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Cursul 10
Protocoale de rutare bazate pe starea legaturilor
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reţea. În această bază de date este conţinută şi starea ruterului: interfeţele utilizabile, vecinii cunoscuţi
accesibili şi informaţii despre starea legăturilor;
• Actualizările tabelelor de rutare, denumite anunţuri despre stare legăturilor (link-state advertisment -
LSAs) sunt transmise direct către toţi vecinii din zona (Area) ruterului. Termenul tehnic folosit pentru
acest proces de actualizare este inundare (flooding);
• În practică, reţelele OSPF converg foarte rapid. Toate ruterele din reţea rulează acelaşi algoritm de
rutare şi îşi transmit actualizări ale tabelelor de rutare direct unele altora. Aceste informaţii sunt folosite
la construirea unei imagini a reţelei şi legăturilor sale. Imaginea depre reţea a fiecărui ruter utilizează o
structură arborescentă, având ruterul drept rădăcină. Denumit arborele celor mai scurte căi (shortest-
path tree), menţine cea mai scurtă cale către fiecare destinaţie din cadrul sistemului autonom (Dijkstra).
Destinaţiile din afara sistemului autonom pot fi obţinute de la gateway-urile de graniţă către acele reţele
şi apar ca frunze în structura arborelui celor mai scurte căi. Informaţiile despre starea legăturilor nu
pot fi menţinute pentru astfel de destinaţii şi/sau reţele pentru simplul motiv că acestea sunt în
afara reţelei OSPF.
• Distanta Administrativa – 110
• Metrica OSPF (default): 108/BW legatura; IOS-uri noi: 1010/ BW legatura
Obs: Se poate interveni la nivelul administrarii pentru schimbarea BW sau direct a costului legaturii
Exemple:
Versiuni:
2.2. Algoritmul de rutare Shortest Path First - SPF este fundamentul operaţiilor OSPF. Când un ruter SPF
este pornit, se iniţializează structurile de date ale protocolului de rutare şi se aşteaptă confirmarea din partea
protocoalelor de pe nivelele de mai de jos, că interfeţele sale funcţionează. După ce un ruter se asigură că
interfeţele sale funcţionează, foloseşte protocolul OSPF hello pentru a-şi descoperi vecinii. Pachetele hello sunt
trimise la intervale de 10 sec in retele multiacces (BMA) si point-to point si de 30 sec in retele NBMA; mai sunt
folosite şi ca pachete keepalive (se determină dacă mai este funcţională legătura).
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Obs: formarea de adiacente intre 2 rutere presupune ca la nivelul interfetelor:
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2.3. DR si BDR
În reţele multiacces (multiaccess networks - care suportă mai mult de două rutere), protocolul hello
alege un ruter pentru transmisie (Designated Router-DR) şi un ruter pentru transmisii în cazul excepţiilor
(Backup Designated Router-BDR).
Toate celelalte rutere: DROther, mentin adiacente numai cu DR si BDR.
• DRother routers: multicast LSAs numai cu DR si BDR
(224.0.0.6 - all DR routers)
• DR trimite LSAs tuturor ruterelor vecine adiacente (DROthers)
(224.0.0.5 - all OSPF routers)
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DR:
• Este responsabil cu generarea mesajelor update pentru întreaga reţea multiacces;
• Permite reducerea traficului în reţea şi reducerea mărimii bazelor de date despre topologie.
• Când bazele de date link-state pentru două rutere vecine sunt sincronizate se spune că ruterele sunt adiacente
(adjacent- formeaza o adiacenta). În reţelele multiacces DR determină care rutere ar trebui să devină
adiacente. Adiacenţa controlează distribuţia de pachete ale protocolului de rutare, fiind trimise şi
primite pachete doar pe baza adiacenţei.
• Fiecare ruter dintr-o zona formeaza adiacente cu DR si BDR
DR BDR
Obs. Fiecare ruter trimite periodic mesaje update, pentru a furniza informaţii despre adiacenţele unui ruter
oarecare sau pentru a-i informa pe ceilalţi când starea unui ruter se schimbă. Comparând adiacenţele stabilite cu
starea legăturilor, ruterele căzute pot fi detectate rapid şi topologia reţelei poate fi schimbată să reflecte acest
lucru. Din bazele de date despre topologie generate de mesajele update, fiecare ruter calculează un arbore cu
rutele cele mai scurte (shortest-path tree) în care el însuşi este rădăcină. In final arborele shortest-path devine
tabelă de rutare.
