Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
2013
th
the VI edition of INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE
Organizatori:
VOLUMUL LUCRRILOR
CONFERENCE PAPERS
Organizers:
Technical University of Civil Engineering of Bucharest,
Faculty of Railways, Roads and Bridges,
Department of Roads, Railways and Construction Materials
Department of Strength of Materials, Bridges and Tunnels
in conjunction with
Romanian National Company of Motorways and National Roads,
Professional Association of Roads and Bridges, Bucharest
Municipality of Bucharest,
CODATU Romania
CONSPRESS BUCURETI
PARTENER MEDIA / MEDIA PARTNER
2013
VOLUMUL LUCRRILOR
CONFERENCE PAPERS
e-proceedings
656.11
Carte universitar
CONSPRESS
B-dul Lacul Tei nr.124, sector 2,
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Tel.: (021) 242 2719 / 300; Fax: (021) 242 0781
CONFERINA TIINIFIC INTERNAIONAL INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE
Cercetare, Administrare Rutier, CAR 2013 2013
Road Research and Administration, CAR 2013
Bucureti, 4-5 iulie 2013 Bucharest, 4-5 July 2013
ORGANIZATORI / ORGANIZERS
CODATU Romnia/Romania
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2013
Preedinte/ Chairman:
Carmen RCNEL Assoc.prof., Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Romania
Membri/ Members:
Ion ROBU Prof., Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Romania
Anghel TNSESCU President A.P.D.P. Bucharest
Andrei OLTEANU Lecturer, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Romania
tefan Marian LAZR Lecturer, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Romania
Adrian BURLACU Lecturer, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Romania
Claudia PETCU Lecturer, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Romania
Mihai Gabriel LOBAZ Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Romania
Marian DARABAN Assist., Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Romania
Ionu PUNESCU Assist., Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Romania
Alina BURLACU PhD stud., Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Romania
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PARTENERI / PARTNERS
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2013
TEHCON Edilitare&Infrastructur
SPONSORI / SPONSORS
CADEXPERT NET
spotless and spot-on
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BUN VENIT
Domeniul infrastructurii transporturilor rutiere este un domeniu de mare interes n care cel
puin n Romnia se preconizeaz investiii majore din cauza unei reele de drumuri ce nu satisface
necesitile actuale de transport mai ales la capitolul autostrzi i drumuri expres dar i n ceea ce
privete unele drumuri naionale i judeene care prezint ntr-un anumit procent structuri rutiere cu
durata de serviciu depit.
Infrastructura transporturilor rutiere cuprinde att drumurile naionale, judeene, comunale,
strzile, platformele i parcajele ct i lucrrile subterane, podurile i pasajele rutiere i pietonale,
fiecare din ele cu problemele sale specifice de proiectare, execuie i ntreinere, toate ns avnd
implicaii asupra mediului nconjurtor.
Plecnd de la acestea am considerat c este oportun organizarea unei conferine
internaionale care s conduc la dezbateri ce pot realiza legtura ntre teme de cercetare, metode de
investigare pe teren i laborator a calitii materialelor rutiere, probleme de proiectare, sigurana
circulaiei i gestionarea activitii din domeniul infrastructurii de transport rutier pe baz de strategii
i alocri bugetare eficiente.
Astfel a luat fiin Conferina tiinific Internaional CERCETARE I ADMINISTRARE
RUTIER CAR 2013, ediia a VI-a, primele cinci ediii desfaurndu-se anual la nivel naional.
Conferina CAR 2013 este organizat de Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucuresi
Facultatea de Ci Ferate, Drumuri i Poduri Departamentul de Drumuri, Materiale de Construcii i
Departamentul de Rezistena Materialelor, Poduri i Tuneluri n colaborare cu Compania Naional de
Autostrzi i Drumuri Naionale din Romnia, Asociaia Profesional de Drumuri i Poduri, filiala
Bucureti, Primria General a Municipiului Bucureti i CODATU Romnia.
Tematica conferinei este mprit pe trei seciuni: drumuri, poduri i geotehnic, acoperind
arii diverse: cercetare n domeniul infrastructurii de transport, tehnologii noi utilizate n domeniul
infrastructurii de transport, ntreinerea i administrarea lucrrilor de infrastructur n transporturi,
inginerie de trafic i sigurana circulaiei, proiectarea lucrrilor de infrastructur n transporturi,
impactul lucrrilor de infrastructur asupra mediului.
n total pentru conferin s-au primit 145 de rezumate i au fost n final publicate 111 lucrari
in extenso n format electronic pe stick de memorie i sub form de rezumat n volumul tiprit.
Lucrrile se ncadreaz n tematica conferinei iar aprecierile acestora sunt evideniate n rapoartele de
recenzie ale membrilor comitetului tiinific.
n mod special aduc mulumiri pe aceasta cale profesorilor care au acceptat s prezinte
prelegeri n plenul conferinei dar i membrilor comitetului tiinific care au recenzat lucrrile i fr
de care nu s-ar fi putut realiza acest volum.
De asemenea, mulumirile mele sunt aduse membrilor comitetului de organizare care au depus
eforturi susinute pentru a asigura succesul acestei conferine.
Deosebite mulumiri prezint partenerilor i sponsorilor notri care si-au adus contributia la
organizarea i buna desfurare a acestei conferine.
Nu n ultimul rnd doresc s mulumesc autorilor i expozanilor care au ridicat nivelul
conferinei prin caracterul tiinific al lucrrilor lor.
EDITOR
Carmen RCNEL
Preedintele Comitetului de Organizare
Bucureti, Iulie 2013
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2013
WELCOME
Road transport infrastructure field is an area of great interest in which at least in Romania
major investment is expected because of a network of roads that do not meet current needs,
particularly in terms of highways and expressways but also in terms of national roads and county roads
which showing a certain percentage of pavements with service life exceeded.
Road transport infrastructure includes both highways, county, municipal streets, platforms and
car parks and underground works, road and pedestrian bridges and passages, each of them with its
specific problems of design, construction and maintenance, but having environmental implications.
Based on these, we considered as an opportunity to organize an international conference that
will lead to debates that can interconnects the research themes, field and laboratory investigations
methods of the road materials quality, design problems, road safety and road infrastructure
management based on strategies and efficient budget allocations.
Thus was born the International Scientific Conference ROAD RESEARCH AND
ADMINISTRATION CAR 2013, sixth edition, the first five editions took place annually at national
level.
CAR 2013 Conference is organized by Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest
Faculty of Railways, Roads and Bridges Department of Roads, Railways and Construction
Materials and Department of Strength of Materials, Bridges and Tunnels in conjunction with
Romanian National Company of Motorways and National Roads, Professional Associations of Roads
and Bridges Bucharest, Municipality of Bucharest and CODATU Romania.
Conference topics is divided in three sections: roads, bridges and geotechnical engineering
covering different areas: research in transport infrastructure field, new technologies in transport
infrastructure field, transport infrastructure administration and maintenance, traffic engineering and
road safety, transport infrastructure design, environmental impact of infrastructure works.
We have received 145 abstracts and 111 papers were published finally on electronic memory
stick and summary form in printed volume. The papers are in conference topics and their findings are
highlighted in the review reports of the Scientific Committee members.
I sincerely express my gratitude especially for keynote speakers who agreed to present plenary
lectures and for members of Scientific Committee who reviewed scientific papers and without this
volume doesnt exists.
Also, present my thanks to the members of the organizing committee who worked hardly to
ensure the success of this conference.
Special thanks to our partners and sponsors for their contribution that made the organization of
the conference possible.
Finaly I would like to thank the authors and exhibitors for their high scientific level
contribution.
EDITOR
Carmen RCNEL
Chairman
Bucharest, July 2013
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CUPRINS/ Content
Podul peste Rul Tisa la Sighetu Marmaiei/ The bridge over the River Tisa 97
in Sighetu Marmaiei,
Florea SABIN
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The analysis of dynamic Haversine excitations for the asphalt mixture 198
samples using the Cooper device,
Polidor BRATU, Patricia MURZEA, Mircea ARSENE
Noi tipuri de aditivi pentru bitumuri romneti/ New type of additives for 245
romanian bitumens,
Mariana GEORGESCU, Marin RADU, Georgeta GRSC,
Florin BELC, Ileana STELEA, Carmen RCNEL, Horaiu
SIMION, Mihai C. GEORGESCU
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Warm mix asphalt pentru suprafeele aeroportuare/ Warm mix asphalt 311
for airport use,
Claudia PETCU, Carmen RCNEL
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The quality of mixing in mixers with bars and radial and longitudinal 411
scrapers,
Serghei ANDRIEVSCHI, Valeriu LUNGU, Ala CARCEA,
Alexandru LOZAN
Tehnologii noi realizate n domniul rutier din Republica Moldova/ New 430
technologies in road infrastructure field from Republic of Moldova,
Andrei CUCULESU, Andrei ABABII
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Asisten tehnic pentru elaborarea unui master plan general de transport 544
pentru Romnia/ Technical support for development of general
transportation master plan for Romania,
Ionu TUDOROIU
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Quantifing the benefits from a major infrastructure improvement: The case 641
of Thessaloniki Western Ring Road upgrade to eliminate at grade signalised
intersections,
Marios D. MILTIADOU, Efstathios BOUHOURAS
The time-space approach in the analysis of traffic safety on rural road, 686
Svetlana BAKALI, Boko MATOVI, Anja BAI
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The analysis of low noise protection barriers influence on tram traffic noise 909
levels,
Maja AHAC, Stjepan LAKUI, Saa AHAC, Vesna
DRAGEVI
Studiu privind evaluarea zgomotului din trafic pentru o arter principal din 936
aglomerarea Cluj-Napoca/ Traffic noise evaluating study for a main street
from Cluj Napoca agglomeration,
Mihai ILIESCU, Mirela I. BECA
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Viscoelastic model for the rigid body vibrations of a viaduct depending on 989
the support devices rheological model,
Polidor BRATU, Ovidiu VASILE
Dynamic response at test actions with rolling shocks over thresholds in the 1008
case of the viaduct on the Transilvania highway,
Polidor BRATU, Ovidiu VASILE
Prbuirea progresiv cum, cnd, de ce/ Progessive collapse how, when, 1026
why,
Carmen BUCUR
Experimental and numerical evaluation of local scour around a bridge pier, 1038
Eduard-George CRCIUN, Anton ANTON
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Ruperea prin coroziune a fasciculelor din srme de oel, paralele/ Damage 1061
by corrosion of parallel steel wire bundles,
Constantin CRISTESCU
Analiza pe etape de execuie a unui pod hobanat/ Execution phases analysis 1080
for cable-stayed bridge,
Ionu PUNESCU, Ionu Radu RCNEL
Modele numerice folosite pentru proiectarea unui nou pasaj superior cu arce 1098
n apropierea localitii Deva/ Numerical models used to design a new arch
overpass near Deva village,
Aramis Cristian PREDA, Titi TOMA, Ionu PUNESCU, Ionu
Radu RCNEL
ncercarea dinamic a unui pod rutier peste Canalul Dunre-Marea Neagr/ 1119
Dynamic testing of a road bridge over Danube-Black Sea Channel,
Cristian Lucian GHINDEA, Radu CRUCIAT, Dan CREU
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Proiectarea noului pod cu arce de la Mioveni/ The design of a new arch 1162
bridge at Mioveni,
Alexandru DIMA, Ionu Radu RCNEL
Balanced cantilever girder bridge over the Danube-Black Sea Channel, 1195
Aldo GIORDANO, Giorgio PEDRAZZI, Giovanni VOIRO
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Soluii tehnice pentru reabilitarea/ nlocuirea podurilor peste Olt la Slatina i 1271
respectiv peste Siret la Cosmeti/ Technical solutions for the
rehabilitation/replacement of Slatina bridge over Olt and Cosmeti bridge
over Siret,
Cristian VLCU, Mihai PREDESCU, Mihi PETRE
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Stability analysis for landslide in unstable areas that affect roads, 1332
Cristina SPNU
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PRELEGERI/ Keynote lectures
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Ronald BLAB, Chair of Road and Airfield Engineering, Faculty of Civil Engineering,
Vienna University of Technology, Austria
Abstract
Keywords: hot mix asphalt, performance test, mix design, mechanical pavement design
1. INTRODUCTION
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2.1. Background
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The target parameters, which are found by TSRST, are the fracture
temperature (Tcrack) and the corresponding fracture stress (crack). An illustration
of the test procedure of the TSRST is given in Figure 1.
strain
fracture
time temperature
stress
tensile
strength
reserve
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AC
z
y (a) normal stress y
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The computations show clearly that at low temperatures the tensile strains
at the top of the pavement in a distance of app. 0.6 to 0.9 m from the load axis
are higher than those occurring at the bottom of the flexible pavement
underneath the load. These may lead to top down cracking if the actual tensile
strength is reached. However, the stress situation at the layer interface at the
joint between the SMA and the AC layer is even higher and may reach the
fatigue strength and induce crack propagation.
-15.0
SMA 11 PmB 45/80-65 (slag)
-17.0
AC 32 base PmB 45/80-65
-19.0 AC 32 base PmB 25/55-65
-21.0 AC 22 binder PmB 45/80-65
Tcrack (C)
-23.0
-25.0
-27.0
-29.0
-31.0
-33.0
-35.0
3.8 4.3 4.8 5.3 5.8
bitumen content [m-%]
Figure 4. TSRST fracture temperature vs. bitumen content
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3.1. Background
All different types of EN test methods are used to derive basically two
material characteristics: the materials stiffness, expressed by the variation of the
complex asphalt modulus (E*(T)) over time, and the long-term fatigue behavior,
expressed by the number of permissible load repetitions (Nperm).
The initial stiffness modulus E*(T) of the unloaded material can be
determined on the basis of specimen geometry and load impulse and
simultaneous measurement of the resulting strains by strain sensors. The
stiffness is calculated from the quotient of the applied maximum stress and the
resulting maximum strain, which is time-shifted by the corresponding phase
displacement angle () as a result of the viscoelastic material behavior of asphalt
(Figure 5).
Traditional fatigue criterion of asphalt concrete is linked to the number of
load-cycles giving half the initial stiffness. The comparison of modulus and the
number of load repetitions is plotted as so-called Whler curve. The Whler
curve gives important information for the derivation of fundamental
relationships between mix composition and stiffness properties and serves as
input for material and pavement structure optimization.
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Figure 6. 4PBBT & DTCT equipment used for stiffness and fatigue testing [1]
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For the prediction of the fatigue damage long term tests under repeated
dynamic loading are performed. Such tests can be carried out under stress or
strain controlled conditions providing typical fatigue curves as given for
example in Figure 8 for hot mix asphalt (HMA) AC 22 at 10 Hz and 20 C.
From such curves the permissible load repetitions (Nperm) are obtained to
describe the theoretical life time within an analytically based pavement design
method on the basis of fatigue laws.
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Stiffness master curves of HMA and fatigue curves are main input
parameters for mechanistic methods of thickness design for flexible and semi
rigid pavements.
But within the described laboratory fatigue tests such as the DTCT or the
4PBBT inside the asphalt specimen a more or less uniaxial stress or strain
condition prevails. However, the stress condition in a flexible pavement during
the passing of a wheel is a 3-dimensional (3D) and rather complex one. For
reliable life time predictions a transformation of the computed 3D stress
situation into an equivalent uniaxial stress situation as simulated during the
fatigue tests in the laboratory is therefore necessary. This can be achieved either
by means of so-called shift factors, which relate the allowable load repetitions
derived from the laboratory fatigue tests with the fatigue damage observed in the
field on the basis of empirical correlations, or by means of a material strength
hypothesis, that enables the stress/strain transformation on an analytical,
theoretical basis. The later is utilized within the Austrian pavement design
method (Figure 9).
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Although HMA fatigue are most time consuming and expensive performance
tests they provide substantial information for pavement design and the optimum
binder content of the HMA base layer, where the maximum tensile strains due to
traffic loading occurs. Figure 10 gives an example of the effect of higher binder
content on the fatigue of HMA. At specific strain levels ( permissible number
of load cycles (Nperm) significantly increase with higher binder content. This may
lead to a rich-bottom mix that is defined as having a binder content that is up to
0.5 m-% higher than the optimum binder content according to the traditional
Marshal mix design. Rich-bottom design increases the fatigue life of the
pavement structure when compared to the conventional pavement structure.
Fatigue tests in combination with economic analysis can prove a cost-effective
design for pavement structures with higher HMA binder content of the base
layer.
15
10
5
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
strain log (. 10-4)
Figure 10. Fatigue curves of AC 32 base HMA type vs. binder content
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4.1. Background
The triaxial cyclic compression test TCCT was implemented into the
series of harmonized European Standards for testing of HMA to assess the
resistance to permanent deformation at high temperatures (rutting). The standard
test procedure consists of a cyclic dynamic axial loading A(t) to simulate a tire
passing a pavement structure and a radial confining pressure c to consider the
confinement of the material within the pavement structure. The axial loading
A(t) can either be shaped as a sinusoidal function (Figure 11a) or a block-
impulse (Figure 11b).
The standard states that the confining pressure C can either be held
constant or oscillate dynamically without providing more specific information.
However, The TCCT recommended for performance testing is loaded by a
sinusoidal axial at a constant confinement loading, respectively.
Figure 12 shows a triaxial testing cell used for permanent deformation
tests on HMA. A servo-hydraulic regulated and programmable machine with
two independent servo-channels is necessary one to drive the axial loads and the
other one for confining pressure. It is possible to run both static tests, i.e. creep
tests, and dynamic tests even with dynamic, oscillating confining pressure.
The axial strain N = ax(n) is determined for the complete test and drawn
in a load-cycle-strain diagram with linear scale for both axes. The resulting
creep curve shows two characteristic phases: a primary non linear and a
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secondary creep phase with a quasi-constant incline of the creep curve. The
creep rate fc in micrometer per meter per load cycle (m/m/n) can now be
determined as incline of the linear approximation function that is fitted to the
quasi-linear part of the creep curve (Figure 13).
Figure 12. Main elements of a triaxial cell used for permanent deformation tests
[1]
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-5
-2
-1
AC11 surf 70/100
AC11 surf PmB 45/80-65
0
0 5000 10000 15000 20000
Load numbers n [-]
Figure 13. Creep curves for HMA type AC 11 surface with two different of
binders
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binder layer and 0,12 m conventional asphalt base layer. For the simulation of
specific climatic conditions at the site under consideration representative
temperature distributions in the flexible layers are considered within the
computations. Heavy vehicle traffic is simulated by 4 .105 loadings of a 100 kN
standard axle load (ESAL). Vehicle speed can be related to the frequency of the
dynamic axial loading during the material test, e.g. about 3 Hz for creep speed at
a cross section area.
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limestone). Depicted is the derived creep rate drawn against the HMA binder
content. It is demonstrated that both the binder content and the stone type clearly
influences the susceptibility of permanent deformation of the mix.
For each HMA type a typical optimum binder content exists, where the
creep rate fc becomes a minimum. According to the previous experience this
optimum binder content derived from the performance based TCCT is about 0.3
to 0.1 m-% lower then the binder content found by the traditional Marshal mix
design method.
binder content [m.-%]
3.9 4.2 4.5 4.8 5.1 5.4
0.00
AC 22 binder PmB 25/45-65 - steel slag
AC 22 binder PmB 25/45-65 - steel slag & basalt
-0.05 AC 22 binder PmB 25/45-65 - limestone
creep fc [m/m/n]
-0.10
-0.15
-0.20
-0.25
Figure 15. creep rate from TCCT vs. binder content
5. CONCLUSIONS
Road constructions today should last longer and endure high traffic loads
under challenging climatic conditions. Moreover, traffic densities, axle loads
and tire pressures will continue to increase during the next years and decades.
To guarantee a long life cycle of flexible and semi rigid pavement structures the
optimization of pavement materials in general and bituminous mixtures in
particular is getting more and more important in order to avoid damages and
subsequently minimize costs for road construction and maintenance.
Therefore prediction of in-service performance of road pavements during
their live time is one of the main challenges of pavement research these days.
For flexible pavements the key performance characteristics are fatigue and low-
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REFERENCES
[2]. Di Benedetto H., Partl, M. N., Francken, L., and De La Roche, C.: Stiffness Testing
for Bituminous Mixtures. Journal of Materials and Structures, Vol. 34, 2001.
[3]. Hofko B., Blab R. and Mader M.: Impact of Air Void Content on the Viscoelastic
Behavior of Hot Mix Asphalt, Proceedings of the 2nd Intern. Workshop on 4PBBT,
University of California, CA, 2012.
[4]. Spiegl M., Wistuba M., Lackner R. and Blab R.: Risk assessment of low-
temperature cracking of asphalt an experimental study. 11th International
Conference on Fracture Mechanics, Turin (Italy), 2005.
[5]. Findley W. N., Kasif O. and Lai J.: Creep and Relaxation of Nonlinear Viscoelastic
Materials, Dover Publications Inc., 1989.
[6]. Francken, L. and Clauwaert C.: Charcterization and structural assessment of bound
materials for flexible road structures. Proceedings of the 6th international
conference on structural design of asphalt pavements, Vol. 1, Ann Arbor, 1987.
[7]. Blab, R. and Harvey J.T.: Viscoelastic Rutting Model with Improved Loading
Assumptions. Proceedings. 9th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements, Ed.
International Society for Asphalt Pavements (ISAP), Copenhagen, 2002.
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Abstract
Reflective cracking is a major concern for engineers facing the problem of road
maintenance and rehabilitation. The problem appears due to the presence of cracks in the old
pavement layers that propagate into the pavement overlay layer when traffic load passes over
the cracks and due to the temperature variation. The stress concentration in the overlay just
above the existing cracks is responsible for the appearance and crack propagation throughout
the overlay. The analysis of the reflective cracking phenomenon is usually made by numerical
modeling simulating the presence of cracks in the existing pavement and the stress
concentration in the crack tip is assessed to predict either the cracking propagation rate or the
expected fatigue life of the overlay. Numerical modeling to study reflective cracking is made
by simulating one crack in the existing pavement and the loading is usually applied
considering the shear mode of crack opening. Sometimes the simulation considers the mode I
of crack opening, mainly when temperature effects are predominant.
1. REFLECTIVE CRACKING
Overlays are the most commonly used method for rehabilitating cracked
pavements. However, they often do not perform as expected because of existing
cracks that propagate through the newly constructed overlay within a short
period of time [1]. This problem is called reflective cracking and is well
identified when an overlay shows a crack pattern identical to that existing in the
old pavement. When an overlay is placed on a cracked pavement, the cracks in
the old pavement surface will propagate through the overlay and will appear in
the surface.
Reflective cracking is caused by thermal contraction, by repeated traffic
loads, or by a combination of these mechanisms. In addition, the temperature
dependent stiffness of the materials and flaws in the overlay (i.e. built-in cracks
during construction) as reported by Halim et al [2] can have an important effect.
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2. CRACK ACTIVITY
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Horizontal
LVDT
Vertical
LVDT
Stopper
Brass
Plate
Pavement
Crack
The work developed by Pais [3] reports the evaluation of the crack
activity before overlay on16 cracked cross sections of flexible pavements, with
500m long, in the Portuguese road network. 13 transversal cracks and 11
longitudinal cracks were analyzed. The typical crack activity for a longitudinal
crack is shown in Figure 2 while Figure 3 shows the typical crack activity for
transversal cracks. Horizontal positive values represent opening of the crack
while negative values represent crack closing.
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Bituminous
Granular
Longitudinal Crack
Subgrade 4733
4145
3557
2969
2381
1793
1820
1205 4732
4705 1232
4117 4144
3556
3529
2968
2941
2380
2353
1792
1765
617
644
1204
1177
29
56
616
589
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 24 25 26 27 28
18
23
19 20 21 22
Figure 4. Finite element model to simulate the crack activity before overlay
It has been demonstrated by Pais [3] that the most important component
of the crack activity is the relative vertical displacement. This is because after an
overlay the horizontal displacements are reduced to extremely small values due
to the strength of the asphalt layers. Because it is difficult to measure stresses in
cracked pavements or overlays and it is relatively simple to measure crack
activity, a model was developed to evaluate to which extent the same basic
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principles and models being developed for the determination of the stresses in
overlays could predict the vertical crack activity.
Using the 3D finite element model, the vertical crack activity before
overlay was calculated to fit in a statistical model and the Equation [1] was
obtained.
Table 1. Coefficients for the model to predict the vertical crack activity before
overlay
Coefficient a b c d e f
Value 11.773 -21.388 -52.893 -94.619 -16.418 1181.66
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5265 5292
4677
Overlay 4089
3501
2913
3528
2940
4704
4116
Granular 1737
1764
1149
1176
1793
1820
561 588
281
4705 1205 4732
1232
4117 4144
3556
3529 2968
2941
141 2380
2353
1792
1765
617 57
644
1204
1177
29 56
589 616
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 24 25 26 27 28
23
19 20 21 22
Using the 3D finite element model, the vertical crack activity after overlay
(VCAAO) was calculated to fit in a statistical model given by Equation 2.
where:
6
a a1i * ln X i a2i (3)
i 1
6
b b1i * ln X i b2i (4)
i 1
Table 2. Statistical coefficients for vertical crack activity after overlay model
i Xi a1i a2i b1i b2i
1 Cracked thickness (m) -1.190E-01 -1.286E+00 6.065E-02 -8.820E-01
2 Granular thickness (m) 4.940E-01 -3.279E+00 4.751E-03 2.967E-01
3 Overlay modulus (MPa) -2.885E-01 2.945E+00 -8.227E-03 1.457E+00
4 Cracked modulus (MPa) 1.734E-01 -6.342E-01 -1.826E-01 3.036E+00
5 Granular modulus (MPa) -9.188E-03 6.512E-01 -1.051E-01 1.465E+00
6 Subgrade modulus (MPa) -5.246E-01 4.856E+00 3.770E-02 9.037E-01
The crack activity after overlay can be used to evaluate the reflective
cracking fatigue life of the overlay by applying those movements to the asphalt
mixture simulating the pavement overlay. Sousa et al [4] developed a Reflective
Cracking Device (RCD) represented in Figure 8 which fit a cylindrical or
rectangular specimen to be subject to vertical and horizontal movements
representing the crack activity after overlay.
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Vertical actuator
Horizontal
actuator
Specimen
The RCD represents the crack zone of the pavement overlay (Figure 9)
that is subjected to the horizontal and vertical movements which leads to the
cracking propagation from the old pavement to the new pavement layers.
Overlay layer
Specimen
Cracked Cracked
layer layer
Crack
F
S L. H (5)
w
where S = equivalent stiffness in crack zone;
F = measured force;
= applied displacement;
L = crack length (i.e. specimen length);
H = specimen height;
w = crack width.
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The AASHTO TP8-94 standard test defines the fatigue life for flexural
beam specimens when the specimen stiffness is reduced to 50% of the initial
stiffness. For this study, the fatigue life can be defined as the number of load
cycles to reach 50% of the initial equivalent stiffness in crack zone.
A reflective cracking fatigue model can be established using a linear
regression between logarithm of fatigue life, log N, and the logarithm of
displacement, log , defined as follows:
b
1
N a (6)
where N = fatigue life;
= crack activity after overlay;
a, b = experimentally determined coefficients.
Using the equivalent stiffness in the crack zone to analyze the reflective
cracking, two types of stiffness evolution can be found during the test. The most
usual stiffness evolution found in these tests was the logarithmic law (Figure 10)
but in some tests an exponential law (Figure 11) was found.
38000
Equivalent Stiffness in
36000
crack zone (kPa)
34000
32000
30000
28000
26000
24000
22000
20000
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Cycles
Figure 10. Logarithmic evolution of equivalent stiffness in crack zone
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14000
Equivalent Stiffness in
13000
crack zone (kPa)
12000
11000
10000
9000
8000
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Cycles
Figure 11. Exponential evolution of equivalent stiffness in crack zone
100000
Fatigue life (cycles)
6 cm
10000
5 cm
1000
100
0.1 1
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VM
1
2
1 2 2 1 3 2 2 3 2 (7)
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The statistical model developed for the Von Mises strain can predict the
values calculated using the 3D FEM as can be observed in Figure 14, where the
residual (difference between the strain calculated using the FEM and the
predicted by the statistical model) is relatively small for all results.
20
15
10
(FEM - Model) / FEM
5
Residual (%)
0
-5
-10
-15
-20
-25
-30
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Figure 14. Difference between FEM values and statistical values (residual) for
Von Mises strain
The use of the Von Mises strain in the design of pavement overlays can be
done by two different approaches. In the first approach, the RCD can be used by
applying a vertical displacement to the specimen which corresponds to the Von
Mises strain for the overlay thickness to be studied. In the second approach, the
Von Mises strain can be applied in a typical flexural fatigue test in which the
tensile strain applied to the beam is given by:
VM 1 1 (11)
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The adopted mesh was designed also for study of the reflective cracking
phenomenon due to the traffic loading and represents an existing pavement,
where a crack is simulated through an element with zero-stiffness, and a layer on
top of the existing pavement representing an overlay. This mesh was described
in other works by Minhoto et al [8] and [9].
The finite element model used in numerical thermal analysis was
performed using a general finite elements analysis source code, ANSYS 7.0.
This analysis is a 3-D transient analysis, using a standard finite element
discretization, in space. In the design of the thermal finite-element mesh, the
compatibility of mesh with other mechanical models was observed.
The designed mesh has 13538 elements. For three-dimensional thermal
analysis, 3-D solid element, SOLID70, was used. This element, applicable to a
three-dimensional transient thermal analysis, has capability for three-
dimensional thermal conduction, according with previous explanation. The
element has eight nodes with a single degree of freedom, defined as temperature,
at each node.
The thermal properties of pavement material, such as thermal
conductivity, specific heat and density, for each pavement layer, were defined in
the material properties of this element, when the model was developed.
The main goal of this study is to show the good accuracy temperature
prediction that can be obtained with the model when compared to the field
pavement thermal condition.
Firstly, a FEM numerical analysis for the temperature distribution in a
pavement of a trial section was performed for the weather conditions (air
temperature, solar radiation and wind speed) during one year [7]. The model
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30
28 0.125 m
Calculated
26 Observed
24
Temperature (C)
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Hours
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60
0.125 m
50
Pavement temperature (C)
40
30
20
10
-10
4
04
04
4
04
04
04
4
4
-0
-0
-0
-0
r-0
-0
l-0
g-
p-
b-
n-
n-
ay
ov
ec
ar
ct
Ju
Ap
Au
Se
Ja
Fe
Ju
O
M
D
Month
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0.0005
0.00045
0.0004
0.00035
0.0003
Traffic+T.V.
VM
0.00025 Traffic(130KN)
Temp. Var.
0.0002
0.00015
0.0001
0.00005
0
31-Dez
6-Nov
17-Nov
27-Nov
7-Dez
18-Dez
28-Dez
4-Mai
14-Mai
24-Mai
5-Jul
15-Jul
26-Jul
10-Jan
21-Jan
31-Jan
4-Jun
14-Jun
24-Jun
2-Mar
13-Mar
23-Mar
11-Fev
21-Fev
5-Set
15-Set
26-Set
6-Out
17-Out
27-Out
5-Ago
15-Ago
26-Ago
2-Abr
13-Abr
23-Abr
hours
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45000000
40000000
35000000
Hourly predicted pavement life
30000000
25000000
Traffic+T.V.
Traffic(130KN)
20000000
15000000
10000000
5000000
0
31-Dez
3-Nov
13-Nov
23-Nov
3-Dez
14-Dez
24-Dez
2-Mai
12-Mai
23-Mai
3-Jul
13-Jul
23-Jul
10-Jan
21-Jan
31-Jan
2-Jun
12-Jun
22-Jun
2-Mar
12-Mar
22-Mar
10-Fev
20-Fev
2-Ago
13-Ago
23-Ago
2-Set
12-Set
23-Set
3-Out
13-Out
23-Out
1-Abr
12-Abr
22-Abr
hours
5. MULTI-CRACKS MODELING
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through the new overlay. The models used only considered the traffic influence
simulating mode I and II of crack opening by applying the load above the crack
and adjacent to the crack.
Since then, the numerical modeling has been used in the assessment of
reflective cracking by different methods. Paulino et al [13] applied a cohesive
zone fracture model to simulate crack initiation and propagation in asphalt
concrete using intrinsic constitutive laws to connect traditional finite elements to
simulate localized damage and softening behavior. Nesnas and Nunn [14] used a
finite element model with multi-cracks to investigate the top-down cracking in
cement treated base pavements.
More recently, Wu and Harvey [15] developed a finite element model to
evaluate the performance of several asphalt mixes that contain binders with
recycled rubber. The mechanistic model was based on non-local continuum
damage mechanics and the finite element method and the damage evolution law
parameters were identified using laboratory fatigue test data. The finite element
model was the first model used in the reflective cracking analysis that was
created with multiple cracks, simulating the alligator cracking in the existing
pavements before the placement of a pavement overlay.
However, these studies did not investigate the influence of the existence
of multiple cracks or the influence of the spacing between cracks in the
evaluation of the reflective cracking. This subject takes a significant importance
because cracked pavements, mainly the flexible pavements, usually present
multiple cracks (alligator cracks) before the pavement overlaying.
Thus, this paper aims to study the influence of the existence of multiple
cracks in finite element models on reflective cracking. This influence is assessed
by the state of stress and strain in the pavement overlay, just above the existing
cracks in the old pavement.
This effort consisted of developing a 2D finite element model which was
created, using the plain strain mode, in which 10 cracks were modeled in the
cracked layer and spaced 10 cm from each other. The model has the ability to
easily change the crack spacing, the elimination of some cracks to create any
configuration of cracking with any cracking spacing, from a pavement with only
one crack to a pavement up to 10 cracks.
The application of this model resulted in creating different cracking
configurations to study the influence of crack spacing on the reflective cracking
phenomenon. The study investigated three different overlay configurations: 10,
20 and 30 cm overlay thicknesses over an existing cracked pavement.
Pais et al [16] developed a 2D finite elements model to study the presence
of multi-cracks in the reflective cracking behavior. The model has a pavement
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One of the objectives of this work was to evaluate the difference between
modeling of multiples cracks as compared to a single crack. This can be
observed by the representation of the Von Mises strain presented in Figure 22
and 23, respectively for a pavement with only one crack modeled and the
pavement with 10 cm spaced cracks. The analysis of these figures shows the
difference between the state of strain in the overlay associated with the presence
of either a single or multiple cracks. The difference is also visible in the state of
strain above the existing cracks which is responsible for the reflective cracking.
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Figure 22. Von Mises strain in a pavement with a single crack (#3)
The first analysis of this study of carried out for the cases of single cracks.
For these cases, the strain level in the pavement with 10 cm thickness overlay is
indicated in Figure 24, where Ex represents the horizontal strain, Ey represents
the vertical strain, Exy represents the shear strain and the Evm represents the
Von Mises shear strain. The analysis of single crack modeling indicates that the
vertical strain is almost constant when cracks below the load (1, 2 and 3) are
modeled. Also, for the other cracks, the vertical strain is constant. In terms of
horizontal, shear and Von Mises strain, they increase as the cracks moves away
from the load but after crack 4 the strain level reduces significantly, except for
the horizontal strain. This analysis shows that when only one crack is modeled,
that should be the crack 4, which is 10 cm away from the load. Usually, the
modeling of a single crack simulating the mode II of crack opening is simulated
by crack 3, which is around 20% less them the strain level above crack 4.
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Figure 24. Strain in the overlay for models with only one crack
Figure 25. Influence of overlay thickness of Von Mises strain for single crack
The analysis of 10 cm spaced cracks (Figure 26) shows that, for this crack
spacing, the consideration of multiple cracks is unfavorable, i.e, produces von
Mises strains lesser that the one obtained when only one crack is modeled.
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Figure 26. Influence of overlay thickness of Von Mises strain for 10 cm crack
spacing
Figure 27. Von Mises strain in the overlay for 50 cm crack spacing
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6. CONCLUSIONS
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REFERENCES
[3] J. PAIS, The reflective cracking in flexible pavement overlay design (in
Portuguese), Ph. D. Thesis, University of Minho, Portugal, 1999.
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Thomas Ummenhofer*, Head of Department, Chair for Steel Structures, Univ.-Prof. Dr.-
Ing., email: thomas.ummenhofer@kit.edu
Philipp Weidner*, Research Assistant, Dipl.-Ing., email: philipp.weidner@kit.edu
Tim Zinke*, Research Assistant, Dipl.-Ing. Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing., email: tim.zinke@kit.edu
*KIT Steel and Lightweight Structures, Research Center for Steel, Timber and Masonry, Tel.
+49 721 608 42215, Otto-Ammann-Platz 1,5 & 7, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
Abstract
Numerous studies at KIT prove that high frequency mechanical impact (HFMI)
treatment is an efficient method for increasing the fatigue strength of welded steel structures.
Within different research projects it was found that HFMI-methods can be used successfully
for new and existing structures in order to extend the fatigue life. This paper gives an
overview of the current status of existing steel bridges in Germany regarding aspects like
bridge age distributions and traffic loads. Based on that overview welded joints susceptible to
fatigue failure are identified. Using component-like small scale specimens, HFMI-methods
were investigated within the objective of implementing an effective application for new and
existing structures. Applying the fatigue test data observed, existing design proposals are
evaluated and design recommendations for HFMI-treated joints are given. As a result of the
research work, a transfer into practice has been realized and different applications are
illustrated using the example of bridge constructions made of steel.
1. INTRODUCTION
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KIT (Karlsruhe Institute of Technology; Research Center for Steel, Timber and
Masonry), it was proven that the fatigue life of new and existing structures can
be considerably increased by the application of high frequency mechanical
impact (HFMI) treatment [10-12, 17]. Due to the application of HFMI-methods
such as High Frequency Impact Treatment (HiFIT), the weld toe is plastically
deformed and compressive residual stresses are inserted in the weld toe region
[13, 15]. This leads to a retarded crack initiation and propagation [16], resulting
in a higher fatigue strength and an extension of fatigue or service life. The
HiFIT-device and -treatment of a welded joint is shown in Figure 1.
48
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In Germany, within the next ten years many old bridges reach the
calculated end of their service life or have to be adapted to increasing loads.
Basically, road and railway bridges have to be distinguished. In the German
railway network, about one quarter of the bridges are made of steel, the other
three quarters are made of concrete, masonry or sectional girders in concrete in
equal shares. Within the road network the percentage of steel bridges is much
smaller and stands actually at 5%.
Figure 2. Age distribution of different bridge types for the railway network (left,
percent per bridge type, only steel and reinforced bridges displayed) and the
road network (right, percent overall per bridge deck area) [1, 8]
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For road bridges predefined inspection cycles are obligatory: one main
inspection every six years, one mid-interval inspection every three years. Based
on these inspections and the subsequent damage evaluations, the condition index
is derived. The change of the condition index for all federal German road
bridges between 2000 and 2010 is displayed in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Percent of federal road bridges classified in the six condition classes,
3,5-4,0 means insufficient and the particular bridge has to be closed [8]
Within the last ten years the condition index of the bridge portfolio has
shifted to an overall inferior state. Especially the bridge condition indices from
2,5 to 3,4 often imply that cracks have been found during steel bridge
inspections. The reasons can be manifold but for a rehabilitation high frequency
mechanical impact treatment can be a valuable method to increase the fatigue
resistance of bridges damaged.
Furthermore, many cracks are also caused by increasing loads. As to be
seen in Figure 4, since the 1950s the permitted axle loads have increased slightly
and the traffic on highways has significantly grown. Considering that most
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highway bridges have been built during the 1970s, there is still an enlargement
of the traffic of about 250%. These developments often require an improvement
of details exposed to fatigue stress. Because of the numerous applications named
the investigation on HFMI-methods will be presented in depth in the following.
Figure 4. Development over time of the loads and the traffic on German
highway bridges, traffic increase related to year 1951/1952 [1]
3.2. HFMI-methods
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Figure 2 presents two design proposals to account for a benefit after the
application of post weld treatment methods. Using these proposals, an additional
increase of FAT classes can be claimed depending on the material yield
strength. For conventional hammer peening a design proposal developed by
Haagensen and Maddox [4] is shown by the dashed line. This proposal
differentiates only between mild steels and high strength steels and assumes a
slope of m = 3. Since an increasing benefit has been observed with higher
material yield strength for HFMI-treated welds, a first proposal has been
developed by Weich [14], adjusting the slope of the S-N curves to m = 5 on the
basis of extensive fatigue testing data. This proposal has been revised and
further developed by Yildirim and Marquis [18]. Using collected data from 45
data sets for axially loaded test specimens, tested at R = 0.1 stress ratio, an
empirical relationship between material yield strength and fatigue strength of
HFMI-treated welds was established. As a result of the investigated joints,
including longitudinal attachments, transverse- and butt welds, an increase of
12.5 % in fatigue strength for every 200 MPa increase in material strength fy was
found to be an appropriate formulation [18]. This proposal has also been
adopted in [7] and is shown by the solid line in Figure 5.
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In this paper butt welded joints which are frequently used in welded
structures are considered. Figure 6 shows the FAT classification of butt welded
joints according to IIW-Recommendations [5] and DIN EN 1993-1-9 (EC3) [2].
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5. RESULTS
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material yield strength (see Figure 8). However, a FAT 180 HFMI-design curve
is still conservative with the data and can be used for new structures following
HFMI-treatment.
[MPa]
stress range
FAT
14 0, H F AT
FMI 176
des , HF
ign, MI-
IIW trea
FAT & EC3 ted
128
, as
we
lde
d
cycles to failure N
Figure 7. S-N curves for butt welded joints with / without HFMI-treatment and
design S-N curve according to Table 1, R = 0.1, S355J2
[MPa]
stress range
FA
T2
10
FAT ,H
180 FM
, HF I-t
MI d rea
esig te
n, IIWd
&E
FA C3
T1
04
, as
we
ld ed
cycles to failure N
Figure 8. S-N curves for butt welded joints with / without HFMI-treatment and
design S-N curve according to Table 1, R = 0.1, S690QL
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F AT
169
, fa
FAT tigu
140 ep
, HF rel
oad
MI d ed
esig +H
n, II FM
W& I-tr
EC 3 eat
e d
cycles to failure N
Figure 9. S-N curves for butt welded joints: influence of HFMI-treatment after
fatigue preloading and design S-N curve according to Table 1, R = 0.1, S355J2
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F AT
224
, fat
i gue
FAT pre
18 0, H load
FMI ed +
des HFM
ig n, IIW I- trea
&E ted
C3
cycles to failure N
Figure 10. S-N curves for butt welded joints: influence of HFMI-treatment after
fatigue preloading and design S-N curve according to Table 1, R = 0.1, S690QL
Based on the results of REFRESH [11] the HFMI-method HiFIT has been
applied successfully for new bridge constructions, such as the road and tramway
bridge over the Schenkendorfstrae in Munich but also for existing bridges,
such as the Ruhrstrombridge in Mhlheim and many more. Additional
information for practical application can be found in [11].
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7. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
[1]. BMVBS: Bericht ber die Qualitt, Dauerhaftigkeit und Sicherheit von
Spannbetonbrcken. Vorlage an den Ausschuss fr Verkehr, Bau und
Stadtentwicklung des Deutschen Bundestages, Berlin, 2006.
[4]. P.J. HAAGENSEN, MADDOX, S. J.: IIW recommendations on post weld fatigue life
improvement of steel and aluminium structures. IIW document XIII-2200r7-07,
2010.
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[10]. R. PUTHLI et al.: Detaillsungen bei Ermdungsfragen und dem Einsatz hochfester
Sthle bei Offshore Windenergieanlagen. Forschung fr die Praxis P633,
FORSCHUNGSVEREINIGUNG STAHLANWENDUNG E.V (FOSTA), VERLAG
UND VERTRIEBSGESELLSCHAFT MBH, Dsseldorf, 2008.
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[15]. I. WEICH: Granjon Prize Category C: Edge layer condition and fatigue strength of
welds improved by mechanical post weld treatment. IIW Document XIII-2265-09,
International Institute of Welding, 2009.
[18]. H.C. YILDIRIM, G.B. MARQUIS: Fatigue strength improvement factors for high
strength steel welded joints treated by high frequency mechanical impact.
International Journal of Fatigue 44 (2012), 168-176.
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Anton Chiric, professor PhD, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, e-mail:
antonchirica@yahoo.com
Rezumat
Abstract
Clays are for designers and builders of transport ways a particular type of earth, with
detrimental physical and mechanical properties, in terms of stability and failure.
In our country, the issues mentioned above are visibly more intense, because clays
have special structural features that require appropriate analysis of mechanical behavior
parameters.
This paper addresses the particular behavior of soft clays with an intact structure
deformable in time through the process of consolidation, and of fissured, glomerular clays,
normaly or slightly overconsolidated, respectively. Significant issues and proposals are
presented, related to the methodology of laboratory tests performed in order to obtain the
compressibility and shear strength parameters.
Summary charts are illustrated, useful to designers for assessing the angle of residual
internal friction. The last part of the paper analyzes some aspects of clay stabilization with
enzymes, and of the thermal treatment of glomerular clays.
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For Romanian clays, the last technique mentioned can improve substantially the shear
strength parameters values and thus increase the effectiveness of the stabilization works
within transport ways.
1. INTRODUCERE
2. PARTICULARITI STRUCTURALE
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Figura 1
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Figura 2
Figura 3
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Figura 4
Revenind la formarea pmnturilor argiloase, este cunoscut faptul c
ntre fragmentele solide aflate ntr-o suspensie, acioneaz fore de atracie de
natur electromolecular, de tip Van der Walls, independente de natura
mediului n care are loc sedimentarea, precum i fore de respingere, de natur
electrostatic, care depind de natura mediului, de valena cationilor din
complexul de adsorbie, de concentraia de sruri disociate electrolitic, precum
i de temperatur. Rezult c, n cazul n care se formeaz n bazine cu ap
dulce cu concentraie minim de sruri, forele de respingere fiind cele
dominante, datorit fenomenului de peptizare, se obine o structur dispers, iar
n cazul n care argilele se formeaz prin depunere n mediu bogat n sruri, ca
mediul marin de exemplu, domin forele de atracie i, datorit fenomenului de
coagulare, se obine o structur de tip flocular.
Peptizarea, ca proces de dispersare a particulelor individuale, prin
depunerea acestora fr asociere n flocule, nc din starea de suspensie,
conduce la formarea unui sediment compact, cu volum redus de goluri.
Coagularea este cauza formrii floculelor nc din suspensie, conducnd,
prin depunerea acestora, la formarea unui sediment cu volum mare de goluri.
n contextul celor menionate mai sus, sunt importante observaiile fcute
de Mitchell i comentate n lucrarea [6]. Aceste observaii conduc la concluzia
c ntre sedimentele argiloase formate prin peptizare, respectiv cele formate prin
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Figura 5
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Figura 6
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Figura 7
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Figura 8
n figurile 9 i 10 se prezint imagini normale ale argilelor structurate de
Londra, Sibiu i S. Barbara.
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Figura 11 Figura 12
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n ara noastr, argilele n stare natural sunt normal consolidate sau uor
supraconsolidate. Conform teoriei elaborate de Hvorslev [24] (figura 13),
rezistena la forfecare pentru argilele normal consolidate se poate cuantifica
prin componenta contactelor particul-particul, la care se adaug componenta
contactelor dintre complexele de adsorbie. Relaia integrat este urmtoarea:
f tg pc (1)
, n care este coeficientul de frecare intern intrinsec (permanent) a
pmntului mineral/mineral, iar este un coeficient de proporionalitate ntre
coeziunea intrinsec i presiunea de preconsolidare.
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Figura 13
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Figura 14
Figura 15
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Figura 16
Figura 17
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Figura 18
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Figura 19
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Figura 20
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Legenda
- dipol de apa
- ion pozitiv
+
- ion negativ
- enzima
b)
Figura 21
Figura 22
Consider c stabilizarea pmnturilor argiloase cu enzime rmne o
metod a crei eficien trebuie cercetat n viitor, mai ales n condiiile
solicitrilor ciclice induse de trafic.
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Figura 23
n toate cazurile, elementele principale sunt urmtoarele:
- un foraj de ardere;
- un foraj de aeraj, situat la 7090cm de forajul de ardere; cele dou
foraje sunt conectate printr-un dispozitiv special, ataat sapei de
forare;
- un arztor din metal (a se vedea figura 24); acesta este legat la
rezervorul de motorin.
Figura 24
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Figura 25
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a)
b)
c)
Figura 26
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. A.C. OLTEANU: Contribuii asupra studiului comportrii pmnturilor coezive saturate
cu ajutorul instalaiei triaxiale cu efort impus controlat de calculator, Tez de doctorat,
UTCB, 2011.
[2]. I.TH. ROSENQUIST: The influence of physico-chemical factors upon the mechanical
properties of clays, N.G.I. Publ., 1963.
[3]. T.K. TAN: Secondary time effects and consolidation of clays, Academica Scinica Harbin,
China, Monograph, pp. 1-17, 1957
[6]. J.L. MITCHELL: Fundamentals of soil behavior, Wiley, New York, 422 p., 1976.
[7]. O.G. INGLES: Soil chemistry relevant to the engineering behaviour of soils, Soil
Mechanics selected Topics, edited by I.K. Lee Butterworths London, 1968.
[8]. P. SMART: Soil structure in the electron microscope, Proceedings of the Southampton
Civil Engineering Materials Conference, 1969.
[9]. G.R. SIDES: Soil microstructure and sample disturbance observation in the Stereoscan
electron microscope, Proc. of the Roscoe Memorial Symposium, Cambridge University,
1973.
[10]. R. PUSCH: The influence of stress on clay microstructure. A study of pre-quaternary and
quaternary sediments, National Swedish Building Research Summaries, R. 13, 1971.
[12]. D. TESSIER: Recherches experimentales sur lrganisation des particules dans les argiles,
These presente au Conservatoire National des Arts et Mettiers, 1973.
[13]. V.A. MOCHANSKI, I.A. PARABOUTCHEV: Formation des proprietes geotehniques des
roches marno-crayeuses dans des conditions de lithogenese en milieu type aride, Bulletin de
lAssociation Internationale de Geologie de lingenieur no. 11, 1975.
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[16]. S. DIAMOND: Microstructure and pore structure of impact-compacted clays, Clays Clay
Miner, 19, 239-249, 1971.
[17]. F.J. BAYNES, W.R. DEARMAN: The microfabric of a chemically weathered granite,
Bulletin of the International Association of Engineering Geology 18, 91, 1978.
[18]. P.W. ROWE: The relevance of soil fabric to site investigation practice, Geotechnique 22.,
no. 2, 1972.
[19]. S.I. MATSUO, M. KAMON: Microscopic research on the consolidated samples of clayey
soils, in Barden, L., and R. Pusch (eds.), Proceedings of the International Symposium on
Soil Structure, Gothenburg. Swedish Geotechnical Society and Swedish Society for Clay
Research, p. 197-199: 1973.
[20]. L. BJERRUM: Progressive failure in slope of overconsolidated plastic clay and clay
shales, N.G.I. Publ., no.77, 1968.
[21]. E.T. STEPKOWSKA: Verification of the structural model of clay water system, Proc. of
the 12th ICSMFE. Rio de Janeiro, 1989.
[23]. I. BOI: Contribuii privind analiza strii de eforturi i deformaii din terenul de fundare n
cazul rambleelor pentru ci de comunicaie, UTCB, 2011.
[24]. M.J. HVORSLEV: The basic sinkage equations and bearing capacity theories, Vol. 70,
Ed. 1 of Technical report M, 1970.
[25]. R.J. JARDINE, M.J. SYMES, J.B. BURLAND: The measurement of soil stiffness in the
triaxial apparatus, Geotechnique, Vol:34, Pages:323-340, 1984.
[26]. A.W. SKEMPTON: Long term stability of clay slopes, Geotehnique vol. XiV, no.7, 1964.
[29]. B. VOIGHT: Correlation between Atterberg plasticity limits and residual shear strength of
natural soils, Geotechnique, 23(2), 265-267: 1973.
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Polidor Bratu, Prof., PhD, Dipl. Eng., Dr. h. c., ICECON S.A., e-mail: icecon@icecon.ro
Rezumat
Abstract
The paper presents the result of experimental tests done at kinematic cycles with
instantaneous harmonic displacements, for elastomeric elements with dynamic isolation role,
in accordance with SR EN 1337-3 and SR EN 15129. The values of the internal damping
determined on testing stands under the conditions specified in the reference documents, must
be correlated with the values of the antiseismic elastomeric device system which equips a
dynamic system subjected to exterior seismic actions.
In this case, for each real situation, the design engineer must make the correlation
between the two values of the damping obtained in laboratory with the damping specific to
the structural system which is subjected to dynamic exterior actions. The necessary
equivalence results from this paper so that the experimental values can be rigorously
correlated and can represent the real parameters which must be taken into consideration.
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1. INTRODUCTION
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Wc k1 A02 (3)
For the viaduct situated on the Transilvania Highway, made by the Bechtel
Company and experimented on by ICECON SA, the simplified structural model
is presented in figure 2. The viaduct is built from 20 beams of reinforced
concrete, supported individually upon sets of identical bearings of elastomer.
The 20 beams are grouped in four rows (Cx axis) by fives each (Cy axis), their
joining performing constructional by means of a top plate manufactured of
reinforced concrete as a bonding and leveling subfloor form.
Figure 2. The simplified model of the viaduct with 20 beams of reinforced concrete
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; p .
y p y z z
a'
14
4
12
4
t 12
4
12
4
14
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a) the single solution of equation (8) is possible only under the following
condition:
4 412 0 (9)
and further
F0
21 (10)
A0 k
In this case, the solution of equation (8) is under the form:
2 21
2 1 (11)
21 21
1
Thus, the loss factor has a unitary value and 2 2 0,5 . 2max 0,5
2
represents the maximum value.
b) the actual and distinct solutions of equation (8) are possible only for
412 0 , or 21 . In case of actual parametric values 0,2 1 1,6 , the
4
The dynamic model for the linear viscoelastic base isolation system, with
m, k and c considered as system parameters, is represented in Fig. 4, for two
distinct positions: under instantaneous translation motion and under the seismic
action with the instantaneous acceleration u a0 sin t [5].
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The equation of motion for the mass m, related to the fixed reference
system O1X1Y1 is of the form mx1 cx kx 0 (12)
in which x1 u x represents the absolute displacement.
The relative displacement of the mass m, with respect to the moving
reference system (having the acceleration u ) Oxy is xt . Thus, one has:
mu x cx kx 0
or mx cx kx mu (13)
If one introduces u a0 sin t , the previous relation becomes:
mx cx kx ma0 sin t (14)
The final solution is:
x A sin t (15)
in which A and are obtained from the condition that verifies equation
(14). Thus, it results
a0 1 2 k
A ; tg and ; n2 . (16)
n2 n
2
2 2
1 4 2 2 1 m
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1
8 eq
2
2 2 2
16 1 eq
4 2 2 2
(18)
1 2
At resonance, for 1, one obtains rez (19)
4 eq
a0
where is the acceleration multiplication factor.
A0n2
As an example, an elastomeric isolator having k 1,5 10 6 N/m, eq 0,2 is
tested at A0 0,088 m. For a structural system with n 2 subjected to a
maximum acceleration a0 0,25 g , the result is:
0,25 10
0,707
0.088 4 2
1 0,707 2
0,62
4 0,2
meaning that for the system is three times higher than ech determined in the
laboratory.
4. CONCLUSIONS
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REFERENCES
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1. INTRODUCERE
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Figura 2. Podul de lemn peste rul Tisa, vzut din amonte de pe malul drept al
rului Tisa, malul Ucrainean (Foto, S Florea, 2002)
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2. ISTORICUL LUCRRII
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Figura 6. 1. Elevaia amonte a podului de lemn peste rul Tisa. (Foto, S. Florea, 2008)
2.Disp. generalseciune longitudinal i vederea plan (Desen, S. Florea)
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Figura 9. 1. Noul pod peste rul Tisa vzut de pe mamlul stng (malul
romnesc)(S. Florea, 2008)
2. Spaiul geografic al Romnie sub Mihai Viteazu (1600)
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Figura 10. Noul pod peste rul Tisa vzut de pe malul drept. (malul Ucrainean)
Arhitectul Gheorghe Radu Stnculescu; la inaugurarea podului n
2002, mpreun cu dou romnce de pe malul Ucrainean al rului
Tisa, rude prin alian .(Foto Ileana Stnculescu, 2002)
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Cum se explic soliditatea lor, care le-a permis s reziste aa de bine peste
ani? Podurile peste Tisa fceau parte dintr-o component strategic a Micii
Antante interbelice, care cuta soluii de aprare mpotriva expansionismului
Germaniei lui Hitler, dup venirea acestuia la putere in 1933.
Marele Nicolae Titulescu era pe punctul s convin cu ministrul sovietic
de externe de atunci, Maxim Litvinov, un troc diplomatic: permiterea trecerii
trupelor sovietice peste nordul teritoriului Romniei, n sprijinul Cehoslovaciei
lui Benes, impotriva lui Hitler, in schimbul recunoaterii, de ctre U.R.S.S., a
unirii Basarabiei cu Romnia.
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Figura 16. Carosabilul podului de lemn peste rul Tisa vzut de pe malul stng
al rului Tisa (malul Romnesc). (Foto, S. Florea, 2008)
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Figura 17. Elevaia amonte a podului peste rul Tisa. (Foto, S. Florea, 2008)
4. EXECUIA LUCRRII
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Figura 19. Detaliu de rezemare a contrafielor pe culeea C01, culeea mal stng.
(Foto, S. Florea, 2008)
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Figura 21. Elevaia amonte vzut n lungul podului de pe malul stng al rului
Tisa .(Foto, S. Florea, 2008)
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podului peste rul Tisa au avut prilejul aplicrii unor soluii tehnologice n
premier naional pentru realizarea noilor fundaii ale pilelor din albia rului.
Pentru prima oar n Romnia se folosete la execuia fundaiilor pentru
poduri, soluia modern de fundare indirect pe minipiloi cu radier la partea
superioar. Nu poi s nu aminteti pe cel a crui amprent este major n
aplicarea acestui sistem de fundare, doctor inginer Cernea Petre.
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Figura 23. 1 Fundaia pilei P01. n planul doi instalaia pentru execuia
minipiloilor.(Foto, P. Roman, 2001)
1999 Se elaboreaz proiectul.
1999-2001 Perioada de execuie
2001-Octombrie - Recepia Terminrii execuiei lucrrilor.
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Figura 24. Existena ciupercii care atac lemnul. (Foto, S. Florea, 2006)
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Concluziile verificrii :
Deformaiile generate de putrezirea lemnului din contrafie datorat
atacului de ciuperci a crescut foarte mult i s-au dezvoltat n toate
deschiderile de lemn.
Fenomenul a fost evideniat i de solicitrile suplimentare la un effort
datorat aciunilor generate de furtuna din ziua de 11 august 2007.
Deformaiile aprute pot conduce la prbuirea podului (accident tehnic)
cu consecine directe privind posibilitatea pierderii de viei omeneti.
n raport direct cu deformaiile constatate se recomand suspendarea
temporar a utilizrii podului pentru introducerea n reparaii capital.
Urgent se recomand executarea unor palei provizorii n deschiderile
2,3,4,5 pentru scoaterea din funciune a contrafielor n dreptul fiecarui
tirant
Pentru deschiderea 1 se va elabora o solutie de urgen pentru preluarea
eforturilor din contrafie prin intermediul a dou grinzi metalice
cu deschiderea de 30,00 m.
Asigurarea urgent a surselor financiare necesare pentru execuie i
proiectare.
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5. NLOCUIREA CONTRAFIELOR
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Figura 31. Carosabilul podului de lemn peste rul Tisa dup refacerea
contrafielor din 2008. (Foto, S. Florea, 2008)
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Figura 32. Gesturi reprobabile ale oamenilor care traverseaz podul n calitate
de pietoni. Desfac piulitele de la buloanele metric 20 care asigur conlucrarea
elementelor structurale ale contrafielor. (Foto, S. Florea, 2012)
Figura 33. Podul istoric Academician Mihai Pop (Foto, S. Florea, 2012)
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RAPOARTE DE RECENZIE/ Review reports
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nanoparticule de tip carbonat de calciu ntr-o matrice format din bitum rutier si
elastomeri termoplastici cu caracteristici adeziv-etaneizante. A fost studiat
influena unor rini sulfonice modificate, provenite din prelucrarea gudroanelor
acide depozitate n batalurile petroliere, asupra caracteristicilor
nanocompozitelor asfaltice. Caracterizarea materialelor nanocompozite
preparate a fost realizat prin analiz mecanic dinamic (DMA), aplicnd o
for oscilant probei i msurnd deplasarea rezultant n regim de temperatura
controlat. Rezultatele arat c metoda DMA este foarte sensibil la tipul
componenilor utilizai, poziiile relaxrilor avnd un impact major asupra
performanelor materialelor preparate.
7. INFLUENA CONDIIILOR DE INTERFA ASUPRA DURATEI DE
VIA A STRUCTURILOR RUTIERE SUPLE, tefan Marian Lazr, Elena
Diaconu
n acest lucrare se urmrete stabilirea influenei condiiilor de interfa
asupra duratei de via a structurilor rutiere suple. Modul de lucru const n
utilizarea modelului constitutiv de interfa disponibil n programul de calcul
Alize pentru a calcula tensiunile i deformaiile specifice n structurile rutiere
suple.
Pentru estimarea duratei de via a structurilor rutiere suple sunt utilizate
criteriile de dimensionare referitoare la limitarea fisurrii din oboseal a
straturilor asfaltice i a deformaiilor permanente la nivelul pmntului din patul
cii.
La calculul tensiunilor i deformaiilor specifice critice, majoritatea
metodelor mecanice de proiectare a structurilor rutiere suple consider c
straturile rutiere prezint la interfee fie conlucrare perfect, fie lips total de
conlucrare.
Modelarea corespunztoare a condiiei de conlucrare la interfa
reprezint un aspect important n nelegerea comportrii reale a structurilor
rutiere suple n exploatare.
8. PROCEDURA DE EVALUARE A INFLUENEI CALITII LA UZUR
A AGREGATELOR DIN MBCMINILE ASFALTICE ASUPRA DISTANEI
DE FRNARE, Burlacu Florentina Alina, Dicu Mihai
Majoritatea accidentelor rutiere implic numeroi factori, studii
amnunite asupra acestei problematici au evideniat o legtur puternic ntre
evenimentele rutiere i caracteristicile sau condiiile suprafeei carosabile,
precum calitatea contactului pneu-carosabil. Aadar, ntruct nu a fost nc
stabilit o relaie tiinific de natur cauzaional ntre accidente i suprafaa
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precizie mai mare, ceea ce ofer performana evalurilor de aceast natur din
teren.
4. UTILIZAREA AGREGATELOR RECICLATE I A CIMENTULUI
COMPOZIT PENTRU REALIZAREA RCC (ROLLED COMPACTED
CONCRETE - BETON COMPACTAT PRIN CILINDRARE), Florescu Eugen,
Muscalu Marius-Teodor
Lucrarea sintetizeaz rezultatele studiilor de laborator realizate pentru
dezvoltarea de structuri rutiere rigide sustenabile cu folosirea produselor Holcim
(Romania) SA la prepararea de betoane compactate prin cilindrare (RCC).
Studiile au fost efectuate la Facultatea de Construcii i Instalaii din Iai, n baza
unui contract de colaborare existent ntre cele dou organizaii menionate. Ca
particularitate, au fost utilizate tehnologii inovative i soluii logistice n
vederea reutilizrii deeurilor din demolri la realizarea epruvetelor din RCC i
RCC armat dispers cu fibre de oel reciclate. De asemenea, lianii utilizai au
fost un ciment de tip CEM II, cu un factor de clincher redus i unul de tip CEM
I. Corelarea acestor dou aspecte legate de compoziia RCC dezvolt i susin
ideea unei structuri rutiere sustenabile, cu un impact redus asupra polurii
mediului nconjurtor.
5. RECICLAREA LA RECE I REPARAIA MBRCMINILOR
BITUMINOSE N REPUBLICA MOLDOVA, Ababii Andrei, Cuculesu Andrei
Schimbarea n politicile tehnice i mbuntirea finanrii ramurii rutiere
din Republica Moldova, au impulsionat concurena i au contribuit la
mbuntirea calitii de execuie a lucrrilor. Agenii economici au procurat
utilaje noi i au devenit cointeresai de implementarea tehnologiilor performante.
Printre acestea sunt:
reciclarea la rece a mbrcminilor rutiere existente;
plombarea gropilor i colmatarea fisurilor n mbrcminile asfaltice cu
tehnologia de torcretare a amestecului de emulsie bituminoas i criblur;
realizarea tratamentelor bituminoase prin tehnologia repartizrii sincronizate a
liantului i agregatelor naturale cu utilajele tip Chipsealer;
Deoarece aceste tehnologii implic costuri semnificative, cu att mai mult
crete rolul respectrii disciplinei tehnologice, deziderat solicitat att de
administraiile rutiere n condiii de buget alocat limitat, ct i de factorii politici
implicai n alocrile bugetare.
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Prelungirea str. Doamna Ghica pentru legtura os. Colentina cu os. Pantelimon
cu traversarea denivelat CFR Bucureti Obor - Ciulnia
Analizele menionate de autor urmresc n principal deficiene ale
amenajrilor rutiere n corelare cu lucrrile de art din zonele analizate.
Remarcm observaiile cu privire la lipsa de coordonare ntre elementele
geometrice ale drumului i soluia adoptat pentru pasajele denivelate. Autorul
arat c deficienele de proiectare a obiectivelor menionate influeneaz
sigurana circulaiei.
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aleatoriu). n lipsa unui criteriu mai exact, apropierea ruperii fasciculului este
dat de modul (accelerat) n care variaz viteza de rupere a srmelor.
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pentru mai multe soluii, a fost adoptat o soluie cu o lungime de 100m i trei
deschideri inegale : 20+60+20m pentru care au fost adoptate elemente
constructive speciale ntruct pe reazemele finale apreau reaciuni negative.
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416m sunt sunt realizai prin tunel. Calculele au necesitat analize neliniare
complexe cu considerarea etapelor de execuie, realizate cu ajutorul programului
PLAXIS3D.
