Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
Vol. 59
2013
Nr. 1
SUMAR
STUDII I CERCETRI
VIOREL ROBU, PAUL BGIREANU, Predictori ai adaptrii maritale n rndul adulilor:
rolul trsturilor de personalitate .....................................................................................
MIHAELA CHRAIF, Gender and age differences in time reaction and decision to multiple
stimuli and abstract figure comparison on a Romanian sample.......................................
SEBASTIAN VLSCEANU, MIHAI VALENTIN CIOLACU, Gender differences in the
study of anxiety and reactivity to multiple stimuli.................................................................
RODICA OCU, Dezvoltarea identitii de gen la vrsta precolar. Perspectiva teoriei
cognitive a genului ..........................................................................................................
ELENA-ANCUA SANTI, Cercetri preliminare privind inteligena emoional i reprezentrile
religioase la precolari.....................................................................................................
MARIANA COJOCARU, CRISTINA DRAGOMIR, ADRIANA STAN, Psychological impact
associated with prenatal genetic screening for hearing loss.............................................
VLAD HIERA, Problematica crerii i validrii testelor situaionale n cazul conductorilor
auto amatori.....................................................................................................................
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29
37
45
57
65
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CRITIC I BIBLIOGRAFIE
MARIA CORNELIA BRLIBA, Retorica. Expresivitate i persuasiune, Bucureti, Editura
Printech, 2 011, 292 p. (Beatrice Balgiu)................................................................................
79
IN MEMORIAM
ADRIAN NECULAU (30 august 1938 20 decembrie 2012) (Aurora Liiceanu) ....................
ADRIAN NECULAU (30 august 1938 20 decembrie 2012) (Septimiu Chelcea)...................
Rev. Psih., vol. 59, nr. 1, p. 190, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2013
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REVISTA DE PSIHOLOGIE
(JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGY)
Vol. 59
2013
No. 1
CONTENTS
STUDIES AND RESEARCHES
VIOREL ROBU, PAUL BGIREANU, Predictors of marital adjustment among adults: the
role of personality traits ............................................................................................................
MIHAELA CHRAIF, Gender and age differences in time reaction and decision to multiple
stimuli and abstract figure comparison on a Romanian sample ...........................................
SEBASTIAN VLSCEANU, MIHAI VALENTIN CIOLACU, Gender differences in the
study of anxiety and reactivity to multiple stimuli ..........................................................
RODICA OCU, The development of gender identity in preschoolers. The cognitive theory
of gender..........................................................................................................................
ELENA-ANCUA SANTI, Preliminary research on emotional intelligence and religious
representations of preschoolers........................................................................................
MARIANA COJOCARU, CRISTINA DRAGOMIR, ADRIANA STAN, Psychological impact
associated with prenatal genetic screening for hearing loss.............................................
VLAD HIERA, The situational driving tests battery design of creation and validation for
amateur drivers................................................................................................................
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29
37
45
57
65
71
79
IN MEMORIAM
ADRIAN NECULAU (August 30, 1938 December 20, 2012) (Aurora Liiceanu)..................
ADRIAN NECULAU (August 30, 1938 December 20, 2012) (Septimiu Chelcea) ................
Rev. Psih., vol. 59, nr. 1, p. 190, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2013
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REVISTA DE PSIHOLOGIE
(REVUE DE PSYCHOLOGIE)
Vol. 59
2013
No 1
SOMMAIRE
TUDES ET RECHERCHES
VIOREL ROBU, PAUL BGIREANU, Prdicteurs de lajustment maritale chez les adultes:
le rle des traits de personnalit.......................................................................................
MIHAELA CHRAIF, Gender and age differences in time reaction and decision to multiple
stimuli and abstract figure comparison on a Romanian sample.......................................
SEBASTIAN VLSCEANU, MIHAI VALENTIN CIOLACU, Gender differences in the
study of anxiety and reactivity to multiple stimuli ..........................................................
RODICA OCU, Le dveloppement de lidentit de genre lge prscolaire. La perspective
de la thorie cognitive du genre.......................................................................................
ELENA-ANCUA SANTI, Recherche prliminaire sur lintelligence motionnelle et
reprsentation religieuses chez les prscolaires...............................................................
MARIANA COJOCARU, CRISTINA DRAGOMIR, ADRIANA STAN, Psychological impact
associated with prenatal genetic screening for hearing loss.............................................
VLAD HIERA, La cration et la validation des tests situationnels chez les chauffeurs
amateurs ..........................................................................................................................
7
29
37
45
57
65
71
CRITIQUE ET BIBLIOGRAPHIE
MARIA CORNELIA BRLIBA, Retorica. Expresivitate i persuasiune (La rhtorique.
Expressivit et persuasion), Bucureti, Editura Printech, 2011, 292 p. (Beatrice Balgiu)....
79
IN MEMORIAM
ADRIAN NECULAU (30 aot 1938 20 dcembre 2012) (Aurora Liiceanu) .........................
ADRIAN NECULAU (30 aot 1938 20 dcembre 2012) (Septimiu Chelcea) .......................
Rev. Psih., vol. 59, nr. 1, p. 190, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2013
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STUDII I CERCETRI
Dup anii 1960, studiile empirice au urmrit identificarea variabilelor sociodemografice i a celor care in de funcionarea psihologic, considerate ca antecedente
ale adaptrii maritale. n plus, interaciunea marital a fost conceptualizat prin
referire la anumite dimensiuni specifice, precum: comunicarea, finanele, petrecerea
timpului liber, distribuia sarcinilor domestice, relaia sexual, creterea i educarea
copiilor etc. (Chung, 1990). Variabilele independente care au fost testate n cadrul
modelelor de regresie sau al modelelor construite prin modelarea pe baz de ecuaii
structurale au inclus (Bouchard, Lussier i Sabourin, 1999; Filsinger i Wilson,
1983; Larson i Holman, 1994; Muraru i Turliuc, 2012; Sabatelli i Bartle-Haring,
2003; Trevio, Wooten i Scott, 2007; Turliuc, 2004; Whitton et al., 2008):
trsturile de personalitate, predispoziiile atitudinale, abilitile personale i interpersonale ale partenerilor maritali, rolurile de gen, congruena rolurilor, experienele pe
care partenerii le-au trit n familiile de origine, indicatori ai strii de sntate n
planul funcionrii mentale etc.
10
11
12
13
14
15
La ultima ntrebare din primul chestionar pe care l-au avut de completat, doar
patru dintre participani au declarat c nu erau deloc sau erau puin satisfcui de
relaia marital n care erau angajai. Doi dintre participani nu au tiut foarte clar
cum anume s aprecieze nivelul satisfaciei personale fa de relaia marital n
care erau angajai n momentul realizrii studiului. Ali aproape o treime s-au
declarat destul de satisfcui, iar peste jumtate foarte satisfcui. Ali ase participani
nu au dorit s rspund. Pentru validarea rspunsurilor pe care participanii le-au
dat la scala RDAS, am comparat mediile scorurilor totale (indicator al adaptrii
maritale), precum i mediile scorurilor la cele trei subscale (Consens marital,
Coeziune marital i Satisfacie marital), pe care le-au obinut participanii ale
16
10
11
17
18
12
Adaptare marital
0,03
0,04
0,05
0,27 *
0,03
0,02
0,10
0,25 *
13
19
Tabelul nr. 4
Datele analizei de regresie liniar multipl
Model
1
2
Variabile
independente
Constant
Nevrotism
Constant
Nevrotism
Contiinciozitate
B
59,76
3,49
46,58
2,71
2,74
S.E.
3,84
1,36
8,75
1,43
1,64
0,27
0,21
0,18
t
15,53
2,55
5,32
1,90
1,67
r2sp
< 0,001
0,012
< 0,001
0,061
0,098
0,073
0,04
0,0309
20
14
15
21
22
16
17
23
realitatea relaiei cu cellalt (Larson i Holman, 1994). Potrivit lui Spanier (1976),
adaptarea marital poate fi conceptualizat fie ca proces care poate fi studiat
longitudinal, fie ca evaluarea calitativ a unei stri de lucruri care privete relaia
marital. Alternativ, adaptarea marital poate fi definit fr a face referire la o
dimensiune temporal, adic cercettorul poate fi preocupat doar de calitatea
relaiei maritale n momentul colectrii evalurilor din partea partenerilor.
Adaptarea marital a fost operaionalizat de ctre autori printr-un numr de
indicatori, precum: comunicarea, rezolvarea conflictelor, consensul (gradul de
acord ntre parteneri), coeziunea, satisfacia fa de relaia marital (Chung, 1990;
Spanier, 1976). ns, modelele care au integrat aceti indicatori au constituit
subiectul a numeroase critici.
Modelele care au vizat explicarea mecanismelor subiacente vieii maritale
(vzut ca un proces dinamic n timp) au luat n calcul o serie de antecedente ale
calitii i stabilitii maritale, precum: contextul socio-demografic n care
partenerii intr n relaia marital, abilitile personale i interpersonale ale partenerilor,
trsturile lor de personalitate i pattern-urile de comportament, experienele pe
care le-au trit n mediul familiei de origine (Bouchard, Lussier i Sabourin, 1999;
Feeney, 1999; Filsinger i Wilson, 1983; Larson i Holman, 1994; Marchand,
2004; Muraru i Turliuc, 2012).