Criterii pentru alegerea DR/BDR (Actioneaza la momentul in care nu se stabileste explicit cine este DR si
cine BDR):
1. Ruterul cu cea mai mare prioritate devine Designated Router (DR). În mod implicit priorităţile sunt
stabilite la 1. Un ruter cu prioritatea 0 nu va deveni niciodată Designated Router (DR) sau Backup
Designated Router (BDR). O prioritate de valoare 0 indică o interfaţă care nu va fi aleasă ca DR sau
BDR. Starea interfeţei cu prioritatea zero va fi DROTHER. DROTHER se referă la o interfaţă care nu
este nici DR, nici BDR. La aceeasi valoare a prioritatii actioneaza cel de-al doilea criteriu.
2. Pe fiecare ruter, când se porneşte procesul de rutare OSPF se alege un ruter-id RID. Acest ruter id este
IP-ul de pe o interfaţă, cu cea mai mare valoare dintre toate interfeţele (cand nu exista
loopback!!!!). Observaţie: Dacă se întâmplă să „cadă” o interfaţă, respectiv interfaţa care are IP-ul cu
cea mai mare valoare (cel folosit în RID), atunci procesul ospf se va termina, deoarece nu mai are acel IP
activ. Se recurge atunci la un artificiu: se creează pe ruter o interfaţă virtuală denumită loopback.
Aceasta interfaţă nu va „cădea” niciodată, deci ne putem baza pe ea ca fiind validă pentru RID. Atunci
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cand este configurata o interfata loopback, aceasta va deveni automat RID-ul ruterului, indiferent
de valoarea IP-ului acesteia in raport cu IP-urile celorlalte interfete ale ruterului.
Exenplul 1:
• Router_B va fi DR: Router_A şi Router_B au aceeaşi prioritate pe interfeţe dar Router_B are un
RID mai mare;
• Router_C are o prioritate mai mare decât Router_B. Router_C este DR în acel segment.
Exemplul 2
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• 192.168.0.0/24 : RA, RB RC
• 172.16.0.0/16 : RC, RF , RG
• 10.0.0.0/8 : RC, RD , RE
RA : 200.0.0.1
RB : 192.168.0.2
RC : 199.9.9.9
RD : 100.0.0.1
RE : 100.0.0.2
RF : 223.3.3.3
RG : 172.16.0.1
Exemplul 3:
a. Broadcast Multiaccess
b. Point-to-Point
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X.25
Frame Relay
D E
Hello
B A C
Router ID
afadjfjorqpoeru
39547439070713
Hello/dead intervals
Neighbors
*
Area-ID *
Router priority
Hello DR IP address
BDR IP address
Authentication password
Stub area flag *
*
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DR BDR
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4. Descoperirea rutelor
DR
E0 E0
172.16.5.1 172.16.5.3
afadjfjorqpoeru
Exstart
39547439070713
afadjfjorqpoeru
3954743907071
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5. Alegerea rutei
Cost=6
Cost=1
Cost=10
10.4.4.0/24
Topology Table
Net Cost Out Interface
10.2.2.0 6 To0
10.3.3.0 7 To0 This is the best route to 10.3.3.0.
10.3.3.0 10 E0
2
Link-State Change
DR
LSU
4 I need to update
my routing table
1
LSU
3
x A
B
LSU
• Router A (DR other) comunica cu toate ruterele OSPF DRs folosind adresa multicast 224.0.0.6
• DR comunica cu toate celelalte rutere folosind adresa multicast 224.0.0.5
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Is entry in
Is seq. # Ignore LSA
link-state
database? th ?
Yes Ye
No
No
A Add to database Go
Is seq. #
to
Ye
Send LSAck
No
End End
Construirea aborelui SPT si determinarea celei mai scurte cai (algoritmul lui Dijkstra)
Algoritmul Dijkstra (Cautare in avans)
C(i,n) costul rutei de cost minim de la i la n
L(i,n) costul legaturii de la i la n
• O zonă reprezintă o mulţime de sisteme finale, rutere şi echipamente de transmisie, conectate în reţea. Fiecare
zonă are definit un număr de zonă unic, configurat în fiecare ruter. Interfeţele ruterelor care au acelaşi
număr de zonă devin parte a aceleiaşi zone. De preferinţă, aceste zone nu sunt definite arbitrar. În schimb,
graniţele unei zone ar trebui alese astfel încât să minimizeze cantitatea de trafic şi mai puţin delimitările
geografice sau politice.