187
SECIUNEA A. Drumuri/ Section A. Roads
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Rezumat
n ultimii ani, pe plan mondial, s-au intensificat eforturile pentru reducerea emisiilor
de CO2 n vederea protejrii mediului. Din acest motiv, n industria de drumuri, exist un
mare interes pentru reducerea temperaturii de preparare i aternere a mixturii asfaltice. Aa
numita Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) este produs i aternut la temperaturi cu circa 300C
mai sczute fa de mixtura cald clasic.
n lucrarea de fa sunt prezentate rezultatele obinute n laborator i pe teren pe WMA
preparat utiliznd tehnologia aditivrii cu aditivi chimici. S-au utilizat doi aditivi chimici sub
form lichid, care au rolul de a scdea vscozitatea bitumului mbuntind lucrabilitatea
mixturii asfaltice la temperatura de preparare i aternere.
Sunt prezentate deasemeni efectele aditivilor i ale condiiilor de lucru asupra
caracteristicilor tehnice ale mixturii.
Abstract
In the last years, in the world the efforts for CO2 emission reduction and
environmental protection are increasing. For this reason, in the road industry, there is a great
interest to reduce the production and paving temperature of hot mix asphalt. This product
what is called warm mix asphalt (WMA) is produce and paved at temperature about 300C
lower than the classical hot mixtures.
In this paper, are presented the results obtained in laboratory and in situ on warm mix
asphalt manufactured using the technology aditivation with chemical additives. We use two
chemical additives in liquid form that decrease the bitumen viscosity improving the asphalt
mix workability at production and paving temperatures.
Also are presented the effect of additives and working condition on technical characteristics
of the mixtures.
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1. INTRODUCERE
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2 PARTE EXPERIMENTAL
100
90
80
80
70
Adez ivitate, %
A d e z iv ita te , %
60
60
bitum simplu Bata
50
bitum aditivat Niculitel
40
40 30
20
10
20 0
1 2 3 4 5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
Agregat :1- Valea Rugului; 3 - Niculitel; 5- Bata. % Aditiv A2
a b
Figura 1. Adezivitatea bitumului Burgas 50/70 cu aditiv aminic A1 (a) i A2 (b)
la diferite agregate naturale
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3.DISCUII
4. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2] G.HURLEY, B.PROWELL: Evaluation of Aspha-Min zeolite for use in warm mix
Asphalt , NCAT Report 05-04, 2005.
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Polidor Bratu, Prof., PhD, Dipl. Eng., Dr. h. c., ICECON S.A., e-mail: icecon@icecon.ro
Patricia Murzea, Assit. Prof., PhD, Dipl. Eng., e-mail: patricia.murzea@icecon.ro
Mircea Arsene, Dipl. Eng., ICECON S.A., e-mail: mircea.arsene@icecon.ro
Rezumat
Abstract
The paper outlines the issue of the standardized test of asphaltic mixtures in
compliance with the norms SR EN 12697-25, SR EN 12697-26 and SR EN 12697-27, in
terms of the specific finalizing procedure and recording of results. On the other hand, as a
result of the assessment and laboratory tests conducted by ICECON, experimental results
correlated with the nature and typology of the interaction wheel-running path, which leads to
the selection of the excitation function for the dynamic force with respect to time, will be
presented.
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The applied sinusoidal load is between 100 and 300 kPa (generally 250kPa);
The testing frequency is 1-5 Hz;
The application direction is vertical, on the specimen axis.
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A number of 1800 cycles are applied or the testing stops when the
deformation reaches 6% (risk of equipment damage).
The direction of the deformations is axial.
The deformation of the specimen is determined in m/m and the deformation
rate in m/m/cycle.
Figure 2 show an image of the COOPER Device used for the triaxial cyclic
compression test.
The testing is performed with the aid of the computer. The results are
determined, recorded and automatically processed in real time.
The final report of the testing is presented under the form of a diagram
having the number of applied pulses as the abscissa and the axial deformation as
the ordinate and is shown in figures 3 and 4.
The deformation rate (speed) is determined for the linear part of the
diagram.
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The European standard SR EN 12697-24 establishes the testing method for the
resistance to fatigue of the asphaltic mixtures under repeated loads using the
indirect tensile test.
A testing specimen of cylindrical shape is subjected to repeated compression
loadings with a haversine function test signal, in a vertical diametric plan. These
conditions lead to a development of a relatively uniform tension at bending,
perpendicular on the applied load direction and along the vertical diametric plan.
The time before failure must be determined as a total number of loading cycles
before the rupture occurrence.
The method is used for the classification of asphalt mixtures based on the
fatigue resistance. It offers information regarding the performance of the
bituminous coating and it is employed to obtain data for the estimation of the
road structure behavior.
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After the stiffness test, the specimens are subjected to fatigue. Figure 7. presents
an image of the COOPER Device used during such a test.
The value of the applied load is 250kPa. Based on the experience of the test
performer, a different tension level may be chosen, adaptable to the stiffness of
the tested material.
The testing frequency is 1Hz;
The application direction of the force is vertical on the generating line of the
specimen.
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During the test the vertical loading and the horizontal deformation are
monitored in real time.
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The variation function of the motion is given by the following relation with
respect to time:
F(t) = F0 haversine(t) (1)
In which:
haversine(t) = (1/2)(1-cost) and
F0 is the amplitude of the perturbing force or F0 = p0S, p0 being the
maximum pressure and S the contact area.
Relation (1) rewritten with respect to the pressure becomes:
p(t) = p0 haversine(t) (2)
p(t) = p0 (1/2)(1-cost) (3)
The diagram of the haversine function is given in figures 6 and 8 and
presents the particularity that the dissipated work in the specimen is 0.25 from
the dissipated energy of the same specimen excited by a harmonic action of the
form:
p(t) = p0sint (4)
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5. CONCLUSIONS
The samples have been tested under haversine loading conditions for the
verification of the plastic deformations correlated with the number of cycles.
At haversine excitations the deformation of the material through
dissipation is smaller than in the sine case.
REFERENCES
[2]. P. BRATU: The linear viscoelastic behavior of the Asphalt mixture to the haversine
impulsive dynamic actions specific in road traffic, Romanian Journal of Acoustics
and Vibration ISSN 1584-7284 Vol VII /1/ 2010, 2010, 2010
[3]. SR EN 12697-25: 2006: Bituminous mixtures - Test methods for hot mix asphalt -
Part 25: Cyclic compression test
[4]. SR EN 12697-26:2012: Bituminous mixtures - Test methods for hot mix asphalt -
Part 26: Stiffness
[5]. SR EN 12697-27:2002: Bituminous mixtures. Test methods for hot mix asphalt. Part
27: Sampling
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Rezumat
Pentru proiectarea unei structuri rutiere suple sau semirigide, majoritatea metodelor de
proiectare se bazeaz pe estimarea eforturilor i deformaiilor specifice critice provenite n
urma unei ncrcri standard. Unul din principalii parametri ai acestui calcul este modulul de
rigiditate al mixturilor asfaltice, care este un indicator important al calitii amestecului
bituminos. Modulul de rigiditate este de asemenea utilizat pentru a evalua degradarea unei
structuri rutiere n timpul perioadei de serviciu, precum i pentru a evalua fenomenul de
mbtrnire a mixturii asfaltice, att n laborator ct i pe teren. n acest studiu, sunt analizate
influenele temperaturii i frecvenei de ncrcare asupra caracteristicilor dinamice ale
mixturii asfaltice pe baza dezvoltrii i interpretrii curbelor directoare ale modulului de
rigiditate. Curbele directoare sunt un instrument puternic pentru a nelege cum se comport
mixtura asfaltic n toate condiiile de mediu i de ncrcare i se bazeaz pe principiul de
coresponden temperatur timp. Datele colectate la diverse temperaturi pot fi translatate pe
axa frecvenei, astfel nct, diverse curbe pot fi aliniate nct s formeze o singur curb.
Abstract
For pavement structure design, most of the methodologies for flexible pavements are
based on estimating the critical stresses and strains due to a standard loading. One of the main
parameters of this calculation is the asphalt mixture stiffness, which is an important indicator
of mixture quality. Stiffness is also used to evaluate damage during service period and the age
hardening trends of asphalt mixture, both in laboratory and in the field. In this study, the
influences of temperature and load frequency on the dynamic characteristic of asphalt mixture
are analyzed and the master curves of stiffness modulus are developed and interpreted. Master
curves are a powerful tool to understand how asphalt mixture behave in all possible
environmental and loading conditions and they are based on the principle of time temperature
correspondence. Data of other temperature under horizontal shift until they fit the reference
temperature curve since, by choosing a reference temperature, experimental data are plotted
against the log frequency or log loading timing.
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1. INTRODUCERE
Structurile rutiere flexibile sunt cele mai rspndite, att la noi n ar, ct
i pe plan mondial, astfel nct este necesar un studiu complex al acestor
structuri ce presupun combinaii de straturi din diferite materiale, cu proprieti
diferite supuse la ncrcri provenite din diveri factori (trafic, condiii
climatice).
Mixturile bituminoase sunt folosite n mbrcmini sau ca strat de baz
ntr-o structur rutier pentru a distribui eforturile din ncrcri i pentru a
proteja straturile granulare inferioare de ptrunderea apei. Pentru a realiza ntr-
un mod adecvat aceste dou funcii, mixtura trebuie de asemenea s reziste
aciunilor mediului nconjurtor, s reziste deformaiilor permanente i s reziste
fisurilor cauzate de ncrcri i de mediu.
Dezvoltarea unor proceduri practice i de ncredere n evaluarea
capacitii mixturilor asfaltice n a atinge cerinele structurale, rmne n
continuare o provocare. Trebuie folosit o varietate de metode de evaluare a
mixturii ncepnd din faza de proiectare a reetei i pn n faza de control a
fabricaiei mixturii, metode care s conin att teste simple, orientate pe procese
n timpul controlului calitii n producie, dar i ncercri sofisticate pentru
determinarea proprietilor fundamentale care s asigure c mixtura viitoare va
atinge acel standard minim de performan care se ia n calcul la proiectarea
structurilor rutiere.
Rigiditatea mixturii asfaltice reprezint una din cele mai importante
caracteristici care influeneaz major comportarea n exploatare a unei mixturi
asfaltice din componena unei structuri rutiere. Aceast proprietate este
influenat semnificativ de temperatur i de caracteristicile ncrcrii (att
nivelul ncrcrii ct i frecvena ncrcrii) precum i de efectul mbtrnirii
mixturilor asfaltice.
Rigiditatea mixturii asfaltice poate fi determinat pentru:
estimarea strii de eforturi i deformaii dintr-o structur rutier, eforturi i
deformaii provenite din ncrcri din trafic i condiii de mediu;
evaluarea i controlul calitii mixturilor puse n oper;
evaluarea comportrii mixturilor asfaltice i modificarea comportrii lor n
timp, datorit efectelor ncrcrilor i a celor din temperatur;
cercetare i dezvoltare de produse noi, de modele i tipuri de structuri rutiere
noi;
Avnd n vedere c modulul de rigiditate reprezint una din valorile de
intrare atunci cnd se dimensioneaz o structur rutier, variaia acestui
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E * E12 E2 2
(1)
0
E* (2)
0
unde: 0= amplitudinea efortului;
0 = amplitudinea deformaiei.
Aceast caracterizare este utilizat cel mai des n practic. De exemplu, n
calculele pentru multi-straturile liniar elastice, componenta elastic a modulului
complex este utilizat n general ca valoare a mrimii de intrare pentru modulul
de elasticitate dinamic.
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2013
Temperatura de referin=15oC
Frecventa, Hz
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3. PROGRAMUL EXPERIMENTAL
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100
Viteza, km/h
80
60
40
20
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Frecventa, Hz
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Valorile prezentate mai sus sunt doar cteva exemple pentru a pune n
eviden comportarea mixturii asfaltice n diferite condiii de ncrcare, similare
cu cele ntlnite n teren, exemplul de fa pstrnd temperatura constant.
5. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Florentina Alina Burlacu, drd. ing. UTCB, ef de colectiv dep. Proiectare Amenajri
Circulaie, S.C. Search Corporation S.R.L., e-mail: burlacu_alina@yahoo.com
Mihai Dicu, Prof.univ.dr.ing., Facultatea de Ci Ferate, Drumuri i Poduri, UTCB, e-mail:
mdicu@cfdp.utcb.ro
Rezumat
Abstract
Late XIXth century begins with a new area of high interest and that is road
infrastructure management, at which point road safety becomes an increasingly large and
complex area, at a global scale.
Although most road accidents involve numerous factors, detailed studies on this issue
have shown a strong link between road events and the characteristics or conditions of the
roadway surface, such as the quality of tire-road contact. So, since it hasnt been established
any scientific relationship between accidents cause and the road surface, there is a clear need
for extensive research in this direction of road safety, in order for engineers to develop
effective solutions to potentially dangerous situations.
Thus, this paper will highlight through laboratory research, how the wear quality of
the asphalt aggregates can influence the happening of a car accident, by direct calculation of
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the braking distance for different values of friction coefficients calculated for different
samples, depending on the degree of polishing of aggregates from the wear layer.
1. INTRODUCERE
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65.0
MEDIOCR
60.0
55.0
REA
50.0
Valori
Cariere
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0.70
0.68
0.68
0.66 0.65
0.64 Turcoaia
0.62 Revarsarea
Valori
n cele din urm, prin calcul matematic se afl valori ale distanei de
frnare, la diferite valori ale vitezei (Vi=variabil, Vf=0), variabila fiind
coeficientul de frecare, care este automat legat de coeficientul de polisaj
accelerat.
Calculul distanei de frnare se realizeaz cu urmtoarea relaie:
Vit Vi2 Vf2
DF (3)
3,6 254( l i)
unde: Vi = viteza iniial [km/h]
Vf = viteza final [km/h]
l = coeficient de frecare longitudinal
i = declivitate [%/100]
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240
230
220
Distanta (m)
210
200
190
180
170
160
De cl i vi tate (%) 10 5 0 -5 -10
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Dup toate aceste etape, se evideniaz ntr-un mod ct mai clar legtura
dintre coeficientul de polisaj al agregatelor (funcie de cariera de origine),
coeficientul de frecare i distana de frnare.
0.7 55
0.68 54
0.66 53
52
0.64
Valoare CPA
51
Valoare
0.62
50
0.6
49
0.58
48
0.56 47
0.54 46
0.52 45
Turcoaia Revarsarea Chileni Cerna
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84
82
80
78
76
74
72
70
115.200 cicluri
0.49
0.54
0.55
0.49
85
80
79
85
Relaia dintre coeficientul de frecare al agregatelor i distana de frnare
0 cicluri
0.55
0.61
0.61
0.52
79
75
75
82
Df agregate Revarsarea
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
agregate Revarsarea
Df agregate Turcoaia
agregate Turcoaia
Df agregate Chileni
Df agregate Cerna
agregate Chileni
agregate Cerna
V a lo a re a c o e fic ie n tu lu i d e fre c a re a l a g re g a te l
Numar de cicluri
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3. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2]. British Standard BS 812 Testing aggregates: Part 114. Method for determination of
the polished stone value
[4]. HD36/06 Surfacing materials for new and maintenance construction, Standard
from Design Manual for Roads and Bridges, 2006
[6]. NCHRP Guide for pavement friction, Transportation Research Board, 2009
[8]. World Health Organisation, FIA Foundation, The World Bank, Global Road Safety
Partnership Managementul vitezei: un manual pentru factorii de decizie i pentru
profesioniti
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Mihai Dicu, Decan, Profesor universitar doctor inginer, Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii
Bucureti, Facultatea de Ci Ferate, Drumuri i Poduri, e-mail: mdicu@cfdp.utcb.ro
Rezumat
Abstract
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a . in c e r c a r e a s ta tic a la r u p e r e
c . in c e r c a r e a tr e p tiz a ta d e o b o s e a la
o III
o II
b . in c e r c a r e a la o b o s e a la
oI
TI T II T III Nc
Figura 1. Tipuri de ncercri la intindere din incovoiere pe epruvete
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C o v o r a s f a lt ic F is u r a
S t r a t a s f a lt ic p r e f is u r a t
Figura 7. Schema de ncrcare
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%
COEFICIENT DE RULARE
1.6
1.4
A
B
C
1.2 D
SUPRAFATACONTACT DIRECT
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Tabelul 1
Rugozitate
Calificativ
SRT HS
REA <55 <0.2
SATISFCTOR 5570 0.20.6
BUN 7080 0.60.7
FOARTE BUN >80 >0.7
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Mariana Georgescu, Drd. ing., Senior Scientific Researcher I, Research Center for
Macromolecular Materials and Membranes Bucharest, e-mail: macromol@itcnet.ro
Marin Radu, Dr. ing., General Director Research Center for Macromolecular Materials and
Membranes Bucharest, , e-mail: macromol@itcnet.ro
Georgeta Grsc, Drd. Ing., Department Chief, CESTRIN Bucharest, e-mail:
office@cestrin.ro
Florin Belc, Univ.Prof. dr. ing., Head of DP Department, Politehnica University of
Timioara, e-mail: florin.belc@upt.ro
Ileana Stelea, Dr. Ing., Politehs Consult Timioara
Carmen Rcnel, Conf. Dr. Ing., Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, e-
mail. carmen@cfdp.utcb.ro
Horaiu Simion, Dr. Ing., Technical Director, CNADNR -D.R.D.P. Timioara, e-mail:
office@drdptm.ro
Mihai C. Georgescu, Drd. Ing., Scientific Researcher., R- D Natonal Institute of Textile and
Leather -ICPI, e-mail: mihai.georgesku@yahoo.com
Abstract
The road network represents the way of the prosperity and the wealth of a country.
The civilization way go throuth the development of the roads is a veritable true. At this
stage, the road network can realized the vital functions of the economy, by a infrastructure
and services performed at a higher quality level of todays existing. Researchers, academics,
designers and experts in the field must unite their efforts to achieve both the highest quality of
materials and technologies of preparation of asphaltic mixtures. Romanian road bitumens,
obtained by oxidation, are bitumens with high susceptibility to aging and fatigue. Desire to
achieve sustainable road surfaces led to reconsideration of bitumen aditivation with
indigenous additives, to reduce thermic susceptibility and to increase adhesion to natural
aggregates. The paper presents the aspects regarding the obtaining of the amido-aminic and
polymeric additives by the superior valorification of the vegetal and animal fats wastes, the
physico-mecanical and thermic characteristics of these new bitumens obtained ( Ba, Bm), in
concordance with the european normatives. The additivated bitumens leads to obtaining of a
asphaltic mixtures and bituminous surfacing performance and sustainable.
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1. INTRODUCTION
2. EXPERIMENTAL PART
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The range of additive concentration in the bitumen was 0,5 1,4%. The
optim value of the additive concentration was stabilize by the measurement of
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the adhesivity at the mineral aggregates (tabelul 4). The optium value is 1%
concentration of additive in bitumen.
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4. CONCLUSIONS
The modifiers improve the quality of the bituminous binders, by the decrease
of thermic susceptibility and increase the resistance at stress and aging;
CAPS R is a polymeric modifier ( realized by the CCMMM Bucharest),
formed by three components: a SBR rubber, an thermoplastic polimer HDPE
and a curring agent (sulf);
The optim proportion of the CAPS polymer in bitumen is 4% (from the mass
of bitumen);
The phisico-chemical and mechanical chracteristics of the modified bitumen
(Bm) are superior of the classic bitumen;
By the DSC method was determined the glass transition temperature Tg of
Bm : 24,5oC;
The elastic properties of Bm increase considerable , especially elastic
relaxation at 13C;
The class of bitumen increase from 56 34 at 76 - 34;
The use of modified bitumen at the preparation of the asphaltic mixtures lead
to the obtainig of performed road structures.
The physico-chemical characteristics of aditivated bitumen are improved
towards of referential bitumen, indicated a high visco-elastic properties.
The class of bitumen Ba increase from 56 34 at 68 - 34;
REFERENCES
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Jan B. Krl, PhD. Eng. Assistant professor, Warsaw University of Technology, The Faculty
of Civil Engineering, j.krol@il.pw.edu.pl
Pawe Czajkowski, MSc. Head of the development and technology office, LOTOS Asfalt Sp.
z o.o., Pawel.Czajkowski@lotosasfalt.pl
Piotr Radziszewski, Professor, DSc, PhD Eng., Warsaw University of Technology, The
Faculty of Civil Engineering, p.radziszewski@il.pw.edu.pl
Karol J. Kowalski, PhD. Eng. Assistant professor, Warsaw University of Technology, The
Faculty of Civil Engineering, k.kowalski@il.pw.edu.pl
Micha Sarnowski, PhD. Eng. Assistant professor, Warsaw University of Technology, The
Faculty of Civil Engineering, m.sarnowski@il.pw.edu.pl
Abstract
In this paper, there are presented properties of new kind of modified bitumen.
Bituminous binder was modified with mix modification using polymer and additive of crumb
rubber. Terminal blend process at the refinery was applied to produce the mixed modified
binder. Laboratory tests were focused on the characterisation of the properties of 45/80-55 Cr
binder with comparison to reference 50/70 and conventional polymer modified 45/80-55
bitumen. Based on conventional binder tests such as penetration, softening point and Fraass
breaking point as well as BBR and DSR tests, rheological properties were investigated. For
determination of stability of the polymer and crumb rubber modified bitumen tube testing
method was used.
Based on the results analysis, improvement of the viscoelastic properties of polymer
and crumb rubber modified bitumen was observed. Conventional properties and stability tests
shown that it is possible to pass standard requirements for polymer modified bitumen. Mixed
modification and terminal blend allows to use crumb rubber as a modifier with elimination of
the separation of crumb rubber during transportation and storage at high temperature.
In this paper first filed section experience of use of the asphalt mixture with new kind
of modified bitumen are presented.
1. INTRODUCTION
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deformation, fatigue and thermal cracking [1,2]. Together with a typically used
polymer modification (SBS copolymer), it is also possible to use crumb rubbers
from wasted vehicle tires for binder modification [3,4]. Although technical
effects of rubber modification of binders are superior, this technology have
serious limitations such as low stability of bitumen-rubber during storing after
production, the need of providing 10-15C higher technological temperatures
during construction and problems with application of some of the conventional
test methods to asses quality of the binder [4,5].
Crumb rubber obtained during processing of the used car tires can be used
for the bitumen modification in wet process or added to the asphalt mixture in
dry process, as substitution of some aggregate blend fraction. Dry process
technology is simpler however it does not take advantage of beneficial rubber
properties, such as ability to improve viscoelastic properties of bitumen [3,6].
Wet process technology, in which good properties of rubber are utilizing in
higher rate, is more complex to be applied in industrial scale and requires the
use of special equipment to modify binder. Crumb rubber is added to binder in
temperature of 180C, than the rubber partially dissolves, swells and
devulcanizes causing bitumen modification. In the wet process 5 to 25% (by
weight) of crumb rubber is modified to bitumen. Application of the crumb
rubber modified bitumen produced in wet technology causes improvement of the
viscoelastic properties of the asphalt mixture and is more justified by the
technical and economic aspects than dry process [3,4,6].
Refinery production of the crumb rubber modified bitumen is also
possible [7]. In such an operation there is a need to eliminate thermostability
problem: application of the finest crumb rubber is one of the solutions, as well
as reduction of the rubber content together with addition of traditional SBS
polymers in order to compensate reduced amount of rubber [8]. This
technological process is commonly called terminal blend [6] and can be
classified as a mix rubber-polymer technology, merging benefits from traditional
polymer as well as crumb rubber modifications allowing to reduce amount of the
polymers added [9].
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The original and RTFOT aged bitumen and modified bitumen were tested
for R&B softening point, penetration and Fraass breaking point in according to
the standard procedure as described in the European Standards. Base on the
penetration at 25C and R&B softening point temperature, Penetration Index
was calculated (EN 12591:2009 Annex A). Plasticity range was calculated as a
temperature range between Fraass breaking temperature and R&B softening
point temperature. Dynamic viscosity was measured according to ASTM D
4402 (Standard Test Method for Viscosity Determination of Asphalt at Elevated
Temperatures Using a Rotational Viscometer) in the rotating spindle apparatus
with a temperature range from 60C to 150C. The viscosity was measured with
temperature increasing from 60C up to 150C.
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Figure 2. Stiffness modulus isotherms vs. time loading for non-aged binders at
low temperature.
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5
10
kPa
4
10
3
10
2
10
|G*|
1
10
0
10
-1
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Phase Angle
Based on Black curve shown on figure 3 for 50/70 bitumen it can be seen
that complex modulus G* decreases with increasing phase angle value. It signify
that 50/70 bitumen constantly goes to viscous state and it is proportional to the
temperature increment. Different properties can be observed for modified
binder, especially below 1 kPa of complex modulus. Below that complex
modulus level, phase angle does not change which means that binders (PmB and
CR) represents constant viscoelastic properties instead of increasing
temperature. Polymer-rubber modified bitumen (CR) demonstrates wider
viscoelastic range than the polymer modified bitumen.
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High level of thermo- and colloidal stability are the most important
properties of polymer and crumb rubber modified bitumen. For PmB and CR
binder tube test in accordance to EN 13399:2009 was conducted. Tubes were
conditioned at 180C for 3 days and then softening point temperature tests were
conducted for top and bottom part of the tube; difference in R&B temperature
was calculated. The results have shown (table 1) that colloidal stability of
polymer-rubber modified bitumen (difference in R&B equal to 1,2C) is
comparable to value obtained for the traditional polymer modified bitumen.
Extended stability analysis for polymer-rubber modified bitumen was
conducted using the cylinder test method developed by Warsaw University of
Technology. In order to determine stability of the bitumen rubber-polymer
mixture, binder was heated in five litters cylinder at 180C for 10 days. Cylinder
was equipped with upper, middle and bottom valve to collect samples from
different height level. Penetration, R&B temperature, recovery elastic and
microstructure from UV microscope (shown on figure 4) was determined on
start while the test was started and further at 1st, 3rd, 7th and 10th day on samples
obtained from each height level.
a) b)
Figure 4. Microstructure of polymer-rubber modified bitumen (CR) after 180C
temperature conditioning measured on the bottom of cylinder:
a) after 3 day, b) after 7 day.
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after 3rd and 7th day of heating are presented on figure 4. Microstructure
assessment of all images (10 days of testing) shows that there is no difference in
dispersion of polymer and rubber in bitumen in function of time.
5. TRIAL SECTIONS
20 cm sub-base unbound
mixture Existing construction
a) 12 cm concrete slabs b)
Figure 5. Trial sections containing polymer-rubber modified bitumen 45/80-55
CR: a) wearing coarse SMA 11, b) wearing coarse asphalt concrete AC 11.
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near the bottom control points according to WT-2 [10]. Aggregate blend was
composed from the amphibolite and basalt crushed aggregate. For both mixtures
adhesive agent was used and cellulose stabiliser for SMA.
Figure 6. Trial sections A, wearing coarse SMA 11 with high traffic load due to
hauling aggregate and asphalt mixture.
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6. CONCLUSION
Application of the crumb rubber from the wasted car tires for the asphalt
binder modification is in-line with a sustainability requirements observed in road
constructions. For a long time researchers were unable to develop thermo-stable
crumb rubber modified binder which could be stored and transported similarly
to the polymer modified bitumen.
As it was proved by the research conducted in this study, polymer and
crumb rubber modified bitumen demonstrated wide visco-elastic range as well
as good low and high temperature properties.
Experience obtained during construction and exploitation of two field
sections confirmed that application of this technology does not influence HMA
plant installations and does not impacts construction process required to
obtained good asphalt pavement.
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REFERENCES
[1]. I. Gawe, M. Kalabiska, J. Piat: Road bituminous (Asfalty drogowe). (In Polish).
WK, Warszawa, Poland, 2001
[3]. Asphalt rubber usage guide, Materials Engineering and Testing Services-MS #5,
available from http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/esc/Translab/ope/Asphalt-Rubber-Usage-
Guide.pdf (accessed 30 September 2006). CALTRANS 2006
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Abstract
This paper aims to establish the interface conditions influence on the flexible
pavement structures life. The methodology consists in using the interface constitutive model
available in the calculation program Aliz to calculate the stresses and strains in the flexible
pavement structures.
The design criteria related to limiting fatigue cracking of asphalt layers and permanent
deformations at the subgrade level from the road bed are used to estimate the flexible
pavement structures life.
When calculating the critical stresses and strains, most mechanical design methods of
the flexible pavement structures considers that the road layers at interfaces are perfect bonded
or total unbounded.
Proper modeling of the interface bonding condition is an important aspect in
understanding the real behavior of in-service flexible pavement structures.
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1. INTRODUCERE
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4. REZULTATELE STUDIULUI
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5. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[4]. ***, Normativ pentru dimensionarea sistemelor rutiere suple i semirigide. (Metoda
analitic), ind. PD 177-2001.
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[5]. ***, LCPC - Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussees, Aliz, Logiciel de calcul
des contraintes et deformations dans un milieu multi-couches elastique lineaire
applique aux structures de chaussees, Hugues Odon, novembre 1991.
[7]. D.M. BURMISTER, The theory of the stress and displacements in layered systems
and applications of design of airport runway, Proceeding of the Highway Research
Board, 23, pp. 126-148, 1943.
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Rezumat
n Normativ ind. AND 525, legat de ntreinerea drumurilor pe timp de iarn s-a pus
problema utilizrii srii pure, fr adaosuri de nisip, ca i substan antiderapant. Apariia i
dezvoltarea degradrilor ulterioare atribuite fenomenului de nghet-dezghe la drumuri, au
justificri fr un suport tiinific al cauzalitii impactului srii ca i substan, dar mai ales al
saramurii formate sub circulaia autovehiculelor asupra mbrcminii rutiere asfaltice.
Lucrarea i propune o prezentare a cercetrilor de laborator privind efectul de
substan antiderapant a srii pure la drumuri, ct i a influienei acestui material asupra
procesului de dezgheare a suprafeei carosabile pe timp de iarn.
Abstract
In Standard ind. AND 525, related to winter road maintenance it was set the issue of
using pure salt without sand additives as slippery substance. The emergence and development
of subsequent distresses attributed to freeze-thaw phenomenon for roads have justifications
without scientific support of causality impact of salt as a substance, especially of the "brine"
formed under the traffic to the asphalt pavement.
This paper proposes an overview of laboratory research on the effects of skid
substance of pure salt on roads, and the influence of this material on the road surfaces
thawing process during winter.
1. INTRODUCERE
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2. CERCETRI DE LABORATOR
Foto 1. Foto 2.
Carotele extrase au fost tip plci cu dimensiunile de circa. 25x40 cm i
grosimea de 10-11 cm, compus din cele 2 straturi asfaltice, respectiv, strat de
legatur i strat de uzur (Foto3, Foto4).
Foto 3. Foto 4.
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Foto 5. Foto 6.
Dup cum se observ din tabelul de mai jos, cantitatea de ap ce se
infiltreaz n structura rutier, difer n cuantum similar de la suprafaa
neetanata la cea etanata cu emulsia bituminoas. A fost identificat, n aceast
etap de cercetare, durata de timp n care s-a infiltrat o cantitate de 250 ml ap
ca parametru unic pentru calculul coeficientului de permeabilitate.
n acest mod, s-au identificat i verificat valorile coeficientului de
permeabilitate obinut prin msurtori directe n teren, fa de cele msurate cu
aceiai procedur, dar pe epruvetele extrase din teren i transportate la laborator
pentru continuarea cercetrii.
n tabelul 1 se prezint rezultatele obinute din aceast comparaie, din
care a rezultat c nu au aparut diferene notabile ntre coeficientul de
permeabilitate msurat pe teren i cel determinat n laborator:
Tabelul 1. Coeficieni de permeabilitate
Coeficient de Coeficient de permeabilitate Anul
Nr. Proba Drum
permeabilitate (K), teren (K), laborator reabilitarii
1 Neetansa 0.43 x 10-10 0.41 x 10-10 DN54 2010
2 Etansa 0.0028 x 10-10 0.0065 x 10 -10
DN54 2010
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Foto 7 Foto 8
Dup formarea acestui strat superficial de ghea 2-3 mm pe cele 2 carote,
s-a trecut la realizarea de msurtori de rugozitate cu aparatul SRT prezentat mai
sus.
-SRT.4= 8 (pentru suprafaa neetanat,cu polei);
-SRT.5= 4 (pentru suprafaa etanat prin amorsare,cu polei)
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Foto 9 Foto 10
-SRT.6= 41 (10% sare pe suprafaa neetanat cu polei)
-SRT.7= 37 (10% sare pe suprafaa etanat i cu polei)
Se poate observa faptul c dup aplicarea unui procent de 10% sare pur
rugozitatea SRT a crescut depind deja jumtate din valoarea lor n stare uscat
(cnd se considera c rugozitatea are valoarea maxim, deci coeficientul de
frecare cel mai mare la suprafaa carosabil).
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Dupa aplicarea unui nou procent de 10% sare peste cel aplicat anterior pe
suprafaa carotelor acestea au fost introduse din nou n congelator la temperatura
de -12oC pentru nc o jumtate de or. La fiecare aplicare a unui procent de sare
aceasta este repartizat pe ntreaga suprafa cu ajutorul unei pensuli, care
simuleaz i antrenarea acesteia de ctre pneurile autovehicolelor n micare.
Suprafaa de material antiderapant trebuie s fie repartizat constant ca i
grosime, pentru a nu crea neregulariti pe suprafaa carotelor datorit
concentrrilor de efecte de dezgheare n zonele de acumulare ale srii, de natur
s influeneze valoarea coeficientului de rugozitate msurat, prin dezghearea
neuniform a suprafeei carosabile.
-SRT.8=56 (pentru suprafaa neetanat, dar cu polei, 20% sare);
-SRT.9=51.5 (pentru suprafaa etanat, dar cu polei, 20% sare)
Se poate observa c dei rugozitatea a crescut, aceasta nu a ajuns la
valorile nregistrate pe suprafaa umed nainte ca acestea s fie introduse la
congelator la temperatura de -12oC.
Pentru a obine valorile de rugozitate obtinute pe probele umede nainte ca
acestea s fie introduse n congelator, s-a mai adugat un procent de 10% sare pe
suprafaa acestora, nsumnd astfel un total de 30% sare pur pe total suprafa,
dupa care epruvetele au fost introduse din nou la congelator pentru nc jumtate
de or (Foto 11, Foto 12).
Foto 11 Foto 12
La msurtorile SRT, s-au obinut urmtoarele valori:
-SRT.10=58.8 (pentru suprafaa neetanat, dar cu polei, 30% sare);
-SRT.11=56.1 (pentru suprafaa etanat, dar cu polei, 30% sare)
De data aceasta valorile s-au apropiat foarte mult de cele nregistrate
iniial pe suprafeele nengheate, ceea ce nseamn c procentul de sare aplicat
este cel optim pentru combaterea poleiului. Problema care se va pune n
programul viitor de cercetare, este aceea a efectului pe care l are "saramura"
dezgheta asupra structurii neetanate a stratului asfaltic.
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Foto 13 Foto 14
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Foto 17 Foto 18
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Foto 19 Foto 20
La aplicarea a nc unui procent de sare (Foto relevante 19,20) se ajunge
la un procent de 50% sare pe suprafa, iar n momentul simulrii circulaiei pe
suprafa (prin trecerea ciclic pe suprafaa gheii cu o pensul), se formeaz o
spum (datorit reaciei chimice ntre sare i ghea) care la interval de 10
secunde dispare n masa stratului de ghea. (Foto 21, Foto 22).
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potenialului chimic atunci cnd o soluie este adugat ntrun solvent, are loc
prin scderea punctului de ngheare.
Clorura de sodiu, n natur, formeaz depozite n apa de mare, la suprafaa
solului sau la adncime. Ea se formeaz n urma reaciei:
HCl + NaOH = NaCl + H2O
Clorura de sodiu se dizolv n ap pn la saturaie (peste un anumit grad
de concentraie, apa nu mai dizolv aceast sare).
Srurile rezult din reacia chimic dintre un acid i o baz, respectiv prin
reacia dintre acidul clorhidric i hidroxidul de sodiu:
HCl + NaCl NaCl + H2O
Rezult: clorur de sodiu ( NaCl ) + ap (H2O).
Reactia chimica intre apa si sare se poate reprezenta schematic astfel:
H2O + NaCl = Na+ + Cl- + H2O
Reacia dintre ap i sare este denumit n chimie i reacie de
,,crioscopie, care reprezint practic coborrea punctului de nghe al solventului
(apa). Termenul de ,,crioscopie provine din limba greac i nsemn analiza
nghetului.
Scderea punctului de nghe reprezint fenomenul de micorare, de
coborre a punctului de nghe a unui lichid (solvent) atunci cnd un alt
component este adugat n soluie, acest lucru ducnd la un punct mai mic de
nghe a soluiei nou formate fa de cel al solventului n stare pur, cum ar fi de
exemplu apa.
Este efectul dilurii n solvent a unei cantiti de substan. n termeni
termodinamici, originea modificrii punctului de nghe este una de natur
entropic i este uor de explicat cu ajutorul potenialului chimic al solventului.
La punctul de nghe (sau de topire) starea solid i cea lichid au acelai
potenial chimic, ceea ce nseamn c sunt echivalente din punct de vedere
energetic. Potenialul chimic este depedent de temperatur, aa se face c la alte
temperaturi, fie faza solid, fie faza lichid, au un potenial chimic mai sczut i
sunt deci preferate din punct de vedere energetic celeilalte faze.
Acest lucru nseamn n schimb c temperatura de echilibru dintre fazele
solide i lichide a unei substane n stare pur difer de temperatura de echilibru
a aceleiai substane aflate ns ntro soluie (Foto 23).
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3. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2]. Mihai Turneanu, Sorin Moraru, Indrumatori: Mihai DICU, Stefan LAZAR. -
Influena substanelor antiderapante asupra suprafeei carosabile pe timp de iarn
[4]. Conf. univ. dr. Constantin D. Albu - Mica enciclopedie de chimie, Editura
Enciclopedic Romn, Bucureti, 1974
[5]. Rodica Tica, Luminita Isac, Dana Perniu, Anca Duta Chimie General, Editura
Universitii Transilvania, Braov, 2002
[6]. Gavril Niac, Valerian Voiculescu, Ioan Baldea, Mircea Preda Formule, Tabele,
Probleme de Chimie Fizic, Editura Dacia, Cluj, 1984
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Rezumat
Abstract
The waterproof quality of wear layer is extremely important in terms of physical and
mechanical characteristics protection of a road structure. Therefore, the determining of an
impermeability parameter is essential in these circumstances, but also when the infiltration
implications of skid substances used during winter on uncontrolled degradation process of
asphalt pavement or even at the road structure level is seeking.
This paper aims to present a methodology for identifying a waterproof coefficient
through the crack index carriageway surface. This coefficient of permeability determined
directly by field tests and laboratory-calibrated allows a qualitative assessment of wear layer
performance in protection of road structure.
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1. INTRODUCERE
1. mbrcminte rutier
2. Recipient lichid msurare
3. Cordon mastic de etanare
4. Lichid msurare
5. Tub gradat de msurare a gradientului de
lichid infiltrat
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Qh
K
A t a [m/s] (1)
2. MSURTORI PE TEREN
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Figura 2. Proba 1
Figura 5. PROBA 6
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Din analiza datelor din tabelul 2, putem anticipa mai multe intervale de
impermeabilitate ale suprafeei carosabile, n funcie de care se pot propune
anumite lucrri de ntreinere-reparaie.
n funcie de valoarea indicelui de performan la impermeabilitate, se pot
identifica anumite intervale de impermeabilitate i anume:
Ip = 0.90 1.00 Impermeabilitate RIDICAT
Ip = 0.80 0.90 Impermeabilitate MEDIE
Ip = 0.60 0.80 Impermeabilitate SCZUT
Ip = 0.03 0.15 Impermeabilitate REA
Conform msurtorilor din teren au rezultat urmtoarele intervale de
impermeabilitate:
Tabel 3. Clase de impermeabilitate
Nr. Indice de performanta la
Proba Clasa de impermeabilitate
crt. permeabilitate, [Ip]
1 1 0.07 Impermeabilitate REA
2 2 0.05 Impermeabilitate REA
3 3 0.03 Impermeabilitate REA
4 4 0.64 Impermeabilitate SCZUT
5 5 0.76 Impermeabilitate SCZUT
6 6 0.65 Impermeabilitate SCZUT
7 6E 1.00 Impermeabilitate RIDICAT
4. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. Referat de Cercetare nr.1 din cadrul tezei de doctorat -drd.ing. LIA AUREL- 2012
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Rezumat
Abstract
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P
w
Asfalt
e
f
Beton
d
db
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Figura 2. Iniierea fisurii n asfalt, transfer la Figura 3. Deschiderea fisurii BcR, desprindere
fisura BcR asfalt de pe BcR la interfaa din zona fisurii
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Acest studiu se poate face i n cazul analizei unui strat asfaltic peste o
mbrcminte veche din beton de ciment fisurat, conform exemplului din figura
7, unde se poate pune n eviden coeficientul de performan obinut prin
utilizarea acestui sistem antifisur.
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Amplitudinea,
Betonului, db,
Desprinderea
asfalt, d, mm
asfalt, f, mm
betonului, e,
Deschiderea
Deschiderea
verticala, w,
Propagarea
Forta, daN
Deformata
Nr. cicluri
fisurii in
fisurii in
daN
mm
mm
mm
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80
Deschiderea fisurii in beton db
70
Deschiderea fisurii in asfalt d
Valori in milimetri
40
30
20
10
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000
Nr. cicluri
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S-a mai urmrit evoluia deschiderii propagrii fisurii prin stratul asfaltic
de protecie, precum i lungimea acesteia propagate pe grosimea stratului
asfaltic (figurile 11 i 12).
Figura 11. Epruveta 7b. Deschiderea fisurii n mixtur funcie de nr. de cicluri.
Figura 12. Epruveta 7b. Lungimea fisurii n mixtur funcie de nr. de cicluri.
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(1)
n formula (1) reprezint raportul parial de tensiuni, datorat solicitrii
i.
Aceast ipotez se poate adapta la fenomenul de oboseal al mixturilor
asfaltice aezate pe un beton fisurat, supuse la ni cicluri de ncrcare descrcare
cu o tensiune si. Dac Ni este durata de via la oboseal (numr de cicluri),
atunci legea se poate scrie sub forma:
(2)
n cazul ncrcriilor aplicate cu Fisurometrul Termostatat, treptele de
ncrcare cresc n timp, att ca amplitudine ct i ca valoare, F1<F2<F3<.....<Fn.
Pentru acest tip de solicitare, formula Palmgren-Milner devine:
(3)
Aceast lege poate fi interpretat ca o micorare a duratei de via N (deci
de scurtare a timpului de incercare in laborator, considerat in acest caz solicitare
la incarcare accelerata, n cazul unei ncrcri F1, cu un anumit numr de cicluri
n, datorit solicitrilor ulterioare Fn-1, pn la o valoare Nn. Cu alte cuvinte,
fiecare schimbare a valorii lui Fi, duce la o micorare a duratei de via
corespunztoare solicitrii F1.
Dei aceste abordri ale legii Palmgren-Miner se potrivesc modului n
care a fost gndit aparatul (ncercare accelerat, n trepte de ncrcare ce se
modific la un anumit interval), nu se poate concretiza prin ncercri pe aparat,
datorit numrului foarte mare de epruvete ce ar trebui confecionate i
ncercate.
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influiena deschiderii fisurii din stratul din beton asupra timpului de propagare a
acesteia n stratul asfaltic de protecie (figura 14). Timpul de propagare al fisurii
prin stratul asfaltic de protecie se determin indirect prin numrul de cicluri
aferent procesului de fisurare i prin deformarea vertical rezultat (sgeata w).
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cicluri la care se propag fisura prin acestea este mult redus (proba 2b se
fisureaz la 300 cicluri fa de proba 2a la 9000 de cicluri).
n figura 15 se poate observa acelai mecanism de propagare a fisurii prin
stratul de protecie asfaltic i n cazul analizei acestui proces n funcie de
deschiderea fisurii din epruveta asfaltic.
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stratul din beton de ciment degradat, datorit prelurii tensiunilor din ntindere
din ncovoiere de ctre geocompozit;
cu coeficientul de performan la numrul de cicluri de ncrcare CpNc=0.36,
se poate aprecia un spor al duratei de via asimilate la soluia cu geotextil
antifisura de 36%.
n ceea ce privete analiza propagrii fisurii din stratul din beton
prefisurat, care simuleaz mbrcmintea din beton de ciment degradat prin
apariia fisurilor i crpturilor, cercetarea din acest articol pune n eviden
influena deschiderii fisurii din stratul din beton asupra timpului de propagare a
acesteia n stratul asfaltic de protecie (figura 15). Timpul de propagare al fisurii
prin stratul asfaltic de protecie se determin indirect prin numrul de cicluri
aferent procesului de fisurare i prin deformaia vertical rezultat (sgeata w).
S-a putut constata faptul c n cazul unei fisuri cu deschiderea mic
(db=3mm) n stratul suport din beton de ciment, atunci cnd exist transfer de
tensiuni din ntindere din ncovoiere la solicitrile ciclice asimilate traficului
rutier, numrul de cicluri (Nc) este mai mare (exemplu Proba 3a, db= 3mm,
w=4mm, Nc= 12700), iar atunci cnd degradarea aprut este o crptur n
suportul din beton de ciment (db=7mm), deci nu exist o conlucrare perfect
ntre pereii fisurii, numrul de cicluri Nc aferent propagrii fisurii prin stratul
asfaltic este mult mai mic (exemplu Proba 4b, db= 7mm, w= 24mm, Nc= 3600).
De asemenea trebuie luat n considerare faptul c epruvetele asfaltice au
fost lipite prin amorsare de acelai suport din beton de ciment prefisurat, ceea ce
nseamn c pe msura creterii numrului de cicluri aplicat, se consum din
aderena de conlucrare la fisura din placa din beton de ciment, deci scznd
capacitatea de transfer la fisura stratului suport, viteza de propagare a acesteia
prin stratul asfaltic de protectie crete.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
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temperatures over the entire life span and the laboratory analysis time can be
reduced.
This identification of the thermo-physical characteristics is made possible
by the development of technical applications of fluxmetric measurement, which
allow the definition of simple modalities of plan thermal status.
The behavior and characterization of asphalt mixtures is one of the
present issues emerging from the high degree of variability in the composition of
the mixture, from the weather, hydrological and traffic conditions. In order to
research the experiment and measurement of the characteristic features of
asphalt mixtures, some non-destructive, reliable and precise methods are needed,
since these characteristics vary in time and cannot always be described
rigorously by simple relations.
The mechanic behavior of asphalt mixtures depends largely on the
temperature. This is why their behavior extends with the increase of the
temperature and contracts with the decrease of the temperature, the results being
interpreted as thermal cracking. At high temperatures, the asphalt mixture is
relatively soft and sensitive to rutting (permanent strain), in accordance to
repeated traffic loadings, while at low temperatures it is relatively fragile and
sensitive to thermal cracking. These ample research reasons determined the
realization of measurements to predict the temperature of the pavement in situ,
this being the basis of different models and applications concerning the
anticipation of the variation in time of the temperature in the asphalt mixture.
The thermal characteristics of materials have a significant impact on the
distribution of temperature and its variation in a body. These characteristics are
required as input for the modeling of the relation time temperature in any solid
body, such as the asphalt mixture.
The thermo-physical characteristics of asphalt mixtures, such as the
thermal conductivity, the specific heat, the diffusibility and the heat capacity,
have been researched during a training period I had in France, with the help of
fluxmetric measurements.
2. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
In the laboratory, the cylindrical samples are usually the most used for different
tests to determine the physic-mechanical characteristics. This paper presents the
study concerning the distribution and the validation of the model temperature on
a standard cylindrical sample. After compaction with the gyratory compactor,
the sample was prepared for placing the temperature thermocouples. They were
placed on the upper side of the cylinder surface, on the side surface and on the
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3. GENERATION EQUATIONS
The transfer process in a solid is described by the energy transitory equation [1].
In the Cartesian tridimensional system the equation is written as follows:
(1)
where: - temperature;
, , - thermal conductivity;
, , - directions of the respective coordinates;
- density of the sample;
- specific heat;
- internal energy generated on the volume unit;
- time.
For the tridimensional cylindrical coordinate system, the equation results
as follows:
(2)
where: , , - thermal conductivity, , , - spatial coordinates on
respective directions.
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,
for the cylinder, R, F
.
The depth is normalized as , where the radius of the cylinder,
therefore the equations (3) and (4) can be written as follows:
(5)
(6)
In the case of this experiment, the conduction heat was considered as
invariable due to the invariable temperature in the testing chamber, therefore the
solutions to the equations (5) and (6) can be approximated by using the method
of variable separation, the following relations result for the cylinder [5], [6]:
, (7)
(8)
where: are the first two terms of the Bessel function.
The normalized temperature , , for the cylinder of , coordinates
and the time , can be expressed in this experiment as a multiplication of results
for an infinitely plan wall and cylinder, as follows:
, , , , (9)
If 0,2, the equation (7) can be expressed in a single term 1 ,
which results from precision in 2% proportion [2].
Depending on the values taken by the parameters and [7], the equation
(8) can be solved by using the Newton-Raphson method.
The thermo-physical characteristics for the asphalt concrete were directly
measured during another experiment realized in France.
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ratio increases the most rapidly, which is normally expected, resulting a more
rapid approach of the balance temperature.
5. CONCLUSIONS
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[1]. Arpaci SV, Kao SH, Selamet A. - Introduction to heat transfer. NJ; 1999.
[2]. engel YA. - Heat transfer-a practical approach. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill Companies;
2002.
[3]. Emmanuel A., Didier D., Mohamed E., Bruno D. - Mesures fluxmtriques appliques
ltude des caractristiques thermophysiques d'un mortier en cours de prise.
XXIImes rencontres universitaires de Gnie Civil, Marne la Valle, France 2004.
[4]. Luca J, Mrawia D. - New measurement of thermal properties of Superpave asphalt
concrete. J Mater Civ Eng 2005;17:729.
[5]. Spalding DB. Pun WM.- A review of methods for predicting heat transfer coefficients
for laminar uniform property boundary layer flow. Int J Heat Mass Transfer
1999;5:23949
[6]. Zhao J. Ai X. Li YZ. - Transient temperature fields in functionally graded materials
with different shapes under convective boundary conditions. Heat Mass Transfer
2007;43:122732.
[7]. Xu Q. Solaimanian M. - Measurement and evaluation of asphalt concrete thermal
expansion and contraction. J Test Evalu, ASTM 2008:36.
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Rezumat
Warm Mix Asphalt (WMA) este o tehnologie dezvoltat pentru obinerea unei
mixturi asfaltice la temperaturi sczute. Aceast metod are beneficii semnificative att
economice ct i n ceea ce privete mediul nconjurtor.
Dup cum bine se tie tehnologia warm mix asphalt presupune folosirea de aditiv n
bitum pentru a i reduce vscozitatea n scopul de a reduce temperatura de malaxare i
compactare a mixturii asfaltice.
Tehnologia hot mix asphalt folosit pentru suprafeele aeroportuare, n special
pentru zona de rulare i platform trebuie s satisfac n plus fa de condiiile pentru drumuri
i cerinele privind rezistena la carburani i la ageni de degivrare conform normelor
europene.
Se poate folosi tehnologia warm mix asphalt pentru zonele aeroportuare n
concordan cu normele europene?
Aceasta este ntrebarea la care rspunde aceast lucrare care are ca scop determinarea
caracteristicilor mixturii asfaltice pentru aeroporturi BBA16 atunci cnd se utilizeaz sau nu
aditivi, avnd n vedere o serie de teste de laborator: ncercarea Marshall, ncercarea la
compresiune ciclic triaxial, ncercarea la ntindere indirect pe epruvete cilindrice modul
de rigiditate i rezistena la carburani.
Abstract
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Does warm mix asphalt for airport use meet the requirements according to European
norms? This is the question from this paper which aims to determine the characteristics of
asphalt mixtures for airports BBA16 when using or not using an additive, considering a series
of laboratory tests: cyclic triaxial compression test, fatigue test, stiffness modulus test and
resistances to fuels test.
1. INTRODUCERE
Tehnologia hot mix asphalt const n realizarea unui amestec a trei elemente:
elementul solid (agregatele i eventualii aditivi minerali sau fibr), elementul
vsco elasto plastic (liantul bituminos) i elementul gazos (golurile de aer),
la temperaturi ridicate (Figura 1).
Primul drum n a crui structur rutier s-a folosit mixtura asfaltic dup
tehnologia la cald a fost n Babilon ntre anii 625 si 604 .Hr.. Din cauza
temperaturilor ridicate folosite pentru aceast tehnologie la cald, cantitatea de
energie necesar fabricrii este mare i de asemenea emisiile poluante sunt
ridicate.
Industria construciei de drumuri a ncercat de-a lungul timpului mai
multe moduri de a reduce cantitatea de energie necesar fabricrii mixturilor
asfaltice la cald n scopul de a combina economia de energie cu beneficiile
asupra mediului.
Dorina de a realiza mixturi asfaltice la temperaturi sczute este nc din
secolul XIX, prima ncercare a fost realizat cu ajutorul aburului n anul 1956 de
profesorul Ladis Csanyi de la Iowa State University, SUA. Mai trziu, att n
SUA ct i n Australia i Europa s-a folosit tehnologia de spumare, iar n ultimii
20 de ani s-a folosit ceara pentru modificarea vscozitii bitumului i implicit
reducerea temperaturilor de malaxare i compactare a mixturilor asfaltice
(Germania).
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2. OBIECTIV
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20.00
19.00
18.00
17.00
16.00
15.00
14.00
13.00
12.00
125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160
o
Temperatura de compactare, C
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10.00
9.00
Indice de curgere
8.00
Marshall, mm
7.00
6.00
5.00
120 130 140 150 160
o
Temperatura de compactare, C
Indicele de curgere-et.1- Warm mix asphalt
Indicele de curgere-et.2 - Warm mix asphalt
8.000
7.000
6.000
5.000
4.000
3.000
2.000
1.000
0.000
120 130 140 150 160
o
Temperatura de compactare, C
Inaltime proba-et1- Warm mix asphalt Inaltime proba-et.2 - Warm mix asphalt
15.00
14.00
13.00
12.00
11.00
10.00
9.00
8.00 HMA WMA
7.00 HMA
6.00
5.00
160
bitum 45/80 Fr-Hot mix asphalt Tehnologia de executie
bitum 45/80 Fr-Warm mix asphalt
bitum 45/80-65-Hot mix asphalt
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8.00
Indice de curgere
7.00
Marshall, mm
6.00
5.00
4.00 WMA
HMA
3.00
HMA
2.00
1.00
0.00
160
bitum 45/80 Fr-Hot mix asphalt Tehnologia de executie
bitum 45/80 Fr-Warm mix asphalt
bitum 45/80-65-Hot mix asphalt
8.00
Inaltime proba, cm
7.00
6.00
5.00
4.00
HMA WMA
3.00 HMA
2.00
1.00
0.00
bitum 45/80 Fr-Hot160
mix asphalt
Tehnologia de executie
bitum 45/80 Fr-Warm mix asphalt
bitum 45/80-65-Hot mix asphalt
15oC
7500
Modul de rigiditate, MPa
7000
6500
6000 20oC
5500
5000
4500
4000 HMA
3500 WMA HMA
3000 WMA
2500
2000
1500 HMA
1000 HMA
500
0
160
bitum 45/80 Fr-Hot mix asphalt Tehnologia de executie
bitum 45/80 Fr-Warm mix asphalt
bitum 45/80-65-Hot mix asphalt
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6500
6000
5500
5000 WMA
4500 HMA HMA
4000
3500
3000
bitum 45/80 Fr-Hot160
mix asphalt Tehnologia de executie
bitum 45/80 Fr-Warm mix asphalt
bitum 45/80-65-Hot mix asphalt
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0.06
0.055
Viteza de fluaj, m/m/ciclu
0.05
0.045
0.04
0.035
0.03
0.025
HMA
0.02
0.015 HMA
WMA
0.01
0.005
0
bitum 45/80 Fr-Hot
160 mix asphalt
Tehnologia de executie
bitum 45/80 Fr-Warm mix asphalt
bitum 45/80-65-Hot mix asphalt
10
9
8
24 h
7
6
5
4 WMA
3 WMA HMA
HMA
2 HMA
1 HMA
0
130
bitum 45/80 Fr-Hot mix asphalt Tehnologia de executie
bitum 45/80 Fr 130o-Warm mix asphalt
bitum 45/80-65-Hot mix asphalt
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3. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2]. Carmen Rcnel, Adrian Burlacu si Claudia Surlea: Laboratory Results Obtained
On New Asphalt Mixtures With Polymer Modified Bitumen, Sa Paulo, Brazil, 4-6
August 2010.
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Rezumat
Abstract
The benefits of WMA technologies include reduced fuel usage and emissions in
support of sustainable development, improved field compaction, which can facilitate longer
haul distances and cool weather pavement, and better working conditions. Since this is a
relatively new technology, it is necessary to determine the behavior and the performances of
this type of asphalt mixture depending on additive percent.
These technologies tend to reduce the viscosity of the asphalt and provide for the complete
coating of aggregates at lower temperatures. WMA is produced at temperatures 20 to 30C
lower than typical hot-mix asphalt (HMA).
The paper presents the results obtained in the Road Laboratory of Technical University of
Civil Engineering Bucharest on an asphalt mixture with fibers (MASF16) prepared according
to the warm mix technology with chemical additive. Different percent of additive are used
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in laboratory to draw up the master curves of asphalt mixture obtained by 4PB-PR stiffness
modulus results.
1. INTRODUCERE
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2. SCOPUL STUDIULUI
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4. STUDIUL EXPERIMENTAL
Studiul experimental a urmrit ca prin intermediul rezultatelor obinute
din ncercrile de laborator, s se poat pune n eviden care este performana
mixturii asfaltice cu fibre realizat prin tehnologia warm mix, n funcie de
procentul de aditiv comparativ cu cea realizat prin tehnologia hot mix. n
vederea realizrii ncercrilor de laborator s-au confecionat probe cilindrice din
mixtur asfaltic compactate la ciocanul Marshall i probe de tip plac
compactate la compactorul cu rulou din care s-au tiat prisme, specifice fiecrui
test, n conformitate cu normele europene.
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4.2. Rezultate
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25000
Variatia factorului de translatie
cu temperatura y = -0.1255x + 2.2553
4
20000
2
Log (at)
Modulul de rigiditate, MPa
15000 -2
-4
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
o
Temperatura, C at
10000
5000
0
0.00001 0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frecventa, Hz
t=15 fr5 fr-5 fr10 fr20 fr0 fr25 fr35 fr40 fr45 curba directoare
20000
Variatia factorului de translatie
18000 cu temperatura
4
16000
y = -0.1245x + 2.2531
2
Log (at)
0
14000
-2
-4
Modulul de rigiditate, MPa
12000
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
o
10000 Temperatura, C at
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
t=15 fr-5 fr5 fr20 fr30 fr40 curba directoare Frecventa, Hz
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18000
Variatia factorului de translatie
16000
4
cu temperatura
y = -0.1245x + 2.2531
2
Log (at)
14000 0
-2
12000 -4
Modulul de rigiditate, MPa
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50
o
10000 Temperatura, C at
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Frecventa, Hz
t=15 fr0 fr5 fr10 fr20 fr35 t=-5 fr25 fr30 fr40 curba directoare
y = -0.1245x + 2.2531
12000 0
-1
-2
-3
Modulul de rigiditate, MPa
10000
-10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45
o
Temperatura, C at
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000
Frecventa, Hz
t=15 fr-5 fr5 fr20 fr30 fr40 curba directoare
20000
Modulul de rigiditate, MPa
15000
10000
5000
0
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Frecventa, Hz
MASF16-WMA-1 MASF16-WMA-2 MASF16-WMA-3 MASF16-HMA
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5. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Rezumat
Abstract
High modulus asphalt mix appeared as a necessity due to economic growth that led to
continuous increase in traffic, axle load and tire pressure. This mixture use hard bitumen and
shows good characteristics regarding to permanent deformation and fatigue behavior.
Warm mix asphalt" (WMA) technology allows manufacturers to reduce hot mix asphalt
working temperatures (mixing and laying) with 20...30oC with respect to conventional "hot
mix technology. Thus, there are benefits in reducing energy consumption and pollution
(emissions from burning fuels, fumes and odors from the plant and paving site), good
compaction, the ability to work in cold weather (lower temperatures), extending the paving
season work in site, the transport of asphalt mixtures over longer distances. WMA
production is possible by reducing the bitumen viscosity at a given temperature by using a
specific additive.
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This paper aims to study the performance of high modulus asphalt mixture using
WMA technology in terms of laboratory tests (Marshall stability and flow, stiffness,
permanent deformation and moisture damage) in accordance with European standards.
1. INTRODUCERE
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2. SCOPUL STUDIULUI
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4. STUDIUL EXPERIMENTAL
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4.2. Rezultate
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100
90 25/55-65
+
80 25/55-65 warm mixL
70
25/55-65
60
25/55-65
50
+
40 warm mixL
25/55-65
30 25/55-65
+
20 warm mixL
10
4
Indice de penetratie
2
25/55-65
25/55-65
1 +
warm mixL
2.500
MAMR16
2.490 HMA
170
3
densitate aparenta, kg/m
2.480
MAMR16
2.470 WMA
160
2.460
MAMR16
WMA
145
2.450
2.440
170, 160, 145 - temperaturi de compactare
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17.50
17.00
MAMR16
Stabilitatea Marshall, KN
MAMR16 WMA
HMA 160
16.50
170
16.00
15.50
MAMR16
WMA
15.00 145
14.50
170, 160, 145 - temperaturi de compactare
5.00
Indice de curgere Marshall, mm
MAMR16 MAMR16
WMA WMA
4.00 160 145
MAMR16
HMA
3.00
170
2.00
1.00
0.00
170, 160, 145 - temperaturi de compactare
80.00
MAMR16
70.00 WMA
MAMR16
Sensibilitate la apa, %
145
60.00 MAMR16 WMA
HMA 160
50.00 170
40.00
30.00
20.00
10.00
0.00
170, 160, 145 - temperaturi de compactare
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9000
8000
Modul de rigiditate IT-CY, MPa
5000
MAMR16
HMA MAMR16
4000 WMA
170
160
3000
2000
1000
20 grade C 15 grade C
0.045 1.85
Viteza de deformatie la ornieraj,
0.04 MAMR16
Adancimea procentuala a
1.8
0.035 MAMR16 HMA
1.75 170
mm/1000 cicluri
HMA
fagasului, %
0.03 MAMR16
170 1.7
0.025 WMA
160 1.65
0.02
1.6
0.015
1.55 MAMR16
0.01
WMA
0.005 1.5
160
0 1.45
0.035 1400
Modulul de fluaj initial, kPa
0.03 1200
MAMR16 MAMR16 MAMR16 MAMR16
0.025 HMA WMA 1000 HMA WMA
m/m/ciclu
0.015 600
0.01 400
0.005 200
0 0
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7000
Deformatia permanenta calculata (metoda II
6000
5000 10000
1000
1000, 10000, m/m
4000 10000
1000
3000
2000
1000
0
MAMR16 HMA 170 MAMR16 WMA 160
3. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[3]. J. I. Duval, P.E.: Engineered Warm Mix Asphalt LEED AP NWPMA Annual
Conference October 2012.
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Bucureti, 4-5 iulie 2013 2013 Bucharest, 4-5 July 2013
Mihai Ruja, engineer, Ph.D. Student, Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest,
Faculty of Railways, Roads and Bridges, e-mail: mihai.ruja@isaf.ro
Mihai Dicu, dean, P.E., Ph.D., Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest, Faculty
of Railways, Roads and Bridges, e-mail: mdicu@cfdp.utcb.ro
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
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2. DETERIORATION MODELS
The H.D.M.-4 has applications at the strategic, program and project levels
and it includes deterioration models for various types of distresses. For instance
the roughness model is described as follows:
RI K gp RI s RI c RI r RI t RI e (1)
where: RI = total incremental change in roughness during the analysis year;
Kgp = calibration factor for roughness progression;
RIs = incremental change in roughness due to structural deterioration,
which is a function of pavement age, number of equivalent standard
axles and structural number of the pavement;
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Data to be collected
The research team and the advisory committee drew heavily on the
previous work in planning L.T.M. to develop an overall L.T.P.P. study program
with three potential types of studies. These include General Pavement Studies
(GPS), Specific Pavement Studies (SPS) , and Accelerated Pavement Testing
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(APT). The General Pavement Studies involve a very large experiment that
embraces a large array of site selection factors, and is expected to produce a
broad range of products and results. The Specific Pavement Studies will have
their own set of more limited goals , construction needs and experimental
approaches; and are generally aimed at more intensive studies of a few
independent variables for each of a number of study topics. The other category
of studies, which is to be considered for future adop ion, is the Accelerated
Pavement Testing Program. The APT could include either road tests (not now
under consideration) or specifictests of interest at the existing F.H.W.A.
For practical reasons, it is necessary to develop and analyze separate
factorial experiments for each type of pavement considered. For budgetary
reasons, the number of pavement types was limited.
The original approach in selection of data to be collected for the F.H.W.A.
L.T.M. program was to establish the significance of the potential independent
variables for predictions of various - distresses and performance measures, and
to omit data items that could be expected to have limited significance. This
concept began to change during the L.T.M. Pilot Studies for several reasons.
Perhaps the most significant reason was the revolution in the computer industry,
which has basically eliminated constraints on data storage.
The use of the A.A.S.H.O. Road Test data for many purposes not
anticipated when that experiment was developed gave support to this approach.
Also, it became apparent that most of the detailed data that might be omitted
was simply inventory data that could be economically collected from project
files at the same time that the more critical information was entered.
The types of data to be collected are identified in general terms below:
Inventory Data: This includes that data necessary to:
identify the test section;
describe the geometric details of its construction and the material properties
of its structural constituents;
identify previous maintenance activities;
identify previous service and/or rehabilitation;
identify constructioncosts and costs of subsequent maintenance prior to
initiation of the L.T.P.P. monitoring effort.
All this data should remain constant throughout the monitoring period
unless the pavement is resurfaced or rehabilitated.