Lucrarea pe care am realizat-o i-a propus s clarifice rolul pe care cele cinci
mari domenii de trsturi ale personalitii l au n predicia nivelului adaptrii
adulilor la relaia marital n care sunt angajai. Datele corelaionale pe care le-am
obinut au evideniat o asociere negativ i semnificativ ntre factorul nevrotism i
nivelul adaptrii la relaia marital, respectiv o asociere pozitiv i semnificativ
ntre factorul contiinciozitate i nivelul adaptrii maritale n rndul adulilor care
au participat la studiu. Atunci cnd a fost introdus singur (ca variabil independent) ntr-un prim model de regresie, nevrotismul a fost un predictor negativ i
semnificativ al nivelului adaptrii maritale, explicnd peste 7% din variana
scorurilor pe care participanii la studiu le-au obinut. n schimb, independent de
nevrotism, contiinciozitatea nu a fost un predictor al nivelului adaptrii maritale.
Rezultatul cu privire la contribuia factorului nevrotism a fost explicat prin
caracteristicile n planul funcionrii cognitive i emoionale pe care le prezint
persoanele care tind s fie nevrotice (Costa i McCrae, 1992; Rolland, 2004), ca i
prin rolul pe care nevrotismul l joac n diferenierea strategiilor de adaptare a
indivizilor umani la solicitrile stresante, inclusiv cele inerente vieii maritale
(Carver i Connor-Smith, 2010).
Chiar dac studiul pe care l-am realizat s-a bazat pe o abordare transversal i
nu a luat n calcul perspectiva influenei pe care nivelurile trsturilor de personalitate prezente la partenerii maritali o aveau asupra adaptrii maritale n rndul
participanilor, rezultatele au confirmat puterea predictiv pe care nevrotismul o are
24
18
19
25
26
20
1. BENET-MARTNEZ, V., & JOHN, O. P., Los Cinco Grandes across cultures and ethnic
2.
groups: Multitrait multimethod analyses of the Big Five in Spanish and English, Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 3, 1998, p. 729750.
BOUCHARD, G., LUSSIER, Y., & SABOURIN, S., Personality and marital adjustment: Utility
of the Five-Factor Model of personality, Journal of Marriage and Family, 61, 3, 1999,
p. 651660.
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27
3. BUSBY, D. M., CHRISTENSEN, C., RUSSELL CRANE, D., & LARSON, J. H., A revision of
4.
5.
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23.
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the Dyadic Adjustement Scale for use with distressed and nondistressed couples: Construct
hierarchy and multidimensional scales, Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 21, 3, 1995,
p. 289308.
CARVER, C. S., & CONNOR-SMITH, J., Personality and coping, Annual Review of
Psychology, 61, 2010, p. 679704.
CHUNG, H., Research on the marital relationship: A critical review, Family Science Review, 3,
1, 1990, p. 4164.
COSTA, P. T. JR., TERRACCIANO, A., & McCRAE, R. R., Gender differences in personality
traits across cultures. Robust and surprising findings, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 81, 2, 2001, p. 322331.
COSTA, P. T., JR., & McCRAE, R. R., Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and
NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI). Professional Manual, Odessa, Psychological Assessment
Resources, Inc., 1992.
DAFINOIU, I., Personalitatea. Metode calitative de abordare. Observaia i interviul, Iai,
Editura Polirom, 2002.
DAFINOIU, I., Elemente de psihoterapie integrativ, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2001.
FEENEY, J. A., Adult attachment, emotional control and marital satisfaction, Personal Relationships, 6, 2, 1999, p. 169185.
FILSINGER, E. E., & WILSON, M. R., Social anxiety and marital adjustment, Family
Relations, 32, 4, 1983, p. 513519.
GLENN, N. D., Marital quality n J. J. PONZETTI JR. (Editor-in-chief), International
Encyclopedia of Marriage and Family, New York, Thomson Gale, 3, 2003, p. 10701078
(Second edition).
HARWAY, M., Setting the stage for working with couples, n M. HARWAY (Editor), Handbook
of Couples Therapy, New York, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2005, p. 2843.
HOLDEVICI, I., NEACU, V., Consiliere psihologic i psihoterapie n situaiile de criz,
Bucureti, Editura Dual Tech, 2006.
LARSON, J. H., & HOLMAN, T. B., Premarital predictors of marital quality and stability,
Family Relations, 43, 2, 1994, p. 228237.
MARCHAND, J., Husbands and wives marital quality: the role of adult attachment
orientations, depressive symptoms and conflict resolution behaviours, Attachment and Human
Development, 6, 1, 2004, p. 99112.
MINULESCU, M., Chestionarele de personalitate n evaluarea psihologic, Bucureti, Garell
Publishing House, 1996.
MURARU, A. A., & TURLIUC, M. N., Family-of-origin, romantic attachment, and marital
adjustment: A path analysis model, Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 33, 2012, p. 9094.
PIEDMONT, R. L., The Revised NEO Personality Inventory: Clinical and Research
Applications, New York, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers, 1998.
ROLLAND, J.-P., Lvaluation de la personnalit. Le modle en cinq facteurs, Sprimont,
Mardaga-Collection Pratiques Psychologiques/valuation et diagnostic, 2004.
SABATELLI, R. M., & BARTLE-HARING, S., Family-of-origin experiences and adjustment in
married couple, Journal of Marriage and Family, 65, 1, 2003, p. 159169.
SCHMITT, D. P., ALLIK, J., McCRAE, R. R., & BENET-MARTNEZ, V., The geographic
distribution of Big Five personality traits. Patterns and profiles of human self-description across
56 nations, Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 2, 2007, p. 173212.
SPANIER, G. B., Measuring dyadic adjustment: New scales for assessing the quality of
marriage and similar dyads, Journal of Marriage and the Family, 38, 1, 1976, p. 1528.
TREVIO, Z. A., WOOTEN, H. R., & SCOTT, R. E., A correlational study between depression
and marital adjustment, The Family Journal, 15, 1, 2007, p. 4651.
28
22
25. TURLIUC, M. N., Psihologia cuplului i a familiei, Iai, Editura Performantica, 2004.
26. UMANA, R. F., GROSS, J.S., & MCCONVILLE, M. T., Crisis in the Family: Three
Approaches, New York, Garden Press, 1980.
27. VOGEL, N. A., Sexual and Marital Communication and Perceived Marital Adjustment. A thesis
submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in The
Faculty of Graduate Studies, Department of Counselling Psychology, The University of British
Columbia, 1983 (Lucrare disponibil pe www.ubc.ca la data de 24.04.2012).
28. WHITTON, S. W., SCHULZ, M. S., CROWELL, J. A., WALDINGER, R. J., ALLEN, J. P., &
HAUSER, S. T., Prospective associations from family-of-origin interactions to adult marital
interactions and relationship adjustment, Journal of Family Psychology, 22, 2, 2008, p. 274286.
REZUMAT
Adaptarea marital este o faet a calitii percepute a relaiei maritale, alturi de fericirea
marital. Studiile s-au concentrat asupra rolului pe care trsturile de personalitate l joac n procesul
dinamic al adaptrii la relaia marital. Prezentul studiu a avut drept scop explorarea contribuiei pe
care cele cinci domenii de trsturi de personalitate (nevrotismul, extraversiunea, deschiderea,
agreabilitatea i contiinciozitatea) o au n predicia adaptrii maritale n rndul adulilor. Optzeci i
patru de aduli (35 de brbai i 49 de femei) au completat un chestionar socio-demografic, Inventarul
Big Five i forma revizuit a scalei DAS. n vederea explorrii contribuiei trsturilor de
personalitate la explicarea varianei variabilei-criteriu, a fost utilizat analiza de regresie liniar
multipl ierarhic. Nu s-au constatat diferene semnificative ntre femei i brbai, n ceea ce privete
adaptarea marital i trsturile de personalitate. Adaptarea marital a corelat negativ cu nevrotismul
i pozitiv cu scorurile la contiinciozitate. Doar nevrotismul a fost un predictor semnificativ i negativ
al adaptrii maritale. Implicaiile practice ale rezultatelor sunt abordate din perspectiva importanei pe
care evaluarea trsturilor de personalitate ale partenerilor o are n consilierea unui cuplu marital, care
trece printr-o situaie de criz.
In reaction time studies there are many types of reaction time measurements:
reaction time associated with words (Baayen et al., 2006; Milin et al., 2009;
Baayen, 2010), reaction time to visual and audio stimuli (Chan and Ng, 2009),
reaction time related to cognitive tasks (Bosma et al., 2003; Kamitani et al., 2003).
Gender and age differences in time reaction studies were a central point of
reference either in international (Dane and Erzurumlugoglu, 2003; Der and Deary,
2006; Tun & Lachman, 2008) or in Romanian studies (Chraif & Anitei, 2011;
Chraif, 2012; Aniei, 2007).
*
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, 90, Panduri
Avenue; e-mail: mchraif@yahoo.com.
Rev. Psih., vol. 59, nr. 1, p. 2936, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2013
30
Mihaela Chraif
General hypothesis
1. There are statistically significant gender differences in time reaction to
multiple choice tasks/stimuli.
