UNIVERSITATEA DIN CRAIOVA

FACULTATEA DE LITERE
NVMNT LA DISTAN
PROGRAMA ANALITIC

Disciplina: Limba englez.
Curs practic: Interpretari de Texte
Specializarea: Romn- nglez
!nul I" Semestrul I
Coordonatorul disciplinei: !sistent Drd. Sorin Cazacu
I. #$ICTI%L DISCI&LI'I:
Cursul practic ()i propune:
dez*oltarea deprinderilor de intelegere si interpretare a textelor literare +poezie" proza,-
imbunatatirea deprinderilor de exprimare scris (n limba englez prin exerci.ii de
compozitie: paragra/ul" eseul literar-
(nsu)irea structurilor tipice interpretarii textelor literare in limba engleza.
II. TEMATICA CURSULUI
0. 1o2 to comment upon a literar3 text- 4eneral obser*ations
5. &ractical 6ints on t6e met6od o/ approac6 to t6e text.
7. !nal3sis o/ t6e text proper
8. Conclusion
9. :se/ul xpressions
;. St3le
<. T6e /igurati*e use o/ language
0
III. EVALUAREA STUDENTILOR
La /inalul /iecrei unitti de (n*tare" studentii *or a*ea la dispozitie un test de
e*aluare" compus din cate*a intrebari" precum si un model de rezol*are.
La s/rsitul modulului" exist atasat un test recapitulati*" care *eri/ic modul (n care
studentii au asimilat unittile de (n*tare.
=odalitti de e*aluare:
*aluare continu: testare 59>" autoe*aluare 59>
*aluare /inal: examen 9?>
IV. BIBLIOGRAFIE RECOMANDAT:
@r3e 'ort6rop" Anatomy of Criticism" !t6eneum" 'e2 AorB" 0C;9
$oot6 Da3ne" The Rhetoric of Fiction" :ni*ersit3 o/ C6icago &ress" 0C;0
Lodge Da*id" Language of Fiction" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd." 0C;C
Raban Fonat6an" The Technique of Modern Fiction" d2ard !rnold" 0C<5
Sc6oles Robert" Elements of Fiction" #x/ord :ni*ersit3 &ress" 0C;G
DelleB Rene and !ustin Darren" Theory of Literature" 7
rd
ed. Cape" 0C;;
!llott =iriam" Novelists on the Novel" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd. 0C9C
$ergonzi $ernard" The Situation of the Novel" =acmillan and Co. Ltd." 0C<?
5
LIMBA ENGLEZA - CURS PRACTIC INTERPRETARE DE TEXTE
ANUL I
SEMESTRUL I
Asis. !"i#. $%$. SORIN CAZACU
7
TEMA NR. &
'O( TO COMMENT UPON A LITERAR) TEXT
O*i+,i#+-+ +.+i:
&n la s/rsitul cursului de interpretari de texte" studentii *or in*ata o serie de metode
de abordare a unor texte literare in *ederea interpretarii lor
Studentii *or cunoaste o serie de expresii /olosite in construirea comentariilor literare
Studentii *or /i capabili s isi exprime punctele de *edere critice asupra unor texte
literare
Ti./!- 0-1,0 +.+i: 2 1%+
Bi*-i13%04i+ %+,1.0"$05:
@r3e 'ort6rop" Anatomy of Criticism" !t6eneum" 'e2 AorB" 0C;9
$oot6 Da3ne" The Rhetoric of Fiction" :ni*ersit3 o/ C6icago &ress" 0C;0
Lodge Da*id" Language of Fiction" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd." 0C;C
Raban Fonat6an" The Technique of Modern Fiction" d2ard !rnold" 0C<5
Sc6oles Robert" Elements of Fiction" #x/ord :ni*ersit3 &ress" 0C;G
DelleB Rene and !ustin Darren" Theory of Literature" 7
rd
ed. Cape" 0C;;
!llott =iriam" Novelists on the Novel" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd. 0C9C
$ergonzi $ernard" The Situation of the Novel" =acmillan and Co. Ltd." 0C<?
G+"+%0- 1*s+%#0i1"s
T6e /irst step in interpreting a text is to read t6e text as man3 times as it is necessar3 in
order to maBe a clear mental picture o/ t6e passage:
- 26at it is aout
- 6o2 it is said
8
- 26at impact it 6as on t6e reader
- 26at is its essential interest
Tr3 to /orm an o*erall impression" t6en get do2n to t6e detail" maBe sure 3ou 6a*e /ull3
understood t6e literal meaning and /ollo2ed 6e de*elopment o/ t6e 2riterHs t6oug6t" and t6at
3ou 6a*e grasped t6e underl3ing idea. It ma3 be 6elp/ul to asB 3oursel/ about t6e 2riterHs
intention. Does 6e Iust mean to con*e3 in/ormation" express 6is personal /eeling" or elicit an
emotional response /rom t6e reader" tr3ing to con*ince 6im" c6allenge or 2in o*er 6is
s3mpat63" stir up 6is indignation" disturb 6im or stimulate 6is imaginationJ
!s 3ou 2ill be examining t6e /undamental purpose o/ t6e passage" suc6 indications as t6e
title" t6e period 26en it 2as 2ritten" t6e sources" i/ gi*en" ma3 pro*e extremel3 use/ul and
re2arding. =aBe a note o/ t6e *arious de*ices t6e 2riter 6as used to ac6ie*e 6is particular
aim- t6e literar3 and st3listic de*ices t6at go to create and Iusti/3 te o*erall impression:
- images
- metap6ors
- comparisons
- degree o/ tec6nicalit3
- register
- tone
Aou must pa3 close attention to t6e Bind o/ language used" and distinguis6 bet2een
/ormal and in/ormal nglis6" polite and /amiliar language" literar3" ele*ated" oratorical or
r6etorical language.
Aou must also pa3 attention to t6e setting" and general atmosp6ere. It is ad*isable to
maBe a list o/ Be3-2ords" s3non3ms" repetitions" oppositions" arc6aisms" neologisms"
tec6nical terms" /oreign 2ords and p6rases etc. #nce 3ou 6a*e made clear 26at 3ou t6inB t6e
2riterHs general purpose is" and 26at impact 6e seeBs to maBe on t6e reader" as 2ell as 26at
de*ices are used in order to ac6ie*e t6is impact" t6en 3ou ma3 sa/el3 let oursel/ be guided b3
t6e general plan suggested belo2" adapting to 3our particular needs" bot6 t6e *arious elements
to build up a commentar3" and t6e di//erent terms belonging to t6e *ocabular3 o/
appreciation.
!l2a3s bear in mind t6at 3our approac6 depends on t6e nature o/ t6e text" its
particular contents" its c6aracteristic aspects" and its resources. @rom t6e /irst reading 3ou
must be on t6e looB out" read3 to seize t6e clues it o//ers" and to /ollo2 up t6e slig6test 6ints it
ma3 pro*ide. T6e *alue and interest o/ 3our commentar3 greatl3 depend on 3our o2n
resources" on t6e ec6oes t6e text is liable to arouse in 3ou. Aour cultural bacBground" 3our
9
Bno2ledge o/ literature 2ill stand 3ou in good stead. In t6e end" it is a matter o/ 3our o2n
response" 3our o2n culture" in a 2ord 3our o2n personalit3.
T+s $+ +#0-!0%+:
C1..+" !/1" 6+ 41--17i"3 8!10i1"s:
!bout Kaest6etic distanceH:
D6ate*er maBes 6im +t6e reader or spectator, a2are t6at 6e is dealing 2it6 an aest6etic obIect
and not real li/e increases Kaest6etic distanceH
Da3ne C. $oot6"
Lssa3s in CriticismM p. ;C +Fan. 0C;0,
T6e repetition o/ an3 p6rase or construction 2ill gi*e it" i/ repeated o/ten enoug6" a ne2
semantic dimension. ! similar process occurs i/ some parallelism establis6es itsel/ bet2een
t6e separate episodes in a narrati*e or drama. 4raduall3 an unstated generalit3 superimposes
itsel/ on t6e seNuence o/ particulars. ! narrati*e pattern emerges.
@.D. $ateson and S. S6a6e*itc6
Lssa3s in CriticismM pp. 8C-9? +Fan. 0C;5,
1enr3 Fames" 26o 2anted to eliminate t6e irresponsible" illusion-breaBing garrulousness o/
t6e omniscient aut6or" looBed upon t6e arbitrar3 and unconsidered s6i/t in point o/ *ie2 as a
menace to t6e intimac3 and illusion o/ trut6. Fames substituted t6e consciousness o/ one or
more personages /or t6e all-seeing" and all-Bno2ing aut6or" and it is t6is" or t6ese states o/
consciousness 26ic6" respecti*el3" /ilter t6e action.
$en @. Stoltz/us
!llain Robbe-4rillet 0C;8
;
TEMA NR. 9
PRACTICAL 'INTS ON T'E MET'OD OF APPROAC' TO T'E TEXT
O*i+,i#+-+ +.+i:
&n la s/rsitul cursului de interpretari de texte" studentii *or in*ata o serie de metode
de abordare a unor texte literare in *ederea interpretarii lor
Studentii *or cunoaste o serie de expresii /olosite in construirea comentariilor literare
Ti./!- 0-1,0 +.+i: 2 1%+
Bi*-i13%04i+ %+,1.0"$05:
@r3e 'ort6rop" Anatomy of Criticism" !t6eneum" 'e2 AorB" 0C;9
$oot6 Da3ne" The Rhetoric of Fiction" :ni*ersit3 o/ C6icago &ress" 0C;0
Lodge Da*id" Language of Fiction" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd." 0C;C
Raban Fonat6an" The Technique of Modern Fiction" d2ard !rnold" 0C<5
Sc6oles Robert" Elements of Fiction" #x/ord :ni*ersit3 &ress" 0C;G
DelleB Rene and !ustin Darren" Theory of Literature" 7
rd
ed. Cape" 0C;;
!llott =iriam" Novelists on the Novel" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd. 0C9C
$ergonzi $ernard" The Situation of the Novel" =acmillan and Co. Ltd." 0C<?
