GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

QUARTER 2, LESSON 2.1:

“Regulation of Body Fluids in Plants and Animals”

Living cells contain water, and are surrounded by water, and constantly exchange water with their
environment. For the simplest animals, the water of the external environment directly surrounds cells. In your
previous lessons, you have already known that in the process of metabolism, some harmful by-products that are
being formed referred to as metabolic wastes. Examples of such are the following:
 Excess water
 Excess salts
 Carbon dioxide
 Nitrogenous wastes - these are the compounds resulted from metabolic reactions of proteins and nucleic
acids. These include:
a) Ammonia - the primary nitrogenous waste for aquatic invertebrates. It is also the most toxic
nitrogen-containing compounds.
b) Urea - it is commonly produced by terrestrial animals. It is also formed by combining ammonia
and bicarbonate ion. It is less toxic than ammonia.
c) Uric Acid - excreted by birds, insects, and terrestrial reptiles. It is relatively nontoxic but more
energetically expensive to produce than urea.

These products must be eliminated in the body through the process of excretion. This process also helps
in the regulation of water and ion balance.

HOW DO ANIMALS EXCRETE WASTE?

Before we further discuss the regulation of fluid in mammals (humans), let us have a brief preview of
how the excretion process happens on the other animals. Among the invertebrates, there are several ways of
removing their waste products and there are corresponding systems and organs responsible for it, namely:

o Cell surface or cell membrane – allows passage of wastes in unicellular organisms.

o Contractile vacuole – a specialized cytoplasmic organelle in many freshwater protists (e.g.,
Paramecium) that expels excess water out of the cell to prevent lysis.
o Protonephridia or Flame Bulb System – a network of tubules that lack internal openings but have
external openings at the body surface called nephridiopores. Examples of such are the Platyhelminthes
(Planaria), rotifers, and some annelids.
o Metanephridia – the excretory tubule of most annelids and adult mollusks. The tubular network has a
funnel-like internal opening called a nephrostome that collects body fluids. One popular example is the
earthworm.
 o Malpighian Tubules – the excretory tubules of insects and other terrestrial arthropods attached to their
digestive tract (midgut). They do not filter body fluids; instead, they employ secretion to generate the
fluid for release from the body. Examples are the cockroaches, ants, and other insects.

This is how organisms are functionally diverse with each other. In addition, vertebrates have various
organs accountable for the excretion process like the liver, skin, lungs and the principal organ is the kidney.

OSMOREGULATION
Osmoregulation is the process by which an organism or a cell balances its uptake and loss of water
and dissolved solutes such as sodium ions, chlorine ions, potassium ions, calcium ions, bicarbonate ions, and
proteins. As you may remember, this process is associated with osmosis osmotic and osmotic pressure. Thus,
osmoregulation can be described as the adjustment of the internal osmotic pressure of organism or a cell in
relation with the surrounding medium. In connection, there are two types of animals based on the osmolarity
(solute concentration):
a) Osmoconformers – allow the osmolarity of their body fluids to match that of the environment. These
include most marine invertebrates because their body fluids are isosmotic to seawater, they expend little
or no energy on maintaining water balance.
b) Osmoregulators – keep the osmolarity of body fluids different from that of the environment through
discharging water in a hypotonic environment or they take in water in a hypertonic environment. These
include most marine vertebrates, birds, mammals in which they must expend more energy.

Kidney
In this section, we will focus our discussion on how kidneys as principal main organs perform a crucial role in
the osmoregulation and excretion process as part of the mammalian urinary system.

Structure of the Kidney

1. Renal capsule – the outer coat of connective tissue.
2. Cortex – the zone near the capsule consisting of blood vessels and nephrons.
3. Medulla – inner zone also consisting of blood vessels and nephrons.
4. Nephrons – the functional units of the kidney responsible for filtering and retaining water solutes,
leaving concentrated urine to be collected in the central renal pelvis. These have the following
components:
a) Bowman’s capsule – an in folded region that encloses a ball of blood capillaries called
glomerulus where initial filtration of the blood plasma occurs.
b) Renal tubules – receive and modify the glomerular filtrate.
c) Peritubular capillaries – bring substances to and take substances away from the renal
tubules.
d) Collecting duct – receives the urine from the renal tubule leading to the renal pelvis.
 5. Renal pelvis – a central cavity in the kidney where urine coming from the nephrons is channeled before
going to the ureter.

