English for Specific Purposes

Study Pack for Students in Psychology

Long-distance learning

Lector univ. dr. Camelia TEGLAȘ Asist. univ. dr. Oana PAPUC

camelia.teglas@ubbcluj.ro oana.papuc@ubbcluj.ro

A Guide to English for Psychology

Universitatea Babeș-Bolyai
2022/2023
1. Informaţii generale
1.1. Datele de identificare a cursului
● Limba engleză - curs practic limbaj specializat
LLU0011; LLU0012
● Anul I, sem.1 si 2
● Curs obligatoriu

1.2. Datele de contact ale titularului de curs

● Nume: Papuc Oana
● Birou: Cab. 10, DLSS, Horea nr. 7
● Telefon: 0264/530724
● Consultaţii online: miercurea, în intervalul 16:30-18:30,
prin cerere prealabilă, cod Teams: 22c75s5

1.3. Condiţionări şi cunoştinţe prerechizite

Cursul este condiționat de deţinerea de cunoştinţe de
limba engleză care situează studentul la nivel B1, conform
grilei de autoevaluare a Cadrului comun european de
referință a limbilor.
Trebuie avut în vedere faptul că înscrierea la examenul
de licenţă, la finalul ciclului bachelor este condiționat de
susţinerea şi promovarea unui test de competenţă lingvistică
într-o limbă de circulaţie internaţională, unde nivelul obținut
trebuie să fie de minim B1. Înscrierea la nivel masteral este
condiționată de obținerea nivelului minim B2.

Nota Punctaj TCL in niveluri

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 10.00 - Nivel C2
9.00 - 9.99 Nivel C1
7.00 - 8.99 Nivel B2
5.00 - 6.99 Nivel B1
3.00 - 4.99 Nivel A2
1.00 - 2.99 Nivel A1
0.00 - 0.99 ‒

1.4. Descrierea cursului

Acesta este un curs cu obiective specifice care vizează
achiziţia de cunoştinţe şi dezvoltarea deprinderilor de limbă
străină ca instrument de formare şi informare academică şi
profesională.
Tipologia programului de învăţare are în vedere crearea
unui profil de utilizator cu competenţe axate pe studiul
limbajelor de specialitate. În acest sens, studenţii îşi vor
dezvolta capacitatea de conştientizare a stării actuale a
cunoştinţelor şi deprinderilor, vor urmări să-şi fixeze obiective
reale şi realiste, să-şi selecteze în mod autonom materialele şi
să se autoevalueze.

1.5. Organizarea temelor în cadrul cursului

Suportul de curs este structurat în “units”, fiecare unitate
fiind împărțită în secțiuni ce vizează dezvoltarea celor patru
competențe lingvistice: citire, scriere, vorbire, ascultare.
Textele sunt alese astfel încât să acopere domenii precum
psihologia, pedagogia și psihopedagogia specială iar prin
intermediul activităților aferente fiecărei unități se au în
vedere următoarele obiective:
- Cunoaşterea şi înţelegerea aprofundată a contextelor
şi rolurilor, precum şi a conceptelor, metodelor şi a
discursului/limbajului specific diverselor situaţii de
comunicare profesională în mediul academic de limba
engleză, cu accent pe situaţia retorică, formele de
comunicare scrisă şi orală, etapele procesului de scriere şi
produsele scrisului academic, precum şi pe deontologia
profesională.
- Transferul conceptelor învăţate în activităţi de
receptare a textului scris şi de producere vizând etapele

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 procesului de scriere, organizarea şi dezvoltarea ideilor,
structura textului şi strategiile de comunicare verbală orală şi
scrisă la standarde specifice limbii engleze specializate
pentru discursul ştiinţific.
- Elaborarea unor lucrări scrise şi prezentări orale
originale care să utilizeze principiile şi tehnicile de redactare
consacrate în mediul academic, cu accent pe genurile
predilecte din psihologie şi ştiinţele educaţiei.
- Modulul 1 își propune să operaționalizeze conceptul de
limbă/ limbaj pentru scopuri specifice, să abordeze tehnicile
de citire specifice textului academic și să introducă, prin
textele de specialitate, noțiuni legate de psihologie,
pedagogie, educație. În paralel se va urmări dezvoltarea
vocabularului de specialitate prin diverse tipuri de exerciții și
a structurilor gramaticale specifice limbajului academic.
- Modulul 2 abordează teme precum motivația,
comunicarea, rolul emoțiilor în educație. O atenție deosebită
se acordă însușirii strategiilor de ascultare activă, de
comunicare verbală și scrisă.

1.6. Formatul şi tipul activităţilor implicate de curs

Suportul de curs este organizat în două module, fiecare

modul abordând mai multe teme. Parcurgerea acestora va
presupune studiu individual, dar şi întâlniri față în față. Dată fiind
specificitatea acestui curs, aceea de curs practic, un curs care
îmbină cursurile teoretice și activitățile specifice seminariilor, se
încurajează discuțiile, participarea activă a studenților,
interacțiunea.

Activitățile tutoriale (AT) sunt:

MODUL 1 - 1. Introduction to ESP: The Academic Skills.
Psychology in A Nutshell; 2. The Branches of Psychology; 3. Social
Psychology. Social Cognition; 4. Relationships. Pro-and antisocial
Behaviour; 5. Psychology of Advertising; 6. Neuropsychology. Brain
and Behaviour
MODUL 2 - 7. Biological Rhythms. Sleep and Dreaming; 8.
Motivation and Emotion; 9. Developmental Psychology.
Educational Psychology; 10. Cognitive Development. Thought and
Language; 11. Memory. The Memory Process. Types of Memory; 12.
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Memory. Forgetfulness and Ageing

1.7. Materiale bibliografice recomandate

1.Short, Jane, English for Psychology in Higher Education.
Course Book, Reading, UK: Garnet Education, 2010
2. Teglaș, Camelia, Papuc, Oana, Study Pack for
Students in Psychology and Education Sciences. 2021,
Curs elaborat în tehnologie ID, Universitatea Babeș-Bolyai
din Cluj-Napoca
3. Teglaş, Camelia (coord.), Felea, Cristina, Mezei, Vlad,
English B2 – C1, Social Sciences and Sport, Seria
Autodidact (coord. Liana Pop), Cluj, Ed. Echinox, 2009
4. Understanding Psychology. Vocabulary Activities,
Columbus, Ohio: Glencoe, McGraw-Hill, 2008
5. https://www.ted.com
6. https://owl.purdue.edu/
7. https://www.ted.com

1.8. Materiale şi instrumente necesare pentru curs

Derularea activităţilor prevăzute necesită accesul
studenţilor la următoarele resurse:
- calculator conectat la internet (pentru a putea accesa
bazele de date și resursele electronice suplimentare);
- acces la resursele bibliografice (ex: abonament la
Biblioteca British Council) - acces la echipamente de
fotocopiere.

1.9. Calendarul cursului

Pe parcursul semestrelor 1 și 2, în care se studiază
disciplina de faţă, sunt programate câte două întâlniri
online/ semestru (consultaţii) cu toţi studenţii; ele sunt
destinate soluţionării, nemediate, a oricăror nelămuriri
privind conţinutul sau a celor privind sarcinile individuale.
Pentru prima întâlnire se recomandă lectura atentă a
primului modul; la cea de a doua se discută modulul 2 şi se
realizează o secvenţă recapitulativă pentru pregătirea
examenului de final de semestru. La prima întâlnire din

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 semestrul al doilea se recomandă lectura modulului 3, iar la
cea de a doua se discută modulul 4 și se pregătește testul
final.
De asemenea, în cadrul celor două întâlniri, studenţii au
posibilitatea de a solicita titularului şi/sau tutorilor sprijin
pentru rezolvarea anumitor teme, în cazul în care prezintă
nelămuriri sau suport suplimentar. Pentru a valorifica
maximal timpul alocat celor două întâlniri studenţii sunt
atenţionaţi asupra necesităţii suplimentării lecturii din
suportul de curs cu parcurgerea obligatorie a cel puţin a
uneia dintre sursele bibliografice de referinţă. Datele celor
două întâlniri sunt precizate în calendarul sintetic al
disciplinei. În acelaşi calendar se regăsesc şi termenele la
care trebuie transmise lucrările de verificare aferente
fiecărui modul.