I"%1$!,i1"
D6ere is t6e passage taBen /romJ
I/ t6e passage is taBen /rom a 2ell-Bno2n boor or 2riter" 3ou ma3 be 2ell-ad*ised to
s6o2 3ou are a2are o/ t6e /act. Aou ma3 t6en introduce 3our passage 2it6 one o/ t6ese
/ormulas:
<
- T6is is a passage /rom +name o/ t6e booB,
- T6is is a passage /rom OHs +latest and, most success/ul no*el. . .
- T6is extract is taBen /rom OHs 2ell-Bno2n no*el 26ic6 2as publis6ed in ...
- T6is passage belongs to . . .
- It is a good example o/ OHs usual manner. It exempli/ies 6is usual preoccupations.
Aou must be brie/ and a*oid padding.
It ma3 be use/ul t6en to place t6e passage in its context" set it against its 6istorical"
social" political bacBground" so as to bring out its real dimensions.
#r" on t6e contrar3" t6e passage can be studied as a sel/-contained unit.
I/ 3ou are gi*en no indications" or i/ t6ese indications mean not6ing to 3ou" Iust go
a6ead.
D6at is t6e genre o/ t6e passageJ
Aou ma3 6a*e to maBe it clear /rom t6e start 26et6er t6e passage is descripti*e" polemical"
dialectic" contro*ersial" explanator3" anecdotal" poetic" imaginati*e" autobiograp6ical"
didactic" sociological in essence" or a piece o/ mere entertainment.
D6at is t6e passage aboutJ
Aou are expected to sa3 clearl3 26at t6e text is about" gi*ing a brie/ summar3 o/ t6e
subIect-matter" 2it6 a *ie2 to elucidating t6e point o/ t6e passage. Aou are to summarize t6e
ideas o/ t6e text in one or t2o sentences" 2it6out commenting on t6em 3et.
- T6e passage is about +concerns. . . " is concerned 2it6 . . .,
- T6e passage deals 2it6 . . .
- T6e passage seems to be telling us about . . .
- T6e passage describes an incident t6at occurs during . . .
- T6e passage is a detailed account o/ ...
- T6e passage points out t6at . . .
- T6e main idea o/ t6e passage is .. . .
G
Sometimes t6e /irst sentence +or paragrap6, tells us 26at t6e passage is going to be
about. #u ma3 use a /ormula liBe:
- T6e subIect o/ t6e passage as stated in t6e /irst sentence is. . .
I/ t6e passage deals 2it6 a topical Nuestion +raises a topical issue," one o/ t6e /ollo2ing
introductor3 sentences 2ill be appropriate:
- It is a 2ell-Bno2n /act t6at t6e problem is bot6 acute adn topical
- T6e Nuestion under discussion is a *exed +ba//ling" perplexing" con/using" debatable,
one. It 6as aroused muc6 contro*ers3.
- O is a topic o/ current interest
- O is a Nuestion o/ topical interest
- O is one o/ t6e maIor problems o/ our ci*ilization
- T6e Nuestion raised in t6is passage is o/ maIor interest and deser*es consideration
- T6e Nuestino" as eac6 o/ us is a2are" is all important . . .
- De are all deepl3 concerned 2it6 . . .t6is problem
- T6oug6 o/ minor interest" t6e Nuestion deser*es consideration.
It ma3 pro*e use/ul to start 2it6 a de/inition o/ 26at seems to 3ou a Be3-2ord in t6e passage
or t6e title" one on 26ic6 t6e essential meaning o/ t6e passage 6inges. @or example:
- De must start 2it6 a clear de/inition o/ t6e 2ord O . . .
- T6e *er3 title calls /or a de/inition.
- De must maBe it clear /rom t6e start 26at t6e 2riter means b3 . . .
E#0-!0i1" +s:
&. C1"si$+%i"3 6+ +: *+-17; +:%0, 6+ <+=-71%$s 76i,6 ,1"%i*!+ 1 6+
$+4i"ii1" 14 /17+%.
PQ1o2 does one man assert 6is po2er o*er anot6er" DinstonJQ
C
Dinston t6oug6t. Q$3 maBing 6im su//er"Q 6e said.
Qxactl3. $3 maBing 6im su//er. #bedience is not enoug6. :nless 6e is su//ering" 6o2 can 3ou
be sure t6at 6e is obe3ing 3our 2ill and not 6is o2nJ &o2er is in in/licting pain and
6umiliation. &o2er is in tearing 6uman minds to pieces and putting t6em toget6er again in
ne2 s6apes o/ 3our o2n c6oosing. Do 3ou begin to see" t6en" 26at Bind o/ 2orld 2e are
creatingJ It is t6e exact opposite o/ t6e stupid 6edonistic :topias t6at t6e old re/ormers
imagined. ! 2orld o/ /ear and treac6er3 and torment" a 2orld o/ trampling and being
trampled upon" a 2orld 26ic6 2ill gro2 not less but =#R merciless as it re/ines itsel/.
&rogress in our 2orld 2ill be progress to2ards more pain. T6e old ci*ilizations claimed t6at
t6e3 2ere /ounded on lo*e or Iustice. #urs is /ounded upon 6atred. In our 2orld t6ere 2ill be
no emotions except /ear" rage" triump6" and sel/-abasement. *er3t6ing else 2e s6all
destro3--e*er3t6ing. !lread3 2e are breaBing do2n t6e 6abits o/ t6oug6t 26ic6 6a*e sur*i*ed
/rom be/ore t6e Re*olution. De 6a*e cut t6e linBs bet2een c6ild and parent" and bet2een
man and man" and bet2een man and 2oman. 'o one dares trust a 2i/e or a c6ild or a /riend
an3 longer. $ut in t6e /uture t6ere 2ill be no 2i*es and no /riends. C6ildren 2ill be taBen
/rom t6eir mot6ers at birt6" as one taBes eggs /rom a 6en. T6e sex instinct 2ill be eradicated.
&rocreation 2ill be an annual /ormalit3 liBe t6e rene2al o/ a ration card. De s6all abolis6 t6e
orgasm. #ur neurologists are at 2orB upon it no2. T6ere 2ill be no lo3alt3" except lo3alt3
to2ards t6e &art3. T6ere 2ill be no lo*e" except t6e lo*e o/ $ig $rot6er. T6ere 2ill be no
laug6ter" except t6e laug6 o/ triump6 o*er a de/eated enem3. T6ere 2ill be no art" no
literature" no science. D6en 2e are omnipotent 2e s6all 6a*e no more need o/ science. T6ere
2ill be no distinction bet2een beaut3 and ugliness. T6ere 2ill be no curiosit3" no enIo3ment
o/ t6e process o/ li/e. !ll competing pleasures 2ill be destro3ed. $ut al2a3s--do not /orget
t6is" Dinston--al2a3s t6ere 2ill be t6e intoxication o/ po2er" constantl3 increasing and
constantl3 gro2ing subtler. !l2a3s" at e*er3 moment" t6ere 2ill be t6e t6rill o/ *ictor3" t6e
sensation o/ trampling on an enem3 26o is 6elpless. I/ 3ou 2ant a picture o/ t6e /uture"
imagine a boot stamping on a 6uman /ace--/or e*er.Q
+4eorge #r2ell: Nineteen Eighty Four,
S!//-+.+"0%= 0s<s:
0?
&. C1..+" !/1" 6+ ,1"%0$i,i1" *+7++" 6+ N+7 (1%-$ 0"$ 6+ O-$ (1%-$; 0s
6+= 0%+ /%+s+"+$ i" 6+ 4%03.+" 0*1#+.
9. Usi"3 6+ 4%03.+" 4%1. Nineteen Eighty Four; +:%0, 0 -is 14 <+=-71%$s %+-0+$
1 6+ .=61-13= 14 /17+% 0"$ %= 1 i$+"i4= 6+ 7%i+%>s i"+"i1".
?. C1..+" !/1" @6+ /i,!%+ 14 6+ 4!!%+A 4%1. 6+ +"$ 14 6+ 4%03.+".
TEMA NR. ?
ANAL)SIS OF T'E TEXT PROPER
O*i+,i#+-+ +.+i:
&n la s/rsitul cursului" studentii *or in*ata o serie de metode de abordare a unor
texte literare in *ederea interpretarii lor
Studentii *or cunoaste o serie de expresii /olosite in construirea comentariilor literare
Ti./!- 0-1,0 +.+i: 2 1%+
Bi*-i13%04i+ %+,1.0"$05:
@r3e 'ort6rop" Anatomy of Criticism" !t6eneum" 'e2 AorB" 0C;9
$oot6 Da3ne" The Rhetoric of Fiction" :ni*ersit3 o/ C6icago &ress" 0C;0
Lodge Da*id" Language of Fiction" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd." 0C;C
Raban Fonat6an" The Technique of Modern Fiction" d2ard !rnold" 0C<5
Sc6oles Robert" Elements of Fiction" #x/ord :ni*ersit3 &ress" 0C;G
DelleB Rene and !ustin Darren" Theory of Literature" 7
rd
ed. Cape" 0C;;
!llott =iriam" Novelists on the Novel" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd. 0C9C
$ergonzi $ernard" The Situation of the Novel" =acmillan and Co. Ltd." 0C<?