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5. CONCLUSIONS
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REFERENCES
[5]. SHAWN L., FALLS L. C., CLEETHANM A.: Development of a Pavement Surface
Performance Measure for the British Columbia Pavement Management System, 5th
International Conference on Managing Pavements, 2001
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Markus Spiegl, DI. Dr., MCD-I Sector Management Construction & Industries. Business
Development Construction, OMV Refining & Marketing GmbH. Austria, e-mail:
markus.spiegl@omv.com
Eugen uc, C&I Technical Service Manager CL2. Business Development Center,
Commercial Department, PC Construction & Industries, OMV Refining & Marketing, OMV
Petrom S.A., e-mail: eugen.tuca@omv.ro
Rezumat
Abstract
1. INTRODUCERE
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Pentru acest experiment s-au utilizat dou tipuri de bitum: bitum rutier
70/100 i bitum modificat cu polimeri PMB 45/80-65. Din ambii liani
bituminoi s-au confecionat 4 tipuri diferite de mixturi asfaltice: AC11,
SMA11, LSMA11 i PA11.
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Load Frame
Temperature Sensor
Swivel Jig
Invar Rod
Specimen
ie Environmental Chamber
End Plate
Dummy with Temperature
Sensor
Clamp Fan
Swivel Jig
LVDT
Loading Rod
Step Motor
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Din acest motiv i pentru o mai buna evaluare, au fost introdui doi noi
parametri. Primul se refer la viteza iniial de ntindere i al doilea evideniaz
energia toala disipat pn la cedarea probei.
n reprezentrile din figura 5 apar rezultatele obinute pe cele dou tipuri
de bitum. Temperatura critic de fisurare a fost calculat conform AASTHO
PP42. Rezultatele testului de ncovoiere sunt utilizate n calcularea curbei
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4. CONCLUZII
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Rezumat
Abstract
The paper present studies and experiments conducted to obtain an asphaltic mixture
that combat forming of ice layer on bituminous pavement surface. For obtaining an anti-frost
bituminous pavement, it was used an additive that allows slow and steady release of its
components in contact with the aqueous phase, until a temperature of - 8 C. In Gorj County,
on road DJ 665 Tg.Jiu (Curtisoara) - Novaci Baia de Fier - Polovragi it was realized an
experimental sector, and the obtaining results justify the effectiveness of this type of anti-frost
asphalt mixture.
The experimental sector was performed in 2009 and has been observed in the winters
of 2009-2013.
After 4 (four) years, we can draw conclusions on the effectiveness of the applied
solution concerning design of an efficient anti-frost bituminous pavement.
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1. DATE GENERALE
Autorii acestei lucrri i-au propus realizarea unei mixturi asfaltice pentru
stratul de rulare, care s mpiedice formarea cristalelor de ghea i
mbuntirea aderenei anvelopelor autovehiculelor, cauza multor accidente de
circulaie. Pentru realizarea unei mixturi asfaltice, care s combat formarea
poleiului pe suprafaa de rulare, s-a apelat la un aditiv cu denumirea
WINTERPAV - ECO - S , care rezolv problema formrii poleiului i gheii la
suprafaa de rulare n perioada de iarn.
Efectul acestui aditiv este de a reduce temperatura de nghe a apei de pe
suprafaa drumului i de a combate formarea gheii.
Pelicula de ghea, dac se formeaz la temperatur mai sczut de -
7C... -8C, nu ader la suprafaa mbrcmintei bituminoase, ea fiind
ndeprtat cu uurin de lama utilajelor.
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50
40
30
20
10
0
0,1 0,2 0,63 1 2 4 8 16
site, mm
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60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0,1 0,2 0,63 1 2 4 8 16
site, mm
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4. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[3]. SR EN 12 591- 2009. Bitum i liani bituminoi. Specificaii pentru bitumuri rutiere.
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Rezumat
Abstract
The certification of asphalt mixtures is done according to the Regulation (EU) No.
305/2011 OF THE EUROPEAN ARLIAMENT AND OF THE COUNCIL of 9 March 2011
laying down harmonized conditions for the marketing of construction products, repealing
Council Directive 89/106/EEC
The referencials for the certification of asphalt mixtures are :
367
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1. CADRUL CONTEXTUAL
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2. Incercari dinamice
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Rezumat
Abstract
Asphalt-based nanocomposites are made from asphalt matrix and nano-sized mineral
particles. In this paper are presented the results obtained in the preparation of nanocomposite
asphalt type using calcium carbonate nanoparticles in a matrix composed of bitumen and
thermoplastic elastomers with adhesive-sealant characteristics. It was studied the influence of
sulphonic resin modified, from processing tar acid oil stored in catch pits for waste, on the
characteristics of asphalt nanocomposites. Characterization of prepared nanocomposite
materials was performed by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), applying an oscillating
force on the sample and measuring the resulting displacement at controlled temperature. The
results show that the DMA method is very sensitive to the type of components and the
position of the relaxations have a major impact on the performance of the prepared materials.
380
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1. INTRODUCERE
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2. PARTE EXPERIMENTAL
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3. REZULTATE I DISCUII
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4. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. JAHROMI S.G., KHODAI A.: Construction and Building Materials, 23 (2009)
28942904
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Rezumat
Abstract
This paper presents the results of a work of reviewing a Romanian Norm that deals
with the road works made with cement concrete with the addition of fly ash.
The subject is modern in terms of constraints exercised by the European Union in
terms of solid waste management. The existence on the market of certified fly ash according
to EN 450-1 is also an incentive for its use in large quantities. The occurrence of European
standards and national application documents in the field, conducted in the authors' opinion,
to the need of implementing them in the new form of the Norm. It is about SR EN 206-1 and
national application document CP012-1: 2007 in the production of concrete and EN 13877-1,
2, 3 in the concrete materials and road works. Obviously, national experience, as NE014-02
Norm and Romanian Standards for aggregate could not be neglected.
The authors have tried to combine elements from two sources and have developed a
procedure for determining concrete recipe, experimentally verified.
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1. INTRODUCERE
2. ABORDAREA PROBLEMATICII
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O alt schimbare de fond ar putea fi renunarea la una din cele dou clase
definite, respectiv F3,5 i F4,0 din considerentul c prevederile compoziionale
i rezistenele la ncovoiere difer destul de puin pentru a constitui o mare
economie utilizarea clasei de rezisten mai joas. De asemenea, din punct de
vedere practic, innd cont de sensibilitatea rezultatelor testelor de rezisten la
ncovoiere de condiiile de pstrare a unor probe cu gabarit semnificativ, greu de
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manipulat, decofrat i chiar de ncercat, s-ar putea renuna chiar i la aceste clase
trecndu-se la clase de rezisten la traciune sau numai la compresiune, cum se
practic n unele ri [6]. Rezultatele testelor de despicare sau compresiune ar
putea fi transformate n rezisten la ncovoiere necesare pentru proiectare
utilizand relatii cunoscute [13]; echivalent ar putea fi fcute ncercrile de
ncovoiere doar pentru elaborarea reetei, testele de despicare sau compresiune
putnd fi efectuate doar pentru controlul produciei de beton i punerii n oper.
Aceast abordare ar putea fi inclus la urmtoarea revizie.
3. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[6] STANTON WALKER, D.L. BLOEM Studies of Flexural Strength of Concrete, part 3,
Effects of Variations in Testing Procedures, NRMCA Publication No.75, NRMCA,
Silver Spring
[9] SR 667-2001 Agregate i piatr prelucrat pentru drumuri. Condiii tehnice generale de
calitate.
[12] NE014-02 Normativ pentru realizarea mbrcminilor rutiere din beton de ciment n
sistemele cofraje fixe i glisante.
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Josef Zak, Department of Road Structures, Faculty of Civil Engineering, CTU in Prague, e-mail:
josef.zak@fsv.cvut.cz
Jan Valentin, Department of Road Structures, Faculty of Civil Engineering, CTU in Prague
Petr Mondschein, Department of Road Structures, Faculty of Civil Engineering, CTU in Prague
Abstract
The assessment of resistance to fatigue in the Czech Republic is carried out according
to the standard test method SN EN 12697-24 + A1. Nowadays, a 50% loss of the stiffness
modulus is considered for fatigue, although this value does not reflect the development of
cracks during the test. Other methodologies are used to determine the fatigue resistance by the
application of the dissipation energy theory in the world. This article, therefore, describes
these methods and presents laboratory measured resistance to fatigue assessed by a 50% loss
of the stiffness modulus, the Hopman & Pronk method and the Rowe method. The article also
presents the mutual comparison of these test methods carried out on a hot asphalt mixture for
ACL 16+ base courses.
1. OBJECTIVE
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2. RESISTANCE TO FATIGUE
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measured results are then fitted with Whler curves. The results are different
values of fatigue lives for each mode.
The Euler-Bernoulli bending beam theory is used for the interpretation of
results in [1]. With the progress in the use of Finite Element Methods (FEM),
the analysis of the HMA bending theory becomes more precise with the help of
3D modelling, which helps to better address the material behaviour principles. A
3D model of a test device manufactured by Zwick Roell is, for example, used in
[6], and the effects of boundary conditions are assessed in the paper. The authors
discuss the influence of the force between the clamps of the test equipment and
other boundary conditions, such as freedom against rotation and displacement in
the horizontal axis x. The use of FEM also includes the influence of shear
deformation. After summarizing the effects, the difference between the analysis
used in [1] and the FEM model is in the range of 0.84% and 0.88% (elastic and
viscoelastic solutions). The difference is, therefore, so small that it may be noted
with relief that the use of the present Euler-Bernoulli theory leads to correct
results. Although the results are presented by the worlds leading experts in the
field of fatigue, viscoelasticity and its application to HMA, the results should be
considered with the reservation that the models do not reflect the friction
properties between steel and the tested specimen [19].
Peel in his scientific papers [10] proved already in 1962 that the results of
4PBB tests and axial compressive and tensile tests can be plotted on a
logarithmic scale as the dependence of the number of cycles to stress or strain.
Those data, plotted in a logarithmic scale, can be approximated by a straight line
known as the Whler curve or SN curve. The number of cycles where the
stiffness is half of the initial stiffness is chosen as the value representing
resistance of material to fatigue.
Such a defined relationship to determine fatigue resistance is largely
dependent on the boundary conditions of the test. The Whler curve parameters
differ as the test temperature differs (see figure 1) and also with the chosen load
frequency [10]. The definition of fatigue as a loss of 50% of the stiffness
modulus is the rule that underestimates certain types of HMA, but, at the same
time, it can also perilously overestimate them in the sense of resistance to
fatigue. For example, the HMAs containing highly modified binders (containing
10 to 15% of polymer), reach the critical value of crack initiation at reaching
half of the loss in modulus [16].
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The data measured during the fatigue test can be divided into three phases
as described in [12] (figure 2):
Phase I: This phase is characterized by a rapid decrease in the stiffness
modulus caused by repeated stress. This rapid decline is not attributable directly
to fatigue, as the specimen is also heated and the rheological phenomenon of
thixotropy [2, 12, 15, 16] probably plays an important role in this phase, see also
the end of this article.
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Phase II: During this phase, the effect of fatigue on the loss of the stiffness
modulus is dominant. While the impact of heating and thixotrophy is small, it
still needs to be taken into account. This phase together with phase I is
considered to cause the crack initiation.
Phase III: This phase is associated with the crack propagation. The cracks are
widening and at the end of this phase damage to the specimen occurs.
Figure 2. HMA stiffness during the resistance to fatigue test and analysis of
various phases of the test [12]
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4. DISSIPATION ENERGY
(2)
The Wo value in this equation is dissipated energy in the first cycle. Phase
II usualy has a linear dependence in the form of the dissipation energy ratio and
point N1 is, therefore, defined as a deviation from the linear trend of the
dissipated energy ratio.
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6. ROWE METHOD
(3)
where E* is the complex modulus.
The disadvantage of both methods is a difficulty in the definition of point
N1 in the controlled strain test mode in relation to tests in the controlled stress
mode. This phenomenon is caused by a reduction in stress in the crack, resulting
in the reduction in the rate of crack spreading.
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The comparison of results of 2PBB, 4PBB [12, 10] and different methods
of loading (constant stress mode, constant strain mode) is still difficult with
regard to different deformations along the trapezoidal shaped specimen in
2PBB and the beam specimen in 4PBB [13]. The paper [7] presents the
comparison of 2PBB with 4PBB on the basis of Whler curves. Perhaps, the
comparability of the two methods was found at 15C and a frequency of 10Hz
for 2PBB, and 20C and 30Hz for 4PBB. The validity of the comparison for
controlled strain with the stress mode still remains for discussion.
To predict the life time of the pavement structure with regard to the
initiation of cracks caused by repetitive loading, it is necessary to include other
factors, mainly temperature changes, traffic load-in terms of the amplitude and
the frequency, time between loads, oxidation of the binder, the effect of UV
radiation, the effect of winter maintenance. It is, therefore, a complex
phenomenon with difficulties to express by exact characterization.
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10. CONCLUSION
Acknowledgment:
This paper has been supported by the research project
SGS13/050/OHK1/1T/11 granted by the Czech Technical University in Prague.
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REFERENCES
[1] SN EN 12697-24+A1., , Bituminous mixtures - Test methods for hot mix asphalt -
Part 24: Resistance to fatigue, Czech Office for Standards, Metrology and Testing.
2007
[2] Benedetto, H., Roche C., Baaj H., Pronk A. C., and Lundstrm R.,. Fatigue of
bituminous mixtures. Materials and Structures 37 (3) (April 1): 202216.
doi:10.1007/BF02481620, 2004;
[4] Dijk, W. van, and Visser W., 1977. The energy approach to fatigue for pavement
design. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the association of asphalt paving
technologists (AAPT), San Antonio, Texas (February): 140, 1977
[5] Hopman, P.C., Kunst P. A. J. C., and Pronk A. C.. A Renewed Interpretation Method
for Fatigue Measurement. In , 2:557561. Madrid, 1989;
[6] Huurman, M., and Pronk A. C.,. A detailed FEM simulation of a 4-point bending test
device. In Four Point Bending - CRC Press Book, 312. Davis, CA, USA, 2012;
[7] Hzl, P., Varaus M., Monschein P., Valentin J., and Souek V., 2012. Comparison
of fatigue properties using 2-point and 4-point bending tests Czech experience. In
Four Point Bending - CRC Press Book, 205212. Davis, CA, USA, 2012;
[8] Luxemburk, F., and Lehovec F.,. Zvren zprva sttnho vzkumnho kolu;
Vzkum men dynamickch modul a stanoven zvislosti potu opakovn zaten
na ivotnost stmelench silninch materil. Praha, 1975;
[9] Matsuno, S., and Nishizawa T.. Mechanism of Longitudal Surface Cracking in
Asphalt Pavement. Proceedings, 7th International Conference on Asphalt Pavements
2: 277291, 1992;
[10] Pell, P. S. 1962. Fatigue characteristics of bitumen and bituminous mixes. In Ann
Arbor, Mich., U.S.A, 1962;
[11] Pell, P. S, and Cooper K. E,. 1975. The Effect of Testing and Mix Variables on the
Fatigue Performance of Bituminous Materials. Proceedings of the Association of
Asphalt Technologists 44: 137, 1975;
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[12] Pronk, A. C.. Comparison of 2 and 4 Point Fatigue Tests and Healing in 4 Point
Dynamic Bending Test Based on The Disipated Energy Concept. In , 987994.
Seattle, Washington. http://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=501677, 1997.
[13] Pronk, A. C., and Molenaar A. A., 1997. Harmonization of 2 and 4 Point Dynamic
Bending Tests Based on a new Fatigue Life Definition. In Mechanical Tests for
Bituminous Materials / Essais Mecanique Pour Les Materiaux Bitumineux. 1st ed.
Taylor & Francis, 1997.
[14] Qiu, J., Ven M. F. C., Schlangen E, Wu S., Molenaar A. A.,. Cracking and Healing
Modelling of Asphalt Mixtures. In 7th RILEM International Conference on Cracking
in Pavements, ed. A. Scarpas, N. Kringos, I. Al-Qadi, and Loizos A., 1135
1144.Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, 2012
http://www.springerlink.com/index/10.1007/978-94-007-4566-7_108;
[15] Rowe, G. M., 1996. Application of the Dissipated Energy Concept to Fatigue
Cracking in Asphalt Pavements., 1996
[16] Rowe, G. M., Blankenship P., Bennert T.,. Fatigue assessment of conventional and
highly modified asphalt materials with ASTM and AASHTO standard specification.
In Four Point Bending - CRC Press Book, 113122. Davis, CA, USA, 2012;
[18] k, J., Luxemburk F., Suda J.,. The influence of winter maintenance and
compaction of hot mix asphlats on pavement lifetime. In Young Scientist 2012, 17.
Technical University of Koice, 2012;
[19] k, J., Valentin J.; "New Test Method for Measuring Friction Characteristics
between asphalt mixture and steel" In BCRRA 2013, Trondheim, 2013.
[20] k, Josef, Jiri Stastna, Ludovit Zanzotto, and MacLeod Daryl. Laboratory Testing of
Paving Mixes Dynamic Material Functions and Wheel Tracking Tests.
International Journal of Pavement Engineering 2013 (6). 3: 147154.
doi:10.6135/ijprt.org.tw/2013.6(3).147;
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Abstract
The improvement of modern road systems involves strategic medium and long term
rehabilitation. The purpose is to find an optimal solution in terms of increasing the bearing
capacity of roads with minimal costs.
To that effect I elaborated a study using calculation solutions and empirical methods.
I started exploring this hypothesis by using the following road system :
4cm wear
5cm binder
6cm asphalt mixture
15cm crashed stone
20cm ballast
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DISPLACEMENTS EFFORTS
CALCULATION ASSUMPTIONS (mm) (MPa)
max min max min
Without
0,362 -1,269 11,020 -7,420
geosynthetic Without geosynthetic
Geosynthetics under
0,297 -1,165 41,760 -7,200
wear
Var E(-500 MPa) of
0,320 -1,192 40,050 -6,460
asphaltic layers
Geosynthetics Var E(+500 MPa) of
0,282 -1,142 43,250 -7,900
under wear asphaltic layers
Var E(-10000 Mpa) of
0,312 -1,191 30,720 -7,340
geosyntechtic layer
Var E(+10000 Mpa) of
0,285 -1,147 50,510 -7,060
geosyntechtic layer
Geosynthetics under
0,082 -0,891 22,710 -5,450
binder
Var E(-500 MPa) of
0,105 -0,925 21,550 -5,080
asphaltic layers
Geosynthetics Var E(+500 MPa) of
0,073 -0,888 22,870 -5,910
under binder asphaltic layers
Var E(-10000 Mpa) of
0,096 -0,915 21,240 -5,590
geosyntechtic layer
Var E(+10000 Mpa of
0,073 -0,877 23,580 -5,370
geosyntechtic layer
Illustration 1: Summarizing table - ROBOT data
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In the case of using asphalt carpet as protective layer for old, cracked
asphalt concrete, the following data were collected by using the samples
manufactured in the laboratory:
Stage I: bending tensile stress taken over from the transfer at the closed
fissure of the asphalt concrete layer
Stage II:the consumption of the closed fissure of the asphalt concrete and
the apparition of the separation effect at the interface in the area
of the existing fissure.
Stage III: initiation and advancement of the fissure in the asphalt carpet.
The experimental testing allow the evaluation of certain performance
coefficients which represent the corresponding results for versions of laboratory
tests. This way, by applying identical circumstances for manufacturing samples,
we can test the cracking behavior for the asphalt carpet laid on a cracked support
layer, as well as the behavior for the anti-fissure solution applied (geocomposite
or anti-fissure geosynthetic for example).
The second conclusion drawn is that the samples manufactured from an
asphalt carpet laid on a pre-cracked support layer, dont have the same behavior
for different temperatures.
In the future, these studies will be expanded to allow the correlation of
these results with mathematical formulas from the speciality literature, regarding
the fissuration of road materials (ex. Paris law).
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Summarizing table
Sample 3(partial
sample1 sample2 yield)
Fissure force (daN) 12329 21862 21127
No. of cycles from the apparition of
fissure until subsidence 1994 16925 21125
Maximum displacement (mm) 22,23 19,532 12,04
Fissure width (mm) 2,387 1,176 3,52
Fissure lenght (mm) 29,91 24,73 19,65
As the above table shows, the first sample yielded at a lower value for the
fissure force, a smaller number of cycles after the occurrence of cracking, with
the biggest displacement. This sample represents laying a new road layer on top
of an already cracked one.
The illustrative comparison is the one between the two antifissure
solution, with geosynthetic and geocomposite. The resulting data must be
evaluated by considering the fact that, for a contact force of 1055 daN the
testing device reached its limit: the sample cracked, but without subsidence. The
sample no. 2, the reinforced with geosythetic, for a contact force of 1044daN
subsided.
This experiment concludes that the best option is reinforcing the road
system using a layer of geocomposite.
3.FINAL CONCLUSIONS
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Rezumat
Abstract
The process of division combining of streams in mixers with bars and radial and
longitudinal scrapers was studied. The number of unique streams that are formed after passing
each row of longitudinal bars and the total amount of them were determined. This is
demonstrated by migration of the particles along the mixer from left to right and vice versa,
from the center of the drum towards the periphery and vice versa. In the process of mixing the
particles in the center gain normal distribution and the ones on the side - sectioned normal
distribution. The sum of normal distribution with the sectioned normal distribution leads to an
equable distribution along the drum and transverse planes and to a homogeneous mixing of
the components. The quality of mixing had been investigated and an optimal mixing regime
for the mixer with radial and longitudinal bars and scrapers was proposed.
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1. INTRODUCTION
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2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
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Figure 2. Areas of the drum of the mixer from where samples were taken
(top view)
The mixer with arched radial bars and elastic longitudinal scrapers (Figure
3) includes a body 1 with semi-cylindrical bottom, mixing tools executed in the
shape of arched two arched radial bars 2, fixed radialy on the shaft sections 3,
longitudinal bars 4 on radial bars 2, the longitudinal scrapers, attached to the
ends of the bars 2 and including plaques 5, the elastic elements 6 and knives 7
are fastened with screws 8 and radial scrapers 9 fixed on the shaft 3, supports
10, bearings 11 in which the bushings of frontal walls of the body are supported
1, bearings 12 on which the ends of the shaft are supported 3, a handle 13
attached to the top of the body 1, shoulders 14 fixed one the exterior surface of
the body 1, leaning on the frame.
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Figure 3. The scheme of the mixer with cyclic action, with arched radial bars
and longitudinal scrapers: 1 - body, 2 - radial curved bar, 3 - shaft,
4 - longitudinal scraper, 5 - plaque, 6 - elastic element, 7- knife, 8 - screw;
9 - radial scraper, 10 - support, 11, 12 - ball bearings, 13 - handle, 14 shoulder
The mixer operates in the following manner. When the shaft is rotating 3
(the driving mechanism is not shown), the material poured into the body 1, is
pierced by radial bars 2, longitudinal bars 4, radial and longitudinal scrapers 9,
and split into flows in both longitudinal and transverse planes. Splitting the
streams and their combination occur simultaneously in the entire volume of
material.
During the operation of the mixer, while the knife 7 of the longitudinal
scraper passing through CD zone (Figure 3) due to its own radius that is bigger
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than the inner radius of the drum, the elastic element is bent in the direction of
movement of the mixing tool and in this way ensures the slip of the knife 7 on
the inner surface of the body 1. When passing through the DE area, the knife is
constantly in contact with the inner surface of the body 1 due to the action of
forces of pressing the material in the front. In this way there is provided a void
game between the blade tip and the inner surface 7 of the body 1, and as a result
- complete avoidance of blocking particles between the blade and the body.
For describing the mixing process we have to analyze a very limited cross-
sectional area in the space, for example, the radial bar I zone (Figure 3, to A-A).
Radial bars with longitudinal bars fixed on them pass through this area, the
material is in static state. This creates the effect of material flow through radial
and longitudinal bars, although it is practically in the same place. Only a part of
the particles located on the front side of the radial and longitudinal bars and the
scrapers can move inside the material for not too large distances, with a certain
probability.
For the analysis of the formation of the streams in the transverse plane, we
assume that the material is not moving over the drum. When passing the first
longitudinal row of bars through material between the scraper and the
longitudinal bar, the flow is formed; between two longitudinal bars - the
flow is formed and between the bar from the right and shaft - flow is formed
(Figure 4, a, Position 1).
When passing the second longitudinal row of bars in the area, the flows ,
and are divided each one in two smaller flows by the longitudinal bars. Since
the velocity vector of the small flow from the right 0,5 and the one from left
0,5 face each other at an angle, their combining and mixing take place and the
flow 0,5 0,5 results. The same process happens to flow 0,5 and 0,5 - the
flow 0,5 0,5 is obtained.
When passing the third row with longitudinal bars through the analyzed
zone, the flow 0.5 is targeted to the right of the scraper on the end of the bar.
0,5 0,5 and 0,5 0,5 flows are divided by the longitudinal bars into 0,25
0,25 and 0,25 0,25 flows. The flow 0,5 combines with the flow 0,25
0,25 from left and a new stream 0,75 0,25 is obtained. The flow 0,25
0,25 from right combines with the flow 0,25 0,25 from left and the new
stream 0,25 0,5 0,25 is obtained. Finally the flow 0,25 0,25 combines
with the flow 0,5 and the new stream 0,25 0,75 is obtained.
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The results of both studied cases are shown in the Figure 7. The mean
values were calculated x1 , x 2 , x 3 and x 4 the amount of colored particles from
the same for each area of taking the sample and mean value x m which
characterize the homogeneity of the whole mixture.
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The mean square deviation S1, S2, S3, S4 and Sm of the average values has
been calculated. We see that the experimental results are characterized by the
small quadratic deviation and this explains the fact that the homogeneity of the
mixture in zones 1 and 2, 3 and 4 is almost the same.
The results describe adequately the mixing process, at first the
heterogeneous of mixture decreases sharply to achieve the maximum
homogeneity that is constant in the continuation of further mixing.
From the diagram (Fig. 7, a) we observe that for the initial of locating the
mixture components in two horizontal layers one above another, the mixture
became homogeneous after 6-th rotation of the mixer shaft, because the mean
value which characterized the homogeneity in the entire mixture is equal to
49,88% and the standard deviation Sm is equal to 2,47%, but the increase of the
quality of the mixture takes place until the 9th rotation, the mean square
deviation Sm decreasing to 1,08%. Minimizing and the broadly constant at the
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value of the average coefficient of variation v took place after the 9th rotation
(v=2,14 %).
For the case of initial locating of the mixture components in two vertical
longitudinal layers, the mixture becomes homogenous after the 4-th rotation
(Figure 7, b) the average being 50,74% and the mean square deviation Sm = 0,68.
Continuing the mixing process until the 15-th rotation, the quality of the mixture
remain unchanged, which means that the maximum quality of the mixture was
obtained after the 4-th rotation. The average of the coefficient of variation for
this case is still minimal after the 4th rotation and is 1,34% but at continuing
mixing it remains almost unchanged.
6. CONCLUSIONS
1. In the mixer with radial and longitudinal bars and radial and longitudinal
scrapers, there is a complex mixing process that leads to the formation of a very
large number of single streams, the migration of particles along the mixer and
across in both directions.
2. Using the method of assessing the quality of the mixture, when a layer is
composed solely of colored particles and the other layer - of not colored
particles, allows to obtain some exact experimental results, which can be used to
assess the quality of the mixture changes depending on the number of
revolutions of the mixer shaft.
3. In case of the initial settlement of the mixture components in the mixer drum
in two horizontal layers one above another, the high quality of the mixture was
obtained after six turns of the shaft; and in case of the components settlement
in two vertical longitudinal layers - after four revolutions of the shaft mixer, due
to the specific position of the radial and longitudinal bars in the space between
the shaft and the drum. The mixing regime is proposed as following: 6 seconds
while dry, 6-12 seconds while wet.
REFERENCES
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Mircea Andriu, Profesor universitar, doctor habilitat n tiine tehnice, catedra CFDP,
Universitatea Tehnic a Moldovei, Chiinu, andriuta.mircea@gmail.com
Sergiu Bejan, doctorand, Universitatea Dunrea de Jos Galai, serbej@gmail.com
Rezumat
Abstract
On asphalt compaction work more widely used vibratory tandem rollers which ensure
high productivity and high quality of work. But achieving major performance is possible only
if justified choice of equipment for the execution of the technological process of compaction
depends on the nature and condition of the material and also on several factors constructive,
mass, aids.
For designers and executors the main work performance of machine, along with the
high degree of compaction is productive to determine, as is known, are required bandwidth
information compacted thickness of asphalt, working speed necessary number of passes over
the same place and coefficients that take into account overlapping bands compacted and use
time program.
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For a particular type of machine bandwidth is determined by the width of the roller
compacted, compacted thickness is known from the initial data and coefficients recommended
values are considered in technical books. Under these conditions remain two unknown factors
- number of passes over the same place and working speed of the machine.
Analysis of existing material and compacting asphalt alittered show that the number of
passes over the same place there is unanimous. This paper presents the results of recent
research conducted at U.T.M., which allowed the development of accurate mathematical
models for determining the required number of passes and tandem vibratory compactors
productivity depending on the thickness of the compacted layer and machine table.
1.INTRODUCERE
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Pt 10 3.v.B.h. .k t / n, (1)
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3. CONSTATAII I CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Rezumat
Abstract
Due to the changes in technical policy and technical endowment of road branch over
the last years, has been made possible the widespread implementation of advanced
technologies in all stages - Design - construction - repairs - maintenance of roads. Among
these are:
use of new design software and advanced equipment for road, bridges and land testing;
implementing the monitoring of activities that use mobile equipment using GPS and
cameras on these machines;
launching mobile road diagnosing laboratory for quality control of roads and road works.
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1. INTRODUCERE
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Fundaia din beton sec M100-120 a fost realizat prima dat pe unul din
sectoarele drumului R-20, km 0-km 46 prin vibrocompactare. S-a experimentat
stabilizarea stratului de baz cu ciment i zgur de furnal din Rbnia pe drumul
R-5 Chiinu Vadul lui Vod cu rezultate ncurajatoare.
Pe toate drumurile naionale pe sectoare de construcie nou,
reconstrucie, reabilitare, reparaie este folosit mbrcminte nerigid bistrat
strat legtur din beton asfaltic macrogranular de 6 cm i strat uzur din MASF
5 - 4 cm. Pentru combaterea fenomenului de fisurare, n locurile de mbinare a
structurii rutiere existente reciclate cu cea din supralrgiri, se efectueaz armarea
cu geocompozit, limea 1,0 m la nivelul stratului de legtur. Totodat n cazul
armrii mbrcminii aceasta se efectueaz prin aplicarea materialului
geosintetic pe stratul de baz, astfel asigurnd durabilitatea mbrcminii rutiere
la aciunea vehiculelor grele.
La reabilitarea drumurilor structura rutier existent adeseori este folosit
dup reciclare ca strat de baz.
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8. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[3]. http://old.trastinvest.ru/katalog_produkcii/peredvizhnye_dorozhnye_laboratorii/
[4]. http://stefiprimex.ro/geogrile-geotextile-geocompozite.html;
[5]. http://www.eurosalub.netbv.ro/polyfelt.htm
[6]. http://www.wirtgen.de/en/technologies/cold-recycling/manual
[7]. Amestecuri de beton asfaltic pentu drumuri i aerodromuri i beton asfaltic. Condiii
tehnice. SM STB 1033:2008
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Abstract
The process of pavement maintenance and rehabilitation starts by collecting the data
which will form the base for evaluation of pavement functional and structural condition.
Collection of data can be performed by destructive and non-destructive testing. Usually
preferred are the non-destructive methods, that do not damage the pavement, and the process
of pavement evaluation is objective and repeatable. Non-destructive testing methods are
becoming more and more popular, especially for assessing the structural condition of the
pavement. Non-destructive testing by a Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) and the analysis
of so collected data by the process of backcalculations is today the usual tool for assessing
pavement bearing capacity. One of the basic input parameters for analysis of the data
collected by FWD is pavement layers thickness.
The practice in Croatia is to determine pavement layers thickness by coring. This
destructive method affects pavement integrity, so the number of such tests should be kept to
the minimum. By coring the accurate thickness of all pavement layers is obtained on specific
point locations. Thus, numerous deviations in layer thickness remain unnoticed, and in the
end, use of such data for the process of backcalculations does not provide ac urate values of
layer moduli. Coring can be replaced with non-destructive method of testing by Ground
Penetrating Radar (GPR), which provides continuous information on thickness of all
pavement layers.
The paper shows the method for assessing the bearing capacity of the pavement based
on the data collected by FWD, GPR and coring. The calculation for layer moduli was
performed by the ELMOD software, separately for the layers thickness data obtained by
coring, and separately for the thickness obtained by GPR tests. Analysis and comparison of
the results of calculated elasticity moduli obtained by using various methods for collecting
layer thickness data were performed in the paper.
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1. INTRODUCTION
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antenna
A0
antenna asphalt unbound subgrade
voltage [V]
reflection reflection base reflection
A1
A2 A0 A1 reflection A3
A3 A2
The GPR system is base on the radar principle in which the antenna
transmits pulses of radar energy, i.e. electromagnetic (EM) waves with a central
frequency varying from 10 MHz up to 2.5 GHz [3] into the pavement. EM
waves partly reflect and partly pass through layers of materials with different
EM characteristics. A part of energy that reflects at layers interface is receive by
GPR system and displayed as a plot of amplitude (voltage) and time necessary
for its return to antenna (Figure 1, right) [2].
The speed of passing EM wave through a particular material is under the
influence of its relative dielectric constant (r). For asphalt pavements materials
relative dielectric constants can be calculated using surface reflection method.
Once the values of materials relative dielectric constants are calculate it is
possible to determine thickness of a particular layer (hi) using equation (1) [4]:
ct i
hi (1)
r
where: c speed of EM wave through vacuum
ti time between amplitudes Ai and Ai+1
r relative dielectric constant of the material.
EM signal, shown in Figure 1, right, can be send up to 1000 scans/second
[3]. Given that during the measurement vehicle moves along the road, we get
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Geophones
Load
cell
Deflection bowl
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GPR measurements were done with two GSSI air-horn antennas, one 2,2
GHz and other 1,0 GHz. Measurements ware taken continuously for the hole
section at vehicle speed between 50 and 70 km/h and with signal speed of 200
scans/sec. The processing and interpretation of gather data were done by
RADAN software. Because of similar dielectric values of asphalt surface and
asphalt base layers, interface between these two layers could not be distinguish,
so only the total thickness of asphalt layers was determinate. Obtained layers
thickness is shown in Figure 4.
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900
800
700
Thickness [mm]
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Subsection 6 Subsection 5 Subsection 4 Subsection 3 Subsection 2 Subsection 1
Core data: asphalt layers cement treated base unbound granular base
GPR data: asphalt layers cement treated base unbound granular base
10000
100
10
82.901
82.700
82.501
82.301
82.101
81.901
81.700
81.501
81.301
81.000
80.800
80.601
80.401
80.201
79.701
79.501
79.300
79.101
78.900
78.700
78.501
77.201
77.001
76.800
76.501
76.301
76.101
75.900
75.701
75.500
Chainage [km]
Asphalt layers - core Cement treated base - project Unbound granular layer - project Subgrade
Figure 5. Calculated elastic moduli with thickness data from core and project
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10000
100
10
82.901
82.700
82.501
82.301
82.101
81.901
81.700
81.501
81.301
81.000
80.800
80.601
80.401
80.201
79.701
79.501
79.300
79.101
78.900
78.700
78.501
77.201
77.001
76.800
76.501
76.301
76.101
75.900
75.701
75.500
Chainage [km]
Asphalt layers - GPR Cement treated base - GPR Unbound granular layer - GPR Subgrade
4. ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Analysis is done for layer thickness data obtain by coring and GPR
method and for layer elastic moduli calculated by using thickness data obtained
as described above.
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Elastic moduli of asphalt layers calculated for GPR thickness data range
from 1200 MPa to maximum of 11500 MPa, and for core thickness data from
1300 MPa to 10500 MPa. On the most part of the test section, values of elastic
moduli for both thickness data range from 4000 to 5000. These are characteristic
values of asphalt layers elastic moduli regarding their structure, age and
condition.
Elastic moduli of cement treated base layer calculated for GPR thickness
data range from 500 MPa to 12500 MPa with the mean value of 3000 MPa, and
for design thickness data from 500 MPa to 9500 MPa with the mean value of
3300 MPa. On the entire test section elastic moduli for both thickness data
mostly vary between 1000 MPa and 3000 MPa. This shows that layer has lost its
structural integrity and its characteristics resemble unbound granular layer.
Elastic moduli of unbound granular layer on the entire test section mostly
vary between 100 MPa and 150 MPa. For project thickness data minimum value
is 50 MPa and maximum value is 650 MPa, and for GPR data minimum and
maximum values are 50 and 850 respectively. This wide rane of elastic moduli
indicates uneven layer quality. On some locations quality of unbound granular
material is identical to quality of subgrade material.
Subgrade elastic moduli for both thickness data vary from 40 MPa to 150
MPa. Mean value on entire test section is 80 MPa, which corresponds to CBR of
8% and defines subgrade with good bearing capacity.
From the Table 3, it can be seen that the backcalculated layer moduli for
asphalt layers and cement treated layer based on the GPR thickness data are
generally lower then layer moduli calculated based on the core/design thickness
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data. Elastic moduli of unbound granular base layer are on all subsections higher
for GPR thickness data compared with moduli calculated for design thickness.
Subgrade moduli for both thickness data are similar and put subgrade of each
subsection into same bearing capacity rank.
5. CONCLUSIONS
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differences in calculated elastic moduli values but they are not so significant to
discard values obtain based on thickness data from cores.
For design purposes, if the GPR device is not available, it is possible to
use thickness data from cores. However, since there is a tendency in
reinforcement projects to apply recycling methods and use recycled materials,
knowing the continuous thickness of asphalt layers is essential in order to
determine the optimum thickness available for milling and thus achieve
optimization of recycling process.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
REFERENCES
[3]. T. SATTENKETO: Timo, Electrical properties of road materials and subgrade soils
and the use of Ground Penetrating Radar in traffic infrastructure surveys, Faculty of
Science, Department of Geosciences, University of Oulu, Finland, 2006.
[5]. F.ZHOU, T. SCULLION: Guidelines for evaluation of existing pavements for HMA
overlay, Report 0-5123-2, Texas Transportation Institute, Texas, November 2006.
[6]. S. ALAVI, J.F. LECATES, M.P. TAVARES: Falling Weight Deflectometer Usage, A
Synthesis of Highway Practice, NCHRP Synthesis 381, Sierra Transportation
Engineers, Inc.Reno, Nevada, 2008.
[7]. Use of Falling Weight Deflectometers in Pavement Evaluation, COST 336, European
Commission, Directorate General Transport, April 2005.
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Rezumat
Cuvinte cheie: agregate reciclate, fibre de oel reciclate, beton de ciment compactat prin
cilindrare, proteia mediului nconjurtor
Abstract
The paper presents the results of performed laboratory study aiming the development
of sustainable rigid pavements using Holcim (Romania) SA comercial products for the
preparation of roller compacted concrete (RCC). The investigations have been undertaken in
the frame of Faculty of Constructions and Building Services of Iasi under an existing
cooperation agreement between the two mentioned organizations. As feature, innovative
technologyes and logistical solutions have been developed for the reuse of demolition wastes
to the construction of RCC and recycled steel fiber reinforced RCC test specimens. Also, the
used binders are one CEM II cement type with a low clinker factor and one CEM I cement
type. The corellation between these two aspects regarding RCC compositions develop and
support a sustainable road pavement presenting reduces pollution factor on the environment.
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1. INTRODUCERE
2. OBIECTIVE
3. MATERIALE
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4. STUDIU EXPERIMENTAL
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5. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Rezumat
Abstract
The article is a debate on a subject that was not analyzed by the Romanian specialty
literature, namely the influence of transport distance on the cooling process of hydrocarbon
pavement mixtures. The article also presents the main factors that influence the fast cooling of
hydrocarbon pavement mixtures. Since the transport distance of hydrocarbon pavement
mixtures has become a reason for debates at tender contestations, this paper aims to clarify
this aspect. This paper is important as the subject has never been discussed in Romania and
the results were compared to those obtained abroad through other method determinations.
1. INTRODUCERE
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(2)
semnul minus artnd c are loc o cedare de cldur. Egalnd cele dou expresii
ale lui dQ, rezult:
(3)
de unde obinem:
(4)
Valoarea constantei k se deduce din condiiile iniiale la t=0, =0 i deci
k=0-:
(5)
relaie care reprezint legea de rcire a corpurilor. Diferena dintre temperatura
unui corp cald i temperatura mediului din jur scade exponenial cu timpul.
Se observ c, teoretic, nu atinge niciodat valoarea . n practic, -
devine neglijabil dup un timp cu att mai mic cu ct este mai mare, deci
cu ct masa corpului este mai mic, cu ct aria suprafeei este mai mare i cu ct
cldura specific a substanei corpului este mai mic. Coeficientul de
proporionalitate se exprim n watt pe metru ptrat i Kelvin i reprezint
conductivitatea termic de suprafa a corpului.
n tabelul 1 sunt prezentate valori ale conductivitii termice i cldurii
specifice dup mai muli autori [2]:
S-a fcut un calcul pentru determinarea distanei maxime, la care are loc
pierderea de cldur care conduce la scderea temperaturii mixturii cu 5C.
S-au realizat calcule unde s-au considerat = 2,5 W/mK, c = 900 J/kgK,
0= 160C ... 180C, = 10C ... 30C.
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Din aceast lucrare rezult c cea mai mare influen n rcirea mixturilor
asfaltice o are vntul.
Grosimea stratului are un efect semnificativ n ceea ce privete timpul de
rcire. La straturi subiri i n condiii defavorabile, timpul disponibil pentru
compactare este de cteva minute. n aceleai condiii un strat mai gros reine
temperatura proprie mai bine de o or.
O alt problem este faptul c folosind aceleai tipuri de rulouri este mult
mai dificil de a obine n mod constant o densitate bun pe straturi subiri dect
pe cele groase.
Figura 4 este doar o ilustrare a modului n care un covor gros de 20 mm
poate s se rceasc n timp, pornind de la o temperatur de livrare de 150C.
Grosime (mm)
Temperatura (C)
Figura 4. Rcirea n grosime a mixturii
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4. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1] POPESCU, ANDREIA-ANA, lector univ. dr. fiz., Fizic, Universitatea Petrol-Gaze
din Ploieti
[2] CHADBOURN, B.A., LUOMA, J.A., NEWCOMB, D.E., and VOLLER, V.R.,
Consideration of Hot-Mix Asphalt Thermal Properties During Compaction, Quality
Management of Hot-Mix Asphalt, ASTM STP 1299, Dale S. Decker, Ed., American
Society for Testing and Materials, 1996.
[3] CHADBOURN, B.A., LUOMA, J.A., NEWCOMB, D.E., and VOLLER, V.R., An
asphalt paving tool for adverse conditions, University of Minnesota, Department of
Civil Engineering, iunie 1998.
[4] BS 594987:2010 Asphalt for roads and other paved areas. Specification for transport,
laying, compaction and type testing protocols
[6] WISE, J. and LORIO, R. A practical guide for estimating the compaction window
time for thin-layer hot mix asphalt
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Rezumat
Abstract
It is known that the oil is not an inexhaustible resource and therefore the price
increasing. Bitumen is a petroleum product and this is the reason for using foamed bitumen
instead of pure bitumen when it needs a binder for pavement composite materials.
Technology with foamed bitumen mix consists of mixing aggregates at ambient temperature,
filler, possibly hydraulic binders and spraying hot bitumen as foam.
Among the foamed bitumen using in pavement construction and maintenance, the
pavement recycling using foamed bitumen technology occupies an important place.
This paper presents a case study on flexible pavements containing a base layer made of
foamed bitumen mixture resulted from "in situ" recycling of existing asphalt layers. Will be
presented comparatively the results obtained on original pavement, damaged pavement and
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reinforced pavement. The paper contains laboratory studies with foamed bitumen mixture,
too.
1. INTRODUCERE
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tehnic care a fost elaborat la modul general pentru o gama larga de reciclari, s-a
obtinut o mixtur cu bitum spumat care s-a maturat corespunzator i s-au obtinut
moduli de rigiditate din domeniul mixturilor asfaltice la cald. Se remarc o
diminuare a modulului pentru temperatura de 20C de numai 12%, fa de
determinarea efectuat la temperatura de 15 C.
4. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[9]. www.wirtgen.de - Wirtgen cold recyclers: Full range of options for cold recycling
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Oana Tonciu, ef lucrri dr. ing, Facultatea de Utilaj Tehnologic, Universitatea Tehnic de
Construcii Bucureti, e-mail: oana_tonciu@yahoo.com
Rezumat
Abstract
In this paper is presented, starting from modeling complex of cold in place asphalt
recycling rehabilitation, the mechanization of processes selection, based on cost and
power consumption applying the graph theory.
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unde:
M j este parametrul cumulat al variantei de proces tehnologic complex j;
n j este numrul de procese tehnologice simple componente ale variantei de
proces complex j;
M ij este mrimea parametrului, corespunztoare procesului simplu i din cadrul
variantei tehnologice de proces complex j;
se selecteaz n final, varianta cu mrimea eficient (minim sau maxim,
dup caz).
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i i
Mrimea proprie M P se nlocuiete cu costul propriu C P reprezentat de costul
de exploatare stabilit pentru activitatea analizat, C P CC n care CC este costul
i ij ij
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Pentru aplicaia n care s-a determinat consumul minim de putere (fig. 3),
s-au avut n vedere urmtoarele asocieri:
i
Mrimea de intrare M I aferent nodului se nlocuiete cu puterea de intrare
PIi obinut prin preluarea puterii minim reportat de activitile precedente, cu
care se afl n relaie tehnologic direct activitatea analizat; astfel, se poate
scrie relaia PI min PR (4);
i i 1
i i
Mrimea proprie M P se nlocuiete cu puterea proprie instalat PP ;
i
Mrimea de ieire sau mrimea reportat M R se nlocuiete cu puterea de
i
ieire sau puterea reportat PR care se obine prin nsumarea puterilor de intrare
cu puterea proprie PRi PIi PPi (5).
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CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Gheorghe Petre Zafiu, Prof. dr. ing., UTCB, Departamentul Maini de Construcii i
Mecatronic, e-mail: zafiu_petre@yahoo.com
Daniel Alin erban, Drd. ing., UTCB, Departamentul Maini de Construcii i Mecatronic,
e-mail: alinserban2007@yahoo.com
Abstract
Chain casting and processing technology in concrete slabs require a special machine
systems, including the power trowels (mechanical float). Concrete power trowels (mechanical
float) ensures quick and flawless finishing concrete slabs, is easy to handle and maintain.
Efficient use of power trowels (mechanical float) ensure proper finishing of concrete slabs,
which guarantees their resistence while. Machined surface approach is a criterios which
depends ensure their proper quality and achieve higher productivity of work. The paper
presents the technology work, selection criteria and optimization methods for power trowel
(mechanical float) technological and economic parameters used for finishing concrete slabs.
1. TECHNOLOGICAL ASPECTS
The horizontal surfaces of the concrete slabs for constructions as: roads,
alleys, sidewalks, etc, need the appropriate processing and finish. For these
types of constructions, the free surfaces are not protected, and this is why their
treatment works have a vital importance. The rehabilitation works of the
degraded concrete pavement depend both on the condition of the runway and on
the size of the damages, and also on the requirements imposed by the increasing
road traffic [3]. In case there are found big damages of the concrete pavements
of cement, both of the wear layer and also of the resistance layer, it is necessary
their complete repair on the damaged sections [3]. The complex technological
process considered for the placement of the concrete for such structures, consists
of: the distribution in uniform layers of the concrete, the leveling of the surface
and the raw finish, compaction through the surface vibration and finish through
vibrations, smoothing (the smoothing or mashing off of the surface). For the
complete repair of concrete slabs, it can also be used the technologic equipment
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Figure 1. The technologic process for the smoothing of the surfaces [12]
1 leveling girders; 2 pulling blades; 3 edge smoothing board; 4 simple
smoothing board; 5 double smoothing board; 6 machine for concrete cutting;
7 water supply pump.
For the smoothing of the horizontal surfaces of the fresh cast concrete,
there are used smoothing machines, also named concrete polishers, rotary
smoothing boards, power trowels or even helicopters [8]. The working system of
this equipment consists of one or two adjustable propellers, foreseen with three
or four blades driven by a thermal or electrical engine, with a number of
revolutions between 70 and 160 revolutions/min. Based on the number of
propellers, we may distinguish two constructive variants for smoothing:
Simple (with a single propeller), without chair for operator, manually driven
through a system of guiding and control, with handlebar type handles, similar to
the motorcycles (Figure 2). The speed of revolutions of the propeller may be
adjusted with the help of a lever mounted on the guiding handle [8].
Double (with two propellers), foreseen with a chair for the operator and
driven from a control post foreseen with handle, pedals and levers (Figure 3).
These are more complex and have their own installation for lighting in dark
places (for instance in tunnels) or for night [8].
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These last ones ensure a bigger stability and reduced vibrations of the
machine, also ensuring a fine smoothing of the surface. The speed of revolutions
of the propeller is up to 200 revolutions/min. The blades are special built in
order to ensure the finish of the surface of the fresh concrete. So, they are made
out of steel, with different widths, based on the requirements regarding the
quality of the processed surface: the wide blades are used for leveling, and the
narrow ones for mashing off. The equipment is used when the concrete begins to
crystalize. The cement grout arises at the surface and the blades close the pores
of the concrete [8]. So, it is obtained an excellent finish. The choosing of the
speed of revolutions of the propeller depends also on the condition of the surface
being processed: if the hardness is higher, the speed must also be higher.
For the normal development of the technologic process and in order to
ensure the conditions of technologic programming, the working surface is
divided in working sectors. Inside a sector, the smoothing board or the convoy
of smoothing boards executes the work based on a certain mechanization
technologic plan. The division in sectors and the technologic programming, will
be done so that to create the possibility for a bigger number of simple processes
to be developed simultaneously, at a certain moment to be in the location the
entire system of equipment which contributes for the performance of the work,
or a bigger number of them, so being ensured the continuous performance of the
work. The drafting of the technologic plans of mechanization and technologic
programming of the work requires the division of the working sector in sections
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n
Tc t i t 0
i 1 (2)
in which: Qc = the work quantity (ideal material) performed in a single cycle, in
UM;
Tc = the duration of the cycle, in hours;
n = the number of simple operations in which the work cycle can be
divided.
ti
= the duration of a simple operation of the cycle.
t0
= the lost time related to a cycle.
i = the index of the simple operation of the cycle;
UM = the natural measurement unit, specific to the type of the executed
work.
Marking with N c the number of cycles per hour:
1
Nc
Tc (3)
It results:
Pt N c Qc [UM/hour] (4)
In the case of the smoothing boards, which have cyclic operation, the
theoretical productivity may be calculated based on the relation:
Qc
Pt 60 [m2/hour], for Tc expressed in minutes (5)
Tc
Qc L f l f [m2], (6)
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Tc t1 t 2 t 0 [min] (8)
In which:
t1 = the smoothing time ( t L f ), in min;
1
vn
t 2 = the return time, in min;
t0
= the lost time related to a cycle t 0 0,1(t1 t 2 ) , in min.
vn
= the smoothing speed, in m/min.
Or:
Lf
Tc t 2 t 0 [min] (9)
vn
L f (d e s )
Pt 60 [m2/hour] (10)
Lf
t2 t0
vn
Or:
L f (d e s )
Pt 60 [m2/hour] (11)
Lf
1,1( t 2 )
vn
The time norm for the execution of the smoothing works represents the
average normed time of effective work, necessary to a single equipment for the
performance of a work quantity equal with the representative measurement unit,
UMR; it is considered UMR= 100 m2.
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N UM
N tn [hours/100m2] (12)
PO
n m
PO Pt k iM k iT
i 1 i 1 (13)
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n
PT =the technical productivity of the smoothing machine PT Pt k iM ,
i 1
UM/hour;
kme= the correction factor which characterizes the qualification degree of the
operator (the mechanic of the machinery);
kth = correction factor which characterizes the working technology;
kol = correction factor for the working and organization conditions;
kdo = coefficient of operational availability of the equipment
The correction factor kme, which characterizes the qualification degree of
the mechanic, considers the fact that, from a technologic and ergonomic point of
view, the man and the machine form a system. This is why the qualification
degree of the personnel plays a very important role in the effectively performed
production by a construction machinery. So, based on the data in the specialty
literature, it results that, if a mechanic with a very good qualification may
perform the nominal technical productivity, one with a good qualification
performs only 60% from it, and one with a satisfying qualification performs
only 50% [4,10]. On the other hand, the machinery must ensure optimum
conditions for work to the personnel, at the control point. The inadequate
environment factors may lead to losses of productivity of 30-40% during a shift
[4,10]. Among these factors there are included: the noise, vibrations, not enough
lighting, the inappropriate micro-climate (temperature, humidity and air speed)
the inappropriate location of the controls, etc. For the average conditions, there
can be considered kme = 0,70,8 [4]. The correction factor which characterizes
the working technology kth considers the technologic conditions specific to each
machinery family. In current technologic conditions, it can be considered kth =
0,65...0,85 [4]. The correction factor for the working and organization
conditions, kol, varies, according to the data in the specialty literature, within
wide limits, from 0,52 to 0,84, as it results from Table 1 [4,10].
For average working and organization conditions, it can be adopted kol =
0,65, which expresses more truthfully the real situation on sites.
The operational availability coefficient kdo represents the probability for
the machinery to be in operational state at a certain moment. The operational
availability coefficient kdo, according to the European norms, is estimated from
Table 2 [2,4].
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Table 1. The correction factor for the conditions of organization and work
kol
Working Organization conditions
conditions Very good Good Average Satisfying
Very good 0,84 0,81 0,76 0,70
Good 0,78 0,75 0,71 0,65
Average 0,72 0,69 0,65 0,60
Satisfying 0,63 0,61 0,57 0,52
4. CONCLUSIONS
The concrete smoothing boards ensure a quick and faultless finish of the
concrete slabs, being easy to handle and maintain. The efficient use of the
smoothing boards ensures an adequate finish of the concrete slabs, which
guarantees their resistance in time. The approach manner of the processed
surfaces is a criterion on which it depends the assurance of an adequate quality
and the obtaining of a higher productivity of the works.
REFERENCES
[1]. DONG HUN SHIN and DOO HO HAN: Open loop Velocity Control of concrete
floor finishing robots, 16 july 2002
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[5]. GH.P. ZAFIU: Tehnologia si Mecanizarea lucrarilor de constructii vol I . ICB 1982
[7]. GH.P. ZAFIU: Echipamente pentru finisarea prin dricuire a suprafeelor orizontale
ale betonului proaspt, n: Drumuri poduri, nr. 74 (143)/2009, pag. 42 49.
[8]. GH.P. ZAFIU: Echipamente pentru lefuirea suprafeelor orizontale ale betonului
proaspt n: Revista de unelte i echipamente, anul X nr. 2 (102) februarie 2009, pag.
14 26.
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Rezumat
Abstract
Change in technical policy and improving road sector financing and stimulated the
competition and helped to improve the quality of execution of work. Operators have
purchased new equipment and became interested in the implementation of advanced
technologies.
These are:
Cold recycling of the existing top asphalt layers;
Filling potholes and clogging cracks in asphalt pavement using spraying technology with
a mixture of bitumen emulsion and chippings;
achieving bituminous treatment using technology of synchronized distribution of binder
and natural aggregates with Chipsealer machines;
As these technologies involve significant costs that increase compliance with these
technologies.
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1. INTRODUCERE
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Efectuarea la o scar mai larg a acestor lucrri a condus la ieirea din sezonul
de iarn a anilor 2011 -2013 cu o cantitate mult mai mic de gropi i alte
degradri fa de anii precedeni [2].
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4. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[3]. http://www.wirtgen.de/en/technologies/cold-recycling/manual
[6]. http://irmash.com/Produktsiya/Mashiny_dlya_yamochnogo_ryemonta/Mashina_dlya_
yamochnogo_ryemonta
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Rezumat
Abstract
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sustain the development of technical specifications, the approach is still relative to its
purposes, providing partial maintaining quality conditions during operation in some cases.
In order to ensure permanent functionality of quality parameters in operation of road
infrastructure network, an integrated approach is required in designing technical solutions,
road construction and conform constant operation behavior.
1. ASPECTE GENERALE
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6. CONCLUZII
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Rezumat
Cile de comunicaii sunt structurile ce vor permite n continuare libertate mai mare de
micare persoanelor.
Interconectarea sistemelor individuale de transport ntr-unul de ansamblu va permite
gestionarea mai bun a timpului dar i a resurselor alocate.
Trecerea transportului de la sistemul 2D la cel 3D este pasul necesar pentru integrarea
n ndeplinirea dorinei explozive de transport a populaiei globului, iar realizarea acesteia
presupune reglementri specifice dar i sisteme de ghidare i monitorizare specifice.
Transportul public ct i cel individual pe distane lungi i scurte presupune
integrarea funciilor computerelor n activitatea de conducere i eliberarea de pericolul dat de
eroarea uman. Aceasta presupune utilizarea spaiului aerian al cilor de comunicaii existente
la care se adaug senzori de ghidare i sisteme integrate electronice de transfer date pe
distane mici (pn la 30m) i medii (30-5000m) ce permit transportul pe mai multe nivele.
Vehiculele ce utilizeaz sisteme de rulare pe perne electromagnetice sau plasme
magnetice au frecare de contact cu suprafaa de rulare inexistent i n cel de-al doilea caz
frecarea cu aerul poate fi zero.
Transportul de mrfuri pe distane i n cantiti mari va determina realizarea de ci de
comunicaii de mare vitez private.
Spaiile de depozitare subterane ramn soluia cea mai bun in zonele urbane, dar
utilizarea materialelor noi ca a fulerenelor, a grafenelor i transformarea plasmatic a
materialelor de excavaie n materiale suport a cilor de comunicaii sunt elementele ce se
implementeaz in perioada urmtoare.
Cuvinte cheie: spatiul aerian, cale existenta, senzori de ghidare, sisteme integrate,
fulerene, grafene, transformare plasmatica
Abstract
Public roads are still the structures that will enable greater freedom of persons
movement. Interconnection of individual transport systems into one overall will allow better
management of time and resources allocated.
Shifting transport from 2D to 3D is the necessary step for integration of the mankind
explosive desire for global transport, and in order to achieve it requires specific regulations
but also guidance and monitoring systems.
Public and private transport, long and short distance involves computers variable
integration into the driving activity and released it from the danger of human error. This
requires the use of the air space of the existing communications to add guidance sensors and
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integrated electronic data transfer systems for small distances (up to 30 m) and medium (30-
5000m) that allow transportation on many levels.
Vehicles that use for driving systems electromagnetic or magnetic plasma cushions
have zero surface contact friction and on second case friction with air may be zero.
The transport of goods on long distances and in large quantities will determine the
realization of private high speed communication lines.
Underground storage rooms remain the best solution in urban areas deposits, but the
use of new materials like fullerene, graphene and the plasmatic transformation of the
excavated materials into support materials are the elements to be implemented in the near
future.
1. INTRODUCERE
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3. CATEGORII DE TRANSPORT
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4. REGLEMENTRI N TRANSPORT
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culeele din beton far elevaii i fundate direct pe piloi pot fi micorate ca
dimensiuni de minim 20 ori;
poduri pietonale sau mobile in totalitate din CNT, cu un nou aspect estetic
(nlimi de construcie mult mai mici), eventual demontabile i foarte uor
transportabile
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. http://www.xesc.cat/origami/docs/2012_self_driving_cars_next_revolution.pdf
[2]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_nanotube
[3] http://www.keshefoundation.org/applications/transportation.html
[4] http://www.keshefoundation.org/applications/nanotechnology-ict.html
[5] http://www.davinciinstitute.com/papers/2050-and-the-future-of-transportation/
[7] http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efectul_Casimir
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Rezumat
Abstract
The paper present some aspects related to maintenance, repair and road safety traffic
based on performance criteria that the administrator of public roads must comply.
Requirements and conditions to ensure the technical performance level of the road together
with quality criteria corresponding to service levels are presented in this paper, as a reference
to improve the technical condition of public roads.
1. ASPECTE GENERALE.
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0 1 2 3
Pmntul, materiale
diverse trebuie
ridicate n:
Starea de - 1 or, dac
Constant curat,
curenie a compromite
fr urme de
carosabilului Control vizual securitatea
pmnt, deeuri,
i drumului;
alte obiecte
acostamentelor - 36 ore, dac nu
compromite
securitatea
drumului.
Nivelul Aducerea
acostamentelor Diferena de nivel acostamentelor la
n raport cu nu trebuie s Msurare cu rigla gradat. nivelul marginii
suprafaa depeasc 15 mm prii carosabile, 15
drumului zile de la constatare.
nlimea vegetaiei
(cu excepia
arborilor):
- sub 20 cm/m; Vegetaia
- iarba sub 1 m n superioar valorilor
Zone verzi n Control vizual.
celelalte cazuri ( limit trebuie tiat
zona drumului Msurare cu rigla gradat.
gard viu, vegetaie ntr-un interval de 7
ornamental); zile de la constatare.
- s nu deranjeze
scurgerea apelor.
Gropile trebuie
Gropi Nu sunt admise Control vizual reparate n 2 zile de
la constatare.
Reparaiile trebuie:
- s fie de form
ptrat sau
Reparaiile
rectangular; Control vizual pentru determinarea
neconforme trebuie
Reparaii - s fie la nivelul formei i materialelor utilizate.
refcute ntr-un
localizate suprafeei drumului Utilizarea riglei pentru stabilirea
interval de 2 zile de
- s fie realizate cu nivelului fa de restul drumului.
la detectare.
materiale similare
cu mbrcmintea
rutier existent.
0 1 2 3
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remedierea
defeciunilor la
mbrcminile
rutiere moderne
Faianri Viteza medie de 1 % din suma Normativ AND Control vizual.
parcurs forfetar pentru 547/1998 Msurarea
inferioar vitezei sectorul de drum, Normativ de suprafeei cu
minime fixate prevzut de prevenire i faianri
sau suprafaa contract pentru remedierea defec.
afectat de fiecare km de drum la mbrcminile
faianri pe un afectat rutiere moderne
sector de 1 km.
0 1 2 3 4
Reparaii Viteza medie de 1 % din suma Normativ AND Control vizual.
localizate parcurs forfetar pentru 547/1998 Msurarea
neconforme inferioar vitezei sectorul de drum Normativ de denivelrilor
minime fixate prevzut de contract prevenire i fa de panta
sau reparaii i afectat remedierea transversal a
denivelate i defeciunilor la drumului.
inestetice mbrcminile
rutiere moderne
Adncimea 10 % din suma Normativ AND Msurarea
medie a forfetar lunar 547/1998 adncimii
fgaului pentru 1 km aplicat Normativ de fgaului,
superioar pe sectorul de drum prevenire i folosind un
Fgae condiiei admise contractat. remedierea ndreptar.
pentru 1 km de defeciunilor la
drum mbrcminile
rutiere moderne
Adncimea 50 % din suma Normativ AND Msurarea
maxim a forfetar lunar 547/1998 adncimii
fgaului pentru 1 km Normativ de fgaului,
superioar neconform prevenire i folosind un
condiiei admise remedierea ndreptar.
msurat pe defeciunilor la
sectorul de drum mbrcminile
contractat rutiere moderne
Gropi, pelade, Suprafaa 50 % din suma Normativ AND Control vizual.
degradri n individual a forfetar lunar 547/1998 Determinarea
corpul unei gropi sau pentru 1 km Normativ de indicelui de
drumului, altei degradri neconform la prevenire i degradare
burduiri, punctuale nu se lungimea sectorului remedierea conform
tasri. accept. de drum contractat. defeciunilor la normativ
mbrcminile
rutiere moderne
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vigoare
Lipsa retroreflexie/ Periclitarea 3 % din suma SR EN 1436+ Inspecii i revizii
luminata datorat siguranei forfetar lunar A1/2009 periodice de
uzurii marcajului circulaiei prevzut de contract SR EN 1848/7- sigurana
rutier sau a calitii pentru semnalizarea 2004 circulaiei conf.
materialelor rutier orizontal instruciilor n
vigoare
Verificri
efectuate cu
reflectometru
electronic.
C. Parapei de protecie (element 5)
Degradare Periclitarea 5 % din suma SR EN 1317/ Inspecii i revizii
structural/ lips siguranei forfetar lunar 1-5 periodice de
parapete de circulaiei prevzut de contract sigurana
protecie pentru parapeii de circulaiei conf.
protecie instruciilor n
vigoare.
Gradul de curenie Lipsa 0.5 % din suma - Inspecii i revizii
a parapetului de ntreinerii forfetar lunar periodice de
protecie curente prevzut de contract sigurana
pentru parapetele de circulaiei conf.
protecie instruciilor n
vigoare
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4.2.Terii
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5. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Rezumat
Obiective generale:
Asigurarea condiiilor necesare pentru realizarea unui sistem de transport sigur, flexibil,
durabil i eficient, o precondiie esenial pentru dezvoltarea economic a Romniei.
Elaborarea unei strategii de transport pentru Romnia care s fie complet, durabil,
precum i eficient din punct de vedere economic.
Utilizarea eficient a fondurilor UE prin creterea ratei de absorbie a acestora.
Master Planul va identifica proiectele i politicile care vor rspunde cel mai bine
nevoilor de transport ale Romniei n urmtorii 5 15 ani, pentru toate modurile de transport,
furniznd o baz analitic solid pentru alegerea unor asemenea politici i proiecte. Baza de
date, Modelul i Ghidul de Evaluare vor fi redactate astfel nct s serveasc acest scop.
Proiectele din cadrul Master Planului vor fi:
Proiecte mari de infrastructur
Programe naionale de ntreinere
Material rulant nou
Proiecte majore de reabilitare
Politici naionale precum cea pentru taxarea utilizatorilor de drum
Proiectele din cadrul Master Planului vor trebui s ndeplineasc urmtoarele criterii:
1. Contribuie economic pozitiv
Raportul Beneficiu-Cost (RBC) >1,
Rata Intern de Rentabilitate Economic (RIRE) >5.5%,
Valoarea actualizat net (NPV)
2. Acceptabilitate d.p.d.v al efectelor asupra mediului
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Abstract
Overall Objective:
The provision of the conditions in order to carry out an efficient, sustainable, flexible and
safe transportation system, an essential precondition for Romanias economic development.