• Numărul de zone pe care o reţea OSPF le poate suporta este limitat de dimensiunea câmpului ,,identificator
de zonă”: număr exprimat 32 biţi. Echivalentul în baza zece : 4.294.967.295. Numărul maxim de zone practic
suportate este mult mai mic decât maximul teoretic. În realitate, eficienţa proiectării reţelei va determina
numărul maxim de zone pe care le puteţi utiliza în cadrul ei. Figura de mai jos prezintă o reţea OSPF cu
trei zone, numerotate 0,1 şi 2.
Zona 1 Zona 2
Router Router
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este că ruterele ASBR cuprind graniţa dintre sisteme autonome separate şi nu dintre zone din cadrul
unei singure reţele sau al unui singur sistem autonom.
Exemplul 1:
Zona 1 Zona 2
Router Router
Routere de
graniţă zonală
Exemplul 2 :
• Routerele responsabile de rutarea informaţiilor între zone formează o coloană vertebrală a sistemului
autonom OSPF (OSPF backbone) – zona 0 (Area 0). OSPF backbone este formată din toate ABR-urile,
reţelele care nu sunt conţinute în totalitate în nici o zona, şi rutele ataşate lor.
• Backbone este ea însăşi o zona OSPF, deci toate ruterele backbone folosesc aceleaşi proceduri şi algoritmi
pentru gestionarea informaţiilor de rutare ca şi orice alt ruter dintr-o zona oarecare. Topologia backbone este
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invizibilă pentru toate ruterele intra-zona, după cum sunt şi topologiile zonelor individuale, invizibile pentru
backbone.
• Zonele pot fi definite astfel încât backbone să nu fie continuă. În acest caz, conectivitatea backbone
trebuie refăcută prin legături virtuale. Legăturile virtuale sunt configurate între orice rutere backbone
care împart o legătură cu o zona şi funcţionează ca şi cum ar fi legături directe.
Exemplul 3:
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Comunicaţii intra-zo-
nale într-o reţea OSPF. Router Zona 0 Router
Zona 1 Zona 2
Ethernet
Router Router
Ethernet
Server
PC
• Rutarea inter-zonală necesită schimburi de date între zone diferite. Toate operaţiunile de rutare inter-zonală
trebuie efectuate prin intermediul Zonei 0. Zonelor cu numere diferite de zero nu li se permite să comunice
direct între ele. Această restricţionare de natură ierarhică garantează faptul că reţelele OSPF sunt
scalabile uşor, fără a deveni o încărcătură de rutere şi legături.
Figura urmatoare prezintă modul corect de utilizare a Zonei 0 pentru a facilita comunicaţiile inter-zonale într-o
reţea OSPF.
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Comunicaţii inter-zo-
nale într-o reţea OSPF. Router Zona 0 Router
Zona 1 Zona 2
Ethernet
Router Router
Ethernet
Server
PC
Exemplele precedente explică, la un nivel înalt, cum funcţionează comunicaţiile într-o inter-reţea OSPF.
Protocolul OSPF însă poate fi utilizat şi pentru a comunica informaţii de rutare între reţele OSPF, nu numai între
zone din cadrul unei singure reţele. Această utilizare a protocolului OSPF este analizată în secţiunea următoare.
• Interconectarea reţelelor separate
¾ Interconectarea unei retele OSPF cu o altă reţea utilizând un protocol de rutare diferit: este o
sarcină complexă care necesită folosirea unei tehnici numite redistribuirea rutelor. Acest termen
semnifică rezumarea şi redistribuirea informaţiilor de rutare de la o reţea în altă reţea.
Informaţiile de rutare din reţeaua non-OSPF sunt rezumate si redistribuite în reţeaua OSPF.
Reţeaua OSPF marchează toate rutele deduse în acest mod ca externe.
¾ Interconectarea a două reţele OSPF - este mai simplă, deoarece nu este necesară convertirea
informaţiilor despre costurile rutelor unui protocol de rutare într-un format pe care celălalt protocol
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să-l poată înţelege. În plus, OSPF permite crearea de sisteme autonome. Reamintim: Un sistem
autonom (autonomous system – AS) este o reţea independentă. Un AS va avea un singur
administrator de reţea sau un singur grup de administratori şi va folosi un singuri protocol de
rutare.