Calendarul Modul Termen de Punctaj

sintetic al predare
disciplinei
Modalități de
evaluare
Tema 1 1 - 1 pt
Tema 2 2 - 1 pt
Examen 1, 2 Ianuarie, 8 pt
Februarie

1.10. Politica de evaluare şi notare

Evaluarea finală se va realiza astfel:
● La finele semestrului 1:
○ Pe baza unui examen scris (Reading
Comprehension/ Exercițiile de înțelegere a textului
vor respecta tipologia celor din suportul de curs –
gapped text, unfinished sentences, synonymy,
true/false statements, etc.) desfăşurat în sesiunea
de examene.
● Nota finală se compune din:
○ a) punctajul obţinut la acest examen în proporţie
de 80% (8 puncte)
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 ○ b) aprecierea realizării temelor pe parcurs – 20% (2
puncte, adică 1 punct/ lucrare). Modulele 1 și 2
cuprind două lucrări de verificare care vor fi
transmise tutorelui la termenele precizate în
calendarul disciplinei. Aceste lucrări se vor posta
sub formă de assignment pe grupul de Microsoft
Teams.
● La finele semestrului 2:
○ Pe baza unui test de competență lingvistică.
Punctajul obţinut la acest examen în proporţie de
100% (10 puncte).
○ Testul de la finele semestrului 2 vizează testarea
celor 4 competențe lingvistice: scriere, citire,
ascultare, vorbire. Este un test pe limbaj academic
de specialitate împărțit în 2 probe – scrisă și orală.
○ Proba scrisă se împarte în:
■ Listening Comprehension cuprinde exerciții de
comprehensiune a textului ascultat;
■ Reading Comprehension cuprinde gapped
text, unfinished sentences, synonymy,
true/false statements;
■ Writing presupune redactarea unui eseu
argumentativ.
○ Proba orală presupune examinarea competenței de
vorbire în conversație și exprimare pe o temă de
specialitate.
○ Fiecare competență se notează de la 0 la 10, nota
finală fiind obținută din media celor 4 note.
Instrucţiuni suplimentare privind modalităţile de
elaborare, redactare, dar şi criteriile de notare ale lucrărilor,
vă vor fi furnizate de către titularul de curs sau tutori în
cadrul întâlnirilor online. Pentru predarea temelor se vor
respecta cu stricteţe cerinţele formatorilor. Orice abatere de
la acestea aduce după sine pierderea punctajului
corespunzător acelei lucrări. Evaluarea acestor lucrări se va
face imediat după preluare, iar afişarea pe site a feedback-
ului oferit de evaluator se va realiza la cel mult 2 săptămâni
de la data depunerii/primirii lucrării. Dacă studentul
consideră că activitatea sa a fost subapreciată de către
evaluatori, atunci poate solicita feedback suplimentar prin

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 contactarea titularului prin email.

1.11. Elemente de deontologie academică

Se vor avea în vedere următoarele detalii de natură
organizatorică:
● Orice material elaborat de către studenţi pe parcursul
activităţilor va face dovada originalităţii. Studenţii ale
căror lucrări se dovedesc a fi plagiate nu vor fi acceptaţi
la examinarea finală. Orice tentativă de fraudă sau
fraudă depistată va fi sancţionată prin acordarea notei
minime sau, în anumite condiții, prin exmatriculare.
● Rezultatele finale vor fi puse la dispoziţia studenților prin
afişaj electronic.
● Contestaţiile pot fi adresate în maxim 24 de ore de la
afişarea rezultatelor iar soluţionarea lor nu va depăşi 48
de ore de la momentul depunerii.

1.12. Studenţi cu dizabilităţi

Titularul cursului îşi exprimă disponibilitatea, în limita
constrângerilor tehnice și de timp, de a adapta conţinutul şi
metodelor de transmitere a informaţiilor, precum şi
modalităţile de evaluare (examen oral, examen online, etc.) în
funcţie de tipul dizabilităţii cursantului. Altfel spus, avem în
vedere, ca o prioritate, facilitarea accesului egal al tuturor
cursanţilor la activităţile didactice și de evaluare.

1.13. Strategii de studiu recomandate

Date fiind caracteristicile învăţământului la distanţă, se
recomandă studenţilor o planificare riguroasă a secvenţelor
de studiu individual, coroborată cu secvenţe de dialog,
mediate de reţeaua net, cu tutorii și respectiv titularul de
disciplină. Lectura fiecărui modul şi rezolvarea la timp a
temelor garantează nivele înalte de înţelegere a conţinutului
tematic şi totodată sporesc şansele promovării cu succes a
acestei discipline.

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Table of Contents

1. Introduction to ESP. Academic Skills.

Psychology in A Nutshell

2. The Branches of Psychology

3. Social Psychology. Social Cognition

4. Relationships. Pro- and antisocial

Behaviour

5. Psychology of Advertising

6. Neuropsychology. Brain and Behaviour

7. Biological Rhythms. Sleep and Dreaming

8. Motivation and Emotion

9. Developmental Psychology. Educational

8
 Psychology

10. Cognitive Development. Thought and

Language

11. Memory. The Memory Process. Types of

Memory

12. Memory. Forgetfulness and Ageing

Suport de curs

Cursul este structurat pe 2 module care, la rândul lor sunt

organizate în unități:
SEMESTER 1/ MODULE 1
Timp de studiu: (120' teorie, 840' practică)
Obiective: - Cunoaşterea şi înţelegerea aprofundată a
contextelor şi rolurilor, precum şi a conceptelor, metodelor şi a
discursului/limbajului specific diverselor situaţii de comunicare
profesională în mediul academic de limba engleză, cu accent pe
situaţia retorică, formele de comunicare scrisă şi orală, etapele
procesului de scriere şi produsele scrisului academic, precum şi pe
deontologia profesională.

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 Unit 1
Introduction to ESP
The Academic Skills
Psychology in a Nutshell

English for Specific Purposes, or ESP is understood to be about

preparing learners to use English within academic, professional, or
workplace environments, where the language is going to be used. In
ESP, English is learnt not for its own sake or for the sake of gaining a
general education but to smooth the path to entry or greater
linguistic efficiency in particular environments (Basturkmen, 2006,
p.18).
ESP (Dudley-Evans, 1997) can be characterised by the following:
Absolute Characteristics:
● ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learners
● ESP makes use of underlying methodology and activities of
the discipline it serves.
● ESP is centered on the language appropriate to these
activities in terms of grammar, lexis, register, study skills,
discourse and genre.
Variable Characteristics:
● ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines.
● ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different
methodology from that of General English.
● ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a
tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation.
It could, however, be for learners at secondary school level.
● ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced
students.
● Most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the
language systems.

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(Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267631304_English_for_specific_purposes_What_does_it_mean_Why_is_it_differ
ent)

ESP Coggle diagram - deciphering it together

THE ACADEMIC SKILLS

READING

Though reading is often considered a passive skill, research in

the field of psycholinguistics has demonstrated that it is actually a
highly complex process of interaction between the reader and text.
For example, it has been shown that the reader does not decode the
text in his first language in an orderly, linear fashion, word after
word, but rather their eyes move rapidly over the page, going
forward and backward as he perceives meaningful groups of words
and relates these to the non-verbal information at his disposal (that
is, to their is knowledge of the world and topic of the written text),
thereby deriving meaning from the text.
Reading thus can be seen as the processing of information. The
reader brings to the text his own store of information deriving from
his native culture, education, personal experience, and, normally,
some specific knowledge of the written text. At the same time, the
reader possesses a linguistic competence, including knowledge of
words, of how these words are deployed according to the linguistic
system in order to form sentences, and the rhetorical pattern and
linguistic conventions which characterize different types of text.
Furthermore, in an ideal situation, the reader approaches a
text with a genuine motivation to read and a reading purpose.
Whatever the text, he will also have some expectations or
predictions regarding its content and how the text is likely to be
organized depending on its genre. As he reads, these predictions
are confirmed or not confirmed by the text. Depending on his reason
for reading, he will use one or more specific strategies.

Reading strategies

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 When we read in our own language we use – often
unconsciously – a variety of reading strategies and techniques
depending on the text and our reason for reading. There are four
principal “styles” of reading:
● Skimming involves moving your eyes rapidly over the page or
pages in order to get a general idea of what the text is about,
focusing on certain keywords or phrases.
● Scanning, instead, is a strategy we use when we seek specific
pieces of information in a text, such as names, dates, statistics,
or whether a particular topic is treated. Here our expectations
are heightened by our awareness of certain lexical fields or
other textural features which are likely to signal the presence of
the information we are looking for.
● Intensive reading is the style we use when we wish to have a very
clear and complete understanding of the written text. This
implies a careful de-codification of the writer’s discourse, usually
with the aim of comprehending not only the literal meaning of
the text, but also the writer’s deeper purpose, his position or
other eventual text subtleties.
● Extensive reading is the term we use to describe the strategies
called into play when we read longer texts either for pleasure or
for information, and may involve all the strategies previously
mentioned, which the reader applies according to the individual
text and his interest in its various parts.
Thus, the reading style we apply to any given text should be a
function of the type and content of the text on the one hand, and
our reading purpose on the other. It is important to use these
strategies appropriately and flexibly: obviously not all texts need to
be read intensively, though language learners often apply only this
strategy to texts in foreign languages. In reading English for
academic purposes, for example, it will often suffice to have a
general idea of whether certain information is contained in an
article and, if so, where, so that it might be consulted at a later date.
On the other hand, information which is of interest may be located
quickly and selected passages focused upon for the purpose of
extracting and annotating specific information.
(Source: Adapted from Jordan, R.R, Academic Writing Course, Longman Publishing Group, 2004)

