IC INTRODUCERE: Despre opinia public s-a discutat nc din secolul al XVI-lea*.

De la sfritul secolului al XVIII-lea pn la sfritul celui de-al XIX-lea, scena politic european a fost zguduit de mari micri de mas Revoluia Francez, revoluiile anului 1848, Comuna din Paris. Firete, asemenea convulsii puneau n lumin fora masei, a mulimii unite de nemulumire, de revolt, de disperare. Evenimentele la care ne referim au mai relevat ceva, anume fora masei cuprinse de o idee, de o opinie, de o credin. Asadar, ce era opinia public? Opinia maselor care luptau pentru ceva? Opinia unor cercuri de oameni luminai? Vocea poporului? O agregare de opinii individuale? n orice caz, s-a desprins din start ideea c opinia public este opinia neoficial, opinia care are de-a face cu strada, cu masa de oameni, cu conversaia n diferite locuri publice, dar care nu are nici o legtur cu cercurile oficiale. FERDINAND TONNIES: Ferdinand Tnnies, cunoscut drept printele a dou concept polare: comunitate i societate isi are centrata intreaga creaia sociologic n jurul noiunii de comunitate. Tocmai de aceea el a fost considerat filozoful comunitii. Lucrarea Comunitate i societate conine un subcapitol intitulat simplu Opinia public, ceva mai mare de dou pagini. Acelasi subiect este reluat ntr-o tratare de largi proporii n lucrarea Critica opiniei publice, aprut n 1922, n acelai an cu lucrarea lui Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion. DESPRE Gemeinschaft und Gesellschaft Concluzia formulat de Tnnies fixeaz aceast dihotomie ireductibil: Gemeinschaft este mai vie, este forma cea mai durabil i mai autentic de a tri mpreun, pe cnd Gesellschaft este tranzitorie i superficial (ibidem, p. 35). Ca urmare, Gemeinschaft trebuie neleas ca un organism viu, Gesellschaft ca un agregat mechanic i un produs artificial (idem). Dac rmnem la suprafaa lucrurilor, avertizeaz Tnnies, putem s confundm Gesellschaft cu Gemeinschaft, pentru c avem de-a face, n ambele cazuri, cu indivizi care triesc i muncesc mpreun. Numai c n Gemeinschaft ei rmn n mod esenial unii, n ciuda tuturor factorilor care i separ, n timp ce n Gesellschaft ei sunt n mod esenial separai, n ciuda factorilor care i unesc (ibidem, p. 65). La baza Opiniei Publice st judecata independent a ceteanului. Tocmai de aceea, semnificativ la Tonnies este faptul c acesta priveste opinia public n relaia cu presa i publicul. Mai bine de jumtate din lucrarea Critica opiniei publice, aprut n 1922, este consacrat examinrii unor termeni precum opinie, gndire, hotrre, voin, credin i a raporturilor dintre aceste noiuni.

STRUCTURA TEORIEI: Opinia public pretinde c stabile te norme generale valide printr-o atent examinare a doctrinelor acceptate de ctre ea. n tendin i form, ea este o opinie tiinific i luminat (Tnnies, 2002, p. 220). Tnnies opereaz cu trei sensuri diferite ale opiniei publice: die ffentliche Meinung (Opinia Public), eine ffentliche Meinung (o opinie public) i, simplu, ffentliche Meinung (opinie public). Nu ntotdeauna diferenele dintre sensurile menionate sunt clare. Tnnies caut un neles care s rspund nevoii de unitate i coeren: este conceptul de Opinia Public, exprimnd voina unui grup. Distincia dintre opinie public i Opinia Public, identificat cu Opinia Publicului, este o contribuie foarte important a autorului german la nelegerea acestui domeniu aa de complex.Esenial era marcarea clar a deosebirii dintre opinie public i Opinia Public. Opinia public ia forma unui conglomerat de opinii dintre cele mai diferite, n timp ce Opinia Public este coerent i efectiv. Fundamental n diferenierea celor dou concepte este precizarea subiectului. n primul caz, avem un public general, care ia forma mulimii de indivizi, a cror participare la pronunarea diferitelor opinii este ntmpltoare. n cel de-al doilea, subiectul este un public unit, care a convenit s promoveze o opinie i s judece ntr-un anume fel (Tnnies, 2000, p. 134). Opinia public apare colorat, contradictorie, alctuit din puncte de vedere care se nfrunt cu pasiune, tocmai pentru c reflect dorine, eforturi i interese ale unor grupuri i persoane particulare. Pentru a sugera mai bine caracterul nestructurat al opiniei publice, lipsa ei de identitate, Tnnies o compar cu un bol n care ingrediente diferite i incompatibile sunt turnate pentru a ncepe un proces de fermentaie. Pe cnd Opinia Public este n mod esenial o voin exprimat prin intermediul unei judeci, un act coerent i asumat de membrii unui public. Autorul german pune mai nti accentul pe subiectul care construiete o asemenea Opinie. Este vorba de persoane care mprtesc idei similare, interpretri asemntoare, fr a fi n legtur direct. Ele se raporteaz la acelai fapt, eveniment sau idee ntr-un mod similar, i de aici provine legtura, coeziunea, chiar unanimitatea. Se contureaz, astfel, ideea de grupare, nu o grupare amplasat fizic ntr-un loc anume, ci una special, alctuit din persoane dispersate spaial, care nu s-au cunoscut niciodat, dar care sunt legate prin convingerile pe care le mprtesc. Judecile raionale la nivel individual i agregarea acestora formeaz pilonii Opiniei Publice. Deci, Opinia Public are ca punct de plecare judecata independent a ceteanului, dar ea se nate printr-un proces de agregare a acestor judeci independente ntr-un tip de poziie de grup, agregare neconstrns, natural, hrnit de poziia similar fa de o idee, un fapt, un eveniment. Opinia Public este opinia unui grup care mprtete o idee. Este opinia publicului. Ferdinand Tnnies ncadreaz opinia public n ansamblul societii moderne, caut s o diferenieze de celelate forme de voin i s descifreze mecanismele de nfptuire a rolului su. Am formulat