Figure 3. Parts of a kidney and a nephron. (Photo source: pinterest.com)

MECHANISM OF URINE FORMATION IN MAMMALIAN NEPHRONS

Have you ever been curious about how urines produced and regulated in your body? If yes, this will answer your
queries as you continue exploring how the kidney, primarily the nephrons in executing such a process.

Figure 4. Processes involved in urine formation. (Photo’s source: ck12.org)

Urine formation involves three processes:

I. Filtration – the phase in which blood pressure forces filtrate (water and small solutes) out of the
glomerular capillaries.
– blood cells, proteins, and other large solutes cannot pass the capillary wall, and they remain in the
blood.
*These are the several factors influencing filtration:
a. diameter of arterioles existing in the glomerulus.
b. glomerular capillaries are highly ‘leaky’ to water and small solutes.
 c. volume of blood flow.
II. Tubular Reabsorption – useful materials such as salts, water, glucose, and amino acids move out from
the renal tubules and into adjacent peritubular capillaries.
III. Tubular Secretion – results in the movement of surplus hydrogen and potassium ions, uric acid, toxins,
and other drugs from the blood into the renal tubules. These are then secreted, forming urine.
After these three processes, the filtrate or urine passes through the collecting ducts in each kidney that
lead to the ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra which is being held close by the sphincter muscle that controls
the flow of urine.

HOW DO PLANTS EXCRETE WASTE?

Plants as a living organism are known for their production of relatively little waste because they have
less active metabolism as compared to animals. Stomata are the tiny openings found at the back portion of the
leaf to allow the entrance of water and carbon dioxide into the plant, and light can combine with both molecules
making photosynthesis to happen. At the same time, the waste products, oxygen, can escape through the stomata.

As you may observe, there are instances that the leaves are drying out then die
because the stomata are open too long. To prevent extreme water losses, each stoma has two guard
cells controlling its opening and closing. This process keeps the transpiration- the flowing
in of carbon dioxide and flowing out of oxygen.

QUARTER 2, LESSON 2.2:

“Chemical and Nervous Control in Plants and Animals”
Have you ever experienced being caught in a fearful or thrilling situation? How did you
respond or reacted on it? I am sure that you felt and acted very differently. Perhaps, you are also
wondering how your body moved involuntarily to cope in that certain condition.
This
Figure lesson will cells
5. Guard surely answer the
controlling your curiosities.
closing So, enjoy
and opening this When the journey
of stomata. as with
guard swell you continue
to explore this module.
water, the stoma opens (left). When the guard cells lose water, they bend together closing the
stoma (right). (Photo source: qoura.com)

NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is the one responsible for coordinating the functions of the other body systems. It
also enables the body to respond quickly to the changes in the environment by performing these functions:
o gathers information both from outside and inside the body;
o transmit and process information; and
o elicit the best responses to the stimulus.

What are the divisions of the nervous system?

The nervous system has two main divisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral
nervous system (PNS). The CNS is composed of the brain (main control center) and the spinal cord (connects
the brain to other nerves of the body). The PNS is composed of nerves that branch out from the brain and the
spinal cord to specific body parts and divided further into somatic (controls voluntary body movements) and
autonomic nervous system (control involuntary actions).
What are the functionsFigure
and structures of of
1. Division thethe
neuron?
Nervous System. (Photo source: socratic.org)
The neuron is the basic structural and functional unit of the nervous system. It transmits electrical
signals called an action potential or an impulse across the system and lets a body part respond accordingly
whenever it is being stimulated. It comprises of basic parts namely:
o Cell body or soma- contains the nucleus and most organelles.
o Axon- a single projection from the soma which carries the impulse (a sudden change in the
electric potential of the cell membrane) to the axon terminal. It may be enveloped by a myelin
sheath for faster conduction of impulse.
o Dendrites- several projections which extend outward from the cell body and receive chemical
signals from the axon terminals of another neuron.