To develop a Comprehensive, Economically Efficient, and Sustainable, Transport
Strategy for Romania.
To make effective use of EU Funds by increasing the absorption rate of EU Funds.
The Master Plan will identify the projects and policies which will best meet Romania's
transport needs over the next 5-15 years, for all modes of transport, and providing a sound,
analytical basis for the choice of those policies and projects. The database, model, appraisal
guidelines and so on must be tailored to serve this purpose.
The Master Plan Projects will be:
Large infrastructure projects
National Maintenance Programmes
New Rolling Stock and Locomotives
Large Scale Rehabilitation projects
National Policies such as Road User Charges
The Master Plan Projects will have to meet the following criteria:
1. Positive economic contribution
Benefit:Cost Ratio (BCR) >1,
Economic Internal Rate of Return (EIRR) >5.5%,
Net Present Value (NPV)
2. Environmental Acceptability
3. Compatibility with National/EU Policies
4. The programme will have to be within a realistic estimate of national and other funds
over the plan period
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1. PREZENTARE GENERAL
Obiective generale
Asigurarea condiiilor necesare pentru realizarea unui sistem de transport
sigur, flexibil, durabil i eficient, o precondiie esenial pentru dezvoltarea
economic a Romniei.
Elaborarea unei strategii de transport pentru Romnia care s fie complet,
durabil, precum i eficient din punct de vedere economic.
Utilizarea eficient a fondurilor UE prin creterea ratei de absorbie a
acestora.
O contribuie cheie la urmtorul Program Operaional de Transport (2014
2020).
Absoria fondurilor UE:
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Transport de marf:
Rutier
Feroviar
n portul Constana i Navigaie pe fluviul Dunrea
Transport intermodal
Clasificat n funcie de tipul mrfii
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UTILIZAREA STUDIILOR
MACROSCOPICE I A STUDIILOR MICROSCOPICE
N INGINERIA TRAFICULUI RUTIER
Rezumat
Abstract
The use of information technology and specialized software for vehicle movement
simulation in urban areas, creates multiple advantages for plan analysis and solutions for road
network management optimization.
Within the framework of urban area management activities, People & goods
mobility aims to create an enduring urban transportation system defined on the following
levels:
Fast access to transportation services.
Decreasing pollution, greenhouse gases and energy consumption.
Decreasing transportation costs for people and goods.
Increasing attractivity and life quality in urban areas.
Improving road safety.
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Key words: Urban mobility, movement modeling, optimization functions, LOS level of
service. ICU - Intersection Capacity Utilization.
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politica de transport la nivel local (ora, jude) sau la nivele superioare (stat,
regiune).
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4. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2]. Synchro Studio 7 User Guide -1993 - 2006 Trafficware Ltd. U.S.A.
[7]. Inginerie de trafic note curs - conf.dr.ing. Valentin ANTON -UTCB 2010.
[9]. Imagine Urban si Mobilitate - asist. urb. Octavia Anamaria Stepan Teza de
Doctorat - Universitatea de Arhitectur i Urbanism Ion Mincu Bucureti 2011.
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Rezumat
Este tiut faptul c realizarea unui plan urbanistic zonal necesit o serie de abordri
multi-disciplinare asupra funcionalitilor care urmeaza a se realiza. n cadrul concepiei
urbanistice studiile de trafic ofer dezvoltatorului o imagine complex asupra posibilitilor de
asigurare a mobilitii persoanelor i a bunurilor.
n prezenta lucrare sunt analizate o serie de soluii de organizare a deplasrilor n
cadrul unui nou cartier proiectat n zona de nord a Municipiului Bucureti. Aceste studii
ntocmite se constitue ca suport al proiectului de infrastructura i a organizrii deplasrilor n
zona analizat.
Utilizarea tehnicii informaionale i a programelor specializate pentru simularea
deplasrilor n mediul urban reprezint instrumentul de lucru pe planul analizei i optimizrii
soluiilor de proiectare a reelelei rutiere n cartierul Electronica Pipera din Municipiul
Bucureti.
Abstract:
Key words: Urban mobility, movement modeling, optimization functions, LOS level of
service. ICU - Intersection Capacity Utilization.
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1. CONSIDERAII GENERALE
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Obiectivele studiului
n concordan cu solicitarea dezvoltatorului n studiul de trafic au fost
stabilite o serie de obiective care pot fi rezumate astfel:
Analiza desfurrii circulaiei rutiere n interiorul dezvoltrii urbane.
Analiza influenei traficului generat -atras de ctre ansamblul multifuncional
asupra circulaiei pe artera Str. Dimitrie Pompei.
Soluii pentru amenajarea traseelor rutiere n vederea asigurrii unor condiii
corespunztoare de desfurare a traficului rutier.
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4. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2]. Synchro Studio 7 User Guide -1993 - 2006 Trafficware Ltd. U.S.A.
[7]. Inginerie de trafic note curs - conf.dr.ing. Valentin ANTON -UTCB 2010.
[9]. Studii pentru investitia imobiliara Electronica & Iride Bussines Park Bucharest -
Contract /2013 -Urbi-Plan s.r.l..
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Rezumat
Abstract
Environmental protection has become a common issue in every area, but extremely
important for the domains which deal with intensive energy consumption as it is the case of
the transportation. Achieving the sustainable cities on the other hand, is also focused on the
protection of the environment in order to provide a higher quality of life for the population.
Therefore it is considered that by improving the urban transportation planning additional
benefits could be provided for both the environment and the sustainable development of the
cities. One possibility is to supplement the traditionally land-use plans with the transport-
related zones analysis, where the city is divided in public transport, pedestrian and car-
oriented zones. Analyzing the transport-related zones of a city is important as it provides
additional information in the assessment of the development trend. The process of zoning was
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conducted for the city of Cluj-Napoca, Romania. In this paper, the outcome of the zoning was
analyzed for a more comprehensive review of the urban transport in order to attain a
sustainable-oriented approach of the urban area development.
1. INTRODUCTION
The traditional planning, with its car-oriented approach, allows car traffic
almost everywhere in the urban area and provides as much road infrastructure as
possible. The automobile became the most used mode of transport in the urban
area. This led to increased traffic and congestion. Congestion is treated in the
traditional planning by providing additional infrastructure. When the changes in
the settlement structure are made they encouraged more motorized traffic,
especially at the city border [1]. Thus an artificial demand for long distance trips
is created and it leads to severe adverse effects such as:
the opportunities for the local scale is damaged, both the communities and
the local economy are destroyed
more energy consumption and pollution, thus more environmental and social
negative impacts
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The car is the most used mode of transport in Cluj-Napoca with a share of
37% in the modal split. The public transportation is second with a share of 34 %.
The urban public transport system is organized by the local government and the
services are provided by one subordinated company [8]. It includes 3 tram lines,
6 trolleybus lines, 37 bus lines and several dedicated minibuses for the disabled
people. The public transport is the main mode of transport for the education-
related trips. There are also some 3000 taxies registered in the city.
The emissions level is higher than the nationally accepted limits and affects a
large area of the city mainly around the major transport corridors and industrial
sites with serious implication on people health and environment. Another major
problem is the lack of green areas and furthermore their transformation into
spontaneously parking lots. Noise and air pollution are perceived as major
problems encountered mainly around the transport corridors.
The zoning method was applied for the city of Cluj-Napoca on a statistical
grid of 250x250 m cells. The methodology included the analysis of the
following data: the population density in small clusters, the urban form, the
land-use, especially the location of housing in connection with the services and
institutions, the public transport stops locations and headways, the travel
demand per modes. After the data were analyzed they were assigned to the
statistical grid. According to the zoning criteria, the urban area was divided into
travel-related zones: pedestrian, public transport and car-oriented, with detailed
characteristics in table 1. The graphic outcome is illustrated in figure 6.
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The pedestrian zone (brown) corresponds to roughly the historic area. The
main corridors of the public transport, including both intensive (blue) and good
(green) public transport cells spread on the main axis of the urban form. The car-
oriented zones (yellow) are surrounding the public transport and pedestrian cells
and highlighting the actual stage of the dispersed urban form development.
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on certain distances. But when all the scenarios for the improved urban mobility
in Cluj-Napoca were analyzes a more complex outcome was obtained as
illustrated in figure 7. Based on the travel-related zones main mode of mobility,
it was concluded that the more sustainable the mode is, the smaller area it
serves. Thus the short and the long distances have to be considered distinctively
for the urban mobility improvement. On the other hand, the more benign
mobility is available the less investment is needed. Thus the future
developments of housing, institutions, services, shopping centers, etc., could be
located more properly according to the mobility availability in order to attain a
smart urban development with smaller investment needs.
6. CONCLUSIONS
The integrated analysis developed in this paper represents a useful tool for
the planning process, for both the present and future urban development trends,
in order to provide the effective urban fabric. For example new residential areas
should be established into the public transport zone and so forth. The scenarios
for the mobility improvement were developed for the city of Cluj-Napoca as an
example here. Considering the systemic approach of the analysis towards a
smart urban development that was presented in this article we conclude that the
sustainable urban development can be achieved by using this tool in the
planning process.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by European Social Funds Doctoral Studies and
Internationalisation Programme DoRa, which is carried out by Foundation
Archimedes.
REFERENCES
[1]. ANTSO IMRE, ANTOV DAGO, ME, ROLAND, "Settlement changes effect to
mobility in suburban area of Tallinn". In Ecology & Safety. 22nd International
Symposium. ISSN: 13132563 711, 2013, Bulgaria.
[2]. BOITOR ROZALIA, ANTOV DAGO, ANTSO IMRE, ILIESCU MIHAI, "Analyzing
the transportation accessibility for the city of Cluj-Napoca, a sustainable approach".
In Ecology & Safety, 22nd International Symposium. ISSN: 13132563 711, 2013,
Bulgaria.
[3]. BOITOR ROZALIA, M., KUSZALIK JOZSEF , ANTOV DAGO, ILIESCU MIHAI,
"Determining the population data in the transport planning process" In Materials and
technologies in the construction and maintenance of roads and bridges and Traffic
Safety Symposium, Cluj-Napoca, 2013. ISSN 2069-749X. (in Romanian)
[4]. CITY HALL OF CLUJ-NAPOCA n.d, The Strategy of Development for the city of
Cluj-
Napoca,<http://www.primariaclujnapoca.ro/doc/strategie/Strategia_Municipiului_Cluj
_Napoca.pdf>
[5]. EUROPEAN COMMISSION, Green Paper: Towards a new culture for urban mobility
Communication from the Commission to the Council and Parliament [COM(2007)55].
[9]. RISTIMKI, M., KALENOJA, H., & TIITU, M., Travel-related zones of urban form
zone criteria, urban form statistical profiles, and travel habits (in Finnish).
Publications of the Ministry of Transport and Communications 15/2011. Helsinki.
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Rezumat
Dup cum se tie, n zona Eroilor Rzoare Piaa Leu, din Sectorul 5 al
municipiului Bucureti, converg 12 artere rutiere importante, interseciile existente
petrecndu-se la acelai nivel, ceea ce duce, n general, la blocarea traficului, n mod deosebit
n orele de vrf, o contribuie major avnd-o i darea recent n exploatare a Pasajului
Basarab.
Traficul foarte intens se desfoar pe direciile principale, dinspre i spre:
nord-est: Eroilor, Dr.Bagdasar, Dr.Rainer, spre i dinspre sud-vest: Drumul Taberei,
Drumu Srii, Sebastian;
nord-est, aceleai strzi, spre i dinspre vest, pe B-dul Timioara;
nord, spre i dinspre sud est, strzile Progresului i Panduri.
Pentru fluidizarea traficului trebuie eliminate punctele de conflict, adica arterele
rutiere proiectate s fie situate la nivele diferite.
Pentru stabilirea corect a numrului de nivele se impune s se fac un Studiu de trafic
amnunit; n situaia de fa, neavnd astfel de date, se presupune c sunt necesare, cel puin
trei nivele:
nivel 1, terenul actual n care sunt situate arterele rutiere existente, la acest nivel fiind
proiectate cele 6 Sensuri giratorii, prin intermediul crora se realizeaz legturile rutiere
dintre nivelele 2 si 3;
nivel 2 este suprateran, pentru Pasajele superioare: Piaa Leu (Pasaj Basarab) Rzoare
str.Progresu sau str.Panduri;
nivel 3 este destinat Pasajelor subterane:
Eroilor Drumul Taberei sau Drumu Srii;
Eroilor B-dul Timioara.
Elementele geometrice proiectate, n plan orizontal i n profil longitudinal, pe
direciile principale, asigur viteza de cel puin 50Km/h, iar declivitile au valori de 4% -
4.5% pe rampe (excepie ntr-un singur caz 5%) i de 0.3%- 0.5% pe Pasajele superioare.
Laimile prii carosabile, sunt de 2x3.50m+2x3.50m=14.00m pe unele direcii
principale i de 2x3.50m=7.00m pe celelalte direcii, cu trotuare sau spaii de retragere n
cazul Pasajelor subterane.
n concluzie, pentru fluidizarea traficului n zona Rzoare, ne-am propus s prezentm
o sistematizare rutier posibil i s atragem atenia Autoritilor asupra necesitii meninerii
terenului liber, aa cum se afl n prezent.
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Abstract
As it is well known, in Eroilor Rzoare Piaa Leu area, from the 5th county of
Bucharest, 12 major road arteries meet, and the existing junctions connect at the same level,
which leads to traffic blocking, especially at rush hours, an important contribution at this
situation has the operation of Basarab Overpass.
High traffic is carried along the following directions:
North-East: Eroilor, Dr.Bagdasar, Dr.Rainer, to and from South-West: Drumul Taberei,
Drumu Srii, Sebastian;
North-East, same streets, to and from West, to B-dul Timioara;
North, to and from South-Est, strzile Progresului and Panduri.
For an efficient traffic management, the potential conflict points must be analyzed and
adress properly, traffic flows should be designed to circulate at separate levels.
Traffic detailed studies are required in order to establish those levels, but in the case
presented the lack of those data lead to assumption that at least 3 levels are necessary:
Level 1, the level of the existing road arteries, with 6 roundabouts, which connect this
level with level 2 and 3;
Level 2 is overground, for overpasses: Piaa Leu (Basarab Overpass) Rzoare str.
Progresu or str.Panduri;
Level 3 designed for underpasses: Eroilor Drumul Taberei sau Drumu Srii; Eroilor
B-dul Timioara.
The designed geometrical caracteristics, in layout and longitudinal section, ensure a
speed of at least 50 km/h and gradients have values of 4% - 4.5% on ramps (except one case
of 5%) and of 0.3%- 0.5% on overpasses.
Carriageway width is 2x3.50m+2x3.50m=14.00m on some main directions and
2x3.50m=7.00m on the other directions, with sidewalks or withdrawal spaces for
underpasses.
As a conclusion, for an efficient traffic management in Razoare area, we propose a
possible road planning and we draw attention to the Authorities on the need to maintain the
use of land, as it is currently.
Works can be fazed, as presented below:
Phase I Leu G3 Roundabout and Underpasses: Basarab - str. Progresului /
os.Panduri;
Phase II Underpasses: Eroilor - Drumul Taberei, Timioara, Drumu Srii and str.
Sebastian.
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1. GENERALITI
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7. CONCLUZII
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Abstract
The city and the transport developed together until the beginning of human
settlements. Both the economical and technical progress led to the evolution of individual
behavior in relation to the need to travel. Nowadays, the transport is an intense activity;
providing the movement for people and goods in the urban areas became a priority in the
background of urban development and of the increased transport demand.
At the urban level, the need to understand, model and describe the movement of the
individuals from origin to destination internal and external of the city became acute at the
same time when congestion appeared at the transport network level.
The traffic flow theory tries to describe in an accurate mathematical approach, the
interactions between the vehicle and its driver and the road infrastructure. Therefore, those
theories represent the essential fundaments for all models and tools used in designing and
operating the road network.
The mathematical modeling and the traffic flow theory are important tools for
designing safe and well dimensioned roads, for solving issues related to traffic congestion or
for designing proper measures for traffic management.
The article aims to describe the theoretical background for explaining the movement
of one vehicle and of an entire group of vehicles without customizes to one particular
transport mode, but it will take into account the basic differences between macroscopic and
microscopic variables.
Also, it will suggest a practical evaluation of traffic flows for an urban road network
taking into account the theoretical framework already presented and the design features of the
network, thus creating a parallel between the theoretical modeling and the needs of the traffic
specialist in data interpretation as decision support for the measures for traffic management.
1. INTRODUCTION
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(1)
(2)
(3)
where :
x(t) distance as a function of time [m]
v(t) speed as a function of time [m/s]
a(t) acceleration as a function of time defined as the change of speed per time
unit [m/s2]
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where: (t) jerk as a function of time defined as the change of acceleration per
time unit [m/s3].
It is noted that the initial condition is denoted by t0, x0, v0 etc. also, it
must be specified that for realistic motions the value of the jerk is very
important, because it defines the comfort threshold.
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In the traffic flow theory the most important characteristics are the
following:
Traffic volume ( vehicles/ unit of time)
Speed ( km/h)
Travel time for a road section
Occupancy ( time period expresses as a percentage in which a vehicles
spends on top of a loop detector)
Density ( vehicles/ unit of distance)
Headways
The distance between vehicles
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1965). Early studies used a second pneumatic tube, placed very close to the first,
to obtain speeds. More recent systems have used paired presence detectors, such
as inductive loops spaced perhaps five to six meters apart. That became the
procedure of measure over a short section. As the technology evolved, the
procedures evolved and the latest ones suppose the recording traffic data from
GPS systems and telephony network for the observer-car as shown below:
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2.2.3. Speed
The occupancy is the time duration while the vehicles are on top of a
detector. For the time interval T, this is the sum of all duration while vehicles
cover the detector related to the total time interval T. For each vehicle, the time
spent over a detector is determined by the vehicle speed vi and its length,Li
summed up with the detectors length, d.
All the traffic stream characteristics are used in paired models depending
on the each study and on the needs of traffic engineer.
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studied model class. The GHR family of models is sometimes referred to as the
general car-following model. The first version was presented in 1958 and
several enhanced versions have been presented since then. The GHR model only
controls the actual following behavior. The basic relationship between a leader
and a follower vehicle is in this case a stimulus-response type of function. The
GHR model states that the followers acceleration is proportional to the speed of
the follower, the speed difference between follower and leader, and the space
headway, (Brackstone and McDonald, 1998). That is, the acceleration of the
follower at time t is calculated as :
(18)
Where >0, and are model parameters used to control the proportionality.
The general car-following model can be either symmetrical using the same
parameters values for acceleration and deceleration, or asymmetrical using
different parameters.
Another car following model category is the safety distance model. The
most commonly known is the Gipps model, which is considered an enhancement
of the original safety distance model developed in 1959 by Kometani and
Sasaki. In these models is used the Pipes rule : A good rule for following
another vehicle at a safe distance is to allow yourself at least the length of a car
between you and the vehicle ahead for every ten miles of hour speed at which
you are travelling.
In Gipps car-following model, vehicles are classified as free or
constrained by the vehicle in front. When constrained by the vehicle in front, the
follower tries to adjust its speed in order to obtain safe space headway to its
leader. A specific headway is considered safe if it is possible for the follower to
respond to any reasonable leader action without colliding with the leader. When
free, the vehicles speed is constrained by its desired speed and its maximum
acceleration.
The following notation will be used in the description of AIMSUNs
acceleration model:
anmax - Maximum desired acceleration, vehicle n, [m/s2]
dnmax - Maximum desired deceleration, vehicle n, [m/s2]
- Estimation of maximum deceleration desired by vehicle n-1, [m/s2]
The speed during the time interval [t,t +T ], is chosen as:
(19)
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The maximum safe speed for vehicle n with respect to the vehicle in front
at time t is calculated as:
(20)
The effective length of a vehicle, sn-1, consists of the vehicles length and
the user specified parameter min distance between vehicles. According to TSS
(2002), there are two ways for the follower to estimate the leaders desired
deceleration.
The first way is to simply assume that the driver can estimate the leaders
deceleration perfectly, thus the estimation will be equal to the leaders desired
deceleration. The second way is to calculate the estimation of the leaders
desired deceleration as the average of the leaders and the followers desired
decelerations.
The car following equations assume that the driver of the following
vehicle reacts , on the one hand, to arbitrarily small changes in relative speed
and on the other hand even at very large spacing. So, the model assumes that
there is no response if speed differences disappear.
A psycho-physical model makes possible a description of processes closer
to reality. Research into perceptual psychology has shown that drivers have
certain limits regarding the stimuli to which they react. The basis of such a
model contains the following hypothesis:
At large spacing the driver of a following vehicle is not influenced by the
size of the speed difference,
At small spacing, there can be combinations of relative speeds and distance
headways for which the driver will not react because of the small relative
motion.
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In the figure above it can be seen the perceptual thresholds. Only when
these thresholds are reached the driver will be able to perceive a change in the
apparent size of the leading vehicle and be able to react to the changes in the
kinematics variables.
That shows that the model simulates more realistic the traffic flow and the
interaction between driver and its vehicle and the other vehicles in the flow.
4. CONCLUSION
Traffic flow theory offers the mathematical models to simulate the traffic
flows. The understanding of how a vehicle moves on the road either for a single
vehicle or a platoon is an important step in using the theoretical models for a
viable modeling of the traffic flows.
As stated before, there is no perfect suitable mathematical model that can
simulate the real motion of vehicles in platoons. A series of mathematical
models and software application that incorporates them offers partial solution
for the traffic engineer.
The most important element of the traffic analyse is calibrating the model
for an approximate representation of real traffic flows.
The characteristics of traffic streams can be complemented to create and
complete models and describe the main components of a model.
The traffic engineer has a great variety of models, that can and must be
used taking into account different situation. The best suited model is the one that
fits the best the empirical measurements on the study area. All models have the
possibility to be adapted and improved to better suite the needs of the user.
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REFERENCES
[1]. Adams, W. F.: Road Traffic Considered as a Random Series, J. Inst. Civil
Engineers, 4, pp. 121-130, U.K., (1936).
[3]. Chandler, R.E., Herman, R., Montroll, E.W. : Traffic Dynamics: Studies in Car
Following, Operations Research 6, Operations Research Society of America, pp.
165-184, (1958)
[5]. Gipps, P.G.: "A behavioural car-following model for computer simulation."
Transportation Research B 15: 105111, (1981)
[7]. Leutzbach, W.: Introduction to the theory of traffic flow. Berlin, Springer Verlag,
(1988).
[9]. Pipes, L. A.: A Proposed Dynamic Analogy of Traffic. ITTE Report, Institute of
Transportation and Traffic Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, (1951).
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Andrei Florin Clitan, Asistent Dr. Ing., Universitatea Tehnic din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea
de Construcii, e-mail: Andrei.CLITAN@infra.utcluj.ro
Rezumat
Durabilitatea este un termen folosit tot mai des n ultima vreme, acesta bazndu-se pe
trei tipuri de factori: sociali, economici i de mediu. Sisteme durabile de transport duc la
creterea coeziunii sociale, reduc problemele de mediu i ajut la crearea unei economii mai
eficiente. Transport durabil const ntr-un sistem complex, care este proiectat pentru a asigura
nevoile de mobilitate ale generaiilor prezente, fr a deteriora factorii de mediu i de
sntate. Prin mbuntirea eficienei energetice i reducerea consumului de materiale, acesta
trebuie s fie capabil s ndeplineasc n condiii optime, nevoia de mobilitate pentru
generaiile viitoare. Sistemul de transport actual din ara noastr nu are un caracter de
durabilitate.
Acest articol ncearc s identifice o serie de probleme i difuncionaliti ale
sistemelor de transport, din perspectiva unui sistem de transport durabil. Pentru alinierea la
standardele Uniunii Europene este necesar s se ia msuri pentru mbuntirea actualului
sistem de transport.
Soluiile propuse trebuie s fie soluii ecologice, social i economic viabil echitabile.
Exist o serie de beneficii prin implementarea unui astfel de sistem, att directe, ct i
indirecte: un cost redus de transport, confort sporit, mai puin poluare a mediului, reducerea
accidentelor rutiere. Durabilitatea reelelor de drumuri este att o provocare i o necesitate n
zilele noastre.
Abstract
Sustainability is a term used more often lately, based on three factors: social,
economic, and environmental. Sustainable transport systems increase social cohesion, reduce
environmental problems and help create a more efficient economy. Sustainable transport
consists in a complex system that is designed to ensure mobility needs of present generations
without damaging the environment and health factors. By improving energy and material
consumption, it must be capable to satisfy in optimum conditions the need for mobility for
future generations. The current transportation system has not a character of sustainability.
This article attempts to identify a series of problems and shortcomings of
transportation system, from the perspective of a sustainable transport system. In order to align
with EU standards it is necessary to take measures to improve the existing transport system
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The proposed solutions must be environmentally friendly solutions, socially equitable and
economically viable.
There are a number of benefits by implementing such a system, both direct and
indirect: a low cost of transport, increased comfort, less environmental pollution, reduces road
accidents.
Road networks sustainability is both a challenge and a necessity nowadays
1. SISTEMELE DE TRANSPORT
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1% 2%
8% Autoturisme
1% 6% Autobuse
Metrou
8%
Cale Ferata
Avion
74% Maritim
Motociclete
5%
7%
Autoturisme
12%
Autobuse
Cale Ferata
Metrou
76%
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5%
6%
Drumuri
16%
Cale Ferat
Fluvii
Conducte
73%
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4. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2]. A. F. CLITAN: Studii privind dezvoltarea unui sistem de transport durabil, Tez de
doctorat, 2012.
[3]. A.F. CLITAN : Sigurana Circulaiei element al transportului durabil,
Simpozionul Naional de Sigurana Circulaiei, ISBN 978-973-662-481-0, Cluj-
Napoca, 12-13 Noiembrie 2009.
[4]. Strategia pentru transport durabil pe perioada 2007-2013 i 2020, 2030, Guvernul
Romniei, Ministerul Transporturilor, Martie 2008.
[5]. A.F. CLITAN: Evoluia accidentelor rutiere n Romnia n raport cu Uniunea
European Simpozionul Naional de Sigurana Circulaiei Sigurana circulaiei n
actualitate, Cluj-Napoca, ISSN 2069-749X, 3-4 Noiembrie 2011.
[6]. C. TOA: Accident, risc i expunere n sigurana circulaiei. colectarea i raportarea
datelor Simpozionul Naional de Sigurana Circulaiei Sigurana circulaiei n
actualitate, Cluj-Napoca, ISSN 2069-749X, 16-17 Mai 2013.
[7]. Strategia de transport intermodal n Romnia 2020. Ministerul Transporturilor i
Infrastructurii, Mai 2011.
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Mihai Iliescu, Prof. dr. ing., Universitatea Tehnic din Cluj Napoca,
e-mail: mihai.iliescu@infra.utcluj.ro
Rodica Dorina Cadar, .l. dr. ing., Universitatea Tehnic din Cluj Napoca,
e-mail: rodicadorina@yahoo.com
Nicolae Ciont, drd. ing., Universitatea Tehnic din Cluj Napoca,
e-mail: nicolaeciont@yahoo.com
Rezumat
Subiectul acestui articol se ncadreaz n tematica conferinei CAR 2013, deoarece are
ca scop prezentarea unui sistem de monitorizare a autovehiculelor rutiere (SIIM) utiliznd
tehnologia GPS (Global Positioning System), a funciilor sale i a uneia din principalele sale
aplicaii, evaluarea indicelui duratei de deplasare (IDD). Aceast lucrare se vrea a fi una
practic, domeniul abordat ncadrndu-se n mai multe domenii ale educaiei i cercetrii n
inginerie, conform clasificrii internaionale. n acelai timp, articolul poate fi ncadrat i n
domeniul tiinelor politice, ntruct ofer informaii relevante n politica transporturilor.
Tehnologia GPS (Global Positioning System Sistem de Poziionare Global)
reprezint un sistem de navigaie prin satelit i unde radio, care ofer informaii spaiale i
temporale referitoare la un obiectiv de pe suprafaa terestr dotat cu un receptor GPS.
Instalarea unor astfel de echipamente pe autovehicule rutiere permite monitorizarea acestora
i generarea multiplelor tipuri de rapoarte care detaliaz parametri urmrii: viteze, distane
parcurse, timpi de micare/staionare, consum de combustibil etc.
Aplicaia electronic prin intermediul creia efectum studiul referitor la
monitorizarea autovehiculelor rutiere se numete MC Locator i permite realizarea de rapoarte
i studii comparative ntre vehicule avnd caracteristici funcionale diferite. Aceast
tehnologie poate fi utilizat i la determinarea unor elemente precum durata de deplasare
(timpul de cltorie) i ntrzierile de circulaie, utilizate n evaluarea mobilitii urbane.
Utiliznd dispozitivul MC Locator, s-a efectuat un studiu de caz pentru determinarea IDD
pentru coridorul est-vest al Municipiului Cluj Napoca.
1. INTRODUCERE
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Figura 4a. Antena GPS Figura 4b. Modulul Figura 4c. Mufa de
GPS/GSM racordare
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4.3 Rezultate
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4.4 Definiii
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5. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[4]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System.
[5]. www.wscomm.ro/mc-locator.html.
[7]. http://www.piarc.org/en/Terminology-Dictionaries-Road-Transport-Roads.
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Abstract
The subject of this article is appropriate for the theme of the CAR 2013, as it presents
a road vehicles monitoring system (MIIS) based on the GPS technology, its functions and one
of its main applications, the evaluation of the Travel Time Index (TTI). This work aims to
have a practical application. The scientific domain we approached corresponds to more than
one field of education and research in engineering, manufacturing and construction, according
to international classifications. At the same time, this paper reaches for the political science,
as it offers information relevant to transportation management.
The GPS (Global Positioning System) technology is a satellite navigation system,
based on radio navigation, which offers location and time information about an objective
which is situated on Earth and has a GPS receiver installed. Setting up such equipment on
automobiles allows monitoring them and generating multiple reports on parameters such as:
speed, distance, movement/stationary time, fuel consumption etc.
The computer application which allows us to carry out the automobile monitoring is
called MC Locator and it generates reports that help us comparatively study functionally
different vehicles. This technology may also be used to determine elements such as time of
travel and traffic delays, which contribute to evaluate urban mobility. We carried out a study
for determining the TTI on the Cluj Napoca East-West corridor.
Keywords: monitoring, travel time index, traffic analysis, traffic engineering, urban
transportation systems.
1. INTRODUCTION
The purpose of this paper is to present a new concept for Romania, which
refers to an urban mobility measuring indicator.
Also, we describe the ITT data collecting and processing methodology.
Regular traffic monitoring is recommended for implementing the urban mobility
plans [1]. The travel time index is a direct measure of traffic congestion. Finding
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measurable indexes for the efficient evaluation of the mobility plans progress is
an issue, one of these indexes being presented in the following.
Figure 1a. Test vehicle characteristics Figure 1b. Photo of test vehicle
The kinematic data concerning the test vehicle motion can be collected
using:
the GPS technology;
distant measuring instruments (DMI).
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Both methods have advantages and disadvantages. The studies carried out
in this field of research recommend monitoring the study vehicle using the GPS
monitoring technology [2].
The data used to evaluate TTI characterise the local traffic conditions and
may also be used to evaluate the travel parameters, the travel-time trajectories
and the durable urban mobility and traffic decongestioning plans.
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MIIS uses the GPS technology for monitoring a test vehicle. The system
architecture is presented in figure 2. Information on the most important elements
of these modules are presented in the following.
The GPS (Global Positioning System) represents a radio-based satellite
navigation system which offers information regarding the position on the Earth
surface of an objective which has a GPS receiver unit.
At first, this technology was developed for military purposes, by the
United States government, starting in 1973. Shortly after however, the system
was also used for civil purposes, with a wide range of applications nowadays.
The correct and precise, with allowable errors, positioning of an objective
requires the radio waves connection between the receiver and at least 4 different
GPS satellites. There are currently 24 GPS satellites orbiting around the Earth at
11200 km/h, at an altitude of 20000 km [4].
One of the GPS technology applications is represented by road vehicles
monitoring systems. The device we used in this study has been purchased by the
Technical University of Cluj Napoca through the institutional project financed
by the 20072013 European Social Fund Operational Programme for the Human
Resources Development (4D-POSTDOC). This was financed through the
priority axis no.1 Education and professional development for economic and
society growth based on knowledge, major domain no.1.5 Doctoral and
postdoctoral research studies. This project allowed the purchase of a network of
systems called Integrated System for the Intelligent Road Traffic Management
(ISIRTM) (figure 3, in Romanian), which includes MIIS. MIIS consists of 6
data collecting devices, including the MC Locator processing application [5].
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Figure 4a. GPS antenna Figure 4b. GPS/GSM Figure 4c. Socket
module connectio
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TTI evaluation was carried out for the East-West corridor of Cluj Napoca,
Romania. As shown in figure 5, the boundaries we considered are the N and
IRA interchanges on Floreti St. (West) and Aurel Vlaicu St. (East),
respectively.
The selected sectors coincide with the main traffic arteries drivers use for
transfers to and from the central area of Cluj Napoca. The N interchange on
Floreti St. is situated on the DN1 (E60) National Road, at the citys West exit
towards Oradea and the Hungarian border. The IRA interchange is situated at
the Eastern exit, on the DN1C National Road, towards Cluj Napoca
International Airport and the cities of Baia Mare and Bistria.
We divided this main corridor into four homogenous segments, two for
each East-West (E-W) traffic way, as shown in table 1.
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TTI evaluation implies driving the test vehicle on the studied sectors.
There are various methods of covering the analysed roads. For this study, we
chose the recommended Floating Car Method [2]. This means the driver has the
task of choosing the appropriate approach for driving the vehicle, based on the
road and traffic conditions, and blending in the traffic flow. The vehicle should
be driven at the traffic flow medium speed of travel, without surpassing the
speed limit.
Intense traffic data collection was carried out at two different times of
day, between 6.00 and 9.00 AM and between 4.00 and 7.00 PM, respectively.
These times of day coincide with the maximum traffic flows in the Cluj Napoca
urban area.
The evaluation of travel time in free-flow traffic was carried out between
11.00 PM and 5.00 AM. Where possible, the test vehicle was driven at the
maximum allowed speed of 50 km/h.
The data was collected in good weather conditions and in the absence of
road works or other incidents on the studied sectors. To eliminate the secondary
effects on traffic of hard to anticipate events which could have occured on
secondary streets, the sectors were transited at least twice during the same time
of day, in at least three different weekdays.
4.3 Results
The MC Locator application generates motion reports for the test vehicle,
including:
routes and distances;
speed;
travel time.
Fuel consumption is evaluated compared to a medium urban consumption which
is set in the application before the data collection. In this case, the test vehicle
(figure 1) has a 1.4-litre petrol engine.
The analysis carried out with the MC Locator application led to the results in
tables 2, 3 and 4.
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As a result, using equation (1), the TTI shown in table 5 are obtained.
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Using the collected data, the time-space diagrams shown in figure 6 are
drawn. These diagrams clearly show the time delays between the two traffic
situations. The t difference on the horizontal indicate the maximum delay for
the analysed sector.
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4.4 Definitions
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5. CONCLUSIONS
The main purpose of collecting data for the TTI calculus is to evaluate the
traffic congestion in an area. This implies studying the medium travel speed and
the time delays on the studied sectors. TTI is also used to evaluate the service
levels of streets and intersections.
GPS monitoring of road vehicles is now the recommended method of
evaluation. In this paper, we used a test vehicle equipped with a GPS receiver
surveilled with the MC Locator application purchased by the Technical
University of Cluj Napoca, Romania.
The software reports led to the evaluation of traffic delays on the main
East-West traffic corridor in Cluj Napoca, Romania. This study shows that the
traffic congestion level is high, which confirms the assumed hypotheses and
evaluates traffic delays and fuel consumption.
REFERENCES
[4]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System.
[5]. www.wscomm.ro/mc-locator.html.
[7]. http://www.piarc.org/en/Terminology-Dictionaries-Road-Transport-Roads.
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Abstract
Thessaloniki is the second largest city in Greece and its transportation system
(development and operation) is hampered by the citys geographical position and surrounding
relief. Specifically, the city has been developed and expanded through the years along the
coastline, the sea boundary on the southwest, and a second physical boundary, a forest, on the
east side. The Thessaloniki Ring Road (divided in western and eastern part) was constructed
in the early 90s, in order to relief the road network of the city centre from the transit traffic
and confront the gradually increasing congestion. The absence of alternatives other than road
transport and the increase of car ownership over the years led to an increase of motorized
traffic. So even that this Ring Road had been designed to serve 30,000 vehicles daily it
became to serve more than triple traffic just before the impacts of the economic crisis on
transport and mobility have been made visible.
The Western Internal Ring Road of Thessaloniki (WIRRT) has length of 8.4km. It
has three lanes per direction separated by a median and no emergency lanes. The traffic
increase and moreover the existence of eight at grade intersections along the WIRRT degrade
the provided level of service. For the elimination of these intersections an upgrade project is
underway for implementation that includes the construction of five grade separated
intersections and several interventions on the adjacent road network. This paper presents in
brief the methodology and the results of the projects Cost-Benefit Analysis, which assessed
the expected socioeconomic benefits, emerging mainly from minimising the delays for users
due to the elimination of the at grade signalised intersections.
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Figure 1. Map of Western and Eastern Ring Road in relation to the city and
Egnatia Motorway (the only constructed part of the External Ring Road)
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strengthen the road safety level for all the categories of infrastructure users
(drivers and pedestrians). Specifically, the main construction works concern:
a) construction of the grade separated I/C 3rd Septemvriou, with
construction of two overpasses of Vembo and 3rd Septemvriou, combined with
upgrades of the connection roads;
b) construction of the grade separated I/C Meandrou, with underground
passing of the WIRRT, combined with construction of connecting roads of
Meandrou street and formulation of a round-about over the WIRRT (i.e.
elimination of the existing signalized intersection at the same level);
c) construction of the grade separated I/C Makriyianni, with underground
passing of the WIRRT, combined with construction of connecting roads of
Makriyianni street formulation of two round-about over the WIRRT and a
connecting road between them over the WIRRT (i.e. elimination of the existing
signalized intersection at the same level);
d) construction of the grade separated I/C Langadha Stavroupoleos,
through the construction of two separated bridges over the Langhada and
Oreokastrou streets;
e) construction of the grade separated I/C 14 (25th Martiou/ Stratou)
Efkarpias, with underground passing of the WIRRT, combined with
construction of connecting roads of 25th Martiou street and formulation of a
round-about over the WIRRT (i.e. elimination of the existing signalized
intersection at the same level).
Additionally are foreseen the substitution of guardrails, central median
and asphalt layers for the entire length of the WIRRT, construction of Traffic
Management and Electro-Mechanical buildings and interventions on rest of the
service and local road network.
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The benefits from the project implementation are expected from: a) the
reduction of running times for the users of the WIRRT, as well as for the users
of the existing signalized intersections that will be eliminated, b) the reduction
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of vehicles operational costs due to the high reduction of the delays observed in
the existing situation and is foreseen to be intensified in the future in case that
the project would not be realized and c) due to the reduction of road accidents.
In order to quantify these benefits several estimations and assumptions
had to be made, which were based on previous data, updated and customised so
that they reflect the current economic situation in Greece.
The operational cost of the vehicles would be less in the future due to the
fact that the vehicles will not be obligated to decelerate and accelerate at each
intersection as presently. For this benefit only fuel savings have been considered
in the analysis due to insufficient data to estimate how many users use each
intersection, in order to avoid overestimations. The fuel cost used was 0.64/lt
for petrol and 0.81/lt for diesel and the fuel consumption during a vehicle is
stationary was considered 0.5lt/h. No increase of fuel costs was considered
during the analysis period, again to avoid overestimations.
Since the main benefits are associated with the time savings for the users,
a very detailed approach was followed to estimate the time lost at signalised
intersections, which will be the gain for the users after the project realisation.
Therefore, the assumptions made were that the length of the intersection is 50m,
the braking time for vehicles running with 90km/h (speed limit of WIRRT at
present) is 3.8seconds, the evacuation time of the last vehicle passing the
intersection is 4.5seconds (speed of 11m/sec) and the acceleration time for the
first vehicle passing the intersection is 7.14seconds (speed of 7m/sec).
Concerning the assumptions made for the estimation of the delays and the
LoS two of the basic assumptions were that the composition of the traffic will
remain the same in the future and that the percentage of the turning movements
will not change. A third important assumption was the preservation of traffic
daily distribution as it is.
Assumptions were also made for the calculation of the annual time
savings based on the hourly and daily values. Specifically, the delays were
calculated on annual base based on the hourly and daily values multiplied by a
factor which was adjusted to Greek reality (number of working days, summer
vacations and religious holidays, etc.).
Regarding the value of time (VoT), it has been calculated separately for
each passenger trip purpose (business, leisure, from/to work, long/short
distance) and the mean value (weighted average of VoT and percentage of trips
per purpose) was 14.3/h. The car occupancy was considered 1.2 passengers.
For freight vehicles a mean weight of truck of 10tonnes was assumed and the
VoT per tonne was considered to be 3/h.
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For the users crossing the entire WIRRT it was considered that they will
benefit 100% from the elimination of the at grade intersections, while for the
users crossing the WIRRT vertically that they will benefit from the roundabout
establishment by 80% of the time spend at the signalised intersection.
For road safety and the expected reduction of road accidents, previous
data were analysed and assumptions were made. The monetary value of human
life and the value of the injuries adopted were based on the international
literature (update of values from HEACTO study) but they had to be customised
based on the financial crisis in Greece and the labour cost which is significantly
reduced. The cost of human life considered is 1.183mo, of severe injury
0.155mo and of light injury 0.012mo. The reduction of accidents was
considered that would be by 60%, since the main cause of accidents was the
violation of traffic signals, according to data from the Greek Police Authorities.
In Table 2 are presented the estimation of the quantified benefits of the
project in terms of Net Present Value, including the projects residual value:
The interest rate use is 5.5%, based on the relevant guidelines of EC.
According to the assumptions described in the previous paragraphs, the
Economic Internal Rate of Return (EIRR) of the project is estimated at 10.87%,
its Economic Net Present Value (NPV) at 64.9mo and the Benefits/ Costs
Ratio (/C) at 1.66.
Additional tests for interest rate alterations resulted that using an interest
rate of 5% increases the ENPV by 10.5mo and the /C ratio to 1.74, whilst
using interest rate of 6% reduces the ENPV by 9.5mo and the B/C ratio to 1.58.
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time, fuel costs). The results of the sensitivity tests are schematically presented
in Figure 2.
30% 80%
20% 60%
ENPV
EIRR
10% 40%
20%
0%
0%
-10% -20%
-20% -40%
-30% -60%
10%
20%
-5%
-1%
-20%
-10%
0%
1%
5%
-5%
-1%
-20%
-10%
10%
20%
0%
1%
5%
Figure 2. Results of the Sensitivity Analysis
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5. CONCLUSIONS
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REFERENCES
[1]. Eurozone Forecast, Outlook for Greece, Ernst & Young in collaboration with
Oxford Economics, Summer Edition June 2012.
[2]. Greece: Fifth Review Under the Stand-By Arrangement, International Monetary
Fund 2011.
4]. M. MILTIADOU for Egnatia Odos S.A.: Cost Benefit Analysis of the Western
Internal Ring Road of Thessaloniki 2012.
[5]. Working Document 4, Guidance on the Methodology for carrying out Cost-Benefit
Analysis in the new Programming Period 2007-2013, European Commission, DG
Regional Policy 2006.
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Abstract
Efficient urban policies need to create a balance between the benefit of large urban
areas and the discomfort created by the resulted excessive congestion.
Traffic congestion puts to the test the city transport network. Generally, it appears
when the traffic volume or the modal split generates a transport demand higher then the
available road capacity. Thereby, the congestion generates a series of negative effects, as the
realization of an unproductive activity, delays, impossibility of an accurate forecasting of
travel times etc. All these effects have a negative impact mainly on the regional economy, but
also on the environment and individuals health. Each year, at the level of EU, the cost of the
congestion comes up to 1% from the GDP.
Among the policies and strategies considered to reduce congestion, there is also the
congestion charging, a strategy of price efficiency that involves that the user of a network
must pay more for it, so as to increase the social net benefit.
This concept that belongs to the market economy, assumes that the user is accountable
on the impact that he has on other users and on himself. Thus, using the economic levers, the
user becomes aware of the cost that it imposes to the others and to himself in the context of
maximum transport demand. In this respect, congestion pricing supports either the spatial or
temporal reallocation of transport demand, or its redistribution to the public transport.
One of the negative aspects regarding congestion charging is the inequality of such a
decision, given by the social heterogeneity of the network users.
This article will analyze the theoretical framework of congestion charging. Also, by
analyzing the previous experiences regarding congestion pricing, we will draw both the
success factors that led to implementation and the issues and difficulties of this measure.
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1. INTRODUCTION
Traffic congestion results from the supply and the demand meeting over
time because capacity is time consuming and costly to build and is fixed for long
time periods, demand fluctuates over time, and transport services cannot be
stored to smooth imbalances between offer and demand.
Various policies to curb traffic congestion have been adopted or proposed
over the years. The traditional response is to expand capacity by building new
roads or upgrading existing ones, this response being costly and time
consuming. A second method is to reduce demand by discouraging peak-hour
travel, limiting access to congested areas by using permit systems or parking
restrictions, imposing bans on commercial vehicles during certain hours, and so
on. A third approach is to improve the efficiency of the road system, so that the
same demand can be accommodated at a lower cost.
This second method accommodates the congestion pricing as a solution
for managing demand in accordance to the transport offer. The core of the
congestion pricing is represented by the fact that people tend to make socially
efficient choices when they are faced to the social benefits and costs of their
actions. The congestion pricing is widely viewed as one of the most efficient
solution because it uses the price mechanism with all its advantages of
economically clarity, universality and efficiency.
The first advocates to this method of demand management were Pigou
(1920) and Knight (1924). But the strong promoter was W. Vickrey, who
identified the potential the potential for road pricing to influence travellers
choice of route and travel mode, and its implications for land use [1]. As
Vickrey extended his work on congestion pricing, true congestion pricing entails
setting tolls that match the severity of congestion, which requires that tolls vary
according to time, location, type of vehicle and current circumstances (e.g.
accidents or bad weather) [2].
From the point of view of the economists, the principles in congestion
pricing are common in other sectors of the economy from telephone rates and
air fares to hotels and public utilities. But despite the efforts of Vickrey and
other economists, congestion pricing is still rarely used on roads.
This article will review the theoretical background of the congestion
pricing models and the experiences through the world in order to extract the
success factors and the factors that led to failure in implementing congestion
pricing projects.
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2. CONGESTION PRICING
For the clarification of the model, lets consider one origin and one
destination connected by one road. Road users make trips along the road in
identical vehicles. The traffic flow characteristics are uniform and time
independent (flows, speeds and densities). In the figure above the horizontal axis
depicts traffic flow/ volume, while the vertical axis defines the prices or
generalized costs of a trip. As shown, at low volumes, vehicles can travel at
free-flow speed meaning that the trip cost curve, C(q) is constant at the free-flow
cost Cff. At higher volumes, the speed decreases and the C(q) slope has an
ascendant trend. The figure above does not consider hypercongestion that would
cause the curve C(q) to bend backwards on itself. If it is considered that flow
represents the quantity of demanded trips per unit of time, then the demand
curve p(q) can be added to the figure above to obtain the supply-demand
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diagram. The demand curve has the slope downwards, so it reflects that, as for
most goods, the demand decreases when costs increase. The equilibrium in the
no-toll situation appears at the intersection of C(q) and p(q) at the equilibrium
flow qn and the price Cn. Since external benefits of road use are not likely to
be significant ( benefits are normally either internal or pecuniary in nature), p(q)
specifies both the private and the marginal social benefit of travel. Total social
benefits are measured by the area under p(q). in a similar way, C(q) measures
the cost of the traveler that makes a trip. If external travel costs other than
congestion, as accidents or air pollution, are ignored, then C(q) measures the
average social cost of the trip.
The total social cost of q trips is : (1)
The marginal cost of adding one trip is :
(2)
The social optimal is found at the intersection of MC(q) and p(q) and the
willingness to pay for a trip is MC0 and the number of trips, q0, is less than in
the equilibrium earlier described. The required toll, is determined taking into
account that the price of a trip is the sum of individuals physical travel cost and
the toll and the equation is :
(3)
where the marginal cost imposed by a road user to the others is :
(4)
This toll is known after Pigou (1920) its originator and it is called the
pigouvian tax [4].
The fact that a toll is required to support the social optimum shows that
the travelers will fully pay for the congestion they will cause through the time
they personally lose while travelling. In a similar way, a person squeezing into a
crowd, a shopper queuing in line at supermarket or a person reading a book after
a long wait for it, impose costs on others that they do not bear. It is necessary to
note that however, at the optimum as shown in the figure, the congestion
remains since the generalized cost net of the toll exceeds the free-flow cost.
Efficient tolling will not necessarily eliminate the congestion.
The efficiency gain obtained by applying the optimal toll is the expression
of the increase in the social surplus, defined as a reduction in the total cost
minus the reduction in total benefits due to the decrease in traffic. This gain is
illustrated in the figure 1 by the grey triangle. The toll revenue is net revenue
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because it is a transfer from the road user to the authorities. Nevertheless, the
transfer leaves road users with an issue. The q0 users, will suffer an increase of
the cost for a value of and the users that stop using the road will
suffer a loss ranged between 0 to . Those are the main roots to the
opposition to the congestion pricing.
Those models are built based on the previous ones by adding 2 elements:
1). Specification of how travel demand depends on time
2). Specification of how traffic flows modify over time and space.
To keep the focus on the time elements in the congestion pricing, it will
be consider also, a single road from an origin to a destination. Also, the total
number of trips is assumed to be a fixed one, meaning that the price is inelastic,
but the trip-timing preferences and the time costs of road users will be
considered heterogeneous.
To build the model it is necessary to model the demand. Assuming that an
individual i has a preferred time t*i to complete the trip and the schedule delay
cost is [2]. Let T(t) denote travel time or trip duration, i denote is
unit cost of travel time and (t) denote the toll (if any) at time t. The cost
incurred by i in arriving at time t is assumed to be linear in trip duration and
additively separable:
(6)
Time-dependent models also specify how speed and flow evolve over
time and space. Various modeling approaches have been developed [7]. It is
assumed here that traffic flow is governed by a form of flow congestion with no
overtaking possible, consistent with what is assumed for the steady state in
figure 1.
The analysis below will focus on the no-toll equilibrium NTE and the
social optimum SO and the comparison between them to identify the effects of
congestion pricing.
The no-toll equilibrium NTE is a Nash equilibrium illustrated in the figure
below, where each individual will minimize its trip cost defined by the equation
(6). The congestion delay indifference curve is given by the equation :
(7)
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Di t ti
The absolute slope of the Ti curve defined as reflects the
i
willingness to have a delay in order to arrive closer to the preferred time t*i. the
curve is steep of marginal schedule delay cost is high or the unit of travel time
cost is low. The individual with a steep curve has a high congestion tolerance.
In the figure above the NTE is shown for a peak morning period. The
Tn(t) shows the evolution of travel time, that rises above the free-flow travel
time at t0n . the choice is shown for two individuals, i and j. the individual i is a
highly-paid professional with an early time preferred work start time t*i, a high
value of time i and a strong preference for arriving on time, and the j individual
has a low congestion tolerance.
In the NTE, the travel time curve T n(t ) forms an upper envelope of all the
travelers equilibrium indifference curves, its slope at each point matching the
congestion tolerance of the traveler who arrives then. Heterogeneity in
congestion tolerance also has a moderating influence: individuals with a low
tolerance travel at the beginning and at the end of the peak period so contribute
relatively little to the buildup of congestion.
In the figure below it is shown the social optimum.
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Figure 3 shows a SO that might obtain with the same set of travellers as in
the NTE of figure 2. Arrivals occur over a longer time interval than in the NTE,
and the travel time curve, To(t) , is lower and flatter than Tn(t ) . Individual i still
arrives early, at ti0 . But since i has strong arrival time preferences, i arrives close
to ti* . Individual j on the other hand has only a weak aversion to arrive early. So
j is scheduled to arrive early in the rush hour and before i, rather than after
t j* as in the NTE. Thus, the SO not only involves changes in individual arrival
times relative to the NTE, but can also feature changes in their arrival order.
Properties of the SO differ somewhat in the bottleneck queuing model, in
which travel speed remains at free-flow speed for flows right up to the
bottlenecks capacity. Flow is maintained at capacity throughout the travel
period to maximize throughput while avoiding any queuing. Therefore there is
no tradeoff between schedule delay costs and travel time costs.
With descriptions of the NTE and SO in hand it is now possible to
consider congestion pricing. For ease of reference the optimal time-varying
congestion toll will henceforth be called the fine toll. The fine toll incorporates
both a static component analogous to the Pigouvian tax and a dynamic
component. Carey and Srinivasan (1993) [7] derive an equivalent toll for a
model with exogenous trip-timing. The fine toll supports not only an optimal
time pattern of trips conditional on a given demand, but also the optimal set of
users.
London
The London congestion pricing was the first important experience and the
best known success in reducing congestion costs in European big cities. Since
February 2003 it is necessary to pay a fee (neither time-varying nor vehicle-
varying) in order to enter the city center during weekdays between 7:00am and
6.30pm, with the exception of motorcycles, public transport vehicles and other
particular vehicles like those for disabled people or emergency vehicles.
Once the charge is payed it includes unlimited journeys into and around
the restricted area. The people living in the city center are almost exempted as
well, since they receive high discounts. The area charged has recently been
extended in 2007, the price has increased from 5 to 8 in three years (July
2005) and is expected to rise until 10 by the end of 2008.
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The origin of the measure comes from the political restructuration in the
area of London in 2000, when Ken Livingstone (Labour Party) won the
elections becoming the new Mayor of the area of London (Greater London
Authority) with a platform that included congestion pricing implementation
(Litman, 2006) [10].
After some years of implementation the system enjoys popular support
and the political opposition is not questioning congestion pricing anymore. In
this direction, some business groups also support the system because its costs
are offset by its benefits (lower delivery time, employees arriving on time, etc.).
Moreover, for most workers in the area the fee represents a really small amount
if we take into account the high wages payed in Central London.
As improvements, the private traffic declined between 15% and 20%, the
CO2 emissions declined by 16%.
The revenues raised are used to fund public transportation investment (
80%) and the rest of 20% is used to cover the system operational cost [9].
Stockholm
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the rest of the area the decrease was a 2-3%. Besides, road safety was also
improved thanks to the measure and the reduction in the number of accidents
involving injuries achieved a significant 5-10% in the inner-city meaning the
avoidance of about 70 of this type accidents.
Equity effects can also be considered. In fact, it is found that congestion
taxes negatively affect (Transek, 2006) [8]:
the inner city more than other areas (they pay twice more than outer
residents).
high-income individuals more than low-income individuals (they pay three
times more).
employed people more than others (they pay three times more)
households with two adults with children more than other types of
households.
men more than women (they pay 50% more)
However, these are the groups which also enjoy the largest time gains.
Edinburgh
The city of Edinburgh had been developing a congestion pricing scheme
for almost a decade when decided to carry out a referendum in February 2005.
The scheme proposed was a two cordon congestion zones charged between
7:00-10:00 in the inner cordon and 7:00-18.30 in the most extensive one- and
the daily fare charged to private transport users would be 2 pounds. Revenues
were going to be devoted to improve public transport.
Edinburgh citizens rejected the project in a referendum 74.4 % of
negative votes and the council gave up the plan of charging road users. The
Councilor Donald Anderson announced after the results that the idea is now
dead and buried for Edinburgh but we are as committed as ever to further
improving our city's transport (BBC news. 22 February 2005)[11]. The result
also stopped other UK city plans to implement similar congestion charging
systems.
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4. CONCLUSION
Given the continuing growth in road travel and the reduced possibilities in
expanding the infrastructure in the cities mainly because the lack of space, the
traffic congestion is an issue that will need to be addressed and solved. Given
the technology evolution, the congestion charging has now new viable means for
collecting the tolls and begins to gain confidence given the successful
experiences.
Also, it is difficult to accept it mainly when it comes for the equity issues
and the fact that it is necessary to apply an optimum for the toll, which will not
guarantee that congestion will disappear.
Despite the economic case for congestion pricing, it has attracted strong
social and political opposition, and assorted legal and institutional constraints
create further barriers to implementation. The acceptance is the main obstacle
in implementing those schemes.
These problems on pricing acceptance usually appear due to the difficulty
in explaining to the public the application of marginal cost pricing in order to
achieve efficiency goals.
The recommended first thing is the trial period, for the users to better
understand the role and the benefits of these schemes. The transparency
regarding the use of the revenue is another element that will assure a successful
experience. Also, trying to approach the equity and find a solution for those
affected by this toll.
The political support is an important part of general acceptance of the society.
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REFERENCES
[1]. Vickrey, W.S. (1963). Pricing in urban and suburban transport. American Economic
Review, 53, 452-465.
[2]. Vickrey, W.S. (1969). Congestion theory and transport investment. American
Economic Review (Papers and Proceedings), 59, 251-260.
[3]. Vickrey, W.S. (1971). Responsive pricing of public utility services. Bell Journal of
Economics and Management Science, 2, 337-346.
[5]. Knight, F. (1924). Some fallacies in the interpretation of social costs. Quarterly
Journal of Economics, 38(4), 582-606
[6]. Carey, M. and A. Srinivasan (1993). Externalities, average and marginal costs, and
tolls on congested networks with time-varying flows. Operations Research, 41(1),
217-231.
[7]. C. Robin Lindsey, Erik T. Verhoef: Traffic congestion and congestion pricing,
Tinbergen Institute Discussion Paper, 2000
[8]. Transek (2006), Equity Effects of the Stockholm Trial. Stockholm: Transek, WSP
group.
[9]. Transport for London (2005) Congestion charging Central London. Impacts
Monitoring: Third annual report. London: Transport for London
[10]. Litman, T. (2006), London Congestion Pricing: Implications for Other Cities.
Victoria Transport Policy Institute.
[11]. "Edinburgh rejects congestion plan". BBC News (British Broadcasting Corporation).
2005-02-22. Retrieved 2008-07-15.
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Mihaela Hermina Negulescu, Associate Professor Ph.D. arch., ,,Ion Mincu University of
Architecture and Urban Planning, Bucharest; e-mail: mihaela_negulescu@yahoo.com
Abstract
Key words: streets classification, traffic, city areas, quality of urban living
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space for communities and social interaction, and also their attribute of urban
landscape whose aesthetics is a component of quality of living. With car
supremacy in urban settlements, with the increase of motorized traffic as
volumes and speeds, with the excessive parking on public space, with the
decrease and even disappearance of pedestrian places or sidewalk narrowing,
comfort and safety of travels drastically decreased, in big cities.
[SAFENET,2012]
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modeling urban streets and markets as "living spaces", community spaces with
landscape aesthetic attributes.
A
D C B
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The ratio between infrastructure for traffic function and living space
function is thus different, by category of streets:
1. streets with prevalent function of traffic artery - arteries- arterial and
sub-arterial roads (categories 1, 2)
2. streets with an equilibrate ratio between the function of infrastructure
for traffic and the function of living space collector streets, on which
public transport can pass inside the neighborhoods,
3. streets with prevalent function of living space local streets directly
providing accessibility to buildings (see. fig.5, fig.6)
max.800 max.800
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a b c
4. CONCLUSIONS
Automobility must be managed, controlled and limited within cities and their
metropolitan areas, especially in the city areas where motorized traffic has
caused major dysfunctions. Some of the methods outlined in the European
practice are based on detour road systems (peri-and inner-city), intermodal hubs
as primary tool for modal restructuring mobility, reformulation of urban
character of streets not only according to their functional role, but also according
to the exigencies of areas they are located in, totally or with trail sequences.
1
Action Plan on Urban Mobility, Commission of The European Communities, Bruxelles, 30.9.2009;
Green paper-Towards a new culture for urban mobility, Commission of The European Communities,
Brussels, 25.9.2007
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REFERENCES
[1]. SAFENET- Research to estimate and increase the intrinsic safety performances of
urban traffic networks Scientific report phase1, PNCDI, PCCA TIP 2 project,
Ministry of Education and Research, 2012
[2] NEGULESCU, Mihaela Hermina, Mobility and urban form theoretical issues,
Ion Mincu Academic Publishing House, Bucharest, 2011
[3] *** Action Plan on Urban Mobility, Commission of The European Communities,
Bruxelles, 30.9.2009 i
[4] *** Green paper-Towards a new culture for urban mobility, Commission of The
European Communities, Brussels, 25.9.2007
[5] *** Nouvelle energie pour Septeuil, http://www.voleospeed.co.uk/2011/07/byng-
place-and-influence-of-anti.html
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Rezumat
Cuvinte cheie: trafic rutier, siguran rutier, accidente rutiere, pasaj, autostrad
Abstract
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there werent registered any serious road events. Also, a comparative analysis on the fluency
of traffic in the area shows that the travel period to cross the town has halved its value.
Thereby, this study shows that the construction of Sibiu by-pass has a significant contribution
to the improvement of the road traffic in the area through removal of the bottlenecks, increase
of the road safety and reduction of the negative impact on the environment.
1. INTRODUCTION
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The scope of this project was to build a motorway by-pass for the Sibiu
town, considered the highest bottleneck along TEN- Priority Axis no.7 in
Romania. This motorway by-pass will be included within the future motorway
linking Bucharest to the Romanian/Hungarian border.
The route of Sibiu by-pass running from the south-east to the north-west
side of the town, has two different sections:
Section 1: km 0+000 km 14+760, where the by-pass is integrated in the
future motorway linking Bucharest to the Romanian / Hungarian border at
Nadlac (via Pitesti / Brasov, Sibiu and Deva). This section is constructed at
motorway standards.
Section 2: km 14+760 km 17+500 (DJ 106 B(DN1T), km 0 +000 - km 3 +
600), where the by-pass detaches from the future motorway and ensures the link
to the existing national road DN 1. This section is built with the same
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2.1.1. Section 1
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2.1.2. Section 2
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At the end of construction works, road signs and markings were designed
according to STAS 1848. There were installed warning signs of danger,
regulations, guidance and information.
Horizontal signaling works consist mainly of:
Bookmarks meanings and longitudinal separation lanes;
Bookmarks cross off, yielding to pedestrians crossing the transition;
Markings on prohibited areas, bus stations;
Spire and inscriptions.
However, on completion, according to the signs design, road signs are
placed on the ground kilometer and hectometers terminals.
Crash barriers were placed on each side of the central reserve to prevent
the accidental passage of vehicles on the opposite path. Even if the sliders are
continuous, they can be removed at every 5.00 km to allow for exceptional
situations (like interventions, traffic diversion, etc) on a length of 160.00 m. The
median separator is provided with double safety guard rail on its entire length in
order to prevent overpasses on the motorway.
Anti glare panels, which are made of plastic, have the purpose to increase
traffic safety, minimizing the vehicle damages that could occur in case of
impact; corroborated to the requirement to increase the safety level of the central
steel guard rail (from H1 to H2 and respectively H3/H4 on art works), it was
necessary to redesign the bearing structure for the anti-glare lamellas so that
they become compatible to the guard rail structure and to undertake the wind
dynamic loads and the static loads (snow, frost).
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The integration of the noise barriers with the side safety steel guard rail -
both in the alignment areas and on the art works - involved a series of guard rail/
anti-glare panel compatible ensembles which would work together in case of
impact and which should not generate loose segments that could endanger traffic
safety.
Reflective buttons were mounted on the access slip roads and at the link
between these roads with merging and diverging lanes. Taking into account the
particular climate in the area, with heavy snowfalls and very low winter
temperatures, it was necessary to use strong models of buttons, resistant against
the action of snow plows.
Other road safety measures:
In order to avoid glare caused by headlights of motor vehicles traveling from
opposite directions at night, safety anti-glare devices were mounted on the
motorway vertical axis.
To prevent the uncontrolled movement of animals or humans, a protective
fence is provided.
Shock absorbers - at the end of the central separator impact shock absorbers
were placed.
The road marking of the bi-component type had a minimum thickness of
3000 microns and in the edge delimitation marking areas vibrating strips were
used. The retro-reflection is assured with glass micro-balls which can be applied
on the surface of the marking or can be introduced in the material mass, when
produced.
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The traffic measurements presented in the table above shows that the
travel period to detour the town has significantly decreased (approx. 50%) after
implementing Sibiu bypass, and also that this measure improves the traffic in the
city. Obviously, it is necessary to continue the surveillance of this road segment
through campaigns in different periods of the year.
An analysis of the car accidents was also performed using the statistical
data of the last three years made available by the Romanian Police, when the
traffic crossed the city, and using the data for 2011 when the traffic chose the
by-pass. The graphic below centralizes these data:
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Statistic Data for DN 1 (Km 301+00 - Km 321+900) / DN7 (Km 262+498 - Km285+398)
60 57
50 46
41
40 37 No. of Accidents
Registered Events
32 No. of Vehicles
30
30 27 27 No. of Fatalities
25 No. of Serious Injured
22
20 20 No. of Light Injured
20
14 15 15
11
10 7 8
4
2
0
2008 2009 2010 2011
From the analysis performed on the sector from DN1 between Km301+00
- Km321+900, which overlaps with DN 7 Km262+498 - Km285+398, it can be
noticed that the number of accidents decreases considerably from 32 in 2008, to
11 in 2011, also with the number of vehicles involved in crashes, serious injured
and light injured.
The only data that is increasing is the fatality number, and correlating this
to the traffic flow, we suggest that a future project should be developed in order
to identify and solve possible black spots, such as the one from km 316 on DN
1, where in the last 4 years (2008-2011) there have been 11 accidents, 20
vehicles involved, resulting 6 fatalities, 7 serious injured and 16 light injured,
and also from km 303 on DN1, where in the last 4 years (2008-2011) there have
been 23 accidents, 44 vehicles involved, resulting 16 serious injured and 28 light
injured. We consider that a detailed analysis is necessary for these areas, in
order to detect the cause of the road accidents and find a suitable measure to
solve the problems.