Aou ma3 6a*e to sa3 a 2ord about t6e main lines o/ t6e construction o/ t6e passage.
!*oid suc6 p6rases as: t6e passage /alls into x parts" or 2e ma3 di*ide t6e passage into x
parts" especiall3 i/ t6is di*ision ser*es little or no purpose. I/ se*eral parts +stages" sections"
elements, are per/ectl3 ob*ious Iust sa3 so" using sentences as:
00
- T6ere are O parts in t6e passage corresponding to t6e di//erent stages o/ t6e aut6orHs
argument. . .
- Se*eral parts stand out in t6e passage. ..
- T6e passage starts 2it6 a description" it t6en concentrates on . . .- next it mo*es to . .
be/ore coming bacB to . . .
-
T6e passage ma3 be built on a contrast: t6en 3ou ma3 sa3" /or example:
- T6e 26ole passage is built on a contrast bet2een . . .and- t6is opposition is ob*ious in
t6e presentation...
- D6en 2e read t6e text closel3 2e are strucB b3 t6e dense structure ...
- T6e passage is a logical seNuence o/ e*ents . . .
- It is a narrati*e o/ e*ents arranged in strict time-seNuence
- T6is passage is a logicall3 structured demonstration
- T6e 26ole passage is a rat6er loose arrangement o/ statements.
xpositor3 passages o/ten proceed b3 elucidation and ampli/ication o/ an initial statement.
!nnouncing t6e points /or discussion:
Aou must t6en state t6e main points o/ interest 3ou are going to consider +t2o" t6ree or
/our o/ t6em," under separate 6eadings. T6e3 must be t6e result o/ logical reorganization o/
t6e elements 3ou 6a*e disco*ered 2ort63 o/ interest in t6e course o/ 3our reading o/ t6e text"
and t6e3 2ill enable 3ou to s6o2 clearl3 t6e essential interest o/ t6e passage. T6e transitions
must appear *er3 clearl3. T6e points to consider depend on t6e genre o/ t6e passage. It is not
possible to prescribe an3 order o/ priorities or o/ importance" /or t6ese 2ill *ar3 /rom one text
to anot6er. !ccording to circumstances" 3ou ma3 be led to select t2o or t6ree points /or
discussion /rom t6e /ollo2ing:
- 'arrati*e tec6niNue- t6e point o/ *ie2.
- St3le.
- Setting: t6e building up o/ t6e atmosp6ere
- Dramatic intensit3
05
- T6e art o/ suspense
- C6aracterization" ps3c6ological interest
- T6e main t6eme- t6e underl3ing t6emes- t6e 6andling o/ t6e t6emes
- !spects o/ t6e comic
- Tragic elements
- !rgumentati*e texts: t6e passage as a social document" social criticism.
In certain cases" and especiall3 i/ t6e passage deals 2it6 a topical problem" or is
explanator3 or dialectical" 3ou 2ill 6a*e to discuss t6e 2riterHs opinion as re*ealed in t6e text:
it is ne2" t6oug6t-pro*oBing" partial" paradoxicalJ
T6en 3ou 2ill state 3our opinion and taBe sides. !s 3ou go" 3ou 2ill maBe some
remarBs about t6e 2a3 t6e 2riterHs opinions are expressed. I/ it is an anecdotal passage" 3ou
2ill 6a*e to assess t6e importance o/ t6e anecdote.
Aou ma3 introduce di//erent points in t6e /ollo2ing manner:
- !s a starting-point 2e s6all examine . . . t6en . . .
- De 2ill /irst consider t6e 2a3 in 26ic6 O treats . . .
- 1a*ing introduced t6e notion o/ . . . I s6all discuss . . .
- De s6all /ocus attention on . . . 26ic6 is o/ primar3 importance in our passage and
s6o2 6o2 t6e ideas are de*eloped
#nce 3ou 6a*e c6osen a /e2 essential points 3ou must Beep to t6em and deal 2it6
t6em in co6erent" logical order. In /act" 3ou must consider 3our commentar3 as a logical
demonstration" e//icientl3 and con*incingl3 organized. Aou must be as clear and precise
as possible" Beeping an e3e on t6e text" and Nuoting t6e rele*ant passages or sentences"
re/erring to speci/ic 2ords and p6rases to Iusti/3 26at 3ou sa3. Aour arguments must
al2a3s be to t6e point. Aou must care/ull3 a*oid statements 26ic6 are not supported b3
t6e text.
T+s $+ +#0-!0%+:
07
&. (i--i0. G1-$i"3>s "1#+- L1%$ 14 6+ F-i+s 4%1. 76i,6 6+ 41--17i"3 /0ss03+ is
0<+" 60s *++" 1"+ 14 6+ .1s 7i$+-= %+0$ *11<s i" 6+ -0s $+,0$+s. C1..+"
!/1" 6+ i.03i"0i#+ /17+%s +:+%,is+$ *= 6+ s1%= +--+% i" 6is s61% +:%0, 1
i--!s%0+ 0 .1%0- 0"$ /s=,61-13i,0- %!6:
LT6e pigs la3" bloated bags o/ /at" sensuousl3 enIo3ing t6e s6ado2s under t6e trees. T6ere
2as no 2ind and t6e3 2ere unsuspicious- and practice 6ad made FacB silent as t6e s6ado2s.
1e stole a2a3 again and instructed 6is 6idden 6unters. &resentl3 t6e3 all began to inc6
/or2ard s2eating in t6e silence and 6eat. :nder t6e trees an ear /lapped idl3. ! little apart
/rom t6e rest" sunB in deep maternal bliss" la3 t6e largest so2 o/ t6e lot. S6e 2as blacB and
pinB- and t6e great bladder o/ 6er bell3 2as /ringed 2it6 a ro2 o/ piglets t6at slept or
burro2ed and sNueaBed.
@i/teen 3ards /rom t6e dro*e FacB stopped" and 6is arm" straig6tening" pointed at t6e so2. 1e
looBed round in inNuir3 to maBe sure t6at e*er3one understood and t6e ot6er bo3s nodded at
6im. T6e ro2 o/ rig6t arms slid bacB.
R'o2SR
T6e dro*e o/ pigs started up- and at a range o/ onl3 ten 3ards t6e 2ooden spears 2it6 /ire-
6ardened points /le2 to2ard t6e c6osen pig. #ne piglet" 2it6 a demented s6rieB" rus6ed into
t6e sea trailing RogerQs spear be6ind it. T6e so2 ga*e a gasping sNueal and staggered up" 2it6
t2o spears sticBing in 6er /at /lanB. T6e bo3s s6outed and rus6ed /or2ard" t6e piglets
scattered and t6e so2 burst t6e ad*ancing line and 2ent cras6ing a2a3 t6roug6 t6e /orest.
R!/ter 6erSR
T6e3 raced along t6e pig-tracB" but t6e /orest 2as too darB and tangled so t6at FacB" cursing"
stopped t6em and cast among t6e trees. T6en 6e said not6ing /or a time but breat6ed /iercel3
so t6at t6e3 2ere a2ed b3 6im and looBed at eac6 ot6er in uneas3 admiration. &resentl3 6e
stabbed do2n at t6e ground 2it6 6is /inger.
RT6ere--R
08
$e/ore t6e ot6ers could examine t6e drop o/ blood" FacB 6ad s2er*ed o//" Iudging a trace"
touc6ing a boug6 t6at ga*e. So 6e /ollo2ed" m3steriousl3 rig6t and assured" and t6e 6unters
trod be6ind 6im.
1e stopped be/ore a co*ert.
RIn t6ere.R
T6e3 surrounded t6e co*ert but t6e so2 got a2a3 2it6 t6e sting o/ anot6er spear in 6er /lanB.
T6e trailing butts 6indered 6er and t6e s6arp" cross-cut points 2ere a torment. S6e blundered
into a tree" /orcing a spear still deeper- and a/ter t6at an3 o/ t6e 6unters could /ollo2 6er easil3
b3 t6e drops o/ *i*id blood. T6e a/ternoon 2ore on" 6az3 and dread/ul 2it6 damp 6eat- t6e
so2 staggered 6er 2a3 a6ead o/ t6em" bleeding and mad" and t6e 6unters /ollo2ed" 2edded to
6er in lust" excited b3 t6e long c6ase and t6e dropped blood. T6e3 could see 6er no2" nearl3
got up 2it6 6er" but s6e spurted 2it6 6er last strengt6 and 6eld a6ead o/ t6em again. T6e3
2ere Iust be6ind 6er 26en s6e staggered into an open space 26ere brig6t /lo2ers gre2 and
butter/lies danced round eac6 ot6er and t6e air 2as 6ot and still.
