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2022-2023
(𝑎 ± 𝑏)0 1
(𝑎 ± 𝑏)1 1 1
(𝑎 ± 𝑏)2 1 2 1
(𝑎 ± 𝑏)3 1 3 3 1
(𝑎 ± 𝑏)4 1 4 6 4 1
.................. ………..……………………………………...……….
3. Relatii de ordine:
1) Proprietati:
• reflexivitate: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑥 , (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ
• antisimetrie: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 𝑠𝑖 𝑦 ≤ 𝑥 ⇒ 𝑥 = 𝑦 , (∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
• tranzitivitate: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 𝑠𝑖 𝑦 ≤ 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑧 (∀)𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 ⁄+𝑧 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑧 ≤ 𝑦 + 𝑧 (∀)𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 ⁄−𝑧 ⇒ 𝑥 − 𝑧 ≤ 𝑦 − 𝑧 (∀)𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 ⁄⋅ 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 (∀) 𝑧 ≥ 0, (∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 ⁄⋅ 𝑧 ⇒ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 ≥ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 (∀) 𝑧 < 0, (∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
1 𝑥 𝑦
𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 ⁄⋅ ⇒ ≤ (∀) 𝑧 > 0, (∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
𝑧 𝑧 𝑧
𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 𝑠𝑖 𝑧 ≤ 𝑤 ⇒ 𝑥 + 𝑧 ≤ 𝑦 + 𝑤 (∀)𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑤 ∈ ℝ
0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 𝑠𝑖 0 ≤ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑤 ⇒ 0 ≤ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 ≤ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑤 (∀)𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑤 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 2 ≥ 0 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
2) Inegalitatea mediilor:
min(𝑎, 𝑏) ≤ mℎ ≤ m𝑔 ≤ m𝑎 ≤ m𝑝𝑡 ≤ max(𝑎, 𝑏) (∀)𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ
2 𝑎+𝑏 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2
Unde: mℎ = m𝑔 = √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 m𝑎 = m𝑝𝑡 =√ (patratica)
1 1 2 2
𝑎+𝑏
𝑎1 ⋅ 𝑝1 + 𝑎2 ⋅ 𝑝2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛 ⋅ 𝑝𝑛
m𝑝𝑑 = (ponderata)
𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + ⋯ + 𝑝𝑛
4. Aproximari. Rotunjiri. Trunchieri:
Orice 𝑥 ∈ ℝ poate fi inlocuit cu o valoare numita aproximarea sa
• Aproximari prin lipsa: modifica cifra aflata pe pozitia puterii lui 10,
scazand-o cu o unitate, din scrierea zecimala a numarului.
• Aproximari prin adaus: modifica cifra aflata pe pozitia puterii lui 10,
marind-o cu o unitate, din scrierea zecimala a numarului.
Aproximari prin rotunjire:
• Ultima cifra la care se face rounjirea ramane neschimbata daca dupa ea
urmeaza 0,1,2,3,4.
• Ultima cifra la care se face rounjirea se mareste cu 1 daca dupa ea
urmeaza 5,6,7,8,9.
Eroare:
• Prin lipsa(L): 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑝𝑠𝑎
• Prin adaus(A): 𝑎𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑑𝑎𝑢𝑠 − 𝑥
Trunchieri: aproximarile zecimale prin lipsa cu eroare mai mica de 10−𝑛 se
numesc trunchieri de ordin 𝑛.
Ex: x=6,641234
Aproximare Prin Prin Eroare(L) Eroare(A) Rotunjire
lipsa adaus
de o unitate 6 7 0,641234 0,358766 7
de o zecime 6,6 6,7 0,041234 0,058766 6,6
de o sutime 6,64 6,65 0,001234 0,008766 6,64
de o miime 6,641 6,642 0,000234 0,000766 6,641
Trunchierea de ordin 2 a numarului x este aproximarea prin lipsa cu eroare mai
mica de o sutime, implicit, 6,64.
5. Modului unui numar real:
𝑥, 𝑥 ≥ 0
|𝑥| = {
−𝑥, 𝑥 < 0
|𝑥| ≤ 𝑎 ⇔ −𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, 𝑎 > 0
|𝑥| ≥ 𝑎 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎 sau 𝑥 ≤ −𝑎, 𝑎 > 0
|𝑥| = 𝑎 ⇔ 𝑥 ∈ {±𝑎}, 𝑎 > 0
Proprietati si operatii ale modulului unui numar real:
|𝑥| ≥ 0 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ |𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏| = |𝑎| ⋅ |𝑏| |𝑎 + 𝑏| ≤ |𝑎| + |𝑏|
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝑎 |𝑎|
|−𝑥| = |𝑥| (∀)x ∈ ℝ | |= |𝑎 − 𝑏| ≤ |𝑎| + |𝑏|
𝑏 |𝑏|
|𝑥| = 0 ⇔ x = 0 |𝑎𝑛 | = |𝑎|𝑛 |𝑎 + 𝑏| ≥ |𝑎| − |𝑏|
6. Partea intreaga si partea fractionara a unui numar real:
[𝑥] ≤ 𝑥 ≤ [𝑥] + 1 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 = [𝑥] + {𝑥}
0 ≤ {𝑥} < 1 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ
[𝑥] = primul numar intreg din "stanga" lui 𝑥 aflat pe axa numerelor reale
1) Proprietati partea intrega a unui numar real:
𝑥 − 1 < [𝑥] ≤ 𝑥 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ [𝑥] ∈ ℤ
[𝑥 + 𝑛] = [𝑥] + 𝑛 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ, (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℤ
[𝑥 + 𝑦] ≥ [𝑥] + [𝑦] (∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℝ
2) Proprietati partea fractionara a unui numar real:
{𝑥 + 𝑛} = {𝑥} (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ, (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℤ
{𝑥} = 0 ⇔ 𝑥 ∈ ℤ
{𝑥} = {𝑦} ⇔ 𝑥 − 𝑦 ∈ ℤ
3) Relatia(Identitatea) lui Hermite:
1 2 (𝑛 − 1)
[𝑥] + [𝑥 + ] + [𝑥 + ] + ⋯ + [𝑥 + ] = [𝑛𝑥] (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ, (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℕ∗
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
7. Intervale si multimi:
[𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥 ∈ R | a ≤ x ≤ b} [𝑎, +∞) = {𝑥 ∈ R | 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎}
(𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥 ∈ R | a < x ≤ b} (𝑎, +∞) = {𝑥 ∈ R | 𝑥 > 𝑎}
[𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥 ∈ R | a ≤ x < b} (−∞, a] = {𝑥 ∈ R | 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎}
(𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥 ∈ R | a < x < b} (−∞, a) = {𝑥 ∈ R | 𝑥 < 𝑎}
1) Operatii cu intervale si multimi: A,B= multimi/intervale, 𝐴, 𝐵 ≠ Ø
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = intersectie (elemente comune din 𝐴 si 𝐵)
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = reuniune (toate elementele din 𝐴 si 𝐵)
𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 = includere (elementele din 𝐴 𝑠e regasesc in 𝐵,posibil 𝐴 = 𝐵)
𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵 = includere (elementele din 𝐴 se regasesc in 𝐵, 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵)
𝐴 = 𝐵 = egalitate (𝐴 si 𝐵 au aceleasi elemente)
𝐴 ∖ 𝐵 = 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 (elementele care se gasesc in 𝐴 dar nu si in 𝐵)
𝐴 × 𝐵 = produs cartezian (perechi ordonate de doua elemente (𝑥, 𝑦), 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴,
𝑦 ∈ 𝐵) 𝐴, 𝐵 = (doar) multimi
card(𝐴) 𝑠au |𝐴| = cardinal (numarul de elemente din 𝐴)
𝐴∗ = 𝐴 stelat (𝐴 nu continue elemente nule)
𝐴 Δ 𝐵 = diferenta simetrica = (𝐴 ∖ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐵 ∖ 𝐴)
(elementele care se gasesc in 𝐴 sau 𝐵, dar care nu se gasesc in 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)
𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 = elementul 𝑥 se gaseste in 𝐴
𝑥 ∉ 𝐴 = elementul 𝑥 nu se gaseste in 𝐴
𝒫(𝐴) = {𝑋 | 𝑋 ⊂ 𝐴} = multimea partilor lui 𝐴 (numarul tuturor submultimilor
formate cu 1,2,3 … elemente din multimea 𝐴). Daca 𝐴 este finit atunci
|𝒫(𝐴)| = 2|𝐴| .
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
2) Multimi consacrate:
ℕ(𝑁) = {0,1,2,3, … } = multimea numerelor naturale
ℤ(𝑍) = {… , −3, −2, −1,0,1,2,3, … } = multimea numerelor intregi
𝑎
ℚ(𝑄) = {𝑥 | 𝑥 = 𝑏 , 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑍} = multimea numerelor rationale
ℝ(𝑅) = {𝑥 | − ∞ < 𝑥 < +∞} = multimea numerelor reale
ℝ ∖ ℚ(𝑅 ∖ 𝑄) = multimea numerelor irationale (numar irational=fractie
zecimala infiniti neperiodica/nu se poate scrie ca fractie ordinara)
ℂ(𝐶) = {𝑧 | 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅} = multimea numerelor complexe
Ø = { } = 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑎 𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑎
Multimea numerelor reale(ℝ /𝑅) este continua.
8. Vectori: B
A=origine ⃗
𝑉
B=varf(extremitate)
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑉
𝐴𝐵 ⃗
A
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | = 𝑑(𝐴, 𝐵) = 𝐴𝐵
|𝐴𝐵
F
• Doi vectori au aceeasi directie daca sunt pe aceeasi sau pe drepte
paralele.
• Vectori care au aceeasi directie=vectorie coliniari=vectori paraleli.
• Doi vectori au acelasi sens daca au aceeasi directie si daca varfurile lor se
afla de aceeasi parte a dreptei care uneste originile lor.
• Doi vectori sunt egali daca au acelasi modul, aceeasi directie si acelasi
sens.
• Doi vectori sunt opusi daca au acelasi modul, aceeasi directie si sensuri
contrare.
𝑢
⃗
𝑢
⃗ = −𝑣
𝑣
𝑣 = −𝑢⃗
• Doi vectori au sensuri opuse daca au aceeasi directie, sensuri opuse
si module diferite.
𝑢
⃗
|𝑢
⃗ | > |𝑣|
𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐵𝐵
𝐴𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝐶𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⋯ = 𝑂
⃗ A
|𝑂 ⃗|=0 F
Vectorul nul are orice directie.
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
1) Adunarea vectorilor:
• Regula paralelogramului:
𝑢
⃗ O 𝑢 ⃗ O 𝑢 ⃗ O 𝑢
⃗
F F F
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
𝑣
• Regula triunghiului:
𝑢
⃗ 𝑢
⃗ 𝑢
⃗
𝑣 𝑣
𝑣
2) Scaderea vectorilor:
• Unirea varfurilor(varful celui de al doilea vector cu varful
𝑢⃗ primului): O 𝑢 ⃗
O 𝑢 ⃗
F F
𝑢
⃗ −𝑣
𝑣 𝑣
𝑣
−𝑣 −𝑣 −𝑣
𝑣
O O
F 𝑢
⃗ F 𝑢
⃗
3) Inmultirea vectorilor cu scalari(paralelism):
(Scalar=numar real)
Cand inmultim un vector 𝑢 ⃗ cu un scalar 𝛼(alfa), 𝛼 ∈ ℝ∗ , obtinem un vector 𝑣 cu
proprietatile:
𝑢
⃗ 2𝑢
⃗
• 𝑣 are aceeasi directie cu 𝑢⃗ (𝑣 ∥ 𝑢
⃗ )
• |𝑣| = |𝑢
⃗ | ⋅ |𝛼|
• Daca 𝛼 > 0, 𝑣 are acelasi sens cu 𝑢 ⃗ −2𝑢⃗
• Daca 𝛼 < 0, 𝑣 are sens opus cu 𝑢 ⃗
𝑢 ⃗
⃗ ⋅0=𝑂
⃗ =𝑂
𝛼⋅𝑂 ⃗
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
O 𝑢1
⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑢
⃗
F
𝑣 = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑖 + 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑗 ⇒ |𝑣| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝐴(𝑥1,𝑦1)
} ⇒ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ 𝑖 + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 ) ⋅ 𝑗
𝐵(𝑥2,𝑦2)
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
6) Operatii cu vectori:
Fie 𝑢
⃗ = 𝑥1 ⋅ 𝑖 + 𝑦1 ⋅ 𝑗, 𝑣 = 𝑥2 ⋅ 𝑖 + 𝑦2 ⋅ 𝑗, 𝑢 ⃗ ,𝑣 ≠ 𝑂
⃗ ≠𝑂 ⃗ , 𝛼 ∈ ℝ∗ doi vectori, atunci:
⃗ + 𝑣 = (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 ) ⋅ 𝑖 + (𝑦1 + 𝑦2 ) ⋅ 𝑗
𝑢
⃗ − 𝑣 = (𝑥1 − 𝑥2 ) ⋅ 𝑖 + (𝑦1 − 𝑦2 ) ⋅ 𝑗
𝑢
𝛼⋅𝑢 ⃗ = (𝛼 ⋅ 𝑥1 ) ⋅ 𝑖 + (𝛼 ⋅ 𝑦1 ) ⋅ 𝑗 (inmultirea cu scalari)
𝑢
⃗ ⋅ 𝑣 = 𝑥1 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 ⋅ 𝑦2
⃗ ⋅ 𝑣 = |𝑢
𝑢 ⃗̂
⃗ | ⋅ |𝑣| ⋅ cos 𝛼 , 𝛼 = 𝑚(𝑢 , 𝑣) (produs scalar) 𝑢 ⃗ |)2
⃗ = (|𝑢
⃗ ⋅𝑢
𝑥1 𝑦1
𝑢
⃗ ∥𝑣⇔ = (Doi vectori sunt colinari/paraleli daca si numai daca au
𝑥2 𝑦2
coordonatele proportionale.)
𝑢
⃗ ⋅𝑣 =0 ⇒𝑢
⃗ ⊥𝑣
𝑢
⃗ ⋅𝑣 𝑥1 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑦1 ⋅ 𝑦2
cos 𝛼 = =
|𝑢
⃗ | ⋅ |𝑣| √𝑥1 2 + 𝑦1 2 ⋅ √𝑥2 2 + 𝑦2 2
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 ) (𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑂𝐺 ⋅𝑖+ ⋅𝑗
3 3
𝐴(𝑥1,𝑦1) (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 )
𝐵(𝑥2,𝑦2) 𝑥𝐺 =
3 = coordonatele centrului de greutate ale unui △
⇒{
𝐶(𝑥3,𝑦3) (𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3 )
𝑦𝐺 =
𝐺(𝑥𝐺 ,𝑦𝐺) } 3
2) Teorema bisectoarei:
Intr-un △, bisectoarea unui unghi determina pe latura opusa unghiului segmente
proportionale cu laturile unghiului.
A
𝐵𝐷 𝐴𝐵 𝑐
= = =𝑘
𝐷𝐶 𝐴𝐶 𝑏
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝐴𝐶
𝑏 ⋅ 𝐴𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ c r b
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝐴𝐷 = vectorul bisectoarei I
𝑏+𝑐
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑂𝐶
𝑏 ⋅ 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑂𝐷 = vectorul de pozitie B
𝑏+𝑐 C
D a
al piciorului bisectoarei
𝑎 ⋅ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑂𝐶
𝑂𝐴 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗ =
𝑂𝐼
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐼 = vectorul de pozitie al centrului cercului inscris △
Propietatile bisectoarei:
• Punctele de pe bisectoarea unui unghi sunt egal departate de laturile
unghiului.
• Intr-un △, bisectoarele unghiurilor sunt concurente intr-un punct I, care
este egal departat de laturile △ (I= centrul cercului inscris △).
3) Relatia lui Sylvester:
Fie △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶, H este ortocentrul △ si O centrul cercului circumscris △, atunci are
loc relatia:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + 𝑂𝐶
𝑂𝐴 + 𝑂𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐻
A
Consecinte: Intr-un △ , centrul centrului circumscris (O),
ortocentrul (H) si centrul de greutate (G)
ale △ sunt coliniare. Drepta pe care se afla O
se numeste „drepta lui Euler”. H G
B
C
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝑀𝐵 𝑁𝐶 𝑃𝐴
Daca ⋅ ⋅ = 1 , atunci dreptele 𝐴𝑀, 𝐵𝑁, 𝐶𝑃 sunt concurente
𝑀𝐶 𝑁𝐴 𝑃𝐵
intr-un singur punct.
Celiana: un segment ce uneste varful unui triunghi cu un punct de pe latura
opusa.
6) Teorema lui Thales:
A
Fie △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 si 𝑀 ∈ 𝐴𝐵, 𝑁 ∈ 𝐴𝐶, astfel incat
𝑀𝑁 ∥ 𝐵𝐶 , atunci MN determina segmente
proportionale pe AB si AC. M N
𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑁
𝑀𝑁 ∥ 𝐵𝐶 ⇒ =
𝑀𝐵 𝑁𝐶
Reciproca Teoremei lui Thales:
B
Fie △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 si 𝑀 ∈ 𝐴𝐵, 𝑁 ∈ 𝐴𝐶, astfel incat C
𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑁
= , atunci MN∥BC.
𝑀𝐵 𝑁𝐶
7) Teorema Fundamentala a Asemanarii:
Fie △ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 si 𝑀 ∈ 𝐴𝐵, 𝑁 ∈ 𝐴𝐶, astfel incat
𝑀𝑁 ∥ 𝐵𝐶, atunci MN formeaza cu AB si AC un △ asemenea cu △ dat.
𝐴𝑀 𝐴𝑁 𝑀𝑁
= =
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐶 𝐵𝐶
𝑀𝑁 ∥ 𝐵𝐶 ⇒△ 𝐴𝐵𝐶 ∼ △ 𝐴𝑀𝑁 ⇒ 𝑚(𝑀 ̂ ) = 𝑚(𝐵̂ )
̂ ̂
{ 𝑚(𝑁) = 𝑚(𝐶 )
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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Cazuri de asemanare
• Triunghiurile au doua unghi congruente.
• Triunghiurile au un unghi congruent si doua laturi proportionale.
• Triunghiurile au toate laturile proportionale.
8) Teorema cosinusului (Teorema lui Pitagora generalizata):
𝑎 = 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑏𝑐 ⋅ cos 𝐴
2
𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 2𝑎𝑐 ⋅ cos 𝐵 A
2 2 2
𝑐 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 2𝑎𝑏 ⋅ cos 𝐶
𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
cos 𝐴 =
2𝑏𝑐 c b
𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑏 2 r
I
cos 𝐵 = O
2𝑎𝑐 R
2 2 2
𝑎 +𝑏 −𝑐
cos 𝑐 = B
2𝑎𝑏 C
9) Teorema sinusurilor: a
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐
= = = 2𝑅
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 sin 𝐶
𝑅 = raza cercului circumscris
10) Lungimea medianei intr-un triunghi:
2
2(𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 ) − 𝑎2 2
2(𝑎2 + 𝑐 2 ) − 𝑏 2 2
2(𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 ) − 𝑐 2
𝑚𝑎 = 𝑚𝑏 = 𝑚𝑐 =
4 4 4
11) Formule pentru aria unui triunghi:
𝑏⋅ℎ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 ⋅ sin 𝐶 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐 ⋅ sin 𝐵 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑏 ⋅ sin 𝐴 𝑎⋅𝑏⋅𝑐
𝑆= 𝑆= 𝑆= 𝑆= 𝑆=
2 2 2 2 4⋅𝑅
2
𝑙 ⋅ √3
𝑆 = 𝑟 ⋅ 𝑝 𝑆 = √𝑝 ⋅ (𝑝 − 𝑎) ⋅ (𝑝 − 𝑏) ⋅ (𝑝 − 𝑐) 𝑆 = (△ 𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙)
4
Unde: 𝑏 = baza, ℎ = inaltimea, 𝑟 = raza cercului inscris, 𝑝 = semiperimetru,
𝑙 = latura triunghiului echilateral, 𝑅 = raza cercului circumscris
A
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
𝑝=
2
12) Relatii metrice in triunghiul dreptunghic:
• Inaltimea corespunzatoare unghiului
drept este media geometria intre
segmetele ce le formeaza pe 30∘
ipotenuza B
2
𝐴𝐷 = 𝐵𝐷 ⋅ 𝐷𝐶 ⇒ 𝐴𝐷 = √𝐵𝐷 ⋅ 𝐷𝐶 C
D M
• Teorema Catetei: cateta este media geometrica
intre ipotenuza si proeictia ei pe ipotenuza
𝐴𝐵 2 = 𝐵𝐷 ⋅ 𝐵𝐶 ⇒ 𝐴𝐵 = √𝐵𝐷 ⋅ 𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐶 2 = 𝐶𝐷 ⋅ 𝐵𝐶 ⇒ 𝐴𝐶 = √𝐶𝐷 ⋅ 𝐵𝐶
• Teorema lui Pitagora: patratul ipotenuzei este egal cu suma patratelor
catetelor
𝐵𝐶 2 = 𝐴𝐵 2 + 𝐴𝐶 2 𝐴𝐵 2 = 𝐵𝐶 2 − 𝐴𝐶 2 𝐴𝐶 2 = 𝐵𝐶 2 − 𝐴𝐵 2
𝐵𝐶 = √𝐴𝐵 2 + 𝐴𝐶 2 𝐴𝐵 = √𝐵𝐶 2 − 𝐴𝐶 2 𝐴𝐶 = √𝐵𝐶 2 − 𝐴𝐵 2
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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• Disjunctia: p q 𝑝⋁𝑞
Se noteaza 𝑝 ⋁ 𝑞 si se citeste „𝑝 sau 𝑞”. 0 0 0
Este adevarata cand cel putin una din cele 0 1 1
doua propozitii este adevarata. 1 0 1
1 1 1
• Conjunctia: p q 𝑝⋀𝑞
Se noteaza 𝑝 ⋀ 𝑞 si se citeste „𝑝 si 𝑞”. 0 0 0
Este adavarata cand ambele propozitii sunt adevrate 0 1 0
1 0 0
• Implicatia: 1 1 1
Se noteaza𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞 si se citeste „daca 𝑝 atunci 𝑞”.
Este falsa cand p este adevarata si q este falsa. p q 𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞
𝑝 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑢 𝑞 0 0 1
𝑝⟶𝑞⇒{
𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑎 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑢 𝑝 0 1 1
1 0 0
• Echivalenta: 1 1 1
Se noteaza 𝑝 ⟷ 𝑞 si se citeste „𝑝 echivalent cu
𝑞” sau „𝑝 daca si numai daca 𝑞”. Este adevarata p q 𝑝 ⟷ 𝑞
cand ambele propozitii au aceeasi valoare de 0 0 1
adevar. 0 1 0
𝑝 ⟷ 𝑞 ⇒ 𝑝 este o conditie necesara(𝑞 ⟶ 𝑝) si 1 0 0
suficienta(𝑝 ⟶ 𝑞)pentru 𝑞 1 1 1
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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2) Predicate:
Un enunt pe o multime E care depinde de una sau mai multe variabile care
apartin multimii E si care pentru fiecare valoare a variabilei devine o propozitie
adevarata sau falsa.
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
II. Demonstratie:
𝑘(𝑘 + 1)
Presupunem ca 𝑝(𝑘) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 = este adevarata.
2
Demonstram ca 𝑝(𝑘 + 1) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1)
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
= este adevarata.
2
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
(1
⏟ + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘) + (𝑘 + 1) =
2
𝑝(𝑘)
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
+ (𝑘 + 1) =
2 2
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) 2(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
+ =
2 2 2
𝑘(𝑘 + 1) + 2(𝑘 + 1) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
=
2 2
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2) conform principiului inductie matematice
= ⇒ 𝑝(𝑘 + 1)
2 2
(𝑘 + 1)(𝑘 + 2)
= 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑘 + (𝑘 + 1) = este adevarat ⇒
2
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
𝑝(𝑛) = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 = este adevarat (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
2
• Sumele lui Gauss:
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑛 = (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℕ∗
2
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(2𝑛 + 1)
12 + 22 + 32 + ⋯ + 𝑛2 = (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℕ∗
6
3 3 3 3
𝑛(𝑛 + 1) 2
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑛 = ( ) (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℕ∗
2
1 + 3 + 5 + ⋯ + (2𝑛 − 1) = 𝑛2 (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℕ∗
𝑛(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2)
1 + (1 + 2) + (1 + 2 + 3) + ⋯ + (1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛) = =
6
= suma sumelor lui Gauss (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℕ∗
13. Siruri de numere reale:
(𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 /(𝑥𝑛 )𝑛∈𝑁∗ /(𝑥𝑎 )𝑛 = sirul 𝑥𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = termenul de pe locul n al sirului
Modalitati de a defini un sir:
• Enumarand termenii sirului sau o proprietate a acestora.
𝑥𝑛 = 1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛
• Printr-o expresie:
3𝑛 + 1
𝑥𝑛 =
2
• Printr-o formula de recurenta(un termen al sirului depinde de unul sau
mai multi termani care il preceda).
𝑥𝑛+1 = 3 ⋅ 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥𝑛−1 = formula de recurenta
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
1) Siruri monotone:
(𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 este crescator daca 𝑥𝑛 ≤ 𝑥𝑛+1 (∀)𝑛 ≥ 1
(𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 este descrescator daca 𝑥𝑛 ≥ 𝑥𝑛+1 (∀)𝑛 ≥ 1
(𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 este strict crescator daca 𝑥𝑛 < 𝑥𝑛+1 (∀)𝑛 ≥ 1
(𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 este strict descrescator daca 𝑥𝑛 > 𝑥𝑛+1 (∀)𝑛 ≥ 1
Pentru a studia monotonia unui sir comparam diferenta a doi termeni
consecutivi cu 0.
𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 0
Pentru sirurile cu termeni strict pozitivi, pentru a studia monotonia puteam
compara raportul a doi termeni consecutivi cu 1
𝑥𝑛+1
1
𝑥𝑛
2) Siruri marginite:
Sirul (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 este marginit daca ∃ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ , astfel incat 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑛 ≤ 𝑏 , (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗
sau 𝑥𝑛 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗ .
Sirul (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 este marginit daca exista un interval [𝑎, 𝑏] care contine toti termenii
sirului(termenii sirului sunt cuprinsi in intervalul [𝑎, 𝑏]).
Pentru a demonstra ca un sir nu este marginit folosim metoda reducerii la
absurd. Presupunem ca exista un numar real astfel incat numarul este mai
mic/mai mare decat toti termenii sirului si demonstram ca presupunerea e falsa.
Exemplu:
(𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 = 2 ⋅ 𝑛 + 3 (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 marginit superior?
Presupunem ca (∃)𝛼 ∈ ℝ astfel incat 𝑥𝑛 ≤ 𝛼 (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗
2 ⋅ 𝑛 + 3 ≤ 𝛼 (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗
2 ⋅ 𝑛 ≤ 𝛼 − 3 (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗
𝛼−3
𝑛≤ (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗ Fals (contrazice axioma lui Arhimede) ⟹
2
⇒ (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 nu este marginit superior.
Axioma lui Arhimede pentru numere naturale: (∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ ℕ, (∃)𝑛 ∈ ℕ astfel incat
𝑥 ⋅ 𝑛 ≥ 𝑦. Pentru 𝑛 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ 𝑦 ⇒ exista numere naturale infinit de mari.
3) Teorema de caracterizare a sirurilor:
Sirul (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 este marginit daca si numai daca ∃𝛼 ∈ ℝ astfel incat |𝑥𝑛 | ≤ 𝛼
, (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗ .
𝑎 ≤ 𝑥𝑛 ≤ 𝑏 ⟹ 𝛼 = max (|𝑎|, |𝑏|)
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
• △= 0
𝛼
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ∈ ℝ, 𝑟1 = 𝑟2 = 𝑟, 𝑟 =
2
𝑎𝑛 = (𝐴 ⋅ 𝑛 + 𝐵) ⋅ 𝑟 𝑛 , (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗ , 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ ℝ
(𝐴 + 𝐵) ⋅ 𝑟 = 𝑎1
𝐴 si 𝐵 se determina din {
(2𝐴 + 𝐵) ⋅ 𝑟 2 = 𝑎2
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
• △< 0
𝛼 ± 𝑖√− △ 𝛼 √− △
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 ∈ ℂ, 𝑟1 ≠ 𝑟2 , 𝑟1 , 𝑟2 = = ±𝑖
2 2 2
𝑟1 , 𝑟2 = 𝑝 ⋅ (cos 𝑡 ± 𝑖 sin 𝑡) , 𝑡 ∈ [0, 2𝜋)
𝛼 √− △
𝑥 = ,𝑦 =
2 2
𝑥
cos 𝑡 =
𝑝
𝑝 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 , 𝑝 > 0 { 𝑦
sin 𝑡 =
𝑝
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑝𝑛 ⋅ (A ⋅ cos(𝑛 ⋅ 𝑡) + 𝐵 ⋅ sin(𝑛 ⋅ 𝑡)) , 𝑡 ∈ [0, 2𝜋), (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗ , 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ ℝ
𝑝 ⋅ (A ⋅ cos 𝑡 + 𝐵 ⋅ sin 𝑡) = 𝑎1
𝐴 si 𝐵 se determina din { 2
𝑝 ⋅ (A ⋅ cos(2𝑡) + 𝐵 ⋅ sin(2𝑡)) = 𝑎2
15. Progresii:
1) Progresii aritmetice:
Un sir este progresie aritmetica daca diferenta dintre oricare 2 termeni
consecutivi este constanta.
𝑥𝑛+1 − 𝑥𝑛 = constanta = 𝑟 = ratia progresiei (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗
Intr-o progresie aritmetica orice termen(incepand cu al doilea) se obtine din cel
precedent adunat cu ratia progresiei.
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑟 (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗
Un sir este progresie artimetica daca si numai daca orice termen(incepand cu al
doilea) este media aritmetica a vecinilor sai.
𝑥𝑛−1 + 𝑥𝑛+1
𝑥𝑛 = (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗ , 𝑛 ≥ 2
2
Intr-o progresie artimetica suma termenilor egali departati de extreme este
constanta.
𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥2 + 𝑥𝑛−1 = 𝑥3 + 𝑥𝑛−2 = ⋯ = constanta (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗
Termenul general al unei progresii aritmetice:
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑥1 + (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ 𝑟 (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗
Suma unei progresii artimetice:
(𝑥1 + 𝑥𝑛 ) ⋅ 𝑛 (2 ⋅ 𝑥1 + (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ 𝑟) ⋅ 𝑛
𝑆(𝑆𝑛 ) = 𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 = =
2 2
(∀)n ∈ ℕ∗
O progresie este bine determinata cand cunoastem primul termen si ratia
progresii.
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
2) Progresii geometrice:
Un sir este progresie geometrica daca raportul dintre oricare doi termeni
consecutivi este constant.
𝑥𝑛+1
= constant = 𝑞 = ratia progresiei (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗
𝑥𝑛
Intr-o progresie geometrica, orice termen(incepand cu al doilea) se obtine din cel
precedent inmultit cu ratia progresiei.
𝑥𝑛+1 = 𝑥𝑛 ⋅ q (∀)n ∈ ℕ∗
Un sir cu termeni pozitivi este progresie geometrica daca si numai daca orice
termen(incepand cu al doilea) este media geometrica a vecinilor sai.
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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𝑦 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛
3𝜋 𝜋 y
− (90∘ )
2 2
+ I
II
1 p
sin 𝑝
II 3
| | |
2
1
𝜋(180∘ ) p 0 − 2𝜋 1 2 3
1
| | | | | |
−𝜋 -1 2𝜋(360∘ ) -3 -2 -1 x
cos 𝑝 𝑥 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 -1
| | |
-2
-3
-1 −
III IV
𝜋 3𝜋
II − (270∘ ) II
2 2
Proiectia lui 𝑝 pe Ox = cos 𝑝
Proiectia lui 𝑝 pe Oy = sin 𝑝
𝜋 3𝜋
sin 0 = 0 sin 2 = 1 sin 𝜋 = 0 sin = −1 sin 2𝜋 = 0
2
𝜋 3𝜋
cos 0 = 1 cos 2 = 0 cos 𝜋 = −1 cos =0 cos 2𝜋 = 1
2
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
tg
𝜋 𝜋
2 2 ctg 𝑝 ctg
II b I II p
sin I
tg 𝑝
II sin a II
𝜋 cos cos 0 𝜋 0
cos cos 2𝜋 2𝜋
sin IV
sin d
III IV II
c 3𝜋 III 3𝜋
II II 2
2 II
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
tg
Limite
ctg
lim𝜋 tg 𝑥 = lim tg 𝑥 = +∞
𝑥→ 3𝜋
2 𝑥→
2
𝜋 3𝜋
𝑥< 𝑥<
2 2
lim tg 𝑥 = lim tg 𝑥 = −∞
𝜋 3𝜋
𝑥→
2 𝑥→ 𝜋
𝜋 3𝜋
2 𝜋 0
𝑥>
2 𝑥>
2 2
2𝜋
lim ctg 𝑥 = 𝑥→𝜋
lim ctg 𝑥 = lim ctg 𝑥 = −∞
𝑥→0 𝑥→2𝜋
𝑥<0 𝑥<𝜋 𝑥<2𝜋
tg 𝑥 ⋅ ctg 𝑥 = 1
𝑥 𝑥
2 ⋅ sin 2 ⋅ cos 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
sin 𝑥 2 ⋅ sin 2 ⋅ cos 2 𝑥 cos 2
sin 𝑥 = = 2 2
1 2 𝑥 2 𝑥 = (simplificam cu cos 2) 𝑥 𝑥
sin 2 + cos 2 sin 2 cos 2 2
2
𝑥+ 𝑥
cos2 s 2 cos 2 2
𝑥
2 ⋅ sin 2
𝑥 𝑥
cos 2 2 tg 2
= 𝑥 = 𝑥
sin2 2 1 + tg 2 2
𝑥+1
cos2 s 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
cos 2 2 sin2 2 sin2 2
2𝑥 2𝑥 𝑥− 𝑥 1− 𝑥 𝑥
cos 𝑥 cos 2 − sin 2 cos 2
2
cos2
2
cos 2
2 1 − tg 2
cos 𝑥 = = 2
1 2 𝑥 2 𝑥= 2 𝑥 2 𝑥= 2 𝑥 =
2 𝑥
sin 2 + cos 2 sin 2 cos 2 sin 2 1 + tg 2
𝑥+ 𝑥 𝑥+1
cos 2 s 2 cos 2 2 cos 2 s 2
𝑥
2 tg 2
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
sin 𝑥 1 + tg 2 2 2 tg 2 1 + tg 2 2 2 tg 2
tg 𝑥 = = 𝑥 = 𝑥⋅ 𝑥= 𝑥
cos 𝑥 1 − tg 2 2 1 + tg 2 2 1 − tg 2 2 1 − tg 2 2
𝑥
1 + tg 2 2
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝑥
1 − tg 2 2
𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥 2𝑥
cos 𝑥 1 + tg 2 2 1 − tg 2 1 + tg 2 1 − tg 2
ctg 𝑥 = = 𝑥 = 𝑥⋅ 𝑥 = 𝑥
sin 𝑥 2 tg 2 1 + tg 2 2 2 tg 2 2 tg 2
𝑥
1 + tg 2 2
2 tg 𝑥 1 − tg 2 𝑥 2 tg 𝑥 1 − tg 2 𝑥
sin 2𝑥 = cos 2𝑥 = tg 2𝑥 = ctg 2𝑥 =
1 + tg 2 𝑥 1 + tg 2 𝑥 1 − tg 2 𝑥 2 tg 𝑥
2
2 2
sin 𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥
sin2 𝑥 = = = (simplificam cu cos 2 𝑥)
1 2
sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 2 sin 𝑥 cos2 𝑥
2
+
cos2 𝑥 cos2 𝑥
2
sin 𝑥
2𝑥 tg 2 𝑥
= cos =
sin2 𝑥 1 + tg 2 𝑥
+ 1
cos 2 𝑥
2 2
cos2 𝑥
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos2 𝑥 1 1
cos2 𝑥 = = = 2 2 = 2 =
1 sin2 𝑥 + cos 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 sin 𝑥 1 + tg 2 𝑥
2 + 2 2 +1
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
• Functiile trigonometrice ale unei sume si diferente de arce:
sin(𝑎 + 𝑏) = sin 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏
sin(𝑎 − 𝑏) = sin 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 − cos 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏
cos(𝑎 + 𝑏) = cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 − sin 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏
cos(𝑎 − 𝑏) = cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 + sin 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏
sin (𝑎 + 𝑏) sin 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 + cos 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏
tg(𝑎 + 𝑏) = =
cos (𝑎 + 𝑏) cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 − sin 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏
sin 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 cos 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏 sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏
+ +
= (simplificam cu cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏) cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏
cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 sin 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏 sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏
− 1 − cos 𝑎 ⋅
cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 cos 𝑏
tg 𝑎 + tg 𝑏
=
1 − tg 𝑎 ⋅ tg 𝑏
sin (𝑎 − 𝑏) sin 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 − cos 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏
tg(𝑎 − 𝑏) = =
cos (𝑎 − 𝑏) cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 + sin 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏
sin 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 cos 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏 sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏
− − tg 𝑎 − tg 𝑏
= cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 = cos 𝑎 cos 𝑏 =
cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 sin 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏 sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏 1 + tg 𝑎 ⋅ tg 𝑏
+ 1 + cos 𝑎 ⋅
cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 cos 𝑏
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
cos 2𝑥 + 1 1 + cos 2𝑥
cos 2𝑥 = 2cos2 𝑥 − 1 ⇒ cos 2 𝑥 = ⇒ cos 𝑥 = ±√
2 2
1 − cos 2𝑥 1 − cos 2𝑥
cos 2𝑥 = 1 − 2sin2 𝑥 ⇒ sin2 𝑥 = ⇒ sin 𝑥 = ±√
2 2
1 − cos 2𝑥 1 − cos 2𝑥
sin 𝑥 ±√ 2 2 1 − cos 2𝑥 2
tg 𝑥 = = = ±√ = ±√ ⋅
cos 𝑥 1 + cos 2𝑥 1 + cos 2𝑥 2 1 + cos 2𝑥
±√ 2
2
1 − cos 2𝑥
= ±√
1 + cos 2𝑥
1 + cos 2𝑥 1 + cos 2𝑥
cos 𝑥 ±√ 2 2 1 + cos 2𝑥 2
ctg 𝑥 = = = ±√ = ±√ ⋅
sin 𝑥 1 − cos 2𝑥 1 − cos 2𝑥 2 1 − cos 2𝑥
±√ 2
2
1 + cos 2𝑥
= ±√
1 − cos 2𝑥
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ +
sin(𝑎 + 𝑏) + sin(𝑎 − 𝑏)
sin 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 =
2
sin(𝑎 + 𝑏) − sin(𝑎 − 𝑏)
cos 𝑎 ⋅ sin 𝑏 =
2
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ +
cos(𝑎 + 𝑏) + cos(𝑎 − 𝑏)
cos 𝑎 ⋅ cos 𝑏 =
2
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
A A B A
B B
1 4 1 4 1 5
2 5 2 5 2 6
3 6 3 6 3 7
7 4
𝐼𝑚𝑓 = {4,5,6} Nu e functie Nu e functie
• Cu tabel
𝑥 1 2 3 𝑥 1 2 3 4
𝑓(𝑥) 4 4 4 𝑓(𝑥) 5 6 7 7
𝑥 1 2 3 𝑥 1 2 3 4
𝑓(𝑥) 5 6 7 7
𝑓(𝑥) 4 4 4
(∀)𝑝 ∈ 𝐴, 𝑞 ∈ 𝐵
1
𝑓 −1 (𝑥) ≠
𝑓(𝑥)
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
y Nu este functie y
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 1
Nu este functie
𝑓(𝑥) = 1 1
𝐴(1,0)
O O
|
1 x 𝐵(0,−1) 1 x
|
−1
𝑓|𝑁 ∶ ℕ ⟶ ℝ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
𝑓|ℤ ∖ ℕ ∶ ℤ ∖ ℕ ⟶ ℝ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
5) Functii marginite:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵, 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊆ ℝ, 𝐴, 𝐵 ≠ Ø. Functia 𝑓 este marginita daca ∃ 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ astfel
incat 𝑎 ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑏 (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 sau (∃) 𝛼 > 0 astfel incat |𝑓(𝑥)| ≤ 𝛼 (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
Functia 𝑓 este marginita daca graficul functiei este cuprins intre doua drepte
paralele cu axa 𝑂𝑥.
Functia 𝑓 este nemarginita daca (∀)𝑀 ∈ ℝ, (∃) 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 astfel incat 𝑓(𝑥) > 𝑀 sau
(∀)𝑚 ∈ 𝑅, (∃) 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 astfel incat 𝑓(𝑥) < 𝑚.
Pentru a demonstra ca o functie nu este marginita folosim reducerea la absurd:
(∃)𝑀 > 0 astfel incat 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑀 (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 .
6) Functii periodice:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵, 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊆ ℝ, 𝐴, 𝐵 ≠ Ø. Functia 𝑓 este periodica daca ∃ 𝑡 ∈ ℝ∗ astfel
incat 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥), unde 𝑡 = perioada pentru functia 𝑓.
Daca 𝑡 este perioada pentru functia 𝑓 , atunci oricare multiplu de 𝑡 ((∀)𝑀𝑡 ) este
perioada pentru functia 𝑓.
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑥), (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
Cea mai mica perioada pozitiva a unei functii se numeste perioada princiapala.
7) Functii concave si convexe:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵, 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊆ ℝ, 𝐴, 𝐵 ≠ Ø. Functia 𝑓 este convexa pe 𝐴 daca:
• (∀)𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐴 si (∀)𝑡1 , 𝑡2 ∈ [0,1], 𝑡1 + 𝑡2 = 1, concav
𝑓(𝑥1 ⋅ 𝑡1 + 𝑥2 ⋅ 𝑡2 ) ≤ 𝑡1 ⋅ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) + 𝑡2 ⋅ 𝑓(𝑥2 )
• (∀)𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐴 si (∀)𝑡 ∈ [0,1]
𝑓(𝑥1 ⋅ 𝑡 + 𝑥2 ⋅ (1 − 𝑡)) ≤ 𝑡 ⋅ 𝑓(𝑥1 ) + (1 − 𝑡) ⋅ 𝑓(𝑥2 )
• (∀)𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ 𝐴
convex
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 𝑓(𝑥1 ) + 𝑓(𝑥2 )
𝑓( )≤
2 2
Functia f este concava pe 𝐴 daca:
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝑦 𝑦
) 𝑃(𝑥,𝑦)
1
𝑃′ (−𝑥,𝑦) 𝑃(𝑥,𝑦)
O O 𝑥
𝑥
) −1
𝑃′ (−𝑥,−𝑦)
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥2 ) 0
Pentru a studia monotonia unei functii comparam rata cresterii(𝑅) cu 0.
𝑓(𝑥1 ) − 𝑓(𝑥2 ) 𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 )
𝑅= = = rata cresterii
𝑥1 − 𝑥2 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Daca:
• 𝑅 > 0 ⇒ 𝑓 strict crescatoare
• 𝑅 < 0 ⇒ 𝑓 strict descrescatoare
• 𝑅 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑓 crescatoare
• 𝑅 ≤ 0 ⇒ 𝑓 descrescatoare
Functia constanta, 𝑓 ∶ 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵, 𝐴, 𝐵 ⊆ ℝ, 𝐴, 𝐵 ≠ Ø, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛 ∈ ℝ, este monotona.