conceptul de Opinie Public astfel nct el exprim o form de voin social, adic de voin societal, n contrast cu toate celelalte forme de voin comun (Tnnies, 2000, p. 177). Caracterizarea celebr pe care o lanseaz Tnnies este aceea c opinia public este o form a voinei sociale, iar n aceast calitate ndeplinete n societatea modern acelai rol pe care religia l ndeplinea n stadiul de Gemeinschaft. Tocmai de aceea el afirma ca normele opiniei publice, se aseamn, n anumite privine, cu poruncile religiei, care ndeplineau i ele rolul de reglementare a unor procese sociale. Prin opinie, spune Tnnies, exprimm modul cum ne raportm la un fapt, la o situaie, la o idee: n opinia mea. Deci opinia exprim nevoia de difereniere fa de o alt opinie existent, fa de o alt interpretare. Chiar simplul fapt c simi nevoia de a exprima o opinie nseamn c ai ceva de spus, ceva ce nu s-a spus sau nu s-a spus ntr-o manier n care vrei tu s o faci. Nevoia de a spune ceva n public este direct proporional cu convingerea c propria opinie este adevrat, foarte trebuitoare comunitii respective: I believe, therefore I talk Cred, deci vorbesc (Tnnies, 2000, p. 121). Opinia Public recurge la o evaluare a evenimentelor fr rigoarea pe care o implic reglementrile oficiale, la o cntrire a lor dintr-o perspectiv preponderent moral, civic. Opinia Public este o judecat i funcioneaz ca o curte penal. Ea este mpotriva nclcrii regulii i, precum religia, percepe o opinie deviant ca un pcat. Pe msur ce vor fi mai muli oameni educai i instruii, numrul subiecilor care particip la formarea Opiniei Publice va crete, concomitent cu o diversificare a bazei sociale i geografice a acesteia (care nu va mai fi localizat doar n marile orae, iar, social, nu va mai fi asociat doar cu pturile care n mod tradiional erau considerate nvate). Cu ct este mai ridicat nivelul de educaie, cu att este mai mare participarea diverselor segmente de populaie la opinia public. Cu toate acestea, cu ct Opinia Public se transform n opinie general, cu att este mai puin probabil ca ea s supravieuiasc ca un tot unitar i unanim susinut (Tnnies, 2000, p. 180). STARILE OPINIEI PUBLICE: Tnnies mai face o distincie, cea privind stadiile de existen ale acestei opinii. El vorbete de trei asemenea stadii: solid, lichid i gazos. Opinia unui public este solid atunci cnd exist un gen de acord ntre membrii acelui public n legtur cu un fapt, un proces, o idee. Cel mai bun exemplu este susinerea cvasi-unanim a ideii de libertate, care ntrunete practic un consens. Puterea opiniei publicului depinde de energia cu care este susinut, de intensitatea voinei pe care se sprijin. Stadiul fluid - idei care cunosc o evoluie relativ accelerat i nu permit ca opinia n legtur cu ele s se sedimenteze i, eventual, s ating stadiul solid. n acest context, autorul citeaz noiunea de munc, care a cunoscut prefaceri rapide att n coninutul ei munca ntr-o perioad difer prin ponderea elementelor fizice sau intelectuale , ct i n modul cum este neleas (n timpul feudalismului era un tip de raportare la munc, deosebit de cea din epoca n care a trit autorul).

Stadiul gazos sau efemer, el este foarte important pentru c ne arat caracterul superficial i schimbtor al opiniei publice; acest stadiu trebuie s ne atrag cu deosebire atenia, pentru c l ntlnim cel mai frecvent, iar el ne arat cum opinia apare i dispare n funcie de obiectul ateniei sale. Vorbind despre caracteristicile empirice ale opiniei publice, n starea ei gazoas, deci ntr-o stare nesedimentat, mictoare, chiar confuz, i despre efectele publicrii de ctre ziare a acelorai tiri n toate colurile rii, Tonnies mentiona: Ar exista condiii pentru discuii particulare care ar reprezenta obstacole n propagarea unui fapt. Numai c orenii triesc precum strinii ntre strini i, n felul acesta, fiecare mprtete opinia dominant, perceput ca opinia oamenilor de bun sim (Tnnies, 2000, p. 185). Deci unui flux de informaii provenit dintr-o surs specializat, cum ar fi ziarul, individul, singur, nu poate s-i fac fa. Trebuie un rspuns ct de ct echivalent, i atunci nu putem avea n vedere dect un grup mai mare de oameni, o comunitate care s confere mai mult substan rspunsului, dar i prestigiu este poziia unei comuniti , de ce nu i alt for de rspndire.