Procesul de sumarizare
• RTB sumarizeaza (genereaza adresa necesara acestui proces) subretelele din domeniul 128.213.64.0 /24
- 128.213.95.0 /24 in 128.213.64.0 255.255.224.0;
• RTC genereaza similar adresa 128.213.96.0 255.255.224.0 pentru subretelele din domeniul 128.213.96.0 /24
– 128.213.127.0 /24.
o OSPF permite asignarea unui număr pentru AS unei reţele. O reţea OSPF foarte mare ar putea fi
segmentată în două sau mai multe AS-uri, interconectate printr-un ruter de graniţă de sistem
autonom (autonomous system border router – ASBR). ASBR rezumă toate informaţiile de
rutare pentru sistemul său autonom şi trimite acest rezumat către ASBR-ul omolog din sistemul
autonom vecin.
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Observaţie: termenul supernet (super-reţea) este folosit mai ales pentru a combina mai multe reţele într-o reţea
superioară limitei implicite de clasă, aşa cum termenul subnet se foloseşte atunci cînd se fac reţele mai mici
decît cele specificate de clasă. Două reţele de clasă C (/24) combinate într-o reţea /23 formează un supernet; 2
subneturi /30 combinate într-o reţea /29 nu se consideră de obicei un supernet, ci tot un subnet.
Avantajele sumarizării:
• reducerea dimensiunii tabelelor de rutare
• dacă o reţea din “spatele” unui ruter, anunţată de acesta în cadrul unei super-reţele, “cade” din cauza unei
probleme tehnice (şi eventual îşi revine cu intermitenţă), acest lucru nu este propagat în tabela de rutare, deci
celelate rutere nu trebuie să-şi modifice de fiecare dată tabelele de rutare. Problema rămîne o problemă “internă”
ruterului respectiv.
Exemplul 1:
- se dau 4 reţele: 192.168.0.0/24, 192.168.1.0/24, 192.168.2.0/24, 192.168.3.0/24
- se doreşte combinarea lor într-un supernet de mască /22 (4 reţele ocupă 2 biţi)
- supernetul scris în binar (bold) va fi 192.168.00000000.00000000 adică 192.168.0.0/22
- aşadar 4 reţele independente de cîte 256 adrese se pot scrie ca un supernet de 1024 adrese.
Exemplul 2:
reţelele 10.10.1.0/24, 10.10.2.0/24, …, 10.10.255.0/24 sînt percepute ca fiind reţeaua mai “mare”
10.10.0.0/16. Super-reţeaua 10.10.0.0/16 s-a obţinut prin realizarea operaţiei “AND” logic între cei
4 octeti ai reţelelor initiale. Observaţie: nu este un supernet tipic, pentru că limita de clasă era /8.
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O 181.160.188.0 255.255.255.0
[110/20] via 181.160.144.10, 00:41:52, Ethernet0/0
O 181.160.189.0 255.255.255.0
[110/20] via 181.160.144.10, 00:41:52, Ethernet0/0
.....
O IA 181.160.254.8 255.255.255.248
[110/1582] via 181.160.144.10, 00:26:54, Ethernet0/0
O IA 181.160.254.24 255.255.255.248
[110/1582] via 181.160.144.10, 00:26:54, Ethernet0/0
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============================================================
Anexa (Sursa:http://engweb.info/courses/lsndi-rmra/ospf/OSPF_Tutorial.htm )
OSPF Tutorial
OSPF Definition:
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF), is a routing protocol used to determine the correct route for packets within IP
networks. It was designed by the Internet Engineering Task Force to serve as an Interior Gateway Protocol
replacing RIP.
Advantages of OSPF:
Disadvantages of OSPF:
OSPF routers check the status of other routers on the network by sending a small hello packet at regular
intervals. If a router does not respond to the hello packet, it is assumed dead, and routing updates are sent to
every other router by using a multicast address.
In the case where there are no network changes, OSPF will use very little bandwidth (only sending hello
packets). As soon as there is an outage, however, OSPF will flood the network as the change is sent to every
router (and then every router notifies every other router about the change). This system of near silence when
possible and flooding when necessary ensures that routing information gets propagated throughout the network
as quickly as possible.
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Build an OSPF network, version 1.0
Scenario: Camp Swampy is running out of IP addresses. They have a fully meshed base backbone consisting of
five seperate routers, here known as A through E:
Camp Swampy has been given the Class B network 181.160.0.0. The network uses IGRP as their routing
protocol, and they are using an 8 bit subnet mask (255.255.255.0).
