Limba Engleza 4 PDF

Felicia Bucur
Limba englez IV
- suport de curs -
EDITURA UNIVERSITII NICOLAE TITULESCU

BUCURETI
2015
Acest material este destinat uzului studenilor, forma de nvmnt la distan.

Coninutul cursului este proprietatea intelectual a autorului /autorilor; designul, machetarea
i transpunerea n format electronic aparin Departamentului de nvmnt la Distan al
Universitii Nicolae Titulescu din Bucureti.
Acest curs este destinat uzului individual. Este interzis multiplicarea, copierea sau
difuzarea coninutului sub orice form.
Acest manual a fost analizat si aprobat in sedinta Departamentului de Stiinte Politice si

Administrative din data de 25 septembrie 2014.
UNIVERSITATEA NICOLAE TITULESCU DIN BUCURETI

DEPARTAMENTUL PENTRU NVMNTUL LA DISTAN
Felicia Bucur
Limba englez IV
Editura Universitii Nicolae Titulescu

Calea Vcreti, nr. 185, sector 4, Bucureti
Tel./fax: 0213309032/0213308606
Email: editura@univnt.ro
ISBN: 978-606-751-086-7
Unit 1: LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Unit 2: FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
Unit 3: CONTEMPORARY DIVISION OF GOVERNMENT
Unit 4: THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM
Unit 5: POLITICAL SYSTEMS
LIMBA ENGLEZ IV
Titular curs: Asist.univ.drd. Felicia BUCUR
Cadrul general al cursului:
Cursul practic de limba englez se adreseaz n principal studenilor din anul al II-lea
din cadrul sistemului de nvmnt Deschis la Distan (IDD) al Universitii Nicolae
Titulescu, Facultatea de tiine Sociale i Administrative, Specializarea Administraie
Public, cu un nivel mediu de cunoatere a limbii engleze i dorete s le ofere acestora
posibilitatea de a recapitula cunotinele acumulate i de a-i nsui noi elemente noiuni
avansate din limbajul administrativ i juridic. De asemenea, cursul i propune dezvoltarea
unor strategii care s conduc la autonomia studenilor n nvare, prin contientizarea
nevoilor personale, efort individual i autoevaluare permanent.
Cursul pentru semestrul al II-lea este structurat n 5 uniti de nvare. Textele sunt
nsoite de exerciii, care au rolul de a facilita procesul de nelegere i de a favoriza
acumularea lexical.
Obiectivele cursului sunt:
1. s formeze deprinderile necesare pentru a folosi limba englez n mod flexibil i eficient
att n scopuri sociale ct i profesionale;
2. s mbogeasc vocabularul studenilor prin achiziia de termeni juridici i din
administraia public n limba englez;

3. s creasc ncrederea studenilor n capacitile personale de ndeplinirea sarcinilor
comunicative n limba englez.
Competenele pe care trebuie s le dobndeasc studenii se nscriu n

precizrile oferite de Cadrul European Comun de Referin pentru Limbi: nvare, Predare,
Evaluare (2001). Astfel, nivelul pe care l au studenii la nceputul acestui curs ar trebui s fie
B1 sau B2, i ne dorim ca nivelul atins la finalizare s fie B2+.
Competenele de comunicare lingvistic pe care studentul le poate dobndi cuprinde
urmtoarele componente:
1. Competena lingvistic general: s se exprime clar i fr a lsa impresia c
este nevoit s restrng ceea ce vrea s spun;
a. competena lexical: s stpneasc o gam bogat de vocabular pentru subiectele
legate de domeniul economic, juridic i administraie public i subiectele cele mai
generale;
b. competena gramatical: s menin un control gramatical bun, s nu fac greeli
care s conduc la nenelegeri;
c. competena fonologic: pronunie i intonaie fireti;
d. competena ortografic: s produc un text scris coerent, clar i inteligibil ce respect
regulile curente de dispunere n pagin i de organizare.
2. Competena sociolingvistic: s se exprime cu siguran, simplu i politicos
ntr-un registru oficial i neoficial potrivit cu situaia i persoanele n cauz.
3. Competena pragmatic:
a. competena discursiv:
s poat face o descriere sau alctui o poveste clar dezvoltnd i argumentnd
punctele importante cu ajutorul detaliilor i al exemplelor semnificative;
s poat interveni ntr-o discuie ntr-o manier adecvat;
s poat utiliza cu eficacitate o varietate de cuvinte de legtur pentru a marca clar
legturile dintre idei.
b. competena funcional:
s poat comunica cu spontaneitate, demonstrnd adeseori o remarcabil uurin i
o facilitate de exprimare chiar i n enunurile complexe i destul de lungi;
s poat transmite o informaie amnunit n mod fiabil.
Resurse i mijloace de lucru

Propunem utilizarea urmtoarelor resursele si mijloacele de lucru:
- prezentul curs practic de limba englez;
- o gramatic a limbii engleze, pentru referine (s poat fi consultat la nevoie 1);
- un dicionar general englez-romn, romn englez;
- un dicionar economic i juridic englez-romn/romn-englez 2
Structura cursului
Cursul pentru semestrul I este compus din 5 uniti de nvare, dup cum urmeaz:
Unit 1: LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Unit 2: FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
Unit 4: THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM
Fiecare unitate este alctuit din:
1.
OBIECTIVE [OBJECTIVES], pe care studenii trebuie s le ating prin parcurgerea
unitii respective (aceste obiective sunt stabilite pentru a coordona procesul de nvare,
pentru a-i motiva pe studeni s-i nsueasc coninutul i de asemenea pentru a-i ajuta s
se autoevalueze).
Sugerm urmtoarele variante posibile:

1. Fleischhack, Eric; Schwarz (2009) English Grammar, Bucureti: ALL Educational
2. Vince, Michael (2008) - Macmillan English Grammar In Context Student's Book Intermediate,
London: Macmillan
3. Preda, Ioan; Levichi, Leon (2008) Gramatica limbii engleze, Bucureti: Gramar
4. Docherty, Vincent; Brough, Sonia (2009) Gramatica standard a limbii engleze, Bucureti: Niculescu
2
Sugerm urmtoarele variante posibile:
1. Oxford Business. Dicionar englez-romn (2007), Bucureti: ALL
2. Dicionar de afaceri englez-romn, (2007), Bucureti: Niculescu
3. Dictionar englez-roman/roman-englez de termeni economici si juridici (2010), Iai: Polirom
4. Dicionar juridic englez-romn, romn-englez (2009) Bucureti: Lumina Lex
5. Dicionar economic englez-romn, romn-englez (2009) Bucureti: Teora
1
2.
INTRODUCERE [LEAD-IN]: include ntrebri, teme pentru dezbateri i scurte
fragmente de text legate de subiectul unitii respective pentru a strni interesul studenilor i
pentru a le activa elementele lexicale necesare unitii respective.
3.
LECTURA [READING]: un text (500-700 cuvinte), n care se exprim o opinie cu
privire la tema din unitatea respectiv.
4.
NELEGERE [COMPREHENSION]: prin intermediul exerciiilor se ofer posibilitatea
de a verifica gradul de nelegere a textului.
5.
RECAPITULARE [LANGUAGE FOCUS]: revizuirea unor structuri i funcii deja
studiate, dar care prezint un interes deosebit n engleza pentru administraia public.
6.
DEZVOLTAREA APTITUDINILOR [SKILLS FOCUS]: activiti menite s dezvolte
competenele necesare exprimrii scrise n administraia public.
7.
TRANSLATION [TRANSLATION]: exerciii de traducere i retroversiune a unor texte
i fraze, pentru a-i face contieni pe studeni de complexitatea pe care o presupune
realizarea acestor activiti cu succes (alegeri lexicale, acurateea structurilor gramaticale).
Pe platforma elis se afl cheia exerciiilor.
TEME DE CONTROL
Rezolvarea celor dou teme de control reprezint 30% din nota final.
Prima tem de control trebuie rezolvat i expediat utiliznd platforma e-lis, seciunea
TEME ONLINE, cu dou sptmni nainte de prima ntlnire tutorial prevzut n orar, iar
cea de-a doua tem, cu dou sptmni nainte de cea de-a doua ntlnire tutorial
prevzut n orar.
Tema de control 1 presupune rezolvarea n scris, la alegere din unitile 1, 2, sau 3, a unei
activiti propuse n seciunea SKILLS FOCUS.
Tema de control 2 presupune rezolvarea n scris, la alegere din unitile 4 sau 5 a unei
activiti propuse n seciunea SKILLS FOCUS.
Cerine preliminare pentru parcurgerea cursului

Este necesar un nivel cel puin mediu de limba englez pentru parcurgerea acestui curs (de
exemplu obinerea cel puin a calificativului B1 la examenul de bacalaureat sau al unui
calificativ similar).
Durata medie de studiu individual

120 minute pentru fiecare unitate.
Evaluarea
La sfritul semestrului studentul va primi o nota care va fi compus din:
1. 70% evaluarea final, care va avea loc n sesiunea de examene, sub form scris.
2. 30% evaluarea pe parcurs, prin notarea celor dou teme de control obligatorii.
Examenul scris de la sfritul semestrului al II-lea va evalua competenele lingvistice,

sociolingvistice i pragmatice dobndite prin parcurgerea unitilor de nvare 1-5 i va avea
o durat de 75 de minute.
Structura examenului scris va fi de tipul:
1. Un text i ase ntrebri. Trebuie s citii textul i s alegei varianta corect de rspuns (A,
B, C sau D).
2. Un exerciiu de completare a spaiilor libere (15 propoziii/fraze cu spaii goale). Fiecare
spaiu gol reprezint un cuvnt sau o expresie. Trebuie s citii propoziiile/frazele i s
alegei cuvntul sau expresia potrivit (A, B, C sau D).
3. Descrierea unei situaii. Trebuie s redactai un text (40-50 de cuvinte) folosind informaia
dat (writing a note, message, memo or email: giving instructions, explaining a development,
asking for comments, requesting information, agreeing to requests, etc.).
4. Traducerea unui text de 60-70 de cuvinte din limba englez n limba romn, asemntor din
punct de vedere al coninutului cu textele studiate.
5. Retroversiunea a 5 propoziii/fraze care s conin structuri gramaticale revizuite n cadrul
unitilor din semestrul al II-lea.
Bibliografie general:
1. Georgeta Ghiga, Mdlina Monica Stancu (2004) Public Administration and
Professional Communication, Editura Cavallioti, Bucuresti.
2. Vince, Michael, (2010) - New First Certificate Language Practice with Key,
Longman, London,
3. Fleischhack, Eric; Schwarz (2009) English Grammar, Bucureti: ALL Educational,
4. Molnar Oprea, Nicoleta. Mateescu, Marinela Carmen (2000) Curs de limba englez
pentru studenii facultilor cu profil juridic. Bucureti: Editura All Educational.
5. Xavier Frege (1991) Descentralizarea, Humanitas, Bucureti
6. Alan Lawton, Rose Aidan (1991) Organization and Management in the Public Sector,
London: Pitman Publishing.
UNIT 1: LOCAL GOVERNMENT
OBJECTIVES
This unit will help you:
- get familiar with the concept of local government
- revise and practise vocabulary related to local government
- revise and practise various constructions following verbs
- improve the skills you need for writing a short account
- improve your translation skills
LEAD IN
Briefly describe the system of local government in Romania.
READING AND COMPREHENSION