Graficul functiei constante este o dreapta paralela cu 𝑂𝑥 dusa prin punctul
𝐴(0,𝑛) ∈ 𝑂𝑦.
• Produsul functiilor 𝑓 si 𝑔:
(𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔) ∶ 𝐴 ⟶ 𝐵, (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥)
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
• 𝑓, 𝑔 = injective ⇒ (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) = injectiva
• 𝑓, 𝑔 = surjective ⇒ (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) = surjectiva
• 𝑓, 𝑔 = bijective ⇒ (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) = bijectiva
Daca o functie compusa este injectiva, atunci functia cu care se compune este
injectiva. Daca o functie compusa este surjectiva, atunci functia care se compune
este surjectiva. Daca o functie este bijectiva, atunci functia cu care se compune
este injectiva si functia care se compune este surjectiva.
• (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) = injectiva ⇒ 𝑔 = injectiva
• (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) = surjectiva ⇒ 𝑓 = surjectiva
• (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔) = bijectiva ⇒ 𝑔 = injectiva, 𝑓 = surjectiva
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
4) Numarul de functii:
Fie card (𝐴) = 𝑘 si card(𝐵) = 𝑛, atunci se pot defini 𝑛𝑘 , 𝑘 ≥ 𝑛 functii de la 𝐴 la 𝐵.
• Numarul de functii injective:
Numarul functiilor injective de la 𝐴 𝑙𝑎 𝐵 este egal cu A𝑘𝑛 , 𝑛 ≥ 𝑘.
Numarul functiilor neinjective de la 𝐴 la 𝐵 este egal cu 𝑛𝑘 − A𝑘𝑛 .
• Numarul functiilor surjective:
Numarul functiilor surjective de la 𝐴 𝑙𝑎 𝐵 este egal cu
𝑛−1
𝑝
𝑆𝑘,𝑛 = ∑(−1)𝑝 ⋅ C𝑛 ⋅ (𝑛 − 𝑝)𝑘
𝑝=0
= 𝑛𝑘 − C𝑛1 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1)𝑘 + C𝑛2 ⋅ (𝑛 − 2)𝑘 − C𝑛3 ⋅ (𝑛 − 3)𝑘 + ⋯ + (−1)𝑛−1 ⋅ C𝑛𝑛−1
𝑛
∑ 𝑘 = suma de la 𝑘 pana la 𝑛 = 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛
𝑘=1
1) Ecuatia de gradul I:
−𝑏 −𝑏
𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑆 = { } , 𝑆 = multimea solutiilor
𝑎 𝑎
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝑂 𝑥 𝑂 𝑥 𝑂 𝑥
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
−𝑏 ± 𝑖√−∆
𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ ℂ, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 = ⇒ S = { 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 }.
2𝑎
• Relatiile lui Viete:
Fie 𝑥1 si 𝑥2 solutiile ecuatiei 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 .
−𝑏
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 = = 𝑆 = suma solutiilor
{ 𝑎
𝑐
𝑥1 ⋅ 𝑥2 = = 𝑃 = produsul solutiilor
𝑎
Cand cunoastem 𝑥1 si 𝑥2 , putem scrie ecuatia ca 𝑥 2 − 𝑆𝑥 + 𝑃 = 0, sau o putem
descompune in factori, 𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )(𝑥 − 𝑥2 ).
Semnul solutiilor ecuatiei de gradul II:
• 𝑃>0
o 𝑆 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 > 0, 𝑥2 > 0
o 𝑆 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 < 0, 𝑥2 < 0
• 𝑃<0
o 𝑆 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 > 0, 𝑥2 < 0, 𝑥1 > | 𝑥2 |
o 𝑆 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 > 0, 𝑥2 < 0, 𝑥1 < | 𝑥2 |
o 𝑆 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 > 0, 𝑥2 < 0, | 𝑥1 | = | 𝑥2 |
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
• P=0
o 𝑆 > 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 > 0, 𝑥2 = 0
o 𝑆 < 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 < 0, 𝑥2 = 0
o 𝑆 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 0
𝑏 2 Δ
Forma canonica a functiei 𝑓 este 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 (𝑥 + ) − .
2𝑎 4𝑎
Cand folosim forma canonica a functiei de gradul II, scriem functia de gradul II cu
ajutor unui patrat perfect.
3) Orietarea parabolei:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ ℝ ⟶ ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0.
In functie de coeficientul 𝑎, avem:
𝑎<0
x
O O x
−𝑏
Dreapta de ecuatia 𝑥 = este axa de simetrie a parabolei.
2𝑎
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
• Intersectia cu axele:
𝐺𝑓 ⋂𝑂𝑦 = {𝐵(0,𝑐) | 𝑓(0) = 𝑐}
𝐺𝑓 ⋂𝑂𝑥 = in functie de discriminant Δ
• Tabel de valori:
−𝑏
La mijlocul tabelului scriem axa de simetrie ( ).
2𝑎
Trecem in tabel toate valorile obtinute anterior.
−𝑏 −𝑏
Dam lui 𝑥 2-3 valori mai mici daca si 2-3 valori mai mari decat .
2𝑎 2𝑎
• Trasam graficul functiei.
−𝑏
𝑥 −∞ 𝑥2 𝑝 𝑎 𝑛 𝑥1 ∞
( ) ( )
−Δ
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 0 𝑓(𝑝) 𝑓(𝑛) 0
4𝑎
𝑎<0
𝐵(0,𝑐)
−𝑏
𝐴1(𝑥1,0) O 2𝑎 𝐴2(𝑥2,0) O 𝐴2(𝑥2,0)
x 𝐴1(𝑥1,0) −𝑏 x
𝐵(0,𝑐) 2𝑎
−Δ
4𝑎
𝑉 −𝑏 −Δ
( , )
2𝑎 4𝑎
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝐵(0,𝑐) −𝑏
O 2𝑎
−Δ x
𝑉 −𝑏 −Δ
4𝑎 ( , )
−Δ 2𝑎 4𝑎
𝑉 −𝑏 −Δ
4𝑎 ( , )
2𝑎 4𝑎
−𝑏
O x 𝑎<0
2𝑎
𝐵(0,𝑐)
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝑎<0
−𝑏
2𝑎
O O
x x
−𝑏
2𝑎
−Δ
4𝑎 𝑉 −𝑏 −Δ
( , )
2𝑎 4𝑎
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
−𝑏
2𝑎
O O
x x
−𝑏
2𝑎
−Δ
4𝑎 𝑉 −𝑏 −Δ
( , )
2𝑎 4𝑎
−𝑏 −𝑏
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎 ∞
𝑥 −∞ ∞ −∞
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 −Δ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 −Δ
4𝑎 4𝑎
𝑎>0 𝑎<0
𝑥 𝑥1 𝑥2
−∞ ∞
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 semnul lui a 0 semnul contrar 0 semnul lui a
semnului lui a
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• ∆=0
𝑥1 = 𝑥2 ∞
𝑥 −∞
𝑥 −∞ ∞
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 semnul lui a
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• Daca 𝑎 = 𝑚 si 𝑏 ≠ 𝑛, atunci ecuatia are o singura solutie reala, iar sistemul 𝑆 are o
singura solutie in ℝ × ℝ; Parabolele se intersecteaza intr-un singur punct(I).
• Daca 𝑎 ≠ 𝑚 si ecuatia are doua solutii reale, atunci sistemul 𝑆 are doua solutii in
ℝ × ℝ; Parabolele se intersecteaza in doua puncte(II).
• Daca 𝑎 ≠ 𝑚 si ecuatia are o solutie reala, atunci sistemul 𝑆 are o solutie in ℝ × ℝ;
Parabolele sunt tangente(III).
• Daca 𝑎 ≠ 𝑚 si ecuatia nu are solutii reale, atunci sistemul 𝑆 nu are solutii in ℝ × ℝ;
Parabolele nu se intersecteaza, aceasta sunt interioare sau exterioare(IV).
y y y 𝐺𝑓
𝐺𝑓
𝐺𝑓
II IV
III 𝐺𝑔
O
x O x O x
𝐺𝑔
𝐺𝑔 𝐺ℎ
𝐺𝑓 si 𝐺𝑔 sunt interioare,
iar 𝐺𝑓 si 𝐺ℎ , 𝐺𝑔 si 𝐺ℎ sunt
exterioare
∎
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21. Radicali:
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4) Proprietati:
Fie 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑝 ∈ ℝ si 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛, 𝑚 ≥ 2.
𝑛
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑎 √𝑎 𝑛 𝑚
√𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 = 𝑛√𝑎 ⋅ √𝑏 𝑛⋅𝑚
√ =𝑛 √ √𝑎 = √𝑎 (compunerea radicalilor)
𝑏 √𝑏
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎, 𝑎 ≥ 0 √𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎, 𝑛 impar √𝑎𝑛 = |𝑎|, 𝑎 < 0, 𝑛 par
𝑛
𝑎 ⋅ √𝑏, 𝑎 ≥ 0
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 1
√𝑎𝑛 ⋅ 𝑏 = { 𝑎 ⋅ √𝑏 , 𝑛 impar √1 = 1 √0 = 0 √𝑎 = 𝑎
𝑛
|𝑎| ⋅ √𝑏 , 𝑎 < 0, 𝑛 par
𝑛⋅𝑘 𝑛
√𝑎𝑚⋅𝑘 =
⃡ √𝑎𝑚 (simplificarea radicalilor →, amplificarea radicalilor ←)
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑝
√−𝑎 = − √𝑎, 𝑛 impar √𝑎𝑝 = ( √𝑎) (Observatie: daca 𝑛, 𝑝 sunt pare si 𝑎 este
𝑛 𝑝
negativ atunci expresia ( √𝑎) nu are sens in ℝ.)
5) Rationalizarea numitorului:
Fie 𝑎, 𝛼, 𝑝, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ si 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛 ≥ 2.
𝑛 𝑛
1 √𝑎 𝑛 √𝑎
𝑛 =𝑛 𝑛 (amplificam cu √𝑎 ) =
√𝑎 √𝑎 ⋅ √𝑎 𝑎
𝑛
1 √𝑎
𝑛 =
𝛼 ⋅ √𝑎 𝛼⋅𝑎
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 √𝑎𝑛−𝑝 𝑛 √𝑎𝑛−𝑝 √𝑎𝑛−𝑝
𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛 (amplificam cu √𝑎𝑛−𝑝 ) = 𝑛 =
√𝑎 𝑝 √𝑎𝑝 ⋅ √𝑎𝑛−𝑝 √𝑎𝑝+𝑛−𝑝 𝑎
Pentru ∀(oricare ar fi/orice)𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛 ≥ 2, se verifica egalitatea:
𝑎𝑛 − 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑎 − 𝑏) ⋅ (𝑎𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + 𝑏 𝑛−1 )
Pentru ∀(oricare ar fi/orice)𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛 ≥ 2, 𝑛 impar se verifica egalitatea:
𝑎𝑛 + 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑎 + 𝑏) ⋅ (𝑎𝑛−1 − 𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ − 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + 𝑏 𝑛−1 )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 √𝑎𝑛−1 + √𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ + √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + √𝑏 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎 − √𝑏 ( √𝑎 − √𝑏 ) ⋅ ( √𝑎𝑛−1 + √𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ + √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + √𝑏 𝑛−1 )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎𝑛−1 + √𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ + √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + √𝑏 𝑛−1
=
𝑎−𝑏
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 √𝑎𝑛−1 − √𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ − √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + √𝑏 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎 + √𝑏 ( √𝑎 − √𝑏 ) ⋅ ( √𝑎𝑛−1 + √𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ + √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + √𝑏 𝑛−1 )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎𝑛−1 − √𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ − √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + √𝑏 𝑛−1
=
𝑎+𝑏
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1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎𝑛−1 + √𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ + √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + √𝑏 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎 − √𝑏
= 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
( √𝑎 − √𝑏) ⋅ ( √𝑎𝑛−1 + √𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ + √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + √𝑏 𝑛−1 )
𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎 − √𝑏
=
𝑎−𝑏
1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎𝑛−1 − √𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ − √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + √𝑏 𝑛−1
𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎 + √𝑏
= 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
( √𝑎 + √𝑏) ⋅ ( √𝑎𝑛−1 − √𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 + ⋯ − √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛−2 + √𝑏 𝑛−1 )
𝑛 𝑛
√𝑎 + √𝑏
=
𝑎+𝑏
6) Formula radicalilor compusi(complecsi/suprapusi):
𝑎+𝑐 𝑎−𝑐
√𝑎 ± √𝑏 = √ ±√
2 2
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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Cazuri particulare:
1 1
Daca |𝑧| = 1, atunci 𝑧̅ = , 𝑧 = .
𝑧 𝑧̅
Daca 𝑧 = −𝑧̅, atunci Re𝑧=0 (a=0; 𝑧 = 𝑏𝑖).
Daca 𝑧 = 𝑧̅, atunci Im𝑧=0 (b=0; 𝑧 = 𝑎)⇒ 𝑧 ∈ 𝑅.
Proprietati:
Fie 𝑧, 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 ∈ ℂ, atunci:
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 𝑧̅1
𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 ⋅ 𝑧̅2
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 = 𝑧̅1 ± 𝑧̅2 ( )= ̅̅̅̅) = 𝑧
𝑧̿ = (𝑧̅ ̅̅̅
𝑧 𝑛 = (𝑧̅)𝑛
𝑧2 𝑧̅2
𝑧1 |𝑧1 |
|𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧2 | = |𝑧1 | ⋅ |𝑧2 | |𝑧1 ± 𝑧2 | ≤ |𝑧1 | + |𝑧2 | | |= |𝑧 𝑛 | = (|𝑧|) 𝑛
𝑧2 |𝑧2 |
𝑧 ⋅ 𝑧̅ = (|𝑧|)2
4) Interpretarea geometrica a unui numar complex:
Fie 𝑧 ∈ ℂ, 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, atunci punctul 𝑀(𝑎,𝑏) este imaginea geometrica a
punctului 𝑧 in planul 𝒫(planul complex) . Se mai poate nota 𝑀(𝑧) si se citeste
𝑦
𝑀 de afix 𝑧 (𝑧 este afixul punctului 𝑀).
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𝑦
• Fie 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , 𝑧3 ∈ ℂ, si punctele 𝑀1(𝑧1) , 𝑀2(𝑧2) , 𝑀3(𝑧3) , 𝑀1 (𝑧1)
imaginea geometrica a punctelor 𝑧1 , 𝑧2 , respectiv 𝑧3 .
𝑀2 (𝑧2)
Vectorii 𝑀1 𝑀2 si 𝑀2 𝑀3 sunt coliniari daca ∃(exista)𝛼
astfel incat 𝑀1 𝑀2 = 𝛼 ⋅ 𝑀2 𝑀3 .
𝑀3 (𝑧3)
𝑀1 𝑀2 = 𝑂𝑀2 − 𝑂𝑀1 , 𝑀2 𝑀3 = 𝑂𝑀3 − 𝑂𝑀2
𝑂𝑀2 − 𝑂𝑀1 = 𝛼 ⋅ (𝑂𝑀3 − 𝑂𝑀2 )
𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝑂
𝑧2 − 𝑧1 = 𝛼 ⋅ (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 ) ⇒ 𝛼 = ∈ℝ 𝑥
𝑧3 − 𝑧2
𝑧2 − 𝑧1
Punctele 𝑀1 (𝑧1 ), 𝑀2 (𝑧2 ), 𝑀3 (𝑧3 ) sunt coliniare ⇔ ∈ ℝ.
𝑧3 − 𝑧2
𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧2 − 𝑧1
∈ℝ⟺ =( )
𝑧3 − 𝑧2 𝑧3 − 𝑧2 𝑧3 − 𝑧2
𝑧2 − 𝑧1 𝑧̅2 − 𝑧̅1
= ⟹ (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 ) ⋅ (𝑧̅3 − 𝑧̅2 ) = (𝑧3 − 𝑧2 ) ⋅ (𝑧̅2 − 𝑧̅1 )
𝑧3 − 𝑧2 𝑧̅3 − 𝑧̅2
𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑧̅3 − 𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑧̅2 − 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧̅3 + 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧̅2 = 𝑧3 ⋅ 𝑧̅2 − 𝑧3 ⋅ 𝑧̅1 − 𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑧̅2 + 𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑧̅1
𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑧̅3 − 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧̅3 + 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧̅2 = 𝑧3 ⋅ 𝑧̅2 − 𝑧3 ⋅ 𝑧̅1 + 𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑧̅1
𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑧̅3 + 𝑧3 ⋅ 𝑧̅1 + 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧̅2 = 𝑧3 ⋅ 𝑧̅2 + 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧̅3 + 𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑧̅1
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑧̅3 + 𝑧3 ⋅ 𝑧̅1 + 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧̅2 = (𝑧 2 ⋅ 𝑧̅3 + 𝑧3 ⋅ 𝑧̅1 + 𝑧1 ⋅ 𝑧̅2 )
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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Daca punctele 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 sunt varfurile unui triunghi in planul complex, acesta este
echilateral daca indeplineste condiitile:
| 𝑧𝑎 − 𝑧𝑏 | = | 𝑧𝑎 − 𝑧𝑐 | = | 𝑧𝑏 − 𝑧𝑐 |
𝑧𝑎 2 + 𝑧𝑏 2 + 𝑧𝑐 2 = 𝑧𝑎 ⋅ 𝑧𝑏 + 𝑧𝑎 ⋅ 𝑧𝑐 + 𝑧𝑏 ⋅ 𝑧𝑐
Daca punctele 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 sunt varfurile unui paralelogram in planul complex,
atunci 𝑧𝑎 + 𝑧𝑐 = 𝑧𝑏 + 𝑧𝑑 .
5) Forma trigonometrica a unui numar complex:
Fie 𝑧 ∈ ℂ, 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑏𝑖, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ 𝑅, si punctul 𝑀(𝑧) interpretarea geometrica a
punctului 𝑧.
𝑦
𝑂𝑀 = |𝑧| = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2 =𝑟
𝑎
cos 𝛼 = ⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑟 ⋅ cos 𝛼 𝑀(𝑧)
𝑟
𝑏 } ⇒ 𝑧 = 𝑟 ⋅ cos 𝛼 + 𝑟 ⋅ sin 𝛼 𝑖 𝑏
sin 𝛼 = ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑟 ⋅ sin 𝛼 𝑧 = 𝑟 ⋅ (cos 𝛼 + sin 𝛼 𝑖)
𝑟
Numarul r se numeste raza polara, iar numarul 𝛼
(cateodata notat cu 𝑡) se numeste argumentul redus lui 𝑧, 𝛼(𝑡)
si se noteaza arg 𝑧. 𝑂 𝑎 𝑥
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3 0 + 2𝑘𝜋 0 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝑥𝑘 = √1 [cos ( ) + sin ( ̅̅̅̅
) 𝑖] , 𝑘 = 0,2
3 3
2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑥𝑘 = cos ( ) + sin ( )𝑖
3 3
0 0
𝑘 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥0 = cos ( ) + sin ( ) 𝑖 = cos 0 + sin 0 𝑖 = 1
3 3
2𝜋 2𝜋 −1 √3
𝑘 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥1 = cos ( ) + sin ( ) 𝑖 = + 𝑖
3 3 2 2
4𝜋 4𝜋 −1 √3
𝑘 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥2 = cos ( ) + sin ( ) 𝑖 = − 𝑖
3 3 2 2
𝜀4 = 𝜀
𝜀3 = 1 ⇒ {
(𝜀 − 1) ⋅ (𝜀 2 + 𝜀 + 1) = 0 ⇒ 𝜀 2 + 𝜀 + 1 = 0 ⟹ 𝜀 2 = −𝜀 − 1
9) Ecuatii binome. Ecuatii trinome:
i. Ecuatii binome:
O ecuatie de forma 𝑡 𝑛 = 𝑧, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛 ≥ 2 se numeste ecuatie binome.
Pentru a resolva o ecuatie binome, vom scrie numarul complex 𝑧 sub forma
trigonometrica, daca acesta nu este deja scris sub forma trigonometrica:
𝑡 𝑛 = 𝑟 ⋅ (cos 𝛼 + sin 𝛼 𝑖), iar cele 𝑛 radacini ale ecuatii, distincte, sunt:
𝑛 𝛼 + 2𝑘𝜋 𝛼 + 2𝑘𝜋
𝑡𝑘 = √𝑟 ⋅ [cos ( ) + sin ( ) 𝑖] , 𝑘 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
0, 𝑛 − 1(𝑘 ∈ {0,1, … , 𝑛 − 1}),
𝑛 𝑛
𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑛 ≥ 2.
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2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
Solutiile ecuatiei 𝑧 𝑛 = 1 sunt numerele 𝜀𝑘 = cos ( ) + sin ( ) 𝑖,
𝑛 𝑛
𝑘 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
0, 𝑛 − 1 si se numesc radiacinile de ordin 𝑛 ale unitatii (𝜀 = epsilon)
ii. Ecuatii trinome:
O ecuatie de forma 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2⋅𝑛 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑐 = 0, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ se numeste ecuatia
trinoma.
Se face substituia 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑡, 𝑡 > 0 si se rezolva ecuatia de gradul II rezultata:
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑡2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑡 + 𝑐 = 0
Δ = 𝑏2 − 4 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐
−𝑏 ± √Δ
𝑡1,2 =
2⋅𝑎
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑡1 ⇒ ecuatia binoma
𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑡2 ⇒ ecuatia binoma
O ecuatia trinoma este o ecuatia de gradul II si doua ecuatii binome.
Exemplu:
𝑥8 − 3 ⋅ 𝑥4 + 2 = 0
(𝑥 4 )2 + 𝑥 4 + 1 = 0
𝑥4 = 𝑡 > 0
𝑡2 − 3 ⋅ 𝑡 + 2 = 0
𝑡2 − 𝑡 − 2 ⋅ 𝑡 + 2 = 0
𝑡 ⋅ (𝑡 − 1) − 2 ⋅ (𝑡 − 1) = 0
(𝑡 − 1) ⋅ (𝑡 − 2) = 0
𝑡 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡1 = 1
𝑡 − 2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡2 = 2
𝑥 4 = 𝑡1
𝑡1 = 1 = 1 + 0 ⋅ 𝑖
𝑟1 = √12 + 02 = √1 = 1
1
cos 𝛼 = = 1
1 }⇒𝛼=0
0
sin 𝛼 = = 0
1
𝑡1 = 1 ⋅ (cos 0 + 𝑖 ⋅ sin 0) = cos 0 + 𝑖 ⋅ sin 0
𝑥 4 = cos 0 + 𝑖 ⋅ sin 0
0+2⋅𝑘⋅𝜋 0+2⋅𝑘⋅𝜋
𝑥𝑘 = cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( ) , 𝑘 = ̅̅̅̅
0,3
4 4
2⋅𝑘⋅𝜋 2⋅𝑘⋅𝜋
𝑥𝑘 = cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( ) , 𝑘 = ̅̅̅̅
0,3
4 4
𝑘⋅𝜋 𝑘⋅𝜋
𝑥𝑘 = cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( ) , 𝑘 = ̅̅̅̅
0,3
2 2
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0 0
𝑘 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥0 = cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( ) = cos 0 + 𝑖 ⋅ sin 0 = 1
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
𝑘 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥1 = cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( ) = 0 + 𝑖 ⋅ 1 = 𝑖
2 2
𝑘 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥2 = cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 ⋅ sin 𝜋 = −1 + 𝑖 ⋅ 0 = −1
3⋅𝜋 3⋅𝜋
𝑘 = 3 ⇒ 𝑥3 = cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( ) = 0 + 𝑖 ⋅ (−1) = −𝑖
2 2
𝑥 4 = 𝑡2
𝑡1 = 2 = 2 + 0 ⋅ 𝑖
𝑟2 = √22 + 02 = √4 = 2
2
cos 𝛼 = = 1
2 }⇒𝛼=0
0
sin 𝛼 = = 0
2
𝑡1 = 2 ⋅ (cos 0 + 𝑖 ⋅ sin 0)
𝑥 4 = 2 ⋅ (cos 0 + 𝑖 ⋅ sin 0)
4 0+2⋅𝑝⋅𝜋 0+2⋅𝑝⋅𝜋
𝑥𝑝 = √2 ⋅ [cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( ̅̅̅̅
)] , 𝑝 = 0,3
4 4
4 2⋅𝑝⋅𝜋 2⋅𝑝⋅𝜋
𝑥𝑝 = √2 ⋅ [cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( ̅̅̅̅
)] , 𝑝 = 0,3
4 4
4 𝑝⋅𝜋 𝑝⋅𝜋
𝑥𝑝 = √2 ⋅ [cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( )] , 𝑝 = ̅̅̅̅
0,3
2 2
4 0 0 4 4 4
𝑝 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥0 = √2 ⋅ [cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( )] = √2 ⋅ (cos 0 + 𝑖 ⋅ sin 0) = √2 ⋅ 1 = √2
2 2
4 𝜋 𝜋 4 4
𝑝 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥1 = √2 ⋅ [cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( )] = √2 ⋅ (0 + 𝑖 ⋅ 1) = √2 ⋅ 𝑖
2 2
4 4 4
𝑝 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥2 = √2 ⋅ (cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 ⋅ sin 𝜋) = √2 ⋅ (−1 + 𝑖 ⋅ 0) = − √2
4 3⋅𝜋 3⋅𝜋 4 4
𝑝 = 3 ⇒ 𝑥3 = √2 ⋅ [cos ( ) + 𝑖 ⋅ sin ( )] = √2 ⋅ [0 + 𝑖 ⋅ (−1)] = (− √2) ⋅ 𝑖
2 2
4 4
Deci solutiile ecuatiei sunt: 𝑆 = {±1, ±𝑖, ± √2, ± √2 ⋅ 𝑖}
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2) Functia radical:
𝑛
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. 𝑦
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3) Functia exponentiala:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ ℝ → (0, +∞), 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎 𝑥 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1 ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ (0,1) ∪ (1, +∞). 𝑦
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=2𝑥
I. 𝑎 ∈ (1, +∞):
Functia este strict crescatoare.
Functia este injectiva, surjectiva, bijectiva. 1
Functia este inversabila. Inversa functiei logaritmice.
Functia este strict pozitiva. Functia este convexa. 𝑂
Functia nu are paritate. Functia nu este periodica. 𝑥
II. 𝑎 ∈ (0,1):
𝑦
Functia este strict descrescatoare.
𝐺 1 𝑥
Functia este injectiva, surjectiva, bijectiva. 𝑓(𝑥)=( )
2
Functia este inversabila. Inversa functiei logaritmice.
1
Functia este strict pozitiva. Functia este convexa.
Functia nu are paritate. Functia nu este periodica. 𝑂
𝑥
4) Functia logaritmica:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ (0, +∞) → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = log 𝑎 𝑥, 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1 ⇒ 𝑎 ∈ (0,1) ∪
(1, +∞). 𝑦
I. 𝑎 ∈ (1, +∞):
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=log2 𝑥
Functia este strict crescatoare.
Functia este injectiva, surjectiva, bijectiva.
Functia este inversabila. Inversa functiei exponentiale. 𝑂 1 𝑥
Pe intervalul (0,1) functia este negativa.
Pe intervalul (1, +∞) functia este positiva.
Functia este concava.
Functia nu are paritate. Functia nu este periodica. 𝑦
II. 𝑎 ∈ (0,1):
Functia este strict descrescatoare. 𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=log1 𝑥
2
Functia este injectiva, surjectiva, bijectiva.
Functia este inversabila. Inversa functiei exponentiale.
Pe intervalul (0,1) functia este positiva. 𝑂 1
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2) Functia arccosinus:
Daca 𝑓 :̅ [0, 𝜋] → [−1,1], 𝑓 (̅ 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 , atunci functia este inversabila,
iar inversa functiei 𝑓 ̅ 𝑒ste functia 𝑓 ̅−1 : [−1,1] → [0, 𝜋], 𝑓 ̅−1 (𝑥) = arccos 𝑥.
arccos 𝑥 = arcul/unghiul al carui cosinus este 𝑥
arccos 𝑥 = 𝑡 ⟹ cos 𝑡 = 𝑥
𝑓: [−1,1] → [0, 𝜋], 𝑓(𝑥) = arccos 𝑥:
Functia este strict descrescatoare.
Functia este injectiva, surjectiva, bijectiva.
Functia este inversabila. Inversa functiei cosinus.
Functia este positiva.
Pe intervalul [−1,0] functia este convexa.
Pe intervalul [0,1] functia este concava.
Functia nu are pararitate, dar arccos(−𝑥) = 𝜋 − arccos 𝑥.
Functia nu este periodica.
𝑦 𝑦
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=arccos 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=arccos 𝑥
2 2
1
𝜋
𝑂 𝑥 𝜋
−1 1 𝑂 2
−1 1
𝐺𝑔(𝑥)=cos 𝑥
−1
3) Functia arctangenta:
−𝜋 𝜋
Daca 𝑓 :̅ ( , ) → ℝ, 𝑓 (̅ 𝑥) = tg 𝑥 , atunci functia este inversabila,
2 2
−𝜋 𝜋
iar inversa functiei 𝑓 ̅ 𝑒ste functia 𝑓 ̅−1 : ℝ → ( , ) , 𝑓 ̅ −1 (𝑥) = arctg 𝑥.
2 2
arctg 𝑥 = arcul/unghiul al carei tangenta este 𝑥
arctg 𝑥 = 𝑡 ⟹ tg 𝑡 = 𝑥
−𝜋 𝜋
𝑓: ℝ → ( , ) , 𝑓(𝑥) = arctg 𝑥:
2 2
Functia este strict crescatoare.
Functia este injectiva, surjectiva, bijectiva.
Functia este inversabila. Inversa functiei tangenta.
Pe intervalul (−∞, 0] functia este negativa si convexa.
Pe intervalul [0, +∞) functia este positiva si concava.
Functia este impara. Functia nu este periodica.
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𝐺𝑔(𝑥)=tg 𝑥
𝑦 𝜋
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=arctg 𝑥
𝑦 𝜋
2
2
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=arctg 𝑥
𝜋
𝑂 −𝜋
2 𝑂 2
𝑥
−𝜋
2
−𝜋 𝑥
2
4) Functia arccotangenta:
Daca 𝑓 :̅ (0, 𝜋) → ℝ, 𝑓 (̅ 𝑥) = ctg 𝑥 , atunci functia este inversabila,
iar inversa functiei 𝑓 ̅ 𝑒ste functia 𝑓 ̅−1 : ℝ → (0, 𝜋), 𝑓 ̅−1 (𝑥) = arcctg 𝑥.
arcctg 𝑥 = arcul/unghiul al carei cotangenta este 𝑥
arcctg 𝑥 = 𝑡 ⟹ ctg 𝑡 = 𝑥
𝑓: ℝ → (0, 𝜋), 𝑓(𝑥) = arcctg 𝑥:
Functia este strict descrescatoare.
Functia este injectiva, surjectiva, bijectiva.
Functia este inversabila. Inversa functiei cotangenta.
Functia este positiva.
Pe intervalul (−∞, 0] functia este concava.
Pe intervalul [0, +∞) functia este convexa.
Functia nu are pararitate, dar arcctg(−𝑥) = 𝜋 − arcctg 𝑥.
Functia nu este periodica. 𝐺𝑔(𝑥)=ctg 𝑥
𝑦
𝑦 𝜋
𝜋 𝜋
2 2
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=arcctg 𝑥
𝑂
𝜋 𝜋 𝑥
𝑂 2
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5) Formule:
I. sin(𝑓(𝑥)):
−𝜋 𝜋
sin(arcsin 𝑥) = 𝑥 , (∀)𝑥 ∈ [−1,1] arcsin(sin 𝑥) = 𝑥, (∀)𝑥 ∈ [ , ]
2 2
𝑥
sin(arctg 𝑥) = sin 𝑡 =
√1 + 𝑥 2
−𝜋 𝜋
arctg 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ ( , ) ⇒ tg 𝑡 = 𝑥
2 2
sin 𝑡 sin2 𝑡 2
sin2 𝑡
=𝑥⟹ = 𝑥 ⟹ = 𝑥 2 ⟹ 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 ⋅ sin2 𝑡 = sin2 𝑡 ⇒
cos 𝑡 cos 2 𝑡 1 − sin2 𝑡
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑥2
sin 𝑡 + 𝑥 ⋅ sin 𝑡 = 𝑥 ⟹ sin 𝑡 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 ⇒ sin 𝑡 = ⇒
1 + 𝑥2
±𝑥 −𝜋 𝜋
sin 𝑡 = ,𝑡 ∈ ( , )
√1 + 𝑥 2 2 2
Daca 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 0) ⇒ sin(arctg 𝑥) = sin(−arctg(−𝑥)) = −sin(arctg(−𝑥)) =
−𝑥 𝑥
=− =
√1 + 𝑥 2 √1 + 𝑥 2
𝑥
Daca 𝑥 ∈ [0, +∞) ⇒ sin(arctg 𝑥) =
√1 + 𝑥 2
1
sin(arcctg 𝑥) = sin 𝑡 =
√1 + 𝑥 2
arcctg 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ (0, 𝜋) ⇒ ctg 𝑡 = 𝑥
cos 𝑡 cos 2 𝑡 2
1 − sin2 𝑡
=𝑥⟹ = 𝑥 ⟹ = 𝑥 2 ⟹ 𝑥 2 ⋅ sin2 𝑡 = 1 − sin2 𝑡 ⇒
sin 𝑡 sin2 𝑡 sin2 𝑡
1
sin2 𝑡 + 𝑥 2 ⋅ sin2 𝑡 = 1 ⟹ sin2 𝑡 ⋅ (𝑥 2 + 1) = 1 ⇒ sin2 𝑡 = ⇒
1 + 𝑥2
1
sin 𝑡 = , 𝑡 ∈ (0, 𝜋)
√1 + 𝑥 2
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II. cos(𝑓(𝑥)):
cos(arcsin 𝑥) = cos 𝑡 = √1 − 𝑥 2
−𝜋 𝜋
arcsin 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ [ , ] ⇒ sin 𝑡 = 𝑥
2 2
−𝜋 𝜋
cos2 𝑡 + sin2 𝑡 = 1 ⟹ cos 𝑡 = √1 − sin2 𝑡 , 𝑡 ∈ [ , ]
2 2
1
cos(arctg 𝑥) = cos 𝑡 =
√1 + 𝑥 2
−𝜋 𝜋
arctg 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ ( , ) ⟹ tg 𝑡 = 𝑥
2 2
cos 𝑡 cos 2 𝑡 2
1 − cos 2 𝑡
=𝑥⟹ = 𝑥 ⟹ = 𝑥 2 ⟹ 𝑥 2 ⋅ cos 𝑡 = 1 − cos 2 𝑡 ⇒
sin 𝑡 sin2 𝑡 cos2 𝑡
1
cos2 𝑡 + 𝑥 2 ⋅ cos 2 𝑡 = 1 ⟹ cos2 𝑡 ⋅ (𝑥 2 + 1) = 1 ⇒ cos 2 𝑡 = ⇒
1 + 𝑥2
1 −𝜋 𝜋
cos 𝑡 = ,𝑡 ∈ ( , )
√1 + 𝑥 2 2 2
𝑥
cos(arcctg 𝑥) = cos 𝑡 =
√1 + 𝑥 2
arcctg 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ (0, 𝜋) ⇒ ctg 𝑡 = 𝑥
cos 𝑡 cos 2 𝑡 2
cos2 𝑡
=𝑥⟹ = 𝑥 ⟹ = 𝑥 2 ⟹ cos 2 𝑡 = 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 ⋅ cos 2 𝑡 ⇒
sin 𝑡 sin2 𝑡 1 − cos 2 𝑡
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑥2
cos 𝑡 + 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑡 = 𝑥 ⟹ cos 𝑡 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) = 𝑥 ⇒ cos 𝑡 = ⇒
1 + 𝑥2
±𝑥
cos 𝑡 = , 𝑡 ∈ (0, 𝜋)
√1 + 𝑥 2
Daca 𝑥 ∈ (−∞, 0) ⇒ cos(arcctg 𝑥) = cos(𝜋 − arcctg(−𝑥)) =
= cos 𝜋 ⋅ cos(arcctg(−𝑥)) + sin 𝜋 ⋅ sin(arcctg(−𝑥)) = − cos(arcctg(−𝑥))
−𝑥 𝑥
=− =
√1 + 𝑥 2 √1 + 𝑥 2
𝑥
Daca 𝑥 ∈ [0, +∞) ⇒ cos(arcctg 𝑥) =
√1 + 𝑥 2
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III. tg(𝑓(𝑥)):
sin(arcsin 𝑥) 𝑥
tg(arcsin 𝑥) = =
cos(arcsin 𝑥) √1 − 𝑥 2
sin(arccos 𝑥) √1 − 𝑥 2
tg(arccos 𝑥) = =
cos(arccos 𝑥) 𝑥
−𝜋 𝜋
tg(arctg 𝑥) = 𝑥, (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ arctg(tg 𝑥) = 𝑥, (∀)𝑥 ∈ ( , )
2 2
1
tg(arcctg 𝑥) = tg 𝑡 =
𝑥
1 1
arcctg 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ (0, 𝜋) ⇒ ctg 𝑡 = 𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑥 ⟹ tg 𝑡 =
tg 𝑡 𝑥
IV. ctg(𝑓(𝑥)):
cos(arcsin 𝑥) √1 − 𝑥 2
ctg(arcsin 𝑥) = =
sin(arcsin 𝑥) 𝑥
cos(arccos 𝑥) 𝑥
ctg(arccos 𝑥) = =
sin(arccos 𝑥) √1 − 𝑥 2
1
ctg(arctg 𝑥) = ctg 𝑡 =
𝑥
−𝜋 𝜋 1 1
arctg 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑡 ∈ ( , ) ⇒ tg 𝑡 = 𝑥 ⇒ = 𝑥 ⟹ ctg 𝑡 =
2 2 ctg 𝑡 𝑥
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Exemple:
√1 − 𝑥 − 𝑥 = 1 ∕ + 𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 = 1 + 𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1
i. C.E./C.C.:
1 − 𝑥 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≤ 1 ⇒ 𝐷′ = (−∞; 1]
𝑥 + 1 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ −1 ⇒ 𝐷′′ = [−1; +∞)
𝐷 = 𝐷′ ∩ 𝐷′′ = (−∞; 1] ∩ [−1; +∞) = [−1; 1]
ii. Rezolvare:
√1 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 + 1 /2
2
(√1 − 𝑥) = (𝑥 + 1)2
1 − 𝑥 = 𝑥 2 + 2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 𝑥 + 12
1 − 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 1 / + 𝑥 − 1
𝑥2 + 3 ⋅ 𝑥 = 0
𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) = 0
𝑥1 = 0 ∈ [−1; 1]
𝑥 + 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥2 = −3 ∉ [−1; 1]
iii. Verificare:
𝑥 = 0 ⇒ √1 − 0 = 0 + 1 ⇒ √1 = 1
Solutia ecuatiei este: 𝑆 = {0}.
√7 ⋅ 𝑥 + 9 < 2
i. C.E./C.C.:
9 9
7 ⋅ 𝑥 + 9 ≥ 0 ⇒ 7 ⋅ 𝑥 ≥ −9 ⇒ 𝑥 ≥ − ⇒ 𝐷′ = [− ; +∞)
7 7
9
𝐷 = 𝐷′ = [− ; +∞)
7
ii. Rezolvare:
√7 ⋅ 𝑥 + 9 < 2 /2
2
(√7 ⋅ 𝑥 + 9) < 22
7⋅𝑥+9 <4/−9
1
7 ⋅ 𝑥 < −5 / ⋅
7
5 5
𝑥 < − ⇒ 𝑥 ′ ∈ (−∞; − )
7 7
9 5 9 5
𝑥 ∈ [− ; +∞) ∩ (−∞; − ) = [− ; − )
7 7 7 7
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iii. Verificare:
9 5
−1 ∈ [− ; − ) ⇒ √7 ⋅ (−1) + 9 < 2 ⇒ √−7 + 9 < 2 ⇒ √2 < 2
7 7
9 5
Solutia ecuatiei este: 𝑆 = [− ; − ).
7 7
2) Ecuatii exponentiale. Inecuatii exponentiale:
Se numeste ecuatie (sau inecuatie) exponentiala o ecuatie (sau inecuatie) in care
necunoscuta se afla la exponent.
I. Conditii de Existenta(C.E.) si Conditii de Compatibilitate (C.C.):
𝐷′ = ℝ. Aici se defineste orice alta restrictie, iar domeniul max de definitie
(𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) este intersectia tuturor celorlate domenii.
( 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷′ ∩ 𝐷′′ ∩ … )
II. Rezolvarea propriu-zisa:
Se tine cont de injectivitatea functiei exponentiale; 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 = 𝑦,
(∀)𝑎 ∈ (0,1) ∪ (1, +∞). Se logaritmeaza la o baza convenabila daca este
nevoie.
In rezolvarea inecuatiilor exponentiale se tine cont de monotonia functiei
exponentiale; daca 𝑎 ∈ (1, +∞), atunci: 𝑎 𝑥 > 𝑎 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 > 𝑦, daca 𝑎 ∈ (0,1)
atunci: 𝑎 𝑥 > 𝑎 𝑦 ⇔ 𝑥 < 𝑦
In unele cazuri, trebuie sa observam solutia (“ghicim solutia”) si sa
demonstram unicitatea ei, folosind “graficul” (implicit monotonia) functiei
exponentiale si functiei membrului drept. Unicitatea se mai poate
demonstra folosind urmatoarea propozitie: “Daca functia 𝑓 este strict
monotona si daca exista 𝑥0 ∈ ℝ, astfel incat 𝑓(𝑥0 ) = 𝑡, atunci 𝑥0 este
singura solutie a ecuatie 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑡.”.
III. Verificarea solutiilor.
Observatie:
𝑒 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥 + 1 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑒 𝑥 ≥ 𝑥 + 1 / ln
ln 𝑒 𝑥 ≥ ln(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑒 ≥ ln(𝑥 + 1)
𝑥 ≥ ln(𝑥 + 1) (∀)𝑥 ∈ (−1, +∞)
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Exemple:
4√𝑥 + 2√𝑥 = 6
i. C.E./C.C.:
𝑥 ≥ 0 ⇒ 𝐷′ = [0; +∞)
𝐷 = 𝐷′ = [0; +∞)
ii. Rezolvare:
4√𝑥 + 2√𝑥 = 6 / − 6
2
(2√𝑥 ) + 2√𝑥 − 6 = 0
2√𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑡 > 0
𝑡2 + 𝑡 − 6 = 0
Δ = 12 − 4 ⋅ 1 ⋅ (−6) = 1 + 24 = 25
−1 + 5 4
−1 ± √25 −1 ± 5 𝑡1 = = =2>0
𝑡1,2 = = ={ 2 2
2⋅1 2 −1 − 5 −6
𝑡2 = = = −3 < 0
2 2
2√𝑥 = 2
√𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1 ∈ [0; +∞)
iii. Verificare:
𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 4√1 + 2√1 = 6 ⇒ 41 + 21 = 6 ⇒ 4 + 2 = 6
Solutia ecuatiei este: 𝑆 = {1}.
