were lower after 7 days and the
pH value remained constant.
4. During the experimental period it was found that the dry matter content
increased within the same lactation, while the total amount of proteins increased
just until September, being decreased (3.83% and 3.67%) during the last two
months of the lactation.
5. The total amount of fats in the milk shown an ascendant dynamics, being
23.88% higher in the penultimate month and 27.13% higher in November, when
compared to the 1st control period.
REFERENCES
Dubeuf, B. Vermeglio, M. - 1998 - La diversité des laits produits au cours de la
campagne laitière dans les élevages caprins corses. - INRA-SAD-LRDE, Quartier Grossetti, F-
20250 Corte, France,27 p.
Fedele V.; Rubino R.; Claps S. - 1997 - Effect of type of protein concentrate free-choice
on goat feeding behavior. Ciheam-Iamz, p. 83-86. (Options Mèditerranèennes).
Jaubert G. - 2005 - Biochemical characteristics and quality of goat milk. ITPLC - BP 49
- 17700 Surgeres -France. Summary.
Jenness, R. - 1980 - Composition and characteristics of goat milk: Review 1968–1979. J.
Dairy Sci. 63:1605.
Pascal C. - 2006 - Researchers with reference at the quantitative and qualitative milk
production at indigenous local goats growed and exploited in the North-Eastern area of Romania.
Book of abstact of the international symposium, IGA Constanta.
Pascal C. - 2006 - The morphologic and productive specific parameters of goats North-
Eastern area of Romania. Book of abstract of the international symposium, IGA Constanta.
Taftă V. - 1996 - Producţia şi reproducţia caprinelor. Editura Ceres, Bucureşti.
Taftă V. - 1993 - Cercetări comparative privind principalele însuşiri morfo-prtoductive ale
caprei Carpatine şi a metişilor F1 şi F2 cu Saanen. Lucrări ştiinţifice, seria D, vol. 36, USAMV
Bucureşti.
- 911 -
BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING BODY WEIGHT DYNAMICS

OF CROSSBRED CHAROLLAIS x MERINOS DE
TRANSILVANIA SUCKLING LAMBS REARED IN BANAT
AREA
I. PĂDEANU, S. VOIA, C. PASCAL,
Gh. BOGDAN, L. POROŞNICU
On the Western European market suckling lambs from breeds specialized

for meat production, are sold for very high prices. Body weight evolution from
lambing to weaning was studied on the Charollaise x Transylvanian Merino
crossbreed lambs obtained from Charollaise rams imported from France by
Emiliana Vest Ltd. Besides the maternal milk lambs generated in single and
double lambing received for adlibitum consumption a high quality after grass
and pelleted compound feed having 14% PDI during the first 30 days and 12%
PDI from 31 to 70 days. After the body weight evaluation, single-lambing lambs
of both sexes (M and F) had a significantly higher live weight (3.28 kg, p<0.01)
than twin lambs from F-F couple (2.76 kg) and F-M couple (2.96 kg), and close
to twin lambs obtained from M-M couple (3.01 kg). After this study was found
that single-lambing lambs had the highest body weight at weaning (29.24 kg)
followed by the twin lambs (M-M with 24.57 kg, F-M with 23.98 kg, and F-F with
22.94 kg). Taking into account that these values are close to those from the
country where Charollaise rams were resulted from we propose the utilization of
Charolaise rams for crossbreeding with Merino sheep in order to improve the
meat production.
Key words: sheep, meat crossbreeds, body weight.
INTRODUCTION
The orientation of the direction of exploitation from wool production,
considered most important in Romania until the year 1990, had changed to meat
and/or milk production, tendency that is expected to accentuate even in the next
years. The actual prognosis on the European Union market, on short and medium
term, show that the demand of ovine meat on EU market will grow, over the limit
of 300 million tons annually.
With a number of 8 millions ovine, Romania is on the top among the
European countries. The productive performances realized by this effective are
lower, both under the aspect of the growing speed and specific consumption, and
under the aspect of the carcass conformation and meat quality. The major way of
quick amelioration of the growing speed and the meat quality, is hybridization of
local breeds ovine, with ovine breeds specialized on meat production.
By this study we intendend to evaluate the body weight dynamic on
Merinos de Transilvania suckling lambs, from simple lambing and double from
lambing to the typical age of 70 days.
- 912 -
METHODS AND MATERIALS

The investigations had been made on 2005-2006, on ovine from
Charollais breed, imported to SC. EMILIANA SRL., Valcani ovine farm. On this
unit, in October 2003 were imported from the south of France, the Bresse Plain
area (near to the Central Massive), 237 female lambs and 20 male lambs, from the
Charollais breed, having the age of 9 months.
On Charollais breed lambs obtained from simple or double lambing, the
body weight of the lambs was evaluated at lambing and at the age of 30 and 70
days.
The obtained data were processed with biostatistics methods, using for
calculation EXCEL program. For testing the differences significance, Mann-
Withney test was used, non parametrical test.

In the period ranging between lambing - weaning (70 days) the crossbreed
Charollais x Merinos de Transilvania lambs body weight was registered, on lambs
resulted from simple lambing and on lambs from double lambing. The results
regarding the body weight on lambing, at 30 and 70 days are presented in tables 1,
2, 3, 4.
In table 1 is inserted the body weight of the crossbreed lambs resulted from
simple lambing. The lambs were borne in the same day (2.10.2006) and so they
have the same age. From the analysis of the data from this table we notice that the
medium body weight of the lambs resulted from simple lambing is 3.28 kg, value
that is in normal range of our local breeds. The unsteadiness coefficient is low;
the value 7.01% shows a good uniformity for this character.
After a month from the birth this lambs realize a high body weight of 11.49
kg. At the age of 30 days the uniformity of the body weight is accentuating (CV =
4.93 %) and then slowly increases to the age of 70 days (CV = 5.8 %), but is
maintaining in the limits of an very low unsteadiness.
In the 30-70 days period lambs had an increased growing speed and at 70
days had realized a medium body weight of 29.24 kg. This is the time when they
are given to export as milk lambs (3.4 Euro/kg), resulted to 100 Euro/lamb.
In table 2 is mentioned the crossbreed lambs body weight, resulted from
double lambing, F-F couple. The crossbreed twin ewes had registered a body
weight on get of 2.76 kg, lower with 16% comparative with the one realized by
the ewes from simple lambing. This difference had slowly increased at the age of
30 days (9.93 kg) and accentuated at 70 days (22.94 kg), confirming that the twin
ewes had a lower growth rate, towards the ewes from simple lambing, with
21.5%. The variation coefficient of the body weight is medium at birth (17.25 %),
than decreases to moderate values to medium (10.5-13.62 %) at the evaluations
from 30 and 70 days.
- 913 -
At twin lambs from F-M couple the body weight on birth is a little higher
(2.96 kg), but at the age of 30 days (8.86 kg), is surprisingly lower with a little
over 1 kg, comparative with the one realized on twin ewes (F-F). The situation is
changing at 70 days, when the twin lambs from the M-F couple, realize 23.94 kg,
exceeding at this age with over 1 kg the twin ewes body weight.
Toward the other twin couples, the body weight on birth (3.01 kg) is the
highest at the twin couple M-M. After one month, the medium body weight of the
twin rams (9.77 kg) is very similar with the one of the F-F couple, but in the 30-
70 days period, the twin lambs M-M have a much higher growing speed, and
realize the highest body weight (24.57 kg) between the twin couples. On birth the
unsteadiness of the body weight on the M-M twin couples is high (CV = 22.61 %)
thereupon is getting leveled at the age of 30 days (CV = 8.28 %) and 70 days (CV
= 5.08 %).
In the second stage the testing of the body weight differences significance
on birth was done, at the age of 30 and 70 days, between crossbreed Charollais x
Merinos de Transilvania lambs resulted from simple or double lambing. The
significance of the body weight differences on birth, between simple and double
lambs is presented in table 2.
The crossbreed lambs from simple lambing, realize a body weight on birth
significantly higher (p<0.01) with 0.52 kg comparatively double lambs from F-F
couple and with 0.32 kg toward the lambs from F-M couple. Twin lambs from M-
M couple have a body weight at birth lower with 0.27 kg, but this difference is
not statistically assured (p>0.05).
At the age of 30 days the body weight differences are accentuating (table
3). At this age, the body weight on lambs from simple lambing is significantly
higher (p<0.01) with 1.52 kg toward the twin ewes (F-F) with 2.63 kg toward the
twin lambs from couple F-M and with 1.72 kg toward the twin lambs from couple
M-M.
At the weaning moment (70 days) the body weight differences increase a
lot (table 4). At this age the lambs from simple lambing realize 29.24 kg with 6.3
kg more comparative with twin ewes F-F, with 5.26 kg more toward the twin
lambs F-M and with 4.67 kg more comparative with couple M-M. All this
differences are statistically very significant assured (p<0.001) confirming that
crossbreed Charollais x Merinos de Transilvania lambs from simple lambing,
realize at weaning higher body weights comparative with the one from double
lambing, indifferent of the sex from the couple.
We see that the twin couples on which males participate (F-M, M-M), body
weight differences toward the simple lambing are lower. Prolificity is a very
important factor of the economic efficiency. This data shows that crossbreed
Charollais x Merinos de Transilvania lambs, from M-M couple, realize the
highest body weight at 70 days after birth.
The obtained information suggests that by using sexed sperm, it can be
obtained only male lambs with the body weight significant higher at weaning.
- 914 -
Table 1
The evolution of body weight in Charollais x Merinos de Transilvania crossbreeds
lambs from lambing to weaning (70 days)
Body weight at:

lambing 30 days 70 days
Specification n
CV CV CV
x + Sx %
x + Sx %
x + Sx %
Lambs from single 3.28 ± 11.49 ± 29.24 ±
110 7.01 4.93 5.8
lambing 0.08 0.19 0,57
2.76 ± 9.93 ± 22.94 ±
F-F 20 17.25 12 13.62
0.11 0.30 0,94
F- 2.96 ± 8.86 ± 23.94 ±
Twin lambs 20 6.45 6.28 7.87
M 0.04 0.15 0,50
M- 3.01 ± 9.77 ± 24.57 ±
20 22.61 8.28 5.08
M 0.15 0.21 0,33
Table 2
Body weight of Charollais x Merinos de Transilvania crossbred lambs at lambing
and the significance of registered differences
Body Differences to single

Type of weight lambing
Couple n Test t
lambing absolute relative
x + Sx (kg) (%)
Single F/M 10 3.28 ± 0.07 - - -
F-F 20 2.76 ± 0.11 + 0.52** 18.8 2.88
Twin
F-M 20 2.96 ± 0.04 + 0.32** 10.8 2.90
couple
M-M 20 3.01 ± 0.15 + 0.27 8.9 1.22
Table 3
Body weight of Charollais x Merinos de Transilvania crossbred lambs at 30 days and
the significance of registered differences
Body Differences to single

Type of weight lambing
Couple n Test t
lambing absolute relative
x + Sx (kg) (%)
11.49 ±
Single F sau M 9 - - -
0.19
F-F 12 9.93 ± 0.30 + 1.52** 15.70* 3.18
Twin
F-M 14 8.86 ± 0.15 + 2.63*** 29.6 7.73
couple
M-M 14 9.77 ± 0.21 + 1.72*** 17.6 4.30
- 915 -
BACK
Table 4
Body weight of Charollais x Merinos de Transilvania crossbred lambs at 70 days and
the significance of registered differences
Body weight Differences

Type of
Couple n absolute relative Test t
lambing x + Sx (kg) (%)
Single F/M 9 29.24 ± 0.57 - - -
F-F 11 22.94 ± 0.94 + 6.30*** 27.4 5.08
Twin
F-M 15 23.94 ± 0.50 + 5.26*** 21.9 8.09
couple
M-M 14 24.57 ± 0.33 + 4.67*** 19.0 8.64
CONCLUSIONS
After the body weight evaluation at lambing and at the ages of 30 and 70
days, on crossbreed Charollais x Merinos de Transilvania lambs from simple or
double lambing, we can draw the following conclusions:
¾ The body weight at birth is significant higher an lambs resulted from
simple lambing (3.28 kg), compared to lambs resulted from double
lambing, from couple F-F (2.76 kg) and F-M (2.96 kg);
¾ The body weight at 30 days is significantly higher on lambs from simple
lambing (11.49 kg), with 1.52 kg toward the twin lambs F-F with 2.63 kg,
comparative with twin lambs F-M and with 1.72 kg toward twin lambs
M-M;
¾ Body weight at weaning (70 days) is significantly higher on lambs from
simple lambing (29.24 kg) with 6.3 kg comparative with twin lambs F-F,
with 5.26 kg toward twin lambs F-M and with 4.76 kg comparative with
twin lambs M-M.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Benoit M., Laignel G., Lienard G., Dedieu M., Chabosseau J.M., Elements de reussite
economique des elevages ovins extensifs du Montmorillonnais, INRA Prod. Anim., 10 (5),
p. 349 – 362, 1997a.
2. Black J.L., A theoretical consideration of the effect of preventing rumen fermentation on
theefficiency of utilisation of dietary energy and protein in lambs. 1971.
3. Ensiminger, R.E., Oldfield, J.E., Heinemann, W.W., Feeding sheep, Feeds & Nutrition,
California, Ensminger Publishing Company, 1990.
4. Padeanu, I., Producţiile ovinelor şi caprinelor, Timişoara, Editura Mirton, 2002.
5. Pădeanu I., Evaluarea tehnică şi Ameliorarea genetică a producţiilor la ovine, Timişoara, Ed.
Mirton, 2003.
6. Pascal C., Producţia de carne la ovine. Iaşi. Ed. Ion Ionescu de la Brad. 2004.
7. Taftă, V., Vintilă, I., Zamfirescu Stela, Producţia ameliorarea şi reproducţia ovinelor,
Bucureşti, Editura Ceres, 1997.
8. Voia S., Drînceanu D., Hrănirea tineretului ovin în diferite sisteme de îngrăşare. Timişoara, Ed.
Waldpress, 2006.
- 916 -
BACK
CASE STUDY CONCERNING THE ANALYSIS OF GROSS

MARGIN IN A DANISH DAIRY FARM
I. PIRVUŢOIU, Agatha POPESCU, L. BJARNE, G. RADULESCU
This study aimed to present a study case concerning the calculation of

Gross Margin in a Danish Dairy farm . In the paper there are put in evidence
farm performances in milk production as well as the fundamentals of gross
margin calculation based on Profit And Loss Account. The farm has 140 ha
aricultural land , raises 190 Jersey cows, producing 8,000 kg /cow and year in
average . The milk quota was 1,109,240 kg in the year 2005. The Gross Output
of the farm was DKK 4,273,137 in 2005 and cost related to good sold were
DKK 1,481,683 , so that Gross margin counted DKK 2,791,454 . Gross
margin is the barometer of farm efficiency , showing how much of revenue /
sales is left to farmer after subtracting the cost of goods sold.
Gross margin is expresses the relationship between gross profit and sales
revenue. The term “Revenue” is often called Gross Output representing the same
thing, which is the value of the good produced in order to be sold plus subsidies
plus byproduct or often called secondary production, according to the formula :
Gross Margin = Gross Output - Cost of Goods Sold
The term “Cost of good sold” represent the costs directly linked to the
product, variable costs, e.g. costs for material and labor. They do not include fixed
costs like office expenses etc. The gross margin shall be covering fixed costs and
possibly a (net) profit ( 1,2,3,4,5).
Higher gross margins for a farmer reflect greater efficiency in turning raw
materials into income. But also this is highly dependent on the farm type.
Therefore Gross Margin is considered the most important indicator of
efficiency , commonly used into the EU countries at it directly tells farmers how
many of their sale value are bringing profit ( 9,10 , 11 ) .
If it is about a mixed farm , having two sector : crop and animal
production, gross margin at farm level could be a positive one, but is results as
a combination between a negative gross margin in the crop sector and a positive
one in the animal breeding sector.
In this context , Gross Margin was determined in a Danish Dairy farm to
show how it is calculated and what factors are affecting it in a way or another .
This model can be also applied in Romania at farm level, but also per cow or
activity in any other type of farm ( 6,7,8,9,10 ).
MATERIAL AND METHOD

In order to set up this study , the data collected from Harndrup Dairy
Farm Bookkeeping , Fyn Island . It has 140 ha and 207 Jersey cows , producing
- 917 -
8,000 kg in average per year . In order to determine Gross Margin at farm level ,
the data from the farm Profit and Loss account and the formula given below were
used.
Gross Margin = Gross Output – Variable Costs,
where : Gross Output = all the earnings of the farm including the sales of crops,
cattle, earnings from contract operation, other income, but excluding internal
transfer ; Variable Cost = all the costs made for producing the goods in the
production cycle. The lack of information did not allow to compute gross
margin per head, per Kg of milk or per Ha.

Land area and crop structure is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Land structure during the period 2001-2005

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Total Land
99 98 142 135 139
area Ha
Of which
55 34 75 68 37
rented land
Cereals, Ha 2 14 48 49 34
Sugar beet 3 4 9 8 9
Rape seeds,
4
etc. , Ha
Roughage,
83 70 70 69 81
Ha
Detachable
10 10 14 10 11
area, Ha
Ha of
roughage / 0,45 0,37 0,37 0,35 0,42
annual cow
In the present the farm has a agricultural are approximately of 140 Ha, in
which around 37 Ha in tenancy. In the year 2005 , the crop structure was : 34 ha
cereals , 9 ha sugar beet, 4 ha rape seeds , 81 ha roughage and 11 ha
detachable area .
The number of cows. In the year 2005 , the farm had 190 Jersey cows ,
by 2.7 % more than in the year 2001 .
Milk Quota increased from 994.2 thousand kg in the year 2001 to
1,109.2 thousand kg in the year 2005.
- 918 -
Table 2. The number of cows, Milk Quota, Average Milk Yield ,

Income from milk sold and cow growth during the period 2001-2005
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Number of
cows – 185 183 183 191 190
heads
Calf born
annually
1,1 1,3 1,1 1,2 1,1
per cow
Heads
Beef calf
average live
428 525
weight ,
Kg/head
Milk quota,
994,241 1,031,741 1,069,241 1,109,240 1,109,240
Kg
Average
Milk Yield 7,432 7,817 7,634 7,791 8,098
kg/cow/year
Fat percent 6,40 6,06 6,19 6,15 5,91
Protein
3,97 3,90 4,01 4,01 4,00
percent
Somatic
cells (1000 280
units)
Milk Price
/kg milk 2.51 2.51 2.45 2.34 2.22
DKK/kg
Value of
Sold milk
18,771 19,701 18,832 18,331 18,052
per annual
cow, DKK
Value of
cows growth 622 449 517 208 1,461
DKK
Average Milk Production increased from 7,432 kg/cow/lactation in the

year 2001 to 8,098 kg /year in the year 2005 . The average fat percentage
decreased from 6.40 % in 2001 to 5.91 % in the year 2005. The milk protein
content is 4 % . The number of somatic cells did not exceed the benchmark of
280,000 cells.
Milk Marketing . Milk quality meets the EU quality standards and is
delivered to Arla Foods Company every day on a contractual basis.
Milk Price has decreased from 2.51 DKK /kg in the year 2001 to DKK
2.22 /kg in the year 2005.
- 919 -
Milk Sales have been deeply influenced by the amount of marketed milk
and milk price ,so that in te year 2005 their value was DKK 18,502 compared to
DKK 18,771 in the year 2001.
Gross Margin has slightly increased from Thousand DKK 2,704 in the
year 2001 to Thousand DKK 2,791 in the year 2005 .
Table 3 General Calculation of Gross Margin during 2001-2005

Results 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
(1000Kr)
Gross
3,936 4,101 4,321 4,161 4,273
Output
Variable
-1,232 -1,295 -1,295 -1,653 -1,482
Cost
Gross
2,704 2,806 3,026 2,508 2,791
Margin
It is easy to notice that during this period of time, the gross output is
higher than variable costs, more than that , the value of the gross output is more
then double comparing to variable costs. In 2004 we find a decrease in the gross
output value with approximately 3,7% comparing with the previous year. The
situation was bad because if we observe the variable costs increased in 2004 with
approximately 27% comparing with the previous year. In this case the farmer
allocated in that year too much in realizing the production and in the end he could
not get the increased value for what he invested. The increase in the value of
variable costs is due probably to an increase in the prices of seeds, fertilizer,
pesticides, and the list can continue.
To the farmer or even to an enterprising investor, income statement
analysis reveals much more than a company's earnings. It provides important
insights into how effectively management is controlling expenses, the amount of
interest income and expense, and the taxes paid. Investors can use income
statement analysis to calculate financial ratios that will reveal the rate of return
the business is earning on the shareholders' retained earnings and assets. They can
also compare a company's profits to its competitors by examining various profit
margins such as the gross profit margin, operating profit margin, and net profit
margin.
In the first lines of the income statement it is presented first the total
revenue or the sales of the farm, after that the cost of good sold or the variable
costs. Although there are only a few lines into the income statement, grosso
margin can already be calculated ( Table 4 ) .
- 920 -
Table 4 Detailed calculation of Gross Margin based on the data from

Profit and Loss Account in the year 2004 and 2005
2005 2004
Sum (DKK) Total In 1000 DKK
10-10 Cereals 117.300 222
10-10 Beet commerce 134.278 122
10-10 Rape seeds 15.279
10-10 Roughage 74.700 158
10-10 Detachable area 15.840 24
10-19 Milk 3.431.730 3.507
10-20 Livestock-Cattle 277.767 40
10-29 Contract operation 400
income
10-29 Other farm income 205.843 88
4.273.137 4.161
Gross output
10-30 Seed -93.018 -101
10-30 Fertilizer -21.222 -19
10-30 Pesticides -67.833 -81
10-30 Miscellaneous crop -29.726 -28
costs
10-40 Cereals -76.800 -24
10-40 Fourage acquisition -635.485 -649
10-40 Other fourage -180.944 -84
aquisition
10-40 Own roughage 6.159 -236
10-49 Veterinary services -170.826 -198
and pharmaceutical
costs
10-49 Miscellaneous costs
-211.988 -233
with animal
Unit(marginal) - 1.481.683 -1.653
costs
Gross Margin 2.791.454 2.508
CONCLUSIONS
1.The dairy farm has 140 ha aricultural land , raises 190 Jersey cows,
producing 8,000 kg /cow and year in average high performances in milk
production .
2. The milk quota was 1,109,240 kg in the year 2005.
3.Milk quality meets the EU requirements . The average fat percentage
decreased from 6.40 % in 2001 to 5.91 % in the year 2005. The milk protein
content is 4 % . The number of somatic cells did not exceed the benchmark of
280,000 cells.
4. Milk is daily delivered to Arla Foods Company on a contractual basis.
5.Milk Price has decreased from 2.51 DKK /kg in the year 2001 to
DKK 2.22 /kg in the year 2005.
- 921 -
BACK
6.Milk Sales have been deeply influenced by the amount of marketed

milk and milk price ,so that in te year 2005 their value was DKK 18,502
compared to DKK 18,771 in the year 2001.
7.Gross Margin has slightly increased from Thousand DKK 2,704 in the
year 2001 to Thousand DKK 2,791 in the year 2005 .
8.In the year 2005 , the Gross Output of the farm was DKK 4,273,137
and costs related to good sold were DKK 1,481,683 , so that Gross margin
counted DKK 2,791,454 .
9.Gross margin is the barometer of farm efficiency , showing how much of
revenue / sales is left to farmer after subtracting the cost of goods sold. It is a
measurement of a company’s manufacturing and distribution efficiency during the
production process. The gross profit tells an investor the percentage of revenue / sales
left after subtracting the cost of goods sold. A company that boasts a higher gross
profit margin than its competitors and industry is more efficient. Investors tend to pay
more for businesses that have higher efficiency ratings than their competitors.
10. In Romania, gross margin has started to be more and more calculated
both in crop and animal production. It is useful to compare efficiency among
various crops, animal species and categories as well as among activities . Every
farmer has to calculate its gross margin and to compare it with the average gross
margin recorded in the area or at national level in order to identify if his farm is a
competitive one or not.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bodie , Z., Merton , R.C. – 2000 – Finance , Prentice Hall, Inc.
2. Bolten , S.E., Conn, R.I. – 1981 – Essentials of Managerial Finance, Boston, Mass: Houghton
Miffin Co, Chapter 10.
3. Brogham, E.F., Houston, J.F.- 1999 – Fundamentals of Financial Management, Concise , 2nd
Edition, The Dryden Press
4. Revsine L. , Collins W.D. , Johnson W.B.- 2005 Financial Reporting and Analysis, third
edition, Prentice Hall, 2005
5. Bergevin P.M. – 2002 - Financial Statment Analysis – An Integrated Aproach, Prentice Hall,
2002
6. Popescu Agatha - 2001 - Financial evaluation of results in dairy farming in some private dairy
farms from Dolj County . The VIIth edition of Academic Days at Timisoara “, U.A.S.V.M. of
Banat , Timisoara, 24-25 May 2001, Scinetific Papers , Zootehnics and Biotechnologies ,
Vol.34 , p.326-332.
7. Popescu Agatha – 2006 – Gross margin – a barometer of profitability in agriculture ,
International Symposium “ Durable Agriculture – Th Future Agriculture “ , Craiova, 23-24
Noiembrie 2006 , Section 4 .
8. Popescu Agatha – 2006 – Gross margin – a tool for the evaluation of profitability in dairy
farms . National Symposium « Actual and Perspective Researches in Cattle Breeding « ,
ICDB Balotesti , 9 June 2006 .
9. Popescu Agatha – 2006 – Financial Management in Dairy Farms , Do-minor Publishing
House , Bucuresti
10. Popescu Agatha -2007 – Financial Analysis , Dominor Publishing House , Bucharest
11. Kay R.D., Edwards W.M. – 1994 - Farm Management, 3rd edition, McGraw/Hill
- 922 -
BACK
CASE STUDY CONCERNING BANKRUPTCY RISK

PREDICTION IN A DANISH DAIRY FARM
I. PIRVUTOIU, Agatha POPESCU, L. BJARNE, G. RADULESCU
This study aimed to predict bankruptcy risk using Altman Model for
determinating Z-Scor function and taking as study case the data from a Danish
dairy cow farm Bookeeping. The value of Z-Score function for the year 2005 was
0.4480 and 0.3015 for the year 2004 , showing that in the both years the farm
was in danger to fail. This result was determined by the investments made by
farmer which have disbalanced the financial statement. This model can be
successful used in Romania in the case of farms having juridical status and
bookkepping evidence.
A company in financial troubles faces the possibility of bankruptcy and

liquidation. This is an objective reason to try to identify in advance what is going
to happen in the future ( 1,2,3,4,5, 9,10 )
For measuring potential bankruptcy in the most effective way , there are
several modules of bankruptcy prediction among which the most popular is
Altman Z-Score, a predictive model created by Edward Altman in the 1960s. It is
commonly used by all the researchers even at present ( 6,7,8).
In this context , this study aimed to predict bankruptcy in a Danish Farm
using the method mentioned above in order to help the farmer to know in
advance what he could be expecting to.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

In order to set up this study , the data collected from Harndrup Dairy
Farm Bookkeeping, Fyn Island and the most popular Altman Z-Score
bankruptcy prediction model were used .
The Z-score uses statistically derived combination of weighted ratios to
predict likelihood of bankruptcy. It is computed according to the formula given
below :
Net working Retained EBIT
Z-Score capital earnings
1,2• + 1,4• + 3,3•
= Total assets Total Total
assets assets
Sales Value of equity

+ 1,0• Total assets + 0,6• Book value of
liabilities
where : Retained earnings = the percentage of net earnings not paid out as dividends, but
retained by the company to be reinvested in the business or to pay debt and EBIT =
earnings before interest and tax .
- 923 -
Calculations were made for the years 2004 and 2005 .

Table 1 Calculation of partial items within Z-Score Function for the year 2004
Ratio Factor Data2004 Compound Partial Z-score

Amount
Net working capital 1,2 -962.000
-0,0043 -0,00516
Total assets 22.160.000
Retained earnings 1,4 -56.000

-0,0025 -0,0035
EBIT 3,3 815.000

0,037 0,0122
Sales 1,0 4.161.000

0,19 0,19
Value of equity 0,6 3.426.000

Book value of 18.734.000 0,18 0,108
liabilities
Z-score2004 0,3015
Table 2 Calculation of partial items within Z-Score Function for the year 2005
Ratio Factor Data2005 Compound Partial Z-score

Amount
Net working capital 1,2 -1.003454 -0,035 -0,042
Retained earnings 1,4 355.145 0,012 0,0168

EBIT 3,3 1.361.404 0,047 0,1551

Sales 1,0 4.273.137 0,15 0,15

Value of equity 0,6 6.311.621 0,28 0,168

Book value of 22.356.052
liabilities
Z-score2005 0.448
- 924 -
The obtained numerical Z-score has been compared against benchmark

numbers to gauge the probability of bankruptcy. As we know , a score in excess
of 3.0 indicates a low probability of bankruptcy, but a score less than 1,81
signifies a strong possibility of bankruptcy. A Z-score between those two
numbers provides inconclusive evidence about bankruptcy probability.
Table 3 Interpretaion of Z-Score function Value
Year Value of Benchmark Interpretation

Z-Score function
2004 0.3015 Less than 1.81 Strong possibility of
bankruptcy
2005 0.4480 Less than 1.81 Strong possibility of
bankruptcy
It is easy to observe from the calculations that our farm is far away from a
score closer to minimum admitted in a Z-score analysis. In the year 2004, Z-Score
was 0.3015 , a very low level showing a strong possibility of bankruptcy . In the
year 2005, Z-Score function was a little bit higher 0.448 than in the previous
year , but still very low with the minimum benchmark, so that we continue to
accept the idea that the farm is still in danger to fail.
We have not mentioned so far anything about the investments made by
framer in order to modernize the equipment and this is the main cause which has
unbalanced the financial statement .
CONCLUSIONS
1.The Altman Model is a very simple method to predict bankruptcy .
Any farmer is interested to know about what he is going to expect to happen to
his farm in the coming future .
2.The study case in a Danish dairy farm showed that the farm is really
facing a bankruptcy .
3. Computing the Z-score for the years 2004 and 2005, we can not be
happy about the results, but we can observe a change, an increase of about 0,1465
from 2004 to 2005 in Z-score value which means that the farmer tend to
remediate his exposure to bankruptcy.
4. In the both analyzed years , the value of Z-Score value was very small :
0.3015 in 2004 and 0.4480 in 2005, very far away from the minimum benchmark
figure.
5.This model can be successfully used in Romania too, as long as Altman
model is one of the most common method utilized to predict bankruptcy.
- 925 -
BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bodie , Z., Merton , R.C. – 2000 – Finance , Prentice Hall, Inc.
2. Bolten , S.E., Conn, R.I. – 1981 – Essentials of Managerial Finance, Boston, Mass:
Houghton Miffin Co, Chapter 10.
3. Brogham, E.F., Houston, J.F.- 1999 – Fundamentals of Financial Management, Concise ,
2nd Edition, The Dryden Press
4. Revsine L. , Collins W.D. , Johnson W.B.- 2005 Financial Reporting and Analysis, third
edition, Prentice Hall, 2005
5. Bergevin P.M. – 2002 - Financial Statment Analysis – An Integrated Aproach, Prentice
Hall, 2002
6. Pirvutoiu I. , Popescu Agatha , Grigoras M. -2007 - Risk management in the agro-food
sector in the context of romania’s adhesion to the E.U. – Scientific Papers , International
Symposium „The impact of Romania’s integration into the E.U. on agriculture
development “, UASVM Bucharest , April 27, 2007 , Scientific Papers , p. 329- 332.
7. Popescu Agatha -2007 – Financial Analysis , Dominor Publishing House , Bucharest
8. Popescu Agatha – 2007 – The role of risk analysis in bankruptcy evaluation , International
Symposium “Management of Durable Rural Development “ , UASVM of Banat ,
Timisoara, May 24-25 , 2007 , Scientific Papers , Series I , vol.IX.
9. Kay R.D., Edwards W.M. – 1994 - Farm Management, 3rd edition, McGraw/Hill
10. Adair T. Jr. – 2006 - Corporate Finance – Demistified, McGraw-Hill
- 926 -
BACK
LONGEVITY STUDY FOR THE POPULATION OF

BĂLŢATĂ ROMÂNEASCĂ BREED IN THE AREA OF
BISTRITA-NASAUD
P.N. POPŞOR
Given the fact that Bălţată românească breed holds the largest
ponderosity in the horned cattle structure in the area of Bistrita-Nasaud, I
considered that it is adequate to interpret studies and research on productive
performance in relation with precocity and longevity, under variable
environmental conditions and with exploitation techniques used by breeders from
this area.
394 Bălţată românească cows that ended their productive career in 3
farms (of the ex-IAS) and 150 cows from population grange were taken in the
studio.
During the actual research the primary data base from the official
production control of the UARZ Bistrita-Nasaud (1985-2005) was used and
completed with personal observations.
In the first step the data was statistically adapted and estimations of
average values and variability of analyzed characteristics on lactations and on
whole productive life on farms and on genetic groups were made and then the
genetic quantity parameters (heritabilty, repeatability, fenotipic and genetic
correlations, improvement value of male sire) were determined.
Productive longevity study in the analyzed Bălţată românească
population reveals these facts :
- life duration : 2774,55±42,2 days and productive life duration
1579,0±42,13 days ;
- average milk production on whole productive life was
12569,96±491,17 kg, this meaning 4,53 kg of milk on each day and
7,96 kg of milk on each productive day
- utilisation index (IU%) in production had the average value of
56,91%.
Results obtained by us regarding exploitation duration of Bălţată
românească cows could form the scientific base for optimization of this
parameter with usage in selection and genetic improvement of
population.
STUDIED BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL

In accomplishing the longevity study the existent data base was used
(UARZ Bistrita-Nasaud and ANARZ Bucuresti) out of which there were
extracted official control data of productive performance , body development ,
conformation-constitution and main indexes of reproduction for a number of 394
Bălţată românească cows which were distributed in 3 farms (ex IAS) and local
granges. (tab 1)
- 927 -
Table 1
Distribution of Bălţată românească cows on growing units
Studied group
Specification
n % out of total
IAS Bistriţa 90 22,84
IAS Livezile 96 24,36
IAS Lechinţa 58 14,72
Private breeders 150 38,07
Population total 394 100,00
From data analysis regarding studied group it is noticeable that within the
studied population some sires were intensely used for reproduction, thus resulting
related genetic groups (half-sisters) with a size varying between 5 and 49
daughters.
Average values and longevity variability at Bălţată românească population in

the area of Bistrita-Nasaud
From the very begining we must accept that the majority of reforms
regarding cows are represented mostly by neccsesity reforms and less by selective
reforms. From the study carried-out by de C. Velea and col. (1988) at Bălţată
românească breed and from the research made by de V. Ujică, Gh. Georgescu, I.
Fişteag, G. Stanciu, etc. it was noticed that along with the number enlargement of
cows from a farm there’s also a growth in the number of reformed cows. This
aspect leads implicitly to the decreasing of productive longevity. Consequently,
this has an effect of milk production decreasing and of calf number per each cow
from the group. The mentioned aspect reflects in accomplishing the programmed
group by the end of the year in the intercurrent exploitation. Also, an aspect that
comes in contradiction with a normal activity of production development is the
cause and the moment when reformed cows are withdrawn.
In numerous cases animals are eliminated because of accidental causes, at
a very young age, before they could have expressed their maximum production
potential. As a result, these animals accomplish a smaller production on
productive life than the genetic potential they dispose of.
Researches regarding productive longevity at Bălţată românească breed in
Moldavia were carried on by V. Ujică and Geluca Grigoroşcuţă and at the Brown
breed by V. Ujică, V. Silistru, Margaret Mihăilescu, etc. The study made at BNR
Moldovia by D. Pantazi (2000) points out the following:
Duration of productive life at the 2744 cows that ended their production
career in the studied farms was 931,53 days with limits between 90 and 2649 days,
this meaning a pronounced variability (V% 54,49). Cows from this population were
exploited in average only 3,05 normal lactations (of 305 days), without revealing
the maximum production potential during lifetime. For the 144 analyzed genetic
groups, productive life duration was between 200 and 1999 days.
- 928 -
Life duration was 2138,12 days with limits between 844 and 4184 days.
This shows that the cows were maintained within the population, in average, 5,85
years, with limits between 2,31 and 11,46 years. Life duration variability was
pronounced being largely influenced by technological exploitation factors and
farm management.
Relying on this data, usage duration was approximated by calculating the
usage index (U%). The usage index had an average value of 43,56%, with limits
between 10,66% and 63,31%.
Analysis of this data show that BNR cows were used in production for a
far too short period of time, comparing with the optimum value for this breed
(83% by Drăgănescu I.C.). There were cows that had an organic resistance and a
state of health that permitted maintaining them until the age of 8,07 years, but
these weren’t the most productive. From the study exposed it was proved that in
most cases, performer-cows were withdrawn too soon out of the group because of
genital affections or in most cases, affections of the udder and lack of limb
resistance.
The results obtained on Bălţată românească breed from the studied carried
out in the area of Bistrita Nasaud could be compared with results of presented
research on BNR breed or on other breeds and populations from different areas of
the country.
As a follow-up of what was said, we will present or research carried out
on Bălţată românească population, its summary being shown in tab.2.
Life duration was 2774,55 ± 42,2 days with limits between 543 and 5254
days. This reveals the fact that cows were maintained within the population, in
average, 7.60 years with limits between 1,48 years and 14,39 years. This data
shows the weak exploitation of Bălţată românească breed from the studied
population, leaving the group being made often too soon with economical
implications on units.
Life duration variability was pronounced being influenced by
technological exploitation factors and farm management, because there could not
be accepted a life duration of only 543 days as it resulted from analysis of limit
variability.
Analysis of variation array for this characteristic highlighted the existence
of individuals with life duration above average (7,6 years) with maximum limits
of 14,39 years, value close to the values written in scientific literature. These
individuals have remarked by having a good state of health and organic
resistance, and with a good productive longevity.
- 929 -
Table 2
Average values and longevity variability of Bălţată românească horned cattle form
the area of Bistriţa Năsăud
Difference from
Specification Farm n X±Sx s V% min max average population
abs rel(%)
IAS -371,53
90 2403,02±96,04 911,14 37,91 543 4712 -13,40
Bistriţa ***
IAS -209,87
96 2564,68±72,06 706,08 27,53 1155 4422 -7,57
Livezile ***
Life SC -71,72
duration(days) 58 2702,83±98,02 746,52 27,62 1380 4252 -2,59
Lechinţa *
Private +384,96
150 3159±61,18 749,34 23,71 1485 5254 +13,87
breeders ***
Population
394 2774,55±42,20 837,81 30,19 543 5254 - -
total
IAS -377,88
90 1201,20±82,90 786,45 65,47 299 3315 -24,94
Bistriţa ***
IAS -298,62
96 1280,46±73,86 723,68 56,51 315 3211 -19,92
Livezile ***
Productive
life SC -308,32
58 1270,76±92,07 701,25 55,18 267 2833 -19,53
duration(days) Lechinţa ***
Private +537,06
150 2116,14±56,69 694,39 32,81 799 4173 +34,01
breeders ***
Population
394 1579,08±42,13 836,30 52,96 267 4173 - -
Total
IAS -5259,12
90 7310,84±542,49 5146,55 70,39 1643 21426 -41,84
Bistriţa ***
IAS -5478,77
96 7091,19±364,05 3567,02 50,30 2143 15907 -43,59
Livezile ***
Total of milk
per productive SC -3717,82
58 8852,14±551,32 4198,79 47,43 2460 17738 -29,58
life(kg) Lechinţa ***
Private +8153,7
150 20723,75±865,44 10564,04 50,97 5530 72455 +64,86
breeders ***9
Population
394 12569,96±491,17 9737,15 77,46 1643 72455 - -
total
IAS -244,28
90 272,41±20,27 192,37 70,62 65 807 -47,28
Bistriţa ***
IAS -251,67
96 265,02±13,42 131,52 49,62 81 587 -48,71
Livezile ***
Total of fat
per productive SC -192,98
58 323,71±20,16 153,59 47,44 81 657 -37,35
life(kg) Lechinţa ***
Private +382,25
150 898,94±92,52 1133,21 126,06 231 13711 +73,98
breeders ***
Population
394 516,69±38,80 770,23 149,07 65 13711 - -
total
IAS
- - - - - - - -
Bistriţa
Total of IAS
- - - - - - - -
proteins per Livezile
productive SC
life (kg) - - - - - - - -
Lechinţa
Private
92 417,15±29,53 283,28 67,90 87,70 1475,60 0,00 0,00
breeders
- 930 -
Life duration analysis as function of the farm or the private breeder shows
very relevant aspects.Thus, life duration in Bistrita farm was 6,58 years while in
Livezile farm it was 7,02 years, in Lechinta farm 7,40 years and at private
breeders it was 8.65 years, these showing significant differences among farms.
We would like to point out the situation from private breeders’ granges, where
cows aren’t withdrawn from the group until they are about to finish their
productive careers, even if productive performances are sometimes low, whereas
in the ex-IAS farms, with large numbers, cows have a shorter life duration, in
most cases withdrawal from the group being determined by human intervention or
by accidental causes rather than biological ones.
Productive life duration at the 394 cows that ended their productive
careers in the studied farms was 1579,08 ± 42,13 days with limits between 267
days and 4173 days and with a pronounced variability(s = 836,30 days and V% =
52,96). Cows from this population were exploited, in average, only 5,17 normal
lactations(of 305 days) without expressing their maximum production potential
during lifetime. The inferior limit was 0,87 lactations and the maximum limit was
13,68 lactations.
Differing by the farm in which they were exploited, the cows from
Bistrita farm were maintained within the group for 3,93 lactations, the cows from
Livezile farm for 4,19 lactations, the ones from Lechinta farm for 4,16 lactations
and the ones from private breeders were maintained for 6,93 lactations. Among
these farms there are significant differences regarding productive life duration and
very significant differences in relation with private breeders.
In comparison with average population, the cows from Bistrita farm were
exploited less -337,88 days(-24,94%), in Livezile farm -299,62 days(-19,92%), in
Lechinta farm -308,32 days(-19,53), while in private breeders’ granges , cows
were exploited more , +537,06(+34,01%).
Based on this data usage duration was estimated by calculating the usage
index (IU%) its values being shown in the table below.
Table 3
Usage index (IU%) at Bălţată românească breed in the area of Bistriţa-Năsăud
Usage Optimum
Life Productive life
Specification index value of
duration(days) duration(days)
(IU%) IU%
F. Bistriţa 2403,02 1201,20 49,98 83
F. Livezile 2564,68 1280,46 49,92 83
F. Lechinţa 2702,83 1270,76 47,01 83
Private
3159,51 2116,14 66,98 83
breeders
Population
2774,55 1579,08 56,91 83
total
- 931 -
Considering the usage index, Bălţată românească cows from analyzed

farms had exploitation duration well below the optimal value. The weakest usage
was registered at Lechinta farm (IU = 47,01%), technical deficiencies and
management deficiencies being more obvious in this farm. Cows exploited by
private breeders had exploitations duration considerably longer than the ones in
state farms, but nevertheless below optimal value of exploitation index.
Average milk production per productive life was 12569,96 ± 491,17 kg,
with limits between 1643 kg and 72455 kg (tab. 4).
Table 4
Productive longevity at Bălţată românească cows in the area of Bistrita-Nasaud
Private Population
Specification Bistriţa Livezile Lechinţa
breeders average
Life duration(days) 2403,02 2564,68 2702,83 3159,00 2774,55
Productive life
1201,20 1280,46 1270,76 2116,14 1579,08
duration(days)
Milk per productive
7310,84 7091,19 8852,14 20723,75 12569,96
life(kg)
Fat per productive life
272,41 265,02 323,71 898,94 516,69
(kg)
Proteins per productive
- - - 417,15 417,15
life (kg)
Milk
3,04 2,76 3,27 6,56 4,53
(kg)
Per one day of
Fat (kg) 0,11 0,10 0,11 0,28 0,18
life
Proteins
- - - 0,13 0,15
(kg)
Milk
6,08 5,53 6,96 9,79 7,96
(kg)
Per one day of
Fat (kg) 0,22 0,20 0,25 0,42 0,32
productive life
Proteins
- - - 0,19 0,26
(kg)
Usage index (IU%) 49,98 49,92 47,01 66,98 56,91
Productive longevity indexes differ from one farm to another, as it is

shown from the data presented in tab.4 and img.1. Henceforth, cows from Bistrita
farm produced with 41,84% less milk per productive life in comparison with
population average, cows from Livezile farm 43,59% less milk and cows from
Lechinta farm produced with 29,58% less milk, while cows from private breeders
produced with 64,86% more milk than population average. The differences are
very significant.
After analysis of these values in correlation with life duration and
productive life duration, cows from analyzed farms had weak performances with
important differences. Thus, on whole population, per one day of life course there
- 932 -
were produced 4,53 kg of milk, 0.18 kg of fat, 0,15 kg of proteins and per one
exploitation day there were produced 7,96 kg of milk, 0,32 kg of fat and 0,26 kg
of proteins. The best results were registered at cows from private breeders with
6,56 kg of milk, 0,28 kg of fat and 0,13 kg of proteins per one day of life course
and 7,79 kg of milk, 0,42 kg of fat and 0,19 kg of proteins per one exploitation
day. Within the farms, the cows from Livezile had the weakest results, having a
production of only 2,76 kg per one day of life course and 5,53 kg of milk per
exploitation day.
120
100
Population total
80
Procent supravietuire (%)
Bistrita
60 Livezile
Lechinta
40
Private breeders
20
0
I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX
Lactatia
Image 1 Graphic representation of survival percentage on farms and population

total
In conclusion, the large duration of unproductive period, highlighted by

the age at first birth, by prolonged mammary rest and by the large time interval
between births, correlated with a reduced exploitation period (3-4) lactations and
a small milk production per productive life, demonstrates a weak efficiency of
cow exploitation in horned cattle farms having negative implications on the cost
and on the obtained profit.
Based on these results obtained for the studied population there occurs the
necessity of making this kind of studies and genetic improvement at Bălţată
românească population by maximizing the exploitation period, in the same time
with perfecting exploitation and management technologies.
The weak usage of studied groups determined undesired economical
effects by registering some losses and the unrealistic conclusion of weak
profitability in raising milk cows.
The results we obtained regarding exploitation period of cows from
Bălţată românească breed establishes the scientific base for perfecting it, but it
needs to be completed with economical elements of value.
In this sense, perfecting of exploitation period must concern age at first
birth, breed and exploitation system, as essential restraint factors.
- 933 -
CONCLUSIONS
The study carried out by us regarding productive longevity at Bălţată
românească population in the area of Bistrita-Nasaud points out the following:
√ The bulls used for reproduction came both from import and from
Romania (home-bred) and presented an improvement value that had an influence
on cow longevity from this population
From the analysis of male sire influence on the quantity of milk per
productive life, it was shown that 17 bulls improved milk production with values
between +164,78 kg (bull code 16406) and +8223,10 kg (bull code 11493). Most
bulls(55,26%) had a negative influence on this main selection indicator, among
these bulls being the imported ones, code 50794, code 50694 and code 50865,
these having been tested as improving factors in their country of provenance.
√ Life duration was 2774,55 ± 42,2 days with limits within 543 and 5254
days. This states that the cows were maintained within the population in average
7,60 years with limits within 1,48 years and 14,39 years, which shows a weak
exploitation efficiency at cow from the studied population.
Analysis of life duration in relation with the farm of the private owner,
points out a very interesting aspect that the cows from private breeders were
maintained in exploitation for 8,65 years, well above the period of maintaining
within state farms.
√ Duration of productive life at the 394 cows that ended their productive
career was 1579,08±42,13 days having limits within 267 days and 4173 days.
This means that the cows were exploited in average only 5,17
lactations(305)days, with significant differences between state farms and private
breeders.
√ In the studied population the usage index (IU %) in cow production had
an average value of 56,91% and limits within 47,01% at Lechinta farm and 66,98
at private breeders.
√ Longevity analysis by “Survival Analysis” method points out
differences between farms in relation with the group’s provenance (origin),
genetic group, gradual lactations and technological exploitation factors.
√ Average milk production per productive life was 12569,96 ± 491,17 kg,
having limits within 1643 kg and 72455 kg. In the studied population there were 5
cows plus variants with a production (per productive life) between 44130 kg and
53571 kg, 1 cow with 63013 kg and one with 72455 kg. The existence of these
variants demonstrates the production capacity and productive longevity (at Bălţată
românească breed) similar to Simmental and Fleckvieh breed.
√ Considering the exploitation period and the total milk production, it is
shown that from the population of Bălţată românească in the area of Bistrita-
Nasaud were produced in average 4,53 kg of milk, 0,18 kg of fat and 0,15 kg of
proteins per one day of life course and 7,96 of milk, 0,32 kg of fat and 0,26 kg of
proteins per one productive day (exploitation day). The best performances were
obtained by animals breed by private owners with 6,56 kg of milk per one day of
life course and 9,79 kg of milk per productive day.
- 934 -
BACK
√ If we take into consideration the 2 longevity parameters (productive life

duration and life duration) it shows a weak usage efficiency of cows from all the
analyzed farms.
The weak usage of cows in production, by rapid elimination from the
group, determined unwanted economical effects such as registering severe
production and product losses which leads to a “false” and unrealistic conclusion
of a low profitability from raising milk cows.
√ The results we obtained regarding exploitation period of Bălţată
românească breed could form the scientific base for improving this parameter, but
completed with economical elements of value. For this to take place, maximizing
milk production, of exploitation period and of profit per life must be an objective
in selection of this population. By improving the exploitation period we must take
into account other factors such as: age at first birth, breed and exploitation system
as restraint factors.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alvaro, Garcia, 2001 – Cow longevity, J. Dairy Science, Iuly, p.1
Bagnato, A., 1993 – Lunghezza della vita producttiva e morfologia nella Frizona Italiana, Bianco
Nero, nr.5
Boully, J., 1977 – Un indice per la longevita. Informatore Zootehnica, nr. 22, p. 31-49
Canavesi, Fabiola, Antonia, Bianco, Samore, 2000 - L’utilizzo degli indici genetici per caractteri
funzionali. Bianco Nero, nr.10, p. 93
Curelariu, Niculina, Georgescu, Gh., Diaconescu, Şt., (1980) – Cercetări asupra duratei de
exploatare a vacilor de lapte într-o fermă de elită. Lucr. şt IANB, seria D, vol. XXII, p.
53-60.
Ducroq, V., 1992 – L’analyse de la longévité. INRA Prod. Anim., 1992, hors série „Elements de
genétique quantitative et application aux population animals”, p. 205-207
Fişteag, I., Lungulescu, Gh., 1967 – Cercetări asupra longevităţii productive a vacilor din rasa
Bălţată românească şi asupra implicaţiilor economico-productive ale acesteia. Lucr.şt.,
I.A. Timişoara, seria Medicină Veterinară, vol. X
Georgescu, Gh., şi col., 1988 – Cercetări privind optimizarea duratei de exploatare la vacile de
rasă Bălţată cu negru românească. Lucr.şt. I.A.N.B., seria D., vol. XXXI, p. 27,
Bucureşti
Lungulescu, Gh., Râmneanţu, N., 1983 – Longevitatea productivă la rasa BR crescută la I.A.S.
Liebling, judeţul Timiş. Rev. De Creşterea animalelor, nr. 8, p. 21, Bucureşti
Mărginean, Gh., (1994) – Longevitatea productivă, criteriul de selecţie economică a vacilor de
lapte. Lucr. Şt., Institutul de Cercetări Ştiinţifice şi Tehnologice pentru Zootehnie şi
Medicină Veterinară, Chişinău.
Pantazi, D., 2000 – Contribuţii la studiul longevităţii productive a taurinelor de rasă BNR din zona
de Est a ţării. Teză de doctorat. U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi
Speianu, Sevastina, Chiper, Constantina, 1992 – Studii privind longevitatea productivă şi durata
vieţii la vacile din rasa Bălţată românească. Simpozionul Naţional „In memoriam Prof.dr.
Emil Negruţiu”. Vol. VIII, partea I, Cluj Napoca, 8-9 octombrie, p. 240
Ujică, V., Pipernea, N., Stan, V., Marc, Mioara, Gavrilaş, Angela, 1992 – Cercetări privind
longevitatea productivă a taurinelor de rasă BNR din zona de Est a ţării. Lucr.şt. vol. 35-
36, seria Zootehnie şi Med.vet., U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi
Velea, C. şi col., (1988) – Studiul privind longevitatea productivă şi durata vieţii la vacile din rasa
Bălţată românească. Simpozion „Actualităţi în tehnologia animalelor domestice”, vol.
XIV, IA, Cluj-Napoca, p. 163-168.
*** 2001 – Le test suprême de la Longivité. Holstein Internaţional, nr.5, p.10.
- 935 -
BACK
OWN RESEARCH REGARDING PRECOCITY AT BĂLŢATĂ

ROMÂNEASCĂ BREED IN THE AREA OF BISTRITA-
NASAUD
P.N. POPŞOR
Research regarding precocity were made on Bălţată românească horned cattle

nominated on elite farms and on cattle from population grange. Age at first birth, milk
production evolution during life period and lactation (when reached maximum level),
somatic precocity and genetic parameters for precocity indexes were analyzed.
Results that were obtained show that Bălţată românească horned cattle
population from the area of Bistrita-Nasaud has a low production precocity, age at
first birth : 34 months and 29 days.
Milk production precocity can be appreciated as being a good one, within
the accepted limits of this breed.
Under the aspect of somatic precocity at Bălţată românească population
from the studied area, it is shown a low precocity, consequence of some deficiencies
in upbringing sire youth, especially regarding feeding.
STUDIED BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL

In making the decision of studying productive longevity and breed
precocity at Bălţată românească from this area, I was guided by the words of the
great zootechnist and geneticist prof.dr. Gh.K. Constantinescu:”To improve a
breed of animals you must know it first, know its qualities and its lacks, know
what’s ereditary and what’s ephemeral, in what conditions was it formed and how
does it react to variation of these conditions, etc. Afterwards you can establish the
sense of improvement and the most effiecient zootechnic methods.”
Considering that Bălţată românească breed holds the largest ponderosity
within horned cattle breed structure in Bistrita-Nasaud, I considered that it is
fortunate to make studies and research on productive performances in relation
with precocity and longevity, under variable environmental conditions and
exploitation techniques practiced in different exploitations in this area.
The research was made with the purpose of pointing out the actual stage
of improvement, the productive level, but especially longevity, hereby giving
useful data to elaborate and apply the improvement program for this breed.
Motivation for this research is due to the fact that, even if in Transylvania
Bălţată românească breed is upbrought by over a century and it contributed to
improving native-born breeds, until today in Bistrita-Nasaud they haven’t carried
out a research meant to point out the economic and genetic effect of maintaining
within the exploitation of cows with distinct genetic value for this breed. It must
be mentioned that studies regarding productive longevity at Bălţată românească
horned cattle have been very few and rather incomplete, not only for the
population in Transylvania but also for other areas of the country and for other
breeds, and the improvement programs did not include within their selection the
- 936 -
criteria of productive longevity, just as they did not estimate a selection index for
productive longevity and precocity.
Research regarding precocity were made on Bălţată românească horned
cattle groups that ended their productive careers in 3 farms (ex IAS) and in
population granges in the area :
• Bistriţa farm 90 heads
• Livezile farm 96 heads
• Lechinţa farm 58 heads
• Population granges 50 heads
These farms had the most valuable biological material from Bălţată
românească breed, being nominated as elite farms that provided a large number of
animals for reproduction (small sires and heifers) in Transylvania and in other
parts of the country.
Within the studied population, during the analyzed period there were 38
active bulls from the country and from import (Germany, Austria and
Switzerland).
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Regarding research methodology, we must state that in elaborating the
thesis and the present paper, we used the primary data bank from the official
production control (UARZ Bistrita-Nasaud) in the period 1985-2005, and
completing them with own conclusions and observations in this time interval
within the studied farms, as the trainer for a doctor’s degree has had job duties in
zootechnical domain in this district for over 20 years.
In a first step all the primary data have been grouped on farms, lactations,
paternal genetic groups and population total.
The data were statistically adapted using the indicated methodology by
scientific literature for animal breeding (Snedecor, Tacu, Sandu Gh., Horea
Grosu, Ujică V.etc.) There were estimated average values and analyzed
characteristics variability, the data being synthetized in tables and completed with
graphic representations and photographs if necessary.
Quantity genetic parameters (heritability, repeatability, fenotipic and genetic
correlations, improvement value) were approximated by modern methods (variation
analysis, BLUP and RML) adapted for the conditions in our country by an elaborated
program by V. Ujică and V. Maciuc from the Zootechnical Faculty of Iasi.
AVERAGE VALUES AND REPRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS’

VARIATION ON CONSEQUENT LACTATION, ON FARMS AND ON
GENETIC GROUPS
Research results regarding age at first birth as a base indicator for

apreciating precocity are presented in tab.1 and img.1.
- 937 -
Analysis of this reproduction index show us that within the Bălţată

românească population from the area of Bistrita-Nasaud age at first birth was
1049,69 ± 7,52 days (34 months and 29 days), with limits 471 and 1524 days(15
months and 21 days – 50 months and 24 days).
These average values demonstrate that the Bălţată românească population
studied in this area is characterized by a mild tardiness, if we consider the country
average in 2006. (31 months).
Variability of this indicator was very pronounced having limits such as
471 days and 1524 day, which means that some animals gave birth at 15 months
and 21 days, while other at 50 months and 24 days (from 1,29 years to 4,17
years). These external values are not typical to the studied Bălţată românească
population, but they reveal technological mistakes that are quite frequent in
horned cattle farms.
From our experience we observed that in private breeders’ granges there
is a tendency of using heifers far too soon in relation with the optimum age, with
births before being 2 years old, which does not reveal precocity. Isolated cases
appear at large farms, when the first birth takes place too late, because of
neglecting reproductive youth and because of deficient nourishment of heifers
during the growing process.
Table 1
Average values and variability at first birth (VP),
within the Bălţată românească population in the area of Bistriţa-Năsăud
Difference from
Specification n X±sX s V% min max population average
abs rel(%)
IAS Bistriţa 90 1096,30±17,54 166,42 15,18 515 1524 +46,63*** +4,44
IAS Livezile 96 1065,51±15,98 156,64 14,70 633 1394 +15,02* +1,51
SC Lechinţa 58 1088,12±13,94 106,17 9,75 721 1304 +36,43*** +3,66
Private breeders 150 996,73±10,78 132,13 13,25 471 1297 -52,96*** -5,05
Population total 394 1049,69±7,52 149,34 14,22 471 1524 - -
25,00
20,81
19,80
20,00
17,26
15,00
%
10,41 9,90
10,00
6,35 6,09
3,81
5,00
1,27
0,51 0,25 1,27 0,76
1,27 0,25
0,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Clase
Img.1 Variability at first birth
- 938 -
Analyzing this indicator in relation with the farm, we can observe that
among the researched units there were very significant differences (tab.2 and
img.2).Henceforth, cows from Bistrita farm had an average first birth age of
1096,30 ± 17,54 days , that meaning 36 months and 16 days, the difference from
the population average being noticeable.
A similar situation was registered at Lechinta farm, while the cows from
Livezile farm had a first birth age closer to the population average, but significant
from a statistic point of view.
The most precocious animals were the animals owned by private breeders,
having a first birth age of only 996,73 ± 10,78 days(33 months and 6 days). The
difference of -52,96 days from the population average is also significant.
Age at first birth is genetically determined, male sires having a categorical
influence, but it is also determined by technological exploitation factors and by
management.
By analyzing the population structure there were identified 23 genetic
groups of paternal half-sisters, having a size between 5 and 49 individuals
(Tab.2). We must state that genetic groups with less than 5 individuals were not
included within the study.
Tabel 2
Age variability at first birth (VPF) in relation with exploitation
Private Population
breeders total
VPF 1096,30 1065,51 1088,12 996,73 1046,69
From analyzing the data in the table, we observe that there were 9 genetic
groups with a first birth age lower than population average, this proving a good
reproductive precocity. Within these groups, it was highlighted a good precocity
of daughters from bulls code 50794, code 50694, code 50865, all coming from
Germany (import). A good precocity at daughters of home-bred bulls with
Fleckvieh ascendancy from Germany and Austria , was noticed (code 8875, code
17124, code 45057, code 8272 and code 14677). From the home-bred bulls the
most tardy were proven the daugters of bulls: code 6626, code 15390, code 8601,
code 8547, code 6612, code 10261, code 4672, code 45075.
GENETIC PARAMETERS(h2 and r) OF MAIN PRODUCTION AND

REPRODUCTION CHARACTERISTICS
Age at first birth has the values of h2 within 0,11 (Lechinta farm) and
0,24 (private breeders), values that make this characteristic as being under major
influence of environmental factors and less genetically determined.
Similar results were registered during lactation, when the quantity of milk
per productive life has a powerful genetic influence.
- 939 -
Table 3
Heritability (h2)of main selection characters at Bălţată românească breed
in the area of Bistriţa Năsăud
Population Private
total breeders
Age at first birth
0,36 0,23 0,20 0,11 0,24
(VPF)
Lactation duration 0,32 0,19 0,26 0,14 0,30
Milk quantity per
0,34 0,30 0,34 0,21 0,18
productive life
Fat quantity per
0,70 0,50 0,45 0,32 0,28
productive life
Fat qunatity +
protein quantity per 0,43 0,40 0,38 0,43 0,48
productive life
Repeatability of these characteristics has values that follow a pattern

similar to heritability, with inferior values for reproduction characteristics.
Variability of main morphological characters and body conformation in
relation with exploitation is presented in tab.5.
From analysis of average values for body weight and waist, we observed
that the horned cattle from the 3 farms do not differentiate in a significant way
under the body development aspect. Average values of main body dimensions at
first lactation, demonstrates a body development that is close to optimum values
for Bălţată românească breed, which underlines some deficiencies in upbringing
reproductive youth.
Table 4
Repeatability (R) of main selection characters at Bălţată românească breed
in the area of Bistriţa Năsăud
Population Private
total breeders
Lactation duration 0,34 0,20 0,24 0,15 0,29
Milk quantity per
0,26 0,31 0,20 0,21 0,23
normal lactation
Fat quantity 0,37 0,34 0,22 0,24 0,26
Protein quantity 0,30 - - - 0,20
Fat+protein quantity 0,52 0,42 0,40 0,47 0,50
Mammary
0,21 0,17 0,12 0,14 0,17
relaxation(RM)
Time interval between
0,24 0,20 0,19 0,22 0,25
births (CI)
Service-periodul (SP) 0,16 0,11 0,11 0,07 0,12
- 940 -
Table 5
Variability of main morphological characters in relation with exploitation
Population
total
Body weight(kg) 535,68 537,65 541,35 534,00
Withers height (cm) 127,84 127,67 127,96 128,00
Thorax deepness (cm) 67,74 67,73 67,79 67,67
Oblique body length (cm) 141,65 141,15 141,69 142,06
Thorax perimeter(cm) 183,10 182,36 183,67 183,64
Udder points 18,29 18,23 18,37 18,24
Exterior points 78,71 78,52 78,97 78,58
550
540
Body weight
530 537,65
535,68
(kg)
541,35 534
520
510
500
Total populatie Bistrita Livezile Lechinta
Img.2 Body weight variability in relation with exploitation
PRECOCITY ANALYSIS BASES ON MILK PRODUCTION EVOLUTION

DURING LIFE COURSE
The second used indicator for analyzing productive precocity of Bălţată
românească cows in the area of Bistrita-Nasaud is milk production at first
lactation in relation with maximum lactation and which is the maximum lactation
during life course.
Results regarding this productive precocity indicator are shown in tab.6
and img.3-4.
Milk quantity at first lactation was 2673,84 kg this representing 72,81%
of maximum lactation. Value of this indicator shows a good precocity of the
studied population, which exceeds the inferior limit (65%) quoted by scientific
literature.
- 941 -
Table 6
Variability of milk production indexes in relation with lactation
Milk Fat Protein

Lactation % out
Lactation % out of % out of
duration(days) kg kg kg of max.
max.lact. max.lact.
lact.
I 297,90 2673,84 72,81 99,23 67,81 128,49 71,77
II 293,30 2876,46 78,33 108,16 73,92 128,99 72,05
III 292,83 3060,79 83,28 116,62 79,70 136,76 76,39
IV 292,01 3275,27 89,19 128,51 87,82 154,39 86,24
V 294,75 3672,11 100,00 146,32 100,00 179,01 100,00
VI 290,89 3462,02 94,27 137,37 93,88 141,58 79,09
VII 290,56 3290,24 89,60 133,96 91,55 123,94 69,23
VIII 254,53 3560,13 96,95 142,69 97,51 114,65 64,04
IX 285,00 3759,33 102,37 164,30 112,28 129,20 72,17
310
Lactation duration(days)
300 290,56
290 297,9
293,3 294,75 285
292,83 292,01 290,89
280
254,53
270
260
250
240
230
Lactation
Img.3 Normal lactation duration evolution in relation with lactation
4000
3500
3759,33
3000 3642,11
3462,02 3290,24
3560,13
3275,27
2500
Milk(kg)
3060,79
2876,46
2673,84
2000
1500
1000
500
0
Lactation
Img.4 Milk production evolution in relation with lactation
- 942 -
As compared to the first lactation, for the second one, the milk quantity
registers a 5,52% growth and for the third lactation - 10,47%. Milk production
indexes register maximum values during the fifth lactation, that is to say the
studied population fits within the Bălţată românească breed parameters for this
indicator.
If we are to analyze milk production evolution, on consecutive lactations
(depending on farms) , there can be observed a significant deviation (tab.7).
Thus, Bistrita farm (like population granges) has a normal milk
production evolution, maximum production being registered in the fifth lactation.
For the animals from Bistrita farm at first lactation 76,29% of maximum lactation
was produced which proves a good productive precocity. In the second lactation
only an increase of 1,87% was registered and in the third lactation an increase of
22,05% above maximum lactation. For animals from population granges, the
lactation curve has a closer pattern to optimum values, the increase in the second
lactation being 8,38% and 11,38% in the third one(in comparison with the first
lactation). These data demonstrate a good productive precocity similar to the one
registered at Bistrita farm.
Table7
Milk production evolution, in relation with laction and the farm, at Bălţată
românească breed from the area of Bistriţa Năsăud
Bistriţa farm Livezile farm Lechinţa farm Private breeders
Lactation % out % out % out % out
Milk(kg) of Milk(kg) of Milk(kg) of Milk(kg) of
max.lact max.lact max.lact max.lact
I 2452,70 76,29 2145,65 91,27 2737,43 100,00 3119,97 73,45
II 2463,80 78,16 2154,23 91,64 2656,17 97,03 3475,89 81,83
III 2583,54 98,34 2144,81 91,24 2525,75 92,26 3603,24 84,83
IV 2512,52 96,88 2156,03 91,71 2561,90 93,58 3812,35 89,75
V 2593,33 100,00 2350,71 100,00 2378,90 86,90 4247,60 100,00
VI 2336,86 90,11 2175,60 92,55 2555,50 93,35 3963,20 93,30
VII 2483,17 95,75 2101,25 89,38 1903,00 69,51 3656,43 86,08
VIII - - - - - - 3560,13 88,81
For Lechinta farm, maximum production was accomplished during first

lactation which would equal a special and distinct precocity. This situation can
not be considered as being normal, maximum production being appreciated
during fourth lactation(2561,9 kg of milk) which shows a good productive
precocity.
A different situation is represented by milk production evolution at
Livezile farm. From the lactation curve aspect it shows a platter in the first four
lactation and then maximum production in the fifth lactation and afterwards the
production drops in a normal way until the end of productive life. This platter (of
the lactation curve) in the first four lactation does not represent a normal situation
but rather some test errors or improper exploitation technologies.
- 943 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
♦ The conclusion that comes off from the analysis of these aspects is that
Bălţată românească population from the studied area characterizes itself by a good
productive precocity which fits within the accepted limits for this breed even in
particular situations such as those from Livezile and Lechinta farms.
The bulls used for reproduction had a big influence on productive
precocity, the majority of them being imported, but the productive precocity was
also influenced by environmental factors and exploitation technology.
♦ The variability of the 2 basic indicators to determine estimations on the
productive precocity at Bălţată românească breed (in the area of Bistrita-Nasaud)
was distinctly emphasized, with extreme values for the amplitude array variation.
♦ There have been registered significant differences between the studied
farms , at first birth age and at milk production precocity, the best values being
obtained by cows owned by private breeders.
♦ Within the studied population there were identified several genetic
groups of paternal half-sisters, which have a genetic values that attracts interest
and which have to be used for genetic improvement at Bălţată românească
population in this area.
♦ Productive performances and quantity genetics parameters are elements
that point out genetic value and the possibility of achieving the objectives of the
zonal improvement program, by improving exploitation technologies and
management and by using for reproduction improving bulls (home-bred or
imported). In this sense, the society SEMTEST Tg. Mureş plays a special role by
having Fleckvich breed bulls from genetic lines of the world-wide known breed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
Georgescu, Gh. şi col., 1984 – Cercetări de optimizare a limitei economico-biologice de folosire a
vacilor de lapte. Lucr.şt. I.A.N.B., seria D., vol. XXVII, Zootehnie, Bucureşti
Lupan, V., Chilimar, S., Ujică, V., 1997 – Tehnologia creşterii bovinelor. F.E.P. Tipografia
Centrală Chişinău, R. Moldova
Mureşan, Gh., 1984 – Contribuţii la studiul însuşirilor morfoproductive a rasei Friză bălţată cu
negru. Teză de doctorat. I.A. Cluj Napoca
Pipernea, N., Ujică, V. şi col., 1977 – Stadiul actual şi perspectivele ameliorării taurinelor în
Moldova. Cercetări agronomice în Moldova, nr. 4 Iaşi
Pipernea, N., Ujică, V. şi col., 1991 – Studiul parametrilor genetici la unele populaţii de taurine
din Moldova. Lucr.şt. U.S.A.M.V. iaşi, vol. 33-34, seria Zootehnie şi Med.vet., p. 3-9
Ujică, V. şi col., 1991 – Cercetări privind structura intrapopulaţională a taurinelor BNR din
judeţul Iaşi şi influenţa rasei în procesul de ameliorare. Cercetări Agronomice în
Moldova, Vol. Omagial XXIV, Iaşi, p. 74
Velea, C. şi col., 1988 – Studiul privind longevitatea productivă şi durata vieţii la vacile din rasa
Bălţată românească. Simpozionul „Actualităţi în tehnologia animalelor domestice”, vol.
14, I.A. Cluj Napoca, p. 163-168
- 944 -
BACK
QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE FEATURES OF EGGS

PRODUCTION ISSUED FROM CERTAIN DOMESTIC
ANSERIDAE POPULATIONS IN BIHOR COUNTY
I. CHEREJI, Monica DODU
The paper presents some partial results issued from the identification
and characterization of some domestic fowl populations in Bihor County,
belonging to Anseriformes order, Anser anser and Anas platyrhynchos, White
Dutch and Pekin breeds. Waterfowl from three private breeder farms in Oradea
city and surroundings has been evaluated. A flock of 110 geese, including 88
females and 22 males, have been inventoried for White Dutch breed, while Pekin
population counted 105 birds, respectively 15 drakes and 95 ducks. Among the
studied morpho-productive features (bodyweight dynamics in youth and adults,
feed conversion ratio, eggs yield and laying curve during 33-50 wks. period for
geese and 24-65 weeks period for ducks, incubation eggs quality and incubation
analysis ), this paper reveals some data related to quantitative and qualitative
eggs production. Thus, in White Dutch breed, eggs yield, expressed as mean of
the 3 populations, reached 1145.23 pcs., respectively 41.4 eggs/goose/period
while laying peak (57.86%) occurred during wk. 37. Quality parameters of the
incubation eggs oscillated between laying initiation and its ending. Eggs weight
has been found within 183.5±1.4g – 186.±2.1g range and shell thickness between
0.558±0.022mm – 0.547±0.014mm limits. Values between 65.8±1.1% and
67.2±1.4% have been found for the egg format index, while Haugh index has
been comprised within 77.7 U.H. - 80.2 U.H. variation interval. Pekin ducks
produced an average amount of 3232.2 eggs, meaning 98.9 eggs/duck/period,
with a maximum level of 80.1% laying intensity, reached during wk. 30-31. Eggs
weight values have been found between 78.7±1.0g and 81.2±1.3 g limits while
shell thickness decreased toward the end of laying period (0.392±0.007 mm –
0.375±0.008 mm). Eggs format index oscillated between 77.5%-80.7% limits,
while the Haugh index values have been found within the 77.5-80.7 U.H. interval.
Best values for quality features of the incubation eggs have been achieved, by
both species, during laying peak period.
Keywords: White Dutch goose, Pekin duck, eggs yield, eggs quality
Considering the tradition of the people living in the North-West area of

Romania to raise waterfowl for eggs, meat, fatty liver and feathers productions,
our researches, set up in 2006, tried to deepen the knowledge related to the rearing
and performances of these domestic fowl categories. Thus, flocks from 3 farms
belonging to private breeders in Oradea city and surroundings have been studied,
assessing some morpho-productive parameters of juvenile and adult fowl, this
paper focusing on egg production and incubation eggs quality.
- 945 -

Six populations of waterfowl were studied, comprising three of White
Dutch goose breed (Anser anser L.: 110 birds, 88 females + 22 males) and three
of Pekin duck breed (Anas platyrhynchos L.: 105 birds, 95 ducks and 15 drakes).
The eggs harvested from both breed females served as biological material
in our analyses. Laying intensity was calculated in accordance with the
mathematical relation presented below:
Q × 100
I.P. = , where:
N×K
- I.P. = laying intensity (%);
- Q = egg amount produced by a female in K days
- N = females flock size.
Eggs weight (g) was measured by gravimetry during four laying periods:
onset, peak, plateau and finishing.
Eggshell thickness was assessed by individual measuring with a caliper,
in three egg points (sharpen pole, round pole and median area), during the
previously specified laying moments, as listed for eggs weight assessments.
Two indexes were calculated to better reveal the morphological and
internal quality of the incubation eggs: Format index and Haugh index, according
to the following relations:
dm
I.F. = × 100 , where:
DM
- I.F. = egg format index (%);
- dm, DM = small and large diameters of the eggs (cm).
U.H. = 100log (h-1,7 X G0,37 + 7,57), where:

- U.H. = Haugh index (Haugh Units);
- h = dense albumen height (mm);
- G = egg weight (g).
The results were compared to the reference values from the scientific
literature.