Neurons also have three types such as: sensory, interneuron and motor neurons.

Figure 2. Typical neuron with its parts. (Photo source: sciencefacts.net)

How does transmission across synapses happen?

Synapse is the junction that connect neurons with one another. The moment an action potential reaches
the axon’s terminal, a series of events will be created leading to the stimulation of the next neuron. Chemicals
called neurotransmitters are released which facilitate the transmission of an impulse across a synapse.
 Figure 3. Synapse and synaptic transmission. (Photo source: s-cool.co.uk)

How Diverse is the Nervous Systems of Kingdom Animalia?

Kingdom Animalia cover a vast array of different organism from different phyla down to species. Every
organism possesses variation from one another in terms of structure and complexity most especially in their
nervous systems.
Table 1. An overview on the Diverse Nervous Systems of Kingdom Animalia

Description of Nervous
Phylum Illustration
System

-lack a true brain

have a system of
Cnidaria
separate but connected nerve
(jellyfish, hydra)
cells (neurons) called a
“nerve net”

-have nerve cells that are

Echinodermata
bundled into fibers called
(sea stars)
nerves
 -lack a true nervous system;
They rely on water in/out
Porifera
take, oxygen intake, waste
(sea Sponge)
removal and digestion.

-have both a central nervous

system -made up of a small
“brain” and two nerve
cords; and peripheral
Platyhelminthes
nervous system containing a
(flatworms, planaria)
system of nerves that extend
throughout the body.

-more complex but also

decentralized
-contains a brain, ventral
nerve cord, and ganglia
Arthropoda (clusters of connected
(insects) neurons that can control
movements and
behaviors without input from
the brain)

-most complicated of
invertebrate nervous systems
-they have neurons that are
organized in specialized lobes
Mollusca and eyes that are structurally
(octopus, squid) like vertebrate species.
 -more complex,
centralized, and
specialized
-their shared basic
Chordata
structure: a CNS that
(humans)
contains a brain and
spinal cord and a PNS
made up of peripheral
sensory and motor
nerves

One interesting difference between the nervous systems of invertebrates and vertebrates is that the nerve
cords of many invertebrates are located ventrally whereas the vertebrate spinal cords are located dorsally.

ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
The Endocrine System is responsible for the chemical coordination of body functions. It is composed of
ductless glands that release hormones. Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by a gland and affect a
specific target tissue or organ. It plays also a crucial role in maintaining the homeostasis of the body system.

How canFigure
the nervous
4. Majorsystem and
endocrine endocrine
glands, system
the hormones bethey
that linked?
release and their specific functions. (Photo source:
usdbiology.com)
The endocrine and the nervous system are structurally and functionally coordinated with each other
through a series of feedback mechanisms. Particularly, the crucial link between them is the hormone secretion of
neurosecretory cells that can be exemplified by the hypothalamus in the forebrain which is vital in controlling
the activities of pituitary gland and other endocrine glands. Thus, it is the center of the endocrine system.
PLANT HORMONES HELP IN GROWTH AND REGULATION
Like animals, plants also have hormones or chemical messengers. They help in the regulation of various
biochemical and physiological responses that tend to change their morphological features. It includes seed
germination, flowering, photosynthesis, fruit ripening and shoot and root development.
 As you may observe on the table below, some hormones exhibit a growth and inhibiting effects in some
parts of the plants. These mechanisms tend to have a positive impact on the plant’s growth and development for
them to cope in unfavorable conditions. A good example of this is the Abscisic Acid that induces dormancy in
seeds by blocking germination and promoting the synthesis of storage proteins. Plants adapted to temperate
climates require a long period of cold temperature before seeds germinate. This mechanism protects young plants
from sprouting too early during unseasonably warm weather in winter. As the hormone gradually breaks down
over winter, the seed is released from dormancy and germinates when conditions are favorable in spring. The
strong antagonist of this hormone is Gibberellins which aim to break dormancy. The table below shows a list of
plant hormones and their specific actions.
Table 2. Plant Hormones and their function.

Plant hormones are essential for cell growth, whether under normal conditions or under stress conditions.
Thus, these hormones also maintain the homeostatic life of plants.

-------- END --------