Since IGRP does not support VLSM's, Camp Swampy is forced to use an 8 bit mask throughout their entire
network. For networks that contain users, this should be acceptable, but for network connections, such as the
network that connects A and B, this is a huge waste of IP addresses. We will rebuild their base network using
OSPF for one reason only: To free up IP addresses by using Variable Length Subnet Masks.
This means we are going to have to get into binary, just a little...
Pick a class C equivalent network (in other words, pick a number out of the range available in their third octet),
and use it for network connections within their base backbone. In this case, lets use 181.160.254.0. We could
use a 14 bit subnet mask, 255.255.255.252 (which would only leave two bits for the host part) to get the
maximum number of networks out of the 254 subnet, but that only allows two hosts per network. Since the
Camp Swampy admin regularly put sniffers and other devices on their network connections, we need to scale
the subnet mask back a bit to 13, 255.255.255.248 (leaves three bits for hosts, a total of 6 possible devices on
each net).
You can't use the first or last network to connect to hosts, since the first net is always the network address for
the ENTIRE network (for instance, you don't see many IP addresses like 181.160.0.1), and the broadcast address
for the last subnetted network is also the broadcast address for the ENTIRE network (you don't see many IP
addresses like 181.160.255.1 either). Using a 13 bit subnet mask on 181.160.254.0, you get:
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Routers Network First Host Address Second Host Address Broadcast
A-B 181.160.254.8 181.160.254.9 181.160.254.10 181.160.254.15
B-C 181.160.254.16 181.160.254.17 181.160.254.18 181.160.254.23
C-D 181.160.254.24 181.160.254.25 181.160.254.26 181.160.254.31
D-E 181.160.254.32 181.160.254.33 181.160.254.34 181.160.254.39
A-C 181.160.254.40 181.160.254.41 181.160.254.42 181.160.254.47
A-D 181.160.254.48 181.160.254.49 181.160.254.50 181.160.254.55
B-D 181.160.254.56 181.160.254.57 181.160.254.58 181.160.254.63
B-E 181.160.254.64 181.160.254.65 181.160.254.66 181.160.254.71
C-E 181.160.254.72 181.160.254.73 181.160.254.74 181.160.254.79
A-E 181.160.254.80 181.160.254.81 181.160.254.82 181.160.254.87
... ... ... ... ...
Here's what is entered on the "A" Router to implement the change to OSPF:
A-router# config t
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
A-router(config)# interface e 0 A - B connection
A-router(config-if)# ip address 181.160.254.9 255.255.255.248
A-router(config-if)# exit
A-router(config)# interface e 1 A - C connection
A-router(config-if)# ip address 181.160.254.41 255.255.255.248
A-router(config-if)# exit
A-router(config)# interface e 2 A - D connection
A-router(config-if)# ip address 181.160.254.49 255.255.255.248
A-router(config-if)# exit
A-router(config)# interface e 3 A - E connection
A-router(config-if)# ip address 181.160.254.81 255.255.255.248
A-router(config-if)# exit
A-router(config)# no router igrp 200 turn off igrp routing
A-router(config)# router ospf 1 start ospf routing, Autonomous System # 1
A-router(config)# network 181.160.0.0 0.0.255.255 area 0 entire net is area 0
A-router(config)# ^Z
A-router(config)# write save the configuration
Now, instead of using 181.160.100.0 to connect A-B, 181.160.101.0 to connect B-C, 181.160.102.0 to connect
C-D, and so on, you can now make all the base backbone connections using only 181.160.254.0. Ta-da,
addresses saved. Still room for growth. You go home a hero.
Scenario: Camp Swampy has grown considerably, and so has their network. The base backbone is still the
same, but 30 new routers are now hanging off the backbone network. The routing tables are huge. The routers
are getting sluggish. Some of them are coughing up hairballs. They want you to reduce the size of the routing
tables, and save the world yet again.
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Fortunately, OSPF was designed to deal with the very real problem of huge routing tables. Using seperate areas,
a network can be logically segmented and the amount of routing information spread throughout the network can
be reduced.
Imagine a router that connects a bunch of users together on one side, and has only a single route out to the world
on the other side (this device is cleverly called a "one-armed router" by sales droids). Since this router only has
one path to send packets out to the world, it really doesn't need to know much about the network, and nothing
short of a new connection can convince it to send it's data any other way.