Eggs production
Performances of White Dutch geese are presented in Fig. 1 and Tab. 1,
while those observed for Pekin ducks are listed within the Tab. 2 and Fig. 2.
The seasonal characteristic of eggs yield in Anser anser species is well
known, laying period being comprised between middle of January and June,
lasting 19 weeks. Four analyses moments have been established: onset (wks 33-
34), peak (wks 37-38), plateau-descending (wks 42-43), ending (wks 50-51).
- 946 -
Table 1
Eggs yield and laying intensity calculated for White Dutch goose populations
C1 C2 C3 Populations average
Age
(wks.) Geese Eggs I.P. Geese Eggs I.P. Geese Eggs I.P. Geese Eggs I.P.
flock /day (%) flock /day (%) flock /day (%) flock /day (%)
33 27 2.7 10.00 22 2.8 12.86 34 3.9 11.43 28 3.1 11.34
34 27 6.8 25.00 22 4.9 22.14 34 8.5 25.00 28 6.7 24.24
35 27 13.7 50.71 22 11.5 52.14 34 16.8 49.29 28 14.0 50.51
36 27 14.9 55.00 22 12.4 56.43 34 18.7 55.00 28 15.3 55.38
37 27 15.6 57.86 22 12.7 57.86 34 19.7 57.86 28 16.0 57.86
38 27 15.2 56.43 22 12.4 56.43 34 19.2 56.43 28 15.6 56.43
39 27 13.7 50.71 22 11.8 53.57 34 15.3 45.00 28 13.6 49.13
40 27 12.9 47.86 22 10.2 46.43 34 13.4 39.29 28 12.2 43.97
41 27 11.0 40.71 22 9.6 43.57 34 12.4 36.43 28 11.0 39.72
42 27 9.5 35.00 22 8.6 39.29 34 10.9 32.14 28 9.7 34.97
43 27 8.7 32.14 22 8.0 36.43 34 10.0 29.29 28 8.9 32.11
44 27 7.9 29.29 22 6.8 30.71 34 8.0 23.57 28 7.6 27.32
45 27 7.5 27.86 22 6.1 27.86 34 7.5 22.14 28 7.1 25.52
46 27 6.8 25.00 22 5.8 26.43 34 6.6 19.29 28 6.4 23.04
47 27 5.6 20.71 22 4.9 22.14 34 5.6 16.43 28 5.4 19.34
48 27 4.8 17.86 22 3.9 17.86 34 5.1 15.00 28 4.6 16.69
49 27 4.4 16.43 22 3.3 15.00 34 4.6 13.57 28 4.1 14.88
50 27 3.1 11.43 22 1.9 8.57 34 2.4 7.14 28 2.5 8.92
Total eggs 1152.90 963.60 1319.20 1145.23
Eggs/goose 42.7 43.8 38.8 41.4
I.P.% = laying intensity; C1…C3 = the three private farms
- 947 -
Table 2
Eggs yield and laying intensity calculated for Pekin duck populations
C1 C2 C3 Populations average
Age
(wks.) Ducks Eggs I.P. Ducks Eggs I.P. Ducks Eggs I.P. Ducks Eggs I.P.
flock /day (%) flock /day (%) flock /day (%) flock /day (%)
24 32 1.8 5.71 26 1.5 5.71 40 2.0 5.00 33 1.8 5.4
25 32 5.2 16.33 26 5.4 20.71 40 7.4 18.57 33 6.0 18.4
26 32 8.6 26.94 26 10.0 38.57 40 14.6 36.43 33 11.1 33.9
27 32 12.0 37.55 26 13.4 51.43 40 19.4 48.57 33 14.9 45.7
28 32 15.4 48.16 26 15.2 58.57 40 22.3 55.71 33 17.6 54.0
29 32 18.8 58.78 26 17.1 65.71 40 24.6 61.43 33 20.2 61.7
30 32 22.2 69.39 26 19.3 74.29 40 28.0 70.00 33 23.2 70.9
30-31 32 25.6 80.00 26 21.2 81.43 40 31.7 79.29 33 26.2 80.1
32-33 32 25.1 78.39 26 20.8 80.00 40 31.4 78.57 33 25.8 78.9
34-35 32 24.6 76.79 26 20.4 78.57 40 30.9 77.14 33 25.3 77.4
36-37 32 24.1 75.18 26 19.9 76.43 40 30.3 75.71 33 24.7 75.7
38-39 32 23.5 73.57 26 19.3 74.29 40 29.4 73.57 33 24.1 73.8
40-41 32 23.0 71.96 26 18.8 72.14 40 28.6 71.43 33 23.5 71.8
42-43 32 22.5 70.36 26 18.2 70.00 40 27.4 68.57 33 22.7 69.5
44-45 32 22.0 68.75 26 17.8 68.57 40 26.9 67.14 33 22.2 68.0
46-47 32 21.5 67.14 26 17.6 67.86 40 26.6 66.43 33 21.9 67.0
48-49 32 20.9 65.24 26 17.5 67.14 40 26.3 65.71 33 21.5 65.9
50-51 32 20.3 63.33 26 16.0 61.43 40 24.0 60.00 33 20.1 61.5
52-53 32 19.7 61.43 26 15.4 59.29 40 23.4 58.57 33 19.5 59.7
54-55 32 19.0 59.52 26 15.0 57.86 40 22.6 56.43 33 18.9 57.8
56-57 32 18.4 57.62 26 14.7 56.43 40 22.3 55.71 33 18.5 56.5
58-59 32 17.8 55.71 26 14.5 55.71 40 22.0 55.00 33 18.1 55.4
60-61 32 16.9 52.86 26 14.1 54.29 40 21.1 52.86 33 17.4 53.2
62-63 32 16.2 50.71 26 13.7 52.86 40 20.0 50.00 33 16.7 51.0
64-65 32 15.5 48.57 26 13.4 51.43 40 18.9 47.14 33 15.9 48.7
Total eggs 3116.80 2637.70 3942.00 3232.17
Eggs/duck 97.4 101.5 98.6 98.9
I.P.% = laying intensity; C1…C3 = the three private farms
- 948 -
100.00
90.00
80.00
70.00
60.00 57.86
50.00
40.00
34.97
30.00
20.00 16.69
11.34 8.92
10.00
0.00
wk33
wk35
wk37
wk39
wk41
wk43
wk45
wk47
wk49
Laying period (w eeks)
Fig. 1 - Laying curve at White Dutch goose populations (mean laying intensity)
In White Dutch geese, production peak occurred during 5th laying week.
Thus, at laying onset, production intensity was of 11.4%, to reach a maximum of
57.86% during peak period. Then, it continuously decreased until geese reached
50 weeks old when calculated intensity was of 8.92%.
Seasonal average eggs production reached 41.4 eggs/goose, with the best
performance achieved by the C2 farm geese (43.8 eggs/female). These values
were below breed standard (50-60 eggs/season) (Tipuriţă et al, 1986).
Consequently, it imposes to use the individuals with highest yields for inbreeding
or even to import some better genitors, in order to improve performances.
100.00
90.00
80.09
80.00
68.05
70.00
60.00 50.99
50.00
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
5.42
0.00
wk24
wk26
wk28
wk30
wks32-33
wks36-37
wks40-41
wks44-45
wks48-49
wks52-53
wks56-57
wks60-61
Laying period (w eeks)
Fig. 2 - Laying curve of the Pekin duck populations (mean laying intensity)
- 949 -
When ducks populations were studied, four different moments of the

laying period have been chosen: onset during 24th week, peak at 30-31 weeks,
plateau at 38-39 weeks, ending at 60-61 weeks. Thus, when females began to lay,
calculated intensity reached just 5.4%, then increased till 80.1% (production peak)
and maintained at high levels even toward laying end (50.99-48.7%). The average
amount of eggs/laying cycle was of 98.9 pcs., the highest yield being achieved by
the ducks in C2 population (101.5 pcs.). These values corresponded to breed
standard (90-120 pcs.) (Vancea I., 1981).
Data related to incubation eggs quality is presented in table 3 for both
species.
Eggs weight. At geese, it increased as flock approached the laying season
ending. Thus, from an average value of 183.5±1.4g/egg, at laying onset, it reached
186.2±2.1g/egg, at its end. Flocks homogeneity was found average to poor (v=10.9-
12.1%). Eggs with highest weight were produced by the females belonging to C1
population, which also were most precocious. The values were in accordance with
breed standard (180-190 g/egg) (Beaugard H. et al.). At Pekin ducks, eggs weight
varied from 78.7±1.0g/egg during laying onset till 81.2±1,3g toward its end, while
populations’ homogeneity was considered as good.
Eggshell thickness, was comprised within 0.558±0.022mm (laying onset)
– 0.547±0.014mm (laying end) interval for the White Dutch geese populations.
Variability was found between 10.3-11.6%, suggesting an average to poor
homogeneity. In ducks populations, shell thickness decreased with laying cycle
advancing. Thus, it became thinner, from 0.392±0.007 mm (onset) till
0.375±0.008 mm (ending). Homogeneity was also found mainly poor.
Eggs shape index varied, at geese populations, between 65.8% (laying
ending) – 67.2% (production peak) limits, being thus comprised within the quality
specifications of the reference literature (Bessarabov, 1985, quoted by Vacaru-
Opriş, 2002). The same index values at Pekin breed were found within the 67.4-
68.4% variation interval, presenting poor populations homogeneity.
Haugh Index. At White Dutch goose breed, maximal value was reached
during laying peak (80.8±1.2 UH), then decreased to a minimum of 77.7±1.1 UH
when reproduction season ended. Assessed values varied around standard (80
UH) (Usturoi M.G., 1999). Best value was observed in Farm 2. When ducks
populations were studied, it was found that measured values comprised within
scientific literature recommendations (78-82 UH, Sauveur B., 1988), with
maximal values during peak period (80.7 UH). Best quality was also achieved by
the fowl in Farm 2.
- 950 -
Table 3
Dynamics of the eggs quality parameters at White Dutch geese and Pekin ducks populations
Laying C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 Farms mean
moment x ± sx V% x ± sx V% x ± sx V% x ± sx V% x ± sx V% x ± sx V%
Onset 185.8 1.7 10.4 183.9 1.1 10.8 180.7 1.2 11.2 183.5 1.4 10.9 185.8 1.7 10.4 183.9 1.1 10.8
Peak 186.2 2.1 11.3 184.5 1.3 11.7 181.4 1.5 11.1 184.0 1.8 11.4 186.2 2.1 11.3 184.5 1.3 11.7
Geese
Plateau 186.9 1.9 10.9 185.7 1.6 10.6 183.1 1.8 10.3 185.2 1.7 10.4 186.9 1.9 10.9 185.7 1.6 10.6
Ending 187.4 2.4 12.5 186.6 1.8 12.4 184.6 2.1 11.8 186.2 2.1 12.1 187.4 2.4 12.5 186.6 1.8 12.4
Onset 77.4 1.1 9.4 81.7 1.0 9.8 76.9 1.0 9.1 78.7 1.0 9.5 77.4 1.1 9.4 81.7 1.0 9.8
Peak 79.2 0.9 9.8 82.8 1.1 10.1 77.6 1.1 10.3 79.9 1.0 10.1 79.2 0.9 9.8 82.8 1.1 10.1
Eggs weight (g)

Plateau 79.5 1.0 10.4 83.2 1.3 11.8 78.1 1.3 10.8 80.3 1.2 10.9 79.5 1.0 10.4 83.2 1.3 11.8
Ducks
Ending 81.2 1.3 11.5 83.6 1.4 13.2 78.8 1.3 12.9 81.2 1.3 12.7 81.2 1.3 11.5 83.6 1.4 13.2
Onset 0.551 0.017 10.5 0.557 0.023 10.1 0.566 0.027 10.7 0.558 0.022 10.4 0.551 0.017 10.5 0.557 0.023 10.1
Peak 0.547 0.013 11.2 0.554 0.019 9.3 0.563 0.024 10.4 0.555 0.018 10.3 0.547 0.013 11.2 0.554 0.019 9.3
Geese
Plateau 0.543 0.011 10.9 0.551 0.015 10.4 0.560 0.022 11.1 0.551 0.017 10.8 0.543 0.011 10.9 0.551 0.015 10.4
Ending 0.539 0.009 12.5 0.547 0.012 11.7 0.556 0.021 10.8 0.547 0.014 11.6 0.539 0.009 12.5 0.547 0.012 11.7
(mm)
Onset 0.390 0.008 10.9 0.375 0.007 11.4 0.411 0.007 15.3 0.392 0.007 13.2 0.390 0.008 10.9 0.375 0.007 11.4
Peak 0.381 0.006 12.6 0.369 0.011 12.3 0.405 0.009 13.3 0.385 0.008 12.8 0.381 0.006 12.6 0.369 0.011 12.3
Shell thickness
Ducks
Plateau 0.379 0.011 13.2 0.371 0.014 11.9 0.401 0.012 14.2 0.384 0.012 13.1 0.379 0.011 13.2 0.371 0.014 11.9
Ending 0.371 0.008 14.8 0.362 0.009 14.5 0.393 0.005 15.5 0.375 0.008 15.0 0.371 0.008 14.8 0.362 0.009 14.5
Onset 66.8 0.9 11.9 65.2 0.8 12.3 68.1 1.3 10.9 66.7 1.1 10.8 66.8 0.9 11.9 65.2 0.8 12.3
Peak 67.1 1.2 12.3 65.9 1.3 11.8 68.7 1.7 11.1 67.2 1.4 11.7 67.1 1.2 12.3 65.9 1.3 11.8
Geese
Plateau 66.3 1.4 8.7 65.4 1.2 9.2 67.8 0.9 10.1 66.5 1.2 9.4 66.3 1.4 8.7 65.4 1.2 9.2
Ending 65.7 1.1 10.3 64.8 1.0 10.6 66.9 1.2 9.8 65.8 1.1 10.2 65.7 1.1 10.3 64.8 1.0 10.6
(%)
Onset 67.2 1.2 11.8 65.6 0.9 9.6 69.3 1.4 15.9 67.4 1.2 13.2 67.2 1.2 11.8 65.6 0.9 9.6
Peak 68.9 1.3 10.2 66.2 1.2 10.3 70.2 1.6 17.2 68.4 1.3 14.6 68.9 1.3 10.2 66.2 1.2 10.3
Ducks
Plateau 66.5 1.1 10.4 65.1 0.8 9.1 68.7 1.2 14.3 66.8 1.0 11.2 66.5 1.1 10.4 65.1 0.8 9.1
Egg format index

Ending 65.4 0.8 9.6 64.3 0.7 8.1 67.2 1.1 11.5 65.6 0.9 10.1 65.4 0.8 9.6 64.3 0.7 8.1
Onset 80.1 1.6 13.2 80.4 1.8 12.7 80.2 1.7 12.1 80.2 1.7 12.6 80.1 1.6 13.2 80.4 1.8 12.7
Peak 80.7 1.2 11.7 81.0 1.3 11.4 80.8 1.2 11.1 80.8 1.2 11.4 80.7 1.2 11.7 81.0 1.3 11.4
Geese
Plateau 79.2 0.8 9.6 79.4 0.9 9.4 79.1 1.0 10.2 79.2 0.9 9.8 79.2 0.8 9.6 79.4 0.9 9.4
Ending 77.7 1.1 11.2 77.8 1.1 10.3 77.4 1.2 10.9 77.7 1.1 10.7 77.7 1.1 11.2 77.8 1.1 10.3
Onset 80.4 1.4 11.4 80.6 1.3 14.6 78.5 1.0 12.7 79.8 1.2 12.8 80.4 1.4 11.4 80.6 1.3 14.6
(U.H.)
Peak 80.6 1.2 12.3 81.7 1.4 11.4 79.7 1.1 10.8 80.7 1.3 11.5 80.6 1.2 12.3 81.7 1.4 11.4
Haugh index
Ducks
Plateau 79.2 1.3 10.1 79.5 1.2 12.3 78.8 1.0 14.9 79.2 1.2 12.8 79.2 1.3 10.1 79.5 1.2 12.3
Ending 77.2 1.3 13.5 78.0 1.0 11.1 77.2 0.9 11.5 77.5 1.1 12.2 77.2 1.3 13.5 78.0 1.0 11.1
C1…C3 = the three private farms
Laying moments, related to flock age:
Geese: Onset: wks 33-34; Peak: wks 37-38; Plateau: wks 42-43; Ending: wks 48-49; Ducks: Onset: wk 24; Peak: wks 30-31; Plateau: wks 38-39; Ending: wks 60-61
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
Laying intensity peak reached average values of 57.9% in White Dutch
breed and of 80.1% in Pekin populations. It could be noticed that maximal value
for geese laying intensity was found below the standard specified in references.
Average yield per period counted 41.4 eggs/goose, respectively 98.9
eggs/duck. Individual eggs production at White Dutch populations was also
situated under breed standard. Consequently, it imposes to use the individuals
with highest yields for inbreeding or even to import some better genitors, in order
to improve performances.
Quality parameters of the eggs were found within standard limits, for both
species. Despite this, populations’ homogeneity was found low, indicating poor
inbreeding degree and high variability.
REFERENCES
Beaugard H. et al. – 1988 - L’aviculture francaise, Ed. R. Rosset, Paris.
Sauveur B. et al – 1988 – Reproduction des volailles et production d‫׳‬oeufs. Institut National de la
Recherche Agronomique, Paris.
Tipuriţă D., Marin GH., Tipuriţă Eleonora – 1986 – Creşterea intensivă a palmipedelor, Editura
Ceres, Bucureşti.
Usturoi M.G. – 1999 – Incubaţia la păsările domestice, Ed. Ion Ionescu de la Brad, Iaşi.
Vacaru-Opriş I. et al – 2007 – Tratat de Avicultură, Vol. I, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti.
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BACK
THE STANDARD PROJECT OF A FARM FOR MILK

PRODUCTION
S. CHILIMAR, T. BAJURA
The standard proiect of a farm for milk production is developed. The

farm can be created in three variants, which differ on a livestock of animals and
gross output (milk and meat) received for a year. The project is intended for
small farms of a private sector.
The base model is designed for the maintenance of 44 heads of bovines,
including 20 cows and 24 young bovines for reproduction. In the age of 30 days
young bulls are realized to other farmers. The intensive technology of milk
production, reception from each cow 5 - 6 thousand of kilograms of milk (annual)
is stipulated. Total volume of milk in one year makes 110 t, meat - 4,3 t. The
specific expenditure of forages on production of milk make 1,2 fodder units.
Creation of farms in the suggested variants will promote revival of production of
milk and beef of bovine.
INTRODUCTION
The development of agricultural sector at the popstprivatization stage
requires a scientific motivation of the economic norms of capital, technical and
technological new investments adopted to the market economical conditions wish
the systems of modern machines being competitive both on the internal market
and other ones. The new qualitative aspect s must also be obtained the elaboration
the project business of standard type in capital constructions with application of
new economical norms for the agroalimentary sector. Especially on the basis of
the norms and scientific motivated new economical business projects will be
provided the accelerated development of middle and small economical agents
based on the private property. It is necessary to mention, that all the existent base
of norms was elaborated about 28 years ago and does not meet actual
requirements having radical changes in the society and word.
As a result, the development and the revival of the autochthonous
agriculture at present is braked because of the lack of the modern base of
scientific standards of the technical and capital investments which serve as a
foundation of the business projects elaboration for the middle and small
enterprises and will be contributed to the development of the Moldovan state. The
aim of the project constitutes the elaboration of the new technological and
technical capital investments norm on the basis of which will be elaborated
business type project (standard project) of the enterprises with investments and
capital constructions for the agricultural private business with middle and small
sizes in the rural localities.
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MATERIAL AND METHOD

The elaboration of the project of the standard farm for milk production in
the private sector of the Republic of Moldova was effected on the basis of the
analysis of the development tendencies of the stock breeding branch, of the
accumulated experience for milk production, of the functioning of a milk
production farm from our country and the results of the scientific researches.
For elaborating of the expense divisions they were taken into the average
current costs of the building materials and their transport to the construction
place, the manual labor for effecting of the building works and territory
arrangement.

From the effected analysis we can conclude that the autochthonous
agriculture development in the postprivatizated period is divided into two specific
segments.
The first segment is the great agricultural enterprises. According to the
statistic date for 2004 year in our republic functioned 1459 of similar enterprises
including those damaging the agricultural sector. In these enterprises were
attracted annually 122 thousand persons, the agricultural product being at the
level of 2806 mil. lei or 22,5 thousand lei a year in the calculation to each
engaged. The weight of the agricultural product obtain in the great agricultural
enterprises constitutes 32% from the total volume of this product. It is important
to underline that in the period of the post privatization they were clarified the
directions of specialization of the large agricultural enterprises. At present they
produce from annual volumes: cereals and vegetables crops including winter
wheat - 64,7%, barley – 71,9%, maize – 24%, legumes – 53,1%, sunflower –
58%, soy – 63,4%, sugar beet – 85,5%, tobacco – 87,3%, potatoes – 5,5%,
vegetables 22%, fruit and berries – 50,7%, grapes 27,7%, milk – 3,8%, meat (in
live weight) – 4,5%. So the specialization of the great agricultural enterprises is
enough market especially on the direction of the technical crops (sunflower, rape,
soy, sugar beet, tobacco) and of a wile spectrum of cereals crops (winter wheat,
barley, oats, leguminous). For a part of the agricultural enterprises from the South
and Centre zones it is typically the production of grapes and fruits. It is turn a
great of the agricultural enterprises of the North apply widely the fruit production.
The rest of the phytotechnical products (maize, potato, all scale of vegetables) and
practically all the spectrum of zootechnical products (except poultry breeding) in
the period of after privatization became the principal subjects of production of the
middle and small agricultural farms.
The second segment are the auxiliary household farms and peasant ones
(of farmer type). Although agricultural production, being less taken offence,
representing a wide scale of agricultural farms usually enough small and not
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having orientations to the market. This segment becomes a real goal of the
agrarian investments for the development the middle and small business. The
determined factor in this sense becomes the weight of the auxiliary household
farms and peasant ones (of farm type) in the production of the most valuable
agroalimentary products.
It is necessary to mention that near the dominant position concerning the
weight of the agricultural production volume, the productivity relativity higher of
the hectare of arable land or of one animal, etc., all the household auxiliary and a
big part of the peasant farms have some visible troubles, the principal among
them is oriented production preponderantly for the autoconsumption bat not for
the goods production. There is from here that there are a lot of gaps and
deficiencies in this segment of the agricultural production. Not being orient to the
market the small producers are not specialists they have no modern technologies,
their production often is given up the quality required by the consumers. As a rule
the volumes of production are completed from the so small parties that they can
not be commercialized with the application of the modern transport means, of
primary treatment.
Although from the beginning of the privatization process the small sector
of the agricultural production showed more positive phenomenon including: (i)
the advanced motivation for obtaining the final result, (ii) minimizing in the small
enterprises of the expenses for management, control, protection of the have sting,
etc. at the actual stage it become more obvious the fact that there positive sides
are not enough for the formation of a competitive and modern agriculture. The
principal reason is well known. Being laced of investments the microentreprises
can not be recognized on the internal market not speaking else about the external
one producers of competitive and qualitative goods according of the all their
specific features.
This conclusion is not a unexpected mystery for the small producers.
More of the them begin to orient enough wile in the „play” rules established by
the market economy. If during the fist years of privatization practically all the
animals livestock including the dairy cows passed from the great agricultural
enterprises farms into the peasant yards creating the impression that is changed
simply the property from then the last years occurs a definitive polar tendency of
reducing a number of animals in the farmers private property. Only in 2005 the
live stock of bovines was reduced in the auxiliary household farms with 11%, of
swine with 10%. Not being replaced this time with any kind of animals or poultry;
these decreases challenged alarming situations regarding the supply of the rural
inhabitants with milk and dairy products; that simply can not be brought from the
towns having as a principal resource their importation. According with the con
figurations of the statisticians in some villages remained by 50 – 60 milkmaid
cows that constitutes only 15 percent from their number, existing in the
prereformation period.
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From the analysis of the situation we conclude that one of the principal
ways of attracting of the investments for the modernization the milk production is
the creation of some farms of new type with modern technologies on the basis of
the utilization of the standard projects for the private sector.
The principal objective of the elaborated project is constituted by the
revitalization of the stock breeding sector and the implementation of intensive
technologies for the milk production for providing the necessities of the milk
processing enterprises and the consumers of raw materials, qualitative and
competitive milk products on the infernal and external market. The milk and beef
production requires to be reorganized by the economical agents toward the
intensive system of stock breeding, observing the UE regulations for the food
products. The elaboration of the type project of the mini farms for the milk
production has the purpose to render practical assistance to stock breeding to the
implementation some intensive technologies for milk production for maintenance
the insurances the processing enterprises and consumers in raw material,
qualitative and competitive dairy produces on the infernal and external market.
The projection of the farms for the milk production is important not only
for the agricultural producers bat also for the milk processing enterprises, for the
consumers of the milk and dairy products, as well as generally speaking for the
agriculture and national economy as the milk is the food product the most spread,
with a wide utilization in the human nourishment, obtained at present by the
agricultural producers in the conditions that do not meet requirements of the
European Community.
The farm capacity and utilization of the biological material. The
basic module is presented for the livestock of 20 cows and 24 head of the young
bovines of different age. The derived modules are:
(i) at 40 cows and 48 young animals;
(ii) at 10 cows and 12 young animals.
For obtaining of an annual production of 4000 – 6000 kg milk from of
cow it is recommended to breed bovines from importation of the Black and with
rase or of the Moldovan tip at this rase whose the genetically potential of the milk
production constitutes 7-9 thousand kg and more. It is also taken into account the
fact that according with the results of the scientific investigations, effected by the
university professor S. Chilimar with his colleges the young bull from the
population of Moldovan tip of the Black and with rase in the conditions of
intensive breeding provides the possibility of obtaining of the middle increase
daily in weight of 900 – 1000 g. The body weight of the young bulls at the
slaughter (aged of 15-18 months) makes up about 475-500 kg, the specific
consumption of forage does not surpass 6,1 – 6,5 fodder unities.
The purchase of the other bovines from importation with productive
capacities being higher than of the bovine s of Moldovan tip of Black and with
must be done with a great prudence taking into account the resistance and
adaptability of the stock to the locale conditions, the farmers possibilities to
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provide all of their productive potential, the risk of spreading of a dangerous

disease that were not registered in the Republic of Moldova, as wells the prices of
the bloat animals which a much more higher in comparison with the existent
prices in our country.
One of the basic conditions of in creasing the cattle production is the
utilization of the improver bulls the intensive breeding of young animals for
reproduction. According with the results of scientific researches the heifers from
the population of the Moldovan tip of Black and with breed in the conditions of
intensive breeding provide the possibility of reaching the body mass of 360-380
kg only at age 15-16 months when they may be admitted for the first
insemination. Thus, the first calving will be possible on an average at the age 25-
26 months or 2.1-2.2 years old. The productive longevity or the more effective
age at the reform the breed of Black and with is on an average 7.5 years old.
Resulting from these calculations the norms stipulate that at a farm a livestock of
20 cows annually be reformed 4 cows and for their replacing will to breed 4-5
heifers. The extensive breeding of the heifers for the reproduction is not well
wished because of not providing the optimum body weight (360-380 kg) at the
age of the fist insemination – 18 months. The consequences will be (i) the
reduction of the milk production and (ii) increases for the breeding of the young
animals for the reproduction.
In the next table they were presented the basic indexes of the farm with
the livestock of 10, 20 and 40 cows.
Tabelul 1
The technical and economic characteristic of a standard project
Size of the farm, cows
Parameters 20
10 (the basic variant) 40
1 2 3 4
1. The period between calving, days 365 365 365
2. Will be obtained annually calf, heads 10 20 40
including: calf from cows 8 16 32
calf from primipara 2 4 8
3. They will be annually breed heifers for 2 5 10
renewing of the herd
4. Rejection of adult cows, heads in one year 2 5 10
5. The duration of the physiological periods,
days
- mamar rest 60 60 60
- sexual cycle 21 21 21
- duration of the intensive period of the milk 120 120 120
production
- lactation 305 305 305
6., The annual milk production at a cow, kg 5000 5500 6000
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1 2 3 4
7. The annual total production of milk, tons 50 110 240
8. The specific consumption of forages, fodder 1,25 1,20 1,15
unities for 1 kg of milk
9. The necessary of forage for the milk
production, tons of fodder unities in one year 62,5 132 276
10. The middle body weight of an adult cows, kg 500 550 600
11.The live-stock of young bovines on an 11,56 23,12 46,24
average a year, kg
- including from the birth till 30 days* 0,98 1,96 3,92
- from 30 days up 6 months 2,87 5,74 11,48
- from 6 months up 12 months 3,45 6,90 13,80
12. The necessary places for young bovines 12 24 48
13. The realization of the heifers at age of 12 2 4 6
months, heads
- with total live weight, kg 520 1040 1560
14. The realization of the heifers at age of 17 1 2 4
months, heads
15. Realization of the rejected adult cows, 2 4 10
heads
16. Realization of young bull at age of 30 days, 5 10 20
heads
Total surplus in weight of the young bulls, kg 75 150 300
17. The meat production in total live weight, kg 2130 4280 9540
- including the meat production at the young 1130 2280 4540
animals, kg
18. The body weight of the heifers, kg:
- at birth 35 35 35
- at 6 months 140 140 140
- at 12 months 280 280 280
- at aged of 16 months (first heifers 375 375 375
insemination)
19. Middle age of insemination of the heifers, 17 17 17
mounts
20. The maintenance method of the cows and At tethered in the period of the
heifers stabilization, in combined in the
summer period (at tethered, free to
pasture)
The maintenance method of the young Till a month – in individual boxes,
bovines later freely
*At the age of 30 days the young bulls will be realized to other economical agents for being breaded
to meat.
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BACK
The total area in which the farm constitutes 1824 m2, including the stable
– 207,4 m2, auxiliary buildings for arrangement and storage of the silo – 350 m2,
for the semi-hay – 175 m2, for the storage of the root crops – 87,5 m2, place for
walks of cows and young growth – 166,3 m2. From the total area of the stable
comes to a conventional unity bovine – 5,78 m2, to one unity CUB + auxiliary
sections – 6,48 m2. For the temporarily storage of the liquid fractions of the
dejections it is foreseen the building of a reservoir of 30 m2.
At the farm of 20 cows with 24 young animals of various ages will be
engaged 4 persons, including to the milking and harming of cows and transporting
and forages distribution, evacuation of dejections and animals pasture – 2 worker.
Annually on an average at one engaged person will be produced 25 tons
of milk, and 570 kg of meat in the live weight. For the building a farm with the
live-stock of 20 cows and 24 heads of young animals, the annual production of
110 tons of milk and 4300 kg of meat are necessary investments of about 2 ml.
lei. In this sum there were including investments for basic stable construction, and
auxiliary building, purchase of the technological equipment and of heifers.
CONCLUSIONS
It was elaborated a standard project of mini farm for the milk production
with the live-stock of 20 cows and 24 young animals for the reproduction of
different ages.
This project may serve as a basic standard that in case of necessary may
be increased by 2-3 more times with some insignificant modifications of technical
indexes.
In the estimate of expenses were not the buildings to the concrete ground.
This will be financed supplementary by the economical agents that wish to a start
of milk production business.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. Chilimar S., Coşman S. Modele de creştere a taurinelor. Simpozion internaţional, Chişinău,
UASM,2005.
2. Chilimar S. Sporirea producţiei de carne şi îngrăşarea tineretului taurin. internaţional, Chişinău,
UASM, 2005.
3. Chilimar S. Situaţia şi perspectivele producerii cărnii de taurină în Republica Moldova.
Simpozion internaţional, Iaşi, 2005.
4. Chilimar S. Calitatea taurinelor în sectorul individual al Republicii Moldova. Simpozion
internaţional, Iaşi, 2005.
5. Chilimar S. File din istoria şi perspectivele dezvoltării sectorului zootehnic în Republica
Moldova. Simpozion internaţional, Bucureşti, 2005.
6. Chilimar S. Dezvoltarea sectorului creşterii taurinelor în perspectiva integrării Europene.
Simpozion ştiinţific internaţional, Iaşi, 2006.
7. Dumbrăveanu N., Bajura T. Tarife de costuri în agricultură. IEMIAgro, 2006.
8. Chilimar S. Producerea cărnii de bovină poate fi profitabilă. Rev. „Agricultura Moldovei”, Nr. 1, 2006.
9. Bajura T., Dumbrăveanu N., S. Chilimar etc. Argumentarea tehnico - ştiinţifică a investiţiilor
capitale şi proiectelor tip de afaceri pentru întreprinderile mici şi mijlocii în sectorul agro-
alimentar. Rev. „Economie şi dezvoltare rurală”, nr. 3(6) 2006, Chişinău.
10. Chilimar S., Bajura T., Dumbrăveanu N. Normative pentru fermele de lapte din sectorul
particular. Simpozion ştiinţific internaţional, Iaşi, 26-27 aprilie 2007.
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BACK
S.C. "KOSAROM" S.A. PASCANI, IMPORTANT

INCORPORATED UNIT IN MOLDOVA
A. CHIRAN, A.-F. JITĂREANU
S.C. "KOSAROM" S.A. Pascani is the first private company in the food
industry in Romania, being part of the Private Pilot Program launched by the
Romanian Government in 1992, through HG 264 / 1992.
In over 15 years of activity, the unit evolved and today it is one of the
leaders of meat producing and processing in Romania, especially in Moldova,
having over 1000 customers in Bucuresti and other 18 districts of the country.
S.C."KOSAROM" S.A. Pascani is an incorporated unit and it contains 5
firms : S.C. "SUINPROD" S.A. Roman, S.C. "AVI-TOP" S.A. Iasi, S.C.
"AGRICOLA" S.A. Tg. Frumos, The Factory of Combined Fodders Roman and
The Factory of Combined Fodders Tomesti - Iasi district.
With over 1200 employes, the unit produces over 100 assortments of
meat, based on 80 own recepies.
The capacity of the slaughter – house is 7500 tons of meat per year and
the total production of meat products is 4000 tons per year.
S.C. "KOSAROM" became the leader of quality in meat production and
processing industry (chicken, beef, pork) at the high standards demanded and
atested by LAREX CERT Bucuresti.
The authors wish to mark out some of the production, investments,
economic and financial results accomplished by S.C. "KOSAROM" S.A. Pascani
during the last years, which makes the company an important unit in producing,
processing and capitalization of meat in Romania.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study has been done on the Kosarom Pascani Company Group, the first
private company in the food industry in Romania, being part of the Private Pilot
Program launched by the Romanian Government in 1992, through HG 264/ 1992.
S.C."KOSAROM" S.A. Pascani is an incorporated unit and it contains the
following firms : S.C. "SUINPROD" S.A. Roman, S.C. "AVI-TOP" S.A. Iasi,
S.C. "AGRICOLA" S.A. Tg. Frumos, The Factory of Combined Fodders Roman
and The Factory of Combined Fodders Tomesti - Iasi district.
The research was based on the technical and investment data provided by
the specific departaments in the analised units. General data, but also specific
information regarding the companies’ profile were presented.

General data
S.C. „KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani is the vertical incorporating unit,
whose activity object is meat processing for obtaining, distributing and
capitalising meat products.
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It contains the following incorporated firms:

- S.C. „AVI - TOP” S.A. – specialized in chicken breeding for meat ;
- S.C. „SUINPROD” S.A. Roman,Neamţ county – specialized in swine
breeding and fatteningr;
- S.C. „AGRICOLA” S.A. Tîrgu Frumos, specialized in cultivating
grain in the purpose of supplying the two combined fodders factories in Roman
and Tomesti with raw material.
Production capacities
S.C. „KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani has a slaughter – house with a
capacity of 300 sacrificed pigs per day, 20 tons slaughter per day and 30 tons of
meat products per day.
S.C. „AVI-TOP” S.A. Iaşi produces about 6000 tons of refrigerated and
frozen chicken meat per year.
It incorporates 5 chicken fattening farms, with a capacity of 700000 heads
per series, an incubation station with a capacity of 6500 one-day chicken per
series (foto 1), a new slaughter – house with a capacity of 4000 heads per hour
(foto 2, foto 3, foto 4).
The Combined Fodders Factory from Tomesti has 2 lines for
producing combined fodders, each one with a capacity of 2 tons per series final
product and 2 malaxators with a capacity of 500 kg per series, for microdoses.
S.C. „SUINPROD” S.A. Roman has a production capacity of 40000
swines for fattening, 3400 reproduction sows and 115000 heads handled annualy.
It also incorporates a Combined Fodders Factory for swines and chicken.
Photo 1 – General view of the incubation station
Photo 2– General view of the chicken slaughter-hause
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Photo 3 – Refrigeration tunnel
Photo 4 – Chicken meat prepackaging and sorting
Production and Manufacturing Technologies

The technologies that are used have a particulary high level of
performance (foto 5), as a result of the last years modernizations, whose resuls
are the assisted production and manufacturing processes, through informatical
programs supervised using the electronic computer.
Photo 5 – Chicken breeding hall
The technological flow at S.C. ”KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani is organized

as seen below : sacrificing, slaughtering, meat products manufacturing (photo 6),
packaging, distribution (photo 7).
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Photo 6 – The computer asisted technological process flow at S.C.

„KOSAROM”S.A. Paşcani
Photo 7 – The distribution system car park
The pork semicarcases are the refrigerated raw material for producing
over 80 assortments of meat products, with modern equipments, in good
conditions of hygiene and safety, according the european standards.
The meat products offer
S.C. ”KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani offers 58 meat products and 25 fresh
meat products. These products are divided in 9 series:
- sausages;
- specialities;
- salamies;
- rosy sausages;
- praguers;
- hams;
- smoked meats;
- boiled dry products;
- traditional products.
The most important of these products are the sausages and the specialities.
S.C.”AVI – TOP” S.A. Iaşi has 9 assortment series as well:
- grilled chicken;
- chicken legs;
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- chicken legs (boneless);

- chicken legs and back;
- chicken breast;
- chicken breast (boneless);
- chicken wings;
- chicken liver;
- chicken gizzards and hearts;
S.C. „SUINPROD” S.A. Roman produces and delivers:
- young swines for fattening;
- pigs for sacrificing;
- breeding sows, pregnant or not pregnant.
Certifications
In order to assure the demands of a food safety management system in the
food chain, the certifications have been given by TÜV CERT THÜRINGEN e.V
from Germany.
S.C. „KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani is the first company in Moldova area
and among the first 10 in Romania that posseses the ISO 22000 : 2005 Food
Safety Management System.
Also, there have been certificated and implemented:
- the EN ISO 9000 : 2000 quality and hygiene management incorporated
system;
- the HACCP system for food safety and control;
- the ISO 14001 certification for environment protection;
- the LAREX CERT certification for all the food products that are being
manufactured.
Market share, distribution, promotion, own stores
S.C. „KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani has a market share of 2,3 % on
national scale and 6,78 % in Moldova area ( 4th place ).
S.C.”AVI – TOP” S.A. Iaşi has a market share of 1,2 % on national
scale and 12 % in Moldova area ( 3rd place ).
The commodity market area includes 21 counties and the capital city,
S.C. „KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani and S.C.”AVI – TOP” S.A. Iaşi products
being present in over 1150 locations and 1100 retailers (photo 8, photo 9).
Photo-8 – The distribution area Photo-9 – The distribution area

of S.C. „KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani of S.C. „AVI-TOP” S.A. Iaşi
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S.C. KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani products can also be found in the

hypermarket networks, like Carrefour, Cora, Gima, Kaufland and Metro.
The company has it’s own distribution system, without intermediates
using it’s own distribution fleet.
S.C. „KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani and S.C.”AVI – TOP” S.A. Iaşi have
a marketing department, through which initiates several promoting activities,
from wich we mention:
• attending the 10th and the 11th editions of the International
INDAGRA Fair in Bucharest;
• initiating promotional campaigns for changing the label;
• organizing promotional campaigns based on activities such as:
- sampling activities;
- Kosarom Caravan;
- promoting through the Kiss FM Network;
- customer and consumer loyalty activities;
- promoting activities at points of sale, during holidays
or summer time;
-informing campaigns in schools regarding healthy eating..
Sales Figure
Over the last 3 years, the sales figure of S.C. „KOSAROM” S.A.
Paşcani was between 20,7 mil. Euro (2005) and 27,9 mil. Euro (2007), with a
total progress of 34,8 %. In 2006, the sales figure was 21,5 mil. Euro.
The S.C. „AVI – TOP” S.A. Iaşi sales figure had an ascending trend: 9,5
mil. Euro in 2007, compared to 7,7 mil. Euro in 2005 ( + 23,4 % ).
Investments
The global investment volume at S.C. „KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani was
between 30 and 32 mil. Euro.
In present, S.C. „KOSAROM” S.A. Paşcani is developing an
investment volume of 12 mil. Euro, with the following objectives:
- the modernization of the swine slaughter – house;
- achieving the pre-packaging of final products capacity;
- the expansion of final products delivery capacity;
- the expansion of the francising network;
- the arangement of a boiled – dry salamies storehouse.
The global investment volume at S.C. „AVI – TOP” S.A. Iaşi was about
20 mil. Euro. New investments are planned for the 2008 – 2012 period, with a 15
– 20 mil. Euro value, which will seek the following objectives:
- creating new chicken breeding farms;
- creating a new heavy – breed chicken reproduction farm;
- introducing new generation technology for chicken meat processing.
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As for S.C. „SUINPROD” Roman, the main objective is to create a

performant laboratory for determination of quality parameters for raw materials
and final products combined (fodders for swines and chicken ).
Future Projects
From the many future objectives we mention:
- the enlargement of the food products national distribution area
- the expansion of the collabotation with international key accounts
- cooperating with a specialized agency from Austria for launching a new
brand for a product series in a national hypermarket network.
- expanding the final product offer and the target market, by introducing
the medium income population in the target
- creating a specialized line for chicken meat products at the Razboieni
slaughter house
- increasing the number of own and francise stores
- creating new chicken breeding farms and a heavy – breed chicken
reprocuction farm
- the expansion of the collaboration with Hzpor company for assuring a
high quality genetic material for swines
- the continuity of the Program of saving the genetic inheritance of the
Mangalita breed, it is expected that in 2011 the number of sows to be 500
heads.
CONCLUSIONS
1. S.C. "KOSAROM" S.A. Paşcani is an important incorporating unit in
meat producing, processing and capitalization, among the first 10 units in the
country and on the 4th place in Moldova area.
2. The unit is vertically incorporated and it has in it’s structure 3 other
incorpora-ted units, which also include 2 Combined Fodders Factories.
3. The production and manufacturing technologies are new and have a
high mechanization and automation level, where some processes and activities are
supervised through specific informatical programs, assisted by electronic
computers.
4. S.C. "KOSAROM" S.A. Paşcani offers 58 meat products and 25 fresh
meat products, which are divided in 9 series. S.C. „AVI – TOP” S.A. Iaşi has 9
assortment series as well: grilled chicken, chicken legs, chicken legs (boneless),
chicken legs and back, chicken breast, chicken breast (boneless), chicken wings,
chicken liver, chicken gizzards and hearts. S.C. „SUINPROD” S.A. Roman
produces young swines for fattening, pigs for sacrificing and breeding sows
(pregnant or not pregnant).
5. S.C. "KOSAROM" S.A. Paşcani is the first company in Moldova area
and among the first 10 in Romania that posseses the ISO 22000 : 2005 Food
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Safety Management System. In order to assure the demands of a food safety

management system in the food chain, the certifications have been given by TÜV
CERT THÜRINGEN e.V from Germany.
6. In the analised period, S.C. "KOSAROM" S.A. Paşcani, S.C. „AVI –
TOP” S.A. Iaşi and S.C. „SUINPROD” S.A. Roman have achieved many
investment projects, with the objectives to increase the production capacity, the
modernization of production and manufacturing technologies, launching new
products on the market, etc. In the future, new investments are planned, not just at
S.C. "KOSAROM" S.A. Paşcani, but also at the other incorporated units.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, Comşa St., 1998 – Consideraţii privind marketingul principalelor
produse avicole la S.C. „Avicola” S.A. Iaşi, în perioada 1993-1997. Lucr.şt., U.A.M.V. Iaşi,
vol. 41, seria Agronomie.
2. Chiran A., Dima Fl.-M., Gîndu Elena, 2007 – Marketing în agricultură. Ed. Alma Print,
Galaţi.
3. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, Banu A., Ciobotaru Elena-Adina, 2004 – Piaţa produselor agricole
şi agroalimentare – abordare teoretică şi practică. Ed. CERES, Bucureşti.
4. Chiran A., Gîndu Elena, 2007 – Zooeconomie - ediţia a II-a revăzută şi adăugită. Ed. PIM,
Iaşi.
5. Dubois P.L., Jolibert A., 1989 – Le marketing - fondements et pratique, vol. I - II. Ed.
Economica, Paris, France.
6. Faglio A., 1990 – Il marketing agroalimenter. Mercato e strategie di commercializatione. 4-a
edizione aggiornata. Ed. Franco Angeli, Libri S.R.L. Milano, Italy.
7. Florescu C.şi colab., 1992 – Marketing. Ed. Marketer - Grup Academic de Marketing şi
Management, Bucureşti.
8. Gîndu Elena, Chiran A., 1998 – Aspecte privind oferta şi consumul principalelor produse
avicole pe plan mondial şi în România. Lucr.şt., U.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 41, seria Agronomie.
9. Gîndu Elena, Chiran A., 1999 – Variante de dfistribuţie şi aprovizionare cu produse avicole a
pieţei urbane din judeţul Iaşi (studiu de caz la S.C. “AVICOLA” S.A. Iaşi). Lucr.şt., U.A.M.V.
Iaşi, vol. 42, seria Agronomie, CD-ROM, Secţiunea V, Ştiinţe economice.
10. Gîndu Elena, Chiran A., 1999 – Studii privind metode şi tehnici de promovare a produselor
avicole. Lucr.şt., U.S.A.M.V. Iaşi, vol. 42, seria Agronomie, CD-ROM, Secţiunea V, Ştiinţe
economice.
11. Jugănaru Mariana, 1996 – Tehnici promoţionale – merchandesignul. Ed. Universităţii
Ovidius, Constanţa.
12. Jugănaru Mariana, 1997 – Construirea mixului de marketing.Rev. Marketing-Management,
nr.3 – 4.
13. Jugănaru Mariana, 2000 – Marketing. Ed. Expert, Bucureşti.
14. Juran J.-M., 1973 – Calitatea produselor. Ed. Tehnică, Bucureşti.
15. Niculescu Elena şi colab., 2000 – Marketing modern – concepte, tehnici, strategii. Ed.
Polirom, Iaşi.
16. Pandelea Monica-Ionela, Apostol V.L., Gîndu Elena, Chiran A.,2005 -Consideraţii tehnico-
economice privind marketingul cărnii de pasăre la S.C. „Avi-Top” S.A. Iaşi. Lucr. şt. USAMV
Iaşi, vol. 48, seria Zootehnie
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RESEARCHES CONCERNING COW MILK’S

QUALITY OBTAINED IN A FARM FROM
GERMANY – HESSEN LAND
Andreea Bianca GHIRILĂ,
Aurelia PECE, Gh. MUREŞAN
The aim of the researches are concerning the cow’s milk

quality taking into account the physico-chemical and bacteriological
features. The researches were made on 35 Holstein Friesian cows in
lactation, from Germany, Hessen land. In these researches the most
important role is the hygienic factor and sanitary quality of milk
expressed in the total number of germs and the number of somatic cells.
By evaluating the milk’s quality on the basis of determining total germs
number and the number of somatic cells, there were obtained good
results in the correlation of the two indicators. Milk production is
different from one country to another because of the zoo economy level
of development and the efficient potential of the existing race. That is
why in the farm where the researches were made the existing milk
production is higher than the level of milk production from our country
with the same capacity of animals’ fact due to qualitative and hygienic
conditions from the farm.
Key word : milk, Holstein Friesian cow, quality
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The researches were made in Germany, in Hessen land, at the farm of
Kiepe family. The farm is having a shelter for milking cows with a capacity of 35
places with upkeep bound stabulation. Milking is mechanized.
The researches were made on 35 Holstein Friesian cows in lactation, at
which were made the physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of milk.
The samples were taken from which animal and was sent to the lab for the
physico-chemical and microbiological parameters. The determination of total
number of germs was analyzed with Bactoscan appliance; the number of somatic
cells count was determinate with Fossomatic Milk Cell Counter appliance, and
the fat content, protein content and dry matter were determinate with Combiscope
appliance.
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Tabelul 1.
Physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of milk
No. F% P% L% D.M. S.C.C TGN
1. 4,3 3,7 4,21 9,0 60 1210
2. 3,93 3,08 4,1 8,11 50 1560
3. 6,4 3,16 4,2 8,00 162 2456
4. 5,61 4,38 4,27 8,12 257 3678
5. 4,4 3,26 4,30 8,03 365 1230
6. 3,7 4,0 4,44 8,56 120 10000
7. 4,28 3,58 4,25 8,08 2605 8210
8. 5,05 3,74 4,55 8,64 4930 978
9. 4,57 3,19 4,66 8,36 33 11000
10. 4,09 3,09 4,52 8,45 545 2000
11. 5,38 3,77 4,2 9,1 368 898
12. 4,4 3,73 4,41 9,0 843 2132
13. 4,34 2,94 4,56 8,7 77 38
14. 3,63 3,32 4,5 8,2 1886 45
15. 3,99 3,09 4,6 8,2 356 38
16. 4,14 3,37 4,11 8,00 84 987
17. 3,97 3,95 4,6 8,61 144 824
18. 3,77 2,85 4,55 8,76 373 475
19. 4,18 3,25 4,7 8,6 159 1523
20. 3,49 3,55 4,72 8,8 390 3900
21. 4,21 2,7 4,53 8,99 42 165
22. 4,14 3,11 4,1 8,99 1609 3000
23. 3,88 3,62 4,4 9,12 1290 789
24. 3,57 3,13 4,61 9,36 72 980
25. 3,38 3,19 4,3 9,31 78 987
26. 4,15 2,96 4,5 9,10 226 1200
27. 3,83 3,06 4,42 8,98 104 1500
28. 4,81 3,42 4,47 9,4 64 174
29. 4,15 3,32 4,66 9,5 378 989
30. 3,88 3,12 4,21 9,3 333 1354
31. 4,05 2,75 4,35 9,02 114 5889
32. 3,62 2,6 4,56 9,51 102 1000
33. 3,73 2,94 4,6 9,28 84 1120
34. 3,67 2,71 4,31 9,4 106 897
35. 3,63 3,01 4,4 9,3 169 968
The results obtained in the hereinbefore table illustrates that the physico-
chemical and microbiological parameters are framed between the following
values: fat 3,57-6,4; protein 2,6-4,38; lactose 4,1-4,72; dry matter 8,00-9,51.
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CONCLUSIONS
A first aspect of the researches illustrates the principals’ qualitative
features of milk production.
Another important aspect which retains our attention is the total number
of germs which shows that the breeder is having appropriate condition of cow’s
exploitation. This situation shows also the education level of breeder, and also the
hygienic conditions of custody and getting in of milk.
The evolution of somatic cell count is correlated with milk production.
The somatic cell count is related to the animal health, milk quality and
has implication on productivity, being influenced by lactation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Rodriguez-Zas, S.L., D. Gianola, G.E. Shook, 2000 – Evolution of models for somatic cell score
lactation patterns in Holstein. Livest. Prod. Sci. 67:19 – 30.
2. Rosu A., 1997 – Controlul Sanitar Veterinar al produselor de origine animala, vol.I, vol.II,
Institutul Agronomic Timisoara.
3. Sabau D, Rotaru O., 2006 – Celulele somatice si sanatatea laptelui, Editura Academicpress Cluj-
Napoca.
4. Schepers, A.J., T.J. Lam, Y.H. Schukken, J.B.M. Wilmink, W.J.A. Hanekamp, 1997 – Estimation
of variance components for somatic cell counts to determine thresholds for uninfected
quarters. J.Dairy Sci. 80: 1833 – 1840.
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EVALUATION PROCEEDING OF MUSCLE TISSUE TO PIG

CARCASSES IN ROMANIA
G. MOVILEANU
In Romania, the Carcass Classification System for pig, bovine and ovine
carcasses was established in 2004 by Government Decision; the functioning of
the system is ensured by “The Carcass Classification Commission, Classification
Agencies, Classifiers and Inspectors”.
Pig Carcass Classification is compulsory in Romania in all
slaughterhouses, regardless of their size. Thus, slaughterhouses that slaughtered
over 200 pig/week on an yearly average in the previous year must classify with
an optical probe, either Fat-O-Meat’er, or OptiGrade-Pro. Slaughterhouses that
slaughtered under 200 pigs/week on an yearly average in the previous year may
apply the ZP method.
The working document was presented to the representatives of the Ministry
of Agriculture and Rural Development at the meeting on the 13th of September.
Romanian authorities will apply for the authorization of the Fat-O-Meat’er
and OptiGrade-Pro, on the bases of the results presented in chapter 3. The
prediction formulas shall be applied to pig carcasses weighing between 50 and
120 kg hot weight.
In Romania, the Carcass Classification System for pig, bovine and ovine
carcasses was established in 2004 by Government Decision; the functioning of the
system is ensured by:
9 The Carcass Classification Commission, Classification Agencies,
Classifiers and Inspectors.
Pig Carcass Classification is compulsory in Romania in all slaughterhouses,

regardless of their size. Thus, slaughterhouses that slaughtered over 200 pig/week
on an yearly average in the previous year must classify with an optical probe,
either Fat-O-Meat’er, or OptiGrade-Pro. Slaughterhouses that slaughtered under
200 pigs/week on an yearly average in the previous year may apply the ZP
method.
In the first eight months of 2007, the Carcass Classification Commission

recorded in its database complete data for 1,213,647 individual carcasses,
regarding classification and prices. These carcasses were classified in 125
slaughterhouses by 90 licensed classifiers. 33 classification agencies and 24
independent classifiers sent the data as files by e-mail weekely to the Carcass
Classification Commission.
The majority of the carcasses ( 78% ) were classified with the optical probes
(Table 1).
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Table 1. Carcasses classified between January 1st and August 31st,

according to the method and equipment used
Method Equipment Number of carcasses % of total carcasses
Fat-o-meat’er 545,205 44.92%
Optical Probe
OptiGrade-Pro 402,219 33.14%
ZP - 266,223 21.94%
TOTAL 1,213,647 100.00%
At the end of the first half of 2007, there was a livestock of approximately
6,444 million pigs, of which 366,000 reproduction sows. 75.29% of the pigs were
bred in family farms and not slaughtered in commercial slaughterhouses, 24.35%
in production farms and cooperatives and only 0.36% in state-owned farms.
The Romanian Pig Meat Association estimates that approximately 2,5
million pigs bred in specialized farms will be slaughtered in 2007 in
slaughterhouses, which are obliged to classify.
The data stored in the first eight months of 2007 in the data base of the
Carcass Classification Commission indicate an average lean meat percentage of
54.86 and a standard deviation of 3.92. The mean weight of the hot carcass was of
80.27 kg and a standard deviation of 10.75 kg. In Romania the slaughtered pigs
are only females and castrated males.
The selection of the carcasses was done in principle at random. However,

the representability has been checked by measuring the thickness on the backfat.
The distribution of the national population was split into 4 classes according to fat
thickness on the back, measured with the ruler on the left half carcass, on the
midline between the 3rd and the 4th last rib and the sample has been selected
according to this ( Table 2) . The selected carcasses, well split into halves,
weighing within the limits of the technical norms ( 50 – 120 kg), were put on a
separate line where they were measured, on the left carcass side, at 7 cm from the
split line, between the 3rd and the 4th last rib, with the Fat-o-meat’er and with the
OptiGrade-Pro. The measurements were carried by four experienced classifers
according to a plan, specifying the rotation with respect to table 2:
Table 2: Distribution of carcasses according to backfat thickness class
≤16 mm 17–21 mm 22-26 mm ≥27 mm

Backfat thickness (mm) Total
20% 30% 30% 20%
Total 29 44 43 29 145
Carcasses were presented according to the EU standard presentation,

with head and feet, without tongue, bristles, hooves, genital organs, flare fat,
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kidneys and diaphragm. The carcasses from the dissection sample cover the
variation of the national hot carcass weight between the 1 and 97% percentiles
(Annex I) and the mean hot carcass weight was 79.9 kg pulation, see above.
The descriptive statistics of the dissected carcasses are presented in Table 3.
Table 3: Descriptive statistics of the dissected carcasses (n=145)

Standard
Trait Average Minimum Maximum
deviation
Hot carcass
79.9 7.77 58.6 100.7
weight, kg
Cold half carcass,
39.3 3.87 28.5 50.4
kg
Dissected lean
meat, % 54.36 5.53 37.23 65.51
(“old” reference)
Dissected lean
meat, % 56.30 5.30 38.61 66.89
( 2006 reference)
X1 FOM, mm 18.0 4.71 10 32
X2 FOM, mm 53.3 8.09 37 74
X1 OGP, mm 16.5 4.95 9.4 30.8
X2 OGP, mm 52.0 9.88 32.1 82.2
2. Statistical analysis
The calculation of the lean meat percentage in the carcass was carried out
according to Commission Regulation (EEC ) 2967 / 85 (modified by ( EC ) 3127 /
94 and ( EC ) 1197 / 2006 ), which established detailed rules for the application of
the community grid for pig carcass classification. In order to make comparisons,
the lean meat percentage was also calculated according to the “old” reference
(Commission Regulation (EC ) 3127 / 94 ).
The old reference is almost perfectly ”explained” by the new reference.
The lean meat percentage is characterized by a slight asymmetry of the value
distribution, which is considered a normal distribution ( Annex III) .
The root mean squared error of prediction ( RMSEP) was calculated by a
„cross-validation” technique, the „leave one out” method, on all data ( n = 145 ),
for both equipments. The root mean squared error (RMSE) and the coefficient of
determination ( R2 ) are also presented. No carcasses were removed from the
sample in order to calculate the prediction formulas with which the two
equipments will be calibrated.
The method of linear regression has been applied to calculate the
prediction formula for the two optical probes, by use of the statistic programme
SPSS 10.0 under Windows. The calculations have been carried out by the experts
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of the Carcass Classification Commission supervised by experts from the Danish

Meat Research Institute.
3. Results
The measurements with the two optical probes, the lean meat percentages
obtained with the „new” and „old” reference and the lean meat percentage
predictions are presented in annexes IV and V. Annex VI contains graphics with
the lean meat percentage predictions with the two equipments.
Annex VII contains technical information about the two equipments.

3.1 Fat-O-Meat’er ( FOM )
N = 145
R2 = 0.78288
RMSE = 2.48840
Y = 60.26989 - 0.81506 * X1 + 0.20097 * X2
RMSEP = 2.51938 ~ 2.5
Y = predicted lean meat percentage
X1 = thickness of fat, including rind, in millimeters, measured at 7 cm from the
midline, between the 3rd and the 4th last rib
X2 = thickness of the muscle in millimeters, measured at 7 cm from the midline,
between the 3rd and the 4th last rib.
3.2 OptiGrade-Pro
N = 145
R2 = 0.79425
RMSE = 2.42238
Y = 61.21920 - 0.77665* X1 + 0.15239 * X2
RMSEP = 2.45933 ~ 2.5
Y = predicted lean meat percentage
X1 = thickness of fat, including rind, in millimeters, measured at 7 cm from the
midline, between the 3rd and the 4th last rib
X2 = thickness of the muscle in millimeters, measured at 7 cm from the midline,
between the 3rd and the 4th last rib.
4. Application by the Romanian authorities

The working document was presented to the representatives of the
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development at the meeting on the 13th of
September.
Romanian authorities will apply for the authorization of the Fat-O-
Meat’er and OptiGrade-Pro, on the bases of the results presented in chapter 3. The
prediction formulas shall be applied to pig carcasses weighing between 50 and
120 kg hot weight.
Applied to pig carcasses weighing between 50 and 120 kg hot weight.
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5. Bibliography
Council Regulation (EEC) N° 3220/84 of 13 November 1984 determining the Community
scale for grading pig carcasses. OJ L 301 of 20.11.1984, 1-3.
Commission Regulation (EEC) N° 2967/85 of 24 October 1985 laying down detailed rules for the
application of the Community scale for grading pig carcasses. OJ L 285 of 25.10.1985, 39-40.
Commission Regulation (EC) N° 3127/94 of 20 December 1994 amending Regulation (EEC)
N° 2967/85 laying down detailed rules for the application of the Community scale for grading pig
carcasses. OJ L 330 of 21.12.1994, 43-44.
Commission Regulation (EC) N°1197/2006 of 7 August 2006 amending Regulation (EEC)
N° 2967/85 laying down detailed rules for the application of the Community scale for grading pig
carcasses. OJ L 217 of 08.08.2006, 6-7.
Walstra P. & Merkus G.S.M. Procedure for assessment of the lean meat percentage as a
consequence of the new EU reference dissection method in pig carcass classification. Report
ID-DLO 96.014, March 1996, 22 p.
Causeur D., Daumas G., Dhorne T., Engel B., Font i Furnols M., Hojsgaard S. Statistical
handbook for assessing pig classification methods: recommendations from the
“EUPIGCLASS” project group. EC working document, 2003, 132 p.
Jaba Elisabeta, Grama Ana Statistical Analysis with SPSS under Windows, 2004
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STUDY CONCERNING THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND

MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF BUFFALO MILK
FATED IN INDUSTRIAL MANUFACTURE
Aurelia PECE, C. COROIAN, Bianca GHIRILĂ, G. MURESAN
The aim of the researches was to evidence the main physico-chemical

and microbiological parametersof buffalo milk. The determination were made on
28 samples ingathered from buffalo in diferent degrees of lactation.The results
obtained after the determination are accorded to the standard. Because of the
fact that the mastitis are usually appearing at the buffalos in lactation and this
fact is decreasing the milk production I considered necessary to determine the
also the somatic cells count which is an indicator for the evaluation of the
mammary gland healthy. The correlation between the number of somatic cells,
milk production and milk composition are used in the buffalo farms for
estimating the lost caused by mastitis and the implementation of some measures
for the control of this affections.
Key words: buffalo milk, microbiologocal quality;
MATERIAL AND METHOD

For the microbiological quality of buffalo milk we determined: total
number of germs, Staphylococcus coagulates positive, Salmonella, Listeria
monocytogenes, number of somatic cells. For distinguishing E Coli
enteropatogena we need to: check if E Coli isolated from the food is
enteropatogena for human.
From the culture developed on the surface of nourishing agar,
inseminated with the same colony confirmed on BBLV and the indol reaction it is
realised the quick agglutination reaction on the slide with anti-E Coli polyvalent
serum. Positive agglutination represents the confirmation for E Coli
enteropathogenic.
The presence of the number of Staphylococcus coagulates positive.
Staphylococcus genes is formed from coci Gram positive which are micro-
organisms who forms tipical colony on the area of selective media and which
presents the positive reaction of coagulase, the producing of coagulase is taken as
a principal criteria for the enterotoxicity appreciation.

In the hereinafter table are presented the results of the physico-chemical
investigation of the buffalo milk fated in the industrial processing.
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Table 1
These are the value of physico-chemical parameters of buffalo milk
Nr. crt. Fat Protein Lactoze S.U.N. Frozen Antibiotics
(%) (%) (%) poind rezidue
1. 7.72 4.76 5.36 10.82 -0.543 Negativ
2. 8.67 4.19 5.38 10.51 -0.537 Negativ
3. 8.30 5.08 5.69 10.85 -0.541 Negativ
4. 7.83 4.57 5.4 10.82 -0.539 Negativ
5. 8.34 4.44 5.23 10.77 -0.546 Negativ
6. 9.12 4.49 5.37 11.02 -0.534 Negativ
7. 7.56 4.73 5.78 10.79 -0.536 Negativ
8. 8.30 6.61 5.16 10.27 -0.544 Negativ
9. 8.56 4.20 5.6 10.95 -0.532 Negativ
10. 8.91 4.34 5.23 10.74 -0.536 Negativ
11. 8.39 4.39 5.44 10.49 -0.532 Negativ
12. 9.24 5.03 5.71 10.44 -0.539 Negativ
13. 9.32 4.12 5.21 10.21 -0.556 Negativ
14. 8.54 4.13 5.52 10.68 -0.539 Negativ
15. 7.40 4.31 5.44 10.61 -0.531 Negativ
16. 7.81 4.19 5.59 11.06 -0.546 Negativ
17. 8.35 4.4 5.49 10.85 -0.538 Negativ
18. 8.20 4.18 5.53 10.51 -0.534 Negativ
19. 8.56 4.2 5.17 10.56 -0.536 Negativ
19. 9.34 3.95 5.53 11.22 -0.541 Negativ
20. 8.57 4.02 5.59 10.88 -0.529 Negativ
21. 8.39 3.86 5.34 10.36 -0.522 Negativ
22. 8.15 4.09 5.40 10.40 -0.543 Negativ
23. 9.14 4.31 5.43 10.24 -0.542 Negativ
24. 8.33 4.29 5.49 10.57 -0.540 Negativ
25. 8.01 4.37 5.71 10.71 -0.520 Negativ
26. 9.46 4.02 5.63 10.48 -0.531 Negativ
27. 8.38 4.13 5.19 10.13 -0.533 Negativ
28. 9.32 4.18 5.37 10.22 -0.538 Negativ
The samples taken for the check up milk quality are good from the point
of view of requirements (white colour, slightly yellow, a homogen liquid, without
any other particle in suspension, without sediment, fluid consistance, without
being viscid, filamentousor mothery; normal milk smelt; taste: special milk taste,
sweet taste).
The results obtained at the microbiological examination of buffalo milk.
The stage of the check up microbiological parameters of buffalo milk is an
essential stage in the control quality of milk and of dairy-produce goods.
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Table 2
The results obtained at the microbiological examination of buffalo milk
Nr. Stafilococ NCSx10/ml Listeria NTGx10/ml Salmonella/25
crt. coagulanza /25ml ml
Pozitiv/ml
1. Absent 270 Absent 1.5 Absent
15. 2 362 Absent 1.7 Absent
27. 4 350 Absent 1.16 Absent
The results obtained at the microbiological examination of buffalo milk.