3
√5𝑥+2 < 25
i. C.E./C.C.:
5𝑥+2 > 0 ⇒ 𝐷′ = ℝ
𝐷 = 𝐷′ = ℝ
ii. Rezolvare:
3
√5𝑥+2 < 25
𝑥+2
5 3 < 52
5 ∈ (1, +∞)
𝑥+2
<2/⋅3
3
𝑥+2<6/−2
𝑥 < 4 ⇒ 𝑥 ′ ∈ (−∞; 4)
𝑥 ∈ (−∞; 4) ∩ ℝ = (−∞; 4)
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iii. Verificare:
3 3
1 ∈ (−∞; 4) ⇒ √51+2 < 25 ⇒ √53 < 25 ⇒ 5 < 25
Solutia ecuatiei este: 𝑆 = (−∞; 4).
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
3 𝑥 4 𝑥
3 +4 =7 ⇒( ) +( ) =1
7 7
Observam ca 𝑥 = 1 este solutie pentru ecuatia data.
3 𝑥
Metoda 1 (“Graficala”): Functiile 𝑓1 : ℝ → (0, +∞), 𝑓1 (𝑥) = ( ) si
7
4 𝑥
𝑓2 : ℝ → (0, +∞), 𝑓2 (𝑥) = ( ) sunt strict descrescatoare
7
(strict monotone), iar functia 𝑓3 : ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓3 (𝑥) = 1 este o functie constanta ⇒
ecuatia are solutie unica, si anume 𝑥 = 1.
Optional: Daca trasam graficele celor 3 functii, punctul comun de intersectie este
punctul 𝐴(0,1) .
𝐺𝑓1
𝐺𝑓2
𝐺𝑓3
𝐴(0,1)
Metoda 2:
3 𝑥
Functiile 𝑓1 : ℝ → (0, +∞), 𝑓1 (𝑥) = ( ) si
7
4 𝑥
𝑓2 : ℝ → (0, +∞), 𝑓2 (𝑥) = ( ) sunt strict descrescatoare
7
(strict monotone), iar 𝑥0 = 1 este solutie pentru ecuatia data ⇒ ecuatia are
solutie unica, si anume 𝑥 = 1.
Prin reducere la absurd, presupunem ca ecuatia data admite o alta solutie 𝑥1 ,
unde 𝑥0 < 𝑥1 .
3 𝑥0 4 𝑥0 3 𝑥1 4 𝑥1
Din 𝑥0 < 𝑥1 se obtine ca ( ) + ( ) < ( ) + ( ) , de unde rezulta ca
7 7 7 7
1 < 1, ceea ce este fals, deci ecuatia admite o singura solutie.
Solutia ecuatiei este: 𝑆 = {1}.
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iii. Verificare:
𝑥 = 4 ⇒ lg(4 + 1) + lg(4 − 2) = 1 ⇒ lg(5) + lg(2) = 1 ⇒ lg(5 ⋅ 2) = 1 ⇒
⇒ lg(10) = 1
Solutia ecuatiei este: 𝑆 = {4}.
log 5 (𝑥 2 + 6) ≤ 2
i. C.E./C.C.:
𝑥 2 + 6 > 0 ⇒ 𝐷′ = ℝ
𝐷 = 𝐷′ = ℝ
ii. Rezolvare:
log 5 (𝑥 2 + 6) ≤ 2
log 5 (𝑥 2 + 6) ≤ log 5 25
5 ∈ (1, +∞)
𝑥 2 + 6 ≤ 25 / − 25
𝑥 2 − 19 ≤ 0
Rezolvam ecuatia de gradul II atasata inecuatiei.
𝑥 2 − 19 = 0 / + 19
𝑥 2 = 19 /√
𝑥 = ±√19
𝑥 −∞ − √19 √19 +∞
2
𝑥 − 19 + + + + + +0 − − − − − 0 + + + + + +
𝑥 ′ ∈ [−√19; √19]
𝑥 ∈ [−√19; √19] ∩ ℝ = [−√19; √19]
iii. Verificare:
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4) Ecuatii bipatrate:
Sunt ecuatii de forma 𝑎𝑥 4 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐 = 0.
I. Conditii de Existenta(C.E.) si Conditii de Compatibilitate (C.C.):
𝐷′ = ℂ. Aici se defineste orice alta restrictie, iar domeniul max de definitie
(𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) este intersectia tuturor celorlate domenii.
( 𝐷𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐷′ ∩ 𝐷′′ ∩ … )
II. Rezolvarea propriu-zisa:
Se substituie 𝑥 2 = 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥 4 = 𝑡 2 , si se rezolva ecuatia de gradul II obtinuta,
apoi se rezolva ecuatiile 𝑥 2 = 𝑡1 , 𝑥 2 = 𝑡2, unde 𝑡1 𝑠𝑖 𝑡2 sunt solutiile
ecuatiei de gradul II. Se pot folosi ecuatii binome pentru rezolvarea
ecuatiilor de tip 𝑥 2 = 𝑡.
III. Verificarea solutiilor.
Exemplu:
𝑥4 − 8 ⋅ 𝑥2 − 9 = 0
i. C.E./C.C.:
𝐷′ = ℂ
𝐷 = 𝐷′ = ℂ
ii. Rezolvare:
(𝑥 2 )2 − 8 ⋅ 𝑥 2 − 9 = 0
𝑥2 = 𝑡
𝑡2 − 8 ⋅ 𝑡 − 9 = 0
Δ = (−8)2 − 4 ⋅ (−9) ⋅ 1 = 64 + 36 = 100
8 ± √100 8 ± 10 𝑡 =4+5=9
𝑡1,2 = = = 4±5= { 1
2⋅1 2 𝑡2 = 4 − 5 = −1
𝑥 2 = 𝑡1
𝑥 2 = 9 ⇒ 𝑥1,2 = ±3
𝑥2 = 𝑡2
𝑥2 = −1
𝑥2 = (−1) ⋅ 1
𝑥2 = 𝑖 2 ⇒ 𝑥3,4 = ±𝑖
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iii. Verificare:
𝑥 = 3 ⇒ 34 − 8 ⋅ 32 − 9 = 0 ⇒ 81 − 72 − 9 = 0 ⇒ 9 − 9 = 0
𝑥 = −3 ⇒ (−3)4 − 8 ⋅ (−3)2 − 9 = 0 ⇒ 81 − 72 − 9 = 0 ⇒ 9 − 9 = 0
𝑥 = 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑖 4 − 8 ⋅ 𝑖 2 − 9 = 0 ⇒ 1 − 8 ⋅ (−1) − 9 = 0 ⇒ 8 − 8 = 0
𝑥 = 𝑖 ⇒ (−𝑖)4 − 8 ⋅ (−𝑖)2 − 9 = 0 ⇒ 𝑖 4 − 8 ⋅ 𝑖 2 − 9 = 0 ⇒ 1 − 8 ⋅ (−1) − 9 = 0
⇒8−8=0
Solutiile ecuatiei sunt: 𝑆 = {±3, ±𝑖}.
28. Ecuatii trigonometrice:
Se aplica cei 3 pasi pentru rezolvarea ecuatiilor. Solutiilor vor fi sub forma de
multimi sau reuniune de multimi.
1) Ecuatii trigonometrice fundamentale:
sin 𝑥 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {(−1)𝑘 ⋅ arcsin 𝑎 + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}, 𝑎 ∈ [−1,1]
Daca 𝑎 ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞) ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ Ø
cos 𝑥 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {± arccos 𝑎 + 2𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}, 𝑎 ∈ [−1,1]
Daca 𝑎 ∈ (−∞, −1) ∪ (1, +∞) ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ Ø
tg 𝑥 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {arctg 𝑎 + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}, 𝑎 ∈ ℝ
ctg 𝑥 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {arcctg 𝑎 + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}, 𝑎 ∈ ℝ
Daca se cere solutii dintr-un anumit interval se pot da valori lui 𝑘, pozitive si
negative, pana cand pentru 2-3 valori consecutive a lui 𝑘 solutiile nu mai apartin
intervalului, sau se poate afla 𝑘 folosind capetele intervalelor.
2) Ecuatii trigonometrice elementare:
Se trec toti termenii in membrul stang, iar sumele se transforma in produs, se
egaleaza fiecare factor cu 0 si se obtin ecuatii fundamentale,iar la final se reunesc
solutiile.
sin 𝑎 = sin 𝑏 ⇏ 𝑎 = 𝑏
Daca functiile trigonometrice sunt diferite, atunci se inlocuieste una dintre functii
cu cofunctia unghiului complementar.
𝜋
sin(𝑓(𝑥)) = cos(𝑔(𝑥)) ⇒ sin(𝑓(𝑥)) = sin ( − 𝑔(𝑥)) ⇒
2
𝜋
sin(𝑓(𝑥)) − sin ( − 𝑔(𝑥)) = 0
2
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𝜋
tg(𝑓(𝑥)) = ctg(𝑔(𝑥)) ⇒ tg(𝑓(𝑥)) = tg ( − 𝑔(𝑥)) ⇒
2
𝜋
tg(𝑓(𝑥)) − tg ( − 𝑔(𝑥)) = 0
2
Exemplu:
sin(4 ⋅ 𝑥) = cos(2 ⋅ 𝑥). Rezolvati in [0,2𝜋]
𝜋 𝜋
sin(4 ⋅ 𝑥) = sin ( − 2 ⋅ 𝑥) / − sin ( − 2 ⋅ 𝑥)
2 2
𝜋
sin(4 ⋅ 𝑥) − sin ( − 2 ⋅ 𝑥) = 0
2
𝜋 𝜋
4⋅𝑥+2−2⋅𝑥 4 ⋅ 𝑥 − ( 2 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥) 1
2 ⋅ cos ( ) ⋅ sin ( )=0/⋅
2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋
2⋅𝑥+2 4⋅𝑥−2+2⋅𝑥
cos ( ) ⋅ sin ( )=0
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
cos (𝑥 + ) ⋅ sin (3 ⋅ 𝑥 − ) = 0
4 4
𝜋 𝜋
cos (𝑥 + ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + ∈ {± arccos 0 + 2𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
4 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 + ∈ { + 2𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} ∪ {− + 2𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} / −
4 2 2 4
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 ∈ { + 2𝑘𝜋 − | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} ∪ {− + 2𝑘𝜋 − | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
2 4 2 4
2⋅𝜋 𝜋 2⋅𝜋 𝜋
𝑥∈{ + 2𝑘𝜋 − | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} ∪ {− + 2𝑘𝜋 − | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
4 4 4 4
𝜋 3⋅𝜋
𝑥 ∈ { + 2𝑘𝜋| 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} ∪ {− + 2𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
4 4
𝜋
∈ [0,2𝜋]
4
𝑘 = 0{ 3 ⋅ 𝜋
− ∉ [0,2𝜋]
4
𝜋
+ 2𝜋 ∉ [0,2𝜋]
4
𝑘 = 1{ 3 ⋅ 𝜋 3⋅𝜋 8⋅𝜋 5⋅𝜋
− + 2𝜋 = − + = ∈ [0,2𝜋]
4 4 4 4
𝜋
+ 4𝜋 ∉ [0,2𝜋]
4
𝑘 = 2{ 3 ⋅ 𝜋 3 ⋅ 𝜋 16 ⋅ 𝜋 13 ⋅ 𝜋
− + 4𝜋 = − + = ∉ [0,2𝜋]
4 4 4 4
𝜋
+ 6𝜋 ∉ [0,2𝜋]
4
𝑘 = 3{ 3 ⋅ 𝜋 3 ⋅ 𝜋 24 ⋅ 𝜋 21 ⋅ 𝜋
− + 6𝜋 = − + = ∉ [0,2𝜋]
4 4 4 4
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𝜋 𝜋 8⋅𝜋 7⋅𝜋
− 2𝜋 = − =− ∉ [0,2𝜋]
𝑘 = −1 { 4 4 4 4
3⋅𝜋
− − 2𝜋 ∉ [0,2𝜋]
4
𝜋 𝜋 16 ⋅ 𝜋 15 ⋅ 𝜋
− 4𝜋 = − =− ∉ [0,2𝜋]
𝑘 = −2 { 4 4 4 4
3⋅𝜋
− − 4𝜋 ∉ [0,2𝜋]
4
𝜋 5⋅𝜋
𝑆1 = { , }
4 4
𝜋 𝜋
sin (3 ⋅ 𝑥 − ) = 0 ⇒ 3 ⋅ 𝑥 − ∈ {(−1)𝑘 ⋅ arcsin 0 + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
4 4
𝜋 𝜋
3 ⋅ 𝑥 − ∈ {(−1)𝑘 ⋅ 0 + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} / +
4 4
𝜋 1
3 ⋅ 𝑥 ∈ {𝑘𝜋 + | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} / ⋅
4 3
𝑘𝜋 𝜋
𝑥∈{ + | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
3 12
4𝑘𝜋 𝜋
𝑥∈{ + | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
12 12
4𝑘𝜋 + 𝜋
𝑥∈{ | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
12
4𝑘𝜋 + 𝜋
0≤ ≤ 2𝜋 / ⋅ 12
12
0 ≤ 4𝑘𝜋 + 𝜋 ≤ 24𝜋 / − 𝜋
1
−𝜋 ≤ 4𝑘𝜋 ≤ 23𝜋 / ⋅
4𝜋
1 23
− ≤ 𝑘 ≤ } ⇒ 𝑘 ∈ {0,1,2,3,4,5}
4 4
𝑘∈ℤ
𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋 7𝜋
𝑘 ∈ {0,1,2,3,4,5} ⇒ 𝑆2 = { , , , , , }
12 12 4 12 12 4
𝜋 5𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋 13𝜋 17𝜋 7𝜋
𝑆 = 𝑆1 ∪ 𝑆2 = { , , , , , , , }
4 4 12 12 4 12 12 4
𝜋 𝜋 5𝜋 3𝜋 13𝜋 5𝜋 17𝜋 7𝜋
𝑆={ , , , , , , , }
12 4 12 4 12 4 12 4
3) Ecuatii trigonometrice care se rezolva cu ajutorul substitutiilor:
Se substituie functia trigonometrica cu o variabila aleasa, si se rezolva ecuatia de
gradul II respectiva, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0, apoi se rezolva ecuatia trigonometrica
fundamentala rezultata din substitutie.
sin 𝑥 = 𝑡
𝑎 ⋅ sin2 𝑥 + 𝑏 ⋅ sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑡2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑡 + 𝑐 = 0
cos 𝑥 = 𝑡
𝑎 ⋅ cos 2 𝑥 + 𝑏 ⋅ cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑡2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑡 + 𝑐 = 0
tg 𝑥 = 𝑡
𝑎 ⋅ tg 2 𝑥 + 𝑏 ⋅ tg 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑡2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑡 + 𝑐 = 0
ctg 𝑥 = 𝑡
𝑎 ⋅ ctg 2 𝑥 + 𝑏 ⋅ ctg 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇒ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑡2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑡 + 𝑐 = 0
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𝑎 ⋅ cos(2𝑥) + 𝑏 ⋅ sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
} ⇒ 𝑎 ⋅ (1 − 2sin2 𝑥) + 𝑏 ⋅ sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⟹
cos(2𝑥) = 1 − 2sin2 𝑥
𝑎 − 2𝑎 ⋅ sin2 𝑥 + 𝑏 ⋅ sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
−2𝑎 ⋅ sin2 𝑥 + 𝑏 ⋅ sin 𝑥 + 𝑐 + 𝑎 = 0 ∕⋅ (−1)
sin 𝑥 = 𝑡
2𝑎 ⋅ sin2 𝑥 − 𝑏 ⋅ sin 𝑥 − 𝑐 − 𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 2𝑎 ⋅ 𝑡 2 − 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑡 − 𝑐 − 𝑎 = 0
𝑎 ⋅ cos(2𝑥) + 𝑏 ⋅ cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
} ⇒ 𝑎 ⋅ (2cos2 𝑥 − 1) + 𝑏 ⋅ cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⟹
cos(2𝑥) = 2cos 2 𝑥 − 1
2𝑎 ⋅ cos 2 𝑥 − 𝑎 + 𝑏 ⋅ cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
cos 𝑥 = 𝑡
2𝑎 ⋅ cos 2 𝑥 + 𝑏 ⋅ cos 𝑥 + 𝑐 − 𝑎 = 0 ⇒ 2𝑎 ⋅ 𝑡 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑡 + 𝑐 − 𝑎 = 0
𝑎 ⋅ tg(2𝑥) + 𝑏 ⋅ tg 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0
2 tg 𝑥 ⋅(1−tg2 𝑥)
2 tg 𝑥 }⇒𝑎⋅ + 𝑏 ⋅ tg 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 ⇒
tg(2𝑥) = 2 1 − tg 2 𝑥
1 − tg 𝑥
2𝑎 ⋅ tg 𝑥 + 𝑏 ⋅ tg 𝑥 ⋅ (1 − tg 2 𝑥) + 𝑐 ⋅ (1 − tg 2 𝑥) = 0
2𝑎 ⋅ tg 𝑥 + 𝑏 ⋅ tg 𝑥 − 𝑏 ⋅ tg 3 𝑥 + 𝑐 − 𝑐 ⋅ tg 2 𝑥 = 0
−𝑏 ⋅ tg 3 𝑥 − 𝑐 ⋅ tg 2 𝑥 + (2𝑎 + 𝑏) ⋅ tg 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0 /⋅ (−1)
𝑏 ⋅ tg 3 𝑥 + 𝑐 ⋅ tg 2 𝑥 − (2𝑎 + 𝑏) ⋅ tg 𝑥 − 𝑐 = 0
tg 𝑥 = 𝑡
⇒ 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑡 3 + 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑡 2 − (2𝑎 + 𝑏) ⋅ 𝑡 − 𝑐 = 0
Exemplu:
cos(2𝑥) = 4 ⋅ sin 𝑥 − 5. Rezolvati in [0,2𝜋].
cos(2𝑥) = 4 ⋅ sin 𝑥 − 5 / − 4 ⋅ sin 𝑥 + 5
cos(2𝑥) − 4 ⋅ sin 𝑥 + 5 = 0
cos(2𝑥) − 4 ⋅ sin 𝑥 + 5 = 0
} ⇒ (1 − 2sin2 𝑥) − 4 ⋅ sin 𝑥 + 5 = 0 ⟹
cos(2𝑥) = 1 − 2sin2 𝑥
1 − 2 ⋅ sin2 𝑥 − 4 ⋅ sin 𝑥 + 5 = 0
−2 ⋅ sin2 𝑥 − 4 ⋅ sin 𝑥 + 6 = 0 ⁄⋅ (−1)
sin 𝑥 = 𝑡
2 ⋅ sin2 𝑥 + 4 ⋅ sin 𝑥 − 6 = 0 ⇒ 2 ⋅ 𝑡2 + 4 ⋅ 𝑡 − 6 = 0
2 ⋅ 𝑡2 + 4 ⋅ 𝑡 − 6 = 0
Δ = 42 − 4 ⋅ 2 ⋅ (−6) = 16 + 48 = 64
−4 ± √64 −4 ± 8 𝑡 = −1 + 2 = 1
𝑡1,2 = = = −1 ± 2 = { 1
2⋅2 4 𝑡2 = −1 − 2 = −3
sin 𝑥 = −3 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ ∅
sin 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {(−1)𝑘 ⋅ arcsin 1 + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
𝜋
𝑥 ∈ {(−1)𝑘 ⋅ + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
2
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1
2 ⋅ cos2 𝑥 + 2 ⋅ cos 𝑥 = 0 / ⋅
2
cos 𝑥 = 𝑦
cos2 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦2 + 𝑦 = 0
𝑦2 + 𝑦 = 0
𝑦 ⋅ (𝑦 + 1) = 0
𝑦1 = 0
𝑦 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑦2 = −1
cos 𝑥 = 𝑦1
cos 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ sin 𝑥 + 0 = −1 ⇒ sin 𝑥 = −1
cos 𝑥 = 0 3𝜋
{ ⇒𝑥=
sin 𝑥 = −1 2
cos 𝑥 = 𝑦2
cos 𝑥 = −1 ⇒ sin 𝑥 − 1 = −1 ⇒ sin 𝑥 = 0
cos 𝑥 = −1
{ ⇒𝑥=𝜋
sin 𝑥 = 0
3𝜋
𝑆 = {𝜋, }
2
6) Ecuatii omogene in sinus si cosinus:
Pentru ca o ecuatie sa fie omogena, membrul drept trebuie sa fie 0, iar suma
exponentilor sa fie constanta. Impartim relatia cu un cosinus la cea mai mare
putere, substituim tangenta cu o variabla aleasa si se rezolva polinomul, dupa
aceea se rezolva ecuatia formata din substitutie.
𝑎𝑛 ⋅ sin𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ sin𝑛−1 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ sin 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑛−1 𝑥 + 𝑎0 ⋅ cos 𝑛 𝑥 = 0
/: cos𝑛 𝑥
tg 𝑥 = 𝑡
𝑎𝑛 ⋅ tg 𝑛 𝑥 + 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ tg 𝑛−1 𝑥 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ tg 𝑥 + 𝑎0 = 0 ⇒
𝑎𝑛 ⋅ t 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ t 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ 𝑡 + 𝑎0 = 0
𝜋
Observatie: Din multimea solutiilor de exclud solutii din intervalul + 𝑘𝜋, 𝑘 ∈ ℤ
2
deoarece in acest puncte cosinusul este 0.
Exemplu:
sin2 𝑥 − 3 ⋅ sin 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑥 + 2 ⋅ cos2 𝑥 = 0. Rezolvati in [0,2𝜋].
1
sin2 𝑥 − 3 ⋅ sin 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑥 + 2 ⋅ cos2 𝑥 = 0 / ⋅
cos2 𝑥
tg 2 𝑥 − 3 ⋅ tg 𝑥 + 2 = 0
tg 𝑥 = 𝑡 ∈ ℝ
𝑡2 − 3 ⋅ 𝑡 + 2 = 0
Δ = 32 − 4 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2 = 9 + 8 = 1
3+1 4
3 ± √1 3 ± 1 𝑡1 =
= =2
𝑡1,2 = = ={ 2 2
2⋅1 2 3−1 2
𝑡2 = = =1
2 2
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tg 𝑥 = 𝑡1
tg 𝑥 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {arctg 2 + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
1 rad ≈ 57° ⇒ 2 rad ≈ 114° ∈ 𝐶𝐼𝐼
In intervalul [0,2𝜋], doua puncte au aceeasi valoare a tangentei, punctul
respectiv, precum si simetricul acestuia in raport cu originea (centrul cercului).
Cum 2 apartine cadranului II, simetricul sau apartine cadranului IV, deci la
arctg 2 vom aduna 𝜋.
𝑆1 = {arctg 2 , arctg 2 + 𝜋}
tg 𝑥 = 𝑡2
tg 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ {arctg 1 + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
𝜋
𝑥 ∈ { + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} 𝜋
4 𝑘=0⇒𝑥=
𝜋 𝜋 4
0 ≤ + 𝑘𝜋 ≤ 2𝜋 / − 𝜋 𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋
4 4 𝑘 =1⇒𝑥 = +𝜋= + =
𝜋 𝜋 4 4 4 4
− ≤ 𝑘𝜋 ≤ 2𝜋 − 𝜋 5𝜋
4 4 𝑆2 = { , }
𝜋 8𝜋 𝜋 4 4
− ≤ 𝑘𝜋 ≤ −
4 4 4
𝜋 7𝜋 1
− ≤ 𝑘𝜋 ≤ /⋅
4 4 𝜋
1 7
− ≤ 𝑘 ≤ ⇒ 𝑘 ∈ {0,1}
4 4
𝜋 5𝜋
𝑆 = 𝑆1 ∪ 𝑆2 = { , , arctg 2 , arctg 2 + 𝜋}
4 4
7) Ecuatii care se rezolva prin transformarea sumei in produs sau
transformarea produsului in suma:
Se tranforma in produs suma dintre primul si ultimul termen si se da factor
comun termenul din mijloc, dupa aceeas se egaleaza fiecare termen cu 0 si se
rezolva ecuatiile rezultate. La sfarsit se reunesc cele doua multimi.
Daca termenii sunt sub forma de produs, se inmulteste ecuatia cu 2 si se
transforma in suma, se grupeaza termenii convenabil se se transforma inapoi in
produs, se egaleaza cu 0 si se rezolva ecuatiile.
Daca este nevoie, toti termenii se trec in membrul stang.
𝑛⋅𝑥
Observatie: Cele mai comune sunt de forma: 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓 ( ) + 𝑓[(𝑛 − 1) ⋅ 𝑥] = 0
2
Exemplu:
sin 𝑥 + sin(3 ⋅ 𝑥) + sin(5 ⋅ 𝑥) = 0. Rezolvati in [0,2𝜋].
sin 𝑥 + sin(3 ⋅ 𝑥) + sin(5 ⋅ 𝑥) = 0
sin 𝑥 + sin(5 ⋅ 𝑥) + sin(3 ⋅ 𝑥) = 0
𝑥+5⋅𝑥 𝑥−5⋅𝑥
2 ⋅ sin ( ) ⋅ cos ( ) + sin(3 ⋅ 𝑥) = 0
2 2
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6⋅𝑥 −4 ⋅ 𝑥
2 ⋅ sin ( ) ⋅ cos ( ) + sin(3 ⋅ 𝑥) = 0
2 2
2 ⋅ sin(3 ⋅ 𝑥) ⋅ cos(−2 ⋅ 𝑥) + sin(3 ⋅ 𝑥) = 0
2 ⋅ sin(3 ⋅ 𝑥) ⋅ cos(2 ⋅ 𝑥) + sin(3 ⋅ 𝑥) = 0
sin(3 ⋅ 𝑥) ⋅ [2 ⋅ cos(2 ⋅ 𝑥) + 1] = 0
sin(3 ⋅ 𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 3 ⋅ 𝑥 ∈ {(−1)𝑘 ⋅ arcsin 0 + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
1
3 ⋅ 𝑥 ∈ {𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} / ⋅
3
𝑘𝜋
𝑥∈{ | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
3
𝑘𝜋 3
0≤ ≤ 2𝜋 / ⋅
3 𝜋
0 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 6 ⇒ 𝑘 ∈ {0,1,2,3,4,5,6}
𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋
𝑘 ∈ {0,1,2,3,4,5,6} ⇒ 𝑆1 = {0, , , 𝜋, , , 2𝜋}
3 3 3 3
2 ⋅ cos(2 ⋅ 𝑥) + 1 = 0 / − 1
1
2 ⋅ cos(2 ⋅ 𝑥) = −1 / ⋅
2
1 1
cos(2 ⋅ 𝑥) = − ⇒ 2 ⋅ 𝑥 ∈ {± arccos (− ) + 2𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
2 2
1 1 𝜋 3𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
arccos (− ) = 𝜋 − arccos = 𝜋 − = − =
2 2 3 3 3 3
2𝜋 1
2 ⋅ 𝑥 ∈ {± + 2𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} / ⋅
3 2
𝜋
𝑥 ∈ {± + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
3
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥 ∈ { + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} ∪ {− + 𝑘𝜋 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ}
3 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
0 ≤ 3 + 𝑘𝜋 ≤ 2𝜋 / − 3 0 ≤ − + 𝑘𝜋 ≤ 2𝜋 / +
3 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
− ≤ 𝑘𝜋 ≤ 2𝜋 − ≤ 𝑘𝜋 ≤ 2𝜋 +
3 3 3 3
𝜋 6𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 6𝜋 𝜋
− ≤ 𝑘𝜋 ≤ − ≤ 𝑘𝜋 ≤ +
3 3 3 3 3 3
𝜋 5𝜋 1 𝜋 7𝜋 1
− ≤ 𝑘𝜋 ≤ /⋅ ≤ 𝑘𝜋 ≤ /⋅
3 3 𝜋 3 3 𝜋
1 5 1 7
− ≤ 𝑘 ≤ ⇒ 𝑘 ∈ {0,1} ≤ 𝑘 ≤ ⇒ 𝑘 ∈ {1,2}
3 3 3 3
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 2𝜋
𝑘=0⇒𝑥= 𝑘 =1⇒𝑥 =− +𝜋 =− + =
3 3 3 3 3
𝜋 𝜋 3𝜋 4𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 6𝜋 5𝜋
𝑘 =1⇒𝑥 = +𝜋 = + =
3 3 3 3 𝑘 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = − 3 + 2𝜋 = − 3 + 3 = 3
𝜋 4𝜋 2𝜋 5𝜋
𝑆2 = { , } 𝑆3 = { , }
3 3 3 3
𝜋 2𝜋 4𝜋 5𝜋
𝑆 = 𝑆1 ∪ 𝑆2 ∪ 𝑆3 = {0, , , 𝜋, , , 2𝜋}
3 3 3 3
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4) Metoda de abordare:
𝐷𝐴
Se repeta elementele? (Ex:11322)⟶ [→
𝑁𝑈
Se folosesc numarul de functii.
→ Se folosesc toate elemente odata?⟶
𝐷𝐴
→ Se folosesc permutari.
𝐷𝐴
⟶ 𝑁𝑈 → Se folosesc aranjamente.
→ Conteaza ordinea elementelor?⟶ [ 𝑁𝑈
[ → Se folosesc combinari.
5) Binomul lui Newton:
Este o modalitate de a scrie (a extinde/a dezvolta) ridicarea la putere a unei
sume. Pentru orice numere 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, au loc egalitatile:
(𝑎 + 𝑏)𝑛 =
= C𝑛0 ⋅ 𝑎𝑛 + C𝑛1 ⋅ 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ 𝑏 + C𝑛2 ⋅ 𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + C𝑘𝑛 ⋅ 𝑎𝑛−𝑘 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑘 + ⋯ + C𝑛𝑛 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛
(𝑎 − 𝑏)𝑛 =
= C𝑛0 ⋅ 𝑎𝑛 − C𝑛1 ⋅ 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ 𝑏 + C𝑛2 ⋅ 𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝑏 2 + ⋯ + (−1)𝑘 ⋅ C𝑘𝑛 ⋅ 𝑎𝑛−𝑘 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑘 + ⋯
+ (−1)𝑛 ⋅ C𝑛𝑛 ⋅ 𝑏 𝑛
𝑛 𝑛
∑ 𝑘 = suma de la 𝑘 pana la 𝑛 = 1 + 2 + ⋯ + 𝑛
𝑘=1
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Coeficientii binomiali ai dezvoltarii binomului lui Newton (C𝑛0 , C𝑛1 , C𝑛2 , … , C𝑛𝑛 ) pot
fi diferiti de coeficientii dezoltarii binomului lui Newton.
P𝑘+1 = C𝑘𝑛 ⋅ 𝛼, 𝛼 ∈ ℝ, = coeficientul general al dezvoltarii
In general, 𝛼 depinde de 𝑘 (exemplu: 𝛼 = 2𝑘 ). Daca 𝛼 = 1 atunci coeficientii
binomiali ai dezvoltarii sunt egali cu coeficientii dezvoltarii.
30. Ecuatia dreptei:
Este o relatie verificata de coordonatele tututor punctelor de pe acea dreapta.
Daca coordonatele unui punct indeplinesc ecuatia dreptei atunci punctul
apartine dreptei respective. Daca coordonatele unui punct nu indeplinesc ecuatia
dreptei atunci punctul nu apartine dreptei respective
1) Ecuatia dreptei determinata de doua puncte:
Fie punctele in reperul cartezian 𝑥𝑂𝑦 𝐴(𝑥1,𝑦1) si 𝐵(𝑥2,𝑦2) , atunci ecuatia dreptei ce
trece prin ambele puncte este: 𝑦 𝑑
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1
𝐴𝐵: = 𝑦1 𝐴(𝑥1 ,𝑦1)
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝑥2
𝑥 − 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1
𝑑: = 𝑂 𝑥1 𝑥
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 𝐵(𝑥2 ,𝑦2) 𝑦2
Daca numitorul unei fractii este 0, egalam numaratorul cu 0, iar relatia obtinuta
devine ecuatia dreptei.
• Daca 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = 𝑥0 , atunci ecuatia dreptei devine: 𝑦 𝑑
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑦 − 𝑦1 𝐴(𝑥0 ,𝑦1)
𝐴𝐵: = 𝑦1
0 𝑦2 − 𝑦1
𝐴𝐵: 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 0 ⇔ 𝐴𝐵: 𝑥 = 𝑥0 𝑂 𝑥0
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31. Permutari:
Sunt functii bijective, de obicei notate cu 𝜎(sigma), cateodata cu 𝜀(epsilon),
𝜏(tau) sau 𝜃(teta), 𝜎 ∶ {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 } → {𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 }.
Daca 𝜎 ∶ 𝐴 → 𝐴 si 𝐴 = {1,2, … , 𝑛} atunci 𝜎 se numeste permutarea multimii 𝐴 sau
permutare de ordin 𝑛.
Multimea trebuie sa fie finita, domeniul si codomeniul sa coincida si functia sa fie
bijectiva pentru ca o permutare sa existe.
𝜎 ∶ {1,2,3} → {1,2,3}
1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3 3 3 3
𝑥 1 2 3 1 2 3
𝜎=( )
3 1 2
𝜎(𝑥) 3 1 2
𝑆𝑛 = permutarile de ordin 𝑛
𝑆3 = permutarile de ordin 3 ⇒ 𝜎 ∶ {1,2,3} → {1,2,3} =
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
( ) = 𝑒 = permutare identica, ( ),( ),( ),
1 2 3 1 3 2 2 1 3 2 3 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
( ),( )
3 1 2 3 2 1
card 𝑆𝑛 = |𝑆𝑛 | = 𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛!
1) Transpozitii:
1 2 ⋯ 𝑖 ⋯ 𝑗 ⋯ 𝑛
Fie 𝑒 = ( ) ∈ 𝑆𝑛 , atunci transpozitia 𝜏𝑖𝑗 interschimba
1 2 ⋯ 𝑖 ⋯ 𝑗 ⋯ 𝑛
elementele de pe pozitiile 𝑖 si 𝑗 intre ele.
1 2 ⋯ 𝑖 ⋯ 𝑗 ⋯ 𝑛
𝜏𝑖𝑗 = ( ).
1 2 ⋯ 𝑗 ⋯ 𝑖 ⋯ 𝑛
Exemplu:
1 2 3 4 5
𝑒=( )
1 2 3 4 5
1 2 3 4 5
𝜏14 =( )
4 2 3 1 5
1 2 3 4 5
𝜏14 =( )
4 2 3 1 5
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1 2 3 4 5
𝜏23 = ( )
1 3 2 4 5
Observatie: 𝜏𝑖𝑗 = 𝜏𝑗𝑖 .
𝐶52 = transpozitii de ordin 5.
𝐶𝑛2 = transpozitii de ordin 𝑛.
2) Compunerea permutarilor:
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
( 3) ) ∘ ( 1) )=( )
3 1 2 2 1 3 1 3 2
2)
4)
• Este asociativa:
(∀)𝜎, 𝜏, 𝜀 ∈ 𝑆𝑛 astfel incat (𝜎 ∘ 𝜏) ∘ 𝜀 = 𝜎 ∘ (𝜏 ∘ 𝜀).
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Exemplu:
3>1 1≯4
1 2 3 4
𝜎=( ) ⇒ 𝑚(𝜎) = 3 ↔ {3 ≯ 4 1 ≯ 2
3 1 4 2
3>2 4>2
𝜀(𝜎) = (−1)3 = −1 ⇒ 𝜎 este permutare impara
5) Scrierea unei permutari sub forma unui produs de transpozitii:
Se compune permutarea initiala cu o transpozitie convenabila, iar permutarea
rezultata se compune din nou cu o alta transpozitie convenabila. Se repeta
procesul pana se ajunge la permutarea identica (𝑒). Se tine cont de proprietatea
ca inversa unei transpozitii este transpozitia initiala si de proprietatea caruia o
permutare compusa cu inversa sa este egala cu permutarea identica.
Exemplu:
1 2 3 4
𝜎=( )
3 1 4 2
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
𝜎 ∘ 𝜏23 = ( )∘( )=( ) = 𝜎1
3 1 4 2 1 3 2 4 3 4 1 2
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
𝜎1 ∘ 𝜏13 = ( )∘( )=( ) = 𝜎2
3 4 1 2 3 2 1 4 1 4 3 2
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
𝜎2 ∘ 𝜏24 = ( )∘( )=( )=𝑒
1 4 3 2 1 4 3 2 1 2 3 4
𝜎 ∘ 𝜏23 ∘ 𝜏13 ∘ 𝜏24 = 𝑒 /∘ (𝜏24 )−1
𝜎 ∘ 𝜏23 ∘ 𝜏13 ∘ 𝜏24 ∘ (𝜏24 )−1 = 𝑒 ∘ (𝜏24 )−1 /∘ (𝜏13 )−1
𝜎 ∘ 𝜏23 ∘ 𝜏13 ∘ (𝜏13 )−1 = 𝜏24 ∘ (𝜏13 )−1 /∘ (𝜏23 )−1
𝜎 ∘ 𝜏23 ∘ (𝜏23 )−1 = 𝜏24 ∘ 𝜏13 ∘ (𝜏23 )−1
𝜎 = 𝜏24 ∘ 𝜏13 ∘ 𝜏23
6) Rezolvarea ecuatiilor in care apar permutari:
Pentru a rezolva ecuatii cu permutari, se compune convenabil (la dreapta sau la
stanga) cu inversa unei permutari deja stiute si se tine cont de proprietatea
caruia rezultatul compunerii unei permutari cu inversa acesteia este permutarea
identica (𝑒).
Exemplu:
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
𝜎=( ) ⇒ 𝜎 −1 = ( ) 𝜏=( )
3 1 4 2 2 4 1 3 1 4 2 3
𝜎 −1 ∘/ 𝜎 ∘ 𝑥 = 𝜏
𝜎 −1 ∘ 𝜎 ∘ 𝑥 = 𝜎 −1 ∘ 𝜏
𝑒 ∘ 𝑥 = 𝜎 −1 ∘ 𝜏
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
𝑥=( )∘( )=( )
2 4 1 3 1 4 2 3 2 3 4 1
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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32. Matrice:
O matrice este un tablou cu 𝑛 linii si 𝑚 coloane, 𝑛, 𝑚 ∈ ℕ∗ a carui elemente 𝑎𝑖𝑗
sunt numere complexe, 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑚.
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑚
2 𝑖
𝑎 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑚
𝐴=(… 21
… … … ) ∈ M𝑛,𝑚 (ℂ) 𝐴 = ( −7 42 ) ∈ M3,2 (ℂ)
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑚 6 − 7𝑖 √3
Daca numarul de linii este egal cu numarul de coloane (𝑛 = 𝑚), atunci matricea
data se numeste matrice patratica de ordin 𝑛.
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛
7 −3 − 5𝑖 −9
… 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴 = (𝑎…
21 𝑎22
… … … ) ∈ M𝑛 (ℂ) 𝐴 = (13 0 −4) ∈ M3 (ℂ)
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 3𝑖 √44 2
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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1 0 0 1 0 … 0
1 0 0 …
1 … …
0)
𝐼2 = ( ) 𝐼3 = (0 1 0) 𝐼𝑛 = (… …
0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1
Observatie: “matrice” este singular si plural.
1) Tipuri particulare de matrice:
• Matrice-linie; are o singura linie si 𝑛 coloane, adica de tipul (1, 𝑛).
𝐴 = (𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 )
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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•
Matricea unitate este element neutru; (∀)𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (ℂ),
𝐴 ⋅ 𝐼𝑛 = 𝐼𝑛 ⋅ 𝐴 = 𝐴 .
• Este distributiva fata de adunarea matricelor; (∀)𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛,𝑚 (ℂ),
(∀)𝐵, 𝐶 ∈ 𝑀𝑚,𝑝 (ℂ), 𝐴 ⋅ (𝐵 ± 𝐶) = 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 ± 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐶
(𝐵 ± 𝐶) ⋅ 𝐴 = 𝐵 ⋅ 𝐴 ± 𝐶 ⋅ 𝐴
• Pentru a inmulti doua matrice, trebuie ca numarul de coloane de la prima
matrice sa fie egal cu numarul de linii de la a doua matrice;
𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛,𝒎 (ℂ) 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝒎,𝑝 (ℂ) ⇒ 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝑛,𝑝 (ℂ)
• O matrice este inversabila (nesingulara) daca determinantul matricei este
nenul (diferit de 0)
• Daca doua matrice sunt comutative atunci este valabila formula binomului
lui Newton; (∀)𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (ℂ) astfel incat 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ⋅ 𝐴 , atunci
(𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑛 = 𝐴𝑛 + 𝐶𝑛1 ⋅ 𝐴𝑛−1 ⋅ 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑛2 ⋅ 𝐴𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝐵 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛𝑛−1 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 𝑛−1 + 𝐵 𝑛
4) Puterile unei matrice patratice:
𝐴𝑛 = ⏟
𝐴 ⋅ 𝐴 ⋅ … ⋅ 𝐴 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ*
𝑑𝑒 𝑛 𝑜𝑟𝑖
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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Exemplu:
2 1 0
𝐴 = (0 2 1 ) 𝐴𝑛 = ?