1ere" strucB do2n b3 t6e 6eat" t6e so2 /ell and t6e 6unters 6urled t6emsel*es at 6er. T6is
dread/ul eruption /rom an unBno2n 2orld made 6er /rantic- s6e sNuealed and bucBed and t6e
air 2as /ull o/ s2eat and noise and blood and terror. Roger ran round t6e 6eap" prodding 2it6
6is spear 26ene*er pig/les6 appeared. FacB 2as on top o/ t6e so2" stabbing do2n2ard 2it6
6is Bni/e. Roger /ound a lodgment /or 6is point and began to pus6 till 6e 2as leaning 2it6 6is
26ole 2eig6t. T6e spear mo*ed /or2ard inc6 b3 inc6 and t6e terri/ied sNuealing became a
6ig6pitc6ed scream. T6en FacB /ound t6e t6roat and t6e 6ot blood spouted o*er 6is 6ands. T6e
so2 collapsed under t6em and t6e3 2ere 6ea*3 and /ul/illed upon 6er. T6e butter/lies still
danced" preoccupied in t6e center o/ t6e clearing.M
Lord o/ t6e @lies c6. G" L4i/t /or t6e DarBnessM +b3 Dilliam 4olding,
S0./-+ +ss0=:
L1%$ 14 6+ F-i+s - T6+ Bi--i"3 14 6+ S17
09
T6is is a descripti*e and narrati*e passage. T6e 2ords t6e c6aracters speaB are
reduced to a minimum o/ /our exclamations b3 t6e leader o/ t6e bo3s" FacB. De are ne*er
acNuainted 2it6 t6e t6oug6ts or t6e /eelings o/ t6e bo3s. T6is is logical enoug6" since t6e bo3s
are in*ol*ed in action and 6a*e t6ere/ore no time /or t6inBing or speaBing.
T6e stor3 is told b3 an anon3mous aut6or-narrator" 26o does not comment on t6e
action o/ t6e bo3s directl3. 1o2e*er" 6e succeeds in arousing a *er3 speci/ic /eeling in t6e
reader: an o*er26elming" almost unbearable impression o/ cruelt3. 1o2 does 6e manage to
do itJ D63 does 6e 2ant to excite t6is /eeling in t6e readerJ
T6e striBing c6aracteristic o/ t6is passage is t6at it is built on an opposition. #n t6e
one 6and" 2e are gi*en a picture o/ innocent pleasure" peace/ulness" lo*e and beaut3. It is t6e
paradisiacal 2orld o/ t6e island in 26ic6 li*ing creatures +pigs" butter/lies, li*e 6appil3 amidst
an exotic nature +brig6t /lo2ers" damp 6eat,.
#n t6e ot6er 6and" 2e are con/ronted 2it6 strenuous acti*it3 +s2eating" FacB breat6ed
/iercel3," 2it6 bloodlust and cunning: t6e 2orld o/ t6e 6unters.
De mig6t suppose t6at t6ese bo3s 6unt pigs because t6e3 are dri*en b3 one o/ t6e
simplest and most compelling o/ 6uman needs: 6unger. T6e3 do 2ant meat. T6e3 6a*e
instincti*el3 rein*ented t6e 6unting tec6niNues o/ sa*ages. $ut it is clear t6at t6e3 go be3ond
t6e basic necessit3 o/ /inding /ood. T6ese $ritis6 bo3s are not simpl3 presented as sa*ages"
but as sadists. T6e3 Bill more /or pleasure t6an /or /ood. T6e3 enIo3 in/licting pain. T6e3
reac6 a state o/ 2ild excitement" o/ /renz3 26en t6e3 put t6e so2 to deat6. De are all t6e
more sorr3 /or t6e so2" as s6e is a de/enceless" innocent animal in t6e process o/ /eeding 6er
piglets.
!n examination o/ t6e *ocabular3 used to describe t6e pursuit and t6e Billing o/ t6e
so2 ma3 re*eal certain intentions on t6e part o/ t6e aut6or. T6e cumulati*e e//ect o/ suc6
expressions as L2edded to 6er in lust" excited b3 t6e long c6ase" +Roger, prodding 2it6 6is
spear" FacB 2as on top o/ t6e so2" stabbing do2n2ard 2it6 6is Bni/e" Roger /ound a
lodgement /or 6is point and began to pus6" t6e spear mo*ed /or2ard inc6 b3 inc6" t6e so2
collapsed under t6em" and t6e3 2ere 6ea*3 and /ul/illed upon 6erM points *er3 clearl3 to t6e
identi/ication o/ t6e Billing to a sexual act" a sort o/ rape. T6e 6unting and Billing o/ t6e so2
6a*e a2aBened in t6ese 3oung bo3s deep" unconscious instincts. In t6is lig6t" t6e so2 mig6t
stand /or a mot6er /igure and t6e Billing as a re-enactment o/ #edipusH 2edding nig6t.
D6ate*er t6e interpretation ma3 be" it is clear t6at a passage liBe t6is springs /rom a
pessimistic +or s6all 2e sa3 realistic, *ie2 o/ 6uman nature. T6ese bo3s become t3pical o/
man at large" as t6e3 are not li*ing 2it6 adults" t6e /ormer repressions" t6e taboos o/
0;
ci*ilization 6a*e been done a2a3 2it6" and t6e3 can gi*e *ent to t6eir subconscious desires
2it6out restraint. T6eir a2e-inspiring leader is t6e catal3st o/ t6eir most basic dri*es" and
re*eals t6e desire o/ t6e 6erd to be let b3 a po2er/ul indi*idual" +c/. a2ed b3 6im" admiration"
rig6t and assured,. FacB" at t6e end o/ t6e passage" appears as a sort o/ sacri/icer" t6e 6ig6
priest o/ a cruel rite +FacB /ound t6e t6roat and t6e 6ot blood spouted o*er 6is 6ands,.
De /eel t6at t6e implicit intention o/ t6e aut6or is to K6old a mirror up to natureH and to
maBe 6is readers feel 26at bo3s +i.e. man, mig6t become i/ t6e /able +people on a desert
island, 2ere to become true. #t6er 2riters in ot6er centuries +c/. Robinson Crusoe" T6e S2iss
@amil3 Robinson" or Coral Island, 6a*e used 6e same de*ice to reac6 di//erent conclusions"
because t6eir 2orld-*ie2 and t6e presuppositions o/ t6eir age 2ere di//erent. 4oldingHs cruel
c6ildren are t6e products o/ our disillusioned modern 2orld.
T6is piece o/ prose t6ere/ore is not an extract /rom a common ad*enture stor3. It is
allegorical. It is care/ull3 2ritten. !s suggested be/ore" in t6is passage t6ere are t2o
contrasted impressions corresponding to t6e t2o di//erent 2orlds. T6is contrast is re/lected in
t6e st3listic de*ice o/ repetiti*e expressions" or parallelisms.
0
st
example: In t6e /irst t2o sentences t6e 2ord Ks6ado2sH is repeated t2ice. In
connection 2it6 t6e pigs" Ks6ado2H 6as positi*e connotations since it is associated 2it6
innocent sensuous pleasure. In connection 2it6 t6e bo3s +silent as t6e s6ado2s, t6e 2ord
connotes somet6ing completel3 di//erent. It becomes disturbing.
5
nd
example: !t t6e end o/ t6e last paragrap6 but one" 2e read t6at Lt6e air 2as 6ot and
stillM. T6is" 2e /eel" is t6e usual atmosp6ere on t6e island. $ut in t6e last paragrap6 t6e
Ldread/ul eruptionM o/ t6e bo3sH 2orld 6as trans/ormed t6is garden o/ den. T6e
accumulation o/ s3ntagms +andTand, stresses t6e turmoil t6at 6as Iust been created: Lt6e air
2as /ull o/ s2eat" and noise and blood and terrorM.
7
rd
example: 'ature" and t6e animal realm 6a*e been assaulted b3 t6e 6unters. T6e
/ollo2ing *erb is signi/icant LFacB stabbed don at t6e groundM. It announces t6e sentence:
LFacB 2as stabbing donard 2it6 6is Bni/eM.
'ature submits to t6e bo3s as t6e so2 does: L+FacB, touc6ing a boug6 t6at ga*eM is
paralleled b3 Lt6e so2 collapsedM.
T6is descripti*e passage does not onl3 rel3 on precise realistic touc6es to gi*e t6e
impression o/ an actual scene +e.g. s6e 2as blacB and ping" /i/teen 3ards /rom t6e dro*e," or
on a 2ide range o/ *erbs expressing mo*ement" but also on t6e sounds" on alliterations. Let us
read /or instance t6e /ollo2ing sentence aloud and appreciate t6e *alue o/ t6e consonants g" s
0<
and /. LT6e so2 ga*e a gasping sNueal and staggered up" 2it6 t2o spears sticBing in 6er /at
/lanB.M
Lord of the Flies /rom 26ic6 t6is passage is taBen 6as been one o/ t6e most 2idel3
read booBs in t6e last decades. T6is s6ort extract gi*es an idea o/ t6e imaginati*e po2ers
exercised b3 a stor3 teller to illustrate a moral and ps3c6ological trut6.
S!//-+.+"0%= 0s<s:
&. Gi#+ +:0./-+s 14 16+% ,1"%0s+$ +:/%+ssi1"s ,1%%+s/1"$i"3 1 6+ 71 $i44+%+"
71%-$s 0s /%+s+"+$ i" 6is 4%03.+".