The stage of the check up microbiological parameters of buffalo milk is an
essential stage in the control quality of milk and of dairy-produce goods.
CONCLUSIONS
• In the analysis we madethe number of Staphylococcus coagulates positive

was absent excepting the sample number 15 (2 germs/ml) and number 27
which presents (4 germs/ml);
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• Contamination in this case was possible through handling or on the udder,

buffalo skin, eventhough in the mechanic milking and in the case when we try
to respect the hygenic conditions the contamination can be made;
• The number of bacterium Salmonella: in the determination we made
Salmonella was absent;
• The total number of germs: the values obtained werw between 1.0-1.32 germs/ml;
• This microbiological parameter from the buffalo milk composition, ofers
information concerning hygenic conditionsin which was produced and keyed;
• The analysis of the total number of somatic cells from buffalo milk: in the
analysis we made we saw that the buffalo milk correspond to the norms;
• Serotypes of Listeria monocytogenes pathogenic for animals are in the same
waz pathogenes for human, milk is considered the vector of listeriosis
transmision.
• The capitalization of microbiological parameters of food products represents
an essential stage in the control quality food. In this way is assuared the
cautionary of alimentary toxiinfectionsof consumers, the avoidance of
technological and economical losts, as well as the prolongation of
preservation time of products.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Acharya R,M., 1991 – Breeding System for Genetic Improvement of buffaloes in India. Third
World Buffalo Congress.
2. Agabriel C., Coulon J.B., Sibra C., Journal C., si Hauwuy A., 1997 – Facteurs de variation de la
numeration cellulaire du lait en exploitation, Annales de Zootehnie, vol. 46, nr. 1,13-19.
3. Aliev M.G., 1971 – Milk secretion in buffaloes, Jdsiry sci (India).
4. Amarjit and Toshihiko, S.N. Amarjit and N. Toshihiko, 2003 - Role of buffalo in the
socioeconomic development of rural Asia: Current status and future prospectus, Animal
Science Journal 74, pp. 443–445.
5. Banu C., şi col. 1999 – Manualul inginerului din industria alimentară, Vol. II, Ed.Tehnica,
Bucuresti.
6. Banu C., Vizieru C., 1998 – Procesarea industriala a laptelui, Ed. Tehnica, Bucuresti.
7. Barzoi D., Apostu S., 2002, Microbiologia produselor alimentare, Ed. Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca.
8. Bhatnagar V.K., 1961 – Effects of the month of calving on milk yield lactation length and calving
interval in Murrah buffaloes. Indian J.Dairy sci.14p. Banghalore.
9. Boycheva et al., S. Boycheva, T. Dimitrov, M. Tsankova and T. Iliev, 2002 - Investigation on
microflora of buffalo milk, Bulgarian Journal of Agricultural Science 8 , pp. 279–282.
10. Desmasures et al., N. Desmasures, F. Bazin and M. Gueguen, 1997 - Microbiological
composition of raw milk from selected farms in the Camembert region of Normandy,
Journal of Applied Microbiology 83, pp. 53–58.
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RESEARCH CONCERNING SOME CONSTITUENTS

FROM ORGANIC RAW MIK
O. PENTELESCU, Gh. MUREŞAN, C. BELE
The consumption of milk and certificated dairy products as being

organic is increasing, due to researches from the last which years that
emphasized the important characteristics of these products. The aim of the
researches was to emphasize the content of fatty acids from milk obtained in
organic farms from mountain area of Romania. For the present research were
identified two main factors influencing the content of fatty acids from milk. One
factor was the breed, the milk being sampled from Austrian Brawn cows. Another
factor was the different feeding system from two different seasons: winter and
summer. The separation of methylic acid esters from fatty acids was done of an
gas chromatograph SHIMADZU GC equipped with a capilar column
CHROMPACK with the length of 60 m and the diameter of 0, 25 mm, the
stationary phase being deposited inside the column, in the likeness of a thin film
of 0,2 µm. It was used a FID detector and the mobile phase was helium of 99, 99
% purity. After laboratory investigation was established the proportion of fatty
acids from milk influenced by breeds and seasons. Considering the proportion of
saturated fatty acids it was noticed a difference between seasons of 9,55%, a
higher content being observed in winter. This situation is modified in the case of
monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, with higher percents in
summer. The higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids from raw milk
sampled in summer makes that our recommendations considering the milk
consumption to take into account the results of our investigations.
INTRODUCTION
The nutritional benefit of organic milk is due to especially the feeding
systems. These are established through the national (OUG 342000) and
international legislation (EEC 2092/1991) and through some standards (Codex
Alimentarius, IFOAM), all these being subject of certification (Pentelescu O.,
2004).
The organic agriculture is not representing a new concept. Before the
chemical substances to become popular in farming practice, the farmers and
researcher were already working at the improvement of traditional methods
through the experimentation of agri-organic concepts.
Bovine milk contains a large number of fatty acids (FA), some of which
may be of potential benefit to human health, including polyunsaturated fatty acids
(PUFA) in the n-3 (omega-3) FA group and the conjugated linoleic acid (CLA)
isomer cis-9 trans-11 C18:2 (Jensen, 2002). The principal n-3 FA in milk is α-
linolenic acid (C18:3), along with smaller amounts of docosahexaenoic acid
(C20:5) and eicosapentaenoic acid (C22:6). The n-3 FA have been linked to
protection against coronary heart disease (Bucher et al., 2002; Hu and Willett,
- 980 -
2002), and prevention of some forms of cancer (Rose and Connolly, 1999;
Saadatian- Elahi et al., 2004).
Many factors affect the FA composition of bovine milk, including breed
(White et al., 2001), season (Lock and Garnsworthy, 2003), geographical location
(Thorsdottir et al., 2004), access to fresh grazing (Hebeisen et al., 1993; Kelly et
al., 1998), grazing sward type (Hauswirth et al., 2004), silage type (Dewhurst et
al., 2003), cereal feeding (Wijesundera et al., 2003), and oil supplementation of
feed (Grummer, 1991; Palmquist et al., 1993; Offer et al., 2001).
A recent research (Ellis K. A. et al., 2006) concluded that milk FA
composition is affected by farming system, with organic milk consistently having
a higher proportion of PUFA and n-3 FA, as well as a lower n-6:n-3 ratio.

As part of a national developmental program of dairy breeding for cows
in small and middle farms, Dorna SA Company Vatra Dornei initiated, as part of
a vast project, the building of some dairy farms with activity under organic
management. Considering this project, for the population of the farms were
imported different nucleus of cows from different breeds. Were thus imported
dairy cows from Austrian Spotted, Brawn and Pinzgau breed. Under present
consideration was investigated just the milk obtained in the farms with Brawn
Austrian cows.
The milk and milk products, unlike another vegetable or animals
products, is subject of a higher number of analyses. The aim of these analyses is
determined by different necessities. So, is followed the finding of chemical
composition, the appreciation food value, detection of falsifications, the
integration of product in the standard precautions etc.
The lipids were drawed upon the milk sample with chloroform and
methanol after method of Bligh and Dyer (1959) with minor modifications
concerning the volume of the sample and the using of solvents. In the
chromatography with programmed temperature, the volatile components are
dispensed in column on the direction of the gradient of temperature depending on
their volatility (Socaciu, 2000).
The separation of methylic acid esters from fatty acids was done of an gas
chromatograph SHIMADZU GC equipped with a capilar column CHROMPACK
with the length of 60 m and the diameter of 0, 25 mm, the stationary phase being
deposited inside the column, in the likeness of a thin film of 0,2 µm. It was used a
FID detector and the mobile phase was helium of 99, 99 % purity.

The aim of the present research was to emphasize the content of fatty
acids from milk obtained in organic farming systems. For the present research
- 981 -
were identified two main factors influencing the content of fatty acids from milk.
One factor was the breed, the milk being sampled from Austrian Brawn cows.
Another factor was the different feeding system from two different seasons:
winter and summer. The originality of the research was given by the fact that the
investigated animals are breeding in organic farms from Dornelor Depression.
The milk was sampled from cows belonging to Brown Swiss breed.
After samples injection were obtained different chromatograms
depending on for retention time. For exemplification in the figures 1 and 2 are
illustrated chromatograms of fatty acids with short and long catena.
Figure 1. Gas chromatogram of fatty acids with short chain molecule
Figure 2. Gas chromatogram of fatty acids standards with long chain molecule
- 982 -
Table 1
Fatty acids composition percent from organic milk cow
Fatty acid
Shorthand Retention Average Standard Average Standard
trivial
designation time % deviation % deviation
name
Iarnă/ Winter Vară/ Summer
Acizi graşi saturaţi/ Saturated fatty acids
Caprilic 8:0 6,917 1,01 0,49 0,98 0,35

Capric 10:0 9,754 2,20 0,60 1,93 0,17
Lauric 12:0 13,086 2,70 0,23 2,07 0,17
Miristic 14:0 17,409 11,15 1,0 9,60 0,50
Palmitic 16:0 22,129 29,59 2,78 21,69 1,09
Margaric 17:0 24,329 0,68 0,10 0,77 0,13
Stearic 18:0 26,648 9,84 1,20 10,58 1,12
Acizi graşi mononesaturaţi/ Monoenoic fatty acids
Palmitolei
16:1 22,648 1,59 0,37 1,52 0,33
c
Heptadece
17:1 24,850 0,50 0,19 0,57 0,13
noic
Oleic 18:1 27,139 18,84 1,15 20,83 1,99
Vaccenic 18:1 is 27,234 2,39 0,22 2,40 0,19
Acizi graşi polinesaturaţi/ Polyunsaturated fatty acids
Linoleic 18:2 28,099 2,22 0,16 2,20 0,08

Alfa- 18:3 omega-
29,527 0,56 0,12 0,75 0,10
linolenic 3
Alţi acizi
16,71 2,88 24,12 3,78
graşi
After laboratory investigation was established the proportion of fatty

acids from milk influenced by breeds and seasons. For some fatty acids, the
difference between the two seasons was very significant. Considering the
proportion of saturated fatty acids it was noticed a difference between seasons of
9,55%, a higher content being observed in winter. This situation is modified in the
case of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids, with higher percents in
summer (Table 1).
The significance test showed some distinct differences considering the
miristic, linoleic and alfa linoleic acids.
- 983 -
Table 2
Signification test considering the amount of fatty acids between the two seasons
Denumirea
Nr. crt Abreviere Iarna vs. vară
acidului gras
Fatty
Nr. Abrevietion Winter vs. Summer
acid
1 Caprilic 8:0 ns.
2 Capric 10:0 ns.
3 Lauric 12:0 ns.
4 Miristic 14:0 ***
5 Palmitic 16:0 ns.
6 Palmitoleic 16:1 **
7 Margaric 17:0 *
8 Heptadecenoic 17:1 ns.
9 Stearic 18:0 ns.
10 Oleic 18:1 **
11 Vaccenic 18:1 is ns.
12 Linoleic 18:2 ***
13 Alfa-linolenic 18:3 omega-3 ***
14 Alţi acizi graşi ***
CONCLUSIONS
The modifications in social life in the last years and the requirements of
consumers, determined the development of some systems that can produce
desirable foods in sustainable production systems. The human diets abundant in
fats, especially in saturated ones, are frequently blamed as being risks factors for
heart diseases.
Milk cow breeding, basic profession in the mountain and rural area,
assures rhythmic incomes and performance for formers. The support for the
efficient collection of raw milk will allows the realization of investments in new
equipments necessary for the realization of controllable products, with quality and
superior shelf-life (Chis et al., 2006). Also, this sector assures the stability of
human recourse in mountain and rural area. Through dairy farming it is assured
the superior using of feed obtained in natural system areas.
Quality has become a vital distinctive feature for competition in the world market
of food products. To obtain a good quality end product, quality is more and more
managed along the whole food chain from the supplier of raw materials to
consumption. Striving for quality is not a free choice. Customer understanding of
food quality and the ultimate concern for health and food safety force actors in
agribusiness and food industry to use quality management as a strategic issue in
innovation and production. The higher content of polyunsaturated fatty acids from
raw milk sampled in summer makes that our recommendations considering the
milk consumption to take into account the results of our investigations.
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BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Bligh, E.G. and Dyer,W.J., 1959, A rapid method for total lipid extraction and purification,
Can. J. Biochem.Physiol. 37:911-917
2. Bucher, H. C., P. Hengstler, C. Schindler, and G. Meier. 2002. n-3 Poly-unsaturated fatty acids
in coronary heart disease: A metaanalysis of randomized controlled trials. Am. J. Med.
112:298–304.
3. Chis Margareta, Mihai Gh., and Pentelescu O. - The Romanian system of subsidies for organic
farming: support for the development of rural areas, European Joint Organic Congress Odense,
Denmark, 2006
4. Dewhurst, R. J., W. J. Fisher, J. K. S. Tweed, and R. J. Wilkins. 2003. Comparison of grass and
legume silages for milk production. 1. Production responses with different levels of
concentrate. J. Dairy Sci. 86:2598–2611
5. Ellis K. A., Innocent G., Grove-White D., Cripps P., McLean W. G., Howard C. V., Mihm M.,
2006, Comparing the Fatty Acid Composition of Organic and Conventional Milk, J. Dairy Sci.
89:1938–1950
6. Grummer, R. R. 1991. Effect of feed on the composition of milk fat. J. Dairy Sci. 74:3244–3257
7. Hauswirth, C. B., M. R. L. Scheeder, and J. H. Beer, 2004, High n-3 fatty acid content in
Alpine cheese - The basis for an Alpine paradox. Circulation 109:103–107
8. Hebeisen, D. F., F. Hoeflin, H. P. Reusch, E. Junker, and B. H. Lauterburg, 1993, Increased
concentrations of n-3 fatty acids in milk and platelet rich plasma of grass fed cows. Int. J.
Vitam. Nutr. Res. 63:229–233
9. Hu, F. B., and W. C. Willett, 2002, Optimal diets for prevention of coronary heart disease. J.
Am. Med. Assoc. 288:2569–257
10. IFOAM, 2002b, Accreditation Criteria for Bodies certifying Organic Production and
Processing Including Policies related to IFOAM Norms
11. Jensen Robert G., 2002, The Composition of Bovine Milk Lipids: January 1995 to December
2000, J. Dairy Sci. 85:295–350
12. Kelly, M. L., E. S. Kolver, D. E. Bauman, M. E. Van Amburgh, and L. D. Muller, 1998, Effect
of intake of pasture on concentrations of conjugated linoleic acid in milk of lactating cows. J.
Dairy Sci. 81:1630–1636
13. Lock, A. L., and P. C. Garnsworthy, 2003, Seasonal variation in milk conjugated linoleic acid
and 9-desaturase activity in dairy cows. Livest. Prod. Sci. 79:47–59
14. Offer, N. W., B. K. Speake, J. Dixon, and M. Marsden, 2001, Effect of fish-oil
supplementation on levels of (n-3) poly-unsaturated fatty acids in the lipoprotein fractions of
bovine plasma. Anim. Sci. 73:523–531
15. Palmquist, D. L., A. D. Beaulieu, and D. Barbano, 1993, Feed and animal factors influencing
milk fat composition. J. Dairy Sci. 76:1753–1771
16. Pentelescu O – Organic food and farming certification, International Symposium: Prospects for
the 3-rd Millenium Agriculture, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 20-23 October 2004;
17. Rose, D., and J. M. Connolly. 1999. Omega-3 fatty acids as cancer chemopreventive agents.
Pharmacol. Ther. 83:217 244
18. Saadatian-Elahi, M., T. Norat, J. Goudable, and E. Riboli. 2004. Biomarkers of dietary fatty
acid intake and the risk of breast cancer: A meta-analysis. Int. J. Cancer 111:584–591.
19. Socaciu Carmen, 2000a, Chimie fizică şi coloidală, Ed. Academic Pres, Cluj-Napoca
20. Thorsdottir, I., J. Hill, and A. Ramel, 2004, Seasonal variation in cis-9, trans-11 conjugated
linoleic acid content in milk fat from Nordic countries. J. Dairy Sci. 87, pp. 2800–2802
21. White, S. L., J. A. Bertrand, M. R. Wade, S. P. Washburn, J. T. Green, and T. C. Jenkins, 2001,
Comparison of fatty acid content of milk from Jersey and Holstein cows consuming pasture or
a total mixed ration. J. Dairy Sci. 84:2295–2301
22. Wijesundera, C., Z. Shen, W. J. Wales, and D. E. Dalley, 2003, Effects of cereal grain and fibre
supplements on the fatty acid composition of milk fat of grazing dairy cows in early lactation.
J. Dairy Res. 70, pp. 257–265.
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MONITORING SOMATIC CELL COUNT WITH A

STATISTICAL CONTROL PROCESS TOOL
O. PENTELESCU, Gh. MUREŞAN
The composition of cow milk is of very big importance for the food
industry. There fundamentally for the milk quality, affecting the nutritional value
and the processing activity. The factors which influence the milk composition
have internal origin, for instance breed, or external - feeding systems, seasonal
modifications, milking frequency and the milking systems. In future, new
techniques of production and processing, and also new products, will contribute
to the formulation of new requirements considering the composition of milk. The
aim of this study was to introduce a new statistical control tool to monitor the
variability of somatic cell count (SCC) in food industry. For this study were used
the date obtained after raw milk samples analysis in January, April, July and
October. The milk SCC was determined by infrared spectrophotometry using a
Bentley Somacount 150 (Bentley Instruments Inc., Chaska, MN). The average
values obtained in the control year was found at values between 360185 / ml
(January) and 384846, 2 / ml (October) what makes the milk to be enrolled even
in the European quality conditions for the respective year. The use of EWMA
control chart provided to be a very tool useful in the case of somatic cell
monitoring from the raw milk, being determined in January three points out of
control. A further research is needed in other sectors from food industry to
conclude the fact that EWMA could be a general useful tool in monitoring
different quality parameters in food industry.
INTRODUCTION
Somatic cell count (SCC) is a significant factor for raw milk quality
evaluation (Lamarche et al., 2000, Pentelescu şi Mureşan, 2005). It is a well
known indicator of udder inflammation secondary to infection (Poutrel B., 1985,
Serieys F., 1995) whose basic risks are linked to the animals (Poutrel B.,1983) or
husbandry conditions (milking, housing) (Seegers H. et al., 1997 şi Serieys F.,
1995, Ivancia, 2004). Udder infections are responsible for a decrease in milk yield
(Bartlett P.C. et al., 1991 şi Lescourret F.şi Coulon J.B., 1994) and alteration of
the milk characteristics (Auldist et al., 1995 şi Harmon R.J., 1994) which may
induce sanitary or technological consequences (Barbano et al., 1991 şi Serieys F.,
1995).
Throughout the world, the importance of udder health programs has
increased in the last ten years, there are a number of reasons for this awareness of
udder health became a critical production issue on dairy farms. In Europe, the
EEC directive 92/46 in April 1992 stated that milk with a somatic cell count
(SCC) over 400 000 cells per ml may not be used for fluid milk and starting in
1998 not even for human consumption. Another issue is the increased awareness
of consumer and dairy organizations with regard to animal welfare issues. Clinical
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mastitis may be a severe and painful disease that causes distress to the animal. A
third and a more recent issue are human health concerns regarding milk
consumption. This includes antibiotic residues in milk, transfer of antibiotic
resistance from animal to human, and transfer of pathogens or products thereof
through milk or milk products (Myllys et al. 1994, Plym). In the absence of
mastitis, the lactation stage or parity, the age, the breed or the pasture system
(Lamarche et al., 2000) have an impact on the evolution of milk SCC.
The aim of statistical process control is to monitor the process and to
distinguish normal variation from special variation. Normal variation is due to
natural variation, which is inherent to the process. It includes all those factors that
are not pertinently controlled, such as the relative humidity or the temperature of
the environment. Special variations represent unusual variability in the process
due to, for example, occasional extreme large seasonal differences in raw
materials.

For this study were used the date obtained after raw milk samples analysis
in January, April, the July and October. On the day of milk collection, all the milk
from bulk tank was collected separately and the milk yield was recorded. Raw
milk was immediately transported to the SC Dorna SA Company laboratory and
cooled to 4°C. The milk SCC and milk composition were determined by infrared
spectrophotometry using a Bentley Somacount 150 (Bentley Instruments Inc.,
Chaska, MN).
For the variability analysis of total number of germs and the somatic cells
from raw milk was used control chart EWMA (Exponentially Weighted Moving
Average), which is typically used for observation done individually at different
time intervals. The EWMA is a statistic tool for monitoring the process that
averages the data in a way that gives less and less weight to data as they are
further removed in time. For the EWMA control technique, the decision depends
on the EWMA statistic, which is an exponentially weighted average of all prior
data, including the most recent measurement.

Mastitis is defined as an inflammation of the mammary gland usually resulting
from a bacterial infection. The somatic cells have mammary and sanguine origin and are
found in milk at values between 200000 and 700000 ml. The exceeding of these values
causes the classification of milk in inferior categories of quality. The average values
obtained in the control year was found at values between 360185 ml (January)
and 384846, 2 ml (October) what makes the milk to be enrolled even in the
European quality conditions for the respective year (Table 1). After the analysis
of data obtained in the months tacked in control, it was remarked a tendency of
irregular diminution of values starting with January.
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Table 1
Means and variability of somatic cell count (cells/ml)
Parameters
Standard Standard Coeff. of
Count Average
error deviation variation (%)
Month
January 26 384846 4804,39 24497,7 6,37
April 25 382320 5128,92 25644,6 6,71
July 27 361259 4307,80 22384 6,20
October 27 360185 5897,52 30644,4 8,51
For statistical monitoring of the results it was used the EWMA control
chart. A definition of EWMA is: the statistic that is calculated:
EWMAt = Yt + ( 1- ) EWMAt-1 for t = 1, 2, ..., n.
where,
• EWMA0 is the mean of historical data (target)

• Yt is the observation at time t
• n is the number of observations to be monitored including EWMA0
• 0< 1 is a constant that determines the depth of memory of the
EWMA.
The equation is due to Roberts (1959). The parameter determines the rate at
which 'older' data enter into the calculation of the EWMA statistic. A value of =
1 implies that only the most recent measurement influences the EWMA. Thus, a
large value of = 1 gives more weight to recent data and less weight to older data;
a small value of gives more weight to older data. The value of is usually set
between 0.2 and 0.3 although this choice is somewhat arbitrary. (Lucas and
Saccucci, 1990) give tables that help the user select . The estimated variance of
the EWMA statistic is approximately
s2ewma = ( /(2- )) s2
when t is not small, where s is the standard deviation calculated from the
historical data. The center line for the control chart is the target value or EWMA0.
The control limits are:
UCL = EWMA0 + ksewma
LCL = EWMA0 - ksewma
where the factor k is either set equal 3 or chosen using the Lucas and Saccucci (1990)
tables. The data are assumed to be independent and these tables also assume a normal
population. Using the EWMA control chart it was obtained the next control limits for
January, April, July and October.
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Table 2
The established control limits
Parameters
Count Average UCL LCL
Month
January 26 384846 400484 369208
April 25 382320 404298 360342
July 27 361259 378989 343528
October 27 360185 383814 336555
The diagram illustrated in the next figure, show for the January three
points out of control. This means that must be done an analysis of factors which
could cause their appearance. They can be ignored just if UCL is not legislative
established or if these big values don't endanger the health of consumers.
EWMA Chart for Ianuarie

(X 10000,0)
41
UCL = 400484,
40 CTR = 384846
LCL = 369207,
39
EWMA
38
37
36
35
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Observation
Figure 1. EWMA chart for January.
The process of raw milk obtaining is in control in the months August,

July and October, considering the number of somatic cells. The values limits for
these months don't reveal situations out of control (Fig. 2, 3, 4).
- 989 -
UCL = 404298,43
CTR = 382320,00
EWMA Chart for Aprilie
LCL = 360341,57
(X 10000,0)
41
40
39
EWMA
38
37
36
0 5 10 15 20 25
Observation
Figure 2. EWMA chart for April.
EWMA Chart for Iulie

(X 10000,0)
38
UCL = 378989,
CTR = 361259
37 LCL = 343528,
EWMA
36
35
34
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Observation
Figure 3. EWMA chart for July.
- 990 -
EWMA Chart for Octombrie

(X 10000,0)
39
UCL = 383814,
38 CTR = 360185
LCL = 336555,
37
EWMA
36
35
34
33
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Observation
Figure 4. EWMA chart for October.
CONCLUSIONS
In order to control a product, process or system, it is important to
understand the sources of variation. Variations in a production process or system
can be due to different sources including people, materials, machines and tools,
methods, measurements, and environment. Common causes of variation are
inherent to the product, process or system and involve the combined effect of all
individual sources. Specific causes of variation are derived from sources not
inherent to the product, process or system and account for 10-20% of the
variation. Specific causes can be detected by the use of (graphical) control charts.
The use of EWMA control chart provided to be a very tool useful in the
case of somatic cell monitoring from the raw milk, but a further research is
needed in other sectors from food industry to conclude the fact that EWMA could
be a general useful tool in monitoring different quality parameters in food
industry.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Auldist M.J., Coats S., Rogers G.L., McDowell G.H., 1995, Changes in the composition of
milk from healthy and mastitic dairy cows during the lactation cycle, Austr. J. Exp. Agric. 35,
pp. 427-436
2. Bartlett P.C., Van Wijk J., Wilson D.J., Green C.D., Miller G.Y., Majewski G.A., Heider L.E.,
1991, Temporal patterns of lost milk production following clinical mastitis in a large Michigan
Holstein herd, J. Dairy Sci. 74, pp. 1561-1572
3. Coulon J.B., Dauver F., Garel J.P., 1996, Facteurs de variation de la numération cellulaire du
lait chez des vaches laitières indemnes de mammites cliniques, Inra Prod. Anim. 9, pp. 133-139
4. Harmon R.J., 1994, Symposium: mastitis and genetic evaluation for somatic cell count, J.
Dairy Sci. 77, pp. 2103-2112
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România
6. Lamarche Alexandre, Martin B., HauwuyAgnès , Coulon J-B., Poutrel B., 2000, Evolution of
milk somatic cell count of cows grazing an alpine pasture according to the infection of udder
by pathogens, Ann. Zootech. 49, 45–54 45, INRA, EDP Sciences
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milk somatic cell count of cows grazing an alpine pasture according to the infection of udder
by pathogens, Ann. Zootech. 49, 45–54 45, INRA, EDP Sciences
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cows, J. Dairy Sci. 77, pp. 2289-2301.
9. Lucas, J. M. and Saccucci, M. S., 1990, Exponentially weighted moving average control
schemes: Properties and enhancements, Technometrics 32, 1-29
10. Myllys V., Honkanen-Buzalski T., Huovinen P., Sandholm M., Nurmi E., 1994, Association of
changes in the bacterial ecology of bovine mastitis with changes in the use of milking machines
and antibacterial drugs, Acta Vet. Scand. 35, pp. 363-369
11. Pentelescu O., Muresan G., 2005, Raw milk bacteria and somatic cell count, Simpozion
Ştiinţific Internaţional: Realizări şi perspective în agricultură, Chişinău, Moldova
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Council, pp. 42-49
13. Poutrel B., 1983, La sensibilité aux mammites : revue des facteurs liés à la vache, Ann. Rech.
Vét. 14, pp. 89-104
14. Poutrel B., 1985, Généralités sur les mammites de la vache laitière. Processus infectieux,
épidémiologie, diagnostic, méthodes de contrôle, Réc. Méd. Vét. 161, pp. 497-511
15. Seegers H., Menard J.L., Fourichon C., 1997, Mammites en élevage bovin laitier : importance
actuelle, épidémiologie et plans de prévention, Renc. Rech. Ruminants 4, pp. 233-242
16. Serieys F., 1995, Les mammites des vaches laitières, Collection ``Le point sur'', 3ème édition,
Institut de l'élevage, Paris
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BACK
STUDY ABOUT THE RESULTS OF SLAUGHTERING AND

THE CARCASS FEATURES AT THE BALOTEŞTI QUAILS
POPULATION OF DIFFERENT AGES
Elena POPESCU-MICLOŞANU, L. IONIŢĂ,
I. CUSTURA, Consuela ROIBU
The purpose of the experiment was to determinate the slaughtering output
of the quails at 6, 7, 8 and 9 weeks of age and also the proportion of the main
component parts of the quail carcass s and of the breast. To accomplish these,
determinations were made on 80 males divided in 4 batches (20 males in every lot).
The present experiment is part of a series, realized by the authors to
complete the characterization of the Baloteşti quail regarding the productive
parameters in the youth and the adult flock. The data will serve to the
elaboration of some selection programs for eggs or meat production.
Because the obtained results of both the lots slaughtered at 7 weeks and
8 weeks are superior to that slaughtered at 6 weeks and the meat price justifies
the expenses of kipping the fowls until these ages, we recommend them for the
valorization of the eggs-meat production quails.
Key worth: quail, mixt production, slaughtering age
Japanese quail housing for eggs and meat quail production had an
upwards trend during last decades because quail’s eggs and meat are well-known
for their qualities (high and well/balanced nutritive value, special taste), and also
because o recommendations of naturist medicine to consume these products
dietetic and with well-known therapeutically effects.

Trial was performed at S.C. Ferma Nova S.R.L. Bucharest with a flock of
80 quails (males) from the eggs and meat quails flock „Baloteşti”. Males were
analyzed because they are used for meat production and females from mixed
populations are used for egg production. Birds were set on 4 groups which were
slaughtered a 4 different ages, from 6 to 9 weeks of age.
There were registered live body weight before slaughtering and
afterwards carcass weight after bleeding, feather plucking and evisceration.
The 80 quails were individually branded for this purpose and they were
scaled before slaughtering and afterwards the other analyses were perform with
brands kept until after evisceration. Blood weight was also calculated as
difference between birds live weight and carcass weight after bleeding and there
was also calculated fluff weight as difference between carcass weight after
bleeding and after feather plucking.
Organs (gizzard, hart, liver, lungs and intestines) and guts weight after
evisceration were also found as difference between carcass weight after feather
plucking and carcass weight after evisceration. Amounts of blood, fluff and
evisceration by/products were also calculated.
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Carcasses were cut (breast, legs, back, wings and throat) and parts were
scaled and their parts were calculated to be able to found the initial proportion of
carcass parts.
Breast from every carcass was split into three parts: breast meat, breast
bones and breast skin to found the yield of breast meat, which is the most
valuable part. There was found percentage from breast weight for every part of
the breast.
There were performed individual measurements and afterwards main
statistical indexes and performances were calculated. Student test was also
performed to test differences between average carcass weights before and after
slaughtering and after evisceration to test significance of differences between
average blood, fluff and evisceration by/product amounts, and also between
slaughtering yields and of percentage of different cut parts for the four groups.
Significances of differences between the 4 established by the Student test
are as following:
1 Between group I and group II : aaa – highly significant, aa – clearly
significant, a – significant, ans – insignificant;
2 Between group I and group III : bbb – highly significant, bb- clearly
significant, b significant, bns – insignificant;
3 Between group I and group IV : ccc – highly significant, cc- clearly
significant, c significant, cns – insignificant;
4 Between group II and group III : ddd – highly significant, dd – clearly
significant, d – significant, dns – insignificant;
5 Between group II and group IV : eee – highly significant, ee – clearly
significant, e – significant, ens – insignificant;
6 Between group III and group IV: fff – highly significant, ff – clearly
significant, f – significant, fns – insignificant.
OBTAINED RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

1. Carcass weight and slaughtering yield of quails of the 4 groups of different
ages
As it is shown in table 1, average quail live weight and carcass weight
increase with age, from 191.2 g at 6 weeks of age to 220.49 g at 9 weeks of age
for live weight and from 135.5 g to 155.94 g after evisceration. After proceeding
the Student test for average live weight, average carcass weight after bleeding and
after feather plucking, and for average carcass weight after evisceration shows
that differences between the 4 groups are highly significant (aaa,bbb, ccc, ddd,
eee, fff), excepting at the age of 8 and 9 weeks when differences are not assured
statistically.
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Table 1
Live weight and carcass weight in different processing phases
after slaughtering by age
Specification Group I Group II Group III Group IV
Slaughtering age 6 weeks 7 weeks 8 weeks 9 weeks
Live weight (g) aaa aaa bbb ccc
bbb ddd ddd eee
ccc eee fns fns
191.20±1.27 203.10±1.44 214.57±2.01 220.49 ± 2.89
Weight after bleed (g) aaa aaa bbb ccc
bbb ddd ddd eee
ccc eee fns fns
180.8±1.29 192.80±1.43 203.42±2.41 208.87 ± 2.81
Weight after feather 178.10 ±
aaa bbb ccc
plucking bbb aaa ddd eee
ccc ddd fns fns
168.00±1.52 eee 190.00±2.07 195.26 ± 2.63
1.38
Weight after evisceration 146.60 ± 154.00 ±
aaa ccc
(g) bbb aaa bbb eee
ccc ddd ddd fns
135.50±2.49 eee fns 155.94 ± 2.13
2.74 1.88
Blood weight (g) ans ans bns cc
bns dns dns ens
cc ens fns fns
10.40 ± 0.27 10.30 ± 0.29 11.14 ± 0.93 11.60 ± 0.46
Fluff weight ans ans bns cns
bns d d ens
cns ens fns fns
12.8 ± 0.70 14.70 ± 0.49 13.43 ± 0.87 13.62 ± 0.63
Organs and guts weight ans ans bns ccc
(g) bns dd dd eee
ccc eee f f
32.50 ± 0.91 31.90 ± 0.85 36.00 ± 0.45 39.32 ± 0.92
Average blood weight and average fluff weight is similar at all studied ages,
except that blood weight is significantly higher at 9 weeks compared to 6 weeks
and fluff weight is significantly higher at 7 weeks compared to 8 weeks. Organs
and guts weight has an upwards trends with age, but differences between 6 weeks
on one side and 7 and 8 weeks on the other side are not assured statistically.
Table 2
Percentage of blood, fluff and evisceration by-products from live weight in the 4
analyzed groups
Group I Group II Group III Group IV
6 weeks 7 weeks 8 weeks 9 weeks
Live weight (g) aaa aaa bbb ccc
bbb ddd ddd eee
ccc eee fns fns
191.20±1.27 203.10±1.44 214.57±2.01 220.49±2.89
Blood percentage ans ans bns cc
bns dns dns ens
(%) cc ens fns fns
5.45 ± 0.15 5.08 ± 0.29 5.23 ± 0.92 5.27 ± 0.92
Fluff percentage ans ans bns cns
bns d d ens
(%) cns ens fns fns
6.71 ± 0.38 7.23 ± 0.24 6.25 ± 0.39 6.51 ± 0.28
Organs and guts ans ans bns ccc
bns dd dd eee
percentage (%) ccc eee f f
16.98 ± 0.44 15.69 ± 0.38 16.79 ± 0.18 17.83 ± 0.33
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Differences between the 4 groups about average blood percentage (table

2) are not significant (ans, bns, dns, ens, fns)., excepting that between groups I
and IV differences are clearly significant (cc) in favour of group I, which had the
highest blood percentage, of 5.45 %.
For average fluff percentage differences between the 4 groups are not
significant (ans, bns, cns, ens, fns) excepting that between groups II and III
differences are significant (d) and with higher value for group II, of 7.23 %..
Average organs and guts percentage is higher at quails slaughtered at 9
weeks of age, of 17.83 %. Differences between group I and group II and between
group I and group III are not significant (ans, cns). Differences between group I
and group III are highly significant (bbb) and differences between group II and
group III are clearly significant (dd) and differences between group II and group
IV(eee) are highly significant and differences between group III and group IV are
significant (f).
Table 3
Slaughtering yield by live weight at quails by age

ans ans bns cns
Bleed carcass bns dns dns ens
yield/Live weight (%) cns ens fns fns
94.55±0.15 94.92±0.14 94.77±0.43 94.73±0.21
Feather plucked ans ans bb cns
bb dd dd ens
carcass yield/Live cns ens fns fns
weight (%) 87.84±0.37 87.69±0.15 88.52±0.14 88.56±0.30
aa aa bb cns
Eviscerated carcass bb dns dns e
yield/Live weight (%) cns e f f
70.86±0.54 71.99±0.38 71.73±0.31 70.73±0.27
Feather plucked ans ans bb cc
bb dns dns ens
carcass yield/bleed cc ens fns fns
weight (%) 92.91±0.39 92.38±0.25 93.44±0.38 93.49±0.28
ans ans bns cns
Eviscerated carcass bns dns dns ens
yield/bleed weight (%) cns ens fns fns
74.94±0.53 75.84±0.29 74.22±0.38 74.67±0.29
Eviscerated carcass aa aa bns cns
bns d d ee
yield/feather plucked cns ee fns fns
weight (%) 80.66±0.50 82.11± 0.32 81.03±0.22 79.90±0.34
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Final carcass yield by slaughtering age at quail chicks
72
Carcass yield (%)
71.5 Final carcass yield
71
70.5
70
VI VII VIII IX
Slaughtering age (weeks)
Figure 1 : Slaughtering yield in quails from the mixed egg-meat „Baloteşti”

population by age of slaughtering
Differences shown by the Student test about the slaughtering yield (table
3 and figure 1) are the followings:
1 For bleed carcass yield/live weight differences are not significant between the
4 groups.
2 For feather plucked carcass yield / live weight differences are not significant
between group I and group II (ans), between group II and group IV (ens), and
between group III and group IV (fns). Between group I and group III (bb),
and between group II and group III (dd) differences are just clearly
significant. Yield has an upwards trend with age and is highest and almost
equal at 8 and la 9 weeks (88.56 % at group IV).
3 For feather plucked carcass yield / bleed weight differences are not significant
between group I and group II (ans), between group II and group IV (ens),
between group II and III (dns), and between group III and group IV (fns).
Differences are just clearly significant between I and group III (bb), and
between group I and group IV (cc). Highest yields are also at 8 and 9 weeks.
4 For eviscerated carcass weight yield / bleed weight differences are not
significant at all the 4 groups (ans, bns, cns, dns, ens, fns).
5 For eviscerated carcass weight yield / feather plucked weight differences are
as following: between group I and group II differences are clearly significant
(aa), like between group II and group IV (ee). Between group II and group III
differences are significant (d), and differences are not significant between
group I and group III (bns), between group I and group IV (cns), and between
group III and group IV (fns). Best yield is obtained at the age of 7 weeks,
82.11 %, statistically assured higher than at the other 3 groups.
6 For eviscerated carcass weight yield/ live weight (final carcass yield) (figure
1) differences are not significant between group I and group II (ans), between
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group I and group IV (cns), and between group II and group III (dns).
Differences are clearly significant between group I and group III (bb) and just
significant between group II and IV (e) and between group III and group IV
(f). Best results are obtained at 7 and la 8 weeks, when efficiency is 71.99 and
respectively 71.73 %.
2. Greutatea părţilor componente ale carcasei and ponderea acestora din total
carcasă la prepeliţele din populaţia „de Baloteşti”
Table 4
Carcass parts weight in quail carcasses from the„Baloteşti” population (g)

Slaughtering
age
X ± sX
aaa aaa bbb ccc
Carcass bbb ddd ddd eee
weight ccc eee fns fns
135.50±2.49 146.20±2.74 154.00±1.88 155.94±2.13
aaa aaa bbb ccc
bbb dns dns eee
Breast weight ccc eee fns fns
55.6 ± 1.33 59.3 ± 1.93 61.6 ± 1.19 61.3 ± 1.46
ans ans bns cns
bns dns dns ens
Legs weight cns ens fns fns
35.5 ± 1.17 36.50 ± 1.83 37.70 ± 2.28 36.50 ± 1.83
ans ans bb cns
bb dns dns ens
Back weight cns ens fns fns
36.40 ± 1.41 37.30 ± 1.65 36.30 ± 1.35 37.30 ± 1.55
ans ans bns cns
bns dns dns ens
Wings weight cns ens fns fns
13.90 ± 0.66 14.00 ± 0.67 13.20 ± 0.66 14.10 ± 0.77
Differences found about average carcass parts weight at analyzed groups

(table 4) are as following:
For average breast weight differences are highly significant between group I
and group II, between group I and group III, between group I and group IV,
and between group II and IV (aaa, bbb, ccc, eee). Between group II and
group III, and between group III and group IV differences are not significant
(dns, fns). Breast weight is significantly smaller at 6 weeks than at the other
ages and similar at 7, 8 and 9 weeks (especially at 8 and 9 weeks, of 61.6 and
respectively 61.3 g).
For average leg weight, differences between the 4 groups are not significant
(ans, bns, cns, dns, ens, fns).
For average back weight, differences between the 4 analyzed groups are not
significant (ans, cns, dns, ens, fns).
For average wings weight, differences between the 4 analyzed groups are not
significant (ans, bns, cns, dns, ens, fns).
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Average percentages of carcass parts (table 5) were shown to be as following:

- breast percentage is significantly higher at 6 weeks of age than at the
other studied ages and similar at 7, 8 and 9 weeks of age and it varies by
group from 39.49 % at 9 weeks of age to 41.04 at 6 weeks of age;
- average legs percentage varies not significant by group from 23.58 in
group IV to 24.85 in group II;
- average back percentage has small differences between groups,
statistically assured only between 6 and 8 weeks of age and it varies
between 26.91 % at 6 weeks of age and 24 % at 9 weeks of age;
- average wings percentage has no statistically assured differences
between groups and it varies between 9.09 and 10.28 %.
Table 5
Carcass parts percentage in carcasses of quails from analyzed groups (%)

Slaughtering 6 weeks 7 weeks 8 weeks 9 weeks
age
Carcass 100 100 100 100
percentage
X ± sX
Breast aaa aaa bbb ccc
bbb dns dns eee
percentage ccc eee fns fns
41.04± 0.72 40.40± 0.83 40.05 ± 1.12 39.49 ± 1.12
Legs ans ans bns cns
bns dns dns ens
percentage cns ens fns fns
24.34 ± 0.73 24.85 ± 1.04 24.49 ± 1.53 23.58 ± 1.39
Back ans ans bb cns
bb dns dns ens
26.91 ± 1.09 25.39 ± 0.83 24.18 ± 0.98 24.00 ± 1.07
Wings ans ans bns cns
bns dns dns ens
10.28 ± 0.52 9.57 ± 0.48 9.10 ± 0.45 9.09 ± 0.57
3. Average breast parts weight and their percentage at quails of „Baloteşti”

population
About average breast parts weight (table 6) difference found are as following:
1 For average breast meat weight differences are as following: between
group I and group II, between group I and group IV, between group II and
group III and between group III and group IV differences are not
significant (ans, cns, dns, fns). Between group I and group III, and
between group II and group IV differences are clearly significant (bb, ee).
Breast muscle yield is lowest at 6 weeks of age, with 40.7 g and highest at
8 and 9 weeks of age (44.1 and respectively 44.9 g).
2 For average breast bones weight and average breast skin weight
differences between the 4 groups are not significant (ans, bns, cns, dns,
ens, fns).
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Table 6
Breast parts weight of quails from the„Baloteşti” population g)

X ± sX
aaa aaa bbb ccc
bbb dns dns eee
Breast weight ccc eee fns fns
55.60±1.33 59.3 ±1.65 61.60±1.19 61.3±1.46
ans ans bb cc
bb dns dns ee
Breast meat weight cc ee fns fns
40.70±1.16 42.10±2.61 44.10±1.08 44.90±1.57
ans ans bns cns
Breast bones bns dns dns ens
weight cns ens fns fns
9.40 ± 0.45 9.60 ± 0.88 10.10±0.52 9.60 ± 0.48
ans ans bns cns
bns dns dns ens
Breast skin weight cns ens fns fns
8.10 ± 0.78 7.80 ± 0.84 8.23 ± 0.85 7.86 ± 0.84
Pectoral muscle percentages (table 7) are higher at 9 weeks of age, of

73.18 %, statistically assured higher than at 7 weeks of age. Breast bones and skin
proportions are similar at the 4 studied groups and they varied in average from
15.7 to 16.98 % about the bones and between 13.12 and 14.57 % about skin.
Table 7
Breast parts percentage from the carcass of quails from the„Baloteşti”
population(%)

Breast percentage 100 100 100 100
ans ans bb cns
Breast meat bb dns dns ee
percentage cns ee fns fns
72.49±2.42 70.46±2.53 71.72±1.79 73.18±1.49
ans ans bns cns
Breast bones bns dns dns ens
16.98±0.88 16.29±1.16 16.43±0.88 15.70±0.76
ans ans bns cns
Breast skin bns dns dns ens
14.47±1.32 13.15±1.37 14.57±1.38 13.12±1.12
Average live weight and average eviscerated carcass weight are highest at
the ages of 8 and 9 weeks (214.57 and respectively 220.49 g live weight and 154
respectively 155.54 carcass weight).
Final carcass yield is most convenient at the ages of 7 and 8 weeks (71.99
and respectively 71.73 %).
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Table 8
Description of quail carcasses from the mixed„de Baloteşti” population by
slaughtering age
Slaughtering age
Live weight (g) 191.2 203.1 214.57 220.49
Eviscerated weight (g) 135.5 146.6 154 155.54
Carcass yield (%) 70.86 71.99 71.73 70.73
Blood percentage (%) 5.45 5.08 5.23 5.27
Fluff percentage (%) 6.71 7.23 6.25 6.51
Organs and guts 16.98 15.69 16.79 17.83
percentage (%)
Breast weight (g) 55.60 59,3 61.60 61,3
Breast percentage (%) 41.04 40.40 40.05 39.49
Breast meat percentage 72.49 70.46 71.72 73.18
from breast weight (%)
Breast meat percentage 30.03 28.79 28.63 28.80
from eviscerated
weight (%)
Legs percentage (%) 24.34 24.85 24.49 23.58
Back percentage (%) 26.91 25.39 24.18 24.00
Wings percentage (%) 10.28 9.57 9.10 9.09
Choosing slaughtering age of quail chicks should take into account many
aspects, from which the most important are farms technical-material base,
managerial costs until the scheduled slaughtering age, and also the market
requirements. If market ask for bigger carcasses with bigger breast, ages of 7-9
weeks night be chose, when carcasses and breast are bigger, and in this case
production cost by kg carcass should also been taken into account and this should
be at an acceptable level.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Live weight and eviscerated carcass weight at „Baloteşti” quails of
different ages
As these researches have shown, average live weight and eviscerated carcass
weight were statistically higher, at de 9 and 8 weeks old age quails (groups IV and
III). At the group IV there was reregistered an average live weight of 220.49 ±
2.89 g and an eviscerated carcass weight of 155.94 ± 2.13 g, just with 2.72 %
higher than the group of 8 weeks of age (not assured statistically), about 7.73 %
higher than the group of 7 weeks of age and about 13.18 % higher than the group
of 6 weeks old.
2. Carcass yield of quails of different ages from analyzed groups of the
„Baloteşti” population
Final carcass yield of analyzed quail groups from the egg-meat mixed „Baloteşti”
population was higher in group II (71.99 % ± 0.38) and in group III (71.73 % ±
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0.31) compared to group I (70.86 % ± 0.54) and de group IV (70.73 % ± 0.27).

Differences found are clearly significant between group I (slaughtered at 6 weeks)
and group II (slaughtered at 8 weeks), between group I and group III and just
significant between group III (slaughtered at 7 weeks) and group IV (slaughtered
at 9 weeks), and between group III (slaughtered at 8 weeks) and group IV
(slaughtered at 9 weeks). Between group I and group IV differences are not
significant, as they are between group II and group III. Best slaughtering yield
were obtained at 7 and 8 weeks of age quails.
3. Weight and percentage of carcass parts in analyzed groups of „de
Baloteşti” population
Breast weight is significantly smaller at 6 weeks of age than at the other ages and
similar at 7, 8 and 9 weeks of age (especially at 8 and 9 weeks of age, of 61.6 and
respectively 61.3 g).
For average legs weight average wings weight differences are not significant. For
average back weight differences are clearly significant between group I and group
III, the other registered differences are not significant.
Breast percentage is significantly higher at 6 weeks of age than at the other
studied ages and similar at 7, 8 and 9 weeks of age and it varies by group from
39.49 % at 9 weeks of age to 41.04 at 6 weeks of age.
Average legs percentage varies not significant by group from 23.58 in group IV to
24.85 in group II.
Average back percentage has small differences between groups and it varies
between 26.91 % at 6 weeks of age and 24 % at 9 weeks of age.
Average wings percentage has no statistically assured differences between groups
and it varies between 9.09 and 10.28 %.
4. Percentage of breast parts in quail carcasses from the „Baloteşti”
quail population
In quail group I average breast meat weight percentage was 72.49 % ± 2.42 from
average breast weight, average breast bones weight percentage was 16.98 % ±
0.88 and average breast skin weight percentage was 14.47 % ± 1.32. In group II
percentage was as following: breast meat weight was 70.46 % ± 2.53, breast
bones weight was 16.29 % ± 1.16 and breast skin weight was 13.15 % ± 1.37. In
group III breast meat weight was 71.72 % ± 1.79, breast bones weight was 16.43
% ± 0.88 and breast skin weight was 14.57 % ± 1.38. In group IV percentages
were as following: breast meat weight was 73.18 % ± 1.49, breast bones weight
was 15.70 % ± 0.76 and breast skin weight was 13.12 % ± 1.12. Constant
differences are clearly significant between group I and group III about breast meat
weight and the other differences are not significant.
Breast muscle yield is smallest at 6 weeks of age, with 40.7 g and highest at 8 and
9 weeks of age (44.1 and respectively 44.9 g).
Percentage of breast muscle is highest at 9 weeks of age, with 73.18 %,
statistically assured higher than at 7 weeks of age. Breast bone percentage and
breast skin percentage are similar at the 4 studied groups and they are varying in
average from 15.7 to 16.98 % for bones and from 13.12 to 14.57 % for skin.
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BACK
5. Optimal slaughtering age of quails from the mixed egg-meat

„Baloteşti” population
Considering the average eviscerated live weight and average eviscerated carcass
weight, best ages for slaughtering seems to be 8 and 9 weeks of age, when highest
weights are registered.
Considering the final carcass yield, we have found that optimal slaughtering ages
would be 7 and 8 weeks of age, when highest carcass yield are registered. Breast
weight is similar at 7, 8 and 9 weeks of age. Because results of both the group
slaughtered at the age of 7 weeks of age and those of the group slaughtered at the
age of 8 weeks of age are better than those of the group slaughtered at the age of 6
weeks of age, and with slaughtering age of 7-8 weeks cost of raising birds until
this age is justified by meat price and we recommend this for the marketing of
mixed egg and meat quails.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Alexandru, A. - „Prepeliţa, fazanul”, Editura Alex-Alex, Bucureşti, 2001.
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Zootehnie, U.Ş.A.M.V. Bucureşti, 2003.
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proteice diferite asupra performanţelor de creştere ale prepeliţelor”, Lucrări ştiinţifice ale
I.C.P.C.P.A.M. Baloteşti, p. 125, Bucureşti, 1995.
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BACK
DYNAMICS OF CONSUMPTION EGGS QUALITY,

ACCORDING TO THE STORAGE PERIOD
M.-G. USTUROI
Decrease of consumption eggs quality indexes values could be observed

when eggs are stored longtime, without meeting the physical storage factors
requirements; moreover, the germs on the shell begin to multiply, increasing the
infection risk of the inner content.
Consequently, this paper presents a study on some quality and
microbiological indexes of the consumption eggs kept in various storage conditions.
Achieved data indicated that eggs keeping in different storage
conditions led to decreasing of certain quality indexes, especially 2.88-4.45%
weight reduction. Microbial load on the shell increased from 92.45-92.60
germs/cm2 shell (storage beginning) till 98.05-135.4 germs/cm2 shell, after 30
days of storage.
It is recommended to keep consumption eggs at +4oC temperature and
90% relative moisture values.
Key words: eggs, quality, storage
MATERIAL AND METHOD

An amount of 480 consumption eggs has been used, being uniform as
weight and shape and randomly allocated to 4 groups (L1÷L4), identical as
capacity but different through the microclimate factors provided during storage
(tab. 1).
Table 1
Experimental design
Experimental group:
Variable
L1 L2 L3 L4
o
Temperature ( C) +4 +10 +20 +30
Relative moisture (%) 90 75 60 45
Eggs amount 120 120 120 120
Eggs weight (g)
Specific gravity
Albumen Index
Quality indexes
Yolk Index
Haugh Index (UH)
Microbial load on the eggshell (germs/cm2 shell)
Quality indexes have been assessed at four different moments by specific

methodology: prior to storage (fresh eggs) then during the 10th, 20th and 30th
storage day.
- 1004 -
RESULTS
1. Eggs weight. Those eggs stored for long lasting period lose approx.
1.0%/month from their initial weight value, due to the evaporation of inner water
especially of that contained in albumen.
Achieved data showed slightly similar weight values of the eggs in all
groups, being comprised between 66.87±0.446g- L3 group and 66.92±0.543g- L4
group (tab. 2).
Table 2
Weight (g) of the studied eggs
n=120
Storage Experimental group
Statistical
period
estimators L1 L2 L3 L4
(days)
X±s 66.88±0.522 66.91±0.563 66.87±0.446 66.92±0.543
x
V% 8.54 9.22 7.31 8.89
1 L1-L2: F̂ =0.23<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.22<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
significance L1-L3: F̂ =0.06<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L4: F̂ =0.05<F5%=3.882 NS
L1-L4: F̂ =0.28<F5%=3.882 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.24<F5%=3.882 NS
X±s 66.02±0.732 66.15±0.798 65.98±0.896 66.20±0.917
x
V% 12.14 13.21 14.87 15.17
10 L1-L2: F̂ =0.73<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.85<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =0.98<F5%=3.882 NS L3-L4: F̂ =1.09<F5%=3.882 NS
X±s 65.48±0.776 65.61±0.848 65.01±0.934 64.87±0.957
x
V% 12.98 14.16 15.74 16.15
20 L1-L2: F̂ =0.93<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L3: F̂ =1.45<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =2.18<F5%=3.882 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.62<F5%=3.882 NS
X±s 64.95±0.777 64.63±0.961 64.27±1.049 63.95±1.134
x
V% 13.10 16.29 17.88 19.42
30 L1-L2: F̂ =0.88<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.84<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =2.97<F5%=3.882 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.99<F5%=3.882 NS
As eggs got old, weight differences occurred between the 4 storage

versions, especially for those eggs kept in conditions similar to those practiced in
markets. Significant results have been found after 30 days of storage, when
average values of the eggs weight were just of: 64.95±0.777g at L1 group;
64.63±0.961g at L2 group; 64.27±1.049g at L3 group and of 63.95±1.134g at L4
group. No statistical significance occurred between groups performances.
- 1005 -
If the homogeneity proved to be very good at first control (V%=7.31-9.22),

the different levels of water looses led to the calculation of some middle to high
values of the variability coefficient (V%=12.14-19.42) during next controls.
2. Specific gravity. It is a quality index whose value decreases as eggs get old,
even if they are stored in refrigeration environment (1.078-1.097- at fresh egg and
1.040-1.059 at eggs older than 30 days). Despite the eggs volume maintains
unchanged, water looses of eggs components lead to decreasing in specific gravity
values.
At the studied eggs, specific gravity assessed prior to storage was
comprised between 1.0962±0.0168 (L1 group) and 1.0968±0.0164 (L2 group),
reaching, after 30 days of storage at various levels which oscillated between
1.0413±0.0216 (L4 group) and 1.0748±0.0178 (L1 group). Statistical significance
was not found for the differences between groups (tab. 3).
Table 3
Specific gravity of the studied eggs
n=120
Storage Experimental groups
Statistical
period
(days)
X±s 1.0962±0.0168 1.0968±0.0164 1.0963±0.0168 1.0964±0.0172
x
V% 16.83 16.41 16.01 16.54
1 L1-L2: F̂ =0.31<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.30<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =0.15<F5%=3.882 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.06<F5%=3.882 NS
X±s 1.0921±0.0170 1.0929±0.0171 1.0911±0.0171 1.0897±0.0178
x
V% 17.05 17.15 17.16 17.89
10 L1-L2: F̂ =0.75<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.84<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =1.18<F5%=3.882 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.99<F5%=3.882 NS
X±s 1.0854±0.0177 1.0837±0.0179 1.0788±0.0183 1.0725±0.0186
x
V% 17.87 18.13 18.62 18.94
20 L1-L2: F̂ =0.98<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.94<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =1.87<F5%=3.882 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.76<F5%=3.882 NS
X±s 1.0748±0.0178 1.0696±0.0187 1.0487±0.0199 1.0413±0.0216
x
V% 18.13 19.21 20.88 22.74
30 L1-L2: F̂ =1.03<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.84<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =2.58<F5%=3.882 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.99<F5%=3.882 NS
- 1006 -
Studied parameter was less homogenous, middle or high variability being

calculated (16.01-22.74%).
3. Albumen index reaches 0.106 value at fresh eggs, but decreases at 0.039 levels
for old eggs or even at 0.032 for the very old ones.
At storage onset, calculated values for the albumen index were found closer
between groups, reaching: 0.1054±0.0013 at L1 group; 0.1050±0.0014 at L2
group; 0.1055±0.0007 at L3 group and 0.1053±0.0011 at L4 group. Prolonged
storage encouraged ferments and microorganisms development, leading to
albumen severe or less severe liquefaction, depending on the physical parameters
assured during storage. Thus, after 30 days of storage, the lowest albumen index
value was found at the eggs in the L4 group (0.0588±0.0014), while the highest
one at the eggs in L1 group (0.0882±0.0014) (tab. 4).
Table 4
Albumen Index of the studied eggs
n=20
Statistical
period
(days)
X±s 0.1054±0.0013 0.1050±0.0014 0.1055±0.0007 0.1053±0.0011
x
V% 5.49 6.21 3.17 4.89
1 L1-L2: F̂ =0.63<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.75<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =0.08<F5%=4.098 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.29<F5%=4.098 NS
X±s 0.1012±0.0012 0.0977±0.0016 0.0921±0.0016 0.0896±0.0016
x
V% 5.55 7.14 7.80 8.13
10 L1-L2: F̂ =0.99<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.59<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =2.38<F5%=4.098 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.67<F5%=4.098 NS
X±s 0.0954±0.0013 0.0916±0.0016 0.0825±0.0015 0.0689±0.0014
x
V% 6.16 7.68 8.49 9.09
20 L1-L2: F̂ =2.99<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =2.05<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =5.18>F5%=4.098 * L3-L4: F̂ =2.69<F5%=4.098 NS
X±s 0.0882±0.0014 0.0839±0.0015 0.0675±0.0014 0.0588±0.0014
x
V% 7.07 8.29 9.13 10.84
30 L1-L2: F̂ =3.03<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =2.75<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
significance L1-L3: F̂ =4.97>F5%=4.098 * L2-L4: F̂ =4.15>F5%=4.098 *
L1-L4: F̂ =7.58>F1%=7.36 ** L3-L4: F̂ =1.69<F5%=4.098 NS
Despite the character was found as homogenous within every group

(V%=3,17-10,84), during the 20th day control, statistically significant differences
- 1007 -
occurred between L1-L4 groups, while at the end of the experiment, the
differences have been found as significant, between L1-L3 and L2-L4 groups,
respectively distinguished significant between L1 and L4 groups.
4. Yolk index. As eggs get old, vitelline membrane looses its elasticity, the yolk
becomes flatter. Consequently, yolk index value is altered.
The phenomenon occurred in all eggs groups, but it was obviously observed
at those kept at high temperatures. Thus, at he the eggs stored in refrigeration
conditions (L1 group), yolk index was of 0.417±0.0058 during 1st stocking day and
0.378±0.0077 at the end of storage period, while the eggs stored at temperatures of
+30oC (L4 group), revealed values of 0.417±0.0056 at first control and just
0.289±0.0064 at control IV, run after 30 experimental days (tab. 5).
Table 5
Yolk Index of the studied eggs
n=20
Statistical
period
(days)
X±s 0.417±0.0058 0.418±0.0069 0.416±0.0048 0.417±0.0056
x
V% 6.28 7.34 5.21 6.03
1 L1-L2: F̂ =0.23<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.41<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =0.00<F5%=4.098 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.21<F5%=4.098 NS
X±s 0.395±0.0069 0.350±0.0072 0.382±0.0066 0.370±0.0066
x
V% 7.89 8.22 7.76 8.03
10 L1-L2: F̂ =0.97<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.84<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =0.66<F5%=4.098 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.79<F5%=4.098 NS
X±s 0.383±0.0065 0.368±0.0064 0.325±0.0066 0.305±0.0055
x
V% 7.66 7.85 9.02 8.12
20 L1-L2: F̂ =1.73<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =1.25<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =3.78<F5%=4.098 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.94<F5%=4.098 NS
X±s 0.378±0.0077 0.351±0.0069 0.298±0.0065 0.289±0.0064
x
V% 9.15 8.88 9.75 9.90
30 L1-L2: F̂ =3.84<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =3.44<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
significance L1-L3: F̂ =6.96>F5%=4.098 * L2-L4: F̂ =4.11>F5%=4.098 *
L1-L4: F̂ =7.76>F1%=7.36 ** L3-L4: F̂ =2.69<F5%=4.098 NS
Comparisons between groups’ pairs L1-L3 and L2-L4 revealed statistically

significant differences, while between groups L1-L4, the differences have been
distinguished significant.
- 1008 -
5. Haugh index overall defines egg quality, even is mainly used to assess the
eggs designed to be used in artificial incubation.
At fresh eggs, calculated values for the Haugh index showed small
differences between groups, variation limits being comprised between
87.48±2.585 UH- L2 group and 87.55±3.216 UH- L3 group. The alterations
occurred in eggs weight and dense albumen consistency led to a gradual
decreasing of the Haugh index. Thus, at the end of storage (30th day), there have
been found values of: 76.85±3.349 UH at L1 group; 76.02±3.328 UH at L2
group; 75.58±3.311 UH at L3 group and of 74.24±3.237 UH at L4 group (tab. 6).
Table 6
Haugh Index (UH) of the studied eggs
n=20
Statistical
period
(days)
X±s 87.52±2.796 87.48±2.585 87.55±3.216 87.50±3.110
x
V% 14.28 13.81 16.42 15.89
1 L1-L2: F̂ =0.63<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.95<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =0.38<F5%=4.098 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.64<F5%=4.098 NS
X±s 83.84±3.265 88.07±3.081 82.25±3.448 81.81±3.142
x
V% 17.41 16.58 18.74 17.17
10 L1-L2: F̂ =0.93<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.85<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =2.18<F5%=4.098 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.64<F5%=4.098 NS
X±s 79.45±3.179 78.88±3.180 78.13±3.319 77.59±3.090
x
V% 17.89 18.02 18.99 17.80
20 L1-L2: F̂ =1.13<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =1.05<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =3.18<F5%=4.098 NS L3-L4: F̂ =0.99<F5%=4.098 NS
X±s 76.85±3.349 76.02±3.328 75.58±3.311 74.24±3.237
x
V% 19.48 19.57 19.58 19.49
30 L1-L2: F̂ =3.93<F5%=4.098 NS L2-L3: F̂ =2.55<F5%=4.098 NS
Differences
significance L1-L3: F̂ =4.86>F5%=4.098 * L2-L4: F̂ =3.01<F5%=4.098 NS
L1-L4: F̂ =5.18>F5%=4.098 * L3-L4: F̂ =1.69<F5%=4.098 NS
Calculated values for the variation coefficient (V%=13.81-19.58) revealed

an average variability of the studied variable. Significant statistical differences
occurred between group L1 and L3, L4 groups.
6. Eggshell microbial load is generated by the environment within poultry
houses, which contains high amounts of germs, either in suspension either as
- 1009 -
sediment. Considering these conditions, microbial load of fresh eggs has been
found quite high: 55.88±0.387 germs/cm2 shell at L1 group; 55.66±0.311
germs/cm2 shell at L2 group; 55.97±0.372 germs/cm2 shell at L3 group and of
55.48±0.339 germs/cm2 shell at L4 group (tab. 7).
Table 7
Microbial load (germs/cm2) on the eggshell
n=120
Statistical
period
(days)
X±s 55.88±0.387 55.66±0.311 55.97±0.372 55.48±0.339
x
V% 7.59 6.12 7.28 6.59
1 L1-L2: F̂ =0.66<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L3: F̂ =0.65<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =1.18<F5%=3.882 NS L3-L4: F̂ =1.29<F5%=3.882 NS
X±s 58.64±0.382 60.21±0.493 62.62±0.543 64.46±0.619
x
V% 7.14 8.96 9.49 10.51
10 L1-L2: F̂ =1.93<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L3: F̂ =1.45<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
L1-L4: F̂ =3.18<F5%=3.882 NS L3-L4: F̂ =1.09<F5%=3.882 NS
X±s 60.13±0.479 64.77±0.589 69.92±0.716 71.13±0.892
x
V% 8.72 9.97 11.22 13.74
20 L1-L2: F̂ =3.58<F5%=3.882 NS L2-L3: F̂ =3.45<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
significance L1-L3: F̂ =4.06>F5%=3.882 * L2-L4: F̂ =3.81<F5%=3.882 NS
L1-L4: F̂ =5.18>F5%=3.882 * L3-L4: F̂ =2.69<F5%=3.882 NS
X±s 62.52±0.551 68.44±0.652 74.65±1.015 79.88±1.182
x
V% 9.65 10.44 14.89 16.21
30 L1-L2: F̂ =3.93>F5%=3.882 * L2-L3: F̂ =3.45<F5%=3.882 NS
Differences
significance L1-L3: F̂ =7.46>F1%=6.745 ** L2-L4: F̂ =4.01>F5%=3.882 *
L1-L4: F̂ =8.18>F1%=6.745 ** L3-L4: F̂ =3.69<F5%=3.882 NS
Thermal conditions used for eggs storage allowed the multiplication of the
germs existing on the shell. Thus, after 30 days of storage, microbial shell load
reached: 62.52±0.551 germs/cm2 at L1 group; 68.44±0.652 germs/cm2 at L2
group; 74.65±1.015 germs/cm2 at L3 group and 79.88±1.182 germs/cm2 at L4
group,
During 20th day control, significant differences occurred between group L1
and groups L3 and L4, while during the final control, significant differences have
been found between L1-L2 and L2-L4, respectively distinguished significant
differences between L1 group and groups L3 and L4.
- 1010 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS AND ADVISORY

The analyses of the consumption eggs stored in different versions or
microclimate parameters, during 30 days, revealed certain alterations of the
quality indexes:
• weight looses of the eggs kept at cold environment (+4oC or +10oC) were of
2.88-3.42%, as compared to 3.89-4.44%, values found for those eggs stored
at high temperatures (+20oC, respectively +30oC);
• similar situation occurred for the specific gravity, which 1.95-5.02%
decreased, as compared to fresh eggs values;
• both indexes related to eggs ageing degree (albumen and yolk indexes), have
been found severely decreased, when they have been compared to the fresh
eggs values, with 16.32-44.16% for the albumen, respectively with 9.35-
30.69% for the yolk;
• egg weight decreasing and dense albumen fluidization led to a 12.19-15.15%
diminution of the Haugh index values;
• high temperatures allowed microorganisms to better develop, situation
observed mainly in L3 and L4 groups, whose microbial load after 30 days of
storage was found 33.37-43.98% increased than that observed at the storage
onset.
Previous conclusions lead to the elaboration of some advices related to the
storage technique of those eggs designed for public consumers:
1. fresh eggs could be stored up to 4 months only if +4oC temperature and 90%
relative humidity are provided in storehouse;
2. short term storage (up to 30 days) could be run at environmental temperature
of +10oC and 75% relative air humidity;
3. regardless of what eggs preservation conditions are used (short or long term),
it is recommended to consume them as quickly as possible, knowing the
quality indexes depreciate as storage period becomes longer.
REFERENCES
1. Doyon, G. and all, 1994, Egg quality. Albumen quality of eggs from five commercial strains
of White Leghorn hens during one year of lay. Poultry Science, no. 65:1, pg. 63-66.
2. Hamilton, R.M.G., 1982, Methods and factors that affect the measurement of egg quality.
Poultry Science, no. 61, pg. 2022-2039.
3. Sauveur, B., 1988-Application du froid aux oeufs et oviproduits. La froid et ses applications
biologique. Vol III. D. Côme & R. Ulrich Eds, Hermann, Paris.
4. Usturoi, M.G. şi col., 1997-Contribuţii la cunoaşterea efectului exercitat de durata şi condiţiile
de depozitare asupra calităţii ouălor de consum. Lucr. şt., Zootehnie, vol 39-40, pg. 283-287.
- 1011 -
BACK
INFLUENCE OF THE POST-TRANSPORTATION REST ON

THE POULTRY MEAT ACIDITY
M.-G. USTUROI
Sudden decrease of meat pH occurs when realization of poultry transport,

even on short distances, is done without allowing the required rest for glycogen
recovering. After long lasting transportation, immediately followed by fowl
slaughtering, the decrease of meat pH becomes more acute, consequently to the
poor glycogen and A.T.P. supplies in muscles.
At chicken broilers, transportation across mean distances (80km,) without
allowance of post-transport rest, leads to meat pH migration toward alkaline range,
immediately after slaughter (pH=6.99), as well as in 12 hours post mortem (pH=6.01).
Granting of post-transportation rest (30-120 minutes) allowed recover of
glycogen supplies at lower or higher ratios, while meat pH reached values within
normal limits.
Experimental data proved that optimal requested time for recovering after
mean distances transportation counted 120 minutes (pH=7.17 just after
slaughtering, respectively pH=5.51, at 12 hours post-slaughtering).
Key words: broiler, rest, pH value, preservation ability
INTRODUCTION
Refrigerated poultry meat is more and more preferred by customers, its
quality and preservation ability being straightly related to the way in which the
fowl are prepared prior to slaughtering. The aspects related to this technological
flow stage are listed bellow: an appropriate feeding diet, manner of transportation
and allowance of the post-transportation rest.
One of the most important factors in prevention meat microbial
contamination is the maintenance of adequate glycogen and ATP supplies, in
order to allow a proper meat pH dynamics.
If meat pH does not decrease at 5.4-5.6 levels right after slaughtering, the
acidity required for inner enzymes deactivation could not be reached.
Consequently, meat becomes “pale”, looses its consistency, tenderness and
juiciness. Storage looses also increase.
Consequently, regardless of the transportation length or of its
environmental factors, it imposes to allow the necessary rest period, as required
by glycogen supply recovering, prior to poultry slaughtering.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

COBB 500 broilers, with average live weight of 2483 g at slaughtering
moment, have been used to carry on researches.
Biological material was transported by a specially equipped truck, using
standard coops (80 x 60 x 30 cm) each one accommodating 12 chickens. Distance
- 1012 -
between farm and slaughterhouse counted 80 km. It was covered in 160 minutes,
while atmospheric temperature reached 24.5oC and air humidity 58%.
Five transportation coops have been selected, meaning 60 broilers, uniform
developed as size and weight, closest to flock average performances. Rest periods
of different lengths – 30, 60, 90 and 120 minutes – have been allowed to the
chickens from 4 transportation coops, while those in the 5th coop have been
immediately slaughtered.
pH value was assessed using an electronic pH-meter, on samples from
pectoral musculature, in three different moments: right after slaughter, at 12 hours
and at 4 days post-slaughtering.
1. Poultry slaughtering without allowance of post-transportation rest period.