0 0 2
2 1 0 2 1 0 4 4 1
𝐴2 = (0 2 1 ) ⋅ (0 2 1) = (0 4 4)
0 0 2 0 0 2 0 0 4
4 4 1 2 1 0 8 12 6
3
𝐴 = (0 4 4 ) ⋅ (0 2 1) = (0 8 12)
0 0 4 0 0 2 0 0 8
0 1 0
𝐴 = 2 ⋅ 𝐼3 + 𝐵 𝐵 = (0 0 1 )
0 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1
𝐵 2 = (0 0 1 ) ⋅ ( 0 0 1) = ( 0 0 0)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0
𝐵 3 = (0 0 0 ) ⋅ (0 0 1) = (0 0 0) = 𝑂3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
𝐴𝑛 = (2 ⋅ 𝐼3 + 𝐵)𝑛
= (2 ⋅ 𝐼3 )𝑛 + 𝐶𝑛1 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 𝐼3 )𝑛−1 ⋅ 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑛2 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 𝐼3 )𝑛−2 ⋅ 𝐵 + 𝐶𝑛3 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 𝐼3 )𝑛−3 ⋅ 𝐵 3 + ⋯
+𝐵 𝑛
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2
= 2𝑛 ⋅ 𝐼3 + 𝑛 ⋅ 2𝑛−1 ⋅ 𝐼3 ⋅ 𝐵 + ⋅2 ⋅ 𝐼3 ⋅ 𝐵 2 + 𝐶𝑛3 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 𝐼3 )𝑛−3 ⋅ 𝑂3 + ⋯
2
+𝑂3
1 0 0 0 1 0 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) 𝑛−2 0 0 1
= 2𝑛 ⋅ (0 1 0) + 𝑛 ⋅ 2𝑛−1 ⋅ (0 0 1) + ⋅2 ⋅ (0 0 0)
2
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
2𝑛 0 0 0 𝑛 ⋅ 2𝑛−1 0 0 0 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) ⋅ 2𝑛−3
= ( 0 2𝑛 0 ) + (0 0 𝑛 ⋅ 2𝑛−1 ) + (0 0 0 )
𝑛
0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
2𝑛 𝑛 ⋅ 2𝑛−1 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) ⋅ 2𝑛−3
=(0 2𝑛 𝑛 ⋅ 2𝑛−1 )
𝑛
0 0 2
22 2 ⋅ 22−1 2(2 − 1) ⋅ 22−3 4 4 1
𝐴2 = ( 0 22 2⋅2 2−1 ) = (0 4 4)
0 0 22 0 0 4
23 3 ⋅ 23−1 3(3 − 1) ⋅ 23−3
8 12 6
𝐴2 = ( 0 23 3⋅2 3−1 ) = (0 8 12)
0 0 23 0 0 8
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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(𝑎 + 𝑑) ± √Δ
𝑥1,2 =
2
Daca:
• Δ > 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ ℝ
𝑥1 𝑛 − 𝑥2 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = ⟹ 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 ⋅ 𝐴 − 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ |𝐴| ⋅ 𝐼2
𝑥1 − 𝑥2
• Δ = 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ ℝ
𝑎𝑛 = 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑥1 𝑛−1 = 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑥2 𝑛−1 ⟹ 𝐴𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 ⋅ 𝐴 − 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ |𝐴| ⋅ 𝐼2
• Δ < 0 ⇒ 𝑥1 ≠ 𝑥2 , 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ∈ ℂ ⇒ nu exista solutii in ℝ
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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∗ 𝑎22 𝑎32
𝑎𝟏𝟏 = (−1)1+1 ⋅ |𝑎 𝑡
𝑎33 | (eliminam linia 1 si coloana 1 din 𝐴)
23
∗
𝑎12 𝑎32
𝑎12 = (−1)1+2 ⋅ |𝑎 𝑡
𝑎33 | (eliminam linia 1 si coloana 2 din 𝐴)
13
∗
𝑎12 𝑎22
𝑎13 = (−1)1+3 ⋅ |𝑎 𝑡
𝑎23 | (eliminam linia 1 si coloana 3 din 𝐴)
23
∗
𝑎21 𝑎31
𝑎21 = (−1)2+1 ⋅ |𝑎 𝑡
𝑎33 | (eliminam linia 2 si coloana 1 din 𝐴)
23
∗
𝑎11 𝑎31
𝑎22 = (−1)2+2 ⋅ |𝑎 𝑡
𝑎33 | (eliminam linia 2 si coloana 2 din 𝐴)
13
∗
𝑎11 𝑎21
𝑎23 = (−1)2+3 ⋅ |𝑎 𝑡
𝑎23 | (eliminam linia 2 si coloana 3 din 𝐴)
13
∗
𝑎21 𝑎31
𝑎31 = (−1)3+1 ⋅ |𝑎 𝑡
𝑎32 | (eliminam linia 3 si coloana 1 din 𝐴)
22
∗
𝑎11 𝑎31
𝑎32 = (−1)3+2 ⋅ |𝑎 𝑡
𝑎32 | (eliminam linia 3 si coloana 2 din 𝐴)
12
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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∗
𝑎11 𝑎21
𝑎33 = (−1)3+3 ⋅ |𝑎 𝑡
𝑎22 | (eliminam linia 3 si coloana 3 din 𝐴)
12
∗ ∗ ∗
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
∗ ∗ ∗
𝐴∗ = (𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 )
∗ ∗ ∗
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
1
• Calculam inversa matricei 𝐴−1 = det(𝐴) ⋅ 𝐴∗ .
ii. Metoda 2 (doar pentru matrice patratice de ordin 3):
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝐴 = (𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) ∈ 𝑀3 (ℂ) ⇒ Tr(𝐴) = 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎33
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎11 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑆𝐴 = |𝑎 𝑎 | + |𝑎 𝑎 | + |𝑎 𝑎22 | = suma minorilor elementelor
32 33 31 33 21
situate pe diagonala principala
Orice matrice patratica de ordin 3 verifica relatia:
𝐴3 − Tr(𝐴) ⋅ 𝐴2 + 𝑆𝐴 ⋅ 𝐴 − det(𝐴) ⋅ 𝐼3 = 𝑂3 /⋅ 𝐴−1
𝐴2 − Tr(𝐴) ⋅ 𝐴 + 𝑆𝐴 ⋅ 𝐼3 − det(𝐴) ⋅ 𝐴−1 = 𝑂3
𝐴2 − Tr(𝐴) ⋅ 𝐴 + 𝑆𝐴 ⋅ 𝐼3 = det(𝐴) ⋅ 𝐴−1
1
𝐴−1 = ⋅ [𝐴2 − Tr(𝐴) ⋅ 𝐴 + 𝑆𝐴 ⋅ 𝐼3 ]
det(𝐴)
Proprietatile inversei unei matrice patratice:
• Daca 𝐴, 𝐵 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (ℂ) astfel incat 𝐴 si 𝐵 sunt inversabile, atunci matricea
𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵 este inversabila, iar (𝐴 ⋅ 𝐵)−1 = 𝐵 −1 ⋅ 𝐴−1 .
• Daca 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (ℂ) este inversabila, atunci det(𝐴 ⋅ 𝐴−1 ) = det(𝐼𝑛 ) ⇒
det(𝐴) ⋅ det(𝐴−1 ) = 1.
Exemplu:
𝑡 1 3
1 2 𝐴=( )
𝐴=( )⇒{ 2 4
3 4 det(𝐴) = 1 ⋅ 4 − 2 ⋅ 3 = 4 − 6 = −2 ≠ 0
∗
𝑎11 = (−1)1+1 ⋅ 4 = 4
∗
𝑎12 = (−1)1+2 ⋅ 2 = −2
∗
𝑎21 = (−1)2+1 ⋅ 3 = −3
∗
𝑎22 = (−1)2+2 ⋅ 1 = 1
4 −2
𝐴∗ = ( )
−3 1
1 1 −2 1
4 −2
𝐴−1
= ∗
⋅𝐴 = ⋅( )=( 3 −1)
det(𝐴) −2 −3 1
2 2
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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−2 1
1 2 1 0
𝐴 ⋅ 𝐴−1 = ( ) ⋅ ( 3 −1) = ( )
3 4 0 1
2 2
6) Rangul unei matrice:
Fie 𝐴 ∈ M𝑛,𝑚 (ℂ) o matrice. Rangul matricei 𝐴 este cel mai mare minor al
matricei 𝐴 nenul.
Determinantul unei matrice format din 𝑝 linii si 𝑝 coloane al unei matrice 𝐴 se
numeste minor de ordin 𝑝 al matricei 𝐴, 1 ≤ 𝑝 ≤ min(𝑛, 𝑚).
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑚
… 𝑎2𝑚
𝐴 = (𝑎… 𝑎22 𝑝 𝑝
21
… … … ) ∈ M𝑛,𝑚 (ℂ) ⇒ se pot obtine 𝐶𝑛 ⋅ 𝐶𝑚 minori de ordin 𝑝
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑚
Exemple de minori:
𝑝 = 1 ⇒ |𝑎11 |, |𝑎12 |, … , |𝑎𝑛𝑚 |
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎13 𝑎(𝑛−1)(𝑚−1) 𝑎(𝑛−1)𝑚
𝑝 = 2 ⇒ |𝑎 𝑎22 | , |𝑎21 𝑎23 | , … , | 𝑎𝑛(𝑚−1) 𝑎𝑛𝑚 |
21
Matricea nula are rangul 0; rang(𝑂𝑛,𝑚 ) = 0. Daca o matrice are cel putin un
element nenul, rangul matricei este cel putin 1.
Proprietatile rangului unei matrice:
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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7 0 3 4
𝐴=(2 1 −1 3 ) ⇒ |7| = 7
14 0 6 8
7 0 3 4
7 0
𝐴=(2 1 −1 3 ) ⇒ | |=7
2 1
14 0 6 8
7 0 3 4 7 0 3
𝐴=(2 1 −1 3 ) ⇒ | 2 1 −1| = 0
14 0 6 8 14 0 6
7 0 3 4 7 0 4
𝐴=(2 1 −1 3 ) ⇒ | 2 1 3| = 0
14 0 6 8 14 0 8
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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7) Ecuatii matriceale:
Se inmulteste la drepta sau la stanga cu inversa unei matrice deja stiute pana
cand necunoscuta ramane singura intr-unul dintre membrii ecuatiei. Aceasta
metoda se poate aplica doar daca matricea/matricele stiute sunt inversabile.
𝐴 ⋅ 𝑋 = 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 ⋅ 𝐵
𝑋 ⋅ 𝐴 = 𝐵 ⇒ 𝑋 = 𝐵 ⋅ 𝐴−1
𝐴 ⋅ 𝑋 ⋅ 𝐵 = 𝐶 ⇒ 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 ⋅ 𝐶 ⋅ 𝐵 −1
33. Determinantul unei matrice patratice:
Fiecarei matrice patrice de ordin 𝑛, 𝐴 ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (ℂ), ii se poate asocia un numar notat
det(𝐴) = |𝐴| ∈ ℂ, numit determinant de ordin 𝑛. Cateodata determinantul unei
matrice este notat Δ (delta).
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑎 𝑎22 … 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴=(… 21
… … … ) ∈ 𝑀𝑛 (ℂ) ⇒ det(𝐴) = | …21
… … … |∈ℂ
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛
Pentru matrice patratice de ordin 1, 𝐴 = (𝑎11 ), determinantul de ordin 1 este
unicul element din matrice, det(𝐴) = |𝑎11 | = 𝑎11.
1) Determinantul de ordin 2:
Determinantul de ordin 2 este diferenta dintre produsul elementelor de pe
diagonala principala si produsul elementelor de pe diagonala secundara a
matricei.
𝑎11 𝑎12
𝐴 = (𝑎 ) ∈ 𝑀2 (ℂ) = matrice patratica de ordin 2
21 𝑎22
𝑎11 𝑎12
⇒ det(𝐴) = |𝑎 | ∈ ℂ = determinant de ordin 2
21 𝑎22
𝑎11 𝑎12
det(𝐴) = |𝑎 𝑎22 | = 𝑎11 ⋅ 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 ⋅ 𝑎21
21
2) Determinantul de ordin 3:
Pentru matrice de ordin 3 se pot aplica 3 metode de calculare a determinantului
de ordin 3:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎
𝐴 = ( 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) ∈ 𝑀3 (ℂ) ⇒ det(𝐴) = |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | ∈ ℂ
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
i. Regula triunghiului:
Se face produsul pe diagonale si pe triunghiurile cu bazele paralele cu
diagonalele. Se aduna diagonala principala si triunghiurile respective si se scad
diagonala secundara si triunghiurile respective.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎
| 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | ; |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
|𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎11 ⋅ 𝑎22 ⋅ 𝑎33 + 𝑎12 ⋅ 𝑎23 ⋅ 𝑎31 + 𝑎13 ⋅ 𝑎21 ⋅ 𝑎32
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
−𝑎13 ⋅ 𝑎22 ⋅ 𝑎31 − 𝑎12 ⋅ 𝑎21 ⋅ 𝑎33 − 𝑎11 ⋅ 𝑎23 ⋅ 𝑎32
Exemplu:
1 2 −1
|3 0 1 | = 1 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2 + (−1) ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1 − (−1) ⋅ 0 ⋅ 2 − 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1 − 1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1
2 1 1
= 0 + 4 − 3 + 0 − 6 − 1 = −6
ii. Regula lui Sarrus:
Se copiaza primele doua linii dedesubtul determinantului (nu fac parte din
determinant). Se face produsul pe diagonale si paralelele diagonalelor. Se aduna
diagonala principala si paralelele respective si se scad diagonala secundara si
paralelele respective.
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
|𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | ; |𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23
Exemplu:
1 2 −1
|3 0 1 | = 1 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 1 + (−1) ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1 + 2 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 2 − (−1) ⋅ 0 ⋅ 2 − 1 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 − 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 1
2 1 1
1 2 −1
= 0 + 4 − 3 + 0 − 6 − 1 = −6
3 0 1
iii. Dezvoltarea dupa o linie sau coloana (Regula minorilor):
Se alege o linie sau coloana. Determinantul va fi suma produselor dintre
elementul curent si complementul algebric corespunzator.
Complementul algebric = produsul dintre 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , (−1)𝑖+𝑗 si determinantul rezultat
din eliminarea liniei si coloanei elementului curent (linia 𝑖, coloana 𝑗 respectiv).
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23
𝑎
| 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎11 ⋅ (−1)1+1 ⋅ | 22 | + 𝑎 ⋅ (−1)1+2
⋅ |
𝑎32 𝑎33 12 𝑎31 𝑎33 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎21 𝑎22
+ 𝑎13 ⋅ (−1)1+3 ⋅ |𝑎 𝑎32 |
31
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𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎 𝑎23 𝑎12 𝑎13
|𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 | = 𝑎11 ⋅ (−1)1+1 ⋅ | 22 | + 𝑎 ⋅ (−1) 2+1
⋅ |
𝑎32 𝑎33 21 𝑎32 𝑎33 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝑎12 𝑎13
+ 𝑎31 ⋅ (−1)3+1 ⋅ |𝑎 |
22 𝑎23
minorul de ordin 2
corespunzator lui 𝑎11
⏞𝑎22 𝑎23
𝑎⏟
11 ⋅ (−1)1+1 ⋅ |𝑎 𝑎33 |
⏟ 32
elementul
curent complementul algebric
corespunzator lui 𝑎11
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𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 𝐶3 ∶=𝐶3+𝐶2+𝐶1 𝑎 𝑏 (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ 1 𝑎 𝑏 1
|𝑐 𝑎 𝑏| = | 𝑐 𝑎 (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ 1| = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ | 𝑐 𝑎 1|
𝑏 𝑐 𝑐 𝑏 𝑐 (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ 1 𝑏 𝑐 1
𝐿2 ∶=𝐿2 −𝐿1 𝑎 𝑏 1
= (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ | 𝑐 − 𝑎 𝑎 − 𝑏 0|
𝐿3 ∶=𝐿3 −𝐿1
𝑏−𝑎 𝑐−𝑏 0
𝑐−𝑎 𝑎−𝑏
= (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ 1 ⋅ (−1)1+3 ⋅ | |
𝑏−𝑎 𝑐−𝑏
= (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ [(𝑐 − 𝑎) ⋅ (𝑐 − 𝑏) − (𝑎 − 𝑏) ⋅ (𝑏 − 𝑎)]
= (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ (𝑐 2 − 𝑐 ⋅ 𝑏 − 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐 + 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑎2 − 2 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 + 𝑏 2 )
= (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐) ⋅ (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 + 𝑐 2 − 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑏𝑐 − 𝑎𝑐)
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1 𝑥𝐴 𝑦𝐴 1 𝑥𝐴 𝑦𝐴 1
𝐴Δ𝐴𝐵𝐶 = ⋅ |𝑥𝐵 𝑦𝐵 1| = 0 𝑥
| 𝐵 𝑦𝐵 1| = modul din determinant
2 𝑥 𝑦𝐶 1 𝑥𝐶 𝑦𝐶 1
𝐶
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Δ𝑥 4
𝑥= = =1
Δ 4
Δ𝑦 4
𝑦= = = 1 𝑆 = {(1,1,2)}
Δ 4
Δ𝑧 8
𝑧= = = 2}
Δ 2
1+1−2=0
{1 + 1 + 2 = 4
1−1+2=2
ii. Metoda matriceala:
Pentru sisteme de ecuatii liniare cu 𝑛 ecuatii si 𝑛 necunoscute si determinantul
matricei sistemului nenul (det(𝐴) ≠ 0).
𝑎11 ⋅ 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 ⋅ 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 ⋅ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
(𝑆) { 𝑎…
21 ⋅ 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 ⋅ 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 ⋅ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
…………………………………………
𝑎𝑛1 ⋅ 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 ⋅ 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 ⋅ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛
Sistemul poate fi scris ca 𝐴 ⋅ 𝑋 = 𝐵, unde:
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥1 𝑏1
… 𝑎2𝑛
𝐴 = (𝑎…
21 𝑎22
… … … ) 𝑋 = (𝑥…2 ) 𝐵 = ( 𝑏…2 )
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 … 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 𝑏𝑛
Daca matricea 𝐴 este inversabila (𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) ≠ 0) atunci 𝑋 = 𝐴−1 ⋅ 𝐵, iar solutia
sistemului este transpusa lui 𝑋; 𝑡𝑋 = 𝑡(𝐴−1 ⋅ 𝐵).
2) Metoda de rezolvare a unui sistem cu m ecuatii si n necunoscute:
Pentru sisteme de ecuatii liniare cu 𝑚 ecuatii si 𝑛 necunoscute se face discutie in
functie de rangul lui 𝐴, rangul lui 𝐴̅ si a numarului de necunoscute pentru a
determina compatibilitatea sistemului.
𝑎11 ⋅ 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 ⋅ 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 ⋅ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1
𝑎
(𝑆) { … 21 ⋅ 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 ⋅ 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 ⋅ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2
…………………………………………
𝑎𝑚1 ⋅ 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑚2 ⋅ 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑚𝑛 ⋅ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑚
𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑚 𝑎11 𝑎12 … 𝑎1𝑛 𝑏1
… 𝑎2𝑚 … 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2
𝐴 = ( 𝑎…
21 𝑎22
… … … ) 𝐴̅ = ( 𝑎…
21 𝑎22
… … … |…)
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 … 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑏𝑚
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Exemplu:
𝑥+2⋅𝑦 =1
{ ⋅𝑥−8⋅𝑦 =1
6
5⋅𝑥+2⋅𝑦 =3
1 2 1 2 1
𝐴 = (6 −8) 𝐴̅ = (6 −8 |1 )
5 2 5 2 3
1 ≤ rang(𝐴) ≤ 2 1 ≤ rang(𝐴̅) ≤ 3
|1| = 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ rang(𝐴) ≥ 1 |1| = 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ rang(𝐴̅) ≥ 1
1 2 1 2
| | = −20 ≠ 0 ⇒ rang(𝐴) = 2 | | = −20 ≠ 0 ⇒ rang(𝐴̅) ≥ 2
6 −8 6 −8
1 2 1
(Δ𝑐1 =) |6 −8 1| = −24 + 12 + 10 + 40 − 36 − 2 = 0 ⇒ rang(𝐴̅) = 2
5 2 3
rang(𝐴) = rang(𝐴̅) = numarul de necunoscute = 2 ⇒ sistem compatibil
determinat.
1 2
Δ𝑝 = | |
6 −8
𝑥+2⋅𝑦 =1
{
6⋅𝑥−8⋅𝑦 =1
1 2 1 2 1
𝐴=( ) ⟹ Δ = −20 𝐴̅ = ( | )
6 −8 6 −8 1
1 2 Δ𝑥 −10 1
Δ𝑥 = | | = −10 ⇒ 𝑥 = = =
1 −8 Δ −20 2 } 𝑆 = {(1 , 1)}
1 1 Δ𝑦 −5 1 2 4
Δ𝑦 = | | = −5 ⇒ 𝑦 = = =
6 1 Δ −20 4
1 1
+2⋅ =1 1 1
{ 2 4 ⇒ {2 + 2 = 1
1 1
6⋅ −8⋅ = 1 3−2 =1
2 4
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II. Daca rang(𝐴) = rang(𝐴̅) < numarul de necunoscute, atunci sistemul este
compatibil nedeterminat (S.C.N).
Rezolvam cu ajutorul sistemelor Cramer sistemul format din ecuatiile si
necunoscutele corespunzatore determinantului care ne da rangul
(determinantul principal, Δ𝑝 ). Celalte necunoscute le mutam, cu semn
schimbat, in membrul opus (celalta parte a egalului) si le consideram
parametrii, cateodata numite necunoscute secundare.
Observatie: Daca solutiile sistemului depind de un singur parametru
atunci sistemul se numeste simplu nedeterminat/ 1-nedeterminat. Daca
solutiile sistemul depind de doi parametri atunci sistemul se numeste
dublu nedeterminat / 2-nedeterminat.
Exemplu:
2⋅𝑥+𝑦−𝑧−𝑡+𝑤 =1
{ 𝑥−𝑦+𝑧+𝑡−2⋅𝑤 =0
3⋅𝑥+3⋅𝑦−3⋅𝑧−3⋅𝑡+4⋅𝑤 =2
2 1 −1 −1 1
𝐴 = (1 −1 1 1 −2 ) ⟹ 1 ≤ rang(𝐴) ≤ 3
3 3 −3 −3 4
2 1 −1 −1 1 1
𝐴̅ = (1 −1 1 1 −2 |0 ) ⟹ 1 ≤ rang(𝐴̅) ≤ 3
3 3 −3 −3 4 2
|2| = 2 ≠ 0 ⟹ rang(𝐴) ≥ 1, rang(𝐴̅) ≥ 1
2 1
| | = −3 ≠ 0 ⟹ rang(𝐴) ≥ 2, rang(𝐴̅) ≥ 2
1 −1
2 1 −1
|1 −1 1 | = 6 + 3 − 3 − 3 + 3 − 6 = 0
3 3 −3
2 1 −1
|1 −1 1 | = 0 ⇒ rang(𝐴) = 2, rang(𝐴̅) ≥ 2
3 3 −3
2 1 1
|1 −1 −1| = −8 + 3 − 6 + 3 − 4 + 12 = 0
3 3 4 }
2 1 1
(Δ𝑐1 =) |1 −1 0| = −4 + 0 + 3 + 3 − 2 − 0 = 0 ⇒ rang(𝐴̅) = 2
3 3 2
rang(𝐴) = rang(𝐴̅) < numarul de necunoscute ⇒ sistem compatibil
2 < 5 nedeterminat
2 1
Δ𝑝 = | |
1 −1
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2⋅𝑥+𝑦 =1+𝑧+𝑡−𝑤
{
𝑥−𝑦 =0−𝑧−𝑡+2⋅𝑤
2 1 2 1 𝑧+𝑡−𝑤+1
𝐴=( ) ⟹ Δ = −3 𝐴̅ = ( | )
1 −1 1 −1 2 ⋅ 𝑤 − 𝑧 − 𝑡
𝑧+𝑡−𝑤+1 1
Δ𝑥 = | | = −𝑧 − 𝑡 + 𝑤 − 1 − 2 ⋅ 𝑤 + 𝑧 + 𝑡 = −𝑤 − 1 ⇒
2 ⋅ 𝑤 − 𝑧 − 𝑡 −1
Δ𝑥 −𝑤 − 1 𝑤 + 1
⇒𝑥= = =
Δ −3 3
2 𝑧+𝑡−𝑤+1
Δ𝑦 = | |= 4⋅𝑤−2⋅𝑧−2⋅𝑡−𝑧−𝑡+𝑤−1 =
1 2⋅𝑤−𝑧−𝑡
5⋅𝑤−3⋅𝑧−3⋅𝑡−1
=5⋅𝑤−3⋅𝑧−3⋅𝑡−1⇒𝑦 = =
−3
3⋅𝑧+3⋅𝑡−5⋅𝑤+1
=
3
𝑤+1 3⋅𝑧+3⋅𝑡−5⋅𝑤+1
𝑆 = {( , , 𝑧, 𝑡, 𝑤) | 𝑧, 𝑡, 𝑤 ∈ ℝ}
3 3
Pentru orice valori date parametrilor 𝑧, 𝑡, 𝑤, egalitatile vor fi adevarate.
𝑤+1 3⋅𝑧+3⋅𝑡−5⋅𝑤+1
2⋅ + =1+𝑧+𝑡−𝑤
{ 3 3
𝑤+1 3⋅𝑧+3⋅𝑡−5⋅𝑤+1
− = −𝑧 − 𝑡 + 2 ⋅ 𝑤
3 3
2⋅𝑤+2+3⋅𝑧+3⋅𝑡−5⋅𝑤+1
=1+𝑧+𝑡−𝑤
{ 3
𝑤+1−3⋅𝑧−3⋅𝑡+5⋅𝑤−1
= −𝑧 − 𝑡 + 2 ⋅ 𝑤
3
−3 ⋅ 𝑤 + 3 ⋅ 𝑧 + 3 ⋅ 𝑡 + 3
=1+𝑧+𝑡−𝑤
{ 3
6⋅𝑤−3⋅𝑧−3⋅𝑡
= −𝑧 − 𝑡 + 2 ⋅ 𝑤
3
III. Daca rang(𝐴) ≠ rang(𝐴̅), atunci sistemul este incompatibil (S.I); sistemul
nu are solutii.
Exemplu:
𝑥−2⋅𝑦+𝑧+𝑡 =1
{ − 2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑧 − 𝑡 = −1
𝑥
𝑥−2⋅𝑦+𝑧+5⋅𝑡 =6
1 −2 1 1
𝐴 = (1 −2 1 −1) ⟹ 1 ≤ rang(𝐴) ≤ 3
1 −2 1 5
1 −2 1 1 1
𝐴̅ = (1 −2 1 −1 |−1 ) ⟹ 1 ≤ rang(𝐴̅) ≤ 3
1 −2 1 5 6
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Exemplu:
V1 = (1; 3), 𝜀 = 1
3 5 1
V2 = ( ; ) ⊂ (1; 5), 𝜀 =
2 2 2
V3 = (1; +∞) ⊃ (1; 5)
𝑎=2⇒ = vecinatati a lui 2
19 21 1
V4 = ( , ) , 𝜀 =
10 10 10
19 21 19 21
( )
{ V5 = [10 , 10] ⊃ 10 , 10
V6 = [2; 5]
𝑎=2⇒{ NU sunt vecinatati a lui 2; nu contin intervale centrate in 2
V7 = (2; 5)
2) Siruri de numere reale:
Un sir de numere reale este o functie 𝑓 ∶ ℕ ∖ 𝐴 → ℝ, unde 𝐴 este o multime finita
sau vida (𝐴 = Ø).
Daca 𝐴 = Ø ⇒ 𝑓 ∶ ℕ → ℝ este sir; 𝑓(1) = 𝑟1 , 𝑓(2) = 𝑟3 , … , 𝑓(𝑛) = 𝑟𝑛
3) Siruri convergente:
Un sir (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 converge la 𝑙 / are limit 𝑙 / (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 tinde la 𝑙
((𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 ⟶ 𝑙 / lim 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑙) daca in afara oricarii vecinatati a lui 𝑙 raman un
𝑛⟶∞
numar finit de termeni.
Un sir (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 converge la 𝑙 daca orice vecinatate a lui 𝑙 contine toti termenii
sirului incepand de la un rang incolo.
Un sir (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 converge la 𝑙 daca (∀)V ∈ 𝒱(𝑙)/ 𝒱𝑙 (multimea vecinitatilor lui 𝑙)
(∃)𝑛V ∈ ℕ astfel incat 𝑥𝑛 ∈ V, (∀)𝑛 ≥ 𝑛V .
Un sir (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 converge la 𝑙 daca (∀)𝜀 > 0 (oricat de mic) (∃)𝑛ε ∈ ℕ
astfel incat |𝑥𝑛 − 𝑙| < 𝜀, (∀)𝑛 ≥ 𝑛ε .
Un sir convergent este un sir care are limita finita.
Un sir divergent este un sir care are limita infinita sau nu are limita.
Un sir care are limita este un sir care are limita finita sau infinita.
Proprietati:
• Daca un sir are limita, aceasta este unica.
• Orice sir convergent este marginit.
𝛼 = min(𝑙 − 𝜀, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 )
𝛼 ≤ 𝑥𝑛 ≤ 𝛽, {
𝛽 = max(𝑙 + 𝜀, 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , … , 𝑥𝑛 )
• Un sir care nu este marginit nu este convergent.
4) Siruri convergente la 0:
𝑐
• 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛𝛼 , 𝑐 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎, 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎, 𝛼 > 0
7
𝑥𝑛 = →0
𝑛3
• 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎 ∈ (−1; 1)
1 𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = ( ) → 0
2
𝑎 𝑛 𝑎
• 𝑥𝑛 = (𝑏) , ∈ (−1; 1) ⇔ 𝑎 < 𝑏
𝑏
7 𝑛
𝑥𝑛 = ( ) → 0
15
1
• 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎>1
1
𝑥𝑛 = →0
3𝑛
• 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 ⋅ 𝑛𝑘 , 𝑎 ∈ (−1; 1), 𝑘 ∈ ℕ
1 𝑛 2
𝑥𝑛 = ( ) ⋅ 𝑛 → 0
2
Produsul dintre un sir convergent la 0 si un sir marginit are limita egala cu 0.
𝑥𝑛 → 0
} ⇒ 𝑥𝑛 ⋅ 𝑦𝑛 → 0
(𝑦𝑛 )𝑛≥1 marginit
Observatie: Functiile sinus, cosinus, tangenta, cotangenta nu au limite la +∞ sau
la −∞. Functiile sinus si cosinus sunt marginite (intre −1 si 1).
1
𝑥𝑛 = →0 1 3 𝑛
𝑛
} ⇒ ⋅ ( ) →0
3 𝑛 𝑛 10
𝑦𝑛 = ( ) ⇒ 0 < 𝑦𝑛 < 1
10
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5) Cazuri de nedeterminare:
0 ∞ ∞ 0 ∞
∞ − ∞ ((−∞) + ∞); 0 ⋅ ∞ ; ; ;1 ;0 ;∞
0 ∞
Metode de abordare a unor cazuri de nedeterminare comune:
aducerea la acelasi numitor
• ∞ − ∞ ((−∞) + ∞) {
amplificarea cu conjugata
(√𝑛2 + 1 − 𝑛)(√𝑛2 + 1 + 𝑛)
lim (√𝑛2 + 1 − 𝑛) = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ √𝑛2 + 1 + 𝑛
𝑛2 + 1 − 𝑛2 1 1
= lim = lim = lim
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
√𝑛2 ⋅ (1 + 12 ) + 𝑛 𝑛 ⋅ √(1 +
1
)+𝑛 𝑛 ⋅ (√(1 +
1
) + 1)
𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛2
1 1 1
= = ∞⋅(√1+1) = ∞⋅2 = 0
∞⋅(√(1+0)+1)
∞
• {factor comun "fortat"
∞
3 3 3
2⋅𝑛+3 𝑛 ⋅ (2 + 𝑛) 𝑛 ⋅ (2 + 𝑛) (2 + 𝑛)
lim = lim = lim = lim =
𝑛→∞ √𝑛2 + 5 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
√𝑛2 ⋅ (1 + 52 ) 5
𝑛 ⋅ √(1 + 2 ) √(1 + 52 )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
(2 + 0) 2
= =2
√(1 + 0) √1
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𝑥𝑛 → 𝑐 = constanta 𝑥𝑛 → 𝑐 = constanta
𝑥𝑛 > 0 𝑥𝑛 𝑐+ 𝑥𝑛 < 0 𝑥𝑛 𝑐−
}⇒ = = −∞ }⇒ = = +∞
𝑦𝑛 → 0 𝑦𝑛 0− 𝑦𝑛 → 0 𝑦𝑛 0−
𝑦𝑛 < 0 𝑦𝑛 < 0
Observatie: Daca (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 ⟶ 𝑥 si (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 ≥ 0 sau (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 > 0, (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℕ, atunci
𝑥 ≥ 0.
Observatie: Operatiile cu siruri sunt posibile doar daca nu se ajunge la un caz de
nedeterminare (operatiile cu siruri sunt posibile cu exceptia cazurilor de
nedeterminare).
7) Trecerea la limita in inegalitati:
Fie (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 ⟶ 𝑥 si (𝑦𝑛 )𝑛≥1 ⟶ 𝑦, 𝑥𝑛 < 𝑦𝑛 (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℕ, atunci 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦.
Observatie:
𝑥𝑛 → 𝑥 𝑥𝑛 → 𝑥
𝑦𝑛 → 𝑦 } ⇒ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦 𝑦𝑛 → 𝑦 } ⇒ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑦
𝑥𝑛 < 𝑦𝑛 𝑥𝑛 ≤ 𝑦𝑛
1 1
< ⇒0≤0
𝑛2 +1 𝑛
8) Criteriul clestelui (Criteriul celor 2 jandarmi):
Fie (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 , (𝑦𝑛 )𝑛≥1 , (𝑧𝑛 )𝑛≥1 .
Daca 𝑥𝑛 ≤ 𝑦𝑛 ≤ 𝑧𝑛 , (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℕ si 𝑥𝑛 → 𝑙, 𝑧𝑛 → 𝑙, atunci si 𝑦𝑛 → 𝑙.
𝑥𝑛 ≤ 𝑦𝑛 ≤ 𝑧𝑛
𝑦𝑛 𝑦𝑛
𝑥𝑛 𝑙 𝑧𝑛 𝑙 𝑥𝑛 𝑧𝑛
𝑙
𝑦𝑛 𝑦𝑛
𝑥𝑛 +∞ −∞ 𝑧𝑛
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Exemplu:
1 1 1
𝑦𝑛 = + 2 + ⋯+ 2
𝑛2 +1 𝑛 +2 𝑛 +𝑛
𝑥𝑛 𝑧𝑛
⏞1 1 1 1 1 1 ⏞11
+ + ⋯+ 2 ≤ 2 + ⋯+ 2 ≤ 2 + 2 + ⋯+ 2
𝑛2 +𝑛 𝑛2 +𝑛 𝑛 +𝑛 𝑛 +1 𝑛 +𝑛 𝑛 +1 𝑛 +1 𝑛 +1
1 + 1 + ⋯+ 1 1 + 1 + ⋯+ 1
2
≤ 𝑦𝑛 ≤
𝑛 +𝑛 𝑛2 + 1
𝑛 𝑛
2
≤ 𝑦𝑛 ≤ 2
𝑛 +𝑛 𝑛 +1
𝑛 𝑛
≤ 𝑦𝑛 ≤
1 1
𝑛2 ⋅ (1 + 𝑛) 𝑛2 ⋅ (1 + 2 )
𝑛
1 1
≤ 𝑦𝑛 ≤ ⇒ lim 𝑦𝑛 = 0
1 1 𝑛⟶∞
𝑛 ⋅ (1 + 𝑛) 𝑛 ⋅ (1 + )
𝑛2
0
9) Teorema lui Weierstrass:
Orice sir monoton si marginit este convergent.
Consecinte:
Orice sir crescator si marginit superior este convergent.
Orice sir descrescator si marginit inferior este convergent.
Teorema lui Weiestrass este folositoare cand trebuie demonstrata convergenta
unui sir, iar limita sirului nu este stiuta. Dezadvantajul teoremei este ca nu
permite calculul limitei.
Reciproca nu este adevarata; un sir convergent nu este neaparat monoton.
Exemplu:
𝑎𝑛
𝑥𝑛 =
𝑛!
𝑎𝑛
lim = 0 (se foloseste criteriul raportului) ⇒ 𝑥𝑛 convergent
𝑛→∞ 𝑛!
𝑎𝑛+1
𝑥𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1)! 𝑎𝑛 ⋅ 𝑎 𝑛! 𝑎 𝑥𝑛+1
= 𝑛 = ⋅ 𝑛= <1⇒ < 1 ⇒ 𝑥𝑛+1 < 𝑥𝑛 ⟹
𝑥𝑛 𝑎 𝑛! ⋅ (𝑛 + 1) 𝑎 𝑛+1 𝑥𝑛
𝑛!
⇒ 𝑥𝑛 > 𝑥𝑛+1 ⇒ (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 descrescator
𝑎𝑛
> 0 ⇒ (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 marginit inferior
𝑛!
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Pentru a afla limita unui sir definit recurent intai se afla limita posibila si se
foloste principiul inductiei matematice pentru a demonstra daca aceasta este mai
mica (daca sirul este descrescator)/mai mare (daca sirul este crescator) fata de
toti termeni.
Exemplu:
1 3
𝑥𝑛+1 = ⋅ 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑥1 = 1
2 2
1 3 4
𝑥2 = ⋅1+ = =2
2 2 2
1 3 5
𝑥3 = ⋅ 2 + = = 2,5
2 2 2
1 5 3 11
𝑥4 = ⋅ + = = 2,75
2 2 2 4
Fie 𝑃(𝑘) = 𝑥𝑘 < 𝑥𝑘+1 (presupunem ca sirul este crescator).
I. Verificare:
𝑃(1) = 𝑥1 < 𝑥2 = 1 < 2
5
𝑃(2) = 𝑥2 < 𝑥3 = 2 <
2
5 11
𝑃(3) = 𝑥3 < 𝑥4 = <
2 4
II. Presupunem ca 𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑡 < 𝑥𝑡+1 este adevarata. Demonstram ca
𝑃(𝑡 + 1) = 𝑥𝑡+1 < 𝑥𝑡+2 este adevarata.
1
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑥𝑡 < 𝑥𝑡+1 / ⋅
2
1 1 3
⋅ 𝑥𝑡 < ⋅ 𝑥𝑡+1 / +
2 2 2
1 3 1 3
⋅ 𝑥𝑡 + < ⋅ 𝑥𝑡+1 + /folosim relatia de recurenta
2 2 2 2
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑖𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑖 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒
𝑥𝑡+1 < 𝑥𝑡+2 = 𝑃(𝑡 + 1) ⇒ 𝑃(𝑡 + 1) = 𝑥𝑡+1 <
𝑥𝑡+2 este adevarata ⇒ 𝑃(𝑘) = 𝑥𝑘 < 𝑥𝑘+1 este adevarata (∀)𝑘 ∈ ℕ, 𝑘 ≥ 2 ⇒
⇒ (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥2 crescator
1 3
𝑥𝑛+1 = ⋅ 𝑥𝑛 + / 𝑛 → ∞ (trecem la limita in relatia de recurenta)
2 2
1 3
𝑙= ⋅𝑙+ /⋅2
2 2
2⋅𝑙 =𝑙+3 /−𝑙
𝑙 = 3 = limita posibila
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∞
1 𝑥𝑛 ∞ ln 𝑥𝑛
1 { lim (1 + ) = 𝑒 { lim =0
𝑛→∞ 𝑥𝑛 ∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑥𝑛
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Exemplu:
sin(3 ⋅ 𝑛)
𝑥𝑛 =
𝑛2
sin(3 ⋅ 𝑛) sin(3 ⋅ 𝑛) 3 ⋅ 𝑛 sin(3 ⋅ 𝑛) 3
lim 𝑥𝑛 = lim = lim ( ⋅ ) = lim ( ⋅ )=
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 𝑛→∞ 𝑛2 3⋅𝑛 𝑛→∞ 3⋅𝑛 𝑛
sin(3 ⋅ 𝑛) 3
= lim ⋅ lim = 1 ⋅ 0 = 0
⏟
𝑛→∞ 3⋅𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
𝑠𝑖𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙
Exemplu:
1 1 1 1
+ 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = 1
𝑛
1 1 1 1
𝑥𝑛 = + + +⋯+
1 2 3 𝑛
𝑦𝑛 = 𝑛 = strict crescator, nemarginit, cu termeni nenuli.
1 1 1 1
+ + + ⋯ +
lim 𝑎𝑛 = lim 1 2 3 𝑛 =?
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 + 𝑛 + 1 − (1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯ + 𝑛 )
lim 1 =
𝑛→∞ 𝑛+1−𝑛
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
+ 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑛 + 𝑛 +1 − 1 − 2 − 3 − ⋯− 𝑛
= lim 1 =
𝑛→∞ 1
1 1 1 1
1 + 2 + 3 + ⋯+ 𝑛
= lim = 0 ⇒ lim 1 = 0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛
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Exemplu:
𝑥𝑛 = 2𝑛 + 3𝑛
𝑛
lim 𝑛√𝑥𝑛 = lim √2𝑛 + 3𝑛 = ?
𝑛→∞ 𝑛→∞
2𝑛+1 2𝑛+1
𝑥𝑛+1 2 +3 𝑛+1 𝑛+1 3𝑛+1 ⋅ ( + 1) 3𝑛+1
⋅ ( + 1)
3𝑛+1 3𝑛+1
lim = lim = lim = lim =
𝑛→∞ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛→∞ 2 + 3𝑛
𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 2𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑛 2𝑛
3 ⋅ (3𝑛 + 1) 3 ⋅ (3𝑛 + 1)
2 𝑛+1
3 ⋅ ((3) + 1)
𝑛
= lim 𝑛 = 3 ⇒ lim √2𝑛 + 3𝑛 = 3
𝑛→∞ 2 𝑛→∞
(( ) + 1)
3
ii. Criteriul raportului:
𝑥𝑛+1
Fie (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 , 𝑥𝑛 > 0, (∀)𝑛 ∈ ℕ∗ . Daca lim ̅ atunci:
=𝑙∈ℝ
𝑛→∞ 𝑥𝑛
𝑎𝑛+1
𝑥𝑛+1 𝑥𝑛+1 (𝑛 + 1)! 𝑎𝑛 ⋅ 𝑎 𝑛!
lim = lim = lim 𝑛 = lim ( ⋅ 𝑛) =
𝑛→∞ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑥𝑛 𝑛→∞ 𝑎 𝑛→∞ 𝑛! ⋅ (𝑛 + 1) 𝑎
𝑛!
𝑎 𝑎𝑛
= lim = 0 < 1 ⇒ lim =0
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 + 1 𝑛→∞ 𝑛!
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𝑓 ∶ ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥 + 1 = +∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞
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𝐵 = {1, 2, 3, 4} 1 2 3 4
1 3
V1 = ( ; ) = (0,5; 1,5) ⟹ 𝐵 ∩ (V1 ∖ {0}) = Ø
2 3
⇒ 1 este punct izolat al multimii 𝐵
19 21
V2 = ( ; ) = (1,9; 2,1) ⟹ 𝐵 ∩ (V2 ∖ {0}) = Ø
10 10
⇒ 2 este punct izolat al multimii 𝐵
14 16
V3 = ( ; ) = (2,8; 3,2) ⟹ 𝐵 ∩ (V3 ∖ {0}) = Ø
5 5
⇒ 3 este punct izolat al multimii 𝐵
37 43
V4 = ( ; ) = (3,7; 4,3) ⟹ 𝐵 ∩ (V4 ∖ {0}) = Ø
10 10
⇒ 4 este punct izolat al multimii 𝐵
𝐶 = ℕ = {1, 2, 3, … }
V = (7; +∞] ⟹ ℕ ∩ (V ∖ {+∞}) ≠ Ø ⇒ +∞ este punct de acumulare pentru
multimea 𝑀
̅.
Observatie: ∞ / − ∞ ∉ ℝ, ∞ / − ∞ ∈ ℝ
(𝑎; +∞] ∈ 𝒱(+∞), [−∞; 𝑎) ∈ 𝒱(−∞).
2) Limita unei functiei:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ, 𝐷 ≠ Ø, 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥0 punct de acumulare pentru 𝐷.
̅ este limita functiei 𝑓 in punctul 𝑥0 ( lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑙) daca(∀)V ∈
Numarul 𝑙 ∈ ℝ
𝑥→𝑥0
𝒱(𝑙),
(∃)U ∈ 𝒱(𝑥0 ) astfel incat 𝑓(𝑥) ∈ V, (∀)𝑥 ∈ U ∩ 𝐷.
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Exemplu:
𝑓 ∶ ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim(𝑥 + 4) = 4 + 4 = 8
𝑥→4 𝑥→4
Functia 𝑓 are limita in punctul 𝑥0 daca 𝑙𝑠 = 𝑙𝑑 . Daca 𝑙𝑠 ≠ 𝑙𝑑 , sau una dintre ele nu
exista atunci 𝑓 nu are limita in punctul 𝑥0 .
Observatie: Limitele laterale se folosesc de obicei la functii care au doar numitor
care tinde la 0 sau la functii cu acolada.