A Read the text. Find the information referring to:
1. sources of local government financing;
2. the names used for local government entities;
3. the names used for the system of local government in the United Kingdom.
WHAT IS LOCAL GOVERNMENT
Local governments are administrative offices that are smaller than a state. The
term is used to contrast with offices at nation state level, which are referred to as the
central government, national government, or (where appropriate) federal government.
In modern nations, local governments usually have some power to raise taxes,
5
though these may be limited by central legislation. In some countries local government
is partly or wholly funded by subventions from central government taxation.
The question of Municipal Autonomy which powers the local government has,
or should have, and why is a key question of public administration. The institutions of
local government vary greatly between countries, and even where similar arrangements
10 exist, the terminology often varies. Common names for local government entities include
state, province, region, department, county, prefecture, district, city, town, borough,
parish, municipality and village. However, all these names are often used informally in
countries where they do not describe a legal local government entity.
For example, local government is the third tier of government in Australia, after
15 Federal and State. According to its constitution, France has 3 levels of local
government:
- 22 Rgions and 4 Rgions doutre-mer;
- 96 dpartements and 4 dpartements doutre-mer;
- 36 679 municipalities (in French: Communes).
20 The Netherlands has three tiers of government. There are two levels of local
government in the Netherlands, the provinces and the municipalities.
The system of local government is different in each of the four countries of the
United Kingdom. The oldest and largest divisions in England and Wales are called
counties. In Scotland, the largest divisions are regions. Northern Ireland is sometimes
25 known as the Six Counties, but local government there is based on districts.
Local government of the United States refers to the government at the city, town
or village level.
B Which countries are mentioned in the text?
C Different terms are used for offices at nation-state level. What are they?
D For sentences 1-6 choose the variant (a, b) which fits best according to the text.
1. The term local government is used to contrast with .
a) city government.
b) national government.
2. Local governments are usually financed by ..
a) receiving contributions from charity organizations.
b) raising taxes.
3. The system of local governments in different countries
a) varies greatly.
b) is the same.
4. Common names for local government entities include .
a) region, department, county, district, city, etc.
b) federation, union, state, confederation.
5. Australia and the Netherlands are countries with ..
a) two tiers of government.
b) three tiers of government.
6. The system of local government in each of the four countries of the United Kingdom is
a) the same.
b) different.
E Match the words with their definitions.
1. municipality (n)
2. region (n)
3. parish (n)
4. province (n)
5. county (n)
6. village (n)
7. town (n)
a) a place with many houses, shops and other buildings that is larger than a village but
smaller than a city
b) an administrative division of Britain, the largest unit of local government
c) an area that has its own church and clergyman
d) a town, city or district with its own local government; the governing body of such a town
e) an administrative division of a country
f) any of the parts into which a country is divided for the purpose of government
g) a group of houses, shops, etc. usually with a church and situated in a country district
F Match the verbs and nouns as they occur together in the text.
1. raise
a) powers
2. include
b) the national government
3. have
c) offices at nation-state level
4. refer to as
d) the names for local government entities
5. describe
e) legislation
6. contrast with
f) taxes
7. be limited by
g) a legal local government entity
G Complete these sentences using the word combinations from the previous exercise.
1. Today local governments usually have the power .
2. Sometimes the power of local governments to raise taxes is .
3. Common names for local government entities state, region, county, city, town, etc.
4. In modern nations, modern governments to raise taxes.
5. The term local government is used to the central government.
6. Such names as state, province, prefecture, district, etc. are often used informally in
countries where they do not ... .
7. Offices at the nation-state level the central government or federal government.
LANGUAGE FOCUS: VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE OR GERUND AND

THAT CLAUSE
When you learn a new verb, it is advisable to check in a dictionary whether it is followed by a
verbal noun (this is also called the -ing form, and the gerund) or infinitive (with to, or without
to, also called bare infinitive).
VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN, -ING OR INFINITIVE: WITH LITTLE OR NO

CHANGE OF MEANING
These include: begin, continue, not bear, hate, intend, like, love, prefer, start
When she stood up, the President began to speak.
When she stood up, the President began speaking.
Some people at the back continued chatting/to chat.
I can't bear listening/to listen for a long time.
What do you intend doing/to do about it?
I don't like watching television. I prefer reading/to read.
I think you should start practising/to practise now!
When we use prefer, we prefer one thing to another thing. If the things are activities, gerund
is used.
Tom prefers reading to watching television.
For some speakers there is a difference between like to do and like doing.
I like to listen to the radio every morning while I'm in the bath. (A HABITUAL
ACTION)
I like listening to the radio. (LIKES AND DISLIKES)
Hate to do is more usual than hate doing in some idiomatic contexts.
I hate doing the washing-up!
I hate to tell you this, but weve missed the last train!
Love to do is more common than love doing in some idiomatic contexts.
Sue really loves swimming.
He's the man they love to hate.
NOTE that would is used with like, love and prefer, they are followed by infinitive with to:
I'd like to go to Portugal this summer:
VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE + TO
These include: afford, ask, choose, happen, help, manage, offer, refuse, wait, want
I can't afford to go to the cinema twice in one week.
In the end, Laura chose to study Economics.
Do you happen to know the time?
Could someone help* me to carry this?
Jim can't manage to come this evening.
I offered to give her a lift, but she said she'd ordered a taxi.
The manager refused to see me.
There are some people waiting to see you.
What do you want to do this evening?
*Help is also used WITHOUT TO:
Could you help me carry this?
VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE + TO, OR THAT-CLAUSE
These include: agree, decide, expect, hope, learn, pretend, promise, seem, wish.
It is possible to leave out THAT in everyday speech.
NOTE that THAT-CLAUSES often follow sequence of tense rules, as in reported speech.
The main verbs of this type are:
Sarah agrees to meet you after school.
Sarah agrees that she will meet you after school.
Sarah agreed to meet me after school.
Sarah agreed (that) she would meet me after school.
We decided to go home. We decided (that) we would go home.
Mike expects to win. Mike expects (that) he will win.
I hope to see you later. I hope (that) I'll see you later.
Helen pretended to be ill. Helen pretended that she was ill.
There is a small difference in the meanings of learn:

At school Graham learned to speak French. (= learn a skill)
At school we learned that the Earth goes round the Sun. (= learn information)
Note the uses of seem (It + seems / seemed + that-clause is very common):
You seem to know the answer! It seems that you know the answer.
Wish followed by INFINITIVE WITH TO has a similar meaning want:

I wish to leave early today (= want)
Wish followed by a THAT-CLAUSE usually includes would or could:

I wish (that) I could leave early.
I wish (that) my teacher would let me leave early.
VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN, -ING OR INFINITIVE + TO OR THAT-CLAUSE:

WITH CHANGE OF MEANING
These include: forget, mean, remember, stop, try
o
forget
Sorry, I forgot to post your letter. (= I didn't remember)
I'll never forget learning to drive! (= I'll always remember)
I forgot that I'd promised to phone you.
mean
Jan meant to watch the programme, but she forgot. (= intended)
Keeping fit means taking exercise every day! (= involve)
When I miss the bus, it means that I have to walk to school.
remember
Remember to take your keys! (= don't forget a future action)
I remember telling you! (= remember a past action)
Then I remembered that you were out.
stop
Jo has stopped learning French. (= give up)
We stopped to look at the view. (= purpose infinitive)
Stop is not followed by a THAT-CLAUSE.
o
try
Peter tried to lift the table, but it was too heavy. (= try/fail)
If you have a headache, try taking two of these pills. (= suggesting an action)
Try is not followed by a THAT-CLAUSE.
o
VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN -ING OR NOUN
These include: dislike, enjoy, fancy, *can't help, *keep, mind, practise, can't stand (those
marked * have a change of meaning).
I dislike going out in the rain.
I really dislike my new boss.
Everyone enjoys going to parties.
I enjoyed this lesson.
Do you fancy going to the cinema?
I fancy a swim!
I can't help feeling hungry.
I can't help myself! (= I can't stop)
Sue keeps phoning me late at night. (= a bad habit)
Keep this. Don't throw it away.
Do you mind waiting?
Do you mind cold weather?
I must practise speaking French more often.
Julia practises the violin every day.
I can't stand waking up early.
I can't stand hot and spicy food.
VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN -ING, NOUN OR THAT-CLAUSE
These include: admit, deny, imagine, suggest.
The Minister admitted taking a bribe.

Paul admitted that he was wrong.
Tina denied stealing the money.
Both men denied that they had done anything wrong.
Imagine travelling to another planet!
Do you really imagine that I want to see you again?
I suggest going for a pizza.
I suggest that we go for a pizza.
Suggest is also followed by SHOULD.
I suggest that we should go for a pizza.
PRACTICE
1. Correct the errors. Some sentences do not have errors.
1) Jim cant afford going to the cinema twice a week.
2) David wishes leaving the room.
3) Are you waiting to use the phone?
4) Id really like going swimming on Saturday.
5) Everyone decided to put off the football match.
6) Emma pretended leaving, but waited outside.
7) Jack agreed to meet me at the beach.
8) My bike seems having something wrong with it.
9) The director refused answering Helens phone call.
10) What exactly do you intend to say to Mrs Dawson?
2. Complete each sentence with a form of one the verbs from the list. Use each verb
once only.
afford
learn
bear
love
continue
offer
expect
prefer
happen
pretend
1) John really ________ spending all day at the beach.

2) Im completely broke, so I cant ___ to go on holiday.
3) Excuse me, but do you ______ to know the way to Old Street?
4) We ____ our team to win, but they were badly beaten.
5) Kate ________ to speak French and German when she was at school.
6) Even when the examiner told him to stop, Bill ___ speaking.
7) Im sorry, but I cant ___ to listen to this awful music.
8) Last week George ______ to help me paint my bike.
9) Paul ________ to have a bad leg so he didnt have to go to the gym.
10) Sam usually ____ playing football to doing homework
3. Choose the correct word phrase underlined in each sentence.
1)
2)
3)
4)
Tom suddenly realised he had forgotten to lock/ locking his door.

On the way back we stopped to have /having some tea.
Could you stop to talk/ talking, please.
Learning the language means to be / being interested in another culture.
5) Ann tried to open / opening the window, but it was too high to reach.
6) Please remember to take / taking the dog for a walk.
7) Cathy says she will never forget to sky-dive / sky-diving for the first time.
8) I dont really remember to start / starting school when I was 5.
9) Helen chose / enjoyed to learn French.
10) I really cant afford / stand to travel by plane.
11) Do you mind / want coming back in half an hour?
12) Tina meant / suggested to buy some potatoes, but she forgot.
13) Kate denied / refused opening the office safe.
14) Bill admitted / agreed making a serious mistake.
15) My parents decided / disliked to send me to a different school.
16) I really fancy / like a trip to the country.
4. Rewrite each sentence so that it has a similar meaning and contains the word
given.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
What are you thinking of doing? INTEND

I find getting up early unbearable. BEAR
Ill see you in the morning, I expect. TO
I wont help! said Tom. REFUSED
Pat was taught to drive when he was young. LEARNED
Would you like me to help you? I asked Joe. OFFERED
Ellen didnt have enough money for the ticket. AFFORD
Ill be back at 6.00, said Susan. PROMISED
5. Put one suitable word in each space.

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Dont ________ to buy some milk on your way home.

If I am late, it ________ I have to wait until the next lesson begins.
I ________ throwing the ball, but I didnt break the window.
Paul cant ________ thinking about his favourite team.
Lisa ________ leaving her books at home.
I cant ________ walking home in the rain! Its horrible!
I ________ playing with my friends when I was little.
Gina ________ to climb in through the window, but it was locked.
6. Complete each sentence with a suitable form of the verb in brackets.

1) I really miss ______ (play) tennis like I used to.
2) Im sorry, I meant ______ (write) to you, but Ive been busy.
3) Harry says he doesnt remember ______ (meet) Sally before.
4) Martin failed ______ (pay) the rent on time again.
5) Its not worth ______ (buy) a return ticket.
6) Have you ever considered ______ (work) as a teacher?
7) I promise I wont forget ______ (feed) the cat.
8) Weve arranged ______ (meet) outside the school at 4.30.
9) If youve got a headache, why dont you try ______ (take) an aspirin.
10) I cant imagine ______ (not have) a car!
7. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first sentence
using the word given.
1. Jack said that he hadnt cheated in the exam.
Jack ________________________ in the exam
2. It was difficult for me not to laugh at Wendys letter.
cheating
help
I _____________________ at Wendys letter.