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WRITING
Without a doubt, the single most important reason for
assigning writing tasks in disciplinary courses is to introduce
students to the thinking and writing of that discipline. Even though
students read disciplinary texts and learn course material, until they
practice the language of the discipline through writing, they are less
likely to learn that language thoroughly. [...] Such writing helps
students to:
- integrate and analyze course content
- provide a field-wide context to course material
- practice thinking skills relevant to analyses in the discipline
- practice professional communication
- prepare for a range of careers in the field

Types of writing
- Progress report - Detailed template of a progress report chart in
patient treatment
- Research report - Overview of main guidelines & purpose of writing
a research report
- Opinion paragraph/ Essay/ Position paper - Position paper
essentials diagram, Example of position paper “Psychology and
Ageing”
- Review of literature guideline - Survey research on a particular area
or topic in psychology. Its main purpose is to knit together theories
and results from multiple studiesto give an overview of a field of
research
- Journal or professional article - “An Investigation of Academic
Motivation and Career Decidedness among University Students”
(Source: Adapted from https://wac.colostate.edu/resources)

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 LISTENING
Language learning depends on listening. Listening provides the
aural input that serves as the basis for language acquisition and
enables learners to interact in spoken communication.
With the help of language instructors, students learn how they
can adjust their listening behaviour to deal with a variety of
situations, types of input, and listening purposes, develop a set of
listening strategies and match appropriate strategies to each
listening situation.

Listening Strategies
Listening strategies are techniques or activities that contribute
directly to the comprehension and recall of listening input. Listening
strategies can be classified by how the listener processes the input:
● Top-down strategies (listening for the main idea, predicting,
drawing inferences, summarizing ) are listener based; the
listener taps into background knowledge of the topic, the
situation or context, the type of text, and the language. This
background knowledge activates a set of expectations that help
the listener to interpret what is heard and anticipate what will
come next.
● Bottom-up strategies (listening for specific details, recognizing
cognates, recognizing word-order patterns) are text based; the
listener relies on the language in the message, that is, the
combination of sounds, words, and grammar that creates
meaning.

Strategic listeners also use meta-cognitive strategies to plan,

monitor, and evaluate their listening.
● They plan by deciding which listening strategies will serve best
in a particular situation.
● They monitor their comprehension and the effectiveness of the
selected strategies.
● They evaluate by determining whether they have achieved their
listening comprehension goals and whether the combination of
listening strategies selected was an effective one.
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 SPEAKING

Academic speaking is similar in many ways to academic writing:

it is linear, it is explicit, it has one central point and it is presented in
standard language. Academic spoken style is also similar in many
ways in that it is formal, explicit, hedged, and responsible. However,
it is less complex and objective than written language.
Formal - In general this means that when you are speaking you
should avoid colloquial words and expressions.
Explicit - It is the responsibility of the speaker in English to make it
clear to the listener how various parts of the talk are related. These
connections can be made explicit by the use of different signalling
words.
Precise - When speaking in academic contexts, facts and figures are
given precisely.
Hedged - In any kind of academic speaking you do, it is necessary to
make decisions about your stance on a particular subject, or the
strength of the claims you are making. Different subjects prefer to
do this in different ways. A technique common in certain kinds of
speaking is known by linguists as a 'hedge'.
Responsible - In academic speaking you are responsible for
demonstrating an understanding of the source text. You must be
responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and
justification for, any claims you make.
Accurate - Academic speaking uses vocabulary accurately. Most
subjects have words with narrow specific meanings. Linguistics
distinguishes clearly between "phonetics" and "phonemics"; general
English does not.
Complex - Spoken language is less complex than written language.
Spoken language has shorter words, it is lexically less dense and it
has a less varied vocabulary. It uses more verb-based phrases than
noun-based phrases. Spoken texts are longer and the language has
less grammatical complexity, including fewer subordinate clauses
and more active verbs.

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Objective - Spoken language in general has more words that refer to
the speaker. This means that although the main emphasis should be
on the information that you want to give and the arguments you
want to make, it is not unusual to refer to yourself or your audience.
Planned - Formal academic spoken language is well planned. It
usually takes place after research and evaluation, according to a
specific purpose and plan.
Organised - Formal academic speaking is well organised. It flows
easily from one section to the next in a logical fashion. A good place
to start is the genre of your text. Once you have decided on the
genre, the structure is easily determined.
(Source: Adapted from http://www.uefap.com/speaking/spkframfeat.htm)

MAIN TAKEAWAY - Exercise

WRITING
Write down a SWOT analysis guideline & useful applications of
the academic skills discussed today, to enhance your personal
development. In order to help you, take a look at the following
suggestions:

● Title: Personal strategies for improving competence in ESP

(W+R+L+S) - a personal contract -
● Main goal:
○ Come up with ideas to enhance your:
■ Writing
■ Reading
■ Listening
■ Speaking skills
● Instructions/Descriptions:
○ Come up with a personalised plan, setting specific
targets and goals you want to achieve on a class-to-
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 class and overall course basis (general and specific
objectives). You can start by writing it down in a simple
Word document, but feel free to be as creative as you
want. You can add links, photos, interviews, collages,
audio/video clips if you want. Just make sure to follow
these guidelines:
■ Briefly describe what you perceive your current
strengths to be, as well as the areas you feel need
improving;
■ You might find this self-assessment grid useful;
■ Determine the goals you want to personally
achieve;
■ Determine what criteria you'll find useful in
helping yourself monitor your progression;
■ What metacognitive strategies do you feel would
be best suited for you to reach these goals?

Additional clarifications and some questions to help you with

the assignment
● SWOT stands for:
○ Strengths
○ Weaknesses
○ Opportunities
○ Threats aka maladaptive strategies
● Abilities - how can we determine what our strengths &
weaknesses are?
● How are we applying these strategies ourselves?
○ Writing:
■ What types of texts do you personally find useful
to practice comprehending different types of
texts and writing?
○ Reading:
■ What are credible sources? (online, offline)
■ What reading strategies will you use?
■ How do we decode different types of texts
(discourse/genre - opinion essay, lab report,
scientific article, etc.)?
■ What resources would you like to use to practice
Reading? What would you like to read about?
(combining English + Psychology-related themes?)
○ Listening:
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 ■ What listening strategies will you use?
■ What resources can we use to practice our
Listening skills?
○ Speaking:
■ Practice, practice, practice
■ What speaking strategies will you use?
■ Being able to voice your opinions is one
extremely useful tool to have in your arsenal of
conquering the world and it might help achieve
higher levels of academic success! (Connection
between Academic emotions (the emotional
comfort and discomfort experienced in the
classroom is dramatically correlated with
academic success)
■ What resources can we use to practice our
Speaking skills?

PSYCHOLOGY IN A NUTSHELL

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 READING

While the subject of psychology in today’s modern world does

reflect the discipline’s rich and colourful history, its origins however,
differ quite considerably from the contemporary notions of the field.
In order to fully understand what psychology is all about, it is
important to first go back into its history and explore its origins. How
did this discipline originate? When did it originate?
Contemporary psychology deals with a vast range of topics,
while at the same time looks into human behavioural patterns and
mental processes from the cultural level to the neural level.
Psychologists study all matters pertaining to human mental issues
that begin right from birth and continue up until the death of the
person. So, by gaining a full understanding of the history of
psychology, you will be able to better understand how individual
topics are studied and what has been learnt so far.
Questions put forward during the Formation of Psychology
Right from the very beginning, the study of psychology has
been faced with a number of difficult questions. The first question of
how psychology is defined established it as a separate science,
separate from philosophy and physiology. Other additional
questions that psychologists were also faced with throughout the
history of the subject were:
● What issues and topics should the subject of psychology
deal with?
● What methods of research should be used when studying
psychology?
● Should research be used in order to influence education,
public policy and other aspects of human behaviour?
● Is psychology a science?
● Should psychology focus on internal mental processes or
on observable behaviours?
The Emergence of Psychology: Physiology and Philosophy
19
 While psychology did not really emerge as a separate science
until the latter half of the 19th century, its initial history can be
traced right back to the ancient Greeks. During the 1600’s, the
famous French philosopher, Rene Descartes, introduced the concept
of dualism, which stressed on the fact that the body and the mind
were basically two separate entities that interact together to form
the normal human experience.
Many of the other issues that are still debated by psychologists
today, like relative contributions of nature vs. nurture, are deep
rooted in these early philosophical concepts. So why is psychology
different from philosophy? While many of the early philosophers
relied heavily on methods like logic and observation, the
psychologists of today tend to use scientific methods to study and
come to conclusions about human behaviour and thought.
Physiology also made significant contributions towards the
eventual emergence of psychology as a science. Early physiology
research on behaviour and the brain had a very dramatic impact on
psychology as it is today, ultimately leading to the application of
many scientific methodologies that study human behaviour and
thought.
Psychology as a Separate Scientific Discipline
During the mid 19th century, Wilhelm Wundt, a German
physiologist, started using scientific research methods to look into
reaction times. His works outlined many of the most important
connections between physiology and psychology. So what were
Wundt’s views on psychology? He looked upon the subject as a study
of human consciousness and even sought to apply certain
experimental methods in order to study internal mental processes.
While this process today is known as introspection and is
considered to be highly unscientific and unreliable, in those days it
helped set the stage for all future experimental methods. And
although his influence began to dwindle in the years to come, this
impact on the subject is definitely unquestionable.