Specific hypotheses
1.1. There are statistically significant gender differences in correct time
reactions to multiple choice tasks/stimuli (visual and audio, low and high sounds).
1.2. There are statistically significant gender differences in incorrect time
reactions to multiple choice tasks/stimuli (visual and audio, low and high sounds).
1.3. There are statistically significant gender differences in omitted time
reactions to multiple choice tasks/stimuli (visual and audio, low and high sounds).
General hypothesis
2. There are statistically significant age differences in time reaction to
multiple choice tasks/stimuli.
Specific hypotheses
2.1. There are statistically significant age differences in correct time reactions
to multiple choice tasks/stimuli (visual and audio, low and high sounds).
2.2. There are statistically significant age differences in incorrect time
reactions to multiple choice tasks/stimuli (visual and audio, low and high sounds).
2.3. There are statistically significant age differences in omitted time
reactions to multiple choice tasks/stimuli (visual and audio, low and high sounds).
General hypothesis
3. There are statistically significant gender differences in choosing correctly
while comparing abstract figures.
4. There are statistically significant age differences in choosing correctly
while comparing abstract figures.
3. METHOD
3.1. PARTICIPANTS
The participants were 237 persons aged between 18 and 58 years (Mean =
37.43; S.D.=3.87). They did not have a driving license at the moment of testing and
31
Age level
male
119
< = 23
83
23.0140
81
40.01 < =
73
3.2. INSTRUMENTS
32
Mihaela Chraif
screen. In the beginning there is an exercise phase with color and acoustic stimuli.
In order to complete the Cognitrone test, the participants are to follow the
instructions in the same way as for the Determination test. The test consists in
comparing different abstract figures and choosing the correct match between them
(figure no. 2).
3.4. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
The dependent variables for the Determination test are the following: correct
reactions, incorrect reactions and omitted reactions. The dependent variable for the
Cognitrone test is the correct number of matches between abstract figures
presented in the figure comparison task. The independent variables for both tests
are: gender and age (structured in three levels 1823; 2340 and 4058). Hence,
the independent variables are nominal categorial and the dependent variables are
scale in percentile range.
4. RESULTS
The first statistical test applied was the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test for evidencing
the normal distribution of data. In this way, by applying the Kolmogorov-Smirnov
test, the data for the variables: correct reaction (p > 0.05), incorrect reactions (p >
0.05), omitted reactions (p > 0.05) and the correct number of matches between
abstract figures (p > 0.05), has been found to be normally distributed for each
variable. Hence the parametric statistical tests can be used in testing the hypotheses.
Table no. 2 shows descriptive statistics, t-test values and p-values.
Table no. 2
Descriptive statistics, t-test values and p-values
Crt.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Variable
Correct reactions
Incorrect reactions
Omitted reactions
Number of correct
abstract figure matches
Standard
Deviation
Determination test
female
48.62
21.57
male
49.17
23.53
female
45.86
28.33
male
28.30
24.90
female
26.78
22.05
male
17.29
16.66
Cognitrone test
female
37.38
24.95
male
47.61
26.71
Gender
Mean
t-test
value
p-value
0.18
0.85
5.04
0.0001
3.74
0.0001
3.00
0.002
By analyzing table no. 2 Mean, Standard Deviation, t-test value and p-value
for dependent variables can be observed, measured by the Determination test and
the Cognitrone among gender.
33
The specific hypotheses were tested by using the t-test for independent
groups (gender differences). The results highlight the followings:
The first specific hypothesis There are statistically significant gender
differences in correct time reactions to multiple choice tasks/stimuli (visual and
audio, low and high sounds) is not confirmed (t = 0.18; p = 0.85 > 0.05).
The second specific hypothesis There are statistically significant gender
differences in incorrect time reactions to multiple choice tasks/stimuli (visual and
audio, low and high sounds) is confirmed (t= 5.04; p < 0.001).
The third specific hypothesis There are statistically significant gender
differences in omitted time reactions to multiple choice tasks/stimuli (visual and
audio, low and high sounds) is confirmed (t = 3.75; p < 0.001).
Also, the hypothesis There are statistically significant gender differences in
correct choice among comparing abstract figures is confirmed (t = 3.00; p =
0.002 < 0.01) as can be seen in table no. 2.
In order to test the second and the third general hypotheses, There are
statistically significant age differences in time reaction to multiple choice tasks/
stimuli and There are statistically significant age differences in correct choice
among comparing abstract figures, one way ANOVA and Scheffe post hoc tests
for mean differences were applied.
Table no. 3
Descriptive statistics, F test value and p value
Crt.
Variable
1
2
3
Correct reactions
4
5
Incorrect reactions
6
7
8
Omitted reactions
9
10
Number of correct
abstract figure matches
Age
Standard
Mean
category
Deviation
Determination test
< 23.00
51.57
22.38
23.01-40
47.37
22.65
40.01<
38.14
21.54
< 23.00
29.15
24.78
23.01-40
42.84
29.22
40.01<
47.07
28.46
< 23.00
20.05
18.76
23.0140
22.26
21.22
40.01<
29.42
16.64
Cognitrone test
< 23.00
48.17
25.17
23.0140
40.01 <
38.26
34.21
27.27
21.82
F test
value
p-value
2.67
0.071
8.21
0.0001
1.50
0.22
4.84
0.009
By analyzing table no. 3 Mean, Standard Deviation, F test value and p-value
for dependent variables, measured by Determination test and Cognitrone among
age category, can be observed. To evidence correct, incorrect and omitted time
34
Mihaela Chraif
reactions and abstract figure comparison among participant age groups the age
distribution was binned into three categories according to the three levels of
development (1823; 2340 and 4058).
Applying Scheffe post-hoc statistical test, the following mean differences
were obtained: for the variable Incorrect reactions there are statistically significant
differences between the first age category (under 23) and the second age category
(2340) (mean difference = 13.69; p < 0.001) and between the first age category
and the third age category (over 40) (mean difference = 17.91; p < 0.001). Hence,
the tested hypotheses were confirmed and there are statistically significant
differences for multiple incorrect reaction stimuli between age categories.
Analyzing the post-hoc test results, the hypotheses for omitted reactions and
correct reactions were not confirmed. Hence, there are no statistically significant
differences among (at) incorrect and correct reactions to the multiple reaction test
(determination test) between age categories.
Applying Scheffe post-hoc statistical test for the Number of correct abstract
figure matches variable, the last general hypothesis has been confirmed. Hence,
there are statistically significant differences between the first age category (under
23) and the second age category (2340) (mean difference = 9.90; p < 0.02) and
between the first age category and the third age category (over 40) (mean
differences = 13.95; p < 0.001). Furthermore, the numbers of correct abstract figure
matches are statistically significant higher for the young age category in comparison
with the other two older categories (table no. 3).
5. CONCLUSIONS
Taking into account the scientific literature presented in the introduction, the
present study highlights statistically significant differences for incorrect and
omitted reactions as well as for comparing abstract figures according to gender and
age categories (1823; 2340 and 4058). The results from tables 2 and 3 confirm
the specific hypotheses for the variables: incorrect and omitted answers and figure
comparison, according to age categories. As can be seen in table 2, the number of
incorrect reactions in percentile is statistically significant higher for females than
males) (45.86 > 28.30; p < 0.0001). Also, the number of omitted reactions in
percentile is statistically significant higher for females compared with males (26.78 >
17.29; p < 0.0001). Regarding the figure comparison, the number of correct figures
selected as matched pares in percentile is statistically significant higher for males
compared to females (47.61 > 37.38; p < 0.0001). In this way, the fact that females
may execute multiple stimuli reaction tasks with a statistically significant higher
level of incorrect and omitted reactions compared to males can be highlighted.
Furthermore, males have a statistically significant higher ability to analyze and
compare abstract figures in matching pares. Analyzing the post-hoc statistically
differences obtained based on age categories (table 3), young males and females
35
(aged between 18 and 23) are having fewer incorrect reactions to multiple stimuli
than the other age categories selected (2340 and 4058 years old) (29.15 < 42.84 <
47.07). These findings show that youngsters have a statistically significant higher
ability to respond to incorrect and omitted visual and audio stimuli compared to the
other older age categories (48.17 > 38.26 > 34.21; p < 0.009).
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/89/1.5/S/62259,
Project Applied social, human and political sciences. Postdoctoral training and
postdoctoral fellowships in social, human and political sciences, and co-financed
by the European Social Fund within the Sectorial Operational Program of Human
Resources Development 20072013.
Received at: 18.XII.2012
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BAAYEN, R. H., FELDMAN, L., SCHEREUDER, R., Morphological infuences on the
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8. DANE, S. & ERZURUMLUOGLU, A., Sex and handedness differences in eye-hand visual reaction
times in handball players, International Journal of Neuroscience, 113, 7, 2003, p. 923929.
9. DER, G., DEARY. I. J., Age and sex differences in reaction time in adulthood: Results from the
United Kingdom health and lifestyle survey, Psychology and Aging, 21, 1, 2006, p. 6273.
10. KAMITANI, T., KUROIWA, Y., LI, M., IKEGAMI, T. MATSUBARA, S., Relationship
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subjects, Journal of Neurology, 250, 2003, p. 10011003.