To keep Camp Swampy's backbone routers from getting too much routing data from end-node routers, and to
keep the end routers from getting too much information about the entire base, we are going to divide the base
network up into six areas:
Area 0 is the top level of the OSPF heirarchy. All other areas should border area 0 (what I'm saying is, if you
build an OSPF network where areas do not border area 0, you're on your own).
Hanging off the backbone routers are other routers, which eventually lead down to the users. From the backbone
router down to the user routers is all one area, and OSPF Link State Advertisements will only be sent to routers
in that area. This can significantly reduce the size of the routing tables.
The backbone routers are now part of two areas, area 0, and whichever area they support for the users. This
makes them border routers in OSPF parlance. OSPF routers are very careful to keep track of where their border
router is.
To further reduce the size of routing tables, we will impliment route summarization in version 2.1. Until then,
just remember that for route summarization to work correctly, the range of IP addresses assigned within an area
must be consecutive. If Area 1 has all the networks from 181.160.16.0 to 181.160.63.0, this can be neatly
summarized into one line.
• The A Router supports the base commander and her staff. Approximately 6,000 computers are currently
connected, and more are expected.
• The B Router supports the hospital. Approximately 8,000 computers are connected.
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• The C Router supports a handful of buildings: Graphics, Wideband, etc. Approximately 400 computers.
• The D Router supports supply and several tanker squadrons. Approximately 7,000 computers.
• The E Router supports everyone else. Approximately 1,000 computers.
After several days of debate, here is the IP addressing scheme that Camp Swampy wants to use:
* - Remember that hosts are lost here due to the 13 bit subnet.
This keeps our IP numbering scheme contiguous within areas. A better explanation of why we chose these
ranges of numbers will be provided in version 2.1.
We are now prepared to move into the user area, and build some more routers. Let's look at one leg of the base
network, which connects to one of the tanker squadrons in Area 4:
The C Router to D Router connection is part of the base backbone. We assigned IP addresses to it in version
1.0. There are several routers connected to the D Router, the one we are interested in is Din1. Further off of
Din1 is Duser2, which connects several users to the Internet. Please remember that each router has several other
network connections, otherwise, the picture doesn't make much sense.
Within the Area 4 network, we will take a Class C equivalent subnet and use it to make networking connections
between routers, just like we did with the 181.160.254.0 network for the base backbone. Since the range of
addresses for Area 4 is 181.160.144-191.x, we will use 181.160.144.x for network connections.
The subnetting works just like it did for the 181.160.254 net. The first available network is 181.160.144.8. The
first available host is 181.160.144.9. Piece o' cake.
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At the end of this chain are the users, all connected into the hub via twisted pair. We will assign them the
181.160.186.0 network, with an 8 bit mask (255.255.255.0).
I wont show the commands to put these addresses into the routers, it's pretty simple.
As it stands, Link State Advertisements for routers in Area 4 will stay in Area 4. To really maximize OSPF, we
need to add route summarization:
OSPF learns which networks it is responsible for when you enter the network command into the router. In
version 1.0, we did:
router ospf 1
network 181.160.0.0 0.0.255.255 area 0
Think of this command as saying: Within OSPF Autonomous System 1, 181.160.anything.anything is in area 0.
Well, that's changed now. Now, the border routers need to say:
router ospf 1
network 181.160.254.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
since only 181.160.254.x is used for area 0 network connections.
To tell the border router about which networks are part of area 4, we could enter:
router ospf 1
network 181.160.144.0 0.0.0.255 area 4
network 181.160.145.0 0.0.0.255 area 4
network 181.160.146.0 0.0.0.255 area 4
...
This gets pretty tedious, though. Fortunately we are saved by the fact that the networks within Area 4 are
contiguous. We can summarize which routes Area 4 is responsible for by moving the subnet mask up a couple
bits. This not only reduces the amount of commands that must be entered on each router, but also reduces the
number of networks that are shown in routing tables.
Since route summarization must be done using subnet masks, it might help to look at the IP addresses in binary.
Remember that Area 1 was given the 181.160.1.0 to 181.160.63.255 range of addresses:
181.160.63.255 is as high as you can go without changing one of the bits in bold print:
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Therefore, the following command can be entered on the A Router:
router ospf 1 Start OSPF
network 181.160.254.0 0.0.0.255 area 0 All .254 is Area 0
area 0 range 181.160.254.0 255.255.255.0
Summarize into one line in the routing tables
network 181.160.0.0 0.0.63.255 area 1
All 181.160.0.0 through 181.160.63.255
area 1 range 181.160.0.0 255.255.192.0
Summarize into one line in the routing table
If we only had four backbone routers, we could use the same mask on each, and the routing table would only be
five lines long (one for each area). But, alas, we cannot use the same mask everywhere.