20
LANGUAGE FOCUS
VERB FORMATION

The following chart shows the positive, negative and

interrogative (question) forms of all the principle tenses in English
with a brief description of the principle usage.

POSITIV
TENSE NEGATIVE QUESTION USE
E
I play
They don't
tennis
Simple (do not) Does she Habitual activities -
on
Present work in know him? States
Monday
New York.
s.
She
They didn't
went to Where did Actions happening
Simple (did not)
Paris she get at a defined moment
Past drive to
last that hat? in the past.
work.
week.
I'll (will)
meet Decisions made at
He will not
you at Will they the moment about
Simple (won’t) be
the visit us the future, future
Future able to
airport soon? predictions, future
come.
tomorro promises
w.
They aren't Actions happening
He's (is)
Present (are not) at the present
working What are
Continuou coming moment. Near future
at the you doing?
s this intention and
moment.
evening. scheduling.
I was
He wasn't Interrupted past
Past watchin What were
(was not) action, action
Continuou g TV you doing
working happening at a
when when I
s when she specific moment in
you called?
arrived. time in the past.
called.
I'll (will)
They will
be What will
Future not (won't)
cooking you be Future action at a
Continuou be living in
dinner doing next specific moment in
Paris this
s when week at the future.
time next
you this time?
year.
arrive.
Future He's (is) They're Where are Future intent or

21
 going to
(are) not
with Going fly to
going to you going
Boston planned action
to invite the to stay?
next
Browns.
week.

1) To express an action
that was begun in the
I've
past and continues
(have) She into the present.
seen hasn't How long
Present Mick (has not) have you 2) To express an action
Perfect three been to worked at that happened in the
Unspecified past.
times New Smith's?
this York. 3) To express a recent
week. action that has a
present effect.

She
I'd (had) Had you
hadn't
already ever seen To express an action
(had not)
Past eaten such a that happens before
been to
Perfect before crazy lady another action in the
Rome
they before past.
before
came. that?
that trip.
She will
We'll not
How long
(will) (won’t) To express what will
will you
have have have happened or how
have lived
Future lived finished long something will
in France
Perfect here for her have happened up to a
by the
twenty homewor certain point in the
end of
years by k by the future.
next year?
2005. time we
arrive.
She's They
How long To express the
(has) haven't
Present have you duration of a
been (have
Perfect been continuous activity
waiting not)
Continuou working begun in the past and
for over been
s on that continuing into the
three studying
problem? present.
hours. for long.
Past She'd I hadn't How long To express the
Perfect (had) (had not) had you duration of a
Continuou been been been continuous activity
s waiting sleeping playing begun before another
for three for long tennis activity in the past.
hours when I when she

22
 heard
when he
the
finally arrived?
doorbell
arrived.
ring.
He'll (will) She will
have not
been (won’t) How long
Future To express the
sleeping have will you
Perfect duration of an activity
for a few been have been
Continuou up to a point of time in
hours by working driving by
s the future.
the time for long 6 o'clock?
we by 5
arrive. o'clock.

Source: http://esl.about.com/library/grammar

TASK 1:
Several verbs in the text above are written in italics. Organize
them according to their tenses.

PRESENT SIMPLE -
PAST SIMPLE -
PRESENT PERFECT -
PAST PERFECT -
FUTURE -
Academic textual functions, such as reporting, are signalled by
characteristic language uses of tense and aspect. When reporting
findings or significant aspects of people’s work, we use The Present
Simple. The Past Simple is used when referring to the procedures
used in individual studies.

TASK 2:
Read the following excerpts from two research reports and fill in
with the appropriate form of the verb in brackets, according to the
academic textual functions used in each of them.

Mood disorders (to affect _1) around forty four million Americans
each year. The two most common mental disorders (to be _2)
depression and bipolar disease. There are several factors which
researchers (to believe_3) contribute to mental disorders. Some
researchers (to think _4) that the most severe mood disorders (to be
caused_5) by imbalances in the brain’s chemical activity. Researchers
also (to assume _6) the environment can play a part in mood
23
disorders and it may run in families. Some mood disorders (to prove
_7) to be easier to diagnose due to the symptoms that the patient (to
display _8), while others may be a little more difficult and (to
require_9) more testing due to the mood disorder going
unrecognized. The good news (to be_10) that with the proper
medication and psychotherapy a person afflicted with a mood
disorder can go on and live a productive life.
(Source: Adapted from: http://www.freeonlineresearchpapers.com/diagnosing-mental-disorders)

1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10

The most famous experiment Milgram (to conduct _1) was also
his most controversial. The issue (to deal _2) with the people's right to
know on what he/she is being studied. On the surface, the experiment
(to look _3) legit and totally scientific. Two people (to be brought _4) in
at a time and each would draw from a hat. One would be the teacher,
one the learner. After going over exactly how the shock treatment (to
work _5), the teacher (to go _6) to his control panel and the learner (to
be hooked up _7) to electrodes. The teacher would first read lists of
paired words then (to ask _8) the learner to pair up the now
separated words. For each wrong answer the learner (to give _9), an
increasing dose of electricity (to be given _10).
(Source: Adapted from: http://www.free-researchpapers.com/dbs/b11/smu317.shtml)

1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10

TASK 3
Identify the tenses of the verbs underlined in the following
fragment and match them to the uses suggested in the table below:

The research of consciousness, or states of awareness, has

provided numerous interesting and influential studies. Sleep, dreams,
and hypnosis are states of awareness that have intrigued
psychologists because they relate to the quality of psychological
interaction with the environment. States of awareness change
constantly, which produces changes in behaviour. Studies in this
area have made great contributions to the understanding of
psychology. Researchers pursuing answers about states of
24
awareness discovered Rapid Eye Movement sleep and how it relates
to dreaming. Rosalind Cartwright, a leading researcher in this area,
takes the study of consciousness to another level by suggesting that
people may be able to control what they dream about. Many
psychologists have theorized about why people dream. Sigmund
Freud believed that dreams were windows to your unconscious; that
your greatest unfulfilled wishes and fears would be expressed
symbolically in your dreams. Freud's view has been highly influential,
and psychotherapists still use dream interpretation during therapy.
(Source: Adapted from: http://www.free-researchpapers.com/dbs/b6/pnl224.shtml)

USE TENSE VERBS

Habitual activities -
States
An action that was
begun in the past
and continues into
the present/ An
action that
happened in the
unspecified past/ A
recent action that
has a present
effect.
Actions that
happened at a
defined moment in
the past.

LISTENING

Part I. Please follow the link and listen to the main ideas being
discussed in the video, and pay attention to answering the following
questions (just the ones from 1 to 6 for the moment).

25
 1. What is the current definition of Psychology?
2. Where did Aristotle think the place of human
consciousness rested?
3. When, by whom and for what purpose were the first
psychological and personality tests carried out?
4. What are some of the questions that Psychology has
attempted to answer?
5. Why is Psychology considered to be a melting-pot among
the sciences?
6. Which are the 3 schools of thought mentioned in the first
half of the video?

Part II. Watch the video again to answer the remaining

questions.

7. Briefly describe the structuralist school of thought. (Include

main ideas, concepts; Name at least one famous
thinker/researcher; What was its main criticism?)

8. Briefly describe the functionalist school of thought. (Include

main ideas, concepts; Name at least one famous
thinker/researcher; Name its famous source of inspiration.)

9. Briefly describe the psychoanalytic school of thought.

(Include main ideas, concepts; Name at least one famous
thinker/researcher)

10. As a result of the psychoanalytic school of thought, what

revolutionary idea did psychodynamic theories introduce
into the world of Psychology?

11. Why is Psychology considered to be an integrative science?

26
 Unit 2
Branches of Psychology

Psychology can be classified in a variety of ways. There are

different types of psychology that serve different purposes. Even
though there is no fixed way of classifying them, there are certain
fields which can be considered the major branches of Psychology.