9. C1..+" !/1" 6+ s=.*1-i, .+0"i"3 14 6+ *!+%4-i+s.
0G
TEMA NR. 2
CONCLUSION
O*i+,i#+-+ +.+i:
&n la s/rsitul cursului" studentii *or in*ata o serie de metode de abordare a unor
texte literare in *ederea interpretarii lor
Studentii *or cunoaste o serie de expresii /olosite in construirea comentariilor literare
Ti./!- 0-1,0 +.+i: 2 1%+
Bi*-i13%04i+ %+,1.0"$05:
@r3e 'ort6rop" Anatomy of Criticism" !t6eneum" 'e2 AorB" 0C;9
$oot6 Da3ne" The Rhetoric of Fiction" :ni*ersit3 o/ C6icago &ress" 0C;0
Lodge Da*id" Language of Fiction" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd." 0C;C
Raban Fonat6an" The Technique of Modern Fiction" d2ard !rnold" 0C<5
Sc6oles Robert" Elements of Fiction" #x/ord :ni*ersit3 &ress" 0C;G
DelleB Rene and !ustin Darren" Theory of Literature" 7
rd
ed. Cape" 0C;;
!llott =iriam" Novelists on the Novel" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd. 0C9C
$ergonzi $ernard" The Situation of the Novel" =acmillan and Co. Ltd." 0C<?
Aou s6ould sa3 26at t6e *alue o/ t6e text is" 26at lig6t it t6ro2s on t6e problems
discussed and t6en gi*e 3our personal opinion. @or example:
0C
- !ll t6ings considered 2e can onl3 come to t6e conclusion t6at. . .
- To sum up" 2e ma3 sa3 t6at t6e 2riter . . .
- In conclusion" let us sa3 t6at ...
- *er3t6ing points to t6e /act t6at t6e narrati*e is . . .
- !ll 2e 6a*e said tends to s6o2 t6at . . .
- T6e passage seems to suggest certain Binds o/ solutions
- T6e 2riter s6o2s 6imsel/ a2are o/ current issues. . .
- 1e raises t6e problem o/ . . . 1e gi*es 6is mind to it . .
- T6e passage t6ro2s lig6t on . . .
- T6e passage a2aBens interest . . .
- T6e 2riter dra2s on 6is o2n experience. 1e sticBs to realit3.
- T6e passage con*e3s an impression o/ sincerit3 and 6onest3" and 2ill maBe most
readers reconsider t6eir position...
- T6e 2riter maBes t6e point /orce/ull3 and clearl3...
E#0-!0i1" +s
&. A"0-=s+ 6+ 4%03.+" *+-17 0"$ i$+"i4= 6+ .0i" 6+.+ 0"$ 6+ !"$+%-=i"3
6+.+s.
T6e #ld =an and t6e Sea +rnest 1eming2a3,
In t6e darB t6e old man could /eel t6e morning coming and as 6e ro2ed 6e 6eard t6e
trembling sound as /l3ing /is6 le/t t6e 2ater and t6e 6issing t6at t6eir sti// set 2ings made as
t6e3 soared a2a3 in t6e darBness. 1e 2as *er3 /ond o/ /l3ing /is6 as t6e3 2ere 6is principal
/riends on t6e ocean. 1e 2as sorr3 /or t6e birds" especiall3 t6e small delicate darB terns t6at
2ere al2a3s /l3ing and looBing and almost ne*er /inding" and 6e t6oug6t" t6e birds 6a*e a
6arder li/e t6an 2e do except /or t6e robber birds and t6e 6ea*3 strong ones. D63 did t6e3
maBe birds so delicate and /ine as t6ose sea s2allo2s 26en t6e ocean can be so cruelJ S6e is
Bind and *er3 beauti/ul. $ut s6e can be so cruel and it comes so suddenl3 and suc6 birds t6at
/l3" dipping and 6unting" 2it6 t6eir small sad *oices are made too delicatel3 /or t6e sea.
5?
1e al2a3s t6oug6t o/ t6e sea as la mar 26ic6 is 26at people call 6er in Spanis6 26en
t6e3 lo*e 6er. Sometimes t6ose 26o lo*e 6er sa3 bad t6ings o/ 6er but t6e3 are al2a3s said as
t6oug6 s6e 2ere a 2oman. Some o/ t6e 3ounger /is6ermen" t6ose 26o used buo3s as /loats
/or t6eir lines and 6ad motorboats" boug6t 26en t6e s6arB li*ers 6ad broug6t muc6 mone3"
spoBe o/ 6er as el mar 26ic6 is masculine. T6e3 spoBe o/ 6er as a contestant or a place or
e*en an enem3. $ut t6e old man al2a3s t6oug6t o/ 6er as /eminine and as somet6ing t6at
ga*e or 2it66eld great /a*ours" and i/ s6e did 2ild or 2icBed t6ings it 2as because s6e could
not 6elp t6em. T6e moon a//ects 6er as it does a 2oman" 6e t6oug6t.
1e 2as ro2ing steadil3 and it 2as no e//ort /or 6im since 6e Bept 2ell 2it6in 6is
speed and t6e sur/ace o/ t6e ocean 2as /lat except /or t6e occasional s2irls o/ t6e current. 1e
2as letting t6e current do a t6ird o/ t6e 2orB and as it started to be lig6t 6e sa2 6e 2as
alread3 /urt6er out t6an 6e 6ad 6oped to be at t6is 6our.
I 2orBed t6e deep 2ells /or a 2eeB and did not6ing" 6e t6oug6t. Toda3 IHll 2orB out
26ere t6e sc6ools o/ bonito and albacore are and ma3be t6ere 2ill be a big one 2it6 t6em.
$e/ore it 2as reall3 lig6t 6e 6ad 6is baits out and 2as dri/ting 2it6 t6e current. #ne bait 2as
do2n /ort3 /at6oms. T6e second 2as at se*ent3-/i*e and t6e t6ird and /ourt6 2ere do2n in t6e
blue 2ater at one 6undred and one 6undred and t2ent3-/i*e /at6oms. ac6 bait 6ung 6ead
do2n 2it6 t6e s6anB o/ t6e 6ooB inside t6e bait /is6" tied and se2ed solid and all t6e
proIecting part o/ t6e 6ooB" t6e cur*e and t6e point" 2as co*ered 2it6 /res6 sardines. ac6
sardine 2as 6ooBed t6roug6 bot6 e3es so t6at t6e3 made a 6al/-garland on t6e proIecting steel.
T6ere 2as no part o/ t6e 6ooB t6at a great /is6 could /eel 26ic6 2as not s2eet smelling and
good tasting.
T6e bo3 6ad gi*en 6im t2o /res6 small tunas" or albacores" 26ic6 6ung on t6e t2o
deepest lines liBe plummets and" on t6e ot6ers" 6e 6ad a big blue runner and a 3ello2 IacB t6at
6ad been used be/ore- but t6e3 2ere in good condition still and 6ad t6e excellent sardines to
gi*e t6em scent and attracti*eness. ac6 line" as t6icB around as a big pencil" 2as looped onto
a green-sapped sticB so t6at an3 pull or touc6 on t6e bait 2ould maBe t6e sticB dip and eac6
line 6ad t2o /ort3-/at6om coils 26ic6 could be made /ast to t6e ot6er spare coils so t6at" i/ it
2ere necessar3" a /is6 could taBe out o*er t6ree 6undred /at6oms o/ line.
50
'o2 t6e man 2atc6ed t6e dip o/ t6e t6ree sticBs o*er t6e side o/ t6e sBi// and ro2ed
gentl3 to Beep t6e lines straig6t up and do2n and at t6eir proper dept6s. It 2as Nuite lig6t and
an3 moment no2 t6e sun 2ould rise.
T6e sun rose t6inl3 /rom t6e sea and t6e old man could see t6e ot6er boats" lo2 on t6e
2ater and 2ell in to2ard t6e s6ore" spread out across t6e current. T6en t6e sun 2as brig6ter
and t6e glare came on t6e 2ater and t6en" as it rose clear" t6e /lat sea sent it bacB at 6is e3es
so t6at it 6urt s6arpl3 and 6e ro2ed 2it6out looBing into it. 1e looBed do2n into t6e 2ater
and 2atc6ed t6e lines t6at 2ent straig6t do2n into t6e darB o/ t6e 2ater. 1e Bept t6em
straig6ter t6an an3one did" so t6at at eac6 le*el in t6e darBness o/ t6e stream t6ere 2ould be a
bait 2aiting exactl3 26ere 6e 2is6ed it to be /or an3 /is6 t6at s2am t6ere. #t6ers let t6em
dri/t 2it6 t6e current and sometimes t6e3 2ere at sixt3 /at6oms 26en t6e /is6ermen t6oug6t
t6e3 2ere at a 6undred.
$ut" 6e t6oug6t" I Beep t6em 2it6 precision. #nl3 I 6a*e no lucB an3 more. $ut 26o
Bno2sJ =a3be toda3. *er3 da3 is a ne2 da3. It is better to be lucB3. $ut I 2ould rat6er be
exact. T6en 26en lucB comes 3ou are read3.
T6e sun 2as t2o 6ours 6ig6er no2 and it did not 6urt 6is e3es so muc6 to looB into t6e
east. T6ere 2ere onl3 t6ree boats in sig6t no2 and t6e3 s6o2ed *er3 lo2 and /ar ins6ore.
!ll m3 li/e t6e earl3 sun 6as 6urt m3 e3es" be t6oug6t. Aet t6e3 are still good. In t6e e*ening I
can looB straig6t into it 2it6out getting t6e blacBness. It 6as more /orce in t6e e*ening too.
$ut in t6e morning it is pain/ul.
Fust t6en 6e sa2 a man-o/-2ar bird 2it6 6is long blacB 2ings circling in t6e sB3 a6ead
o/ 6im. 1e made a NuicB drop" slanting do2n on 6is bacB-s2ept 2ings" and t6en circled again.