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simultaneous efects of inflectional paradigms and classes on lexical recognition: Evidence from
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36
Mihaela Chraif
12. TUN, P. A., LACHMAN, M. E., Age differences in reaction time and attention in a national
telephone sample of adults: education, sex, and task complexity matter, Developmental
Psychology, 44, 2008, p.14211429.
13. VIENNA TESTS SYSTEM, Cognitrone test [Software], Determination test [Software], 2012.
REZUMAT
Studiul de fa evideniaz posibile diferene de vrst i gen n timpul de reacie la stimuli
multipli avnd ca variabile: reacii corecte, incorecte i omise precum i testul de comparare a
imaginilor abstracte. Participanii sunt un numr de 237 de persoane cu vrsta cuprins ntre 18 i
58 de ani (media = 37.43; A.S. = 3.87). Acetia nu deineau permis de conducere la momentul testrii
i o parte dintre acetia susineau testul psihologic la coala de oferi. Instrumentele sunt testul de
reactivitate la stimuli multipli i testul Cognitrone (Vienna Test System, 2012). Rezultatele obinute
evideniaz diferene semnificative statistic pentru variabilele numr de reacii incorecte i omise n
funcie de gen precum i la testul de comparare a figurilor abstracte (p < 0.05). De asemenea, au fost
obinute diferene semnificative statistic pentru variabilele reacii incorecte (Testul de reacie la
stimuli multipli) i compararea figurilor abstracte (p < 0.05) n funcie de categoria de vrst.
Concluziile evideniaz importana studiului timpului de reacie la stimuli multipli, precum i a
operaiilor gndirii (analiza, comparaia), n dezvoltarea de-a lungul naintrii n vrst, datorit
solicitrilor zilnice cu care se confrunt individul uman n conducerea autovehiculului, la locul de
munc, precum i multe alte activiti zilnice ce solicit performane ridicate la aceste variabile.
Rev. Psih., vol. 59, nr. 1, p. 3744, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2013
38
differences in memory, thinking (Feng et al., 2011). In a study that used PASS,
(planning, attention, successive cognitive model) the female population registered a
better performance than the male population regarding the attention and planning
tests (Warrick and Naglieri, 1993). The attention finds its role in different stages of
sensory-motivation, facilitating and supporting complex processes and psychical
mechanisms such as thinking and memory. The attention could be useful in a very
wide range of psychical phenomena and processes. The role of attention is present
in both the psychic sensory processes and mental perceptual processes. At the same
time, the attention is important in activities that require the involvement of thinking
and memory, and moreover it is present in all work processes regarding the
construction and usage of skills. The attention has also complex neurophysiologic
mechanisms, and besides the mechanisms that ensure its functionality, the attention
has major implications in all the perceptive-cognitive activities. Through attention,
it ensures the orientation and concentration of all our neurophysiologic resources in
order to create a neurophysiologic report of external and internal events selection
and processing. The attention, as a psychic mechanism of energy support, may be
influenced by many factors. It is well-known that in different tasks, an individual
can get different results. An important factor that might influence the attention is
the nature of stimulus. Some people have a greater sensitivity to visual and auditory
stimuli, unlike the other people who have a greater sensitivity to other stimuli.
Matthews, Deary and Whiteman (2005), seeking to explain how anxiety
affects individual performance, appeal to others authors as well. Thus, Williams
and his colleagues (1988) believe that anxiety tends to influence the selective
attention. Sarason et al. (1995) believe that anxiety disrupts the attention mechanisms.
While (Geen, 1985), believes that anxiety disrupts the detection of visual signal.
Some researchers also believe there are significant gender differences meaning that
women are more likely to be associated with anxiety disorders. The authors noted
that since the age of 6, girls are more likely than boys to experience anxiety
(Lewinsohn et al., 1998). A study of anxiety sensitivity dimension was conducted
in order to find gender differences regarding the anxiety sensitivity dimension. The
authors studied gender differences on AS, observing that women are much more
likely than men to be anxious (Stewart, Taylor and Baker, 1997). In a study that
investigated the gender differences on the explicit and implicit anxiety, women had
higher scores than men on both sides of anxiety (Egloff and Schmukle, 2004).
Substantial evidence has shown that women are more susceptible to develop
anxiety disorders than men. They reached this conclusion after investigating
several aspects (biological influence, cognitive and environmental factors, response
to stress) (Mc Lean and Anderson, 2009). Currently, the anxiety is a frequently
encountered problem. The symptoms of anxiety are manifested both in somatic and
psychological and behavioral plan. Usually, the anxiety is accompanied by psychophysiological reactions. Anxiety may be defined as a fear deprived of object. After
the events, we can have acute anxiety states as well as generalized states of anxiety.
39
40
This research aims at studying the impact of the gender differences on the
response to multiple stimuli and cognitive and behavioral aspects of anxiety.
2.2. RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS
41
responded to the tests requirements, pushing the buttons next to the answer panel
and using the pedals. The determination test measures the tolerance reaction to
stress, attention and reaction speed in situations that require continuity. The stress
tolerance refers to the individuals ability to resist to the effect of the stimuli. In
this regard we can talk about the individuals ability to use that specific behavioral
pattern that allows him to cope with the situation. The respondents task is to react
as fast as possible at the visual or acoustical stimuli pushing the corresponding to
buttons on the answer panel. On the panel are situated five colored stimuli: white,
yellow, red, green and blue, that appears at a higher or lower line. The reaction
buttons assigned to these five colors are arranged on the answer panel in such a
way that the respondent can use the both hands. There are used two additional
stimuli, that appear on the corners of the screen, to which the respondent will have
to react pushing the corresponding pedal (left or right) and two acoustic stimuli
(high sound and low sound), that are assigned to the two sound buttons in the
middle of the panel. The lower black rectangular button is used for a lower sound
and the grey button for the higher sound. The visual stimuli are displayed on the
screen and the acoustical ones through the headsets.
3.2.3. WORKING PROCEDURE: Research participants filled in a questionnaire
on anxiety, with a total number of 20 items covering the cognitive dimension and
the behavioral dimension of anxiety, designed by the author, and have conducted a
test on the computer, from the battery Schuhfried, DT (determination test).
4. RESULTS
In the first stage of the study I calculated the Cronbach Alpha internal
consistency index for the two dimensions of the questionnaire. Thus, the statistical
analysis of questionnaire items CA-CC showed that in both cognitive and
behavioral dimensions, the Cronbach Alpha index is greater than > 0.7 for each
item in the questionnaire, and this tells us that we have an internal consistency of
statistically significant items. After testing the internal consistency of the
questionnaire items CA-CC, I have performed standards for the two dimensions of
the questionnaire for a population of young psychology students. Scores are
interpreted as follows: the cognitive dimension score < 14 is a very low score on
the cognitive dimension, a score between 1516 is a low score on the cognitive
dimension, a score between 1720: average score on the cognitive dimension,
score ranges from 2127: high score on the cognitive dimension and a score > 28:
score very high on the cognitive dimension. If behavioral dimension scores are
interpreted as follows: < 13: score very low on behavioral dimension, 1416: low
score behavioral dimension between 1718: average score, behavioral dimension
between 1923: high score on behavioral dimension score > 24: score very high on
behavioral dimension.
42
43
there are gender differences regarding the response to multiple stimuli and have
shown that there are no ender differences from the level of cognitive and
behavioral anxiety perspective. It would be interesting to extend the study and see
if it is just a characteristic of this population, or can be defined as an aspect of it.
Received at: 17.12.2012
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
44
19. WANG, J., KORCZYKOWSKI, M., RAO, H., FAN, Y., PLUTA, J., GUR, R. C., MCEWEN, B.
S., DETRE, J. A., Gender difference in neural response to psychological stress, Social Cognitive
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20. WARRICK, P. D., NAGLIERI, J. A., Gender differences in planning, attention, simultaneous,
and successive (PASS) cognitive-processes, Journal of Educational Psychology, 85, 4, 1993,
p. 693701.
REZUMAT
Studiul dimensiunilor cognitive i comportamentale ale anxietii i studiul reactivitii la
stimuli multipli, din perspectiva genului, se dovedete un demers util de cunoatere. Cercetarea de
fa i propune s studieze diferenele de gen din perspectiva reactivitii la stimuli multipli i din
perspectiva dimensiunilor cognitive i comportamentale ale anxietii. Obiectivul general al cercetarii
const n evidenierea unei legturi ntre gen i reactivitatea la stimuli multipli pe de-o parte i
evidenierea unei legturi ntre gen i aspectele cognitive i comportamentale ale anxietii. Prima
ipotez a cercetrii este aceea c genul influeneaz semnificativ statistic reactivitatea la stimuli
multipli. Cea de a doua ipotez a cercetrii este aceea ca exist diferene de gen privind nivelul de
anxietate cognitiv i comportamental. n cadrul acestei cercetri au participat un numr de 90 de
subieci, cu vrstele cuprinse ntre 18 i 24 de ani, studeni ai Facultii de Psihologie, din cadrul
Universitii din Bucureti, aparinnd ambelor sexe (45 de gen feminin i 45 de gen masculin).