WRITING

27
 In order to make the most of the lectures we attend, we need to
listen carefully to the speaker and note down the things that are
relevant. Depending on the type of information presented in the
lecture, we can organize our notes in tables, charts, or diagrams.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Fig. 5 Fig. 6 Fig. 7

Functionality - type of notes:

● Advantages and disadvantages - two-column table (fig. 1)

● Cause and effect - spidergram (fig. 2)
● Classification and definition - tree diagram/ spidergram (fig. 3/
fig. 2)
● Comparison and contrast - two-column table (fig. 1)
● Fact and figures - table (fig. 5)
● Sequence of events - timeline (fig. 7)
● Stages of a process - flowchart (fig. 4)
● Question and answers - headings and notes (fig. 6)

LISTENING ACTIVITIES

28
 A. Listen carefully to the lecture and complete the tree
diagram below with other pieces of information you
consider relevant.

B. Listen again and fill in the gaps with the missing

information.
1. Social psychology is applied in _______________ planning.
2. In the ______________ world, social psychologists carry
out surveys.
3. Organizational psychology focuses on group
______________ and how people are motivated at work.
4. Neuropsychology can have an _____________ in the
commercial world.
5. Educational psychology is __________ linked to
developmental psychology.
6. Personality psychology __________ on analyzing the
behaviour of individuals.
7. Counsellors help healthy people to manage
____________ stressful situations.
(Source: Adapted from Short, Jane, English for Psychology in Higher Education. Course Book,
Reading, UK: Garnet Education, 2010)

READING

Group work: Choose the branch of psychology (and group/MS

Teams subchannel) that appeals to you the most and work together

29
with your teammates to fill in the gaps with the missing words. Every
team will present their findings, alongside a brief summary of the
main points concerning each branch of psychology, at the end of the
activity.
TASK:
Follow this link and fill in the gapped text with the missing
words:

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, according to psychologist Gordon

Allport, is a discipline that uses __________ (1) "to understand and
explain how the thought, feeling and behaviour of individuals are
influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence of other
human beings" (1985). Essentially, social psychology is about
understanding how each person's __________ (2) is influenced by the
__________ (3) in which that behavior takes place. You probably
already realize that other people can have a dramatic influence on
the way you act and the choices you make. Consider how you might
behave in a situation if you were all alone versus if there were other
people in the room. The decisions you make and the behaviours you
exhibit might depend on not only how many people are present but
exactly who you are around. For example, you are likely to behave
much differently when you are around a group of close friends than
you would around a group of colleagues or supervisors from work.
Social psychology encompasses a wide range of social topics,
including group behaviour, __________ (4), leadership, nonverbal
behaviour, __________ (5), aggression, and prejudice.
It is important to note that social psychology is not just about
looking at social influences. Social perception and social
interaction are also vital to understanding social behaviour [...].
Social psychology is often confused with __________ (6), personality
psychology, and sociology.
What makes social psychology different? Unlike folk wisdom,
which relies on __________ (7) and __________ (8) interpretation, social
psychology employs scientific methods and the empirical study of
social phenomena. Researchers do not just make guesses or
assumptions about how people behave; they devise and carry out
experiments that help point out relationships between different
variables.
While personality psychology focuses on individual traits,
characteristics and thoughts, social psychology is focused on
30
situations. Social psychologists are interested in the impact that the
social environment and group interactions have on _______________
(9).
Finally, it is important to distinguish between social psychology
and sociology. While there are many similarities between the two,
sociology tends to look at social behaviour and influences at a very
broad-based level. Sociologists are interested in the __________ (10)
that influence how people behave. Psychologists instead focus on
_______________ (11) that affect social behaviour. While psychology and
sociology both study similar topics, they are looking at these topics
from different __________ (12).

TASK:
Follow this link and fill in the gapped text with the missing
words. The main article will send you to secondary resources that
will help you fill in all the blanks.
Secondary resources:
● https://www.verywellmind.com/structure-of-a-neuron-
2794896,
● https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-a-neurotransmitter-
2795394,
● https://www.verywellmind.com/the-anatomy-of-the-brain-
2794895.

NEUROPSYCHOLOGY
The area of psychology that seeks to understand how the brain
affects behavior is known as __________ (1), although you may also
hear this subject referred to as psychobiology or __________ (2).
Therefore, in order to better understand the existing link between
our behaviours and psychology, one must first take a closer look at
the structure and functions of the brain.
__________ (3) are the basic building blocks of life. These highly
specialized cells are responsible for _______________ (4) from one part
of the body to another. Each part of the neuron plays a role in
communicating information throughout the body. Thus, neurons
carry messages throughout the body, including _______________ (5)
from _______________ (6) and signals from the brain to different muscle
groups in the body.
The unique structures of the neuron allow it to receive and
transmit signals to other neurons as well as other types of cells. That

31
is why a neuron is made up of: __________ (7) , _________ (8), ____________
(9) and __________ (10) .
However, it is neurotransmitters or __________ (11) that carry,
boost, and balance signals between neurons and target cells
throughout the body. These target cells may be in glands, muscles,
or other neurons.
Billions of neurotransmitter molecules work constantly to keep
our brains functioning, managing everything from our __________ (12)
to our __________ (13) to our _________ (14) and ______________ (15). They
can also affect a variety of psychological functions such as fear,
mood, pleasure, and joy.
Lastly, billions of neurons and a number of specialized parts
that are each involved in important functions make up one of the
most important organs in the human body; it is also the most
complex - __________ (16). While there is still a great deal that
researchers do not yet know about the brain, they have learned a
great deal about the anatomy and function of the brain.
Understanding these parts can help give people a better idea of
how disease and damage may affect the brain and its ability to work
properly.
At the same time, by understanding the structure of the brain,
insight into some of its main functions may be reached:
consciousness, higher-order thinking, imagination, language,
memory, reasoning, sensation and voluntary physical action, to
name just a few.

TASK:
Follow this link and fill in the gapped text with the missing
words:
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY is a scientific approach which
aims to explain how children and adults change over time. A
significant proportion of theories within this discipline focus upon
_______________ (1), as this is the period during an individual's lifespan
when the most change occurs.
Developmental psychologists study a wide range of theoretical
areas, such as biological, social, emotional, and cognitive processes
[...]. To describe development it is necessary to focus both on typical
patterns of change ______________ (2) and on individual variations in
patterns of change i.e. _______________ (3) . Normative development is
typically viewed as a continual and cumulative process.
32
 However, it should be noted that people can change if
important aspects of one's life change. This capacity for change is
called __________ (4) [...]. When trying to explain development, it is
important to consider the relative contribution of _______________ (5).
Nature refers to the process of ___________ (6) and __________ (7).
Nurture refers to the impact of the environment, which involves the
process of learning through experiences [...].
Developmental psychology as a discipline did not exist before
the industrial revolution when the need for an educated workforce
led to the ____________________ (8) [...]. However, the emergence of
developmental psychology as a specific discipline can be traced
back to 1882 when Wilhelm Preyer (a German physiologist) published
a book entitled “The Mind of the Child” [...]. During the 1900s three key
figures dominated the field with their extensive theories of human
development, namely __________ (9), Lev Vygotsky, and John Bowlby.

TASK:
Follow this link and fill in the gapped text with the missing
words:
PERSONALITY PSYCHOLOGY is one of the largest and most
popular branches of psychology. Professionals who study
personality psychology want to understand how __________ (1)
develops as well as how it __________ (2) the way we think and behave.
Psychologists look at how personality__________ (3) among individuals
as well as how people _________ (4). They also assess, diagnose, and
treat personality disorders. [...]
While there is no single agreed upon definition of personality, it
is often thought of as something that arises from within the
individual and remains fairly consistent throughout life. Personality
encompasses all of the thoughts, __________ (5), and _________ (6) that
impact how we view ourselves and what we believe about others and
the world around us.
Understanding personality allows psychologists to predict how
people will respond in certain situations and the sorts of things they
prefer and value. In order to understand how researchers study
personality psychology, it is important to become familiar with some
of the most influential personality theories, [...] - the __________ (7),
_________ (8) and __________ (9).
[...] Personality psychologists not only study how personality
develops, they are also interested in various problems that may

33
arise. Personality disorders ____________________ (10). The DSM-5
currently lists 10 different personality disorders. [...]
By being able to identify problems people have at home,
school, work, or in their relationships, psychologists are better able
to help people develop skills to cope and manage the symptoms of
personality disorders.