3. Im sorry but you havent been appointed to the post.
I _____________________ you havent been appointed to the post.
4. I needed a drink of water and so I stopped running.
I stopped running _____________________ water.
5. Luckily Peter didnt pay a fine.
Luckily Peter ____________________ a fine.
6. I think it would be a good idea to take the train.
I _____________________ the train.
7. Dont forget the lights when you leave.
Dont forget _________________________ when you leave.
8. I can hear voices upstairs.
I _________________________ upstairs.
9. I think Derek has forgotten the meeting.
Derek _____________________ the meeting.
10. My neighbour said he would call the police!
My neighbour _______________________ the police.
regret
to
paying
taking
off
talking
appears
threatened
8. Complete each sentence with a suitable form of the verb in brackets:

1) Pauline couldnt manage ________ (eat) all the ice cream.
2) Ive decided ________ (not sell) my bike after all.
3) A witness reported ________ (see) Terry at the scene of the crime.
4) William pretended ________ (not notice) the No Parking sign.
5) One of the boys finally admitted ________ (start) the fire.
6) I suppose I tend ________ (buy) more books than I used to.
7) Bill told Christine that he couldnt go on ________ (live) without her.
8) Sometimes I regret ________ (move) to this part of the country.
9) Did you notice anyone ________ (wait) outside when you left.
10) Mark expects ________ (finish) work round about 6.00.
SKILLS FOCUS: Writing Short Account of the Romanian Local

Government History in the 20th century
Do some research and write a 160-200 word history of the Romanian Local
Government in the 20th century.
TRANSLATION
Translate into Romanian:
Local government generally refers to the government of an area smaller than a country,
state, or province. Such areas include counties, cities, towns, and villages. Each unit of local
government has some important responsibility for the welfare of its citizens and provides
certain services. Most local governments are run by elected officials and have some power of
taxation.
SPECIFIC BIBLIOGRAPHY
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_government
http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/verbs-followed-infinitive
http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/verbs-followed-that-clause
http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/gerund_verbs.php
http://www.englishpractice.com/improve/verb-patterns-thatclauses/
UNIT 2: FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
OBJECTIVES
- get familiar with the various forms of government
- revise and practise vocabulary related to forms of government
- revise and practise relative clauses
- improve the skills you need for writing a short description
LEAD IN
Discuss these questions:
1. What forms of government do you know?
2. What are their characteristics?

A Scan the text below and see if your answers in the LEAD IN section were correct.
B Read the text and fill in the sentences below.
1. The expression form of government can be replaced by .
2. Not all states . in their official names.
3. There are 33 kingdoms in the word, but only 18 . .
4. The word republic is used by .... .
FORMS OF GOVERNMENT
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A form of government is a term that refers to the set of political institutions by

which a government of a state is organized in order to exert its powers over a
community politics. Synonyms include regime type and system of government. This
definition holds valid even if the government is unsuccessful in exerting its power. But
a failed government is still considered a form of government. Churches, corporations,
clubs, and other subnational entities also have government forms.
Beyond official typologies it is important to think about regime types by looking
at the general attributes of the forms of government:
traditional or modern;
autocracy (totalitarianism or authoritarianism), oligarchy, or democracy;
direct or indirect elections;
republic or monarchy;
constitutional monarchy or absolute monarchy;
majority government or coalition government;
parliamentary, presidential, or semi-presidential;
confederation, federation, or unitary.
Nineteen states in the world do not explicitly name their government forms in
their official names (the official name of Jamaica, for instance, is simply Jamaica),
but most have an official name which identifies their form of government, or at least
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the form of government toward which they are striving:

Australia, the Bahamas, and Dominica are each officially a commonwealth.
Luxemburg is a grand duchy.
Russia and Switzerland are each a federation.
There are 33 kingdoms in the world, but only 18 named as such. The other 15
are known as realms. Jordan is specifically titled the Hashemite Kingdom of
Jordan, while Britain is formally the United Kingdom of Great Britain and
Northern Ireland.
Andorra, Liechtenstein, and Monaco are each a principality.
The word republic is used by 132 nations in their official names. Many specify
a type of republic: China is titled a peoples republic; North Korea- a
democratic peoples republic, Egypt and Syria-Arab republics; Algeria is a
democratic and popular republic; Vietnam - a socialist republic.
States that wish to emphasize that their provinces have a fair amount of
autonomy from central government may specifically state this: Germany and
Nigeria are each a federal republic, Ethiopia is a federal democratic republic,
the Comoros is a federal Islamic republic, and Brazil is a federative republic.
Besides the Comoros, four other nations dictate that they are Islamic republics.
Eleven nations simply refer to themselves as states, but a handful specify what
kind of state. Papua New Guinea and Samoa emphasize that they are
independent states, while the United States of America and the United Mexican
States are made up of constituent states.
Brunei and Oman are sultanates.
C The text states different attributes of the forms of government. Match these
attributes with the countries according to the text.
1. Monaco, Liechtenstein
2. Egypt, Syria
3. Luxemburg
4. China
5. North Korea
6. Germany, Nigeria
7. Australia
a) Arab republics
b) a peoples republic
c) a democratic peoples republic
d) a principality
e) a federal republic
f) a commonwealth
g) a grand duchy
D In which line(s) does the author:

a) give the definition of the term form of government?
b) specify a type of republic?
c) explain the usage of the name kingdom?
E Match the words with their definitions.
1. democracy (n)
2. federation (n)
3. principality (n)
4. confederation (n)
5. monarchy (n)
6. realm (n)
a) a country ruled by a king or queen

b) an organization consisting of countries that have joined together for
mutual benefit
c) a system of government by all the people of the country
d) a union of states in which individual states keep control of many
internal matters
e) a country ruled by a prince
f) a system of government by a monarch
F Add nouns to the following adjectives to form phrases as they occur in the text.
political, official, constitutional, direct, traditional, socialist, independent.
G Is there any phrase in the list given below, which you do not associate with a form
of government?
a coalition government
direct elections
policy decisions
a grand duchy
a federal republic
a commonwealth
public administration
autocracy
a constitutional monarchy
LANGUAGE FOCUS: RELATIVE CLAUSES

Relative clauses are normally joined by relative pronouns, but these pronouns can
sometimes be left out. Some types of relative clauses are more common in formal speech
and writing. It is important to know whether a relative clause is DEFINING or NONDEFINING, and whether it is a subject or object clause.
DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING CLAUSES
Defining clauses give information which cannot be left out because it gives important
information about the subject.
The doctor who treated me told me not to worry = This describes which doctor we
are talking about.
Non-defining clauses give extra information. This is separated from the main sentence by
commas.
Pablo Picasso, who died in 1973, was a painter and sculptor.
DEFINING CLAUSES
WHICH, THAT:
- which and that refer to things;
- that is less formal than which, and some speakers prefer to use which;
- that is also used to refer to people in speech and informal writing in defining clauses.
The bus which goes to Cairo leaves from here.
The road that we took led to an ancient temple.
The woman that we spoke to gave us directions.
WHO and WHOM:
- who and whom refer to people;
- we use whom in formal speech and writing to introduce an object clause;
- whom is used after a preposition in formal language
- in informal language, many people prefer to use who, or that, instead of whom (many
speakers never use whom see also LEAVING OUT RELATIVE PRONOUNS.)
The woman who teaches us music also plays in an orchestra.
It was the same boy whom I met yesterday. (formal)

No one knows by whom the victim was shot. (formal)
No one knows who the victim was shot by. (informal)
The people that live next door make a lot of noise.
WHOSE:
- whose means of whom.
The girl whose case had been stolen went to the police station.
SUBJECT AND OBJECT CLAUSES
Subject clauses refer to the subject of the sentence.

The doctor who treated me told me not to worry.
The doctor (= subject) treated me (= object).
Object clauses refer to the object.
The doctor that/who/whom I spoke to told me not to worry.
I (= subject) spoke to the doctor (= object).
LEAVING OUT RELATIVE PRONOUNS
We cannot leave out the relative pronoun in non-defining clauses.

Pablo Picasso, who died in 1973, was a painter and sculptor.
We can leave out the relative pronoun in defining clauses which are object clauses.
The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry.
We cannot leave out the relative pronoun in defining clauses which are subject clauses.
We can also leave out the relative pronoun after a superlative.
That was the best meal I've ever eaten!
COMBINING SENTENCES
NOTE the changes made when sentences are combined using a relative clause.
A bus goes to Cairo. It leaves from here.
The bus that/which goes to Cairo leaves from here.
We took a road. It led to an ancient temple.
The road (that) we took led to an ancient temple.
We spoke to a woman. She gave us directions.
The woman (that) we spoke to gave us directions.
A woman teaches us music. She also plays in an orchestra.
The woman who teaches us music also plays in an orchestra.

NOTE that articles are often changed e.g. from a/an to the when sentences are combined.
A girl's case was stolen. She went to the police station.
The girl whose case was stolen went to the police station.
A doctor treated me. She told me not to worry.
I spoke to a doctor. She told me not to worry.
The doctor I spoke to told me not to worry.
NON-FINITE CLAUSES
These are clauses with an -ing form verb.

I sent a card to the girl living across the street.
(= / sent a card to the girl who was living across the street.)
NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES
These can be used as subject or object. They are common with what which here means the
things which.
We didn't understand what she said.
What I want now is a cup of coffee.
PRACTICE
1. Choose the correct word underlined in each sentence:
1) An old man, who / which was carrying a suitcase, knocked at the door.
2) The girl who / whom lives here knows my sister.
3) The box that /whom Jean picked up had a hole in it.
4) The winner, who / whose bike was an unusual design, won a medal.
5) The girl who / whom spoke to me turned out to be in my class.
6) The museum, which / whose was in a beautiful building, was closed.
7) A policewoman that / which we asked told us how to get there.
8) The boy whose / whom house I was staying at was an old friend.
9) The last person which / whose pen I borrowed didnt get it back!
10) The train which / who leaves at 8 stops at every station.
2. Put either WHO or WHOM in each space:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
The waiter by _________ we were served expected a large tip.

The teacher _________ taught us yesterday also teaches my brother.
The friend to _________ I lent my basketball managed to lose it.
The boy _________ opened the door looked familiar.
The man to _________ I spoke told me to wait outside the office.
The people with _________ I travelled were good company.
The assistant _________ sold me the computer made a mistake with the bill.
The player _________ had the ball was tripped by the goalkeeper.
The girl from _________ I received the card was someone I met on holiday.
10) A strange man _________ said he knew you phoned while you were out.
3. Put WHO, WHOSE or THAT in each space.
1) The friend _________ house I stayed in is coming to stay with us.
2) The guidebook _________ we bought explained everything.
3) Its difficult to say _________ this portrait was painted by.
4) The couple _________ house I bought both work in my office.
5) Id like you to tell me _________ you were talking to.
6) The girl _________ ruler I had borrowed wanted it back.
7) The game _________ we played was difficult to understand.
8) I cant remember _________ I lent my bike to.
9) Do you know _________ Katherine works for?
10) The places _________ we visited were all very interesting.
4. Decide whether the clause underlined is defining or non-defining. Write D or N
next to each sentence.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
The girl who was waiting was becoming impatient.

The room, which was enormous, was filled with lines of chairs.
The students, who were late, waited in the playground.
The food, which was left, was eaten the following day.
A tall girl, who was wearing a hat, came into the room.
The dog, which was lying on the sofa, had long pointed ears.
The train which leaves at 8 doesnt stop at Bath.
The boys, who were playing football, saw the robbery.
5. Underline relative pronouns which can be left out in these sentences.
1) The book that John was reading was a bit frightening.

2) The travel agency which sold me the ticket was near my office
3) The name of the girl who lived next door was Ellen
4) In the end, our holiday was the best that we had ever had.
5) The dentist who I go to isnt very expensive.
6) The film which we saw last week was much better that this one.
7) The people who were leaving couldnt find their coats.
8) The garden, which wasnt very large, was full of flowers.
9) The car which David bought was not in good condition.
10) The girl who I sit next to in class is my best friend.
6. Rewrite each formal sentence as an informal one, ending with the word given.
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
These are the boys with whom I went on holiday. (with)

This is the letter for which I have been waiting. (for)
This is the shop from which Sue bought her bike. (from)
That is the bed-and-breakfast at which I stayed. (at)
Tim is someone to whom I hardly ever write. (to)
Do you know by whom this book was written? (by)
Ravenna was the most interesting town in which we stayed. (in)
United were the best team against which we played. (against)
7. Add a relative pronoun to each sentence.
1) Friday was the last time I saw Jim.

2) The island we visited was extremely beautiful.
3) The girl I met was a friend of Harry's.