Even if poultry transportation covers short distances and it’s done under proper
environmental conditions, it acts like a stressful factor, with consequences on the
muscular glycogen level.
The achieved data (tab. 1) indicated that, in the meat issued from the
broilers which not received post-transportation rest, pH value assessed right after
slaughtering reached 6.8±0.34 value, due to the very low glycogen reserves. At 12
hours post-slaughtering, pH value in the analyzed meat lowered toward acid
range, (6.05±0.271).
Table 1
pH value dynamics, according to the length of the post-transportation rest period
pH value dynamics
Post-transportation
right after at 12 hours at 4 days
rest
slaughtering post-slaughtering post-slaughtering
Immediate 6.48±0.334 6.05±0.271 6.97±0.326
slaughtering 17.85 15.49 16.16
6.99±0.338 6.01±0.287 6.65±0.351
30 minutes
16.78 16.50 18.29
7.10±0.290 5.98±0.219 6.24±0.308
60 minutes
14.15 12.68 17.06
7.15±0.352 5.72±0.269 6.18±0.324
90 minutes
17.05 16.28 18.14
7.17±0.388 5.51±0.310 5.94±0.336
120 minutes 18.75 19.48 19.56
The assessments carried on the meat refrigerated 4 days revealed a pH level

of pH de 6.97±0.326, as compared to the expected values of 5.8-6.0, specified for
the meat stored in that way.
- 1013 -
2. Poultry slaughtering after 30 minutes rest period. Poultry which provided

meat samples have been transported across the same distance (80 km), but rested
30 minutes prior to slaughtering, allowing partial recovery of the muscular
glycogen (tab. 1).
Slightly acid pH values (6.99±0.338) have been noticed for the samples
analyzed just after slaughtering. After 12 hours it decreased to a level of
6.01±0.287, to increase again at 6.65±0.351 value, after 4 days passed since life
was suppressed.
3. Poultry slaughtering after 60 minutes rest period. Rest provided to the
chickens allowed muscular glycogen supplies recovering, but at insufficient levels
to ensure a normal pH dynamics in meat (tab. 1). Thus, at fresh meat, pH level
was considered normal (7.10±0.352), becoming alkaline (5.98±0.219) at 12 hours
post-slaughtering, and maintained so after 4 days of preservation (6.24±0.308).
4. Poultry slaughtering after 90 minutes rest period. Unlike the previously
specified rest versions, the one of 90 minutes length assured a proper pH level in
the fresh meat (7.15±0.352), but slightly beyond limits for other two assessments
(5.72±0.269 at 12 hours post-slaughtering, respectively 6.18±0.324 after 4 days)
(tab. 1).
5. Poultry slaughtering after 120 minutes rest period. Beneficial influence of
an adequate length of the resting break for muscle glycogen recovery was
obviously noticed at the version with 120 minutes post-transportation rest (tab. 1).
Thus, pH meat values have been found within normal limits after slaughtering
(7.17±0.388), at 12 hours after life suppression (5.51±0.310), as well as after 4
refrigeration days passed (5.94±0.336).
CONCLUSIONS AND ADVISORY
Chicken broiler transportation across mean distances (80km), under

specific conditions of hot season, becomes a stressing factor, which imposes high
expenses of muscular glycogen, negatively affecting meat biochemical processes.
When poultry slaughtering was applied without allowance of a resting
period, pH meat value became abnormal, just after slaughter (pH=6.48) or after
12 hours (pH=6.04) and especially after 4 days (pH=6.97)
Appliance of a post-transportation recovery schedule in living poultry
allowed normal dynamics of the achieved meat pH, more appropriate as the
resting period was longer. Consequently, it could be noticed the version which
allowed 120 rest prior to slaughtering, when meat pH reached values of
7.17±0.388 just after life suppression (normal pH level =7.1-7.2), of 5.51±0.310
at 12 hours post-slaughtering (normal pH values = 5.4-5.6) and of 5.94±0,336
after 4 days of storage (normal pH = 5.8-6.0).
The conclusions issued from the studies concerning pH value of the meat
produced by poultry which were allowed or not to rest after transportation led to
certain advisories:
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BACK
• it obviously imposes to provide post-transportation resting break to living

poultry;
• the length of the resting period must be correlated with transportation distance
and with environmental conditions during farm-slaughterhouse transfer;
• optimal density in transportation coops must be practiced, as related to
atmospheric conditions and transportation distance.
REFERENCES
1. Bayliss, P.A. and Hunton, M.H., 1998-Transportation of broilers with special reference to
mortality rates. Applied Animal Behavioural Science, no. 28, pg. 93-118, U.S.A.
2. Fletcher, D.L., 1992-The influence of ante-mortem and post-mortem factors on broiler meat
quality. World's Poultry Congress, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 20-24 sept.
3. Gardzielewska, J., 1993-Dynamics of pH in breast muscles of broilers. 11 th European
Symposium on the Quality of Poultry Meat, Tours, France.
4. Mitchell, M.A. and col., 2000–The responses of birds to transportation. XXI World’s Poultry
Congress, Montréal, Canada, Aug. 20-24.
5. Nagla, M., 2000-The impact of post-slaughter bacterial contamination on poultry carcasses.
XXI World’s Poultry Congress, Montreal, Canada, Aug. 20-24.
- 1015 -
BACK
MOLECULAR METHODS USED FOR DETECTION OF

CATTLE MILK IN BUFFALO, EWE AND GOAT DAIRY
PRODUCTS
A. VLAIC, V.A. BALTEANU, F.D. POP, Anda Raluca RUSU
Authenticity identification of different animal food products received in

the last years an important attention in many countries. The majority of dairy
products authenticity identification methodologies are based on major milk
proteins analysis. In milk there are six major proteins (codified by 6 genes),
which are specific expressed in mammary gland epithelial cells during lactation,
each having many genetic variants in different farm species/breeds. In this
review we describe the actual stage in this research field at the
international/national level and methods used in authenticity/ origin
identification in milk and other dairy products.
Current stage of achievement at the international and national level

Authenticity identification of different animal food products received in
the last years an important attention in many countries. Although in USA food
traceability has a voluntary character, in EU has a compulsory one. The EU
Directive no. 178/2002 stipulates the protection of consumers rights from:
fraudulent practices, food products adulteration and other practices which can
mislead the consumers. Especially milk species identification in dairy-products
received an important attention. The laws oblige cheeses and other dairy-products
producers to label correctly the milk specie from which was made a certain
product, because undeclared cow milk can be added into buffalo, goat or sheep
milk. This is even more important considering the incidence of cow milk
allergies, which vertiginous grew up in last years and therefore these consumers
prefers goat dairy products, with a lower allergenic potential.
From another point of view, since 1992 European Union trough EC
regulation 2081/1992 looked to protect the consumers/producers rights and also
regional European economy, by elaborating a set of protective systems for
traditional food products: 1. PDO (Protected Designation of Origin), 3.PGI
(Protected Geographical Indication); 3. TSG (Traditional Specialty Guaranteed).
Animal products categories which could find protection in Europe are:
milk, cheeses, meat and meat products, fish, eggs etc. If we refer to cheeses some
examples are, in UK: West Country Farmhouse Cheddar, Stilton, Beaconfell,
Buxton Blue etc; in Italy: Grana Padano, Parma Reggiano, Mozarella di buffala
Campagna; goat cheeses in France: Chabichou du Poitou, Chevrotin, Crottin de
Chavignol, Pélardon, Pouligny St Pierre, etc. Through the assurance of these high
quality products protection was created the opportunity for a better milk
valorisation, who leaded to farmer’s and producer’s incomes rising, satisfaction of
consumer’s preferences with a positive economic impact.
- 1016 -
To avoid disloyal competition between those producers who respect the law
(concerning correct labelling of these products) and those who don’t and for correct
consumers information, it was discussed the possibility of some methodologies
elaboration to identify possible adulterations from dairy products industry.
The majority dairy products authenticity identification methodologies are
based on major milk proteins analysis. In milk there are six major proteins (codified
by 6 genes), which are specific expressed in mammary gland epithelial cells during
lactation, being divided in two groups according to their behaviour in acid pH:
1. The insoluble fraction in acid pH (whole casein) composed of: αS1-casein -
199 aa, β-casein-209 aa, αS2-casein-207 aa, which are hydrophobic and K-casein
(169aa), with a hydrophobic part – para-K-casein and a hydrophilic part -
glycomacropeptide, which are produced after digestion with chimosine, in
cheeses manufacturing process. Casein fraction is in the highest quantity, being
variable in different species and representing: 80% in cow milk, 87% in buffalo
milk, 82% in ewe milk and 77% in goat milk, from whole proteins. The
proportion of casein fraction is influencing milk manufacturing properties,
quantity and quality of obtained cheese, the texture and flavour of different
cheeses and other dairy products varieties.
2. The soluble fraction in acid pH (whey proteins), composed of β-
lactoglobulin -162 aa and α-lactoalbumin -123 aa, represents: 20% in cow milk,
13% in buffalo milk, 18% in ewe milk and 23% in goat milk.
The mutations which appeared over the years in these 6 genes structure
induced the appearance of new alleles then those known in these species
ancestors. These mutations affected: the gene coding sequences (exons), having as
a result changes in amino acid compositions of mature proteins; non-coding
sequences (introns), with no effect in mature proteins amino acid composition or
contrarily leading to exon skipping in precursor RNA processing to mature RNA.
A particular mutation type was that who affected transcription factors binding
sites from these genes promoters, with a positive or negative effect on different
new genetic variants expression levels.
Up to date several methods were used to study milk proteins
polymorphisms: Paper Electrophoresis (PE), Starch Gel Electrophoresis (SGE),
Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis (PAGE), Isoelectric Focusing (IEF), Reverse
Phase High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (RP-HPLC) and Mass
Spectrometry (MS) or DNA techniques. In this way many genetic variants, in the
six loci codifying major milk proteins, were discovered in farm species/breeds.
Methods used for detection of milk, cheeses and other dairy products
authenticity/origin
At the international level many methods were proposed for adulterations
identification:
1. Electrophoretic methods: Electrophoresis played/plays a significant role in
milk proteins polymorphisms studies, allowing the separation of their genetic
variants, which are species specific:
- 1017 -
a) Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in native conditions (Native-PAGE) is

based on individual proteins separation according to their electric charge,
molecular weight and spatial conformation. Tamine et al. (1999) proved the
addition of bovine milk into goat cheeses, in 25% proportion, using as genetic
marker αS1- casein. Kaminarides et al. (2002) successfully identified the addition
of 1% bovine milk in ewe yogurt, using as genetic marker bovine para-κ-casein.
b) Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in denaturing conditions (SDS-PAGE,
UREA-PAGE). In SDS-PAGE individual proteins separation is based on their
molecular weight. Tamine et. al. (2002) successfully identified bovine milk in
goat cheese, but was not able to detect the proportion in which was added, due to
a high sample proteolysis. In UREA-PAGE proteins separation is based on their
electric charge. Veloso et. al. (2002) identified a 5% bovine milk addition in ewe
and goat milk, using αS1casein as genetic marker.
c) Isoelectric focusing electrophoresis (IEF) is based on protein separation
according to their electric charge, into a pH gradient. By application of a high
power electric field (up to 20W), the proteins migrate into a polyacrylamide gel
until they reach the point where their net charge is zero, named isoelectric point.
The method is suitable for rapid and specific identification of undeclared cow
milk (up to 0,5%) in goat, ewe and buffalo milk, cheeses and other dairy products
(Addeo si col. 1990).
d) Capillary electrophoresis (CE) is based on proteins migration and separation
into a liquid phase. Cartoni et al. (1999) identified the addition of 2% cattle milk
in goat milk and cheeses, using α-lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin as markers.
Using α S1-casein as genetic marker Lee et. al. (2001) identified the addition of
1% cow milk in ewe and goat milk.
2) Immunochemical methods -ELISA: are based on milk adulteration
identification using of mono or polyclonal antibodies specific to milk proteins, the
sensitivity being between 0,1- 15%. ELISA was used for detection of cow milk
presence in goat, ewe and buffalo milk or cheeses (Pizzano et. al. 2000, Hurley et.
al., 2004). For milk adulteration detection of some species with similar caseins
(cattle, buffalo), antibody against immunoglobulin G are used (Hurley et. al, 2004).
3) Reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) is
based on proteins separation according to their different hydrophobic properties.
Veloso et. al. (2002) identified cow milk added in 5% ratio, in ewe or goat milk,
using αS1 and αS2 caseins as differentiation markers. Ferreira et. al. (2003)
detected the cow milk used in ewe and goat cheeses fabrication (in 2% ratio),
using as differentiation marker β-lactoglobulin, but they could not differentiate
ewe and goat milk.
4) Mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF-MS) is a technology recently developed,
being successfully applied in milk proteins polymorphisms analysis (Siciliano et.
al., 2000), providing an accurate fingerprint. Cozzolino et. al. (2001) successfully
identified a 5% cow milk addition in ewe milk, using β-lactoglobulin as marker.
For cow milk identification in buffalo milk they used α-lactalbumin as marker, the
detection limits being similar.
- 1018 -
5) Technique based on DNA analysis. In milk there is a sufficient number of

somatic cells and leukocytes (between 104 and 106), which can be used as a DNA
source. The adulteration identification is based on amplification of a specific
fragment from 12S rRNA gene, mitochondrial DNA or from citrocrom b gene
(Bania et. al., 2001). This technique was used for detection of cow milk in goat
or ewe milk, in goat cheeses or in buffalo mozzarella cheeses, detection limit of
unwanted milk addition being 0,1%.
At the national level data concerning the use of molecular markers for
milk and cheeses authenticity identification, are almost absent. If in others EU
countries, products adulteration cases are quite rare, in Romania undeclared cow
milk (produced at a lower price and in higher quantities), can be added into
buffalo, goat or ewe milk, normally used to produce authentic dairy products,
especially in the case of industrial processed milk. There are cases when,
especially in rural areas, the goat milk is often mixed with cow milk and sold to
manufactures as cow milk, in absence of an efficient collecting system. This thing
don't represent a problem as long as these products are labelled correctly (G.D.
no.106/2002 supplemented by G.D no.1870/2005), in order to guarantee content
authenticity and integrity, so the consumer can choose in knowledge. These is not
respected in many cases, so on Romanian market there are ewe, goat or buffalo
cheese varieties, which doesn’t contain 100% milk of these species, although they
are sold as “pure goat, ewe or buffalo products” (Balteanu V.A. et. al., 2006
unpublished data; Pop F.D., et. al., 2007).
On the other hand, Romanian legislation is protecting traditional dairy
products by MAPDR decision no. 285 and 233/ 2004. Romania sent to Bruxelles
a list of 162 traditional food products, which can become registered as brands,
like: Milk: from Dorna, from Apuseni, from Cedra, from Cluj, from Covasna,
from Satu Mare etc.; Yogurt: from Cedra, from Apuseni, from Satu Mare, from
Napoca etc.; Green ewe cheese: from Oas, from Baschiu, from Alba, from Sibiu
etc.; Cheese: from Moeciu, from Fagaras, from Taga, from Nasal, from Moldova,
from Dorna, burduf cheese in bark fir etc.; Pressed cheese: from Rucar, from
Bobalna, from Moeciu, from Dej, from Penteleu, from Dorna etc.; Salty cheese:
from Brasov, from Huedin, from Arges, from Carei, from Oas, from Valcea, from
Sibiu, from Harghita etc.
In dairy products field Romania has a long tradition, but their free
circulation on the European market require some strict quality conditions.
Romanian legislation established the analysis methods for detection of undeclared
cow milk added in ewe, goat or buffalo milk used for cheeses production.
However they cannot be used without a fundamental research, needed to
characterize milk proteins genetic variants which appear in native farm
species/breeds. Considering this, the study of possibility to use these genetic
markers for authenticity and origin identification of native dairy products, could
represent a solution for these problems.
- 1019 -
Recent results concerning the study of major milk proteins genetic

polymorphisms from native farm species and possibility to use them as genetic
markers for authenticity/origin identification of milk and other dairy products
were obtained in Farm Animal Genotyping Laboratory, belonging to USAMV
Cluj (Balteanu V.A et. al., 2005, 2007; Vlaic A. et. al., 2007; Pop F.D., et. al.,
2007). Isoelectric focusing technique (IEF) was successfully tested, for the first
time in Romania, to characterize milk proteins polymorphisms in some: cattle
populations belonging to Romanian Spotted breed Simmental type and small
populations belonging to Romanian Black and White Cattle or Romanian Grey
Steppe Cattle; buffalo populations belonging to Romanian Buffalo breed; goat
populations belonging to Carpathian breed (Balteanu V.A si col., 2005, 2007,
Vlaic A. si col., 2007); sheep populations from Romanian Zackel breed (Balteanu
V.A si col., 2008, unpublished data). Following these studies 3 new casein alleles
were discovered (2 alleles in Romanian Buffalo and 1 allele in Romanian Grey
Steppe Cattle, Moldavian variety), who seems to be specific these breeds
(Balteanu V.A, Vlaic A., Pop, F.D, 2007). Because the new caseins identified in
Romanian Buffalo breed appear with high frequencies (up to 20% in genotyped
populations), they could be use after molecular characterization and confirmation
of their specificity, as genetic markers for native buffalo cheeses authenticity and
origin identification. The new identified casein in Romanian Grey Steppe Cattle
breed could be a very useful as a biodiversity genetic marker, because it was not
observed in other European cattle breeds, being an ancestral allele which was
probably inherited from its wild ancestors (Balteanu V.A et. al., 2007). Its
molecular characterization will allow the establishing of breed phylogenetic
position, extremely necessary in the context of its conservation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. ADDEO, F., CHIANESE, L., MOIO, L . (1990): Detection of bovine, caprine, ovine and water
buffalo’s milk in mixtures by gel electrophoresis of caseins: a review. FIL-IDF Group A7
– Ewes and goats milk
2. BANIA J., UGORSKI M., POLANOWSKI A., ADAMCZYK E. (2001): Application of
polymerase chain reaction for detection of goats’ milk adulteration by milk of cow.
Journal of Dairy Research, 68: 333–336.
3. BALTEANU V.A., A. VLAIC, ANDA RALUCA RUSU, S. CREANGA, F.D. POP, ANTONIA
ODAGIU, M.L. PANTEA, V. HANCU, 2007- Milk proteins polymorphism in Romanian
Grey Steppe cattle studied by isoelectric focusing technique (IEF). Identification of a new
allele αS1 IRV, Buletinul USAMV Cluj-Napoca, Seria Zootehnie si Biotehnologii, Vol. 63-
64/2007, 304 – 310, ISSN 1843 – 5262;
4. BALTEANU V.A., A. VLAIC, F.D. POP, ANDA RUSU, ANTONIA ODAGIU, V. CIGHI, S.
CREANGA, 2007- αS1-casein alleles frequency in Carpathian goat, Buletinul USAMV
Cluj-Napoca, Seria Zootehnie si Biotehnologii, Vol. 63-64/2007, 527, ISSN 1843 – 5262;
5. BALTEANU V.A., A. VLAIC, ANDA RUSU , F.D. POP, ANTONIA ODAGIU, S. CREANGA,
2007, Identification of two possible new casein alleles in Romanian buffalo milk: αS1-
casein BRV, β-casein CRV, Buletinul USAMV Cluj-Napoca, Seria Zootehnie si
Biotehnologii, Vol. 63-64/2007, 528, ISSN 1843 – 5262;
- 1020 -
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6. CARTONI G., COCCIOLI F., JANSIONOWSKA R., MASCO M. (1999): Determination of

cows’ milk in goats’ milk and cheese by capillary electrophoresis of the whey protein
fractions. Journal of Chromatography A, 846: 135–141.
7. COZZOLINO R., PASSALACQUA S., SALEMI S., MALVAGNA P., SPINA E., GAROZZO
D. (2001): Identification of adulteration in milk by matrix-assisted laser desorption/
ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Journal of Mass Spectrometry, 36: 1031–
1037.
8. FERREIRA I.M.P.L.V.O., CAÇOTE H. (2003): Detection and quantification of bovine, ovine
and caprine milk percentages in protected denomination of origin cheeses by reversed-
phase high-performance liquid chromatography of beta-lactoglobulins. Journal of
Chromatography A, 1015: 111–118.
9. HURLEY I.P., COLEMAN R.C., IRELAND H.E., WILLIAMS J.H.H. (2004): Measurement of
bovine IgG by indirect competitive ELISA as a means of detecting milk adulteration.
Journal of Dairy Science, 87: 543–549.
10. KAMINARIDES S.E., KOUKIASSA P. (2002): Detection of bovine milk in ovine yoghurt by
electrophoresis of para-κ-casein. Food Chemistry, 78: 53–55.
11. LEE S.J., CHEN M., CH., LIN CH.W. (2001): Detection of cows’ milk in goats’ by capillary
zone electrophoresis. Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 56: 24–27.
12. PIZZANO R., NICOLAI M.A., PADOVANO P., FERRANTI P., BARONE F., ADDEO F.
(2000): Immunochemical evaluation of bovine β-casein and its 1-28 phosphopeptide in
cheese during ripening. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48: 4555–4560.
13. POP F. D., V. A. BALTEANU, A. VLAIC (2007): Identificare rapida a laptelui de vaca in
laptele de bivol si capra, utilizand tehnica de focalizare izoelectrica, Agricultura , XVI,
special number, page.105, Ed. Academicpres, Cluj-Napoca;
14. POP F. D., V. A. BALTEANU, A. VLAIC (2007): Polimorfismul proteinelor din lapte la rasele
romanesti de caprine determinat prin tehnica focalizarii izoelectrice, Agricultura, XVI,
special number, page.106, Ed. Academicpres, Cluj-Napoca
15. SICILIANO R.A., REGA B., AMORESANO A., PUCCI P. (2000): Modern mass spectrometric
methodologies in monitoring milk quality. Analytical Chemistry, 72: 408–415.
16. TAMIME A.Y., BARCLAY M.N.I., LAW A.J.R., LEAVER J., ANIFANTAKIS E.M.,
O’CONNOR T.P.O. (1999): Kishk –a dried fermented milk/cereal mixture. 2. Assessment
of a variety of protein analytical techniques for determining adulteration and proteolysis.
Lait, 79: 331–339.
17. VELOSO A.C.A., TEIXEIRA N., FERREIRA I.M.P.L.V.O. (2002): Separation and
quantification of the major casein fractions by reverse-phase high-performance liquid
chromatography and urea-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Detection of milk
adulterations. Journal of Chromatography A, 967: 209–218.
18. VLAIC A., BALTEANU V.A., ANDA RALUCA RUSU, S. CREANGA, R.F. POP, V. CIGHI,
2007- Milk proteins polymorphism in Romanian cattle breeds, identified by isoelectric
focusing technique (IEF), Lucrari Stiintifice seria Zootehnie, Iasi, Vol. 50, 173-181, ISSN
1454-7368
19. Legislation: EU Directive no. 178/2002, EU Reglement no. 2081/1992, G.D.no.106/2002
supplemented by H.G. no.1870/2005, Decision. MAPDR no. 285 and 233/ 2004
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ON THE CONCENTRATION OF SOME VITAMINS AND

PROVITAMINS IN THE VACCINIUM MYRTILLUS L. FRUIT
D. COJOCARU, Elena CIORNEA, Gabriela VASILE
The study discusses the experimental data obtained in the study

on the concentration of vitamins C, P and B6, of provitamins A and of
the soluble proteins in the fruit of bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) from
the spontaneous flora, comparatively with those of the cultural plants.
The results obtained support the conclusion that the bilberry fruit from
the spontaneous and culture plants represent important sources of both
vitamins and provitamins.
Since ancient times, with a view to prevent or heal some maladies, people
looked for various natural remedies or medicines, the basic principles of “green”
medicine strictly applied by old civilizations being well-known today. Along
centuries or even millennia, elaboration of such principles was based on the
resources provided by the surrounding world, namely plants, rocks, crystals, etc.
These natural remedies have been checked in time, and seen as valid, which
explains the increasingly intense tendency towards re-evaluation of popular
medicine (ALEXANDRU and BUJOR, 1983).
Starting from the experimental data accumulated in time, the modern science
enriches and explains the healing action of naturist medicine, on the basis of some
biologically-active principles. Most of the preparations obtained from medicinal herbs
manifest their healing action by their rich content in numerous biologically-active
principles, such as: vitamins, soluble proteins, aminoacids, glycosides, mucilages,
etheric oils, phtytohormones etc. (MOCANU and RĂDUCANU, 1989).
Among the products provided by the forest, others than the wood,
exploited in various ways, special part is played by its fruits, known as
representing an important source of food in various periods of mankind history
(LUCESCU and IONESCU, 1985).
As known, apart form the basic constituents of the living matter (proteins,
glucides and lipids), plants and animals need, for their growth and development,
both anorganic and organic substances, playing a functional role, for the
stimulation and adjustment of the metabolic processes, thus efficiently
contributing to the running of the organism as an unitary whole.
The rapid development of all branches of biochemistry in the last decades
brought about deep changes in the study of vitamins, as well. Due to their rich
content of vitamins and mineral substances, the spontaneous and cultivated fruits
add to the aliments of animal origin, thus contributing to the normal development
of the metabolic processes in the human body (MINDELL and BĂDESCU, 1995).
Fruits - generally – and the wild ones - especially - have a high energetic
and plastic role, if considering the various substances necessary to the organism
- 1022 -
they provide and, mostly, their involvement in various biological processes, by

the enzymatic and hormonal substances, vitamins and microelements they
contain, thus assuring a rational feeding of the human organisms (BĂDESCU et al.,
1984; IFRIM, 1997)

The biological material on which the experiments were made was formed
of bilberry fruit collected from the districts of Neamţ, Bacău and Suceava
(spontaneous flora) and, respectively, from the Republic of Moldova (cultivated
flora).
Fig.1. Vaccinium myrtillus L. fruit
Vitamins C, P and B6 were determined by titrimetric methods, with 2,6-

dichlorphenolindophenol, potassium permanganate and the Folin-Ciocâlteu
reactive, the carotenes - by the colorimetric method - with petroleum ether as
compensation liquid, while the soluble proteins were determined by the Bradford
method (BRADFORD, 1976; ARTENIE and TĂNASE, 1981; COJOCARU et al., 2000).
For each sample in part, parallel determinations have been performed, the
results being processed statistically (FOWLER et al., 2000).
RESULTS AND DISSCUSION

Starting from the observation that the literature of the field provides quite
controversial data on the active principles content of the bilberry fruit, the
material here investigated was collected from the districts of Neamţ, Bacău and
Suceava (spontaneous flora) and, respectively, from the Republic of Moldova
(cultivated flora).
The obtained data show that the highest amounts of vitamin C -
oscillating between 337.1 and 342.5 mg ascorbic acid / 100 g fruit - occur in the
- 1023 -
fruit from the Bacău district, as well as from those of the Neamţ district, with a
minimum of 304.4 mg / 100 g fruit and a maximum of 352.7 mg vitamin C / 100
g fruit. In the fruit collected from the Suceava district, the amounts were
somewhat lower, varying between 241.9 and 274.4 mg ascorbic acid / 100 g fruit,
while the fruit of the cultivated plants of the Republic of Moldova contained the
lowest amounts of vitamin C (Fig. 2).
400
mg %
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
P1 P2 P3 P4
Neamţ Suceava Bacău Rep. Moldova
Fig.2. Individual values of vitamin C concentration

in Vaccinium myrtillus L. fruit
0.35
mg %
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
P1 P2 P3 P4
Fig.3. Individual values of vitamin B6 concentration

All these data show beyond any doubt that the highest content of
pyridoxine (vitamin B6) was discovered (which is also the case of vitamin C) in
the fruit of the Bacău and, respectively, Neamţ district, the values of which ranged
between 0.28 and 0.31 mg pyridoxine / 100 g fruit and, respectively, 0.21 mg and
0.27 mg pyridoxine / 100 g fruit. Similarly with the case of vitamin C, a
comparative analysis between the literature data (0.16 mg /100 g fruit) and the
experimental values obtained in the laboratory indicated, once again, that similar
- 1024 -
values were found for the fruit collected in the Republic of Moldova, that is, from
cultivated plants (Fig. 3).
As graphically illustrated (Fig. 4), the highest amounts of vitamin P occur
in the cultivated fruit from the Republic of Moldova (1.09 - 1.14 mg%), while the
samples from the Neamţ district registered somewhat lower, yet homogeneous
values, ranging between 0.89 - 0.92 mg%.
1.2
mg %
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
P1 P2 P3 P4
Fig.4. Individual values of vitamin P concentration

The total carotene content of the Vaccinium myrtillus L. fruit from the
spontaneous flora of the Neamţ, Suceava and Bacău districts is much lower than
that of the cultivated plants (Fig. 5).
2.5
mg %
1.5
0.5
0
P1 P2 P3 P4
Fig.5. Individual values of carotene concentration

The data listed is Figure 6 show that the highest value of proteinemy
occurs in the fruit of the cultivated plants from the Republic of Moldova (0.39 -
0.42 mg%), the lowest values being registered in the samples from the Suceava
district (0.29 - 0.32 mg%).
- 1025 -
0.45
0.4
mg %
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
P1 P2 P3 P4
Fig.6. Individual values of soluble proteins concentration

Another objective of the present study involved statistical processing of

the experimental results obtained. A comparative analysis among the contents of
vitamin C in the four geographical areas evidenced more or less significant
differences, to be explained by the climatic conditions - varying from one region
to another - i.e., the amount of precipitations, the values of temperature, soil
structure, etc. Generally, much higher values of vitamin C are registered in the
plants of the spontaneous flora, comparatively with the cultivated ones.
The data obtained demonstrate the pharmacological value of the bilberry
fruit. The relatively high values of the ascorbic acid recorded in the bilberry fruit
recommend them in numerous affections, once known the role of antioxidant
protecting agent of vitamin C.
Due to its reductive properties, vitamin C plays a central role in several
oxidation reactions. Consequently, the consumption of bilberry fruit stimulates
the defense function of the organism, vitamin C being involved in the
immunological and anti-bacterial functions of the leucocytes, by increasing their
mobility, by stimulating the approach of hexozo-monophosphates, known as
producing cellular energy, and by protecting the leucocytary membrane against
oxidating agents (COJOCARU, 1996; COSTACHE and DINISCHIOTU, 1998).
350
mg % 300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Fig.7. Average concentration of vitamin C in Vaccinium myrtillus L. fruit
- 1026 -
Statistical processing of the experimental results has evidenced certain

differences in the pyridoxine content of the bilberry fruit coming from various
regions, which is probably the result of the different living conditions of the
cultivated and, respectively, spontaneous plants, the existing literature data
outlining the special role played by pyridoxine in protein metabolism, the
consumption of such fruit contributing - among others - to the adjustment of the
metabolic processes at cellular level, by the degradation of aminoacids (Fig. 8).
0.3
mg %
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Fig.8. Vitamin B6 average concentration in Vaccinium myrtillus L. fruit
Statistical processing of the results obtained on the concentration of

vitamin P in the Vaccinium myrtillus L. fruit evidenced no significant differences
from one of the region under consideration to another (Fig. 9).
In medical practice, the bilberry fruit are recommended - due to their high
content of vitamin P - in the treatment of some pathological affections,
accompanied by a high capillary permeability and lower resistance of the
capillaries, which it normalizes.
1.2
mg %
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Fig.9. Vitamin P average concentration in Vaccinium myrtillus L. fruit
- 1027 -
Analysis of the calculated and critical values of the factor evidences

considerable differences from one geographical area to another, the highest
carotenes concentrations appearing in the samples of cultivated plants (1.83 times
higher than in the samples of the Neamţ district, 2.78 times higher than in those of
Suceava and 2.41 times higher, respectively, than in those of the Bacău district)
(Fig. 10).
The literature of the field makes special mention of the role played by the
bilberry fruit, consumed fresh, for improving sight. As vitamins A contain
carotenes as precursors, playing an essential role in the eye sight, the bilberry fruit
are recommended for meliorating visual acuity and for improving eye's adapting
capacity to crepuscular light.
2.5
mg %
2
1.5
0.5
0
Fig.10. Carotenes average concentration in Vaccinium myrtillus L. fruit
Application of the Anova test on the basis of the values of the two factors
permits the conclusion that the bilberry fruit coming from various geographical
areas do not evidence significantly different concentrations of soluble proteins,
once they do not represent a very important source of proteins for the human
organism. However, it is also possible that the evidenced soluble proteins should
be mainly represented by the enzymatic equipments involved in various metabolic
processes developed at cellular level (Fig. 11).
0.4
mg % 0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
Fig.11. Soluble proteins average concentration in Vaccinium myrtillus L. fruit
- 1028 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
Analysis of the experimental data obtained in the laboratory led to the
following general conclusions:
¾ In the bilberry fruit of cultivated plants, high concentrations of active principles
have been generally recorded, comparatively with the fruit of the spontaneous
flora, with the exception of vitamins C and B6, which showed somehow lower
values.
¾ The amounts of ascorbic acid and pyridoxine in the fruit of the spontaneous
flora are distinctly superior to those from the cultivated plants, which is possibly
due to the living conditions, more favorable to the development of these vitamins
in wild plants.
¾ As to the content of soluble proteins, the concentration values recorded were
quite close for all fruit collected from the four different geographical areas.
REFERENCES
1. Alexan, M., Bujor, O., 1983 - Fructele şi legumele - factori de terapie naturală, Ed. Ceres,
Bucureşti.
2. Artenie, Vl., Tănase, Elvira, 1981 - Practicum de biochimie generală, Ed. Univ. „Alexandru
Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi.
3. Bădescu, Gh., Constantinescu, M., Bădescu, Lidia, Isac, Gr., 1984 - Fructele şi sănătatea, Ed.
Ceres, Bucureşti.
4. Bradford, M. M., 1976 - A rapid and sensitive method for the quantification of microgram
5. Cojocaru, D. C., 1996 - Biochimia vitaminelor, Ed. Gama, Iaşi.
6. Cojocaru, D. C., Ciornea, Elena, Cojocaru, Doina - Irina, 2000 - Biochimia vit aminelor şi
hormonilor. Lucări practice, Ed. Corson, Iaşi.
7. Costache, Marieta, Dinischiotu, Anca, 1998 - Vitamine hidrosolubile, Ed. Protransilvania
8. Fowler, J., Cochen, L., Jarvis, P., 2000 - Practical statistics for field biology, Second Edition,
Ed. by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., England.
9. Ifrim, S., 1997 - Substanţe biologic active, Ed. Tehnică, Bucureşti.
10. Lucescu, A., Ionescu, T., 1985 - Fructele de pădure, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti, 1985.
11. Mindell, E., Bădescu, Adriana, 1995 - Biblia vitaminelor, Ed. Elit, Bucureşti, 1995.
12. Mocanu, Şt., Răducanu, D., 1989 - Plante medicinale, legume, fructe şi cereale în terapeutică,
Ed. Militară, Bucureşti.
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BACK
ON THE CONTENT OF SOME ACTIVE PRINCIPLES IN

THE HYPPOPHAE RHAMNOIDES FRUIT
D. COJOCARU, Elena CIORNEA,
Gabriela VASILE, Sabina Ioana COJOCARU
The paper systematizes the obtained experimental data on the

dosing of vitamins C, P, B6, carotenes, soluble proteins and reducing
glucides from the fruit of sea buckthorn harvested from various areas of
the Buzău district. The results obtained recommend them as a very good
source of vitamins and provitamins for the human organism.
INTRODUCTION
Since most ancient times, people looked for various natural remedies,
capable of preventing or healing some diseases, the basic principles of green
medicine of the old human civilizations being well - known even today. Such
principles have been settled along centuries or even millennia, the ancient
civilizations making good use of everything the natural environment could
provide: plants, stones, crystals etc. Natural remedies - which have the advantage
of hawing been tested along the history - are nowadays reconsidered, a strong
orientation towards popular medicine and green pharmacopoeia being manifested
all over the world.
Starting from the experimental data accumulated in time, the modern
science enriches and explains the healing action of naturist medicine, on the basis
of some biologically active principles. Most of the preparations obtained from rich
medicinal herbs manifest their healing action by their content in numerous
biologically - active principles, such as: vitamins, soluble proteins, aminoacids,
glycosides, mucilages, etheric oils, phytohormones etc. (PĂUN et al., 1986).
It has been demonstrated that, due to their in deniable therapeutical value, the
sea buckthorn fruit represent a genuine heal - all, to be successfully applied in the
treatment of various maladies of the breathing system, rheumatic and cardio - vascular
affections, depressions, viral infections, cold and influenza, and even cancer.
The most impressive records of the treatments with sea buckthorn fruit is
by now generally acknowledged, once known the rich “stock” of biologically -
active substances they contain: vitamins, serotonine, proteins, aminoacids,
glucides, glycosides, phytosterols, mineral elements, volatile oils, tannins etc.
(POTLOG and VINŢAN, 1983).
The biochemical composition of the Hyppophae rhamnoides fruit depends on
several factors, the most important ones being, probably, the geographical aria in
which they grow, the variety, the meteorological conditions, the agro - technical level.
At present, as a result of the varied forms of relief and of the favorable
climatic conditions, Romania possesses a most special spontaneous flora including
- 1030 -
numerous species of medicinal drugs. Generally, the literature of the field abounds
in studies and monographs on the utilization of medicinal herbs, many of them
preponderantly devoted, however, to medicinal aspects, while the investigations
on their chemical composition are much scarce (MOCANU and RĂDUCANU, 1983).

The biological material employed in the study was represented by sea
buckthorn fruit from various places of the Buzău district. The samples have been
jarred with pounded glass, while the homogenate thus obtained was taken over with
a determined volume of distilled water, in the resulting supernatant being closed
vitamins C, P and B6, total carotenes, soluble proteins, as well as the reducing sugar.
Fig.1. Hyppophae rhamnoides fruit
Vitamins C, P and B6 were determined by titrimetric methods, with 2,6-

dichlorphenolindophenol, potassium permanganate and the Folin-Ciocâlteu
reactive, respectively, the carotenes - by the colorimetric method - with petroleum
ether as compensation liquid, while the quantitative calculation made use of a
standard solution of potassium bichromate; soluble proteins were determined by
the Bradford method and the reducing glucides - with the tartro - copper reactive
and titration with sodium thiosulphate (BRADFORD, 1976; ARTENIE and TĂNASE,
1981; COJOCARU et al., 2000).
For each sample in part, parallel determinations have been performed, the
results being processed statistically.

The literature of the field shows that the Hyppophae rhamnoides fruit,
consumed either recommended fresh or as syrup, tea, dry powders etc., are mainly
- 1031 -
for intensifying visual acuity, reinforcing the organism and assuring a higher
resistance to infections and so an (MOCANU and RĂDUCANU, 1983).
The ascorbic acid (vitamin C) represents one of the main active principles
manifesting an intense action of antioxidant protection, being generally known that
both human and animal organisms require a daily amount of this vitamin.
According to the literature, the sea buckthorn fruit represent important
sources of vitamin C, most researches providing values of 150 - 250 mg ascorbic
acid / 100 g of fruit (COJOCARU, 1996; COSTACHE and DINISCHIOTU, 1998).
The experimental analyses made on Hyppophae rhamnoides fruit
collected from various places of the Buzău district give values ranging between
300 - 414 mg% vitamin C and 982 - 1023 mg% vitamin P (Figs. 2 - 3).
Fig.2. Vitamin C concentration in the sea buckthorn fruit
1200
mg % 1000
800
600
400
200
0
Mânzăteşti Săruleşti Cislău Pătârlagele Livada Mică
Fig.3. Vitamin P concentration in the sea buckthorn fruit
The data illustrated in Figure 4 show quite fluctuating concentration

values for pyridoxine, oscillating between 0.15 and 0.7 mg%. Another observation
- 1032 -
to be made is that vitamin B6 occurs in more reduced amounts, comparatively with

the ascorbic acid and vitamin P.
Accumulation of vitamin C, in considerable amounts, in fruits, may be
related to its protective function, which is manifested under the action of ultraviolet
radiation or of low temperature. Besides numerous other roles played by vitamin C
in the organism, the most important one is that of an oxido-reduction system,
fulfilled by the ascorbic and the dehydroascorbic acid. In this way, the cell oxido-
reductive potential is adjusted, and the transport of hydrogen, by non-enzymatic
ways, is accomplished. Also, the vegetal tissues acquire a reductive character.
The flavonoids, or vitamin P, are pigments imparting the characteristic
color to the white sea buckthorn fruit. Vitamin P is antioxidant, consolidating the
action of vitamin C. The presence of flavonoids in vegetal organisms probably
increases their resistance to the attack of microorganisms and insects, thus
influencing the taste, flavour and stability of some preparations extracted from
plants (IFRIM, 1997).
Pyridoxine, or vitamin B6, is especially important for the organism, once,
- through phosphorilation - it forms pyridoxalphosphate (PALP) and
pyridoxaminephosphate (PAMP), known as participating to the decarboxylation
and transamination of aminoacids.
Another objective of the present study was the quantitative determination
of provitamins A, soluble proteins and reducing glucides. As to the concentration
of carotenes in the Hyppophae rhamnoides samples under analysis, they varied
between 6.2 - 9 mg%, the data being compatible with those provided by the
literature (RABEGA and RABEGA, 1983; COJOCARU, 1996) (Fig.5).
By their high content of total carotenes, the sea buckthorn fruit represent
important sources of provitamin A for the animal organism. Carotenoides are
involved in photosynthesis, by the absorption of light energy, as well as by
protecting the chlorophyll and other biologically - active substances against auto -
photo - destruction.
mg% 8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Fig.5. Carotenes concentration in the sea buckthorn fruit
- 1033 -
The proteins constitute the essential components of the living world, the
structure and properties of which define the very essence of life. Within the organism,
they have numerous biochemical and physiological functions, such as: a plastic role
(i.e., they are the main constituents of the cytoplasma and of its structures, of humours
and fluids from the organism), a catalytic role (the enzymes), an energetic role,
transport role, hormonal role and protection role (the immunoglobulins).
The graphical analysis of the results obtained shows that, from a
quantitative point of view, proteins vary between 0.9 - 1.9 mg% (Fig.6).
Fig.6. Soluble proteins concentration in the sea buckthorn fruit
The glucides are formed in plants as a result of photosynthesis. Some of them

represent an immediate source of energy (the glucose), others are reserve substances
(starch, glycogen) or they have a structural role (the cellulose, the chitine).
The concentration of reducing glucides has a homogenous aspect, that is, no
significant differences are recorded from one area to another (3.8 - 4.5 mg%) (Fig. 7).
4.5
mg % 4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Fig.7. Reducing glucides concentration in the sea buckthorn fruit
- 1034 -
For better evidencing the possible differences or similarities between the

concentration of active principles, as a function of the area from which the sea
buckthorn fruit had been collected, the Anova test - the bifactorial pattern, with no
interaction - has been applied. This test permitted calculation of the square sums,
on the basis of the variability sources, factor value, as well as of its critical value,
the null and alternative hypotheses being subsequently calculated; acceptance of
one of them was based on the comparison between the value of the calculated
factor and its critical value.
As to the concentration of P and C vitamins in the Hyppophae rhamnoides
fruit, application of the Anova test, by comparing the critical (6.388 and,
respectively, 7.708) and calculated values of the factors (0.487 and, respectively,
504.969), evidenced no significant differences as to the area of their collection
while considerable differences are to be observed between the two vitamins
(Fig. 8).
1200
mg % 1000
800
600
400
200
0
Vitamin C Vitamin P
Fig.8. Comparative representation of vitamin C and P concentration

on the sea buckthorn fruit
A comparative representation of the concentration of pyridoxine and

carotenes - as a function of the area taken into study - as well as of the
concentration of soluble proteins and reducing glucides shows extremely narrow
differences from one sample to another, within the same parameter, along with
considerable differences between the two parameters taken into study - as actually
evidenced by the analysis of the critical and calculated values of the factors
(189.588 and 7.708, respectively, 102.027 and 7.708) (Figs. 9 - 10).
- 1035 -
9
mg % 8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Vitamin B6 Carotenes
Fig.9. Comparative representation of vitamin B6 and carotenes concentration

on the sea buckthorn fruit
4.5
mg % 4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Soluble proteins Reducing glucides
Fig.10. Comparative representation of soluble proteins and reducing glucides

concentration on the sea buckthorn fruit
CONCLUSIONS
¾ The content of vitamin C varies from 300 mg% in the sea buckthorn fruit
collected from Livada Mică, up to 409 mg% at Mânzăteşti, while a reverse
situation is to be observed in the case of vitamin B6, namely highest
concentration registered in the Livada Mică samples (0.7 mg%) and lowest
concentration, respectively, at Mânzăteşti (0.15 mg%).
¾ The concentration of vitamin P and reducing glucides records relatively
constant values in the analyzed samples, regardless of the area of their collection,
while the soluble proteins and the carotenes show a similar curve, the highest
content being recorded in the fruit of Săruleşti area.
- 1036 -
BACK
¾ The statistical analysis of the results obtained evidences considerable

differences only between the investigated areas.
REFERENCES
1. Artenie, VL., Tănase, Elvira, 1981 - Practicum de biochimie generală, Ed. Univ. „Alexandru
Ioan Cuza”, Iaşi.
2. Bradford, M. M. 1976 - A rapid and sensitive method for the quantification of microgram
3. Cojocaru, D. C., 1996 - Biochimia vitaminelor, Ed. Gama, Iaşi.
4. Cojocaru, D. C., Ciornea, Elena, Cojocaru, Doina - Irina, 2000 - Biochimia vitaminelor şi
hormonilor. Lucări practice, Ed. Corson, Iaşi.
5. Costache, Marieta, Dinischiotu, Anca, 1998 - Vitamine hidrosolubile, Ed. Protransilvania,
Bucureşti.
6. Ifrim, S., 1997 - Substanţe biologic active, Ed. Tehnică, Bucureşti.
7. Mocanu, Şt., Răducanu, D., 1983 - Plante medicinale în terapeutică, Ed. Militară, Bucureşti.
8. Păun, E., Mihalea, A., Dumitrescu, Anela, 1986 - Tratat de plante medicinale şi aromatice
cultivate, Vol. I, Ed. Academiei Republicii Socialiste România.
9. Potlog, A. S., Vinţan, A., Ghe., 1983 - Plante medicinale, Ed. Stiinţifică şi Enciclopedică,
Bucureşti.
10. Rabega, Maria, Rabega, C., 1983 - Vitamine, enzime şi hormoni, Ed. Albatros, Bucureşti.
- 1037 -
BACK
RESEARCHES CONCERNING THE

PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND MICROBIOLOGICAL
QUALITIES OF THE MILK
Andreea Bianca GHIRILĂ, Aurelia PECE,
Vioara MIREŞAN, Gh. MUREŞAN
The aim of the researches from this project evidences the

physico-chemical and microbiological qualities of the milk in order to
improve the qualitative and quantitative performances. The
determinations were made on 34 dairy Romanian black spotted cows in
lactation from Cluj County. The results obtained illustrates that the
analyzed parameters are framed between the following values: fat 2,9-
5.62; protein 2.82-3.42; lactose 4.08-5.65; dry matter 7.78-9.5. That’s
why the lactose concentration is correlated with its evolution and
decrease in the deficit contribution of glucose or in the case of
mammary infections. In the same time the development of the number of
somatic cells is in harmony with the milk production. The physico-
chemical and microbiological parameters are in correlation with the
milk production which is also correlated with the assurance of a
technical and economical foundation and with the application of well
known and correct breeding technology.
Key word : milk, Romanian black spotted cow, quality
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The researches were made on 34 dairy Romanian black spotted cows in
lactation from Cluj county, at which were measured the physical-chemical
characters: fat, protein, lactose, dry substance and microbiological characters:
total germs number and somatic cells. The analyses were made with the help of
the milk analyzer with ultrasounds named EKOMILK ULTRA PRO which can
make the analyses quickly and with out-of-pocket expenses. We realized the
determination of fat content, dry substance, protein and lactose content. The milk
sample will be heated at 40 – 45 °C temperature, as much as is possible under
warm water stream. The milk sample is very well mixed and will be cooled until
29 – 30 °C. Milk temperature has to be adequate otherwise the analyzer will not
read the milk sample. The milk sample will be used only one time.
- 1038 -

Tabelul1.
Physico-chemical and microbiological parameters of milk
No. F% P% L% D.M. Antib S.C.C TGN
1. 4.09 3.42 5.65 9.5 N 257 2153
2. 3.17 3 4.26 8.08 N 436 17186
3. 3.34 2.9 4.06 7.84 N 440 12731
4. 3.73 3.1 4.3 8.19 N 332 20894
5. 3.76 3.2 4.22 8.22 N 555 >30000
6. 3.28 3.13 4.43 8.32 N 863 8650
7. 3.32 2.98 4.23 8.04 N 546 6684
8. 3.44 3.08 4.46 8.3 N 544 8401
9. 4.21 3.33 4.55 8.59 N 370 16547
10. 3.91 3.13 4.49 8.37 N 323 1550
11. 3.62 3.16 4.23 8.2 N 378 >30000
12. 3.5 3.12 4.38 8.27 N 434 23584
13. 3.8 3.4 4.53 8.64 N 433 12
14. 3.6 2.77 4.45 8.02 N 1392 10
15. 3.99 3.27 4.61 8.59 N 701 33
16. 3.67 2.82 4.08 7.78 N 904 971
17. 3.92 2.95 4.57 8.27 N 647 895
18. 3.49 3.06 4.65 8.43 P 409 4767
19. 4.43 3.04 4.68 8.44 N 60 2507
20. 5.62 3.5 4.69 8.85 N 121 4902
21. 2.9 3.17 4.5 8.41 N 541 183
22. 3.33 3.02 4.11 7.98 N 450 26408
23. 3.36 3.02 4.4 8.2 N 375 4700
24. 3.05 3.29 4.59 8.58 N 396 1070
25. 3.51 3.09 4.38 8.25 N 361 12005
26. 3.94 3.02 4.46 8.23 N 318 1819
27. 4.47 2.82 4.35 7.99 N 660 13211
28. 3.59 3.03 4.47 8.27 N 515 1035
29. 3.63 3.07 4.63 8.42 N 403 7054
30. 3.36 3.01 4.14 7.99 N 409 17949
31. 3.51 3.04 4.33 8.17 N 617 5821
32. 3.71 3.25 4.54 8.51 N 718 11602
33. 4.73 3.01 4.51 8.28 N 211 14110
34. 4.07 3.08 4.24 8.13 N 354 8320
The results obtained in the hereinbefore table illustrates that the physico-
chemical and microbiological parameters are framed between the following
values: fat 2,9-5.62; protein 2.82-3.42; lactose 4.08-5.65; dry matter 7.78-9.5. It
can be observed from the illustrated values, that the total number of analyzed
- 1039 -
BACK
samples for determination of the antibiotic residue from milk one sample was
identified like being positive.
CONCLUSIONS
A first aspect of the researches illustrates the principals’ qualitative
features of milk production. At the moment in this area the milk is not in
advantage, that is why the breeders are using plenty of milk quantity for the own
consume and also for the animal feeding. For the increase of milk production, in
the breeding and development of cows we have to take into account the expansion
and the modernization of the official control of milk production, specially the
private sector for the growth of active population.
Another important aspect which retains our attention is the
microbiological charge. This situation is influenced by the breeder’s education,
the observance of the hygienic conditions in the getting in and the custody of milk
until of capitalization. Milk production is influenced by the medium factors in the
stabulation period and in the grazing period as well. Development of the number
of somatic cells is in harmony with the milk production. Somatic cell count
increase or decrease simultaneously with the milk production.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Hartet, P., F. Beaudeau, H. Seegers, C. Fourichon, 1999 – Reduction in milk yield associated with
somatic cell counts up to 600.000 cells/ml in French Holstein cows without clinical
mastitis. Livest. Prod. Sci. 61:33 – 42.
2. Jersen R.G., The composition of bovine milk lipids: january 1995 to December 2000 (invited
review), J.Dairy Sci, 2002,85,295-350.
3. Korn, R., 1989 – Microbiologia laptelui si a produselor lactate. Control de calitate, defecte si
remedieri. Ed. Ceres,Bucuresti.
4. Lindmark-Månsson et al., H. Lindmark-Månsson, R. Fondén and H.E. Pettersson, 2003 -
Composition of Swedish dairy milk, International Dairy Journal 13, pp. 409–425.
5. M.A, Y., C. Ryan, D.M.Barbano, D.M. Galton, M.A. Rudan, K.J. Boor, 2000 – Effects of cell
count on quality and shelf – life of pasteurized fluid milk, J Dairy Sci. 83:264 – 274.
6. Reents R., Dekker J. Si Shaeffer L.R., 1995 – Genetic evaluation for somatic cell scor with a Test
Day Model for multiple lactations, Journal of Dairy Science, vol. 78, nr.12, 2858-2870.
- 1040 -
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SURVEY REGARDING THE CONCENTRATION OF LIQUID

FOOD COMPONENTS THROUGH REVERSE OSMOSIS
USING SPECIAL MEMBRANES
Camelia HODOSAN, Lucica NISTOR, S. BARBUICA,
I.G. MALOS, Gabriela MALOS
Liquid food components are concentrated by applying the reverse

osmosis procedures and eliminating water at low temperatures. Eliminating
water does not require a change in the aggregation state, as the process unfolds
with the preservation of energy.
Reverse osmosis through special membranes applies both to food items
or vegetal origin food items and animal origin.
Key words: reverse osmosis, membranes, purification, food items.
INTRODUCTION
Ultra filtration and reverse osmosis are often employed as complementary
procedures to food processing. Ultra filtration is applied in view of purification,
while reverse osmosis and evaporation apply to void for concentration. The
concentration degree of the filtrates or of the product retained on the membrane-
through reverse osmosis or void evaporation- depends upon the initial contents of
solid substances, the desired end concentration and the cost price of the
procedure. It has been noticed that the presence of excess vapors in sugar plants
may cancel the economical advantages engendered by ultra filtration
concentration as compared to void evaporation. In other cases, it is better to
employ reverse osmosis concentration up to solid substance contents of 18%,
after which the 45% level is reached through void evaporation.
Concentration up to a solid substance contents of 45% is not possible
through osmosis alone; for instance, Patterson Candy International has
concentrated some liquid items through reverse osmosis up to a solid substance
contents of 28%.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Reverse osmosis or hyper-filtration is a membrane operation occurring
under the drive of the pressure gradient in which the predominant solution
component or solvent is transported against the osmotic pressure margin thereof
through the membrane. Reverse osmosis employs dense membranes that let the
solvent through (water, in most cases) and retains all salts. This technique is
generally used for:
- water demineralization (water desalination, generating ultra-pure waters)
- solution concentration (fruit juice concentration, because – operating at
the ambient temperature- it preserves the organoleptic qualities of the product). In
- 1041 -
this case, concentration is limited by the osmotic pressure that can attain high
values. The main constituents contributing to the osmotic pressure of juice are
hexosel, disaccharides and also organic acids : milk concentration;
- the pre- concentration of certain compounds in view of concentrating
thereof within a more elaborate process, more difficult to achieve.
Osmotic pressure plays an important part in reverse osmosis. A pressure
higher than the osmotic pressure is capable of directing the solution flow from the
higher concentration section to the lower concentrations section of the solution,
hence the name of reverse osmosis.
Matsuura and Sourirajan have performed in-depth studies on separating
certain organic solutions and have correlated the separation thereof to the steric
polar parameters and non-polar parameters in view of optimizing separations
through reverse osmosis. Reverse osmosis usually employs membranes made of
cellulose diacetate and triacetate. Membranes may be packed in spiral, leveled or
tubular shapes.
The reverse osmosis of food items of vegetal origin

A. Fruit and vegetable juice
Most fruit juices, including apple, orange or pear, that have a light
osmotic pressure may be concentrated through reverse osmosis. The limitations of
this procedure consist of the passivization of the membrane and setting up several
areas of different concentrations. The fruit juice component that passivizes the
membrane most often is the pectin.
Fruit juices concentrated through reverse osmosis require certain
operational conditions and different membranes. Orange juice is industrially
concentrated through reverse osmosis at a flow of 35L/h and a solid substance
content of 35% at a pressure of 30bar, whilw apple juice is concentrated at a
pressure of 60bar and 50°C. Among vegetables juices, tomato juices has been
concentrated through reverse osmosis using cellulose acetate membranes.
B. Alcoholic beverages
Must with a low sugar contents, approximately 17%, yields a table wine
with an alcohol contents that does not meet the legal requirements. Theoretically,
51% of the sugar present in anaerobic fermentation is turned into ethylic alcohol,
while the rest into carbon dioxide and energy.
The alcohol contents may be supplemented by adding sugar, a procedure
known as champanization, or by employing reverse osmosis when no supplement
is needed any longer.
Another field of activity where reverse osmosis is employed is the beer
processing industry. The ethylic alcohol and water pass trough the cellulose
acetate membranes, while the substance retained on the membrane is afterwards
re-diluted in water. This procedure yiels low alcohol contents beer.
- 1042 -
Some countries in Asia place a demand for low alcohol contents beer, of
0.1%, which may be obtained from regular beer through reverse osmosis. Other
regions place a demand for beer with an alcohol contents ranging in between 3.5-
10%. By employing reverse osmosis procedure, a beer factory may produce a
wide variety of beer assortments with various alcohol percentages, thus becoming
more efficient.
Furthermore, other types of beer with a higher percentage may be
concentrated through this procedure in view of carrying out a more resource-
saving transportation; after reaching the consumer, they nay be reconstituted by
adding water.
C. Sugarcane juice
The concentration of the sugarcane juice through reverse osmosis is
carried out in a much easier manner trough polysulphur membranes rather tan
cellulose acetate membrane. The procedure is carried out at 80°C with a pretty
good yield, but the excess of vapors usually existing within sugarcane plants
dwindles the interest in replacing the existing evaporation concentration
installations by reverse osmosis ones.
D. Coffee
Instant coffee is another vegetal origin liquid that is industrially
concentrated through reverse osmosis. The coffe extract from the instant product
has a solid substance contents of 13%. The extract is concentrated through
reverse osmosis at 70°C up toa a solid substance contents of 36%. Afterwards, the
concentrate is void evaporated up to a contents of 48%, then dried off packed.
The most widely used membranes are those made of polymer mixtures,
which- by comparison to cellulose acetate membranes- have a retention degree of
aromatic components.
E. Maple syrup
Maple pith is collected by inserting plastic tubes inside the tree stump.
Traditionally, the pith was evaporated at the atmospheric pressure either in boilers
or metallic tanks heated with wood fire. The golden-colored syrup is used for
preparing cakes and candy. Maple pith may also be concentrated through void
evaporation up to solid substance content of 65%. Maple pith is currently
concentrated solely through reverse osmosis, as this procedure is much more cost-
effective by comparison to void evaporation.
The reverse osmosis of food items of animal origin
A. Milk
Milk processing through reverse osmosis represents one of the first
applications of this method in the food industry. Problems related to membrane
passivation by casein in milk processing or calcium phosphate in buttermilk
processing are diminished by increasing the passing speed of the liquid through
the membrane. Reverse osmosis can help whole milk concentrate without
diminishing the flow through the membrane.
- 1043 -
BACK
Upon applying this procedure to the manufacturing of powder milk, it is

found that organoleptic properties are modified, because the high pressure
(24.5bar) and the low temperature (20-30°C) activate the lipasis and hydrolyze
fats in non-boiled or non-pasteurized milk. This problem was solved either by
using certain capillary tubes placed at the exit from the reverse osmosis unit or
dwindling the initial pressure on milk. Thus, non-boiled integral milk is
concentrated through reverse osmosis at a 2:1 ratio and it incurs no changes in the
organoleptic properties.
B. Cheese and dairy products
Unlike ultra filtration, in case of reverse osmosis the product retained on
the membrane reflects the initial composition of the whole milk. Thus, the whole
milk concentrated through reverse osmosis at 2:1 ratio may regain its initial state
by adding the proper water volume. This is not possible in case of applying ultra
filtration, because selective concentration has a good stability and fragrance, as
well as features similar to those obtained through void evaporation.
Gouda-type cheese has been manufactured in The Netherlands through
reverse osmosis of the concentrated milk ever since 1978. Cow cheese was
obtained in England through the reverse osmosis of the low-fat milk concentrate.
Limiting the use of reverse osmosis or void evaporation in milk processing for
obtaining cheese or other dairy products is due to excess of lactose. The lactose
concentration of the milk concentrated by ultra filtration is of 4.5%, while in case
of reverse osmosis or void evaporation it stands at 5-10%.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The food processing procedure should preserve the product aroma,
texture and appearance, but at the same time it should ensure the effective control
over the alteration process
2. Reverse osmosis requires a smaller space and it operates at very low
temperatures (0-7°C in case of alcoholic beverage processing)
3. Through reverse osmosis, concentration may be achieved to a solid
substance content of up to 18%, reaching 45% after void evaporation.
4. Fruit juices purified through ultra filtration may be concentrated
through reverse osmosis
5. The reverse osmosis process separates compounds with a high or low
molecular mass from water, thus ensuring the concentration of liquid food items.
REFERENCES
1. GB.Qualia şi F. Tasseli, Ind. Aliment, 1980
2. R.L.Merson –Ultrafiltration hand book, 1993
3. T.Matsuura, S.Sourirajan, J. Appl Polzm Sci, 1994, 18, 567-588
4. E.Drioli, G. Iorio, Hondbook of Industrial Membrne Techologz, Nozes Pulish, New Jersey,
USA 1989
5. R.W. Field, J. Membrane, Sci.200, 80 107-115
6. Banu Constantin – Manualul inginerului de indstriei alimentare, 2000, Editura Tehnică
- 1044 -
BACK
THE DETERMINATION THROUGH MICROBIOLOGICAL

TESTS OF THE HYGIENE STATE BELONGING TO THE
SURFACES THAT COME IN CONTACT WITH MILK IN
THE MILKING INSTALLATIONS
Gabriela MALOŞ, I.G. MALOŞ, Daniela IANIŢCHI,
Lucica NISTOR, Camelia HODOŞAN
The initial qualities of milk, given by the inter-relations between animal

organisms (potentialy genetic, healthy state), and climate factors (sustenance,
watering, microclimate), can’t be improved once the milk has exit the udder, but on
the other hand these qualities can be lost ireversible on the
ingathering/conditioning/manipulation flux (milking, cooling, transporting), when
the hygiene requirements specific to milk as an „alive” product are not satisfied.
The purpose of these present researches, preformed in concrete
conditions of high productivity, is to determine through a non-subjective
methode the hygiene state of the surfaces belonging to the milking devices that
come in direct contact with the milk, this way being able to establish the
influence that this hygiene state has over the quality index of milk basic material
(technological and nutritional).
The hygiene state of the surfaces that come in direct contact with the
milk in the studied milking devices is diferent acording to: the hygiene
perfomances of the devices; their correct handling by the qulified staff (the
correctitude in the washing/disinfection operations).
However, the hygiene state is determinated in all situation by the: the
time used from the acomplishment of the hygiene process until the utilization of
the devices and by the conditions of preservation and usage of the milking
devices after the hygiene process (the germ load belonging to the surfaces with
which they come in direct contact, the density of the microflora from the air of
the rooms in which these are kept, etc.).
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The researches perfomed, between 1997-2004 (on 4 annual experimental
cycles: Cex 1...4). the milking devices refered to in this study are milking devices
in shelter, but they are different tipes and productions: a device with pipe
procurement of milk, tipe RTS 100, producer Alfa Laval; a device with can
procurement of milk, tipe SN Banat 100, producer Banat Nova Plus and a device
with can procurement if milk, IMB 3 Multim, producer Multim tTimisoara.
In order to determine the hygiene state of the surfaces belonging to the
milking devices that come in direct contact with the milk, there have been
performed some control microbiological tests of the disinfection eficiency (NTG
and mycets). Practicaly, in the experimental period that has been studied,
monthly there have been gathered samples from the surfaces belonging to the
- 1045 -
componants of the milking devices that come in direct contact with the milk, that
already have been exposed to the hygiene process, the precise moment of the
initiation of gathering the samples starts 60 minutes before the begining of the
milking process in the evening.
In each case there have been 18 gatherings, the surfaces exposed to the
gathering process being equaly devided in 3 critical points: 6 samples from the
interior surface of the 4 rubber muff – one sample from one milking unit; 6 samples
from the interior surfaces of the additional pipes of the milk hose collector and its
terminal; 6 samples from the internal surfaces of the milking canister and its cover
including the packing piece in the case of the canistor milking devices and in the
case of the pipe milking devices; 1 sample from the interior surface of the milk pipe
at its terminal and 5 samples from the internal surface of the milk pipe in the area of
5 likage of the long milk hose (chosen randomly).
The gathering of samples was performed in sterility conditions (using
absorbend cotton, kept in test-tubes, which soak before utilization adding in each
test-tube 1 ml steril fiziological solution and one pincers strilized at flame
between the procurements) by wiping or ball inking the chosen surfaces.
After the gathering the used pad is introduced in its test-tube and the test-
tube is being numbered and the place of the gathering is also addded in its
description. The samples are passed on to the microbiological laboratory
belonging to the beneficiary society of milk (SC PARAMETRU SRL), where
these are submited to insemination, incubation and to the interpretation of the
result by the qualified stuff of the unit, according to the following technique:
- the insemination of the samples has been made after 24 h starting from the
procurement process, by wiping each sample’s pad (handled by a forceps
sterilised at the flame in between the inseminations) on a triunghiular area
representing 1/6 from the surface of a simple agar petrifilm – for NTG and then
on a similar surface of a Sabouraud petrifilm with antibiotics – for mycets.
Perfoming these technique on a growning area there have been inseminated 6
samples gathered from a critical point of view.
- the incubation is perormed at 36h at 37 degrees for NTG and 4 days at 20±2
degrees C (the temperature of the room) for mycets.
- the counting of the evolution colonies has been performed with the help of
the electromagnetic colonies counting device, for each surfaces of the growing area.
- the situations found have been enframed in the following estimating categories:
I. For the NTG
• the absence of the colonies → concordant disinfection
• 1....50colonies → concordant disinfection
• over 50 colonies → concordand disinfection
• numerous colonies (cannot be precisely counted) → concordand
disinfection
• confluent colonies → concordant disinfection
• lawn growing → concordant disinfection
- 1046 -
II. For mycets

• the absence of colonies → concordant disinfection
• 1....10 colonies → concordant disinfection
• over 10 colonies → concordant disinfection
• numerous colonies (cannot be precisely counted) → concordant
disinfection
• confluent colonies → concordant disinfection
• lawn growing → concordant disinfection
- the determination of the disinfection eficiency on the device is beeing
attained this way: if the number of situations estimated with the inadequate
disinfection result, represents up to 30 % (up to 5 situations inclusivly) from the
total amount of situations either for NTG and similar to the mycets, this points out
an eficient preformance of the device disinfection; if the number of situations
estimated with inadequate disinfection result, represents over 30% (over 6 situations
inclusivly) from the total amount of situations either for NTG and similar to the
mycets, points out an inadequate performance of the device disinfection;

For the estimation of the hygiene state of the surfaces belonging to the
milking devices that come in direct contact with the milk, there has been
performed an analysis of the estimation results through microbiological test (NTG
and mycets) concerning the correct achievement of the hygiene process
(washing/disinfection/rinsing/soaking) found in the table 1; 2 and 3 and images 1;
2 and 3. In image 4 its shown an compatitive analysis on the device of the
obtained results.
By analysing the establiched data representing the cases and the
frequencys of positive results from the total amount of performed tests (216 test
for NTG and 216 for mycets for each device for one year period, equaly devided
into 72 area considered critical), we can specify the followning aspects:
1. To all the milking devices into question there can be observed a decrease
of the positive results in both NTG and mycets tests, in the chosen areas, in Ceg 2
towards Ceg 1, and in the percentage expression:
- from 57,87 % to 19,21 % to the sum of the NTG and mycets tests (from
60,19 % to 18,52 % in the NTG tests and from 55,56 % to 19,91 %, to the mycets
tests) in the RTS 100 milking devices (img. 1), the decrease is relatively similar in
all the critical areas of the device: in the milking muffs belonging to the cups area
(from 83,33 % to 27,78 % in the tests for NTG and from 55,56 % to 19,44 % for
the mycets tests), in the collector/long milk hose area (from 69,44 % to 20,83 %
in the NTG tests and from 83,33 % to 34,72 % in the case of the mycets test); in
the milk pipe area (from 27,78 % to 6,94 % in the NTG tests and from 27,78 %
to 5,56 % for the mycets tests).
- 1047 -
Table 1. The results of the estimation through microbiological tests concerning the
correct hygiene process of the surfaces belonging to the milking devices with milk
collecting pipe RTS 100 Alfa Laval
Period in question
SPECIFICATION
Ceg 1 Ceg 2 Ceg 3 Ceg 4 Average
Statistical weight positive results Test nr. 60 20 16 21 117
in the muff area - PmNTGm NTG % 83,33 27,78 22,22 29,17 40,63
in the muff area - Pmmiceţim mycets % 55,56 19,44 20,83 16,67 28,13
in the collector/hose area- PmNTGc/f NTG % 69,44 20,83 19,44 16,67 31,60
Statistical weight positive results nr. 60 25 35 24 144
Test
in the collector/hose area -
mycets % 83,33 34,72 48,61 33,33 50,00
Pmmiceţic/f
in the pipe area - PmNTGc NTG % 27,78 6,94 5,00 4,17 11,11
in the pipe area - Pmmiceţic mycets % 27,78 5,56 2,78 2,78 9,72
on the device - PmNTG NTG % 60,19 18,52 15,74 16,67 27,78
on the device - Pmmiceţi mycets % 55,56 19,91 24,07 17,59 29,28
Statistical weight positive results NTG + nr. 250 83 86 74 493
on the device - PmNTG+miceţi mycets % 57,87 19,21 19,91 17,13 28,53
Table 2. The results to the estimation done through microbiological tests concerning
the correct hygiene process of the surfaces belonging to the milking device with the
SN Banat 100 milk collector can
Period in question
SPECIFICATION
Statistical weight positive results in Test nr. 25 10 6 10 51

the muff area - PmNTGm NTG % 34,72 13,89 8,33 13,89 17,71
the muff area - Pmmiceţim Mycet % 25,00 12,50 12,50 6,94 14,24
the collector/hose area - PmNTGc/f NTG % 41,67 9,72 6,94 2,78 15,28
the collector/hose area - Pmmiceţic/f Mycet % 55,56 13,89 9,72 12,50 22,92
the can area- PmNTGb NTG % 20,83 2,78 5,00 1,39 6,94
the can area - Pmmiceţib Mycet % 13,89 2,78 1,39 0,00 4,51
Statistical weight positive results on Test nr. 70 19 13 13 115
the device - PmNTG NTG % 32,41 8,80 6,02 6,02 13,31
the device - Pmmiceţi Mycet % 31,48 9,72 7,87 6,48 13,89
Statistical weight positive results on NTG+ nr. 138 40 30 27 235
the device - PmNTG+miceţi Mycet % 31,94 9,26 6,94 6,25 13,60
- 1048 -
Table 3. The results of the estimation done through microbiological tests

concerning the correct hygiene process of the surfaces belonging of the
milking device with IBM 3 Multim milk collecting can
Period in question
Ceg Ceg Ceg Ceg
SPECIFICATION Average
1 2 3 4
the muff area - PmNTGm NTG % 83,33 16,67 19,44 16,67 34,03
the muff area - Pmmiceţim Mycets % 62,50 11,11 8,33 8,33 22,57
the collector/hose area - PmNTGc/f NTG % 86,11 16,67 15,28 18,06 34,03
the collector/hose area - Pmmiceţic/f Mycets % 70,83 33,33 25,00 22,22 37,85
the can area - PmNTGb NTG % 36,11 5,56 5,00 8,33 14,24
the can area - Pmmiceţib Mycets % 37,50 5,56 4,17 2,78 12,50
the device - PmNTG NTG % 68,52 12,96 13,89 14,35 27,43
the device - Pmmiceţi Mycets % 56,94 16,67 12,50 11,11 24,31
Statistical weight positive results on NTG + nr. 271 64 57 55 447
the device - PmNTG+miceţi Mycets % 62,73 13,19 12,73 12,73 25,87
- from 31,94 % to 9,26 % in the sum of the NTG tests and mycets (from
32,41 % to 8,80 % in the tests for NTG and from 31,48 % to 9,72 %, in the tests
for the mycets) in the case of the SN Banat 100 milking devices (img. 2), the
decrease is manifesting relatively similar to all critical areas belonging to the
device: in the milking muffs belonging to the cups area (from 34,72 % to 13,89 %
in the NTG test and from 25,00 % to 12,50 % in the mycets tests), in the
collector/long milk hose area (from 41,67 % to 9,72 % in the NTG tests and from
55,56 % to 13,89 % in the mycets tests case) and in the collector can area (from
32,41 % to 8,80 % in the case of the NTG tests and from 31,48 % to 9,72 % in the
mycets tests case).
- from 62,73 % to 13,19 % in the sum of the NTG and mycets tests (from
68,52 % to 12,96 % in the NTG test and from 56,94 % to 16,67 %, in the mycets
tests) in the case of the IBM 3 Multim milking devices (img. 3), the decrease is
manifesting relatively similar to all critical areas belonging to the device: in the
milking muffs belonging to the cups area (from 83,33 % to 16,67 % to the NTG
tests and from 62,5 % to 11,11 % to the mycets tests), in the collector/long milk
hose area (from 86,11 % to 16,67 % in the case of the NTG tests and from 70,83
% to 33,33 % in the mycets tests) and in the collector can area (from 36,11 % to
5,56 % in the NTG tests and from 37,50 % to 5,56 % in the mycets tests).
- 1049 -
"NTG manşon"
100 "miceţi manşon"
90 "NTG colector"
Pondere rezultate pozitive (%)
80 "miceţi colector"
70 "NTG conductă"
"miceţi conductă"
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Cex1 Cex2 Cex3 Cex4 Media
Img. 1: The estimation through microbiological tests of the correct hygiene process
on the surfaces belonging to the RTS 100 Alfa Laval milking devices.
"NTG manşon"
90 "NTG colector"
"miceţi colector"
80
"NTG bidon"
70
"miceţi bidon"
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Fig.2. The estimation of microbriological tests concerning the correct hygiene

of the surfaces belonging to SN Banat 100 milking installations
The decrease can be the the result of the implementation of SC

PARAMETRU SRL, the benecifiary of the milked merchandise milk, and the
acceptance of the control program concerning the correct hygiene process through
microbiological tests by the milk supplier, tests that have been performed in
critical areas of the entire rute that the milk as a basical material is making during
the year Ceg 1, with the purpose of a better performance of the hygiene process in
the milking devices.
- 1050 -
"NTG manşon"
"NTG colector"
90
"miceţi colector"
80
"NTG bidon"
70 "miceţi bidon"
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Fig.3. The estimation through microbiological tests regarding the correct hygiene process
of the surfaces belonging to the IBM 3 Multim milking installations
The decrease can be the the result of the implementation of SC