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Exemplu:
1
𝑓 ∶ ℝ ∖ {3} → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−3
1 1
𝑙𝑠 (3) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = = −∞
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3 0−
𝑥<3 𝑥<3 1
⇒ functia 𝑓(𝑥) = nu are
1 1 𝑥−3
𝑙𝑑 (3) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = = +∞
𝑥→3 𝑥→3 𝑥 − 3 0+
𝑥>3 𝑥>3 }
limita in punctul 3
1
, 𝑥<1
𝑓 ∶ ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑥 + 1
1
𝑥− , 𝑥≥1
2
1 1 1
𝑙𝑠 (1) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = =
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥 + 1 1+1 2
𝑥<1 𝑥<1
⇒ functia 𝑓 are limita in punctul 1,
1 1 1
𝑙𝑑 (3) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥 − = 1 − =
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 2 2 2}
𝑥>1 𝑥>1
1
iar lim 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥→1 2
5) Calculul limitelor de functii elementare(simple):
Functiile elementare(simple) sunt: functia constanta, functia de gradul I, functia
𝑛
de gradul II, functia putere (𝑥 𝑛 ), functia radical ( √𝑥), functia exponentiala (𝑎 𝑥 ),
functia logaritmica (log 𝑎 𝑥), functiile trigonomice directe (sin 𝑥 ; cos 𝑥 ;
tg 𝑥 ; ctg 𝑥), functiile trigonometrice inverse (arcsin 𝑥 ; arccos 𝑥 ;
; arctg 𝑥 ; arcctg 𝑥).
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ, 𝐷 ≠ Ø, 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥0 punct de acumulare pentru 𝐷.
Pentru a calcula limita functiei 𝑓 in punctul 𝑥0 ( lim 𝑓(𝑥)) se tine cont de natura
𝑥→𝑥0
lui 𝑥0 :
I. Pentru 𝑥0 finit, se inlocuieste 𝑥 cu 𝑥0 :
lim(𝑥 + 3) = 5 + 3 = 8 lim 3𝑥 = 33 = 27 lim log 1 𝑥 = log 1 25 = −2
𝑥→5 𝑥→3 𝑥→25 5 5
3 3 𝜋 1
lim √𝑥 = √8 = 2 lim𝜋 cos 𝑥 = cos = lim arcsin 𝑥 = arcsin 0 = 0
𝑥→8 𝑥→ 3 2 𝑥→0
3
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𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=log𝑎 𝑥 ↑
lim
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=log𝑎 𝑥
𝑎>1
𝑎 ∈ (0,1)
−∞, 𝑎 > 1 ←𝑥
lim log 𝑎 𝑥 = { 1
𝑥→0 +∞, 𝑎 ∈ (0,1) 𝑂 𝑂 ←𝑥
𝑥>0 1
lim
↓
↑ ↑ 𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=tg 𝑥
lim tg 𝑥 = −∞
𝜋
lim tg 𝑥 = +∞
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥→ 𝑥→ −𝜋
2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋 2
𝑥>
2
𝑥<
2 ← 𝑂 ←
→ →
lim tg 𝑥 = −∞
𝜋
lim tg 𝑥 = +∞
𝜋
𝑥→− 𝑥→−
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
𝑥>− 𝑥<−
2 2
↓ ↓
𝜋
𝑓(𝑥) = tg 𝑥 nu are limita in ± 2
↑ ↑
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=ctg 𝑥
↗∞
∞↑ ↑∞
−∞ ∞
← →
𝑂
−∞ ∞
← →
𝑂
−∞ ↙
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𝜋 𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=arctg 𝑥
lim sin 𝑥 = nu exista 2
𝑥→+∞
↑
lim sin 𝑥 = nu exista
𝑥→−∞ −∞ ∞
𝜋 ← 𝑂 →
lim arctg 𝑥 =
𝑥→+∞ 2
𝜋 −𝜋
lim arctg 𝑥 = − ↓
𝑥→−∞ 2 2
6) Cazuri de nedeterminare:
0 ∞ ∞ 0 ∞
∞ − ∞ ((−∞) + ∞); 0 ⋅ ∞ ; ; ;1 ;0 ;∞
0 ∞
Metode de abordare a unor cazuri de nedeterminare comune:
aducerea la acelasi numitor
• ∞ − ∞ ((−∞) + ∞) {
amplificarea cu conjugata
∞ factor comun "fortat"
• {
∞ derivate (Regula lui L' Hospital)
• 1∞ {limite tip (remarcabile)
𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑒 + 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑒
0
• { 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑝 (𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑒)
0
derivate (Regula lui L' Hospital)
𝑥2 − 1 (𝑥 − 1) ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 1 −1 − 1 −2
lim 2 = lim = lim = = = −2
𝑥→−1 𝑥 + 3 ⋅ 𝑥 + 2 𝑥→−1 (𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥→−1 𝑥 + 2 −1 + 2 1
7) Trecerea la limita in inegalitati:
Fie 𝑓, 𝑔 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ, 𝐷 ≠ Ø, 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥0 punct de acumulare pentru 𝐷.
Daca functiile 𝑓 si 𝑔 au limita in punctul 𝑥0 si (∃)V ∈ 𝒱(𝑥0 ) astfel incat
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥), (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 ∩ (V ∖ {𝑥0 }) atunci lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ lim 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0
Proprietati:
Fie 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ, 𝐷 ≠ Ø, 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥0 punct de acumulare pentru 𝐷.
Daca functiile 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ au limita in punctul 𝑥0 si (∃)V ∈ 𝒱(𝑥0 ) astfel incat
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥) ≤ ℎ(𝑥), (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐷 ∩ (V ∖ {𝑥0 }) si lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑙 atunci
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0
lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑙 (criteriul clestelui).
𝑥→𝑥0
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lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑥0
lim (𝑓(𝑥)) = ( lim 𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑙1 𝑙2 (Posibile cazuri de
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0
nedeterminare: 0 ; ∞ sau 1∞ )
0 ∞
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∞ ln 𝑥
0 ⋅ ∞ {lim(𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥) = 0 { lim =0
𝑥→0 ∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥
𝑥>0
37. Asimptote:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ, 𝐷 ≠ Ø, 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥0 punct de acumulare pentru 𝐷.
O asimptota (la graficul functiei 𝑓, 𝐺𝑓 ) este o dreapta particulara cu proprietatea
ca graficul functiei 𝑓 (𝐺𝑓 ) se aproprie foarte mult de dreapta respectiva, fara insa
a o atinge (tinde asimptotic catre dreapta respectiva), atunci cand variabila 𝑥
tinde catre valori particulare.
𝑓 ∶ ℝ ∖ {−1} → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
𝑂 1 𝑥
𝑓 ∶ [−4; 2) → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦
1
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2) Asimptota orizontala:
Daca lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦0 ∈ ℝ (𝑦0 finit) ⇒ Dreapta de ecuatie 𝑦 = 𝑦0 este asimptota
𝑥→+∞
orizontala spre +∞ la 𝐺𝑓 .
𝑓(𝑥)
𝐷𝑎𝑐𝑎 lim = 𝑚 ∈ ℝ∗ (𝑚 finit si nenul) si lim (𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑥) = 𝑛 ∈ ℝ∗
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞
(𝑛 finit) ⇒ Dreapta de ecuatie 𝑦 = 𝑚 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑛 este asimptota oblica spre −∞ la 𝐺𝑓 .
Observatie: Daca graficul functiei 𝑓 (𝐺𝑓 ) admite asimptota oblica spre +∞ atunci
graficul nu mai admite asimptota orizontala spre +∞. Daca graficul functiei
𝑓 (𝐺𝑓 ) admite asimptota oblica spre −∞ atunci graficul nu mai admite asimptota
orizontala spre −∞.
Observatie: Limita la ±∞ se face doar daca acesta valori (±∞) sunt puncte de
acumulare pentru domeniul de definitie (𝐷).
𝑓 ∶ ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ⇒ limitele si la + ∞ si la − ∞
𝑓 ∶ (6; +∞) → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ⇒ limitele doar la + ∞
𝑓 ∶ (−∞; −5) → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ⇒ limitele doar la − ∞
𝑓 ∶ [−4; 2) → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑦 ⇒ nu se face limita nici la + ∞ nici la − ∞ (nu are
asimptote oblice)
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• Asimptote verticale:
2 ⋅ 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 ⋅ (−1)3 − (−1) 2 ⋅ (−1) + 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = = =
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 − 1 1−1 0+
𝑥<−1 𝑥<−1
−2 + 1 −1
= = = −∞ Dreptea de
0+ 0+
𝑥 −1 −1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 2 = = = +∞
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥 − 1 1 − 1 0−
𝑥>−1 𝑥<−1 }
ecuatie 𝑥 = −1 este asimptota verticala bilaterala spre ±∞.
2 ⋅ 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 ⋅ 13 − 1 2 ⋅ 1 − 1 2 − 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = = = =
𝑥→1 𝑥→1 𝑥 2 − 1 1−1 0− 0−
𝑥<1 𝑥<1
1
= = −∞ Dreptea de
0−
𝑥 1 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = = = +∞
𝑥→1 𝑥→−1 𝑥 2 − 1 1 − 1 0+
𝑥>1 𝑥<−1 }
ecuatie 𝑥 = 1 este asimptota verticala bilaterala spre ±∞.
• Asimptote orizontale:
𝑥 𝑥 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim = lim =0⇒
𝑥→+∞ 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 2− 1 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 2 ⋅ (1 − 1 ) 𝑥→+∞ 𝑥 ⋅ (1 − 1 )
𝑥2 𝑥2
⇒ Dreapta de ecuatie 𝑦 = 0 este asimptota orizontala spre +∞ la 𝐺𝑓 .
1 1
2 ⋅ 𝑥3 − 𝑥 𝑥 3 ⋅ (2 − 2 ) 𝑥 ⋅ (2 − 2 )
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 = −∞ ⇒
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥→−∞ 2 1 𝑥→−∞ 1
𝑥 ⋅ (1 − 2 ) (1 − 2 )
𝑥 𝑥
⇒ 𝐺𝑓 nu are asimptota orizontala spre −∞.
• Asimptote oblice:
𝐺𝑓 nu are asimptota oblica spre +∞ deoarece are asimptota orizontala spre +∞.
2 ⋅ 𝑥3 − 𝑥 1 1
𝑓(𝑥) 2 𝑥 3 ⋅ (2 − 2 ) 1 𝑥 ⋅ (2 − 2 )
lim = lim 𝑥 − 1 = lim [ 𝑥 ⋅ ] = lim 𝑥 =
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 1 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 1
𝑥 2 ⋅ (1 − 2 ) 𝑥 ⋅ (1 − 2 )
𝑥 𝑥
1
(2 − 2 ) 2
= lim 𝑥 = = 2 (= 𝑚)
1
(1 − 2 ) 1
𝑥→−∞
𝑥
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2 ⋅ 𝑥3 − 𝑥
lim (𝑓(𝑥) − 2 ⋅ 𝑥) = lim ( 2 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥) =
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 −1
2 ⋅ 𝑥 3 − 𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 2 − 1) 2 ⋅ 𝑥3 − 𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑥3 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥
= lim [ 2 − ] = lim ( − )=
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 −1 𝑥2 − 1 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥2 − 1 𝑥2 − 1
2 ⋅ 𝑥3 − 𝑥 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥3 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
= lim = lim = lim =
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥2 − 1 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥→−∞ 2 1
𝑥 ⋅ (1 − 2 )
𝑥
1
= lim = 0 (= 𝑛)
𝑥→−∞ 1
𝑥 ⋅ (1 − 2 )
𝑥
Dreapta de ecuatie 𝑦 = 2 ⋅ 𝑥 este asimptota oblica spre −∞ la 𝐺𝑓 .
𝐺𝑓
𝑥=1
𝑥 = −1
𝑦=0
𝑦 =2⋅𝑥
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𝑂
𝑥 𝑂 𝑥
continua necontinua
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𝐺𝑓
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑦
𝑥→𝑥0
𝑥<𝑥0
𝑓(𝑥0 )
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑥→𝑥0
𝑥>𝑥0 𝑂 𝑥0 𝑥
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑥→𝑥
𝑥→𝑥0
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
0
𝑥<𝑥0 𝑥>𝑥0
𝐺𝑓
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑦
𝑥→𝑥0
𝑥<𝑥0 𝑓(𝑥0 )
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑥0
𝑥→𝑥0
𝑥>𝑥0 𝑂 𝑥
lim 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 𝑥→𝑥
𝑥→𝑥0
lim 𝑓(𝑥)
0
𝑥<𝑥0 𝑥>𝑥0
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Exemplu:
Fie 𝑓, 𝑔 doua functii, 𝑓 continua pe ℝ ∖ {1}, 𝑔 continua pe ℝ. Fie ℎ = 𝑓 + 𝑔.
Prin reducere la absurd, presupunem ca ℎ este continua in punctul 1 ⇒
⇒ 𝑓 = ℎ − 𝑔 ⇒ 𝑓 continua in punctul 1 ⇒ contradictie ⇒ ℎ continua pe ℝ ∖ {1}
2) Proprietatile functiilor continue: 𝑦
I. Teorema lui Cauchy-Bolzano:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ [𝑎; 𝑏] → ℝ, 𝑓 continua pe [𝑎; 𝑏].
Daca 𝑓(𝑎) ⋅ 𝑓(𝑏) < 0 (𝑓(𝑎) si 𝑓(𝑏) au semne contrare)
atunci (∃) cel putin un 𝑐 astfel incat 𝑓(𝑐) = 0. 𝑐1 𝑐3
𝑂 𝑐2 𝑐4
Cu ajutorul acestei teoreme se poate preciza 𝑎 𝑏 𝑥
daca o ecuatie are radacina intr-un anumit interval.
II. Teorema lui Weierstrass de marginire:
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1
sin ( ), 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑓 ∶ ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥
0, 𝑥=0
Functia 𝑓 are proprietatea lui Darboux, desi nu este continua in punctul 0
(discontinuitate de speta II).
1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim sin (𝑥) = sin ∞ = nu exista ⇒ 0 este punct de discontinuitate de
𝑥→0 𝑥→0
speta II
Fie 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 < 0, 𝑏 > 0.
Fie 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ (𝑎; 𝑏).
1 1
𝑓(𝛼) = sin ( ) ∈ [−1; 1] 𝑓(𝛽) = sin ( ) ∈ [−1; 1]
𝛼{ 𝛼 𝛽{ 𝛽
𝑓(𝛼) = 0 ∈ [−1; 1] 𝑓(𝛽) = 0 ∈ [−1; 1]
1 1
Fie (𝑥𝑛 )𝑛≥1 = 𝜋 , (𝑦𝑛 )𝑛≥1 = 𝜋 .
+ 2 ⋅ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝜋 − + 2 ⋅ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝜋
2 2
Fie 𝜆 intre 𝑓(𝛼) si 𝑓(𝛽) ⇒ 𝜆 ∈ [−1; 1].
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1 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓(𝑥𝑛 ) = sin = sin ( + 2 ⋅ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝜋) = sin = 1
1 2 2
𝜋
(2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝜋) ⟹
1 𝜋 𝜋
𝑓(𝑦𝑛 ) = sin = sin (− + 2 ⋅ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝜋) = sin (− ) = −1
1 2 2
𝜋
(− 2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝜋) }
⟹ (∃)𝑥𝜆 ∈ (𝑥𝑛 ; 𝑦𝑛 ) ⊂ (𝛼; 𝛽) ⊂ (𝑎; 𝑏) astfel incat 𝑓(𝑥𝜆 ) = 𝜆 ⇒ functia 𝑓 are
proprietatea lui Darboux
39. Functii derivabile:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ, 𝐷 ≠ Ø, 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥0 punct de acumulare pentru multimii 𝐷.
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) notatie ′
Functia 𝑓 are derivata in punctul 𝑥0 daca lim = 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) exista
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0
si este finita sau infinita.
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 ) notatie ′
Functia 𝑓 este derivabila in punctul 𝑥0 daca lim = 𝑓 (𝑥0 )
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0
exista si este finita.
Daca 𝑓 este derivabila in punctul 𝑥0 atunci are derivata in punctul 𝑥0 . Daca 𝑓 are
derivata in punctul 𝑥0 atunci poate fi derivabila in punctul 𝑥0 .
𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = lim = derivata de ordin I (intai)
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥 − 𝑥0
Orice functie derivabila intr-un punct este continua in acel punct. Reciproca nu
este valabila (daca o functie este continua intr-un punct nu este obligatoriu
derivabila in acel punct – exemplu: functia modul este continua in punctul 0 dar
nu este derivabila in punctul 0).
O functie este derivabila pe o multime daca este derivabila in fiecare punct al
acelei multimi.
Domeniul de continutate a unei functii este inclus, cel mult egal, cu domeniul de
continuitate al functiei, care la randul ei este inclus, cel mult egal, cu domeniul de
definitie a functiei (𝐷′ / 𝐷𝑟 ⊆ 𝐷𝑐 ⊆ 𝐷𝑓 ).
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𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=[𝑥]
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)=𝑥2
𝑦 𝑦
𝑂 𝑥 𝑂 𝑥
derivabila nederivabila
1) Interpretarea geometrica a derivatei de ordin I:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ, 𝐷 ≠ Ø, 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑥0 punct de acumulare pentru multimii 𝐷.
Derivata de ordin I a unei functii in punctul 𝑃(𝑥0,𝑦0) , unde 𝑦0 = 𝑓(𝑥0 ) este panta
tangentei la grafic in punctul 𝑃(𝑥0,𝑦0) .
𝑡
tg 𝛼 = 𝑚𝑡𝑃 (panta tangetei la graficul 𝑦
functiei in punctul 𝑃(𝑥0,𝑦0) ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 )
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1 ln 𝑥 ′ 1
(ln 𝑥)′ = (log 𝑎 𝑥)′ = ( ) =
𝑥 ln 𝑎 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑎
(sin 𝑥)′ = cos 𝑥
(cos 𝑥)′ = − sin 𝑥
1
(tg 𝑥)′ =
cos2 𝑥
1
(ctg 𝑥)′ = − 2
sin 𝑥
1
(arcsin 𝑥)′ =
√1 − 𝑥 2
1
(arccos 𝑥)′ = −
√1 − 𝑥 2
1
(arctg 𝑥)′ = 2
𝑥 +1
1
(arcctg 𝑥)′ = − 2
𝑥 +1
6) Reguli de calcul cu derivate:
Fie 𝑓, 𝑔 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ, 𝐷 ≠ Ø, 𝑓 si 𝑔 derivabile pe 𝐷.
(𝑓 ± 𝑔)′ = 𝑓 ′ ± 𝑔′
(𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔)′ = 𝑓 ′ ⋅ 𝑔 + 𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔′
(𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔 ⋅ ℎ)′ = 𝑓 ′ ⋅ 𝑔 ⋅ ℎ + 𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔′ ⋅ ℎ + 𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔 ⋅ ℎ′
𝑓 ′ 𝑓 ′ ⋅ 𝑔 − 𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔′
( ) = , 𝑔 ≠ 0 (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐷
𝑔 𝑔2
(𝛼 ⋅ 𝑓)′ = 𝛼 ⋅ 𝑓 ′ , 𝛼 ∈ ℝ (cand derivem produsul dintr-o constanta si o functie, se
scoate constanta in fata si se deriveaza numai functia)
Derivarea functiilor compuse:
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)′ = (𝑓 ′ ∘ 𝑔) ⋅ 𝑔′
Pentru a deriva functii compuse intai se stabileste cu ce functie din tabelul de
derivate seamana functia data si care este functia care apare in locul
argumentului simplu (𝑥), si se deriveaza functia care apare in locul argumentului
simplu (𝑥).
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Exemplu:
(sin(𝑥 2 ))′ = cos(𝑥 2 ) ⋅ (𝑥 2 )′ = cos(𝑥 2 ) ⋅ 2 ⋅ 𝑥
sin(𝑥 2 ) ∼ sin 𝑥
1 1 1 cos 𝑥 1 1
(ln(tg 𝑥))′ = ⋅ (tg 𝑥)′ = ⋅ = ⋅ =
tg 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑥
cos 𝑥
ln(tg 𝑥) ∼ ln 𝑥
Derivarea puterilor:
(𝑓 𝑔 )′ = 𝑓 𝑔 ⋅ ln 𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔′ + 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑓 𝑔−1 ⋅ 𝑓 ′
Pentru a deriva functia 𝑓 la puterea 𝑔, se considera, cate o data, una constanta si
una variabila (𝑓 constanta, 𝑔 variabila ; 𝑓 variabila, 𝑔 constanta) si se deriveaza
conform regurilor de calcul cu derivate si tabelului de derivate.
Pentru 𝑓 constanta si 𝑔 variabila avem (𝑓 𝑔 )′ = 𝑓 𝑔 ⋅ ln 𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔′.
Pentru 𝑓 variabila si 𝑔 constanta avem (𝑓 𝑔 )′ = 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑓 𝑔−1 ⋅ 𝑓 ′ .
Exemplu:
(𝑥 𝑥 )′ = 𝑥 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥 ′ + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑥−1 ⋅ 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑥 ⋅ (ln 𝑥 + 1)
(𝛼 ⋅ 𝑓)(𝑛) = 𝛼 ⋅ 𝑓 (𝑛) , 𝛼 ∈ ℝ
𝑛
(𝑛)
(𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔) = ∑ 𝐶𝑛𝑘 ⋅ 𝑓 (𝑛−𝑘) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑘) (Formula lui Leibniz)
𝑘=0
= 𝐶𝑛0 ⋅ 𝑓 (𝑛) ⋅ 𝑔(0) + 𝐶𝑛1 ⋅ 𝑓 (𝑛−1) ⋅ 𝑔(1) + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑛𝑛 ⋅ 𝑓 (0) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑛)
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7) Puncte de nederivabilitate:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ, 𝐷 ≠ Ø, 𝑥0 ∈ 𝐷, 𝑓 continua in punctul 𝑥0 .
I. Puncte unghiulare:
Punctul 𝑥0 este punct unghiular pentru functia 𝑓 (punctul 𝑃(𝑥0,𝑓(𝑥0)) este punct
unghiular pentru graficul functiei 𝑓, 𝐺𝑓 ) daca derivatele laterale in punctul 𝑥0
sunt diferite si cel putin una finita.
𝑦 𝑦
𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑂 𝑥0 𝑥 𝑂 𝑥0 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑂 𝑥0 𝑥 𝑂 𝑥0 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓(𝑥0 )
𝑂 𝑥0 𝑥 𝑂 𝑥0 𝑥
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Daca functia 𝑓 are derivata in punctul 𝑥0 si functia 𝑓 este convexa de o parte a lui
𝑥0 si concava de celalta parte a lui 𝑥0 atunci 𝑥0 este punct de inflexiune pentru
functia 𝑓 (punctul 𝑃(𝑥0 ,𝑓(𝑥0)) este punct de inflexiune pentru graficul functiei
𝑓, 𝐺𝑓 ).
𝑦 𝑦
concav convex
𝑓(𝑥0 ) 𝑓(𝑥0 )
convex
concav
𝑂 𝑥0 𝑥 𝑂 𝑥0 𝑥
8) Puncte de extrem:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ, 𝐷 ≠ Ø.
Punctul 𝑥0 / 𝑃(𝑥0,𝑓(𝑥0)) este punct de maxim global (absolut) daca
𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐷. Valoarea 𝑓(𝑥0 ) se numeste valore maxima.
Punctul 𝑥0 / 𝑃(𝑥0,𝑓(𝑥0)) este punct de maxim local (relativ) daca (∃)V ∈ 𝒱(𝑥0 )
astfel incat 𝑓(𝑥) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) (∀)𝑥 ∈ V ∩ 𝐷.
Punctul 𝑥0 / 𝑃(𝑥0,𝑓(𝑥0)) este punct de minim global (absolut) daca
𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐷. Valoarea 𝑓(𝑥0 ) se numeste valore minima.
Punctul 𝑥0 / 𝑃(𝑥0,𝑓(𝑥0)) este punct de minim local (relativ) daca (∃)V ∈ 𝒱(𝑥0 )
astfel incat 𝑓(𝑥) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥0 ) (∀)𝑥 ∈ V ∩ 𝐷.
Exemplu: 𝑥3
𝑦
Punctul de maxim global: 𝑥3 𝑥1 𝑥7
Punctul de manim global: 𝑥2 𝑥5
Puncte de maxim local: 𝑥1 , 𝑥3 , 𝑥5 , 𝑥7
Puncte de minim local: 𝑥2 , 𝑥4 , 𝑥6
𝑂 𝑥
𝑥6
𝑥4
𝑥2
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Intre doua radacini ale derivatei exista cel mult o radacina a functiei.
11) Teorema lui Lagrange:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ [𝑎; 𝑏] → ℝ. Daca 𝑓 continua pe [𝑎; 𝑏], 𝑓 derivabila pe (𝑎; 𝑏) atunci
𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎)
(∃)𝑐 ∈ (𝑎; 𝑏) astfel incat 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) = ⇔ 𝑓 ′ (𝑐) ⋅ (𝑏 − 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑏) − 𝑓(𝑎).
𝑏−𝑎
Teorema lui Lagrange este folosita pentru a demonstra / a crea inegalitati.
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Pe intervalul [𝑎; 𝑥1′′ ) (daca 𝑎 ∈ 𝐷) / (𝑎; 𝑥1′ ) (daca 𝑎 ∉ 𝐷) functia 𝑓 este convexa.
Pe intervalul [𝑥1′′ ; 𝑥2′′ ) functia 𝑓 este concava.
Pe intervalul [𝑥3′′ ; 𝑏] (daca 𝑏 ∈ 𝐷) / [𝑥3′′ ; 𝑏) (daca 𝑏 ∉ 𝐷) functia 𝑓 este concava.
Daca s-ar combina cele doua tabele, s-ar obtine:
𝑥 𝑎 𝑥1′ 𝑥1′′ 𝑥2′ 𝑥2′′ 𝑥3′ 𝑏
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) − − − 0 + + + 0 − − − 0 − − −
𝑓(𝑥) 𝛼 𝑓(𝑥1′ ) 𝑓(𝑥2′ ) 𝑓(𝑥3′ ) 𝛽
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) + + + + + 0 − − − − 0 − − − −
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥1′′ ) 𝑓(𝑥2′′ )
Exemplu:
𝑓 ∶ ℝ → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 − 6 ⋅ 𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3 ⋅ 𝑥 2 − 6
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 3 ⋅ 𝑥 2 − 6 = 0 / ⋅
3
𝑥2 − 2 = 0
𝑥 2 = 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = ±√2
6
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim (𝑥 3 − 6 ⋅ 𝑥) = lim [𝑥 3 ⋅ (1 − )] = +∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥2
6
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim (𝑥 3 − 6 ⋅ 𝑥) = lim [𝑥 3 ⋅ (1 − 2 )] = −∞
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥
3
𝑓(√2) = (√2) − 6√2 = 2√2 − 6√2 = −4√2
3
𝑓(−√2) = (−√2) + 6√2 = −2√2 − 6√2 = 4√2
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𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 6 ⋅ 𝑥
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ 6 ⋅ 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 0
𝑓(0) = 03 − 6 ⋅ 0 = 0
Im 𝑓 = (−∞; +∞) = ℝ
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𝑓(2) = 2 ⋅ 23 − 9 ⋅ 22 + 12 ⋅ 2 + 1 = 2 ⋅ 8 − 9 ⋅ 4 + 24 + 1 =
= 16 − 32 + 24 + 1 = 9
9 12 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim (2 ⋅ 𝑥 3 − 9 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 12 ⋅ 𝑥 + 1) = lim [𝑥 3 ⋅ (2 − + + )] =
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
= +∞
9 12 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim (2 ⋅ 𝑥 3 − 9 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 12 ⋅ 𝑥 + 1) = lim [𝑥 3 ⋅ (2 − + + )]
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥2 𝑥3
= −∞
𝑥 −∞ 1 2 +∞
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 0 0
𝑓(𝑥) − ∞ 6 9 +∞
S.R. − + + +
Concluzii:
Ecuatia are o solutie reala unica in intervalul (−∞; 1) (𝑥1 ∈ (−∞; 1)).
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Concluzii:
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𝑥2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥 = 0
𝑥1′ = 0
𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 2) = 0 ⇒ {
𝑥2′ + 2 = 0 ⟹ 𝑥2′ = −2
𝑓(0) = 03 + 3 ⋅ 02 − 2 − 𝑚 = −𝑚 − 2
𝑓(−2) = (−2)3 + 3 ⋅ (−2)2 − 2 + 𝑚 = −8 + 6 ⋅ 4 − 2 + 𝑚 = −8 + 16 − 2 + 𝑚 =
= −𝑚 + 2
−𝑚 − 2 = 0 ⇒ −𝑚 = 2 ⇒ 𝑚 = −2
−𝑚 + 2 = 0 ⇒ −𝑚 = −2 ⇒ 𝑚 = 2
−2 2
−∞ +∞
3 2 𝑚
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim (𝑥 3 + 3 ⋅ 𝑥 2 − 2 − 𝑚) = lim [𝑥 3 ⋅ (1 + − 3 − 3 )] =
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
= +∞
3 2 𝑚
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim (𝑥 3 + 3 ⋅ 𝑥 2 − 2 − 𝑚) = lim [𝑥 3 ⋅ (1 + − 3 − 3 )]
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
= −∞
𝑥 −∞ −2 0 +∞
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 0 0
𝑓(𝑥) −∞ −𝑚+2 −𝑚−2 +∞
𝑚 ∈ (−∞; −2) − + + + Ecuatia are o solutie reala
𝑥1 ∈ (−∞; −2)
𝑚 = −2 − + 0 + Ecuatia are trei solutii reale
𝑥1 ∈ (−∞; −2) 𝑥2 = 𝑥3 = 0
𝑚 ∈ (−2; 2) − + − + Ecuatia are trei solutii reale
𝑥1 ∈ (−∞; −2) 𝑥2 ∈ (−2; 2)
𝑥3 ∈ (0; +∞)
𝑚=2 − 0 − + Ecuatia are trei solutii reale
𝑥1 = 𝑥2 = −2 𝑥3 ∈ (0; +∞)
𝑚 ∈ (2; +∞) − − − + Ecuatia are o solutie reala
𝑥1 ∈ (0; +∞)
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𝐺𝑓
𝑦
𝐺𝑔=𝑚5
2 𝐺𝑔=𝑚4
𝐺𝑔=𝑚3
−2 𝑂 𝑥
2 𝐺𝑔=𝑚2
𝐺𝑔=𝑚1
Concluzii:
𝑚 ∈ (−∞; −2) ⇒ ecuatia are o solutie reala
𝑚 = −2 ⇒ ecuatia are doua solutii reale
𝑚 = (−2; 2) ⇒ ecuatia are trei solutii reale
𝑚 = 2 ⇒ ecuatia are doua solutii reale
𝑚 ∈ (2; +∞) ⇒ ecuatia are o solutie reala
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𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) 0
Atunci lim = lim ′ = 𝑙 (Cazul de nedeterminare ).
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑔 (𝑥) 0
Fie 𝑓, 𝑔 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ doua functii cu proprietatile:
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ∞
Atunci lim = lim ′ = 𝑙 (Cazul de nedeterminare ).
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑔 (𝑥) ∞
𝑔(𝑥)
lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim [𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ (1 − )]
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑔(𝑥) ∞
lim =
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑓(𝑥) ∞
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ii. Cazul ∞ ⋅ 0:
Fie 𝑓, 𝑔 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ doua functii cu proprietatile:
• lim 𝑓(𝑥) = +∞
𝑥→𝑥0
• lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→𝑥0
• Functiile 𝑓 si 𝑔 sunt derivabile pe 𝐷 ∖ {𝑥0 }
Atunci:
𝑔(𝑥) 0
lim [𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim =
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 1 0
𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) ∞
lim [𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim =
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 1 ∞
𝑔(𝑥)
iii. Cazul 00 :
Fie 𝑓, 𝑔 ∶ 𝐷 → ℝ doua functii cu proprietatile:
• lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑔(𝑥) = 0
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0
• Functiile 𝑓 si 𝑔 sunt derivabile pe 𝐷 ∖ {𝑥0 }
Atunci:
𝑔(𝑥)
1
ln[𝑓(𝑥)]𝑔(𝑥)
lim [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑒 = lim 𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) ⋅ ln[𝑓(𝑥)] = lim 𝑒 ln[𝑓(𝑥)]
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0
𝑔(𝑥) 0
lim =
𝑥→𝑥0 1 0
ln[𝑓(𝑥)]
ln[𝑓(𝑥)]
1
𝑔(𝑥)
lim [𝑓(𝑥)] 𝑔(𝑥) = lim 𝑒 ln[𝑓(𝑥)] = lim 𝑒 𝑔(𝑥) ⋅ ln[𝑓(𝑥)] = lim 𝑒 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0 𝑥→𝑥0
ln[𝑓(𝑥)] ∞
lim =
𝑥→𝑥0 1 ∞
𝑔(𝑥)
Exemplu:
∞ 1
ln 𝑥 ∞ (ln 𝑥)′ 1
lim 𝑥 = lim 𝑥 ′
= lim 𝑥𝑥 = lim =0
𝑥→∞ 𝑒 R.L.H. 𝑥→∞ (𝑒 ) 𝑥→∞ 𝑒 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑒 𝑥
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1 1 cos 𝑥
(ln(sin 𝑥))′ = ⋅ (sin 𝑥)′ = ⋅ cos 𝑥 = = ctg 𝑥
sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥
1 1 sin 𝑥
(ln(cos 𝑥))′ = ⋅ (cos 𝑥)′ = ⋅ (− sin 𝑥) = − = − tg 𝑥
cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥
′ 1 ′
(ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)) = ⋅ (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1) =
𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1
1 𝑥 1 √𝑥 2 + 1 𝑥
= ⋅ (1 + )= ⋅( + )=
𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1
1 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 1
= ⋅ =
𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1
′ 1 ′
(ln (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1)) = ⋅ (𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1) =
𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1
1 𝑥 1 √𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥
= ⋅ (1 + )= ⋅( + )=
𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 √𝑥 2 − 1 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 √𝑥 2 − 1 √𝑥 2 − 1
1 𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 1
= ⋅ =
𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 1 √𝑥 2 − 1 √𝑥 2 − 1
1 𝑥−1 ′ 1 1 𝑥−1 ′
( ⋅ ln ( )) = ⋅ ⋅( ) =
2 𝑥+1 2 𝑥−1 𝑥+1
𝑥+1
1 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 − 1)′ ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) − (𝑥 − 1) ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)′
= ⋅ ⋅[ ]=
2 𝑥−1 (𝑥 + 1)2
1 1 𝑥+1−𝑥+1 1 1 2 1 1
= ⋅ ⋅ = ⋅ ⋅ = = 2
2 𝑥−1 𝑥+1 2 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 − 1) ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 − 1
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ix. Asimptote:
a. Verticale:
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𝑥2 (−1)2 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = = = −∞
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥 + 1 −1 + 1 0−
𝑥<−1 𝑥<−1
⇒ dreapta de ecuatie 𝑥 = −1
𝑥2 (−1)2 1
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = = = +∞
𝑥→−1 𝑥→−1 𝑥 + 1 −1 + 1 0+
𝑥>−1 𝑥<−1 }
este asimptota verticala bilaterala la 𝐺𝑓 spre ±∞.
b. Orizontale:
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim = lim =∞
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 1 𝑥→∞ 1 𝑥→∞ 1
𝑥 ⋅ (1 + 𝑥) (1 + 𝑥)
⇒ functia
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim = lim = −∞
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 + 1 𝑥→−∞ 1 𝑥→−∞ 1
𝑥 ⋅ (1 + 𝑥) (1 + 𝑥) }
nu are asimptote oriozntale.
c. Oblica:
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥2 𝑥2 1
𝑚 = lim = lim = lim = lim =1
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥→∞ 2 1 𝑥→∞ 1
𝑥 ⋅ (1 + 𝑥) (1 + 𝑥 )
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)
𝑛 = lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑥] = lim ( − 𝑥) = lim ( − )=
𝑥→∞ 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 1 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥2 𝑥2 + 𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 −𝑥 −𝑥
= lim ( − ) = lim = lim = lim =
𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥→∞ 𝑥+1 𝑥→∞ 𝑥 + 1 𝑥→∞ 1
𝑥 ⋅ (1 + 𝑥)
−1
= lim = −1
𝑥→∞ 1
(1 + 𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥2 𝑥2 1
𝑚 = lim = lim = lim = lim =1
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥→−∞ 2 1 𝑥→−∞ 1
𝑥 ⋅ (1 + 𝑥 ) (1 + 𝑥 )
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)
𝑛 = lim [𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑥] = lim ( − 𝑥) = lim ( − )=
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 + 1 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥2 𝑥2 + 𝑥 𝑥2 − 𝑥2 − 𝑥 −𝑥
= lim ( − ) = lim = lim =
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 + 1 (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥+1 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 + 1
−𝑥 −1
= lim = lim = −1
𝑥→−∞ 1 𝑥→−∞ 1
𝑥 ⋅ (1 + 𝑥) (1 + 𝑥)
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𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥
𝛽 = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim = lim = lim = −∞
𝑥→−∞ 𝑥→−∞ 𝑥 + 1 𝑥→−∞ 1 𝑥→−∞ 1
𝑥 ⋅ (1 + 𝑥) (1 + 𝑥)
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′
′′ (𝑥) ′ (𝑥))′
𝑥2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥
𝑓 = (𝑓 =( ) =
(𝑥 + 1)2
(𝑥 2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥)′ ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)2 − (𝑥 2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥) ⋅ ((𝑥 + 1)2 )′
= =
(𝑥 + 1)4
(2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)2 − (𝑥 2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥) ⋅ 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)′
= =
(𝑥 + 1)4
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)2 − (𝑥 2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥) ⋅ 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)
= =
(𝑥 + 1)4
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) ⋅ [(𝑥 + 1)2 − (𝑥 2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥)]
= =
(𝑥 + 1)4
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) ⋅ (𝑥 2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥 2 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥) 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) ⋅ 1 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)
= = =
(𝑥 + 1)4 (𝑥 + 1)4 (𝑥 + 1)4
Conditii de existenta:
(𝑥 + 1)4 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 1 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑥 ≠ −1 ⇒ 𝐷′′ = ℝ ∖ {−1}
xvi. Radacinile si semnul derivatei de ordin II:
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 0 ⇒ = 0 ⟹ 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 + 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥1′′ = −1
(𝑥 + 1)4
𝑥 −∞ −1 +∞
𝑥+1 − − − − − − − −0 + + + + + + +
(𝑥 + 1)4 + + + + + + + +0 + + + + + + +
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)
−−−−−−−−|+++++++
(𝑥 + 1)4
xvii. Valorile functiei in radacinile derivatei de ordin II:
𝑓(−1) = nu este definit
xviii. Tabelul derivatei I si derivatei II:
𝑥 −∞ −2 −1 0 +∞
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + + + + + 0 − − | − − 0 + + + + +
𝑓(𝑥) − ∞ −4 | 0 +∞
𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) − − − − − − − − | + + + + + + + +
𝑓(𝑥) |
Punctul 𝐵(−2,−4) este punct de maxim. Punctul 𝑂(0,0) este punct de minim.
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𝑦
𝐺𝑓
𝑥 = −1
𝑦 =𝑥−1
−2
𝑂 𝑥
𝐵(−2,−4)
−4
𝐺𝑓
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Metoda de abordare:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐼 → ℝ, 𝐼 ⊆ ℝ, 𝐼 ≠ ∅.
𝐷𝐴
→ 𝑓 admite primitive
𝑓 continua?⟶ [𝑁𝑈
→ Are puncte de discontinuitate de speta I? ⟶
𝐷𝐴
→ Nu are proprietatea lui Darboux → 𝑓 nu admite primitive
𝐷𝐴
⟶ 𝑁𝑈 → Se poate gasi o primitiva 𝐹? ⟶
→ Are proprietatea lui Darboux? ⟶ [𝑁𝑈
[ → 𝑓 nu admite primitive
𝐷𝐴
→ 𝑓 admite primitive
⟶ [𝑁𝑈
→ 𝑓 nu admite primitive
Functii ce au Functii ce
prorietatea lui admit Functii continue
Darboux primitive
∫ 0 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐶 ∫ tg 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ln|cos 𝑥| + 𝐶
∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ ctg 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ln|sin 𝑥| + 𝐶
𝑥 𝑛+1 1
∫ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
𝑛+1 √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2
𝑥 𝑥 1
∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝐶 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 | + 𝐶
√𝑥 2
+ 𝑎2
𝑥
𝑎𝑥 1 1 𝑥−𝑎
∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶, 𝑎 ∈ ℝ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ ln | |+𝐶
ln 𝑎 𝑥 − 𝑎2 2⋅𝑎 𝑥+𝑎
1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln|𝑥| + 𝐶 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥 𝑎 −𝑥 2 𝑥 − 𝑎2
∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶 1 𝑥−𝑎
=− ⋅ ln | |+𝐶
2⋅𝑎 𝑥+𝑎
1 𝑥 − 𝑎 −1
∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶 = ⋅ ln (| | )+𝐶
2⋅𝑎 𝑥+𝑎
1 1 𝑥 − 𝑎 −1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ctg 𝑥 + 𝐶 = ⋅ ln |( ) |+𝐶
sin2 𝑥 2⋅𝑎 𝑥+𝑎
1 1 𝑥+𝑎
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = tg 𝑥 + 𝐶 = ⋅ ln | |+𝐶
cos2 𝑥 2⋅𝑎 𝑥−𝑎
1 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = arcsin + 𝐶
√𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 𝑎
1 1 𝑥
∫ 2 2
𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ arctg + 𝐶
𝑥 +𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
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∫ 𝑓(𝜑(𝑥))
⏟ ⋅ 𝜑 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡)
⏟ 𝑑𝑡
𝐼 𝐽
∫ 𝑓 (𝜑(𝑥)
⏟)⋅⏟ 𝜑 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑡 /′
𝜑 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝜑 ′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
Prima metoda de schimbare de variabila se aplica atunci cand sub integrala apare
o functie si cu derivata ei.
Observatie: Daca in locul variabilei simple (𝑥) apare o expresie de gradul I
(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑏, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0), integrarea se poate face direct, prin tratarea expresiei
1
𝑑e gradul I ca o variabila simpla si inmultind rezultatul cu .
𝑎
1
∫ 𝑓(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ 𝐹(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶
𝑎
Exemplu:
cos(ln(3 ⋅ 𝑥)) 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos(ln(3 ⋅ 𝑥)) ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥 𝑥
ln(3 ⋅ 𝑥) = 𝑡 /′
1
⋅ (3 ⋅ 𝑥)′ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
3⋅𝑥
1
⋅ 3𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
3⋅𝑥
1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑥
∫ cos(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡 = sin 𝑡 + 𝐶 = sin(ln(3 ⋅ 𝑥)) + 𝐶
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𝑛 𝑎⋅𝑥+𝑏 𝑛 𝑎⋅𝑥+𝑏
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥, √ ) 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ, 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑎, 𝑐 ≠ 0 √ =𝑡
𝑐⋅𝑥+𝑑 𝑐⋅𝑥+𝑑
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥, √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ, 𝑎 ≠ 0
• Pentru 𝑎 ≥ 0, 𝑡 ± 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑎 = √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐
• Pentru 𝑐 ≥ 0, 𝑡 ± 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑐 = √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐
• Pentru 𝑏 2 − 4 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑐 ≥ 0, 𝑡 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) = √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐, unde 𝑥1
este o radacina a ecuatiei 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 0.