4) The meal we ate was not very tasty.
5) Mary was the first person I asked.
6) The book I read didn't explain the problem.
7) The teacher we usually have was away ill.
8) The friends I met last night send you their love.
9) Unfortunately Ive lost the pen l always use.
10) The bus I catch stops outside the university.
8. Choose the correct word underlined in each sentence.
1) The train which/who goes to Brighton leaves from here.
2) That/What I like best is an afternoon at the beach.
3) I didn't know who/which to ask about my timetable.
4) The people which/whose luggage was lost had to wait a long time.
5) Where's the ruler whose/that I left on this desk?
6) The shop what/that I went to didn't have any milk.
7) Do you know whom/whose bag this is?
8) Everyone who/which was there will remember the day forever.
9) The second bus, which/whose was full, didn't stop either.
10) Jim was helped by someone who/whom told him the answer.
SKILLS FOCUS: Writing Short Description

Each type of government holds different views as to the role the leaders and citizens should
perform in their country. Different types of government include: oligarchy, where the
government is run by the best leaders; tyranny, where those in power consider that they
should have complete control over the citizens.
Choose one type of government and describe its main features, pointing mainly to the
role of the leaders and citizens (200 words).
TRANSLATION
Translate the following text into Romanian:
A constitutional republic is a state where the head of state and other officials are elected as
representatives of the people, and must govern according to existing constitutional law that
limits the governments power over citizens. In a constitutional republic, executive, legislative,
and judicial powers are separated into distinct branches and the will of the majority of the
population is tempered by protections for individual rights so that no individual or group has
absolute power. The fact that a constitution exists that limits the governments power makes
the state constitutional. That the head of state and other officials are chosen by election,
rather than inheriting their positions, and that their decisions are subject to judicial review
makes a state republican.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Forms_of_government
http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/clause-phrase-and-sentence/verbpatterns/relative-clauses
http://www.perfect-english-grammar.com/relative-clauses.html
http://www.edufind.com/english/grammar/relative_clauses_form.php
OBJECTIVES
- get familiar with the contemporary division of government
- revise and practise vocabulary related to the contemporary division of government
- revise and practise time expressions
- improve the essay writing skills
LEAD IN
Discuss these questions:
1. What is the role and structure of the legislature in Romania?
2. What is the role and structure of the executive in Romania?
3. What is the role and structure of the judiciary in Romania?

PART 1
A Scan the text below and answer these questions:
a) What is the role of the legislature?
b) Which is one of the largest legislatures in the world?
B Read the text and answer these questions.
1. What is the function of the legislature in parliamentary systems?
2. What is the function of the legislature in presidential systems of government?
3. Which legislatures are among the smallest?
4. How is legislature with one house called?
5. What countries have abolished their second chamber?
The Legislature
The three branches of government are: legislature, executive, and judiciary. A
legislature is a type of representative assembly with the power to create, amend and
ratify laws. The law created by a legislature is called legislation or statutory law. In most
systems, however, legislatures also have other tasks, such as selection and criticism of
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the government, supervision of administration, ratification of treaties, impeachment of
executive and judicial officials. Legislatures, then, are not simply lawmaking bodies. In
most systems the executive has a power of veto over legislation, and even where this is
lacking, the executive may exercise original or delegated powers of legislation.
Legislatures are known by many names, the most common being parliament and
10 congress. In parliamentary systems of government, the legislature is formally supreme
and appoints the executive. In presidential system of government, the legislature is
considered a power branch which is equal to, and independent of, the executive.
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Legislatures differ greatly in their size, the procedures they employ, the role of
political parties in legislative action. In size, the British House of Commons is among the
largest; the Icelandic lower house, the New Zealand House of Representatives, and the
Senate of Nevada are among the smallest. The primary components of a legislature are
one or more chambers or houses- assemblies that debate and vote upon bills. A
legislature with one house is called unicameral. A bicameral legislature possesses two
separate chambers, usually described as an upper house and a lower house, which
often differ in duties and powers. Most legislatures are bicameral, although New
Zealand, Denmark, the state of Queensland in Australia have all abolished their second
chamber.
In most parliamentary systems, the lower house is the more powerful house while
the upper house is merely a chamber of advice or review. However, in presidential
systems, the powers of the two houses are often similar or equal. In federations it is
typical for the upper house to represent the component states; the same applies to the
supranational legislature of the European Union. For this purpose the upper house may
either contain the delegates of state governments or be elected according to a formula
that grants equal representation to states with smaller populations, as is the case in
Austria and the modern United States.
In general, the legislature has a supervisory role over the actions of the
executive, and may replace the Head of Government and/or individual ministers by a
vote of (no) confidence or a procedure of impeachment. On the other hand, it may be
dissolved by the Head of State, leading to new elections.
C Match the sentence beginnings (1-5) to the correct endings (a-e).

1. A legislature has the power to ...
2. In parliamentary systems of government, the legislature ..
3. In presidential systems of government, the legislature ..
4. The primary components of a legislature are
5. In general, the legislature has
a) .. appoints the executive.
b) . a supervisory role over the actions of the executive.
c) .. create, amend and ratify laws.
d) . one or more chambers.
e) ... is considered to be equal to the executive.
D Match these verbs and nouns as they occur together in the text.
1. amend
2. supervise
3. appoint
4. debate
5. grant
6. dissolve
7. exercise
a) the executive
b) equal representation
c) administration
d) the legislature
e) laws
f) powers
g) bills
PART 2
a) Why is the year 1958 mentioned in the text?
b) What happened in the 20th century, according to the text?
B Read the text carefully and complete the information below.

1. The executive branch is responsible for.....
2. The executive is subject to.....
3. Political executives include....
4. The executive is often delegated some......
5. The executive may also have powers to.....
THE EXECUTIVE
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In political science and constitutional law, the executive is the branch of

government responsible for the day-to-day management of the state. The executive
branch acts by and with the advice and consent of the legislative made by the legislature
and thus is subject to the legislative branch.
Political executives are government officials who include heads of state and
government leaders-presidents, prime-ministers, premiers, chancellors, and other chief
executives, and many secondary figures, such as cabinet members, ministers,
councilors.
The executive is identified by the head of government. In a presidential system,
this person (the President) may also be the Head of State, whereas in a parliamentary
system he or she is usually the leader of the largest party in the legislature and is most
commonly termed the Prime Minister (Taoiseach in the Republic of Ireland, Chancellor
in Germany and Austria). In France, executive power is shared between the president
and the prime minister and this system has been reproduced in a number of former
French colonies, while Switzerland and Bosnia and Herzegovina have collegiate
systems for the role of head of state and government. The head of government is
assisted by a number of ministers, who usually have responsibilities for particular areas
(e.g. health, education, foreign affairs), and by a large number of government
employees or civil servants.
The crucial element in the organization of a national executive is the role
assigned to the chief executive. In parliamentary systems, such as in Great Britain, the
prime minister is the national political leader, but another figure, a monarch or elected
president, serves as the head of state. In mixed presidential-parliamentary systems,
such as that established in France under the constitution of 1958, the president serves
as head of state but also wields important political powers, including the appointment of
a prime minister and Cabinet to serve as the government.
In nearly all political systems the 20th century saw an alarming increase in the
powers of chief executives. The office of the presidency in the United States, like the
office of prime minister in Britain, greatly enlarged the scope of its authority.
The executive is often delegated some legislative power, mainly the power to
issue regulations or executive orders which complete a piece of legislation with technical
details or points which might change frequently (e.g. fees for government services). The
executive may also have powers to issue legislation during a state of emergency.
C. Decide whether the following sentences are True or False according to the
information in the text. Justify your answers by reference to the text.
1. The executive is responsible for the day-to-day management of the state.
2. The executive is identified by the leader of a political party.
3. Political executives include not only chief executives.
4. Sometimes the executive is delegated some legislative power.
5. The executive may not have to issue legislation, even in emergency cases.
1. issue
2. delegate
3. include
4. share
5. assign
a) powers
b) executive power
c) the role
d) legislation
e) heads of state
PART 3
A Scan the text below and answer the questions:
a) Why are the United States and Germany mentioned in the text?
b) Find the sentences which describe:
- the definition of the judiciary under the doctrine of the separation of powers;
- the structure of established court systems;
- types of local courts.
B Read the text. Which is the main idea of each paragraph?
THE JUDICIARY
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(1) In the law, the judiciary is the system of courts which administer justice in the
name of the sovereign or state, a mechanism for the resolution of disputes. The term is
also used to refer collectively to the judges, magistrates and other adjudicators who form
the core of a judiciary, as well as the support personnel who keep the system running
smoothly. Under the doctrine of the separation of powers, the judiciary is the branch of
government primarily responsible for interpreting the law. It construes the laws enacted
by the legislature.
(2) Like legislators and executives, judges are major participants in the policymaking process. The process of judicial decision making, or adjudication, is distinctive,
however, for it is concerned with specific cases in which an individual has come into
conflict with society by violating its norms or in which individuals have come into conflict
with one another. In common law jurisdiction, courts interpret law, including
constitutions, statutes, and regulations. In civil law jurisdictions, courts interpret the law,
but are, at least in theory, prohibited from creating law. In socialist law, the primary
responsibility for interpreting the law belongs to the legislature.
(3) Established court systems are found in all advanced political systems. Usually
there are two judicial hierarchies, one dealing with civil and the other with criminal
cases, each with a large number of local courts, a lesser number at the level of the
province or the region, and one or more courts at the national level. This is the pattern of
judicial organization in Britain, for example. In some countries-for example, in Francethe distinction is not between courts dealing with criminal cases and other courts dealing
with civil cases but rather between those that handle all civil and criminal cases and
those that deal with administrative cases. Reflecting the federal organization of its
government, the United States has two court systems: one set of national courts and 50
sets of state courts. By contrast, Germany, which is federal in government organization,
possesses only a single integrated court system.
(4) Local courts are found in all systems and are usually of two types. The first
type deals with petty offences and may include a traffic court, a municipal court, a smallclaims court. The second type, sometimes called trial courts, are courts of first instance
in which most cases of major importance are begun. In all systems there are national
supreme courts that hear appeals and exercise original jurisdiction in cases of the
greatest importance.
C. Arrange these sentences in the logical order according to the information in the
text.
1. Local courts are usually of two types.
2. Usually, there two judicial hierarchies in established court systems.
3. Judicial system is the system of courts which administer justice in the name of the
sovereign or state.
4. Judges are major participants in the policy-making process.
5. The judiciary construes the laws enacted by the legislature.
D Which of the word combinations below do you associate with the judiciary
characteristics? Translate these word combinations into Romanian.
to create laws; to administer justice; to deal with civil cases; to grant equal rights; to dissolve
Parliament; small-claims courts; to hear appeals; to possess two chambers; to resolve
disputes; to interpret the law; to amend laws.
E Match the first half of each sentence with the most appropriate second half.
1. Judicial system is
2. The judiciary is
3. Judges are
4. In common law jurisdiction, courts
5. There are usually two judicial hierarchies in..
6. Established court systems...
7. National supreme courts.
a) ... interpret law.
b) are found in all political systems.
c) .. the branch of government responsible for interpreting the law.
d) hear appeals.
e) .. a system of courts which administer justice.
f) ... established court systems.
g) ... major participants in the policy-making process.
LANGUAGE FOCUS: TIME EXPRESSIONS

1) IN, ON and AT
IN
years: in 2004
months: in January
seasons: in the summer
morning: in the morning

afternoon: in the afternoon
evening: in the evening
ON
days: on Wednesday, on my birthday
AT
times: at 4.00, at midday, at midnight
night: at night
2) DURING
is used about periods of time:

I didnt feel nervous during the performance.
3) CALENDAR REFERENCES
we say: the seventh of September, September the seventh;

we write: 7 September, 7th September, September 7th;
dates are written Day/Month/Year in British English: e.g. 07/12/15;
If today is Monday:
Wednesday is in two days time.
Next Monday is this time next week.
4) DAY REFERENCES
If today is 7 September
tomorrow: 8 September
the day after tomorrow: 9 September
yesterday: 6 September
the day before yesterday: 5 September
5) PERIODS OF THE DAY
this morning
yesterday morning
tomorrow morning
this afternoon
yesterday afternoon
tomorrow afternoon
tonight
last night
tomorrow night
6) FOR, SINCE and AGO
FOR refers to a period of time.