PARAMETRU SRL, the benecifiary of the milked merchandise milk, and the
acceptance of the control program concerning the correct hygiene process through
microbiological tests by the milk supplier, tests that have been performed in
critical areas of the entire rute that the milk as a basical material is making during
the year Cex 1, with the purpose of a better performance of the hygiene process in
the milking devices.
During the next years, until Cex 4, the tendency of decrease of the positive
results in the NTG and mycets test, is present in all the milking devices, with
small exceptions, but still very slow, a certain stabilization can be traced but to a
diferent percentage frequency depending on the installation: 18-20 % to the RTS
100 installation; 6-7 % to the SN Banat 100 installation and 12-13 % to the IBM 3
Multim installation.
2. By comparing the results of positive results frequence in NTG tests and
mycets test, during a whole period, we can establish the following hierarchy
(img. 4) of the milking installations:
- in case of the sum concerning the results of NTG and mycets tests the lowest
frequence of positive results, meening the correct hygienised surfaces, the the first
place is taken by the SN Banat 100 milking installation with can collector with a
precentage of 13, 60%, followed by, by far, the IBM 3 Multim milking installation
with can collector with the frequence of 25, 87 % and on the last place we find the
RTS 100milking installation with pipe collector, with the frequence of 28, 57%,
- in the case of the NTG tests results, meening the correct hygiene process of
the surfaces by destroying the bateria germs, the hierarchy is the same, so the first
place is taken by SN Banat milking installation with can colletor, 13, 31%,
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folloed by, at a great distance, IBM 3 Multim milking installation with can
collector, 27, 43 % and RTS 100, milking installation with pipe colletor, 27, 78%.
- regarding the the results of the mycets tests, meening the correct hygiene of
the surfaces by destroying the the lees and the mould, the hierarchy is the same, so
the first place is taken by SN Banat 100 installation with 13, 89%, followed at great
distance by IBM 3 Multim installation with 24, 31 % and RTS 100 with 27, 78%.
70 "NTG RTS 100"

"miceţi RTS 100"
60 "NTG SN 100"
"miceţi SN 100"
50 "NTG IBN 3"
"miceţi IBM 3"
40
30
20
10
0
Fig.4. The estimation through microbiological tests of the correct hygiene proces of the
surfaces belonging to the milking installations studied so far
A resonable explanation for the hierachies presented above, can be, a least
in the case of the milking installation through pipe colletor placed on the last stage,
the large hygiene surface of the pipe, inaccesible to a full control, disadvantage
replaced by the performances of „Hygenius 200” washing device. The correct
explanations seems to be the inadequate utilization of the washing instalation,
either concerning the settings of the washing programs or due to the pressure of
pure water, or due to using chemical agents/disinfection of a questionable quality.
The consequences of these deficiency over the quality of milk can be only
disadvantageous.
In the case of the IBM 3 Multim milking installation with can collector,
the place taken in the hierarchy established, thanks to the positive results gained at
both tests, can be justified through the low performances of the hygiene sistem
used (in a circuit, underpressure, with a tub made out of plastic material for the
preparation of the disinfection and washing solution, for washing the milking
glasses they need to place it and keep them manualy in a tub) and through the
absence of improvement coming from the stuff. In this case also, the
consequences over the quality of milk is disadvantageouse.
In the case of SN Banat 100 milking installation with can collector, which
perfoms the best results in the estimations through microbiological tests of the
hygiene state, along with the existance of a hygiene sistem with better
- 1052 -
BACK
performances, it must also be noticed the favorable reaction of the stuff

responsable in implementing the control through microbiological tests for the
checking upon the correctness of the hygiene process.
Another possible explanation, that goes for all the milking installations
and sustained by the high level of positive results in both NTG test and mycets
tests, can be linked to the precise moment of the harvest of samples for the tests,
60 minutes before their ussage. The exaplanation consists in the contamination of
the surfaces belonging to the milking installations that come in direct contact with
the milk, before the hygiene process, in the rest moment between the utilization,
when the milking units are kept in rooms at the end of the shelter, next to the
animals or even in the shelter, the RTS 100 installation. The fact that this are kept
in this conditions, surrounded by air full of germs, it makes it impossible for the
impurification process to succed. Even in the case where they are kept in optimal
conditions, away from the germ contact, after they bring it in the shelter, the
contamination is faster and very significant.
CONCLUSIONS
The hygiene state of the surfaces belonging to the milking installations
that come in direct contact with milk is mainly influenced by:
• the performances of automat units of hygiene in relation with the surface
that needs to be hygiened and the correctness in using them by the stuff (the
correctness in the operations washing/disinfection)
• the time between the achievement of the hygiene process and the utilization
of the installations
• the time spent from the hygiene process until the utilization of the installation;
• the ambient in which the milking instsallations are kept and utilized after
the hygiene process (the microgerm cargo of the surfaces with which they come
in direct contact, the density of the air flora in which this are utilized).
In coclusion, these is how is prefectly justified the present global tendency of
giving up on these installations(devices) used in cow milking shelters, and the
purpose is to move this installations in separated rooms, spacialy prepared for
cow milking – milking rooms.
There fore is recommended, by most of the spcialized stuff, to immediat
disinfectation and rinsing of the milking installation after they use it.
Its also added the neccesity of practicing a control through
microbiologibal tests, a control that is able to perform a non-subjectiv estimations
and a correct one concerning the eficiency of the hygiene process on the surfaces
belonging to the installation, that come in direct contact sith the milk.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Maloş Gabriela – Research concerning the influence of the technical and functional
parameters of the milking installations, of the cooling equipments and of the transport equipments
over the qualitative signs of milk. Master’s degree, 2006.
2. Maloş Gabriela, Maloş Iuliu Gabriel, Ianiţchi Daniela, Andra Diaconescu – Practical
papers: The processing of milk and the various kinds of cheese. AMD-USAMV Bucharest, 2002.
- 1053 -
BACK
THE INFLUENCE APPRECIATION OF MILKING

INSTALLATIONS PARAMETERS FOR INITIAL
QUALITY OF MILK
Gabriela MALOŞ, I.G. MALOŞ, Daniela IANIŢCHI,
Lucica NISTOR, Camelia HODOŞAN
The initial qualities of milk, gived by the inter-relations liaise between

animals organism (genetic potential, health) and environment parameters
(sustenance, watering, microclimate), its can’t be improved once the milk left the
udder but in exchange it can be lost irreversible on the
gatherin/conditioning/manipulation flow (milking, cooling, transportation) when
it is not ensure the specific hygiene requirement of milk like a „live” product.
The purpose of the present investigations, make in concrete conditions
for a big production, it is that of initial quality cuantification for milking with
much more types of milking instalations so it can record the difference
semnifications and much possible to establish the causes.
The obtained results notice following aspects:
- the hygiene situation of milking instalations surfaces wich they came in
contact with milk have a certain influence for the milk quality obtained with this
one: straight for the primary microbial cargo and for the trail of inhibitory
substances and somehow indirectly (for some moist surfaces) for the integrity of
fatt content and the milk density;
- the technic-functional parameters of milking instalations have a
influence on relative density (for a volume of inclusion of gases) with important
consequences on nutritional milk quality.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Researches heve been made in period of 1997-2004 (on four annual
experimental cycles: Ceg1...4), on the milk wich was milked at night or in the
morning, with milk intallation in shelter, but with different types and sources: an
installtion with procurement of milk, type RTS 100, the producer is Alfa Laval,
an installation with procurement at can, type SN Banat 100, the producer is Banat
Nova Plus and an installation with procurement of milk at can, IMB3 Multim, the
producer is Multim Timisoara.
The nutrition quality, hygiene and tehnological index, witch they been take
in consideration have the following characters: the temperature, the density,
acidity/Ph and fat, the total number of germs (TNG) and inhibitory substances.
With the temperature exception, theyr determination heve been made on milk
proof, in the reception laboratory of the milk unit.The reap of milk proof has been
made imediately after the milking. The tools and containers used for milk proof have
been clean and dryand the tools and containers for the analyse have been
stelized(sterilized in etilic alcohol (70 %) and passing through the flame). Initial, it
have been reap, separately and in sterility conditions, the milk proof for the
- 1054 -
microbiological analysis (in container of 50 cm3 each), imediately reap the milk proof
for the chemical determination (in container of 1000 cm3 each). Each proof wich has
been transferred to the laboratory was sealed, with label, wich it is mentioned
informations for the milk identifications (the producer, time, the place and the
moment of reap and the special conditions). The proofs transport to laboratory has
been made with the milk tank truck, on the way to the laboratory the proof have been
taked at refrigereted temperatures (4-8 0C) and in the dark in frigorifc boxes.
The milk temperature-T was determinated after the milk was
homogenized, but before the proof reap, it is introduce a glass thermometer into
the tank in milk at 10 cm depth.
The methodes that have been used for other indicators are: the
areoometric method for density determination-D, the titration method for total
acidity determination-A; the acidity butirometric method for fat determination-G;
straight method for total number of germs determination (TNG)
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

To establish the milking installations parameters influence for the initial
quality (after milking) of milk it is been proceed to analize the evolution of
qualitative indicators, on the studied milk installation, wich is presented in tabel:
1, 2 and 3 ata comparative analysis of level evolution realized by the all 3 milking
installations of qualitative indicators to the fresh milk and an analysis of
diffrences semnification evolution result (obtined by the Fisher test in table 4)
The principal aspects notice on the analysis, grouped on quality
indicatores are:
1. The milk temperatures after milking - Tm, in ºC, present medium levels on
the studiet periods amoust between installations and average evolutions on the
studied periods depends on the determination moment after milking and the aer
temperature from the shelter. The significant level is the „unsignificant” in the
case of all the combinations and all the significant levels.
2. The relative density of milk after milking - Dmin g/cm³ and recalculeted for
the temperature of 20 ºC, shows the following average levels on entire period and
average evolutions (fig.1.b): 1,0286±0,00 g/cm³ for the installations RTS 100
(from 1,0285±0,00 g/cm³ in Ceg 3 to the minimum 1,0287±0,00 g/cm³ in Ceg 2),
1,0280±0,00 g/cm³ for the installation SN Banat 100 (from 1,0280±0,00 g/cm³ in
Ceg 1, Ceg 3 and Ceg 4 at 1,0283±0,00 g/cm Ceg 2) and 1,0278±0,00 g/cm³ for
the installation IBM 3 Multim (from 1,0277±0,00 g/cm³ in Ceg 1 la 1,0279±0,00
g/cm³ in Ceg 3). The significant level on the entire period (tabelul 4) it is „very
significant” in the case of installations cobination RTS 100/SN Banat 100
(F=16,95) and RTS 100/IBM 3 Multim (F=31,35) and „insignifcant” in the case
of installations combination SN Banat 100/ IBM 3 Multim.
- 1055 -
Tabel 1.: The evolution of milk quality parameters reap with milking installation
to pipe RTS 100 Alfa Laval
Studied periods
SPECIFICATION
x 36,96 36,98 37,18 37,13 37,06
Temperature - Tm
± Sx ± 0,05 ± 0,14 ± 0,12 ± 0,12 ± 0,06
(ºC)
cv% 0,47 1,27 1,09 1,16 1,04
x 1,0286 1,0287 1,0285 1,0286 1,0286
Density - Dm
³ ± Sx ± 0,00 ± 0,00 ± 0,00 ± 0,00 ± 0,00
(g/cm )
cv% 0,10 0,06 0,06 0,15 0,10
x 4,20 4,16 4,12 4,13 4,15
Fat - Gm
± Sx ± 0,04 ± 0,04 ± 0,04 ± 0,04 ± 0,02
(%)
cv% 4,55 5,26 5,11 5,17 5,00
x 16,33 16,29 16,42 16,46 16,38
Acidity - Am
± Sx ± 0,10 ± 0,09 ± 0,10 ± 0,10 ± 0,05
(ºT)
cv% 2,95 2,85 3,07 2,99 2,99
x 913,50 756,75 749,25 732,58 788,02
NTGm
± Sx ± 92,24 ± 40,90 ± 40,65 ± 37,92 ± 28,82
(germeni x10³/cm³)
cv% 33,36 17,92 18,06 18,09 25,34
Inhibitory cazuri 3 4 3 2 12
substances - SIm (%) 12,50 16,67 12,50 8,33 12,50
The average values and especially the signification levels obtained to support
the teory of influence existence, at least for the milking ibstallations with
procurement of milk to pipe, for the milk density when it is milking with it, the
influence is of rising the level of this parameter.
The explication for this influence mybe that, on the long way made by the
milk in the pipe, under vacuum, in mixture with an exceptional air, it is been
created good conditions to include big volumes of gases (CO2, N2 şi O2).
Betweehn 2 h, when the milk proof is in repose some volumes of gases(25-30 %
pentru CO2) are eliminated, but the rest of volumes remain in the milk.So, for a
significant volumes of milk, it can be affirmed that the incluted gases in the milk
remain in the milk, even in a big proportion for a long time.
The consequences are very negative for nutritive quality and tehnological
milk, and owen incluted O2 wich realize the fat oxidation and some
vitamines(especially vitamine C).
- 1056 -
37.4 1.0288
Densitate - Dm(g/cm3)
1.0286
37.2
Temperatură -Tm(oC)
1.0284
37.0 1.0282
1.028
36.8
1.0278
1.0276
36.6
1.0274
36.4 1.0272

36.2
RTS 100 BN 100 IBM 3
RTS 100 BN 100 IBM 3
a) Temperature - Tm (ºC) b) Relative density - Dm (g/cm³)
4,2 17
Conţinut grăsime -G m(%)
4,1 16.9
Aciditate - Am (oT)
16.8
4
16.7
3,9 16.6
3,8 16.5
16.4
3,7
16.3
3,6
16.2
3,5 16.1
3,4 16
Cex1 Cex2 Cex3 Cex4 Media Cex1 Cex2 Cex3 Cex4 Media
RTS 100 BN 100 IBM 3 RTS 100 BN 100 IBM 3
c) Fat - Gm (%) d) Titrabil acidity - Am (ºT)

25
1000
Substanţe inhib. - SIm(%)
900
NTG m(mii germeni/cm3)
800 20
700
600 15
500
400 10
300
200 5
100
0 0
Cex1 Cex2 Cex3 Cex4 Media Cex1 Cex2 Cex3 Cex4 Media
RTS 100 BN 100 IBM 3 RTS 100 BN 100 IBM 3
e) The total number of germs – NTGm f) Inhibitory substances SIm

(germeni x 10³ /cm³) (% cazuri (+) din total probe)
Fig. 1. The initial quality appreciation (after milking) of reap milk with the milking installation
- 1057 -
3. The content in fat - Gm, in %, present the following average levels on the
studied periods and average evolutions on the studied periods (fig.1.c):
4,15±0,02% for the installation RTS 100 (from 4,12±0,04 % in Ceg 3 at
4,20±0,04 % in Ceg 1), 3,94±0,02 % for installation SN Banat 100 (from
3,93±0,05 % in Ceg 3 and Ceg 4 la 3,95±0,05 % in Ceg 2); 3,69±0,01 % for the
instalation IBM 3 Multim (from 3,67±0,03 % in Ceg 4 at 3,73±0,03 % in Ceg 1).
The significant level for entire period it is „teh most significant” (tabelul 4) in the
case of all the installations combinations RTS 100/SN Banat 100 (F=45,58); RTS
100/IBM 3 Multim (F=336,05) and SN Banat 100/ IBM 3 Multim (F=79,71).
Tabel 2.: The evokution of milk quality parameter reap with the milking installation
for can procurement SN Banat 100
Studied periods
SPECIFICATION
x 37,22 37,13 37,20 37,09 37,16
Temperature - Tm
± Sx ± 0,16 ± 0,09 ± 0,08 ± 0,07 ± 0,05
(ºC)
cv% 1,49 0,88 0,76 0,65 0,98
x 1,0280 1,0283 1,0280 1,0280 1,0280
Density- Dm
± Sx ± 0,00 ± 0,00 ± 0,00 ± 0,00 ± 0,00
(g/cm³)
cv% 0,08 0,12 0,08 0,15 0,11
x 3,94 3,95 3,93 3,93 3,94
Fat - Gm
± Sx ± 0,04 ± 0,05 ± 0,05 ± 0,05 ± 0,02
(%)
cv% 5,34 5,93 6,73 6,07 5,94
x 16,63 16,58 16,67 16,50 16,59
Acidity- Am
± Sx ± 1,01 ± 0,12 ± 0,16 ± 0,13 ± 0,07
(ºT)
cv% 3,89 3,52 4,57 4,00 3,98
NTGm x 662,25 443,42 438,00 400,58 486,06
(germeni ± Sx ± 105,09 ± 43,11 ± 34,15 ± 41,81 ± 33,78
x10³/cm³) cv% 54,57 32,16 27,11 37,56 48,15
Inhibitory cazuri 2 2 3 1 8
substances - SIm (%) 8,33 8,33 12,5 4,17 8,33
The average values especially the significant levels obtined sustain the theory
of a rise influence existence of this parameter level at the fresh milk with the
milking installation RTS 100 and SN Banat 100, and the installation IBM 3
Multim. The sustain theory by some authors wich the fat content of milk it is
influenced by the milking technics, and if it is aplicated a masaj and an additional
milking after the principal milking we obtaine much more fat in milk, the used
installation is RTS 100. After the milking this installation realize for 20 – 30
seconds an eficient masaj and a rise of quantity over 200 g/min and then this
installation use the parameters from principal milking. This theory it is not
available for SN Banat 100 because it is not realized an additional milking.
- 1058 -
Tabel 3: The milk quality parameter evolution with the milking installation
for can procurement IBM 3 Multim
Studied periods
SPECIFICATION
x 37,07 37,04 37,13 36,96 37,05
Temperatura - Tm
± Sx ± 0,07 ± 0,13 ± 0,11 ± 0,06 ± 0,05
(ºC)
cv% 0,65 0,23 1,00 0,58 0,89
x 1,0277 1,0278 1,0279 1,0278 1,0278
Densitate - Dm
³ ± Sx ± 0,00 ± 0,00 ± 0,00 ± 0,00 ± 0,00
(g/cm )
cv% 0,09 0,07 0,03 0,16 0,10
x 3,72 3,70 3,68 3,67 3,69
Grăsime - Gm
± Sx ± 0,03 ± 0,03 ± 0,03 ± 0,03 ± 0,01
(%)
cv% 3,42 3,43 3,64 3,89 3,57
x 16,83 16,79 16,71 16,88 16,80
Aciditatea - Am
± Sx ± 0,13 ± 0,13 ± 0,14 ± 0,12 ± 0,07
(ºT)
cv% 3,78 3,92 4,13 3,63 3,81
NTGm x 638,83 449,67 460,08 426,33 493,29
(germeni ± Sx ± 104,29 ± 34.06 ± 43,59 ± 44,14 ± 32,60
x10³/cm³) cv% 56.03 25.11 32,16 36,26 45,74
Substanţe cazuri 6 5 4 3 18
inhibitoare - SIm (%) 25,00 20,83 16,67 12,5 18,75
4. The tritibal acidity after milking - Am, in ºT meens, indirectly, the

transformation degree by the lactic organical structure from the milk, by the milk
lactose in lactic acid, present the following average levels and average evolutions
(fig. 1.d): 16,38±0,05 ºT to the installation RTS 100 (from 16,29±0,09 ºTin Ceg 2
to 16,46±0,10 ºT in Ceg 4), 16,59±0,07 ºT to the installation SN Banat 100 (de la
16,50±0,13 ºT in Ceg 4,to 16,67±0,16 ºT in Ceg 3) şi 16,80±0,07 ºT to the
installation IBM 3 Multim (de la 16,71±0,14 ºTin Ceg 3 to 16,88±0,12 ºT in Ceg
4). The significant level on the entire period (table 4.) it is „teh most signifcant”
in case of installations combinations RTS 100/SN Banat 100 (F=6,85) and SN
Banat 100/ IBM 3 Multim (F=4,92) and „very significant” in case of
installations combinations RTS 100/IBM 3 Multim (F=26,94) .
- 1059 -
Tabel 4.: The evolution of parameter influence signification of milking installations

on initial quality of milk
RTS 100 / RTS 100 / SN 100 /

Milking installation SN100 IBM 3 IBM 3
SPECIFICATION
RTS SN IBM F/ F/ F/
100 100 3 Signification Signification Signification
Ceg1
Temperature - Tm
(ºC) 36,96 37,22 37,07 2,10 NS 1,47 NS 0,63 NS
Density - Dm
(g/cm³) 1,0286 1,0280 1,0277 8,07 ** 15,81 *** 1,56 NS
Fat - Gm
(%) 4,20 3,94 3,73 19,82 *** 106,3 *** 20,08 ***
Acidity- Am
(ºT) 16,33 16,63 16,83 3,13 NS 9,40 ** 1,26 NS
NTGm (germs
x10³/cm³) 913,50 662,25 638,83 3,38 NS 4,09 * 0,02 *
Ceg 2
Temperature - Tm
(ºC) 36,98 37,13 37,04 0,71 NS 0,07 NS 0,29 NS
Density - Dm
(g/cm³) 1,0287 1,0283 1,0278 6,32 * 21,06 *** 0,37 NS
Fat - Gm
(%) 4,16 3,95 3,7 10,15 ** 80,43 *** 21,88 ***
Acidity - Am
(ºT) 16,29 16,58 16,79 3,67 NS 9,25 ** 1,34 NS
NTGm (germs
x10³/cm³) 756,75 443,42 449,08 30,41 *** 36,33 *** 0,01 NS
Ceg 3
Temperature - Tm
(ºC) 37,13 37,20 37,13 0,01 NS 0,10 NS 0,26 NS
Density - Dm
(g/cm³) 1,0285 1,0280 1,0279 5,66 * 9,52 ** 0,14 NS
Fat - Gm
(%) 4,12 3,93 3,68 8,06 ** 73,73 *** 15,97 ***
Acidity - Am
(ºT) 16,42 16,67 16,71 1,8 NS 2,79 NS 0,03 NS
NTGm (germs
x10³/cm³) 749,25 438,00 460,08 35,86 *** 24,95 *** 0,16 NS
- 1060 -
Ceg 4
Temperature - Tm
(ºC) 37,13 37,09 36,96 0,05 NS 1,26 NS 1,68 NS
Density- Dm
(g/cm³) 1,0286 1.0280 1,0278 1,94 NS 3,03 NS 0,17 NS
Fat - Gm
(%) 4,13 3,93 3,67 9,35 ** 76,33 *** 20,07 ***
Acidity - Am
(ºT) 16,46 16,50 16,88 0,06 NS 6,57 * 4,17 *
NTGm (germs
x10³/cm³) 732,58 400,58 426,33 32,90 *** 27,14 *** 0,17 NS
Average
Temperature - Tm
(ºC) 37,06 37,16 37,05 1,43 NS 0,03 NS 2,18 NS
Density - Dm
(g/cm³) 1,0286 1,0278 1,0278 16,95 *** 31,35 *** 1,49 NS
Fat - Gm
(%) 4,15 3,94 3,69 45,58 *** 336,05 *** 79,71 ***
Acidity- Am
(ºT) 16,38 16,59 16,80 6,85 * 26,94 *** 4,92 *
NTGm
(germsx10³/cm³) 788,02 486,06 493,29 46,24 *** 45,74 *** 0,02 NS
The average values obtained, are in normal limits (16,5º…18,3 ºT;

6,5…6,7 units pH) for the cow milk fresh milking.
5. Total number of aerobian germs – TNG, used like germs x 10³/cm³ milk,
present the following average levels and average avolutions for a studieted period
(fig. 1.e): 788,02±28,82 germs x10³/cm³ for the installations RTS 100 (from
732,58±37,92 germs x10³/cm³ in Cex 4 at 913,50±92,24 germs x10³/cm³ in Ceg 1),
486,06±33,78 germs x10³/cm³ for installations SN Banat 100 (400,58±41,81
germs x10³/cm³ in Ceg 4 and 662,25±105,09 germs x 10³/cm³ in Ceg 1) andi
493,29±32,60 germs x 10³/cm³ for the installations IBM 3 Multim (from a
minimum of 426,33±44,14 germs x 10³/cm³ in Ceg 4 at 638,83±104,29 germs x
10³/cm³ in Cex 1). The significant levels for the entire period (tabelul 4) it is „the
most significant” in case of installations combinations RTS 100/SN Banat 100
(F=46,24) and RTS 100/IBM 3 Multim (F=45,74) and „insignificant” in case of
installations combinations SN Banat 100/ IBM 3 Multim .
For the interpretation of average values obtained for the microbian structure
of milk after milking and the difference of significant level founded between the
milking installations heve to remember the reap conditions of milk proof for the
examination and we observe that a big microbian content it is in the milk from the
milk installation wich is IBM 3 Multim and SN Banat 100,
6. The present frequences of inhibitory substances in milk after milking - SIm, in
% pozitive cases (+) from a total studied froof (12 proof, on year and on the
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BACK
installations, after milking) present the following average levels and average
evolutions (fig.1.f): 12,5 % for the installation RTS 100 (from 8,33 % in Ceg 4 at
16,67 % in Ceg 2), 8,33 % for the installation SN Banat 100 (from 4,17 % in Ceg
4, la 12,5 % in Ceg 2) and 18,75 % for the installation IBM 3 Multim (from 12,5
% in Ceg 4 at 25,00 % in Ceg 1).
The average values obtained il all periods it have like result deficiencys,
mai bigger or smaller, to realize the milking hygiene installations when are wagh
and dry. We mention that we eliminated the other posible inhibitory substances
(ex. antibiotics).The present of inhibitory substances in milk mybe be causeda
irreversible degradation of technological and nutritive quality. So that quantitys of
milk it can’t be used for milk products.
CONCLUSIONS
The concusions after this presentasion are following:
- tyhe sitaution hygiene of milking surfaces ce wich contact the milk has
a certain infuence on milk quality obtain with this: straight for the primary
microbian structure and for inhibitory substances and indirectly on the integrity of
fat and density of milk.
- the milking installations technical-functional parameter have an
influence on relative density (trough inclusion of some gases volume much or less
important) with important consequences on milk nutritive quality.
- on fat content, as ew can saw an certain influence about milking
installations, the results are contradictory.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Maloş Gabriela – Research concerning the influence of the technical and functional
parameters of the milking installations, of the cooling equipments and of the transport equipments
over the qualitative signs of milk. Master’s degree, 2006
2. Maloş Gabriela, Maloş Iuliu Gabriel, Ianiţchi Daniela, Andra Diaconescu – Practical
papers: The processing of milk and the various kinds of cheese. AMD-USAMV Bucharest, 2002
- 1062 -
BACK
MATERIAL BALANCE FOR OBTAINING SHRIMPS CANS

IN BRINE AND CRAB CANS IN OIL
Carmen Georgeta NICOLAE, Georgeta DINIŢĂ,
Dana POPA, R. AL. POPA, T. ISBĂŞESCU
Seafood could be presented as food products with a great nourishing

value and a special contribution to human nutrition optimization, but also as raw
material for the processing unit. The present study proposed itself the analyze of
processing 200 kg/day shrimps and crabs having in view the obtaining of two
canned sorts (in brine and oil) establishing the material balance for each sort.
Upon the balance realized according to technological diagram, it can conclude
that by processing the same amount of seafood it is obtained a larger amount of
cans in brine from shrimps meet (16.6 kg more cans in brine than cans in oil.).
Key words: shrimps, crabs, cans, balance of material
INTRODUCTION
Fish and sea-fruit meat represents after the poultry the second source of
animal protein, with an average between 9 and 30%, but in some countries, as the
great producers, it is situated on the firs place.
Lately, the sea-fruit consumption has a great importance due to their
nourishing and tasty features, the products becoming more and more diversified.

The materials of the study consist of the Crangon crangon and Cancer
pagurus species. It will be calculated the quantity of cans in brine and oil which
are obtained by processing 200 kg raw material, with the aid of the balance sheet.
Since the quantity of resulted product is known (Me), from a technologic
work and its losses, we are able to calculate the quantity of raw material (Mi) as it
follows:
Mi=Me + P x Mi/100
In which:
P = percentage of estimated losses;
Mi = quantity of raw material entered into the considered activity;
Me = quantity of raw material in the considered activity.

Starting from premise that there will be processed equal amounts of
shrimps and crabs, respective 200 kg daily, it was calculated the balance sheet for
each canned category, being established the required raw material (table 1 and 2).
- 1063 -
Table 1
Partial balance sheet for shrimps cans in brine
Technologic Protein
Meat Water Lipids Ashes Losses %
work s
100 kg 74.3 kg 23 kg 0.9 kg 1.8 kg
Raw material
98.1 72.8 22.7 0.8 1.8 -1.9%
stocking
Defrost 88.3 63.5 22.4 0.6 1.8 kg -10%
-15%;
Boiling in brine 75.9 52.6 20.2 0.4 2.7
+1% salt
Cooling 75.7 52.5 20.1 0.4 2.7 -0.2%
Decapitation
and 34.1 16.4 15.9 0.4 1.4 -55%
decortication
Washing up 32.7 15.5 15.6 0.2 1.4 -4%
-0.2%
Can’s filling 42.4 19.2 18.2 0.3 4.7 +30%
brine
TOTAL 42.4 19.2 18.2 0.3 4.7
Total balance sheet for shrimps cans in brine – per 100 kg – is: 45.28%
water, 42.92 % proteins, 0.72 % lipids and 11.08 % ashes.
M0 = 200.0 M1 = 200 – 3.8 = 196.2 p0 = 3.8

M1 = 196.2 M2 = 196.2 – 19.6 = 176.6 p1 = 19.6
M2 = 176.6 M3 = 176.6 + 1.7 – 26.5 = 151.8 p2 = 26.5
M3 = 151.8 M4 = 151.8 – 0.4 = 151.4 p3 = 0.4
M4 = 151.4 M5 = 151.4 – 83.2 = 68.2 p4 = 83.2
M5 = 68.2 M6 = 68.2 – 2.8 = 65.4 p5 = 2.8
M6 = 65.4 M7 = 65.4 + 19.6 – 0.2 = 84.8 p6 = 0.2
From 200 kg non-processed shrimps there were obtained 84.8 kg shrimps

cans in brine.
- 1064 -
Table 2
Partial balance sheet for crab in oil cans
Technologic
Meat Water Proteins Lipids Ashes Losses %
work
100 kg 74 kg 22 kg 2.5 kg 1.5 kg
Raw material
98 72.5 21.7 2.3 1.5 -2%
stocking
Defrost 88.2 63.2 21.4 2.1 1.5 -10%
Shell
removing and
73.6 50.5 20.1 2.1 0.9 -16.6%
pulling out of
terminations
Washing up 72.1 49.3 19.3 2 0.9 -2%
Boiling and
-65%;
declutching of 26 13.4 10.1 1.1 1.4
+1% salt
termination
Cooling 25.9 13.3 10.1 1.1 1.4 -0.2%
1.5% acetic -0.3%;
acid 25.8 13.3 10 1.1 1.4 +0.1%
immersion acetic acid
Washing and -3%;
25.3 12.6 9.9 1.1 1.7
sorting +1% salt
-0.2%
Can’s filling 34.1 12.5 9.9 10 1.7
+35% oil
TOTAL 34.1 12.5 9.9 10 1.7
Total balance sheet for crab cans in oil – per 100 kg – is: 36.66 % water,
29.03 % proteins, 29.33 % lipids and 4.98 % ash.
M0 = 200.0 M1 = 200.0 – 4.0 = 196.0 p0 = 4.0

M1 = 196.0 M2 = 196.0 – 19.6 = 176,4 p1 = 19.6
M2 = 176.4 M3 = 176.4 – 29.2 = 147.2 p2 = 29.2
M3 = 147.2 M4 = 147.2 – 3.0 = 144.2 p3 = 3.0
M4 = 144.2 M5 = 144.2 + 1.5 – 93.7 = 52.0 p4 = 93.7
M5 = 52.0 M6 = 52.0 – 0.2 = 51.8 p5 = 0.2
M6 = 51.8 M7 = 51.8 + 0.1 – 0.3 = 51.6 p6 = 0,3
M7 = 51.6 M8 = 51.6 + 0.5 – 1.5 = 50.6 p7 = 1,5
M8 = 50.6 M9 = 50.6 + 17.7 – 0.1 = 68.2 p8 = 0,1
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BACK
From 200 kg non-processed crabs there were obtained 68.2 kg crab cans
in oil.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The obtaining of sea food activity contributes to diversifying the food
products range.
2. From the total sheet balance resulted that there were obtained 84.8 kg
shrimps cans in brine and 68.2 kg crab cans in oil, by processing 200 kg raw
material.
3. Processing the same amount of shrimps and crabs (200 kg) there are
obtained 16.6 kg more cans in brine than cans in oil.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Banu, C. ş.a. (1998) – Manualul inginerului de industrie alimentară, Vol. I, Editura Tehnică,
Bucureşti.
2. Maniu, A. (1998) – Manualul calităţii, Editura Economică, Bucureşti.
3. Nicolae, Carmen (2002) – Procesarea produselor piscicole, U.S.A.M.V., Bucureşti.
***Institutul Român de Standardizare (1997) – Culegere de standarde române comentate (conserve
de carne), Bucureşti.
- 1066 -
BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE INFLUENCE OF THE

VITAL GLUTEN ON THE BREADMAKING QUALITIES OF
FLOURS
Lucica NISTOR, Minodora TUDORACHE,
Georgeta DINIŢĂ, I.G. MALOŞ, Gabriela MALOŞ
The work is focused on the influence of the gluten on the breading

qualities of wheat flour. Gluten represents the flour protein and it has an
important role in bread making process, especially in the bread volume and final
quality.
One method of obtaining vital gluten is by protein separation from a
mix of flour and water by physical extraction. The water insoluble fraction is
after that transformed into a powder yellow fraction which represents the
commercial vital gluten. The protein content of the final product is 75-80% d.w.
The flour protein quality may vary according to the wheat source and
the drying conditions used for wheat conditioning. After the separation by
washing of the soft dough, the gluten is dried to a 6-8% moisture level.
For a decreased level of gluten, the dough is more plate even if its
elastic proprieties are superior. The content of gluten in wheat flour is 22-32%.
Keywords: gluten, dough, extraction, elasticity, breadmaking process.
INTRODUCTION
Gluten is an insoluble protein compound form the wheat endosperm
which, by water washing of the wheat flour is separated into a starch-lipid-protein
complex. The wheat gluten contains mainly 72.5% protein (77.5% d.w.), 5.7%
lipids, 6.4% moisture, and 0.7% minerals.
The gluten content varies 22-32% and its quality is determined by the
examination of colour, flavour, elasticity, firmness, extension, and its capacity of
retain water.
The flour hydration propriety (the power of water absorption) is a very
important propriety which determines the flour yield in the dough. From the flour
that absorbs 60% water it is obtained dough with a slow fermentation and it
maintains well the shape during fermentation and cooking. From the weak flour
which absorbs under 54% water, the dough is rapid formed but it is deteriorating
quickly during the final fermentation and the product is flat.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The analysed material was represented by 14 types of wheat flour 480
(control). For each samples were investigated the quality parameters by
extensographic method (extensibility and resistance of the dough), in each sample
was added 10% gluten from different sources. The new sample of flour was
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analyzed in order to determine the same quality parameters, using the same
methods.

The results obtained from the experiment for control and the 10% gluten
improved samples, by extensographic method are represented in table 1.
Table 1
The resistance and extensibility values for control and 10% gluten improved samples
Control flour Control flour + 10% vital gluten
Resistance at 45 min.
Extensibility at 45
Extensibility at 90
Extensibility at 45
Extensibility at 90
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(mm)
(UB)
(UB)
(UB)
(UB)
min.
min.
min.
min.
Nr.
1 280 171 280 152 480 200 550 196

2 400 182 560 164 700 202 840 180
3 230 210 460 185 350 174 440 168
4 370 170 580 160 740 190 820 205
5 360 240 450 185 470 215 530 210
6 400 206 440 180 370 204 370 196
7 240 160 140 155 540 136 400 150
8 120 146 90 112 370 135 410 115
9 220 140 240 127 470 160 680 101
10 130 157 130 152 700 133 850 117
11 220 140 240 127 480 174 640 118
12 360 170 570 149 730 200 800 180
13 280 162 360 159 390 170 560 170
14 360 170 570 149 730 200 800 180
As we can notice, the control samples presented different values of the

main quality parameters. Some samples present levels of resistance improper for
bread making (samples 7, 8 and 10 which present value of resistance at 90
minutes less than 150UB. In the same time, the samples 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 12 and 14
present an increased resistance value, too high for a good bread making and a
good dough reological proprieties.
Normally, these values can be improved by using additives in order to
reduce the resistance (e.g. L-cystein) and by mixing it to weak flours or by
increasing the time for some technological operation (mixing, souring)
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Regarding the homogeneity of the quality parameters of control flours we

have to point out some important issues. In figure 1 is represented the parameter
resistance (R) for the control flours at 45 and 90 minutes.
900
800
700
600
Rezistenta (U.B.)
500
Rezistenta la 45'
400 Rezistenta la 90'
300
200
100
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
proba
Fig.1. – Distribution of R parameter (resistance) for control sample flours at 45 and 90 minutes.
It can be observed the existence of bigger variation of the flour resistance

at 90 minutes compared to the same parameter at 45 minutes. The developing
qualities parameters varies in time and the enzymatic compex of flours is not
expressing spontaneously. For the majority of flours, the resistance at 90 minutes
is bigger than at 45 minutes with some exceptions:
- samples 1 and 10 registered a constant resistance parameter;
- samples 7 and 8 shown a decreased resistance parameter;
From the perspective of the dough extensibility, is observed that this
parameter do not point problems for bread making process and quality. In figure 2
it is represented the variation of extensibility (E) at 45 and 90 minutes.
250
200
Extensibilitatea, mm
150
Extensibilitatea la 45'
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Proba
Fig.2. – Variation of the extensibility of control flours and gluten improved samples
at 45 and 90 minutes
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It is observed that the extensibility at 90 minutes have a light diminished

variation compared to that at 45 minutes. In the same time, the general
extensibility decreases for 90 minutes compared to 45 minutes samples, which
can be correlated with the increasing of the resistance parameter in these
conditions.
For the improved flours samples it was remarked that the resistance
parameter was very high for both time range compared to the control samples. In
the meantime, there is a good stability of the resistance parameter at 45 and 90
minute, even if the values for the last time period are a little higher.
250
200
Extensibilitatea, mm
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Proba
Fig. 3. – Distribution of the resistance parameter for the 10% vital gluten improved flours
at 45 and 90 minutes
As regarding the extensibility of gluten improved flours we noticed a

light increasing of this parameter as according to the control samples, higher at 45
minutes than at 90 minutes. The variation ratio is relatively constant.
Figure 3 shows an increase value of resistance for the improved flours
compared to the control ones. For the 6 sample it can be noticed a very small
difference and the higher difference between this parameter is registered for the
sample 10 (570UB).
As regarding the resistance at 90 minute, the increasing trend remains
important for this period of time. For samples 3 and 6 the resistance was
decreased (20 and 70 UB respectively, compared to control samples). The most
important rise is for sample 10, representing 6.5 times more than the initial value.
Figure 4 shows the evolution of the extensibility for the improved flours
compared with the control ones at 45 minutes. The whole evolution of the
improved flours extensibility reported to the control is ………….; there is no a
net evolution direction. The sample 3 registers the most important decrease (-36
UB) and for the sample 11, the biggest increasing of the extensibility (34 UB).
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300
250
200
E martor la 45'
150
E+gluten la 45
100
50
0
Fig.4. The differences between the values of the extensibility at 45 minutes for the
control and 10% gluten improved flours
At 90 minutes, the behaviour of the extensibility is not modifying

significantly (figure 5). The sample 10 registered this time the biggest decreasing
(-35 UB) and for the samples 4 and 1, the most spectacular increasing (45 and 44
UB respectively).
250
200
E m artor la
150 90'
100 E+gluten la
50 90'
Fig. 5 – The differences of the extensibility of 90 minutes for control and gluten
improved flours.
For the samples 12 and 14 we have noticed an identical evolution for the
whole parameters despite the fact that we worked with two different types of
control flours added with different types of gluten. This situation can be explained
on the basis that the flours and gluten used for the experiment have similar
qualities proprieties.
The contradictory behaviour of the control flour used for the study can be
explained on the used gluten quality. Therefore, the gluten quality is essential for
the real improvement of flour and the evaluation of gluten quality is underlined by
an similar extensographic method.
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
• The tested wheat samples presented the average values of the quality
parameters represented by protein, gluten normally registered for the wheat
cultivated in our country.
• The extraction in the flour making process improves certain quality
parameters (e.g. gluten content and the deformation index (the last one is
significantly influenced by the extraction degree).
• The extensibility of flours added with vital gluten presented a slightly
increasing compared to the control samples, more obvious at 45 minutes than 90
minutes. This suggests that the vital gluten is integrated rapidly in the native
glutenos net and it is subsequently influenced by the composition of control
flours.
• In certain cases, the addition of gluten determined a decreasing of the
resistance and the extensibility compared to the control flour (sample 6). This
means that the vital gluten contributes with its own factors of influence on the
dough quality, giving new features. Those influence factors depends on the gluten
identity and are specific for each gluten batch.
• For the gluten improved flours it was observed an increasing of the
resistance at 45 and 90 minutes.
• The added vital gluten in the control samples was rapidly integrated in
the main glutenic net of the control flour and it was hydrolyzed by the flour
enzymes but it exerting the own activity in stabilisation of flour.
We consider that our observations can clarify a list of problems less
known and explained for the bread making and milling activity. The importance
of quality and the evaluation of risks and the system of quality control will
determine the processors to focus on the new technologies that include chemical
improvement to be reduced and replaced with natural additives.
REFERENCES
1. Banu C şi col.- Influenţa proceselor tehnologice asupra calităţii produselor alimentare, vol. I, II
Editura Tehnica, Bucureşti, 1979
2. Constantin I. Cartea Morarului. Editura tehnică, Bucureşti, 1984.
3. Segal, R.- principiile nutriţiei, Editura Academiei, Galaţi, 2002.
4. * * Standard de stat referitor la analiza lutenului vital SR ISO 5530-2
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BACK
THE INFLUENCE OF HUSK ADDING ON CHEMICAL AND

PHISICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF BREAD
Lucica NISTOR, Victoria Gratziela BAHACIU,
Camelia HODOŞAN, S. BARBUICA, Andra SULER
This paper tries to determine how adding husk can influence the
characteristics of bred. We tried to evaluate the chemical and physical
characteristics of bred.
Husk is obtained by mechanical processing the wheat, during the
second groats; husk is a residual product of this process.
The husk is added during the breadstuff preparing which is not
complied with a further analysis.
Vegetal fibers are added in a 5-35% proportion related to the wheat
flour quantity, depending on the concentration of vegetal fiber wanted and the
products’ final destination.
The wheat husk is the most used ingredient as a vegetal fiber source for
breadstuff. This happens because husk is cheap and easy to find, affordable.
Also, the husk contains not only vegetal fibers, but vitamins, mineral salts and
proteins .
The husk contains 40 to 50 percents alimentary fibers, made of
hemicellulose and lignin.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

For preparing the analysis samples, we used wheat flour 650-type,
corresponding to quality parameters.
The wheat flour used was obtained during a technological process with the
following steps: purification, wet conditioning, grinding and sifting.
The wheat flour obtained this way is used for breadstuff, but before this it’s
analyzed to see its physical, chemical, sensitive and microbiologic characteristics.
ANALYSIS RESULT
The physical and chemical characteristics of different bread samples,
containing a different amount of husk, determined by psysical and chemical
anlysis are shown in the table below.
Table 1
Characteristic Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4
Humidity, % 44 43,9 45,4 46,1
Elasticity, % 84,4 84,2 79,3 75,1
Porosity, % 94,7 98,2 97,7 93,3
Volume, cm3 100 447,9 437 390 294
Proportion H/D 7/30 6,5/31 6,0/28 5,9/27
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Analyzing the samples volume, when baking, we found out that the volume
decreases as the fiber quantity added increases.
Modifying the added fiber quantity determines the modification of some
physical, chemical and technological bread parameters. These modifications
directly affect the quality of the end product.
46,5
46
45,5
45
44,5
Humidity
44
43,5
43
42,5
1 2 2 4
Sample
Fig. 1 The humidity evolution on analyzed bread samples
Regarding the humidity of the bread samples with a different amount of

husk, we found out that the greater the humidity is, the bigger the amount of fiber
is. This happens because the fibers have the property to absorb water. Thus, the
bigger the amount of fibers is, the more the dough’s humidity increases, so it
increases bread’s humidity.
The porosity of the analyzed samples is also influenced by the added fiber
amount. The sample of wheat flour containing 7 percent husk has a good porosity
(84,4%) while the porsosity of the husk samples decreases as the quantity of husk
increases.
This happens because in the wheat flour, as the fiber level increases, the
gluten and fecula level decreases. The decreasing of fecula level determines the
decreasing of the wheat flour’s property of forming fermenting glucides, a
fermentative process slowing, a reducing of CO2 quantity exhaled by alcoholic
fermentation and, implicit, breads porosity.
Also, the decreasing of gluten quantity affects the dough’s capacity of
retaining CO2, affecting the porosity.
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99
98
97
96
95
94 Porosity
93
92
91
90
1 2 3 4
Sample
Fig.2 The porosity evolution on analyzed bread samples containing different

amounts of fibers
By analyzing the chart, it appears that a greater amount of husk

determines a porosity decrease. The control sample, where no fibers were added,
has the best porosity
The elasticity of samples containing husk is lower for the sample
containing 7 percent husk and for the one without husk, and is higher for the
sample containing 12 percent husk. The elasticity is low for the sample containing
18 percent husk.
86
84
82
80
78
Elasticitate
76
74
72
70
1 2 3 4
Fig. 3 The elasticity evolution on analyzed bread samples
The bread samples elasticity decreased with the increasing of added fibers
quantity because of the gluten level decreasing. By increasing the fiber quantity
some gluten is replaced, which makes the dough to be less elastic and after baking
not to return to its original shape after compression. The sample with the best
elasticity was sample no.2, containing 12 percent husk.
The analysis also observed the volume evolution of bread containing
different amounts of alimentary fibers. The lab analysis revealed that if we add 7
percent husk, the bread volume decreases in proportion with the decrease of
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BACK
glutenic proteins. Above this 7 percent value, bread’s vlume decreases with a rate
greater than the theoretically one because of the glutenic protein content decreasing.
Also, observing the varying of dough’s volume when baking, revealed that
the dough containing fibers increases its volume less than the dough without
fibers. This happens because of the higher water level contained by the dough
containing fibers.
Thus, when adding 18 percent husk in proportion with wheat flour, the
sample has a volume value of 390, much lower that the sample 1 and 2 where the
volume is over 400 and comparing with the STAS where the husk bread’s volume
should be at least 400.
450
400
350
300
250
200 Volume
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4
Fig. 4 The volume evolution on analyzed bread samples
FINAL CONCLUSIONS
When adding fibers in proportion of maximum 20 percent, the products are

compatible with the control sample. High concentrations of 40-50% make the
bread’s volume, porosity and elasticity of the bread-crumb to be improper.
Adding fibers determines the extension of freshness and the diminution of
obsolescence rate for breadstuff. Thus, the husk bread has a 24 hours best before
period if unpacked and a 5 days best before period if packed, comparing with the
white bread which has a 3 days best before period if packed.
The most used alimentary fibers are husk of wheat, corn, rye, rice,
sorghum and soybean fibers. The fibers from vegetables are rarely used.
The simple bread has a a high calorific value, thus replacing some wheat
flour with husk which is hypocalorific decreases the bread’s energetic value,
making it hypocalorific.
REFERENCES
1. Banu C. (1986) Manualul inginerului de industrie alimentară- Editura Tehnică, Bucureşti.
2. Bordei D. (2004) Ştiinţa şi tehnologia modernă de panificaţie, Editura Tehnică Bucureşti.
3. Leonte M (2000) Biochimia şi tehnologia panificaţiei.
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BACK
STUDY OF THE PHYSICO-CHEMICAL AND

MICROBIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS OF COTTAGE
CHEESE OBTAINED FROM BUFFALO MILK
Aurelia PECE, C. COROIAN, Bianca GHIRILĂ, G. MURESAN
The aim of the researches is to evidence the physico-chemical and

microbiological properties for framing the obtained product in the norms. The
determination were made on 25 samples of cottage cheese obtained from buffalo
milk by using diferent selective medium culture. The results of the determination
was showing that the majority of the bacterias were absent. Exception was
making the dregs and moulds which had values between 510-768 germs/g,
coliphorme bacteria between 2.3-9.4 germs/g ans Staphylococcus coagulates +
between 3-10 germs/g. The contamination with Staphylococcus coagulates + can
be referable to the diferent manipulation and contamination due the
technological process of the obtainement of end-product.
Key words: buffalo, chemical composition, microbiological quality;
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Milk quality is influenced by many parameters, especially by the
obtainment conditions and primary treatment from the producer unities. In the
chemical constitution of milk were find out over 200 components, some of them
in big quantities (water, fat, preteins) and others in small quantities, but all of this
components are in a good correlation with an important role in the obtainment
technology of dairy-produce goods. The determination of NaCl was possible
through the chloride precipitation with AgNO3 in the presence of chrome plated
potassium as indicator.
In this way can be controlled the wrapping and stamping mode, the
physico-chemical properties of milk as well as the products sanitation. Estimation
of cheese pieces can be realized as in the requirements.
The main danger in milk contamination and of dairy-produce goods
contamination with Staphylococcus is the producing of gastro-enteritis keen at
humans. The enteritoxine is heat proof, which is why the toxiinfection can appear
many times through the pasteurized milk consume. S. Aureus is destroyed
through the normal pasteurization methods.

Starting from the fact that the quality assurance of starting material is one
of the principal parameters which is conditioning the quality of end product, in
this study will be presented the results from the obtainment of cottage cheese
from buffalo milk. After the determination that we made was obtained the next
results: for U% determination: the values are between 42.05-54.21%. For NaCl
determination percent the values obtained are 2.08-3.72.
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Table 1
Here are the values of physico-chemical parameter
of end-product – cottage cheese
Nr. crt. U% NaCl%
1. 46.02 3.01
2. 48.50 2.63
3. 54.21 3.72
4. 53.11 3.70
5. 45.09 3.50
6. 47.20 2.32
7. 46.01 2.60
8. 42.05 3.00
9. 46.17 2.08
10. 43.10 3.05
11. 44.25 3.01
Was also made the study of next parameters: coliforms bacteria, E. Coli,
Staphylococcus coagulate positive, Salmonella and the total number of dregs and
mould. In the hereinafter table are presented the results obtained through the
microbiological examination of end-product, in this case cottage cheese obtained
in a traditional mode from buffalo milk.
Table 2
The results obtained at microbiological examination of end-product
Nr. Escherichia Bacteriile Salmonella/ Nr. Total de Stafilococ
Crt. Coli/g coliforme/g 25 ml drojdii si coagulaza
mucegaiuri/g pozitiv/ml
1. absent 3 Absent 750 6
2. absent 4 Absent 768 3
3. absent 6.3 Absent 560 7
20. absent 6.6 absent 530 8
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BACK
CONCLUSIONS
From the results presented in the hereinbefore table us can take the conclusions:
• In E Coli case the contamination with the bacteria was absent;
• In Salmonella: the contamination with the bacteria was absent;
• The total number of dregs and mould: the results are between 510-768
germs/g;
• For Staphylococcus coagulate positive, the results are 3-10 germs/g;
contamination in this case can be also attribute to different manipulation.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Fook et al., Y.C. Fook, A. Aminah and K.A. Mohd, 2004 - Bacteriological quality and safety of
raw milk in Malaysia, Food Microbiology 21, pp. 535–541.
2. Fundora et al., O. Fundora, M.E. Gonzalez, O. Lezcano, A. Montejo, N. Pompa and A.V.
Enriquez, 2001 - A comparative study of milk composition and stability of Murrah river
buffaloes and Holstein cows grazing star grass, Cuban Journal of Agricultural Science 35, pp.
219–222.
3. Han and Ding, G. Han and Q.B. Ding, 1994 - A physiochemical study on buffalo milk in
China, Journal of South China Agricultural University 15 (4), pp. 92–97 (in Chinese).
4. Han et al., B.-Z. Han, B. Sesenna, R.R. Beumer and M.J.R. Nout, 2005 - Behaviour of
Staphylococcus aureus during sufu production at laboratory scale, Food Control 16 (), pp. 243–
247.
5. Harmon, R.J., 1994 – Physiology of mastitis and factors affecting somatic cell counts.
Symposium: Mastitis and genetic evaluation for somatic cell coun, J Dairy Sci.77:2103 – 2112.
6. Hartet, P., F. Beaudeau, H. Seegers, C. Fourichon, 1999 – Reduction in milk yield associated
with somatic cell counts up to 600.000 cells/ml in French Holstein cows without clinical
mastitis. Livest. Prod. Sci. 61:33 – 42
7. Jersen R.G., The composition of bovine milk lipids: january 1995 to December 2000 (invited
review), J.Dairy Sci, 2002,85,295-350.
8. Korn, R., 1989 – Microbiologia laptelui si a produselor lactate. Control de calitate, defecte si
remedieri. Ed. Ceres,Bucuresti.
9. Lindmark-Månsson et al., H. Lindmark-Månsson, R. Fondén and H.E. Pettersson, 2003 -
Composition of Swedish dairy milk, International Dairy Journal 13, pp. 409–425.
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CONSIDERATIONS CONCERNING COW MILK

PRODUCING AND MARKETING IN ROMANIA AND
BULGARIA
Agatha POPESCU, Elena ANGEL, Judita SAFARIKOVA
This study aimed to make a comparative analysis of milk producing and

marketing in Romania and Bulgaria, during the period 2001-2006. The paper is
based on the use of several information sources . Based on the statistical data
provided by FAOSTAT, the following indicators specific to such a study were
used : dairy cows stock, milk yield, total milk production, milk producer’s price,
milk imports and exports, quantity and value, import and export milk price.. The
study pointed on that Romania has a better producing potential compared to the
one of Bulgaria, but the both states are the main milk producers within the
CEECS, raising together 28.55 % of cow stock and producing 23.79 % of the
total cow milk producing achieved in this area. The study allowed to emphasize
the similarities and differences concerning milk producing and marketing, as
well as the opportunities and perspectives to increase productivity and
competitiveness in dairy farming am milk processing .
Romania and Bulgaria are among the main milk producers in the Central
and Eastern part of Europe, raising 28.55 % of dairy cows and producing 23.79 %
of the total milk production of the CEECS. [2]
The both countries are facing similar problems concerning dairy farm
structure and size, technical endowment, milk quality, milk marketing, production
costs and milk price [1,3,4,5]. Integration along milk chain could be a solution for
improving productivity and competitiveness [6].
In this context, this study comes to make a comparative analysis upon
milk producing and marketing in the both countries in order to identify the
opportunities and perspectives for increasing milk sector competitiveness
according to the EU requirements.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

In order to study milk producing and marketing in Romania and Bulgaria,
a large variety of information sources were used. The basic statistical data were
collected from FAOSTAT for the period 2001-2006 and also other important
information was used from literature. The following specific indicators were
analyzed: number of dairy cows, milk yield, total milk production, producer’s
price, milk exports and imports, quantity and value, milk export and import price,
milk consumption. These indicators allowed to identify production potential of
the both countries and their contribution to the CEEC’s total milk production.
Also a special attention was paid to the major problems in the field of dairy
farming, as well as to milk chain, identifying the similiarities and differences
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concerning cow milk sector and evaluating its opportunities and perspectives for
improving productivity and competitiveness in the future.

The number of dairy cows. In the year 2006, in Romania there were
1,592 thousand dairy cows, 4.32 times more than in Bulgaria. During the period
2001-2006, the number of dairy cows decreased by 11.44 % in Bulgaria,
respectively from 416.3 thousand heads in 2001 to 368.7 thousand heads in 2006
and by 5.92 % in Romania, more exactly, from 1,692 thousand heads in 2001 to
1,592 thousand heads in the year 2006 (Table 1).
The reduction of the number of dairy cows in the both countries has been
determined by a series of factors such as: the decline in domestic demand, cow
selection based on milk performance, the high share of subsistence farms, which
are not able to raise more cows and meet milk quality requirements imposed by
the EU requirements.
The number of farms and Farm Size.In the year 2005 , Bulgaria had
151,330 dairy farms , of which 83 % were raising 1-2 cows , 14 % 3-9 cows
and the remaing of 3 % were breeding more than 10 cows. In the same year , in
Romania ,there were 1,108,594 dairy farms , that is 7.32 times more farms than
in Bulgaria . About 97 % of the Romanian dairy farms are raising 1-2 cows .
Therefore , farm structure is dominated by very small farms and average farm
size is far away from the average farm size in the European Union.
Dairy farming in the both countries is characterized by subsistence farms
raising a small number of cows. For this reason, about 70 % marketed milk to
dairies comes from such small farms, which have no financial capital, no technical
endowment and modern technologies are not applied. The small farmers are not
able to make investments and maintain necessary hygiene, high quality feeding,
genetic gain, best practices and over all management to increase production.
Dairy farm structure is still not a corresponding one. Just a few number of
farms are raising more cows. Further incentives for breeding a larger number of
cows are provided in order to encourage farmers to invest in expending agricultural
holding. The EU funds provided by SAPARD Programme have had a deep impact
in establishing new dairy farms and modernization of the old ones, assuring high
performances animals. Also, important subsidies were offered per milk kilogram
and per cow in Romania while in Bulgaria milk sector was not subsidized.
Therefore, the creation of commercial farms, deeply market oriented,
where modern technologies to be applied for assuring high performance, milk
quality and profitability is one of the priorities in dairy farming both in Romania
and Bulgaria.
Milk yield increased by 36.03 % in Romania and by 23.40 % in Bulgaria
during the analyzed period. In the year 2006, the average milk production in
Romania was 3,583 kg/cow/lactation compared to 2,634 kg/cow in the year 2001,
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while in Bulgaria, the average milk production was 3,522 kg/cow/year in 2006 in
comparison with 2,854 kg/cow in the year 2001 (Table 1).
Table 1. Number of dairy cows, milk yield and total milk production
Specification Country 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2006/2001
Number of BG 416,3 358,6 358,2 361,8 368,7 368.7 88.56
dairy cows R 1,692 1,684 1,695 1,622 1,592 1,592 94.04
(Thousand
heads)
Milk Yield BG 2,854 3,641 3,653 3,716 3,490 3,522 136.03
(g/cow/year) R 2,634 2,753 2,863 3,524 3,583 3,583 123.40
Total Milk BG 1,188 1,306 1,309 1,345 1,287 1,298.7 109.28
Production R 4,457 4,637 4,852 5,716 5,705 5,705 127.99
(Thousand
Tons )
Source : FAOSTAT, February 11, 2008
Therefore, dairy farming is more oriented to raise higher production cows

and improve feeding conditions, so that the continuous increase of milk yield is a
positive aspect.
Total Milk Production has registered an increasing trend in the both
countries. In the year 2006, Romania produced 5,704.9 thousand tones milk by
27.99 % more than in the year 2001. In the same year, Bulgaria achieved 1,298.7
thousand tones milk , that is by 9.28 % more than in 2001.
Total milk production in Romania is 4.4 times higher than in Bulgaria,
because the number of dairy cows is 4.3 times larger than in Bulgaria. The
average milk yield had a slight influence as long as its level is almost similar in
the both countries.
Milk quality is not always a corresponding one, as long as there is a large
variety of raising conditions, milking solutions and milk purchase price is still
based on fat percentage and does not take into account protein content, number of
somatic cells, bacteria content. Therefore, milk quality is one of the major
challenges to farmers in terms of responding to the EU standards [2,3,4].
Milk collection is also a major problem, but Sapard Programme includes
incentives to join farmers into milk producers’ groups and to require milking
systems, cooling tanks and other equipment in order to ensure a high milk quality.
Concerning milk marketing, both Romania and Bulgaria were facing
similar problems such as: the lack of milk storage tanks and coolers; troubles in
finding customers and selling farmers’ milk; about 70-75 % of milk production is
sold directly to the free market, that is to consumers and remaining of 25-30 %
was delivered to dairies; milk quality does not yet meet the EU standards, a
reason as the dairies to reduce milk price; the sad experience related to milk
processors’ behavior: the milk is not taken and paid on time, its quality is not
properly valued, processors’ use to lower the milk price thus counteracting the
premium (subsidies) paid to farmers. As far as quality is concerned advanced
- 1082 -
quality assurance needs quality checks and veterinary inspections. The new
laboratories and modernization of sanitary equipment have an important
contribution in this respect.
Producer’s Milk Price increased by 60.89% in Bulgaria and by 185.11%
in Romania during the period 2001-2005. Compared to the year 2001, in the year
2005, a tonne of milk was USD 266.60 in Romania and USD 398.13 in Bulgaria
(Table 2).
Table 2 Producer’s Milk Price (USD/tonne)

Country 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005/2001
%
Bulgaria 165.70 163.70 189.30 256.75 266.60 160.89
Romania 139.64 145.03 176.08 340.29 398.13 285.11
Source: FAOSTAT, February 11, 2008
The main causes are the increased price for farm inputs (feed, fuels,
chemicals, veterinary services etc) resulting to a continuous increase of milk cost.
Milk processing is also facing many problems especially concerning
endowment and hygiene along production chain. For this reason, just a few milk
processing plants meet the EU requirements and many other have to the closed.
Just a few dairies have the possibility of producing both “EU – compliant” and
“non-compliant” milk under certain conditions.
Because milk quality is one of the highest challenge to the dairy industry
at present and marketable milk does not fit their production capacity, most dairy
plants have to accept a lower milk quality and search for other ways to improve
milk quality, such as using additives (gelatine, starch), powder milk, whey etc.
Frequently, non-fat powder milk is added to the fresh milk to improve low protein
content. However, these additives are not recorded on the labels due to expected
consumer reaction.
Due to the quality issues, the major processors who want to secure high
quality and safety to their products have established their own selected network of
farms. These farms are regularly inspected by processors and technical assistance
and financial help is provided to the regular milk suppliers. Such policy is
performed by market leaders as Danone Company, which is operating both in
Romania and Bulgaria.
Milk Trade . Despite that both Romania and Bulgaria have a good milk
producing potential , the both countries have milk imports and exports (Table 3).
The amount of imported milk.In the year 2005 , Romania’s milk imports
were 1.941 thousand tones, by around 27 % less than in the year 2001. In
comparison with Bulgaria, Romania imported 34.66 times more milk. In the year
2005, Bulgaria imported 0.056 thousand tones of milk , by around 90 % less
than in the year 2001. Therefore, in the both countries milk imports have
registered a decreasing trend, which is a positive aspect , taking into account the
increasing domestic production .
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The amount of exported milk has increased in the both countries from a
year to another during the analyzed period . In the year 2005, Romania exported
0.897 thousand tones of milk by 37.37 % more than in the year 2001. In the same
year, Bulgaria exported 125 tones by 9.62 % more than in the year 2001 (Table 4).
Table 3 Quantity of Imported and Exported Milk (1,000 tonnes)

Specification Country 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2005/2001
%
Imported Bulgaria 0.545 0.404 0.096 0.057 0.056 10.28
Milk Romania 3.036 2.799 1.699 1.393 1.941 63.93
Quantity
Exported Bulgaria 0.114 0.140 0.104 0.120 0.125 109.65
Milk Romania 0.653 0.008 0.009 0.060 0.897 137.37
Quantity
Milk Import Price .In the both countries , milk import price registered an
increasing trend . In the year 2005, milk import price was USD 1,025.77 /tonne in
Bulgaria , by 133.91 % higher than in the year 2001. In the same year , Romania
paid USD 530.65 /tonne of imported milk , by 95.21 % more than in the year
2001. Therefore , Romania imported 34 times more milk , but at a twice lower
price compared to Bulgaria (Table 4).
Milk Export Price.In the year 2005, Bulgaria received USD 845.51 /
tonne of exported milk by 12.07 % more than in the year 2001. In the same year ,
a tonne of milk exported by Romania was paid USD 925.31 , that is by 27 %
less than in the year 2001 (Table 4 ).
Table 4 Imports and Exports Unit Value (USD/tonne)

%
Imported BG 438.53 502.48 802.08 929.83 1,025.77 233.91
Unit Value R 271.83 298.43 379.64 447.24 530.65 195.21
Exported BG 754.39 575.54 689.29 1,000.00 845.51 112.07
Unit Value R 1,263.16 1,125.00 1,555.56 1,216.67 925.31 73.25
Imports and Export Value of Cow fresh Milk. The amount of imported
and exported milk as well as milk import and export price have had a deep
influence on the value of milk imports and exports as shown in Table 5.
In the year 2005, Bulgaria registered a positive milk foreign trade
balance : + Thousand USD 48.25 compared to the deficit : - Thousand USD 150
recorded in the year 2001. This positive evolution of milk foreign trade balance
determined Bulgaria to change its position of net milk imported into the position
of net milk exporter starting from the year 2004 .
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Romania as continuously carried out a negative milk foreign trade

balance, because milk imports value exceeded milk expotrs value. Despite that, a
positive remark is that the difference between milk imports value and milk
exports value has continuously decreased from a year to another, so that in the
year 2005, its deficit was 76 % lower than in the year 2001. But, Romania still
continues to be a net milk importer.
Table 5 Imports Value and Exports Value of Cow fresh milk (1,000 USD)
%
Imported BG 239.00 203.00 77.00 53.00 57.44 24.03
Value R 825.27 835.30 645.00 623.00 1,030.00 124.80
Exported BG 86.00 80.58 71.69 120.00 105.69 122.90
Value R 825.27 9.00 14.00 73.00 830.00 100.57
Milk Foreign BG -150.00 -122.42 -5.31 +67.00 +48.25 -
Trade Balance R 0 -826.30 -631.00 -550.00 -200.00 -
CONCLUSIONS
1. In the both countries , the number of dairy cows decreased in the period
2001-2006. The reduction of the number of dairy cows both in Bulgaria and in
Romania has been determined by a series of factors such as: the decline in
domestic demand, cow selection based on milk performance, the high share of
subsistence farms, which are not able to raise more cows and meet milk quality
requirements imposed by the EU requirements.
2. In the year 2005 , there were 151,330 dairy farms in Bulgaria and 7.32
times more in Romania , that is 1,108,594 dairy farms. In the both countries farm
structure is dominated by very small farms and average farm size is far away
from the average farm size in the European Union. The farms are subsistence
farms which have no financial capital, no technical endowment and modern
technologies are not applied. The small farmers are not able to make investments
and maintain necessary hygiene, high quality feeding, genetic gain, best practices
and over all management to increase production.
3. Milk yield has recorded a substantial increase during the last years so
that in the year 2005 its level was very similar in the both countries: in
Romania 3,583 kg/cow/lactation and in Bulgaria 3,522 kg/cow/year.
4. Total Milk Production has registered an increasing trend in the both
countries. In the year 2006, Romania produced 5,704.9 thousand tones milk 4.4
times more than Bulgaria.
5. Milk quality is still not a corresponding one, because of the large
variety of raising conditions and milking solutions, the lack of milk storage
possibilities.
6.Milk purchase price is still based on fat percentage and does not take
into account protein content, number of somatic cells, bacteria content. According
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BACK
to the EU regulations, important measures have been taken in order to intensify

quality checks and veterinary inspections, new laboratories for milk quality
control have to be built.
7. Milk producer’s price has continuously increased in the both countrues
because of the increasing price for farm inputs (feed, fuels, chemicals, veterinary
services etc) resulting to a continuous increase of milk cost.
8. Milk processing is facing many problems especially concerning
endowment and hygiene along production chain. Just a few milk processing
plants meet the EU requirements . Many of the large milk processing companies
have already launched investments in refrigeration equipment for their milk
producing suppliers.
9. The positive evolution of milk foreign trade balance determined
Bulgaria to change its position of net milk imported into the position of net milk
exporter starting from the year 2004 .In the year 2005 , Bulgaria registered a
positive milk foreign trade balance : + Thousand USD 48.25 compared to the
deficit : - Thousand USD 150 recorded in the year 2001.
10. Romania’s milk imports value exceeded milk exports value. Despite
that , the difference between milk imports value and milk exports value has
continuously decreased from a year to another , so that in the year 2005 , its
deficit was 76 % lower than in the year 2001. But, Romania still continues to be
a net milk importer.
11.In the both countries, milk sector is not ready yet for an active
expansion on the EU market. There are still many aspects to be improved along
milk chain so that dairy farming and milk processing to comply with the EU
standards .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Krasteva Neviana – 2000 – Dairy Product Market in Bulgaria: Issues of Productivity and
Competitiveness- www.eanpc.org
2. Popescu Agatha, Angel Elena, Safarikova Judita – 2007 – Considerations concerning Milk
Market in the 12 Central and Eastern Countries. The 36th International Session of Scientific
Communication. Faculty Of Animal Science, UASVM Bucharest, 14-16 Nov.2007.
3. Popescu Agatha – 2004 – Farm Management and Extension Needs under Milk Quota System
in the prospects of Romania’s entry into EU, in EAAP Technical Series N0.8.Wageningen
Academic Publishers, p.149-176.
4. Popov R., Boyukliev O., Ivanov B., Malcom J.- 2005 – Structure and competitiveness of the
milk and dairy supply chain in Bulgaria. CEEC AgriPolicy Projects N0 413705, Agroeconomic
policy analysis of the new member states, candidate states and the countries of the Western
Balkans – www.agripolicy.net
5. Vasiliev Z.- 2006 – Farm Structure in Bulgaria – perspectives in the EU.
6. Stankov I., Georgiev I., Sivkova K., Slavov R. – 2004 – Integration processes in Bulgarian
Animal Husbandy, in Trakia Journal of Sciences, Vol. 2 N0.2, pg. 41-48.
7. * * * FAOSTAT, February 11, 2008.
8. * * * www.mzgar.government.bg
9. * * * Agribusiness Handbooks, vol. 7. Milk Production/Processing – FAO/EBRD,1999.
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BACK
MAJOR ASPECTS IN THE EVOLUTION OF MILK

PRODUCTION IN DENMARK
Agatha POPESCU, S. RASMUSSEN, G. RADULESCU
This study aimed to present some major aspects concerning milk

production in Denmark during the period 1975-2005 , based on the statistical
data. Finally , the conclusions were that : the number of dairy farms is
significantly reduced from 63,200 to 5,900 units , the average farm size
increased from 17 to 94 heads , milk yield increased from 4,952 to 8,600
kg/cow/year . Milk payment is done based on a new system which stimulates the
increase of efficiency in dairy farms.
Danish Milk production is constantly changing due to international

competition, demanding export markets and conscientious and demanding
consumers. On a global scale, Denmark is in the lead when it comes to food
quality and safety and development of all the agricultural sectors, including milk
producing. Milk production has been successfully developing within the system
of co-operatives, bringing Denmark on the 7th position among the EU countries
after Germany, France, United Kingdom, Italy , Poland The Netherlands and
Spain ( 1). In the year 2005, Denmark achieved 4,569 thousand tons milk ,
representing 3 % of the total EU production. This is the reason why it is important
to analyze the evolution of milk production during the last 30 years .
MATERIAL AND METHOD

This study aimed to present some major aspects concerning milk
production in Denmark during the period 1975-2005 , based on the statistical
data. The main indicators used in this study are : the number of dairy farms, herd
size , milk yield , milk fat and protein percentage , milk payment system taking
into account fat and protein percentage , season , bacteria and antibiotics content.