1
∫ 𝑓(tg 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 , tg 𝑥 = 𝑡, 𝑥 = arctg 𝑡 , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 + 𝑡2
𝑥 2
∫ 𝑓(sin 𝑥 , cos 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 , tg= 𝑡, 𝑥 = 2 ⋅ arctg 𝑡 , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
2 1 + 𝑡2
𝑥
sin 𝑥 si cos 𝑥 se scriu in functie de tg (implicit 𝑡);
2
2⋅𝑡 1 − 𝑡2
sin 𝑥 = , cos 𝑥 =
1 + 𝑡2 1 + 𝑡2
𝑎 𝑎
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥, √𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 ) 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑎 ∈ ℝ∗ 𝑥 = sau 𝑥 =
sin 𝑡 cos 𝑡
𝑀⋅𝑥+𝑁 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 , 𝑀, 𝑁, 𝛼, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ =𝑡
(𝑥 − 𝛼) ⋅ √𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑥−𝛼
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Exemplu:
5
∫(1 + √𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑥 = 𝑡 /2
𝑥 = 𝑡 2 /′
𝑑𝑥 = 2 ⋅ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
= ∫(1 + 𝑡)5 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 2 ⋅ ∫(1 + 𝑡)5 ⋅ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 =
1+𝑡 =𝑦/−1
𝑡 = 𝑦 − 1 /′
𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑦
= 2 ⋅ ∫ 𝑦 5 ⋅ (𝑦 − 1) 𝑑𝑦 = 2 ⋅ ∫ 𝑦 6 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 2 ⋅ (∫ 𝑦 6 𝑑𝑦 − ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑦) =
𝑦7 𝑦2 (1 + 𝑡)7 (1 + 𝑡)2
=2⋅( − )+𝐶 = 2⋅( − )+𝐶 =
7 2 7 2
7 2
(1 + √𝑥) (1 + √𝑥)
=2⋅( − )+𝐶
7 2
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔′ (𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) − ∫ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 (cea mai des folosita)
∫ 𝑥 ⋅ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
|
𝑔′ (𝑥) = sin 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥
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∫ 𝑥 2 ⋅ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 2𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2
|
𝑔′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥
∫ 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 𝑥
|
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑥2
𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2
1 2 1 1 1 1
= ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥 − ∫ ⋅ ⋅ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ 𝑥 2 ⋅ ln 𝑥 − ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2 𝑥 2 2 2
1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1
= ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥 − ⋅ ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝐶 = ⋅ 𝑥 (ln 𝑥 − ) + 𝐶
2 2 2 2 2
∫ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ln 𝑥 ⋅ 1 𝑑𝑥 =
1
𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
| 𝑥
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 1
𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
1
= 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥 − ∫ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥 − ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥 − 𝑥 + 𝐶
𝑥
∫ arctg 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ arctg 𝑥 ⋅ 1 𝑑𝑥 =
1
𝑓(𝑥) = arctg 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
| 1 + 𝑥2
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 1
𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
1
= 𝑥 ⋅ arctg 𝑥 − ∫ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2
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1
∫ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
1 + 𝑥2
1 + 𝑥 2 = 𝑡 /′
1
2 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
2
1 1 1 1 1 1
= ∫ ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 = ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ⋅ ln|𝑡| + 𝐶 = ⋅ ln|1 + 𝑥 2 | + 𝐶
𝑡 2 2 𝑡 2 2
1 1
∫ arctg 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ arctg 𝑥 − ∫ 2
⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ arctg 𝑥 − ⋅ ln|1 + 𝑥 2 | + 𝐶
1+𝑥 2
∫ arcctg 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ arcctg 𝑥 ⋅ 1 𝑑𝑥 =
1
𝑓(𝑥) = arcctg 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −
| 1 + 𝑥2
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 1
𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
1 1
= 𝑥 ⋅ arcctg 𝑥 − ∫ (− ) ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ arcctg 𝑥 + ∫ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
1 + 𝑥2 1 + 𝑥2
1
= 𝑥 ⋅ arcctg 𝑥 + ⋅ ln|1 + 𝑥 2 | + 𝐶
2
∫ arcsin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ arcsin 𝑥 ⋅ 1 𝑑𝑥 =
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
𝑓(𝑥) = arcsin 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
|
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 1
𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
1
= 𝑥 ⋅ arcsin 𝑥 − ∫ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
1
∫ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
√1 − 𝑥 2
1 − 𝑥 2 = 𝑡 /′
1
(−2) ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = (− ) 𝑑𝑡
2
1 1
1 1 1 −
1 1 𝑡 −2+1 1 𝑡2
= ∫ ⋅ (− ) 𝑑𝑡 = (− ) ⋅ ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = (− ) ⋅
2 + 𝐶 = (− ) ⋅ +𝐶 =
√𝑡 2 2 2 −1 + 1 2 1
2 2
1
= (− ) ⋅ 2 ⋅ √𝑡 + 𝐶 = −√1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
2
1
∫ arcsin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ arcsin 𝑥 − ∫ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ arcsin 𝑥 − (−√1 − 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶
√1 − 𝑥 2
= 𝑥 ⋅ arcsin 𝑥 + √1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
∫ arccos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ arccos 𝑥 ⋅ 1 𝑑𝑥 =
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −
𝑓(𝑥) = arccos 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2
|
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 1
𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
1 1
= 𝑥 ⋅ arccos 𝑥 − ∫ (− ) ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ arccos 𝑥 + ∫ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
√1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
= 𝑥 ⋅ arccos 𝑥 + (−√1 − 𝑥 2 ) + 𝐶 = 𝑥 ⋅ arccos 𝑥 − √1 − 𝑥 2 + 𝐶
• 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ sin 𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑥:
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = cos 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = sin 𝑥
|
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
= 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ sin 𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑡 ′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑡(𝑥) = cos 𝑥
|
𝑢′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑢(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
∫ 𝑒 𝑥 ⋅ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = − sin 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥) = cos 𝑥
|
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥
• 𝑥 𝑛 ⋅ √𝑥 2 ± 𝑎2 , 𝑥 𝑛 ⋅ √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝑎 ∈ ℝ:
o Daca 𝑛 = 0 atunci se pot folosi doua metode de rezolvare.
o Daca 𝑛 = 1 atunci se poate folosi prima metoda de schimbare de
variabila.
o Daca 𝑛 ≥ 2 atunci se poate folosi o singura metoda.
Observatie:
′ 1 1 𝑥
(√𝑥 2 + 1) = ⋅ (𝑥 2 + 1)′ = ⋅2⋅𝑥 =
2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 + 1 2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 + 1 √𝑥 2 + 1
′ 1 1 𝑥
(√𝑥 2 − 1) = ⋅ (𝑥 2 − 1)′ = ⋅2⋅𝑥 =
2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 1 2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 1 √𝑥 2 − 1
′ 1 1 𝑥
(√1 − 𝑥 2 ) = ⋅ (1 − 𝑥 2 )′ = ⋅ (−2) ⋅ 𝑥 = −
2 ⋅ √1 − 𝑥 2 2 ⋅ √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
Aceste formule sunt valabile pentru orice constanta de sub radical
(√𝑥 2 ± 𝑎2 , √𝑎2 − 𝑥 2 ).
I. Pentru 𝑛 = 0:
i. Metoda 1:
∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 ⋅ 1 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 4 | √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 1 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥2
=𝑥⋅ √𝑥 2 −4−∫ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 −4−∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝑥2 𝑥2 − 4 + 4 𝑥2 − 4 4
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =+
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
1
= ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 + 4 ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 + 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4| + 𝐶
2
√𝑥 − 4
𝑥2
∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 4
∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − (∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 + 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|)
∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4| /+ ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥
2 ⋅ ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|
1
∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ (𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|)
2
∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 ⋅ 1 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = −
𝑓(𝑥) = √1 − 𝑥 2 | √1 − 𝑥 2
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 1 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑥 −𝑥 2
= 𝑥 ⋅ √1 − 𝑥 2 − ∫ (− ) ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √1 − 𝑥 2 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
−𝑥 2 1 − 𝑥2 − 1 1 − 𝑥2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =−
√1 − 𝑥2 √1 − 𝑥2 √1 − √1 − 𝑥 2𝑥2
1 − 𝑥2 1 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
√1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2 √1 − 𝑥 2
= ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − arcsin 𝑥 + 𝐶
−𝑥 2
∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √1 − 𝑥 2 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√1 − 𝑥 2
∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √1 − 𝑥 2 − (∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − arcsin 𝑥)
∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √1 − 𝑥 2 − ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + arcsin 𝑥 / + ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥
2 ⋅ ∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √1 − 𝑥 2 + arcsin 𝑥
1
∫ √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ (𝑥 ⋅ √1 − 𝑥 2 + arcsin 𝑥)
2
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ii. Metoda 2:
√𝑥 2 − 4
∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
1
√𝑥 2 − 4 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4
= (irationalizare, se amplifica cu √𝑥 2 − 4) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥2 − 4 𝑥2 4
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =−
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥2 1 𝑥2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥2 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1
𝑥 | 𝑥
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 4
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 −4
= 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|
√𝑥 2 −4
∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 − 4
⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4| /+ ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥
2 ⋅ ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|
1
∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ (𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|) + 𝐶
2
II. Pentru 𝑛 = 1:
∫ 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥 2 − 4 = 𝑡 /′
1
2 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
2
1 3
1 1 1 1 𝑡 2+1 1 𝑡2 1 2
= ∫ √𝑡 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 = ⋅ ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ⋅
2 +𝐶 = ⋅ + 𝐶 = ⋅ ⋅ √𝑡 3 + 𝐶
2 2 2 1+1 2 3 2 3
2 2
1 1
= ⋅ √𝑡 3 + 𝐶 = ⋅ √(𝑥 2 − 4)3 + 𝐶
3 3
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
III. Pentru 𝑛 = 2:
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4
∫ 𝑥 2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 =
1 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥2 − 4 𝑥4 − 4 ⋅ 𝑥2 𝑥4 4 ⋅ 𝑥2
= ∫ 𝑥2 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ − 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥4 4 ⋅ 𝑥2 𝑥4 4 ⋅ 𝑥2
=∫ − 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥4 𝑥2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
⏟ √𝑥 2 − 4 ⏟ √𝑥 2 − 4
A B
𝑥4 𝑥
A=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 3 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3 ⋅ 𝑥 2
𝑥 | 𝑥
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 4
2
√𝑥 − 4 2
√𝑥 − 4
= 𝑥 3 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − ∫ 3 ⋅ 𝑥 2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − 3 ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 𝑥
B=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1
𝑥 | 𝑥
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 4
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
= 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − ∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑥2 − 4
∫ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥2 4 𝑥2 1
=∫ − 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥2
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|
⏟ √𝑥 2 − 4
B
𝑥2 𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − (∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|)
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥2 𝑥2 𝑥2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4| / + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥2
2⋅∫ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 + 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|
√𝑥 2 − 4
𝑥2 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ (𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 + 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|)
√𝑥 2 − 4 2
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ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
2
𝑥4 𝑥2
∫ 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 4 √𝑥 2 − 4
∫ 𝑥 2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − 3 ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 −
1
−4 ⋅ ⋅ (𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 + 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|) / + 3 ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥
2
4 ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑥 3 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − 2 ⋅ (𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 + 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|)
1 3 1
∫ 𝑥 2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − ⋅ (𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 + 4 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4|)
4 2
1 1
∫ 𝑥 2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ 𝑥 3 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 4 − 2 ⋅ ln |𝑥 + √𝑥 2 − 4| + 𝐶
4 2
√𝑥 2 − 16 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16
I𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑥 2 − 16
𝑛
𝑥 2 − 16 𝑥 𝑛+2 − 16 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑛 𝑥 𝑛+2 16 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑛
= ∫𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ − 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑥 2 − 16 √𝑥 2 − 16 √𝑥 2 − 16 √𝑥 2 − 16
𝑥 𝑛+2 16 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑛
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑥 2 − 16 √𝑥 2 − 16
𝑥 𝑥𝑛
= ∫ 𝑥 𝑛+1 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 − 16 ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
⏟ √𝑥 2 − 16 ⏟ √𝑥 2 − 16
A B
𝑥
A = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛+1 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑥 2 − 16
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛+1 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (𝑛 + 1) ⋅ 𝑥 𝑛
𝑥 | 𝑥
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 16
√𝑥 2 − 16 2
√𝑥 − 16
= 𝑥 𝑛+1 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 − ∫(𝑛 + 1) ⋅ 𝑥 𝑛 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 𝑑𝑥 =
= 𝑥 𝑛+1 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 − (𝑛 + 1) ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 𝑛 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 𝑑𝑥 =
⏟
I𝑛
= 𝑥 𝑛+1 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 − (𝑛 + 1) ⋅ I𝑛
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𝑥𝑛 𝑥
B=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−1 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 =
√𝑥 2 − 16 √𝑥 2 − 16
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛−1 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ 𝑥 𝑛−2
𝑥 | 𝑥
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = √𝑥 2 − 16
√𝑥 2 − 16 2
√𝑥 − 16
= 𝑥 𝑛−1 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 − ∫(𝑛 − 1) ⋅ 𝑥 𝑛−2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 =
= 𝑥 𝑛−1 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 − (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 𝑛−2 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 =
⏟
I𝑛−2
𝑛−1
=𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 − (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ I𝑛−2
𝑥 𝑥𝑛
I𝑛 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑛+1 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 − 16 ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 2 − 16 √𝑥 2 − 16
I𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛+1 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 − (𝑛 + 1) ⋅ I𝑛 − 16 ⋅ (𝑥 𝑛−1 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 − (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ I𝑛−2 ) /
/ + (𝑛 + 1) ⋅ I𝑛
𝑛+1 𝑛−1
(𝑛 + 2) ⋅ I𝑛 = 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 − 16 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 + 16 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ I𝑛−2
1
I𝑛 = ⋅ (𝑥 𝑛+1 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 − 16 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑛−1 ⋅ √𝑥 2 − 16 + 16 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ I𝑛−2 )
𝑛+2
42. Integrale definite:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ [𝑎; 𝑏] → ℝ, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ. Functia 𝑓 este integrabila in sens Reimann (R) pe
[𝑎; 𝑏] daca (∃)I ∈ ℝ astfel incat pentru orice sir de diviziuni (Δ𝑛 )𝑛∈ℕ , ‖Δ‖ → 0 si
orice sisteme de puncte intermediare (ξ𝑛 )𝑛∈ℕ corespunzatoare diviziunilor
(Δ𝑛 )𝑛∈ℕ , 𝜎Δ (𝑓, ξ) → I.
Fie 𝑓 ∶ [𝑎; 𝑏] → ℝ, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ. Functia 𝑓 este integrabila in sens Reimann pe [𝑎; 𝑏]
daca (∃)I ∈ ℝ si (∀)ε (epsilon) > 0 (∃)𝛿𝜀 > 0 astfel incat pentru orice sir de
diviziuni (Δ𝑛 )𝑛∈ℕ , ‖Δ‖ < 𝛿𝜀 si orice sisteme de puncte intermediare (ξ𝑛 )𝑛∈ℕ
corespunzatoare diviziunilor (Δ𝑛 )𝑛∈ℕ , |𝜎Δ (𝑓, ξ) − I| < ε.
𝑏
I se noteaza ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 si se numeste integrala Reimann / integrala definita a
𝑎
functiei 𝑓 pe intevalul [𝑎; 𝑏].
Fie 𝑓 ∶ [𝑎; 𝑏] → ℝ, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, o functie continua si pozitiva.
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)
A3 = 𝑓(𝛼3 ) ⋅ (𝑥3 − 𝑥2 ) 𝑦 A5
A5 = 𝑓(𝛼5 ) ⋅ (𝑥5 − 𝑥4 ) A3
A𝑡 = 𝑓(𝛼1 ) ⋅ (𝑥1 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑓(𝛼2 ) ⋅ (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 ) +
+ 𝑓(𝛼3 ) ⋅ (𝑥3 − 𝑥2 ) + 𝑓(𝛼4 ) ⋅ (𝑥4 − 𝑥3 ) +
+ 𝑓(𝛼5 ) ⋅ (𝑥5 − 𝑥4 ) + 𝑓(𝛼6 ) ⋅ (𝑥6 − 𝑥5 )
𝑂 𝛼3 𝛼5
𝑎 𝑥2 𝑥3 𝑥4 𝑥5 𝑏
𝑥
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I. Linearitatea integralei:
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ (𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏
∫ (𝛼 ⋅ 𝑓(𝑥))𝑑𝑥 = 𝛼 ⋅ ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 , 𝛼 ∈ ℝ
𝑎 𝑎
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Functii Functii
Functii ce
continue integrabile
admit
primitive
3) Formula Newton-Leibniz:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ [𝑎; 𝑏] → ℝ, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, o functie integrabila (R) ce admite primtive (in
particular functia 𝑓 este continua), atunci:
𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹(𝑥) | (luat de la 𝑎 la 𝑏) = 𝐹(𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑎 𝑎
Exemplu:
2
𝑥3 2 1 2
1 1 1 7
∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = | = ⋅ (𝑥 3 | ) = ⋅ (23 − 13 ) = ⋅ (8 − 1) = ⋅ 7 =
1 3 1 3 1
3 3 3 3
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4) Teoreme de medie:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ [𝑎; 𝑏] → ℝ, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, o functie continua pe [𝑎; 𝑏], atunci (∃)𝑐 ∈ [𝑎; 𝑏]
𝑏
astfel incat ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑐) ⋅ (𝑏 − 𝑎).
𝑎
𝜑(𝑥)
𝐹(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
Ψ(𝑥)
𝜑(𝑥) ′
′ (𝑥)
𝐹 = (∫ 𝑓(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡) = 𝑓(𝜑(𝑥)) ⋅ 𝜑 ′ (𝑥) − 𝑓(Ψ(𝑥)) ⋅ Ψ′ (𝑥)
Ψ(𝑥)
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Prima metoda de schimbare de variabila se aplica atunci cand sub integrala apare
o functie si cu derivata ei.
Observatie: Dupa schimbarea variabilei, nu se revine la variabila initiala, atat
timp cat limitele de integrare se schimba.
Exemplu:
1
∫ 6 ⋅ 𝑥 2 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 𝑥 3 + 1)4 𝑑𝑥 =
0
2 ⋅ 𝑥 3 + 1 = 𝑡 /′ 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑡 = 2 ⋅ 13 + 1 = 3
|
6 ⋅ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡 = 2 ⋅ 03 + 1 = 1
3
4
𝑡5 3 1 3
1 243 − 1 242
= ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = | = ⋅ (𝑡 | ) = ⋅ (35 − 15 ) =
5
=
1 5 1 5 1
5 5 5
𝜋
sin𝑛 𝑥
2
I=∫ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑑𝑥 , 𝑛 ∈ ℕ∗
0 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝜋 𝑥=
⇒ −𝑡 = ⇒𝑡 =0
𝑥 = − 𝑡 /′ 2 2 2
2 | 𝜋 𝜋
𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑡 𝑥 =0⇒ −𝑡 =0⇒𝑡 =
2 2
𝜋 𝑛 𝜋
2 sin𝑛 𝑥 0 sin ( 2 − 𝑡)
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ⋅ (−1)𝑑𝑡 =
𝑛
0 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥
𝑛 𝜋
sin 𝑛 (𝜋 − 𝑡) + cos 𝑛 (𝜋 − 𝑡)
2 2 2
𝜋 𝜋
sin ( − 𝑥) = cos 𝑥 cos ( − 𝑥) = sin 𝑥
2 2
𝜋 𝜋
0 𝑛
cos 𝑡 2 cos𝑛 𝑡 2 cos 𝑛 𝑧
= −∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑧
𝜋 cos 𝑛 𝑡 + sin𝑛 𝑡 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
0 sin 𝑡 + cos 𝑡 0 sin 𝑧 + cos 𝑧
2
𝜋 𝜋
sin𝑛 𝑥
2 2 sin𝑛 𝑧
I=∫ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑑𝑧
0 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 0 sin 𝑧 + cos 𝑧
𝜋
2 cos 𝑛 𝑧
I=∫ 𝑑𝑧
0 sin𝑛 𝑧 + cos𝑛 𝑧
𝜋 𝜋
sin𝑛 𝑧
2 2 cos 𝑛 𝑧
2⋅I=∫ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑑𝑧 + ∫ 𝑛 𝑛
𝑑𝑧 =
0 sin 𝑧 + cos 𝑧 0 sin 𝑧 + cos 𝑧
𝜋
2 sin𝑛 𝑧 cos 𝑛 𝑧
2⋅I=∫ + 𝑑𝑧
0 sin𝑛 𝑧 + cos𝑛 𝑧 sin𝑛 𝑧 + cos 𝑛 𝑧
𝜋
2 sin𝑛 𝑧 + cos𝑛 𝑧
2⋅I=∫ 𝑑𝑧
0 sin𝑛 𝑧 + cos𝑛 𝑧
𝜋
2
2 ⋅ I = ∫ 1𝑑𝑧
0
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𝜋
2
2⋅I=𝑧 |
0
𝜋
2⋅I= −0
2
𝜋 𝜋
2⋅I= ⇒I=
2 4
6) A doua metoda de schimbare de variabila:
Fie 𝜑 (fi) ∶ [𝑎; 𝑏] → [𝑐; 𝑑] si 𝑓 ∶ [𝑐; 𝑑] → ℝ, 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ, doua functii cu
proprietatile: functia 𝜑 este bijectiva (inversabila), functiile 𝜑, 𝜑 −1 sunt
derivabile cu derivatele continue si functia 𝑓 este continua, atunci:
𝑏 𝜑(𝑏)
∫ 𝑓(𝜑(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑡) ⋅ (𝜑 −1 )′ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 𝜑(𝑎)
𝜑(𝑥) = 𝑡 /𝜑 −1
𝜑 −1 (𝜑(𝑥)) = 𝜑 −1 (𝑡) | 𝑥 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑡 = 𝜑(𝑏)
𝑥 = 𝜑 −1 (𝑡) /′ | 𝑥 = 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑡 = 𝜑(𝑎)
𝑑𝑥 = (𝜑 −1 )′ (𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
Integrale comune pentru folosirea celei de a doua metoda de schimbare de
variabila sunt aceleasi ca cele de la a doua metoda de schimbare de variabila
pentru primitive.
Exemplu:
1
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
1 𝑥 ⋅ √𝑥 4 + 𝑥 2 + 1
2
1
=𝑡
𝑥 1
1 ′ | 𝑥=1⇒𝑡= =1
𝑥= / 1
𝑡 1 1
−2
𝑑𝑥 = (−1) ⋅ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 | 𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑡 = =2
2 1
−1 2
𝑑𝑥 = 2 𝑑𝑡
𝑡
1 1
1 −1 1
=∫ 𝑡⋅ ⋅ 2 𝑑𝑡 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑡 =
2 1 4
1 2 𝑡 2 1 1
√( ) + ( ) + 1 𝑡⋅√ 4+ 2+1
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡
2 2 2
1 1 1
=∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 =
1 1 𝑡 2 𝑡 4 1 𝑡 4 + 𝑡2 + 1 1 √𝑡 4 + 𝑡 2 + 1
𝑡⋅√ 4+ 4+ 4 𝑡⋅√ 𝑡⋅
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 𝑡4 √𝑡 4
2 2 2
1 1 𝑡
=∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑑𝑡 =
1 √𝑡 4 + 𝑡 2 + 1 4
1 √𝑡 + 𝑡 + 1
2
1 √(𝑡 2 )2 + 𝑡 2 + 1
𝑡⋅
𝑡2 𝑡
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𝑡 2 = 𝑦 /′
2 ⋅ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑦 𝑡=2⇒𝑦=4
|
1 𝑡=1⇒𝑦=1
𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑦
2
4 4
1 1 1 1
=∫ ⋅ 𝑑𝑦 = ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑦 =
1 √𝑦 2 + 𝑦 + 1 2 2 1 1 1 3
√𝑦 2 + 2 ⋅ ⋅ 𝑦 + +
2 4 4
4
1 1
= ⋅∫ 𝑑𝑦 =
2 1 2
√(𝑦 + 1) + 3
2 4
1 8+1 9
1 𝑦=4⇒𝑧 =4+ = =
𝑦 + = 𝑧 /′ 2 2 2
2 |
1 2+1 3
𝑑𝑦 = 𝑑𝑧 𝑦=1⇒𝑧 =1+ = =
2 2 2
9 9
9 2 2
1 2 1 1 3 1 3
= ⋅∫ 𝑑𝑧 = ⋅ ln |𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + | | = ⋅ ln |𝑧 + √𝑧 2 + | | =
2 3 2 4 2 4
2 √𝑧 2 + 3 3 3
4 2 ( 2)
2 2
1 9 9 3 3 3 3
= ⋅ [ln ( + √( ) + ) − ln ( + √( ) + ) ] =
2 2 2 4 2 2 4
1 9 81 3 3 9 3
= ⋅ [ln ( + √ + ) − ln ( + √ + ) ] =
2 2 4 4 2 4 4
1 9 84 3 12 1 9 √84 3 √12
= ⋅ [ln ( + √ ) − ln ( + √ ) ] = ⋅ [ln ( + ) − ln ( + )]=
2 2 4 2 4 2 2 2 2 2
9 + 2√21
1 9 + 2√21 3 + 2√3 1 2
= ⋅ [ln ( ) − ln ( ) ] = ⋅ ln ( )=
2 2 2 2 3 + 2√3
2
1 9 + 2√21 2 1 9 + 2√21
= ⋅ ln ( ⋅ ) = ⋅ ln ( )
2 2 3 + 2√3 2 3 + 2√3
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Exemplu:
𝑒
∫ 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
1
1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
𝑓(𝑥) = ln 𝑥 𝑥
|
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑥2
𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
1 2 1 1 2 1 2
1
= ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥 | − ∫ ⋅ ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ (𝑥 ⋅ ln 𝑥 | ) − ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2 1 1 2 𝑥 2 1
2 1
2 𝑒 𝑒
1 2 2
1 𝑥 1 2
1 2
= ⋅ (𝑒 ⋅ ln 𝑒 − 1 ⋅ ln 1) − ⋅ | = ⋅ (𝑒 ⋅ 1 − 1 ⋅ 0) − ⋅ (𝑥 | ) =
2 2 2 1 2 4 1
2 2 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 ⋅ 𝑒 −𝑒 + 1 𝑒 + 1
= ⋅ 𝑒 − ⋅ (𝑒 2 − 12 ) = + =
2 4 4 4 4
8) Aplicatii ale integralei definite:
I. Arii si volume:
i. Aria cuprinsa intre graficul functiei si axa 𝑂𝑥:
Fie 𝑓 ∶ [𝑎; 𝑏] → ℝ, 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ, o functie continua pe [𝑎; 𝑏], atunci:
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)
𝑏
A = Γ𝑎,𝑏 = Γ𝑓 = ∫ |𝑓(𝑥)| 𝑑𝑥 𝑦
𝑎
Γ = gamma
Daca functia nu este pozitiva (≥ 0),
pe tot intervalul, atunci se foloseste 𝑂 𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑥
aditivitatea in raport cu intevalul:
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
∫ |𝑓(𝑥)| 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (−𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
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𝑦 𝑦
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)
𝐺𝑓(𝑥)
𝑂 𝑂
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑥
𝑧 𝑧
Exemplu:
𝑓, 𝑔 ∶ [0; 2] → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 ⋅ 𝑥 − 4, 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4 ⋅ 𝑥 − 6
2 2
Γ𝑓 = ∫ |𝑓(𝑥)| 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ |3 ⋅ 𝑥 − 4| 𝑑𝑥
0 0
4
3⋅𝑥−4 =0/+4 𝑥 0 3 2
1
3⋅𝑥 = 4/⋅ 3⋅𝑥−4 −−−−−−−−0+++++++
3
4
𝑥=
3
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4
2 2
3
Γ𝑓 = ∫ |3 ⋅ 𝑥 − 4| 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ −(3 ⋅ 𝑥 − 4) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (3 ⋅ 𝑥 − 4) 𝑑𝑥 =
4
0 0
3
4
2 2
3
= ∫ 3 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 4 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (4 − 3 ⋅ 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 =
4 4
0
3 3
4 4
2 2
3 3
= 3 ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 4 ⋅ ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 4 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 3 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
4 4
0 0
3 3
4 4
𝑥2 2 2
3 3
= 3 ⋅ ( | ) − 4 ⋅ (𝑥 | ) + 4 ⋅ ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 − 3 ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
2 4 4 0 0
3 3
4 4
2
3 4 3 𝑥2 3
= ⋅ (𝑥 2 | ) − 4 ⋅ (2 − ) + 4 ⋅ (𝑥 | ) − 3 ⋅ ( | ) =
2 4 3 0
2 0
3
4
3 4 2 4 4 3 3
= ⋅ (2 − ( ) ) − 4 ⋅ (2 − ) + 4 ⋅ ( − 0) − ⋅ (𝑥 2 | ) =
2
2 3 3 3 2 0
3 16 6 4 4 3 4 2
= ⋅ (4 − ) − 4 ⋅ ( − ) + 4 ⋅ − ⋅ (( ) − 02 ) =
2 9 3 3 3 2 3
3 36 16 2 16 3 16 3 20 8 16 8 10
= ⋅( − )−4⋅ + − ⋅ = ⋅ − + − =
2 9 9 3 3 2 9 2 9 3 3 3 3
2 2
Γ𝑓,𝑔 = ∫ |𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥)| 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ |3 ⋅ 𝑥 − 4 − (𝑥 2 + 4 ⋅ 𝑥 − 6)| 𝑑𝑥 =
0 0
2 2
= ∫ |3 ⋅ 𝑥 − 4 − 𝑥 2 − 4 ⋅ 𝑥 + 6| 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ |−𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2| 𝑑𝑥 =
0 0
2 2
= ∫ |−(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2)| 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ |−1| ⋅ |(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2)| 𝑑𝑥 =
0 0
2
= ∫ |(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2)| 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥2 + 𝑥 − 2 = 0
Δ = 12 − 4 ⋅ 1 ⋅ (−2) = 1 + 8 = 9
−1 ± √9 −1 ± 3
𝑥1,2 = =
2⋅1 2
−1 + 3 2 −1 − 3 −4
𝑥1 = = =1 𝑥2 = = = −2
2 2 2 2
𝑥 0 1 2
𝑥2 + 4 ⋅ 𝑥 − 6 − − − − − − − 0 + + + + + + + +
196
COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
2
Γ𝑓,𝑔 = ∫ |(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2)| 𝑑𝑥 =
0
1 2
= ∫ −(𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 2) 𝑑𝑥 =
0 1
1 2 2 2
= ∫ (−𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 2) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + 4 ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ⋅ ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 =
0 1 1 1
2 2 1 2 1
1
1 1
= ⋅ (𝑥 3 | ) + ⋅ (𝑥 2 | ) − 2 ⋅ (𝑥 | ) − ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ⋅ ∫ 1 𝑑𝑥 =
3 1
2 1 1 0 0 0
1 1
1 3 3
1 2 2
1 3
1 2
= ⋅ (2 − 1 ) + ⋅ (2 − 1 ) − 2 ⋅ (2 − 1) − ⋅ (𝑥 | ) − ⋅ (𝑥 | ) +
3 2 3 0
2 0
1
+2 ⋅ (𝑥 | ) =
0
1 1 1 1
= ⋅ (8 − 1) + ⋅ (4 − 1) − 2 ⋅ 1 − ⋅ (13 − 03 ) − ⋅ (12 − 02 ) + 2 ⋅ (1 − 0) =
3 2 3 2
1 1 1 1 7 3 1 1
= ⋅7+ ⋅3−2− ⋅1− ⋅1+2⋅1= + −2− − +2=
3 2 3 2 3 2 3 2
7−1 3−1 6 2
= + = + = 2+1 =3
3 2 3 2
2 2
2 (𝑥)
V(𝐶𝑓 ) = 𝜋 ⋅ ∫ 𝑓 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ⋅ ∫ (3 ⋅ 𝑥 − 4)2 𝑑𝑥 =
0 0
2 2
= 𝜋 ⋅ ∫ (3 ⋅ 𝑥) − 2 ⋅ 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ 𝑥 + 4 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜋 ⋅ ∫ 9 ⋅ 𝑥 2 − 24 ⋅ 𝑥 + 16 𝑑𝑥 =
2 2
0 0
2 2 2
= 𝜋 ⋅ (9 ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 24 ⋅ ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 16 ⋅ ∫ 1𝑑𝑥) =
0 0 0
2 2 2
1 1
= 𝜋 ⋅ (9 ⋅ ⋅ (𝑥 3 | ) − 24 ⋅ ⋅ (𝑥 2 | ) + 16 ⋅ (𝑥 | )) =
3 0
2 0 0
197
COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝑏−𝑎
Daca 𝛥 este echidistanta, atunci norma diviziunii este egala cu .
𝑛
𝜎Δ (𝑓, ξ) = 𝑓(𝜉1 ) ⋅ (𝑥
⏟ 1 − 𝑥0 ) + 𝑓(𝜉2 ) ⋅ (𝑥
⏟ 2 − 𝑥1 ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝜉𝑛 ) ⋅ (𝑥
⏟ 𝑛 − 𝑥𝑛−1 )
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑏−𝑎
𝜎Δ (𝑓, ξ) = ⋅ (𝑓(𝜉1 ) + 𝑓(𝜉2 ) + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝜉𝑛 ))
𝑛
Pentru 𝑏 = 1 si 𝑎 = 0; 𝑓 ∶ [0; 1] → ℝ.
1
1
𝜎Δ (𝑓, ξ) = ) ) ))
⋅ (𝑓(𝜉1 + 𝑓(𝜉2 + ⋯ + 𝑓(𝜉𝑛 → ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑛 0
Pentru a calcula limita unui sir cu ajutorul integralei definite, intai, se scrie sirul
dat ca o suma Riemann corespunzatoare unei functii 𝑓 definita pe un interval
[𝑎; 𝑏] (de obicei
𝑏
[0; 1]), iar limita sirului este limita sumelor Riemann; ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥.
𝑎
𝑥𝑛 = 𝜎Δ (𝑓, ξ) / 𝑛 → ∞
𝑏
𝑥𝑛 → ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝑎
Exemplu:
𝑛 ⋅ (𝑛 + 1)
1 2 𝑛 1 + 2 + ⋯+ 𝑛 2 𝑛 ⋅ (𝑛 + 1) 1
𝑎𝑛 = 2 + 2 + ⋯ + 2 = = = ⋅ 2=
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛2 𝑛2 2 𝑛
1 1
𝑛2 ⋅ (1 + 𝑛) (1 + 𝑛) 𝑛 → ∞ 1
= = →
2 ⋅ 𝑛2 2 2
1 2 𝑛 1 1 2 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = + + ⋯ + = ⋅ ( + + ⋯ + )
𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛2 𝑛 ⏟ 𝑛 𝑛 ⏟
𝑛
0 1
𝑓 ∶ [0; 1] → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥
1 1 2 2 𝑛 𝑛
𝑓( ) = ,𝑓( ) = ,… ,𝑓( ) =
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
𝑎𝑛 → ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ (𝑥 | ) = ⋅ (12 − 02 ) = ⋅ 1 =
2
0 0 2 0
2 2 2
198
COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = + + ⋯ +
𝑛2 + 12 𝑛2 + 22 𝑛2 + 𝑛2
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑎𝑛 = 2 + 2 +⋯+
1 2 𝑛2
𝑛2 ⋅ (1 + 2 ) 𝑛2 ⋅ (1 + 2 ) 𝑛2 ⋅ (1 + 2 )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 1 1
𝑎𝑛 = + + ⋯+
1 2
2 2 𝑛 2
𝑛 ⋅ (1 + (𝑛) ) 𝑛 ⋅ (1 + (𝑛) ) 𝑛 ⋅ (1 + (𝑛) )
1 1 1 1
𝑎𝑛 = ⋅ 2+ + ⋯ +
𝑛 1 2 2 𝑛 2
1 + (⏟
1 + (⏟
𝑛) 1 + (𝑛) 𝑛)
( 0 1 )
1
𝑓 ∶ [0; 1] → ℝ, 𝑓(𝑥) =
1 + 𝑥2
1 1 1
1 𝜋 𝜋
𝑎𝑛 → ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = arctg 𝑥 | = arctg 1 − arctg 0 = − 0 =
0 0 1+𝑥 0
4 4
199
COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
1
2) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑏 = 𝑡 /′
1
𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 / ⋅
𝑎
1
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
𝑎
1 1 1 1 𝑡 −𝑛+1 1
= ∫ 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑑𝑡 = ⋅ ∫ 𝑡 −𝑛 𝑑𝑡 = ⋅ = ⋅ 𝑡 −(𝑛−1) =
𝑡 𝑎 𝑎 𝑎 −𝑛 + 1 𝑎 ⋅ (−1) ⋅ (𝑛 − 1)
−1 1 −1
= ⋅ 𝑛−1 = +𝐶
𝑎 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) 𝑡 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑛−1
1 1 𝑥
3) ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ arctg + 𝐶
𝑥2 +𝑎 2 𝑎 𝑎
1 1 𝑎2 1 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2
4) I𝑛 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ⋅ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛 𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛 𝑎 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑛
1 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑥2 1 𝑎2 + 𝑥 2 𝑥2
= 2⋅∫ 2 − 𝑑𝑥 = 2 ⋅ (∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥)
𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑛 𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛 (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛
1 1 𝑥2
= 2 ⋅ (∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥) =
𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛−1 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑛
1 𝑥
= 2 ⋅ (I𝑛−1 − ∫ 𝑥 ⋅ 2 𝑑𝑥)
𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛
𝑥
∫𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑥 2
+ 𝑎 2 )𝑛
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 1
𝑥 | 𝑥
𝑔′ (𝑥) = 2 𝑔(𝑥) = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑛
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑥 2+ 𝑎 2 )𝑛
𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 = 𝑡 /′
1
2 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 / ⋅
2
1
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
2
1 1 1 −𝑛
1 𝑡 −𝑛+1 1
= ⋅ ∫ 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 = ⋅ ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = ⋅ = ⋅ 𝑡 −(𝑛−1) =
2 𝑡 2 2 −𝑛 + 1 2 ⋅ (−1) ⋅ (𝑛 − 1)
−1 1 −1
= ⋅ 𝑛−1 = +𝐶
2 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) 𝑡 2 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑛−1
200
COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
𝑥 −𝑥 −1
∫𝑥 ⋅ 𝑑𝑥 = −∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 2 2
+𝑎 ) 𝑛 2
2 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ (𝑥 + 𝑎 )2 𝑛−1 2 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑛−1
−1 𝑥 1 1
= ⋅ 2 2 𝑛−1
+ ⋅∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 =
2 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) (𝑥 + 𝑎 ) 2 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛−1
−1 𝑥 1
= ⋅ 2 + ⋅I
2 ⋅ 𝑛 − 2 (𝑥 + 𝑎 )2 𝑛−1 2 ⋅ 𝑛 − 2 𝑛−1
1 𝑥
I𝑛 = 2
⋅ (I𝑛−1 − ∫ 𝑥 ⋅ 2 𝑑𝑥) =
𝑎 (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛
1 −1 𝑥 1
= 2 ⋅ [𝐼𝑛−1 − ( ⋅ 2 + ⋅ 𝐼 )] =
𝑎 2 ⋅ 𝑛 − 2 (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛−1 2 ⋅ 𝑛 − 2 𝑛−1
1 −1 𝑥 1
= 2 ⋅ (𝐼𝑛−1 + ⋅ 2 − ⋅𝐼 )=
𝑎 2 ⋅ 𝑛 − 2 (𝑥 + 𝑎 ) 2 𝑛−1 2 ⋅ 𝑛 − 2 𝑛−1
1 2⋅𝑛−2 1 −1 𝑥
= 2⋅( ⋅ 𝐼𝑛−1 − ⋅ 𝐼𝑛−1 + ⋅ 2 )=
𝑎 2⋅𝑛−2 2⋅𝑛−2 2 ⋅ 𝑛 − 2 (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛−1
1 2⋅𝑛−3 −1 𝑥
= 2⋅( ⋅ 𝐼𝑛−1 + ⋅ 2 )
𝑎 2⋅𝑛−2 2 ⋅ 𝑛 − 2 (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛−1
Observatie: Pentru 𝑛 ≥ 3 este recomandat sa se integreze la puterea 𝑛 (ca mai
sus), si sa se foloseasca relatia de recurenta pentru a ajunge la valorea lui 𝑛
dorita. Pentru 𝑛 = 2 se poate integra folosind pasii de mai sus, deoarece I1 este
‘aflat’ in timpul calculelor (dar poate fi si calculat folosind 3) ).