These black spots were identified according to the definition adopted by
the Ministerial Council of Road Safety in 1997, which is A black spot
represents the public road sector with a length of maximum 1 km, where during
5 consecutive years were recorded at least 10 casualties with at least 10 fatalities
or serious injured.
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5 5
5
4
4 No. of Accidents
Registered Events
No. of Vehicles
3 3
3 No. of Fatalities
No. of Serious Injured
2 2 2 2 No. of Light Injured
2
1
1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
2008 2009 2010 2011
For DN14, the statistic data is very relevant, as it can be seen in the chart
above. In 2011, after the construction of the by-pass, the number of road crashes
was zero.
Also, the most important data that should be taken into consideration, is
that there where no incidents on the by-pass in its first year of use (2011), taking
into consideration data from the Police Department. This is a technical proof
that the project was implemented respecting the highest standards.
5. CONCLUSIONS
This study is based on the statistic method before and after, which is
most useful in demonstrating the immediate impacts of shortterm programs. The
measurements are assumed independent and with equal precision within each
selection. The error distribution function is allowed in normal distribution. The
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statistical data collected for analysis covers a period of four years, respectively
2008 2010 (the period before implementation) and 2011 (the year after the
implementation of the project).
Clearly, the most obvious conclusion that emerges from the analysis of
the statistical data provided by the Traffic Police and the National Company of
Motorways and National Roads in Romania, is the high level of security which
Sibiu bypass confers no fatality in the first 12 months of operation, between
2010 and 2011.
There are also the following conclusions:
the improvement of the traffic in the area (any new infrastructure investment
attracts some of the traffic from the existing network);
the reduction of the time travel for transit traffic of Sibiu with about 50%,
this involves the reduction of the pollutants, transport and travel duration and
hence the associated economic costs;
the improvement of the quality of life and environment of the city Sibiu, by
removing the transit traffic from the center of the town to the bypass;
protection of the down town heritage buildings.
Although during the first year of use there werent registered any events
on Sibiu bypass, it is recommended a further analysis, with a study of the traffic
and road accident data for the next years of operation. The method before and
after is less useful for evaluating longer term interventions. This is because
over the course of a longer period of time, more circumstances can arise that
may obscure the effects of an intervention.
REFERENCES
[1]. S.C. Search Corporation S.R.L. Technical Project Construction of the Sibiu motorway
bypass on Corridor IV in Romania Section 2, km 14+860 - km 17 +500 and
rehabilitation of DJ 106 B(DN1T), km 0 +000 - km 3 + 600, 2008;
[2]. S.C. Search Corporation S.R.L. Final Report on measure ISPA 2001/RO/16/P/PT/
005, Construction of the Sibiu motorway bypass on Corridor IV in Romania, 2012
[3]. Financing Memorandum. Agreed between the European Commission and the
Government of Romania, concerning the grant of assistance from the Instrument of
Structural Policies for Pre-accession to the following measure: Construction of the
Sibiu motorway bypass on Corridor IV, Romania, 2000;
[4]. Address no. 33681 - 10.05.2012 from General Inspectorate of Romanian Police and
the National Company of Motorways and National Roads in Romania, referring to
road accidents from the period 01.01.2008 31.12.2011 in Sibiu.
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Svetlana Bakali, MSc, Assistant, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of technical sciences,
e-mail: basic@uns.ac.rs
Boko Matovi, MSc, Training assistant, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of technical
sciences, e-mail: boskom@uns.ac.rs
Anja Bai, MSc, Research assistant, University of Novi Sad, Faculty of technical sciences,
e-mail: anjuskab@gmail.com
Abstract
Analysis of the traffic safety factors in some region (road, section of road, roads
kilometer) is an important task in the field of traffic safety. It is necessary to constantly
monitor, analyze, compare traffic safety situation in order to develop and improve measures
for increasing the level of traffic safety. The first part of each analysis is finding of positions
of traffic accidents and its casualties, in other words it is necessary to find its coordinates in
the space-time coordinate system.
This paper shows results of the descriptive statistical analysis of traffic accidents
frequency on the rural road for the period 2005-2011. It will be point out advantages and
disadvantages of this approach and also it will be suggested a new individual approach for
determinate the mean time between consecutive traffic accidents.
1. INTRODUCTION
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In earlier research from the aspect temporal analysis of road accidents two
approaches were singled out. One of them is collective, which analyze crash
frequency over a long period of time [3, 4, 5], and another is individual, which
determines estimation of real time crash likelihood [6, 7, 8, 20].
Modeling traffic accident is not easy work, and researchers are faced with
many problems. One of them is absence of individual vehicle crashes
information that would help improve the identification of cause and effect
relationships with individual vehicle crashes. Also in many middle-income
countries data basis of traffic accident is very weak and incomplete. Because of
this researchers do not have choice. They try to understand the factors that affect
the frequency of crashes (the number of crashes occurring in some geographical
space (roadway segment or intersection)) over some specified time period [9].
Many authors in earlier research tried to establish relationship between factors
which have a different influence on frequency of traffic accident as hourly
traffic flow [10,11], weather conditions [12,13,14], road geometric (degree of
horizontal curvature, lane, shoulder and median widths, urban, rural, and the
sections length) [15]. The number of road accidents can be modeled by using
various techniques to identify the relationship of different variables with number
of road accidents. Lord and Mannering gave a detailed review of the key issues
associated with crash-frequency data as well as the advantages and
disadvantages of the various methodological approaches that researchers have
used to address these problems. They point out also a problem with
characteristic of crash-frequency data as over-dispersion, under-dispersion,
time-varying explanatory variables, temporal and spatial correlation, low
sample-mean and small sample size, injury-severity and crash-type correlation,
under-reporting, omitted-variables bias, endogenous variables, functional form,
fixed parameters [9].
This paper shows the result of collective approach (temporal analysis per
hour, day, and month) and results of the mean time between two consecutive
traffic accidents which is some kind of individual approach.
2. METHOD
In this paper the basic results for the main rural road in Province of
Vojvodina are presented. This road is made of 20 sections of total length
255,113 km. The sections represent parts of the road network between two
consecutive traffic nodes and are used to provide for continuous and
unobstructed traffic flows [16]. This road sections is specific by the structure,
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3. RESULTS
Trend line of traffic accidents shows that in the last three year the number
of traffic accident falling down (Figure 1). Statistical parameters which are
shown in Table 1 provide a more comprehensive picture regarding the trend of
traffic accidents. Beside parameters that show the average number of traffic
accidents there are also parameters which indicate the dispersion of accidents for
this period of time, as well as skewness (degree of asymmetry of a distribution
around its mean.) and kurtosis (measure of flatness of the distribution). Mean of
accidents for this period is 144, while the standard deviation of the total number
of accidents on each year than the average value is 40, which indicates a
significant dispersion of data.
250
199
Number of road accidents
200 183
150 145
145
150
101
100
87
50
0
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
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The data are symmetrically distributed around the mean value because the
degree of asymmetry (skewness) has a zero value. Kurtosis has a value of -1,
which indicates a relatively flat distribution than the normal curve.
If we look the distribution of accidents on each year by hour of day, there
is a certain appearance of extreme values (outliers), but this is a relatively small
sample size, so these values can be misleading. The largest number of accidents
occurs in the morning hour between 8 and 9 am, when people commute to the
work, second interval is between 2 to 5 pm when the typical purpose of the trip
is return back from work, and also there is a pick in the evening at 5pm and 19
pm when people commute because of some kind of social activities or recreation
(Figure 2).
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(1)
where is: i > 0, t 0;
t is a time;
is a distribution parameter.
Distribution function F(t) of the random variable T (the time between two
accidents), is equal to the probability that an accident will occur before the
moment t. This function is also called the function of unreliability. The
distribution function of the time between two accidents on the i-th section
unreliability function of the i-th section is:
F t f t dt e dt 1 e (2)
Using the unreliability function F(t) we introduce the reliability function
R(t), as the probability of a time period without accidents until the moment t.
The reliability function of the i-th section is:
1 (3)
The mean time between two accidents T0 is an important reliability
parameter and it can be obtained as a mathematical expectation of the random
variable T. The mean time between two consecutive accidents on the road is
calculated according to the following form:
(4)
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Table 1. Parameters of the observed road and the corresponding main results of
the time between two accident per section and road, period t = 365 (days)
Observed
Length number of
Section Toi (h)
(km) accidents
(2005-2011)
1 0,333 4 13433,25
2 0,931 17 3584,18
3 33,000 28 2129,57
4 6,639 19 2236,53
5 4,668 0
6 5,491 54 1076,83
7 36,265 83 727,04
8 1,752 12 4673,25
9 19,574 104 584,32
10 15,996 83 730,20
11 15,701 69 887,91
12 1,661 6 4567,25
13 8,622 78 761,97
14 34,030 107 567,40
15 25,520 208 294,26
16 5,296 2 27127,00
17 2,033 5 5256,00
18 1,251 5 8872,80
19 28,672 110 535,87
20 7,678 16 3580,56
road 255,113 1010 58,23
Testing the model on these parameters, main results about the mean time
between two accidents are shown in Table 2.
By comparing the mean time between two accidents we may conclude
that the section 15 is the most dangerous road section, because it has the shortest
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T0 and it is followed by section 19, 14, 9, 7, while the most safety sections
according T0 are 5, 16, 1, 18, 17, 8. On observed road traffic accident happens
every 58,23 hour.
4. DISCUSSION
Most models for traffic frequency analysis are actually count-data models
which counts traffic accidents during some period of time. Duration model
consider the time between crashes, as opposed to the frequency of crashes over
some time period [9]. But it is important to point out that the crash frequency
and time between crashes are obviously interrelated. In this paper we show how
descriptive analysis can be a first part of analysis but if we have the small
sample size for short period of analysis it is not very good for making some deep
conclusions.
If we observe the trend line of traffic accidents for the period 2005-2011
on this road, it could be conclude decreasing trend of the traffic accidents
(Figure 1). In order to perform a quality road safety assessment for this road it is
necessary to find out influence of all possible circumstances that led to this
trend, as well as influence of different traffic safety indicators which are based
on the accidents consequences and relative indicators that take into account the
exposure to traffic accidents.
This paper shows possibility to avoid problems with data and also monitor
the traffic safety on the road network. The mean time between two consecutive
traffic accidents is calculated by formulas of basic principle theory of reliability.
5. CONCLUSION
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This kind of analysis may serve the road authority as a significant tool in
decision making process. For them the main task is to make time between two
consecutive traffic accidents on a road as long as possible. Also, this kind of
model has potential for improving in the future.
REFERENCES
[1]. Global status report on road safety 2013: Supporting a decade of action, World
Health Organization, Geneva, ISBN 978 92 4 156456 4, 2013.
[2]. Global status report on road safety: time for action, Geneva, World Health
Organization, ISBN 978 92 4 156384 0, 2009.
[4]. E., HAUER: On the estimation of the expected number of accidents, Accident
Analysis and Prevention 18 (1), 112, 1986.
[7]. M. ABDEL-ATY, A. PANDE: Crash data analysis: collective vs. individual crash
level approach, Journal of Safety Research 38 (5), 581587, 2007.
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[10]. J. MARTIN: Relationship between crash rate and hourly traffic flow on interurban
motorways, Accident Analysis and Prevention 34 (2002) 619629, 2002.
[16]. E. HAUER, et al.: Screening the road network for sites with promise.
Transportation Research Record 1784, 2732, 2002.
[17]. I.A. USHAKOV, R.A.HARRISON: Handbook of Reliability Engineering. John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, USA, ISBN 0-471-57173-3, 1994.
[18]. B.S.DHILLON: Reliability, Quality, and Safety for Engineers. Boca Raton,
Florida, USA, ISBN 0-8493-3068-8, 2005.
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Ilie Bricicaru, Road safety consulting and advocacy, President of the Association Road
Safety Moldova (SIRUMO), e-mail: ilie.bricicaru@gmail.com
Rezumat
Abstract
This paper presents a systematic study of the road safety situation in the Republic of
Moldova, in the context of Government commissioning the National Strategy for Road
Safety, approved with Decision nr. 1214, from 27th December 2010
(http://lex.justice.md/index.php?action=view&view=doc&lang=1&id=337883), but also an
analyze of the road safety management and of the imposed measures from the Strategy.
Despite all road safety measures implemented by the Government, the roads in the Republic
of Moldova are far from being safe, but on the contrary, the gravity of road accidents has
increased comparing to 2010, the year when the Strategy was adopted. The causes and the
solutions, which can change this trend in a positive way, are presented largely in this paper.
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1. INTRODUCTION
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Only during 2012, over the country were recorded 2712 traffic accidents
in which 441 people died and 3510 were injured. Despite the fact that the
number of accidents and injuries fell by respectively 4.0 and 7.0 percent, the
number of fatalities increased by 4 percent compared to 2010, the year of
adoption of national road safety strategy and taking as reference 2011, in
relation to the stated objective of reducing by 50 percent the number of fatalities,
the situation has worsened (Figure 1).
Figure 1. Fatalities recorded in the years 1993 - 2012 and obtained necessary
trend, according to the objective of reducing fatalities in traffic accidents
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have the desired effect and the injury statistics prove this. Research shows that
only focusing on learning both theoretical and practical is incorrect and World
Report, which emphasized prevention of road trauma [3]. Excessive emphasis
on the role of individual responsibility and declaring unilateral accident
committed to responsible authorities hinders the fulfillment of its
responsibilities.
Collected data on accidents is important in order to have a clear overview
and be aware of the real consequences that imprudent behavior in traffic have.
This information is vital for making an effective long-term strategy to attract the
necessary funds to improve the road safety situation. Unfortunately, we must
recognize that such data are not conclusive in developing countries and
transition due to incomplete recording of information on accidents. The most
likely reasons for this are unprioritising road safety among other areas of the
public authorities, lack of knowledge and the missuderstanding of the
importance of road safety.
At the same time, many drivers and passengers lost their lives due to lack
of extrication equipment. Police, Firefighters and Paramedics do not have the
necessary equipment for effective intervention at the scene. Approximately 80%
of accident victims die within the first hour after the accident due to lack of
proper care after the accident and during the arrival at hospital.
It is necessary to develop and implement global standards for road safety,
recommended practices, emergency response models and integrated
management protocols accident, including relevant training programs for each of
them. Several reports show that it can reduce casualties by 25% through better
functioning road policy.
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Road safety law [7] established competences in managing road safety, but
it must be noted that these technical skills focused more on the level than on the
safety. For example, a very important element as road education basically was
omitted from the law, which has caused great dissension in the administration of
this subject area, and consequently, traffic education and the purpose and the
period of initial training and driver were out of control. The ground that the law
did not establish a Management Authority of the system, driving schools remain
outside of a process state management and road accident statistics have large
gaps in terms of traffic behavior.
Permission authority for the set up of these schools is the Licensing
Chamber and their activity is subject to the Education Law, without having
normative regulatory mechanism. The Ministries of Education and Internal
Affairs, during the last few years have influenced their activity by promoting
government regulation of duplicitous charges.
In the same context the norms to approve the skills to obtain a driving
license and vehicle registration attributed to a state enterprise from the Ministry
of Information and Communications Technology. So we conclude here that in
this respect, there is a major institutional problem, in spite of the fact that the
normative point driving license was regulated under the EU Parliament and
Council Directive no. 126/2006 on driving licenses. In this context, the
authorities which have the power in transport, road infrastructure, traffic
directing and systematizing, have no influence on the initial formation of the
road user behavior.
In the context of road factors, there have been and still are institutional
problems, when in 2008, was liquidated the Ministry of Transport and created
the Transport Agency, responsible for transport, and the powers of road
infrastructure management was awarded to the Ministry of Construction.
In the time being, the Ministry of Transport and Road Infrastructure
comprises the two directions in the field, road maintenance, and other
infrastructure development. Road Maintenance Division structure, which must
be policy infrastructure consists of 6 officers!? In this context, the infrastructure
policies are largely determined by the State Road Administration and the
conclusions are imposed.
For the vehicle factor, there is also an ambiguous situation, when a large
part of the policy functions are part of the work of professional associations like
the International Association of Road Transport (IATA).
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and the result, purpose, required the strategy that is most important, can not be
obtained in indicated terms.
In the same vein, it is even more important a direct agent, strictly
necessary to prepare and approve a set of laws and regulations regarding the
powers of the system, road education, technical standards for roads and road
safety, order and manner of recording and research traffic accidents, traffic
regulation and systematization, road safety audit and prevention in the street,
institutional and technical infrastructure of roads, etc.
5. CONCLUSIONS
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REFERENCES
[3]. Peden, M., Scurfield, R., Sleet D., Mohan, D., Hyder, A.A., Jarawan, E., & Mathers,
C. (2004) (Eds.) The World Report on Road traffic injury prevention World Health
Organization, Geneva.
[6]. WORLD HEALTH ORGANISATION. Risk factors for road traffic injuries
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/road_traffic/activities/roadsafety_trai
ning_manual_unit_2.pdf.
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[9]. UNITED NATIONS. Global Plan for the Decade of ACtion for Road Safety 2011-
2020. http://www.who.int/roadsafety/decade_of_action/plan/en/index.html.
[10]. Hotrrea Guvernului nr. 972/2011 cu privire la aprobarea Planului de aciuni privind
implementarea Strategiei naionale pentru siguran rutier.
http://lex.justice.md/index.php?action=view&view=doc&lang=1&id=341597.
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Florentina Alina Burlacu, PhD Student at Technical University of Civil Engineering Bucharest,
Engineer at S.C. Search Corporation S.R.L., Romania, e-mail: burlacu_alina@yahoo.com
Valentin Anton, Lecturer at the faculty of Roads, Railways and Bridges, Technical University
of Civil Engineering Bucharest, e-mail: vali@cfdp.utcb.ro
Rezumat
Abstract
Traffic safety is a high priority for European Research, since road accident cost is a lot
higher compared to other types of transportation and next to this, road accidents are still one
of the leading causes of death in the world. Different actors play a role in traffic safety: first
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there is the driver, who is stated to be responsible for 80% of the crashes (Klauer et al., 2006);
second, the infrastructure; third, the type of vehicle; and fourth, the interaction between the
previous three actors is a vital factor. Therefore, it is clear that only through an integrated
approach significant results will be achieved.
Accidents are rare events and generally not uniformly or equally distributed over the
road system; they are often clustered at sites, along routes or within areas. Most traffic
accidents may be considered to be random events which depend on time and location. Thus,
the annual accident count at a particular location will vary from year to year, and for a
particular year, the annual accident count will vary from location to location too. That means
that accident counts are subject to both temporal and spatial variations. Some of the accidents
may not be completely random, and so the occurrence of the temporal and spatial variations
can be explained in part by variations in the factors involved in accident occurrence.
In this paper there are presented three spatial analysis techniques (quadrat analysis,
cluster analysis and nearest-neighbor analysis) that are used to detect and identify the three
basic spatial distributions of accidents (i.e. point cluster, line cluster and area cluster
distributions).
The need for this analysis of the spatial distribution of traffic accidents, as an aid to
select the most appropriate type of accident reduction program (e.g. site, route and area plans)
and assessing the effectiveness of such plans after implementation, is very important.
1. INTRODUCTION
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the road network. Such a map is shown in Figure 1. The assessment process is
very subjective and relies heavily on exercising judgment, in order to decide
whether there is an observable dominant pattern and what it is (that is, whether
the accidents are clustered at sites, along roads or within particular parts of the
study area).
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also be used, in order to test whether the selected accident is within a cluster of
accidents. If a high proportion of accident positions appear to be clustered at
sites, then the dominant pattern is a point cluster. This idea was first applied to
accident analysis by Nicholson [1998]. The merit of this method is in testing the
immediate neighborhood to see whether there are other accidents clustered in
the vicinity. Cluster analysis can also be used for analyzing the distances
between accident positions and could be used to investigate the level of point
clustering.
A line cluster means that accidents are spread along a long section of
road. The reason might be the recurring factors that greatly reduce the level of
safety for the traffic using the section of road. For example, an accident can
occur if the view of passing vehicles is blocked to pedestrians by parked
vehicles, or if a parked vehicle exits from the parking space and possibly
collides with a passing vehicle. Here, the common factor is the involvement of
parked vehicles. If any accident factors recur throughout the route, then a
combination of single site and mass action plans may be applied. The
identification of recurring factors for accidents is an important part of this
combination approach. Identifying the recurring factors is somewhat difficult
without identifying which road or section of road is a line cluster. Therefore, if
we identify a line cluster, it may be easier to identify the recurring factors
related to the accidents, which are aggregated to form a line cluster.
The accidents number, which is higher than normal on that type of road or
section of road, are a general indication of a line cluster. These roads are
commonly called hazardous routes. The accidents are spread throughout such
roads or road sections and it is necessary to identify them as a line cluster. The
route might have an equal number of accidents at sites or randomly distributed.
The randomness of accidents along the route could be tested by quadrat analysis,
nearest neighbor or cluster analysis.
The level of line clustering can be estimated by the number of accidents
per unit length. The unit length of road could be used as quadrats and the
quadrat counts could be analyzed using quadrat analysis. If the maximum count
for a road section is above the average, then the road section is generally
considered a hazardous place. The alternative method is to test the directions to
the nearest neighbor events. If the directions to nearest neighbor events are
distributed in a non-uniform manner, then the accidents could be along routes.
Nicholson [1998] tested the nearest neighbor events to see whether the
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Traffic volumes in networks will tend to increase in the longer term and
traffic safety may be threatened, if there is no upgrading works or other
measures (e.g. education or enforcement campaign). Therefore, urban and
suburban road networks should be assessed to establish whether the road
network is safe with increasing travel demand. This could be a part of a
monitoring process to maintain safety objectives and the need to encourage the
traffic to use each part of the road network safely.
In some areas, traffic accidents occur all over the road network, but are
not concentrated at particular sites or along certain roads. The accidents are
scattered sparsely throughout the road network or are concentrated fairly evenly
at sites. This type of accident occurrence can be identified by monitoring the
spatial distribution of accidents.
In general, establishment of a road hierarchy, on the basis of the
movement and access functions, leads to an increased clustering of accidents (or
reduction in the scatter). This is because roads high in the hierarchy (e.g.
arterials) have a greater facility for movement and reduced access facility
compared to the other roads. This leads to an increase in the clustering of traffic
on arterial roads and the associated reduction of traffic on other roads.
The increased traffic flows are likely to lead to an increase in the
clustering of accidents (which are related to flows) on the arterial roads.
The identification of increasing accident dispersion at an early stage will
assist the initiation of appropriate accident reduction measures when
maintenance or minor improvement work is being carried out. IHT (1990) noted
"considerable benefits can be obtained from a slight, inexpensive change or
addition to a maintenance scheme to incorporate accident reduction measures".
One can assess the level of clustering by analyzing the proportions of
locations with accident counts of 0, 1, 2, etc. If the accidents are randomly
distributed between the locations, then the distribution of accident counts will be
approximately Poisson (Cressie, 1993). Hence, as the overall intensity of
accident occurrence increases (i.e. the mean accident count increases), the
variance will also increase, so that the mean and variance are approximately
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equal. This approach does not, however, involve analyzing the spatial
relationships between accidents (i.e. one does not know whether the high count
locations are close to other high count locations or not).
The spatial relationship between accidents can be investigated using
quadrat analysis, the nearest-neighbor method or cluster analysis.
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Cluster analysis can be used for studying and understanding the structure
in data on the characteristics of objects, by grouping the characteristics in a
sensible way according to their level of similarity or dissimilarity. The selection
of the characteristics of objects should be based on the aim of the analysis.
Various techniques for grouping the characteristics of data have been employed
in different disciplines such as sociology, biology, medical sciences, market
research, archaeology and psychology. For analyzing accident clustering, an
important attribute is the distance between the positions of events.
Visual examination may be used in cluster analysis. Two aspects to be
addressed are the time involved in processing and the consistency of results
obtained by different individuals. Cluster analysis techniques have several
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depend on the selection of points. For these reasons, sample events will be used
instead of sample points. The nearest-neighbor analysis studies the distances
and/or directions to neighboring events, and the distance and direction
distributions are discussed separately. The nearest-neighbor distance analysis
discussed in this paper is based on Cressie [1993] and Ripley [1981] and the
nearest-neighbor direction analysis is based on Upton and Fingleton [1989].
The nearest-neighbor analysis involves a sampling process in which the
number of events in each sample is constant. The events within the sample are
investigated to search for evidence of the three basic spatial patterns by
analyzing the nearest-neighbor distance and direction distributions. Each sample
is based on a selected event, which is called the test-location, and the nearest
neighbors are the rest of the events within the selected sample. The distance and
direction distributions of the nearest neighbors within the sample are used to test
for randomness. Hence, the test result depends only on the distribution of events
within the sample. The smaller the spatial range of the sample, the more
localized is the testing.
The test method identifies whether there is a pattern of events within the
sample (i.e. whether the test-location is within a random or clustered space of
nearest neighbor events and whether the neighboring events are located in a
particular direction within the sample space).
The test-locations must be within the roads, because the position of the
test-location influences the test result. If we randomly select events as test-
locations and do not select all the events, then the result of the analysis may vary
according to which events are selected as test-locations. To avoid inconsistency
in the result and the complexity of randomly selecting test-locations, each event
may be selected as a test-location. Different statistical tests are used for
analyzing distance and direction distributions and the accuracy of the test result
depends on the number of nearest-neighbor events.
The nearest-neighbor analysis involves the use of precise information
about the locations of accidents, and the co-ordinates of each location are used
to calculate the distances between events. The method traditionally involved the
analysis of distances (but not directions) to nearest-neighbors. Nicholson [1999]
constructed two sets of distributions and showed that it is worthwhile analyzing
both the distances and directions to nearest-neighbor events.
4. CONCLUSIONS
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REFERENCES
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H. Victor Guu, dr. ing., ef lucrri inginereti INSTITUTUL URBAN PROIECT, profesor
asociat la ICB - FAC. CFDP, director la S.C.MOBILPROIECT S.R.L.
Rezumat
Cuvinte cheie: Dezaxare, nivel serviciu, confort dinamic, derapaj, confort optic,
capacitate.
Abstract
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1. INTRODUCERE
2. ELEMENTE METODOLOGICE
Pentru fiecare din cele patru cazuri de infrastructuri analizate din punct de
vedere structural, funcional i tehnic se prezint mai multe fotografii nsoite de
explicaii.
Criteriile de analiz a cazurilor privesc:
oportunitatea alegerii clasei tehnice pentru arterea n cauz;
elementele geometrice, profilul arterei i respectiv amenajarea interseciilor;
corelarea amplasamentelor drum - pod, trasarea i continuitatea cilor de
acces;
stabilitatea vehiculelor n cazul curbelor cu raz mic situate pe inflexiuni, pe
decliviti accentuate i pante transversale, n condiii de ploaie, mzg, etc.
(cnd aderena pneu/cale este redus);
condiiile de vizibilitate i confort optic ale conductorului auto;
echiparea infrastructurii cu indicatoare de circulaie, marcaje rutiere;
estetica ansamblului drum-pod i ncadrarea n mediul ambiant.
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CAZUL 1 - Foto 1, 2, 3.
DRUM DE LEGTUR
AEROPORT HENRI COAND - DN1 SPRE BUCURETI
Vehiculele spre
Bucureti sunt oprite
la giraia de sub
pasajul DN1 i
formeaz cozi de
ateptare avnd
lungimea de peste 100
- 150 m.
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Racordarea drumului
de la aeroport la DN1
dispune n prezent de
o singur band de
circulaie.
Disfuncionaliti
Nivelul de serviciu la orele de vrf este redus, D/E, datorit drumului
ngust, lipsei prioritii de circulaie, respectiv discontinuitii traficului;
Sigurana circulaiei la nscrierea n profilul DN1 necesit ameliorare
prin prelungirea benzii unu, mbuntirea vizibilitii i mutarea pasarelei
peste DN1;
Aspectul drumului las de dorit i nu reflect caracterul importanei de
poart de intrare spre DN1 i capital.
Concluzie
Drumul trebuie restructurat ca o magistral cu circulaie continu pe dou
benzi (cu limea sporit, de preferin 2 x 4 = 8 m) acordndu-i-se prioritate
fa de traficul local datorit caracterului special.
Sugestii de remediere
Prin integrarea infrastructurii existente se poate realiza o magistral
direcional cu circulaia continu tangent la giraia de sub pasajul DN1,
mobilat i agrementat peisagistic. Banda unu se prelungete corespunztor
lungimii necesare inseriei vehiculelor n DN1 (lungime calculat pe baza
probabilitii frecvenei, apariiei ecarturilor libere dintre vehiculele de pe DN1
care permit inseria n condiii de siguran).
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Infrastructura existent
os. Pipera are ase benzi separate cu zon verde median i aparine
clasei tehnice I
os. Tunari este nemodernizat, are dou benzi i aparine clasei
tehnice III
Pasajul denivelat are 4 benzi carosabile i corespunde clasei tehnice
II. El este n aliniament prevzut cu curbe la capete i are apte deschideri
de cte 18...21 m. fiecare.
Amplasamentul pasajului este decalat fa de aliniamentele ambelor
osele astfel c accesul pe pasaj necesit curbe suplimentare de
racordare. Declivitatea pe pasaj este de circa 5% (mare).
Traficul la ora de vrf depete 2200 Vt i cuprinde cca. 35%
vehicule grele.
Disfuncionaliti
Dezaxarea pasajului fa de drumurile de acces mpreun cu diferenele dintre
profilurile transversale ale arterelor genereaz manevre suplimentare pentru
nscrierea vehiculelor pe pasaj. Aceste manevre mpreun cu efectul declivitii
mari pot favoriza derapajul vehiculelor mai ales pe timp neprielnic.
Concluzie
Importana pasajului justific realizarea unor intervenii pentru ameliorarea
pe ct posibil condiiilor de circulaie.
Sugestii de remediere
Declivitatea pe pasaj se poate reduce prin prelungirea rampelor de acces, iar
accesele pe pasaj se pot mbunti prin ameliorarea razelor de racordare.
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CAZUL 2 - Foto 4, 5, 6.
CIRCULAIA LA PASAJUL OS. PIPERA I TUNARI
PESTE C.F. SPRE CONSTANA
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Ieirea de pe pasaj
spre os. Pipera se
face n curb i
contracurb pe
declivitate accentuat.
Infrastructura existent
Podul - pasaj Grozveti reprezint un important nod de circulaie,
are o structur elegant cu dou arce i tirani precum i patru benzi
carosabile.
Intensitatea traficului depete 3000 Vt/or i este asigurat de
capacitatea mare de circulaie a ansamblului de lucrri aferente pasajului
Basarab - Pod Grozveti.
Amplasamentul podului este decalat fa de ambele direcii de acces,
respectiv dinspre Basarab i dinspre Cotroceni.
Disfuncionaliti
Traseul ntre os. Orhideelor (Regie) - podul Grozveti - Cotroceni
are 5 aliniamente cu racordri insuficiente (trei aliniamente paralele i
decalate, unite cu dou aliniamente oblice) n loc de unul, sau maximum
dou aliniamente legate cu o singur curb.
Accesul pe pod este discontinuu i prezint o inflexiune care const
din:
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CAZUL 3 - Foto 7, 8, 9.
ACCESELE LA PODUL GROZVETI PESTE DMBOVIA
N CONTINUAREA PASAJULUI BASARAB
Dezaxarea dintre
accesul os. Orhideelor
i Podul Grozveti.
Inflexiune n plan
orizontal i n seciune
longitudinal.
Inflexiunea traseului
la ieirea de pe Podul
Grozveti i lipsa
racordrii bordurilor.
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Inflexiune la intrarea
pe Podul Grozveti
dinspre Cotroceni i
deficiene de racodare
a bordurilor.
Infrastructura existent
Artera recent modernizat are patru benzi, este de clasa tehnic II,
traverseaz fluent calea ferat spre Ciulnia pe un pasaj superior i se
racordeaz la Piaa Delfinului limitrof os. Pantelimon. Ea asigur
legtura dintre cartierele Tei, Colentina, Pantelimon, Titan, Balta Alb
precum i dintre autostrzile spre Constana i spre Ploieti.
Intansitatea traficului de cca. 2000 Vt/ora de vrf va crete odat
cu finalizarea accesului autostrzii A3 Ploieti la reeaua stradal din
zon.
Disfuncionaliti
Circulaia se desfoar fluent cu excepia urmtoarelor zone:
- intersecia str. Doamna Ghica cu str. Heliade Intre Vii este
neamenajat, traficul se blocheaz, se produc frecvent
accidente i capacitatea de circulaie este mult redus.
- piaa Delfinului solicitat de traficul local este blocat de
traficul de pe str. Prelungirea Doamna Ghica iar ambuteiajele se
produc n mod frecvent.
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Concluzie
Cele dou intersecii necesit amenajri corespunztoare prelurii
traficului n mod fluent i cu siguran.
Sugestii de remediere
Pentru intersecia Doamna Ghica - Heliade Intre Vii convine adoptarea
undei soluii de intersecie cu giraie.
Pentru piaa Delfinului este necesar un studiu de organizare a circulaiei
cu prioritate pentru traficul aferent str. Doamna Ghica, cu integrarea
infrastructurii existente.
Intersecia os. Colentina cu str. Doamna Ghica va necesita construirea unui
pasaj denivelat cu supratraversarea os Colentina (realizbil dup finalizarea
penetraiei autostrzii A3 Ploieti).
Intersecia dinre
prelungirea Doamna
Ghica i str. Heliade
ntre Vii este
neamenajat ceea ce
favorizeaz producerea
de ambuteiaje i
accidente de circulaie.
Soluia preferabil
pentru amenajarea
interseciei este cu
giraie.
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Prelungirea Str.
Doamna Ghica
necesit racordri
fluente cu strzile
laterale.
Organizarea Pieei
Delfinului necesit un
studiu de circulaie
care s in seama de
prioritatea necesar
traficului de pe
prelungirea str.
Doamna Ghica (ntre
cartierele Colentina -
Pantelimon, etc).
6. CONCLUZII I PROPUNERI
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BIBLIOGRAFIE:
[3]. V. Guu, Tabele pentru trasarea Lemniscatei lui Bernoulli - ESAC 1954
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Gavril Hoda, Confereiar Dr. Ing., Universitatea Tehnic din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea de
Construcii, e-mail: Gavril.HODA@infra.utcluj.ro
Andrei - Florin Clitan, Asistent Dr. Ing., Universitatea Tehnic din Cluj-Napoca, Facultatea
de Construcii, e-mail: Andrei.CLITAN@infra.utcluj.ro
Rezumat
n aceast lucrare sunt prezentate unele aspecte despre modul n care se desfoar n
prezent traficul n Municipiul Cluj-Napoca i n zona imediat alaturat, la intrarea n
municipiu pe DN 1 dinspre Turda, propunnd cteva soluii de mbuntire a circulaiei n
zon i msuri de sporire a siguranei circulaiei.
Abstract
In this paper some aspects about how traffic is currently carried out in Cluj-Napoca
and in the area immediately adjacent to the entrance of the city, ie on Route 1 from Turda, are
presented. In addition the author are proposing some solutions for improving traffic in the
specified area and some measures to enhance traffic safety.
1. NOIUNI INTRODUCTIVE
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2. SITUAIA EXISTENT
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DJ 107 R
Faget
Cluj-N
ap oca
a
Turd DN1/E
E60 60
1/
DN
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3. SOLUTII PROPUSE
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ca
0
o
DN1/E6
j- Na p
Clu
Tu /E6
DN
rda 0
1
g et
Fa 7 R
J 10
D
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Reducere ntrziere
actual propus
Lungimea medie
Lungimea medie
medie (s/veh)
medie (s/veh)
ntrzierea
ntrzierea
a cozii (m)
a cozii (m)
Braul Direcia
(s)
Ciurila 9.4 0.4 9
Turda
Cluj-Napoca 10.4 6 0.1 0 10.3
Cluj-Napoca 6.1 11.1 -5
Ciurila
Turda 1.5 0.1 3.1 0.8 -1.6
Cluj-Napoca 13.5 5.5 8
Cluj-
Turda 14.6 5.3 9.3
Napoca
Ciurila 12.8 13 5.7 0.2 7.1
Total 11.8 4 7.8
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5. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[4]. Normativ pentru amenajarea interseciilor la nivel pe drumuri publice, NP 600/ 2010
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Goran Kos, D Sc, Institute for Tourism, Vrhovec 5, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia,
e-mail: goran.kos@iztzg.hr
Predrag Brlek, M Sc, University of Applied Sciences Nikola Tesla, Bana Ivana Karlovica
16, HR-53000 Gospic, Croatia, e-mail: pbrlek@velegs-nikolatesla.hr
Kristijan Meic, B Sc, Ericsson Nikola Tesla d.d., Krapinska 45, HR-10000 Zagreb, Croatia,
e-mail: kristijan.meic@ericsson.com
Kresimir Vidovic, B Sc, Ericsson Nikola Tesla d.d., Krapinska 45, HR-10000 Zagreb,
Croatia, e-mail: kresimir.vidovic@ericsson.com
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
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The main purpose of the service for the collection and analysis of traffic
and other information relevant to safe traffic is to make mobility safe and
controlled traffic on all sequences.
Intelligent Transportation Systems inform participants about the
upcoming traffic situation, such as tips for drivers or passengers, personal
navigation, congestion on the road, information on incidents or toll. The primary
purpose of the integration of information systems and the traffic itself is to
increase safety of all participants in road traffic.
At the end of the process chain to raise awareness of passengers and / or
drivers of the need for increased road safety is user focused distribution and
visualization of traffic information.
Information systems for traffic management must be capable of adaptive
activity in real time in order to be maximally effective. Good and dynamic
adaptive control of traffic flow reduces the possibility of incidental events that
significantly increases safety on the roads. Such information systems consist of
the following components:
The transmission system (the fiber optic transmission system)
A system for collecting and processing information
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Highway engineers and traffic police generally know of the tendency for
road accidents to cluster together at certain locations, commonly termed
accident black spots. Two common methods for tracking high risk sites are:
List based on accident statistics, a list is drafted indicating concentrations
with the highest frequency of accidents involving injury. The list is then divided
into junctions and road links, the latter specifying the number of accidents
involving injury per kilometer.
Inventory map usually managed by the road owner or road authority, this
is regularly updated map with a record of all accidents. Each new accident is
located on the map with a color pin and the color of the pin varies according to
the seriousness (injury/fatality) of the accident. This provides a quick way to
visualize the most dangerous spots and sections of roads.
In the context of traffic management, an accident cluster is a group of
clustered data points which are indicative of high accident locations. Accident
clusters are used to present a group of geospatially organized traffic data based
on traffic accident dataset. The main part of an accident cluster is based on
historic traffic accident reports collected through defined time period. The
cluster is constantly updated with new reports which are collected using the
semantic web. It searches specified web sites which announces new traffic
accidents daily and collects needed data; street address, accident description and
type. The cluster is being updated with new data, latitude and longitude are
matched and map is refreshed.
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Figure 2. Accident cluster presented using heat map for the City of Zagreb
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1) The driver does not recognize clearly enough the road extension
perspective, does not slow down and is a potential, or sometimes even the actual
cause of the accident
2) The driver does not recognize, or does not recognize soon enough, a
traffic priority situation at the crossroads, which causes an accident due to
disrespecting of the right way, passing through the red light or sudden braking
3) Insufficient perceptibility of a moving vehicle (with bad or no lights at all,
at night, at sunset, but also during the day), and various obstacles between a
vehicle and a pedestrian.
Up to now, this problem has been solved with the use of mathematical,
graphic, field and photographic method. The new sanation method, using geo-
referenced video, lowers field costs, increases accuracy and raises safety.
To obtain the right information on a possible relationship between the
driver and his environment, it is necessary to take video movie with GPS
coordinates of the danger spot according to the prepared plan. A detailed
analysis of the area outlook and the road environment from drivers point of
view, point at the possible perception defects, which prevent the driver from
realizing a danger on the road clearly and on time. Modern computer technology
theoretically enables simulation of the roads outlook and its environment from
the drivers point of view, based on the data gathered from the road project
documentation.
Analysis of video, from various distances on accesses to the danger spot,
from drivers point of view, provides the opportunity for impartial judgment on
some or most of the probable causes of an accident.
These methods helped improve eight extremely dangerous spots on the
main road network in Croatia. The improvements needed to make an entire road
network or hazardous site safer often cost little but can result in huge benefits in
terms of reduced incidence of road crash and injury. The injured rate and the
total number of accidents were reduced by 30 - 70%.
5. CONCLUSION
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REFERENCES
[4]. C HECHT, K HEINIG: A map based accident hot spot warning application. Concept
from the MAPS&ADAS vertical subproject of the 6FP integrated project PReVENT.
2006
[6]. J. MILLER HARVEY, Shaw Shih LUNG: Geographic Information Systems for
Transportation. Oxford University Press, 2001
[7]. P BRLEK: Methods of central projection of traffic signs on the roads. Master Thesis,
Faculty of Traffic Sciences, Zagreb, 2004.
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Gabriela Mitran, Inginer de trafic, Dr. ing., S.C. Search Corporation Ltd.,
e-mail: gabriela.mitran@searchltd.ro
Sorin Ilie, ef lucrri dr. ing., Universitatea din Piteti, Facultatea de Mecanic i Tehnologie,
Departamentul Autovehicule i Transporturi, e-mail: sorin.ilie@upit.ro
Rezumat
Abstract
In this paperwork the authors have estimated the level of service provided by the
public transport service operating in Pitesti Municipality in terms of compliance with traffic
program published by the public transport operator, in peak traffic periods, in the main points
of embarkation / disembarkation of passengers. After recording and processing of data, it was
observed that in most cases, the level of service related to the analyzed parameter is F, which
means that for traveling public is offered a poor quality public transport service.
1. INTRODUCERE
Calitatea este atributul cel mai sintetic, mai esential si mai cuprinzator
pentru evaluarea performanele unui sistem de transport. Aceasta constituie
totalitatea atributelor unui produs/ serviciu care ofer maximum de satisfacie
utilizatorilor. n domeniul transportului public de cltori calitatea se reflectat
prin percepia cltorilor asupra performanelor serviciului de transport oferit.
Indicatorii specifici performanelor serviciului care descriu aceste percepii sunt
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3. REZULTATE I CONCLUZII
100% A
C
Proporia vehiculelor sosite la timp
D D
80% F F
F
60%
F
40%
20%
0%
Intevalul orar
Figura 3. Nivelul de serviciu al transportului public - Linia 2.
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100%
Proporia vehiculelor sosite la timp
80%
F F F
60% F F
F
40%
20% F
F
0%
Intevalul orar
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[4]. http://www.publitrans2000.ro/
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Rezumat
Abstract
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identifying the appropriate measures for road safety enhancement. In this paper we will
present part of research developed on road safety, specific for urban area and peculiar to
Bucharest City. Our proposed goal is to develop a set of functions for estimating, on a given
network, with specified traffic intensity and structure, zones with high risk of road accident.
The first part of the paper will describe principles applied in urban transport network
modeling for traffic flow simulation. In order to obtain the urban road network on
macroscopic level, a codification convention will be established starting from digital model of
urban area, which includes streets model, with major and minor junctions and street sections
classified according to their capacity and functionality. The resulted macroscopic model will
be basis of estimating of safety performance based on physical characteristics of network,
traffic intensity and recorded data on road accidents.
In road safety studies, the definition of indicators for safety performance aims,
generally, to quantify the parameters which contribute to accident occurring and variables
which influence the accident risk and to describe the traffic structure in periods when accident
are recorded. In the second part of the paper we will present a set of function for estimating of
safety performance, adapted for urban network.
Key words: road safety, indicator for road safety, urban transport network modeling
1. INTRODUCERE
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40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Nr.accidenterutiere Nr.persoaneranite
Nr.victimenaccidenterutiere Nr.victimenaccidenterutierenorae
n anul 2009, peste 68% din victimele accidentelor rutiere din Romnia au
fost nregistrate n evenimente produse n zone urbane (DaCoTa, 2011), din care
48% au fost pietoni. n Bucureti, ora n care este concentrat aproximativ 10%
din populaia rii, numrul accidentelor rutiere, dei a nregistrat o scdere f
de anul 2008 (Figura 2), rmne semnificativ.
Situaia accidentelor rutiere din Romnia, prezentat n graficele
anterioare, accentueaz faptul c sunt necesare cercetri pentru identificarea
msurilor care s conduc la ameliorarea siguranei rutiere. n acest cadru, a fost
iniiat proiectul Cercetri pentru estimarea i creterea performanelor de
siguran intrinsec a reelelor traficului urban (SAFENET). Tema acestui
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7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
Nr.accidente Nr.persoaneaccidentate
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a. reea urban
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Vitez
[km/h]
Debit
[veh/h]
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2
DRAG: Demande Routiere des Accidents et leur Gravite
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neacordare prioritate
pietoni neacordare prioritate
3 - 5 accidente vehicule
6 - 10 accidente 3 - 10 accidente
traversari pietonale neregulamentare 11 - 15 accidente
3 - 5 accidente viteza neadaptata la conditiile de circulatie
6 - 10 accidente nerespectare semnal semafor
nerespectare distnata dintre vehicule
4. CONCLUZII
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Aceast lucrare include cercetri realizate n cadrul proiectului Cercetri pentru estimarea
i creterea performanelor de siguran intrinsec a reelelor traficului urban, prin
programul Parteneriate n domenii prioritare PN II, derulat cu sprijinul ANCS, CNDI
UEFISCDI, contract nr. 193/2012.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2]. CARE (EU road accidents database), European Commission - Directorate General
Energy and Transport,
http://ec.europa.eu/transport/road_safety/specialist/statistics/index_en.htm
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[9]. A.S. HAKKERT, V. GITELMAN, M.A. VIS (Eds.): Road Safety Performance
Indicators: Theory, Deliverable D3.6 of the EU FP6 Project SafetyNet, 2007;
[17]. M.A. VIS (Ed.): Methodology Safety Performance Indicators, Deliverable D3.1:
State of the art Report on Road Safety Performance Indicators, EU FP6 project
SafetyNet, 2005;
[18]. M.A. VIS, A.L. VAN GENT (Eds.):Road Safety Performance Indicators: Country
Comparisons, Deliverable D3.7a of the EU FP6 Project SafetyNet, 2007.
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Rezumat
n condiiile n care intensitatea traficului rutier crete ntr-un mod alert, sigurana
circulaiei rutiere devine o preocupare major. Un rol important n acest domeniu revine
semnalizrii rutiere, n spea realizrii unui marcaj rutier durabil i de calitate.
Dup o expunere general a tipurilor de marcaje rutiere, a materialelor utilizate i a
cerinelor legislaiei europene n domeniu, lucrarea de faa prezint o serie de factori i
condiii ce pot influena performana produselor de marcaj rutier.
Sunt expuse de asemenea aspecte concrete privind reglementarea tehnic a produselor
introduse pe pia, echipamente utilizate pentru ncercrile specifice i rezultate nregistrate pe
teren pe diferite tipuri de materiale de marcaj, comparate cu criteriile de performan impuse.
Abstract
In the event of racing up the intensity of road service, road traffic safety becomes a
major concern. An important role in this area is road traffic signal, namely achieving a
sustainable and high quality road marking.
After a general characterization of the types of road markings, materials used and
requirements of European legislation in the field, the paper presents some parameters and
conditions that may influence performance of road marking products.
Also are presented specific aspects of technical regulation of products placed on the
market, equipment used for specific tests and recorded results in the field on different types of
marking materials, compared with the performance criteria imposed.
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a) b) c)
Figura 1. Marcaj rutier realizat cu diferite materiale: a.vopsea b.termoplastic c.
preformate
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Se prezint sub form de blocuri, granule sau pudr. Prin nclzire sunt
aduse n stare topit i apoi aplicate prin mijloace manuale sau mecanice. Prin
rcire acestea formeaz un film coeziv. Produsele termoplastice se aplic
la temperaturi cuprinse ntre 180oC i 200oC, la grosimi ntre 2000 4000 m,
pe suprafee bituminoase noi sau vechi, fr degradri, iar pe beton de ciment
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prin mijlocul unui dispozitiv adecvat. Dup aplicare, acestea formeaz o pelicul
a carei coeziune este asigurat n exclusivitate printr-o reacie chimic. n mod
frecvent se utilizeaz amestecul n doi componeni astfel:
produsul A, fabricat pe baza de rain metilmetacrilat(MMA) - reactiv
produsul B - catalizator
Acestea se amestec n momentul aplicrii. Retroreflexia este asigurat de
microbilele din sticl care se aplic pe suprafaa marcajului. Au o durat de
exploatare normal de 2 ani. Pot fi de culoare alba sau alte culori la cerere.
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3.1. Culoare
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3.5.Aderen
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S2 SRT 50
S3 SRT 55
S4 SRT 60
S5 SRT 65
Clasa S0 se utilizeaz cnd valoarea SRT nu poate fi msurat.
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6. EXPERIENA PROPRIE
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6. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Rezumat
Este bine cunoscut faptul c traficul din zona pasajelor subterane i a tunelurilor din
Bucureti nu se desfoar n condiii de siguran, fluen i confort. Problemele principale
constau n: detectarea incidentelor (situaii neprevzute ce pot aprea n pasaj precum
accidente rutiere, incendii, prezena accidental a unor obiecte de dimensiuni mari pe
suprafaa carosabil, cozi de vehicule ce se deplaseaz cu vitez redus, lucrri de ntreinere),
informarea i devierea ctre alte rute pentru conductorii auto ce doresc traversarea pasajului,
informaii actuale despre limita de vitez, existena poleiului, viteze de deplasare sczute
datorit unui nivel de serviciu inferior, permisiunea de a folosi pasajul.
Pentru creterea fluenei i a siguranei rutiere n zona adiacent ct i n interiorul
pasajelor din Bucureti, s-a propus o serie de msuri pentru reconfigurarea amenajrii unor
anumite pasaje subterane. Aceast reconfigurare se va realiza prin implementarea unui sistem
inteligent de management al traficului, echipamente nsoite de aplicaii software adecvate i
personal calificat.
Sistemele Inteligente de Transport (ITS), altfel intitulate sisteme telematice pentru
transporturi, includ o gam larg de instrumente i servicii derivate de la tehnologiile
informaiei i comunicaiilor. Aceste sisteme au potenialul de a furniza beneficii
semnificative legate de eficiena operaional, calitatea serviciilor, managementul
infrastructurii i n acelai timp pentru mbuntirea siguranei i a serviciilor de informare
pentru utilizatori, ct i reducerea impactului asupra mediului nconjurtor.
Lucrarea de fa prezint un sistem de management al incidentelor i a strii
funcionale a pasajelor urbane de lungime mic/medie folosind sisteme ITS. Prin acest sistem
se dorete creterea fluenei, a siguranei circulaiei rutiere i a confortului participanilor la
trafic n zona adiacent, precum i n interiorul pasajelor.
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Abstract
It is well known the fact that the traffic in the area of lower passages and tunnels in
Bucharest is not carried out in conditions of safety, fluency and comfort. The main problems
are: the detection of incidents (situations that can occur in the passage, such as accidents, fire,
the accidental presence of different large objects on the roadway, queues of vehicles traveling
the passage at low speeds, maintenance works), information and diversion to other routes in
advance for vehicle drivers that pass the passage, in time information about speed limit, the
existence of glazed frost, low speed traffic from downstream because of a reduced level of
service, the permission to access the passage.
In order to increase fluency and traffic safety in the adjacent area and inside the
passages from Bucharest, we proposed a series of measures to reconfigure the arrangement of
a certain list of underground passages. This reconfiguration will be made by providing
intelligent management systems, equipment accompanied by appropriate software application
and reference.
Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS), otherwise called for transport telematic systems,
include a wide range of tools and services derived from information and communication
technologies. These systems have the potential to provide significant benefits related to
operational efficiency, service quality, infrastructure management, and at the same time
improving safety, reduce environmental impact and information services to users.
This paper presents a management system for incident and functional status of small /
medium urban passages using ITS systems. Through this system we want to increase the
fluency, the traffic safety and the comfort of road users in the vicinity and inside passages.
1. INTRODUCERE
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Figura 2. Situaia actual pentru accesul n pasajul Obor dinspre B-dul tefan
cel Mare
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3. PROPUNERI DE ECHIPARE
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4. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Adrian Adler, Project Manager, Joint Venture ASTALDI SPA MAX BOEGL ROMANIA
SRL Cernavod, e-mail: agadea@ro.max-boegl.com
Rezumat
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to offer the reader a general description of the works for
the construction of the highway segment Cernavod Medgidia, part of the project financed
by the European Community for the Construction of Bucharest Constana Highway. The
contract was Design and Build type, following the model from Yellow Book FIDIC, for
which the design and also the construction were in the task of the Joint Venture. The work is
about the design and the construction of a segment of A2 Highway Bucharest Constanta,
more precisely Lot 6, Cernavoda Medgidia, for a distance of 20,491 km (from km 151+300
to km 171+791), with 2 viaducts and 29 culverts. This highway completes the connection
between the capital Bucharest and the city Constanta, facilitating the exchange of commercial
traffic, domestic and international. In addition, the highway provides direct, convenient and
quick access to tourist resorts near the Black Sea.
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1. INTRODUCERE
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3. PROIECTARE
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4. LUCRRILE
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4.2. Terasamentele
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4.3. Viaductele
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4.5. Suprastructur
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4.6. Finisajele
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6. CONCLUZII
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Abstract
The method which is standardized in Romania for the calculation of the flexible and
semi-rigid road pavements was enforced in the year 2001, in the same time with replacing the
semi-theoretical adopted in 1977 (based on the adaptation of the Ivanov method to the
conditions in Romania) with a theoretical method based on the calculation of the stress and
strain condition in the adequately modeled road pavement.
In the period since the enforcing of the method, the authors have found a series of
elements that need to be taken into account to improve the calculations used in the present
dimensioning method. Firstly, it is about the improvement of calculation program (at present
it is allowed to model the resistance structure in up to five layers; they are considered to work
perfectly linked together), and secondly, about the correction of the deformability
characteristics of the materials in the road layers stipulated by the method, with the help of the
results obtained by different research teams using the new types of materials used in the
Romanian road field during the last ten years.
To this purpose, it is mentioned that the calculation method does not require
deformability characteristics for the road materials obtained through in situ recycling with
bituminous emulsion, cement, foamed bitumen of mixed binders, while this type of
technologies has lately known a continuous development. Also, as far as bituminous layers
are concerned, a more often use of asphalt mixtures with modified bitumen or stabilized with
fibers is noticed, while their deformability characteristics are not specified by the calculation
method.
1. GENERAL REMARKS
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layers, out of which one semi-infinite (the foundation ground). In many cases it
results in the necessity of equating two or several layers made up of the same
type of material (usually the bituminous layers) in a single one with an
equivalent elasticity module.
The foundation ground and the component materials of each road layer
are defined through their strain characteristics (dynamic elasticity modulus and
Poissons modulus), as well as through the thickness of the layers in the road
pavement. The strain characteristics are usually given in a table without
allowing the use of dynamic elasticity modules determined in the laboratory on
certain composite materials. Moreover, the dimensioning method does not
contain the strain characteristics of materials newly and largely applied in the
Romanian road technique during the last 1520 years (asphalt mixtures with
modified bitumen or/and stabilized with fibers, road layers obtained through
cold recycling with hydraulic binders or/and foamed bitumen, etc.).
The calculation principle is the same both for flexible and for semi-rigid
road pavements, with the remark that for each group of layers that can take over
tensile tensions realized by the same type of material, their fatigue cracking
must be prevented during operation [5]. The model adopted by the present
Romanian method implies that all the layers of the road complex work without
sliding (total of partial) on each other. Thus, the verification of the behavior
under stress of the two types of road pavements considered consists in meeting
the following criteria (figure.1):
specific tensile deformation at the bottom of the bituminous layers (r) must
be lower or at least equal with the admissible one;
the specific compression deformation at the formation level (z) must be
lower or at least equal to the admissible one;
the tensile tension at the bottom of the layer (layers) in natural aggregates
stabilized with hydraulic or puzzolanic binders (r) must be lower or at least
equal to the admissible one.
The calculation traffic is given by the total number of 115 kN standard
axles, with double wheels, which stress the road complex on its entire designed
life span (regularly 1015 years).
The used calculation program with finite elements is called CALDEROM
2000 and it does not offer a conversational working regime or the possibility to
come back to an anterior stage of the calculation, respectively it does not allow
the storage and comparison of several calculation variants. The results
concerning the state of tensions and strains in the massif taken into consideration
are supplied to the user, for the specified depths considered (bottom of the layer
or of the group of layers which checks according to figure. 1), in a separate file.
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Starting from their quality of designers, the authors consider that the
Romanian method for dimensioning flexible and semi-rigid road pavements
needs to be improved in what concerns the modeling of the road complex, by:
increasing the number of layers in the multi-layer model (for example to
seven layers, including the semi-infinite massif), in which case the calculation in
the elastic field could be realized, for classical road pavements, without using in
calculation an equivalent dynamic elasticity;
the diversification of the possibilities of calculation and verification of the
tension and strain condition In the multi-layer massif, accepting a perfect,
imperfect (50% with sliding) or detached link for two consecutive layers. This
calculation facility allows a more exact highlight of the modality in which a road
pavement can lose its stability and resistance before the end of the designed
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lifespan. For example, the French literature [2] shows that for a certain
calculated road pavement to support a certain traffic for 15 years, the lifespan
can be reduced to six months for the same operation conditions, if all the
cohesive layers of the resistance structure work detached;
ensuring the possibility to calculate a road complex under different types of
vertical stress, equated by circular surfaces on which a uniformly distributed and
static pressure is applied, including the overlapping of the effects of different
stresses. It aims at following the possibility of calculating the resistance
structure for different types of axles or vehicles, or ensemble of different axles
and vehicles. It aims at ensuring the possibilities of calculation of resistance
structures for parking platforms, industrial roads, etc. on which outsize vehicles
pass or even airport resistance structures;
the calculation program should allow an iterative and conversational design
work, with the possibility of coming back to a certain anterior stage of
calculation and of modifying certain parameters within that stage. Also, the
possibility of memorizing, for comparison, two or more variants of resistance
structure for the given conditions would be in the benefic of the design
engineers;
introducing in the calculation program a part of economic assessment could
bring benefits in highlighting, in this design stage, the technical solution
implying minimum execution costs;
accepting the calculation of the resistance structure for different traffic
values, choosing the accepted risk for the realized dimensioning. It will be
useful for the designer if the soft informs him, in the case of a certain unfulfilled
dimensioning criterion, up to what traffic value the respective criterion is
verified;
unfolding of the calculations concerning the verification of the admissibility
of dimensioning criteria automatically considered, highlighting the values of
tensions and specific strains calculation and admissible) and the unfulfilled
criteria. For each unfulfilled criterion it is useful to warn the designer on his
future working possibilities;
ensuring the freezing-thawing checking of the calculated resistance structure,
starting from the type of soil at the formation level and from the materials in the
layers of the resistance structure;
attaching the dimensioning method to a type catalogue of road pavements,
for different values of the calculation traffic. The designer will be offered the
possibility to choose from the beginning a resistance structure adapted to the
traffic and the type of foundation ground, as well as to the region where the road
is going to be built (climatic type, hydrologic regime, local materials, applicable
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Starting from the technical road realities and the research realized lately
by several Romanian specialists, we further present some of the observations to
be taken into account in order to bring up to date the Romanian method of
dimensioning flexible and semi-rigid pavements.
Firstly, it has been noticed that in the Romanian road technique the use of
in situ techniques of stabilizing old road layers or even local stone materials
increased. A large range of binders is used (hydraulic binders, bituminous
binders such as bituminous emulsion or foamed bitumen, hydraulic binders +
foamed bitumen, etc.), without treating those materials in the present
dimensioning method. Consequently, the designers do not have access to the
value of the dynamic elasticity modulus and of the Poissons coefficient,
required by the calculations. These values are either approximated or taken from
the specialized foreign literature.
The studies and research realized by the authors allowed the formulation
of several conclusions which are to be compared to the results of other studies
performed in Romania [1]:
the elasticity modulus of the material obtained through in situ recycling with
hydraulic binders of old layers contaminated with clay can be 6.00010.000
MPa, while for proper stone materials this value can reach 10.00020.000
MPa. The Poissons coefficient accepted by the specialists would be 0,25;
the rigidity modulus of a material obtained through in situ recycling with
bituminous binders of an old stone material from old layers can be
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Figure. 2. Rigidity modulus at IT-CY depending on the bitumen and ash content
for B.A. 16 asphalt mixture.
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The determination of the rigidity modulus for all the samples showed that
these are all very susceptible to variations of temperature. From the point of
view of the correlation between the thermal characteristics and the values of the
rigidity modulus, it can be concluded that these have a favorable influence in
foreseeing the temperatures at which they are subjected. The higher the resulting
specific temperature, the lower is the rigidity modulus. The asphalt mixtures
containing flying ash by total or partial replacement of the filler lose their
rigidity harder at higher temperatures than the asphalt mixtures with filler only.
More precisely, concerning the above statement, the value of the rigidity
modulus for B.A.16 asphalt concrete with 0 % ash and testing temperature of
15 C, respectively the value of the modulus for B.A.16 asphalt concrete with
7 % ash and testing temperature of 25 C, both having the same bitumen
content, is approximately equal.
Certainly the values mentioned above should be correlated nationwide, in
order to determine the calculation values and those of the dynamic elasticity
modules. It is also required to complete the standard dimensioning method with
the values of the strain characteristics of all the materials used in the Romanian
road technique.
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15 C 15 C - 20 C 15 C - 25 C
60
50
40
Percentage [%]
30
20
10
-10
4,0 4,5 5,0 5,5 6,0 6,5 7,0
Bitumen depending in ash percentage [%]
4. CONCLUSIONS
The paper aims at being a first call for the Romanian specialists interested
by the calculation of road resistance structures, to join their knowledge and
results in order to improve the present method of calculation for flexible and
semi-rigid road pavements.
On the other hand, the authors are aware of the fact that the only few
proposals mentioned above cannot be adopted immediately or one-sidedly, they
must be the subject of a national consultation and consensus of road specialists.
We also consider that a disunited activity of the specialists in this field
cannot lead to positive results or to promoting alterations resulting in the radical
improvement of the dimensioning method. We estimate that the coagulation of
the interests in this field around a nationwide research theme involving the
technical universities and the research institutes can lead to obtaining the results
sought after by the specialists.
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REFERENCES
[2]. CYNA, M., OSSOLA F.M. et.al. Les mulsions de bitume. Paris, Editeur Revue
gnrale des route et des arodromes, 2006.
[3]. MARC, P. Design and realization of highly performant road pavements. Ph.D.
Thesis, Timioara 2011.
[4]. *** - SR EN 12697-26/2004. Asphalt mixtures. Testing methods for hot asphalt
mixtures. Section 26: Rigidity.
[5]. *** - Standard for the dimensioning of flexible and semi-rigid road pavements
(analytic method). Indicative PD 177-2001.
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Rezumat
Structura rutier, pe parcursul unui an, trece prin trei faze de comportare, innd
seama doar de factorii climatici coroborat cu aciunea apei fie sub form lichid fie sub
form solid.
Astfel, se ncepe cu perioada de var cnd temperaturile n timpul zilei sunt ridicate,
apoi urmeaz toamna i primvara cnd apa joac un rol foarte important asupra terenului
de fundare i ciclul se ncheie cu perioada de iarn, cnd structura rutier este ngheat.
Avnd n vedere aceste modificri sezoniere, lucrarea i propune s analizeze
comportarea unei structuri rutiere suple pe parcursul unui an prin studierea variaiei strii
de tensiuni i deformaii.
Abstract
The pavemet structure, during a year, passes through three behavior phases, taking
into account only the climatic factors in conjunction with the action of water either in liquid
form or in solid form.
Thus, it begins with the summer period when temperatures are high during the day,
followed by autumn and spring when water plays a very important role on the subgrade and
the cycle ends with the winter period when the pavement structure is frozen.
Considering these seasonal changes, the paper aims to analyze the behavior of flexible
pavement structures during a year by studying the variation of the stress and strain state.
Keywords: stress and strain state, flexible pavement structure, exploitation conditions
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1. INTRODUCERE
2. MODELAREA PE CALCULATOR
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3. REZULTATELE STUDIULUI
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4. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[3]. ***, LCPC - Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chaussees, Aliz, Logiciel de calcul
des contraintes et deformations dans un milieu multi-couches elastique lineaire
applique aux structures de chaussees, Hugues Odon, novembre 1991.
[4]. D.M. BURMISTER, The theory of the stress and displacements in layered systems
and applications of design of airport runway, Proceeding of the Highway Research
Board, 23, pp. 126-148, 1943.
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Tamara Dambas, Assistant, MCE, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Fra
Andrije Kaia-Mioia 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, e-mail: tdzambas@grad.hr
Saa Ahac, Sc. novice, MCE, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Fra Andrije
Kaia-Mioia 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, e-mail: sahac@grad.hr
Vesna Dragevi, Prof., PhdCE, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Fra
Andrije Kaia-Mioia 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, e-mail: vesnad@grad.hr
Abstract
1. INTRODUCTION
Considering the fact that drivers receive 95% of all information from the
environment by sense of sight and that the lack of visibility is direct or indirect
cause of almost 40% of all traffic accidents on suburban roads [1], it can be
stated with certainty that a significant role in road design belongs to sight
distance testing. In this paper stopping sight distance on horizontal curves was
observed. This important safety factor is ensured by removing all obstacles from
visibility field on the inside of a horizontal curve; traffic noise protection
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barriers are no exception. Barriers are often placed at minimum distance from
carriageway edge of existing roads while additional visibility testing in most
cases is not carried out.
In order to increase road traffic safety with simultaneous implementation
of noise protection, necessary to improve the life quality of residents in the
vicinity of roads, tests described in this paper were carried out. Sight distance
testing was conducted by specialized road design software MX Road, and
barrier optimization by specialized noise prediction software LimA. Tests were
performed on eight road models with different curve deflection angles - from
20 to 90.