The number of Dairy Farms decreased from 63,000 units in 1975 to
5,900 in 2005. Until 1990 the number of dairy farms decreased dramatically, but
after, during a period of ten years until 2000 the number of farms with dairy cows
decreased reaching the figure 9,800. Comparing the value available in the last
two years of the statistics, with the base value from year 2000, the decrease is
approximately 33 % in 2004 and approximately 40% in 2005. Comparing with
2004, in 2005 the decrease is approximately 11%, which is huge considering
one year movement. In the year 2005 , the number of dairy farms was by 90 %
lower than 30 years ago, that is in 1975 ( Table 1).
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Table 1 The Evolution of the number of dairy holdings

1000 units 1975 1980 1990 2000 2004 2005 2005/1975
%
Cattle Farms 81,4 61,3 36,4 23,0 17,8 16,6 20.39
Dairy Farms 63,2 42,4 21,5 9,8 6,6 5,9 9.33
Farms with 13,2 10,1 11,9 11,6 9,6 8,9 67.42
suckling cows
Source : Danish Cattle Federation, www.lr.dk
Herd Size. The decrease of the number of the dairy farms had a positive
effect on the number of heads per farm . The average dairy farm size was 94
cows /farm in the year 2005, 5.43 higher than 30 years ago , when a farmer
raised about 17 cows in average. This is a specific trend of dairy sector and a
reason to assure a lower production cost, a higher productivity and profitability.
The every five years increase was in average around 14 %. The number of dairy
cows per farm is increasing extremely fast from year to another (Table 2 ).
Table 2 The evolution of herd size
Head / 1975 1980 1990 2000 2004 2005 2005/1975
Farm %
Cattle in 37,8 48,3 61,5 81,1 92,7 93,0 246.03
total
Dairy 17,3 24,5 35,8 65,9 85,8 94,0 543.35
cows
Suckling 6,7 6,5 7,3 10,8 11,2 11,0 164.18
cows
Distribution of dairy cows by breed. In Denmark, the main dairy

breeds are Danish Holstein, Jersey and Red Danish , but also crossbred from
these pure breeds. If in the year 1975 , the bred structure consisted of 49.30 %
Danish Holstein, 28.43 % Red Danish , 16.69 % Jersey and the remaining
crossbreds and other breeds , in the year 2005 , Danish Holstein was still on the
first position with 72.24 % of the total number of cows , due to its high potential
in milk production , then , on the second position comes Jersey having 11.81 %
share in the total number of cows and finally Red Danish with 8.46 %.
Table 3 Distribution of dairy cows on breeds, milk recorded cows

1975 1980 1990 2000 2004 2005
Red Danish 28.4 18.1 12.1 9.4 8.4 8.5
Danish 49.3 56.7 63.2 69.4 71.8 72.2
Holstein
Jersey 16.7 15.3 15.6 12.3 11.9 11.8
Danish Red 0.6 1.1 0.9 0.9 1.0 1.0
Holstein
Hybrids 5.0 8.8 8.2 7.8 6.7 6.4
Other - - - 0.2 0.2 0.1
breeds
Source : Danish Cattle Federation, May 2007, www.lr.dk
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The share of Jersey cows decreased considerable, from 108.000 heads in

milk records 1975 to a number of 60.000 heads in the year 2005. It probably
will keep decreasing in the next years. The main reason of this decreasing
evolution is the fact that Jersey is a breed for producing butter or nowadays
consumer is more oriented to less calories and no cholesterol food. Also, its milk
performance is lower compared to the one of Danish Holstein or Red Danish . It
is obviously, Danish Holstein is the best breed for milk production and also Red
Danish has also high performance .
Milk yield per cow. Milk yield varies from a breed to another
depending on its genetic potential and mainly on feeding conditions. The highest
performance is recorded by Danish Holstein , which in the year 2005 registered
in average 9,122 kg /cow/lactation compared to 5,230 kg/cow in the year 1975.
Red Danish comes on the second position with 8,380 kg/cow/year in 2005
compared to 5,117 kg /lactation in 1975. Jersey recorded 6,346 kg/cow/lactation
in 2005 , but its performance is the lowest one compared to other breeds .
Table 4 Milk yield per cow- ( milk recorded cows- kg/cow/lactation)

Breed 1975 1980 1990 2000 2004 2005 2005/1975
%
Red 5,117 5,346 6,712 7,316 8,119 8,380 163.67
Danish
Danish 5,230 5,528 7,143 8,075 8,900 9,122 174.41
Holstein
Jersey 3,863 4,089 4,954 5,614 6,185 6,346 164.27
Danish 4,761 5,079 6,309 7,148 7,820 7,982 167.65
Red
Holstein
Finnish - - - 8,135 8,141 8,440 -
Ayrshyre
Norwegian - - - 6,668 8,078 8,729 -
Red Cattle
Crossbreds 4,926 5,203 6,542 7,018 8,013 8,221 166.89
Average 4,952 5,243 6,693 7,610 8,442 8,660 174.87
Milk Fat Percentage .Milk fat percentage increased during the last 30
years as shown in Table 5 and its level depends on the cow breed. The highest fat
percentage is recorded by Jersey , which reached 5.92 % in the year 2005 , a little
bit less by about 0,14 % compared to the level of 1975 (Table 5 ).
- 1089 -
Table 5 Fat percentage in milk, milk recorded cows

Breed 1975 1980 1990 2000 2004 2005 2005/1975
%
Red Danish 4.14 4.13 4.31 4.16 4.25 4.25 102.65
Danish 4.00 3.98 4.21 4.10 4.12 4.12 103.00
Holstein
Jersey 6.06 6.09 6.37 5.97 5.95 5.92 97.68
Danish Red 3.94 3.94 4.08 4.18 4.37 4.40 111.67
Holstein
Finnish - - - 4.19 4.41 4.18 -
Ayrshyre
Norwegian - - - 4.09 3.74 3.85 -
Red Cattle
Crossbreds 4.35 4.34 4.50 4.39 4.39 4.38 100.68
Average 4.33 4.29 4.49 4.30 4.31 4.31 99.53
In average , fat percentage in milk has recorded a slight decrease from

4.33 % in 1975 to 4.31 % in 2005.
Milk Protein Percentage .Milk protein also recorded an increase during
the last 15 years when it was measured . Its level depends on breed . Jersey
provides the highest protein percentage , which was 4.07 in the year 2005 . On
the second position comes Red Danish with 3.53 % protein percentage and then
Danish Holstein with 3.38 % ( Table 6 ).
Table 6 Milk Protein Percentage, milk recorded cows (crude protein)

Breed 1975 1980 1990 2000 2004 2005
Red 3.49 3.57 3.55 3.53
Danish
Danish 3.30 3.37 3.38 3.38
Holstein
Jersey 3.99 4.10 4.09 4.07
Danish Not Not 3.37 3.44 3.49 3.48
Red measured measured
Holstein
FAY - 3.49 3.50 3.46
NRF - 3.42 3.31 3.46
Hybrid 3.43 3.53 3.52 3.52
Average 3.41 3.47 3.46 3.45
Milk Payment Model . According to Danish Dairy Board, the aim of the
former model of payment was to distribute the dairies’ economic results between
the suppliers in a fair manner. In this model the attempt is to lead milk production
in a more market orientated direction. As experience showed that milk producers
respond to the signals of a model of payment, the new model requires an
offensive and market orientated approach to influence milk composition in a
direction, matching consumer demands. As previously, payment is based on the
- 1090 -
analyses of the content of fat and protein in the milk. The remaining quantity of
dry matter is estimated to be too low to justify separate payment. Whereas the
prices of fat and protein in the former model were based on the EU intervention
prices for butter and skim milk powder, the model will now be based on market
analyses and the expectations to the development of the market. This model
encourages the production of concentrated milk and milk with a high protein
content in particular. To better understand the significance of producing consumer
relevant products to the earning power of the dairies; the payment is divided into a
raw material payment and a premium for added value. The intention is to further
stimulate production of peak quality milk, as this is a condition to produce high
quality products with a reasonable earning capacity.
The Table 7 shows the manner how Milk Payment Model is operating.
The value of a kilogram raw milk with 4.20 % fat and 3.4 % protein and is
given by fat value plus protein value minus volume – based costs .
Table 7 Milk Payment model

Parameters øre per unit øre per Kg milk
with 4,20% fat and
3,40 protein
Fat value 19.24 80.81
+ Protein value 32.71 111.21
- Volume-based costs -12.00
= Raw material value 180.02
+ Add value % of raw material x
value
+/- Quality payment/deduction % of raw material x
value
- Fixed costs/member DKK 335/2 weeks x
= Aconto price
+ End of the year bonus % of raw material x
value
= Milk price ex farm x
Source : Danish Dairy Board, www.mejeri.dk
Value ratio. Market analyses show that on the long view, the largest
demand and the highest profitability stand to be gained from milk protein. In
contrast, the demand for fat is estimated to continue its downward trend. More
than 80% of total milk deliveries in Denmark are used for other products than
liquid milk. In these products the content of protein is decisive to the product
yield. Consequently increased protein content in the milk could improve the total
profitability. In the remaining 20% of the milk deliveries - used for liquid milk –
the protein content is not equally decisive. But, the calcium content is closely
linked to the content of protein, so a high protein content has a positive effect on
liquid milk. The fact that milk is an important source of calcium is an important
asset to the marketing efforts. In 2007 the value ratio between protein and fat (p/f)
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is set at 1,7. In the long term an increase of the value ratio is expected, as the
long-term market of high-protein products continues to be significantly better
than that of high-fat products.
Fat and protein values.The unit prices of fat and protein are based on the
raw material value, the volume-based costs and on the fixed value ratio. This
implies a fat unit price of 19,24 øre and a protein unit price of 32,71 øre.
Volume-based costs. This cost totals 12 øre/kg, equaling the sum of the
volume-based costs of milk transport and costs of milk reception at the dairy,
storage, homogenization and heat treatment at the dairy.
Raw material value. The raw material value equals the milk price, which
the dairies would be able to pay, provided that they only produced butter and skim
milk powder for intervention. The calculations of premiums and deductions in
percentages are based on the raw material value.
Table 8 Milk classification and payment

Analysis Frequency Classes Limits Premiums/deductions % of
raw material value
Somatic cell count
Once a week 1S - 200 + 25
1000 cells per ml
1E 201 – 300 + 1%
1B 301 – 400 0
2 401 – 500 - 4%
3 501 - - 10%7
Total plate count Once every 2
1E - 30 + 1%
1000 bacteria per ml weeks8
1B 31 – 50 0
2 51 – 200 - 4%
3 201 - - 10%
Anaerobic spores
Once every 4
1E - 400 + 1%
weeks9
Spores per litre
1B 401 – 1100 0
2 1101 – 2000 - 4%
3 2001 - - 10%
Freezing point Once a week 1B ≤ - 0,5010 C 0
≥ - 0,5090 C - 10%
Inhibitors/antibiotics Once a week OK 0
3 - 10%10
Visibly changed milk Once a week OK 0
3 - 10%
Source : Danish Dairy Board, www.mejeri.dk
7
Class 3 : Three successive times . – 20%
Class 3 and up four successive times : - 30%
8
Analysis made in week 1. Class 1 B, 2 and 3 : Follow-up analysis in week 2
9
Classes 1 B, 2 and 3 : Follow-up in the following 2 - weeks period
10
Inhibitors/antibiotics : look next page
- 1092 -
Added value. Added value equals the additional value created by

processing the milk into highly refined products. The premium is calculated as a
percentage of the raw material value.
This will favor concentrated milk, as the actual fat and protein unit prices
are increased at the same time as the value ratio between fat and protein is
maintained. Added value is calculated as a percentage of the raw material value
and is currently fixed by the dairy. Further, is was decided to maintain the same
intervention price level for 2007 as for the previous year.
Fixed costs per member. The purpose of this deduction is to cover a
number of costs, which vary regardless of the size of the delivery, i.e. the fixed
share of the costs of milk collection, quality analyses, milk payment, etc.
End of the year bonus is calculated as a percentage of the raw material
value of the individual deliveries. This implies that the bonus is paid as per same
ratio between fat and protein as the current milk payment.
Quality payment and deductions are calculated as a percentage of the
raw material value.
Antibiotics. In the event of traces of inhibitors/antibiotics following
deductions will apply: (a)The first time within 12 successive months the value of
2 days' milk deliveries will be deducted and the dairy will issue a penalty of
DKK 3.000.(b)The second time within 12 successive months, the deduction is
doubled to the value of 4 days' milk deliveries and the penalty of DKK
6.000.(3)The third time within 12 successive months, the deduction is doubled to
the value of 8 days' milk deliveries and the penalty is DKK 12.000.(4)In any
following incidence within 12 successive months the deduction will be doubled
further. Each dairy company should fix an upper limit of the size of the penalty.
Table 9 Seasonal Milk Price Differentiation

Price basis
January 2007
Nominal intervention Euro rate Nominal intervention Purchase price
price Euro/100Kg price DKK/Kg %
Butter 282,44 7,46038 21,07 90
Skim Milk
184,97 7,46038 13,80 100
Powder
Net intervention price, Separate Technical elements Intervention
øre/Kg costs price level,
øre/Kg øre/Kg rounded
off
Fat value 1.896 90 20 Kg milk/Kg butter 90
Skim milk value 1.380 200 11 Kg skm./Kg SMP 102
Volume based
0,95 Kg skm./Kg sdm - 12
costs
Raw material
180
value
Source : Danish Dairy Board,www.mejeri.dk
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BACK
Seasonal price differentiation. For encouraging seasonal equalisation of

milk production, the following price differentiation is recommended (calculated
as a percentage of the raw material value at dairy of each individual supply):
January-March: 0%, April-June: - 15%, July: 0%, August-November: + 15%,
December: 0%. The August-November seasonal premium are cancelled, when the
money accumulated during April-June is spent. It is important to emphasize that
the price differentiation must be of a permanent character to enable the farmers to
include it in their production plans.
CONCLUSIONS
1.Milk production has been successfully developing bringing Denmark
on the 7th position among the EU countries after Germany, France, United
Kingdom, Italy , Poland The Netherlands and Spain . In the year 2005 , Denmark
achieved 4,569 thousand tons milk , representing 3 % of the total EU production.
2. The number of Dairy Farms decreased from 63,000 units in 1975 to
5,900 in 2005.
3. The average dairy farm size was 94 cows /farm in the year 2005,
5.43 higher than 30 years ago , when a farmer raised about 17 cows in average.
This is a specific trend of dairy sector and a reason to assure a lower production
cost, a higher productivity and profitability .
4. Milk yield increased from 4,952 to 8,600 kg/cow/year , based on milk
records, cow culling, genetic gain due to bull pressure, high quality feeding and
keeping pace with modern technologies .
5. The highest milk producing breed Danish Holstein, which in the year
2005 registered 9,122 kg /cow/lactation ., followed by Red Danish and Jersey.
6. In average , fat percentage in milk has recorded a slight decrease
from 4.33 % to 4.31 % , while milk protein increased from 3.41 to 3.45 %
during the analyzed period of time.
7. Milk payment is done based on a new system which stimulates the
increase of efficiency in dairy farms. It takes into account not only the fat and
protein milk content, but also the somatic cells, bacteria content , antibiotics
traces and seasonal factors. In this way , farmers are satisfied that milk price
really reflects the high milk quality . If milk quality does not meet the specific
requirements , farmers have to pay penalties . This is a measure to keep milk
quality at a high level and assure food safety .
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.xxx Danish Cattle Federation, www.lr.dk
2.xxx Danish Dairy Board,www.mejeri.dk
3.xxx Agriculture in Denmark , Facts and Figures, 2006
4.xxx Statistics Denmark – May 2007, www.statisticbanken.dk
5.xxx Danish Agriculture – May 2007, www.landbrug.dk
6.xxx Danish Agricultural Advisory Service – May 2007, www.landscentret.dk
7.xxx Danish Milk Board – May 2007, www.maelkeudvalget.dk
8.xxx Danish Livestock and Meat Board – May 2007, www.meatboard.dk
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CHARACTERIZATION OF THE BIOLOGICAL MATERIAL

OF RAINBOW TROUT (ONCORHYNCHUS MYKISS)
USED FOR ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION
AT SEXUAL MATURITY AGE
Anca BOARU, I. BUD, R.M. VODĂ, Daniela LADOŞI,
I.V. MAG PETRESCU, Adriana CRISTE, Viorica COŞIER
Artificial reproduction in the rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is

practiced in Romania yet before introduction of this species, and sires breeding
can be relatively easy done, having in view that fish accept easily the artificial
food. The sexual maturity is reached at 2-3 years age, and a very good
maintaining state of sires, with a very good start until sapling phase, as well the
conditions existent in diverse trout farms from our country influence decisive the
reproduction success. In the work paper, the authors analyze, basis on body
measurements and followed reproduction indices, the results obtained in the first
reproduction year in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) bred in two trout
farms from Romania. The body development of biological material 3 years aged,
puts into evidence the differences between the two sexes, as well between the two
locations, differences found also in the values of main followed reproduction
indices. The reproductive performances of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
differs depending on medium parameters, biological material specific for each
trout farm, it’s feeding during breeding and development period, as well before
reproduction preliminary period.
INTRODUCTION
The artificial reproduction in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) is
practiced in Romania yet this species introduction (1895-1902) and supposes to
go over more stages (Decei, 2001): sires’ preparation, harvesting the seminal
products, artificial fertilization, incubation, hatching, larvae and broodfish
breeding. The sire breeding is enough facile because they accept easily the
granular, artificial food (Bud, 2007). The sexual maturity is reached at 2-3 years
age, in males much earlier (Pasarin, 2007). The well-fed females, with good
quality food (optimal protein and vitamin level), can have roes even at 2 years age
(Misăilă, 1985; Păsărin, 2004), but the fecundity percent is more decreased
(Boaru, 2005, 2006). A particularity is that one, even being at sexual maturity, not
all sires have sexual products (10-15% are sterile) (Bud, 2007). In case of rainbow
trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) at 3 years age 15% of sires’ total are sterile, and at
6-7 years age the sterility percent increases to 50-60% (Decei, 2001). The resulted
conclusion is that a very good maintaining state of sires, with a very good start
until sapling phase, as well the conditions existent in diverse trout farms from our
country, influence decisively the reproduction success in rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss), as well in all salmonids bred in captivity conditions.
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MATERIAL AND METHOD

In the conditions of two trout farms from Romania (P1, P2,), were
effectuated measurements and weighs in rainbow trout sires (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) in reproduction period (January, 2006). The trout farms present about the
same classical organization and technological characteristics with differences
concerning only the medium parameters and which are doe to water supply
conditions, altitude, temperature variations (annual and seasonal) etc. For
phenotypic characterization of sires aged of 3 years, have regarded next
parameters: body length, great perimeter and body weight. The followed
reproduction indices regarded: milt/roes’ weight, number of roes/female and
gonosomatic index.
RESULTS AND DISSCUTIONS

The data obtained after body measurements on the biological material
studied in P1 trout farm were statistically processed and are presented in Table 1.
Analyzing the body length it comes out the fact that the 15 males have an
average length of 37.43±0.96 cm, vale slightly inferior with about 1.5 cm than
averages of 25 measured females. The value of variation coefficient V% shows a
good genetic homogeneity for this character. The average of thorax perimeter is
superior with about 2.3 cm in female, comparatively with males, in which is
registered a value of 20.28±0.37 cm. The variation coefficient V% has value of
6.82 in males and, respectively 7.37 in females, which indicates a very good
homogeneity of the biological material for this character, in both sexes. The body
weight analyzed as concerns the dispersion indices put into evidence a more
accented variability in females (18.82%) comparative with males (13.75%). It
ascertains a difference and also a superior value for this character in females
(847.32±31.89 g) comparatively with only 615.85±22.63 g registered in males
and which we believe is doe to precocity differences at this age in both sexes, as
well to the fact that roes’ quantity from female abdominal cavity is superior to
milt weight, fact confirmed by the values obtained for “milt/roes weight”
character. The milt weight analyzed in 13 males indicates a stripping average of
7.00±0.53, and the variation coefficient value of 28.57% indicates moderate
difference among analyzed individuals. The roe weight of 22 females, which
reached the stripping and collecting maturity, indicates a value closed to the limit
specific for this character at this age (150-220 g) (Boaru, 2004, 2005). On the
other hand, it is observed a pronounced variability among individuals (V% =
41.70). Analyzing the roe number obtained per female it comes out an average of
2110.20±282.82 roes in the 10 analyzed females. The variation coefficient V% =
29.96 emphasized for us an average uniformity concerning the roe number at this
age and species from the analyzed trout farm. The calculated gonosomatic index
frames in the species limits, both in females (18.96±0.99) and males (1.14±0.08).
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The closed values of variation coefficient (25.92 and 24.62) indicate the selection
possibility in direction of increasing the gonosomatic index value both in males
and females.
Table 1 Average and dispersion indices for characters followed in rainbow trout sires
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) (3 years) from P1 trout farm (♂, ♀)
Character U.M Sex n X±sx V%

♂ 15 37.43±0.96 9.65
Total length cm
♀ 25 39.08±0,89 11.51
♂ 15 20.28±0.37 6.82
Great perimeter cm
♀ 25 22.52±0.33 7.37
♂ 15 615.85±22.63 13.75
Body weight g
♀ 25 847.32±31.89 18.82
♂ 13 7.00±0.53 28.57
Milt/roe weight g
♀ 22 162.23±14.42 41.70
Roe number/female pc. ♀ 10 2110.20±282.82 29.96
♂ 13 1.14±0.08 25.92
Gonosomatic index %
♀ 22 18.96±0.99 24.62
In table 2 are presented the statistical results for characters followed in

reproduction biological material of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) aged of
3 years from P2 trout farm and which are:
Table 2 Average and dispersion indices for characters followed

in rainbow trout sires (Oncorhynchus mykiss) (3 years)
from P2 trout farm (♂, ♀)
Character U.M Sex n X±sx V%

♂ 43 39.67±0.47 7.89
Total length cm
♀ 48 41.14±0.44 7.53
♂ 43 22.16±0.28 8.41
Great perimeter cm
♀ 48 23.27±0.26 7.86
♂ 43 793.27±26.30 21.74
Body weight g
♀ 48 958.45±28.30 20.45
♂ 12 10.75±0.94 30.24
Milt/roe/ weight g
♀ 40 182.25±9.92 34.43
Number of roe/female pc. ♀ 10 1760.8±204.18 36.67
♂ 12 1.39±0.10 25.17
Gonosomatic index %
♀ 40 18.85±0.66 22.38
- 1097 -
The number of experimental units on which are done the measurements in

this trout farm was 43 for males and 48 for females in the moment of research
starting. The reproduction indices expressed by milt/roe weight, gonosomatic
index and roe number were determined on 12 individuals in case of males and,
respective 40(10) individuals in case of females. The average of 48 females for
body length character is superior given to average realized by males, at same age,
and the variation coefficient of 7.89 in males and 7..53 in females indicate a very
good homogeneity both inside sexes and between sexes. For the same individuals’
number, the thorax perimeter analysis indicates same uniformity of the biological
material, with an average of 23.27±0.26 and 22.16±0.28 in males. The initial body
weight of males and females before deposing sexual products put into evidence
same homogeneity of the studied lots. The variation coefficient values for this
character, of 21.74% in males and 20.45% in females, are slight superior to those
ones obtained in P1 trout farm (13.75 and 18.82). The milt weight of 12 males
from which the collecting was done, put into evidence an average of 10.75±0.94
and the variation coefficient (30.24) indicates an average variability but closed as
value to those one from P1 trout farm (28.57). In females’ case, the 40 stripped
individuals realized an average of roe weight of 182.25±9.92 and gonosomatic
index of 22.38%, observing also here the existence of a more reduced
homogeneity among individuals and which could be caused by insufficient roe
elimination. The roe number analyzed in 10 females shows an average of about
1760 pieces/female and with great variability that indicates significant differences
among them.
CONCLUSIONS
The body weight of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), at 3 years age,
from the two trout farms, put into evidence that there are differences among sires
of same age used for reproduction in the same year. The biological material no-
uniformity, as concerns the body development, implicitly is found also on
followed reproduction indices. The reproductive performances of rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) differs depending on medium parameters, biological
material specific for each trout farm, it’s feeding during breeding and
development period (Boaru, 2005), as well before reproduction preliminary
period. A poor feeding, with intermittence in breeding period (doe to medium
parameters) can have as results a more decreased roe number obtaining (Oprea,
2000), even the body weight corresponds to the species standard. Even the results
obtained in the two analyzed trout farms frame in the limits of those obtained in
the trout farms from our country, we consider that production and economic
performances in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are and can be influenced
by the reproduction activity and therefore, by the value and quality of used
reproductive biological material. In the last years, it was emphasized especially on
embryonated roe import from countries with tradition and performances in this
- 1098 -
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domain. (Denmark, Australia), and the native biological material is practically

inexistent. But this aspect depends in each salmonid unit management, as well on
directions and orientation concerning the consumption trout breeding and
exploitation to our country level.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Boaru Anca, Bud, I., Mag, V. (2006) - Studiul comparativ al performanţelor reproductive la
păstrăvul curcubeu (Oncorhynchus mykiss) în funcţie de anul de referinţă şi locaţie. Lucrări
ştiinţifice seria Zootehnie vol.49. Ed. „Ion Ionescu de la Brad” Iaşi. p 1063-1068. ISSN 1454-
7368
2. Boaru Anca (2006) – Comparative results concerning parameters and some reproduction index
of Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and Brook trout (Salvelinus fontinalis). The 35th
International session of scientific communications the scientific papers of the Faculty of
Animal Science. Bucharest 2006. p 419-424. ISBN 973-8905-09-5
3. Boaru Anca, Coşier Viorica, Vodă, R.M. (2006) – Factors influencing and regulating the trout
artificial reproduction. Argesis seria Stiintele Naturii. Analele Muzeului judetean Arges-Pitesti
vol 14 161-165. ISSN 1453-2182
4. Bud, I., Ionescu, O., Vlădău, V.V., Pop, S. (2007) – Peştii din apele reci. Păstrăvii. Editura
Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca
5. Misăilă, C., Miron, I., Misăilă Elena Rada, Artenie, V.I. (1985) – Furaj pentru reproducătorii
de păstrăv curcubeu. OSIM Bucureşti, Brevet nr. 117.671
6. Oprea, L. (2000) – Bazele nutriţiei peştilor. Ed. Fundaţiei Universitare „Dunărea de Jos”,
Galaţi
7. Păsărin, B., Stan, T., Misăilă, C. (2004) – Elemente de salmonicultură. Editura Karro, Iaşi
8. Păsărin, B. (2007) – SALMONICULTURĂ PRACTICĂ. Editura Alfa, Iaşi
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THE WATER QUALITY APPRECIATION FROM THE

BAHLUI RIVER BY MEANS OF SOME BIOLOGICAL
INDEXES
A. COLESNIUC, Petronela RĂILEANU, Lenuţa GRIGORICĂ
Aquatic ecosystems suffered for the past decades, due to antropic

pressure which include: pollution, eutrophisation, urban and industrial
development, and the hydrotechnics activities. All these are reflected devotedly,
through diminish of the plankton, benton and nekton diversity communities, as well
as through the modification of their structures. Ergo, it has applied to the
utilization of the biologic variables for appreciation the water quality of the Bahlui
river, these having certain advantages and complementarities in report with
physico-chemical variables. To emphasize the antropic impact on the Bahlui river
ecosystems, main affluent of the right of Jijia, was chose the stations of take-off of
samples depending on the degree of antropic influence of each zone.
Thus, in the frame stations of collection was noticed the concordance
between the organic shipment waters and the diversity species. To an enhance
organic shipment (the station Holboca - CBO5: 20.3-21.4 mg/l) was noticed the
existence of a paucity of species. Tubifex tubifex is indicatory water specie with
organic shipment represented across 60% from the total individuals. In other
two station was registered the CBO5 values contained between 10.8 and 13.5
mg/l, correlate with a relative high number of taxons and a well-balanced
number of individuals.
Key words: Bahlui river, water quality, biological indices, biodiversity
Introduction
The ensemble of living organisms which populate a habitat is a synthetic
expression of the environmental factors from that ecosystem. The faunistic
compositions analyze permits an objective evaluation of the ecosystems studied.
All the perturbations challenge the more or the less modifications of these living
communities. The biologic variables utilization can be used to appreciation the
waters quality and the aquatic systems, presenting certain advantages and
complementarities in report with physico-chemical variables.
The emphasis of a punctual pollution can be sometimes late through
specific chemical methods, because wave of pollution is transient, chiefly in the
streams case. In such cases, the aquatic populations can constitute a veritable
“memory” concerning the water quality. In the present study it was achieved a
hydrobiological characterization of the Bahlui river, the main right affluent of the
Jijia river, by means of macroinvertebrate species.
Materials and methods

The studies accomplished in period October-November 2005 and
November–December 2006. The water quality of this river was studied in three
- 1100 -
sections: upstream Podu-Iloaiei, the affluent Bahluiet and Holboca. The first two
section tacked under consideration were comparate with the Holboca section,
funded out downstream of the Iasi town and of the station of residual water
purification.
The samples were withdrawn with Petersen benthonic drag boat with area
of collection 119 cm2, the benthonic net and the Surber collector, for the emphasis
of different types of substratum. The samples were selected in laboratory, remove
the silt, the sand and the vegetable remainders, and then were past in vial of
different sizes, labeled, fill with alcohol 96%. The fauna were studied from
qualitative and quantitative point of view. The quantitative data were statistically
analyzed in view of biocenosis structure, spatial dynamics and temporal
characterization.
It was accomplished an analysis of the fauna diversity to each sit and was
expressed the results in the likeness of index of diversity Shannon-Weaver and
index of reasonableness (ε).
By mean of the Pantle-Buck saprobe index, the water was included in one
from one 5 class of quality (Tab. No. 1).
Tab. no. 1. The water curses integration in one 5 class of quality

Ind. Saprobe value Class of quality Ecological state
< 1.8 I Very good
1.8 – 2.3 II Good
2.3 – 2.7 III Moderate (satisfactory)
2.7 – 3.2 IV Bad (unsatisfactory)
> 3.2 V Worst (degradation)
Results and discussions

Podu Iloaiei station. Is located upstream of the Podu-Iloaiei locality and
were selected to be comparate with Holboca station (CET II) funded out it
downstream of the Iasi town.
Biological analyse carry out in parallel to one physico-chemical evidenced
the degree of organic impurity from this control point. Biocenosis generally
presented the next dominant forms: dipteree larvae (Melusina ornately), oligochaeta
(Tubifex tubifex), ephemeropter (Baetis sp.), trichopter (Hydropsyche sp.).
Index of reasonableness (ε) which takes the values between 0-1 take the
high values October 2005 and November 2006. This value show us that the
species are represented through approached number of the individuals and do not
exist approached species with strong number of dominance. The other H (s) index
has a 1.89 value in 2005, indicating a stabile biocenosis.
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In all were identified 16 taxons. The Pantle-Buck saprob index has an

averaged 2.50, the water integrating in third class of quality, satisfactorily
representing. In the studied interval the CBO5 values placed between 10.8–11.5
mg/l, and CCOMn between 26-28 mg/l.
Bahluiet station. The Bahluiet river is the affluent of the Bahlui river,
with a total length of 41 km is studied from quality water point of view upstream
of Podu Iloaiei.
Macrozoobenthos had in constitutive the larva of Chironomidae
(Chironomus sp.), larva of dipter (Melusina ornately), oligochaeta (Tubifex
tubifex, Limnodrillus hoffmeisteri), trichopter (Hydropsyche sp.), ephemeroptere
(Baetis sp.), gastropode (Radix ovata), odonat (Aeschna sp., Enallagma sp.). In all
were emphasized 23 of taxons.
The species diversity H(s) had the high values in October 2005 and
December 2006 respectively 2.02 and 2.90. These values indicate a higher
stability of biocenosis. The Pantle-Buck saprob index had an average 2.40, the
water integrated in the third class of quality, satisfactorily. CBO5 took the values
between 11.8-13.5 mg/l, and CCOMn between 23.5 and 26 mg/l.
Holboca station. The last section of the Bahlui river is located in
upstream of the Jijia river and downstream of the Iasi town and the station of
residual water purification. Due to this location the ecologic equilibrium is
disturbs by the insufficient defecate water. The bottom layer is covered with
grounds with organic and mineral content. The physico-chemical indexes
analyzed characterize the water from this section as being impure.
In the below figure we presented the Tubifex tubifex species dominance,
in month November 2005, be the period most illustrative.
65.9%
Chironomidae
Batrachobdella
sp.
Hellobdella sp.
Tubifex tubifex
33.1%
0.3% 0.7%
Fig. 1. The dominance spectrum of the macronevertebrate species from the Bahlui river,
the Holboca station (nov 2005)
- 1102 -
In one of 4 period of collection was identified the maximum 7 taxons, and

of each date Tubifex tubifex specie presented an overwhelming dominant. The
individuals of this specie represented 68% from the total number. This thing
reflected and in the values of 2 calculatingly indexes. Thus, the reasonableness (ε)
touched the most diminished values among all one 3 analyzed stations. She
framed between 0.30-0.48 showing a strong dominance of Tubifex tubifex species
in the detriment of the other species. The specify diversity index H(s) touched the
most little calculating values, to the level of three section (0.90 – 1.16), indicating
a strong unsteadiness of the ecosystem.
The Pantle-Buck saprob index had an average 3.31, the water integrating
in the fiftih class of quality, degraded. This thing is reflected in the consumptions
values of oxygen, obtained through CBO5 and CCOMn methods which was
between 20.3-21.4 and 30.6-31.4 respectively.
CONCLUSIONS
To the level of the Bahluiet and the Podu Iloaiei stations, the specify
diversity index H (s), presents at large good values. H (s) varied between 1.43
(November 2005) and 2.90 (December 2006). The most approached value from 1,
of the reasonableness (ε) were calculating in November 2005, to the level of the
Bahluiet stations (0.74). These values indicate certain biocenosis stability.
The water is qualitative framed to the level of two stations in third class of
quality, moderate satisfactory considering.
To the CET station level, the reasonableness values were little, between
0.30 and 0.49, what indicates an inequitable casting species. All here, the
diversity took the little values, between 0.90 and 1.16. These values are correlate
with the paucity of species and with strong Tubifex tubifex species dominance,
demonstrated in each period of take-off samples. The strong dominance of two
groups, indicate load it of waters with organic matter. The fact that present water
has fecaloid smell and that site of take-off samples are found out down-stream of
the station of defecates the worn-out waters offers a plus argument of assertions
of excelsior. As per Pantle-buck saprob index, the water from the Holboca station
is integrated in the fifth class of quality, degraded.
To the level of all stations of take-off samples was noticed a direct
correlation between the level of organic load waters and the specific diversity and
reasonableness value.
During this study, to the level of all stations of collection, was
emphasized a largish biodiversity, which can be collected and determinate in all
33 of species (Tab. no. 2).
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Tab. no. 2. Presence and total abundance of macroinvertebrate species collected from
Bahlui river (2005-2006)
No. Systematic groups/species Abundance
1. Tubifex tubifex 3984
2. Melusina ornata 2673
3. Chironominae 1377
4. Baetis sp. 586
5. Hydropsyche sp. 445
6. Limnodrillus hoffmeisteri 267
7. Aphelocheirus sp. 106
8. Branchiura sowerbyi 88
9. Radix ovata 54
10. Eiseniella tetraedra 51
11. Ceratopogonidae 50
12. Asellus aquaticus 49
13. Physa acuta 46
14. Erpodbella octoculata 25
15. Micronecta sp. 25
16. Corixa sp. 18
17. Gammarus pulex 15
18. Batrachobdella sp. 13
19. Enallagma cyathigerum 12
20. Hellobdella sp. 9
21. Argulus foliaceus 6
22. Dytiscidae 5
23. Psychoda sp. 5
24. Calopteryx sp. 2
25. Notonecta viridis 2
26. Gordiidae 1
27. Naucoris cimicoides 1
28. Orthocladiinae 1
29. Planorbis carinatus 1
30. Tabanus sp. 1
31. Tanipodinae 1
32. Thaumaleia sp. 1
33. Unio pictorum 1
TOTAL 9921
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THE INFLUENCE OF DIFFERENT GLYCEROL

CONCENTRATIONS IN RAM SPERM MOBILITY AT 4°C
Anca DASCÃL, V. MICLEA, M. ZAHAN, V. CIORNEI, L. SASCA
A large number of techniques have been tested in order to reduce or

stop the metabolism of spermatozoa, thereby prolonging their fertile life and
mobility. That can be obtained by used of different extenders which were devised
for ram semen refrigeration and which can minimize the detrimental effects of
sperm temperature decrease processes (Salamon and Maxwell, 1995; 2000). The
temperature decreasing rates (Byrne et al., 2000; O'Neill, 1998), the
cryoprotectant agent and their concentration, extender composition, dilution
rate, the temperature which the glycerol is added to ram semen and the
equilibration time represents the main factors which influence the successful of
maintaining a high ram semen mobility for a long time (Abdelhakem et al., 1991;
Aisen et al., 2000; Anel et al., 2005; Ashworth et al., 1994; Molinia et al., 1994;
O'Neill, 1998; Paulenz et al., 2004; Salamon and Maxwell, 2000). The
researches were made between November 2007 and January 2008 at SCDP
Jucu. The aim of this researches was to analyze the influence of different ram
semen extenders, with different glycerol ratio, on time evolution of ram sperm
mobility at 4 °C . Were used three different extenders, with 2.5, 5 and
respectively 7% glycerol. Except glycerol, all extenders contained others
components like: monosodic citrate (0.28 g), fructose (0.1 g), egg yolk (2 ml) and
bidistilled water (8 ml). The protocol used for refrigeration presumed gradual
decrease of temperature, from 13°C to 5°C, in an interval of two hours and than
the maintenance of the samples in refrigerator, at 4°C. Both in temperature
decreasing period and in depositing period at 4°C, was determined the sperm
mobility, at one hour and respectively 24 hours intervals. The qualitative and
quantitative semen parameters integrated oneself in the normal limits. The sperm
storage period at 4°C increase with the increase of the glycerol extender’s rate.
Glycerol concentration at 5 and 7% give better results for ram sperm
refrigeration than 2.5%, but not more than 7%.
INTRODUCTION
A large number of techniques have been tested in order to reduce or stop
the metabolism of spermatozoa, thereby prolonging their fertile life and mobility.
That can be obtained by used of different extenders which were devised for ram
semen refrigeration and which can minimize the detrimental effects of sperm
temperature decrease processes (Salamon and Maxwell, 1995; 2000).
The main physiological and morphological changes in spermatozoa which
occur include an irreversible reduction in viability, acrosome integrity, motility
and thus, fertility (Salamon and Maxwell, 2000; Medeiros et al., 2002).
The temperature decreasing rates (Byrne et al., 2000; O'Neill, 1998), the
cryoprotectant agent and their concentration, extender composition, dilution rate,
the temperature which the glycerol is added to ram semen and the equilibration
time represents the main factors which influence the successful of maintaining a
- 1106 -
high ram semen mobility for a long time (Abdelhakem et al., 1991; Aisen et al.,
2000; Anel et al., 2005; Ashworth et al., 1994; Molinia et al., 1994; O'Neill, 1998;
Paulenz et al., 2004; Salamon and Maxwell, 2000).
The researches about the low temperatures influence in sperm
physiological characteristics and sperm fecundity are contradictory. Some authors
reports that this sperm characteristics aren’t change much if the ram semen is
keep for 24 hours at 4 °C (Wishwanath and Shanoron, 1997).
Another authors observed that in this conditions can be considerable
deteriorate the ram sperm capacity of fertilization. Some researches show that the
ram sperm physiological characteristics are much influenced by extenders
composition (Paulenz et al., 1993).
The extenders composition helps at sperm stabilization in the decreasing
semen temperature processes (Ashworth et al., 1994; Baran et al., 2004; De
Leeuw et al., 1993; Fiser and Fairfull, 1989; Fiser et al., 1987).
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The researches were made between November 2007 and January 2008 at
SCDP Jucu. The aim of this researches was to analyze the influence of different
ram semen extenders, with different glycerol ratio, on time evolution of ram
sperm mobility at 4 °C . Were used three different extenders, with 2.5, 5 and
respectively 7% glycerol. Except glycerol, all extenders contained others
components like: monosodic citrate (0.28 g), fructose (0.1 g), egg yolk (2 ml) and
bidistilled water (8 ml). The semen collection was made with artificial, from five
Tzigai and two Suffolk rams, with rams dashing on an anestrous ewe at Tzigai
breed and on the other ram at Suffolk breed.
The microscopic analyses, regarding the aspect, color and semen volume,
were followed by the microscopic ones regarding mobility, concentration and
sperm abnormalities.
The sperm mobility was analyzed at the optical microscope and
represented the main criteria to accept an ejaculate for processing. The minimal
condition for an ejaculate acceptance to processing was a mobility of 0.7 (70%).
The concentration was established using a Burker-Turk counting camera
and for the abnormalities determinations there were harvested samples from every
ejaculate, that have been colored with eosin-nigrosin.
Depending on results obtained after the usually spermograms were made,
the ejaculates accepted for processing were diluted with that three extenders,
using 1:3 and 1:4 dilution ratio, depend on our previously results.
The protocol used for refrigeration presumed gradual decrease of
temperature, from 13°C to 5°C, in an interval of two hours and than the
maintenance of the samples in refrigerator, at 4°C.
Both in temperature decreasing period and in depositing period at 4°C,
was determined the sperm mobility, at one hour and respectively 24 hours
intervals.
- 1107 -

Results obtained after the ram semen analyses at both breeds were made,
demonstrated that the qualitative and quantitative semen parameters integrated
oneself in the normal limits, medium volume being at 1.07 ml at Tzigai (T) rams
and 2.05 ml at Suffolk (S) rams, medium concentration at 1.52 respectively 2.25
and the sperm abnormalities were under 10%. Analyzing the sperm mobility
dynamics in equilibration period (Tab.1), therefore in the temperature decreasing
period with 4°C per hour, it was established that don’t exist significant differences
in sperm mobility.
The dynamics of the sperm mobility in the period of the lowering temperature
Table 1.
Temperature Extender Dilution Volume M M M
Sample ºC g glycerol degree ml initial after 1h after 2h
initial final
2 h of equilibration
11(T) 13ºC 5ºC 0.25 1:3 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.9
12(T) 13ºC 5ºC 0.5 1:3 0.5 0.9 0.8 0.8
13(T) 13ºC 5ºC 0.7 1:3 0.4 0.9 0.9 0.9
21(S) 13ºC 5ºC 0.25 1:3 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.9
22(S) 13ºC 5ºC 0.5 1:3 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.9
23(S) 13ºC 5ºC 0.7 1:3 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.9
31(S) 13ºC 5ºC 0.25 1:4 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.9
32(S) 13ºC 5ºC 0.5 1:4 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.9
33(S) 13ºC 5ºC 0.7 1:4 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.9
41(T) 13ºC 5ºC 0.25 1:4 0.4 0.9 0.9 0.9
42(T) 13ºC 5ºC 0.5 1:4 0.4 1.0 0.9 0.9
43(T) 13ºC 5ºC 0.7 1:4 0.4 1.0 0.9 0.9
51(S) 13ºC 5ºC 0.25 1:3 0.5 0.9 0.9 0.9
52(S) 13ºC 5ºC 0.5 1:3 0.3 0.9 0.9 0.9
53(S) 13ºC 5ºC 0.7 1:3 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.9
61(T) 13ºC 5ºC 0.25 1:4 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.9
62(T) 13ºC 5ºC 0.5 1:4 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.9
63(T) 13ºC 5ºC 0.7 1:4 0.5 1.0 0.9 0.9
The differences become visible in moment of semen storage at 4°C (Tab.2)

and there was given by the glycerol concentration from extenders.
In this way, it can be observed clearly that the sperm storage period at 4°C
increase with the increase of the glycerol extender’s rate.
- 1108 -
The dynamics of the sperm mobility in the period of the preservation at 4ºC
Table 2.
Examination Echilibration time
interval 2h
hours Samples
11 12 13 21 22 23 31 32 33
24 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8
48 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8
72 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8
96 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8
120 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
144 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
168 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
192 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7
216 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.7
240 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7
264 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.7
288 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.6 0.8 0.7
312 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7
336 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7
360 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.6
384 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.5 0.7 0.5
408 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.5 0.7 0.7 0.2 0.7 0.4
432 0.2 0.5 0.6 0.4 0.6 0.5 0 0.6 0.2
456 0 0.4 0.5 0.2 0.6 0.4 0.5 0
480 0.3 0.2 0 0.4 0.1 0.3
504 0 0 0 0 0
Examination Echilibration time

interval 2h
hours Samples
41 42 43 51 52 53 61 62 63
24 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
48 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.9
72 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.8
96 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.8
120 0.9 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
144 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
168 0.8 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8
192 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8
216 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8
240 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.8 0.8
264 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.8
288 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
312 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
336 0.7 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
360 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7
384 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.6 0.7 0.6 0.7 0.7
408 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.5 0.6 0.7
432 0.3 0 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.7
456 0.2 0.1 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.6
480 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.5
504 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2
528 0 0 0 0
- 1109 -
At the inferior limit of time keeping sperm mobility was the sample no.31,
having a minimal mobility value used in inoculation at 0.5 (50%) after 384 hours
(16 days) of storage at 4°C. In this case, the glycerol concentration was by 2.5%.
At superior limit was the sample no.53, with a mobility value by 0.3 (30%) after
504 hours (21 days) of storage at the refrigeration temperature (4 °C). The
extender used for this sample contained 7% glycerol.
However, the addition of glycerol to diluents for the refrigeration storage of
ram semen is ultimately limited by its toxicity (Fahy, 1986; Watson, 2000).
It can reduce the sperm mobility and the acrosome integrity (Colas, 1975;
Watson, 1981). Therefore, for the maintaining of ram sperm acrosome integrity is
need to use low glycerol levels (Johnson et al., 1974; Watson and Martin, 1975).
Sonmez and Demirci (2003) demonstrated that an increase of glycerol
level in ram semen, decrease meaningful the sperm mobility and increase the
sperm deterioration rate. When it was consider the level of glycerol added at ram
semen, the best percent of mobility sperm was determinate coram 5% glycerol. In
this way, Sonmez and Demirci’s conclusion was that the sperm mobility and
viability rate decrease meaningful in case of extenders without glycerol, in
comparison with the extenders containing glycerol. Also, an increase of glycerol
level over 7% had negative effects in sperm characteristics in time of ram semen
glicerolization and equilibration.
D’Alessandro and Martemucci demonstrated in an experiment made in
2005 that the ram spermatozoa ejaculated during winter and spring (corresponding
to the non-breeding season) have a higher ability to survive freezing and a better
acrosomal integrity than semen frozen during the second semester.
In 2001 El-Alamy and Foote demonstrated that the best mobility rates (71-
76%) were obtained in case of used an extender with 20% egg yolk and 7% glycerol.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The qualitative and quantitative semen parameters integrated oneself in
the normal limits.
2. The sperm storage period at 4°C increase with the increase of the
glycerol extender’s rate.
3. Glycerol concentration at 5 and 7% give better results for ram sperm
refrigeration than 2.5%, but not more than 7%.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Abdelhakem A.A., Graham E.F., Vazquez I.A. (1991), Studies on the presence and absence of
glycerol in unfrozen and frozen ram semen: Fertility trials and the effect of dilution methods on
freezing ram semen in the absence of glycerol. Cryobiology, 28, 36-42.
2. Alvarez, H.L., Venturino A., Gaede J.J. (2000), Effect of trehalose and EDTA on cryoprotective
action of ram semen diluents. Theriogenology 53, 1053-1061.
3. Anel L., Kaabi M., Abroug B., Alvarez M., Anel E., Boixo J.C., de la Fuente L.F., de Paz P.
(2005), Factors influencing the success of vaginal and laparoscopic artificial insemination in churra
ewes: a field assay. Theriogenology, 63, 1235-1247.
4. Ashworth P.J., Harrison R.A., Miller N.G., Plummer J.M., Watson P.F. (1994), Survival of ram
spermatozoa at high dilution: protective effect of simple constituents of culture media as compared
with seminal plasma. Reprod Fertil Dev, 6, 173-180.
- 1110 -
BACK
5. Ataman M.B., Coyan K. (1996), Artificial insemination in sheep using frozen-thawed semen by
laparoscopic technique.Hayvancýlýk Arastýrma Dergisi 6,31-34
6. Bailey, J. L., Bilodeau J.-F. and Cormier, N. (2000). Semen cryopreservation in domestic
animals; a damaging and capaciting phenomenon. J. Androl. 21: 1-7.
7. Baran A., Ak K., Ileri I.K., Soylu M.K (2004), Effects of adding bull seminal plasma to ram
semen extenders on postthaw spermatozoa motility, and morphology. Indian Vet J, 81, 780-783.
8. Byrne G.P., Lonergan P., Wade M., Duffy P., Donovan A., Hanrahan J.P., Boland M.P. (2000),
Effect of freezing rate of ram spermatozoa on subsequent fertility in vivo and in vitro. Anim Reprod
Sci, 62, 265-275.
9. Colas, G. (1994) Effect of initial freezing temperature, addition of glycerol and dilution on the
survival and fertilizing ability of deepfrozen ram semen. J. Reprod. Fertil.,; 42: 277-285.
Theriogenology.; 42: 15-23.
10. D’Alessandro Angela Gabriella, G. Martemucci (2006), Post-thaw survival and acrosome
integrity of spermatozoa of Leccese rams frozen in different seasons with a milk-egg yolk extender
ITAL.J.ANIM.SCI. VOL. 4, 139-148
11. De Leeuw, F.E., De Leeuw, A.M., Den Daas, J.H. et al. (1993), Effect of various cryoprotective
agents and membrane stabilizing compounds on bull sperm membrane integrity after cooling and
freezing. Cryobiology, 30, 32–44.
12. Fahy, G.M. (1986 ) The relevance of cryoprotectant toxicity to cryobiology. Cryobiology.,; 23: 1-13.
13. Fairfull R.W. (1989), The effect of glycerol-related osmotic change on post-thaw motility and
acrosomal integrity of ram spermatozoa.Cryobiology,26, 64-69.
14. Fiser, P.S., Ainsworth, L., Langford, G.A.( 1981), Effects of osmolarity of skim milk diluents
and thawing rate on cryopreservation of ram spermatozoa. Cryobiology.,; 18: 399-403.
15.Fiser P.S., Ainsworth L., Fairfull R.W.: Evaluation of new diluent and different processing
procedures for cryopreservation of ram semen. Theriogenology 1987, 28, 599-607.
16. Fiser, P.S., Fairfull, R.W. (1989) The effect of glycerol-related osmotic changes on post-thaw
motility and acrosomal integrity of ram spermatozoa. Cryobiology.,; 26: 64-69.
17. Johnson, L., O’Connor. M.L., Chander, P.T., Meacham, T.N., Saacke, R.G. (1974), Optima of
glycerol, Tris and thaw rate in freezing ram semen. J. Anim. Sci.,; 39: 213.
18. Medeiros, C.M.O., Forell, F., Oliveira, A.T.D., Rodriguez, J.L., (2002).Current status of sperm
cryopreservation: why isn’t it better? Theriogenology.57:327-344.
19.Miclea, V., M. Zahan (2005), Biologia reproductie si insamantari artificiale- lucrari
practice, Cluj-Napoca
20. Molinia, F. C., Evans, G. and Maxwell, W. M. C. (1994). Incorporation of penetrating
cryoprotectants in diluents for pellet-fre ezing ram spermatozoa. Theriogenology 42: 849- 858.
21. Molinia F.C., Evans G., Casares P.I., Maxwell W.M.C.( 1994), Effect of monosacharides and
disacharides in Tris-based diluents on motility, acrosome integrity, and fertility of pellet frozen ram
spermatozoa. Animal Reprod Sci, 36, 113-122.
22. O'Neill D.J. (1998) Studies on the cryopreservation of ram spermatozoa. Thesis, National
University of Ireland,. 249.
23. Paulenz H., Soderquist L., Adnoy T., Fossen O.H., Berg K.A. (2003) Effect of milk and TRIS
based extenders on the fertility of sheep inseminated vaginally once or twice with liquid semen.
Theriogenology, 60, 759-766.
24. Salomon, S. and Maxwell, W. M. C. (1995). Frozen storage of ram semen. Processing, freezing,
thawing and fertility after cervical insemination. Anim. Reprod. Sci. 37: 185-249.
25. Salomon, S. and Maxwell, W. M. C. (2000),Storage of ram semen. Anim Reprod.Sci.62:77-111.
26. Sonmez M., Demirci E., (2003)The Effect of Ascorbic Acid on the Freezability of Ram Semen
Diluted with Extenders Containing Different Proportions of Glycerol
27. Watson, P.F., Martin, I.C.A.( 1975), Effects of egg yolk, glycerol and the freezing rate on the
viability and acrosomal structures of frozen ram spermatozoa. Aust. J. Biol. Sci.,; 28: 153-159.
28. Watson, P.F., (1981), The roles of lipid and protein in the protection of ram spermatozoa at 5 ºC
by egg-yolk lipoprotein. J. Reprod. Fertil.,; 62: 483-492.
29. Watson, P.F. (2000), The causes of reduced fertility with cryopreserved semen. Anim. Reprod.
Sci.,; 60-61: 481-492.
30. Wishwanath, R. and P. Shanoron, (1997), Do sperm cells age? - A review of the physiological
changes in sperm during storage at ambient temperature. Reproduction. antooxidant. Reproduction,
Fertility and Development, 9: 321-333.
- 1111 -
BACK
RELEVANT FRESH WATER SPECIES TO BE USED AS

BIOMARKER IN MONITORING POLLUTION OF HILLY
HYDROGRAPHIC HABITATS
Daniela LADOŞI, I. LADOŞI, I. BUD, Anca BOARU,
V. VLADĂU, Reka ŞTEFAN, Camelia RĂDUCU
One of the main obligations assumed by Romania since joining EU was

to become an active part of the efforts designated towards biodiversity
conservation on the natural ecosystems and also to act for reconstruction of the
ones endangered. The current paper aim is to use this starting point and to point
out based on updated data that there is an ongoing limitation of the natural
habitat of several fresh water species. Only in the last 15 years 12 species gone
extinct, a situation, which should not be further, tolerated. It is important for the
aim of this project that the targeted specie are already on the UE red list as
vulnerable or endangered. This is supported as well by the Water Framework
Directive and Habitat Directive – 92/43/EEC. In the same time these specie are
regarded as valuable biomarker tools for water quality assessment according to
the EU Fish Monitoring Report TC230/WG2/TG4. For Romania the most
relevant species which can be used as biomarker for level of pollution
assessment are: burbot (Lota lota), bullhead (Cottus gobio gobio), Carpathian
lamprey (Eudontomyzon danfordi), Romanian loach (Cobitis romanica) and
stone crayfish (Austropotamobius torrentium).
INTRODUCTION
The consistent environmental policy promoted by EU lead to the

development of several research networks and implementation of projects for
endangered fish conservation as the one named EFI (European Fish Index). This
organization has as main objective a difficult task, to promote a pan- European
network of research and solutions towards sustainable fresh water management.
Due to major impact of these species on river and streams pollution and the
proper function of water ecosystems are enlisted by IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species since 2004. Furthermore, EU Council Directive 2371/ 20.12.2002,
concerning conservation and use of the freshwater resources makes a clear point
on how these resources should be used for commercial purposes while preserving
the natural habitats of the endangered specie. There are similar elements in
Romanian legislation as well considering the Law 192/2001 regarding the
fisheries and aquaculture and the Law 345/2006 concerning the protection and
conservation of wild specie habitats.
RESEARCH BACKGROUND
By embracing the principles of Berna Convention regarding the
preservation of wildlife and habitats through the Law 13/1993, Romania agreed
- 1112 -
with its final decisions and assumed its responsibility to create not only the legal
framework but also the infrastructure in order to fulfill its commitments. The
present paper was prepared as a brief presentation of some marker species and
fully covers the requirements on the Law 298/2004 establishing the criteria and
principles of wildlife and biodiversity conservation and those of the Order
642/2005 regarding the fishery pool, fishing and aquaculture. Furthermore the
paper is referring to species which are listed within the requirements of Order
642/2005 the one who states the need for conservation of the fresh water
endangered species, according to United Nation’s project for nature conservation
(UICN) and EU’s program „Nature 2000”. Following Romania’s accession to the
EU structures its legislation became compulsory and so are the „Water
Framework Directive” and „Habitat Directive”.
Managing fish species having documented conservation value in
Romanian rivers should be based on a comprehensive monitoring program that
will establish the status of the species against a set of conservation objectives.
This is usually performed at individual sites and can contribute to an assessment
of the conservation status of each species across.
As a main rule it is known that condition assessments for habitats and
species are recorded using one of the following categories:
1. Favorable
2. Unfavorable (with sub-categories Declining, Maintained, Recovering)
3. Partially destroyed (referring to habitats only)
4. Destroyed (referring to habitats only).
The condition assessment must provide information on the present status
of the species and give at least a broad indication as to trends. Sampling strategies
must therefore be able to detect any change over a period of years or differences
between sites. The ability to compare different sites is important because each
river may have different habitat characteristics related to size, depth and gradient
of the river. Habitat information is also needed to provide a broad overview of the
present and future health of the population.
Regarding previous research performed in Romania with similar aim we
can note the projects done by the University Dunarea de Jos in Galati, the
Research Institute for Aquatic Ecology- Galati and the Research Center for
Fisheries in Nucet. However it should be mentioned that these projects were
covering issues linked to conservation of two species that occur only in the
Danube river and Danube Delta. Other subject covered by the same units was the
one referring to the development of intensive fishery production.
On the other hand University of Bucharest through the Biology Faculty
made an important step forward by developing a project with the aim of
establishing the status of the endangered fish specie at national level. However,
nothing was done so far in preservation of these animals so the process is far from
being stopped. Similar studies were performed.
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Other relevant project has been developed by our peers from Iasi
University, work being performed in several rivers and lakes on the Eastern side of
the Carpathian mountains. In this project macro non-vertebrate species were used as
bio marker of fresh water pollution mainly on Bistrita river (Miron I., 2005).
The project aim is to cover a stringent need not only from scientific point
of view but from the practical as well. To date other projects were oriented
towards evaluating the level of biodiversity loss and the level and causes of
pollution in fresh waters. Beside the actions pursued by peers from Galaţi
University with the scope of reconstruction of Danube Delta fish species – mainly
sturgeons, and the ones promoted by colleagues from Iaşi University regarding
the crayfish population in lake of Bicaz there are limited similar attempts focusing
on the considered species.
CONSIDERED SPECIES
Burbot (Lota lota) is the only member of the family which lives in
freshwater (Cohen and all, 1990). Crepuscular and nocturnal, inhabit deep lakes
and large rivers with slow-moving current. Seek shelter under rocks, in crevices
on the river banks, among roots of trees and dense vegetation. Those in rivers tend
to congregate in deep holes throughout the year, except at spawning . Movements
into shallower water during summer nights are related to feeding. Smaller
individuals feed on insect larvae, crayfish, mollusks and other invertebrates with a
changing preference for fishes in larger individuals. Liver is sold smoked or
canned in Europe and processed into fishmeal. Because of its nocturnal habits and
its slow movements, this fish is not very much appreciated by sport fishermen.
Flesh is tasty but a little dry. Recent data confirm its presence in Danube Delta
and in rivers like Mures, Bega, Timis and Olt but the number is quite low
(hundreds). Reasons for decreasing populations are considered to be mainly
human factors like pollution and works on river banks. The fish is already
protected by law in Danube Delta and upper part of Mures river only.
The Carpathian lamprey (Eudontomyzon danfordy) it is a primitive fish
belonging to the Cyclostomata class. In Romania use to be found in rivers like:
Criş, Mureş, Cerna, Timiş, but in Moldova and Argeş river as well.
Metamorphosis usually starts in July - August and lasts for 1-5 months. Adult
lampreys feed on the blood and flesh of both living and dead fish. They migrate
upstream to the upper reaches of brooks during spawning time in spring. The
adult phase lasts 17-21 months. They spawn 2,000-3,000 eggs per female and it
seems likely that the majority dies afterwards. Adults are used as food and live
bait. It is regarded as threatened specie with high risk of extinction mainly in
central Romania. There are two other relates species: E. vladycovy (in
Transilvania) and E. Marinae (Moldova, Muntenia and Oltenia rivers). Because of
its decline in several parts of Europe and Romania, some of the lamprey species
are listed in annexes IIa and Va of the Habitats Directive, Appendix III of the
- 1114 -
Bern Convention. According to several studies lamprey habitat preferences appear

to change with the stages of their life cycle. They show a preference for stone
dominated substratum for spawning, and mainly silt and sand dominated
substratum for nursery habitat. Other important environmental characteristics for
optimal habitat are shallow waters with low water velocity, and the presence of
organic detritus and/or plant material.
Bullhead fish (Cottus gobio gobio) inhabits hard bottoms (under stones)
in streams, rivers and lakes, rarely in brackish coastal waters. Feeds on small
bottom invertebrates, mainly insects, crustaceans. Contrary to statements in older
literature, eggs and larvae of fishes are not a common foot item. Pink to yellow
eggs are found in clumps attached to undersides of large stones. It was considered
the fish of the year 2006 in Germany and Austria, because its presence indicates
good water quality. The bullhead is crepuscular. It spends the day under stones or
in vegetation, and emerges at dusk to feed on small bottom-dwelling invertebrates
such as insect larvae and crustaceans, as well as the eggs and larvae of other fish.
They are occasionally cannibalistic, particularly of eggs in other nests. Bullheads
are visual, ambush predators, and are good swimmers, moving quickly in short,
sharp darts along the bed.
The spawning season occurs between February and June, and fertilisation
is external. The eggs are laid underneath stones or in a pit, and then guarded and
cared for by the male who fans them to ensure that they receive enough oxygen.
The eggs hatch two to four weeks later, and the larvae feed on their yolk sac for a
further two weeks before dispersing. Maturity is reached within two years.
Bullheads often behave aggressively towards one another, and competition for
shelter and foraging space can be intense. Being small, bullheads are vulnerable to
a wide range of predators, particularly trout and pike. One important issue that
must be taken into account when undertaking condition assessment, is that
bullheads have very limited home ranges, and genetically discrete populations
exist in small sections of rivers or in individual tributaries. As such, several
distinct populations of bullheads may exist within each river catchment, and these
do not genetically mix. This has serious implications for the conservation status of
bullheads in rivers, as the stock in each river cannot necessarily be treated as one
population that freely mixes.
Romanian loach (Cobitis romanica)
Despite its listing into the FishBase and in the list of species under threat
of extinction there is very few data on the biology and its habitat. It is known that
the Romanian loach is part of a larger family preferring mainly the mountain
creeks, with sandy bentos where usually is hiding.
The Stone crayfish are freshwater crustaceans resembling small
crawfish, to which they are closely related. They breath through gills and are
found in bodies of fresh water that do not freeze to the bottom, they are also
mostly found in brooks and streams where there is fresh water running. Also the
Stone crayfish have been found living underground in subterranean water caves.
- 1115 -
The Stone crayfish cannot tolerate polluted water. The stone crayfish
Austropotamobius torrentium use to be widely distributed throughout Central and
Southeastern Europe. Although the global and general view of its geographical
distribution seems to be known in Western Europe details and exact regional or
local populations are quite scarce. Biologically and biogeographically this species
is believed to be much less known than the noble crayfish Astacus astacus , the
narrow-clawed crayfish Astacus leptodactylus and the white-clawed crayfish
Austropotamobius pallipes. This is one of the reasons why the 4th Craynet
Meeting Innsbruck 2004 was focused on the stone crayfish.
AVAILABLE MONITORING METHODOLOGY

Abundance assessment
The first approach classifies the density of species in order to establish the
relative condition of fish populations in rivers. The target for favorable
conservation status in upland streams is set differently, depending on each
considered species. It is important that an appropriate number of sites are under
survey.
Population demographic structure
A further assessment can be made of the demographic structure of the
population (the contribution of juveniles to the population to demonstrate
recruitment success). However, care must be taken when interpreting the output
because of natural variability in river systems, and where possible the assessments
should be made on individual rivers or sections of rivers where discrete
populations are known to exist. Further assessment of the status can be derived
from mapping the distribution of proposed species in individual rivers. Favorable
conservation status should be recorded if there is no decline in distribution from
the current, or where available, historical pattern.
Monitoring strategy
Monitoring by electric fishing is recommended to provide an overview of
the status of proposed populations in river catchments. A combination of
quantitative (multi-run depletion method) and semi-quantitative (calibration
method) sampling is recommended. Standard data recording forms are
recommended for reporting fisheries and environmental data. The data input
forms are recommended for recording environmental and physicochemical data.
Surveys should be conducted in the time of the year when proposed species are
vulnerable to capture but do not dominate the catches. Annual surveys on
designated sites, are recommended and at least once every six years, catchment-
wide surveys should be carried out to review evolution of the populations.
It is recommended that all information is stored on a central database.
Results from the surveys should be interpreted in relation with the conservation
status.
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BACK
Further research recommendations

Irrespective of the species considered there is a great need for ongoing
research mainly where data available is either outdated or scarce.
It is vital that research should provide better data on the distribution of the
proposed species in hilly and mountain areas and especially in the upper side of
the Transylvanian rivers were the status of these species is uncertain.
Further research is also required to the reintroduction of these species in
to some of its historic sites, from which it has been excluded by pollution, dams
and weirs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.Benone Pasarin, Traian Stan , (2003)- Acvacultura - indrumator practic. Editura Karro, Iasi.
2.Bogutskaya, N.G., 1997. Contribution to the knowledge of leuciscine fishes of Asia Minor. Part 2.
An annotated check-list of leuciscine fishes (Leuciscinae, Cyprinidae) of Turkey with
descriptions of a new species and two new subspecies. Mitt. Hamb. Zool. Mus. Inst.
94:161-186.
3.Blanc, M., J.L. Gaudet, P. Banarescu and J.C. Hureau (1971). European inland water fish: a
multilingual catalogue. Fishing News (Books) Ltd. London.
4.Bud I., M. Bura, Daniela Ladoşi, Alina Totoian (2001) - Peştii şi tainele umbrelor subacvatice.
Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti,
5.Bura Marian (2002) - Acvacultură specială: broaşte, crustacee şi moluşte. Ed. Orizonturi
universitare Timişoara, 2002, ISBN-973-8391-02-4, 366 pg
6.Cohen, D.M., T. Inada, T. Iwamoto and N. Scialabba, 1990. FAO species catalogue. Vol. 10.
Gadiform fishes of the world (Order Gadiformes). An annotated and illustrated catalogue
of cods, hakes, grenadiers and other gadiform fishes known to date. FAO Fish. Synop. 10
(125). 442 p.
7.Freyhof, J., M. Kottelat and A. Nolte, 2005. Taxonomic diversity of European Cottus with
description of eight new species (Teleostei: Cottidae). Ichthyol. Explor. Freshwat.
16(2):107-172.
8.Gheţeu, D., Neagu, A.-N., Miron, I., 2005. The use of bioindicators in the assessment of water
quality in the catchement area of Bicaz Reservoir for the lake ecological diagnosis,
Sustainability for humanity &Environment in the extendeal connection fields Science-
Economy-Policy, Timişoara: 173-176.
9.Ladoşi Daniela, I. Ladoşi (2005) – Acvacultură specială-îndrumător lucrări practice. Ed. Risoprint,
Cluj-Napoca.
10.Miller, P.J. & Coates, M.J. (1997) Fish of Britain and Europe. Harper Collins Ltd, London.
11.Miron I., 2005 - Utilizarea bioindicatorilor in managementul calitatii apei din bazinul versant al
lacului bicaz in vederea stabilirii diagnozei ecologice a acestuia – Raport Grant 641/ 2005
– Universitatea A.I.Cuza, Iaşi
12.Neagu, A., 2004. The effect of sampling protocol on the I.B.G.N. (Standardized Global
Biological Index) notes for the assessment of running water quality, Studii şi Cercetări de
Biologie, nr. 9, Univ. din Bacau: 144-146.
- 1117 -
BACK
GROWTH STIMULATION AND FOOD CAPITALIZATION,

IN CYPRINIDS, BY CONTROL OF THE
PARASITIC STRESS
C. MISAILA, A. COLESNIUC,
Elena GRIGORICA, Petronela RAILEANU
The study discusses the results obtained on the weight gain and food
capitalization in one-year old common carp, silver carp and bighead carp grown
in polyculture, at industrial level, in two variants, namely with and without the
application of some preventive antiparasitical treatments. The lots, parked into
ponds at The Research Station for Aquaculture and Aquatic Ecology of Iaşi, were
formed of 79% common carp (Cyprinus carpio), 11% silver carp
(Hypophthalmichthys molitrix) and 10% bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis), the
controlled food administered for 220 days, consisting of granulated fodder with
identical compos.
Along the whole experimental period, the carp grew from 51g/piece to
243 g/piece, the silver carp from 125 g/piece to 474 g/piece, and the bighead
carp from 134 g/piece. to 424 g/piece.
In both experimental variants, the silver carp records the highest weight
gain, followed by bighead carp and common carp. In all the three species, the
individual weight gain is higher in the variant in which antiparasitical
treatments had been applied, comparatively with the reference (i.e., + 19% in
silver carp, + 20.3% in common carp and + 25.7%, respectively, in bighead
carp). Food conversion ratio - in the case of carp - is 26.3% more efficient in the
variant under investigation than in the reference one, while the coefficients of
metabolic conversion of the ingested proteins evidence the 28 - 35% superiority
of this variant.
INTRODUCTION
Piscicultural practice has demonstrated that the health condition of the
fish grown in capacity represents an essential factor for attaining productive
performances in such an aquaculture system. Parasitoids, the ones produced by
ectoparasites especially, expose the fish to a chronic stress, for the counteracting
of which the organisms consumes a large part of its energy, at the expense of the
reserve energy for growing.
With increasing the anthropic impact upon the quality of surface waters, the
development of multidisciplinary investigations for a deep knowledge of parasites'
biology, on one hand, and for the establishment of modern methods for a
differentiated prevention and combat of any incidence (Ghittino, 1985; Moşu, 2000;
Munteanu and Bogatu, 2003; Roberts, 2003; Vulpe, 2004; Vulpe et al., 2007).
Application of preventive treatments, acting both upon the parasitic forms
of water and soil, and directly upon the parasites from the teguments of fish has
been confirmed as a highly efficient procedure, at laboratory and industrial level.
- 1118 -
The present paper analyzes the response of culture cyprinids (bodily

growth and metabolic valorization of the food, to the application of preventive
antiparasitic treatments, both in the moment of pools' filling with fish and along
the growing period.
MATHERIALS AND METHOD

The investigations, developed “in the field”, that is, at production scale, at
the Station for Aquaculture and Aquatic Ecology Researches of Iaşi, consisted of
the controlled feeding, for 220 days (between April 3 - November 9), of two fish
experimental batches, grown in polyculture, formed of 75-83% carp, 9-13% silver
carp and 8-12% bighead carp. On April 3, the two ponds were filled with 10,000
one year-old individuals of cyprinids (C1+) with the following average initial
individual weight: 50-52g/piece in carps, 121-128g/piece in silver carp and 127-
141g/piece, respectively, in bighead carp. In variant A, antiparasitic treatments -
both prophilactically, in the moment of pond's filling and along the growing
period - were administered (Trichlorfon in preventive doses of 0.1 mg/L in two
steps and Calcium hypochlorite 2 kg/ha two times/week) In the variant B, no
treatments were applied.
Fish feeding was made normally, with concentrated granulated fodder,
the daily ratio provided representing 3-5% of the existing piscicultural biomas. In
each variant, the amount of food was divided into two semi-ratios, administered at
8.30 and 13.30, respectively. Periodically, on the basis of control weighing,
performed each month (on May 21, June 12, August 13, September 10, October 5
and November 9), the amount administered food was updated.
In the first 135 days of the experiment, both variants were fed with the
intensive 38/12 SAPROFISH recipe, containing 38% crude protein, 3.5%
cellulose, 8% humidity and 12% fats while, in the following 85 days, the 32/SA–
1 SAPROFISH recipe (32% crude protein, 7% cellulose, 13% humidity and 8%
lipids) was applied.
In the end of the experimental period, a final weighing was performed, for
the determination of the weight gain. The results obtained permitted the
calculation of (Hepher, 1998; Misaila et al., 1995; 1998; 2001; 2004):
- FCR = food conversion ratio: g of consumed food/g of weight gain;
- EFB% = efficiency of food bioconversion: 100 x g of weight gain/g of
consumed food;
- CPE = coefficient of proteic efficiency: g of weight gain/g of consumed
proteins;
- CPU = coefficient of proteic utilization: g of consumed proteins/g of fixed
proteins;
- PR% = protein retention: 100 x g of fixed proteins/g of consumed proteins;
- PCG = proteic coefficient of growth: 100 x g of consumed proteins/g of weight
gain.
- 1119 -