1
5) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐
• Daca Δ > 0:
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥2
𝑎⋅ +𝑏⋅𝑥+𝑐 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
1 1
= ⋅∫ 𝑑𝑥 = despartire in doua integrale de tip 1)
𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
• Daca Δ = 0:
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥2
𝑎⋅ +𝑏⋅𝑥+𝑐 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
1 1
= ⋅∫ 𝑑𝑥 = integrala de tip 2)
𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2
201
COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
• Daca Δ < 0:
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎⋅ 𝑥2 +𝑏⋅𝑥+𝑐 𝑏 2 −Δ
𝑎 ⋅ [(𝑥 + 2 ⋅ 𝑎) + 4 ⋅ 𝑎]
𝑏
𝑥+ = 𝑡 /′
2⋅𝑎
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 1
= ⋅∫ 𝑑𝑥 = integrala de tip 3)
𝑎 2 −Δ
𝑡 +4⋅𝑎
1
6) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
• Daca Δ > 0:
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 [𝑎 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥2 )]𝑛
1 1 1
=∫ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥2 )𝑛
𝑛
• Daca Δ < 0:
1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 𝑏 2 −Δ
{𝑎 ⋅ [(𝑥 + 2 ⋅ 𝑎) + 4 ⋅ 𝑎]}
1
=∫ 2 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑏 − Δ
𝑎𝑛 ⋅ [(𝑥 + 2 ⋅ 𝑎) + 4 ⋅ 𝑎 ]
𝑏
𝑥+ = 𝑡 /′
2⋅𝑎
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 1
= 𝑛⋅∫ 𝑑𝑥 = integrala de tip 4)
𝑎 2 −Δ 𝑛
(𝑡 + 4 ⋅ 𝑎 )
202
COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
A⋅𝑥+B A⋅𝑥 B
8) ∫ 2 2 𝑛
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 2 𝑛
+ 2 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑥 + 𝑎 ) (𝑥 + 𝑎 ) (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛
A⋅𝑥 B
=∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛 (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑛
𝑥 1
=A⋅∫ 2 2 𝑛
𝑑𝑥 + B ⋅ ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 + 𝑎 ) (𝑥 + 𝑎2 )𝑛
𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑛
𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 = 𝑡 /′
1
2 ⋅ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡 / ⋅
2
1
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
2
1 1 1 1 𝑡 −𝑛+1 1
= ⋅ ∫ 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 = ⋅ ∫ 𝑡 −𝑛 𝑑𝑡 = ⋅ = ⋅ 𝑡 −(𝑛−1) =
2 𝑡 2 2 −𝑛 + 1 2 ⋅ (−1) ⋅ (𝑛 − 1)
−1 1 −1
= ⋅ 𝑛−1 = +𝐶
2 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) 𝑡 2 ⋅ (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ (𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑛−1
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = integrala de tip 4)
(𝑥 2 + 𝑎2 )𝑛
203
COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
A⋅𝑥+B
9) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐
• Daca Δ > 0:
A⋅𝑥+B A⋅𝑥+B
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
1 A⋅𝑥+B
= ⋅∫ 𝑑𝑥 = despartire in doua integrale de tip 1)
𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥2 )
• Daca Δ = 0:
A⋅𝑥+B A⋅𝑥+B
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎⋅𝑥 +𝑏⋅𝑥+𝑐 𝑎 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
1 A⋅𝑥+B
= ⋅∫ 𝑑𝑥 = despartire intr-o integrala de tip 1) si o integrala de tip 2)
𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2
• Daca Δ < 0:
𝐵 𝐵
A⋅𝑥+B A ⋅ (𝑥 + A ) 𝑥+A
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = A ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐
2⋅𝑎 𝐵 2⋅𝑎⋅𝐵
⋅ (𝑥 + A ) 𝐴 2⋅𝑎⋅𝑥+
=A⋅∫ 2 ⋅ 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅∫ A 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐 2⋅𝑎 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐
2⋅𝑎⋅𝐵
𝐴 2⋅𝑎⋅𝑥+𝑏−𝑏+
= ⋅∫ A 𝑑𝑥 =
2⋅𝑎 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐
2⋅𝑎⋅𝐵
𝐴 2⋅𝑎⋅𝑥+𝑏 −𝑏
= ⋅∫ + A 𝑑𝑥 =
2⋅𝑎 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐
2⋅𝑎⋅𝐵
𝐴 2⋅𝑎⋅𝑥+𝑏 −𝑏
= ⋅ (∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ A 𝑑𝑥) =
2⋅𝑎 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝐴 2⋅𝑎⋅𝑥+𝑏 2⋅𝑎⋅𝐵 1
= ⋅ [∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 + ( − 𝑏) ⋅ ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥]
2⋅𝑎 𝑎⋅𝑥 +𝑏⋅𝑥+𝑐 A 𝑎⋅𝑥 +𝑏⋅𝑥+𝑐
2⋅𝑎⋅𝑥+𝑏
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑡 /′
(2 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑏 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1
= ∫ 𝑑𝑡 = ln|𝑡| = ln|𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐| + 𝐶
𝑡
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = integrala de tip 5)
𝑎⋅ 𝑥2 +𝑏⋅𝑥+𝑐
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A⋅𝑥+B
10) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑎 ⋅ + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
𝑥2
• Daca Δ > 0:
A⋅𝑥+B A⋅𝑥+B
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 [𝑎 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥2 )]𝑛
A⋅𝑥+B 1 A⋅𝑥+B
=∫ 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑛 ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑎 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥2 ) 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )𝑛 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥2 )𝑛
= despartire in integrale de tip 1) si integrale de tip 2)
• Daca Δ = 0:
A⋅𝑥+B A⋅𝑥+B
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥2
(𝑎 ⋅ + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐) 𝑛 [𝑎 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 ) ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )]𝑛
A⋅𝑥+B 1 A⋅𝑥+B
=∫ 𝑛 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = despartire intr-o
𝑎 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )𝑛 ⋅ (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )𝑛 𝑎𝑛 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )2⋅𝑛
integrala de tip 1) si integrale de tip
• Daca Δ < 0:
𝐵
A⋅𝑥+B A ⋅ (𝑥 + A )
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
𝐵 2⋅𝑎 𝐵
⋅ (𝑥 +
=A⋅∫
𝑥+A
𝑑𝑥 = A ⋅ ∫ 2⋅𝑎 A ) 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
2⋅𝑎⋅𝐵 2⋅𝑎⋅𝐵
𝐴 2⋅𝑎⋅𝑥+ 𝐴 2 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑏 − 𝑏 +
= ⋅∫ A 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅∫ A 𝑑𝑥 =
2⋅𝑎 (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 2⋅𝑎 (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
2⋅𝑎⋅𝐵
𝐴 2⋅𝑎⋅𝑥+𝑏 −𝑏
= ⋅∫ + A 𝑑𝑥 =
2⋅𝑎 (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
2⋅𝑎⋅𝐵
𝐴 2⋅𝑎⋅𝑥+𝑏 −𝑏
= ⋅ (∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ A 𝑑𝑥) =
2⋅𝑎 (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
𝐴 2⋅𝑎⋅𝑥+𝑏 2⋅𝑎⋅𝐵 1
= ⋅ [∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ( − 𝑏) ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥]
2⋅𝑎 (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛 A (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
2⋅𝑎⋅𝑥+𝑏
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐 = 𝑡 /′
(2 ⋅ 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑏 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
1 −𝑛
𝑡 −𝑛+1 1
= ∫ 𝑛 𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = = ⋅ 𝑡 −(𝑛−1) =
𝑡 −𝑛 + 1 (−1) ⋅ (𝑛 − 1)
−1 1 −1
= ⋅ 𝑛−1 = +𝐶
(𝑛 − 1) 𝑡 (𝑛 − 1) ⋅ (𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛−1
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = integrala de tip 6)
(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑥2 + 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑐)𝑛
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Exemplu:
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)
grad numarator = 0
grad numitor = 2
1 A B A ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) B⋅𝑥 A⋅𝑥+A+B⋅𝑥
= + = + = =
𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)
𝑥 ⋅ (A + B) + A
=
𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)
A+B=0
{
A=1
B = −A = −1
1 1 −1 1 1
= + = −
𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥 + 1 𝑥 𝑥 + 1
1 1 1 1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ − 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) 𝑥 𝑥+1 𝑥 𝑥+1
𝑥
= ln|𝑥| − ln|𝑥 + 1| + 𝐶 = ln | |+𝐶
𝑥+1
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2 −5⋅𝑥+4
i. Metoda 1:
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥2 −5⋅𝑥+4
𝑥2 − 5 ⋅ 𝑥 + 4 = 0
Δ = 52 − 4 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 4 = 25 − 16 = 9 > 0
1 1
=∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
−5 −9 5 2 9
(𝑥 + 2 ) + 4 (𝑥 − 2) − 4
5
𝑥 − = 𝑡 /′
2
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑑𝑡
3 2⋅𝑡 3 2⋅𝑡−3
1 1 𝑡−2 1 −2 1
=∫ 2 2
2 𝑑𝑥 = 3
⋅ ln |
3
| = ⋅ ln |
3 2 ⋅ 𝑡 3
| = ⋅ ln |
3 2 ⋅ 𝑡 +3
|=
3 2⋅2 𝑡+2
𝑡 2 − (2 ) 2 +2 2
5
1 2⋅𝑡−3 2 1 2⋅𝑡−3 1 2 ⋅ (𝑥 − 2) − 3
= ⋅ ln | ⋅ | = ⋅ ln | | = ⋅ ln | |=
3 2 2⋅𝑡+3 3 2⋅𝑡+3 3 5
2 ⋅ (𝑥 − 2) + 3
1 2⋅𝑥−5−3 1 2⋅𝑥−8 1 2 ⋅ (𝑥 − 4) 1 𝑥−4
= ⋅ ln | | = ⋅ ln | | = ⋅ ln | | = ⋅ ln | |+𝐶
3 2⋅𝑥−5+3 3 2⋅𝑥−2 3 2 ⋅ (𝑥 − 1) 3 𝑥−1
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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ii. Metoda 2:
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
𝑥2 −5⋅𝑥+4
𝑥2 − 5 ⋅ 𝑥 + 4 = 0
Δ = 52 − 4 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 4 = 25 − 16 = 9 > 0
5 ± √9 5 ± 3
𝑥1,2 = =
2⋅1 2
5+3 8 5−3 2
𝑥1 = = =4 𝑥2 = = =1
2 2 2 2
𝑥 2 − 5 ⋅ 𝑥 + 4 = (𝑥 − 4) ⋅ (𝑥 − 1)
1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 4) ⋅ (𝑥 − 1)
1 A B A ⋅ (𝑥 − 1) B ⋅ (𝑥 − 4)
= + = + =
(𝑥 − 4) ⋅ (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 − 1 (𝑥 − 4) ⋅ (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 4) ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)
A ⋅ 𝑥 − A + B ⋅ 𝑥 − 4 ⋅ B 𝑥 ⋅ (A + B) − A − 4 ⋅ B
= =
(𝑥 − 4) ⋅ (𝑥 + 1) (𝑥 − 4) ⋅ (𝑥 + 1)
A + B = 0 ⇒ B = −A
{
−A − 4 ⋅ B = 1
−A − 4 ⋅ (−A) = 1
−A + 4 ⋅ A = 1
1
3⋅A=1 ⇒A=
3
1
B = −A = −
3
1 1 1 1
1 −3
= 3 + = 3 − 3
(𝑥 − 4) ⋅ (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 − 1
1 1 1 1
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 − 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 =
(𝑥 − 4) ⋅ (𝑥 − 1) 𝑥−4 𝑥−1 𝑥−4 𝑥−1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
= ⋅∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ⋅ ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ⋅ (∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥) =
3 𝑥−4 3 𝑥−1 3 𝑥−4 𝑥−1
1 1 𝑥−4
= ⋅ (ln|𝑥 − 4| − ln|𝑥 − 1|) = ⋅ ln | |+𝐶
3 3 𝑥−1
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
ELEV RARINCA ROBERT-MARIO
ii. Asociativitate:
𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 (∀)𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = 𝑥 ∗ ⏟
[2 ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) ⋅ (𝑧 + 3) − 3] = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑡 = 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑡 + 3) − 3
𝑡
= 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ [2 ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) ⋅ (𝑧 + 3) − 3 + 3] − 3 =
= 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ 2 ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) ⋅ (𝑧 + 3) − 3 = 4 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) ⋅ (𝑧 + 3) − 3 (1)
(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 = [2
⏟ ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) − 3] ∗ 𝑧 = ℎ ∗ 𝑧 = 2 ⋅ (ℎ + 3) ⋅ (𝑧 + 3) − 3
ℎ
= 2 ⋅ [2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) − 3 + 3] ⋅ (𝑧 + 3) − 3 =
= 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) ⋅ (𝑧 + 3) − 3 = 4 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) ⋅ (𝑧 + 3) − 3 (2)
Din (1) si (2) ⇒ legea de compozitie " ∗ " este asociativa pe ℝ.
iii. Element neutru:
(∃)! 𝑒 ∈ ℝ a.i. 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑥∗𝑒 =𝑥
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑒 + 3) − 3 = 𝑥 / + 3
1
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑒 + 3) = 𝑥 + 3 / ⋅ , 𝑥 ≠ −3
𝑥+3
1
2 ⋅ (𝑒 + 3) = 1 / ⋅
2
1
𝑒+3= /−3
2
1 1 6 5
𝑒 = − 3 = − = − (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∖ {−3} (1)
2 2 2 2
5 5 5
(−3) ∗ (− ) = 2 ⋅ (−3 + 3) ⋅ (− + 3) − 3 = 2 ⋅ 0 ⋅ (− + 3) − 3 = −3 (2)
2 2 2
Din (1) si (2) ⇒ legea de compozitie " ∗ " admite element neutru pe ℝ.
iv. Elemente simetrizabile:
𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 ′ ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑒 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑥 ∗ 𝑥′ = 𝑒
5
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑥 ′ + 3) − 3 = − /+3
2
5
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑥 ′ + 3) = − + 3
2
5 6
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑥 ′ + 3) = − +
2 2
1 1
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑥 ′ + 3) = / ⋅
2 2
1 1
(𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑥 ′ + 3) = / ⋅ , 𝑥 ≠ −3
4 𝑥+3
1 1
𝑥′ + 3 = ⋅ /−3
4 𝑥+3
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COLEGIUL NATIONAL „SPIRU HARET” ___________________________MATEMATICA-INFORMATICA
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1 1 3 ⋅ 4 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) 1 − 12 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3)
𝑥′ = −3= − = =
4 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) 4 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) 4 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) 4 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3)
1 − 12 ⋅ 𝑥 − 36 −12 ⋅ 𝑥 − 35
= = (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∖ {−3} ⇒ legea de compozitie " ∗ "
4 ⋅ 𝑥 + 12 4 ⋅ 𝑥 + 12
admite elemente simetrizable pe ℝ ∖ {−3}.
v. Element absorbant (cateodata calculele sunt mai simple daca se foloseste
compunerea initiala, fara produs):
(∃)! 𝜔 ∈ ℝ a.i. 𝑥 ∗ 𝜔 = 𝜔 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝜔 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ
𝑥∗𝜔 =𝜔
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝜔 + 3) − 3 = 𝜔 / − 𝜔
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝜔 + 3) − 3 − 𝜔 = 0
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝜔 + 3) − (3 + 𝜔) = 0
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝜔 + 3) − (𝜔 + 3) = 0
(𝜔 + 3) ⋅ [2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) − 1] = 0
(𝜔 + 3) ⋅ (2 ⋅ 𝑥 − 5) = 0
𝜔 + 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝜔 = −3 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℝ ∖ {−3} (1)
(−3)
⏟ ∗ (−3)
⏟ = 2 ⋅ (−3 + 3) ⋅ (−3 + 3) − 3 = 2 ⋅ 0 ⋅ 0 − 3 = −3 (2)
𝑥 𝜔
Din (1) si (2) ⇒ legea de compozitie " ∗ " admite element absorbant pe ℝ.
𝐻 = [−3; +∞). Este 𝐻 parte stabila a lui ℝ in raport cu legea de compozitie " ∗ "?
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) − 3
𝑥 ≥ −3 / + 3 𝑥+3≥0
{ ⇒{
𝑦 ≥ −3/ + 3 𝑦+3≥0
⋅
(𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) ≥ 0 / ⋅ 2
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) ≥ 0 / − 3
2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) − 3 ≥ −3
𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ≥ −3 ⇒ 𝐻 = [−3; +∞) este parte stabila a lui ℝ in raport cu legea de
compozitie " ∗ ".
√1 ∗ √2 ∗ √3 ∗ √4 ∗ √5 ∗ … ∗ √2023 =?
⏟
√1 ∗ √2 ∗ √3 ∗ 2 ∗ ⏟
√5 ∗ … ∗ √2023 =
𝑎 𝑏
𝑎∗2∗𝑏 =2∗𝑏 = 2
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𝐽 = {0,1,2,3} 𝑥 ⋀ 𝑦 = |𝑥 − 𝑦|
+ 0̂ 1̂ 2̂ ⋅ 0̂ 1̂ 2̂
0̂ 0̂ 1̂ 2̂ 0̂ 0̂ 0̂ 0̂
1̂ 1̂ 2̂ 0̂ 1̂ 0̂ 1̂ 2̂
2̂ 2̂ 0̂ 1̂ 2̂ 0̂ 2̂ 1̂
𝑎̂ + 𝑏̂ = 𝑏̂ + 𝑎̂ (∀)𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ𝑛
ii. Asociativitate:
Adunarea in ℤ𝑛 este asociativa.
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𝑎̂ + 0̂ = 0̂ + 𝑎̂ = 𝑎̂ (∀)𝑎 ∈ ℤ𝑛
iv. Elemente simetrizabile:
Adunarea in ℤ𝑛 admite elemente simetrizabile. Orice element admite un opus ce
se noteaza (−𝑎̂) si are forma: −𝑎̂ = −𝑎
̂ = 𝑛̂ − 𝑎 . Aceasta forma vine datorita
teoremei impartirii cu rest (D = I ⋅ C + R), unde restul (R) trebuie sa fie pozitiv
(0 ≤ R < I).
𝑎̂ ⋅ 𝑏̂ = 𝑏̂ ⋅ 𝑎̂ (∀)𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ ℤ𝑛
ii. Asociativitate:
Inmultirea in ℤ𝑛 este asociativa.
𝑎̂ ⋅ 1̂ = 1̂ ⋅ 𝑎̂ = 𝑎̂ (∀)𝑎 ∈ ℤ𝑛
iv. Elemente simetrizabile:
Inmultirea in ℤ𝑛 admite elemente simetrizabile. Elementele simetrizabile sunt
cele prime cu 𝑛 (daca (𝑎, 𝑛) = 1 ⇒ 𝑎̂ este inversabil in ℤ𝑛 ). Daca 𝑛 este prim
atunci orice element diferit de 0̂ este inversabil.
𝑎̂ ⋅ 0̂ = 0̂ ⋅ 𝑎̂ = 0̂ (∀)𝑎 ∈ ℤ𝑛
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2̂ + 1̂ = 3̂ 2̂ ⋅ 1̂ = 2̂
̂ + 13
30 ̂ = 43
̂ = 3̂ ̂ ⋅ 9̂ = 90
10 ̂ = 2̂
4 ⋅ 𝑘 + 2 + 4 ⋅ 𝑡 + 1 = 4 ⋅ (𝑘 + 1) + 3 (4 ⋅ 𝑘 + 2) ⋅ (4 ⋅ 𝑡 + 1) =
= 16 ⋅ 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑡 + 4 ⋅ 𝑘 + 8 ⋅ 𝑡 + 2
= 4 ⋅ (4 ⋅ 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑡 + 𝑘 + 2 ⋅ 𝑡) + 2
𝑥 2 + 1̂ = 0̂ ℤ5
𝑥 2 = −1̂
𝑥 2 = 5̂ −1
𝑥 = 4̂
2
𝑥 = 1̂ ⇒ 1̂ ⋅ 1̂ = 4̂ ⇒ 1̂ ≠ 4̂
𝑥 = 2̂ ⇒ 2̂ ⋅ 2̂ = 4̂ ⇒ 4̂ = 4̂
𝑥 = 3̂ ⇒ 3̂ ⋅ 3̂ = 4̂ ⇒ 9̂ = 4̂ ⇒ 4̂ = 4̂
𝑥 = 4̂ ⇒ 4̂ ⋅ 4̂ = 4̂ ⇒ 16
̂ = 4̂ ⇒ 1̂ ≠ 4̂
𝑆 = {2̂, 3̂}
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II. Monoid:
Daca " ∗ " este asociativa ( 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 (∀)𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 ) si admite
element neutru ( (∃)! 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 a.i. 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥 (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 ) pe 𝐺 atunci (𝐺,∗)
formeaza o structura (algebrica) de monoid.
Daca in plus, " ∗ " este comutativa (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥 (∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 ), atunci (𝐺,∗)
formeaza o structura de monoid comutativ (monoid abelian).
De multe ori, multimea ce formeaza structura de monoid se noteaza 𝑀(onoid).
III. Grup:
Daca " ∗ " este asociativa ( 𝑥 ∗ (𝑦 ∗ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) ∗ 𝑧 (∀)𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 ∈ 𝐺 ), admite
element neutru ( (∃)! 𝑒 ∈ 𝐺 a.i. 𝑥 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑥 (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 ) si admite element
simetrizabile ( (∃)𝑥 ′ ∈ 𝐺 a. i. 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 ′ ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑒 (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 ) pe 𝐺 atunci (𝐺,∗)
formeaza o structura (algebrica) de grup.
Daca in plus, " ∗ " este comutativa (𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑦 ∗ 𝑥 (∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 ), atunci (𝐺,∗)
formeaza o structura de grup comutativ (grup abelian).
De multe ori, multimea ce formeaza structura de grup se noteaza 𝐺(rup).
asdasd
(ℚ,⋅) formeaza o structura de monoid comutativ (inmultirea este asociativa,
comutativa, admite element neutru (1), dar 0 nu este simetrizabil). (ℚ∗ ,⋅)
formeaza o structura de grup comutativ.
(ℤ𝑛 , +) formeaza o structura de grup comutativ (adunarea este asociativa,
comutativa, admite element neutru (0̂) si orice element este simetrizabil).
(ℤ𝑛 ,⋅) formeaza o structura de monoid comutativ (inmultirea este asociativa,
comutativa, admite element neutru (1̂), dar 0̂ nu este simetrizabil, precum si
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orice element ce nu este prim cu 𝑛). Daca 𝑛 este prim (𝑝) atunci (ℤ𝑝 ∗ ,⋅) formeaza
o structura de grup comutativ.
Adunarea matricelor formeaza o structura de grup comutativ (adunarea
matricelor este asociativa, comutativa, admite element neutru (𝑂𝑛 / 𝑂𝑛,𝑚 ) si orice
element este simetrizabil (−𝐴)).
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𝑥 𝑛 ∗ 𝑥 −𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑛 ∗ (𝑥 𝑛 )−1 = 𝑥 0 = 𝑒
Reguli de simplificare:
𝑥∗𝑦=𝑥∗𝑧
𝑥 −1 ∗ / 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑧 (simplificare la stanga)
𝑥 −1 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 −1 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑧
𝑒∗𝑦=𝑒∗𝑧 ⇒𝑦 =𝑧
𝑦∗𝑥 = 𝑦∗𝑥
𝑦 ∗ 𝑥 = 𝑧 ∗ 𝑥 / ∗ 𝑥 −1 (simplificare la dreapta)
𝑦 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 −1 = 𝑧 ∗ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 −1
𝑦∗𝑒 =𝑧∗𝑒 ⇒𝑦 =𝑧
Urmatoarea egalitate este valabila doar daca: 𝑎 = 𝑏 / 𝑎 = 𝑒 sau 𝑏 = 𝑒 / grupul
este comutativ.
𝑎𝑛 ∗ 𝑏 𝑛 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)𝑛
𝑎 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ … ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ … ∗ 𝑏 = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ … ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)
Aceastea se folosesc pentru a demonstra egalitati in grupuri.
Exemplu:
(𝐺,∗) grup astfel incat 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎. Aratati ca 𝑎2 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎2 (daca 𝑎 comuta cu
𝑏 atunci orice putere a lui 𝑎 comuta cu 𝑏).
𝑎2 ∗ 𝑏 = 𝑏 ∗ 𝑎2
𝑎∗𝑎∗𝑏 =𝑏∗𝑎∗𝑎
𝑎 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = (𝑏 ∗ 𝑎) ∗ 𝑎
𝑎 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) ∗ 𝑎
𝑎 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏) = 𝑎 ∗ (𝑎 ∗ 𝑏)
2) Morfisme de grupuri:
Fie (𝐺,∗) si (𝐻,∘) doua grupuri si 𝑓 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐻 o functie. Functia 𝑓 este morfism de
grupuri daca 𝑓(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∘ 𝑓(𝑦) (∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺. Daca in plus functia 𝑓 este
bijectiva atunci aceasta se numeste izomorfism de grupuri.
Un (izo)morfism de grupuri mai poate fi notat: 𝑓 ∶ (𝐺,∗) → (𝐻,∘).
Fie (𝐺,∗) doua grupuri si 𝑓 ∶ 𝐺 → 𝐺 o functie. Functia 𝑓 este endomorfism de
grupuri daca 𝑓(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑓(𝑦) (∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐺 (este un morfism pe aceeasi
multime si aceeasi lege de compozitie). Daca in plus functia 𝑓 este bijectiva atunci
aceasta se numeste automorfism de grupuri. (este un izomorfism pe aceeasi
multime si aceeasi lege de compozitie)
Un (endo/auto)morfism de grupuri mai poate fi notat: 𝑓 ∶ (𝐺,∗) → (𝐺,∗).
Doua grupuri, (𝐺,∗) si (𝐻,∘), sunt izomorfe daca exista un izomorfism ‘intre ele’.
Acest lucru se poate nota (𝐺,∗)~(𝐻,∘).
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Pentru a ‘inventa’ un izomorfism: se face cea mai simpla asociere (𝑓(2𝑘 ) = 𝑘), se
foloseste proprietatea 𝑓(𝑒1 ) = 𝑒2 sau se gaseste o functie similara cu domeniul si
codomeniul grupurilor.
Proprietatile unui morfism de grupuri:
𝑓(𝑒1 ) = 𝑒2 𝑒1 ∈ 𝐺, 𝑒2 ∈ 𝐻
𝑛
𝑓(𝑥 𝑛 ) = (𝑓(𝑥)) 𝑛∈ℕ
−1
𝑓(𝑥 −1 ) = (𝑓(𝑥)) ̅̅̅̅̅̅
= 𝑓(𝑥)
1
Observatie: 𝑥 −1 ≠ , 𝑥 −1 este simetricul lui 𝑥 in raport cu operatia " ∗ ".
𝑥
−1
̅̅̅̅̅̅
(𝑓(𝑥)) / 𝑓(𝑥) este simetricul lui 𝑓(𝑥) in raport cu operatia " ∘ ".
𝐺 ∗ 𝐻 ∘
𝑥′ = 𝑥′ = 𝑥′ 𝑥̅ = 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 ′
Observatie: Compunerea a doua (izo/endo/auto)morfisme este tot un
(izo/endo/auto)morfism. Inversul unui izomorfism este tot un izomorfism.
Exemplu:
(ℝ ∖ {−3},∗) 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 3 ⋅ 𝑥 + 3 ⋅ 𝑦 + 6
Este functia 𝑓 ∶ (ℝ ∖ {−3},∗) → (ℝ∗ ,⋅), 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 3, un izomorfism de grupuri?
𝑓(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑓(𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 3 ⋅ 𝑥 + 3 ⋅ 𝑦 + 6) = (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3)
𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 3 ⋅ 𝑥 + 3 ⋅ 𝑦 + 6 + 3 = (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3)
𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) + 3 ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) = (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3)
(𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) = (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) ⇒ functia 𝑓 este morfism (1)
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𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 3 ⋅ 𝑥 + 3 ⋅ 𝑦 + 6 = 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) + 3 ⋅ 𝑦 + 6 + 3 − 3 =
= 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) + 3 ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) − 3 = (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) − 3
𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) − 3
} ⇒ operatia " ∗ " este
𝑦 ∗ 𝑥 = (𝑦 + 3) ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) − 3 = (𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑦 + 3) − 3
comutativa ℝ ∖ {−3}.
𝑥 ∗ 𝑒1 = 𝑥
(𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑒1 + 3) − 3 = 𝑥 / + 3
1
(𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑒1 + 3) = 𝑥 + 3 / ⋅ , 𝑥 ≠ −3
𝑥+3
𝑒1 + 3 = 1 / − 3
𝑒1 = −2
Elementul neutru la inmultire este 𝑒2 = 1.
𝑓(𝑒1 ) = 𝑓(−2) = −2 + 3 = 1 = 𝑒2
𝑥 ∗ 𝑥 ′ = 𝑒1
(𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑥 ′ + 3) − 3 = −2 / + 3
1
(𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝑥 ′ + 3) = 1 / ⋅ , 𝑥 ≠ −3
𝑥+3
1
𝑥′ + 3 = /−3
𝑥+3
1
𝑥′ = −3
𝑥+3
1 3 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) 1 − 3 ⋅ (𝑥 + 3) 1 − 3 ⋅ 𝑥 − 9 −3 ⋅ 𝑥 − 8
(𝑥 ′ = − = = = )
𝑥+3 𝑥+3 𝑥+3 𝑥+3 𝑥+3
1
Simetricului unui element la inmultire este inversul elementului, 𝑥̅ = .
𝑥
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓(𝑥 ′ ) = 𝑓(𝑥)
1
𝑓( − 3) = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑥+3
𝑥+3
1 1 1 1
−3+3 = ⇒ =
𝑥+3 𝑥+3 𝑥+3 𝑥+3
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Avand in vedere aceleasi date ale problemei (precum si tot ce sa aflat pana
acum), sa se rezolve (−2023) ∗ (−2022) ∗ … ∗ 2023.
𝑥∗𝜔 =𝜔
(𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝜔 + 3) − 3 = 𝜔 / − 𝜔
(𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝜔 + 3) − 3 − 𝜔 = 0
(𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝜔 + 3) − (3 + 𝜔) = 0
(𝑥 + 3) ⋅ (𝜔 + 3) − (𝜔 + 3) = 0
(𝜔 + 3) ⋅ (𝑥 + 3 − 1) = 0
(𝜔 + 3) ⋅ (𝑥 + 2) = 0
𝜔 + 3 = 0 ⇒ 𝜔 = −3 ∉ ℝ ∖ {−3} ⇒ operatia " ∗ " nu admite element absorbant
pe ℝ ∖ {−3}.
Notam:
(−2023) ∗ (−2022) ∗ … ∗ 2023 = 𝑡 /𝑓
𝑓((−2023) ∗ (−2022) ∗ … ∗ 2023) = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑓(−2023) ⋅ 𝑓(−2022) ⋅ … ⋅ 𝑓(−3) ⋅ … ⋅ 𝑓(2023) = 𝑓(𝑡)
𝑓(−3) = −3 + 3 = 0
𝑓(−2023) ⋅ 𝑓(−2022) ⋅ … ⋅ 0 ⋅ … ⋅ 𝑓(2023) = 𝑓(𝑡)
0 = 𝑡 + 3 ⇒ 𝑡 = −3
(−2023) ∗ (−2022) ∗ … ∗ 2023 = −3
Cea mai simpla asociere este: 𝑓 ∶ (−2; +∞) → (0; +∞), 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 2
𝑓(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑓(𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 𝑦) + 2) = (𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑦 + 2)
𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2 + 2 = (𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑦 + 2)
𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦 + 2) + 2 ⋅ (𝑦 + 2) = (𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑦 + 2)
(𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑦 + 2) = (𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑦 + 2) ⇒ functia 𝑓 este morfism (1)
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𝑓 ∶ ℤ → ℤ, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 5
𝑓(𝑥 ∗ 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ∘ 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦 − 3) = (𝑥 − 5) ∘ (𝑦 − 5)
𝑥+𝑦−3−5=𝑥−5+𝑦−5+2
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 8 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 8 ⇒ functia 𝑓 este morfism
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3) Subgrupuri:
Fie (𝐺,∗) un grup si 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺 (multimea 𝐻 este o submultime a multimii 𝐺), 𝐻 ≠ ∅.
Multimea 𝐻 este subgrup a multimii 𝐺 daca (𝐻,∗) formeaza o structura de grup.
Observatie: Grupurile ({𝑒},∗) si (𝐺,∗) sunt subgrupurii improprii a lui 𝐺. Celalte
subgrupuri se numesc subgrupuri proprii.
Δ
Un subgrup a lui 𝐺 se poate nota: (𝐻,∗) ≤ (𝐺,∗) sau (𝐻,∗)−(𝐺,∗).
Daca (𝐺,∗) admite element neutru, atunci acel element este element neutru
pentru toate subgrupurile.
Teoreme:
Fie (𝐺,∗) un grup si 𝐻 ⊆ 𝐺, 𝐻 ≠ ∅.
I. (𝐻,∗) este subgrup a lui 𝐺 ⟺
(∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 (𝐻 este parte stabila a lui 𝐺 in raport cu legea " ∗ ")
(∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑥 ′ ∈ 𝐻
II. (𝐻,∗) este subgrup a lui 𝐺 ⟺
(∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ′ ∈ 𝐻 𝑦′ ∈ 𝐺
III. (𝐻,∗) este subgrup a lui 𝐺 ⟺
(∀)𝑥, 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 ⇒ 𝑥 ∗ 𝑦 ∈ 𝐻 (𝐻 este parte stabila a lui 𝐺 in raport cu legea " ∗ ")
Multimea 𝐻 este finita.
Exemple:
(ℤ, +) grup si 𝑃 = 2ℤ = {2 ⋅ 𝑘 | 𝑘 ∈ ℤ} = multiplii lui 2. Este 𝑃 = 2ℤ subgrup a lui
ℤ?
(𝑃, +) = (2ℤ, +):
Adunarea este asociativa in generala, deci adunarea pe 2ℤ este asociativa.
Admite element neutru, 0 ∈ 2ℤ }⇒
Admite elemente simetrizabile, − 𝑥 = (−2) ⋅ 𝑘 ∈ 2ℤ, (∀)𝑥 = 2 ⋅ 𝑘 ∈ 2ℤ
⇒ (2ℤ, +) subgrup
Observatie: Orice subgrup a lui (ℤ, +) este de forma (𝑛ℤ, +), unde 𝑛 ∈ ℤ si 𝑛ℤ
este multimea multiplilor intregi lui 𝑛.
Fie (ℝ∗ ,⋅) un grup abelian, " ⋅ " este inmultire, cu 1 elementul neutru si
𝐻 = {𝑥 ∈ 𝐺 | (∃)𝑘 ∈ ℤ∗ a.i. 𝑥 𝑘 = 1}. Cate elemente are multimea 𝐻?
Se observa ca doar pentru −1 si 1 (∃)𝑘1 , 𝑘2 ∈ ℤ∗ a.i. 1𝑘1 = 1 si (−1)𝑘2 = 1;
𝑘1 = 1, 𝑘2 = 2, deci 𝐻 = {−1,1}, adica 2 elemente.
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Observatie: Calculele sunt mai usoare daca este data legea de compozitie (se
poate inlocui, in legea de compozitie, variabilele cu forma lor din submultime, si
se poate afla forma simetricelor, unde se poate substitui variabila simpla pentru
forma din submultime).
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𝑥2 = 𝑥 ∗ 𝑥
𝑥 −2 = (𝑥 −1 )2 = (𝑥 ′ )2 = 𝑥 ′ ∗ 𝑥 ′
′
𝑥 −2 = (𝑥 2 )−1 = (𝑥 ∗ 𝑥)−1 = (𝑥 ⏟ ∗ 𝑥) = 𝑦 ′
𝑦
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𝑥 −𝑘 = 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 (ord 𝑥 = 𝑛 ⇔ 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑒)
𝑥 −𝑘 ∗ 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑥 0 = 𝑒
𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 ∗ 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘+𝑘 = 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑒
𝑥 −𝑘 ∗ 𝑥 𝑘 = 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 ∗ 𝑥 𝑘 / ∗ (𝑥 𝑘 )′
𝑥 −𝑘 ∗ 𝑥 𝑘 ∗ (𝑥 𝑘 )′ = 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 ∗ 𝑥 𝑘 ∗ (𝑥 𝑘 )′
𝑥 −𝑘 ∗ 𝑒 = 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘 ∗ 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑥 −𝑘 = 𝑥 𝑛−𝑘
〈𝑥〉 = {𝑥 0 = 𝑒, 𝑥1 , 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 3 , … , 𝑥 𝑛−1 }
Daca ord 𝑥 = 𝑛 ⇒ {
ord 〈𝑥〉 = 𝑛
iii. Teorema lui Lagrange:
Fie (𝐺,∗) un grup finit. Ordinul oricarui subgrup a lui 𝐺 divide ordinul grupului 𝐺
(ordinul oricarui subgrup divide ordinul grupului).
Consecinte:
Fie (𝐺,∗) un grup finit, ord 𝐺 = 𝑛 si 𝑥 ∈ 𝐺, ord 𝑥 = 𝑘, atunci 𝑘 | 𝑛 (𝑘 divide 𝑛)
𝑛 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑔 ⇒ 𝑥 𝑛 = 𝑥 𝑘⋅𝑔 = (𝑥 𝑘 ) 𝑔 = 𝑒 𝑔 = 𝑒
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𝑎 𝑏
Fie 𝐺 = {( ) | 𝑎, 𝑐 ∈ ℝ∗ , 𝑏 ∈ ℝ}. Cate elemente din grupul (𝐺,⋅) (inmultire) au
0 𝑐
ordinul 2?
1 0
𝐼2 = ( )∈𝐺
0 1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑏 1 0
( )⋅( )=( )
0 𝑐 0 𝑐 0 1
𝑎⋅𝑎 𝑎⋅𝑏+𝑏⋅𝑐 1 0
( )=( )
0 𝑐⋅𝑐 0 1
2 1 0
(𝑎 𝑎 ⋅ 𝑏 +2 𝑏 ⋅ 𝑐) = ( )
0 𝑐 0 1
𝑎2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎 = ±1
𝑐 2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑐 = ±1
𝑎⋅𝑏+𝑏⋅𝑐 =0
𝑏 ⋅ (𝑎 + 𝑐) = 0
±1 0
𝑏=0⇒( )
0 ±1
±1 𝑏
𝑎 + 𝑐 = 0 ⟹ 𝑎 = −𝑐, 𝑏 ∈ ℝ ⇒ ( )
0 ∓1
±1 0 1 0 −1 0 1 0 −1 0
( )=( ),( ),( ),( )
0 ±1 ⏟0 1 0 −1 0 −1 0 1
𝐼2
±1 𝑏 1 𝑏 −1 𝑏
( )=( ),( )
0 ∓1 0 −1 0 1
1 𝑏 −1 𝑏 −1 0
Elementele de ordin 2 din 𝐺 sunt: ( ),( ),( ).
0 −1 0 1 0 −1
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Oricum s-ar lua legea functiei (exemplu 𝑓(𝑎) = 3̂, 𝑓(𝑏) = 1̂, 𝑓(𝑐) = 2̂ , 𝑓(𝑒) = 0̂),
s-ar ajunge la cel putin o contradictie.
Pentru 𝑓(𝑎) = 2̂, 𝑓(𝑏) = 1̂, 𝑓(𝑐) = 3̂ si 𝑓(𝑒) = 0̂ calculam 𝑓(𝑎2 ), 𝑓(𝑏 2 ) si 𝑓(𝑐 2 ).
𝑓(𝑎2 ) = 𝑓(𝑒) = 0̂
𝑓(𝑎 ⋅ 𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎) + 𝑓(𝑎) = 2̂ + 2̂ = 0̂
𝑓(𝑏 2 ) = 𝑓(𝑒) = 0̂
} contradictie, grupurile nu sunt izomorfe.
𝑓(𝑏 ⋅ 𝑏) = 𝑓(𝑏) + 𝑓(𝑏) = 1̂ + 1̂ = 2̂
𝑓(𝑐 2 ) = 𝑓(𝑒) = 0̂
} contradictie, grupurile nu sunt izomorfe.
𝑓(𝑐 ⋅ 𝑐) = 𝑓(𝑐) + 𝑓(𝑐) = 3̂ + 3̂ = 2̂
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Sistemul dat este sistem Cramer daca determinantul matricei sistemului este
inversabil (simetrizabil in raport cu operatia " ∘ ")
iii. Proprietati intr-un inel:
Fie (𝐼,∗,∘) un inel.
I. Daca 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼 este simetrizabil in raport cu operatia " ∘ " (inversabil), atunci 𝑥 nu
este divizor a lui zero.
II. Daca 𝑥 ∈ 𝐼 este divizor a lui zero, atunci 𝑥 nu este inversabil.
III. Intr-un inel are loc urmatoarea relatie: 𝑥 ∘ 𝑒1 = 𝑒1 ∘ 𝑥 = 𝑒1 (∀)𝑥 ∈ 𝐼 (𝑒1 este
element absorbant pentru a doua operatie, " ∘ ")
Demonstratii:
(III. ) 𝑥 ∘ 𝑒1 = 𝑥 ∘ (𝑒1 ∗ 𝑒1 ) = (𝑥 ∘ 𝑒1 ) ∗ (𝑥 ∘ 𝑒1 )
𝑥 ∘ 𝑒1 = 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑡 = 𝑡 ∗ 𝑡 / ∗ 𝑡 ′
𝑡 ∗ 𝑡′ = 𝑡 ∗ 𝑡 ∗ 𝑡′
𝑒1 = 𝑡 ∗ (𝑡 ∗ 𝑡 ′ ) ⇒ 𝑒1 = 𝑡 ∗ 𝑒1 ⇒ 𝑒1 = 𝑡 ⇒ 𝑥 ∘ 𝑒1 = 𝑒1 ⇒ 𝑒1 element absorbant a
lui " ∘ "
(II. ) 𝑥 este divizor a lui zero ⇒ 𝑥 ≠ 𝑒1 si (∃)𝑦 ≠ 𝑒1 astfel incat 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑒1 .
Prin reducere la absurd, presupunem ca 𝑥 este inversabil in raport cu “ ∘ ” ⇒
⇒ (∃)𝑥 ′ ∈ 𝐼 astfel incat 𝑥 ∘ 𝑥 ′ = 𝑥 ′ ∘ 𝑥 = 𝑒2 .
𝑥 ′ ∘ / 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑒1
𝑥 ′ ∘ 𝑥 ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑥 ′ ∘ 𝑒1
(𝑥 ′ ∘ 𝑥) ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑒1
𝑒2 ∘ 𝑦 = 𝑒1
𝑦 = 𝑒1
𝑦 ≠ 𝑒1 } contradictie, 𝑥 nu este inversabil.
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Exemple:
(ℚ, ⊥, ⊤) 𝑥 ⊥ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 1 𝑥 ⊤ y = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦
Sa se studieze distributivitatea operatiei " ⊤ " fata de operatia " ⊥ ".
𝑥 ⊤ (𝑦 ⊥ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ⊤ 𝑦) ⊥ (𝑥 ⊤ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦) ⊥ (𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧) = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 + 1 (1)
𝑥 ⊤ (𝑦 ⊥ 𝑧) = 𝑥 ⊤ (𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1) = 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦 + 𝑧 + 1) = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑥 (2)
Din (1) si (2) ⇒ " ⊤ " nu este distributiva fata de " ⊥ ".
1
(ℚ, ⊥, ⊤) 𝑥 ⊥ 𝑦 = 2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 2 ⋅ 𝑦 𝑥 ⊤ y = ⋅𝑥⋅𝑦
2
Sa se studieze distributivitatea operatiei " ⊤ " fata de operatia " ⊥ ".
1 1
𝑥 ⊤ (𝑦 ⊥ 𝑧) = (𝑥 ⊤ 𝑦) ⊥ (𝑥 ⊤ 𝑧) = ( ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦) ⊥ ( ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧) =
2 2
1 1
= 2 ⋅ ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2 ⋅ ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 (1)
2 2
1
𝑥 ⊤ (𝑦 ⊥ 𝑧) = 𝑥 ⊤ (2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2 ⋅ 𝑧) = ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ (2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2 ⋅ 𝑧) =
2
1 1
= ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 𝑦 + ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 𝑧 = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧(2)
2 2
Din (1) si (2) ⇒ " ⊤ " este distributiva fata de " ⊥ ".
(𝑀2 (ℝ), +,⋅). Sa se studieze daca inelul este integru si sa se verifice daca
elementul neutru al primei operatii este element absorbant pentru a doua
operatie, unde 𝑒1 = 𝑂2.
1 0 0 0
𝐴=( ) ≠ 𝑂2 𝐵=( ) ≠ 𝑂2
0 0 0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0
𝐴⋅𝐵 =( )⋅( )=( ) = 𝑂2 ⇒ 𝐴 si 𝐵 sunt divizori a lui zero ⇒ inelul
0 0 0 1 0 0
(𝑀2 (ℝ), +,⋅) nu este integru.
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𝑎 𝑏
𝐶=( ) ∈ 𝑀2 (ℝ), 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑 ∈ ℝ
𝑐 𝑑
𝑎 𝑏 0 0 0 0
𝐶 ⋅ 𝑂2 = ( )⋅( )=( ) = 𝑂2 ⇒ 𝑂2 este elementul absorbant la
𝑐 𝑑 0 0 0 0
inmultirea matricelor.
(ℤ, ⊥, ⊤) 𝑥 ⊥ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 2 𝑥 ⊤ y = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2
Determinati multimea elementelor unitate (inversabile).
𝑥 ⊤ y = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2 = 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦 + 2) + 2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2 + 2 − 2 =
= 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦 + 2) + 2 ⋅ (𝑦 + 2) − 2 = (𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑦 + 2) − 2
𝑥 ⊤ y = (𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑦 + 2) − 2
} ⇒ operatia " ⊤ " este
𝑦 ⊤ 𝑥 = (𝑦 + 2) ⋅ (𝑥 + 2) − 2 = (𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑦 + 2) − 2
comutativa pe ℤ.
𝑥 ⊤ 𝑒2 = 𝑥
(𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑒2 + 2) − 2 = 𝑥 / + 2
1
(𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑒2 + 2) = 𝑥 + 2 / ⋅ , 𝑥 ≠ −2
𝑥+2
𝑒2 + 2 = 1 / − 2
𝑒2 = −1 (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℤ ∖ {−2} (1)
(−2) ∗ (−1) = (−2 + 2) ⋅ (−1 + 2) − 2 = 0 ⋅ 1 − 2 = −2 (2)
Din (1) si (2) ⇒ legea de compozitie " ∗ " admite element neutru pe ℤ.