TASK:
Follow this link and fill in the gapped text with the missing
words:

CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGY is the branch of psychology concerned

with the assessment and treatment of mental illness, abnormal
behavior, and psychiatric problems. This field __________ (1), making it
an exciting career choice for people who are looking to work in a
challenging and rewarding field.
Early influences on the field of clinical psychology include the
work of the Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud. He was one of
the first to focus on the idea that _________ (2) was something that
could be treated by talking with the patient, and it was the
development of his __________ (3) that is often cited as the earliest
scientific use of clinical psychology. American psychologist Lightner
Witmer opened the first psychological clinic in 1896 with a specific
focus on helping children who had learning disabilities. It was also
Witmer who first introduced the term "clinical psychology" in a 1907
paper. Witmer, a former student of Wilhelm Wundt defined clinical
psychology as “ the _______________ (4).” [...] Today, clinical psychology
is one of the most popular subfields and the single largest
employment area within psychology.
Clinical psychology became more established during the
period of World War I as practitioners demonstrated the usefulness
of psychological assessments. In 1917, the American Association of
Clinical Psychology was established, although it was replaced just
two years later with the establishment of the American Psychological
Association (APA). During World War II, clinical psychologists were
called upon to help treat what was then known as shell shock, now
referred to as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).
While the early focus in clinical psychology had been largely on
__________ (5), graduate programs began adding additional emphasis
on __________ (6). [...]

34
 The field has continued to grow tremendously, and the demand
for clinical psychologists today remains strong.
Clinical psychologists who work as psychotherapists often
utilize different __________ (7) when working with clients. While some
clinicians focus on a very specific treatment outlook, many use what
is referred to as an "eclectic approach." This involves drawing on
different theoretical methods to develop the best treatment plan for
each individual client.
Some of the major __________ (8) within clinical psychology
include:
● Psychodynamic approach;
● Cognitive behavioral perspective;
● Humanistic perspective. [...]
__________ (9) work in a variety of settings (hospitals, clinics,
private practice, universities, schools, etc.) and in many capacities.
All of them require these professionals to draw on their __________ (10)
in special ways and for different purposes.

MAIN TAKEAWAY
You might find these extra optional resources interesting:
Social psychology:
● Social Thinking (video)
● Social Influence (video)
● https://www.apa.org/education-career/guide/subfields/
social (article)

Neuropsychology:
● Getting to Know your Brain (video)
● The Chemical Mind (video)
● Clinical Neuropsychology (article)
Developmental psychology:
● The Growth of Knowledge (video)
● Piaget's theory of cognitive development (video)
● Theories of developmental psychology (article)

35
Personality psychology:
● Measuring personality (video)
● Personality disorders (video)
● Theories and terminology used in personality psychology
(article)
Clinical psychology:
● Clinical psychology - APA (article)
● Psychological disorders (video presentation)
● Getting help - psychotherapy (video presentation)

Unit 3
Social Psychology.
Social Cognition

READING

36
 1. Early Influences
Aristotle believed that humans were naturally sociable, a
necessity which allows us to live together (an individual centred
approach), whilst Plato felt that the state controlled the individual
and encouraged social responsibility through social context (a
socio-centred approach).
Hegel (1770–1831) introduced the concept that society has
inevitable links with the development of the social mind. This led to
the idea of a group mind, important in the study of social
psychology. Lazarus & Steinthal wrote about Anglo-European
influences in 1860.
Thus, “Volkerpsychologie” emerged, which focused on the idea
of a collective mind. It emphasized the notion that personality
develops because of cultural and community influences, especially
through language, which is both a social product of the community
as well as a means of encouraging particular social thought in the
individual. As such, Wundt (1900–1920) encouraged the
methodological study of language and its influence on the social
being.

2. Later Developments
Much of the key research in social psychology developed
following World War II, when researchers became interested in the
behaviour of individuals while grouped together and in social
situations. Key studies were carried out in several areas.
Some studies focused on how attitudes are formed, changed by
the social context and measured to ascertain whether change has
occurred. Amongst some of the most famous work in social
psychology is that on obedience conducted by Milgram in his
“electric shock” study, which looked at the role an authority figure
plays in shaping behaviour. Similarly, Zimbardo’s prison simulation
notably demonstrated conformity to given roles in the social world.
Wider topics then began to emerge, such as social perception,
aggression, relationships, decision making, prosocial behavior and
attribution. [...] Thus, the growth years of social psychology occurred
during the decades following the 1940s.
(Adapted from: Social Psychology by Saul McLeod available at
http://www.simplypsychology.org/social-psychology.html)

3. Social Psychology Key Figures

37
 Gordon Allport (1920) – Social Facilitation
Allport introduced the notion that the presence of others (the
social group) can facilitate certain behaviour. It was found that an
audience would improve an actors’ performance in well
learned/easy tasks, but leads to a decrease in performance on
newly learned/difficult tasks due to social inhibition.

Albert Bandura (1963) - Social Learning Theory

Bandura introduced the notion that behavior in the social

world could be modelled. Three groups of children watched a video
where an adult was behaving aggressively towards a ‘bobo doll’. The
adult was either just seen to be doing this, was rewarded by another
adult for their behaviour or was punished for it. Children who had
seen the adult being rewarded for aggressive behavior were found
to be more likely to copy such behaviour.

38
 Leon Festinger (1950) – Cognitive Dissonance
Festinger, Schacter and Black brought the idea that when we
hold beliefs, attitudes or cognitions which are different, we
experience dissonance – this is an inconsistency that causes
discomfort. We are motivated to reduce this by either changing one
of our thoughts, beliefs or attitudes or by selectively attending to
information which supports one of our beliefs and ignores the other
(selective exposure hypothesis).
Dissonance occurs when there are difficult choices or decisions
to be made, or when people participate in behaviour that is contrary
to their attitude. Dissonance is thus brought about by:
● effort justification (when aiming to reach a modest goal),
● induced compliance (when people are forced to comply
contrary to their attitude) and
● free choice (when weighing up decisions).

Henri Tajfel (1971) – Social Identity Theory

When divided into artificial (minimal) groups, prejudice results
simply from the awareness that there is an “out-group” (the other
group). When the boys who participated in the experiment were
asked to allocate points (which could be converted into rewards) to
others who were either part of their own group or the out-group,
they displayed a strong in-group preference.
That is, they allocated more points on the set task to boys who
they believed to be in the same group as themselves. This can be
accounted for by Tajfel and Turner’s social identity theory, which
states that individuals need to maintain a positive sense of personal
39
and social identity. This is partly achieved by emphasizing the
desirability of one’s own group, focusing on distinctions between
other “lesser” groups.

Bernard Weiner (1986) – Attribution theory

Weiner was interested in the attributions made for experiences

of success and failure and introduced the idea that we look for
explanations of behaviour in the social world. He believed that these
were made based on three areas: locus, which could be internal or
external; stability, which is whether the cause of behavior is
perceived to be stable or changes over time; and controllability, so
whether the cause of a behavior is perceived as controllable or non
controllable.

Stanley Milgram (1963) – Shock Experiment

Participants were told that they were taking part in a study on
learning at Yale University, Milgram having selected them by
newspaper advertising. The procedure was that one male
participant was paired with another person and they drew lots to
find out who would be the ‘learner’ and who would be the ‘teacher.’
The draw was fixed so that the participant was always the teacher,
and the learner was one of Milgram’s associates (pretending to be a
real participant).
When the learner (a stooge) got the answer wrong while going
over paired associate learning tasks with the ‘teacher’, the
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participants playing the teachers were instructed by the scientist to
deliver electric shocks for every wrong answer.
This did not actually happen, although the participant was
unaware of this as they had themselves a sample (of a real!) shock at
the start of the experiment. They were encouraged to increase the
voltage given after each incorrect answer up to a maximum voltage,
and it was found that all participants gave shocks up to 300V, with
65% reaching the highest level of 450V.
The experiment indicated that it seems that obedience is most
likely to occur in an unfamiliar environment and in the presence of
an authority figure, especially when covert pressure is put upon
people to obey. It is also possible that it occurs because the
participants felt that someone other than themselves was
responsible for their actions.