I have lived here for two years.
I studied French for ten years.
SINCE refers to a point at the beginning of a period of time.

I have lived here since 2002.
I have been waiting since 3.30.
AGO refers to a point in the past

We arrive five hours ago.
I knew that ages ago!
7) ONCE and ONE DAY
ONCE refers to a state in the past.

Once I owned a motorbike.
ONE DAY can refer to past or future.

One day I was walking through the town centre when I met Jill. PAST
One day Ill be famous! FUTURE
8) NOW and NOWADAYS
NOW refers to an exact moment, or a general state.

You have to finish Now!
Peter used to live in Rome, but now he is living in Florence.
NOWADAYS is used when we generalise about the present

Nowadays people are not as polite as they used to be.
9) THEN, AFTERWARDS, AFTER and LATER
THEN refers in the past to the following moment

We went to the cinema, and then we had a pizza.
AFTERWARDS can be used in the same way.

We went to the cinema, and afterwards we had a pizza.
When AFTER is used, there is an object.

After the film we had a pizza. After that we went home.
LATER means at a later time

Mrs James isnt here at the moment. Can you come back later?
10) UNTIL and BY
UNTIL refers to the latest point in a period of time.

I waited for Alex until 6.00, and then I left.
Ill be here until the end of March.
BY means at a time before. We use it when we do not know exactly when something
happened or will happen.
Well be there by 5.30. (not at 5.30, but not later)
Helen worked all day, and by 6.30 she felt exhausted.
11) AT LAST, IN THE END and AT THE END
We use AT LAST when we are pleased that a long wait has ended.
At last we can be together!
IN THE END/EVENTUALLY describes the final result.

We waited for Tim for ages, and in the end we left.
AT THE END describes a point at the end of something.

At the end of the film we all cried.
12) ON TIME and IN TIME
ON TIME means at the hour which was arranged.

The plane took off exactly on time.
IN TIME means with enough time to do something.

We arrived in time to have a meal before the plane left.
PRACTICE
1. Choose the correct word or phrase underlined in each sentence.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
I met Tina a day/ one day last week.

In these days/Nowadays everyone seems to watch too much television.
This morning/The morning I was busy in the garden.
We have to finish this project by/until the end of the week.
Bye. Ill see you the day after tomorrow/the next day.
During/While the film I remembered where Id left my keys.
John played tennis, and after/afterwards had a shower.
Helens birthdays is in/on January 10th.
2. Complete the second sentence so that it has a similar meaning to the first
sentence.
a) We had lunch, and afterwards we went for a coffee.
After ________________________________.
b) Jill is never late for lessons.
Jill is always ______________________________.
c) I wont leave before 8.00.
Ill be there ______________________________.
d) Ive living here for three months.
I started living here ______________________________.
e) When we met for lunch it was 12.00.
We met for lunch ______________________________.
f) What do you do in your country on January 1st?
What do you do in your country on the ______________________________?
g) Ill see you not tomorrow but the next day.
Ill see you the ______________________________.
h) Its 10.00 and Ive been waiting here since 7.00.
Ive been waiting here ______________________________ hours.

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
Would you like to go out ___________ my birthday?

Rita moved to this town four years __________.
I wont phone Jim now. Ill phone him __________.
I woke up twice __________ the night.
__________ midnight the frog turned into a prince.
People in cities used to take the bus, but __________ most use their cars.
Luckily Kate arrived just __________ time to catch the train.
We felt fine in the restaurant, but we both felt ill __________.
Ive been waiting here __________ half an hour!
Dont wait for me any longer. Ill see you __________.
4. Rewrite each sentence so that it has a similar meaning and contains the word
given.
a) I spend the summer at the seaside. IN
_________________________________.
b) Ill see you in a few hours. LATER
_________________________________.
c) I started at this school in 2013. SINCE
_________________________________.
d) George had a bath and after that washed his hair. THEN
_________________________________.
e) Diane left my house at 10.00. UNTIL
_________________________________.
f) The train arrived exactly when it was supposed to. ON TIME
_________________________________.
g) I wont arrive later than 2.00. BY
_________________________________.
h) Paul tried hard, but finally gave up. END
_________________________________.
i) I was too late to say goodbye to Lisa. TIME
_________________________________.
j) Ive been learning English for two years. AGO
_________________________________.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Did you sleep well ________ night?

________ the hot weather, we have our meals in the garden.
________ the lesson, Mike and Tina decided to play basketball.
Sam hasnt seen Lisa ________ three weeks.
I know that ________ day you will be a star!
Its very important to arrive ________ time for the examination.
The robber ran out of the bank and ________ was arrested shortly.
There is a lot of noise in our street ________ night.
6. Choose the most suitable word or phrase underlined.

1.
2.
3.
4.
I havent seen Jim before/ since we worked together in London.

Ill finish the letter now and you can post it after/ later.
What were you doing last evening/ yesterday evening?
Did you live here in/ since 1987?
5. Diana hasnt finished her course already/ yet.

6. What do you usually do in the afternoon/ this afternoon?
7. Have you seen Jean and Chris nowadays/ recently?
8. Helen arrived here at Thursday night/ on Thursday night.
9. Its really ages since/ when I saw you last.
10. Ann is going to be famous once/ one day.
7. Put one word in each space.
1. Graham came to see us over a week ago, the Friday before _________.
2. Is it very warm here ___________ winter?
3. No thanks, Ive had some tea ___________.
4. Dont worry, it wont hurt and Ill ___________ finish.
5. I liked the book. I didnt know what was going to happen ___________.
6. I think that people had much more spare time in the ___________.
7. This is very urgent. Please send it at ___________.
8. Harry isnt here. He left about five minutes ___________.
9. The film doesnt start until 7.30. Were half an hour ___________.
10. Would you mind waiting for ___________ a moment, please?
8. Complete each sentence with a word or phrase from the list. Use each word or
phrase once only.
afterwards
early
eventually
immediately
in the end
lately
nowadays
once
soon
yet
1. There is far too much traffic on the roads ___________.

2. Never mind. Im sure well find what we are looking for ___________.
3. I havent seen you for ages. What have you been doing ___________?
4. Jack hasnt left. He hasnt finished his work ___________.
5. Take some notes in the meeting, and well discuss them ___________.
6. If you dont mind waiting, Brenda will be back ___________.
7. I consider taking a new job, but decided against it ___________.
8. Norman and I worked for the same company ___________.
9. You didnt fool me! I recognised you ___________.
10. You can get more work done if you get up ___________.
SKILLS FOCUS: Essay Writing

What are the roles of the legislature in a political system, and examine the constraints
that can limit how effectively those roles can be fulfilled? Are there practical solutions
to those limits - what new problems could the solutions pose? Use examples from the
Romanian system in answering these questions. Your analysis should include
discussions of the relationship between the legislature, the electorate, political
parties, and the executive.
TRANSLATION
Of the three branches of government, the presidency has changed the most in the last 200
years. At first, presidents mostly served as administrators carrying out the laws passed by
Congress. But in time they have come to stand at the center of the national government. In
fact, presidential power had increased so much by the middle of the 20th century that in 1951
the states ratified the 22nd Amendment, which limited the president to two terms.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/467746/political-system/36732/Contemporarydivisions-of-government
http://www.learnamericanenglishonline.com/Red%20Level/R16%20Expressions%20of%20Ti
me.html
http://www.mysterycove.ch/game/files/resources/grammar/grammar_time_expressions.pdf
http://www.eslpartyland.com/quiz-center/time.htm
http://www.englishexercises.org/makeagame/viewgame.asp?id=1692
Unit 4 THE ELECTORAL SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES
- get familiar with the electoral system
- revise and practise vocabulary related to the electoral system
- revise and practise means of expressing purpose, result and contrast
- improve the skills you need for writing a strengths and weaknesses essay
LEAD IN
What are the main characteristics of the electoral system in Romania?

PART 1
a) What is the role of electoral system?
b) What is the main goal of voting in Great Britain?
c) What is the main goal of voting in European countries?
B Read the text carefully. Mark the statements True or False according to the
information in the text. Justify your answer by reference to the text.
1. The type of electoral system is of no importance in our democracy.
2. The choice of electoral system is closely connected with the purpose of elections.
3. The choice of system also depends on what it is supposed to achieve.
4. All electoral systems can be divided into four categories.
5. Each country has only one type of elections.
Types of Electoral Systems
The choice of the electoral system is a question of great importance in our
democracy. To a significant degree electoral systems define how the body politic
operates. As Farell 3 points out: they are the cogs which keep the wheels of democracy
properly functioning. The choice of system raises issues about the nature of
5
representative government and the purpose of elections.
In making that selection, much depends on what the electoral system is
supposed to achieve. Obviously, it is desirable that it produces an outcome which is
acceptable to as many people as possible. Fundamental to the issue is the question
What is the point of voting? Is it primarily to choose a government, or is it to choose
10 membership of the legislature? Is the emphasis placed upon electing a strong
3
DAVID M. FARRELL is Professor of Politics and Head of the School of Politics and International Relations at
University College Dublin
15
20
25
30
administration which has broad support in the community, or is it to elect an assembly

which accurately reflects prevailing opinion? On the continent the emphasis is upon
choosing a representative assembly, and then from its midst finding a government which
commands sufficient support usually, a coalition government. In Britain, which has
tended to pride itself upon its tradition of strong, single-party government, importance is
attached to ensuring that there is an effective administration in place. There are two
broad categories of electoral system. It is, however, possible to combine elements of the
two categories. Thus, the categories are:
1. Majoritarian systems,which are designed to leave one party with a
parliamentary majority. In this category, we may include:
First Past the Post (FPTP);
The alternative vote (AV);
The double ballot.
2. Proportional systems. There are many different forms of proportional
representation, all of which are designed to ensure that the number of seats allocated in
the legislature is broadly in the line with the number of votes won by each party in the
election.
3. Mixed systems. These represent a compromise between majoritarian and
proportional systems.
There is no perfect electoral system, appropriate to every country at every time.
Indeed, it is quite possible to have different types of election within a particular country.
C The text states different types of electoral systems. Match these types with the
characteristics according to the text.
1. majoritarian
2. proportional
3. mixed
a) the number of seats in the legislature equals to the number of votes won
by each party
b) represents a compromise between majoritarian and proportional
systems
c) one party wins with the majority of votes
D Match the words with their definitions.

1. electoral (a)
2. voting (n)
3. legislature (n)
4. majority (n)
5. ballot (n)
6. win (v)
7. elect (v)
a) the number by which votes for one side are more than for the other
side
b) the action of formally indicating ones choice of candidate
c) relating to elections or electors
d) a body of people with the power to make and change laws
e) choose smb. by voting
f) the system of secret voting
g) be successful in smth.
E Is there any phrase in the list below which you do not commonly associate with the
characteristics of an electoral system?
a point of voting
a parliamentary majority
a double ballot
a representative assembly
a proportional representation
the number of seats
a coalition government
sovereignty of the state
scarce resources.
F Match the first half of each sentence with the most appropriate second half.
1. The choice of the electoral system
2. Electoral systems define
3. The choice of systems raises issues about
4. When choosing the electoral system much depends on
5. In majoritarian systems
a) the nature of representative government.
b) one party has a parliamentary majority.
c) is of great importance in our democracy.
d) what the electoral system is supposed to achieve.
e) how the body politic operates.
PART 2
A Scan the text below and identify the main issue that we have to consider when
organizing elections?
CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTIONS
10
15
20
25
30
35
The question who may vote is a central issue in elections. The electorate does
not usually include the entire population; for example, many countries prohibit those
judged mentally incompetent from voting, and all jurisdictions require a minimum age for
voting.
Suffrage is typically only for citizens of the country. Further limits may be
imposed: for example, in Kuwait, only people who have been citizens since 1920 or their
descendants are allowed to vote, a condition that the majority of residents do not fulfill.
However, in the European Union, one can vote in municipal elections if one lives in the
municipality and is an EU citizen; the nationality of the country of residence is not
required.
In some countries, voting is required by law; if an eligible voter does not cast a
vote, he or she may be subject to punitive measures such as a small fine.
Normally there is a citizenship requirement, an age requirement, a residency
requirement, and, perhaps, a non-felon requirement. Before the Second World War, in
most countries women were not eligible for public office.
Non-partisan systems tend to differ from partisan systems as concerns
nominations. In a direct democracy, one type of non-partisan democracy, any eligible
person can be nominated. In some non-partisan representative systems no nominations
take place at all, with voters free to choose any person at the time of voting in the
jurisdiction.
As far as partisan systems, in some countries, only members of a particular
political party can be nominated, or an eligible person can be nominated through a
petition, thus allowing him or her to be listed on a ballot.
The government positions for which elections are held vary depending on the
locale. In a representative democracy, such as the United States, some positions are
not filled through elections. For example, judges are usually appointed rather than
elected to help protect their impartiality. There are exceptions to this practice, however;
some judges in the United States are elected, and in ancient Athens military generals
were elected.
In some cases, there may exist an intermediate tier of electors between
constituents and an elected figure. However, in most representative democracies, this
level of indirection is usually nothing more than a formality. For example, the President
of the United States is elected by the Electoral College, and in the Westminster System,
the Prime Minister is formally chosen by the head of state (and in reality by the
legislature or by their party).
B Read the text carefully. Mark the statements True or False according to the
information in the text. Justify your answer by reference to the text.
1. As a rule, the entire population of the country takes part in elections.
2. Jurisdictions of all countries require a minimum age of voting.