𝑥 ⊥ 𝑒1 = 𝑥
𝑥 + 𝑒1 + 2 = 𝑥 / − 𝑥 − 2
𝑒1 = −2
𝑥 ⊤ 𝑥̅ = 𝑒2
(𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑥̅ + 2) − 2 = −1 / + 2
1
(𝑥 + 2) ⋅ (𝑥̅ + 2) = 1 / ⋅ , 𝑥 ≠ −2
𝑥+2
1
𝑥̅ + 2 = /−2
𝑥+2
1 1 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 2) 1 − 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 2) 1 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥 − 4
𝑥̅ = −2 = − = =
𝑥+2 𝑥+2 𝑥+2 𝑥+2 𝑥+2
−2 ⋅ 𝑥 − 3
𝑥̅ = (∀)𝑥 ∈ ℤ ∖ {−2}
𝑥+2
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Observatie:
−2 ⋅ 𝑥 − 3
𝑥̅ = ∈ℤ? 𝑎|𝑎
𝑥+2 𝑎|𝑏 ⇒𝑎|𝑏⋅𝑘
𝑎 𝑎|𝑏−𝑐
∈ ℤ ⇔ 𝑏 | 𝑎 (𝑎 ⋮ b) 𝑎|𝑏
𝑏 } ⇒ {𝑎 | 𝑏 + 𝑐
𝑎|𝑐
𝑥+2|𝑥+2 𝑎|𝑏⋅𝑐
𝑥 + 2 | 2 ⋅ (𝑥 + 2)
𝑥+2|2⋅𝑥+4
𝑥+2|2⋅𝑥+4
} ⇒ 𝑥 + 2 | 2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 4 + (−2 ⋅ 𝑥 − 3)
𝑥+2|−2⋅𝑥−3
𝑥+2|2⋅𝑥+4−2⋅𝑥−3
𝑥+2=1 𝑥 = −1
𝑥+2|1⇒{ ⟹{
𝑥 + 2 = −1 𝑥 = −3
𝑈(ℤ) = {−3, −1}
(ℤ12 , +,⋅)
5̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 1̂
{
4̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 9̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 2̂
̂ ̂
𝐴 = (5 2) ⇒ det 𝐴 = 5̂ ⋅ 9̂ − 2̂ ⋅ 4̂ = 45
̂ − 8̂ = 9̂ + 12
̂ − 8 = 9̂ + 4̂ = 13
̂ = 1̂ ⇒
4̂ 9̂
determinantul matricei sistemului este inversabil in raport cu inmultirea ⇒
sistem Cramer.
5̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 1̂ / ⋅ 9̂ 5̂ ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 9̂ + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 9̂ = 1̂ ⋅ 9̂
{ ⇒{ ⇒
4̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 9̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 2̂ / ⋅ −2
̂ = 10
̂ 4̂ ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 10
̂ + 9̂ ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 10 ̂ = 2̂ ⋅ 10̂
̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 18
45 ̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 9̂
⇒{
̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 90
40 ̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 20 ̂
9̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 6̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 9̂
{
4̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 6̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 8̂
⨁
9̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 6̂ ⋅ 𝑦 + 4̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 6̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 9̂ + 8̂
̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 12
13 ̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 17̂
1̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 0̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 5̂
𝑥 = 5̂
5̂ ⋅ 5̂ + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 1̂ ̂ + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 1̂
25 1̂ + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 1̂ / + −1̂ = 11 ̂
{ ⇒{ ⇒{ ⇒
4̂ ⋅ 5̂ + 9̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 2̂ ̂ + 9̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 2̂
20 8̂ + 9̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 2̂ / + −8
̂ = 4̂
1̂ + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 + 11
̂ = 1̂ + 11 ̂ ̂ + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 12
12 ̂ 0̂ + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 0̂
⇒{ ⇒{ ⇒{ ⇒
8̂ + 9̂ ⋅ 𝑦 + 4̂ = 2̂ + 4̂ ̂ + 9̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 6̂
12 0̂ + 9̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 6̂
2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 0̂ ⇒ 𝑦 ∈ {0̂, 6̂}
⇒{ } ⇒ 𝑦 = 6̂
9̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 6̂ ⇒ 𝑦 ∈ {2̂, 6̂, 10
̂}
𝑆 = {(5̂, 6̂)}
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Daca pentru 𝑥 ar fi fost mai multe valori, se va calcula 𝑦 pentru fiecare dintre
valorile lui 𝑥.
5̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 1̂
{
3̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 3̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 1̂
̂ ̂
𝐴 = (5 2) ⇒ det 𝐴 = 5̂ ⋅ 9̂ − 3̂ ⋅ 3̂ = 45
̂ − 9̂ = 9̂ + 12
̂ − 9 = 9̂ + 3̂ = 12
̂ = 0̂ ⇒
3̂ 3̂
⇒ determinantul nu este simetrizabil, sistemul nu este sistem Cramer.
5̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 1̂ / ⋅ 3̂
{
3̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 3̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 1̂ / ⋅ −2
̂ = 10
̂
3̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 6̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 3̂
{
6̂ ⋅ 𝑥 + 6̂ ⋅ 𝑦 = 10
̂
⨁
9̂ ⋅ 𝑥 = 1̂
(∀)𝑥 ∈ ℤ12 , 9̂ ⋅ 𝑥 ≠ 1̂ ⇒ sistem incompatibil
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Proprietati:
′
̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑓(𝑥 ′ ) = (𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥 ′ este simetricul lui 𝑥 in raport cu operatia " ∗ "
′
̅̅̅̅̅̅ este simetricului lui 𝑓(𝑥) in raport cu operatia " ⊥ "
(𝑓(𝑥)) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓(𝑒1 ) = 𝑒1 ′
Exemplu:
(ℤ, ⊥, ⊤) 𝑥 ⊥ 𝑦 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 + 6 𝑥 ⊤ y = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 6 ⋅ 𝑥 + 6 ⋅ 𝑦 + 30
Este functia 𝑓 ∶ (ℤ, +,⋅) → (ℤ, ⊥, ⊤), 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 − 6, un izomorfism de inele?
𝑥 ⊤ y = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 6 ⋅ 𝑥 + 6 ⋅ 𝑦 + 30 = 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦 + 6) + 6 ⋅ 𝑦 + 30 + 6 − 6 =
= 𝑥 ⋅ (𝑦 + 6) + 6 ⋅ (𝑦 + 6) − 6 = (𝑥 + 6) ⋅ (𝑦 + 6) − 6
𝑓(𝑥 + 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⊥ 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 6 = (𝑥 − 6) ⊥ (𝑦 − 6)
𝑥+𝑦−6= 𝑥−6+𝑦−6+6
𝑥 + 𝑦 − 6 = 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 6 (1)
𝑓(𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⊤ 𝑓(𝑦)
𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 − 6 = (𝑥 − 6) ⊤ (𝑦 − 6)
𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 − 6 = (𝑥 − 6 + 6) ⋅ (𝑦 − 6 + 6) − 6
𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 − 6 = 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 − 6 (2)
Din (1) si (2) ⇒ functia 𝑓 este morfism (3)
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48. Polinoame:
Fie polinomul 𝑓 ∈ 𝐾[X], 𝐾 = corp, cu forma algebrica:
𝑓 = 𝑓(X) = 𝑎𝑛 ⋅ X 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ X 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ X + 𝑎0 , unde:
𝑎𝑛 ⋅ X 𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ X 𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎1 ⋅ X = monom,
𝑛 = gradul lui 𝑓 = grad 𝑓,
𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎1 = coeficientii polinomului,
𝑎0 = termenul liber,
𝑎𝑛 ⋅ X 𝑛 = termenul dominant,
𝑎𝑛 = coeficientul termenului dominant.
Multimea 𝐾 este ,de obicei, una dintre multimile consacrate, dar poate fi orice
multime. 𝐾[X] se citeste „multimea polinoamelor in / cu nedeterminata X cu
coeficienti elementele din multimea K”.
ℂ[X] se citeste „multimea polinoamelor in / cu nedeterminata X cu coeficienti
numere complexe”.
ℝ[X] se citeste „multimea polinoamelor in / cu nedeterminata X cu coeficienti
numere reale”.
ℚ[X] se citeste „multimea polinoamelor in / cu nedeterminata X cu coeficienti
numere rationale”.
ℤ[X] se citeste „multimea polinoamelor in / cu nedeterminata X cu coeficienti
numere intregi”.
ℤ[X] ⊆ ℚ[X] ⊆ ℝ[X] ⊆ ℂ[X]
Fie 𝑓 ∶ 𝐾 → 𝐾, 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎𝑛 ⋅ X 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ X 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ X + 𝑎0 = functia
polinomiala atasata polinomului 𝑓.
Valoarea in punctul 𝛼 ∈ 𝐾 se noteaza: 𝑓(𝛼) = 𝑎𝑛 ⋅ 𝛼 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ 𝛼 𝑛−1 + ⋯ +
+𝑎1 ⋅ 𝛼 + 𝑎0 . Daca 𝑓(𝛼) = 0, atunci 𝛼 se numeste radacina polinomului 𝑓.
Daca polinomul 𝑓 este constant (𝑓 = 𝑎0 , 𝑎0 ≠ 0), atunci grad 𝑓 = 0.
Daca polinomul 𝑓 este nul (𝑓 = 0), atunci grad 𝑓 = −∞.
Observatie:
𝑎2 ⋅ x 2 + 𝑎1 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑎0 = 0 = ecuatia de gradul II.
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑎2 ⋅ x 2 + 𝑎1 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑎0 = functie de gradul II.
𝑓 = 𝑎2 ⋅ X 2 + 𝑎1 ⋅ X + 𝑎0 = polinom de gradul II.
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1) Operatii cu polinoame:
Fie polinomele 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐾[X].
Orice polimon admite un opus, 𝑓 → (−𝑓). Doar polinoamele constante sunt
1
inversabile (ℎ = 3 → ℎ′ = ).
3
Doua polinoame sunt egale cand au acelasi grad si aceeasi coeficienti.
i. Adunarea si scaderea polinoamelor:
Se procedeaza asemenea adunarii / scaderii expresiilor, se adun (scad) termenii
care sunt la aceeasi putere.
Elementul neutru la adunare este polinomul nul (𝑒 = 0).
Adunarea polinoamelor este comutativa si asociativa.
grad (𝑓 ± 𝑔) ≤ max{grad 𝑓, grad 𝑔}
ii. Inmultirea polinoamelor:
Se procedeaza asemenea inmutirea expresiilor, se inmulteste fiecare termen din
prima paranteza cu fiecare termen din a doua paranteza. care sunt la aceeasi
putere.
Elementul neutru la inmultire este polinomul 𝑒 = 1.
Inmultirea polinoamelor este comutativa, asociativa si distributiva fata de
adunarea polinoamelor.
grad (𝑓 ⋅ 𝑔) ≤ grad 𝑓 + grad 𝑔 (este egalitate doar daca coeficientii termenilor
dominanti celor doua polinoame nu sunt divizori a lui zero).
iii. Impartirea polinoamelor:
Se imparte direct, sau daca se imparte la X − 𝑎 sau X − (−𝑎) (X + 𝑎) se poate
folosi Schema lui Horner.
Pentru impartirea directa, se imulteste impartitorul cu 𝑘 ⋅ X 𝑛 astfel incat
polinomul rezultata, cu semn schimbat, sa simplifice termenul dominant al
deimpartitului (prin adunarea cu polinomul obtinut prin inmultire). Aceast
algoritm se repeta pana cand polinomul deimpartitului este de grad strict mai
mic dacat gradul impartitorului, iar ultimul polinom este restul impartirii. Daca la
deimpartit, unii coeficientii sunt 0, este recomandat sa se scrie monomul 0 ⋅ X 𝑖 .
Catul sunt toti monomii cu care sa inmultit impartitorul, adunati.
Pentru schema lui Horner, se trec toate puterile deimpartitului, chiar si cele care
nu apar, precum si coefiecientul fiecarii puteri, scrisa sub puterea respectiva.
Se coboara primul coeficient, se inmulteste cu 𝑎 / (−𝑎) si se aduna la urmatorul
coefiecient, si se coboara rezultatul. Se repeta algoritmul pana toti coeficientii au
fost coborati. Ultimul element coborat este restul impartirii, iar catul se afla prin
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𝑓∶𝑔=
X3 + X2 − 2 ⋅ X + 5 X2 + X + 1
−X 3 − X 2 − X X
/ / −3⋅X+5
𝑞 = X ⇒ grad 𝑞 = 1
𝑟 = −3 ⋅ X + 5
grad 𝑞 = grad 𝑓 − grad 𝑔
1= 3−2⇒ 1=1
𝑓 = 𝑞 ⋅ 𝑔 + 𝑟 = X ⋅ (X 2 + X + 1) + (−3 ⋅ X + 5) = X 2 ⋅ X + X ⋅ X + 1 ⋅ X − 3 ⋅ X + 5
= X3 + X2 + X − 3 ⋅ X + 5 = X3 + X2 − 2 ⋅ X + 5
𝑓∶ℎ=
X3 + X2 − 2 ⋅ X + 5 X + 1
−X 3 − X 2 X2 − 2
/ / −2⋅X+5
+2⋅X+2
/ 7
𝑞 = X2 − 2
𝑟=7
𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 + (−1)2 − 2 ⋅ (−1) + 5 = −1 + 1 + 2 + 5 = 7 = 𝑟
X 3 X 2 X1 X 0
1 1 −2 5
𝑎 = −1 1 0 −2 7
𝑟
𝑞 = X2 + 0 ⋅ X − 2 = X2 − 2
𝑟=7
𝑓 = X 3 + 5 ⋅ X + 10
𝑔 =X−4
X 3 + 0 ⋅ X 2 + 5 ⋅ X + 10 X − 4
−X 3 + 4 ⋅ X 2 X 2 + 4 ⋅ X + 21
2
/ +4⋅X +5⋅X
−4 ⋅ X 2 + 16 ⋅ X
/ + 21 ⋅ X + 10
−21 ⋅ X + 84
/ 94
𝑞 = X 2 + 4 ⋅ X + 21
𝑟 = 94
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X 3 X 2 X1 X 0
1 0 5 10
𝑎 =41 4 21 94
2
𝑞 = X + 4 ⋅ X + 21
𝑟 = 94
𝑓 = (X − 2)2⋅𝑛 + (X − 1)𝑛 − 1
𝑔 = X2 − 3 ⋅ X + 2
Calculati restul impartirii lui 𝑓 la 𝑔.
𝑔 = X 2 − 3 ⋅ X + 2 = X 2 − X − 2 ⋅ X + 2 = X ⋅ (X − 1) − 2 ⋅ (X − 1) =
X =2
= (X − 2) ⋅ (X − 1) ⇒ { 1
X2 = 1
grad 𝑔 = 2 ⇒ grad 𝑟 ≤ 1 ⇒ 𝑟 = 𝑎 ⋅ X + 𝑏 ⇒ “metoda anularii impartitorului”
𝑓 =𝑔⋅𝑞+𝑟
𝑓(1) = 𝑔(1) ⋅ 𝑞(1) + 𝑟(1)
(1 − 2)2⋅𝑛 + (1 − 1)𝑛 − 1 = 0 ⋅ 𝑞(1) + 𝑎 ⋅ 1 + 𝑏
12⋅𝑛 + 0𝑛 − 1 = 𝑎 + 𝑏
𝑎+𝑏 = 1−1= 0
𝑓 =𝑔⋅𝑞+𝑟
𝑓(2) = 𝑔(2) ⋅ 𝑞(2) + 𝑟(2)
(2 − 2)2⋅𝑛 + (2 − 1)𝑛 − 1 = 0 ⋅ 𝑞(2) + 𝑎 ⋅ 2 + 𝑏
02⋅𝑛 + 1𝑛 − 1 = 2 ⋅ 𝑎 + 𝑏
2⋅𝑎+𝑏 = 1−1= 0
2⋅𝑎+𝑏 =𝑎+𝑏/−𝑏
2⋅𝑎 =𝑎 ⇒ 𝑎 =0
𝑎+𝑏 =0
0+𝑏 =0⇒𝑏 =0
Restul impartirii lui 𝑓 la 𝑔 este 𝑟 = 0.
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2) Divizibilitatea polinoamelor:
Fie polinomele 𝑓, 𝑔 ∈ 𝐾[X]. Polinomul 𝑓 este divizibil cu polinomul 𝑔
(in 𝐾[X] / peste corpul 𝐾) daca (∃)𝑞 ∈ 𝐾[X] astfel incat 𝑓 = 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑞.
Observatie: 𝑓 ⋮ 𝑔 (𝑓 divizibil cu 𝑔) / 𝑔 | 𝑓 (𝑔 divide 𝑓). Polinomul 𝑓 este multiplu
pentru polinomul 𝑔 sau polinomul 𝑔 este divizor a polinomului 𝑓.
Daca polinomul 𝑓 este divizibil cu polinomul 𝑔 atunci restul impartirii lui 𝑓 la 𝑔
este 0.
𝑓 =𝑔⋅𝑞+𝑟
}𝑓 = 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑞 + 0 = 𝑔 ⋅ 𝑞
𝑓⋮𝑔
i. Teorema lui Bezout:
Fie polinomul 𝑓 ∈ 𝐾[X]. Polinomul 𝑓 este divizibil cu X − 𝑎 / X − (−𝑎) (X + 𝑎) ⇔
⇔ 𝑎 (respectiv (−𝑎)) este radacina pentru polinomul 𝑓.
„⇐” Daca 𝑎 (respectiv (−𝑎)) este radacina pentru polinomul 𝑓, atunci 𝑓 este
divizibil cu X − 𝑎, respectiv X − (−𝑎) (X + 𝑎).
𝑓(𝑎) = (𝑎 − 𝑎) ⋅ 𝑞(𝑎) + 𝑟
0=𝑟
„⇒” Daca X − 𝑎, respectiv X − (−𝑎) (X + 𝑎) divide polinomul 𝑓 atunci
𝑎 (respectiv (−𝑎)) este radacina pentru polinomul 𝑓.
𝑓 = (X − 𝑎) ⋅ 𝑞
} ⇒ 𝑓(𝑎) = (a − 𝑎) ⋅ 𝑞(𝑎) = 𝑓(𝑎) = 0
X=𝑎
Observatie: Bezout se pronunta „Bezu”.
ii. Proprietatile relatiei de divizibilitate:
Fie polinomele 𝑓, 𝑔, ℎ ∈ 𝐾[X].
• Divizibilitatea este reflexiva; 𝑓 | 𝑓.
• Divizibilitatea este tranzitiva; 𝑓 | 𝑔 si 𝑔 | ℎ, atunci 𝑓 | ℎ.
• Daca 𝑓 | 𝑔 si 𝑔 | 𝑓 atunci (∃)𝛼 ∈ 𝐾, grad 𝛼 = 0 astfel incat 𝑔 = 𝛼 ⋅ 𝑓 sau
1
𝑓 = . In situatia aceasta polinoamele 𝑓 si 𝑔 se numesc asociate in divizibilitate
𝛼
(𝑓 ~ 𝑔).
• Orice polinom divide polinomul nul; 𝑓 | 0 sau 0 ⋮ 𝑓 (∀)𝑓 ∈ 𝐾[X], 0 = 𝑓 ⋅ 0.
Observatie: 0 nu se imparte la 0 dar 0 este divizibil cu 0.
• Orice constanta nenula divide orice polinom; 𝛼 | 𝑓 (∀)𝛼 ∈ 𝐾, 𝛼 ≠ 0
• Fie o constanta nenula 𝛼 ∈ 𝐾 (𝛼 ≠ 0) si polinomul 𝑓, atunci 𝛼, 𝑓 si 𝛼 ⋅ 𝑓 se
numesc divizorii improprii a polinomului 𝑓. Toti ceilalti divizori a lui 𝑓 se numesc
divizori proprii.
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Exemple:
𝑓 =3⋅X+2 𝑔 =6⋅X+4
𝑓 | 𝑔 ⇒ 𝑔 = 2 ⋅ (3 ⋅ X + 2) = 2 ⋅ 𝑓
1 1
𝑓 | 𝑔 ⇒ 𝑓 = ⋅ (6 ⋅ X + 4) = ⋅ 𝑔
2 2
Polinoamele 𝑓 si 𝑔 sunt asociate in divizibilitate.
𝑓 = X4 + X3 − 2 ⋅ X2 − 4 ⋅ X + 4
𝑔 = X3 + X2 + X − 3
(𝑓, 𝑔) = ?
X4 + X3 − 2 ⋅ X2 − 4 ⋅ X + 4 X3 + X2 + X − 3
−X 4 − X 3 − X2 + 3 ⋅ X X
2
/ / −3⋅X − X+4
2
𝑟1 = −3 ⋅ X − X + 4
Pentru a evita coefiecienti fractionari:
(−1) ⋅ 𝑟1 = (−1) ⋅ (−3 ⋅ X 2 − X + 4) = 3 ⋅ X 2 + X − 4 = 𝑟1 ′
3 ⋅ 𝑔 = 3 ⋅ (X 3 + X 2 + X − 3) = 3 ⋅ X 3 + 3 ⋅ X 2 + 3 ⋅ X − 9
3 ⋅ X3 + 3 ⋅ X2 + 3 ⋅ X − 9 3 ⋅ X2 + X − 4
−3 ⋅ X 3 − X2 + 4 ⋅ X X
2
/ 2⋅X +7⋅X−9
2
𝑟2 = 2 ⋅ X + 7 ⋅ X − 9
Pentru a evita coefiecienti fractionari:
2 ⋅ 𝑟1 ′ = 2 ⋅ (3 ⋅ X 2 + X − 4) = 6 ⋅ X 2 + 2 ⋅ X − 8
6 ⋅ X2 + 2 ⋅ X − 8 2 ⋅ X2 + 7 ⋅ X − 9
2
−6 ⋅ X − 21 ⋅ X + 27 3
/ − 19 ⋅ X + 19
𝑟3 = −19 ⋅ X + 19
Pentru a evita coefiecienti fractionari:
1 1
(− ) ⋅ 𝑟3 = (− ) ⋅ (−19 ⋅ X + 19) = X − 1
19 19
2 ⋅ X2 + 7 ⋅ X − 9 X−1
−2 ⋅ X 2 + 2 ⋅ X 2⋅X+9
/ 9⋅X−9
−9 ⋅ X + 9
/ /
𝑟4 = 0 ⇒ ultimul rest nenul este 𝑟3 ⇒ (𝑓, 𝑔) = X − 1
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𝑓 = X4 + X2 + 1
𝑓 ≥ 1 (∀)X ∈ ℝ ⇒ 𝑓 nu are radacini in ℝ, dar este reductibil.
𝑓 = X 4 + X 2 + 1 = X 4 + 2 ⋅ X 2 + 1 − X 2 = (X 2 + 1)2 − X 2 =
= (X 2 + 1 + X) ⋅ (X 2 + 1 − X) = (X 2 + X + 1) ⋅ (X 2 − X + 1).
𝑓 = X 4 − 9 = (X 2 )2 − 32 = (X 2 − 3) ⋅ (X 2 + 3);
X 2 − 3 = 0 ⇒ X 2 = 3 ⇒ X = ±√3
X 2 + 3 = 0 ⇒ Δ = 02 − 4 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 3 = 0 − 12 = −12 < 0
In ℚ[X]; (X 2 − 3) este de gradul II dar nu are radacini in ℚ (±√3 ∉ ℚ), iar
(X 2 + 3) este de gradul II cu delta negativ, deci nu sunt reductibile in ℚ[X].
In ℝ[X]; (X 2 − 3) este de gradul II si are radacini in ℝ , deci este reductibila in In
ℝ[X], dar (X 2 + 3) este de gradul II cu delta negativ, deci nu este reductibila in
ℝ[X].
𝑓 = (X 2 − 3) ⋅ (X 2 + 3) = (X − √3) ⋅ (X + √3) ⋅ (X 2 + 3)
In ℂ[X]; (X ± √3) sunt de gradul I; ireductibile, dar (X 2 + 3) este de gradul II, este
reductibila pe ℂ[X].
X 2 + 3 = 0 ⇒ X 2 = −3 ⇒ X = ±√−3 = ±√𝑖 2 ⋅ 3 = ±𝑖√3
𝑓 = (X − √3) ⋅ (X + √3) ⋅ (X 2 + 3) =
= (X − √3) ⋅ (X + √3) ⋅ (X + 𝑖√3) ⋅ (X − 𝑖√3)
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𝑓(0̂) = 1̂
𝑓(1̂) = 2̂ + 𝑎 + 2̂ + 1̂ = 𝑎 + 2̂
Pentru 𝑎 = 1̂ ⇒ 𝑎 + 2̂ = 1̂ + 2̂ = 0̂ ⇒ 𝑓 are radacina ⇒ 𝑓 reductibil
𝑓(2̂) = 1̂ + 2̂ ⋅ 𝑎 + 1̂ + 1̂ = 2̂ ⋅ 𝑎
Pentru 𝑎 = 0̂ ⇒ 2̂ ⋅ 𝑎 = 2̂ ⋅ 0̂ = 0̂ ⇒ 𝑓 are radacina ⇒ 𝑓 reductibil
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Un polinom cu coeficienti reali de grad impar are cel putin o radacina reala.
Numarul de radacini reale, notate cu ℝ, si radacini “strict” complexe, notate cu
ℂ ∖ ℝ, a polinoamelor pana la gradul V:
𝑓 = 𝑎1 ⋅ X + 𝑎0 ∈ ℝ[X]
𝑎0
• X1 = − ∈ ℝ (polinomul 𝑓 are 1 ℝ si 0 ℂ ∖ ℝ; o radacina reala si 0 radacini
𝑎1
“strict” complexe)
𝑓 = 𝑎2 ⋅ X 2 + 𝑎1 ⋅ X + 𝑎0 ∈ ℝ[X]
• Δ ≥ 0 ⇒ 2 ℝ, 0 ℂ ∖ ℝ
• Δ < 0 ⇒ 0 ℝ, 2 ℂ ∖ ℝ
𝑓 = 𝑎3 ⋅ X 3 + 𝑎2 ⋅ X 2 + 𝑎1 ⋅ X + 𝑎0 ∈ ℝ[X]
• 3 ℝ, 0 ℂ ∖ ℝ
• 1 ℝ, 2 ℂ ∖ ℝ
𝑓 = 𝑎4 ⋅ X 4 + 𝑎3 ⋅ X 3 + 𝑎2 ⋅ X 2 + 𝑎1 ⋅ X + 𝑎0 ∈ ℝ[X]
• 4 ℝ, 0 ℂ ∖ ℝ
• 2 ℝ, 2 ℂ ∖ ℝ
• 0 ℝ, 4 ℂ ∖ ℝ
𝑓 = 𝑎5 ⋅ X 5 + 𝑎4 ⋅ X 4 + 𝑎3 ⋅ X 3 + 𝑎2 ⋅ X 2 + 𝑎1 ⋅ X + 𝑎0 ∈ ℝ[X]
• 5 ℝ, 0 ℂ ∖ ℝ
• 3 ℝ, 2 ℂ ∖ ℝ
• 1 ℝ, 4 ℂ ∖ ℝ
iv. Legatura dintre numarul de radacini ale unui polinom si polinomul nul:
Fie polinomul 𝑓 ∈ 𝐾[X]. Daca polinomul 𝑓 are gradul 𝑛 si se anuleaza in 𝑛 + 1
radacini distincte (are 𝑛 + 1 radacini distincte), atunci polinomul 𝑓 este
polinomul nul.
Exemplificare: Daca un polinom de gradul 3 are 4 radacini, atunci polinomul
respectiv este polinomul nul.
v. Radacini multiple ale unui polinom:
Fie polinomul 𝑓 ∈ 𝐴[X]. 𝛼 este radacina multipla de ordin 𝑘 (cu ordin de
multiplicitate 𝑘) pentru polinomul 𝑓 daca (X − 𝛼)𝑘 | 𝑓 si (X − 𝛼)𝑘+1 ∤ 𝑓 (nu il
divide pe 𝑓)
𝛼 este radacina multipla de ordin 𝑘 (cu ordin de multiplicitate 𝑘) pentru
polinomul 𝑓 daca 𝑓(𝛼) = 0, 𝑓 ′ (𝛼) = 0, 𝑓 ′′ (𝛼) = 0, … , 𝑓 (𝑘−1) (𝛼) = 0,
, 𝑓 (𝑘) (𝛼) ≠ 0
Numarul 𝑘 se numeste ordin de multiplicitate.
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S0 = X 1 0 + X 2 0 + ⋯ + X 𝑚 0 = ⏟
1 + 1 + ⋯+ 1 = 𝑚
de 𝑚 ori
1 1 1 𝑎𝑚−1
S1 = X1 + X2 + ⋯ + X𝑚 = X1 + X2 + X3 + ⋯ + X𝑛 = −
𝑎𝑚
S2 = X 1 2 + X 2 2 + ⋯ + X 𝑚 2
S3 = X 1 3 + X 2 3 + ⋯ + X 𝑚 3
………………………………
Pentru a arata ca un polinom are cel putin o radacina din ℂ ∖ ℝ, se arata ca S2⋅𝑛
(suma de indici pari) este negativa, sau egala cu 0, atat timp cat 0 nu este
radacina pentru polinomul dat.
S2 = X1 2 + X2 2 + ⋯ + X𝑚 2 < 0 ⇒ polinom dat are cel putin o radacina din ℂ ∖ ℝ.
S4 = X1 4 + X2 4 + ⋯ + X𝑚 4 < 0 ⇒ polinom dat are cel putin o radacina din ℂ ∖ ℝ.
……………………………………
𝑆2 = X1 2 + X2 2 + ⋯ + X𝑚 2 = 0
} ⇒ polinom dat are cel putin o radacina
0 nu este radacina pentru polinomul dat
din ℂ ∖ ℝ.
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𝑎𝑚 ⋅ X1 𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ X1 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ X1 + 𝑎0 = 0
{ 𝑎𝑚 ⋅ X2 𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ X2 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ X2 + 𝑎0 = 0
……… …………………………………………………
𝑎𝑚 ⋅ X𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ X𝑚 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ X 𝑚 + 𝑎0 = 0
𝑚
⨁
𝑎𝑚 ⋅ (X1 𝑚 + X2 𝑚 + ⋯ + X𝑚 𝑚 ) + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ (X1 𝑚−1 + X2 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + X 𝑚 𝑚−1 ) + ⋯ +
+ 𝑎1 ⋅ (X1 + X2 + ⋯ + X𝑚 ) + 𝑎0 ⋅ 𝑚 = 0
𝑎𝑚−1
𝑎𝑚 ⋅ S𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ S𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ (− ) + 𝑎0 ⋅ 𝑚 = 0
𝑎𝑚
Pentru aceasta metoda, toate celalte sume pana la suma ce se doreste a fi
calculata, trebuie sa fie deja calculate.
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Daca se doreste calcularea unei sume mai mari decat gradul functiei, fiecare
ecuatie se inmulteste cu radacina respectiva.
𝑎𝑚 ⋅ X1 𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ X1 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ X1 + 𝑎0 = 0 / ⋅ X1
X2 𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ X2 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ X2 + 𝑎0 = 0 / ⋅ X2
{ 𝑎…𝑚…⋅ … ……………………………………………………………
𝑎𝑚 ⋅ X𝑚 𝑚 + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ X𝑚 𝑚−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ X 𝑚 + 𝑎0 = 0 / ⋅ X𝑚
𝑎𝑚 ⋅ X1 𝑚+1 + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ X1 𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ X1 2 + 𝑎0 ⋅ X1 = 0
X2 𝑚+1 + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ X2 𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ X2 2 + 𝑎0 ⋅ X2 = 0
{ 𝑎…𝑚…⋅ … ……………………………………………………………
𝑎𝑚 ⋅ X𝑚 𝑚+1 + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ X𝑚 𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ X 𝑚 2 + 𝑎0 ⋅ X𝑚 = 0
⨁
𝑎𝑚 ⋅ (X1 𝑚+1 + X 2 𝑚+1 + ⋯ + X𝑚 𝑚+1 ) + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ (X1 𝑚 + X2 𝑚 + ⋯ + X𝑚 𝑚 ) + ⋯ +
+ 𝑎1 ⋅ (X1 2 + X2 2 + ⋯ + X𝑚 2 ) + 𝑎0 ⋅ (X1 + X2 + ⋯ + X𝑚 ) = 0
𝑎𝑚−1
𝑎𝑚 ⋅ S𝑚+1 + 𝑎𝑚−1 ⋅ S𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑎1 ⋅ S2 + 𝑎0 ⋅ (− )=0
𝑎𝑚
Exemple:
𝑓 = X 2 + X + 1. Scrieti relatiile lui Viete pentru polinomul 𝑓 si calculati S2 , S3 si
S4 .
1
𝑠1 = X1 + X2 = − = −1
{ 1
1
𝑠2 = X ⋅ X = = 1
1 2
1
• S2 :
S2 = (𝑠1 )2 − 2 ⋅ 𝑠2 = (−1)2 − 2 ⋅ 1 = 1 − 2 = −1 ⇒ polinomul 𝑓 are radacinii din
ℂ ∖ ℝ.
X1 + X2 = −1 /2
(X1 + X2 )2 = (−1)2
X1 2 + 2 ⋅ X1 ⋅ X 2 + X 2 2 = 1
X1 2 + X 2 2 + 2 ⋅ 1 = 1
S2 + 2 = 1 ⇒ S2 = −1 ⇒ polinomul 𝑓 are radacinii din ℂ ∖ ℝ.
X1 2 + X1 + 1 = 0
{
X2 2 + X2 + 1 = 0
⨁
2 2
X1 + X 2 + X1 + X 2 + 2 = 0
S2 − 1 + 2 = 0
S2 + 1 = 0 ⇒ S2 = −1 ⇒ polinomul 𝑓 are radacinii din ℂ ∖ ℝ.
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• S3 :
X1 + X2 = −1 /3
(X1 + X2 )3 = (−1)3
X1 3 + 3 ⋅ X1 2 ⋅ X 2 + 3 ⋅ X1 ⋅ X2 2 + X3 2 = −1
X1 3 + X2 3 + 3 ⋅ X1 ⋅ X2 ⋅ (X1 + X2 ) = −1
S3 + 3 ⋅ 1 ⋅ (−1) = −1
S3 − 3 = −1 ⇒ S3 = 2
X1 2 + X1 + 1 = 0 / ⋅ X1
{
X2 2 + X2 + 1 = 0 / ⋅ X2
X 3 + X1 2 + X1 = 0
{ 13
X2 + X2 2 + X2 = 0
⨁
X1 + X 2 + X1 + X 2 2 + X1 + X 2 = 0
3 3 2
S3 − 1 − 1 = 0
S3 − 2 = 0 ⇒ S 3 = 2
• S4 :
X1 2 + X1 + 1 = 0 / ⋅ X1 2
{
X2 2 + X2 + 1 = 0 / ⋅ X2 2
X 4 + X1 3 + X1 2 = 0
{ 14
X2 + X2 3 + X2 2 = 0
⨁
X1 + X 2 + X1 + X 2 3 + X1 2 + X 2 2 = 0
4 4 3
S4 + 2 − 1 = 0
S4 + 1 = 0 ⇒ S4 = −1 ⇒ polinomul 𝑓 are radacinii din ℂ ∖ ℝ.
6) Polinoame reciproce:
Fie polinomul 𝑓 ∈ 𝐾[X]. Polinomul 𝑓 este polinom reciproc daca coeficientii egal
departati de extremi sunt egali (𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛−𝑘 , 𝑘 = ̅̅̅̅̅
1, 𝑛).
Daca polinomul 𝑓 este polinom reciproc atunci acesta are forma algebrica:
𝑓 = 𝑎𝑛 ⋅ X 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ X 𝑛−1 + 𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ X 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛−2 ⋅ X 2 + 𝑎𝑛−1 ⋅ X + 𝑎𝑛 , sau
𝑓 = 𝑎 ⋅ X 𝑛 + 𝑏 ⋅ X 𝑛−1 + 𝑐 ⋅ X 𝑛−2 + ⋯ + 𝑐 ⋅ X 2 + 𝑏 ⋅ X + 𝑎.
Orice polinom reciproc de grad impar are ca radacina −1.
Pentru polinoamele reciproce de grad par, grad 𝑓 = 2 ⋅ 𝑛, se poate imparti cu X 𝑛
ecuatia reciproca atasata polinomul reciproc.
1
Daca 𝛼 este radacina pentru un polinom reciproc atunci si este radacina
𝛼
pentru acel polinom.
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Exemple:
𝑓 = X 3 − 5 ⋅ X 2 − 5 ⋅ X + 1. Sa se gaseasca toate radacinile polinomului 𝑓.
Se poate observa ca polinomul 𝑓 este un polinom reciproc de grad impar, deci
X1 = −1 este radacina pentru polinomul 𝑓.
𝑓(−1) = (−1)3 − 5 ⋅ (−1)2 − 5 ⋅ (−1) + 1 = −1 − 5 ⋅ 1 + 5 + 1 = 0
T. Bezout
−1 este radacina pentru polinomul 𝑓 ⇒ (X + 1) | 𝑓
X 3 X 2 X1 X 0
1 −5 −5 1
−1 1 −6 1 0
𝑓 = (X + 1) ⋅ (X 2 − 6 ⋅ X + 1)
X2 − 6 ⋅ X + 1 = 0
Δ = (−6)2 − 4 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 = 36 − 4 = 32
6 ± √32 6 ± 4√2 X = 3 − 2√2
X2,3 = = = 3 ± 2√2 ⇒ { 2
2⋅1 2 X3 = 3 + 2√2
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1
X2 + = 𝑡2 − 2
X2
Ecuatia devine:
6 ⋅ (𝑡 2 − 2) + t − 14 = 0
6 ⋅ 𝑡 2 − 12 + t − 14 = 0
6 ⋅ 𝑡 2 + t − 26 = 0
Δ = 12 − 4 ⋅ 6 ⋅ (−26) = 1 + 24 ⋅ 26 = 1 + 624 = 625
−1 + 25 24
−1 ± √625 −1 ± 25 𝑡1 = = =2
𝑡1,2 = = ⇒{ 12 12
2⋅6 12 −1 − 25 −26 13
𝑡2 = = =−
12 12 6
1
X+ = 𝑡1
X
X2 1
+ =2
X X
X2 + 1
=2
X
X2 + 1 = 2 ⋅ X / − 2 ⋅ X
X2 − 2 ⋅ X + 1 = 0
(X − 1)2 = 0 ⇔ X − 1 = 0 ⇒ X1 = X2 = 1 (este radacina dubla)
1
X+ = 𝑡2
X
X2 1 13
+ =−
X X 6
X2 + 1 13
=−
X 6
6 ⋅ (X 2 + 1) = (−13) ⋅ X / + 13 ⋅ X
6 ⋅ X 2 + 13 ⋅ X + 6 = 0
Δ = 132 − 4 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 6 = 169 + 4 ⋅ 36 = 169 + 144 = 25
−13 + 5 −8 2
−13 ± √25 −13 ± 5 X3 = = =−
X3,4 = = ⇒{ 12 12 3
2⋅6 12 −13 − 5 −18 3
X4 = = =−
12 12 2
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Exemple:
𝑥+𝑦 =3
{
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 7
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑥 2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑦 2 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 𝑦)2 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 = 32 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 =
=9−2⋅𝑥⋅𝑦
9−2⋅𝑥⋅𝑦 =7/−9
1
−2 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 = −2 / ⋅ (− )
2
𝑥⋅𝑦=1
𝑥+𝑦 =3
{
𝑥⋅𝑦=1
Se scrie polinomul corespunzator relatiilor lui Viete date, 𝑓 = X 2 − 3 ⋅ X + 1, si se
rezolva ecuatia atasata polinomului 𝑓.
X2 − 3 ⋅ X + 1 = 0
Δ = (−3)2 − 4 ⋅ 1 ⋅ 1 = 9 − 4 = 5
3 + √5
3 ± √5 3 ± √5 X1 =
X1,2 = = ⇒ 2
2⋅1 2 3 − √5
X2 =
{ 2
3 + √5 3 − √5 3 − √5 3 + √5
Deci solutiile sistemului sunt: 𝑆 = {( , ),( , )}.
2 2 2 2
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧 =5
{𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2 = 13
𝑥 3 + 𝑦 3 + 𝑧 3 = 41
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5 = 𝑠1
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 =
= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 + 𝑧2 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 2 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 + 2 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 − 2 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 − 2 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 =
= (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧)2 − 2(𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧) = 25 − 2 ⋅ 𝑠2
25 − 2 ⋅ 𝑠2 = 13 / − 25
−2 ⋅ 𝑠2 = −12 / ∙ (−1)
1
2 ⋅ 𝑠2 = 12 / ⋅
2
𝑠2 = 6
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𝑥3 + 𝑦3 + 𝑧3 =
= 𝑥3 + 𝑦3 + 𝑧3 + 3 ⋅ 𝑥2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 3 ⋅ 𝑥2 ⋅ 𝑧 + 3 ⋅ 𝑦2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 3 ⋅ 𝑦2 ⋅ 𝑧 + 3 ⋅ 𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑥 +
+ 3 ⋅ 𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 6 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 − 3 ⋅ 𝑥2 ⋅ 𝑦 − 3 ⋅ 𝑥2 ⋅ 𝑧 − 3 ⋅ 𝑦2 ⋅ 𝑥 − 3 ⋅ 𝑦2 ⋅ 𝑧 − 3 ⋅ 𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑥
− 3 ⋅ 𝑧2 ⋅ 𝑦 − 6 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 =
= (5)3 − 3 ⋅ (𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑦 2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑦 2 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑧 2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 3 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧
−3 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧) − 6 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 =
= 125 − 3 ⋅ (𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑥 2 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑦 2 ⋅ 𝑥 + +𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑦 2 ⋅ 𝑧 +
𝑧 2 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑧 2 ⋅ 𝑦) + 9 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 − 6 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 =
= 125 − 3 ⋅ [𝑥 ⋅ (𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧) + 𝑦 ⋅ (𝑦 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧) +
+ 𝑧 ⋅ (𝑧 ⋅ 𝑥 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑧 ⋅ 𝑦)] + 3 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 =
= 125 − 3 ⋅ (𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧) ⋅ (𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧) + 3 ⋅ 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 =
= 125 − 3 ⋅ 6 ⋅ 5 + 3 ⋅ 𝑠3 = 125 − 90 + 3 ⋅ 𝑠3 = 35 + 3 ⋅ 𝑠3
35 + 3 ⋅ 𝑠3 = 41 / − 35
1
3 ⋅ 𝑠3 = 6 / ⋅
3
𝑠3 = 2
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧=5
{𝑥 ⋅ 𝑦 + 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑧 + 𝑦 ⋅ 𝑧 = 6
𝑥⋅𝑦⋅𝑧 =2
Se scrie polinomul de gradul III corespunzator relatiilor lui Viete:
𝑓 = X3 − 5 ⋅ X2 + 6 ⋅ X − 2
Cum polinomul 𝑓 are coeficienti intregi, se verifica daca unul dintre divizorii lui 2
este radacina pentru polinomul 𝑓.
𝐷2 = {±1, ±2}
𝑓(1) = 13 − 5 ⋅ 12 + 6 ⋅ 1 − 2 = 1 − 5 + 6 − 2 = 0
T. Bezout
1 este radacina pentru polinomul 𝑓 ⇒ (X − 1) | 𝑓
X 3 X 2 X1 X 0
1 −5 6 −2
1 1 −4 2 0
𝑓 = (X − 1) ⋅ (X 2 − 4 ⋅ X + 2)
Se rezolva ecuatia atasata polinomului 𝑓:
(X − 1) ⋅ (X 2 − 4 ⋅ X + 2) = 0
X − 1 = 0 ⇒ X1 = 1
X2 − 4 ⋅ X + 2 = 0
Δ = (−4)2 − 4 ⋅ 2 ⋅ 1 = 16 − 8 = 8
4 ± √8 4 ± 2√2 X = 2 + √2
X2,3 = = = 2 ± √2 ⇒ { 2
2⋅1 2 X3 = 2 − √2
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