Pz2
b [m] (1)
8R
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Table 1. Values of sight distance elements for driving speed 30-120 km/h
Vr [km/h] 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
Rmin [m] 25 45 75 120 175 250 350 450 600 750
Pz [m] 25 35 50 70 90 120 150 190 230 280
b [m] 2.9 3.6 4.3 5.1 6.0 7.1 8.3 9.9 11.3 13.3
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explained as follows. Straight expansion path of sound wave that spreads from
noise source to receiver is changed by placing barrier between them (Fig. 2).
Depending on barrier characteristics, some of the sound waves are reflected,
some are absorbed, part is transmitted, and at the barrier top diffraction occurs.
With increase of the diffraction angle (angle between direct and diffracted sound
wave shown at Figure 2) i.e. decrease of the distance from noise source, the
energy of the diffracted wave is also decreased, and barrier is more efficient.
This research refers to the examination of whether barrier shifting from
minimum distance from carriageway edge for amount of required sight distance
width has influence on its efficiency apropos optimized dimensions.
3. VISIBILITY TESTING
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beside the road, MX Road determines cross sections with unfulfilled sight
distance.
Visibility tests were performed on eight horizontal curves with the same
(minimum) radii, but different curve deflection angles - from 20 to 90, with
angle interval of 10 (Fig. 3). In order to simplify the road models, surrounding
terrain was designed as flat surface, and roads were situated on 2 meter high
embankment. Design speed of 80 km/h was presumed, which resulted in
required sight distance length of 120 meters, required minimum radius of 250 m,
transition length of 60 m, and cross section elements as shown in Figure 4. All
analysed road models have longitudinal grade of 0%, and cross section grade of
2.5% in straight sections i.e. 7% in curve sections.
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For all road models following input data was applied. Noise source is
defined as line source positioned 0.5 m above driving surface in road axis. Road
is described as regional with AADT value 7000, 10% of heavy vehicles and
driving speed of 80 km/h.
Determination of barrier dimensions by optimization procedure is
performed by locating of control receptor and by setting barrier parameters and
initial location. In this research, control receptor was positioned at 25 meters
from noise source at the inner side of a curve (Fig. 7). According to [5], noise
levels used to optimize noise barriers are: 65 dB(A) for day and evening period
(day 07-19 h, evening 19-23 h) and 50 dB(A) for night period (night 23-07 h).
Barrier was erected 200 m along the road at a distance of 1.5 m from
carriageway edge i.e. in visibility envelope. It consists of 4 m long and up to 5 m
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high elements sorted in 20 m long groups of same height (Fig. 8). Height
increment between groups is 0.5 m.
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5. CONCLUSIONS
Considering the fact that visibility is one of the most essential factors of
road traffic safety, stopping sight distance at all road sections must be ensured;
this also applies to sections with noise protection barriers. Lack of visibility is
not an issue at new roads where noise barriers are planned and erected in
accordance with road project that includes visibility testing and determination of
land expropriation width. Problems can emerge at the existing roads, especially
those placed in low profile embankments, where area for road construction is
already redeemed and barrier placement to the outer edge of the visibility field is
often not possible.
The main goal of the research presented in this paper was to establish if
required stopping sight distance in road curves with minimum radius can be
achieved when noise protection barrier is placed at minimum distance from
carriageway edge. Another goal was to determine whether the barrier
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displacement to the outer edge of the visibility field on the inside of a curve, that
should be conducted in order to achieve minimum required visibility, has any
influence on its optimized dimensions.
Visibility test results showed that required stopping sight distance with
barrier placed at minimum distance from carriageway edge isnt achieved on
any of eight testing models; and secondly that visibility is reduced with
increasing deflection angle value. Barrier optimization results showed that
barrier distancing from carriageway edge has minor impact on its optimized
dimensions.
Based on these results it can be concluded that ensuring the visibility in
horizontal road curves has negligible influence on the efficiency of noise
protection barriers i.e. on barrier construction costs. If barrier is placed at
minimum distance from carriageway edge (mostly due to described problem
with existing roads), additional visibility testing must be carried out and driving
speed should be limited to values where required stopping sight distance is
ensured. In accordance with that, driving speed presumed in this research should
be decreased for approximately 38%. Tests performed in this research should be
carried out on a larger number of models with different input parameters in
order to show whether conclusions obtained in this paper can be applicable to all
cases, or just on particular testing model.
REFERNCES
[1]. LJ. IMUNOVI: Road visibility, Faculty of Transport and Traffic Engineering,
Zagreb, 2011.
[3]. Regulations about basic terms that public suburban roads and their elements must
comply from traffic safety aspects, Official Gazette 110/2001.
[5]. Regulations about highest noise levels in territory where people live and work,
Official Gazette 145/2004.
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Rezumat
Tilos este un produs software realizat de compania Linear Project GmbH pentru
planificarea i managementul proiectelor liniare precum drumuri, construcia i mentenana de
ci ferate, conducte i tuneluri, sau orice alte lucrri de construcii care implic activiti
repetitive.
Planificarea liniar este o modalitate unic de alocare i distribuire a resurselor, cu
ajutorul unei simple reprezentri grafice a interaciunii timp-locaie.
Planificarea este ilustrat n grafice bi-dimensionale cu factorul timp reprezentat pe o
axa, iar locaia geografic pe cealalt, astfel nct pe parcursul lucrrilor s se poat urmri ce
trebuie executat n fiecare locaie i n ce interval de timp.
Spre deosebire de graficele Gantt, Tilos prezint un mare avantaj prin realizarea
conexiunii vizuale ntre planificarea proiectului i proiectul n sine.
Diagrama micrilor de pmnt pentru lucrri de terasamente, este o funcie complet
nou introdus n versiunea 8 i extrem de util n faza de ofertare sau participare la o licitaie
pentru stabilirea modului de compensare a terasamentelor.
Tilos ofer acum o vedere de ansamblu a cantitilor de pmnt transportate i a
distanelor pe care se transport cantitile respective. Sunt definite zonele de sptur i cele
de umplutur, camerele de depozitare i cele de mprumut, cu posibilitatea de a preciza i
categoriile de teren. Activitile corespunztoare lucrrilor de excavaie i umplutur sunt
generate automat pe baza informaiilor referitoare la cantitile transportate i distanele pe
care acestea vor fi transportate. Durata acestor activiti va fi determinat de randamentul
calculat funcie de resursele alocate, volumul lucrrilor fiind preluat din diagram.
n baza acelorai informaii, poate fi generat i graficul cantitilor excavate
comparativ cu cele folosite pentru realizarea straturilor de umplutur, urmrind modul n care
aceste cantiti se compenseaz.
Abstract
Tilos is a linear planning and scheduling software conceived by the German company
Linear project GmbH for roads, railways, tunnel and pipeline projects.
Linear planning is a unique way of planning and scheduling resources, using a simple
time-distance graphic that connects schedule and site information in a single chart.
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The schedule is represented in a 2D grid displaying the graphical link between the
location where the work is performed (the distance axis) and the time when it is executed (the
time axis).
Rather than representing the plan as a series of Gantt bars, linear planning allows the
planner to integrate details as elevation profiles, crossings, environmental restrictions, crew
movement and direction of movement.
Mass Haulage Diagrams are introduced as a new functionality starting from Tilos
version 8, extremely helpful for planning of big mass movements, mainly in the tendering
phase of a project.
Tilos now provides an overview about the flow of material, distances and transported
quantities. There can be defined cut and fill areas, extractions, dump sites or stock piles and
also the soil classes can be displayed using different colours on the diagram. The cut and fill
tasks are generated automatically from the context menu of the haulage line. Duration for the
tasks is calculated from the work rate and task quantities are set by the haulage quantities.
Based on data from the diagram, time histograms can be generated, displaying planned
cut or fill quantities per week. A mass balance curve can also be generated, displaying the
balance between calculated cut and fill and ideally this curve should be zero at the end.
TILOS is planning and scheduling software for any type of linear project
including roads, railways, tunnel, transmission and pipeline projects. It was
developed by the German company Linear project GmbH and has been available
since 1999.
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The key benefit of TILOS is the flow of visual data in terms of time and
place on one plan. CPM schedules and network diagrams are more analytical,
but they fail to provide a visual connection between the project plan and the
project itself.
The next version of Tilos release 8 includes a new and innovative
special function called Mass Haulage.
Road and rail projects usually require the movement of large quantities of
earth in order to prepare the construction site area. This is subsequently one of
the biggest cost driven groups of activities in these types of projects. Earthwork
activities can be anywhere between 30%-80% of the total project budget. Once
you consider the equipment and workforce needed to excavate, move, waste,
compact and/or test soil, crush rocks, costs add up quickly. For this reason
contractors and engineers rely on mass haul diagrams to reduce the guesswork
involved in road grading tasks, and to ensure everyone gets paid fairly for
moving soil.
The objective of the mass haul approach is to develop an understanding of
the mass balance (cut and fill quantities) of material along a project ROW
(right-of-way).
This paper describes a method to monitor, plan and control soil
movements on a sample road construction site using the TILOS Mass Haulage
functionality.
Let us consider the following list of cut and fill activities, each with a
quantity or earth to move.
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Tilos solves this problem by combining all aspects of planning and mass
haul in one piece of software so rather than using Gantt chart software, separate
resource and cost software and Excel, all these requirements are met in one
product and as seen later can be combined in one view.
The diagram below maps the activities we saw earlier and uses the
locations to plot the movement of earthworks through cut and fill.
The diagram below is the time-distance chart display of the cut and fill
activities. Any change to these in terms of date or progress will impact the rest
of the schedule. Unlike a Gantt chart the activities can be seen both in time and
distance so any overlaps or clashes can be detected.
Again traditionally Excel or CAD software has been used for this type of
diagram, necessitating rework if changed and the use of other software to
provide a complete solution.
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Ioannis Koutras, MSc Civil Engineer, Director, International Projects Division, Egnatia
Odos S.A., 6th km ThessalonikiThermi, P.O. Box 60030, GR-570 01
Thermi Thessaloniki, Greece, Tel. +30 2310 470380, e-mail: jkoutras@egnatia.gr
Georgios Papaioannou, Civil Engineer, Design Manager, International Projects Division,
Egnatia Odos S.A., 6th km ThessalonikiThermi, P.O. Box 60030, GR-570 01 Thermi
Thessaloniki, Greece, Tel. +30 2310 470380, e-mail: gpapa@egnatia.gr
Marios D. Miltiadou, PhD Transport Engineer, Researcher, Department of Transportation &
Hydraulics Engineering, Faculty of Rural & Surveying Engineering School of Technology,
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece, Tel: +30 2310 996126,
Fax: +30 2310 996030, e-mail: mmiltiadou@auth.gr
Abstract
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MOVE), the Transport Corridor Europe Caucasus Asia (TRACECA) and the
Central Asia Regional Economic Cooperation (CAREC). Other sources
included studies, Master Plans and documents of the Ministries responsible for
transport, infrastructure development and financing of the transit states.
The desktop research led to the definition of data deficiencies and this was
followed by expression of official data requests to the various national agencies.
The data requirements and elements examined in the study are the following:
Description of the BTBT road sections according to their physical (number
and width of lanes, design speed) and operational characteristics (operational
speed, traffic volumes, accidents data).
National Transport Plans/ Strategies with the foreseen investments in
developing infrastructure (upgrading/ reconstruction/ new construction) along
the BTBT MH, but also for other competitive routes and modes of transport.
Data about the ancillary facilities along each section, their location and their
type (e.g. fuel stations, parking places, hotels/ motels, etc.).
Description of the infrastructure and the operation of border crossing stations
(entrance and exit lanes per vehicle category, present authorities, required
procedures, technical equipment, required times for entrance/ exit per type of
vehicle, capacity, annual/ daily traffic volumes served, cooperation with
neighbouring country, problems met, improvement plans and proposals).
Traffic data along the BTBT Route and the rest of the national network
(competitive routes) and traffic forecasts for the next one and two decades.
National legislation about international road haulage facilitation (e.g. permits
for professional drivers, duration for issuing permits and period of validation,
visa requirements, border crossing policies and facilitation).
National legislation about ancillary infrastructure/ facilities planning and
development along national roads (restrictions, criteria of establishment,
density). Construction costs and layouts/drawings.
National legislation for access of foreign investors in each country and for
the private sector participation in public projects and concessions, especially for
construction and operation of road infrastructure and ancillary facilities.
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BTBT road and register the existing ancillary infrastructure facilities along the
route through on site visits of expertise.
This mission also meant to explain to the transit states the purpose of the
study and the IRU MHI and enhance the knowledge about the particularities and
needs of each country. For this purpose (with the proposition of IRU) ad hoc
interdepartmental coordination groups per country were established, to be in
charge for all issues related to the BTBT MH implementation in each country.
Meetings and structured interviews with the interdepartmental
coordination groups and national stakeholders were performed at the responsible
ministries for Transport and Infrastructure in Baku, Tbilisi and Ankara and at all
the BCPs along the route. The meetings in each country involved representatives
from various ministries, the local representatives of IRU and other national
stakeholders in each country. Meetings at BCPs were also organised with the
authorities present at Red Bridge BCPs and Sarp/ Sarpi BCPs.
Concerning the inventory, for the road trip preparation, a detailed
processing was performed using Google Earth software, which allowed the
identification of the route, the registration of the position of infrastructures and
the location of interchanges and technical structures (tunnels, bridges).
As it was envisaged, the meetings and the autopsies provided very
important data regarding the current status, characteristics and operation of the
various types of infrastructure (road, roadside, BCPs). Especially during the
road trip the various points of interest along the BTBT MH were recorded and
georeferenced using GPS receiver and digital camera and a dedicated database
was developed for further analyses.
The BTBT Route links the cities of Baku (Azerbaijan) with Tbilisi
(Georgia) and Trabzon (Turkey), as shown in Figure 1. Its total length is
approximately 1,135km. In order to cross the land strip between the Caspian and
the Black Sea, the MH in a NW direction, follows the narrow path between the
two dominant mountain ranges, the Greater Caucasus Range on the North and
the Lesser Caucasus Range on the south. When Black Sea coast is reached in
Grigoleti (Georgia), then the Route follows the coastline in a SW direction up to
the city of Trabzon (Turkey). The alignment and length correspond to the
existing operational roads, including those under construction (Gandja bypass in
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and equipment, but also the applied practices and methods for the controls, in
the framework of coordinated plans for Integrated Border Management (IBM)
strategies of the transit states.
The conditions at BCPs seem good, with no long queues; however this is
an artificial image, which is not due to the fast controls (which could be indeed
fast), but due to the existence of parking areas where the transit trucks are
concentrated to wait for several hours. An ideal, in terms of operation, BCP has
no need for huge parking areas, as a proof of their efficiency. In the end, it is
unknown the exact time that a truck driver has to spend in the BCPs. Although
the time to cross the borders can be from 5 20 minutes, the waiting time in the
queue could reach a day or so.
Except from the new Sarpi BCP in Georgia, where the infrastructure
capacity has been substantially increased, it might be necessary in the future to
further expand the other BCPs to meet the increasing demand for cross border
traffic. Provided that the investments on BCP improvements are very recent, and
in order to maximise the return of these investments, there should be ex post
evaluations to assess the before-after situation and further investigate soft
measures to improve further the operations (such as the project commonly
undertaken by the BTBT transit states for Electronic Data Interchange at
borders).
The MHI aims to develop the ancillary infrastructure along main road
arteries, to enhance the attractiveness of international highways for increased
cargo haulage while improving work and rest/ leisure conditions for drivers. As
road ancillary infrastructure are considered: a) BCPs, b) Logistic and Freight
Centers/ Terminals/ Dry ports etc., c) Rest Areas (RAs), d) Service Areas (SAs)
including fuel stations, restaurants etc., e) Hotel / Motel network (as part of SAs)
and f) Truck parking areas (TPAs).
RAs are physically separated from the motorway carriageways and
provide the user with an opportunity to halt in an atmosphere which affords a
distinct change from motorway driving. Usually they provide water supply,
sanitary facilities and waste water drainage. SAs provide fuel, lubricants and
mechanical assistance, rest, refreshment and toilet facilities, and overnight motel
accommodation for users, plus shops and tourist services. The combination of
services offered depends on the overall plan for the relevant motorway section.
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Finally, TPAs provide secure parking place and other facilities to heavy goods
vehicles (HGVs).
The MH must provide safety, comfort to all road users and especially to
professional drivers, minimal time (and cost) spent at border crossings and direct
access to all other intermodal transportation systems or inland nodes related to
road transport (e.g. dry ports, logistic centers etc):
Safety against accidents (excluding drivers misbehaviour) depends on the
roads features (geometry, pavement, road restraints systems, fencing etc) and
maintenance. The most safe and at the same time faster road is the motorway (or
primary highway according to the AH classification system). On the other hand
it is the most expensive to build, operate and maintain.
Safety against freight crime is achieved with regular patrolling and the
provision of secured truck parking places. These can be public installations as
part of a SA or private enterprises, like the ones existing in Tbilisi and Rize.
Comfort to users is achieved with RA or SA and other roadside facilities.
At BCPs time is minimized by applying state of the art procedures, with
modern equipment, inspection technologies and proper parking places for
vehicles. On the other hand, transportation cost is decreased by fighting
corruption.
Direct access to intermodal services is ensured by constructing warehousing
and logistics facilities at economically strategic locations, situated close to a
node (interchange or junction) of the highway.
After the inventory it is concluded that the development of ancillary
infrastructure along the BTBT should include: i) expansion of the network of
refuelling stations; ii) creation of a network of parking facilities, which would
provide convenient and safe (secure) parking places for international haulage
vehicles, technical maintenance facilities and retail outlets for spare parts and
convenience goods; and iii) expansion of a network of hotels and motels along
the route to cover drivers rest periods.
This development should follow an organized pattern regarding spacing
and planning of ancillary infrastructure. The services provided to the road users
must be concentrated and of high quality. Such a pattern is described in the
UNECE Trans-European North-South Motorway (TEM) project specifications,
which should be followed and planning/ dimensioning should be for a 20 year
horizon. For RA and SA dimensioning the AASHTO methodology should be
applied.
Moreover, each transit country has to be evaluated separately and taking
into consideration the existing situation and the national development plans. For
example, for Azerbaijan strategic nodes are considered Baku, Alat and Red
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Bridge BCP, for Georgia the Red Bridge BCP, Tbilisi, the Sarpi BCP (or
Batumi) and Kutaisi (due to its consideration as possible International Logistic
Centre - ILC) and finally, for Turkey the Sarp BCP.
Applying all the aforementioned principles and specifications led to the
definition of roadside facilities needs along the BTBT and the initial cost
estimation is approximately 140mo, excluding costs for ILCs and BCPs.
In the future a more detailed plan for development of ancillary
installations along the BTBT should be defined in cooperation with the transit
states, in order to exactly define the locations of the infrastructure and the terms
for the development for each one (land acquisition, design, cost estimation,
environmental aspects, etc.). This plan should be assessed within a Feasibility
Study, which should make an advanced assessment of the market potentials
based on corridor and logistic chain analysis, examining in detail parameters
such as the origins and destinations and the type of commodities transported.
The BTBT Road constitutes part of the national strategic programs and
initiatives of various international organisations and institutions for the
development of road infrastructure in the countries of Central, Eastern and
South-Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Asia.
The BTBT Route is included in the UNECE TEM project and the
UNESCAP AH project. Furthermore, it is included in the EC DG MOVE
planning of European Transport Axes, linking EU with neighbouring countries
and regions, and finally a part of BTBT in Azerbaijan is part of one of the six
CAREC Multimodal Corridors (No 2 Mediterranean East Asia).
Therefore, the BTBT Road Route is fully (or partly) incorporated in
strategic planning for international transport infrastructures development and the
BTBT transit states participate actively in these transnational initiatives and
programmes for transport and trade facilitation. This provides a good basis for
the promotion of the BTBT MH for implementation.
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of the infrastructure and level of service offered on the specific route, but also
on other competitive road corridors or other transport modes axes.
Currently, in Azerbaijan the demand is high near Baku (32,806
vehicles/day to Lokbatan and Alat) with high HGV traffic (21%). Traffic
reduces gradually as moving to the Georgian border with AADT around 10,000
vehicles/day up to Gandja and 6,741 vehicles/day to Kazakh and 2,338
vehicles/day to Red Bridge. In Georgia traffic is higher on Tbilisi bypass
(18,402 vehicles/day) and on section Tbilisi Gori (11,000 vehicles/day) and
Grigoleti Batumi (11,600 vehicles/day), while on the rest of the network
demand fluctuates below 10,000 vehicles/day. Traffic at borders is around 7,500
vehicles/day, and in Turkey between Rize and Trabzon is 15,000 vehicles/day.
From the examination of the available forecasts of the UNECE TEM
Master Plan it is concluded that the AADT expected increase in Azerbaijan in
the period 2015-2020 would be of more than one third of the 2015 traffic, while
for a specific section, between Hajigabul and Kyurdamir the traffic will be
almost doubled. In Georgia the AADT forecasts for the years 2015 and 2020
foresee an increase 28% and by 60% respectively. As for Turkish parts of the
BTBT the AADT forecasts for the years 2015 and 2020 foresee an increase 28%
and by 63% respectively. The most recent forecast provided by Azeryolservis
(State Roads Agency) for the BTBT sections foresee an increase of traffic by
4.8% annually, in 20 years horizon, translated to a total increase of traffic by
2.44 times during the next two decades, while for Turkey, according to the
Ministry of Transport, Maritime Affairs and Communications, the increase of
AADT in the period 2012 2020 would be by 58%.
Concerning the competitive road routes, two are the main international
alternative routes to the BTBT identified by TRACECA (IDEA project): the
trans-Russian and trans-Turkish. The assessment showed that the trans-Russian
route is two times more attractive than the trans-Turkish route and almost three
times more attractive than the Trans-Caucasian (BTBT) route. Assessing
separately the results of each of the criteria used, the transport cost criterion is
almost the same for trans-Turkish and trans-Caucasian routes, but double than
the trans-Russian one. The time criterion follows a different pattern: trans-
Russian and trans-Turkish routes have the same index and the attractiveness
related to cost through Caucasus is almost half. The reliability criterion proves
again that the trans-Russian route is the most attractive one, followed by the
trans-Turkish route and finally the safety/ security criterion shows that the trans-
Turkish/ Iran route is the less attractive option.
As regards the railway competition, the BTBT Road has a parallel
Railway axis on most of its part, from Poti and Batumi to Baku, but currently
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there is no railway line connection between Georgia and Turkey. The connection
between Poti Port and Baku will be very competitive to BTBT after the
realisation of the upgrading railway projects in Georgia (including the city
railway bypass) and Azerbaijan. The traffic potential on this rail corridor will be
greatly enhanced when Potis new container terminal is opened in 2014, which
will coincide with the planned completion of the new port at Alat in Azerbaijan.
In this aspect, as BTBT road is an important transit route, there is need for
advanced and non-discriminatory access of road hauliers to improved ferry
services from the ports of the Black Sea and the Caspian.
The Baku Tbilisi Kars railway project represents a part of bigger
project that foresees the connection of South Caucasian railroads to Europe
passing Turkey and providing the missing connection of Georgia and Turkey.
After the project completion in 2014, this railway connection is envisaged to
become the most important railway corridor of Europe Caucasus Asia, that
will provide transportation of freight from Azerbaijan and middle-Asian
countries and oil and oil products to Ceyhan Port in Turkey in particular and to
Turkmenbashi and Aktau Ports in Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan, respectively.
A second Euro-Asian route competitive to the routes containing the
BTBT Road Route is the Istanbul (Haydarpasa) Tehran (Iran)
(Turkmenistan) (Uzbekistan) Tashkent Almaty (Kazakhstan), on which a
block container train already is operated by the Turkish Railways twice a week
(one to Turkmenistan and one to Kazakhstan).
Both the rail corridors mentioned originating from Istanbul and Ankara
will increase their competitiveness when the projects for upgrading and
modernisation of the entire rail network in Turkey, including extending the
network of High Speed Lines up to Kars will be implemented (by 2023). In any
case, interoperability issues (railway track gauge, traction/ voltage systems) will
continue to burden international transport railway operations with time and cost.
The three transit states of the BTBT MH have shown their will to meet
the needs of international transport demand. This is translated to big investment
projects and the radical reconstruction and improvement of their BCPs. At
present the BTBT BCPs present a neat image, with modern and clear
installations, equipment and buildings. This is the first step to provide
appropriate working conditions to the staff, appropriate hospitality and clarity to
the users, preconditions for proper operations and advanced BCP management.
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The better service of the increasing flows can be achieved through the
expansion of physical infrastructure (where possible), combined with intensive
cooperation between the responsible authorities of the two pairs of BCPs and
ideally in later stage to perform controls jointly or establish joint stations. In the
mean time, the cooperation for exchange of data, the improvement of
performance of staff and the application of most appropriate best practices
(according to the particularities of each country and BCP) would help the
reduction of times for crossing the borders, and especially the waiting times
before the execution of controls.
Therefore, in order to achieve relatively in short time the reduction of
time spent at the borders, the transit states should take actions on the bilateral
and International Agreements and Memoranda of Understanding signed in the
framework of other regional organisations. They should apply at maximum the
provisions of the 1982 International Convention on the Harmonization of
Frontier Controls of Goods, especially those of Annex 8 with reference to the
procedures for international road transport, and especially for inspections,
advanced information exchange and the mutual recognition of the International
Vehicle Weight Certificate, to avoid repetitive vehicle weighing at BCPs.
Concerning the measures and institutional reforms required the NELTI 2
proposals for the year 2013 is a realistic Road Map for Georgia and Azerbaijan.
The results of the actions undertaken by the responsible authorities of these two
countries are expected, in order to assess any further reforms required for the
development of international transport on the BTBT MH.
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simplifying land allocation procedures for these assets and creating favourable
tax regime for business developing ancillary infrastructure services.
The RIF could be able to be operational already in 2014, allowing the
development of the BTBT with qualitative and safe roadside service, connecting
Central Asia, from China to Afghanistan, with Europe by 2015-2016. This way
the MH may become a corridor of progress that will facilitate business and
employment in its gravitation zone and the MH experience can be spread over
other transport corridors in other states.
Concerning the involvement of the foreign companies in projects for the
development of the road and roadside infrastructure along the MH, it follows the
pattern of involvement in doing other sectors businesses in the countries, which
during the last years has become quite common.
Concerning PPPs, even though there are pending relevant legislations, the
involvement of the private sector has not been hampered in other cases, like
energy, airport and motorway projects. However, to be more attractive to private
sector there are further reforms needed in the BTBT MH countries to ensure a
solid and transparent legal basis for PPPs. Actions to remedy the various
shortfalls under existing laws that currently make PPPs unattractive must be
taken: more flexibility during concession contract negotiations as well as
availability of more security instruments to the benefit of lenders are crucial to
future development of PPPs.
The improvement of the level of service along the BTBT should comprise
improvements of the main road infrastructure, the ancillary installations and
BCPs and the road connections to major trip generators and attractors for
passengers and freight.
The main road infrastructure improvements offer direct benefits, those
usually quantified in socioeconomic appraisal of projects, i.e. vehicle operating
cost savings, accidents reduction, passenger and freight time/ cost savings.
Apparently there are other non-quantifiable (qualitative) benefits that are
associated to international traffic and trade, employment, regional development
and territorial cohesion, i.e. shortening imbalances between regions of a country
in terms of employment rates and productivity.
The main road infrastructure development would mean direct benefit to
local population with increased accessibility and mobility, road safety and
higher living standards. Furthermore, the road infrastructure development
traditionally a growth engine along its alignment would mean benefits for
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locals, road users, construction companies, traders, and other people who derive
income from expanded traffic, trade and investment in the project areas.
The major direct benefits expected are more reliable road transport
services, efficient movement of freight and passengers across the borders, better
access of local communities to markets and social services and job and income
opportunities created during project implementation (i.e. use of local labour and
construction materials) and after project completion (i.e. roadside businesses).
Also benefits for the tourism industry and the cultural exchanges are expected
from the increased accessibility of the regions that the road runs through and
provides access to. And especially the implementation of the measures foreseen
by the national plans for BCPs introducing new technologies and methods
according to best practices are expected to increase security and fight any
existing pathologies of the existing border control systems (e.g. corruption).
Environmental benefits could occur from the construction of city
bypasses, which on the other hand could put in danger the local small scale
businesses on the existing road through settlements. This puts in risk the local
businesses to be shrunk after the development of more organised roadside
complexes along the BTBT or on new sections bypassing settlements.
Therefore, there should be provision for special conditions of cooperation of
new ancillary infrastructures, in the form of incorporation of the businesses in
new centers (resettlement, privileged rents etc.). Already, a similar provision in
order to avoid the small businesses elimination is applied at the new roadside
service stations constructed in Georgia, where apart from fuel stations they
include supermarkets, farmers markets and spaces for exhibition of arts and
crafts. It is without saying that all type of interventions (road improvement and
construction of SA, RA and TPA) should be subject of full Environmental
Impact Assessment studies and Resettlement Plans.
The expected, direct and indirect, positive and negative, impacts can be
codified in Figure 3 according to the mentioned types of improvement.
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6. CONCLUSIONS
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benefits. Therefore, this Master Plan should necessarily contain an extended and
updated forecasting exercise, which should take into account socioeconomic,
trade and demographic development scenarios, evaluate the international
intermodal network (and not solely the BTBT Road Route) and the possible
modal shifts, taking into account the realisation of the various projects under
implementation or planned on this network.
For the efficient and fast implementation of the BTBT MH it is important
that the initiators of the BTBT MH enhance their cooperation and coordination
with the regional organizations active in the transit states. In any case, the
success of the implementation of the BTBT MH requests advanced coordination
and alignment of the project with the national road and infrastructure
development programmes and active support by the in the transit states.
REFERENCES
[1]. Egnatia Odos S.A. for International Road Transport Union and Black Sea Trade &
Development Bank Development of the Baku Tbilisi Batumi Trabzon Model
Highway 2012.
[2]. NEA Transport Research Institute in cooperation with the International Road
Transport Union, New Eurasian Land Transport Initiative NELTI 2 Final Report
Road Map 2011.
[3]. Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe and United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe, Handbook of Best Practices at Border Crossings A
Trade and Transport Facilitation Project 2012.
[4]. TRT Trasporti e Territorio, Alfen Consult GmbH, Dornier Consulting GmbH, PTV
AG Transport dialogue and interoperability between the EU and its neighbouring
countries and Central Asian Countries 2011.
[5]. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, Asian
Highway Handbook 2003.
[6]. United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (2010),
Asian Highway Database 2010: AH Network in Member States, 2010.
[7]. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe, Road Census 2010 database
2010.
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Ctlin George Marin, Dr. Ing., Director General S.C. GEOECOTEST S.R.L.
Rezumat
Structurile rutiere tradiionale sunt mprite n dou mari categorii: sisteme rutiere
flexibile i sisteme rutiere rigide. Inginerii de drumuri, administratori, proiectani, nu dispun
de metode riguroase i clare pentru alegerea unei structuri rutiere, noi sau ranforsate.
Selectarea tipului de structur rutier nu este o tiin exact, dar este una prin care inginerul
de specialitate trebuie s judece, pe baza mai multor factori (trafic, clim, materiale, sisteme
de drenare, tehnologia de construire, sigurana n exploatare, evaluri economice etc) pe care
o va alege. Metoda de estimare comparativ pe baza valorii duratei ciclului de via (sau
durata de serviciu) se poate aplica diferitelor tipuri de structuri rutiere i poate fi un bun
criteriu n alegerea structurii finale. Costurile derulate pe durata de serviciu, includ nu numai
valoarea iniial, dar i cele legate de ntreinerea curent i periodic, pentru meninerea
drumului la nivelul de serviciu dorit.
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Tratament de suprafata
Reabilitare structurala
TIMP TIMP
a) b)
a) Necesit dou suprafari i o reabilitare structural pe perioada de
analiz
b) Necesit trei suprafari i o reabilitare structural pe perioada de
analiz
2. TRAFICUL
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3. MATERIALE
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4. CLIMA
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5. ANALIZA COSTURILOR
Pa = F[1/(1+I)n] (1)
unde:
Pa = valoarea prezenta actuala
F = suma total de bani la finele anului n
n = numrul de ani
I = rata discountului.
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COSTURI GENERALE
ACCIDENTE
INTRETINERE CURENTA
PERIODICA
REABILITARE
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Index de calitate
Nivel de raportare
Clasa A Clasa B
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6. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2] MARIN GEORGE CTLIN: Evaluarea factorilor ce stau la baza alegerii tipului
de structur rutier, revista Drumuri i Poduri nr. 7 (76) 2004.
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Ctlin George Marin, Dr. Ing., Director General S.C. GEOECOTEST S.R.L.
Abstract
Usually the pavements are of two main types: flexible pavements and rigid pavements.
The road engineers, administrators and designers lack some strict and accurate methods in
order to choose a new or reinforced pavement. Selecting the optimum type of pavement is not
an exact science, since it is the engineers competence to conclude, based on multiple
parameters (traffic, climate, materials, drainage systems, building technology, safe operation,
economic values, etc.), the choice to go for. The comparative assessment method based on the
life span (or service life) may be applied to different pavements and may be a good criterion
for selecting the final alternative. The costs involved during the life span include not only the
initial investment but also the costs for current and periodic maintenance in order to maintain
the intended serviceability for the road.
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delays, freedom to exchange place during traffic, safety and comfort. The road
administrator should define the functional service level. For example in the
United States most of the states are using IRI (International Roughness Index) or
PSR (Present Service Rate) in order to show the functional roads level of
service. IRI is expressed in m per km or inch per mile (World Bank Decision no.
46/1986).
The service life strategy for any pavement includes the maintenance and
rehabilitation programmes considered for the base systems by anticipating the
behaviour in certain conditions. Normally, this includes the necessary funds for
the road.
The advised pavement design ensures the base for an accurate
maintenance and subsequently cheap (regarding the frequency and type), as the
savings made within the period of structure recovery depending on the initial
method of intervention. Therefore, the service life strategy takes into account all
the performances of the pavement, regarding the structure and included costs.
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level of service, one must take into account the conception and maintenance
stipulated in the service life strategy that is able to support the effective traffic
cost with respect to the service live.
During the maintenance of the pavement according to the service life
strategy supporting the functional level of service, one must not elude the
signals regarding the necessity of a structural rehabilitation.
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Tratament de suprafata
Reabilitare structurala
TIMP TIMP
a) b)
a) requires two surface layers and one rehabilitation for the analysis
period
b) requires three surface layers and one rehabilitation for the analysis
period
2. TRAFFIC
In the aim of structural design, the pavements are classified from the point
of view of traffic classes, converting high traffic class into very heavy traffic
class. Foe every traffic class, the designed bearing capacity is quantified in
number of standard axels for each traffic lane. Alternatively, every class is
quantified in traffic volume. Separation of road classes for roads (or pavements)
must not be strictly considered and engineering judgement is required for
choosing a class or another.
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3. MATERIALS
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The goal of design process is to protect, use and increase the bearing
capacity of foundation material in-situ, such that the pavement is able to
function the entire life span. The bearing capacity and the quality of foundation
ground / roadbed / embankment is of major importance in selecting the right
type of pavement and therefore also in service life strategy.
The bearing capacity of foundation ground is increased only if the
necessary layers are laid (and adequate), in view of carrying out an integrated
and structurally balanced pavement. The bearing capacity of pavement may be
increased by many technologies such as improving (stabilization) of foundation
ground, providing a thicker foundation layer and/or thicker pavement (asphalt,
concrete). Consequently, the final pavement should have the bearing capacity
(and quality) necessary for proper operation during the whole life span.
Within the design process for pavements, one must analyse some factors
influencing the right type of pavement. Anyhow, some pavements may not be
adequate for a specific traffic category of the road.
The (thin) pavements with rigid or dense thin surface layers are generally
more sensitive to loading versus thick pavements. The rigid pavements
deteriorate quickly after initiation of distressed (type of behaviour abrupt
death) while flexible pavements deteriorate slower in time.
Often, the maintenance procedure may be simplified by pairing the pavement
type with the one of adjacent road section.
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The shoulders allowing the vehicles to change the traffic lane and drive at
regular speed is an essential feature of modern roads. In this purpose the
shoulders must be sustainable and able to occasionally support high loads, for
every climate conditions.
In the last years, the role of adjacent shoulders on the main carriageway
has broadened significantly. Some of the main additional functions of shoulders
are: 1) to cope with a higher traffic; 2) to facilitate the water drainage from the
carriageway; 3) to ensure additional space for construction and maintenance
works; 4) to be used as additional lane during the intense traffic hours, in order
to reduce the congestion; 5) to serve for other purposes, for example as bike
lanes or lanes for heavy and low-speed vehicles; and 6) to ensure delimitation
and differentiation of pavement for carriageway and to serve as recovery area in
case of lost direction.
4. CLIMATE
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rehabilitation facilities;
seasonal restrictions imposed on traffic in the case of climate conditions;
effects of subterranean networks on the functionality;
the presence of contaminated soils;
foreseen improving and modernizations;
if the project is based on a construction programme in stages and if the funds
are available when required;
impact upon maintenance activities, including the winter maintenance;
5. COST ANALYSIS
Pa = F[1/(1+I)n] (1)
where:
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The first step of the cost analysis for the service life consists in identifying
the alternative to be compared and also the analysis period and then to compute
the investment and operational cost.
The costs within the analysis are those related to the work and subsequent
maintenance. All cost assigned to an alternative but differ from one alternative
to another, must also be taken into account. These cost include maintenance cost
for the road agency, user costs, social and environment costs, hence operation
costs. In the graph below it is shown the diagram of cost analysis for the service
life.
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COSTURI GENERALE
ACCIDENTE
INTRETINERE CURENTA
PERIODICA
REABILITARE
Represents the value including the costs at the end of analysis period. The
difference between the residual value of different alternatives for a rehabilitation
project is generally neglected in that this value is usually considered as non-
deductible.
The residual value is estimated using the equation below, based on the
ratio between cost of remaining necessary time and estimated necessary cost. In
this case the reference treatment corresponds to the highest value or to the one
computed on the base of last resurfacing, capital work or rehabilitation. In figure
5 the reference treatment becomes treatment 1 when the analysis period
corresponds to class A. regarding class B the reference is treatment 3.
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Quality index
Reporting level
Class A Class B
With respect to the value to be assigned for the pavement materials or the
final value, it is quite difficult to predict the proportion of recovery or recycling
for these materials on site, in the end of analysis period. As the final present
value has a low impact on the way of classification of the alternatives, this is
generally neglected, except the case when there is a major difference between
alternatives
Unlike the private sector, the government represents all the social groups.
Therefore, the analysis must take into account the benefits and losses suffered
by all these groups. Ideally, the users costs to be taken into accounted are
vehicle operation costs, additional travel time casualty costs and environment
protection. Sometimes, the users costs may be excluded from the analysis, partly
due to lack of solid information, but also due to these vary often from one
alternative to another as long as the pavement offers a minimum service level.
Nevertheless, for the alternatives implying frequent major projects, the costs
related to delays may significantly increase on the intense traffic routes.
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The models for costs incurred by casualties available at the moment are
based on the geometry of the road and dont allow to assign these costs for
different types of pavement or design characteristics. Solid models are necessary
in order to estimate the effects of skid resistance and construction works on
costs incurred by casualties; the present ones are not complex enough to be
currently used and suitable for design conditions for the on-going project
analyses.
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6. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
[5] MARIN GEORGE CTLIN: Evaluarea factorilor ce stau la baza alegerii tipului
de structur rutier, revista Drumuri i Poduri nr. 7 (76) 2004.
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Alexandru Mroiu, inginer diplomat, SC Pro Cons XXI SRL, e-mail: amaroiu@yahoo.com
Rezumat:
Abstract:
In the context of peri-urban development of the capital city, increasing traffic capacity
on the Bucharest Ring Road appears as a necessity that can not be delayed. One of the biggest
advantages of upgrading the ring road, namely a rehabilitated and expanded to a four lanes
road, it will be attracting a high volume of traffic. In this way the ring road will have a traffic
distribution role between the 8 national roads and the 3 highways connected by it, thus
relieving the streets inside of Bucharest.
Widening the road has been the subject of public attention for years, being a known
subject for the most of us. In order to increase the traffic flow, increasing the number of lanes
in each direction is not enough, requiring to decongestion the intersections with major roads
that currently prevail against the traffic running on the Bucharest ring road.
This article will explain the design of the future interchange at the intersection of DN4
(Oltenitei Road) and DN CB (National Road Bucharest Ring Road), which treats the elevation
of the National Road DN4 across the railway belt and DN CB, eliminating all leveled turns.
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1. INTRODUCERE
2. DESCRIEREA SOLUIEI
Figura 1.
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Figura 2.
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Figura 3.
Rampele de acces
Se prevd a fi realizate 4 rampe de acces la pasaj, paralele cu Centura
Bucureti.
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Figura 4.
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Figura 5.
Infrastructura
Infrastructurile sunt alctuite din culei de tip divan, realizate din beton
armat, fundate prin intermediul a doua coloane cu diametru mare 1.50m,
L=16.00m.
Aparatele de reazem folosite sunt din neopren armat de tip 14
(150x300x41).
Pilele sunt realizate din beton armat, fundate prin intermediul a doua
coloane cu diametrul de = 1.50 m si L = 16.00 m.
Infrastructurile rampelor de acces sunt realizate din beton armat, fundate
indirect prin coloane cu diametrul de = 1.50 m si L = 18.00 m.
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Pentru toi piloii ce se vor executa pentru aceasta lucrare este necesar
realizarea ncercarilor de integritate prin metoda cu ultrasunete de impuls
conform normativelor C26:1985 si C200:1981, n scopul controlrii intregritaii
betoanelor (ntrerupere i/sau detectarea unor posibile anomalii).
Numrul piloilor forai ce se ncearc static n acest amplasament se
stabilete n funcie de numrul total de piloi din lucrare, de ntinderea
suprafeei pe care se execut piloii, cu gradul de uniformitate a stratificaiei i
cu gradul de cunoatere al amplasamentului. n conformitate cu STAS 2561/3-
90, tabel 1, numrul total al piloilor din lucrare este de 138 buc., rezultnt astfel
3 piloi de prob ce trebuie ncarcai de prob.
ncercarea piloilor de prob se va face pe baza unui proiect special, ce va
stabili att poziia si amplasamentul piloilor ncercai ct i realizarea efectiva a
acestei testri.
Racordri cu terasamentele
Racordrile cu terasamentele rampei se vor realiza prin intermediul unor
sferturi de con pereate.
Terasamentele n zona rampelor de acces la pasaj sunt realizate din
pamnt compactat.
Sferturile de con pereate se amenajeaz cu panta de 2:3 n fata culeilor pe
panta de 2:3 se amenajeaz scari de acces la aparatele de reazem.
La nivelul cii, racordarea cu sistemul rutier al rampelor se va realiza prin
ntermediul unor placi de racordare cu terasamentele cu lungimea de 4.00m i
nalimea de 0.26m.
La capetele podului, apele provenite din ploi se vor evacua prin
intermediul unor casiuri. La capetele podului se vor amenaja scri pentru accesul
sub pod.
Calea, parapet
S-au prevzut parapete metalice, ancorate n lisa de parapet turnat
monolit, iar la marginea parii carosabile s-a prevzut parapet direcional.
Calea pe pod va fi alctuit din urmatoarele straturi:
4 cm mixtur asfaltica MASF 16
3 cm beton asfaltic BAP 16
3 cm mortar bituminos BA8 - protecia hidroizolaiei
1 cm hidroizolaie
mortar de egalizare minim 2 cm
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4. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. S.C. PROCONS XXI S.R.L. Proiect Tehnic Largirea la 4 benzi CENTURA
BUCURESTI SUD INTRE A2 (km 23+600) A1 (km 55+520) Sector 1 km 23+600
km 33+000, 2008;
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Saa Ahac, Sc. novice, MCE, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Fra Andrije
Kaia-Mioia 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, e-mail: sahac@grad.hr
Ivo Haladin, Assistant, MCE, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Fra
Andrije Kaia-Mioia 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, e-mail: ihaladin@grad.hr
Stjepan Lakui, Prof., PhdCE, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Fra
Andrije Kaia-Mioia 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, e-mail: laki@grad.hr
Vesna Dragevi, Prof., PhdCE, University of Zagreb, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Fra
Andrije Kaia-Mioia 26, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia, e-mail: vesnad@grad.hr
Abstract
Keywords: road traffic noise, concrete noise protection wall, recycled rubber
1. INTRODUCTION
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The most common way of dealing with excessive traffic noise levels is
the construction of noise barriers between the noise source and the protected
area. Nowadays, noise barriers are usually made out of concrete, wood or steel.
Due to the strict market conditions and demands for durability and static
stability, concrete noise barriers are frequently used across Europe.
Sound absorptive concrete noise barriers incorporate a porous layer that
absorbs noise. This layer is usually made out of concrete with wood fibres or
small lightweight cementaceous spheres as the aggregate [1]. Sound absorptive
layer is supported by bearing layer made from reinforced concrete that provides
structural integrity and prevents sound passing through the barrier. In order to
provide the maximum sound absorption, the surface of the barrier is usually
profiled (Figure 1).
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In general, concrete noise barriers have many benefits: they are durable,
with a life span of at least 40 years, require minimal maintenance and provide
low whole life costs. They are also flexible in design and as such can provide
elements of architectural interest, which is very important in noise protection
design for urban areas.
Another positive aspect of concrete noise barriers, along with their
durability and stability, is their price, which is up to 5% lower than the price of
wood barriers, and up to 10% lower than the price of aluminium barriers [2].
The results of the same survey showed a wide range of materials that are
currently available for the construction of noise barriers, such as concrete, wood,
aluminium, brick, glass, wood-concrete, and acrylic (Figure 3). However, the
market is dominated by three prominent noise barrier materials: concrete, wood,
and aluminium. Additionally, the survey results show that concrete noise
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barriers are a common solution for the road traffic noise problem across Europe
[3].
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3. CONCLUSIONS
Acknowledgment
Presented research was performed within the project RUCONBAR- Rubberized concrete noise barriers (No.
ECO/10/277317/SI2.595674), under the umbrella of the Eco-Innovation initiative and Executive Agency for
Competitiveness and Innovation (CIP) framework. Authors would like to thank Croatian Ministry of Education,
Science and Sport for their support since preliminary research for RUCONBAR project was performed within
the project The Development of New Materials and Concrete Structure Protection Systems, 082-0822161-
2159, and "Noise and vibration of tram and railway tracks", 082-0000000-2185.
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REFERENCES
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Abstract
The paper describes the analysis of tram traffic noise situation in residential areas in
the vicinity of Drzic Avenue, one of the major routes between the northern and southern part
of the Croatian capital city Zagreb, and the effect of low barriers placed by the tracks on tram
noise mitigation. In order to evaluate the effect of planned protection measure, noise models
were produced and verified with short-term field measurements. Calculations were conducted
by means of noise prediction software, using European interim noise prediction method and
3D model of analyzed area. Finally, the results of noise calculations for existing tram traffic
situation and planned measure of protection are presented on noise maps.
Keywords: tram traffic, urban noise modeling, low noise protection barriers
1. INTRODUCTION
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Increasing the distance between the track and the receiver is one of the
most effective measures of noise and vibration reduction. At a distance of 500 m
from the rail track people no longer perceive the rail traffic vibrations [1], while
the air borne noise decreases by about 20 dB(A) [2]. Unfortunately, this measure
can only be applied on planned new routes, and even then it is only appropriate
if the cost of land purchase is less than the estimated cost of the implementation
of other mitigation measures. Therefore, this is not an appropriate measure to be
applied in the current state of Zagrebs urban development.
Foreign experience has shown that various measures can be implemented
to control and reduce tram traffic noise at its source (application of the "quiet"
vehicles, driving speed limitation, regular maintenance of driving surface, traffic
management, etc.). Implementation of noise protection barriers is the most
effective measure of noise reduction. Barriers enable the reduction of noise at
the observed point of immission in the range from 5 to 15 dB(A), depending on
the height and length of the barrier, material from which it is constructed and the
distance between the source and the receiver [3].
This paper describes modelling and analysis of tram traffic noise situation
in residential areas in the vicinity of Drzic Avenue, and the effect of low height
concrete barriers placed by the tracks on tram noise mitigation.
Drzic Avenue is one of the major traffic routes between the northern and
southern parts of the town (Figure 1). It consists of two carriageways, one for
each driving direction, with three lanes on every carriageway. The tram tracks
are situated in the middle corridor between the two carriageways (Figure 2). At
the tram stations, pedestrian access is enabled by underpasses.
At the observed 1.2 km long section, the street is surrounded by densely
populated residential areas [4], in which maximum allowed equivalent traffic
noise levels are 55 dB(A) for the period "day and evening, i.e. from 07:00 til
23:00 hours, and 45 dB(A) for the night period, i.e. from 23:00 till 07:00 hours
[5].
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N
P R
E A
IV LIN G
W N
D
I P
LA T
N G E
O E
M T
R C
LI
A
N
N
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Table 1. Input data used for creation of noise calculation model of tram
traffic in Drzic Avenue
Noise emission model Noise propagation model
Railway superstructure type Terrain brakelines and elevation points
Vehicle type (category) Ground surface type
Traffic load Barrier locations and heights
Average speed Building locations and heights
Percentage of braking vehicles Atmospheric attenuation
Source location Meteorological correction
As for the traffic load, there are four tram lines that operate on tracks in
Drzic Avenue, with average tram passing frequency of 3 minutes, i.e. 370 trams
pass through this part of the Zagrebs tram network daily. Hourly tram number
needed as an input for noise calculation was derived from Zagreb Municipality
Transit System ZET Ltd. tram timetables [7].
The maximum allowed tram speed on Drzic Avenue is 30 km/h. Since
there are two tram stations and a major road intersection in the observed section
of tram corridor, tracks were divided into subsections on which trams run at a
constant average speed of 20 km/h, accelerate, and decelerte (Figure 4).
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It can be seen from the noise maps that the barrier instalation could result
in average noise reduction of 10 dB(A). Predicted noise levels for the situation
with noise protection barrier fully meet the permissible noise levels in the
analysed area during the period day. For the period night noise is also
reduced, but the noise level still does not fully comply to the permitted limits.
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4. CONCLUSIONS
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REFERENCES
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Abstract
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1. INTRODUCTION
Many industrial processes employed rotary drums for the heating, and the
drying of granular matter. They are widely used in the fields of building
materials, metallurgies and chemical industries. This kind of furnaces is one of
the most energy intensive industrial processes with important thermal energy
consumption. Currently, a burner located within the rotary drum supplies the
required energy for the combustion operation. The combustion flame supplies
the sufficient released energy required for the drying and the heating of such
materials. Nowadays, the energy cost in environmental and economic terms is a
paramount importance in all-industrial sectors including road pavements
domain. As shown in figure 1, an asphalt plant, also called Hot-mix asphalt, is
constituted of several stages.
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are mixed with the bituminous binder to produce the final Hot Mix Asphalt
mixture.
A large amount of the energy consumption is necessary for the drying and
heating of aggregates. Recent estimations for example cite up to 2 TWh/year in
consumption, which accounts for 800,000 TeqCO2/year in France for approx.
42 million tons of hot-mix asphalt per year, from roughly 500 asphalt mix plants
inventoried [1]. Recently, new techniques have been developed in order to
reduce the energy consumption of this process, several studies were performed
to decrease asphalt binder viscosity by addition of water or chemical additives
[2]. Warm-mix asphalt is the generic name of asphalt pavements spread at lower
temperature corresponding to about 40C under the conventional temperature.
Thus, the knowledge of the actual water content and temperature of aggregates
just before mixing is important in controlling these techniques, depending on the
mixing of solids in the various transfer phenomena (momentum, heat and mass).
Several authors have studied the distribution of granular solids to
characterize the different types of granular flow regimes inside rotary drum
baffles during the drying process [3]. The action of solids cascading from these
flights is essential for rapid and homogeneous drying. A few studies carried out
with complex processes have focused on the stirred mixing of complex systems
[4, 5]. The DEM (Discret Element Method) [6] and CFD (Computer Fluid
Mechanics) [7] methods have also been used as direct simulation tools for the
dispersed and continuous phases, respectively, yet CFD / DEM simulations need
larger computer capacities in order to solve particles motion and fluid dynamics.
Recently, Le Guen et al. (2013) [8] have experimentally characterized heat
transport in a large-scale rotary drum reactor applied to the asphalt materials.
They showed that all the moisture contained into aggregates are dried in the
combustion area. They also identified, from flow rates measurements, two
important infiltration of air due to the balance draft system caused by a draught
fan in order to maintain the internal pressure below the atmospheric pressure and
so avoid leakage of unburned fumes from the furnace. Thus, aggregates trap
inlet located beneath the burner contributes to 4 % to the mass flow rates while
62 % can be imputed to the aggregates recycled trap-ring. These parasite airs
input could be substantially modified the aerothermal performance of the
furnace.
The present paper is aimed to study numerically convective and radiative
phenomena controlled by the combustion area. Air parasite and granular mixing
inside rotary drum, created by the mains processes characteristics (aggregates
feed rate trap, unbaffle in the combustion chamber and baffles in the rest of the
drum), act upon the dispersed phase (aggregates segregation in the transversal
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section) and on the fluid mixing. The first step of the process (combustion stage)
is also connected to the aggregates feed rate because of his proximity with the
reaction area. Thus, an efficient combustion is relied to the improving of the
flame dispersion where combustion reaction performances are strongly
dependent on the turbulent mixing mechanisms, and more precisely to the air-
fuel mixtures at the micromixing scales. A fine analysis of the exhaust flow
prior to reaction will let foresee some strategies of efficiency combustion
technical and thermodynamics model representative to the combustion process.
Thus, CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) simulations using FDS
software (Fire Dynamics Simulation 5.1.3) are chosen due to its accurate
capabilities to simulate fire from Large Eddies Simulation. A classical geometry
of the drum, as met at large scale [8], is proposed and the stirred granular matter
area is represented by solid columns as obstacles network.
2. COMPUTING TOOLS
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Ls min(d , C sV ) 3
(7)
: Von Karman constant
d : distance between cells
V : volume of a mesh
Cs : constant of Smagorinski
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With the thermal dilatation, q ''' the heat release by the chemical reaction, q b''' ,
the energy transferred to the evaporating droplets and q '' corresponds to the
conductive and radiative heat fluxes, q r'' , given by :
q '' kT HDY q r'' (12)
As show in fig. 2, the burner is located at the inlet of the rotary drum and the
aggregates are feeding at beneath to the burner. This trap door [lL=0.445
m0.2 m] contribute to the additional air excess that enhance the air mixture
fraction in the reaction combustion. The flow section passage can be assessed to
the half of the trap section due to the aggregates flow passage.
As regard the burner, it works from a fuel inflow with diameter dIfuel= 7.7 10-2
m. The air blower is positioned around the fuel inflow with an equivalent
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diameter equal to dblower=0.195 m. The whole of the burner including the thermal
resistances has an equivalent diameter equal to dburner=0.425 m.
Thus, knowing the experimental heat release rate given by the fuel flow rate,
qfuel, the geometrical boundary of the burner can be defined considering the
physical boundary condition defined in FDS 5 that is given by a Heat Release
Rate Per unit Area (HRRPUA in kW/m). In the present case, the experimental
condition chosen at large scale [8] corresponding to an aggregates feed rate
equal to 30.79 kg.s-1 and a supplied energy equal to 0.194 MJ.kg-1 either a
delivering power equal to Pburner6 MW for a burner working with natural gases
(PCI=37027 kJ/Nm3) in normal condition (T0=273K, P0=1, qfuel=583 Nm3.h-1).
Pburner
HRRPUA 54249 kW/m (13)
S HRRPUA
with SHRRPUA = 0.1106 m.
0,095 m
0,034 m
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considered adiabatic and no heat transfer is accomplished with the gases phase.
Their boundary conditions are assigned in such way that:
Tboundary = 20 C
0,8 m 0,8 m
0,6 m 0,6 m
0,4 m 0,4 m
0,2 m 0,2 m
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characteristic length based on the hydraulic diameter of the flows sections. The
viscosity of the gases mixture is calculated at a mean flame temperature Tf=956
C according to the mixture fraction air/fuel according to following relationship:
3.3 107 T f0,7 1 0,027 Z (14)
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4. RESULTS
All the next results are presented from a curve wall simulations.
Figure 8. Instantaneous velocity fields (xz plan; y=0) with open recycled trap
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The figure 8 shows the instantaneous velocity fields, ux, represented in the
xz plan. Excepted from the recycled trap area, the x-velocity component is as
expected, close to zero. In the combustion area, high velocity peaks are induced
by turbulent motion and the two jets provoked by the burner and the aggregates
inlet trap.
The figure 9 shows that the z components of the velocity are predominant
especially in the jet location.
Figure 9. Instantaneous velocity fields (xz plan; y=0) with open recycled trap
Figure 10. Instantaneous temperature with open recycled trap (TC/xz plan/y=0)
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a/ b/
c/ d/
Figure 11. Mean field in the combustion area (Y=0) with closed recycled trap
-Y=0- (a/T(C)- b/uz - c/ux - d/uy).
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an asymmetry (fig 12a.) while the closed recycled trap respect a symmetry at the
outlet of combustion area.
The mean flow fields are in good agreement with the preceding remarks
since the jet give a predominant fluxes in the z direction.
The two jets seem determine preferential flow. In the closed recycled trap,
negative and positive high values of ux component are noticeable and the flow
stream relatively symmetric. In the open recycled trap; the uy component mean
flow fields show that a large flow structure is predominant.
The time mixing and the turbulent motion induced by the burner are not
taken into account in the modeling. The flow jet presently simulated is currently
modified by a swirl effect due to the blower and to the rotating movement of the
vessel. Thus, one can suppose that the reaction zone reach a high temperature in
the combustion area.
a/ b/
c/ d/
Figure 12. Mean field in the combustion area with closed recycled trap
-Y=0- (a/T(C)- b/uz - c/ux - d/uy).
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1000,00
Closedrecycledtrap
800,00
T(C)
600,00
400,00
200,00
Openrecycledtrap
0,00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Z(m)
Figure 13. Experimental vs. numerical temperature gases in the central axis of
the drum -Y=0-
6. CONCLUSION
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Yet, it has to be noticed that the CFD can help to understanding of heat,
mass and momentum transfer in this type of furnace.
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solids in horizontal and inclined pipes, AIChE Journal, 50, 8, 1729-1745, 2004.
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[6]. Bertrand F., L.-A. Leclaire, and G. Levecque, 2005, DEM-based models for the
mixing of granular materials, Chemical Engineering Science, 60, 2517-2531.
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[7]. Marias F., A model of a rotary kiln incinerator including processes occurring within
the solid and the gaseous phases, Computers and Chemical Engineering, 27, 813-
825, 2003.
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predictions by different models with measured data for enclosure fires, Fire Safety
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[11]. Huchet F., Line A., Morchain J., Evaluation of local kinetic energy dissipation rate in
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Mihai Iliescu, Phd. Eng, Professor, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, e-mail: Mihai.Iliescu@cfdp.utcluj.ro
Mirela I. Beca, Eng, Teaching Assistant, Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Faculty of Civil
Engineering, e-mail: Mirela.Vacaru@cfdp.utcluj.ro
Rezumat
Abstract
In the Green Paper on Future Noise Policy, the European Commission addressed noise
in the environment as one of the main environmental problems in Europe.. The main source of
noise pollution is transportation systems especially motor vehicle.
In accordance with the European Community legislation (Directive 2002/49/EC of the
European Parliament and of the Council of 25 June 2002), our country must collect, collat
and report data about environmental noise levels for the main urban areas. This implies the
use of harmonised indicators (Lden and Lnight A-weighted long-term average sound level as
defined in ISO 1996-2: 1987) and assessment methods for road traffic noise.
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In the present paper will be related a study regarding the noise level for a major urban
road in Cluj-Napoca. For the measurements it will be used a Sound Metter Level UC2010-2
and the conditions according with the legislation in force.
The results of these measurements will be compared with the "limit values" of Lday
and Lnight, as determined by the Member State, the exceeding of which causes competent
authorities to consider or enforce mitigation measures.
1. CADRUL JURIDIC
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Tabel 1. Valorile maxime permise (Lden i Lnight) pentru anul 2012 [4]
Lden - dB(A) Lnight - dB(A)
Sursa de zgomot: Strzi, drumuri i autostrzi urbane
inta de atins pentru valorile Valori inta de atins pentru valorile Valori
maxime permise pentru anul maxime maxime permise pentru anul maxime
2012 permise 2012 permise
65 70 50 60
L den 10 lg (12 10 10 4 10 10
8 10 10
) (1)
24
unde:
Lden = Indicator de zgomot zi-sear-noapte, dB (A);
Lday = Nivelul mediu de presiune sonor, ponderat A, determinat pentru
suma perioadelor de zi dintr-un an, dB (A);
Levening = Nivelul mediu de presiune sonor, ponderat A, determinat pentru
suma perioadelor de sear dintr-un an, dB (A);
Lnight = Nivelul mediu de presiune sonor, ponderat A, determinat pentru
suma perioadelor de noapte dintr-un an, dB (A);
i unde:
ziua are 12 ore, seara 4 ore i noaptea 8 ore, intervalele orare implicite
sunt 07.00 19.00, 19.00 23.00, 23.00 07.00.
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3. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Gabriel Ispas, Sef de lucrri dr. ing., UTCB, Facultatea de Inginerie a Instalaiilor,
e-mail: isgagh@gmail.com
Rezumat
Aceast lucrare trateaz modul n care trebuie s fie proiectate sistemele de iluminat
rutier, att pentru cile de circulaie a vehiculelor motorizate, inclusiv zonele de conflict (de
regul intersecii), ct i pentru zonele de trafic al vehiculelor nemotorizate i al pietonilor.
Normativul romnesc care trebuie respectat pentru aceste lucrri are indicativul NP
062-2002 Normativ pentru proiectarea sistemelor de iluminat rutier i pietonal i
reprezint, n fapt, preluarea i adaptarea primei ediii a normei europene CIE 115-1995,
denumit Recommendations for the Lighting of Roads for Motor and Pedestrian Traffic.
n anul 2010, Commission Internationale de lEclairage (CIE) a publicat a doua ediie
a acestei norme, intitulat CIE 115: 2010 Lighting of Roads for Motor and Pedestrian Traffic.
Aceast ediie, ale crei prevederi nu se regsesc nc n normativul romnesc, aduce
nouti n privina aspectelor legate de consumul de energie i de impactul asupra mediului,
dar i referitoare la performanele crescute ale corpurilor de iluminat i ale lmpilor care le
echipeaz (apariia corpurilor de iluminat cu leduri), precum i la utilizarea pe scar tot mai
larg a sistemelor electronice de control n locul celor clasice.
Apare astfel conceptul de sisteme de iluminat rutier de tip flexibil (adaptiv), avnd ca
efect crearea unui model structurat de selecie a clasei de iluminat corespunztoare (M, C sau
P), model bazat pe luminan sau iluminare pentru oricare dintre cele trei zone de interes
(pentru trafic Motorizat, pentru zone de Conflict sau pentru zonele de trafic Pietonal), lund n
considerare cei mai importani parametri definitorii pentru o anumit sarcin vizual.
Lucrarea i propune familiarizarea inginerului de drumuri i poduri cu modul n care
se poate proiecta un drum mai sigur i mai eficient, utiliznd cele mai noi aspecte legate de
ingineria iluminatului.
Abstract
This paper deals with the modern procedures used in designing of road lighting
systems, both for roads for motorised traffic, including the conflict areas (usually various
crossroads) and for unmotorised and pedestrian areas.
The Romanian norm that has to be fulfilled for this kind of design engineering is
named NP 062-2002 Normativ pentru proiectarea sistemelor de iluminat rutier i pietonal
and it represents, in fact, the former CIE technical report (undertaken and, of course,
943
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regulated) CIE 115-1995, also named Recommendations for the Lighting of Roads for Motor
and Pedestrian Traffic.
In 2010, the Commission Internationale de lEclairage (CIE) issued the second edition
of the above - mentioned document, changing at the same time its denomination to CIE 115:
2010 Lighting of Roads for Motor and Pedestrian Traffic.
This second edition, whose stipulations cannot be found, for the time being, within the
Romanian norm, provides several changes and up-to-dateness regarding power consumption
and environmental aspects, that have become much more important and, at the same time, the
improved performance of luminaires and lamps (LED based luminaires are used
increasingly), and especially the introduction of electronic control gear instead of
conventional control gear.
It is thus possible to introduce adaptive lighting for roads for motorised traffic conflict
areas and areas for pedestrians. A structural model has been developed for the selection of the
appropriate lighting classes (M, C or P), based on the luminance or illuminance concept,
taking into account the different parameters relevant for the given visual tasks for each of the
three interesting areas (for Motorised traffic, Conflict areas or areas for Pedestrians).
The paper goal is to accustom the roads and bridges engineer to the procedures used in
order to design safer and more reliable roads, based on the newest knowledge in the field of
illuminating engineering.
1. GENERALITI
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pentru oricare dintre cele trei zone de interes (pentru trafic Motorizat, pentru
zone de Conflict sau pentru zonele de trafic Pietonal), lund n considerare cei
mai importani parametri definitorii pentru o anumit sarcin vizual.