3. Women have always been eligible for public office.
4. In a direct democracy any eligible person can be nominated.
5. In a representative democracy some positions are filled through appointment.
C Derive nouns and adjectives from the following verbs. The text may give you some
clues.
to elect
to nominate
to require
to appoint
to represent
LANGUAGE FOCUS: EXPRESSING PURPOSE, RESULT AND

CONTRAST
(I) PURPOSE
1) FOR
FOR followed by a noun can be used to describe purpose, especially with verbs of motion:
I went to the shops for some milk.
2) INFINITIVE
We can use the INFINITIVE to describe the purpose of the person mentioned in the opening
of the sentence.
Jim went to the station to meet his parents.
3) SO (THAT)+PRESENT SIMPLE
We can use SO (THAT)+PRESENT SIMPLE to describe a habitual purpose.
Bill wears thick socks in bed so (that) his feet dont get cold.
4) SO (THAT)+WILL / WOULD
We can use SO (THAT)+WILL/WONT to describe a future purpose.
Well take an umbrella so (that) we wont get wet.
We can also use present simple to describe a future purpose.
Well take an umbrella so (that) we dont get wet.
When we describe in the past a future event, WILL becomes WOULD.
We took an umbrella so (that) we wouldnt get wet.
We can also use past simple.
We took an umbrella so (that) we didnt get wet.
5) SO (THAT) + CAN / COULD
We can use SO (THAT)+CAN for present time and SO (THAT)+COULD for past time when
we describe purpose.
I leave the window open so (that) the cat can get in and out.
Dora left the class early so (that) she could go to the dentist.
If the person mentioned in the opening of the sentence and the action in the second part of
the sentence are different, we cant use the INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE. We have to use SO
(THAT) + CAN / COULD.
Helen played the piano to entertain her friends.
Helen played the piano so (that) everyone else could dance.
6) IN ORDER TO
In formal speech and writing we can use IN ORDER TO. Both verbs must have the same
subject.
The President made a speech in order to explain the policy (this means: The
President wanted to make a speech because the President wanted to explain
the policy).
NOTE that the INFINITIVE OF PURPOSE is more often used than IN ORDER TO.
7) SO AS NOT TO
This is a more formal way of expressing purpose:
The soldiers moved at night, so as not to alarm the villagers.
(II) RESULT
1)
SO+
MUCH
MANY
FEW
LITTLE
+NOUN+(THAT)
These expressions can be used with THAT, but THAT is often left out in speech and informal
writing.
Countable
I bought so many books (that) I couldnt carry them all.
There were so few people in the theatre (that) the actors didnt perform well.
Uncountable
There is so much rain at the moment (that) we hardly ever go out.
We have so little free time (that) we dont watch television.
2) SO+ADJECTIVE+(THAT)
THAT is often left out in speech and informal writing.
Jim was so tall (that) he hit his head on the ceiling.
NOTE also this formal use:
Helen is so busy a person (that) she never feels bored.
3) SUCH+ADJECTIVE+NOUN+(THAT)
THAT is often left out in speech and informal writing.
It was such a lovely day (that) we went for a walk in the country.
4) TOO+ADJECTIVE+LONG INFINITIVE
TOO always suggests difficulty, and that something cannot be done.
It was too far to walk so we took a taxi.
The mountain was too difficult (for us) to climb.
5) NOT+ADJECTIVE+ENOUGH+LONG INFINITIVE
Little Gerry is not old enough to walk to school.
6) AS A RESULT, IN THE END, EVENTUALLY
We can also introduce the result of a situation by using a result phrase, such as AS A
RESULT, or time expressions such as IN THE END and EVENTUALLY. We usually use
these in formal speech or writing.
Two metres of snow fell during the night. As a result, several main roads were blocked.
It started raining while we were having our picnic, and eventually we decided to go home.
Kate and Tim waited for the bus a long time, and in the end they took a taxi.
(III) CONTRAST
1) ALTHOUGH, THOUGH and EVEN THOUGH
ALTHOUGH is used to introduce a contrasting sentence. this is a second

statement which contrasts with the first statement.
Maria went to school although she was ill.
ALTHOUGH is often emphasised by expressions such as still, anyway and all the
same.
Maria still went to school, although she was ill.
Although she was ill, Maria went to school anyway/all the same.
EVEN THOUGH is used to emphasise the contrast.

Even though she felt ill, Maria went to school.
THOUGH is used in speech and informal writing. In these contexts, the two
clauses are often made into two sentences, and THOUGH is put at the end.
Though she was ill, Maria went to school.
Maria went to school. She was ill, though.
2) WHILE and WHEREAS

WHILE and WHEREAS can often be used in formal speech and writing instead of
ALTHOUGH.
While/Whereas some experts expect the Government to win the election,
most believe that the opposition will win.
3) DESPITE and IN SPITE OF
DESPITE and IN SPITE OF are used to introduce a contrasting clause. They are always
followed by a noun phrase, or the verbal form of the noun (-ing). They cannot be followed by
a main verb.
Despite her illness/being ill, Maria went to school.
In spite of her illness/being ill, Maria went to school.
NOTE that we cannot say:
*Despite/In spite of she felt ill, Maria went to school. ( = incorrect sentence)
4) HOWEVER
HOWEVER introduces or completes a contrasting sentence. HOWEVER always has
punctuation before and after. HOWEVER is more common in formal speech and writing.
Maria was ill. However, she went to school.
Maria went to school. She was ill, however.
NOTE that we cannot say:
*However she was ill, Maria went to school. (incorrect sentence)
5) NEVERTHELESS
This is a very formal way of expressing HOWEVER.
Smith says he is poor. Nevertheless, he has bought a new car.
6) BUT and YET
The most common kind of contrast is made with BUT.

Maria felt ill, but she went to school.
BUT is often emphasised by expressions such as still, anyway and all the same.
Maria felt ill, but she went to school anyway/all the same.
Maria felt ill, but she still went to school.
YET can be used instead of BUT in formal speech and writing.

Maria felt ill, yet she went to school.
7) ON THE OTHER HAND

ON THE OTHER HAND introduces a contrasting opinion. It is usually used in formal speech
and writing.
Television has many advantages. It keeps us informed about the latest news, and also
provides entertainment in the home. On the other hand, television has been blamed for the
violent behaviour of some young people, and for encouraging children to sit indoors, instead
of taking exercise.
PRACTICE
1. Put one suitable word in each space. Contractions count as one word.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
I wrote the date in my diary _____ _____ I wouldnt forget it.

Most tourists come here ____visit the ancient temples.
Mary called a meeting ____ ____ ____ announce the team.
The thief ____ in black so that nobody ____ see him.
Jack came to me ____ advice.
Our teacher made us sit far apart so that we ____ cheat!
Ill leave the box open so that you ____ help yourself.
Lisa got up early so that she ____ finish her homework.
We went into town by bike so that we ____ have parking problems.
The school sent everyone a letter ____ explain the rules.
2. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word given.

a) I went to the shops to get some eggs. FOR
___________________________________________.
b) Ann came here for a meeting with the director. TO
___________________________________________.
c) We went on holiday to have a rest. FOR
___________________________________________.
d) Peter plays chess for relaxation. TO
___________________________________________.
e) I opened the window to let in some air. FOR
___________________________________________.
f) Helen went shopping to buy some new clothes. FOR
___________________________________________.
g) I went to a private school for English lessons. TO
___________________________________________.
h) Sam went to a specialist to get treatment. FOR

___________________________________________.
sentence.
a) Paul had to go to the doctors, and left work early.
Paul _______________ so that ______________ to the doctors.
b) The school was rebuilt because it wasnt large enough.
The school ____________ in order to ____________ larger.
c) Tina wanted Jack to call her, and gave him her phone number.
Tina ____________ so that ____________ her.
d) I might get sunburnt, so Ill put on some suntan oil.
Ill ____________, so that ____________ sunburnt.
e) Cathy hid the presents and nobody saw them.
Cathy ____________ so that ____________ them.
f) We wanted people to dance, so we had the party in a large hall.
We ____________ so that ____________ dance.
g) Dick wanted to get a good seat, so he arrived early.
Dick ____________ so that ____________ a good seat.
h) I couldnt see well in the cinema, and changed seats.
I ____________ so that ____________ better.
i) Harry wanted his friends to notice him so he wore a funny hat.
Harry ____________ so that ____________ him.
j) We didnt want to feel hungry, so we took some sandwiches.
We took ____________ so that we ____________.
4. Choose the correct word or phrase underlined in each sentence.
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
o)
p)
q)
It was such/so delicious drink, that I had to have another glass.

Jack ate so much/so many cakes that he could hardly walk!
Kates offer sounded so/too good to be true!
There are so few/ so little good programmes on TV that I rarely watch it.
I felt so/too weak that I couldnt stand up.
We had so much/so many rain last night, that the roads were flooded.
I waited for Mary for ages, and as a result/in the end I gave up.
David was too tall/tall enough/enough tall/very tall to reach the shelf.
I had so few/so little knowledge of the subject that I got zero in the test.
I read the book you suggested. I didnt enjoy it, although/however.
In spite of/Although we warned him, Harry still got lost.
Although/However I like it here, I wont stay here long.
Cars are fast and convenient. On the other hand/Whereas, they cause traffic problems in
cities.
I didnt have much time, but/however I managed to visit lots of places.
Kate won the race, although/despite falling over.
Although/In spite of the delay, the train arrived on time.
I didnt manage to jump over the wall, although/yet I tried twice.

a)
b)
c)
d)
My tea is _____ hot to drink at the moment.

Tom had _____ _____ homework, that he had to stay up till midnight.
There were _____ _____ people in front of us that we couldnt see.
There were _____ _____ customers that the shop closed down.
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
k)
l)
m)
n)
o)
p)
q)
The room wasnt large _____ for so many guests.