Extra resources - video (Stanley Milgram’s Shock Experiment)

Philip Zimbardo (1971) – Prison Study

Volunteers took part in a simulation where they were randomly
assigned the role of a prisoner or guard and taken to a converted
university basement resembling a prison environment. What
occurred was a reinforcement of basic loss of rights for the
prisoners, who were unexpectedly arrested, given a uniform and an
identification number (they were therefore de-individuated).
The study showed that conformity to social roles occurred as
part of the simulated prison-specific social interaction, as both
groups displayed more negative emotions and hostility,
dehumanization becoming apparent. The prisoners became passive,
whilst the guards assumed an active, brutal and dominant role.
Although normative and informational social influence had a
role to play here, deindividuation/ the loss of a sense of identity
seemed most likely to lead to conformity. Both this and Milgram’s
study introduced the notion of social influence, and the ways in
which this could be observed/tested.
(Adapted from: Social Psychology by Saul McLeod available at
http://www.simplypsychology.org/social-psychology.html)
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 Extra resources - Stanford Prison Experiment

SOCIAL COGNITION
Social cognition is a sub-topic of
social psychology that focuses on how
people process, store, and apply
information about other people and
social situations. It focuses on the role
that cognitive processes play in our
social interactions. The way we think
about others plays a major role in how
we think, feel, and interact with the
world around us.
How exactly do psychologists define social cognition? While
there is no single definition, there are some common factors that
many experts have identified as being important.
Social cognition involves:
● The processes involved in perceiving other people and how
we come to know about the people in the world around us.
● The study of the mental processes that are involved in
perceiving, remembering, thinking about, and attending to
the other people in our social world.
● The reasons we attend to certain information about the
social world, how this information is stored in memory, and
how it is then used to interact with other people.
Social cognition is not simply a topic within social psychology -
it is an approach to studying any subject with social psychology.
Using a social-cognitive perspective, researchers can study a wide
range of topics including attitudes, person-perception, prejudice,
stereotypes, self-concept, discrimination, persuasion, decision-
making, and other areas.
(Source: Adapted from https://www.verywellmind.com/social-cognition-2795912)

MAIN TAKEAWAY

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 Follow the link (Prejudice and Discrimination) watch the video,
and take stock of the concepts developed in the presentation. Write
down the principle ideas regarding prejudice and stereotyping in
the following table:

THEORY NOTES

Unit 4
Relationships.
Pro- and Antisocial Behavior

ACTIVITY
Lead-in

Group activity

a. Click on this link and work together to add other examples

of activities that might take place (or that you associate
with) in interactions with members of your family, friends,
workplace, school, and other environments.
b. Group discussion:

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 i. Place as many of these activities as you can, in the
following two columns:
★ Altruistic behavior
★ Antagonistic/aggressive/competitive behavior

VOCABULARY ACTIVITY
Learn more about adjectives.

READING

Read the following text, to better understand how prosocial and

antisocial behaviors affect our relationships. Make sure to identify key words
from the text that can be used to describe the two types of relationships -
adjectives, nouns, verbs.

The Difference between Prosocial and Antisocial Behavior

Prosocial and antisocial behavior are psychological terms
which may be explained by evolutionary and social learning theories
as they may be both necessary for survival and may be learned
through imitation. The development of such behaviors may also be
influenced by family history, peer groups, school environment, and
genetics. In addition, prosocial and antisocial acts are exhibited by
both humans and animals.
Regarding their general distinction, prosocial behavior benefits
others while antisocial behavior negatively impacts others; hence,
the former is largely endorsed than the latter. The following
discussions specify their differences.
What is Prosocial Behavior?
The term “prosocial” does not appear in most dictionaries. It
was coined by social scientists as the opposite of “antisocial”
(Batson, 2012). Generally, prosocial behavior refers to any action that
benefits another individual. These voluntary actions which aim to
help others, are vital social acts. They are essential in nurturing
positive relationships and social adjustment (Dovidio, 2006).
Moreover, prosocial conduct is defined as empathetic or

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compassionate behavior. For this to occur, a benefactor and at
least one recipient are required. For instance, we donate money to
our respective charities and we often do favors for friends, family,
and even strangers.
Regarding its roots, experts believe that prosocial behavior is a
preprogrammed biological function of humanity as helping and
sharing practices are necessary for survival. Interestingly, this kind
of behavior is also observed among insects and animals. For
instance, monkeys groom other monkeys and certain ant species
with sick workers reduce their interaction with the colony’s larvae to
protect the susceptible individuals; also, the uninfected worker ants
groom the infected ones to remove spores (Riddihough, 2007).
In addition, prosocial behavior may be learned by imitating others.
Studies have shown that exposure to media portraying
cooperation and helpfulness resulted in the re-enactment of such
behaviors among children. This is supported by Albert Bandura’s
social learning theory which views human behavior as significantly
influenced by observation, imitation, and modeling.
Prosocial behavior is encouraged as it enhances the immune
system, promotes the release of oxytocin (a hormone which
promotes social bonding), and facilitates frontal cortical processes.
It can also enhance general well-being as it downregulates threat
processing and promotes mutually supportive and secure social
interactions. Furthermore, it advances harmony, cooperation, and
unity in societies (Gilbert & Basran, 2019).

What is Antisocial Behavior?

Antisocial behavior generally refers to any act which intends to
harm or negatively impact another individual. Examples of such are
intimidation, verbal abuse, violence, and other hostile behaviors. In
psychiatry, antisocial behavior is defined as a persistent violation of
social norms. For instance, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, fifth edition (DSM-5) characterizes antisocial
personality disorder as a pervasive pattern of disregard for and
violation of others’ rights. This is exemplified by deceitfulness,
aggressiveness, reckless disregard for safety, consistent
irresponsibility, lack of remorse, and related acts. The risk factors
include school and home environment, neurological problems, and
genetics.
Evolutionary analysis suggests that antisocial strategies have
been used for survival. For instance, competitors are threatened,
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intimidated, injured, or killed for the sake of self-preservation.
Antisocial behavior may also be learned since studies have shown
that being exposed to hostile or violent videos and games promote
similarly antagonistic or less helpful behaviors. Such findings are
also supported by Bandura’s social learning theory.
Antisocial behavior is generally discouraged as it stimulates
threat processing and activates stress responses. It also lessens
secure and cooperative relationships and demotivates trust, unity
and harmony in societies. Hence, this may negatively impact
individuals’ general well-being (Gilbert & Basran, 2019).
(Adapted from http://www.differencebetween.net/science/difference-between-prosocial-behavior-and-
antisocial-behavior/)

MAIN TAKEAWAY
Writing

Can you identify some routine interactions and activities you

engage in during university hours and while studying? What words
are you used to choosing when describing them? Which ones fall in
the prosocial and which ones in the antisocial categories?

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 Unit 5
Psychology of Advertising

Thinking vs Feeling: The Psychology of Advertising

Advertising has shaped our society. It has become part of the

global culture and is deeply ingrained in our society. It’s the pretty
pictures of happy families next to housing developments. It’s our
favorite celebrities using new beauty products. We see household
names selling cleaning products or food. Advertising is everywhere,
and it is a large industry.
We might not know it, but the average American is exposed to a
large number of commercials from various mediums in 24 hours.
This includes radio, television, social media and print ads. If you use
your phone a lot, it’s the ads that pop up when we browse through
merchant stores and while we wait for a picture to load in a
photography application. Since we are exposed to so much
advertising, how do advertisers and marketers make sure their ads
stand out?

ACTIVITY

Infographic
1. For a better understanding of how psychology and advertising
come together, click the following link to this infographic:
https://appliedpsychologydegree.usc.edu/blog/thinking-vs-
feeling-the-psychology-of-advertising/

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Anatomy of a scene
2. Watch the following clip, the Carousel scene, (episode 13, season
1, Mad Men series), where the main character, Don Draper is
delivering a sales pitch to his clients. Write down some identified
example strategies mentioned in the infographic above.
a. What is the product being pitched?
b. How do his strategies make an appeal to client
psychology?

Diving in... copywriting

A copywriter is a professional writer responsible for writing the
text, or copy, used in marketing and promotional materials. You may
have heard various myths about writers, like:
● the suggestion that writers are born with talent, and that
you can’t “learn” how to write.
● Or perhaps you’ve heard the opposite, that there’s no skill
involved in writing and anyone can do it.
When it comes to copywriting, both of these myths are untrue.
Copywriters are professionals who have learned and practiced their
craft. None of us were born knowing how to write excellent copy, but
it’s definitely a skill that nearly anyone can learn with a bit of
persistence.

Let’s Clarify!
Often confused terms - the Difference between Copywrite and
Copyright

Tips & tricks of the trade

What to do when inspiration doesn’t strike:
● DO’s:
○ Creativity: The Science behind the Madness
○ Give Yourself Permission to be Creative
○ Avoiding Plagiarising
○ The Art of Paraphrasing

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 READING

4 Traits of Good Copywriting

1) It tilts your perspective

Sometimes, all a message needs to break through is a slight
shift in angle. We've grown so accustomed to blocking out marketing
messages, we don't even see them anymore. One of the most
powerful things a copywriter can do is break down a reader's guard
with an unexpected approach. Every story has a myriad of angles --
your job as a copywriter is to find the one that resonates.

2) It finds connections
In 1996, Steve Jobs let the cat out of the bag. He was speaking
with a journalist from Wired on the topic of creativity and explained:
"Creativity is just connecting things. When you ask creative people
how they did something they feel a little guilty because they didn't really
do it, they just saw something. It seemed obvious to them after a while."
Let's say you have to write an ad for a new pair of sneakers. You
could take the assignment head on. You could write about the
elasticity of the shoe's sole or the lightweight design. Indeed, many
have. Or you could put all of that aside and instead draw the
connection between the product and the experience it evokes.

49
 Two things are happening in this ad. First, the copy recognizes
that for many, running isn't about running at all -- it's about solitude,
peace, and restoring sanity to an otherwise hectic life. Second, not
only does Nike connect the ad to the experience of running, it
actually connects to the sound that those shoes make as they hit
the pavement.