Prevederea unui sistem de iluminat rutier este o decizie la nivel naional
sau local, care ine seama de normele i reglementrile specifice fiecrei ri. n
orice caz, trebuie avute n considerare urmtoarele aspecte: [3]
atunci cnd condiiile de trafic sunt normale i drumul se ncadreaz ntr-o
categorie standardizat, necesitatea prevederii unui sistem de iluminat se
consider n funcie de volumul de trafic i viteza de deplasare;
se estimeaz posibilele economii ale costurilor legate de exploatarea
drumului prin prevederea unui sistem de iluminat rutier (cel mai important
beneficiu fiind reducerea ratei i a gravitii accidentelor cu o medie de 30%);
justificarea unui sistem de iluminat rutier se face pe baza numrului mediu de
accidente soldate cu vtmri corporale i decese pentru fiecare clas de drum n
parte; pentru autostrzi i alte drumuri rapide se va lua n considerare i
scurtarea duratei de parcurgere a drumului;
se analizeaz profitabilitatea unui sistem de iluminat rutier, prin comparaia
dintre, pe de o parte, economiile medii anuale n costurile totale ale traficului
rutier i, pe de alt parte, costurile anuale aferente sistemului de iluminat rutier
i costurile anuale ale reparaiilor datorate coliziunii dintre vehicule i stlpii de
iluminat. Volumul de trafic luat n considerare la calculul profitabilitii se
calculeaz pe perioada dintre punerea n funciune a sistemului de iluminat rutier
i jumtate din durata de funcionare anticipat a acestuia;
n situaia n care volumul de trafic este mai sczut dect valoarea care ar
impune prevederea unui sistem de iluminat rutier, este posibil prevederea
acestui sistem dac se constat un mediu de trafic neomogen, probleme legate de
alinierea benzilor de circulaie, spaii scurte pentru benzile adiacente, densitate
mare a interseciilor i a staiilor de transport n comun, lipsa trotuarelor etc.;
n cazul drumurilor situate n interiorul localitilor urbane, accidentele
soldate cu vtmri corporale sau decese nu sunt relevante, deci reducerea
numrului acestor evenimente nu poate constitui o baz de evaluare a
beneficiilor aduse de sistemul de iluminat rutier. Motivul pentru care n aceste
zone se prevede sistemul de iluminat rutier ine de aspectul social (mbuntirea
condiiilor de circulaie, sigurana cetenilor etc.).
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n timp a clasei de iluminat prin micorarea valorilor medii ale luminanei sau
iluminrii corespunztoare clasei de iluminat normal. [3]
Aplicarea clasei de iluminat adaptiv trebuie fcut astfel nct s nu fie
afectate cerinele de calitate asupra crora nu se intervine n mod direct. Astfel,
prin micorarea fluxului luminos al tuturor lmpilor n aceeai proporie nu sunt
afectate uniformitatea luminanei i a iluminrii sau contrastul obiectelor, dar
crete pragul de contrast. Pe de alt parte, reducerea nivelului de luminan sau
iluminare prin deconectarea unor corpuri de iluminat i pstrarea n funciune a
celorlalte nu este recomandat, pentru c aceast metod are ca efect
modificarea inadmisibil a celorlalte cerine de calitate (uniformitate, orbire,
poluare luminoas).
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3
Aplicabil n situaia n care suprafaa carosabil este umed o perioad mare a nopii i
exist date despre reflectana suprafeei carosabile n aceste condiii
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4
Aplicabil n situaia n care sarcinile vizuale luate n considerare pentru sistemele de
iluminat rutier de trafic motorizat (clasele M) sunt importante
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5
Pentru asigurarea uniformitii, valoarea actual a iluminrii medii meninute nu va depi
de 1,5 ori valoarea indicat pentru clasa respectiv n tabel.
Un indice bun sau foarte bun de redare a culorii (Ra) este mai favorabil pentru recunoaterea
facial dect un indice Ra mic sau mediu.
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P1 20
P2 25
P3 25
P4 30
P5 30
P6 35
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7. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[3]. Commission Internationale de lEclairage: CIE 115: 2010 Lighting of Roads for
Motor and Pedestrian Traffic, 2010
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Rezumat
Abstract
The paper will present the environmental impact assessment procedure, the changes of
technical solutions induced by its evolution and efficient methods for environmental
evaluation, in order to obtain environmental approval.
As databases dedicated to monitoring environmental works, for infrastructure projects,
are missing, each project includes additional costs for monitoring these works and the
assessment of the environmental protection measures effectiveness is applied between six
months and one year.
Therefore, the efficient environmental management for infrastructure projects is
essential, in order to ensure an optimal development of the environmental impact assessment
procedure.
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1. INTRODUCERE
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4. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1] *** Hotrrea Guvernului nr. 445 din 13 iulie 2009 privind evaluarea impactului
anumitor proiecte publice i private asupra mediului, 2009.
[2] *** Ordinul nr. 135 din 10 februarie 2010 privind aprobarea Metodologiei de aplicare a
evaluarii impactului supra mediului pentru proiecte publice si private, 2010.
[3] *** Ordinul Nr. 19 din 13 ianuarie 2010 pentru aprobarea Ghidului metodologic privind
evaluarea adecvat a efectelor poteniale ale planurilor sau proiectelor asupra ariilor
naturale protejate de interes comunitar, 2010.
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Diana Elena Neculescu, ing. expert evaluator de mediu, S.C. CONSITRANS S.R.L.,
e-mail: necsulescu.diana@yahoo.com
Rezumat
Pe teritoriul rii noastre au fost declarate o serie de arii protejate, incluse n reeaua
ecologic european Natura 2000, ns pn n acest moment, n ciuda obligaiei legale, nu au
fost identificate i descrise n cadrul unui normativ special, conexiunile dintre acestea,
cunoscute sub denumirea de coridoare ecologice.
Lipsa acestor informaii a condus la costuri suplimentare, durat mai mare de derulare
a evalurilor de mediu pentru drumuri i studii suplimentare de evaluare a biodiversitii.
Lucrarea i propune s prezinte problemele actuale i msuri recomandate pentru
evaluarea eficient a coridoarelor ecologice afectate de proiecte de infrastructur.
Abstract
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Din pcate, abia dupa declararea reelei ecologice au fost observate o serie
de probleme de definire i manageriere a lor, cea mai important fiind lipsa
legturii ntre diferite arii protejate, instituite pentru protecia acelorai specii.
Astfel, prin lipsa acestor coridoare ecologice, exist riscul ca diferite
specii periclitate s aib un areal limitat, fapt ce poate conduce n timp la
izolarea lor, la apariia unor diferenieri genetice ireversibile si la extincia
speciilor datorit izolrii lor de zonele de hrnire sau reproducere.
La nivelul rii noastre, procedura de evaluare adecvat este cea prin care
se asigur evaluarea impactului asupra asupra speciilor i habitatelor protejate,
in care este inclusa si analiza msurilor compensatorii. Procedura de evaluare
adecvat nu definete clar etapele pentru evaluarea impactului asupra
coridoarelor ecologice, fapt care se datoreaz lipsei studiilor specifice pentru
identificarea coridoarelor, mai ales c din punct de vedere legislativ nu exist un
normativ tehnic, pentru identificarea acestor culoare si stabilirea msurilor de
protecie.
Problematica fragmentrii habitatelor, din perspectiva necesitii de
pstrare a coridoarelor ecologice, a fost studiat la nivel european n cadrul
studiilor Ageniei Europene pentru Protecia Mediului (EEA) i a programelor
de cooperare privind protecia mediului. Astfel n urma studiilor i implicrii
multor state, printre care i Romnia, a fost elaborat ghidul de Fragmentare a
habitatelor cauzat de infrastructura de transport - COST 341. Acesta este pn n
prezent singurul document acceptat la nivel european cu privire la problematica
fragmentrii habitatelor, incluznd msuri de reducere a fragmentrii, cu
identificarea unor lucrri optime, adaptate la caracteristicile speciilor int.
n acest ghid privind fragmentarea habitatelor se subliniaz c fiecare
soluie constructiv adoptat trebuie nsoit de msuri complementare de
realizare, adaptate n funcie de legislaia naional, de relieful zonei alese pentru
implementarea soluiei de tip ecoduct sau viaduct, astfel nct s se asigure
funcionalitatea lucrrii tehnice alese.
Aceste msuri trebuie analizate i adaptate mai ales n cazul unor proiecte
noi, deoarece acestea sunt printre primele cauze ce genereaz bariere ireversibile
pentru diferite specii, dac nu sunt analizate i incluse n realizarea lor a
msurilor de reducere a impactului, implementate nc din etapa de
prefezabilitate sau din cea de fezabilitate.
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n cazuri rare, atunci cand cnd proiectul este de importan strategic sau
cnd nu exist nici o alt variant din punct de vedere tehnic, iar impactul direct
asupra coridorului ecologic nu poate fi redus la un nivel acceptabil pentru
meninerea permeabilitii pentru speciile int, se vor analiza i adopta msuri
compensatorii.
n procesul de proiectare al ecoductelor i viaductelor, urmtoarele criterii
sunt recomandate:
evitarea nc din etapele iniiale de dezvoltare a traseului, a zonelor cu specii
i habitate protejate, pentru a se pstra conectivitatea deja existent.
alegerea unui traseu care s urmareasc relieful zonei i s necesite lucrri de
excavare ct mai mici.
utilizarea materialelor i a speciilor vegetale care s asigure utilizarea
ecoductului sau viaductului.
stabilirea unui program de ntreinere a coridorului ecologic.
De asemenea, trebuie avut n vedere ca mpreun cu soluia constructiv
de tipul viaduct sau ecoduct, analiza msurilor i lucrrilor complementare cum
ar fi: panouri fonoabsorbante din materiale naturale, amenajare peisagistic cu
specii de arbori i arbuti endogeni i mpduriri locale la baza lucrrilor, pentru
direcionarea speciilor ctre zona de traversare.
Un alt aspect important este corelarea recomandrilor privind lucrrile de
permeabilitate cu planurile de management ale ariilor protejate, astfel nct s se
asigure limitarea i chiar interzicerea unor activiti cu impact antropic n zona
amplasamentului ecoductului sau viaductului
3. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2] *** Ordinul Nr. 19 din 13 ianuarie 2010 pentru aprobarea Ghidului metodologic
privind evaluarea adecvat a efectelor poteniale ale planurilor sau proiectelor
asupra ariilor naturale protejate de interes comunitar, 2010.
964
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Elena Otilia Prlea, carh. urb, drd. ing., UTCB, Facultatea de Ci ferate, Drumuri i Poduri,
e-mail: otiliapirlea@yahoo.com
Gabriel Ispas, ef de lucrri dr. ing., UTCB, Facultatea de Inginerie a Instalaiilor,
e-mail: isgagh@gmail.com
Rezumat
Aceast lucrare descrie o nou metod care are ca efect mbuntirea sistemelor de
iluminat i a confortului vizual pentru un sens giratoriu. Sensul giratoriu reprezint o zon de
conflict din ce n ce mai des ntlnit n proiectele de drumuri i se definete att prin viteze
de deplasare mari n comparaie cu vitezele specifice altor tipuri de intersecii, ct i printr-o
gravitate redus a accidentelor auto.
Sistemele de iluminat convenionale utilizate n sensurile giratorii se bazeaz pe
utilizarea unui numr relativ mare de corpuri de iluminat dispuse pe stlpi cu nlimi mari (de
obicei peste 8 m), acest soluie reprezentnd o variant costisitoare att din punct de vedere al
investiiei, ct i al exploatrii (n mod special al energiei electrice consumate).
Prin implementarea conceptului de ecoluminan pentru sistemele de iluminat
destinate sensurilor giratorii, este de ateptat ca investiia s nu depeasc costurile unui
sistem de iluminat clasic, n timp ce costul energiei electrice consumate s fie doar de un sfert
din cel ce caracterizeaz soluia clasic, economie ce se suprapune peste impactul redus
asupra mediului nconjurtor (micorarea polurii luminoase din zon este evident).
Din punct de vedere vizual, laturile drumului i aleile devin mai vizibile dect n
situaia n care s-ar folosi un sistem de iluminat clasic, n aceleai condiii de vitez i
vizibilitate.
n concluzie, utilizarea n practic a conceptului de ecoluminan permite
proiectanilor i deintorilor de drumuri s integreze vegetaia i sistemul de iluminat,
reducnd n acelai timp consumul de energie i micornd impactul sistemului de iluminat
asupra mediului nconjurtor.
Abstract
This paper deals with a new method of improving lighting systems and visual comfort
for a roundabout (also called traffic circle), a well-known area of traffic conflicts, defined
both by increased traffic speeds (compared to the speeds in other types of crossroads) and a
reduced severity of automobile accidents.
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1. GENERALITI
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a.
b.
Figura 2. Intersecie cu sens giratoriu: a. cu insul central artizanal i fr
sistem de iluminat, realizat la intersecia DN7 cu DJ60; b. cu insul central
rigid i sistem de iluminat incorect realizat, realizat la intersecia DN7 cu
DN71
968
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a. b.
Figura 4. Simularea cu programul Dialux a sistemului de iluminat convenional
pentru sensul giratoriu de la intersecia DN1A cu str. Macului, ora Buftea, jud.
Ilfov: a. imagine fotorealist 3D; b. reproducere n culori false (alb i culorile
calde corespund nivelurilor mari de iluminare, iar cele reci, nivelurilor mici)
972
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a. b.
Figura 5. Simularea cu programul Dialux a sistemului de iluminat bazat pe
conceptul de ecoluminan pentru sensul giratoriu de la intersecia DN1A cu
str. Macului, ora Buftea, jud. Ilfov: a. imagine fotorealist 3D; b. reproducere n
culori false (alb i culorile calde corespund nivelurilor mari de iluminare, iar
cele reci, nivelurilor mici)
973
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a. b.
c. d.
Figura 6. Specii de plante pentru dispunere perimetral n insula central [3]
974
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a. b.
Figura 7. Corpuri de iluminat utilizate la sistemele de iluminat bazate pe
conceptul de ecoluminan: a. tip ELBA Wall Washer LED 15x1 W arh. ext.;
b. tip ELBA RONDO-01-35W sticl striat
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5. CONCLUZII
Se observ c insula central este mult mai bine conturat, ghidajul vizual
este mult mbuntit i consumul energetic strict pentru sensul giratoriu se
reduce de la 2760 W la 1372 W (adic aproximativ 50%).
Dac se iau n considerare i arterele rutiere ce converg n intersecie,
atunci consumul energetic total se reduce de la 4957 W la 2771 W, ceea ce
nseamn aproximativ 44%.
BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Jan Valentin, Assistant professor, Ing. Ph.D., Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical
University in Prague, e-mail: jan.valentin@fsv.cvut.cz;
Petr Mondschein, Assistant professor, Ing. Ph.D., Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech
Technical University in Prague, e-mail: petr.mondschein@fsv.cvut.cz;
Josef k, Ph.D. student, Ing., Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in
Prague, e-mail: josef.zak@fsv.cvut.cz
Abstract
Traffic noise is a constant problem especially in dense developed regions and urban
areas. Road administrators and road owners fight with it every day. Rolling noise created at
the contact of a tyre and the pavement surface dominates at speeds of 40 km/h and higher
depending on vehicle type. It can be reduced by using special acoustic asphalt mixes. This
paper presents a brief overview of technologies which are mainly derived from the German
and French experience. First results from the experimental design of these mixes are
presented further. These mixes and used binders were prepared and optimized at the
Department of Road Structures of the Faculty of Civil Engineering, CTU in Prague during lst
two years. It also gives a description of the laboratory measurement of sound absorption of
asphalt mixtures using the impedance tube. The objective of this measurement on laboratory
samples is its real ability of predicting rolling noise reduction.
1. GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
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noise reduction effect in wearing courses may be achieved by higher air voids
contents of the compacted asphalt layer or by a suitable choice of the pavement
surface texture, or, in an ideal case, by the combination of both of these factors.
As experience e.g. in Germany, France or the Netherlands has manifested, the
noise level reduction may be kept in the range of 4-7 dB(A) for a period of 8 to
10 years in the case of acoustic surface solutions. For new generations of porous
asphalt mixes, the noise reduction by up to 8 dB(A) may even be assumed.
Nevertheless if regular cleaning and clogging avoiding is not secured the
acoustic life-time is short.
If we realize the fact that the reduction of the noise level by at least 5
dB(A) corresponds to the reduction of the subjective perception of noise by
population by 50 %, the above technical solutions, in combination with other
anti-noise measures, offer a high-quality technological tool for limiting the
negative aspect of noise pollution. In this respect, however, it must be constantly
kept in mind that the application of modified wearing courses may only be
justified if the following general assumptions are simultaneously considered:
as confirmed by the latest experience, the noise arising at the contact of a tyre
and the pavement surface (rolling noise) only becomes dominant at speeds
between 40 and 50 km/h, the application of acoustic surfaces must be chosen
based on the traffic volumes, vehicle speed, traffic flow regime (deceleration,
acceleration), the number of signs of utilities;
in implementing individual technologies of mainly wearing courses, all-year
climatic conditions must always be taken into account as well;
the air voids content of the asphalt mix should not be overestimated, but, on
the contrary, a balance between the air voids content and the surface texture
parameter must be sought;
in the case of asphalt layers, adequate care must be taken in choosing
appropriate asphalt binders (higher elasticity, higher adhesion, homogeneity and
lower susceptibility to faster ageing) and aggregates (with respect to a frequently
different composition of the mix skeleton and the need to reach the best possible
durability of the mix);
in the case of noise reducing modifications, efforts aimed at the cheapest
solutions must be disregarded in favour of the consistent observation of
technological procedures and discipline. For, in this case, the saying what is
cheap, is high-quality and good, does not hold true for the acoustic asphalt
mixes solutions more than ever. In asphalt technologies, the application of
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80 80
Noise level of passing personal car [dB(A)]
70 70
65 65
60 60
55 55
36 km/h 57 km/h
50 50
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
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The composition of the aggregate mix affects the elevated values of the
air voids content of the mixtures if compared with the air voids contents of
traditional AC or SMA mixtures.
Table 3 presents the basic volumetric parameters of the designed
mixtures. The ranges of air voids contents are prescribed for asphalt mixtures of
SMA LA type, see Table 2. The demand for the minimum amount of the
bitumen is prescribed by the value of 6.6 % of the asphalt mixture weight. The
air voids contents of the mixture are higher against the air voids contents of
traditional SMA mixtures. For the SMA LA mixture with the maximum particle
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size of 8 mm, it should range between 10 - 12 %, while for the mixture with the
maximum particle size of 5 mm the air voids content should be 8 - 11 %. The air
voids content of the laid layer should range between 10 - 15 %. The minimum
compaction rate is 97 %.
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The mixtures were subjected to the test of the asphalt mix resistance to
water effects using two methods, although this test is not prescribed for this
type, or the testing procedure parameters that should be met by the asphalt
mixture are not defined. In order to identify the mixtures resistance to water
effects the standard procedure defined in the SN EN 12697-12 and the
modified procedure defined in AASHTO T 283 [2] (water sensitivity test with
one freeze-thaw cycle) were used. The testing procedure pursuant to [2] is
expressed by the strength ratio of a group of test specimens which are left in
laboratory conditions and a group of test specimens which are saturated with
water for 10 minutes, subsequently put in a bag with 10 ml of water and placed
in frost for 24 hours; the specimens are then taken out of the bag and placed in a
water bath at a temperature of 60C for 24 hours.
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Comparing the test procedures we may state that the resulting values of
both resistances are comparable for the mixes with the maximum particle size of
5 mm, while for the mixes with the maximum particle size of 8 mm the
European testing method (SN EN 12697-12) exerts greater stresses on the
mixtures.
In the tests of the resistance of asphalt mixes to permanent deformations
and in the identification of their stiffness, the mixtures with the rubber-modified
bituminous binder performed better. The presumed greater noise reduction of
the mixes with rubberized bitumen is supported by their greater stiffness and
greater resistance to rutting.
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3. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
[2]. VALENTIN J., et al.: Professional Report on the Sequence of Works and Achieved
Results for 2012, TA02030639 project, Durable Acoustic Asphalt Layers
Implementing High-Performance Rubber Microgranulate-Modified Bituminous
Binders, including an Innovative Technology of its Grinding, January 2013.
986
SECIUNEA B. Poduri/ Section B. Bridges
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Polidor Bratu, Prof., PhD, Dipl. Eng., Dr. h. c., ICECON S.A., e-mail: icecon@icecon.ro
Ovidiu Vasile, Lect., PhD, Dipl. Eng., ICECON S.A., e-mail: ovidiu.vasile@icecon.ro
Rezumat
Abstract
The paper addresses the behavior of a rigid solid with various structural symmetries.
These symmetries allow the simplification of computations (equations of motion) and, thus,
also of the mathematical models. If the rigid solid is connected to the structure through four
elastic links, the model still remains simple and easy to solve by decomposing the vibrations
into four subsystems of motion: side slipping and rolling, forward motion and pitching, lifting
motion, gyration.
In the end, a case study is presented for the modal analysis of a viaduct, modeled as a
rigid solid, elastically supported, on the Transilvania highway at km 29+602.75 m.
The mathematical modeling uses the physical model of the rigid solid
with six degrees of freedom (6DOF) with a finite number of viscous-elastic
bearings. Dimensional and inertial characteristics of the rigid solid and
rheological characteristics of the bearings (stiffness and damping) can be
experimentally determined by direct measurements and by static and/or dynamic
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Considering that the rigid solid has a vertical axis of symmetry (mass
distribution, geometrical configuration, bearings disposal) and the coordinate
system is central and principal, the inertia matrix is diagonal.
z
kiy
Mi y
kix
kiz
x
Figure 1. Elastic triorthogonal bearing
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k ix 0 0 0 k ix z i 0
0
k iy 0 k iy z i 0 0
0 0 k iz 0 0 0
C
0 k iy z i 0
k iy z i2 k iz y i2 0 0
(5)
k z 0 0 0
k iz xi2 k ix z i2 0
ix i
0 0 0 0 0 k ix y i2 k iy xi2
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k ix k iy k iz
pX pY pZ (10a)
m m m
for the pulsations of the no coupled movements of rotation
p x
k iy zi2 kiz yi2 p y
k iz xi2 k ix zi2
Jx Jy
p z
k ix yi2 k iy xi2 (10b)
Jz
the dynamic coupling terms for the X , y and Y , x subsystems
1 1
1 m k ix z i 1
k iy z i
m
1 1 (11)
2 k ix z i 2 k iy z i
Jy Jx
Considering the relations (10) and (11), the natural pulsations and the
eigenvalues of the decoupled subsystems can be determinate with the next
calculus formula:
a) for the subsystem X , y
1 2 2
p1,2 p X p2 p 2X p2 4 1 2 (12)
2 y y
1 2 2
1,2 p X p2 p 2X p2 4 1 2 (13)
2 1 y y
b) for the subsystem Y , x
1 2 2
p 3 ,4 pY p 2 pY2 p 2 4
1 2 (14)
2 x x
1 2 2
3 ,4 pY p 2 pY2 p2 41 2 (15)
21 x x
Figure 2 shows elevation and the plan view for a bridge made from
twenty reinforced concrete beams jointed through a 300 mm thickness
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reinforced concrete plate. Each beam is beared on the piers and on the abutments
of the bridge through four identically viscous-elastic supports made from
neoprene; there a total number of eighty neoprene bearings for the entire bridge.
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Table 3. Natural pulsations and frequencies (on the six degrees of dynamic
freedom)
Arch of the viaduct p [rad/s] 7.13 7.13 102.39 167.67 97.83 11.30
(4 beams) f [Hz] 1.13 1.13 16.30 26.69 15.60 1.80
Viaduct p [rad/s] 7.13 7.13 102.39 105.49 97.83 7.34
(20 beams) f [Hz] 1.13 1.13 16.30 16.79 15.60 1.17
Using the relations (10), the natural pulsations p and the natural
frequencies f of the uncoupled vibrations for the six degrees of dynamic
freedom are shown in the table 3.
The figures from table 4 show the values of the natural pulsations and
frequencies and of the eigenvalues for the decoupled subsystems (with coupled
movements) for a bridge section (arche) composed from four U beams as in
figure 4 and figure 5.
13,2m
z
x C
As it can see, there are the same values for pulsations and frequencies like
in table 3. That means, the movements inside the subsystems X , y and Y , x
are very weak coupled, almost uncoupled.
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13200
1700
C2 C C3 C4
C1
1650 1650
4950 4950
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The figures from table 5 show the values of the natural pulsations and
frequencies and of the eigenvalues for the decoupled subsystems (with coupled
movements) for the entire bridge composed from five sections (arches)
considered being identical as in figure 3.
As for the arches, the movements inside the subsystems with coupled
movements X , y and Y , x of the viaduct are very weak coupled, almost
uncoupled.
4. CONCLUSIONS
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15.616.3 Hz and the 6-th frequency being much more bigger (26.69 Hz); this
grouping of frequencies and the big differences between the values of domains
limits can be explained by the significant differences between the bearings
stiffness on vertical axis Cz (compression effort) and on horizontal plane xCy
(shear efforts);
e) analyzing the values from table 5 (for the entire bridge), we can find a
group of three natural frequencies in the domain 1.11.2 Hz and another three in
the domain 15.616.8 Hz; in this case of simulation, the pitch movement x of
the viaduct, which is almost decoupled from the forward-back movement Y ,
has a natural frequency more smaller than the pitch movement of a single arch
because of a bigger value of the moment of inertia J x mainly.
REFERENCES
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Polidor Bratu, Prof., PhD, Dipl. Eng., Dr. h. c., ICECON S.A., e-mail: icecon@icecon.ro
Mircea Clin, Prof., PhD, Dipl. Eng.
Ctlin Bohlea, Dipl. Eng.
Florin Popescu, Dipl. Eng., ICECON S.A., e-mail: florin.popescu@icecon.ro
Rezumat
Abstract
The test on stand is presented for the beam of 37 m length, 2.8 m height and 3.2m
width made of prestressed reinforced concrete, located on the building site, working point
Gilu, near Cluj Napoca. Thus, through successive tests, the point displacements,
deformations and cracks generated by the tension state were determined.
Finally, the intended purpose was reaching the state of collapse. When exceeding 30%
of the maximum deflection, the structural system reaches the zone of plastic behavior, without
the tendency of the exterior forces to increase.
1. TEST CONDITIONS
The prestressed bridge beam under test has a closed section (consisting of
prefabricated beam section U and monolithic plate) and an opening of 37.10 m
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The beam has been tested for bending under static load and by non-
destructive and destructive methods, application levels corresponding to limit
state of normal operation, ultimate limit states and tear.
The test method regarding load application, loading and unloading steps
and parameters to be followed was in accordance with STAS 12313-85,
respectively, the test load scheme (figure. 3 - position and values) was presented
by IPTANA S. A.
The test was performed on the test stand realized by Bechtel International
Inc. SRL Reno, Nevada USA - Branch Cluj-Napoca, inside Svdisla site (see
Figures. 1 and 2) from 15 to 18 September 2008, under an average air
temperature of 11 C and a relative air humidity of 80%.
A B C D E
18.051 18.051
50 50
37.102
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FC-Vest FC-Est
Figure 8. Load measuring point for transverse beam/ Hydraulic pump presure
gauge/ Neopren bearing Displacement measurement
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ST4-Vest ST4-Vest
ST3-Vest ST3-Vest
59
ST2-Vest ST2-Vest
59
CL2
ST1-Vest ST1-Vest
CL1
8
ST0
28
Figure 11. Wire reel comparators / C section/ End zone strain gauge
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3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
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0,76 mm 0,55 mm
K r' 0,02 0,10
10,73 mm
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Normal cracks, longitudinal and tilted were initiated in both the operating
load cycle stage I (C1 and C2), so:
'f 0,0 mm
Given that:
The maximum load reached was Pe = 1533 kN breaking load greater than
estimated by calculus (Pc = 1490.76 kN);
At this maximum displacement was fe = 403.5 mm;
Cracks routes indicate a future failure by yielding the reinforcement,
compressed or stretched;
Actual breaking load (Sr) is higher than that achieved experimentally (Se)
and than calculated (Src);
Total displacement at breaking strength (FTR) is greater than the
experimentally achieved displacement (Fe) and than the admissible one
(L0/100);
Reserve load capacity coefficient satisfies the admissibility condition.
In conclusion, the prestressed bridge beams tested (figure 13), with
closed section (consisting of prefabricated beam section U and monolithic
plate), at the opening of L = 37.10 m, meet the criteria for eligibility.
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REFERENCES
[3] STAS 12313-85: Rail and road bridges. Bench test of precast concrete, reinforced
concrete and prestressed concrete, 1985
[7]. P. BRATU: Evaluarea pe stand a capacitatii de rezistenta a grinzii din beton armat
si precomprimat destinate viaductelor autostrazii Transilvaniaal XIII-lea Congres
National de Drumuri si Poduri Poiana Brasov, 15-17 septembrie 2010
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Polidor Bratu, Prof., PhD, Dipl. Eng., Dr. h. c., ICECON S.A., e-mail: icecon@icecon.ro
Ovidiu Vasile, Lect., PhD, Dipl. Eng., ICECON S.A., e-mail: ovidiu.vasile@icecon.ro
Rezumat
Abstract
The test method at repeated loads generated by artificial thresholds placed on the
running track at the passing of 40t dump trucks is presented. The tests were conducted for
multiple steps of velocity as well as multiple heights of the passing thresholds. Thus, the
elastic deformations as well as the stiffness displacements of the viaduct were checked.
The vibrations of the bridge were caused by passing with different speeds
of a forty tons truck over an obstacle mounted on the bridge surface. The
experimental data were acquainted on three channels (accelerations on the axis
x, y and z) by a four channel data acquisition interface from National Instrument
(NI 9233) through the USB port of a PC workstation. In Romania, the
legislation in force provides that some experimental tests have to proceed to
verify the structural behavior under static and dynamic loads from traffic before
putting into operation of the new road bridges.
The results are centralized in a database that allows processing of
information by using various analytical techniques for checking, adjusting and
expanding set of design assumptions for calculating. A complete analysis should
include every stage of the dynamic process.
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In order to test the reinforced concrete bridges on the dynamic loads from the
traffic, Romanian standards provide the technical parameters of the impact
between the structure of the bridge and the loaded axle of the truck. Figure 1
shows the simplified model of a 40 tons truck with four axles used to
experimental test in site.
The principle of theoretical method of the impact forces calculation is to
evaluate individual percussion impacts resulting between each wheel axle of the
truck and the obstacle of height h from the surface of the bridge. In this instance,
the mathematical basis is obtained using our classical collision problem, where
in fact we are interested by percussion gear. The loading and dimensional
characteristics of the truck are: G1=72 kN, G2=72 kN, G3=129 kN, and
G4=129 kN; d1=2 m, d2=2,5 m and d3=1,5 m, and is shown in Figure 1.
vo
G2 G1
G4 G3
d3 d2 d1
The figure 2 shows the calculus sketch of the impact percussions on point
B, on normal direction Pn and on tangential direction Pt .
Mm
0
y
vo
Pt
C
Pn x
B
A
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Considering the radius of the wheels of the truck R 600mm , the figures
from table 2 show the values of the percussion forces between the front axle of
the truck ( m m1 7440 kg ) and the standardized obstacle with h 40mm , for
different transport speeds. The values for the forces were calculated for the
speeds of the truck: 10 km/h, 20 km/h, 30 km/h and 50 km/h. All values from
Table 1 were calculated on the hypothesis of constant speeds v0 , no traction (
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Note that the increasing impact time with 0.01 s, wich means is actually
lower speed of the truck, the values of impact forces are reduced by half.
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4. CONCLUSIONS
where:
fj vibration frequency of order j;
- logarithmic decrement;
- fraction of critical damping;
effective values (RMS) of amplitude displacements (from
displacement spectrum).
From the Table 2, we can conclude that:
the significant accelerations are on vertical direction
the dynamic response of the viaduct is on the natural frequencies grouped
around: 1.0 Hz, 2.27 Hz, 4.18 Hz, 2.64 Hz and 4.20 Hz;
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REFERENCES
[3]. "Railway bridges, viaducts and walhways. Testing of superstructures with test
actions", http://www.asro.ro STAS 12504-86/1986
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Polidor Bratu, Prof., PhD, Dipl. Eng., Dr. h. c., ICECON S.A., e-mail: icecon@icecon.ro
Ovidiu Vasile, Lect., PhD, Dipl. Eng., ICECON S.A., e-mail: ovidiu.vasile@icecon.ro
Patricia Murzea, Assit. Prof., PhD, Dipl. Eng., e-mail: patricia.murzea@icecon.ro
Rezumat
Lucrarea prezint comportarea unui viaduct la aciuni dinamice externe provenite din
traficul rutier i din posibile micri seismice. Se descrie modelul rigidului cu legturi
vscoelastice triortogonale ce schematizeaz aparatele de reazem din neopren, cu ase grade
de libertate dinamic. Sunt deduse modelele matematice ce descriu dinamica solidului rigid cu
numr finit de legturi discrete, precum i modelele simplificate rezultate ca urmare a lurii n
considerare a simetriilor structurale i dimensionale, iar micrile cuplate se decupleaz.
De asemenea, sunt prezentate expresiile analitice ale pulsaiilor, frecvenelor i
vectorilor proprii, punndu-se astfel n eviden influena caracteristicilor ineriale i
structurale asupra acestora.
Abstract
The paper addresses the behavior of the viaduct at exterior dynamic actions resulting
from road traffic and/or seismic motions. Thus, the model of a rigid body with six degrees of
freedom is presented, having triorthogonal viscoelastic connections representing the neoprene
support devices. Mathematical models which describe the dynamic of the rigid solid body
with a finite number of discrete connections are presented, as well as simplified models which
result from taking into consideration the structural and dimensional symmetries. The
decoupling of some coupled motions is put into evidence.
Also, the analytical expressions of the eigenpulsations and eigenvectors are derived, thus
highlighting the influence of the inertial and structural characteristics on the vibration
eignemodes.
1. INTRODUCTION
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have the purpose to define and express the parametric values of the physico-
mechanical characteristics for the finite elastomeric products, i.e. on the full-
scale. From the elastomeric products category, with role of visco-elastic or
hysteretic supporting for bridges, viaducts, buildings, are one of the bearings and
anti-seismic devices, known in the speciality literature as elastomeric insulators
LDRB, HDRB. The test cycles have low frequencies, from 0,15 Hz to 3,0 Hz
as a rule, with significant values to 0,5 Hz and 1,0 Hz. The applied exterior
action is the momentary displacement laid down by the law xt A0 sin t which
constitutes the kinematic excitation through harmonic displacement. The
response of the visco-elastic or hysteretic system, without mass, is given by the
momentary reaction Qt k xt c x t , where k is the coefficient of constant
stiffness, and c is the constant viscous damping factor. In this study the calculus
relations of the response parameters, both for the Voigt-Kelvin visco-elastic
model and for the hysteretic model, are presented. Thus, the characteristic
curves are plotted highlighting the differences between the two models and in
case of the appropriate elastomeric insulators.
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shearing (see Figure 1.c). The bench test is carried out by means of two identical
insulators mounted symmetrically, parallel for the shearing stress. The normal
0
compression, which is done by a force application F z , big enough for the
uniform straining of the elastomeric layers to z axis direction, is important. In
figure 2 the assembly scheme for the kinematic excitation test is presented.
Fz
x
Fz Fx
z
H0 H0
H H
a) b) c)
Figure 1. Elastomeric insulator
0
Fz
2
1 M
3
t
Fx* N
O
x
*x x A0 sin t 1
4 OM MN A0
2
0
Fz a)
c 2
x A0 sin t
k 2
Qt
k 2
c 2
b)
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which is guided through the sliding couples 4. The reaction force Qt equal and
counter-current with the force Fx of the rigid element 3, is measured by a force
cell Fx , and the deformation x is measured by an inductive transducer x .
* *
The scheme of the symmetrical Voigt-Kelvin system is shown in the figure 2.b),
where k 2 , c 2 are the constants of one insulator, and Qt is the total reaction
force, equivalent to the two insulators which emerges at the applied kinematic
excitation.
a) Visco-elastic force
x2
If we substitute cos t 1 sin 2 t 1 , then we will have
A02
x
x A0 1 , what will lead to the final form for Qt , thus:
A02
x2
Qt kxt cA0 1 (2)
A02
The expression as against the trigonometric functions from the relation
number (1) can be written as follows:
cA0 cos t kA0 sin t Q0 sin t or cA0 cos t kA0 sin t Q0 sin t cos Q0 cos t sin
whence by the identification of the trigonometric functions factors with the same
name, we obtain:
Q 0 cos kA0
(3)
Q 0 sin cA0
From relation (3) the following relations result:
c
tg k
Q A k 2 c 2 2
0 0 (4)
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i.e. the momentary visco-elastic force, according to the Voigt-Kelvin model can
be expressed as follows:
c
Qt A0 k 2 c 2 2 sin t arctg (5)
k
b) Dissipated energy
c) Dissipated power
The dissipated power is obtained from formula (6), for a complete cycle,
as follows:
WdVK WdVK
PdVK or
T 2
cA02
PdVK whence
2
1
PdVK c 2 A02 (7)
2
d) Equivalent damping
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H H
n2 x
n1 x
A A
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*1
for 0,5 Hz and c1 = 60 kN.s/m;
*2
for 0,5 Hz and c2 = 200 kN.s/m;
*1
for 0,5 Hz and c3 = 450 kN.s/m;
The kinematic excitation parameters for the digital simulation are: A0 = 0,08 m;
f = 0,5 Hz 4 Hz . The parameters of elasticity and dissipation are appropriate
to the anti-seismic device (insulator) IAS/II and they were established as
follows: kx = 1,5 kN/mm; c = 0,25.105 Ns/m 4,0.105 Ns/m.
The figure 4 shows, the reaction force variation Q0 Q0 as against the
pulsation / frequency f (see Figure 4.a), and the force Q0 Q0 x as against the
momentary displacement x (see Figure 4.b) i.e. the hysteresis loops, all being
parametrized depending on the viscozity factor, c.
x 10
5 Qv0 = Qv0 (f,c) 5 Qcin = Qv (x,c)
x 10 v
9
2.5
8 c 1=0.25*105 Ns/m 2
6
c 3=1.75*105 Ns/m
c 4=2.50*105 Ns/m
c 1
c
0.5
c 1=0.25*105 Ns/m
[N]
Qv [N]
5 c 5=3.25*105 Ns/m
0
c 2=1.00*105 Ns/m
0
Qcin
v
c 6=4.00*105 Ns/m
4 -0.5
c 3=1.75*105 Ns/m
-1
3 c 4=2.50*105 Ns/m
-1.5
c 5=3.25*105 Ns/m
2
-2
1 -2.5
c c 6=4.00*105 Ns/m
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 -0.08 -0.06 -0.04 -0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
f [Hz] x [m]
a. b.
Figure 4. Reaction force variation
5 W cin
v
= W cin
v
(A 0,c) 5 W cin
v
= W cin
v
(f,c)
x 10 x 10
8 2.5
c 1=0.25*105 Ns/m
7
5
c 1=0.25*10 Ns/m c 2=1.00*105 Ns/m
2
6 c 3=1.75*105 Ns/m
c 2=1.00*105 Ns/m
c 4=2.50*105 Ns/m
5 c 3=1.75*105 Ns/m
1.5 c
[J]
c 5=3.25*105 Ns/m
[J]
5
c 4=2.50*10 Ns/m
W cin
4
c
Wcin
v
5
v
c 6=4.00*10 Ns/m
c 5=3.25*105 Ns/m
3 1
c 6=4.00*105 Ns/m
2
0.5
1
0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
A0 [m] f [Hz]
a. b.
Figure 5. Dissipated energy
The figure 5 shows the dissipated energy as against A0, i.e. Wd Wd A0
(see figure 5.a), or as against the pulsation / frequency f (figure 5.b).
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Pcin [W]
[W]
c 3=1.75*10 Ns/m
c
v
4
v
P
1
c 4=2.50*105 Ns/m
5
c 3
c 6=4.00*105 Ns/m
c 5=3.25*10 Ns/m
c 6=4.00*105 Ns/m 2
0.5
1
0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
A 0 [m] f [Hz]
a. b.
Figure 6. Dissipated power
eq [%]
c 6=4.00*105 Ns/m
6=25 rad/s
1.5 1.5
1 1
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
c [Ns/m] x 10
5 f [Hz]
a) b)
5
eq = eq(k); pentru c=0.5*10 Ns/m
30
1=1 rad/s
25 2=5 rad/s
3=10 rad/s
20 4=15 rad/s
5=20 rad/s
[%]
15 6=25 rad/s
eq
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2
k [N/m] x 10
5
c)
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4. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
[2]. P. BRATU: Evaluation of the dissipation energy capacity inside damping systems in
neoprene elements, ICSV16, Krakov, Poland, 5-6 July, 2009.
[3]. M.J. KELLY, A.D. KONSTANTINIDIS: Mechanics of Rubber Bearings for Seismic
and Vibration Isolation, J. Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2011.
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[5]. F.F. TAJIRIAN, M.J. KELLY, D.I. AIKEN, W.VELIJOVICH: Elastomeric bearings
for three-dimensional seismic isolation, M. Procc. Conf. ASME PVP-200, Nashville,
June, 1990.
[6]. P. BRATU, A.M. MITU, O.VASILE: "Dissipation Capacity Evaluation for Neoprene
Anti-Seismic Isolators Under Harmonic Dynamic Excitations", RJAV, vol. 8 (1),
pp.67-71, ISSN 1584-7284, 2011.
[10]. P. BRATU, N. DRAGAN, O. VASILE: Analiza micrii vibratorii de corp rigid ale
viaductului pe aparate de reazem din neopren, Al XIII-lea Congres Naional de
Drumuri i Poduri, Referate i comunicri, Vol. II, pp. 185-194, ISSN 1583-820X,
Poiana Braov, 15-17 Septembrie 2010.
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Carmen Bucur, Professor, PhD, Eng., Technical University of Civil Engineering, Bucharest,
Romania, e-mail: bucurmecanica@yahoo.com
Rezumat
Fenomenul de prbuire progresiv este n acest moment unul dintre cele mai incitante
subiecte. Tot mai multe personaliti din domeniul construciilor i ndreapt preocuprile
asupra studiului acestui fenomen. Cu toii recunosc complexitatea lui i faptul c nu
ntotdeauna poate fi decelat dup un eveniment de cedare. Cauzele iniiale care pot duce la o
prbuire progresiv sunt multiple i adesea la baza unui eveniment sunt mai multe cauze
combinate. Cedarea structural nu trebuie s fie neaprat o prbuire catastrofal.
Articolul urmrete patru obiective: (i) Prezentarea fenomenului de prbuire
progresiv prin definiii, noiuni adiacente, prevederi n reglementrile tehnice actuale; (ii)
Comentarii privind unele evenimente i studii reprezentative din literatura de specialitate; (iii)
Prezentarea unor concluzii ale studiilor realizate de colective din care a fcut parte autoarea;
(iv) Propunerea unor direcii viitoare de studiu.
Abstract
The Progressive Collapse Phenomenon is, at this moment, one of the most exciting
subjects. More and more personalities from the construction sector are focusing their interests on
studying this phenomenon. Everybody acknowledges its complexity and the fact that not always
can be highlighted from a collapse phenomenon. The initial causes that can lead to a
progressive collapse are multiple and often, an event is based on several combined causes.
The structural failure isnt necessarily a catastrophic failure.
The article pursues four objectives: (i) Presentation of progressive collapse
phenomenon by definition, adjacent terms, provisions in the current technical regulations; (ii)
Comments on some events and representative studies in the literature; (iii) Presentation of
some findings of research conducted by the collective in which the author took part; (iv) The
proposal of some future directions of study
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moment marcant a fost cel al atacurilor teroriste din 11 septembrie 2001 din
Statele Unite ale Americii.
nainte de cutremur
(1) (2) (3)
Prbuirea
Detaliu A
acceleraie teren
Figura 2. Cedarea Viaductului Cypress. Mecanismul de cedare
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3. SUDII PROPRII
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4. DIRECII DE STUDIU
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1] BUCUR C., V. BUCUR V.M., LUPOAE M.: Simularea numeric a prbuirii
progresive, Revista de Sinteze de mecanica teoretica si aplicata" Volumul 1
2010, nr. 1 pp. 67-79, ISSN 2068-6331
[2] BUCUR C.: Checking Robustness for a Concrete Roadway Viaduct, Revue
Roumaine des Sciences Techniques Srie de Mcanique Applique, ISSN:0035-
4074, vol.57, nr.1, 2012. Pp. 11-25, Ed. Academiei Romne. Bucarest, 2012,
www.imsar.ro
[3] GROSS J.L., MCGUIRE W.: Progressive Collapse Resistant Design, Journal of
Structural Engineering, Vol. 109, No. 1, January 1983
[4] GLIMOUR J. R., VIRDI K. S.: Numerical modelling of the Progressive Collapse
of framed Structures as a result of impact or explosion, Symposium in Civil
Engineering Budapest, 1998
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[10] Best Practices for Reducing the Potential for Progressive Collapse in Buildings,
National Institute of Standards and Technology NIST 7396, 2007
[11] British Standards Institute, Structural Use of Steelwork in Building, Part 1: Code of
Practice for Design - Rolled and Welded Sections, BS 5950-1:2000
[12] GSA - Progressive Collapse Analysis and Design Guidelines for New Federal
Office Buildings and Major Modernization Projects - June 2003
[15] Rapoarte ale Grupului de lucru COST Action "Robustness of Structures"- Brussels,
2010
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Rezumat
Afuierea produs n jurul unui cilindru vertical ncastrat ntr-un strat de nisip a fost i
este ndelung studiat. n general, formulele de calcul rezultate sunt limitate, ca aplicabilitate,
pentru diferite situaii concrete. Deoarece afuierea local n jurul pilelor de pod este un
fenomen complex ce presupune analiza tridimensional a curgerii turbulente, abordarea
experimental a fost preferat celei analitice. n cele mai multe cazuri, ecuaiile analitice
folosite pentru estimarea afuierilor au avut ca baza de plecare rezultatele obinute n
experimentele de laborator. Dar rezultatele obinute n laborator, din studiul afuierii, pot fi
distorsionate fa de evoluia afuierii n natura. Acest lucru se ntmpl n special cnd nu se
poate asigura o similitudine exact ntre model i natur. O condiie esenial a fost msurarea
dimensiunii gropii de afuiere ct mai exact i mai usor de realizat, att n laborator, ct i n
natura. De aceea este important a se face o comparaie ntre afuierea obtinut n laborator, cu
cea masurat n natur i cu estimarea afuierii rezultat n urma unui calcul numeric.
Rezultatele obinute n laborator, corelate cu msurtorile din natur, sunt folosite ca baza de
pornire n realizarea modelului matematic.
Abstract
The scour produced around a vertical cylinder, embedded in a layer of sand, was and is
extensively studied. In general, the resulting formulas have a limited applicability. They are
use only for specific situations. Because the local scour around bridge piers is a complex
phenomenon that requires analysis of three-dimensional turbulent flow, experimental
approach was preferred to the analytical one. In most cases, the laboratory experiments results
were the start point for the analytical equations used to estimate the scour. But laboratory
results obtained from the scour study can be distorted toward scour evolution in nature. This
happens especially when you can not provide exact similarity between laboratory model and
nature. An essential condition was to measure the size of scour more accurate and easier to
achieve, both in laboratory and nature. It is therefore important to make a comparison
between scour obtained in the laboratory, the scour measured in nature around a pier of a
bridge that cross Prut River, and the estimate scour result from a computation simulation.
Laboratory results correlated with measurements of nature are used as the starting point in
developing the mathematical model.
Keywords: bridge scour, clear water, erosion, laboratory pier research, river bed
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1. INTRODUCTION
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2. EXPERIMENT DESCRIPTION
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channel.
Width of the bridge pier is bn = 3.40m. Using the scale factor, it follows
that the size of model pier is bm = 1.36cm. Particle size of channel bed used in
experiments was 0.20mm.
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it covered all three spatial directions x, y and z. Given that the area to be
scanned has a high curvature, to define object requires a large number of points
and thus a larger resolution. The area selected for scanning have limited it to a
portion of the channel where pier presences influence bed river shape. Thus,
upstream scan pier made up to 10cm and downstream, to about 40cm.
Data processing followed the scanning object. To represent 3D cloud of
points I used AutoCAD program. For each situation I extracted a stripe bounded
by two vertical planes. One is perpendicular to the longitudinal median groove
and the other is parallel to the first and located at 5 cm left in direction of water
flow.
Figure 2 is the initial state at t = 0 before starting the experiment. The
scanner was placed in the left side of channel in the direction of water flow,
about 70cm above the channel. After erosion stabilization, the scour value read
on the alignment stake attached pier was 19mm. At this moment, the channel
scan is highlighted in Figure 3.
Scour resulted reading the levels on the z-axis for points upstream of the
pier, from the area not influenced by the presence of the obstacle (-0.7505), and
points located immediately upstream of the pier (-0.7696). Point cloud
coordinates are given in meters and are reported to the local system of the
scanner. The difference between the two levels is about 19mm which is the
value of scour depth.
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haf vmp
E (4)
h vml
v mp
haf h E h (5)
v ml
af g haf h (6)
Where E is the coefficient of average overall scour that is calculated based on
average speed of water in the riverbed bridge section before scour - vmp and the
average speed of water in the main channel, calculated only on bridge section
width (faces between abutments) - vml ; h is the current depth, haf is depth after
scouring; afg is the contraction scour. It is recommended that E do not exceed
1.4 1.5 to avoid additional constructions for protection and water conduct.
Calculation of local scour around bridge piers is made in assumption that
contraction scours occurred at their maximum value calculated based on the
relation (4). Formulas for local scour are:
1/ 3
2v v 2
af 1 2.42 K f K a b 1 a if v < va
va g b
1/ 3
v2
af 2 2.42 K f K a b a if v va (7)
g b
Where b is the width of the pier at river bed level, v is the flow velocity
upstream of the pier in natural bed of the river, va is the average entrainment
velocity of bed particles corresponding to contraction scour level and g is
gravity acceleration. Kf is the coefficient that takes account of the pier form in
cross section; Ka is the coefficient taking into account the angle of incidence of
the current on the pier.
The total scour is the sum of contraction and local scour:
af tot af g af l (8)
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median line by locating a set of cross sections of river channel and areas
adjacent projection along two lines, stations and altitudes (depth) axis. Critical
velocity of entrainment for contraction scour is calculated using equation:
Vc K u y11 / 6 D50
1/ 3
(9)
Where Vc is the critical velocity above which particles of size D50 and smaller
will be transported (m / s), y1 is the average depth of flow in the main channel
or overbank area at the approach section (m), D50 is the bed material particle
size in a mixture of which 50% are smaller (m) and Ku has the value 6.19 (for SI
units) or 11.17 (for English units).
Calculation of live-bed contraction scour uses the formula:
6/7 K1
Q W1
y 2 y1 2 ; ys = y2 y0 (10)
Q1 W2
Where ys is average depth of contraction scour (m), calculated based on average
depth after scour in the contracted section (y2) and average depth before scour
(y0), the flow in channel section close of, channel width in a section close to
pier and contracted section. K1 is an exponent for mode of bed material
transport. Calculation of contraction scour for clear-water is based on formula:
3/ 7
Q22
y2 2/3 2
; ys = y2 y0 (11)
CDm W2
ys depends on the diameter of the smallest non-transportable particle in the bed
material (1.25D50 ), D50 median diameter of the bed material. The coefficient
C has the value 40 for SI units (m) and 130 for English units.
Local scour is calculated using the equation given by Colorado State
University (CSU) (Richardson, 1990) used both for live-bed and clear water.
HEC-RAS software use the formula of Dr. David Froehlich (1991) to compare
data collected from field observations. CSU equation used by HEC-RAS for
local scour is:
y s 2 K 1 K 2 K 3 K 4 0.65 y10.35 Fr10.43 (12)
Scour depth depends on K1 - correction factor depending on pier shape,
K2 - correction factor depending on the angle of attack, K3 - correction factor
depending on the state river bed, K4 - correction factor depending on particle
diameter of river bed, - pier width, y1 - current depth immediately upstream of
the bridge section (m) and FR1 - Froude number in section immediately
upstream of the bridge.
Froehlich's formula (1991) is used to compare sizes with those obtained
from measurements in situ and has the formula:
y s 0.32 a` y10.47 Fr10.22 D500.09 a
0.62
(13)
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value amount equal to results from experiments. The results provided by HEC-
RAS can be distorted because the channel dimensions are too small (centimeters
order) comparative with dimensions of a real natural course, and because the
size for which HEC-RAS provides correct results is limited to the second
decimal. Therefore it was necessary to achieve a similarity between channel and
a sector of natural course of river Prut. This sector have 78.5m length, up and
downstream the bridge, and a strip of 44.60m width, in main channel,
considered on both side of the central pier of the bridge that cross the river. In
the second case I started from this dimensions of river area, but the particle used
for riverbed was the scale sizes used on model. Using the scale factor considered
in geometric similarity, bed particle size of riverbed was d50 = 50mm. In this
case the resulting value of local scour is 4.6m, which is 1.84cm scaled to model
size (as shown in Fig. 5). This value represents 97% of the value measured in
the laboratory scour, 1.90cm respectively.
To make a comparison with the value of scour measured in nature, I
modeled the Prut river bed according to data collected in the field. Particle
diameter of riverbed is d50 = 0.09mm. For the flow with 1% insurance Q1% =
700mc/s, the total scour around central pier, located in the middle of the minor
bed, calculated with HEC-RAS program is 4.60m. For the flow recorded in
2010, for which the similarity with laboratory channel was made, Q2010 =
662mc/s, total scour is 4.54m. For the flow with 2% insurance, rate used to
dimension bridges in Romania, Q2% = 590mc/s, calculated scour is 4.42m.
Figure 6 shows velocity distribution in Prut channel and Figure 7 shows
estimated scour.
Figure 4. Scour around pier for model Figure 5. Local scour evaluation for
design the similitude between central pier of
bridge and laboratory model
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produced on the Prut River, around central pier, to reach 5.00m. Since scour
value recorded in the Prut river bed is 95% of the scour value obtained
experimentally, I consider that experimental results are conclusive and
consistent with reality. Thus, the results on scale models in laboratory can be
used as a basis for estimating the scour-scale products. Scour calculated based
on hydraulic bridges norm PD95-2002 is 3.51m, value that is about 76% of the
value measured in experiments and 71% of the measured scour in riverbed.
Numerical calculation to evaluate scour using HEC-RAS program, has led to
obtaining a local scour 4.59m, value 2% higher than measured scour in riverbed
and 6% lower than those obtained in laboratory experiments. Results enroll in
acceptable limits.
A third possibility is to compare scours obtained by numerical modeling
with topographic measurements recorded, relative to actual size and
characteristics of natural riverbed Figure 10.
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6. DISCUSSION
[6] MING ZHAO, LIANG CHENG, ZHIPENG ZANG: Experimental and numerical
investigation of local scour around a submerged vertical circular cylinder in steady
currents, Costal Engineering 57, 709-721, 2010.
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Rezumat
Multe poduri care traverseaz rurile eueaz din cauza afuierii locale ce apare n jurul
pilelor i culeilor, n timpul inundaiilor. Din cauza naturii aleatorii i a complexitii
fenomenului de afuiere general din deschiderea podului, exist incertitudini care conduc la
un risc inevitabil ce se ia n considerare la proiectarea fundaiilor podului. La nceput
investigaiile concentrate mai ales pe estimarea afuierii locale s-au bazat pe analiza
dimensional i corelarea cu datele experimentelor de laborator la scar mic. Ecuaiile
actuale i metodele de estimare a afuierii locale la poduri se bazeaz n principal pe cercetarea
de laborator. Pornind de la aceast idee experimentele iniiale au fost elaborate folosind piloni
cilindrici i lamelari. Scopul a fost de a evalua afuierea n jurul pilelor. Un scanner de nalt
precizie a fost utilizat n experimentele de laborator pentru a determina dimensiunea afuierii
care apare n jurul pilei unui pod i modificrile patului canalului din aval. Rezultatele
experimentelor sunt prezentate n lucrarea de fa.
Abstract
Many bridges crossing rivers fail due to excessive local scour around piers and
abutments during heavy floods. Because of the random nature and complexity of the overall
scouring phenomenon through the bridge opening, there are uncertainties leading to an
unavoidable risk in bridge foundations design. The early investigations concentrated mostly
on local scour estimation were based on dimensional analysis and data correlation of small-
scale laboratory experiments. The current equations and methods for estimating local scour at
bridges are based primarily on laboratory research. Starting from this idea an experimental
setup has been prepared using cylindrical and lamellar piers. The goal was to evaluate the
scour around piers. A high precision scanner used in the laboratory experiments to determine
the scour dimension that appear around a pier bridge and the downstream channel bed
modifications. The results of the experiments are presented in the present paper.
Keywords: bridge scour, clear water, erosion, laboratory pier research, river bed
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1. INTRODUCTION
The interaction between water and river bed is the cause of erosion
phenomenon, transport and deposit of solid material. The continuous changing
of clime, any human intervention in the bed of the river area makes changes in
the river nature that modifies the velocity distribution and other characteristics
of flow. Local scour around a bridge pier is a problem of serious concern to both
hydraulic engineers and bridge designers. This is a complex phenomenon
resulting from the interaction of the three-dimensional turbulent flow field
around the pier and the mobile channel bed.
Scour is the removal of sediment around or near structures located in
flowing water. Local scour involves the removal of bed material around a
structure located in moving water. It is the result of flow field changes due to the
presence of a structure. It is caused by the three-dimensional turbulent flow
around the bridge piers, by an acceleration of flow and resulting vortices
induced by obstructions to the flow.
The early investigations concentrated mostly on local scour estimation
were based on dimensional analysis and data correlation of small-scale
laboratory experiments. Many studies were done for finding equations that
predict the maximum value of the scour around a bridge pier. A lot of these
equations and methods for estimating local scour at bridges are based primarily
on laboratory research and only a few where validated by in situ measurements.
The hydraulic calculation is very important for the bridge designers
because the length of the bridge, foundations levels, level of intrados
superstructure, regularizations works depend on their result. The result of the
interaction between the water flow and the river bed is the sediments movement.
Many scientists try to define it using various methods, starting with the action of
water flow over solid material.
2. EXPERIMENT DESCRIPTION
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circulated around the system at one of the three selectable flow rates. The
channel slope is adjusted by means of a fine screw jack to which is attached an
accurate slope indicator. The channel sides are transparent allowing the
observation of bed profile changes, and a section of one side is provided with
graphical grid markings to permit quantitative assessments to be made of bed
form dynamics. The channel is assembled on two supports.
Channel slope is adjustable between 0% and +10%.
Channel section: width 78mm, length 2.5 m, depth 110mm.
The grain diameter of the sediment is 0.2 mm.
Three type of pier were used in the experiments: a cylindrical pier with
8mm diameter was used in the first and second experiments (1a, 1b), a lamellar
pier with 8 mm thickness and 43mm wide in 2a2d experiments and a
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cylindrical pier with 13.6mm diameter in experiments 3a and 3b. The first and
second types of pier were made from iron and the third was from iron covered
with a thin plastic film. On the elevation of each pier, every five millimeters was
marked with paint starting from bottom of the pier.
The position of piers was the middle of the channel in longitudinal and
cross section for all the experiments. The researches goals were observation of
scour processes, measure of depth erosion and river-bed evolution around the
bridge piers (called obstacle) in a middle of water flow.
3. METHODOLOGY OF EXPERIMENTS
The cylindrical pier was used in the first experiment. The installation
started up using the laminar flow which corresponds to flow rate 1, according
with table 1. The scour and the surface around the pier affected by the erosion
phenomenon were measured at constant time spacing. It was considered that the
scour is stabilized if three consecutively measured values differ less than 5%.
After the scour has stabilized the flow rate was increased to flow rate2.
Following the same steps as before, the scour was measured at constant time
spacing for the second and the third flow rate, until the value remained constant
in time. It was measured the scour depth around pier and the evolution of bed
river around and downstream of pier section according with the flow rate
changes. With this experiment, I followed both scour evolution and the change
of bed channel around the pier and downstream of it.
The goal of the second experiment "1b" was observation of the scour
evolution during a flood event. The experiment began by releasing a water flow
corresponding to the third flow rate. After the scour stabilized, a large amount of
water was accumulated in the inlet tank, while a low water quantity was flow.
Dam removal was done gradually, but fast enough to simulate a flood. The scour
value and the bed change before flood, during the flood and long time after
passing the flood was recorded.
The third experiment 2a follows the same steps of the first. The
difference was that in this case the lamellar pier was used, being aligned with
the streamlines. For each one of the three flow rates the scour around pier and
downstream from that section and the river-bed evolution was measured. The
values that the scour remained constant for each flow rate were noted. Another
goal of this experiment was to compare the scour value for each one of the two
type of pier, which are used currently in practice.
Using the same lamellar pier, the goal of the fourth experiment 2b was
to observe the evolution of scour produced by a large quantity of water. In 2a
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experiment the water flow started from zero and increased gradually to the third
flow rate. In this experiment, the flow goes to the third rate from the beginning.
Fifth experiment "2c" was to simulate the flood wave and to observe the scour
depth around a lamellar pier. Attempt was similar, as progress, as in experiment
"1b".
In the last two experiments "3a" and "3b", I used circular pier with a
diameter of 13.6mm. The value of pier diameter was chosen based on similarity
to a real bridge pier.
The sixth experiment was similar to experiment 1a except that the pier
had a larger diameter. This experiment aimed at measuring the evolution of
scour depth upstream and downstream of the pier and comparing values with
those obtained in experiment 1a. In this way I measured the influence of
variation of pier diameter.
The goal of the seventh experiment was to measure the scour products
around the pier in a stream of water to flow properly the third rate, without
going through intermediate steps.
These last two experiments were the starting point for research on
comparison scour recorded in laboratory research on a scale model, with scour
recorded a bridge that crosses a river in Romania.
The results of these experiments will be use for the calibration of
mathematical model of scour predict.
In first experiment a cylindrical pier was used. Time t=0 represented the
start of experiment. The flow rate of 210 cu.cm/s generates a laminar flow. After
20 minutes from t=0 the scour was stabilized and the measured depth was 4mm.
In plane view, the area around pier affected by the scour phenomenon had a
circular shape with 24mm in diameter. Distance between pier and the front of
first rifle was 25mm. After 20 minutes from changing the flow rate to the flow
rate2 the scour stabilized and the readied value was 6mm. The area around pier
influenced by scour was 26mm in cross section through pier, 7mm upstream and
12mm downstream measured from pier elevation. The rifle moved downstream
and the distance between it front face and pier increased to 27mm. The height of
riffle was 5mm. The flow carried dislodges sand particles around pier for 25cm
downstream. The flow rate was increased to the flow rate3 and the flow became
turbulent. After 15 minutes from flow rate change the scour was 8mm. The bed
was affected 15mm upstream from the pier axis and 16mm downstream. The
suspended sand particles were entrained form upstream and pier around area and
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carried downstream at long distance. The first rifle front moved at 42mm from
pier and the height was 7.5mm. The scour gets to 10mm, 30 minutes after flow
rate change. The area influenced by scour had 15mm from pier upstream face
and 16 mm downstream. Also, the front-face riffle moved at 50mm.
Figure 12. Longitudinal section at 30 min after flow rate increase at flow rate3
Figure 13. Plan view at 30 min after flow rate increase at flow rate3
The second experiment followed the same steps as first with the
difference of a lamellar pier using. In first phase it was used a laminar flow
corresponding to the flow rate1. At 20 minute after the experiments start the
scour value was 4mm. The shape of channel bed is show in Figure 4. The flow
rate was changed to the second value and after 30 minute the scour was 6mm.
The erosion of channel bed was maximum upstream face of the pier and was
null at from pier length. A first riffle appeared and moves down stream with
1.5mm/minute. The scour was 7mm at 30 minutes after the flow rate change to
the third flow rate figure 5.
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Figure 14. Actual Photo after 20 minutes from the experiment starts
(upstream in right side)
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Figure 16. Positioning of device in the best place in relation to the objective
Given that the area to be scanned has a high curvature to define object
requires a large number of points and thus a larger resolution. The area selected
for scanning have limited it to a portion of the channel where this pier
influentaza bed river. After determining the area of interest that was to be
scanned, we past to the primary filter, to ensure that data collected is within the
limits of precision required. It was set correct resolution and proceed to scan in
detail. The scanning process is fully automated. Items collected are stored on
computer or in memory of the scanner. Scanning time depends on the resolution
chosen and is even higher as the resolution is higher. At the end of each scan
creations themselves have made a visual check on the computer / laptop results
to see if there are missing parts of the scanned, in which is necessary to repeat
the process. After scanning physics data I went to data processing. The results
are presented in Figures 7 and 8.
Figure 7 shows the cloud of 3D points at the start of the experiment.
Figure 17. Perpendicular view to the channel - the beginning of the experiment
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Figure 8 shows pier scour and channel bed change downstream, when
scour stabilized. This corresponds to a flow 477cu.cm / s
Figure 18. Longitudinal section through the channel after scour stabilizing -
maximum flow
Scouring result of reading rates for the z-axis points located upstream of
the cell, in the uninfluenced by this obstacle (-0.7505), and points located
immediately upstream of the cell (-0.7696). Point cloud coordinates are given in
meters and are reported to the local system of the scanner. Making a difference
between the two rates results a value of 19mm depth witch is the value of scour.
5. CONCLUSIONS
The average water velocity was higher than entrainment critical velocity
in all experiments.
Generally, around the pier it was an erosion area and downstream
appeared solid deposit. The channel changes were caused by the eddies around
pier generated by the detachment of the boundary layer.
The flow rate changes, the sudden increase of it, generate temporary scour
development around the pier down and upstream area.
The scour varies during the flood period when the flow rate reaches the
maximum values. After the flood, when flow rate variations are low, material
deposit can appear around pier and the scour is lower than its value during the
flood but higher than before it.
The primary forced vortex in front of the pier has been considered the
prime agent causing local scour at bridge pier.
The water flow attached by the local scour around bridge pier is a very
complex phenomenon generate by the 3D turbulence motion. The usually
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REFERENCES
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Rezumat
Abstract
This article represents the mathematical model that governs the breakage of a tendon
of wires subjected to constant tension; wire breakage occurs, without being preceded by
plastic deformations, when the stress determined considering the nominal section of the wire
reaches the breaking value (values randomly distributed). In the absence of a more precise
criterion, the rapid approach of the tendon towards breakage is given by the (accelerated) way
in which the speed of the wire breakage varies. The model can be applied to tendons made up
of wires with various diameters by accordingly adapting relation (2).
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1
Evident, fiecare srm din alctuirea fascicului va prelua P , adic
N
srmele vor fi egal solicitate (corespunztor rigiditii acestora), starea de
coroziune neavnd o influen semnificativ asupra rigiditii fasciculului i a
fiecrei srme n parte. n consecin, ruperea primei srme va avea loc cnd
vtmarea produs prin coroziune va reduce rezistena R1 a srmei respective
(1) la valoarea efortului unitar 1 generat de ncrcarea P n srmele
fasciculului:
1 R1 , unde: (1)
P
1 - efortul unitar generat n srmele fasciculului de fora de ntindere P;
NA
R1 = efortul unitar de rupere al srmei (degradate) 1 determinat considernd
valoarea nominal A a srmei.