Back to Area 4, which we were working on in version 2.0. It has been assigned the range of addresses from
181.160.144.0 to 181.160.191.255. It takes three lines to summarize this network, using the binary bit in the 16
position for 181.160.144 through 181.160.191 :
To make sure you believe me when I say this is all worth it:
.....
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O 181.160.188.0 255.255.255.0
[110/20] via 181.160.144.10, 00:41:52, Ethernet0/0
O 181.160.189.0 255.255.255.0
[110/20] via 181.160.144.10, 00:41:52, Ethernet0/0
.....
O IA 181.160.254.8 255.255.255.248
[110/1582] via 181.160.144.10, 00:26:54, Ethernet0/0
O IA 181.160.254.24 255.255.255.248
[110/1582] via 181.160.144.10, 00:26:54, Ethernet0/0
.....
and there's much, much more.
Here's a routing table with summarization:
duser2#sho ip route
Codes: C - connected, S - static, I - IGRP, R - RIP, M - mobile, B - BGP
D - EIGRP, EX - EIGRP external, O - OSPF, IA - OSPF inter area
E1 - OSPF external type 1, E2 - OSPF external type 2, E - EGP
i - IS-IS, L1 - IS-IS level-1, L2 - IS-IS level-2, * - candidate default
Distance Vector routing protocols usually send their entire routing table to their nearest neighbors at
regular intervals. Those neighbors then filter through the received routing table to learn which direction to
send traffic to reach a given network. Distance Vector routing protocols use some sort of distance measurement
(metric) to determine the best path.
One of the simplest Distance Vector routing protocols, RIP, uses a hop count to determine which route is best. If
one router says that a network is directly connected to it, it will have a smaller hop count than a router two links
away. In RIP, routing decisions are based entirely on this hop count.
Other Distance Vector routing protocols, such as IGRP, improve on this by using such factors as bandwidth,
current load, dollar cost or reliability as well as hop count to determine the best path.
Link State routing protocols usually send only the parts of the routing table which have changed to every
router within their area. Routers using Link State routing protocols maintain a picture of the entire network,
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and are aware of outages several hops away. The router can then use this knowledge to determine the best route
for traffic, and can avoid sending data across the network if that network is down.
Within an Autonomous System (AS), most routing protocols insist that every network use the same subnet
mask. Therefore, if 181.160.187.0, 181.160.188.0, and 181.160.200.0 are all in IGRP Autonomous System #1,
they must all agree upon ONE subnet mask, such as 255.255.255.0.
VLSM is simply a feature which allows a single autonomous system to have networks with different subnet
masks. If a routing protocol allows VLSM, then you can use a 14 bit subnet mask on network connections
(255.255.255.252), a 13 bit subnet mask on others (255.255.255.248), an 8 bit mask for user networks
(255.255.255.0), and even a 6 bit mask (255.255.252.0) for networks with up to 1000 users.
Multicast Addresses
In OSPF, two multicast addresses are used. When an OSPF area is started, one router is elected the Designated
Router (DR), and another is made the Backup Designated Router (BDR). The Designated Router tells all the
other routers about changes in the network by sending out Link State Advertisements (LSA's) on multicast
address 224.0.0.5. When a router notices a change in the network, it sends this information out on 224.0.0.6, the
multicast address reserved for the DR and the BDR.
When a new router is added to the net, it announces it's presence to the world by sending out a hello message on
224.0.0.5. If it doesn't get a response, it becomes the new Designated Router. If a Designated Router responds to
the hello message, the new router will use 224.0.0.6 from then on to send out LSA's.
Wasted IP addresses
Network protocols that do not support Variable Length Subnet Masks put network administrators in an awkward
position. If a standard 8 bit mask is used throughout the Class B network (255.255.255.0), then IP addresses will
be wasted on network connections.
For instance, for the network that connects the "A" router to the "B" router (A,B), if it is given 181.160.187.0, it
will waste 252 IP addresses.
This leaves 181.160.187.3 through 181.160.187.254 unusable. Since networks part of larger routed networks
must be unique, the remaining IP addresses cannot be used elsewhere.
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