Forward to Ferdinand Tonnies, A Theory of Public Opinion

CONCLUZIE He used the central concept of public opinion and related forms to generate a way of thinking about societies and social change that is still useful. Further, unlike most contemporary scholars, he joined intellectual and moral questions and believed that normative ideals could be found within the empirical. He was hopeful that under the right conditions (that is as practiced by the well-educated and divorced from one-sided and self-interested media accounts), public opinion would serve as a guide for social betterment. He appreciated the intimate and intricate link between public opinion and democracy. A firm public opinion is more characteristic of values and broad principles than of current events. Firm opinion has a normative quality and exerts social pressure.

TONNIES CONCEPT OF PUBLIC OPINION

OPINIA PUBLICA SI RELIGIA
Public Opinion is related to faith and religion in community and to doctrine as elementary form of social will in society. Religion on a community level corresponds with Public Opinion on a societal level according to Splichal (1999, 109), the opinion of the public is a rationalised form of religion, and both refer to morality. Unlike Kant, Tnnies connects Public Opinion to reason and sees religion as inferior. OPINIA PUBLICA SI PUBLICUL In his Critique, Tnnies (1922) does not conceptualise the term public, but he provides a description of what he calls The Audience, or the large audience, which apparently is his denomination for the public. He describes it as an unlimited number of people that, despite their numerous dissimilarities, might think and judge among the same lines. It consists of all people that are able and willing to participate, absorb, and judge. To do so, the members of the audience/public must have a certain degree of intelligence and education because in order to judge they have to be informed. In his days, Tnnies goes on, the audience almost exclusively consists of newspaper readers because the press is the primary means to access information. While using the name large audience for what would commonly be understood as public, he (Tonnies doch) also specifies his meaning of public; his definition of public points to core characteristics of the crowd, especially when contrasted with the audience. He describes the public as being associated with political life. The public opinion as generalised opinion of a people or a public as a whole is a unified harmony of many thoughts and opinions, a social volition that is manifested as if it were the will of one person (Tnnies 1971, 258). CONCLUZIE Tnnies theory in itself is a major contribution to the field of public opinion study, not least because it displays a remarkable coherence rarely achieved by social theorists and researchers and his concepts constitute a philosophy of history of remarkable sweep and power (Palmer 1938, 594).

PAUL A. PALMER
Solid, fluid, and gaseous. Public Opinion in its solid state is "a universal, irrefragable conviction of the public, which as the bearer of such convictions represents a whole nation or a still wider circle of 'civilized mankind.' The conviction then gains in intensity but loses in unity, since the view that the constitution is a sham can be contested. Public Opinion is in flux. Finally, Public Opinion may assume a gaseous or vaporous forma quickly changing, ephemeral (Offentliche Metnung des Tages) phenomenon, related to specific acts of individuals and governments. The author endeavors to show in detail how ephemeral Public Opinion is related to fluid and solid Public Opinion, and to explain the process by which opinion is transmuted from one state to another. As one element in the solution of that problem, Tonnies presents a comparative analysis of the historical evolution and of the characteristics and interrelations of the three states of Public Opinion in several western nations; namely, the United States, Great Britain, France, and Germany. Public Opinion, he observes, is often termed the true sovereign in the modern state, particularly in the democratic state; and in so far as Public Opinion and the Volhjwille coincide, as they frequently do, such a statement is accurate enough. Tonnies's conclusion is that Public Opinion as a political force in the United States is not entirely different from that in other nations. In America, as elsewhere, it is the opinion of men of education and wealth, with the difference, it is true, that more emphasis is placed on wealth and less on education than in other lands. Study of British political and social history brings more clearly into view the fact that the strength of Public Opinion has increased with the rising power of the third estate and the declining influence of the peerage and clergy. The more solid and unified is Public Opinion, the less successfully can any other factor contend with it; the more fluid and gaseous, the greater is the significance of other factors. For Public Opinion in its gaseous state can be more easily manipulated or manufactured. Some of Tonnies's comments on the nature of Public Opinion are worth noting as further illustrations of the comparative method. British Public Opinion is politically better educated than the German, and it has more solid and fluid elementsmore basic convictions than that of any other country. Public Opinion in France was and is chauvinism." Moreover, the national character of France resembles gaseous Public Opinion, in that both lay claim to rationality and logic but are in fact dominated by emotion. In war time, according to Tonnies, the essential character of Public Opinion becomes clearer; it is revealed as a social will intolerant of opposition. As in religion, doubt becomes the great sin.

Tonnies's concept of public opinion forms an integral part of his concepts of society; and they, in turn, are fitted into a philosophy of history of remarkable sweep and power.