L1eHs got somet6ing"M t6e old man said aloud. L1eHs not Iust looBing.M
1e ro2ed slo2l3 and steadil3 to2ard 26ere t6e bird 2as circling. 1e did not 6urr3
and 6e Bept 6is lines straig6t up and do2n. $ut 6e cro2ded t6e current a little so t6at 6e 2as
still /is6ing correctl3 t6oug6 /aster t6an 6e 2ould 6a*e /is6ed i/ 6e 2as not tr3ing to use t6e
bird.
55
S!//-+.+"0%= 0s<s:
&. E"-0%3+ !/1" 6+ .+0/61% 14 6+ s+0 i" 6+ 4%03.+" 0*1#+.
9. C1..+" !/1" S0"i031>s /6i-1s1/6= 14 -i4+ 0s /%+s+"+$ i" 6+ +: 0*1#+.
TEMA NR. C
USEFUL EXPRESSIONS
O*i+,i#+-+ +.+i:
&n la s/rsitul cursului" studentii *or in*ata o serie de metode de abordare a unor
texte literare in *ederea interpretarii lor
Studentii *or cunoaste o serie de expressi /olosite in construirea comentariilor literare
Ti./!- 0-1,0 +.+i: 2 1%+
Bi*-i13%04i+ %+,1.0"$05:
@r3e 'ort6rop" Anatomy of Criticism" !t6eneum" 'e2 AorB" 0C;9
$oot6 Da3ne" The Rhetoric of Fiction" :ni*ersit3 o/ C6icago &ress" 0C;0
Lodge Da*id" Language of Fiction" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd." 0C;C
Raban Fonat6an" The Technique of Modern Fiction" d2ard !rnold" 0C<5
Sc6oles Robert" Elements of Fiction" #x/ord :ni*ersit3 &ress" 0C;G
DelleB Rene and !ustin Darren" Theory of Literature" 7
rd
ed. Cape" 0C;;
!llott =iriam" Novelists on the Novel" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd. 0C9C
$ergonzi $ernard" The Situation of the Novel" =acmillan and Co. Ltd." 0C<?
!dditional *ocabular3:
57
- T6e presence o/ t6e aut6or is *er3 obtrusi*e.
- T6e *oice o/ t6e 2riter is persuasi*e.
- T6e purpose o/ t6e 2riter is *er3 plainl3 didactic.
- T6e aut6or o*ersimpli/ies t6e moral texture o/ li/e b3 6is generalisations.
- !nal3tic passages predominate.
- T6e strengt6 o/ t6e no*el" 2e /eel" is in t6e /res6ness and *i*idness o/ its descripti*e
passage" its 2eaBness in t6e unsatis/actor3 moral lesson.
- T6e perspecti*e s6i/ts bacB to t6e mind o/ O.
- T6e text is based on t6e /lo2 o/ associations in t6e consciousness o/ t6e protagonist.
- T6e narrati*e pattern is lucid and economical
- T6e booB 6as a tremendous narrati*e impact" e*en t6oug6 t6e episodes occasionall3
border on t6e melodramatic.
- T6e no*el seems to be ric6 in s3mbols t6at render concrete man3 abstract problems.
- De note a recurrent darBness moti//" t6e sun moti/ reemerges 6ere
- T6e r63t6m begins to gat6er speed.
- T6e rapid succession o/ *erbs matc6es t6e dramatic s2i/tness o/ t6e action.
E#0-!0i1" +s:
E:0.i"+ 6+ 41--17i"3 s0./-+ 14 E%i, S+30->s 0% 0"$ *%i"3 1! s1.+ 14 6+ 4+0!%+s
76i,6 0//+0-+$ s1 .!,6 1 6+ /!*-i,.
C6apter 0
D6at can 3ou sa3 about a t2ent3-/i*e-3ear-old girl 26o diedJ
T6at s6e 2as beauti/ul. !nd brilliant. T6at s6e lo*ed =ozart and $ac6. !nd t6e $eatles. !nd
me. #nce" 26en s6e speci/icall3 lumped me 2it6 t6ose musical t3pes" I asBed 6er 26at t6e
order 2as" and s6e replied" smiling" R!lp6abetical.R !t t6e time I smiled too. $ut no2 I sit
and 2onder 26et6er s6e 2as listing me b3 m3 /irst name-in 26ic6 case I 2ould trail =ozart-
or b3 m3 last name" in 26ic6 case I 2ould edge n t6ere bet2een $ac6 and t6e $eatles. it6er
58
2a3 I donQt come /irst" 26ic6 /or some stupid reason bot6ers 6ell out o/ me" 6a*ing gro2n up
2it6 t6e notion t6at I al2a3s 6ad to be number one. @amil3 6eritage" donQt 3ou Bno2J
In t6e /all o/ m3 senior 3ear" I got into t6e 6abit o/ stud3ing at t6e Radcli//e librar3. 'ot Iust
to e3e t6e c6eese" alt6oug6 I admit t6at I liBed to looB. T6e place 2as Nuiet" nobod3 Bne2 me"
and t6e reser*e booBs 2ere less in demand. T6e da3 be/ore one o/ m3 6istor3 6our exams" I
still 6adnQt gotten around to reading t6e /irst booB on t6e list" an endemic 1ar*ard disease. I
ambled o*er to t6e reser*e desB to get one o/ t6e tomes t6at 2ould bail me out on t6e morro2.
T6ere 2ere t2o girls 2orBing t6ere. #ne a tall tennis-an3one t3pe" t6e ot6er a bespectacled
mouse t3pe. I opted /or =innie @our-3es.
RDo 3ou 6a*e T6e Daning o/ t6e =iddle !gesJR
S6e s6ot a glance up at me.
RDo 3ou 6a*e 3our o2n librar3JR s6e asBed.
RListen" 1ar*ard is allo2ed to use t6e Radcli//e librar3.R
RIQm not talBing legalit3" &reppie" IQm talBing et6ics. Aou gu3s 6a*e /i*e million booBs. De
6a*e a /e2 lous3 t6ousand.R
C6rist" a superior-being t3peS T6e Bind 26o t6inB since t6e ratio o/ Radcli//e to 1ar*ard is
/i*e to one" t6e girls must be /i*e times as smart. I normall3 cut t6ese t3pes to ribbons" but Iust
t6en I badl3 needed t6at goddamn booB.
RListen" I need t6at goddamn booB.R
RDouldIa please 2atc6 3our pro/anit3" &reppieJR
RD6at maBes 3ou so sure I 2ent to prep sc6oolJR
RAou looB stupid and ric6"R s6e said" remo*ing 6er glasses.
RAouQre 2rong"R I protested. RIQm actuall3 smart and poor.
R#6" no" &reppie. IQm smart and poor.R
S6e 2as staring straig6t at me. 1er e3es 2ere bro2n. #Ba3" ma3be I looB ric6" but I
2ouldnQt let some QCli//ie-e*en one 2it6 prett3 e3es- call me dumb.
RD6at t6e 6ell maBes 3ou so smartJR I asBed.
RI 2ouldnQt go /or co//ee 2it6 3ou"R s6e ans2ered. RListen-I 2ouldnQt asB 3ou.R
59
RT6at"R s6e replied" Ris 26at maBes 3ou stupid.R
Let me explain 263 I tooB 6er /or co//ee. $3 s6re2dl3 capitulating at t6e crucial moment-
i.e." b3 pretending t6at I suddenl3 2anted to-I got m3 booB. !nd since s6e couldnQt lea*e until
t6e librar3 closed" I 6ad plent3 o/ time to absorb some pit63 p6rases about t6e s6i/t o/ ro3al
dependence /rom cleric to la23er in t6e late ele*ent6 centur3. I got an ! minus on t6e exam"
coincidentall3 t6e same grade I assigned to Fenn3Qs legs 26en s6e /irst 2alBed /rom be6ind
t6at desB. I canQt sa3 I ga*e 6er costume an 6onor grade" 6o2e*er- it 2as a bit too $o6o /or
m3 taste. I especiall3 loat6ed t6at Indian t6ing s6e carried /or a 6andbag. @ortunatel3 I didnQt
mention t6is" as I later disco*ered it 2as o/ 6er o2n design.
De 2ent to t6e =idget Restaurant" a nearb3 sand2ic6 Ioint 26ic6" despite its name" is not
restricted to people o/ small stature. I ordered t2o co//ees and a bro2nie 2it6 ice cream +/or
6er,.
RIQm Fenni/er Ca*illeri"R s6e said" Ran !merican o/ Italian descent.R
!s i/ I 2ouldnQt 6a*e Bno2n. R!nd a music maIor"R s6e added.
R=3 name is #li*er"R I said.
R@irst or lastJR s6e asBed.
R@irst"R I ans2ered" and t6en con/essed t6at m3 entire name 2as #li*er $arrett. +I mean"
t6atQs most o/
R#6"R s6e said. R$arrett" liBe t6e poetJR
RAes"R I said. R'o relation.R
In t6e pause t6at ensued" I ga*e t6anBs t6at s6e 6adnQt come up 2it6 t6e usual distressing
Nuestion:
R$arrett" liBe t6e 6allJR @or it is m3 special albatross to be related to t6e gu3 t6at built $arrett
1all" t6e largest and ugliest structure in 1ar*ard Aard" a colossal monument to m3 /amil3Qs
mone3" *anit3 and /lagrant 1ar*ardism.