Participanii la cercetare au completat un chestionar privind anxietatea, cu un numr de 20 de itemi
care vizeaz dimensiunea cognitiv i dimensiunea comportamental a anxietii (CACC) conceput
de ctre autor, i au efectuat o prob la calculator, proba DT (Schuhfreid), care msoar reacia de
toleran la stres, atenia i viteza de reacie. Rezultatele cercetrii au confirmat prima ipotez a
cercetrii, aceea c exist diferene de gen privind reactivitatea la stimuli multipli, dar nu au confirmat
cea de a doua ipotez a cercetrii, aceea c exist diferene de gen privind nivelul anxietii cognitive
i comportamentale.
Rev. Psih., vol. 59, nr. 1, p. 4556, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2013
46
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47
2. ASPECTE METODOLOGICE
Studiul prezent face parte dintr-o cercetare mai ampl referitoare la procesul
de formare i dezvoltare a identitii de gen a copiilor de vrst precolar,
investignd particularitile identitii de gen a copiilor cu vrsta cuprins ntre 3 i
6/7 ani i urmrind oferirea unei imagini comprehensibile asupra relaiilor dintre
conceptele relaionate cu genul asociate acestei perioade de vrst. Scopul cercetrii a
fost reprezentat de identificarea dinamicii, a caracteristicilor i a factorilor ce
influeneaz formarea i dezvoltarea identitii de gen a copiilor de vrst precolar.
Ca obiectiv general al cercetrii ne-am propus investigarea procesului de formare i
dezvoltare a constanei genului, neleas ca etichetare a genului, identitate a
genului, stabilitate a genului i consisten a genului, la precolari, din perspectiva
particularitilor de vrst ale copiilor precolari.
Ipoteza acestui studiu: Presupunem c nivelul de cunoatere i nelegere a
conceptelor ce stau la baza conservrii genului este influenat de vrsta subiecilor.
2.1. SUBIECI
La acest studiu au participat 291 copii cu vrsta ntre 2 ani i 8 luni 6 ani i
11 luni, cu o vrst medie de 60.69 luni (SD = 13.58): 141 de fete, 150 de biei.
Pentru a facilita prelucrrile statistice au fost alctuite patru grupe de vrst
corespunztoare celor patru grupe de grdini (grupa mic, grupa mijlocie, grupa
mare i grupa pregtitoare) existente n instituiile de nvmnt din Romnia
(3 ani: 3 ani i 0 luni 3 ani i 11 luni; 4 ani: 4 ani i 0 luni 4 ani i 11 luni; 5 ani:
5 ani i 0 luni 5 ani i 11 luni; 6 ani: 6 ani i 0 luni 6 ani i 11 luni. Analiza
statistic nu a indicat prezena unei diferene semnificative ntre vrsta subiecilor
de sex masculin i a celor de sex feminin n cadrul fiecrui grup (Z3 = .666, p =
.506; Z4 = .061, p = .952; Z5 = 1.764, p = .078; Z6 = .361, p = .718)
2.2. INSTRUMENTE DE LUCRU
48
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49
100
Rata promovabilitii
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
etichetare
identitate
stabilitate
consistenta
consisten
Situaia
promovabilitii
Situatia
promovabilitii
promovat
nepromovat
4 ani
5 ani
6 ani
Vrsta subiecilor
subiecilor
identitate
stabilitate
consisten
Stadiul 0
3
6 (7,8%)*
4
1 (1,6%)
5
1 (1,4%)
6
0
TOTAL
8 (2,75%)
* numr cazuri (%)
Stadiul 1
Etichetare
3 (3,9%)
3 (4,7%)
1 (1,4%)
2 (2,5%)
9 (3,09%)
Stadiul 2
Identitate
38 (49,4%)
21 (32,8%)
12 (16,9%)
7 (8,9%)
78 (26,80%)
Stadiul 3
Stabilitate
20 (26,0%)
28 (43,8%)
47 (66,2%)
58 (73,4%)
153 (52,58%)
Stadiul 4
Consisten
10 (13%)
11 (17,2%)
10 (14,1%)
12 (15,2%)
43 (14,78%)
50
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51
Rata promovabilitii
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
GCI tradiional
GCI simulare
Situaia promovabilitii
promovabilitii
Situaia
promovat
nepromovat
52
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Frecvena rspunsurilor
3 ani
4 ani
5 ani
6 ani
Tipul
rspuns
Tipul
dederspuns
rspuns greit
rspuns corect
Figura nr. 4 Proporia rspunsurilor corecte/greite la sarcina referitoare la relaia dintre dorina
de a-i modifica sexul i posibilitatea realizrii ei n funcie de vrst.
Frecvena rspunsurilor
Stadiul 0
Etichetare
Identitate
Stabilitate Consisten
Tipul
Tipulde
derspuns
rspuns
rspuns greit
rspuns corect
Figura nr. 5 Proporia rspunsurilor corecte/greite la sarcina referitoare la relaia dintre dorina
de a-i modifica sexul i posibilitatea realizrii ei n funcie de stadiul constanei genului.
53
masculin
feminin
Frecvena
Nr. cazuri
%
5
3.3
3
2.0
39
26.0
83
55.3
20
13.3
3
2.1
6
4.3
39
27.7
70
49.6
23
16.3
54
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10
ANGHEL, E., Adolescentul sex-rol i dezvoltare personal, Bucureti, Editura SPER, 2009.
ANGHEL, Z. M., Rolul de sex i gen ca factor de predictibilitate n consilierea i orientarea
profesional a adolescenilor, Rezumat la teza de doctorat, Bucureti, 2008.
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12, 2, 1989, p. 195205.
11
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
55
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childhood, Sex Roles, 49, 3/4, 2003, p. 95109.
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1986, 15, 11/12, p. 655666.
LEONARD, S.P., ARCHER, J., A naturalistic investigation of gender constancy in three- to
four-year-old children, British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 7, 4, 1989, p. 341346.
MALAMIDIS, P., Androginitatea i manifestrile depresive. Studiu comparativ Grecia-Anglia,
Rezumatul tezei de doctorat, Cluj-Napoca, 2010.
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REZUMAT
56
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cadrul acestui articol arat c nelegerea constanei genului este relaionat cu vrsta subiecilor,
etichetele genului, identitatea genului, stabilitatea n timp a genului i consistena situaional a
genului reprezentnd concepte-cheie ale dezvoltrii identitii de gen. Cercetarea a fost realizat pe un
eantion format din 291 de copii cu vrste cuprinse ntre 2 ani, 8 luni i 6 ani, 11 luni cu o vrst
medie de 60.69 luni (SD = 13.58): 141 de fete, 150 de biei. Rezultatele au evideniat o traiectorie
ascendent a nivelului de achiziionare a conceptelor relaionate cu constana genului, nelegerea
acestora fiind facilitat de dezvoltarea cognitiv a copilului odat cu creterea n vrst, excepie
fcnd doar consistena genului. Stadiul identitii genului a fost caracteristic copiilor de trei ani, n
timp ce, la vrstele de patru, cinci i ase ani au predominat rspunsurile corespunztoare stadiului
stabilitii genului. Nu au fost identificate diferene n funcie de genul subiecilor referitoare la
ncadrarea ntr-un anumit stadiu al dezvoltrii genului.
Universitatea din Bucureti, coala Doctoral de Psihologie i tiinele Educaiei, os. Panduri
nr. 90; e-mail: santicosmin@yahoo.com.
Rev. Psih., vol. 59, nr. 1, p. 5764, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2013
58
Elena-Ancua Santi
59
Definirea termenilor:
Inteligena emoional reprezint capacitatea individului de a nelege
emoiile proprii, capacitatea de a percepe tririle i emoiile celuilalt i de a te putea
transpune n locul celuilalt, inteligena emoional este cea care ne ajut s crem
relaii, s comunicm n diferite medii i ocazii, s ne adaptm. Emoiile au un rol
major n viaa omului, ele pot afecta mai multe funcii i pot fi sursa care genereaz
aciunile noastre.
Inteligena emoional cuprinde urmtoarele capaciti specifice: contiina
de sine a propriilor emoii: introspecia, recunoaterea unui sentiment; stpnirea
emoiilor: identificarea unor metode de a face fa emoiilor; motivarea interioar:
canalizarea emoiilor i sentimentelor n direcia realizrii unui scop propus,
nsoit de control emoional; empatia: capacitatea de a manifesta sensibilitate i
60
Elena-Ancua Santi
61
TEFANIA P. 7 ani
Iisus pe cruce rstignit, un nger, Maria Magdalena trist, cu un co cu ou lng cruce
62
Elena-Ancua Santi
ct mai scurt unor cuvinte-stimul, cu primul cuvnt aprut n minte; se poate observa
diversitatea i bogia de cuvinte religioase folosite de copii, ceea ce indic faptul c ei
au un vocabular de cuvinte dezvoltat, cunotine i noiuni religioase diverse, variate,
precum i experien de via n ceea ce privete domeniul religios; Tatl i Fiul,
respectiv Mntuitorul Iisus Hristos sunt cunoscui, ns cea de-a treia Persoan a Sfintei
Treimi, Duhul Sfnt, nu apare n reprezentrile copiilor; cuvntului stimul Dumnezeu
copiii i-au asociat cel mai des cuvinte precum: Iisus Hristos, cruce, Biseric, dar i
atribute precum iubire, ajutor, buntate; cuvntului stimul Iisus Hristos copiii i-au
asociat cel mai des cuvinte precum: rstignit, cruce, Dumnezeu, Pate, sau Fecioara
Maria; cuvntului stimul cer copiii i-au asociat frecvent cuvinte precum: nori, soare,
albastru, dar i Dumnezeu, Iisus Hristos, nger sau Maica Domnului, ceea ce indic
corelaia dintre cer i divinitate stabilit n reprezentrile copiilor; cuvntul stimul
suflet este asociat de copii cu termeni precum: inim, iubire, mama, bunica, i uneori
cu Dumnezeu, ceea ce arat legtura dintre sentimentele lor i fiinele cele mai dragi,
respectiv mama sau bunica, dar i Dumnezeu; cuvntului stimul Biseric copiii i-au
atribuit cuvinte precum: preot, icoan, cruce, cas, precum i alte obiecte de cult, dar i
Dumnezeu, ceea ce arat c ei vd Biserica drept loc concret n care l ntlnesc pe
Dumnezeu, chiar dac nu l pot vedea i fizic; cuvntul stimul cruce este asociat de
copii cu termeni precum: rstignit, Iisus sau Biseric, legtura dintre aceti termeni
fiind i mai puternic evideniat n aceast perioad, n preajma srbtorii de Pate;
cuvntul stimul Biblie este asociat de majoritatea copiilor cu cuvntul carte, ceea ce
arat c le este cunoscut.