Bodily weight gain of fish. The data obtained on the growing of fish from
the experimental groups were synthesized and graphically plotted in Figures 1 and
2. As to the individual weight gain, it may be defined as the difference between
the mean individual weight recorded in the end of the experiment and that
registered in the beginning.
Figure 1 evidences certain differences on the weight gain, induced both by the
species and by the experimental treatment applied. The highest values of the individual
growth gain (437-511g/piece) were recorded in silver carp, followed by bighead carp
(with 383-465 g/piece) and common carp, in which the mean values registered do not
exceed 216–270 g/piece. Such inter-specific differences, genetically determined and
characteristic to these cyprinids species, occur within the normal limits of the natural
growing rhythm.
From this perspective, especially interesting are the differences between the two
variants under study, all the three species evidencing higher values of the individual
growth gain in variant A, to which antiparasitic treatments has been applied,
comparatively to the control (B).
600
511 465
500
437
383
400
g/piece
270
300
216
200
125% 100% 116% 100% 121% 100%
100
0
Carp Silver carp Bighead carp
Treated variant Reference variant
Figure 1. The individual weight gain of fish from the experiment
As shown in Figure 1, the differences recorded are of 16% in silver carp,

21% in bighead carp and 25% in carp. In the opinion of the authors, this
constitutes an important result of the investigations, namely that, regardless of the
feeding regime preferred (concentrated fodder or planktonic organisms), the
parasite-free fish show a more prosperous physiological condition, finally
manifested both by stimulation of the yield of metabolic valorization of the food,
and by acceleration of the growing processes.
- 1120 -
7
6.4
6
5.32 5.22
4.41 4.66
5
3.71
MRIW (x)
3
120% 100% 119% 100% 125% 100%
2
0
Carp Silver carp Bighead carp
Figure 2. Multiplication report of initial weight of fish after 220 days of experiment
The growing performances of the fish from both variants may be also
expressed by the values taken by the multiplication report of the initial mean
individual weight (MRIW), which results from the ratio between the mean
individual weight of the fish in the end of the test and the initial one (Fig.2). From
this point of view, some essential differences may appear, comparatively with
those recorded for the growth increase, namely that the species which multiplies
its initial weight more times is not silver carp, any longer, but the carp, with
MRIW values of 5.3-6.4, followed by silver carp (4.4-5.2 times) and bighead carp
(3.7-4.7 times). This overthrowing of hierarchy may be mentioned only in relation
with the difference among species as, between the two variants, the same 19-26%
superiority of the treated batch (comparatively with the reference one) still
remains.
Food conversion ratio (FCR) Considering that, in both variants, food
with the same composition had been administered, in similar percent ratios from
the fish biomass/day, the differences observed as to the weight gain can be
exclusively explained by a higher valorization - with plastic purposes - of the
ingested food, comparatively with its valorization for energetical objectives.
- 1121 -
3.5
3.16
3
2.33
2.5
2
FCR
1.5
0.5
Figure 3. The FCR values after 220 days of experiment
Indeed, Figure 3 shows that the metabolic valorization of food for plastic
purposes, in the autochthonous carp (the species consuming artificial fodders) is
26.3% more efficient in the fish subjected to antiparasitical treatments (variant A),
comparatively with the reference. From this perspective, the values of FCR (kg of
consumed food/kg of weight gain) demonstrate that, if, in the reference, 3.16 kg
of fodder are consumed for attaining a weight gain of 1 kg fish, the same value
may be attained in the variant under investigation with only 2.33 kg of fodder.
The assumption may be therefore made that, part of energy resulted from the
difference of consumed fodder is utilized for canceling the effects of the
parasitical stress.
An analysis of such aspects from the perspective of the EFB%
(efficiency of food bioconversion) values leads to the conclusion that, in variant
A, to which antiparasitical treatments had been applied, 42.8% of the food
ingested by the carp was plastically valorized, that is, it was fixed in the carcass,
unlike a value of only 31.6%, recorded in the reference.
Valorization coefficients of the ingested protein. Apart from the
valorization of food, as a whole, for plastic purposes, especially important
remains its valorization for increasing the amount of ingested protein (Table 1),
that is the expensive element of a diet.
The coefficient of proteic efficiency (CPE) expresses the ratio between
the weight gain and the ingested protein. In the experiments performed, the CPE
value is higher in variant A than in the reference (B), which means that, in the
variant subjected to treatments, 1.18 units of weight gain may be obtained with an
unit of ingested protein, that is 34.1% more than in the non-treated variant, in
which only 0.88 units of weight gain are obtained.
- 1122 -
Table 1. The valorization coefficients of the given food and ingested protein
Variants Specification CPE CPU PR% PCG EFB%
1.18 4.76 21.16 840.8 42.8
A Treated variant
(134.1%) (74.5%) (135.2%) (71.6%) (135.4%)
Non - treated 0.88 6.39 15.65 1173.6 31.6
B
variant (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%) (100%)
The coefficient of proteic utilization (CPU) illustrates the ratio between

the ingested protein and the fixed protein. The experimental data obtained show
that, in variant A the growth valorization of the ingested protein is 25.5% higher
than in the non-treated variant; in other words, protein retention is higher in
variant A, where 21.2% of the ingested protein is fixed in the carcass,
comparatively with the reference (B), in which fixation is of only 15.7%.
Eventually, the amount of protein consumed for obtaining 1 kg of weight gain,
that is the proteic coefficient of growth (PCG) takes - in the present experiments -
much more efficient values in the antiparasitic - treated variant, comparatively
with the reference. Consequently, in variant A, the amount of protein consumed
for obtaining 1 kg of weight gain is of 840.8 g, which means 28.4% lower than in
the reference, in which values of up to 1.180 g are recorded.
CONCLUSIONS
1. In both experimental variants, the silver carp registers the highest weight
gain, followed by the bighead carp and carp.
2. In all the three species, the individual weight gain is higher in the variant
with antiparasitical treatments (A), versus the control (i.e., + 19% in silver carp, +
20.3% in common carp and + 25.7% in bighead carp).
3. In the case of carp, food conversion is 26.3% more efficient in variant A,

subjected to treatments, comparatively with the reference (that is 1 kg of weight
gain obtained with 3.16 kg fodder in variant A, and with only 2.33 kg fodder,
respectively, in variant B).
4. The values of the coefficients of metabolic valorization of the ingested

proteins (the expensive element in the diet) confirm the general superiority of
variant A, comparatively with the reference (+ 28-35%).
REFERENCES
Ghittino O., 1995, Tecnologia e Patologia in aquacoltura, vol. 2, Patologia, Tipo Emilio
Bono, 695 p.
Hepher B., 1988, Nutrition of pond Fisches,Cambridge University Press, 399 p.
Misăilă C., Watson J., Misăilă Elena Rada, 1995, Use of palleted feed with romanian
cultured cyprinidae, Lucr. Simp. Internmat. Aquarom Galaţi, vol. 1, 223-228.
- 1123 -
BACK
Misăilă Elena Rada, Misăilă C., Comănescu Gianina, 1998 - Some haematological,
biochemical and hiustological parameters in the silver carp erythrodermatitis, Aquarom’98, Lucr.
Simp. Aquacult. Galaţi, 299-301.
Misăilă C., Misăilă Elena Rada, 2001, Body growth and some
haematological indices for three species of cultured Cyprinidae, in correlation with diet protein
level, Lucr. Staţ. Biol. Marine „Prof. dr. Ioan Borcea” - Agigea, Vol. Omagial, Ed. Univ. „Al. I.
Cuza” Iaşi, 266-273.
Misăilă C., Misăilă Elena Rada, 2004, Cercetări hematologice la unele ciprinide de
cultură în condiţii de stres cronic, Lucr. Ştiinţifice, Seria Zootehnie, Edit. “Ion Ionescu de la Brad”
vol. 47, 703-709.
Misăilă Elena Rada, 1998, Cercetări biochimice şi ecofiziologice asupra profilului
metabolic la unii peşti de cultură, Teză de doctorat, Univ. "Alexandru Ioan Cuza", Iaşi.
Misăilă Elena Rada, Misăilă C., Artenie Vl., Simalcsik F., 2005, Effect of the chronic
stress on some parameters of the metabolic-blood profile (MBP) of the farming Cyprinides in:
Fisheries and Aquaculture Development, XXX, HAKI, Hungary, 147-153.
Moşu, A., 2000, Cnidosporidiile (Cnidospora; Myxosporea) peştilor din spaţiul
hidrografic Prut-Nistru, Teză de doctorat Chişinău.
Munteanu Gabriela, Bogatu D., 2003, Tratat de ihtiopatologie, Ed. Excelsior Art,
Timişoara, 815 p.
Parent J. P., 1976, Influence du facteur termique sur quelques parameters du
metabolisme glucidique chez carpe commune (Cyprinus carpio), These de Specialite, Univ.Paul
Sebatier, Toulouse.
Roberts, R. J., 2003, FishPatholog,Balliere Tindall, London.
Scott A. L., Rogers S.W.A., 1981, Haematological effects of prolonged sublethal hypoxia
on channel catfish (Ictalurus punctatus), Raf. J.Fish Biol., 18, 591-601.
Vulpe V., 2004 – Mixosporidioze la crapul comun crescut intensiv, Lucr. Şt. USAMV
Iaşi, Vol. 47 (6), 731-734.
Vulpe V., Oprean O. Z., Lazăr, M., 2007, The morphologic and diagnostic value of
some inflammatory dermatopathies, ISFP VII, Parasitologia, vol. 49, Suppl. 2, Rome.
- 1124 -
BACK
RISK OF DACTYLOGIROSIS TRANSMISSION IN

CARASSIUS AURATUS, IN STRESS EXPERIMENTAL
CONDITIONS AND THERAPEUTIC EFFICIENCY OF
TRICHLORFON PRODUCT
(SYNTHESIS ORGANO-PHOSPHORIC)
O. NEGREA
Investigations done on an effective of 58 fishes (young carp), on the

dactylogirosis incidence and extension in dynamic, on 60 days, in conditions of
inducing some stress factors artificially (great density of population into
aquarium, moving space restraint, residual organic support in great quantity,
high temperature 22 – 24 0C, reduced oxygen) and testing antihelmintic
efficiency of Trichlorfon product put in evidence the following aspects :
- dactylogirosis incidence presents in dynamic, increasing values from the
first control (8,6 %) to the second one (36,0 %) and maximum to the third (88,1%).
- the level of parasitism intensity records in dynamic, important
increasing values, touching to the last control values of 73,3 % massive
infestations, facing the absence of these to the first control.
-into the clinical picture are appearing progressively grave
modifications express by an acute respiratory syndrome, suffocation accesses
and mortality.
- morpho-pathologic exam which was done puts in evidence branchial
multiple hemorrhagic lesions alternating with branchial necrosis areas, hyper-
secretion of mucus into branchiae cavity
- therapeutic efficiency of Trichlorfon for struggle against
dactylogirosis in carassius is very good touching a threshold of 80 %.
Introduction
Dactylogirosis is a parasitose with branchial localization which affects a
lot of fish species, evolving seriously in sapling. The disease is produced by a
worm, Dactylogyrus spp. And is clinical characterized by a respiratory
disfunction (hipoxy signs, initial state of agitation followed by hipodynamy,
inapetence, emaciation and death). In necropsy exam, as a following of iritative
mechanic action of parasites in fixing place, it is ascertained the presence of
branchial necrosis areas, branchial necrosis lamella detachment and replacement
with conjunctive tissue. In the same time it appears also branchial hemorrhagic
focus, circumscribed or scattered, branchia having a marble aspect.
Work paper purpose

It followings aspects, concerning the incidence and intensity of parasitism
with Dactylogyrus spp., in dynamic on a period of time of 60 days, in conditions
of inducing of some artificial stress factors. Also, it was tested the antihelmintic
therapeutic efficiency of Trichlorfon product, synthesis organo-phosphoric.
- 1125 -
MATERIAL AND METHOD

Researches were done on an effective of 58 fish sapling, carassus species,
of 50 – 80 g. Biologic material comes from a piscicole unit from Arad county,
specialized in semi intensive breeding of cyprinidae. For experiment was used a
glass aquarium (about 120 l volume), kept in conditions of laboratory
(temperature and light) and having aeration installation (vibratory) and
thermometer for periodical control of water temperature. During the experiment
fishes alimentation was realized with suitable granule feed (Aquaforte). The
experiment was developed on 60 days period (March, April 2007) after following
working plan :
- initial parasite, microscopic exam (control 1) to evaluate dactylogyrosis
incidence and infestation level with Dactylogyrus sp., by effecting branchial
scrapings, with much attention and prudence;
- anatomic clinical exams to put in evidence digestive troubles and
branchial lesions;
- artificial and progressive induction of some stress factors in life
environment of aquarium fishes; increasing the support in aquatic environment by
graduate diminishment of water dynamic equilibrium in aquarium (water
refreshment), from 2 changes on week in first 2 weeks, to one change in 10 days;
diminishment of oxygen quantity solved in water, by vibrator unplugging on
some period of time; progressive increasing of water temperature to values of 22
– 240C;
- control 2 (at 30 days) and control 3 (at 60 days), after the same protocol
in control 1;
- application of antihelminthic therapy with Trichlorfon product in doses
of 0,5 mg/l water (50 mg.s.a./l aquarium water);
- final control (at 48 hours after therapy) to evaluate the efficiency of
medicinal product.
Intensity of parasitism with Dactylogyrus spp. Was established by
evaluation of total number of parasites / microscopic preparing, appreciating as:
- low infestation : to 5 parasites / preparing
- low infestation : between 5 – 10 parasites / preparing
- massive infestation : above 10 parasites / preparing

Investigations done on an effective of 58 fishes (carassius sapling),
regarding dactylogyrosis incidence and parasitism intensity, in dynamic, during
60 days, in conditions of experimental stress induced progressively, put in
evidence different values, as in the table 1.
- 1126 -
Table 1.
Incidence of dactylogyrosis presents, in dynamic
Low Medium Massive

Number Positive infestation infestations infestation
Control % % % %
of trials trials –trial trial trial
number number number
1 (Day 0) 58 5 8,6 3 60,0 2 40,0 - -
2 (day 30) 50 18 36,0 4 22,2 5 27,7 9 50,0
6 (day 60) 35 30 30,0 3 10,0 5 16,6 22 73,3
From data presented in table 1, values obtained, regarding extensivity

and dactylogyrosis intensity, reflect high level of parasitosis incidence in control
3, compared with those obtained in first and second control. So the parasitosis
incidence touches values of 88,1 % (control 3), facing to 36,0 % (control 2) and
only 8,6 % (control 1). In the same time it is remarked a very high increasing of
infestation levels, designing massive infestations, 73,3 % (control 3), compared to
the absence of these in control 1. Meanwhile the level of medium and low
infestations have a descendent course, from 40,0 % medium infestations and 60,0
% low infestations (control 1) to 27,7 % medium infestations and 22,2 % low
infestations (control 2) and 16,6 % medium infestations and 10,0 % low
infestations (control 3).
The continuous action of infestation risk factors, artificially induced
(pollution high density, moving restraint space, residual organic support in high
quantity, high temperature, 22 – 240C), have favoured with massive
contamination of carassius sapling, touching peculiar high values.
In clinic investigations, done by inspection during experiment period, are
put in evidence different aspects correlated with control period. So :
- in first control, does not ascertained notable clinic manifestations :
fishes are vivacious, with normal moving, are normal fed, it does not signed
respiratory troubles
- in control 2,clinic exam effected on fish livestock existing in aquarium it
is put in evidence a number of 8 fishes (14% from effective) to which there are
modifications in their general state: leading astray, respiratory disfunction with
suffocation access, agitation, untidy swimming, agony state and death.
- in control 3, clinic exam puts in evidence a visible making worse of
health state, with general troubles expressed by: leading astray, unsure and untidy
swimming, lack of appetite , respiratory grave disfunction, marble aspect of
branchia, suffocation access, agony and death, number of death fishes being of 15
individuals (30,0%).
Necropsy exam effected during the experiment, on 23 death fishes, puts
in evidence the following lesion table:
- tumefaction and thickening of branchial epithelium,
- accumulation of too much mucus in branchial cavity,
- 1127 -
- multiple hemorrhagic areas, alternating with necrose areas, in the level

of branchial lamella (marble aspect)
- areas of conjunctive cicatrisation, of white color.
Contamination risk evaluation in dactylogyrosis, in carassius sapling, in
conditions of some stress artificial factors induction during 60 days, puts in
evidence the special importance of these in massive beginning of disease state, in
a short period of time (graphic 1).
Graphic 1. Incidence and intensity of dactylogyrosis, in dynamic, in carassius sapling
After therapy, results of treatment effected with Trichorfon product, in

doses of 0,5 mg/l water,the values obtained in microscopic exam of branchial
preparing (10 individuals), are presented in table 2.
Table 2.
Therapeutic eficience of Trichlorfon product, to combat dactylogyrosis in
carassius
Sample Result of microscopic exam
1 negative
2 negative
3 negative
4 negative
5 Positive low infestation
6 negative
7 negative
8 Positive low infestation
9 negative
10 negative
- 1128 -
BACK
Results obtained and presented in table 2 show a very good therapeutic

efficiency of Trichlorfon product in dactylogyrosis combat (80,0%). In the same
time fishes diagnosticated as positive in dactylogyrosis, after therapy , presents a
reduced infestation level, under 5 parasite individuals/preparing. After treatment,
the fish lot has presented a visible amelioration of general state, on the
background both of medicinal combat of parasitosis and elimination of stress
factors artificially induced.
CONCLUSIONS
Investigations done on a 58 fish effective (carassius sapling(, on
dactylogyrosis incidence and intensity of parasitism with Dactylogyrus spp., in
dynamic during 60 days, in conditions of some artificial risk factors induction and
testing of antihelmintic efficience of Trichlorfon product, reveal the following
aspects:
1. incidence of dactylogyrosis presents, in dynamic, increase values from
first control (8,6%), to the second (36,0%) and maximum to the third (88,1%);
2. parasitism intensity level records in dynamic, important increasing
values touching to the last control the level of 73,3 % massive infestation, facing
to the lack of these in first control;
3. clinic table, regarding general health state of fish stock, if doesn’t
present notable modifications in the beginning of experiment (0 day), ulterior and
progressive appears grave clinical troubles translated by an acute respiratory
syndrome, correlated with infestation level;
4. morpho pathologic exam , effected on death fishes or in agony, puts in
evidence hemorrhagic lesions circumscribes or diffuse in branchia, in the place of
parasite fixing, alternating with branchial necrosis focus and collateral congestion
(marble aspect). In the same time necropsy exam reveals a n worsening of lesional
table according to infestation extent;
5. therapeutic eficience of Trichlorfon product, to combat dactylogyrosis
in carassius is very good, touching a threshold of 80,0%.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Munteanu Gabriela, D. Bogatu, 2003- Tratat de ihtiopatologie, Ed. Excelsior Art., Timiţoara
2. Negrea O., 2007- Bolile peştilor. Ed. AcademicPres, Cluj-Napoca
3. Roberts, R. J., 1989- Fish Patology. Second edition. Ed. BailliereTindall. London.
- 1129 -
BACK
PCR TECHNIQUE USED IN SAPROLEGNIA SP.

GENETICAL CHARACTERIZATION
R.G. OROIAN, A. VLAIC, T.E. OROIAN
We isolated and genetically characterized using PCR technique, 16

samples of Saprolegnia sp., originating from infected carps (Cyprinus carpio),
belonging to the Arinis fishery, Maramures, in April 2007. The molecular
genetics methods were performed at the Facolta di Agraria, University of Tuscia,
Viterbo, Italy, in november.
INTRODUCTION
Analysis of the genome sizes of fungi offers a wide range of applications
in systematics and taxonomy, but also in fungi pathogeny. Compared with the
genome sizes of other eukariotes such as animals and plants, the genome sizes of
fungi are small. Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. pombe have genome sizes of
13,7 Mb and 13,8 Mb respectively. Other filamentous ascomycetes and
basidiomycetes have genome sizes between 13 and 42 Mb.
Furthermore, fungal genomes have a high gene density and a low
proportion of repetitive sequences. For example, S. cerevisiae contains a gene
approximately every 2 kb, whereas the larger genome of N. crassa contains a
gene every 4 kb. Characterisation of fish pathogenic Saprolegnia is useful for the
epidemiological studies of the source of the infection, disease transmission,
spreading and control of the disease.
The Saprolegniaceae are zoosporic water moulds belonging to the
Oomycetes (Coker, 1923; Seymour, 1970; Dieguez-Uribeondo and col., 2007).
They include a number of important parasites on plant roots, farmed freshwater
animals and their eggs (Willoughby, 1978; Hatai and col, 1990; Fregenenda-
Grandes and col., 2007), as well as wild populations of fish, crustaceans and
amphibians (Cerenius and Soderhall, 1992). Species delineation in the genus
Saprolegnia is based on the morphological traits of their sexual structures –
oogonia, oospores and antheridia (Coker, 1923, Seymour, 1970; Johnson, 2002),
and recently on the genetical characterisation of the isolates (Bangyeekhun,
E.and col., 2003; Dieguez-Uribeondo and col., 2007).

Saprolegnia isolates
Sixteen samples of Saprolegnia sp. were isolated from infected tissue of
the carp Cyprinus carpio from Arinis fish ponds, Maramures, in April 2007.
DNA extraction
A small piece of micelium (approximately 2 mg dry weight) grown in
PDB (Potato dextrose broth) drop culture was inoculated in a 500 ml flask
- 1130 -
containing 100 ml PDB medium and cultured with shaking at 20°C. After 3 days,
the mycelia were harvested, washed in sterile water and ground in liquid nitrogen
with a mortar. The DNA extracts were stored after at -20°C until required. The
total genomic DNA was extracted with a DNA kit named DNeasy Minikit, from
Qiagen.
PCR amplification
The PCR reactions took place in 50 µl volumes containing 1 µl genomic
DNA, 2 µl dNTPs, 1 µl of each primer, 0,5 µl Taq polymerase, 5 µl buffer 10 X,
10 µl enhancer 5 X. There were used four nucleotide primers: ITS1, ITS4, LR0R
and LR16 (http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/primers.htm). LR0R
and LR16 primers are cutting nearly 1000 pb and ITS1 and ITS4 primers are
cuting 700 pb. Amplifications were performed in a ABI GeneAmp PCR system
2700. The first cycle of initial denaturation at 95°C for 5 minutes, followed by 30
cycles of denaturation at 95°C for 1 minute, annealing at 47°C for 30 seconds and
extension at 68°C for 2 minutes. The final extension took place at 68°C for 7
minutes.
The PCR products were then separated on 1% agarose gel and 3 µl ladder
DNA (λ/HindIII, Fermentas) was used as molecular weight marker. Gels were
stained with ethidium bromide, visualised by UV illumination and photographed.

Two series of primers were used for PCR analysis, which gave consistent
results and produced a number of identifiable bands. When we used 25S primers,
LR0R and LR16, which cut nearly 1000 pb, Saprolegnia isolates varied between
986 and 1020 pb (figure 1). Using the ITS (Internal transcribed spacer) primers,
ITS1 and ITS4 which are cutting nearly 700 pb, the samples of Saprolegnia
diversified between 680 and 714 pb (figure 2).
All primers used in the study amplified very well Saprolegnia’s DNA.
After the analyses made we observed that PCR is a rapid method in establishing
the Saprolegnia’s genetical profile, most of them being fish pathogens. The
sensitivity of PCR is so great that signals may be obtained from degraded DNA
fungi samples.
- 1131 -
M 1 2 3 4
Figure 1. Amplification of genomic DNA from different Saprolegnia sp. samples gathered
from Arinis fish ponds, Maramures, using 25S primers. M: molecular weight marker –
λHindIII; 1-4 – Saprolegnia sp. samples.
- 1132 -
BACK
M 1 2
700 pb-
Figure 2. Amplification of two Saprolegnia sp.isolates genomic DNA. M: molecular
weight marker – λHindIII, using ITS primers; 1,2 – Saprolegnia sp. samples.
CONCLUSIONS
1. PCR technique can be successful used in the fast genetical characterization of
different species of fungi in general, and in Saprolegnia sp. in particular.
2. All primers used in the study amplified very well Saprolegnia’s DNA.
3. Saprolegnia isolates from Arinis didn’t differ much in the DNA patterns (at
most 34 pb) in the case of using both series of primers.
REFERENCES
1. Bangyeekhun, E., Pylkko, P., Vennerstrom, P., Kuronen, H., Cerenius, L., 2003,
Prevalence of a single fish-pathogenic Saprolegnia sp. clone in Finland and Sweden,
Diseases of Aquatic Organisms, 53, pag. 47-53;
2. Borneman, J., Hartin, R.J., 2000, PCR primers that amplify fungal rRNA genes from
environmental samples, Applied and environmental microbiology, p. 4356-4360;
3. Dieguez-Uribeondo, J., Fregeneda-Grandes, J., Cerenius, L., Elena Perez-Iniesta,
Aller-Gancedo, J.M., Teresa Telleria, Soderhall, K., Maria P. Martin, 2007, Re-
evaluation of the enigmatic species complex Saprolegnia diclina-Saprolegnia
parasitica based on morphological, physiological and molecular data, Fungal Genetics
and Biology, 44, 585-601;
4. http://www.biology.duke.edu/fungi/mycolab/primers.htm.
- 1133 -
BACK
RESEARCH CONCERNING THE MAIN HARACTERISTICS

OF MILT OBTAINED CONSECUTIVELY TO OVOPEL
TREATMENT IN COMMON CARP
L. SASCA, V. MICLEA, M. ZAHAN, A. DASCÃL,
T. OROIAN, G.R. OROIAN
Through the application of some artificial reproduction techniques in

common carp, which begins with the selection of the reproducers and ends with
the larvae obtaining, there are obtained larger fisheries productions
comparatively to natural reproduction.
The artificial reproduction of the common carp implies the hormonal
treatment for gonads maturation with the purpose of eggs and milt retrieving.
The reproductive synchronization of an appropriate number of individuals is
realized through hormonal induction of spawning for the efficient use of the large
capacity incubators. The hormonal induction of spawning is based on the chain
brain – hypothalamus – hypophysis – gonads driving. From the substances used
for the induction of milt and eggs retrieving, the hormones are represented in the
present paper by the Ovopel synthetic hormone.
The quality of the milt obtained consecutively to the Ovopel treatment is
characterized through macroscopic and microscopic analysis, determining the
following parameters: quantity of milt obtained, mobility, viability, concentration
and sperm abnormalities. The obtained results are situed between the limits
presented in the literature.
INTRODUCTION
In the last years the fisheries have become more and more numerous,
requiring more supling. The way to cover this requests impose the expansion of the
artificial reproduction of the carp in incubation station. The carp artificial
reproduction in the incubation station starts with the choosing of reproducers and
ends with larvae obtaining, under the stringent surveillance of the specialist in a
monitored environment. In carp, the gametes obtaining by artificial reproduction
impose the use of hormonal treatment with hormonal extract or synthetic hormones.
The research concerning the hormones preparation, calculation of the
necessary dose and injection technique in artificial reproduction were performed
by R.W.Rottmann, J.V.Shineman and F.A.Chapman (1991).
The researchers like Horvath et. Szabo 1996; Horvath, Szabo et. Burke
1997; E, Brzuska et R., Grzywaczewski 1999; E, Brzuska et. H, Bialowas 2002;
E, Brzuska 2006, have investigated the synthetic hormone effect (Ovopel).
Better results of incubation and larvae surviving comparatively to natural
reproduction are obtained through artificial reproduction and hormonal
treatments. The mentioned results are conditioned by the gametes quality with an
eye on the gonads maturity degree.
- 1134 -
The quality of the milt is performed through macroscopic and

microscopic control, regardless the treatment and method used for its obtaining. A
necessary condition for the obtaining of a high percent of fecundity is the
macroscopic and microscopic control of the milt. After the data presented by
Horvath L. et al. (2000), the average quantity of stripped milt of an individual is
of 10-20 ml., and for the fecundation of 1000 g of dry eggs are necessary 5-10 ml.
the macroscopic control of milt suppose the determination of some parameters
like color and quantity (ml) and as a microscopic control there can be determined:
mobility, viability, concentration and sperm abnormalities.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The experiment was performed at the Fishery Farm “Arinis” Maramures
county, during 10th April – 24th May 2007. The biologic material was represented
by 5 male reproducers from the Galitiana and Lausitz varieties.
The reproducers were isolated in prematuration tanks, where they were
foraged stimulative with a protein level of 25-27%.
With 48 hours before the hormonal treatment there was determined the gonads
maturation status, followed by their transport in prematuration tanks of 10/2/1.5 m.
At a water temperature of 21-22°C, on 21st May, the hormonal treatment
with Ovopel was performed. Experimental was determined the individuals
bodyweight, followed by the unique intraperitoneal injection of 2,5 mg
Ovopel / kg bodyweight, in the same time with the second injection of females.
After the injection of Ovopel there was verified the response to the
hormonal treatment on every individual to obtain the times of gonadal maturation.
The milt retrieving was performed through stripping in sterile plastic
glasses followed by macroscopic and microscopic analysis. Concerning the
macroscopic determination there were followed the volume and color of milt and
microscopically there were determiner parameters such as: density, mobility,
concentration, viability and sperm abnormalities.
The density, mobility, concentration and viability were determined with the
optical microscope at an objective of 20x and for the abnormalities there were realized
eosin-nigrosin smears and then were analyzed with an immersion microscope.

Consecutively to the treatment with Ovopel we can observe that there is a
direct proportional relation between the individuals weight and the milt quantity
stripped in Lausitz variety; in a male of 6000g body weight the milt quantity was
of 50 ml and from one of 5400g bodyweight was of 43 ml. Not the same happens
in Galitian variety where the milt quantity stripped from a male of 5200 was of 40
ml and from one of 5400 g bodyweight was of 35 ml. there is also observed that
there is an inverse proportional relation between the individuals bodyweight and
maturation time of sperm in Lausitz variety, which is different in Galitian variety.
- 1135 -
Related to body weight, the variations of quantitative production of milt

are significant. We observe that the male of 6000 g body weight and that of
5000g, from the two varieties realize milt quantities percentual different (0.83%),
respectively (0.56%).
Hormone dose, maturation time and retrieved milt quantity

Table 1
No Variety Weight Dose/head Maturation Milt quantity
(g) (mg) time (h)
ml % weight
1. Lausitz 5400 13.50 855 43 0.79
2. Lausitz 6000 15.00 645 50 0.83
3. Galitian 5200 13.00 645 40 0.76
4. Galitian 5400 13.50 705 35 0.64
5. Galitian 5000 12.50 715 28 0.56
From the table and graphical representation of the main quality

parameters of the milt of both varieties it can be observed that these parameters
are situed between the limits cited in literature.
The main characteristics of the milt

Table 2.
Variety Density Viability Mobility Concentratio
minutes points n
109sp./ml.
Very 3.25 5 13.90
Lausitz dense
Very 3 5 15.40
dense
Very 2.83 5 15.00
dense
Very 3.66 5 12.43
Galitian
dense
Very 3.5 5 14.26
dense
Abnormalities %
Head Int. p. Tail Imature Total

8 1 2 - 11
14 2 3 2 21
10 8 12 - 30
7 2 7 3 19
13 2 2 4 21
- 1136 -
Thereby, concerning density, in all individuals of both varieties the milt

obtained have a high density regardless the weight.
Concerning viability, it was followed from the activation of the sperm to
the end of their activity. Thereby, the values obtained are situed between 2.83-
3.66 minutes are the same with those cited in the literature (V. Voican et al.,
1975).
The sperm mobility is very good, with maximum points awarded in all
tests, regardless variety and individuals weight, points awarded to a mobility of
90-100%.
Graphical reprezentation of milts parameters
16
14
p aram eters valu es
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
V. M. C. Ah. Aip. At. Ai.
L1
Series1 L2
Series2 G1
Series3 G2
Series4 G3
Series5
Regarding concentration, the values obtained are the same with those
cited in literature 4-30x109sz./ml (G. Perchec et al., 1995).
In the common carp, in both varieties, the sperm abnormalities
consecutively to Ovopel treatment are situed between 11% and 30%. The majority
are presented in head, situation explained by the testicular structure in fish. The
weight of males of both varieties have no influence on the abnormalities number.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The weight of male reproducers influences both milt quantity and its
maturation time. There is a direct proportional relation of the male weight
and the quantity of milt obtained and one inverse proportional with its
maturation time.
2. The parameters presented in the spermograme are situed between the
normal limits, being independent of variety and individuals’ weight.
- 1137 -
BACK
3. The morphological abnormalities of the sperm are represented mainly by

macrocephalie. The abnormalities percent is not greater in heavy and
older males comparatively with young and tiny males.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Carausu, S. I. (1952), Tratat deihtiologie, Ed. Academiei RPR, Bucuresti
2. Brzuska, E., R.Grzywaczewski (1999), Artificial spawning of carp Cyprinus carpio
L:differences between the effects on reproduction in females of Israeli strain Dor-70 and its
crossbred treated with carp pituitary and Ovopel. Aquaculture Research 30 (6), 559-570.
3. Brzuska, E., H. Bialowas (2002), Artificial spawning of carp, Cyprinus carpio (L).
Aquaculture Research, 2002, 33, 753-765.
4. Brzuska, E (2006), Artificial spawning of female Lithuanian strain B carp (Cyprinus carpio L.)
after treatment with carp pituitary homogenate, Ovopel or [D-Tle6, ProNHEt9] GnRH-
a(Lecirelin). Aquaculture Research, 2006, 37, 264-271.
5. Horvath, L., T. Szabo (1996), Hatchery testing of GnRH analogue-containing pellets on
ovulation in different fish species. International Conference on Fish Reproduction 1996, 9-12
September 1996.Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic. Abstracts Book, p.53.
6. Bud,I., Ş. Diaconescu, M. Mudure.(2004), Creşterea crapului şi a altor specii de peşti,Ed.
CERES,Bucureşti.
7. Horvath, L., T. Szabo., J. Burke (1997), Hatchery testing of GnRH analogue-containing
pellets on ovulation in four cyprinid species. Polish Archives of Hydrobiology 44, 221-226.
8. Horvath L. si colab. (2005), Pestele si crescatoriile de peste, Ed. M.A.S.T., Bucuresti
9. Miclea, V., M. Zahan (2005), Biologia reproductie si insamantari artificiale- lucrari practice,
Cluj-Napoca
10. Miclea, V., M. Zahan (2006), Reproductia pestilor, Ed. Accent, Cluj-Napoca
11. Perchec1, G., C. Jeulin, J. Cosson, F. André1 and R. Billard (1995), Relationship between
sperm ATP content and motility of carp spermatozoa, Journal of Cell Science 108, 747-753
12. Rottmann, R.W., J.V. Shireman., F. A. Chapman (1991), Hormone Preparation, Dosage
Calculation, and Injection Techniques for Induced Spawning of Fish. SRAC Publication No.
425.
13. Voican,V., I. Radulescu, L. Lustun (1975), Practica selectiei si reproducerii la pesti, Ed. Ceres,
Bucuresti
- 1138 -
BACK
STRUCTURE OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACTUS IN

ARISTICHTHYS NOBILIS
Gabriela VASILE, Gianina COMĂNESCU, Elena CIORNEA
The paper presents some histological aspects of the digestive tractus in

Aristichthys nobilis in its various segments (anterior post-oesophagian intestine,
anterior distal intestine, median and posterior intestine), as correlated with both
age and main type of food for the species under study.
The digestive tube has been taken over form 5 Aristichthys nobilis
individuals of various ages, namely: one- and four-old summer ones, the
digestive tractus being unfolded along its whole length, after which
rectangularly-shaped fragments were taken over and processed by methods of
histological techniques; thus, the nuclei were colored with hemalaune, while the
cytoplasm - with eosine. Thickness of the mucous and muscular tunics was
measured by the micrometric method, with a micrometric objective thin plate
lamina and an ocular micrometric lamina.
The experimental results obtained put into evidence some variation in
the form of the mucous folds (simpler in one summer-old individuals and more
complex in the four summer-old ones), along with variations in the thickness of
the mucous and muscles.
For both categories of ages taken into study, the mucous and muscular
tunics are more well-developed in the segment of the post-oesophagian anterior
intestine than in the rest of the digestive tractus, which entitles one to consider
this portion as a “stomach”, in spite of the typically intestinal aspect of the
mucous tunic.

As the studies devoted to the morpho-structural aspects of the digestive
tractus in Asian cyprinids are quite few and very synthetic (BERRY and LOW,
1970; BREMER, 1978; TREVISAN, 1979; ATHIKESAVAN et al., 2006), the present
investigation analyzes such aspects in bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis) of
various ages, i.e., one and four summer-old individuals, for evidencing some
possible intraspecific (age-dependent) similarities or differences.
The digestive tube has been taken over form five Aristichthys nobilis
individuals of various ages, namely: one- and four-old summer ones, the digestive
tractus being unfolded along its whole length, after which rectangularly-shaped
fragments were taken over and processed by methods of histological techniques;
thus, the nuclei were colored with hemalaune, while the cytoplasm - with eosine
(HUMASON, 1962; MARTOJA and MARTOJA, 1967). Thickness of the mucous and
muscular tunics was measured by the micrometric method, with a micrometric
objective thin plate lamina and an ocular micrometric lamina (MUREŞAN et al.,
1974).
- 1139 -
In one summer-old bighead carp representatives, one may observe that -

in the post-oesophagian portion of the anterior intestine - the mucous tunic
evidences a few folds with cylindroidal aspect, “lying” on the surface of the
mucous tunic. Besides them, other smaller, conical-shaped folds may be
observed, their axis evidencing the corione infiltrated with lymphocytes while, in
the cylindroidal shaped folds, the corione hardly penetrates (Fig. 1). On its whole,
the corione of the mucous tunic is totally infiltrated with lymphocytes - even
some lymphatic follicles being observed in its thickness (Fig. 2).
Fig.1. Cross-section through the anterior post-oesophagus intestine

of one summer-old Aristichthys nobilis (assembly; 100x) (original photo)

of one summer-old Aristichthys nobilis (detail: lymphatic follicle from
the corione mucous thickness; 200x) (original photo)
In this segment, the height of the mucous tunic is of 312.5 µm. The
mucous, calyx -shaped cells from the epithelium are not very numerous. As to the
muscular tunic, both the circular and the longitudinal layers have a thickness of
112.5 µm.
- 1140 -
In four summer-old organisms, the portion of the anterior post-

oesophagian intestine is especially well-developed, the mucous tunic being high,
with ample folds, most of them cylindroidal in shape, with a rich epithelium, high
and rich in calyx-shaped cells in full activity. The corione of the mucous tunic is
intensely impregnated with lymphocitary elements, which supports the idea that
an intense immunitary activity is developing in this segment of the digestive
tractus, probably determined by the type of food which - in the opinion of several
authors - is constituted, predominantly, of zooplankton (LAZAREVA et al., 1977;
MARCIAK and BOGDAN, 1979; CUI et al., 2005).
As to the apical part of some of the mucous tunic's folds, it has been
observed that, here and there, it is folded and eroded, the erosions evidencing
some repression from the part of the intensely lymphocyte impregnated corione.
Very well represented is also the muscular part of the mucous tunic, while the
sub-mucous tunic is weakly evidenced (Figs. 3 - 4). On the whole, the thickness
of the mucous tunic is of 1062.5 µm. As to the muscular tunic, it is well-
evidenced at this level - especially the internal, circular layer - the thickness of
this tunic being of 625 µm.

of four summer-old Aristichthys nobilis (assembly; 100x) (original photo)
Fig.4. (Cross-section through the anterior post-oesophagus intestine

of four summer-old Aristichthys nobilis (detail: repression of the lymphocyte
impregnated corione; 200x) (foto original)
- 1141 -
In the distal part of the anterior intestine, in one summer-old Aristichthys

nobilis representatives, the mucous tunic is relatively high, with a thickness of 250 µm,
evidencing folds of various shapes. The epithelium is extremely thin, while the calyx-
shaped cells are not visible. The corione is lax, with slight lymphocytary infiltrations.
Again, at this level, a lymphocyte mass may be observed, migrating inside the lumen of
the respective cavity; the muscular tunic is thin, of 112.5 µm (Fig. 5).
Fig.5. Cross-section through the anterior distal intestine of one summer-old

Aristichthys nobilis (assembly; 200x) (original photo)
In four summer-old Aristichthys nobilis individuals, the distal segment of

the anterior intestine evidences a very high mucous tunic, with folds of various
shapes - some of them cylindrical, others conical and even trapezoidal - with a
very high prismatic epithelium, very rich in calyx-shaped cells; the striated
plateau of the epithelium is highly visible. In the axis of these folds, the corione is
sufficiently well-represented, being strongly impregnated with lymphocytes. Such
lymphocytary infiltrations penetrate the epithelium, as well, trying to reach the
intestinal lumen. The presence of some lymphatic follicles may be also observed
in the thickness of the corione (Figs. 6 - 7).
Fig.6. Cross-section through the anterior distal intestine of four summer-old

- 1142 -
Mention should be made of the fact that the presence of such

lymphocytary infiltrations inside the mucous tunic may be related to the above-
mentioned immunitary activity, correlated with the type of food, once known that
the Aristichthys nobilis consumes mainly zooplankton (cyclopes, copepods,
chladoceres, kelicerates) with keratinous cover which, in most cases, cause
lesions at the level of the mucous tunic's epithelium. On its whole, the thickness
of the mucous tunic is of 1000 µm; in this case, too, the muscular part of the
mucous is very well represented, its thickness being of 437.5 µm.
Fig.7. Cross-section through the anterior distal intestine of four summer-old

Aristichthys nobilis (detail: lymphatic follicle; 200x) (foto original)
In one summer-old bighead carp individuals, in the segment of the

medium intestine, the mucous tunic is the most evident one, showing either conic
or bifurcated folds, with a high epithelium, the calyx-shaped cells of this level
being weakly represented; the corione is lax, weakly-impregnated with
lymphocytes (Fig. 8). The height of the mucous tunic in this segment of the
digestive tractus is of 250 µm, while the muscular tunic is 137.5 µm thick.
Fig.8. Cross-section through the medium intestine of one summer-old

- 1143 -
In four summer-old individuals, the segment of the average intestine

evidences a well-developed mucous, with folds of various shapes - some of them
cylindrical, others amply trapezoidal - covered by a prismatic epithelium with a
striated plateau, very rich in calyx-shaped cells in full activity. Both the corione
and the epithelium evidence strong lymphocitary infiltrations, very big lymphatic
follicles - some of them of 262.5 µm in size (Fig. 9) - being visible in the
trapezoidal folds.
Fig.9. Cross-section through the medium intestine of four summer-old

At this level of the digestive tube, a strong erosion in the epithelium of

the mucous tunic may be noticed, together with lymphocytes migration towards
the intestinal lumen (Fig. 10). The thickness of the mucous tunic is, on the whole,
of 625 µm, the muscular one being also relatively well-developed - with a
thickness value of 375 µm.
Fig.10. Cross-section through the medium intestine of four summer-old

Aristichthys nobilis (detail: mucous erosion and lymphocytes migration
towards the intestinal lumen; 200x) (foto original)
- 1144 -
In one summer-old Aristichthys nobilis individuals, the posterior intestine

shows a thin wall, with a less high mucous tunic, of 87.5 µm, with small and
dense folds, a hardly visible epithelium and a very lax corione, weakly
impregnated with lymphocytes. The muscular tunic is extremely thin, of only 37.5
µm (Fig. 11).
Fig.11. Cross-section through the posterior intestine of one summer-old

The posterior segment of the digestive tractus - in four summer-old

bighead carp representatives, with a 437.5 µm thick mucous tunic, evidences
numerous calyx-shaped cells, being intensely folded, most of the folds being
cylindroidal in shape, while others are trapezoidal, the latter's corione being
intensely infiltrated with lymphocytes; otherwise, the corione appears less
infiltrated with lymphocytes. At this intestinal level, the muscular tunic is 250 µm
thick (Figs.12 - 13).
Fig.12. Cross-section through the posterior intestine of four summer-old

- 1145 -
Fig.13. Cross-section through the posterior intestine of four summer-old

Aristichthys nobilis (detail: epithelium with striated plateau and
calyx-shaped cells; 400x) (foto original)
As evidenced by the graphical plot, as well (Figs. 14 - 17), both in the

stage of fingerlings and at ages of four summers, the thickness of the mucous and
muscular tunics generally record decreasing values along the length of the
digestive tractus, starting from the post-oesophagian segment of the anterior
intestine, up to the level of the posterior intestine, with the only exception of the
muscular tunic (Fig. 15) which, in the one summer-old individuals, remains
constant in the first two segments under investigation, with a thickness value of
112.5 µm, after which - at the level of the medium intestine - records a slight
increase in thickness (of 25 µm), comparatively with the segment of the distal
anterior intestine, attaining a value of 137.5 µm, which is probably due to the fact
that - at the level of the posterior intestine - the muscular tunic is extremely thin
(37.5 µm), a compensation being therefore possible as to the advancing activity of
the content of the final intestine.
Fig.14. Graphical representation of the thickness of mucous tunic in one summer-old

Aristichthys nobilis individuals
- 1146 -
140
120
100
80
µm
60
40
20
0
ant. post-oesoph. int. ant. distal int. mediu int. posterior int.
Fig.15. Graphical representation of the thickness of muscular tunic in one summer-old

1200
1000
800
µm
600
400
200
0
ant. post-oesoph. int. ant. distal int. mediu int. posterior int.
Fig.16. Graphical representation of the thickness of mucous tunic in four summer-old

Fig.17. Graphical representation of the thickness of muscular tunic in four summer-old

- 1147 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
¾ One of the main observations made on the microscopic structure of the
various segments of the digestive tractus, in Aristichthys nobilis, as well as on
their micrometric thickness values, refers to the fact that the aspect of the tunics
(the mucous and the muscular one, especially) get modified as a function of age.
¾ Variation in the shape of the mucous tunic’s folds (simpler in one
summer-old individuals and more complex in four summer-old ones) was also
observed, alongwith variations in the thickness of the muscular and mucous tunics
(lower micrometric values in one summer-old individuals and higher micrometric
values in four summer-old ones).
¾ For both categories of ages taken into study, the mucous and muscular
tunics are more well-developed in the segment of the post-oesophagian anterior
intestine than in the rest of the digestive tractus, which entitles one to consider
this portion as a “stomach”, in spite of the typically intestinal aspect of the
mucous tunic.
REFERENCES
1. ATHIKESAVAN, S., VINCENT, S., AMBROSE, T., VELMURUGAN, B., 2006 - Nickel
induces histopatological changes in the different tissues of freshwater fish, Hypophthalmichthys
molitrix (Valenciennes), J. Environ. Biol., 27 (2): 391 - 395.
2. BERRY, P. Y., LOW, M. P., 1970 - Comparative studies on some aspects of the morphology
and histology of Ctenopharyngodon idella, Aristichthys nobilis, and their hybrid (Cyprinidae),
Copeia, 4: 708 - 726.
3. BREMER, H., 1978 - Histological and histochemical studies on the detection of the esogaster
in the agastric cyprinidae Aristichthys nobilis Rich. (Marble carp), Gegenbaurus Morphol. Jahrb.,
124 (5): 727 - 735.
4. CUI, F. Y., LIN, T., LIU, D. M., ZHANG, L. Q., 2005 - Excess propagation and biological
control of zooplanktonic Cyclops in drinking water sources, Water Sci. Technol., 52 (8): 151 - 159.
5. HUMASON, L. G., 1962 - Animal tissue techniques, W. H. Freeman and Company, USA,
468p.
6. LAZAREVA, L. P., OMAROV, M. O., LEZINA, A. N., 1977 - Feeding and growth of the
bighead carp, Aristichthys nobilis, in the waters of Dagestan, Journal of Ichthyology, 17 (1): 65-71.
7. MARCIAK, Z., BOGDAN, E., 1979 - Food requirements of juvenile stages of grass carp,
Ctenopharyngodon idella Val., silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Val., and bullhead carp
Aristichthys nobilis Rich., EMS Special Publication, 4: 139 - 157.
8. MARTOJA, R., MARTOJA, M., 1967 - Initiation aux techniques de l’ histologie animale,
Éd. Masson et Cie, Paris, 345 p.
9. MUREŞAN, E., GABOREANU, M., BOGDAN, A. T., BABA, A. I., 1974 - Tehnici de
histologie normală şi patologică, Ed. Ceres, Bucureşti, 478 p.
10. TREVISAN, P., 1979 - Histomorphological and histochemical researches on the digestive
tract of the freshwater grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella (cypriniformes), Anat. Anz., 145 (3):
237 - 248.
- 1148 -
BACK
BIOMETRIC ASPECTS OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACTUS IN

ARISTICHTHYS NOBILIS AND HYPOPHTHALMICHTHYS
MOLITRIX OF VARIOUS AGES
Gabriela VASILE, Elena CIORNEA,
Elena RADA MISĂILĂ, C. MISĂILĂ
The study discusses some biometric aspects of the digestive tractus in

representatives of Aristichthys nobilis and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix of various
ages (i.e., one and, respectively, four summer-old ones), as correlated with the
prevailing food regime and with the standard and total length values, which
permitted a comparative analysis between the two species of Asian cyprinids.
The results of the biometric studies have been interpreted versus the
standard and total bodily length, for evidencing the extent of its elongation up to
the age of four summers.
The literature of the field evidences the fact that, with the increase in
bodily length, the ratio between the length of the digestive tube and that of the
body increases, as well, as supported by our own results. Thus, in the case of
bighead carp, the ratio between the length of the digestive tube and the total
length of the body gets modified from 2.969, in fingerlings, to 5.382 in four
summer-old individuals, while the ration between the length of the digestive body
and the standard bodily length - from 3.615, in fingerlings, to 6.173 in adults.
Nevertheless, in one summer-old Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
individuals, both the digestive tractus length: total bodily length ratio, and the
digestive tractus length: standard bodily length ratio is much higher than in the
bighead carp of the same age, attaining values of 4.133 and 4.930, respectively,
while in adults of Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, the ratio between the length of
the digestive tube and the total length of the body is of 7.591, while that between
the length of the digestive tube and the standard bodily length is of 8.712.
Apparently, such elongation of the digestive tube in farming cyprinids is
the result of their growing tamed, as well as of their food regime - once known
that modification in the length of the digestive tube occurs simultaneously with
that of the nutritive spectrum.
Another objective of the present study was to establish the correlation
and regression relations occurring between the standard length of the body and
the length of the digestive tube, in the bighead carp and silver carp
representatives under investigation, permitting subsequent calculation of the
regression (i.e., the extent to which one of the variables determines increases in
the other one) and determination coefficients, known as indicating - as percent
ratios - the extent to which the values of the dependent variable are determined
by the other, independent one, and vice versa.
With the exception of the one summer-old bighead carp individuals, in
the case of which a negative, statistically non-significant correlation has been
established between the bodily standard length and the length of the digestive
tube, positive correlations have been found out between the two tested variables
in all the other cases subjected to investigation.
- 1149 -
MATHERIALS AND METHOD

The biometric aspects of the digestive tractus have been analyzed on one
and four summer-old 30 individuals of Aristichthys nobilis and 30, respectively,
of Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, on calculating the values of the main statistical
indices (standard error and deviation, variation and precision coefficient of the
mean, as well as the limits of the confidence intervals). Mention should be made
of the fact that the fish came from the Research and Development Station for
Aquaculture and Aquatic Ecology of Iasi.
The results of the biometric studies have been interpreted versus the
standard and total bodily length, for evidencing the extent of its elongation up to
the age of four summers (VOICAN et al., 1974).

It is generally known that, in fish, the length of the digestive tube varies
as a function of species, age and - mainly - food regime (STĂNCIOIU et al., 2006;
APETROAEI, 2007).
Consequently, in one summer-old bighead carp individuals, the average
length of the digestive tube is of 36.193 cm while, in four summer-old adults, it
attains an average value of 348.366 cm - which means a 9.625 times increase
(Tables I - II). In the silver carp fingerlings, the average length of the digestive
tube is of 51.116 cm, while the adults attain values of 494.85 cm - which means a
similar value to that recorded in bighead carp (9.68 times) (Tables III - IV).
Table I. Values of the main statistical indices of the analyzed variables

in one summer-old Aristichthys nobilis
Analyzed variables
Statistical indices
Ltd (cm) L (cm) ls (cm)
Mean 36.193 12.19 10.01
Standard error 0.884 0.127 0.072
Standard variation 4.842 0.699 0.397
Variance 23.445 0.489 0.158
Confidence level (95%) 1.808 0.261 0.148
Upper limit 38.001 12.451 10.158
Lower limit 34.385 11.928 9.861
CV% 13.378 5.741 3.973
m% 2.442 1.048 0.725
Ltd = digestive tube length, L = total length of the body, ls = standard length of the body,
CV% = mean variation coefficient, m% = precision coefficient
- 1150 -
Table II. Values of the main statistical indices of the analyzed variables
in four summer-old Aristichthys nobilis
Analyzed variables
Statistical indices
Mean 348.366 64.716 56.433
Variance 1581.207 63.991 42.46
Upper limit 363.211 67.689 58.866
Lower limit 333.515 61.743 54
CV% 11.414 12.302 11.546
m% 2.084 2.246 2.108
Table III. Values of the main statistical indices of the analyzed variables
in one summer-old Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
Analyzed variables
Statistical indices
Mean 51.116 12.366 10.366
Variance 47.873 0.516 0.585
Upper limit 53.7 12.634 10.652
Lower limit 48.533 12.098 10.081
CV% 13.535 5.809 7.378
m% 2.471 1.06 1.347
Table IV. Values of the main statistical indices of the analyzed variables
in four summer-old Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
Analyzed variables
Statistical indices
Mean 494.85 65.183 56.8
Variance 1760.58 26.146 32.01
Upper limit 510.517 67.092 58.912
Lower limit 479.182 63.273 54.687
CV% 8.479 7.844 9.96
m% 1.548 1.432 1.818
- 1151 -
Analysis of the average length of the digestive tube, on ages, for both
species, evidences higher values in the case of silver carp, 1.412 times higher than
in the fingerlings, comparatively with the bighead carp of the same age, such
values of elongation remaining relatively constant until the fourth summer of
growth (i.e., 1.420) (Fig. 1). The considerable length of the digestive tube in
peaceful species with a vegetative food regime may be explained by the fact that
the food is more difficult to digest, which therefore requires a larger digestion
surface.
Fig.1. Comparative graphical representation of the average length of the digestive tube in
Aristichthys nobilis and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, on groups of age
Starting from the mean values and standard deviation, there have been
calculated the (upper and lower) limits of the confidence intervals for the average
length of the digestive tube, on the basis of the critical value, t (α, n-1), given by α
= 0.05 and n - 1 degrees of freedom, that is t (0.05, 29) = 2.045.
There results from here, with a probability of 95% (α = 0.05), that the one
summer-old representatives of Aristichthys nobilis have an average length of the
digestive tube between 34.385 - 38.001 cm, while the values recorded in four
summer-old individuals range between 333.519 - 363.211 cm. In
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, the average length of the digestive tube oscillates
between 48.533 - 53.7 cm in the case of fingerlings and between 469.182 and
510.517 cm, respectively, in adults (Fig. 2).
The cyprinids are species having no stomach, its absence being
compensated by a long intestine, which exceeds several times the length of the
fish body, thus granting a larger surface for the absorbance of the nutritive
elements at intestinal level, as well as a complete utilization of the food, in
parallels with a longer retention time of the aliments, once they are subjected to a
prolonged enzymatic and, especially, preoteazic action (GIRAUD et al., 1996).
- 1152 -
600
500
400
cm
300
200
100
0
An 0+ An 3+ Hm 0+ Hm 3+
Fig.2. Confidence intervals of the average length of the digestive tube in

Aristichthys nobilis and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, on groups of ages
Consequently, in one summer-old Aristichthys nobilis representatives, the

ratio between the length of the digestive tractus and the total bodily length is of
2.969, while the ratio between the length of the digestive tractus and the standard
length of the body is somewhat higher, of 3.615.
Nevertheless, in one summer-old Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
individuals, both the digestive tractus length: total bodily length ratio, and the
digestive tractus length: standard bodily length ratio is much higher than in the
bighead carp of the same age, attaining values of 4.133 and 4.930, respectively.
The literature of the field (STĂNCIOIU et al., 2006; POJOGA, 1977;
STEFFENS, 1985, cited by APETROAEI, 2007) evidences the fact that, with the
increase in bodily length, the ratio between the length of the digestive tube and
that of the body increases, as well, as supported by our own results. Thus, in the
case of bighead carp, the ratio between the length of the digestive tube and the
total length of the body gets modified from 2.969, in fingerlings, to 5.382 in four
and the standard bodily length - from 3.615, in fingerlings, to 6.173 in adults.
The same situation has been evidenced for silver carp (a
phytoplanktonophagous species), namely: in four summer-old individuals, the
length of the digestive tube compared both with the total bodily length and with
the standard one records higher values than in the bighead carp (a
zooplanktonophagous species). In adults of Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, the
ratio between the length of the digestive tube and the total length of the body is of
7.591, while that between the length of the digestive tube and the standard bodily
length is of 8.712.
Apparently, such elongation of the digestive tube in farming cyprinids is
the result of their growing tamed, as well as of their food regime - once known
that modification in the length of the digestive tube occurs simultaneously with
that of the nutritive spectrum. If, after hatching, in the first stages of fish
- 1153 -
development, the food is prevailingly proteic, being composed of small

zooplanktonic organisms, it gets modified during the growing process, inducing
certain structural and functional modifications of the digestive tractus. A typical
example in this respect is provided by the Hypophthalmichthys molitrix species
which, as mentioned in the literature (ANTALFI and TÖLG, 1972, cited by GROZEA
and BURA, 2002; STĂNCIOIU et al., 2006), consumes zooplankton exclusively in
the fingerling stages, until reaches a length of 5 - 10 cm, the digestive tractus
representing less than 100% of the bodily length; along this interval, the filtering
surface of the branchiae is developing, while the digestive tube reaches a 6 - 7
times higher length than the bodily length, permitting to the fingerling to be fed
with phytoplankton while, in the case of adult fish, by consuming numerous
vegetal plankton organisms (especially diatomees), its length becomes, in some
cases, even 15 times longer than the bodily length.
The higher values of the ratio between the length of the digestive tube and
that of the total and standard length of the body, recorded in silver carp,
comparatively with bighead carp, may be explained - as also mentioned in the
literature (MAHESHWARI et al., 1992; ZHAO et al., 2001; JANG et al., 2004) - by
the feeding regime of this species, composed mainly of phytoplankton, while the
bighead carp consumes, in the early stages of its development, zooplankton and
only rarely phytoplankton, with advancing age the basic food remaining, once
again, the zooplankton, to which algae, worms, insects, larvae, etc., may be also
added. According to GROZEA and BURA (2002), the digestive tube of the bighead
carp is 4 - 5 times longer than its body while, in the opinion of CREMER and
SMITHERMAN (1980), the length of the digestive tube is, in the case of bighead
carp, 2.4 - 4.5 times longer than the total bodily length, while the ratio between
the length of the digestive tube and the total bodily length records - in the case of
silver carp - values between 3.5 - 7.3 (Fig. 3).
Fig.3. Comparative graphical representation of the ratios between the average length of
the digestive tube and total and standard bodily length, on ages, in
Aristichthys nobilis and Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
- 1154 -
Another objective of the biometric analysis on the two species of farming

cyprinids was to establish the possible correlation and regression relations
between the manner in which the length of the digestive tube varies versus the
standard length of the body. In this respect, the Pearson index of parametric
correlation was first calculated, after which its significance was tested. The
calculated t values were compared with those of the critical t (α = 0.05, n-2) =
2.048. The null (no correlation present) and the alternative (correlation present)
hypotheses have been established and, on the basis of the t critical t calculated
comparison, one of the two possible hypotheses was accepted. There followed
plotting of the regression straight line and of the regression equation of the
straight line, after which the regression coefficient was determined - i.e., the
extent to which some variable may determine the increase of the other one, as
well as the coefficient (factor) of determination (R2), which expresses the percent
ratio to which the values of a dependent variable (in our case, length of the
digestive tube) are determined by the other independent variable (bodily standard
length), and the reciprocal situation.
The one summer-old representatives of Aristichthys nobilis evidence a
negative correlation (r = -0.120) - statistically negligible - between the two
variables under analysis, the determination factor (R2), establishing that the values
taken by the length of the digestive tube are conditioned by the standard bodily
length in only 1.44% of the cases under investigation (Fig. 4).
50
45
Digestive tube length (cm)
40
35
30
25
y = -1.4624x + 50.832
20
R2 = 0.0144
15
10
5
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Bodily standard length (cm)
Fig.4. Regression graphical representation between standard length of the body and
digestive tube length in one summer-old individuals of Aristichthys nobilis
In four summer-old bighead carp individuals, the value of calculated t

(7.817) exceeds the value of critical t (2.048), which provokes rejecting of the
null hypothesis (no correlation present) and accepting of the alternative one
(correlation present). Involved here being a positive correlation (r = 0.828), the
assertion may be made that increase in the length of the digestive tube is
determined by the increase of the bodily standard length.
- 1155 -
As to the regression coefficients calculated for the standard length of the

body and for the length of the digestive tube, one may appreciate that:
¾ for an 1 cm increase of the bodily standard length, the length of the
digestive tube increases with 5.053 cm
¾ for an 1 cm increase in the length of the digestive tube, the bodily
standard length increases with 0.135 cm.
The determination factor evidences that the values attained by the length
of the digestive tube depend on the standard length of the body, and vice - versa,
in only 68.58 % of the cases considered (Fig. 5).
450
400
350
300
250
y = 5.0536x + 63.17
200
R2 = 0.6858
150
100
50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
digestive tube length in four summer-old individuals of Aristichthys nobilis
Unlike the one summer-old bighead carp representatives, in which the

correlation between the two variables under investigation is negative and, equally,
statistically non-significant, in Hypophthalmichthys molitrix individuals of the
same age one may observe the existence of a positive correlation between the
standard bodily length and the length of the digestive tube (r = 0.591), the value
of calculated t (3.877) being superior to that of critical t (2.048).
The regression coefficients calculated for standard bodily length and
length of the digestive tube evidence that:
¾ at an 1 cm increase of the standard bodily length, the length of the
¾ at an 1 cm increase in the length of the digestive tube, the standard length
of the body increases with 0.065 cm.
The determination coefficient (R2) expresses the fact that the values
reached by the length of the digestive tube, as a function of the values of the
standard bodily length, and vice - versa, are valid in only 34.94 % of the cases
under analysis (Fig. 6).
The correlation analysis in four summer-old individuals of
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, as well as in Aristichthys nobilis ones, of the same
age, led, once again, to the acceptance of the alternative hypothesis, according to
which a positive correlation is manifested between the two variables taken into
study (calculated t being higher than critical t).
- 1156 -
70

60
50
40
y = 5.3468x - 4.3114
30
R2 = 0.3494
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
digestive tube length in one summer-old individuals of Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
In the silver carp individuals under analysis, one may observe that, with
advancing age, the relation between the standard length of the body and the length
of the digestive tube is stronger, comparatively with the one observed for the one
summer-old representatives of the same species. The value of the Pearson
correlation coefficient between the standard bodily length of the digestive tube
(dependent variable) is of 0.775. The regression coefficients thus calculated
permitted the following observations:
¾ at an 1 cm increase of the bodily standard length, the length of the
¾ at an 1 cm increase in the length of the digestive tube, the standard length
of the body increases with 0.104 cm.
According to the determination coefficient graphically plotted in Figure 7,
the values attained by the two characteristics are determined one by another in
60.13% of the cases under analysis.
700
600
500
400
y = 5.7507x + 168.21
300
R2 = 0.6013
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
digestive tube length in four summer-old individuals of Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
- 1157 -
BACK
CONCLUSIONS
¾ In one summer-old Aristichthys nobilis individuals, the average length of
the digestive tube is of 34.385 - 38.001 cm while, in four summer-old adults, it
attains an average value that oscillates between 333.519 - 363.211 cm.
¾ In Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, the average length of the digestive tube
oscillates between 48.533 - 53.7 cm while, in the case of fingerlings, between
469.182 - 510.517 cm.
¾ In bighead carp, the ratio between the length of the digestive tube and the
total length of the body gets modified from 2.969, in fingerlings, to 5.382, in four
and the standard bodily length - from 3.615, in fingerlings, to 6.173, in adults.
¾ In Hypophthalmichthys molitrix adults, the ratio between the length of the
digestive tube and the total length of the body is of 7.591, while that between the
length of the digestive tube and the standard bodily length is of 8.712.
¾ With the exception of the one summer-old bighead carp individuals, in the
case of which a negative, statistically non-significant correlation has been
established between the bodily standard length and the length of the digestive
tube, positive correlations have been found out between the two tested variables
in all the other cases subjected to investigation.
REFERENCES
1. APETROAEI, MARIA, 2007 - Creşterea peştilor în sistem intensiv. Studiu asupra salmonidelor
şi ciprinidelor de cultură, Ed. "Constantin Matasă", Piatra Neamţ, 310 p.
2. CREMER, M. C., SMITHERMAN, R. O., 1980 - Food habits and growth of silver carp and
bighead carp in cages and ponds, Aquaculture 20: 57 - 64.
3. GIRAUD. J. P., SEVRIN-REYSSAC, J. BILLARD R., 1996 - La carpe argentée,
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, La pisciculture française, Paris, 126: 15 - 26.
4. GROZEA, A., BURA, M., 2002 - Crapul - Biologie, sisteme de creştere, patologie, Ed. de Vest,
Timişoara, 207 p.
5. JANG, M. H., HA, K., LUCAS, M. C., JOO, G. J., TAKAMURA, N., 2004 - Changes in
microcystin production by Mycrocystis aerugionsa exposed to phytoplanktivorous and omnivorous
fish, Aquatic. Toxicol., 68 (1): 51 - 59.
6. MAHESHWARI, U. K., ROY, B., BHATHACHARYA, S. K., SINGH, I., YADAVIN, A. K.,
1992 - Observations on relative length of gut, gastronomic index and food spectrum of silver carp
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix, Indian Journal of Ecology, 19: 112 - 114.
7. STĂNCIOIU, S., PATRICHE, N., PATRICHE, TANŢI, 2006 - Ihtiologie generală, Ed.
Didactică şi Pedagogică, Bucureşti, 356 p.
8. VOICAN, V., RĂDULESCU, I., LUSTUN, L., 1974 - Călăuza piscicultorului, Ed. Ceres,
Bucureşti, 366 p.
9. ZHAO, W., DONG, S., ZHANG, Z., LI, D., 2001 - Effect of silver carp stocking and
fertilization on plankton community in enclosures in saline - alkaline ponds, Ying Yong Sheng Tai
Xue Bao., 12 (2): 299 - 303.
- 1158 -
BACK
RESEARCHES REGARDING THE BIOMETRY AND THE

PARAMETERS OF BARBUS MERIDIONALIS PETENYI
FROM NADRAG RIVER BASIN
I. BĂNĂŢEAN-DUNEA, A. GROZEA, M. BURA,
Silvia PĂTRUICĂ, G. HOHA
We can estimate the fishes’ overall body development by means of

physical measurements; the interdependecy of different body zones; growth rate;
conformation and facts evaluation, as well in relative as in absolute values,
thereby physical parameters can characterize a piscicol population from a
certain geographical area, morphologically speaking. By doing a mean analysis
as it regards females and males’ total body lenght, it was observed that the mean
female body lenght (17.11 cm) is bigger than to the male (11,61 cm),
respectively. The mean body weight to the females was of 58.18 g and to the
males was of 15.35 g. By doing a watchful body analysis, it was established that
females have fattening and flesh-like parameters higher than males.
Key words: Barbus meridionalis petenyi, subspecie, somatic
measurement, body parameters, river.