Dric6 Segal - Lo*e Stor3"
0C<?" Coronet $ooBsE
5;
S!//-+.+"0%= 0s<s:
&. I$+"i4= 6+ "0%%0i#+ +,6"i8!+ i" 6+ 4%03.+" 4%1. E%i, S+30->s Love Story.
9. '17 is 6+ .11$ 14 6+ "+7 3+"+%0i1" %+4-+,+$ i" 6is /0ss03+F
?. (6i,6 0%+; i" =1!% #i+7; 6+ .1s i./1%0" i"3%+$i+"s 76i,6 ,1"%i*!+$ 1 6+
s!,,+ss 14 6is *11<F
TEMA NR. G
ST)LE
O*i+,i#+-+ +.+i:
&n la s/rsitul cursului" studentii *or in*ata cum sa identi/ice o serie de /iguri de stil
pe care le *or include in comentarii literare
Studentii isi *or imbunatati *ocabularul specializat comentariilor literare
Ti./!- 0-1,0 +.+i: 2 1%+
Bi*-i13%04i+ %+,1.0"$05:
@r3e 'ort6rop" Anatomy of Criticism" !t6eneum" 'e2 AorB" 0C;9
$oot6 Da3ne" The Rhetoric of Fiction" :ni*ersit3 o/ C6icago &ress" 0C;0
Lodge Da*id" Language of Fiction" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd." 0C;C
Raban Fonat6an" The Technique of Modern Fiction" d2ard !rnold" 0C<5
Sc6oles Robert" Elements of Fiction" #x/ord :ni*ersit3 &ress" 0C;G
DelleB Rene and !ustin Darren" Theory of Literature" 7
rd
ed. Cape" 0C;;
!llott =iriam" Novelists on the Novel" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd. 0C9C
$ergonzi $ernard" The Situation of the Novel" =acmillan and Co. Ltd." 0C<?
5<
D6ere to place t6e commentar3 on st3leJ
T6ere is no 6ard and /ast rule to t6e point 26ere 3ou s6ould place 3our commentar3
on st3le" because texts *ar3 greatl3 in t6eir literar3 *alue. I/ 3ou t6inB t6at t6e text under
examination is /ar more interesting /or its contents +or t6ing signi/ied, t6an /or t6e means o/
expression +signi/ier, it resorts to" 3ou ma3 concentrate on t6e anal3sis o/ t6e signi/ied
exclusi*el3. I/" on t6e ot6er 6and" 3ou are strucB b3 t6e beaut3 o/ t6e passage" t6e
appreciation o/ t6e st3le s6ould be t6e 6eart o/ 3our commentar3.
!ccording to a certain academic tradition" t6e stud3 o/ st3le constitutes t6e last part o/
t6e expose. T6ere is no strong Iusti/ication /or t6is met6od i/ it is used mec6anicall3. It is
per/ectl3 reasonable to dra2 attention to some st3listic e//ects 26ile 3ou are discussing points
liBe c6aracter" action" atmosp6ere etc. $ut i/ 3ou t6inB t6at a special sectino s6ould be
de*oted to a st3listic stud3" tr3 to Iusti/3 it" and a*oid crude or simplistic transitions liBe:
L'o2" 26at about t6e st3leJM
=istaBes to be a*oided
0. Do not discuss st3le o/ a passage in *acuum" but tr3 to relate 3our commentar3 to
ot6er aspects o/ t6e text. @or instance" t6e use o/ a 2ord" an expression" a grammatical
or s3ntactical pattern" ma3 re*eal t6e social origin o/ a c6aracter" and tell us somet6ing
o/ 6is c6aracterization t6roug6 st3le.
5. Language is a code. T6e st3le o/ a 2riter is t6e 2a3 6e uses t6is language to literar3
ends. So do not con/use t6e code +a general usage, and t6e message +or t6e text,"
KlangueH on one 6and and KparoleH on t6e ot6er +t6e /amous Saussurean dic6otom3,.
St3le 6as been de/ined as: L!n indi*idual st3listic de*iation /rom t6e general normM.
D6at belongs to t6e code s6ould not be attributed to t6e 2riter. T6e norm" 26ic6 is
not eas3 to de/ine" *aries according to t6e period in 26ic6 t6e text 2as 2ritten"
according to t6e countr3 t6e 2riter belongs to" according to t6e literar3 genre o/ t6e
piece" and man3 ot6er /actors.
7. D6en 3ou examine a s6ort extract" re/rain /rom dangerous generalizations or
conclusions. It is o/ten easier to s6o2 t6e selection and combination process in a poem
5G
because it 6as a closed structure" but a passage in prose is onl3 a s6ort specimen 26ic6
ma3 or ma3 not be t3pical o/ t6e 26ole booB" or indeed" o/ t6e aut6or. So 3our
st3listic commentar3 2ill be" o/ necessit3" limited because 3ou are examining a
/ragment.
Suggestions on 6o2 to proceed:
Aou ma3 start /rom smaller units and pass on to large ones" bearing in mind t6at all
t6e elements" /rom t6e simplest to t6e most complex ones" contribute to a total e//ect" t6at an
element taBen in isolation" out o/ context" 6as no intrinsic *alue. See i/ 3ou can disco*er t6e
uni/3ing principle /or all t6e elements.
4i*en a particular situation" t6ere are degrees o/ suitabilit3" o/ appropriateness /or
eac6 utterance. Aour tasB 2ill be to describe t6e elements and to e*aluate t6e e//ecti*eness" or
expressi*eness" or originalit3 o/ t6e per/ormance.
E#0-!0i1" +s:
&. I$+"i4= 6+ s=-isi, $+#i,+s !s+$ *= (.'. A!$+" i" 6is /1+. T6+ (0"$+%+%.
T6+ (0"$+%+%
B= (. '. A!$+"
Doom is darB and deeper t6an an3 sea-dingle.
:pon 26at man it /all
In spring" da3-2is6ing /lo2ers appearing"
!*alanc6e sliding" 26ite sno2 /rom rocB-/ace"
T6at 6e s6ould lea*e 6is 6ouse"
'o cloud-so/t 6and can 6old 6im" restraint b3 2omen-
$ut e*er t6at man goes
T6roug6 place-Beepers" t6roug6 /orest trees"
5C
! stranger to strangers o*er undried sea"
1ouses /or /is6es" su//ocating 2ater"
#r lonel3 on /ell as c6at"
$3 pot-6oled becBs
! bird stone-6aunting" an unNuiet bird.
T6ere 6ead /alls /or2ard" /atigued at e*ening"
!nd dreams o/ 6ome"
Da*ing /rom 2indo2" spread o/ 2elcome"
Eissing o/ 2i/e under single s6eet-
$ut 2aBing sees
$ird-/locBs nameless to 6im" t6roug6 door2a3 *oices
#/ ne2 men maBing anot6er lo*e.
Sa*e 6im /rom 6ostile capture"
@rom sudden tigerQs leap at corner-
&rotect 6is 6ouse"
1is anxious 6ouse 26ere da3s are counted
@rom t6underbolt protect"
@rom gradual ruin spreading liBe a stain-
Con*erting number /rom *ague to certain"
$ring Io3" bring da3 o/ 6is returning"
LucB3 2it6 da3 approac6ing" 2it6 leaning da2n.
0C7?
S!//-+.+"0%= 0s<s:
&. I"+%/%+ 6+ i-+ 14 6+ /1+..
9. C0" =1! $%07 6+ ,60%0,+% 14 6+ (0"$+%+%F
?. D1+s 6+ /1+. 60#+ 0 ,-+0% s%!,!%+F
7?
TEMA NR. H
T'E FIGURATIVE USE OF LANGUAGE
O*i+,i#+-+ +.+i:
&n la s/rsitul cursului" studentii *or in*ata cum sa identi/ice o serie de /iguri de stil
pe care le *or include in comentarii literare
Studentii isi *or imbunatati *ocabularul specializat comentariilor literare
Ti./!- 0-1,0 +.+i: 2 1%+
Bi*-i13%04i+ %+,1.0"$05:
@r3e 'ort6rop" Anatomy of Criticism" !t6eneum" 'e2 AorB" 0C;9
$oot6 Da3ne" The Rhetoric of Fiction" :ni*ersit3 o/ C6icago &ress" 0C;0
Lodge Da*id" Language of Fiction" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd." 0C;C
Raban Fonat6an" The Technique of Modern Fiction" d2ard !rnold" 0C<5
Sc6oles Robert" Elements of Fiction" #x/ord :ni*ersit3 &ress" 0C;G
DelleB Rene and !ustin Darren" Theory of Literature" 7
rd
ed. Cape" 0C;;
!llott =iriam" Novelists on the Novel" Routledge and Eegan &aul Ltd. 0C9C
$ergonzi $ernard" The Situation of the Novel" =acmillan and Co. Ltd." 0C<?
70
Dords 6a*e more t6an a literal meaning. T6e3 denote and connote. ! 2ord used in a
particular context" in a net2orB o/ relations" ma3" o2ing to its associations 2it6 ot6er 2ords
or expressions" acNuire a special aura" a poetic 6alo" ne2 meanings not /ound in a dictionar3.
Its e*ocati*e po2er depends on t6e sensibilit3" on t6e culture" on t6e critical acumen o/ t6e
reader.