Sue was _____ tired that she fell asleep on the train.
We had _____ _____ money that we couldnt even buy a sandwich.
_____ Tim felt tired, he stayed up to finish his homework.
Alan didnt enjoy skating, _____ he went with his friends to the skate centre.
I found French hard at first. _____, I soon started to enjoy it.
Jane kept running, _____ though she knew she couldnt win.
Mike was lost, but he _____ refused to look at the map.
Carol went to see the film, _____ she had seen it before.
_____ the rain, the school sports were a great success.
Helen won the swimming competition, in _____ of her cold.
Im not sure I agree with you. _____, your ideas are worth discussing.
Tony was short of money, but he _____ lent some to his sister.
6. Rewrite each sentence so that it contains the word given.

a) The question was so difficult that I had to ask for help. SUCH
____________________________________________________.
b) There werent enough seats for all the guests. FEW
____________________________________________.
c) There werent enough seats for all the guests. MANY
____________________________________________.
d) I couldnt take any more clothes as there wasnt any space in my suitcase. LITTLE
____________________________________________.
e) It was such a good play that the audience cheered. SO
____________________________________________.
f) Ive got such a lot of work that I cant go out. SO
____________________________________________.
g) She had lots of children and didnt know what to do. MANY
____________________________________________.
h) I havent got enough time to do all my work. TOO
____________________________________________.
7. Underline the errors in these sentences. Rewrite each sentence.
a) Sorry, but I havent got little time.
_______________________________________.
b) Helen is not enough old to drive a car.
____________________________________________.
c) Paul has so much friends that he is always busy.
____________________________________________.
d) We had too few time to go sight-seeing.
____________________________________________.
e) Its too hot that I cant think!
____________________________________________.
f) There was too much snow that we couldnt travel.
____________________________________________.
g) It was so a long way that we decided to drive there.
____________________________________________.
sentence.
a) Im afraid you are not fast enough to be in the running team.
Im afraid you are too _____________________________.
b) The film was so long that we missed our last bus.
It was ____________________________________________.
c) Tina felt unhappy and she cried.
Tina felt so ____________________________________________.
d) Some millionaires have lots of money, and dont know what to do with it.
Some millionaires have so ______________________________________.
e) Jim is too young to get married.
Jim isnt ____________________________________________.
f) I cant afford to buy this bike.
I havent got ____________________________________________.
g) There are too few plates, Im afraid.
There arent ____________________________________________.
h) Although it was snowing, we went out for a walk.
Despite ____________________________________________.
i) Some experts think the world is growing warmer, but others disagree.
While ____________________________________________.
j) I dont enjoy rock music, but I went to the concert anyway.
Although ____________________________________________.
k) Even though they were losing at half-time, City won in the end.
Despite ____________________________________________.
l) Despite the heat, Diana wore her winter clothes.
Although ____________________________________________.
m) Whereas prices rose last year, this year they have gone down.
Prices rose last year ____________________________________________.
n) Jim had a headache, but he still read until late.
In spite of ____________________________________________.
o) Although Sam hadnt studied, he did well in the test.
Sam hadnt studied ____________________________________________.
SKILLS FOCUS: Writing Strengths and Weaknesses Essay

Compare the strengths and weaknesses of using a proportional representation
electoral system or a single member majority system. Use examples to support your
arguments. Also, your analysis should give some idea why a state might choose one
form of electoral system over another.
TRANSLATION
Election is the process by which people vote for the candidate or proposal of their choice.
The basis of democratic government is that citizens have the right to choose the officials who
will govern them. Elections thus rank as one of the most important political activities.
Elections also serve as a means of peacefully transferring power from one person or group
to another. Most countries hold elections to select governmental officials. But in countries
without democratic government, the people have little real choice. The only candidates
allowed on the ballot are those approved by the leaders or by a single political party. In such
countries, elections are held for propaganda reasons and to demonstrate popular support for
the government.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voting_system
http://www9.georgetown.edu/faculty/kingch/Electoral_Systems.htm
http://www.scribd.com/doc/19712465/Contrast-and-Purpose-Exercises
http://na2english.wikispaces.com/file/view/worksheet.pdf
OBJECTIVES
- get familiar with the various political systems
- revise and practise vocabulary related to political systems
- revise and practise inversion
- improve the essay writing skills
LEAD IN
Try and answer the following questions:
What types of political systems do you know?

Which is the most effective political system, in your opinion?

PART 1
A Scan the text below and identify what types of supranational political systems are
mentioned in the text.
POLITICAL SYSTEMS OF STATES
10
15
20
1. The political system is the set of formal legal institutions that constitute a
government or a state. More broadly defined, the political system is seen as a set of
processes of interaction or as a subsystem of the social system interacting with other
nonpolitical subsystems, such as the economic system.
2. The most important type of political system in the modern world is the nationstate. The world today is divided territorially into more than 175 states, in each of which
a national government claims to exercise sovereignty and seeks to compel obedience
to its will by its citizens. The worlds political organization suggests the distinction
among supranational, national, and subnational political systems.
3. Supranational relations is the result of the division of the world into a number
of separate national entities, or states, that have contact with one another, share goals
or needs, and face common threats. In some cases, as in many alliances, these
relationships are short-lived. In other cases, they lead to interstate organizations and
supranational systems. Examples of supranational political systems are:
4. Empires which are composed of peoples of different cultures and ethnic
backgrounds. They are characterized by the centralization of power and the absence of
effective representation of their component parts. The history of the ancient world is the
history of great empires-Egypt, China, Persia, and imperial Rome whose autocratic
regimes provided relatively stable government for many subject peoples in immense
territories over many centuries.
5. Leagues are one of the commonest forms of supranational organization in
history. Leagues are composed of states seeking to resist some common military or
25
30
35
economic threat by combining their forces. Common features of leagues include the
existence of some form of charter or agreement among the member states, an
executive organ, and an arbitral or judicial body for handling disputes. The League of
Nations was one of the great experiments in supranational organization of the 20th
century and the predecessor in several important respects of the United Nations.
6. Confederations are voluntary associations of independent states that agree to
certain limitations on their freedom of action and establish some joint machinery of
consultation or deliberation. Historically, confederations have often proved to be a first
or second step toward the establishment of a national state, usually as a federal union.
Thus, the federal union of modern Switzerland was preceded by a confederation of the
Swiss cantons; the federal constitution of the United States is the successor of the
Articles of Confederation. In some other cases confederations have replaced more
centralized arrangements, as, for example, when empires disintegrate and are replaced
by voluntary associations of their former colonies. The British Commonwealth, or
Commonwealth of Nations, and the French Community are cases of this type.
B Match each headword on the left with its characteristics on the right.
1. empires
2. leagues
3. confederations
a) voluntary associations of independent states

b) centralization of power and the absence of effective representation
of their component parts
c) include states which combine their forces to resist common military
and economic threat
C Replace the underlined items with the words and phrases from the text that have a
similar meaning.
1. A political system is a set of formal legal institutions that make up a government or
state. (P 1)
2. The political system is viewed as a set of processes of interaction. (P 1)
3. The world today consists of more than 175 states. (P 2)
4. Separate national entities have contact with one another, share aims and face common
threats. (P 3)
5. Leagues are formed of states which combine their forces to resist common military or
economic threat. (P 5)
6. In some cases confederations have substituted more centralized arrangements. (P 6)
1. claim / exercise
2. share
3. face
4. provide
5. resist
6. handle
7. establish
a) common threats
b) disputes
c) national state
d) common economic threat
e) sovereignty
f) stable government
g) goals and needs
E Complete these sentences using an appropriate phrase from Exercise E.

1. Supranational relations means that states share goals and ..... ...........................................
2. The regimes of great empires ............................ for many subject peoples.
3. Leagues include states that seek ................................... . .
4. Leagues have a judicial body for .................................. . .
5. Confederations were a first step towards ....................... .
PART 2
A Scan the text below and identify the factors that contribute to radical political
change.
B Read the text carefully and answer these questions:
1. What political systems have proved stable political systems?
2. What does internal warfare lead to?
3. What can cause a revolutionary outbreak?
4. What tests the stability of a political system?
5. What is the main cause of failures of unstable political systems?
STABLE AND UNSTABLE POLITICAL SYSTEMS
10
15
20
25
30
The simplest definition of a stable political system is one that survives through
crisis without internal warfare. Several types of political systems have done so,
including despotic monarchies, military regimes, and other authoritarian and totalitarian
systems. The key to their success is their ability to control social development, to
manage and prevent change, and to bring under governmental direction all the forces
that may result in innovations that are threatening to the system.
In some systems, survival does not depend on the detailed management of the
society or close governmental control over social processes. It is the result of sensitive
political response to the forces of change and of open political processes that allow
gradual and orderly development. Much of the western democratic world has achieved
peaceful progress in this way, despite new political philosophies, population increases,
industrial and technological innovations, and many other social and economic stresses.
In modern times the great majority of the worlds political systems have
experienced one form or another of internal warfare leading to violent collapse of the
governments in power. Many factors in such a situation, including the cheapening of
human life, the ready availability of arms, the discrediting of the national leadership,
material scarcities, and a sense of wounded national pride, contribute to the creation of
an atmosphere in which radical political change and violent mass action are acceptable
to large numbers of people. Economic crisis are another common stimulus to
revolutionary outbreaks, for they produce a threat to the individuals social position, a
sense of insecurity and uncertainty as to the future, and an aggravation of the
relationships among social classes. Crisis situations test the stability of political
systems, for they place extraordinary demands on the political leadership and the
structure and processes of the system.
Unstable political systems are those that prove vulnerable to crisis pressures
and that break down into various forms of internal warfare. The fundamental cause of
such failures is the absence of some general agreement on appropriate forms of
political action. Governments suffer their gravest handicap when they must govern
without consent or when the legitimacy of the regime is widely questioned. This is often
the case in systems that have experienced prolonged civil war, that are torn by tensions
among different national or ethnic groups, in which there are divisions along sharply
drawn ideological or class lines.
C Choose the most suitable word in each sentence.

1. A stable political system is one that surrounds / survives / supplies through crisis without
internal warfare.
2. In some systems, survival / support / source does not depend on governmental control
over social processes.
3. Many political systems have experienced external / internal / important warfare that led to
collapse of the government in power.
4. Crisis situations examine / control / test the stability of political systems.
5. The main / great / different cause of failures of unstable political systems is the absence of
agreement on political actions.
D Match these verbs with an appropriate preposition, as they occurred together in the
text
depend
lead
contribute
break
be torn
down
on
to
by
LANGUAGE FOCUS: INVERSION

1) INVERSION AFTER NEGATIVE ADVERBS
INVERSION in this case means that the verb is in a question form and is necessary if a
negative adverb (or one with negative meaning) begins the sentence. This only occurs in
formal speech and writing, usually for rhetorical effect, such as in political speeches.
Compare:
Never have I heard a weaker excuse!
I have never heard a weaker excuse!
TIME EXPRESSIONS: NEVER, RARELY, SELDOM. These are most common used with
present perfect, past perfect or with models such as can and could. Sentences of this type
often contain comparatives.
Never have I enjoyed myself more!
Rarely can a minister have been faced with such a problem.
Seldom has the team given a worse performance.
TIME EXPRESSIONS: HARDLY, BARELY, SCARCELY, NO SOONER. These refer to

an event which quickly follows another in the past. They are usually used with past
perfect, although no sooner can be followed by past simple. Note the words used in the
contrasting clause.
Hardly had the train left the station, when there was an explosion.
Scarcely had I entered the room, when the phone rang.
No sooner had I reached the door, than I realised it was locked.
No sooner was the team back on the pitch than it started raining.
after ONLY. Here only combines with other time expressions and is usually used with
past simple.
Only after posting the letter did I remember that I had forgotten to put on a stamp.
Other examples are ONLY IF/WHEN, ONLY THEN, ONLY LATER. Note that when only
refers to the state of being the only one, there is no inversion following it.
Only Mary realised that the door was not locked.
phrases containing NO/NOT. These include UNDER NO CIRCUMSTANCES, ON NO

ACCOUNT, AT NO TIME, IN NO WAY, NOT ONCE, ON NO CONDITION, NOT UNTIL,
NOT ONLY (BUT ALSO). Note that the inverted verb is the verb describing the event
limited by the negative adverbial.
On no condition are they to open fire without a warning!
Not until I got home, did I notice that I had the wrong umbrella.
Not only did he fail to report the accident, but also later denied that he had
been driving the car.
LITTLE. Little also has a negative or restrictive meaning in this sense.

Little does the government appreciate what the results will be.
2) INVERSION AFTER SO/SUCH WITH THAT
This occurs with so and adjectives when the main verb is BE. It is used for emphasis and
is more common than the examples with such. Note that inversion only occurs if so/such
is the first word in the clause.
So devastating were the floods that some areas may never be recovered.
such used with be means so much/so great

Such was the force of the storm that trees were uprooted.
3) INVERTED CONDITIONAL SENTENCES WITHOUT IF
Three types of IF sentences can be inverted without IF. This makes the sentences more
formal and makes the event less likely.
If they were to escape, there would be an outcry.
Were they to escape, there would be an outcry.
If you should hear anything, let me know.
Should you hear anything, let me know.
If I had known, I would have protested strongly.
Had I known, I would have protested strongly.
4) INVERSION AFTER AS
This is more common in formal or written language.