Se poate concluziona c exist un fond de cuvinte religioase de baz, pe care
majoritatea copiilor le au, precum: Dumnezeu, Iisus Hristos, Fecioara Maria, cruce,
Biseric, nger etc., dar i o serie de termeni religioi specifici (altar, mir, parastas,
mnstire, Noul Testament etc.), mai puin ntlnii n viaa de zi cu zi, ceea ce arat
c exist o participare i o implicare n sfera religioas, aceasta fiind nc o valoare
autentic contientizat de prini, bunici, cu rol major n formarea personalitii
copilului.
Interviul a adus un plus de informaii referitoare la cunotinele pe care le au
copiii de vrst precolar despre Dumnezeu i raportul Lui cu lumea. Astfel, cei
mai muli copii consider c Dumnezeu este o Fiin Atotputernic, Atotvztoare,
diferit de noi i totui asemntoare omului, care locuiete n cer (toi copiii
surprind acest aspect), i care are grij de oameni, i vindec i, uneori i pedepsete
(doar puini copii surprind acest aspect), cei mai muli dorind s-L ntlneasc, s-L
vad sau s-I mulumeasc, ori s-I spun c-L iubesc.
Din grila de observaie folosit reiese faptul c cei mai muli precolari au
manifestat atitudini de entuziasm la nceputul activitii, respectiv la aflarea temei
de desen, spontaneitate pe parcursul realizrii temei i satisfacie la ncheierea ei,
alte atitudini constatate la un numr mic de copii fiind cele de cooperare sau
formulare de ntrebri, niciun copil nu a refuzat subiectul temei de desen, nici nu a
manifestat vreo atitudine de respingere, fapt care reflect deschiderea i interesul
pe care copiii l au fa de religie.
63
5. CONCLUZII
BUZALIC, Al., BUZALIC, A., Psihologia religiei, Trgu Lpu, Editura Galaxia Gutenberg,
2010 (ed. a II-a).
COLES, R., The Spiritual Life of Children, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 1990.
CORNWALL, M. et al., The Dimensions of Religiosity. A Conceptual Model with an Empirical
Test, Review of Religious Research, 27, 3, 1986, p. 226244.
64
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Elena-Ancua Santi
CUCIUC, C., Sociologia religiilor, Bucureti, Editura Fundaiei Romnia de Mine, 2006 (ed. a III-a).
DECONCHY, J.P., The idea of God: Its emergence between 7 and 16 years, Bruxelles, Lumen
Vitae, 19, 1965, p. 285296.
ELIADE, M., Istoria credinelor i ideilor religioase, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i Enciclopedic, 1,
1981.
ELKIND, D., The Development of religious understanding in children and adolescents, n
STROMMEN M.P. (Ed.), Research on religious development, New York, Hawthorn Books,
1971, p. 655685.
FOWLER, J.W., Stages of Faith: The Psychology of Human Development and the Quest for
Meaning, New York, Harper & Row, 1981.
GOLDMAN, R., Religious Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence, London, Routledge &
Kegan Paul, 1964.
HAY, D., NYE, R., The Spirit of the Child, London and Philadephia, Jessica Kingsley Publisher,
2006 (revised edition).
HELLER, D., The Children's God, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1986.
HELMINIAK D., Spiritual development, Chicago, Loyola University Press, 1987.
JANKOWSKI, P.J., Postmodern spirituality: implications for promoting change, Counseling and
Values, 47, 1, 2002, p. 6980.
LONG, D., ELKIND, D., SPILKA, B., The childs conception of prayer, Journal for the
scientific study of religion, 6, 1967, p. 101109.
MNZAT, I., Psihologia credinei religioase, Bucureti, Editura tiin i Tehnic, 1997.
MIHALACHE, S., tiina recunoate: credina face oamenii mai buni, Ziarul Lumina, 6 dec. 2009
MOSCOVICI, S., Psihologia social sau maina de fabricat zei, Iai, Editura Universitii ,,Al.
I. Cuza, 1994.
OSER, F.K., GMNDER, P., Religious judgement. A developmental perspective, Birmingham,
AL, Religious Educational Press, 1991.
RATCLIFF, D., MCQUITTY, M., Childrens Spirituality: Christian Perspectives, Research and
Applications, Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2004.
ROCO, M., Creativitate i inteligen emoional, Iai, Editura Polirom, 2004.
STEELE, L., 1986, Developmental psychology and spiritual development, n JONES S.L.
(Coord.), Psychology and the Christian faith, Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Book House, 1986.
WAKEFIELD, N., CLARK, R.E., Children and their theological concepts, n CLARK, R.E.,
BRUBAKER, J., ZUCK, R. B. (Coord.), Childhood education in the church, Chicago, Moody
Press, 1986.
REZUMAT
Impactul religiozitii n sfera afectiv a vieii copilului precolar genereaz triri, emoii i
sentimente specifice i influeneaz personalitatea copilului. Empatia este extrem de important,
dezvoltarea ei contribuie la reducerea sau inhibarea comportamentelor antisociale. Beneficiile
dezvoltrii emoionale la copii conduc la creterea capacitii de a fi mai sensibili la sentimentele
celorlali, de a citi nivelul de interes din vorbirea celuilalt, de a nelege greelile celuilalt, a regulilor
nescrise sau convenionale. Empatia, ca trstur a inteligenei emoionale, este n acelai timp o
caracteristic a religiozitii i constituie un element cheie n stabilirea relaiilor armonioase dintre
copii. Religiozitatea unui adult difer foarte mult de cea a unui copil, ns acest lucru nu nseamn c
Dumnezeu este inaccesibil cunoaterii i descoperirii de ctre cei mici. Copiii sunt, prin natura fiinei
lor, cei care se pot apropia cel mai mult de Dumnezeu, prin modul lor inedit, curajos i lipsit de
inhibiii de a ncerca s i-L reprezinte. Ei nu se las oprii de convenionalisme sau de bariere create
de nsi mintea noastr limitat, ci dau expresie i fru liber imaginaiei lor bogate i spontane, cu
inocena i frumuseea acestei vrste minunate. ntlnirea copilului cu Dumnezeu se poate realiza prin
experienele specifice, dar i n activitatea imaginativ sau reflectorizant. Reprezentarea lui
Dumnezeu constituie o condiie esenial n procesul de formare a unei legturi personale cu Acesta,
copilul avnd nevoie, mai mult dect adultul, de o imagine concret a lui Dumnezeu.
Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Genetics Department, 1921 D. Gerota
Street, Bucharest, 020027; e-mail: genetics.dentistry@gmail.com.
Rev. Psih., vol. 59, nr. 1, p. 6570, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2013
66
hearing aids, and an early start on special education programs and using assistive,
adaptive and rehabilitative devices could help improvement of childs hearing.
Since 2004, in Romania newborn hearing screening is performed in newborn
intensive care units (NICU) in few hospitals from Bucharest, Timioara, Iai and
Cluj, as a pilot study. Although in Romania molecular testing for non-syndromic
HL is available it is sporadically performed.
Some studies consider HL as a disability more than a medical condition or
disease (Chandrasekharan and Fiffer, 2010). So, prenatal screening for HL in the
general population is considered not medically necessary or of unproven benefits
(CIGNA website, 2012).
We performed a prenatal screening in general population in order to assess
the carrier frequency of the most common mutations at the DFNB1 gene locus. The
test was offered free of charge to 350 unrelated normal hearing pregnant women
who have received prenatal screening test with a suspected fetal chromosomal or
structural anomaly (Dragomir et al., 2011).
The present study analyzed the experiences of pregnant women undergoing
prenatal hearing test and provided information about adverse psychosocial
consequences of screening and adjustment of pregnant women carrying an affected
fetus. The data could be a reference point for health professionals.
Our study was approved by the Ethics Committee with the Carol Davila
University of Medicine and Pharmacy (Bucharest) and is a part of the Program 4
Partnerships in priority areas supported by National Authority for Scientific
Research of Romania.