T6e old r6etoric 6as tried to describe 2a3s to 2rite and compose correctl3" to persuade t6e
mind and touc6 t6e 6eart. !mong t6e most common tropes let use mention:
- T6e s3necdoc6e 26ic6 uses t6e part o/ t6e 26ole +e.g. sail /or t6e boat, or t6e 26ole
/or t6e part +@rance 2on /or t6e @renc6 /ootball team,.
- up6emism
- Iron3
- =eton3m3 26ic6 uses one element /or anot6er 2it6 26ic6 t6ere is a relation o/
contiguit3 e.g. T6e Cro2n /or t6e So*ereign.
- =etap6or 26ic6 brings toget6er elements apparentl3 disconnected e.g. =3 6eart sings
2it6 Io3. LT6e 26ips o/ timeM +1amlet,. =etap6ors ma3 be original or trite or e*en
dead. T6e3 ma3 6a*e great poetic *alue" but ma3 also be in burlesNue st3le +c/. LT6e
c6ariot o/ t6e State na*igates o*er a *olcanoM,
! simile is an explicit comparison introduced b3 a 2ord suc6 as LliBeM or a *erb suc6
as KseemH. In a Kmetap6orH" t6e originall3 separate elements coalesce" are /used
toget6er.
- @igures o/ construction: ellipsis" repetition" opposition" s3llepsis etcT
- @igures o/ t6oug6t: 63perbole" litotes +e.g. I am not un6app3 /or: I am 6app3,"
apostrop6e" antit6esis" exclamation" interrogation" prosopopoeia +personi/ication,"
enumeration etcT
!ll t6ese terms are o/ten used b3 critics to c6aracterize aspects o/ t6e st3le o/ an aut6or.
T6e most common ones s6ould be Bno2n.
E#0-!0i1" +s:
&. I$+"i4= 6+ 4i3!%+s 14 s/++,6 !s+$ i" 6+ 41--17i"3 +:+%/s:
My ords sirled around his head li!e summer flies"
. $. D6ite
75
Li!e a crac! in a #lan! of ood hich cannot be sealed$ the difference beteen the or!er
and the intellectual as ineradicable in Socialism"
$arbara Tuc6man
his mind as li!e a vast sea cave$ filled ith the murmur of dar! aters at flo and the
stirring of nature%s greatest forces$ lit here and there by strea!s of glorious sunshine bursting
in through crevices hen at random in its rugged sides"
4eorge =acaula3
Tre*el3an
Cold air is heavy& as #olar air #los into a region occu#ied by tro#ical air"" " it gets
underneath the arm air and lifts it u# even as it #ushes it bac!" A cold front acts #hysically
li!e a C'(Catcher"
Dol/gang
Lange2iesc6e
as com#licated as a medieval mousetra#"
%irginia Dool/
The taste of that crane sou# clung to me all day li!e the memory of an old sorro dulled by
time" Fo6n C.
'ei6ardt
Then the a#se )of a medieval cathedral* is #ure and beautiful +othic of the fourteenth
century$ ith very tall and fluted indos li!e single #rayers"
1ilaire $elloc
The easy #hrases covered the cruelties of ar$ li!e sand bloing in over the graves of their
comrades"
T6omas &aBen6am
77
Sometimes visitors from Euro#e drifted into the farm li!e rec!ed timbers into still aters$
turned and rotated$ til l in the end they ere ashed out again$ or dissolved and san!"
IsaB Dinesen
'r again the summer sea may glitter ith a thousand moving #in#ric!s of light$ li!e an
immense sarm of fireflies moving through a dar! ood"
Rac6el Carson
The observer could see thoughts sloly floating into it$ li!e car# in a #ond"
Rupert $rooBe
(hat as needed as a strong )Socialist* #arty ith no nonsense and a businessli!e
understanding of national needs hich ould ta!e hold of the future li!e a governess$ sla# it
into clean clothes$ ash its face$ blo its nose$ ma!e it sit u# straight at table and eat a
#ro#er diet"
$arbara Tuc6man
Their touch had no substance$ li!e a dry ind on a ,uly afternoon"
S6aron Curtin
There as a glamour in the air$ a something in the s#ecial flavour of that moment that as
li!e the consciousness of Salvation$ or the smell of ri#e #eaches on a sunny all"
Logan &earsall Smit6
Ca#e Cod is the bared and bended arm of Massachusetts"
1enr3 Da*id T6oreau
)Science* #ronounces only on hatever$ at the time$ a##ears to have been scientifically
ascertained$ hich is a small island in an ocean of nescience"
$ertrand Russell
78
(e squat before television$ the idol of our cherished #rogress"
*el3n Fones
they ere mar!ed by the thumb#rint of an unnatural vulgarity$ hich they never succeeded in
surmounting"
La2rence Durrell
-e designated his old benefactor$ '" ." Allen of (innfield$ as the a#ostolic choice for the
ne/t full term"
1odding Carter
"" " a bulge of colorless slime on a giant s#oon"
Dilliam 4ibson
(hat distinguishes a blac! hole from a #lanet or an ordinary star is that anything falling into
it cannot come out of it again" 0f light cannot esca#e$ nothing else can and it is a #erfect tra#1
a turnstile to oblivion"
'igel Calder
Man is born bro!en" -e lives by mending" The grace of +od is glue"
ugene #Q'eill
79
TEST FINAL DE EVALUARE
&. C1..+" !/1" 6+ 70= i" 76i,6 I16" S+i"*0,< $+#+-1/s 1" 6+ 6+.+ 14
J6+ A.+%i,0" D%+0.> i" 6+ 4%03.+" 4%1. Of Mice and Men.
4eorgeHs *oice became deeper. 1e repeated 6is 2ords r63t6micall3 as t6oug6 6e 6ad said
t6em man3 times be/ore. R4u3s liBe us" t6at 2orB on ranc6es" are t6e loneliest gu3s in t6e
2orld. T6e3 got no /amil3. T6e3 donHt belong no place. T6e3 come to a ranc6 anH 2orB up a
staBe and t6en t6e3 go inta to2n and blo2 t6eir staBe" and t6e /irst t6ing 3ou Bno2 t6e3Hre
poundinH t6eir tail on some ot6er ranc6. T6e3 ainHt got not6ing to looB a6ead to.R
Lennie 2as delig6ted. RT6atHs it - t6atHs it. 'o2 tell 6o2 it is 2it6 us.R
4eorge 2ent on. RDit6 us it ainHt liBe t6at. De got a /uture. De got somebod3 to talB to t6at
gi*es a damn about us. De donHt 6a*e to sit in no bar room blo2inH our IacB IusH because 2e
got no place else to go. I/ t6em ot6er gu3s gets in Iail t6e3 can rot /or all an3bod3 gi*es a
damn. $ut not us.R
Lennie broBe in.23ut not us4 An5 hy6 3ecause """" because 0 got you to loo! after me$ and
you got me to loo! after you$ and that5s hy"2 1e laug6ed delig6tedl3. R4o on no2" 4eorgeSR
RAou got it b3 6eart. Aou can do it 3oursel/.R
7;
R'o" 3ou. I /orget some aH t6e t6ings. Tell about 6o2 itHs gonna be.R
R#.E. Someda3 - 2eHre gonna get t6e IacB toget6er and 2eHre gonna 6a*e a little 6ouse and a
couple o/ acres anH a co2 and some pigs and -R
2An5 live off the fatta the lan5$2Lennie s6outed. R!nH 6a*erabbits" 4o on" 4eorgeS Tell about
26at 2eHre gonna 6a*e in t6e garden and about t6e rabbits in t6e cages and about t6e rain in
t6e 2inter and t6e sto*e" and 6o2 t6icB t6e cream is an t6e milB liBe 3ou can 6ardl3 cut it.
Tell about t6at" 4eorge.R
RD63HnHt 3ou do it 3oursel/J Aou Bno2 all o/ it.R
R'o.... 3ou tell it. It ainHt t6e same i/ I tell it. 4o on.... 4eorge. 1o2 I get to tend t6e rabbits.R
RDell"R said 4eorge" R2eHll 6a*e a big *egetable patc6 and a rabbit 6utc6 and c6icBens. !nd
26en it rains in t6e 2inter" 2eHll Iust sa3 t6e 6ell 2it6 goinH to 2orB" and 2eHll build up a /ire
in t6e sto*e and set around it anH listen to t6e rain cominH do2n on t6e roo/ - 'utsSR 1e tooB
out 6is pocBet Bni/e. RI ainHt got time /or no more.R 1e dro*e 6is Bni/e t6roug6 t6e top o/ one
o/ t6e bean cans" sa2ed out t6e top and passed t6e can to Lennie. T6en 6e opened a second
can. @rom 6is side pocBet 6e broug6t out t2o spoons and passed one o/ t6em to Lennie.
T6e3 sat b3 t6e /ire and /illed t6eir mout6s 2it6 beans and c6e2ed mig6til3. ! /e2 beans
slipped out o/ t6e side o/ LennieHs mout6. 4eorge gestured 2it6 6is spoon. RD6at 3ou gonna
sa3 tomorro2 26en t6e boss asBs 3ou NuestionsJR
Lennie stopped c6e2ing and s2allo2ed. 1is /ace 2as concentrated. RI.... I ainHt gonna.... sa3
a 2ord.R
R4ood bo3S T6atHs /ine" LennieS =a3be 3ouHre gettinH better. D6en 2e get t6e coupla acres I
can let 3ou tend t6e rabbits all rig6t. HSpeciall3 i/ 3ou remember as good as t6at.R
+Fo6n SteinbecB: #/ =ice and =en" C6apter 0,
7<