We were short of money, as were most people in our neighbourhood.
I thought, as did my colleagues, that the recession would soon be over.
5) INVERSION AFTER SO, NEITHER AND NOR
These are used in echoing statements, agreeing or disagreeing.

Im going home. So am I.
I dont like meat. Neither/Nor do I.
6) INVERSION FOR EMPHASIS

The verb comes before the subject if the adverb begins the sentence.
COME and GO. These are mainly used with adverbs of place. In this way, more
emphasis is put on the subject in an exclamation.
Here comes Jack!
There goes my money!
Up went the plane into the cloud!
Along the road came Jim!
OTHER EXPRESSIONS. Live and stand are used in formal writing. Now is used with be.
In this house lived Charles Dickens.
On a hill outside the town stands the castle.
Now is the best time to visit the Channel Islands.
PRACTICE
1. Rewrite each sentence beginning as shown so that the meaning stays the same.
(a) Tony was not only late, but he had left all his books behind. Not only _________.
(b) I had no sooner gone to bed than someone rang my doorbell. No sooner _________.
(c) I have seldom stayed in a worse hotel. Seldom _________.
(d) I have never heard such nonsense. Never _________.
(e) I realised only then that I had lost my keys. Only then _________.
(f) The economic situation has rarely been worse. Rarely _________.
(g) The manager not once offered us an apology. Not once _________.
(h) You should not send money to us by post under any circumstances. Under no
circumstances _________.
(i) I understood Hamlet only after seeing it on the stage. Only after seeing
Hamlet_________.
(j) The embassy staff little realised that Ted was a secret agent. Little _________.
2. Rewrite each sentence so that it begins with the word or words underlined.
(a) The best time to buy a house is now.

(b) The bus came round the corner.
(c) The price of petrol went up.
(d) The Parthenon stand on the top of the Acropolis.
(e) The wheels of the engine went round and round.
(f) Winston Churchill lived in this house.

(g) The flag went down.
(h) The best part of the story comes now.
3. Rewrite each sentence beginning as shown so that the meaning stays the same.
a) Their sacrifice on behalf of their country will never be forgotten.
Never _______________________________________________.
b) Hardly ever have we had such cold weather.
We _______________________________________________.
c) Never have I heard anything so ridiculous.
I _______________________________________________.
d) They will not be permitted to leave the country under any circumstances.
Under no circumstances __________________________________________.
e) So much money can seldom have been spent for so little result.
Seldom _______________________________________________.
f) Scarcely had I had time to take my coat off when the boss came in.
I _______________________________________________.
g) We have no sooner solved one problem than another appears.
No sooner _______________________________________________.
h) Not only in the morning, but also in the afternoon, do I have English classes.
I _______________________________________________.
i) This information must not be given to unauthorised personnel at any time.
At no _______________________________________________.
j) Nowhere will you find a supermarket offering you better service.
You _______________________________________________.
4. Decide which answer A, B, C or D best fits each space.
Asking for advice
You dont happen to know how this computer works, (1) _________? (2) _________ had I
bought it (3) _________ I regretted spending so much money! I havent got an instruction
manual. (4) _________ did I completely fail to understand the instructions, (5) _________
then I accidentally threw the manual away. Now Ill never understand it, (6) _________, I said
to myself. (7) _________ my weekend, I thought, but then I remembered you. Youve done a
course on computers, (8) _________? Lets look at it together, (9) _________, and try to
understand it. You press this button first, (10) _________? Then (11) _________ this little
light, and a message that says Error. It shouldnt do that, (12) _________? You can fix it,
(13) _________? Dont do that! This label says: (14) _________ should an unqualified
person remove this panel. Well you are unqualified, (15) _________? What do you mean, do
it yourself
1. A. are you
2. A. No sooner
3. A. that
4. A. Not only
5. A. than
6. A. cant I
7. A. It goes
8. A. isnt it
9. A. do we
10. A. dont you
11. A. on comes
12. A. does it
B. is it
B. After
B. but
B. seldom
B. but
B. wont I
B. Goes it
B. havent you
B. dont it
B. isnt it
B. comes on
B. should it
C. do you
C. Not only
C. and
C. not once
C. so
C. will I
C. Goes there
C. didnt you
C. shall we
C. cant you
C. it comes on
C. shouldnt it
D. isnt it
D. As soon as
D. than
D. Only then
D. and
D. can I
D. There goes
D. dont you
D. arent you
D. wont you
D. comes it one
D. wont it
13. A. isnt it
14. A. Not only
15. A. isnt it
B. dont you
B. Only then
B. are you
C. cant you
C. Never
C. dont you
D. cant it
D. Under no circumstances
D. arent you
5. Choose the most suitable words underlined:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
Jim promised that would never/ never would he tell anyone else.
Not until it was too late I remembered / did I remember to call Susan.
Hardly had we settled down in our seats than / when the lights went out.
Only after checking three times I was / was I certain of the answer.
At no time I was aware / was I aware of anything out of the usual.
Only Catherine and Sally passed / did they pass the final examination.
So the waves were high / So high were the waves that swimming was dangerous.
Only when Pete has arrived / has Pete arrived can we begin the programme.
No sooner had it stopped raining than / when the sun came out.
If should you / Should you leave early could you give me a lift?
6. Complete each sentence with a suitable word or phrase:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
j)
____________ had we arrived at the hotel, when there was a power cut.
____________ are members of staff to accept gratuities from clients.
____________ Detective Dawson realise what she was to discover.
____________ so many employees taken sick leave at the same time.
____________ to pay the full amount now, there would be a ten per cent discount.
I supposed, as ____________ most people, that I would be retiring at 60.
____________ the doctors seen a more difficult case.
____________ Jean win first prize, but she was also offered a promotion.
____________ will late arrivals be admitted to the theatre before the interval.
____________ one missing child been found, than another three disappeared.
7. Rewrite each sentence, starting as shown, so that the meaning stays the same.
a) It was only when the office phoned me that I found out about the meeting.
Not until ____________________________________________________.
b) The facts were not all made public until later.
Only _______________________________________________________.
c) If I had realised what would happen, I wouldnt have accepted the job.
Had _______________________________________________________.
d) The response to our appeal was so great that we had to take on more staff.
Such _______________________________________________________.
e) Harry broke his leg, and also injured his shoulder.
Not only _______________________________________________________.
f) The police didnt at all suspect that the judge was the murderer.
Little _______________________________________________________.
g) If you do happen to see Helen, could you ask her to call me?
Should _______________________________________________________?
h) The bus driver cannot be blamed for the accident in any way.
In _______________________________________________________.
i) The snowfall was so heavy that all the trains had to be cancelled.
So _______________________________________________________.
j) If the government raised interest rates, they would lose the election.
Were _______________________________________________________.
8. Decide which sentences are inappropriate in the contexts given.

a) Guest to host: So nice was that pudding, that I would like to have some more.
b) Witness to court: No sooner had I turned out the light, than I heard a noise outside.
c) News reader: Such was the force of the earthquake, that whole villages have been
devastated.
d) Parent to child: Should you fancy a pizza, lets order one now.
e) Friend to friend: Never before have I seen this film.
f) Politician to audience: Seldom has the country faced a greater threat.
g) Celebrity to interviewer: Were I to have the time, Id go climbing more often.
h) Victim to police officer: Scarcely had we been introduced when he punched me for no
reason.
i) Printed notice: Under no circumstances is this control panel to be left unattended.
j) Colleague to colleague: Should you change your mind, just let me know.
SKILLS FOCUS: Essay Writing

Consider the following questions:
What are the different roles of violence in a political system, both in maintaining a
particular political order and in bringing about political change?
When is violence more likely to be resorted to and why might it succeed?
Is it sometimes necessary?
How do value judgments cloud discussions of the legitimacy of violence in a political
system?
Starting from this questions write a 200-word essay. In your essay you may mention
the situations in which government authorities may resort to force; the political
culture of the communities.
TRANSLATION
The development of civilization makes democracy and the humanization of society inevitable.
The best minds tirelessly look for a new and effective form of state government that would
adequately represent today's changing society. The solution is near and the necessary
resources to establish a new form of government are already available in society.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_system
http://www.politicalsciencedegree.com/the-five-most-common-political-systems-around-the-world/
http://highered.mcgraw-hill.com/sites/007248179x/student_view0/chapter6/web_map_2.html
http://www.eslgold.com/grammar/inversions.html
http://www.tolearnenglish.com/exercises/exercise-english-2/exercise-english-88760.php
http://www.eslprintables.com/grammar_worksheets/word_order/inversion/

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EDITURA UNIVERSITII NICOLAE TITULESCU

Acest material este destinat uzului studenilor, forma de nvmnt la distan.

Acest manual a fost analizat si aprobat in sedinta Departamentului de Stiinte Politice si

UNIVERSITATEA NICOLAE TITULESCU DIN BUCURETI

Editura Universitii Nicolae Titulescu

Unit 1: LOCAL GOVERNMENT

Obiectivele cursului sunt:

2. s mbogeasc vocabularul studenilor prin achiziia de termeni juridici i din

administraia public n limba englez;

Competenele pe care trebuie s le dobndeasc studenii se nscriu n

Resurse i mijloace de lucru

Sugerm urmtoarele variante posibile:

Cerine preliminare pentru parcurgerea cursului

Durata medie de studiu individual

Examenul scris de la sfritul semestrului al II-lea va evalua competenele lingvistice,

UNIT 1: LOCAL GOVERNMENT

READING AND COMPREHENSION

LANGUAGE FOCUS: VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE OR GERUND AND

VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN, -ING OR INFINITIVE: WITH LITTLE OR NO

VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE + TO

VERBS FOLLOWED BY INFINITIVE + TO, OR THAT-CLAUSE

There is a small difference in the meanings of learn:

Wish followed by INFINITIVE WITH TO has a similar meaning want:

Wish followed by a THAT-CLAUSE usually includes would or could:

VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN, -ING OR INFINITIVE + TO OR THAT-CLAUSE:

VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN -ING OR NOUN

VERBS FOLLOWED BY VERBAL NOUN -ING, NOUN OR THAT-CLAUSE

These include: admit, deny, imagine, suggest.

The Minister admitted taking a bribe.

1) John really ________ spending all day at the beach.

Tom suddenly realised he had forgotten to lock/ locking his door.

What are you thinking of doing? INTEND

5. Put one suitable word in each space.

Dont ________ to buy some milk on your way home.

6. Complete each sentence with a suitable form of the verb in brackets.

I _____________________ at Wendys letter.

8. Complete each sentence with a suitable form of the verb in brackets:

SKILLS FOCUS: Writing Short Account of the Romanian Local

UNIT 2: FORMS OF GOVERNMENT

READING AND COMPREHENSION

A form of government is a term that refers to the set of political institutions by

the form of government toward which they are striving:

D In which line(s) does the author:

a) a country ruled by a king or queen

LANGUAGE FOCUS: RELATIVE CLAUSES

DEFINING AND NON-DEFINING CLAUSES

It was the same boy whom I met yesterday. (formal)

SUBJECT AND OBJECT CLAUSES

Subject clauses refer to the subject of the sentence.

LEAVING OUT RELATIVE PRONOUNS

We cannot leave out the relative pronoun in non-defining clauses.

The woman who teaches us music also plays in an orchestra.

These are clauses with an -ing form verb.

NOMINAL RELATIVE CLAUSES

The waiter by _________ we were served expected a large tip.

The girl who was waiting was becoming impatient.

1) The book that John was reading was a bit frightening.

These are the boys with whom I went on holiday. (with)

1) Friday was the last time I saw Jim.

3) The girl I met was a friend of Harry's.

SKILLS FOCUS: Writing Short Description

Unit 3: CONTEMPORARY DIVISION OF GOVERNMENT

I wrote the date in my diary _ _ I wouldnt forget it.