2. SUBJECTS AND METHODS
A total of 350 pregnant women received information and consent form about the
interview study at their genetic counseling visit in order to recruit participants. Only 97
of 350 (27.71%) replied agreeing to be enrolled. The consent form was written.
All 97 participants, aged between 21 and 39 years, had normal hearing.
Participants came from several regions of the country and represented different
economic classes, educational levels, ethnicities, religious traditions and belief
system. These pregnant women comprised three groups:
Group 1: Pregnant women with no previous pregnancy and no screening history
(n = 36);
Group 2: Pregnant women with one or more previous prenatal diagnosed
pregnancies resulting in viable offspring (n = 14);
Group 3: Pregnant women with one or more previous pregnancies and no
prenatal diagnosis (n = 47).
An interviewing method was used to collect information on pregnant
womens perceptions and experiences. Each participant was administered a
questionnaire that included basic demographic information such as age, ethnicity,
annual income, prenatal screening history, marital status and education. Most of
participants asked confidentiality and wanted their data to be anonymous and
individuals could not be identified.
67
The responses of all three groups were analyzed and compared. The interviews
were conducted over one year period, from March 2009 to April 2010.
Two separate sessions were needed for the interview and questionnaire study:
first visit before the prenatal test and the second one after the test result. Few
participants were interviewed at their homes (the interview was audio taped and
transcribed) and others wanted to attend the session with their husbands or partners
and refused to be interviewed separately.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Written informed consent was obtained from all couples and provided to the
Ethics Committee of the Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy
Bucharest, who approved the conduct of this study in accordance with the Helsinki
Declaration. All authors had full access to all data.
3. RESULTS
Overall, a return rate of 27.71% (97/350) was achieved but interviews were
completed for all 97 participants who returned the consent forms and questionnaires.
Table no. 1
Demographic data for the pregnant women (n = 97)
Pregnant women
Age
2129
3039
Number of children
None
One
Two
Education
Elementary
High School
Higher Education
Religion
Orthodox
Roman Catholic
Protestant
Others
Ethnicity
Romanian
Hungarian
German
Romani
Others
Family
Married parents
Unmarried parents
Single-parent
Group 1
n (%)
Group 2
n (%)
Group 3
n (%)
15 (15.46%)
21 (21.64%)
2 (2.06%)
12 (12.37%)
15 (15.46%)
32 (32.38%)
36 (37.11%)
11 (11.34%)
3 (3.09%)
40 (41.23%)
7 (7.21%)
10 (10.30%)
26 (26.80%)
6 (6.18%)
8 (8.24%)
1 (1.03%)
27 (27.83%)
19 (19.58%)
35 (36.08%)
1 (1.03%)
14 (14.43%)
42 (43.29%)
2 (2.06%)
3 ((3.09%)
32 (32.38%)
3 (3.09%)
1 (1.03%)
14 (14.43%)
45 (46.39%)
1 (1.03%)
1 (1.03%)
29 (29.89%)
6 (6.18%)
1 (1.03%)
14 (14.43%)
39 (40.20%)
8 (8.24%)
68
Graph no. 1
Global view of demographic data.
Group 1
n (%)
Before
After
27/97
5/97
(27.83%) (5.15%)
3/97
2/97
(3.09%)
(2.06%)
20/97
5/97
(5.55%) (13.88%)
29/97
2/97
(80.55%) (5.55%)
2/97
(2.06%)
Group 2
n (%)
Before
After
3/97
1/97
(3.09%) (1.03%)
2/97
(2.06%)
7/97
(7.21%)
2/97
(2.06%)
Group 3
n (%)
Before
After
32/97
9/97
(32.98)
(9.27%)
5/97
2/97
(5.15%)
(2.06%)
37/97
7/97
(38.14%) (7.21%)
26/97
3/97
(26.80%) (3.09%)
2/97
(2.06%)
4. DISCUSSION
Prenatal screening, as part of routine antenatal care, provides the parents with
an estimation of the risk that their child may have a particular health problem. The
decision to undergo further more invasive diagnostic tests based on this probability
then rests with the parents. Women undergoing prenatal screening/diagnostic
procedures experience more psychological distress, which may be currently
underestimated (Allison et al., 2011).
69
70
REFERENCES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
ALLISON, J. SARA, STAFFORD, JULIE, ANUMBA, O.C. DILLY The effect of stress and
anxiety associated with maternal prenatal diagnosis on feto-maternal attachment, BMC
Womens Health, 11, 2011, p. 33.
ASHA Web Site Audiology Information Series: Effects of Hearing Loss on Development;
http://www.asha.org/uploadedFiles/aud/InfoSeriesHearingLossEffects.pdf
CHANDRASEKHARAN, S., FIFFER, MELISSA Impact of Gene Patents and Licensing
Practices on Access to Genetic Testing for Hearing Loss, Genet. Med., 12, 4, 2010, p. S171193.
CIGNA HEALTHCARE, Cigna medical coverage policy, http://www.cigna.com/customer_care/
healthcare_professional/coverage_positions/medical/mm_0254_coveragepositioncriteria_genetic
_test_congenital_profound_deafness.pdf
CROCKETT, RACHEL, WRIGHT, J. ALISON, UUS, KAI, BAMFORD J., MARTEAU,
THERESA, Maternal anxiety following newborn hearing screening: the moderating role of
knowledge, J. Med. Screen, 13, 2006, p. 2025.
DRAGOMIR, CRISTINA, STAN, ADRIANA, TEFNESCU, T.D., SAVU, L., SEVERIN,
EMILIA, Prenatal Screening for the 35delG GJB2, Del (GJB6-D13S1830), and Del (GJB6D13S1854) Mutations in Romanian Population, Genetic Testing and Molecular Biomarkers, 15,
11, 2011, p. 749753.
GREEN, J.M., HEWISON J., BECKER, H.L., BRYANT, L.D., CUCKLE, H.S., Psychological
aspects of genetic screening of pregnant women and newborns: a systematic review, Health
Technol. Assess., 8, 2004, p.124.
MARTEAU, T.M., KIDD, J., CUDDEFORD, L., Reducing anxiety in women referred for
colposcopy using an information booklet, Br. J. Health Psychol., 1, 1996, p. 1819.
SHOW, C., ABRAMBS, K., MARTEAU, T.M., Psychological impact of predicting individuals
risks of illness: a systematic review, Soc. Sci. Med., 49, 1999, p. 157198.
REZUMAT
Universitatea din Bucureti, coala Doctoral de Psihologie i tiinele Educaiei, os. Panduri
nr. 90; e-mail: vladhiera@yahoo.com.
Rev. Psih., vol. 59, nr. 1, p. 7178, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2013
72
Vlad Hiera
73
74
Vlad Hiera
75
selectate. Cu alte cuvinte, subiectul ales trebuie s prezinte n mod exact i ct mai
fidel situaia descris. n acest sens, resursele de prezentare a materialului pot
influena n sens pozitiv sau negativ fidelitatea (ex. prezentarea unui material pe un
suport de hrtie fidelitate sczut versus prezentarea acestuia sub un format
video fidelitate ridicat etc.).
Aceiai autori atrag atenia asupra complexitii temei prezentate, a
dimensiunilor ei i gradului de comprehensiune din partea subiecilor, atunci cnd
cercettorul construiete o prob situaional. Tot n acest sens, atunci cnd se
construiete un instrument de evaluare situaional, experimentatorul trebuie s ia
n considerare conexarea dac este cazul a subiectului sau situaiei pentru evaluare
cu contextul din care face parte.
Din punct de vedere metodologic, un alt aspect care poate afecta construirea
unei probe situaionale se refer eterogenitatea itemilor, acolo unde proba propus
poate verifica constructe multiple.
Din aceste considerente, urmtorii pai sunt necesari n construirea i
validarea unui test situaional:
selectarea incidentelor critice pentru situaia de evaluat. Specific pentru
categoria conductorilor auto amatori, este recomandat organizarea unor focusgrupuri cu experi din acest domeniu, evaluatori etc., care s construiasc o list de
incidente critice iar un alt grup s recomande categoriile de rspuns;
sortarea incidentelor critice. Categorizarea acestor situaii este necesar
pentru o mai bun separare a tematicilor de investigat i evitrii dedublrilor
subiectelor tratate;
transformarea incidentelor critice n subiecte de rezolvat. Este o procedur
anevoioas, de durat, acolo unde cercettorul trebuie s se asigure de claritatea
formulrii i relevana temei pentru respondenii din studiu;
generarea i editarea alternativelor de rspuns la situaia stimul;
crearea instructajelor orientate fie spre tendinele comportamentale fie spre
setul de cunotine deinut de subiect.
2.3. INSTRUMENTE I APARATE DE EVALUARE PSIHOLOGIC
PENTRU CONDUCTORII AUTO AMATORI
76
Vlad Hiera
Tabelul nr. 1
Instrumente i aparate de evaluare psihologic
Crt.