The biological samples were taken from Nadrag’s river-bazin, that
streams from Poiana Rusca mountains, Pades peak (1374 m altitude) and belongs
to the Banats’ hydrographic space, the Timis hydrographic river-bazin (table1).
Table 1
Characteristics of hidrological regime [DAB, 2003]
Multi year Monthly assurance overflow
The Altitude
mean (m3/s) Qm/QM
river (mdM)
overflow 80 % 90 % 96 %
Timis hydrographic basin
Nădrag 742 0,734 0,140 0,112 0,090 1/1516,67
mdM –meters above the Black Sea sea-level;
Qm/QM – minimum report in relation to the maximum report.
Samples taking were made with the help of the „hop” (1.2/1.2 m, and the
sides of the „loop” were of 0.7/0.7 cm) in 24 stations on a river reach of 5.5 km.
The most important somatic measurments (fig.1) that were made on Barbus
meridionalis petenyi were:
- Total bodylenght (L): Represents the lenght from the top of mouth to the
caudal extremety of the fin.
- Standard bodylenght (l): it is measured from the top of the mouth to the
last last row of scales (the base of the caudal fin).
- 1159 -
- Head lenght (l.c.; h.l.): is the distance between the top of the mouth and
the hinder perpendicular of the operculum.
- Mouth lenght (l.b.; m.l.): is the distance between the top of the mouth and
the eye hinder perpendicular.
- Lenght of the caudal stalk (l.p.; c.s): is the distance from the posterior
perpendicular of anal fin bottom and body posterior limit (to the last row of
scales)
- Maximum body height (H): it is measured on the most developed part of
the body.
- Minimal body height (h): is taken from the narrowest part of the caudal
stalk.
- Body weight (g) is set with the scale.
Lenght measurements to the Barbus meridionalis petenyi were achieved
with the help of callipers and the ordinary ruler and for the body weight it was
used an electronic scale.
Fugure 1. Somatic measurements to Cyprinidae (GROZEA, 2007)
For the dates statistical analyse it was calculated the disperse and mean
parameters for the total bodylenght (L), standard bodylenght (l), head lenght (h.l;
l.c.), mouth lenght (m.l.; l.b.), lenght of the caudal stalk (l.p.; c.s) maximum body
height (H), body weight (g), minimal body height (h) and body weight (g).
On the ground of measurements and weighing achieved dates different parameters
were calculated , and so we can distinguish from a morphological point of view
Barbus meridionalis petentyi from Nadrag rivers-basin.
RESULTS AND DISSCUTIONS
The means and the disperse parameters for the females and males body
measures from the Barbus meridionalis petentyi are represented in the tables 2
and 3.
- 1160 -
Table 2
Body measurments for the Barbus meridionalis petentyi females subspeciae sampled
from the Nadrag river-basin
H h Body weight
Dispersion L l lc lb lp
Nr. max. min. (g)
parameters
U. M – cm-
1. n 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
2. x 17.11 14.66 3.75 1.76 2.47 3.50 1.35 56.18
3. S 1.33 1.21 0.50 0.33 0.36 0.40 0.15 13.42
4. Sx 0.42 0.38 0.16 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.05 0.24
5. S2 1.77 1.45 0.25 0.11 0.13 0.16 0.02 18.1
6. CV 7.77 8.26 13.38 18.86 14.51 11.4 10.81 32.89
7. Σ 171.10 146.60 37.50 17.56 24.70 35.03 13.45 561.77
8. Min. val. 14.40 12.10 3.02 1.28 1.56 2.67 1.16 27.50
9. Max. val. 18.80 16.0 4.80 2.30 2.90 3.96 1.60 69.05
n – numbers of specimens
By making an analyse of the mean that regards the total lenght of the females and males it can be observed
that the mean lenght of the body (17.11 cm) is longer tha that of the males (11.61 cm).
Table 3
Body measurments for the Barbus meridionalis petentyi males subspeciae sampled
from the Nadrag river-basin
H h Body weight
Dispersion L l lc lb lp
Nr. max. min. (g)
parameters
U. M – cm-
1. n 28 28 28 28 28 28 28 28
2. x 11.61 9.82 2.37 1.05 1.74 2.17 0.97 15.35
3. S 1.32 1.11 0.28 0.26 0.30 0.33 0.21 4.10
4. Sx 0.25 0.21 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.78
5. S2 1.73 1.22 0.08 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.04 16.83
6. CV 11.33 11.26 11.64 25.23 17.49 15.23 21.64 26.72
7. Σ 325.16 274.90 66.46 29.37 48.73 60.81 27.18 429.87
8. Min. val. 6.30 5.30 1.32 0.45 0.82 0.98 0.52 2.72
9. Max. val. 14.10 11.60 2.83 1.90 2.44 2.61 1.90 24.50
n – numbers of specimens
Analysing the mean weight it can be observed that the females mean value
(58,18g) is higher than the one from males (15.35g), characteristic that is
mentioned in the literature also. Analysing the variability factor for the body total
lenght and for the standard lenght it was observed a small variability factor (s%
<10%).
For the other measures to the females the variability factor is meadium
(s%=10-20%) and the the body weight shows a higher variability factor
(s%>20%).
Variability factor analysis for the body measurements for males proved that
there is a medium variability for head lenght, caudal stalk lenght and the maximal
hight (s%=10-20%). Mouth lenght, minimum height and body weight have a
higher variability (s%>20%).
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BACK
By looking at the body parameters from the table 4 we can conclude that
fattening and flesh-like factors for the females are higher that for the males (the
higher fattening values factors are, the more fish is well developed and the smaller
flesh-like values are, the more flesh-like feature are higher).
Table 4
Body measurments for the Barbus meridionalis petentyi males and females
subspeciae sampled from the Nadrag river-basin
Body parameters
Nr. Statement
Ip Ig Iî Ica Ic
1. ♀ 4,18 - 127,73 - 28,51
2. ♂ 4,52 - 52.10 - 46,02
Ip –profile parameter; Ig - thickness parameter; Iî - fattening parameter; Ica quality parameter;Ic -flesh-like parameter
CONCLUSIONS
• Mean body lenght for females was of 17.11 cm versus 11.61 cm to males,
respectively.
• Mean weight achieved for females (58.18 g) is superior to males’ mean
weight (15.35), thing mentioned in the scientific literature also.
• The smallest variability factorwas noted for the total body leght and
standard body lenght, and the highest variability was noted to the mouth
lenght, minimum height and body weight.
• The females from Barbus meridionalis petentyi have a better flesh-like
characteristic than males have, sincethe flesh-like calculated factor is
smaller.
• Doing a closer research over the fattening factor it was observed the fact
that females of the studied susbspeciae are more developed paralle
BIBLIOGRAFIE
1. BĂNĂŢEAN-DUNEA I. – 2007 - Barbus meridionalis în COMBRUX I., THIRY E., TOIA T
– Caiet de habitate şi specii – Fişe pilot; Ed. Balcanic, Timişoara.
2. BURA M., GROZEA A. – 1997 – Îndrumător de lucrări practice la Acvacultură; Ed.
Agroprint, Timişoara.
3. GROZEA A., BURA M. – 2002 – Crapul; Ed. De Vest, Timişoara.
4. GROZEA A. – 2007 – Ciprinicultură; Ed. Mirton, Timişoara.
- 1162 -
BACK
THE INFLUENCE OF ARTHEMIA SALINA FEEDING

ON POECILLIA RETICULATA
(LEBISTES RETICULATUS) COLORS
A. GRUBER, B. PĂSĂRIN, I. M. POP,
Françoise PICARD, Doina LEONTE, C. LEONTE
The production of ornamental tropical fish involves the realization of

some optimal condition for obtaining healthy fishes with various colors easy to
maintain and grow. Across the time the trend became to grow fishes with various
colors obtained by selection and crossing. Like this the actual guppy’s forms
have color and nuances apart from the wild forms of guppys.
This study fallows the influence of feeding guppys with Arthemia salina
nauplis over colorist of Poecillia reticulata (Lebistes reticulatus), a very
common species in aquariums.
The method consist in forming 3 lots of fish from Poecilia reticulata
species, one day fingerlings obtained from several females, and observing
coloristic evolution from the first and second generation and of the adults from
the first generation over 3 months period. M1 lot was feed with complet food;
A1 feed with alive Arthemia salina nauplis and A2 feed with mixture food
(complete food and Arthemia salina nauplis).
The fingerlings feed with Arthemia salina presents more intense colors
comparing the lot feed with mixed or complete food.
The species chosen for this experiment is Poecilia reticulata (guppy), one
of the most used aquarium fish in our country and abroad, because it is easy to
mantain, accepts any kind of food and presents a varity of colours. The home
country of guppy is Guyana, Venezuela, Trinidad and Barbados islands, in our
country it is found in the terma lake Peţea-Băile Felix, Oradea (Gavriloaie C.,
2005).
For the experiment we used 3 lots: M1 witch was feed with complet meal;
A1 feed with alive Arthemia salina nauplis and A2 feed with mixture meal
(complete meal and Arthemia salina).
The method consist consist in forming 16 lots of fish from Poecilia salina
species, one day fingerlings obtained from several females, and observing
coloristic evolution from the first and second generation and of the adults from
the first generation over 3 months period.

The fishes from M1 lot presents after five days from hatching dark spots
on the caudal fin, and after three more days the spots appears on dorsal and anal
fins. After a day the spots appears visible on the body sides.
- 1163 -
After 16 day from hatching the caudal find and caudal peduncle appears
easily colored, and in 19 days the body sides to be easily colored. After six days
the color of the whole body is more intense.
At 45 days from hatching appears several yellow spots on caudal fin and after a
week the color are more intense.
On the age of 56 the caudal peduncle is colored in black and yellow shades, and
in 63 days the color evolution is complete (black and orange).
The difference between male and female from the color point of view
appears in 70 days from hatching. The final color of the entire body appears on 74
days for males and 84 days for females.
The fingerlings from the MI offspring’s from M1 began to gain color later
with 5 days, after 10 days from hatching presenting spots on the caudal fin. The
dorsal and anal fin in black appears after 12 days from hatching three days later
comparing their parents. This difference of 3-4 days it is maintained until the age
of 50 days, when the caudal fin becomes yellow.
Black and yellow coloration of the caudal peduncle in both experimental
lots has place on age of 56 days. After this period, the difference of color
evolution it is of 3-4 days.
In the second generation of fingerlings the color appearance is match later
comparing with the parents. At the males in 87 days, with 13 days later then first
generation, and 91 days with 7 days later in females.
The difference between sexes appears with four days later on the fishes
from second generation. If in M1 at the age of 70 days the males where different
from females on the fishes from MI lot the difference appears 74 days from
hatching.
The males from second generation have more divers’ colors. If the male
from first generation presents blue color on tegument and orange fins, the MI lot
is blue, yellow, and red shades.
The females from both lots are more uniform colored with yellow-green
on body sides and the caudal fin has yellow, orange and brown shades.
The A1 lot feed with Arthemia salina began to gain color after 7 days
from hatching, presenting grey spots on the caudal fin. Until the age of 17 days
the spots appears on dorsal and anal fin and on the sides of the body.
The grey shades intensity on fins have place on the age of 19-26 days.
The males are more intense colored, the skin have blue, pink, yellow
shades, and the caudal fin is either orange with or with not black spots, or it haves
yellow shades with black shadows.
The females are less colored. The body is yellow –green and the caudal
fin have yellow, brown, black and pink shades.
At the age of 84 days on females and 81 days for males the color
transition is over. The fishes from this lot are more active, searching intense for
food, but are smaller comparative with the lot feed with complete food.
- 1164 -
Comparing the A1 lot, the fingerlings from AI lot gain color two days
later. The difference is not very significant and it is maintained until the caudal
peduncle becomes grey. The grey shades intensity on the sides grows until 29
days from hatching, with 10 days later as the A1 lot.
Comparing with the lot feed with complete food, the appearance of the
grey spots on the caudal peduncle have place with one day earlier. Difference
from the first generation and the second one is of two days in the case of the
fishes feed with Arthemia salina, comparing the lots feed with artificial food the
difference is of five days. The live food offers a more intense color comparing the
lots feed with complete food.
The sex difference between A1 and AI lots have place in the same time.
On 84 days from hatching the color is complete.
The male completes their colors with 4 days earlier than females. The
males have more intense colors comparative with females and have the caudal fin
with yellow, orange, black and blue shades.
The A2 fishes with a mixed diet formed from Arthemia salina and
complete food. The color of the caudal fin with grey spots in 9 days from hatching.
The caudal fin has yellow colors on 37 days that intensifies after 10 days.
After 51 days from hatching, the caudal fin becomes completely colored
with yellow, black and pink.
At the age of 63 days the dorsal and caudal fins are black and orange at
the males and yellow and black on females.
The complete coloration of the males was observed on 77 days from
hatching, with 7 days earlier compared with females. The males presents on the
caudal fin blue and red shades.
The color of second generation AII starts 2 days later comparing the
parents A2 with grey to black spots on the body.
The grey spots are observed at 21 days like mature fish from A2 series.
The grey spots appears with 4 days later comparing A2, with identical
food. The difference is largest with color evolution in 10 days, the sex difference
is observed at the age of 75 days from hatching for AII series but in A2 series the
age is 65 days.
The final coloration is identical for all series of females (84 days), but the
male series presents a difference between AII and A2 by 4 days.
The temperature variation, alimentation, and chemical substance can be
an important factor to influence reproduction.
The hormone controls the sexual organ and reproductive events.
Poecilia reticulate offer a variety of colors and forms, wild guppy is not
very colored (Bud I. 2005)
The guppy male is much colored then the female (Bermann J., 2006;
Păsărin B., 2001) his color is brightness and they are much bigger (Bud I. 2005)
The base color is silver, but the female has just one color, and the male
are multi colors.
- 1165 -
BACK
For a good color in America are used hormons from males with
remarkable results (Buzenche C. 2005)
The male has a larger body and the female has a more compact body. The female
color is yellow, green – yellow (Oprea M. 2000)
In M1 series the caudal is like a veil and the females caudal is circular,
the A2 series males have the caudal like a lira and the females have a circular
caudal.
An important factor for the color is the light and food administration.
On A2 series feed with Arthemia salina and complete food results the
orange color for the caudal fin.
In M1 series the complete food determines the missing of orange color
with one exception that presented orange dorsal and caudal fin with black spots.
The blue color of males in A2 series are more evident then in A1 series.
In conclusion the administration of Arthemia salina determinates the blue
color on males and the females have yellow caudal fins. The orange and blue
color are not present on females.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The fingerlings feed with Arthemia salina presents more intense colors
comparing the lot feed with mixed or complete food.
2. The fingerlings from second series started the coloration with 2 days later
comparing the A1 series, and 5 days later comparing M1 series and 2 days for
AII series.
3. At the A1 series feed with Arthemia salina the males coloration is uniform.
The colors are: grey, black, orange on anal, ventral and caudal fin. On the A2
series where the feed was complete combined with Arthemia salina the
orange coloration of caudal is not present on all males. In the M1 series where
the food was complete the orange color is not present.
4. The type of food is very important, and we can modify some parameters like
color, prolificacy, and other aspects important for the species
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. BERMANN J. C., 2006 – “Peşti de acvariu”, Editura Lucman, Bucureşti;
2. BUD I. 2005– “Acvaristica, mică enciclopedie”, Editura Risoprint, Cluj-Napoca;
3. BUZENCHE C. 2005 – “Acvaristică”, Editura Steaua Nordului, Bucureşti;
4. GAVRILOAIE C.,2005 – “Cercetări de ecologie, etologie şi biologia reproducerii, speciilor
invazive de peşti din unele ecosisteme acvatice din sudul României”, Revista de politica ştiinţei
şi ştiintometriei, număr special din 2005;
5. OPREA M., 2000 – “Acvaristica practică”, Editura Vocea României, Galaţi;
6. OPREA M., 2000 – “Nutriţia şi alimentaţia peştilor”, Editura Orizonturi Universitare,
Bucureşti;
7. PĂSĂRIN B. 2001 – “Acvacultură ornamentală”, Editura Terra Nostra, Iaşi;
8. *** http:// www. acvariul. com htm.
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BACK
IDENTIFICATION AND QUANTITATIVE

DETERMINATION OF AQUATIC VEGETATION
IN A PISCICULTURAL POOL
Valerica MACOVEI, I. M. POP
The purpouse of this paper was to identify and determined the quantity
of a piscicultural pool vegetation as well a the quantity of terrestrial vegetation
in the near vecinity of the piscicultural pool.
The aqatic macrophites have been diagnoised with the help of the
determinator analysired the rod, the leafes and the whole inflourescent plant.
The identified plants have been recolted and grouped in association to be
sistematicaly incorporated, and then the biomass was determined.
The quantitative determination of the emerse aquatic vegetation has
been mode on a surface of 800 mp and that of the submersed an floating
macrophites, on a surface of 1500 mp and the ground vegetation on a surface of
1200 mp. Every area was a divided in parcels with an wer measuring 1 mp, the
plants on every parcel, grouped into families and weight. After that, the biomass
for every taxons on 1 mp. Was determined as well as on the entire recolting
surface. There heve been mod 2 recoltings for every group of macrophites and
the results writeen into tabeles.
Regarding the identification of the aquatic and terrestrial vegetation, it
was a determined that 29 taxons belonging to 12 families of emerse aquatic
macrophites, and 21 taxons belonging to 8 families of terrestrial plants in the
vicinity of the piscicultural pool.
After the recolting and identifying of the aquatic and the terrestrial
vegetation came the quantitative determination. So, it was determined the surface
occupied by every specie and the biomass, in humidity for the aquatic vegetation
and fresh for the terrestrial vegetation.
The total biomass of the emerse plants, on a surface of 1200 mp was
13920 kg. The total biomass of the submersed plants on a surface of 1500 mp
was 1268 kg. Amoust the natal aquatic plants, more representative where the
Lemna species with 1,220 kg per mp, followed by Hydrocharis morsus-ranae
with 0,490 kg per mp and Azzola caroliniana with 0,342 kg per mp. Also, on a
surface of 1200 mp, it was recolted a quantity of 9180 kg of terrestrial
vegetation. The moust spread species were the Tripholium hybridicum with 1,7
kg per mp, Tripholium repens and Medicago sativa with 1,5 kg per mp, Lotus
corniculatus with 1,1 kg per mp, Dactylis glomerata and Lolium perene with 0,9
kg per mp, Festuca pratensis, Agropyron pectiniforme, Taraxacum oficinalis,
Ranunculus acer and Deschamptia caespitosa with 0,5 kg per mp.
Considering the great quantity of fitomass and the acceptable quantity
of organic mass, the aquatic and terrestrial vegetation, could consist an
important food source for the fish.
- 1167 -
THE MATERIAL AND WORKING METHOD

The guide for determining helped us to diagnose the aquatic macrophites,
thus we studied the stem, leaves, inflorescence and the whole plant. The identiend
plants have been harvested and grouped in associations, in order to be
sistematically framed and after that, we estabilished their biomass. The
quantitative determination of aqatic emerse vegetation was made on a 800 m area,
and the land vegetation on a 1200 m area. Each area was divided in lots of a 1m
and the plantsin every lot were grouped by families, and then weighten. After that,
we estabilished the biomass amount for every taxon in 1 m area, and, finally, in
the whole harvested area. We made 2 gatherings for every macrophite groupe and
the results were put in tabeles.
RESULTS AND DEBATES

As for aquatic and land vegetation identification, we determined 29
taxons belongic to 12 aquatic, emerse, submerse and floating macrophites
families, and also 21 taxons belonging to 8 land plant families in the proximity of
the piscicultural pool. The aquatic plants identified in the piscicultural pool under
study: Typha angustifolia Typhaceae family; Typha latifolia Typhaceae family;
Phragmitescommunis Poaceae family; Phalaris arundinaceae Poaceae family;
Gliceria aquatic genre Gliceria, Poaceae family; Carex vulpine Carex genre,
Cyperaceae family; Carex humilis Cyperaceae family; Bolboschoenus maritimus
Cyperaceae family; Scirpus lacustris Cyperaceae family.
In the easily floaded area of the banks, besides the groups of Carex,
Typha and Progmites we saw amphibian plant bushes as: Polygonium amphybium
Poly-Gonaceae family; Butomus umbelatus Butomaceae family; Sparganium
Ramosum Sparganiceae family; Iuncus effuses Iuncaceae family; Salix alba
Salicaceae family; Salix triandra Salicaceae family.
As for the submerse plants, the typical species of stagnant or slowly
Running waters were the best developed. The most spread species were:
Cerantophyllum submersum, Ceratophyllum genre, Ceratophylaceae family,
Ceratophyllum demersum; Myriophyllum spicatum Myriophyllum genre,
Ceratophylaceae family; Potamogetum crispus Potamogetonacee family;
Potamogeton pectinatus Potamogetonaceae family; Ranunculus fluitans
Ranunculaceae family; Alisma plantago Alismaceae family.
As for the floting plants in the aquatic pool under study, we identified 4
frog foot species known in our country: Hydrocaris morsus ranae
Hydrocariaceae family; Lemna trisulca Lemnaceae family; Lemna minor, Lemna
polyrhiza, Lemna gibba, Azzola caroliniana all the alleys surrounding the aquatic
pool: Dactylis glomerata Poaceae family; Lolium perene, Festuca pratensis,
Festuca rupicola, Agropyron pectiniforme, Deschampsia caespitosa, all these
plants belonging to the Poaceae family; Poa pratensis the same family; Lotus
- 1168 -
corniculatus Fabaceae family; Onobrychis viciifolia, Trifolium repens, Trifolium

Hybridicum, Medicago falcate, all these plants belonging to Fabaceae family;
Taraxacum officinale, Asteraceae family; Ranunculus acer, Ranunculus
sceleratus, Rancunulaceae family; Cucuta virosa Umbelifere family, Eqvisetum
palistre, Eqvisetaceae family, Lysmachia numularia Primulaceae family;
Capsella bursa pastoris Cruciferae family.
After the identification and harvesting of aquatic and vegetation, we
passed at its quantitative determination. Thus, from the viewpoint of quantity we
determined.
The areas occupied by every specie and biomass in moist atate for the
aquatic vegetation and in fresh one for the land vegetation.
Table no 1 Whole biomass of emerse plants

No. Specie Harvested Quantity in moist state
crt. area (mp.) Kg/mp Kg/suprafaţă
1. Typha angustifolia 800 4,4 1760
2. Typha latifolia 800 5,5 2200
3. Phragmites communis 800 8,2 3280
4. Phalaris arundinacea 800 3 1320
5. Gliceria aquatica 800 3,3 1080
6. Carex vulpina 800 1,5 600
7. Carex humilis 800 2 800
8. Bolboschoenus maritimus 800 2,6 1040
9 Scirpus lacustris 800 4,3 2720
Sum of emerse plants 800 34,3 13920
The whole biomass of emerse plants on 1200 m area was 13920 kgs. As for the
biomass of aquatic emerse plants it came out that the largest spreading had Phragites
communis with 8,2 kg per m, followed by Typha latifolia with 5,5 kg per m, and the most
low quantity was obtained by Carex vulpine specie which finds, generally, as groups on
the edge of the piscicultural pools.
The specie Alisma plantago with 0,185 kg per m was the most spread. It was
followed by Ranunculus fluitans with 0,124 kg per m and Potamogeton pectinatus,
Ceratophyllum demersum with 0,120 kg per m. The whole biomass of submerse plants on
1500 m area was 1268 kg. The species Lemna with 1,220 kg per m, followed by
Hydrocharis morsus-ranae with 0,490 kg per m and Azzola caroliniana with 0,342 kg per
m, were representative from all aquatic natant plants. We also specify that we harvested land
vegetation in total weigh of 9180 kg on 1200 m area. The most spread species were:
Tripholium hybridicum with 1,7 kg per m Tripholium repens and Medicago sativa with 1,5
kg per m, Lotus corniculatus with 1,1 kg per m, Dactylis glomerata and Lolium perene with
0,9 kg per m, Festuca pratensis, Agropyron pectiniforme, Taraxacum officinalis,
Ranunculus acer and Deschampsia caespitosa with 0,5 kg per m. In the case of aquatic
emerse plants, the big biomass of Phragmites, Typha and Scirpus, by comparison to
submerse and floating plants, can be explained by their big size, vegetative and sexed
multiplication way (they have developemed of these species in the piscicultural pools. When
- 1169 -
these plants are in escess, they become harmful, because they reduce the surface of the
water, the pool warping. These troubles can be removed by the macrophytopfagous species
dissemination, for eexemple Ctenopharyngodon idella, great macrophites consumer. We
also considerate that the reduced volume, by their typical structure presenting a lot of watery
gaps and distances, filiform stems and leaves strongly segmented.
Table no 2 Whole biomass of submerse macroflore

Harvested Quantity in moist state
No.
Specie area
crt. kg/mp Kg/suprafaţă
(mp)
1. Ceratophyllum demersum 1500 0,275 206
2. Ceratophyllum submersum 1500 0,178 134
3. Myriophyllum spicatum 1500 0,280 210
4. Potamogeton pectinatus 1500 0,310 232
5. Ranunculus fluitans 1500 0,264 198
6. Alisma plantago 1500 0,385 288
Sum of submerse plants 1500 1,692 1268
Alisma plantago specie with 0,185 kg per m was the most spead from the aquatic
submerse macrophites at two croppings. It was followed by Ranunculus fluitans with
0,124 kg per m, Potamogeton pectinatus and Ceratophyllum demersum, with 0,120 kg per
m. The whole biomass of submerse plants on 1500 m area was 1268 kg.
Table no. 3 Whole biomass of natant macroflore

No. Harvested area Quantity of plants in moist state
Specie
crt. (mp)
g/mp Kg/suprafaţă
1. Lemna trisulca+Lemna 1500 1220 915
minor+Lemna
gibba+Lemna polyrrhiza
2. Hydrocharis morsus-ranae 1500 490 368
3. Azzola caroliniana 1500 342 256
Sum of natant plants 1500 2052 1538
The species Lemna with 1,220 kg per m, Hydrocharis morsus ranae with
0,490 kg per m and Azzola caroliniana with 0,342 kg per m were representative
from aquatic natal plants. The reduced quantity of submerse and floating plants may
be explained by their reduced volume, by their typical structure presenting a lot of
watery gaps and distances, filiform stems and leaves or strongly lobate segmented.
We also specify that we harvested a weight of 9180 kg land vegetation on
1200m area. The most spread species were: Tripholium hybridicum with 1,7 kg
per m, Tripholium repens and Medicago sativa with 1,5 kg per m, Lotus
corniculatus with 1,1 kg per m, Dactylis glomerata and Lolium perene with 0,9
kg per m, Festuca pratensis, Agropyron pectiniforme, Taraxacum officinalis,
Ranunculus acer and Deschampsia caespitosa with 0,5 kg per m.
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BACK
Table no. 4 Whole quantity of land vegetation

No. Specie
Harvested area Quantity in fresh state
Crt. (mp) Kg/mp Kg/area
1. Dactylis glomerata 1200 0,9 540
2. Lolium perene 1200 0,9 540
3 Festuca pratensis 1200 0,7 420
4. Agropyron pectiniforme 1200 0,7 420
5. Phleum pratense 1200 0,5 300
6. Poa pratensis 1200 0,5 300
7. Deschamptia caespitosa 1200 0,7 420
8. Lotus corniculatus 1200 1,1 660
9. Onobrichis viciifolia 1200 0,9 540
10. Trifolium repens 1200 1,5 900
11. Trifolium hybridicum 1200 1,7 1020
12. Medicago sativa 1200 1,5 900
13. Medicago falcata 1200 1,3 780
14. Taraxacum oficinalis 1200 0,7 420
16. Ranunculus acer 1200 0,5 300
17. Ranunculus scelereatus 1200 0,7 420
18. Capsella bursa pastoris 1200 0,5 300
Total plante terestre 1200 15,3 9180
CONCLUSIONS
1 The determinations showed us an excess of aquatic emerse vegetation.
Its development can be broken efficiently by the help of phytophagous fish.
2 The aquatic and land vegetation could become an important feeding source for
phytophagous fish, if take into consideration the great quantity of phytomass and
considerable quantity of organic substance contained.
3 The aquatic vegetation in the aquatic pool studied is a rich nutritional source
nowadays partly included in the nutritional base of the pool. In the absence of the
characteristic consumer (phytophagous fish), the luxuriant development of the emerse
vegetation influences in bad the life in the pool, and in the same time, there is a great
quantity of organic substances and energy which are not turned to the best.
4 The biogenic capacity, the piscicultural efficiency in a piscicultural pool depends,
in great way, on the water quality. The most important parameters which estabilish the water
piscicultural efficiency are: temperature, pH, turbidity, phosphates, nitrates ammonia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Antonescu C., 1967, Plante de apă şi mlaştină, Editura de Stat Bucureşti;
2. Billard R., Marie D., 1980, La qualite des euax de létang de pisciculture et son controle, INRA, Paris;
3. Battes K., Măzăreanu C., Pricope F., Cărăuş I., Marinescu Virginia, Rujinschi Rodica,
2003, Producţia şi productivitatea ecosistemelor acvatice, Editura “Ion Borcea”, Bacău;
4. Bura M., 2002, Acvacultură specială, Editura Orizonturi, Universitatea Timişoara;
5. Grozea A., 2003, Acvacultură, curs, Editura Excelsior Art, Timişoara;
6. Mustaţă Gh., 2000, Hidrobiologie, Editura Universităţii “Alex. Ioan Cuza “ Iaşi
7. Miron L., 1995, Curs de Acvacultură, vol.I, Editura Universităţii “Alex. I. Cuza”, Iaşi;
8. Păsărin B., Stan Tr,, 19996, Acvacultură, curs, U.S.A.M.V., Iaşi;
***http://www. Crap.comhtm;
***http://www infosual. Info/poissons htm;
*** http://www. Aqua-plante. Com, Alimentation htm;
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BACK
INCIDENCE OF BLACK SPOT DISEASE IN THE

FRESHWATER FISH GATHERED UP BY INDUSTRIAL
FISHING IN DANUBIAN DELTA AREA
M. HANGAN, Laura URDEŞ, P. VASILE
A total of 485 fishes belonging to four different species - Cornus

mascula, Scardinius erythrophthalmus, Vimba vimba and Perca fluviatilis – were
examined for the black spot disease. The biological material originated as
follows: Cornus mascula –Dranov lake and Razelm lake (Sarinasuf area);
Scardinius erythrophthalmus –Murighiol and its afferent canals; Vimba vimba –
afferent lakes of Sulina, Chilia and Saint George branches’; Perca fluviatilis –
Razelm lake. It resulted that the highest incidence of infection was in Cornus
mascula, followed by Scardinius erythrophthalmus, Vimba vimba and Perca
fluviatilis. The most frequent positions of metacercariae were found on the dorsal
face of body, head and on the fins, especially dorsal and posterior fins. Muscle
placement of parasites was found only in bloody twig and zahrte. In zahrte, it
also have been found peritoneal metacercariae pigmentations.
Key words: Black spot disease, bloody twig (Cornus mascula), rudd
(Scardinius erythrophthalmus), zahrte (Vimba vimba), perch (Perca fluviatilis)
A common disease in earthen bottom ponds and lakes, black spot disease
is caused by a larval trematode that burrows into the skin of fish, than forms a
cyst of approximately one millimeter in diameter. Black spot disease has been
studied and reported in many species of freshwater fishes (1, 2). A common
causative agent is a diplostomid trematode whose complex life cycle requires fish
eating birds or mammals, snails, and fish at different stages in order to survive.
Any fish can become infected but the most frequently infected are sunfish, bloody
twig, yellow perch, perch, northern pike, bass, and other fish that live in shallow
water and vegetated areas where birds and snails are found.
Once the miracidiae encystes, the fish skin deposits pigment around it as
a reaction to the presence of the larval parasite (2). The parasite do relatively little
damage to the fish even in heavy infections (3), though there is some evidence
that heavily infested juvenile fish may express blood loss, physiological stress,
and even death. Also, fish with heavy infestations on the eyes may be blinded.
The purpose of this paper is to report the natural incidence of black spot
disease among the freshwater fish species in Danubian Delta area.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study was made on biological material represented by:
bloody twig (Cornus mascula), rudd (Scardinius erythrophthalmus), zahrte
(Vimba vimba) and perch (Perca fluviatilis). We split the material in six study
groups, according to the time and source of gathering, as follows: Group I (100
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individuals) - bloody twig, sept. 2007, Dranov lake; Group II (50 individuals) –
rudd, sept. 2007, Murighiol Lake; Group III (40 individuals) – rudd, oct. 2007,
Murighiol’s afferent canals; Group IV (25 individuals) – zahrte, oct. 2007,
afferent lakes of Sulina, Chilia and Saint George branches’ (Fortuna and Rosu
lakes, and Razelm-Sinoe lagoonar complex); Group V (200 individuals) - bloody
twig, nov. 2007, fisheries in Sarinasuf area; Group VI (30 individuals) – perch,
nov. 2007, Razelm lake. All fish were kept alive and were examined in theirs
fresh condition.

Between the four examined species, in groups I and II, we found in
Cornus mascula the highest rate of infection. The spots were spherical and
prominent, strongly pigmented, placed in: skin, mainly at body’s dorsal surface
and in caudal peduncle, in membranes -in dorsal, caudal and pectoral fins, and
also at the inferior limit of operculum, on head, in muscle –into the bottom hull
and body side musculature, and in caudal fin’s muscles (figs. 1, 2), in the
abdominal walls into the connective and fat tissue.
Fig. 1 – Bloody twig, ink spots: opercular lesions
Fig. 2 – Bloody twig, ink spots: muscular lesions
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Fig. 3 – Rudd, ink spots: skin lesions
Fig. 4 – Rudd, ink spots: opercular lesions
Fig. 5 – Zahrte, ink spots: skin lesions
Fig. 6 – Zahrte, ink spots: fin lesions
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Fig. 7 – Zahrte, ink spots: fin lesions
Fig. 8 – Zahrte, ink spots: muscular lesions
Fig. 9 – Perch, ink spots: fin lesions
Apart from the above, we found, only in few cases, black spots on the
ventral surface of body, too.
Following bloody twig, Scardinius erythrophthalmus was found the second
species showing a high number of infected fish. The nodules, which were quite
coloured with pigment, were markable prominent at the body’s surface (figs. 3, 4).
They were found mainly dorsally, on the caudally appendix, in body’s side line on the
operculum and on the membrane from its bound, in the pectoral fin and into the skin –
on the ventral surface of body, and on the lacrimal and opercular cartilages.
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BACK
On the third level, according to the incidence of the disease, we placed

Vimba vimba, that showed a moderate rate of infection. The fish showed compact,
dark, large sized spots (figs. 5-8). The spots were found at the dorsal, lateral and
ventral surfaces of the body, on pectoral and caudal fins, on the preopercular
membrane, into the abdominal musculature and on peritoneum. Perca fluviatilis
was found to have the lowest rate of infection, only few cases being infected with
black spot disease’s agent. In the cases, the spots were very dark, small sized and
smooth. They were placed mainly on the pectoral fins (fig. 9), but we also noticed
the lesions in caudal fin, on the pectoral and dorsal skin and on the operculum
membrane.
CONCLUSIONS
1. Following the incidence of the cases, the highest rate of infection have
been showed by Cornus mascula, a high rate being found in Scardinius
erythrophthalmus, moderate in Vimba vimba and low in Perca fluviatilis.
2. The most often placements of metacercariae were found on the dorsal
surface of the body, on head and fins, especially dorsal and posterior fins.
Musculature placement of parasites was found only in bloody twig and zahrte. In
zahrte, it also have been found peritoneal metacercariae pigmentations.
3. Neither of the cases showed harmfull effects on the host’s appearance.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gabriela Munteanu, Bogatu, D. (2003) – Tratat de ihtiopatologie, Ed. Excelsior art, Timişoara
2. Hoffman, G. L. (1956) – The life cycle of Crassiphiala bulboglosa (Trematoda: Strigeida).
Development of the metacercaria and cyst, and effect on the fish hosts. J. Parasitol. 42:
435-444
3. Vaughan, G. E., Coble, D. W. (1975) – Subletal effects of the three ectoparasites in fish. J. Fish
Biol. 7: 283-294
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BACK
CRUSTACEANS’ (LERNEA SP.) PATHOGENY ON EFFECT

FRESHWATER FISHES BRED IN STATIC PONDS, WITHIN
SOME FISHERIES IN THE DANUBIAN DELTA AREA
M. HANGAN, Laura Daniela URDEŞ,
Cristiana DIACONESCU, P. VASILE
Our research regarding crustacean’ pathogeny effect on the freshwater

fishes started in February 2006 and ended in November 2007. Its purpose was to
study the health of industrial fishing fish within the lagoonar complex Razelm-
Sinoe, the ponds from the Sarinasuf village (Murighiol commune), the Lunca
fishery and Dranov lake. The work aimed to evaluate the crustaceans’
pathogenity and incidence on two species of freshwater fish, carp (Cyprinus
carpio) and mower (Locusta viridissima) in the area. It resulted a high rate of
infection in mower (95%) and very low (20%), in carp. The incidence of the
disease had a peak in December2006 - January 2007.
Key words: Crustaceans’ (Lernea sp.) pathogeny, freshwater fish, static
ponds, Danubian Delta area
Crustaceans have been insufficiently investigated with their role as fish

symbionts and as potential causes of fish disease. Amongst the crustacean groups,
copepods display the widest range of adaptation of life on or in fishes (2).
Usually, females penetrate the skin, fin membranes, gills, or flesh (1), causing
extensive ulceration, serious host damage being caused usually by the
mesoparasitic copepods (3). In fact, their association with fishes is believed to
often result in fish mortality (2). Some of the known general effects consist in:
weight loss, stop growth, reproduction, metabolism and behaviour disturbances,
changes in blood’s chemical and cellular composition. There is only a brief
consideration of impacts of fishes due to free-living crustaceans and of economic
consequences of detrimental parasite effects in fishery and aquaculture (4).
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study was carried out on a total of 600 fishes belonging to two
species, as follows: carp (Cyprinus carpio) – 200 individuals and mower (Locusta
viridissima) – 400. The biological material was gathered, by industrial fishing,
from the lagoonar complex Razelm-Sinoe, the ponds from the Sarinasuf village
(Murighiol commune), the Lunca fishery and Dranov lake.
The study dured from February 2006 to November 2007.

In Romania, a country with a temperate climes, freshwater crustaceans
live in static ponds, the abundant vegetation being one of the factors that assure
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the proper environment for them. The pathogenic effect of crustaceans on their
fish hosts increases in overpopulated fish ponds. This specific situation was
noticed mostly in mower population, in which, during the winter season (from
November 2006 to January 2007), it has been observed a peak of the disease. This
ment not only a high rate of cases (aprox. 95%), but also had a great impact on the
host’s body, because of the large number of parasites that were found upon one
host (figs. 1-4).
The disease was found also in carp population, having the same feature,
from the peak’s disease point of view. The number of infected carps started
growing from the beginning of November 2006, getting to a peak during
December 2006 and January 2007. Regarding the incidence and effects of
lerneosis on carp population, by comparison to mowers, the disease was less
harmfull, because of the low rate of found cases (only 20%) and the small number
of parasites that was upon carps (figs. 5, 6).
In all cases, the lesions consisted in extensive ulceration and tegumental
haemorrhage.
Fig. 1 - Heavy infection in mower – haemorrhagic lesions on fins
Figs. 2 - Heavy infection in mower –scales erosions
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Fig. 3 - Mower –Lernea sp.
Fig. 4 - Mower – scales erosions and Lernea sp.
Fig. 5 - Carp – skin erosions, haemorrhage and Lernea sp.
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BACK
Fig. 6 - Carp – skin erosions, haemorrhage and Lernea sp.
In figures 1-6 can be seen the obvious harmfull effects that the heavy
infection had on the hosts’ bodies, especially in mower, consisting in blood loss,
scales damage and extended ulcerations.
CONCLUSION
1. The peak of the disease in mower and carp population has been found
during the winter season. The number of cases started to grow at the beginning of
November 2006, getting to a peak in December 2006 and January 2007, when the
ponds got populous;
2. The higher rate of infection (95%) was found in mowers, followed by
carps (with 20%);
3. The disease showed greater pathological effects on mowers than in
carps.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gabriela Munteanu, Bogatu, D. (2003) – Tratat de ihtiopatologie, Editura Excelsior art, Timisoara
2. Kapoor, B., G., Khanna Bhanva (2004) – Ichtyology Handbook, Springer-Verlag, Gandhinagar,
India
3. Roberts, R., J., (1989) – Fish Pathology, II-nd edition, Edit. Bailliere Tindall, London
4. Meyer, M., C., Khan, R., A., (1979) – Taxonomy, biology and occurrence of some marine
crustaceans in Newfoundland waters: proc. of the Haelminth. Society, Washington, 46,
254-264
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BACK
EUSTRONGYLIDES’ AUTUMNAL DISTRIBUTION AND ITS

PATHOGENICITY IN RAZELM, DRANOV AND
MURIGHIOL LAKES’ FISHES
Laura Daniela URDEŞ, M. HANGAN, V. PETRICĂ
The aim of this scientific work was the study of the autumnal
nematodean infections with Eustrongylides sp. in Aspius aspius, Stizostedion
lucioperca and Perca fluviatilis originated from Razelm, Dranov and Murighiol
lakes. Fishes have been clinically, pathologically and parasitologically
examinated. Following these examinations, resulted a higher rate of infection in
perch (Perca fluviatilis) than the others. We identified the nematod’s larvae in:
muscles, body’s cavity and mesentery - in Aspius aspius; muscles and body’s
cavity - in Stizostedion lucioperca; in muscles, gonads, body’s cavity and guts -
in Perca fluviatilis. In a number of cases, there were serious lesions pointing out
the presence of circulatory and metabolic disturbances, and inflammation.
Key words: autumnal Eustrongylides sp. infection, rapacious carp (Aspius
aspius), pike perch (Stizostedion lucioperca), perch (Perca fluviatilis)
The group of Helminthes, which is the largest, the most heterogenous,

numerous and diversified assembly of parasites, is known for its ability to infect a
large variety of organisms, being widespread all over the world, in freshwater and
marine species of fish, as well. Most nematodes infect fish as larval stages.
Eustrongylides sp. is pathogenic for fish in its final stages (3). In our country, the
nematode has been identified frequently in freshwater fishes originated from the
lakes surrounding the Balck Sea (4) and in the North-Eastern regions of the
country (2).
The pathogeny of Eustrongylides sp. larvae is shown mostly by sterility
(because of the destruction of gonads), injuries of mesenteries, muscle and inner
organs leading to emaciation, and pelvic asymmetry, the latter, being a phenotypic
sign for this disease (1).
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The study started in September 2007 and finished in November 2007,
being made on a total of 450 individuals from three different species originated as
it follows: rapacious carp (Aspius aspius) - from Razelm lake, pike perch
(Stizostedion lucioperca) – from Razelm lake, and perch (Perca fluviatilis) – from
Razelm, Dranov and Murighiol lakes.
The fish, which had been captured alive by industrial fishing, were split in
three major groups. The first group was represented by fish captured in
September, which originated entirely from Razelm lake. It was constituted of a
number of 235 individuals, 25 – rapacious carps, 150 - pike perches, and 35 –
perches, respectively.
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The second group was constituted of fish captured in November, 135

individuals in total, from which: 25 rapacious carps fished in Razelm lake, 80
pike perches fished in Razelm-Sinoe lakes, and 30 perches fished in Razelm and
Dranov lakes. The third group, which had 105 individuals in total, was entirely
constituted of perches fished in Murighiol lake and its afferent canals, in
September (60 individuals) and October (45 individuals). The biological material
have been clinically, pathologically and parasitologically examinated.

Infections with Eustrongylides sp. in pike perch (Stizosteidon lucioperca)
and perch (Perca fluviatilis) originated in Danubian Delta were studied over o
period of three years. As for Aspius aspius, it is for the first time when the
infection with Eustrongylides larvae has been mentioned in the region. From the
three studied species, the highest level of infection have been found in Perca
fluviatilis, though overall, the distribution of the larvae was below the invasion
threshold. According and completing our past findings in pike perch and perch
[5], no seasonal changes in infection levels or size composition of the parasite
population were recorded either.
In all the three species of fish, the larvae were found free and in capsules.
Upon infected hosts, free larvae had serious harmful effects, based mainly on
circulatory and metabolic disturbances (figs. 2, 5, 6, 8).
Fig. 2 – Free and in capsules larvae into the body’s cavity in rapacious carp
- 1182 -
Fig. 2 – Free and in capsules larvae into the body’s cavity in rapacious carp
Fig. 3 – Trunck muscle larvae in rapacious carp
Fig. 4 – Gonads E. sp. larvae in perch
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Fig. 5 – E. sp. larvae in perch
Fig. 6 – Guts larvae in perch
Fig. 7 – E. sp. larvae into the body’s cavity in pike perch
Local pathological effects on hosts infected with larvae in capsules

weren’t observed. In these cases, infected fish were of similar length, weight and
condition to uninfected ones. It is important to mention that we also have found
free and in capsules larvae on the same host (figs.1-7).
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BACK
The distribution of larvae into the fish’s body varied according to the host
species so that in Aspius aspius the larvae have been found in body’s cavity,
mesentery and muscles (figs. 1-3); in Stizostedion lucioperca the larvae have been
found in muscles and body’s cavity (fig. 7); in Perca fluviatilis they have been
found in muscles, gonads, body’s cavity and guts (figs. 4-6).
CONCLUSION
1. Only free larvae had harmful effects on their hosts;
2. The most common distribution in the host’s body were -in Stizostedion
lucioperca and Perca fluviatilis- the muscles and bodys’ cavities; Perca fluviatilis
studied in this work was the only host who showed also inner organs distribution
of larvae (gonads and guts);
3. Aspius aspius is also receptive to Eustrongylides sp. infection;
4. The highest level of infection have been found in Perca fluviatilis;
5. Overall, the distribution of the larvae was under the invasion level;
6. According and completing our past findings in Stizostedion lucioperca
and Perca fluviatilis [5], no seasonal changes in infection levels or size
composition of the parasite population were recorded.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Dick, T. A., Chandra Chambers, Ike, I. (2006) – Cestoidea (Phylum Platyhelminthes), In: Fish
Disease and Disorders, vol. I, 399, 2-nd edition, ed. P.T.K. Woo, University of Guelph,
Canada
2. Guguianu Eleonora (2005) – Raport de cercetare Grant A, Rev. de Pol. Ştiinţ. şi Scientom., nr.
special, ISSN 1582-1218, 5:15, Iasi. http://frf.cncsis.ro/documente/279A535.doc.doc
3. Molnar, K., Buchmann, K., Szekely, C. (2006) – Phylum Nematoda, In: Fish Disease and
Disorders, vol. I, 417- 430, 2-nd edition, ed. P.T.K. Woo, University of Guelph, Canada
4. Olteanu, Gh., Panaitescu, D., Gherman, I., Zgardan, E., Apatenko, V., Fazakas, B., Doina
Codreanu-Bălcescu, Irina Teodorescu, Iacobiciu, I., Nina Tălămbuţă, Erhan, D.,
Madeleine Marx, Cristea, Gh., Monica Junie, Doicescu, D. (2001) – Poliparazitismul la
om, animale, plante şi mediu, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti
5. Urdeş Laura Daniela, Hangan, M., Costea Mihaela, Serafim, V., Nicolae Carmen (2007) –
Parazitism cu Eustrongylides sp. (Phylum Nematoda) la unele specii de peşti dulcicoli
care populează lacurile naturale din Delta Dunării. Al X-lea Congres Naţional de
Medicină Veterinară, Braşov
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BACK
EUSTRONGYLIDOSIS, A SECONDARY NEMATODOSIS

ASSOCIATED WITH CERTAIN MYXOZOANS AND
TREMATODS IN DANUBIAN DELTA FRESHWATER FISH
Laura Daniela URDEŞ, M. HANGAN, V. PETRICĂ
Our main reason for making this study was the finding of a high number
of cases in which Eustrongylides sp. was being associated with other species of
parasites on the same host. Our aims were to find which parasites the nematod
associates with, and whether there is a link between its affinity for a certain host,
for parasites it affiliates with and the seasonal occuence of this phenomenon.
In order to do this scientific work, a number of 625 perches (Perca fluviatilis)
have been examinated anatomo-pathologically and parasitologically over a
period of 4 years. Even though we examined also other species of fish sourced
with Perca fluviatilis, this particular type of parasitism have been found –having
a low rate- only in perch, in March 2003, March 2004, in October 2005, October
2006, and in November 2007, respectively. We’ve found the nematods’ larvae
associated with three very different species of parasites: the myxozoan
Myxobolus sp., the cestod Triaenophorus sp. and the „Ink spots’ disease”
metacercariae. Using anatomo-pathological and parasitological examinations,
we achieved information regarding macroscopic lesions, position of the
nematods’ larvae into the hosts’ body, and also diagnosed the primary infection.
Key words: perch (Perca fluviatilis), secondary Eustrongylidosis,
Myxobolus sp., Triaenophorus sp., Ink spots’ disease’s agent
Ever since the end of the XIX-th century, scientific researchers have been
noticed that monoparasiting phenomenon can exist only in gnotobiotics
organisms, while in natural environment bio-organisms are being often infected
by at least two species of parasites (2). Viewed as a biological phenomenon, the
polyparasiting state existed even from the beginnings, although, the ways of
approaching and understanding this phenomenon evolved differently over the
time. According to the latest studies (1-3), the polyparasitism notion can be
explained easily taking as pattern the polyparasitism in fish, because of the varied
and abundant charge that this species show. Moreover, Olteanu et all. (2) stated
the idea that in Romania and abroad, the polyparasiting phenomenon in fish could
be found everywhere.
MATERIAL AND METHOD

The biological material that have been used for the study consisted in 625
perches (Perca fluviatilis) of between 15 and 20 cms. size. Gatherings started in
March 2003 and ended in November 2007. Fishes have been fished alive from
Murighiol and Razelm lakes, and Sulina canal.
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In order to identify the nematode’s larvae, the cestode Triaenophorus sp.

and the „Ink spots’ disease” trematod, it has been used anatomo-pathological and
macroscopic parasitological examinations, taking in account the external
morphology of larvae, the position of the parasite into the host’s body and the
macroscopic lesions. To diagnose the myxozoan Myxobolus sp., it has been used
light microscopy, mean by which, we identified the spores from the gathered
cysts. The laboratory samples consisted in fresh preparations between glass plates
and lamellas, and also in coloured preparations (the Green Malachit technic).
From the total, we found the nematode’s larvae associated with:

Myxobolus sp. (figs. 1-6) in the spring and autumn seasons (March 2003, 2004
and October 2005, 2006); Triaenophorus sp. (fig. 7) -only in few cases- in spring
(March 2004); the „Ink spots’ disease” agent (fig. 8) –also in only few cases- in
autumn (Novembre 2007).
Fig. 1 - Eustrongylides sp. larvae with Myxobolus sp. (March 2003)
Fig. 2 – Eustrongylides sp. larvae with Myxobolus sp. (March 2004)
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Fig. 3 – Eustrongylides sp. larvae with Myxobolus sp. (March 2004)
Fig. 4 - Eustrongylides sp. larvae with Myxobolus sp. (Oct. 2005)
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Fig. 7 - Eustrongylides sp. larvae with Triaenophorus sp. (March 2004)
Fig. 8 - Eustrongylides sp. larvae with Ink spots disease –fin lesions
(Nov. 2007)
As it can be seen, Myxobolus sp. had the highest rate of occurrence by

comparision with the other two parasites, the latter mentioned being merely found
in few cases.
The sources from where the fish have been gathered contained also other
species of freshwater fish (e.g. Stizostedion lucioperca, Aspius aspius etc.); but
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BACK
the polyparasitism was found only in perch, this making them the only proper
host for polyparasiting, in which Eustrongylides sp. larvae were being constantly
found.
The studied situations showed different degrees of harmfull effects, the
most obvious lesions provided by the poliparasitism have been found in
Myxobolus sp. and Eustrongylides sp. associated infections.
CONCLUSIONS
According to the findings, resulted the following conclusions:
1. There were seasonal occurrences in what it concerned the
polyparasiting phenomenon;
2. Between the three species of parasites, Eustrongylides sp. larvae
showed an obvious affinity for Myxobolus sp.;
3. Perca fluviatilis was found the most proper host for the polyparasitism
with Eustrongylides sp., no matter which the primary infection was;
4. Anatomo-pathologically, the most obvious lesions were found in
mixoboliosis – eustrongilidosis associated infections.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. Gabriela Munteanu, Bogatu, D. (2003) – Tratat de ihtiopatologie, Ed. Excelsior art, Timişoara
2. Olteanu, Gh., Panaitescu, D., Gherman, I., Zgardan, E., Apatenko, V., Fazakas, B., Doina
Codreanu-Bălcescu, Irina Teodorescu, Iacobiciu, I., Nina Tălămbuţă, Erhan, D.,
Madeleine Marx, Cristea, Gh., Monica Junie, Doicescu, D. (2001) – Poliparazitismul la
om, animale, plante şi mediu, Editura Ceres, Bucureşti
3. Vulpe, V. (2002) – Parasitic invasions on fish stocks from the N-E area of Moldavia, Scientia
Parasitologica, F.M.V. Cluj-Napoca, vol. III, 2, 144-149
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BACK
COMPARATIVE STUDY BETWEEN COW MILK SOMATIC

CELL COUNT FROM MANY GATHERING CENTERS
FROM CIMPULUNG MOLDOVENESC AREA
Mihaela IVANCIA
The analised samples were from milk from gathering centers Botus,
Breaza, Cimpulung Moldovenesc, Fundu Moldovei, Izvoarele Sucevei, Moldova
Sulita, Moldovita, Pojorita si Vatra Moldovitei, all of these are in Cimpulung
Moldovenesc area.
20511 samples have been gathered from entire area and have been
analyze with Somacount apparatus in Dorna Lactate laboratory. Milk somatic
cell count was between 240010 and 320360 somatic cell/ml milk. The average on
area was 290210 somatic cell/ml milk.
There are very significantly differences between the gathering centers
for milk somatic cell count and these were determined with Fisher test ( F̂ =5,67,
more than F for 0.1% witch is 3.27). Student test have been use to found the
centers pairs witch determine these differences.
In this way, there could be observed from 36 possibly pairs, more than
half (19, means 52.58%) have insignificantly differences between them. Also,
between 8 pairs (22.22%) are very significantly differences, between 5 pairs
(13.89%) are distinctly significantly differences and between 4 pairs (11.11%)
are significantly differences. The very significantly differences were the most
many to those pairs with Pojorita center (from that 7 pairs, just two have
insignificantly differences; the others have very significantly differences).
INTRODUCTION
There is well known that „the milk cells belong the hygienic quality
indexes category of milk for human consumption” (Kurzhalas, 1983, quote by
Rotaru, 1998). That is why the importance and signification of milk somatic cells
is an agreed univocal desideratum for the consumer integrity.
There is used frequently the somatic cell count like early indicator for
mastitis presence and it use less like quality indicator. That is why the research
aim was to find out information about somatic cell count from Cîmpulung
Moldovenesc gathering milk.

The analyzed samples were from cow milk from Cîmpulung
Moldovenesc area. The milk has been gathered to Botus, Breaza, Fundu
Moldovei, Izvoarele Sucevei, Moldova Sulita, Moldovita, Pojorita and Vatra
Moldovei centers and samples have been draw from purchase milk.
52.25 thousand hl milk have been gathered from 12780 dairy cows belong
area. There was 7071 cows Bruna breed, 293 cows Baltata romaneasca breed, 151
cows Baltata cu negru romaneasca breed and 5785 cows Pinzgau de Transilvania.
- 1191 -
20511 samples have been gathered from that milk and the somatic cell
count have been determined with Somacount apparatus in Dorna Lactate
laboratory.
The obtained results have been statistical discussed and there have been
found the differences significance between centers for somatic cell count (the
studied character) with Fisher and Student tests.

20511 samples have been gathered from entire area and have been
analyze with Somacount apparatus in Dorna Lactate laboratory. The milk samples
analysis and results processing show us that milk somatic cell count was between
240010 and 320360 somatic cell/ml milk. The average on area was 290210
somatic cell/ml milk (tab. 1).
Table 1
The estimated values of gathering milk somatic cell count from studied area
Limits
Area Center n x ± sx s V%
Min Max
Botuş 1358 305.37 2.690 99.14 32.47 54.00 1179.00
Cîmpulung Moldovenesc
Breaza 1961 320.36 2.970 131.72 41.11 40.00 1058.00

Cîmpulung 599 269.67 3.610 88.45 32.80 40.00 876.00
Fundu Moldovei 1831 318.62 2.000 85.41 26.81 40.00 815.00
Izvoarele Sucevei 1307 305.75 3.450 124.84 40.83 3.00 1320.00
Moldova Suliţa 2221 263.16 1.210 56.94 21.64 64.00 670.00
Moldoviţa 2166 305.47 3.910 182.07 59.60 34.00 2318.00
Pojorîta 3092 240.01 2.170 120.45 50.18 1.00 2326.00
Vatra Moldoviţei 5976 283.73 2.190 169.54 59.75 1.00 2661.00
AREA TOTAL 20511 290.21 0.823 117.87 40.62 1.00 2661.00
For milk somatic cell count character, there was find out the differences
between gathering centers from Cîmpulung Moldovenesc with Fisher test and
these differences are very significant( F̂ =5,67, what is higher than F for 0,1%
significance limit what has 3,27 value) (tab. 2).
Tabel 2
FISHER test results for gathering milk somatic cell count
Calculated Theoretical Diffferences between
Area
value value area centers
F5% = 1,75
Cîmpulung
F̂ = 5,67 F1% = 2,51 F̂ >F0,1% ⇒ ***
Moldovenesc
F0,1% = 3,27
*** = very significant differences
- 1192 -
The Student test was used for find out the centers’ pairs what make this
very significant difference. Thus, there could observe among that possibly to form
36 pairs more than half (19, means 52.78%) have between them insignificant
differences (between Botus - Breaza, Botus - Cimpulung Moldovenesc, Botus -
Fundu Moldovei, Botus - Izvoarele Sucevei, Botus - Moldovita, Botus – Vatra
Moldovitei, Breaza - Fundu Moldovei, Breaza – Izvoarele Sucevei, Breaza -
Moldovita, Cimpulung Moldovenesc – Moldova Sulita, Cimpulung Moldovenesc
- Pojorita, Cimpulung Moldovenesc – Vatra Moldovitei, Fundu Moldovei –
Izvoarele Sucevei, Fundu Moldovei - Moldovita, Izvoarele Sucevei - Moldovita,
Izvoarele Sucevei – Vatra Moldovitei, Moldova Sulita - Pojorita, Moldova Sulita
- Vatra Moldovitei, Pojorita - Vatra Moldovitei); 22.22% (8 pairs) have between
them very significant differences (between Botus – Pojorita, Breaza – Cimpulung
Moldovenesc, Breaza – Moldova Sulita, Breaza - Pojorita, Fundu Moldovei –
Moldova Sulita, Fundu Moldovei – Pojorita, Izvoarele Sucevei – Pojorita,
Moldovita - Pojorita); 13.89% (5 pairs) have between them distinct significant
differences (between Breaza - Vatra Moldovitei, Cimpulung Moldovenesc –
Fundu Moldovei, Izvoarele Sucevei – Moldova Sulita, Moldova Sulita –
Moldovita, Pojorita – Vatra Moldovitei) and 11.11% (4 pairs) have between them
significant differences (between Botus – Moldova Sulita, Cimpulung
Moldovenesc – Izvoarele Sucevei, Fundu Moldovei – Vatra Moldovitei,
Cimpulung Moldovenesc - Moldovita) (tab. 3).
Table 3
STUDENT test results for gathering milk protein content (between Cîmpulung
Moldovenesc area centers)
Calculated value ( t̂ ) and differences between centers pairsa)

Center 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1 –
-0,9241
2
ns
1,9012 3,3407
3
ns ***
-0,7277 0,1203 -2,8326
4
ns ns **
-0,0207 1,0004 -2,0735 0,7668
5
ns ns * ns
2,4926 4,4614 0,4086 3,6351 2,7670
6
* *** ns *** **
-0,0053 0,9736 -1,9909 0,7564 0,0160 -2,6366
7
ns ns * ns ns **
3,5267 5,4039 1,6830 4,6203 3,8365 1,4799 3,6929
8
*** *** ns *** *** ns ***
1,2605 2,7902 -0,8689 2,2487 1,4071 -1,4694 1,3343 -2,7504
9
ns ** ns * ns ns ns **
t5% = 1,9600; t1% = 2,5758; t0,1% = 3,2905
a) 1 = Botuş; 2 = Breaza; 3 = Cîmpulung Moldovenesc; 4 = Fundu Moldovei; 5 = Izvoarele
Sucevei; 6 = Moldova Suliţa; 7 = Moldoviţa; 8 = Pojorîta; 9 = Vatra Moldoviţei;
ns = insignificant differences; * = significant differences; ** = distinct significant differences;
*** = very significant differences
- 1193 -
BACK
The most very significant differences have been generate by Pojorita

center and Botuş, Breaza, Fundu Moldovei, Izvoarele Sucevei, Moldoviţa centers.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, this study show us the milk somatic cell count is variable
to one center to other and there are significant differences (at least) between
centers for this character, not just between animals, months or seasons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BAILEY, T., 1997 – Information can be derived from DHIA somatic cell count data, Dairy
Pipeline, May, Virginia Tech
BADINAND, F., 1994 – Maitrise du taux cellulaire du lait, Recueil de Médecine Vétérinaire–
Spécial Qualité du lait, Juin/Juillet, 412–427, Paris.
BARNOUIN, J., GEROMEGNACE, N., CHASSAGNE, M., DORR, N., SABATIER, P. 1999 –
Facteurs structurels de variation des niveaux de comptage cellulaire du lait et de fréquence
de mammites cliniques dans 560 élevages bovins répartis dans 21 departaments français,
Productions animales INRA, 12 (1), 39–48, Lyon
COULON, J.B., DAUVER, F., GAREL, J.P., 1996 – Facteurs de variation de la numération
cellulaire du lait chez des vaches laitieres indemnes de mammites cliniques, Productions
Animales, INRA, 9 (2), 133–139
Ivancia, M. ,2004, – Celulele somatice – indicator de calitate a laptelui, Ed. Alfa, Iaşi
Rotaru, O., Ognean, L. ,1998, – Morfologia şi fiziologia populaţiei celulare din lapte, Ed. Casa
Cărţii de Ştiinţă, Cluj
SKRZYPEK, R., WÓJTOWSKI, J., FAHR, R.D., 2004 – Factors affecting somatic cell count in
cow bulk tank milk – a case study from Poland, Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series A,
vol.51, nr.3, pg 127-131 (5)
- 1194 -
BACK
STUDY REGARDING COW MILK SOMATIC CELL COUNT

DYNAMIC FROM DORNELOR AREA, DEPENDINGS ON
GATHERING MONTHS
Mihaela IVANCIA, D. DRONCA, M.G. USTUROI, C. PASCAL
The study has been effect on 31823 gathering milk samples from cows
belong to Dornelor area. Analyzes have been effect with SOMACOUNT
apparatus, in DORNA Lactate laboratory.
Studying the monthly variation of milk somatic cell count we observed
the lowest average was in January (229660 somatic cell/milk ml) and the highest
average was in May (300380 somatic cell/milk ml). The yearly average was
273740 somatic cell/milk ml. The variation amplitude is determined by the lowest
and the highest daily values, what were 1000 somatic cell/milk ml (registered in
many months) and 2647000 somatic cell/milk ml (registered in December). Milk
somatic cell count has been registering a very high variation coefficient in all
year months (between 37.41% and 67.77%).
The obtained dates following this study show us the results are different
than those from specialty literature. In accordance with this, the highest somatic
cell count should be in summer months, the lowest should be in winter months
and intermediary, in the other. In Dornelor area, there aren’t big differences
between monthly average somatic cell counts, however, the maxim value is in one
spring month, followed by the value from one autumn months (November,
293650 somatic cell/milk ml).
Also, comparing obtained results with those from specialty literature we
can say milk from this area is the “healthy” one (with monthly averages under
400000 somatic cell/milk ml); though some daily values are higher over accepted
superior limit.
INTRODUCTION
Milk somatic cell count is a component part what vary depending on
many factors, including milk gathering month (Badinand, 1994, Barnouin, 1999,
Skrzypek, 2004).
The aim of this study is to observe the somatic cell count dynamic for
gathering milk from Dornelor area.

The analyzed samples were from cow milk from Dornelor area. The milk
has been gathered to Brosteni, Ciocanesti, Cosna, Gura Negri, Neagra Sarului,
Ortoaia, Panaci, Poiana Negri, Poiana Stampei and Saru Dornei centers and and
samples have been draw from purchase milk.
81,49 thousand hl milk have been gathered from 12780 dairy cows belong
area. There were 555 cows Bruna breed, 3712 cows Baltata romaneasca breed,
- 1195 -
1197 cows Baltata cu negru romaneasca breed and 7604 cows Pinzgau de
Transilvania.
31823 samples have been gathered from that milk and the fat content,
protein content, somatic cell count have been determined with Somacount
apparatus in Dorna Lactate laboratory. The obtained results have been statistical
discussed.

The milk samples analysis and results processing show us the average of
milk somatic cell count for all centers for one year is 273740 cells/ml. Comparing
with this value, 5 months have inferior medium values (January–229660 cells/ml,
February–247870 cells/ml, March –273180 cells/ml, August–263780 cells/ml and
October–271150 cells/ml) and 7 months have superior values (April–295380
cells/ml, May–300380 cells/ml, June–276840 cells/ml, July–273910 cells/ml,
September–284450 cells/ml, November–293650 cells/ml and December–274570
cells/ml) (tab. 1 and fig. 1).
The amplitude of variation line is between limits represented by the
lowest and the highest daily values, what were in this case 1000 somatic cells/ml
milk (noted to many months) and 2647000 somatic cells/ml milk (noted to
December).
It is necessary to say 1000 somatic cells/ml milk and lower and that
millions are accidentally values, what didn’t influence the results, but they show
individual variation for this character.
Table 1
The monthly estimated values of gathering milk somatic cell count (x1000) from
Dornelor area
Limits
Months n x ± sx s V%
Min Max
January 917 229.66 2.837 85.92 37.41 3.00 591.00
February 1501 247.87 4.336 167.97 67.77 1.00 2341.00
March 2572 273.18 3.330 168.87 61.82 1.00 2431.00
April 2490 295.38 3.804 189.82 64.26 1.00 2408.00
May 2624 300.38 3.267 167.33 55.71 10.00 1430.00
June 2762 276.84 2.311 121.44 43.87 8.00 1086.00
July 3896 273.91 2.011 125.50 45.82 44.00 979.00
August 4172 263.78 2.011 129.92 49.25 24.00 979.00
September 3231 284.45 2.728 155.09 54.52 35.00 1271.00
October 2784 271.15 2.941 155.19 57.23 1.00 1256.00
November 2575 293.65 3.157 160.21 54.56 33.00 1059.00
December 2299 274.57 3.251 155.86 56.77 1.00 2647.00
AREA TOTAL 31823 273.74 0.833 148.59 54.28 1.00 2647.00
- 1196 -
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
January February March April May June July August September October November December
NCS 229.66 247.87 273.18 295.38 300.38 276.84 273.91 263.78 284.45 271.15 293.65 274.57
The obtained results were comparing with specialty literature (Hoblet,

1988, Coulon, 1996, Leslie, 1996, Agabriel, 1996) and show the somatic cell
count wasn’t the highest in summer, followed by autumn value, by spring value
and, finally, by winter value, so they are untypical results.
Also, specialty literature indicate the gathering milk somatic cell count is
lowest in winter months, it is little higher in spring months, touch the top level in
July, August and September and after this month it decreases again (Hoblet, 1988,
Coulon, 1996, Leslie, 1996, Agabriel, 1996).
In our studied area (Dornelor area) the somatic cell count from gathering
milk is on the top level in May. For a correctness interpretation, we have to say in
specialty literature analyses results are for milk from healthy animals. Or, in our
researches, we demonstrated to centers where somatic cell count is high for
certain interval, to same centers, in same interval was found sick animals (with
mastitis and not only, and there is well known the somatic cell count is an
indicator for under-clinical mastitis or for infection presence to any level in
animal body) (Ivancia, 2004).
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, this study shows us the milk somatic cell count is higher
for gathering milk from Dornelor area centers and it is untypical dynamic because
the milk proceeds from animals breeding and exploitation with a technology with
enough deficiencies and because the milking hygiene isn’t respected and the
animals healthy isn’t verified.
Also, comparing obtained results with specialty literature we can say milk
from this area is the “healthy” one (with monthly averages under 400000 somatic
cell/milk ml); though some daily values are higher over accepted superior limit.
- 1197 -
BACK
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AGABRIEL, C., COULON, J.B., SIBRA, C., JOURNAL, C., HAUWUY, A., 1997 – Facteurs
de variation de la numeration cellulaire du lait en exploitation, Annales de Zootechnie,
vol.46, nr. 1, 13–19. Paris
BADINAND, F., 1994 – Maitrise du taux cellulaire du lait, Recueil de Médecine Vétérinaire–
Spécial Qualité du lait, Juin/Juillet, 412–427, Paris.
BARNOUIN, J., GEROMEGNACE, N., CHASSAGNE, M., DORR, N., SABATIER, P. 1999 –
Facteurs structurels de variation des niveaux de comptage cellulaire du lait et de fréquence
de mammites cliniques dans 560 élevages bovins répartis dans 21 departaments français,
Productions animales INRA, 12 (1), 39–48, Lyon
COULON, J.B., DAUVER, F., GAREL, J.P., 1996 – Facteurs de variation de la numération
cellulaire du lait chez des vaches laitieres indemnes de mammites cliniques, Productions
Animales, INRA, 9 (2), 133–139
HOBLET, K.H., EASTRIDGE, M.L., 1988 – Control of environmental mastitis, Dairy Guide,
Ohio Cooperative Extension Service the Ohio State University, august 1988
IVANCIA, M. ,2004, – Celulele somatice – indicator de calitate a laptelui, Ed. Alfa, Iaşi
LESLIE, K.E., 1996 – Somatic cell counts: Interpretation for individual cows, Queen’s Printer for
Ontario
SKRZYPEK, R., WÓJTOWSKI, J., FAHR, R.D., 2004 – Factors affecting somatic cell count in
cow bulk tank milk – a case study from Poland, Journal of Veterinary Medicine, Series A,
vol.51, nr.3, pg 127-131 (5)
- 1198 -

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Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 51 seria Zootehnie

CUPRINS ½ TABLE OF CONTENTS ¾

Z001 1. M. RUSSELL, M. SCHUTZ - Animal sciences extension education

Z0022. L. APOSTOL, T.F. APOSTOL, L.E. POPOVICI - Development

Z003 3. Ramona Alexa-AIRINEI, M. DASCĂLESCU - Population and labour

Z0044. D.M. ANDREI, L. CĂLIN - Mathematics and biology interdisciplinary

Z005 5. Şt. BREZULEANU - Studies regarding the capitalisation of the tourist

Z0066. Il. BURDUJAN - Lotka-Volterra model for two species in competition

Z0077. A. CHIRAN, Anca COSOVANU, Elena GÎNDU - Survey on

Z0088. Elena CIORNEA, Gabriela VASILE - Researches on the activity of

Z0099. Elena CIORNEA, Gabriela VASILE - On the dynamics of the activity

Z01010. N. COJOCARU, M. CĂLIN, Cecilia POP, C. CHIRUŢĂ - E-learning

Z01313. C. LEONTE, Doina LEONTE, A. GRUBER - Geosynthetic fibbers

Z02121. Anca-Mirela PAŞPARAN, C. MISĂILĂ - Hematological modifications

26. Ioana TĂNĂSESCU, Marcela SÎRBU - Thermographic examination

41. C. IATCO, Gabriela IGNAT - Dilemmas in designing performance

46. R.-A. MORARU, D. DONOSĂ, Şt. BREZULEANU, G. UNGUREANU

Z04949. P.C. BOIŞTEANU, Iolanda MĂRGĂRINT, Cristina G. RADU-RUSU,

Z05050. P.C. BOIŞTEANU, Iolanda MĂRGĂRINT, Cristina G. RADU-RUSU,

Z05353. Gh. HRINCĂ - Description of the phylogenetic relations in small

54. Alexandra MATEI, Magda ANDRONE, Agatha POPESCU,

56. G. NACU - Researches concerning the sperm production according to

57. Gh. NEAŢĂ, C. ŞONEA, M. PETRESCU - The strategy of sheep

68. Andrea HETTIG, M. ZĂHAN, Ileana MICLEA, M. BOTHA,

74. C. COMAN, Elena POPESCU-MICLOŞANU, Cristina PÎRVULEŢ,

76. N. FLEANCU, I. M. POP - Research regarding oral administration of

79. D. MIERLIŢĂ, I. CHEREJI, Cristina MAERESCU - Effects of

82. Aida ALBU, O. POPESCU, Cecilia POP, I.M. POP - Nitrate/nitrite

88. M. DOLIŞ, D. SIMEANU, I. GÎLCĂ - Researches concerning the

96. Cristina RADU-RUSU, I.M. POP - Effects generated by ascorbic acid

101. Doina ARDELEANU, Gabi-Marilena NEACŞU, Carmen-Ana

104. S. BOCA, Marcela SÎRBU, Ioana TĂNĂSESCU - The production

110. S. BULANCEA - Particularities of cattle breeding in small family

111. M.V. BURLICĂ, D. SIMEANU - The origin of Huţula breed

118. I. DULUGEAC - European hippological studies of the race horse in

127. Margareta MIHĂILESCU - Program for the management and

132. M. RUSSELL - Polysaccharide storage myopathy in American Draft

138. Anca COSOVANU, E. TICAU, T. ROBU - A study of the impact of

154. Aurelia PECE, C. COROIAN, Bianca GHIRILĂ, G. MUREŞAN -

155. O. PENTELESCU, Gh. MUREŞAN, C. BELE - Research

156. O. PENTELESCU, Gh. MUREŞAN - Monitoring somatic cell count

158. M.G. USTUROI - Dynamics of consumption eggs quality, according

161. D. COJOCARU, Elena CIORNEA, Gabriela VASILE - On the

163. Andreea Bianca GHIRILĂ, Aurelia PECE, Vioara MIREŞAN,

173. Anca BOARU, I. BUD, R.M. VODĂ, Daniela LADOŞI,

174. A. COLESNIUC, Petronela RĂILEANU, Lenuţa GRIGORICĂ -

176. Daniela LADOŞI, I. LADOŞI, I. BUD, Anca BOARU, V. VLADĂU,

181. Gabriela VASILE, Gianina COMĂNESCU, Elena CIORNEA -

183. I. BĂNĂŢEAN-DUNEA, A. GROZEA, M. BURA, Silvia PĂTRUICĂ,

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 51 seria Zootehnie

ANIMAL SCIENCES EXTENSION EDUCATION INFORMS

Department of Agriculture and the Homestead Act were established. Congress

UNIVERSITY SRATEGIC PLANNING

of families; train volunteers and paraprofessionals to assist in areas of critical

4-H and Youth Development A dedicated network of Extension educators, parents,

While there will always be important issues related to production agriculture

PURDUE RESEARCH AND EXTENSION PLAN OF WORK

resources, and biological engineering , food/non-food products: development,

ANIMALS AND THEIR SYSTEMS PLAN OF WORK

ANIMAL SCIENCES STRUCTURE

Lucrări ştiinţifice - vol. 51 seria Zootehnie

L. APOSTOL, T. F. APOSTOL, E. L. POPOVICI

Pollution of some areas with mine exploitations, wells and urban