3) It has a stunning lead

The following is a headline or leading sentence from Urban
Daddy, an email-based magazine drawing attention to new
products, experiences, and eateries.
"Six days. That’s how long you have until 65% of your body is turkey."
There's an adage in copywriting which roughly states that the
purpose of the headline is to get you to read the first line. The
purpose of the first line is to get you to read the second line, and so
on. In short, if your first line doesn't enthrall your readers, all is lost.
4) It is born out of listening
Seeing its plans to launch yet another gym in the greater
Boston region, an outsider might have called the Harrington family
a wee bit crazy. Gyms across the region were offering massage
services, smoothie bars, and fleets of personal trainers. And GymIt
wouldn't have any of that. What did GymIt have? An understanding
of its core audience. Before launching its new gym, the brand did a
ton of listening to its primary market of gym-goers.
GymIt decided to simplify the gym-going experience for people
who predominantly cared about getting in and working out. The
copy in its launch campaign and across its marketing materials
reflects that understanding.
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 (Adapted from https://blog.hubspot.com/marketing/good-copywriting-practices-list)

WRITING
Now, it’s your turn! Think of 3 products: your favorite
toothbrush, app, gadget, whatever. Try to come up with about 2
different copies for each of them to really get your audience
interested! Make use of multimedia materials if you feel extra
creative.

Unit 6
Neuropsychology.
Brain and Behavior
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 Neuropsychology, a relatively new discipline within the field of
psychology, is the branch which is concerned with the study of the
structure of the brain and the effect that stimuli may have on the
nervous system and behaviour. Neuropsychology is especially useful
in the field of medicine; for example, a neuropsychologist may
analyze people's behaviour when they have taken specific drugs.

LISTENING
The lecture you are going to hear focuses on the problem of
drug dependency amongst teenagers and young people. Listen
carefully and take notes. Organize your information by using one of
the types of notes you learned about in Unit 2.

Your notes

READING
Answer the following questions after reading the text Your Brain
on Fiction. While reading, make sure to identify and underline key
words related to the field of neuropsychology (i.e. brain,
neuroscience, language processing areas of the brain, etc.)
1. What have researchers discovered recently, concerning the
areas of the brain that are involved in language processing?
2. What seems to be the main idea followed throughout the text?
3. What do you think the role of the second paragraph might be?
Offer a few details to explain.

52
 4. Why is the brain being compared, in the third paragraph of the
text, to a computer running a simulation?
5. What is ‘theory of mind’?
6. What does reading fiction seem to help do?

Your Brain on Fiction

Amid the squawks and pings of our digital devices, the old-
fashioned virtues of reading novels can seem faded, even futile. But
new support for the value of fiction is arriving from an unexpected
quarter: neuroscience. Brain scans are revealing what happens in
our heads when we read a detailed description, an evocative
metaphor or an emotional exchange between characters. Stories,
this research is showing, stimulate the brain and even change how
we act in life.
Researchers have long known that the “classical” language
regions, like Broca’s area and Wernicke’s area, are involved in how
the brain interprets written words. What scientists have come to
realize in the last few years is that narratives activate many other
parts of our brains as well, suggesting why the experience of
reading can feel so alive. Words like lavender, cinnamon and soap,
for example, elicit a response not only from the language-
processing areas of our brains, but also those devoted to dealing
with smells.
In a 2006 study published in the journal NeuroImage,
researchers in Spain asked participants to read words with strong
odour associations, along with neutral words, while their brains were
being scanned by a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
machine. When subjects looked at the Spanish words for perfume
and coffee, their primary olfactory cortex lit up; when they saw the
words that mean chair and key, this region remained dark. The way
the brain handles metaphors has also received extensive study;
some scientists have contended that figures of speech like “a rough
day” are so familiar that they are treated simply as words and no
more.
Last month, however, a team of researchers from Emory
University reported in Brain & Language that when subjects in their
laboratory read a metaphor involving texture, the sensory cortex,
responsible for perceiving texture through touch, became active.
Metaphors like “The singer had a velvet voice” and “He had leathery
hands” roused the sensory cortex, while phrases matched for
meaning, like “The singer had a pleasing voice” and “He had strong
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hands,” did not. Researchers have discovered that words describing
motion also stimulate regions of the brain distinct from language-
processing areas. In a study led by the cognitive scientist Véronique
Boulenger, of the Laboratory of Language Dynamics in France, the
brains of participants were scanned as they read sentences like
“John grasped the object” and “Pablo kicked the ball.” The scans
revealed activity in the motor cortex, which coordinates the body’s
movements. What’s more, this activity was concentrated in one part
of the motor cortex when the movement described was arm-related
and in another part when the movement concerned the leg.
The brain, it seems, does not make much of a distinction
between reading about an experience and encountering it in real
life; in each case, the same neurological regions are stimulated.
Keith Oatley, an emeritus professor of cognitive psychology at the
University of Toronto (and a published novelist), has proposed that
reading produces a vivid simulation of reality, one that “runs on
minds of readers just as computer simulations run on computers.”
Fiction — with its redolent details, imaginative metaphors and
attentive descriptions of people and their actions — offers an
especially rich replica. Indeed, in one respect novels go beyond
simulating reality to give readers an experience unavailable off the
page: the opportunity to enter fully into other people’s thoughts and
feelings. The novel, of course, is an unequalled medium for the
exploration of human social and emotional life. And there is
evidence that just as the brain responds to depictions of smells and
textures and movements as if they were the real thing, so it treats
the interactions among fictional characters as something like real-
life social encounters.
Raymond Mar, a psychologist at York University in Canada,
performed an analysis of 86 fMRI studies, published last year in the
Annual Review of Psychology, and concluded that there was
substantial overlap in the brain networks used to understand stories
and the networks used to navigate interactions with other
individuals — in particular, interactions in which we’re trying to
figure out the thoughts and feelings of others. Scientists call this
capacity of the brain to construct a map of other people’s intentions
“theory of mind.” Narratives offer a unique opportunity to engage
this capacity, as we identify with characters’ longings and
frustrations, guess at their hidden motives and track their
encounters with friends and enemies, neighbours and lovers.
It is an exercise that hones our real-life social skills, another
body of research suggests. Dr. Oatley and Dr. Mar, in collaboration
with several other scientists, reported in two studies, published in
2006 and 2009, that individuals who frequently read fiction seem to
be better able to understand other people, empathize with them
54
and see the world from their perspective. This relationship persisted
even after the researchers accounted for the possibility that more
empathetic individuals might prefer reading novels. A 2010 study by
Dr. Mar found a similar result in preschool-age children: the more
stories they had read to them, the keener their theory of mind — an
effect that was also produced by watching movies but, curiously,
not by watching television. (Dr. Mar has conjectured that because
children often watch TV alone, but go to the movies with their
parents, they may experience more “parent-children conversations
about mental states” when it comes to films.) Fiction, Dr. Oatley
notes, “is a particularly useful simulation because negotiating the
social world effectively is extremely tricky, requiring us to weigh up
myriad interacting instances of cause and effect. Just as computer
simulations can help us get to grips with complex problems such as
flying a plane or forecasting the weather, so novels, stories and
dramas can help us understand the complexities of social life.”
These findings will affirm the experience of readers who have
felt illuminated and instructed by a novel, who have found
themselves comparing a plucky young woman to Elizabeth Bennet
or a tiresome pedant to Edward Casaubon. Reading great
literature, it has long been averred, enlarges and improves us as
human beings. Brain science shows this claim is truer than we
imagined.
(Adapted from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/03/18/opinion/sunday/the-neuroscience-of-your-brain-on-
fiction.html)

ACADEMIC WRITING
Opinion Paragraph
The opinion paragraph starts with a clear and original view
point or attitude about a topic. Never use expressions such as “In my
opinion” or “I think”. You should directly start on with your opinion as
it is a truth. Instead of saying, “In my opinion life is worth living fully”
just write, “Life is worth living fully.”
Convincing as well as persuasive styles should be the most
common throughout the whole paragraph. An opinion without clear
and vigorous arguments that support and sustain it is not at all
inspiring for the reader. You should also bear in mind that
arguments are not new opinions, but only an attempt to support the
55
opinion with the most appropriate evidence. Therefore you should
be careful about the way the topic sentence is managed and
reinforced through logical, resistant and easy to assimilate
supporting details, namely arguments. Examples are the most
helpful tools to clarify and back up your arguments. They should be
positive statements aiming at bringing about the reader’s
involvement and understanding.
The concluding sentence, on the other hand, should not raise a
new opinion or present an open statement. It should be cautiously
dealt with in order to echo the whole paragraph or at least to
paraphrase the topic sentence.

MAIN TAKEAWAY
Write your own opinion paragraph on what you think the
greatest benefit of reading is. You might find this article useful “Is
Google Making Us Stupid?” in completing the task.

TEMĂ / ASSIGNMENT 1
Reading and Listening Quiz

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