1
2
3
4
n condiii
experimentale, de
laborator
Aparatul VisiotestCampitest
Testul de percepie
periferic
Proba DEST de
apreciere a vitezelor i
distanelor
Proba de timp de
reacie compus la
culoare galben
Chestionar de
evaluare a
performanelor
conductorului de
autovehicul
n condiii naturale,
de evaluare
psihologic
Autori
Proba Matricilor
Adaptative Varianta 24
Proba de reactivitate la
stimuli multipli
Hornke, Etzel i
Rettig, 1999
Schuhfried,
2002b; 2006
Schuhfried, 1992
Timpul de reacie la
stimul culoare galben
Schuhfried,
2006c
Schuhfried, 2002b
Proba psihologic
Cognitrone
Schuhfried,
2007
CEPCA, 2008
Proba tahistoscop de
percepie a detaliilor cu
limit de timp n
traficul rutier
Schuhfried,
2006
Autori
EAP, 1992
Schuhfried, 1988
Testul B-53
Bonnardel, 1971
Testul BG-9
Bonnardel, 1970
Aparatul VisiotestCampitest
Chestionar de evaluare
a performanelor
conductorului de
autovehicul
EAP, 1992
CEPCA, 2008
77
78
Vlad Hiera
4. HORSWILL, M. S., McKENNA, F. P., Drivers hazard perception ability: situation awareness on
the road, n BANBURY, S., TREMBLAY, S. (coord.), A cognitive approach to situation
awareness: Theory and application, Burlington, Ashgate Publishing, 2004.
5. McDANIEL, M. A., WHETZEL, D. L., Situational judgement test research: informing the debate
on practical intelligence theory, Intelligence, 33, 2005, p. 515525.
6. RISSER, R., CHALOUPKA, C., GRUNDLER, W., SOMMER, M., HAUSLER, J. i
KAUFMANN, C., Using non-linear methods to investigate the criterion validity of traffic
psychological test batteries. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 40, 1, 2008, p. 149157.
7. SCHUHFRIED, G., SOMMER, M., ANIEI, M., CHRAIF, M., A model of driving tests battery
validation, Revista de psihologie, 56, 34, 2010 a, p. 243250.
8. SCHUHFRIED, G., SOMMER, M., ANIEI, M., CHRAIF, M., The validation methodology of a
psychological assessment battery for drivers schools in Romania, Romanian Journal of Applied
Experimental Psychology, 1, 1, 2010 b, p. 514.
9. URBINA, SUSANA, Essentials of psychological testing, New Jersey, John Wiley and Sons
Publishers, 2004.
REZUMAT
Studiul de fa se constituie drept o sintez teoretic asupra principalelor proceduri de testare
situaional, viznd abordarea psihologic i validarea acestora n ceea ce privete comportamentul de
conducere la categoria conductorilor auto amatori. Construirea i validarea unei baterii de testare a
conductorilor auto amatori n condiii reale de evaluare psihologic reprezint adesea un proces de
durat, ce implic procedee de validare a criteriilor, precum i metodologii de validare experimental
i practice asupra subiecilor aflai n situaii de testare reale, acolo unde evaluarea acestora se
realizeaz n mediul natural. Articolele utilizate i analizate n realizarea acestei sinteze teoretice pun
n discuie tematica procedurilor de validare i construire a unor baterii de testare situaional, precum
i a problematicii evalurii situaionale n cazul conductorilor auto amatori. n concluzie, lucrarea de
fa subliniaz caracteristicile aparatului statistic i procedurilor de validare n evaluarea dimensiunilor
propuse, n mod trans-cultural i longitudinal, oferind o perspectiv diferit asupra testrii variabilelor
n cazul cercetrilor de specialitate.
CRITIC I BIBLIOGRAFIE
80
Critic i bibliografie
Critic i bibliografie
81
IN MEMORIAM
ADRIAN NECULAU
(30 august 1938 20 decembrie 2012)
Tristeea adnc produs de dispariia lui Adrian
Neculau am mprtit-o cu muli dintre cei care l-au
cunoscut. M-a impresionat mult Silviu Lupescu, care
conduce Editura Polirom, la care Adrian Neculau a
publicat i de a crei soart a fost preocupat, care a
spus despre el c era un om fr cusur i de un optimism
incurabil. Aa m-am gndit i eu la el.
Dincolo de acest gnd ar fi s caut n mintea mea
ce mi-a lsat mie Adrian Neculau, lucruri pe care le-am
discutat i de care ne-am frmntat ntr-un acord tacit greu de trit n compania
altora. A zice, ntr-o ordine deloc ierarhic, c mi-a lsat conceptul de servitute
voluntar, cruia i-a dedicat o carte, Psihologia servituii voluntare, aprut la
Polirom, n 2011. De unde i-a venit acest concept? Din faptul c oamenii se supun
voluntar, chiar loial, unor idei care-i fac s adopte manifestri i comportamente
reprobabile, dac nu chiar josnice. Ce altceva ne poate lmuri de ce n-ar fi chiar
natura uman. Acesta era rspunsul lui. Am discutat cu el adesea acest subiect
delicat. Eu i spuneam de Isaiah Berlin, care consider c unii oameni accept s fie
josnici pentru privilegii. Ei sunt de neacceptat. Alii, accept s cad, cum i-ar fi
dorit, pentru c sunt torturai, fizic, i implicit, psihic. Amndoi am consimit c
Isaiah Berlin avea dreptate. Servitutea voluntar a fost o tem care l-a interesat
mult. A mers zile ntregi la CNSAS s studieze dosare ale victimelor comunismului, a
vzut dosarele unor oameni extraordinari ca N. Mrgineanu, V. Pavelcu, Petre
Botezatu i alii, fa de care avea un adnc respect. Am fost n comisia de doctorat
a Cristinei Anisescu care lucra la CNSAS i a crei tez era condus de Adrian
Neculau. Ne-am amuzat amar cnd vorbeam despre un informator care a aceptat
rolul su pentru un privilegiu meschin, minor, acela de a avea permis de pescuit sau
o butelie de aragaz. Nu fceam altceva dect s punem n discuie contextul
ideologic i situaional n care individul se situa n plasa psihosocial a puterii.
Sttea zile ntregi studiind dosarele, stnd n Bucureti, n pensiune i apoi alte zile
ntregi dup ce pleca, gndind destinul acestor mari personaliti ale psihologiei
romneti. De la el am aflat multe despre N. Mrgineanu, care a devenit pentru
mine una dintre marile figuri ale psihologilor-eroi, victime ale comunismului, dar
de o frumusee moral desvrit.
Rev. Psih., vol. 59, nr. 1, p. 8389, Bucureti, ianuarie martie 2013
84
In memoriam
In memoriam
85
86
In memoriam
ADRIAN NECULAU
(30 august 1938 20 decembrie 2012)
Profesorul Adrian Neculau nu mai este printre
noi Un fulger negru a despicat cerul ngheat al
acestui decembrie i a rpus viaa psihosociologului
cu vocaie, a profesorului de excepie, a povestitorului de psihologie druit, a crturarului autentic,
a soului i printelui exemplar i, mai presus de
toate, a omului de omenie care a fost Adrian
Neculau. n marea cnd inima lui generoas a ncetat
s mai pulseze, era mi imaginez senin ca o zi de
primvar: aa l-am cunoscut n urm cu 45 de ani,
aa mi-l voi aminti mereu.
Adrian Neculau s-a nscut n comuna Ungureni din judeul Botoani, ntr-o
familie de nvtori. Despre inutul natal i despre prinii si a vorbit cu smerenie.
A urmat coala primar n comun, dar, aa cum mrturisea, l-a colit mama sa,
icoan de nvtoare. Copilria, alturi de cei doi frai i o sor, i-a fost
strmtorat, dominat de team: prinii si, n anii luptei de clas, fiind cnd dai
afar din nvmnt, cnd reintegrai, cnd detaai la alte coli din alte comune.
Acest lucru l-a marcat social, a nvat de copil s practice limbajul dublu pentru a
supravieui profesional dup cum mi s-a destinuit. A absolvit Liceul A.T.
Laurian din Botoani, promoia 1956. n 1962, obine licena n Pedagogie
Limba i Literatura Romn la Facultatea de Litere i Filosofie din cadrul
Universitii din Iai. Nu a prins un loc n nvmntul superior, dei a fost un
student strlucit. A fost repartizat ca profesor n Chiineu-Cri (la 72 km de
Oradea). A continuat s studieze, i-a conturat un orizont cultural remarcabil.
nainte de a ptrunde n Catedra de Psihologie a Universitii Alexandru Ioan
Cuza, a funcionat ca psiholog la Laboratorul de psihologie C.F.R. din Iai. n
1974, i-a susinut doctoratul cu o tez avnd titlul, inedit la acea dat, Liderii n
dinamica grupurilor, care l-a consacrat ca specialist n psihosociologia grupului.
Conductorul tiinific al tezei sale de doctorat, academicianul de mai trziu Vasile
Pavelcu, i-a rmas mentor. Cnd lumea (fotii studeni i doctoranzi) prea s-l fi
uitat pe profesorul Vasile Pavelcu, prietenul meu Adrian Neculau continua s-l
viziteze, mngindu-i btrneea i izolarea. Evenimentele din decembrie 89 l
gsesc pe Adrian n poziia de confereniar. Devine profesor n 1990, apoi eful
Catedrei de Psihologie i n 1993 prorector al Universitii Alexandru Ioan
In memoriam
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In memoriam
In memoriam
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