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S-a reprezentat:
cu negru, histograma frecvenelor relative care reprezint numrul de srme
rupte n unitatea de timp (convenabil aleas), funcie de efortul unitar de rupere
Ri , i 1, 2,3, 4,... ;
cu rou, funcia densitii de repartiie a rezistenelor Ri , i 1, 2,3, 4,...
srmelor afectate de coroziune, corespunztoare histogramei, determinat
considernd seciunea nominal A a srmelor (neafectate de coroziune);
cu verde, funcia densitii de repartiie a rezistenelor srmelor care
alctuiesc fasciculul n situaia n care nu a nceput degradarea (prin coroziune) a
acestuia.
Din cele expuse mai sus i meninnd ipoteza c fora P de ntindere este
constant, rezult:
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1 2 3 ... k ... n
(3)
R1 R2 R3 ... Rk ... Rn
n momentul ruperii srmei k,
P
Rk k
N k 1 A
iar capacitatea portant a fasciculului n momentul care precede imediat acest
eveniment este:
Ck A N k 1 Rk
(4)
Ck P
Ck Ck Ck
P P P
sau (6)
k k k
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2. CONCLUZII
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frontiera ntre modurile de comportare sigur i dezastru al unui fascicul este dat
de ruperea unei srme. Repet, nc odat, n cazul fasciculelor de srme supuse
la ntindere i degradate prin coroziune utilizarea unor coeficieni de siguran
constituie o eroare impardonabil care poate conduce la catastrofe. Aducerea n
zona unei comportri sigure a unui fascicul se poate realiza numai prin
reducerea efortului n fascicul pn se elimin complet ruperea vreunei srme
din alctuirea acestuia; mijloacele prin care se realizeaz acest deziderat sunt
multiple i vor fi alese n funcie de posibiliti. Evident, aceste mijloace sunt
acceptabile n condiiile n care sunt utilizate pentru a susine structura un timp
limitat, impus de pregtirea i realizarea nlocuirii fasciculului(elor) degradat(e).
1066
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. GEORGE E. DIETER, Jr. : Metalurgie mecanic, Ed. Tehnic, Bucureti, 1970;
[2]. TEODOR CRARE: Oeluri superioare pentru beton armat i beton precomprimat,
Ed. Tehnic, Bucureti, 1969;
[3]. P.W. ABELES, S. FILIPEK: The corrosion of steel in finely cracked reinforced and
prestressed concrete, Concrete and Constructional Engineering, nr. 11, 1963.
1067
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Marian Daraban, Asist. dr. ing., Facultatea de Ci Ferate, Drumuri i Poduri, Universitatea
Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti, e-mail: marian_daraban@yahoo.com
Rezumat
Abstract
This article deals with the problem of lateral buckling of curved I girders used in bridge
structures.
Lateral buckling resistance will be evaluated, by a geometrically and physically nonlinear
analysis, using the computer program Lusas, without considering imperfections of
execution.
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In order to validate the analytical results, numerical study will be performed on a physical
model presented in paper [1] which provides values of experimental tests.
The geometry of the physical model presented in paper [1] is based on a dimensional
analysis of a curved girder used frequently for bridges construction. The physical model
consists of two curved I girders, double symmetrical, provided with cross beams and upper
and lower bracings. Each end cross beam has welded in girder axis direction a short cantilever
beam with length value e.
The model girder is supported on a roller at one end and a pin at the other, which are
disposed on chord direction. The short cantilever beams are loaded by hydraulic presses with
a force P, which causes constant bending moment with value P * e and shear zero.
The nonlinear analysis uses the Total Lagrangian formulation and the Crisfield modified
arc length method. The numerical model also considers nonlinear behavior of the material.
Resistance to lateral buckling assessment consists in determining the critical bending moment
for which the beam is losing stability. The comparison of numerical with the experimental
results, confirms the possibility of using the numerical evaluation for estimating the lateral
buckling resistance for curved bridge girders.
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du v d 2 w d 2v 1 du R0
E * AZ * 2 * ys 2 * xs * N (1c)
ds Rs ds Rs ds Rs ds RS
d 2
d
E * I w* G*K T (1d)
ds 2 ds
unde: s =coordonat curbilinie;
x, y, z =coordonate orizontale, verticale i axiale;
u,v,w =deplasri pe direcia z, x, y;
e
s al
er
nsv
t ra ntui
re
le ava
re nt r
cad Co
t re l
in
ta
st an
Di
Af
re
ntui
ntr ava
Aw Co
Cadru transversal
w
unghi de torsiune (2)
Rs
unghi de rotire
EI X , EI Y , EI XY rigiditatea la ncovoiere dupa axele X, Y, XY
EI w rigiditatea la torsiune neuniform
G*K rigiditatea la torsiune uniform
GK GK x y 2 dA
2
(3)
A
x y 2 dA
2
rigiditatea adiional la torsiune uniform datorat eforturilor
A
unitare normale;
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Cnd o grind este supus la ncovoiere pur dup axa principal de inerie
la capetele grinzii 0 i , momentul ncovoietor MY0 i momentul de
torsiune Tz0 ntr-o seciune arbitrar va fi redus la valoarea:
M * cos 2
M X0 0 (5a)
cos 2
M 0 *sin 2
Tz0 (5b)
cos 2
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Stadiul-1
-1
Stadiul-2 Stadiul
L=Rs
M z x
M0 M0
C` S`
Mz z x
Mz
Mz X Mx Z
x
w
l-2
t adiu y
S Y
y (a) v
* S``
Stadiul-1 Mx Mz
M x y Mx C`
y z Stadiul-2 Z
x
M
Axa da
g ri n
Mx Mx
O`
(c)
x
R0
(b)
a) Elevaie b) Vedere plan c) Seciune transversal
Figura 2. Deplasri corespunztoare ncrcrii critice i eforturi secionale
adiionale
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R d 4v 1 d 2v y d 4 w 1 d 2
EIY S 4 2 2 s 4 2
R
0 ds R S ds R 0 ds Rs ds
(8b)
2 2
d dw d I
2 M X0 Ty0 * 2 Ty0 y XY 0
ds ds ds IX
d 4 d 2 d 0 dv u
EI w GK M X 0 unde: (8c)
ds 4 ds 2 ds ds Rx
s
v
u ds u0 u0 = alungirea la s=0 (9)
0
R s
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rt rc
rt rc
rt=0.3y/E
rt
rc=y/E
rc
(a) (b) (c)
a)deformaie specific din ncovoiere b b)deformaii specfice din torsiune
mpiedicat ew c) deformaii specifice reziduale er
Figura 3. Distribuia deformaiilor specifice n grinda I
Studiul realizat n lucrarea [1] conine trei modele fizice MG-1, MG-2,
MG-3 realizate din dou grinzi principale I dublu simetrice prevzute cu
antretoaze i contravntuiri inferioare i superioare avnt trei tipuri de seciuni.
Modelele fizice s-au realizat la scara 1:3,8. Geometria celor trei modele a fost
realizat pe baza unui studiu a podurilor curbe aflate n exploatare. n Figura 5. i
Figura 6. se prezint vederea n plan, respectiv seciunea transversal prin
modelul de ncercare MG1. Raportul dintre deschiderea L i distana ntre
antretoaze B are valoarea L/B=5.56m.
Seciunea transversal a contravntuirilor utilizate pentru cele trei modele
MG-1, MG-2, MG-3, a fost aleas avnd de 2, 1 si 0,5 ori seciunea tranversal a
contravntuirilor utilizate n mod curent la tablierele curbe i sunt prezentate n
Figura 7.
Grinzile sunt simplu rezemate la unul din capete i articulate la cellalat.
Aparatele de reazem sunt poziionate de aa manier nct translaia grinzilor s
fie liber pe direcia coardei.
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540
4x696=2784mm
R=6960mm
R=7500mm
Figura 5. Vedere n plan a grinzii model
Contravantuire
superioara Pb. 70x10
40
Tg. 380x10
380
300
Pb. 70x10
40
540
Contravantuire
inferioara
Figura 6. Seciune transversal prin grinda model
70 50 28
5 4
10
4 26
5 40
8 60
MG-3
MG-2
MG-1
Figura 7. Seciuni transversale pentru barele de contravntuire
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Figura 8. Tipuri de elemente finite utilizate pentru idealizarea modelelor fizice [2]
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3. Concluzii
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1.] Hiroshi Nakai, Chai Hog Yoo, Analysis and Design of Curved Steel Bridges, Ohio,
U.S.A: McGraw-Hill, 1988;
[2.] Manual LUSAS Version 14.7 : Issue 1 LUSAS Forge House, 66 High Street, Kingston
upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 1HN, United Kingdom, 2012;
[3.] M. Daraban, Concepia i calculul structurilor curbe de poduri din oel, tez de
doctorat, Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti, 2012.
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Rezumat
Podurile cu hobane sunt, la ora actual, considerate structurile cele mai eficiente, att
din punct de vedere structural ct i din punct de vedere economic, pentru a acoperi deschideri
mari i foarte mari. Pentru astfel de structuri, analiza pe etapele de execuie este absolut
necesar, deoarece metoda de execuie aleas poate influena semnificativ starea final de
eforturi i deformaii.
Scopul acestei lucrri este acela de a propune o metod de calcul pe etape de execuie
i de a evidenia avantajele acesteia fa de un calcul direct pe structura final. n cadrul
analizei s-a modelat fiecare etap de execuie n parte i au fost considerate att
comportamentul neliniar al hobanelor ct i proprietile reologice ale materialelor.
Podul rutier analizat a fost propus pentru a traversa un canal navigabil. Are o lungime
total de 370m i este un pod hobanat cu trei deschideri, avnd doi piloni amplasai pe
malurile rului. Execuia se realizeaz n consol, simultan de la ambii piloni.
Cuvinte cheie: pod, hobane, execuie n consol, analiz structural, calcul neliniar
Abstract
Cable-stayed bridges offer an aesthetic shape and also a cost-effective solution for
crossing large and very large rivers and valleys. The structural analysis of the execution
process is strictly necessary, due to the changes in the geometry and boundary conditions of
the structural elements.
In this paper, the authors provide an example of construction stage analysis and also a
comparison between this analysis method and a direct analysis on the final structure. In the
structural model the overall construction process is considered as well as the non-linear
behavior of the stay cables and also the time-dependent material properties such as creep and
shrinkage.
The analyzed structure is a three span cable-stayed bridge with an overall length of
370m. The considered erection method is the cantilevering method.
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1. INTRODUCERE
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Figura 6. Eforturi axiale la baza pilonului prin cele dou metode de calcul
Diferene mari ntre cele dou metode se pot observa n figura 7, unde este
prezentat o comparaie ntre deplasrile la vrful pilonului obinut prin cele
dou metode de calcul analizate. Diferenele mari sunt explicate de faptul c n
cazul analizei neliniare, pe etape de execuie, efortul de tensionare n hobane a
fost controlat i contra-sgeata scheletului metalic a fost dat din tensionarea
cablurilor.
deplasripeorizontal
[mm]
etapade analiz analiz
execuie peetape direct
schelet
0.151056 0.011188
metalic
beton
0.021186 0.106845
proaspt
greuti
0.039665 0.187582
permanente
Figura 7. Comparaie ntre deplasrile la vrful pilonui obinute prin cele dou
metode de calcul
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4. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[4] M.S.TROITSKY: Cable Stayed Bridges: Theory and Design - Second Edition, BSP
Professional Books 1988
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Rezumat
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unde:
P0 greutatea proprie a unui om; valoare medie P0=700N;
Pn amplitudinea armonicii de ordin n; Pn=an P0;
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Dei intensitile acestor fore sunt mult mai mici n comparaie cu a celor
veticale, ele sunt importante datorit situaiilor reale n care au determinat
apariia de oscilaii laterale excesive ale tablierelor. Componenta longitudinal
nu influeneaz comportamentul dinamic al suprastructurilor, dar poate fi luat
n calcul pentru paserelele cu stlpi flexibilli.
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n care:
N este numrul efectiv de pietoni aflai pe paserel;
este fraciunea din amortizarea critic a paserelei;
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Aramis Cristian Preda, inginer proiectant, BAICONS IMPEX SRL Departament Poduri,
Romnia, e-mail: aramis.preda@yahoo.com
Titi Toma, inginer proiectant, BAICONS IMPEX SRL Departament Poduri, Romnia, e-
mail: titi_toma@yahoo.com
Ionu Punescu, asist.ing., Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti, Romnia, e-mail:
paunescu_ionut@yahoo.com
Ionu Radu Rcnel, conf.univ.dr.ing., Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti,
Romnia, e-mail: ionut_racanel@yahoo.com
Rezumat
Podurile cu arce sunt unele dintre cele mai vechi i mai populare tipuri de poduri, i au
nceput s fie folosite cu peste 3000 de ani n urm. Iniial construite din pietre sau crmizi, o
dat cu revoluia industrial i apariia materialelor moderne precum betonul armat i otelul,
podurile cu arce au putut ajunge la deschideri de sute de metri cu diferite soluii constructive.
Principiul de baz al unui pod cu arce este forma lui curbat care permite transmiterea
eforturilor ctre punctele de rezemare de la fiecare capt. Aceste puncte de rezemare preiau
ncrcrile de la ntregul pod i sunt responsabile pentru pstrarea pe poziia stabilit a arcelor
fr a permite deplasarea lor.
Printre avantajele utilizrii acestui tip de structur se regsesc posibilitatea de realizare
a unor deschideri mari pentru supratraversarea diferitelor obstacole, cu eliminarea punctelor
de rezemare intermediare (pile intermediare), dar i aspectul estetic plcut. Dezavantajele
podurilor cu arce sunt determinate n principiu de dificultatea proiectrii i execuiei.
Scopul acestui articol este de a prezenta calculul i determinarea forelor necesare de
tensionare a tiranilor pentru asigurarea contrasageii. Calculul este realizat cu modele
numerice pe etape de execuie conform tehnologiei de execuie prezentat n documentaia
tehnic.
Abstract
The arch bridges are some of the oldest and most popular types of bridges, and they
started to be used 3000 years ago. Initially built of stone and bricks, after the industrial
revolution and appearance of modern materials as reinforced concrete and steel, arch bridges
could reach spans of hundreds of meters with different constructive solutions.
The basic principle of an arch bridge is represented by its curved shape that allows the
transmission of efforts to the bearing points at each end. These points take over the loads of
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the entire bridge and are responsible for keeping the arches in the settled position without
allowing their displacement.
Among the advantages of using this type of structure are found the possibility to create
big-size spans in order cross over different obstacles with elimination of temporary bearing
points (temporary piers), but also the pleasant aesthetic. The disadvantages of arch bridges are
mainly determined by the difficulty of designing and execution.
The purpose of this article is to present the calculation and determination of the
tensioning forces in the hangers necessary for assuring the counter-arrow. The calculation is
made with stage-construction numerical models according to the execution technology
presented within the technical documentation.
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Dup cum se observ i n etapele de execuie cel mai important lucru este
determinarea eforturilor de tensionare a tiranilor care s asigure contrasgeata
necesar, dar care deasemenea s fie compatibil cu geometria structurii. Pentru
aceasta primul lucru necesar este determinarea contrasgeii.
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3. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. Computers and Structures Incorporated. CSI Analysis Reference Manual for
SAP2000, Etabs and Safe, Berkeley, California, USA. 2010.
[2]. C. MELBOURNE, S.M. PILKINGTON: Arch Bridges, This volume contains the
papers presented at the First International Conference on Arch Bridges, held at the
Bolton Institute, UK, on 3-6 September 1995.
[3]. T.R. JAGADEESH, M.A. JAYARAM: Design of Bridge Structures, 2nd ed., PHI
Learning Private Limited, New Delhi, October 2009.
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Rezumat
Podurile moderne cu deschideri mici i medii, att la cile ferate ct i la cele rutiere,
sunt realizate n mod frecvent cu structuri mixte de tipul grinzilor metalice n conlucrare cu
plci din beton i de tipul grinzilor metalice nglobate n beton care fac subiectul articolului
propus. Uniunea Internaional a Cilor Ferate, realiznd importana domeniului, a elaborat o
norm, nsoit de tabelele de predimensionare pentru aceste tipuri de structuri: UIC 773-R.
Pe baza experimentelor pe modele la scara real, norma UIC 773-R propune un calcul
simplificat al acestor poduri. Norma are la baz o serie de ipoteze simplificatoare n ceea ce
privete comportarea celor dou materiale ce alctuiesc seciunea transversal, i anume,
starea de solicitare se determin considernd o comportare liniar elastic a materialelor (beton
fr fisuri), iar capacitatea de rezisten ultim se determin considernd c seciunea este
perfect plastifiat.
Articolul i propune s compare rezultatele date de metoda simplificat cu rezultate
pe diferite tipuri de modelri cu elemente finite ale podurilor cu grinzi metalice nglobate n
beton. De asemenea se va pune accent pe comportarea materialelor n seciune prin adoptarea
unor legi constitutive adecvate.
Abstract
Modern bridges with small and medium spans, both railways and roads, are often
made with mixed structures such as metal beams working with concrete slabs and steel beams
embedded in concrete type that are subject of the article proposed. International Union of
Railways, realizing the importance of the field, has developed a norm, accompanied by
predimensioning tables for these types of structures: UIC 773-R. Based on experiments on
real scale models, UIC standard 773-R proposes a simplified calculation of these bridges. The
rule is based on a number of simplifying assumptions regarding the behavior of the two
materials that make up the cross section, namely, the state of stress is determined assuming a
linear elastic behavior of materials (concrete without cracks) and resisting bending moment is
determined considering that section is completely plastified.
Article aims to compare the results given by the simplified method with the results in
different types of finite element modeling of bridges with steel beams embedded in concrete.
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It will also focus on the behavior of materials in section by adopting appropriate constitutive
laws.
1. PREZENTARE STUDIU
4800/2 4800/2
300 800 2600/2 2600/2 800 300
1435/2 1435/2
Ax dala
550
350
940
120
1630
870
690
ldistributie
40
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500
1030
990
40
Figura 2 Grind pentru calcul simplificat
M L.i. M
Mpermmax 2
2.4 2.8
3.2 3.2
8x8/16=4
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y fck b
Bc Sc
b FBc
tt c
yFBc
yFSc
z z FSc -
Axa neutra pentru
comportarea
componentelor sectiunii
H
yFs
in domeniul plastic
ti
h
yG
+
St FSt
tt
b fy / a fy / a
B
y
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e'OM y'GM
c
zM zM
eO
Axa neutra CGM
sectiune mixta
zO zO
H
CGO
Axa neutra ti
h
yG
sectiune otel
e'OM
tt
b
B
y
b e"OM y"GM
c
zM zM
eO
zO CGO zO
h
Axa neutra
ti
hb
sectiune otel
h
2
tt
b
B
y
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2. STUDIU COMPARATIV
Din cele de mai sus se observ c ipotezele simplificatoare din UIC 774-3
n ceea ce privete distribuirea ncrcrilor permanente la grinzile principale este
viabil, ns n ceea ce privete distribuia simplificat a ncrcrilor utile, prin
transmiterea acestora numai la un anumit numr de grinzi din seciune, practic
se face o supraapreciere a eforturilor.
Acelai aspect se regsete i n cazul deplasrilor, unde ns diferena
este mult mai mare. Se observ c sgeile calculate conform prevederile Fiei
UIC nu respect ntocmai ipoteza de mediere a momentelor de inerie la
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3. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1]. Fia UIC 773-R, International Union of Railways, F-75015 Paris (France), 1997
[2]. Design Tables for Filler Beam Railway Bridges, International Union of Railways,
16, rue Jean Rey, F-75015 Paris (France), 1999
[4]. CR 1-2.1-2005 "Cod pentru proiectarea podurilor de cale ferat. Aciuni, 2005
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Rezumat
ncercarea n regim dinamic a podurilor rutiere este mai puin reglementat la nivel
naional. Importana i necesitatea ncercrilor dinamice, ct i statice, sunt diminuate de
diferii factori, printre care i cei economici. Standardul ce reglementeaz ncercarea podurilor
rutiere i de cale ferat n Romania este STAS 12504-86. La nivelul ncercrilor dinamice
standardul ofer o serie de informaii privind modalitatea asigurrii ncrcrii dinamice a
podurilor, enumernd caracteristicile ce pot fi urmrite prin ncercare, ns fr a oferi
informaii privind modul de prelucrare a datelor experimentale.
n lucrare se prezint ncercarea dinamic a unui pod rutier, amplasat pe autostrada
A2, peste Canalul Dunre-Marea Neagr. Sunt prezentate aspecte privind condiiile de
realizare a ncercrilor experimentale, rezultatele obinute i comparaia acestora cu valorile
rezultate din etapa de proiectare a podului. Rezultatele obinute sunt apropiate de
caracteristicile dinamice rezultate din calcul, algoritmul de ncercare i prelucrare a datelor
experimentale fiind n concordan cu standardele internaionale de profil
Abstract
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the bridge design, test algorithm and experimental data processing are consistent with
international standards in this field.
1. INTRODUCERE
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3. REZULTATE EXPERIMENTALE
0.6 1.5
0.4 1
Acceleratie [m/s2]
Acceleratie [m/s 2]
0.2 0.5
0 0
0 3 6 9 12 15 0 3 6 9 12
-0.2 -0.5
-0.4 -1
-0.6
t [s] -1.5
t [s]
acc 7751 acc 7751
2 1.5
1.5 1
Acceleratie [m/s 2]
Acceleratie [m/s 2]
1
0.5
0.5
0
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
0 3 6 9 12 -0.5
-0.5
-1 -1
-1.5
t [s] -1.5
t [s]
acc 7751 acc 7751
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0.6 0.35
Amplitudine spectru de putere
14.7 Hz
0.12 9.118 Hz 0.05
0.1
0.04 12.5 Hz
0.08
0.03 0.96 Hz
0.06 2.5 Hz
0.02
0.04 2.427 Hz 9.192 Hz
0.02 0.01 4.78 Hz
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
f [Hz] f [Hz]
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unde: f cor este frecvena de vibraie a podului ncrcat din greutate proprie;
f calc este frecvena de vibraie rezultat din analiza modal a podului; mcalc este
masa total a podului considerat n calcul i mgp = masa proprie a podului.
Dac mgp 0.7mcalc , rezult f cor 1.195 f calc .
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[4]. A. K. CHOPRA: Dynamics of Structures, third ed., Prentice Hall, New Jersey, 2006
[6]. ncercarea static i dinamic a Podului nr. 20, pe Autostrada A2, Medgidia-
Constana, peste Canalul Dunre Marea Neagr, km 193+645, Contract UTCB
260/2012
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Rezumat
ncepnd cu anul 2010, ara noastr s-a aliniat la noile norme de proiectare Eurocod
care au ca scop eliminarea obstacolelor n calea comerului i armonizarea specificaiilor
tehnice prin stabilirea unui ansamblu de reguli tehnice pentru proiectarea lucrrilor de
construcii. Obiectivul acestui articol este de a prezenta un exemplu de aplicare a noilor reguli
introduse prin normele Eurocod n ceea ce privete calculul i dimensionarea legturii ntre
oel i beton pentru un tablier cu structur mixt oel-beton. Abordarea din Eurocod 4 (SR EN
1994-2) este diferit i mult mai complex dect regulile folosite nainte n Romnia (STAS
1844-75) pentru calculul conectorilor. Sunt amintite principiile de calcul pentru conectori
dup Eurocod pe deoparte i dup normele romneti pe de alt parte. Cele dou metode sunt
aplicate pe o structur real, grind continu pe trei deschideri (40-60-40), legtura ntre dala
de beton i grind fiind realizat cu conectori tip gujon. Pentru a exista o omogenitate n
utilizarea textelor de referin, structura a fost mai nti verificat innd cont de ncrcrile
din trafic i de combinaiile de ncrcri date de Eurocod 1. Studiul a dus la dimensionarea
conectorilor, apoi la compararea numrului i a repartiiei conectorilor prin aplicarea textului
din Eurocod cu repartiia obinut cu regulile utilizate nainte n ara noastr. Concluziile ce se
desprind rspund la o serie de ntrebri legate de modul de dimensionare a conectorilor de tip
gujon pentru tablierele cu structur mixt oel-beton.
Abstract
Since 2010, our country has been embracing the new Eurocode design rules aimed to
eliminate trade barriers and harmonize technical specifications by establishing a set of
technical rules for the design of construction works. The objective of this paper is to present
an example for the application of the new rules introduced by the Eurocodes regarding the
calculation and design of the connection between steel and concrete for a composite structure
deck. The Eurocode 4 approach is different and more complex than the rules used before in
Romania (STAS 1844-75) to calculate the shear connectors. The calculation principles for
shear connectors using both Eurocode and Romanian standards are mentioned and the two
methods are applied to a real structure, three spans continuous beam (40-60-40). The link
between concrete slab and steel beam is made using gujon connectors. In order to achieve
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consistency in the use of reference texts, the structure was first justified taking into account
traffic loads and load combinations given by Eurocode 1. That study led to the design of the
shear connectors, then to the comparing the number and distribution of shear connectors by
application of Eurocode text with those obtained with the rules used before in our country.
Conclusions answer to a series of questions about how to design the gujon connectors for a
composite structure deck.
Figure 2. Cross-section
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The link between concrete slab and steel beam is made using gujon
connectors. Concrete used for concrete slab is C35/45.
According SR EN 1994-2, two collapse modes are distinguished for this
type of shear connector:
a collapse by steel shearing at the shank toe :
d2
0,8 f u
PRd
(1) 4 109478 [N] (1)
v
a collapse by concrete crushing around the shank toe :
0,29 d 2 f ck E cm
PRd
(2)
122631 [N] (2)
v
when:
v 1,25 - coeficient partial de siguranta ;
d=22 [mm] shank diameter (between 16 and 25 mm) ;
h=200 [mm] shear connector height ;
fu=450 [N/mm2] ultimate tensile strength of the shear connector
steel ;
fck=35 [N/mm2] characteristic compressive cylinder strength of
concrete ;
Ecm=34077 [N/mm2] secant modulus of elasticity of concrete ;
h h
If 3 4 , 0,2 1 , otherwise 1 .
d d
The characteristic value of the shear resistance of a single connector is
thus written :
PRd min .( PRd(1) ; PRd( 2 ) ) 109478 [N]
Finally the design resistance is:
at the ultimate state limit PRdULS PRd 109478 [N]
at the service state limit PRdSLS k s PRd 82109 [N], where the factor ks is
0,75 according SR EN 1994-2, 6.8.1(3).
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VEd is the shear force for the considered load case and coming from the
elastic global cracked analysis.
To calculate normal stresses, when the composite cross-section is
ultimately subjected to a negative bending moment Mc,Ed, the concrete is taken
to be cracked and does not contributed to the cross-section strength. But to
calculate the characteristic cross-section properties c and Imixte are calculated
by taking the concrete strength into account (uncracked composite behaviour of
the cross-section).
The final shear force per unit length is obtained by adding algebraically
the contributions of each single load case and by respecting the construction
phases. As for the normal stresses calculated with an uncracked composite
behaviour of the cross-section, the modular ratio used in c and Imixte is the same
as the one used to calculate the corresponding shear force contribution for each
single load case.
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for characteristic SLS design. In each cross-section, the shear force per unit
length at ULS is therefore given by:
Ed ( x ) max v min ( x ); v max ( x )
VL,ULS (6)
This value is calculated from shear forces at ULS and mechanical
properties of the uncracked cross-section, respecting the construction phases.
The number of shear connectors by unit length, constant per segment,
should therefore verify the following two criteria:
locally in each segment i, the shear force per unit length should not exceed
by more than 10% what the number of shear connectors per unit length can take
up:
N
VL,ULS
Ed
( x ) 1,1 i PRdULS (7)
li
the number of shear connectors should be sufficient per segment to transfer
all the shear force of this segment:
x i1
V ( x )dx N i PRdULS
ULS
L,Ed (8)
xi
where xi and xi+1 designate the abscissa at the borders of the segment i.
Finally, the maximum longitudinal spacing between rows in the segment
to verify the design criteria at ULS is:
N P ULS
N P ULS
( x x )
min .1,1 i ULSRd ; i x Rd i 1 i
(9)
Vmax i 1
V ( x )dx
ULS
x i
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+ =
-fyd
Between the sections A and B (respective B and C), the number of shear
connectors NAB (respective NBC) should be sufficient to resist the variation in
N N
compresion in the slab: N AB( BC) B ULS A ( C ) (12)
PRd
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sc inf . = 3.18 2
[N/mm ]
Shear force is distributed over a length equal with effective slab width,
measured at the edge of the beam. At this shear force, resulting from
temperature and shrinkage, added the load forces obtained from permanent and
mobile loads if they act favorably.
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2F
Tmax 95486 [N] (13)
beff
Where F is the shear force per unit length of the shrinkage and the
temperature difference.
Ttotal Tmax VL , Ed 521139 [N] (14)
For other areas, the calculation is conducted in the same way as in 2.1 and
2.2, resulting distribution in Figure 13:
Shear force that can be taken from a connector, depending on the diameter
(d) and the ratio h / d, where h is the height of the connector (is taken from
Table 15, STAS 1844-75) and sb28 is the concrete strength at 28 days.
T
Td 40 d 2 b 28 total (15)
Ni
10 m 18 m 6m 6m 6m 6m 36 /2 m
L1 = 40 m L2 = 60/2 m
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4. CONCLUSIONS
For a good view of the distribution obtained with the different approaches
studied, a scale representation was made to the entire structure (see Figure 5,
Figure 6, Figure 11 and Figure 13).
Comparing the four distributions, we have the following :
Calculation at the ULS doesn't add the connectors in the middle section of
span 2, comparing to the calculation of the SLS..
Calculation in the plastic zones by interaction diagram, lead to a significant
change in the distribution of connectors obtained in the elastic case.
The distribution obtained using Eurocode text has a inferior total number of
connectors compared with number obtained using Romanian rules. The method
is very security in relation to the Eurocodes approach and leading to excessive
consumption of material in all sections calculated.
To calculate the plastic zones, we can also use the line GH of interaction
diagram. This wasn't done in this exemple because this method seems very
security, resulting a very high compression in the slab, yielding appears only in
lower flange of steel beam.
REFERENCES
[3]. STAS 1844-77,Road steel bridges Design rules , Bucharest, june 1975.
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Victor Popa, Dr. Ing., Membru corespondent al Academiei de tiine Tehnice din Romnia,
Vicepresedinte S.C. CONSITRANS S.R.L., e-mail: victor.popa@consitrans.ro
Adrian Frncu, Ing., Director Direcia Poduri, S.C. CONSITRANS S.R.L.,
e-mail: frincuadrian@consitrans.ro
Raiciu Ionu Preda, Ing., ef Colectiv Poduri, S.C. CONSITRANS S.R.L.,
e-mail: preda@consitrans.ro
Rzvan Codreanu, Ing., Proiectant, S.C. CONSITRANS S.R.L.,
e-mail: razvansicodreanu@yahoo.com
tefan Tri, Ing., Proiectant S.C. CONSITRANS S.R.L., e-mail: tritastefan@yahoo.com
Rezumat
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Structura de pasaj hobanat n sistem ,,extradosed structure" se aplic pentru prima dat
n Romnia la un pasaj.
Un alt element de noutate al acestei lucrri este i faptul c este prima construcie de
pasaj din ar la care se aplic un singur plan de hobanare ntre cele dou ci.
n general un pod, pasaj sau viaduct hobanat n varianta ,,extradosed structure"
presupune o combinaie de structur hobanat avnd tablier din beton precomprimat cu grinzi
casetate.
La pasajul de la Brcneti combinaia de structur hobanat se aplic pe o
suprastructur hibrid compus parial din tablier de beton precomprimat cu grinzi casetate i
parial din tablier din grinzi casetate mixte cu conlucrare. Nu se cunosc pn acum asemenea
structuri pe plan mondial i este posibil ca aceast lucrare s fie o premier internaional.
Soluia ingenioas de alctuire a acestei lucrri a permis realizarea unei construcii
moderne, rezistente, stabile i durabile. Totodat aceast soluie asigur i un aspect estetic
deosebit al lucrrii.
Acest pasaj se nscrie ca o lucrare de referin n domeniu, att pe plan naional ct i
internaional.
Abstract
The cable stayed bridge from Brcneti, Prahova county, ensures the overcross of the
A3 Bucureti-Ploieti motorway section over the NR no. 1 at km 52+987.
The overpass has three spans of 40,50 m + 80,00 m + 40,50 m and a total length of
161,00 m.
In order to obtain a low construction height adequate for the 80,00 m long main span
and for a better balance of stresses in the structure, taking into consideration the big ratio
between the main and side spans, a cable stayed bridge with hybrid structure has been adopted
as constructive solution. This means that the side spans and a partial length of 9,00 m in the
main span has to be prestressed concrete structure, and a median length of 62,00 m from the
80,00 m long main span has to be metallic deck in connection with the reinforced concrete
upper slab.
For the cable stayed system, the inovative system named ,,extradosed structure" has
been chosen, which has substantial technical-economical advantages, as for instance: smaller
quantities of materials and consequently smaller number of equipments, personnel and costs,
due to both the lower pylon height and the shorter cable lengths.
The hybrid structure used for the superstructure contributes to the economical
efficiency, allowing a better balance of stresses in the superstructure, diminishing them in the
main span, and thus making an economy of steel - a deficitary material. The steel quantity is
also reduced by diminishing the metallic deck length in the whole bridge superstructure.
The cable's strands are arranged as the ,,harp" system. From esthetic reasons, the
strands are distributed in a single median plane, between the two lanes of the motorway,
because of the bridge oblicity over the way that it crosses. The discreetly and tidy cable stays,
having a perfect parallel arrangement, increases the esthetic aspect of the bridge, offering a
special elegance and a pleasant sight for the participants in the traffic.
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This kind of cable stayed bridge named ,,extradosed structure" is applied for the first
time in our country.
Another (new) novelty element of this work is the fact that it is the first overpass in
Romania having a single cable stays plane between the two lanes.
Generally, a bridge work constructed in the ,,extradosed structure" system is supposed
to be a cable stayed bridge having a deck with prestressed concrete box girders.
At the Brcneti overpass it is a cable stayed bridge having a hybrid deck composed
partially from prestressed concrete box girders and partially from composite steel-concrete
girders. Up to now, such type of structures are not known worldwide, so it is possible that this
work is an international premiere.
The ingenious solution applied to this overpass allowed a modern, resistant, stable and
durable construction to be built. In the same time, this solution ensures a pleasant esthetic
aspect.
The overpass represents a reference art work in the bridge area, both on the national
and international level.
1. INTRODUCERE
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Soluia nou care s-a adoptat la acest pasaj trebuia s respecte linia roie
iniial a cii i implicit nlimea de construcie a suprastructurii, pentru a
asigura gabaritul de liber trecere sub pasaj i pentru a se utiliza pe ct posibil
piloii forai deja executai.
Pentru respectarea acestor deziderate proiectantul VIA DESIGN a adoptat
o soluie inovativ de pasaj hobanat cu structur hibrid, cunoscut n literatura
de specialitate sub denumirea de "extradosed structure".
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Infrastructura pasajului este alctuit din cei doi piloni cu pile adiacente
duble i cele dou culei duble de la capete, fundate indirect pe piloi forai cu
diametrul de 1,08 m, prin intermediul radierelor din beton armat.
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3. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2] N.J. GIMSING : Cable supported bridges concept and design, John
Wiley&Sons, New York, U.S.A., 1983
[3] W. PODOLNY, J.B. SCALZI: Construction and design of cable stayed bridges
second edition, John Wiley&Sons, New York, U.S.A., 1986
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Rezumat
Abstract
The bridge has three spans: 21,30 + 28,40 + 21.30m, with a total length of 80,50m.
The superstructure consists of two reinforced concrete continuous beams with variable height:
2.40 m on supports and 1.20 m in the field. The carriageway width was of 6.50 m. Bridge
infrastructure consists of two massive concrete abutments and two piers with massive
elevations, all with direct foundations.
The bridge was built in 1955 and has been designed to the load class number one
according to the Romanian norms in force at the date of the design.
The purpose of the rehabilitation of the bridge was to ensure the dimensions
corresponding to technical road class IV with two lanes (of 7.80m carriageway) and to bring
its bearing capacity corresponding to convoys load class E. Superstructure has been
strengthened with an additional concrete slab, working together with the existing structure.
The piers have been strengthened by increasing their surface on the entire height. For the
foundation, 6 drilled piles by 1.08m diameter and 20m length have been added.
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1. DATE GENERALE
Suprastructura (figura 1) este format din dou grinzi continue din beton
armat monolit, cu nlimea variabil: 2,40m pe reazeme i 1,20m n cmp.
Limea grinzilor este de 50cm iar distana interax este de 5,00m. Solidarizarea
grinzilor este realizat prin intermediul unei plci cu grosimea de aproximativ
20cm i prin antretoaze de reazem i cmp. Pe deschiderile marginale sunt cte 4
antretoaze de cmp, iar pe deschiderea central sunt 5 antretoaze de cmp.
Rezemarea grinzilor se face prin intermediul aparatelor de reazem de tipul
penduli din beton armat. Limea prii carosabile pe pod este de 6,50m cu dou
trotuare de 1,00m.
Infrastructura podului const n dou culee masive din beton simplu i
armat i dou pile cu elevaii masive. Fundaiile infrastructurilor sunt directe.
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4. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2] "Normativ pentru execuia suprabetonrii sub trafic", indicativ AND 578 - 2002
[4]. "Pod peste prul Srel, pe DJ 102F Km 3+200, judetul Buzu", S.C. Promarut
Proiect S.R.L., Contract nr. 4/2008.
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Rezumat
Cuvinte cheie: pod cu arce, tablier metalic, tirant, grind de rigidizare, reea
Abstract
Road bridges with steel arches are used efficiently for medium and large spans. These
solutions show advantages determined by the arches geometry, by the number and
distributions of hangers and by the form and type of the arches bracing system.
The appearance of the welding as standard connection procedure for steel bridges, for
road bridge decks two solutions are mainly used:
the solution with a concrete slab acting together with the stringers and cross beams (the
composite solution);
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the solution with orthotropic deck (the orthotropic deck consists in a network formed by
the continuous longitudinal stiffeners and cross beams connected at the upper part by a steel
plate).
In this paper a comparative study of the strength and fatigue checks performed on the
new road bridge over river Argeel near Mioveni in Arge county is presented. The results are
obtained using the Romanian standards STAS 1844-75 and SR 1911-1998 and the European
norms SR EN 1990, SR EN 1993 and SR EN 1994. The deck was designed with two paralel
steel arches, which are sustaining through vertical hangers a concrete slab connected with
steel girders at the way level.
The aim of the paper is to outcome the safety factors obtained from checks performed
on steel hangers using the Romanian standards with respect with those obtained using
Eurocodes.
1. INTRODUCERE
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310
54 101 101 54
85 60
85
90 90
5
O2
0
R3
770
1 1
270
0
R4
150
0 R4
R4 100
0
22 22
1-1
13
4
30
45
var
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3. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2] ***: STAS 1911-75 Poduri metalice de cale ferat. Prescripii de proiectare, IRS,
Bucureti, Romnia, 1998
[3] U.K. GHOSH: Design and construction of steel bridges, Taylor&Francis Group,
London, U.K., 2006
[4] ***: Guide mthodologique Eurocode 3 et4 Application aux ponts-routes mixtes
acier-bton, STRA, Bagneux Cedex, France, 2007.
[5] ***: SR EN 1993-2 Proiectarea structurilor de oel. Partea a 2-a: poduri de oel,
ASRO, Bucureti, Romnia, 2007
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Rezumat
Abstract
The paper presents the method and experimental results regarding the elastic point
displacements, at static loads, for the road viaduct on Transilvania highway made by the
Bechtel Company.
The static test was conducted with dump trucks of measured mass and their placement
was done in fixed points, a priori set, to ensure the loading scheme. Thus, multiple loading
schemes in symmetric and asymmetric convoys were designed and experimented.
1. INTRODUCTION
The paper presents the experimental results obtained from static tests with
sample loads for the road viaduct on Transilvania Highway, located between km
29+602.75m and km 29+801.25m, compared with results obtained from
calculus on a 3D model, using the finite element method and the computer
program SAP 2000.
The determination of the theoretical deflections under the considered
loads was done by a team of structural computation specialists from S.C.
IPTANA S.A., lead by dr. ing. Ionu Rcnel and ing. Costin Mutu.
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2. VIADUCT STRUCTURE
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROGRAM
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The paper presents the loading scheme and the obtained results for bay 1
considering a convoy type C1 (figure 4) for sections S1 S16.
The test method used, with trial static loads, is specified in the
Operational procedure of evaluation for the atestation of conformity of bridge
structures respecting the conditions imposed by STAS 12504-1986, developed
by ICECON Bucharest.
The test itself consists in the realization of the loading schemes designed
with trial/test actions, reading of the measurement equipment data and visual
observation of the bridge viaduct behavior.
Images from the trial loading are presented in figure 5.
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The measurement devices are read before the loading, after the realization
of each scheme and after each unloading. Before each test the values are read at
least twice at one hour, respectively 15 minutes, before the beginning of the test.
A preliminary reading done a few days before conducting the test is
recommended. It is also recommended to start the testing during periods
uninfluenced by the state of the meteorological factors.
After the realization of each loading scheme and each unloading, the
measurement devices are read multiple times. The first reading is done
immediately after placing the trial actions on the viaduct, respectively after
unloading. Afterwards readings are performed at equal intervals of time (of at
least 5 minutes) until the stabilization of the measurements, meaning until the
increase of the measured quantity between two consecutive readings is less than
15%.
After the realization of the loading scheme with maximum efficiency as
well as after the final unloading, the readings are done during a period of at least
30 minutes for metallic bridges and an hour for the other types of bridges.
4. RESULTS
Selected samples of the the main results of the test are presented below in
Table 1 and Table 2.
Table 1. Loading-Unloading Results for Beam G1
MEASURMENTS - Longitudinal Deflection - Marginal Beam G 1
Computed
Meas. Deflection
point INITIAL LOADING C1-S4 & S10 UNLOADING C1-S4 & S10
T0 T1 T2 T3 T4 T5 T6 T7 T8 T9 T 10 T 11 T 12 T 13
[mm] [div] [div] [div] [div] [div] [div] [div] [div] [div] [div] [div] [div] [div] [div] [div]
C1 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
S1 -0.03 -0.29 -1 -1.5 -1.9 1.9 1.9 2 2 2 -0.1 -0.1 -0.1 -0.1
S2 -2.21 -22.13 0 0 1.8 14.2 14.2 14.2 14.2 14.2 -0.8 -1.2 -1.8 -1.8
S3 -4.00 -40.03 0 0 -2 26 26 26 26 26 5.5 5.5 0 0
S4 -4.71 -47.14 0 0 0 33 34 34 34 34 1.5 1 0 0
S8 -3.98 -39.8 -2 -2 -2 27 27.5 27.5 27.5 27.5 0 -1 -1 -1
S9 -2.19 -21.93 0 0 0 15 15 15 15 15 3 3 3 3
S10 -0.05 -0.53 0 0 0.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 4.5 0.5 0 0 0
P1 0.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
S11 0.0 0.18 -1 -1.5 -3.5 -1 -1 -2 -2 0 -2.5 -2.5 -2.5 -2.5
S12 0.0 -0.01 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
S13 0.0 -0.14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
14:55 h 15:10 h 15:25 h 0 min 5 min 10 min 15 min 30 min 40 min 0 min 5 min 15 min 25 min 35 min
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The sign convention for the values of the deflections for both tabular as
well as graphical representation is:
for computed values: positive values for the vertical deformations in the
upper direction.
for measured values: positive values for vertical deformations in the
downward dire.
In table 1:
T0-T2 (30 min) - monitoring duration before the loading state;
T3-T8 (40 min) - monitoring duration of the stabilisation under load;
T9-T13 (35 min) - monitoring duration of the stabilisation after unloading;
T0 (0 min) - initiation of the measuring procedure;
T1 (max 1 h) - from the begining of the measurment;
T2 (30 min) - from the begining of the measurment = begining of the
loading;
T3 (0 min) - correctly positioned loading (begining of the monitoring under
load);
T8 (40 min) - stabilised loading state = begining of the unloading;
T9 (0 min) - without load on the beam (begining of the monitoring without
load);
T13 (35 min) - stabilised unloading state
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G2 S5 -3.71 -37.14 0 0 0 27 26 26 26 26 0 -1 -1 -1
G3 S6 -2.67 -26.73 0 0 0 18 18 18 18 18 1 0 0 0
5. PROFESSIONAL ASSESMENT
During the measurements, the variation of the temperature in the air was
between (-1 6 C). The main values of the tests and test processing are
presented in tables 3 and 4.
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6. CONCLUSIONS
1. The significant deflections for bay 1 are those measured in points S2...S9.
2. The values of the significant deflections, under load, measured for the
loading state C1-S4 do not exceed 72.13% of the corresponding computed
values.
3. The values of the significant residual deflections measured for the loading
state C1-S4 do not exceed 12.03% of the corresponding computed values,
respectively 20% of the corresponding values measured under load.
4. The measured deflections, with absolute values of the order of magnitude
of 10-2 mm may present errors with values of the order of magnitude of
the measuring resolution (10-2 mm).
REFERENCES
[3]. STAS 12504 86: Incercarea suprastructurilor cu volum Poduri de cale ferata, de
sosea si pasarele.Incercarea suprasucturilor cu actiuni de proba, 1986;
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Abstract
This paper is intended to show the design of two composite bridges along the Orastie-
Sibiu motorway, from the basic concepts, applied without the need for a clause-by- clause
checking of codes and standards, to the construction methods.
The bridges are seismically isolated in the longitudinal direction, while transversally
the seismic action is distributed among the piers.
Calculations have been carried out through state of the art procedures, taking into
account form effect of the cross section. For this reason, different FE models have been set up
to study different aspects of the behavior, with increasing degrees of approximation. For
example, beam elements have been utilised to investigate global effects both in the linear
and non linear range, while more accuate 2D and 3D elements have been used for refined
cases such as stress checks and local buckling analyses.
The present paper goes into detail in particular for what concerns some of the most
interesting parts of the design process for the specific case. Namely, time dependent
properties of the materials have been considered, and extensive staged construction
analyses have been carried out to ensure safety in each phase of the complex life of the
bridges, while at the same time guaranteeing significant cost savings.
1. INTRODUCTION
The two viaducts share the same cross section and statical scheme, while
differing for what concerns the total length. In particular, the first one covers a
total of 680 m with 60 m main spans and 40 m lateral spans, while the second is
250 m long with 60 and 35 m spans. Both are of the continuous girder type
and feature no joints throughout the whole length. Together with the cassions,
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the transverse beams carry the concrete slab, cast upon longitudinal predalles
The following figure depicts the overall plan for both bridges
OR
ASTIE
SIBIU
SIBIU
F20
F19
ORASTIE
F18
F09 F17
F10 F11 F12 F13 F14 F15 F16
Since the overall cost was the key parameter, refined analyses have been
carried out throughout the design process, using different software codes as a
function of the specific aspect to be investigated, here in the following
described. Along with the necessary national annexes, the whole projects has
been carried out with reference to the Eurocodes.
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The model was realized with the FEM software MIDAS/GEN 2010 using
plate elements (mixed behavior) and beam elements.
The model is limited to only 3 spans, and this simplification is made
possible by the recurrent scheme along the longitudinal development of the
bridge. It is a rather detailed model through which it is possible to capture the
behavior by identifying areas subject to higher stress concentrations, thus
allowing to easily check the capacity of the structure towards the design actions.
As customary in the the modeling of medium to large structures,
construction phases that clearly influence the final result of the analysis have
been taken into account. Namely:
1. The girder is put in place creating a succession of simply supported
beams.
2. the main girders are rendered continuous at supports (deformations due to
self-weight are not retrieved)
3. Casting of the concrete deck in central areas of the spans. the load of the
complements and workers is carried by the steel structure alone acting as
a continuous beam. Casting at midspan first and, as well as being
statically convenient, allows to avoid early cracking phenomena.
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4. The slab in the middle of the spans cures and the section becomes
composite
5. Casting of the concrete slab at supports
6. The slab at the supports cures and the section becomes composite along
the whole length
7. Taking into account the reologic phenomena, checks in the ultimate
conditions are performed considering the code loads.
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The structural models in the different phases are shown in the following
pictures.
The results deriving from such model have been used for the required
code checks in all respects.
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This model has been subjected to seismic excitation using the Eurocode
spectra (with national parameters) in terms of pseudo-accelerations and
displacements, these latter being of particular importance with regard to the
specific scheme.
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been considered in order to neglect rigid motion. It has been found that the most
severe condition is obtained when one end is fixed and a displacement is applied
at the other end. Since the problem might be severely non linear and buckling
may occur at any execution time, the modified Riks algorithm has been used in
all analyses. It is a well known arc-length based procedure, capable of following
the response path even in strongly unstable branches. When the displacement
field deriving form the general bridge analyses are applied, the structure itself
remains well within the linear range and values of the equivalent Mises stresses
are relatively low. No beginning of instability is detected anywhere, though
additional imperfection is fictitiously applied by providing 0.5% horizontal
misalignment.
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4. ERECTION
Once all the design issues had been dealt with, a very detailed method
statement for construction has been established in order to respect the analysis
assumption in each phase of the erection.
The following figures shown some of the construction phases.
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5. CONCLUSIONS
This paper, within the limits of these few pages, describes the process the
authors have followed in the design of a composite steel-concrete viaduct with
some peculiar characteristics. The approach followed has made possible a
particularly cost effective realization, while at the same time retaining very good
structural performances and beautiful aesthetics. Some concepts, such as shape
effects and extensive use of non-linear analysis, have helped in streamlining the
process balancing the allegedly opposite needs of cost saving and structural
performance.
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Abstract
This paper describes the design and construction of a balanced cantilever girder
bridge over the Danube-Black Sea channel, characterized by a central span of 155m with two
symmetrical side spans of 77.5m. The total length of the bridge, including portions of the
abutments support, is 312.0m.
The bridge main features, from calculation as well as construction points of view, are
in particular the post-tensioning tendons, distributed both a top and bottom sides of the
section along the bridge. The former ones play a key role in the construction phase, for the
need of counterbalancing selfweight while subsequent segments are realized.
Tendons are symmetrical about midspan, with anchors positioned at the end of each
segment.
Bridge deck is supported by two piers outfitted with friction pendulum seismic
bearings, which develop friction both in static conditions to withstand static forces and small
displacements, and in dynamic conditions, causing dissipation. Under severe earthquake load
all structures (deck and piers) develop only elastic behavior.
This papers presents a detailed review of the design process as well as a time journey
during construction
1. INTRODUCTION
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The depth of the deck cross section varies from a maximum value of
10.0m, at the pier axis, to a minimum value of 2.40m, at the mid span and the
abutments supports.
The upper slab is 14.75m wide and transversally inclined at 2.5%, same as
the road transverse slope. The upper slab shows a variable thickness from a
minimum of 25cm, at the center of the box girder section, to a maximum of
45cm, at two intermediate web supports.
The box girder section is characterized by a depth of the bottom slab of
variable thickness, which is maximum near the pier to keep the compression at
the bottom fiber compressions below the maximum allowable at this location.
The thickness of the concrete webs is 30cm for the center spans segments and
40cm segments closest to pier segments .
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internal blisters. The lower tendon layout is symmetric at mid central span and
located at end of side spans.The bridge deck is supported by two piers and two
abutments through seismic bearings. At each support there are two bearings type
friction pendulum which develop friction both in static condition, to asses
static forces and small displacements, and dynamic condition, providing
dissipation. Under rare seismic load all structures (deck and elevations) develop
only elastic behavior, because dissipation provided by seismic bearings. As
precaution at piers support a shear key by r.c. is located to prevent deck
overtaking.
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The abutment structure has a top beam seat of L shape that is connected to
the back wall. The beam seat collect bridge deck vertical and horizontal
reactions, through bearing seismic devices, and earth backfill pressure of the
embankment. The beam seat is supported by a number of shear walls of
rectangular section, 1.0m thickness and 4.3m length, aligned with longitudinal
deck axis. Each shear wall is founded, trough an intermediate footing r.c. beam
h=1.5m, to two deep diaphragm walls that transfer to the ground the static and
seismic loading due to superstructure and earth pressures.
The seismic design of the bridge has been assessed through refined
analysis. In details it has been assumed that under extreme seismic actions
(Ultimate Limit State) the bridge develop dissipation at friction pendulum
bearings.
2. ANALYSIS
The bridge have been analyzed by detailed finite element models to assess
the structural behavior of the deck, piers and abutments and the different applied
load/boundary condition. The global bridge finite element model is
characterized by beam elements of different geometry according to the
variable shape of the bridge deck and piers.
Besides the global model of the bridge, different models were created to
analyze every part of the bridge structure, which requires a more detailed
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analysis. For this reason, segments and abutments were analyzed separately. The
following figures display the model in the different phases.
Global finite element model of the bridge is characterized by beam
elements with different geometry, suitably variable form of the bridge deck and
piers.
Different phases of construction of the bridge were considered to enable /
disable loading - bridge segments - limits - prestressing and development time-
dependent material properties.
Twenty steps averall have been taken into account, and the time-varing
material properties have been introduced in the constitutive model in order to
account for long term effects. The used model for evaluating time effect is of
course the CEB-FIP one, represente by the following picture:
Of course, thermal effect have been taken into account both for what
concerns daily and seasonal variations.
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Special attention have been paid to the modeling of the bearing devices,
which are of the friction pendulum type, as shown in the following pictures.
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Once the finite element model had been set up and analyzed under all the
construction stages, the code-required conventional loads have been applied, as
summarized in the following pictures, which, for paper length limits, cannot
cover each and every load considered.
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For the seismic analyses, the model is characterized by the use of bridge
supports of the friction pendulum type both at piers and abutment of the
bridge. In the equivalent linear analysis, elastic constraints with the following
stiffness have been taken into account.
Piers K = 16.345 kN / m
Abutements K = 1.960 kN / m
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The global analyses have been completed with more refined ones,
performed on different parts of the structure, for which local models have been
set up and subjected to properly arranged loads.
For space reasons, only a few of such models have been reported in the
following figures, along with some relevant results in terms of stresses and
equivalent internal forces.
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4. ERECTION
Once all the design aspect have been suitably treated, a very detailed
method statement for construction, and subsequent testing, has been established
in order to respect the analysis assumption in each phase of the erection, that for
this kind of bridge play a key role.
The following figures show some of the construction phases.
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Radu Adrian Iordnescu, Ph.D. candidate, dipl. eng. Bridge Division, I.P.T.A.N.A. S.A.,
e-mail: r_iordanescu@yahoo.com
Ileana Ctalina Prodescu, Quality-Environment-Health and labor security responsible in the
Bridge Division, Ph. D. dipl. eng, I.P.T.A.N.A. S.A., e-mail: ileanaprodescu@gmail.com
Constantin Iordnescu, Head of the Bridge Division, dipl. eng, I.P.T.A.N.A. S.A
Abstract
The Bistrita city bypass crosses obliquely at km 14+162 the Bistrita river and a local
road. In the area where the bridge is situated the river has a width of about 50.00m and the
local road has 5.00m, being located at 12.00m from the bank of Bistrita. The bridge should
provide a roadway that is 7.80m wide and two sidewalks of 1.50m.
The challenge is to design a bridge that allows the crossing of the two barriers (the
river and the local road) in the most efficient way possible from an economical point of view,
but in such a way that both the geometrical constraints and the design requirements contained
in the family of the European standards Eurocodes are respected.
In order to achieve this goal, the authors have investigated the design situation by
comparing different possible technical solutions, by conducting a series of parametric studies
and by utilizing mathematical optimization techniques.
Following these investigations a 100.00m long bridge resulted. The superstructure is a
continuous beam with three spans: 20.00m + 60.00m + 20.00m and consists of a composite
steel concrete deck. The deck cross section is composed of two steel beams with variable
height and a reinforced concrete slab disposed on top. This configuration of the superstructure
leads to the development of negative reaction forces in the bearings located at the end points
of the deck.
The study has covered 8 key steps as follows:
1. Establishing the technical solution.
2. Establishing the number and the length of the spans.
3. Setting the static scheme.
4. Determining the optimal cross section of the steel beams.
5. Setting longitudinal beam geometry.
6. Establishing the number of beams in the cross section.
7. Determining the optimal mounting order of the concrete slabs.
8. Establishing the optimal type and distribution of the bearing devices.
Key words: composite structure, negative reaction forces, continuous variable beam,
optimization
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Rezumat
1. INTRODUCTION
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Figure 1. Cost/m2 vs. span length and the corresponding structure types
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From figure 1 is interesting to note the sudden leap in prices from 40m
onward, the span length corresponding to the maximum length of the concrete
beams.
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The total cost of this structure is 1,719 mil. Euro which steel remains
high, but looking in what the price consist of (figure 10) we find that it has a
high potential for further improvement since only 22% are fixed costs and the
other 78% are comprised of the structural steel 48% and foundations 30% which
are both highly optimizable. The cost per m2 is 1.422E (above average, see
figure 1).
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Figure 12. Bending moment of continuous beam with negative end reactions
From these 3 possible static schemes the most efficient is the one with
40mm induced bearing displacement because it concentrates the moment in the
intermediate support area which is very short in length since it dissipates very
fast because the geometry of the diagram. This is shown in figures 11,12 and 13.
Assuming that only 2 types of cross sections are utilized then:
M 2 36m 611,65tfm 28m 764,50tfm 65472,8tfm m (1)
M 2 15m 50m 597.7tfm 20m 778,5tfm 63386tfm m (2)
M 2 11m 48m 395tfm 30m 980tfm 53100tfm m (3)
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After choosing the static scheme 2 types of cross sections resulted, one
type for the support which extends over a length of 2x15=30m and another type
for the mid span which extends over a length of 2x11+48=60m.
These configurations of the cross sections were established via the classic
iterating process in which the values are changed using an educated guess until
improvement is no longer possible. Another solution is to employ a
mathematical optimization algorithm where the problem can be reduced to the
question of what is the optimal configuration of the cross section in order to
obtain the minimum area of steel while respecting the condition that the stress in
the extreme inferior fiber will not exceed a certain limit. This definition is
justified by the fact that the area of the concrete which is part of the composite
cross section and also the upper flange can be regarded as constant values
because they result from constructive and not from resistance requirements.
In the same time this line of reasoning permits to not take into
consideration the stages of construction in the optimization algorithm, but
instead necessitates the prior knowledge of the required value for the inferior
resistance modulus W of the steels section which can be obtained only after a
standard dimensioning computation where the stages are taken into
consideration and from where results a first configuration of the entire cross
section which has the required inferior W for the composite cross from where
the steels required inferior W is computed, this being possible because the
steels W will result in a proportional composite W regardless of the steels
moment of inertia I.
An example of this method using MathCad software will be presented
below.
The first step is obtaining the necessary W of the steels cross section,
procedure which was previously discussed. This step is already accomplished in
this example as the W of the current cross sections are going to be used.
Area of the intermediate support cross section: Ao 0.125m
Resistance modulus for the intermediate support: Wo Io Yo 0.158m
Area of the mid span cross section: Ao 0.075m
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(4)
Next, initial guess values must be provided for all the dimensions that are
declared in the objective function. The initial values represent the starting point
in the algorithms search so the closer they are to the solution the faster the
answer will be, but of course this is not a concern for a modern computer.
Further the conditions must be stated, in this case:
W I Cg 0.158m for the support cross section (5a)
W I Cg 0.158m for the mid span cross section (5b)
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V Minimize f, h ,t ,t ,b ,t ,b ,t ,b (13)
Where: V is the results vector with the optimized dimensions in the columns
V 3000, 14, 20, 400, 40, 1200, 11, 1100 mm For the support section
V 2500, 12, 20, 400, 25, 1200, 0, 0 mm For the mid span section
Computations were made with 2,3 and 4 beams in the cross section. The
conclusion being that increasing the number of beams only increases the steel
consumption (figure 16) and only decreases the reinforcement in the concrete
deck which is negligible for the total cost but not the volume of concrete.
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Figure 16. Comparison of 2,3 and 4 beams in section by the steel consumption
By mounting the concrete slabs in the intermediate support area first the
advantage is double, primarily when mounting the concrete slabs in the mid
span which produces the most of the bending moment from this stage of
construction both at support and at the mid span the intermediate support area
will be composite thus reducing the steel requirement and secondly also because
when mounting the mid span the support section will be composite it will further
concentrate the moment in the support area. 20t were reduced in this example.
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9. CONCLUSIONS
The total cost is 1.064.730 Euro while the cost per m2 is 875Euro which
represents a 34% reduction as against the mean value (figure 1). The steel
quantity is 180t while the first proposal had 330t of steel (figure 9 and 10).
REFERENCES
[3]. MATHCAD, version 14.0 (2007), Parametric Technology Corporation, MA, USA.
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Mihai Predescu, dr. ing., Administrator S.C. Integrated Road Solutions SRL,
e-mail: mihai.predescu@irsol.ro
Viorel Bucur, ing., Director Departament Poduri S.C. Search Corporation SRL,
e-mail: viorel.bucur@searchltd.ro
Gabriel Nicolau, ing., Manager de Proiect S.C. SCT SA
Rezumat
Abstract
In 2009 Search Corporation has been awarded the contract for elaboration of the
Pasaj suprateran la km 0 al municipiului Craiova, for the Technical Project and Detailed
Design Stages having as beneficiary Craiova City Hall.
The structure has a total length of the superstructure of 305.00m, and it is a continuous
concrete box over 8 spans having spans between 35.00m and 43.00m
(4x35.00m+3x43.00m+35.00m), providing either 2 lanes of traffic on each direction or a
single traffic lane and a tramway lane per direction, without pedestrian footways. In The
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cross-section of the overpass is made of an concrete box having a height of 1.80m and a total
width of 15.30m.
The overpass substructure is made of 7 piers, each pier consisting of two independent
shafts with no connection at the top and 2 reinforced concrete abutments. All piers and
abutmentss foundation are on drilled piles having a length of 10.00m.
The bearings are of pot-type, on every substructure being placed 2 bearings at a
distance of 6.40m center to center. Due to the length of the overpass it was not possible to
take the entire seismic force by just one pier. For this reason, every pier except the one with
the longitudinal fixed bearing have been provided with connector devices which will be
mobilized during an earthquake in order to distribute the seismic forces to all the piers.
The construction of the overpass started in May 2011 and has been finalized in July
2012. In June 2012.
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Execuia pasajului a nceput n luna mai 2011 iar pasajul a fost finalizat n
luna iulie 2012. n iunie 2012 a fost realizat i ncercarea pasajului, ncercare n
cadrul creia au fost folosite camioane avnd greutatea de aproximativ 50 tone,
dispuse n diferite poziii i pentru care s-au msurat sgeile nregistrate de
structur cu ajutorul microcomparatoarelor, acestea fiind ulterior comparate cu
sgeile rezultate din modelul de calcul. Diferenele ntre cele dou seturi de
valori au validat modelul de calcul, pasajul fiind deschis pentru circulaia auto
cteva sptamani mai tarziu.
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2. CONCLUZII
[2] EUGENE J. OBRIEN, DAMIEN L. KEOGH: Bridge deck analysis, Taylor &
Francis e-Library, 2005
[3] E. C. HAMBLY: Bridge deck behaviour 2nd edition, E & FN Spon, 1991
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Mihai Predescu, dr. ing., Administrator S.C. Integrated Road Solutions SRL,
e-mail: mihai.predescu@irsol.ro
Viorel Bucur, ing., Director Departament Poduri S.C. Search Corporation SRL,
e-mail: viorel.bucur@searchltd.ro
Gabriel Nicolau, ing., Manager de Proiect S.C. SCT SA
Rezumat
Abstract
In 2009 Search Corporation has been awarded the contract for elaboration of the
Pasaj suprateran la km 0 al municipiului Craiova, for the Technical Project and Detailed
Design Stages having as beneficiary Craiova City Hall.
The structure has a total length of the superstructure of 305.00m, and it is a continuous
concrete box over 8 spans having spans between 35.00m and 43.00m
(4x35.00m+3x43.00m+35.00m), providing either 2 lanes of traffic on each direction or a
single traffic lane and a tramway lane per direction, without pedestrian footways. In The
cross-section of the overpass is made of an concrete box having a height of 1.80m and a total
width of 15.30m.
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The overpass substructure is made of 7 piers, each pier consisting of two independent
shafts with no connection at the top and 2 reinforced concrete abutments. All piers and
abutmentss foundation are on drilled piles having a length of 10.00m.
The bearings are of pot-type, on every substructure being placed 2 bearings at a
distance of 6.40m center to center. Due to the length of the overpass it was not possible to
take the entire seismic force by just one pier. For this reason, every pier except the one with
the longitudinal fixed bearing have been provided with connector devices which will be
mobilized during an earthquake in order to distribute the seismic forces to all the piers.
The construction of the overpass started in May 2011 and has been finalized in July
2012. In June 2012.
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The first two stages have been prestressed from both ends, whilst in the
following ones the cables have been prestressed from one side only, the cables
being connected with cuplor devices. The total number of cables (per section)
is 24 (6 cables per each web) each cable having a variable number of strands
T15.7, depending on the specific stage. The maximum number of strands per
cable is 22. In each prestressing stage a number of 12 cables have been
tensioned (half of the total number).
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The last two prestressing stages involved the casting and tensioning of the
last 80% of the first and last spans, with the tensioning being made from one
side only.
After the last two tensioning stages, the abutments where finalized with
the casting of the back wall , the bridge being almost completed.
From the tensioning technology used it can be said that this bridge is a
premier for Romania, being the first at which, using the span by span technic
at the casting joints locations the cables where not fully interrupted but only half
of them.
The connection with the embankments have been made using reinforced
soil retaining walls, having the seen face from precast concrete elements. This
solution has been enforced by the limitation of the properties limits and the
utilities nearby.
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The construction of the overpass started in May 2011 and has been
finalized in July 2012. In June 2012, the testing of the overpass have been made,
testing in which trucks with a weight of approximately 50 tones , disposed in
varies positions along the bridge and for which the deformations of the structure
has been measured using microcomparators. The results have been compared
with those resulted from the calculation model and two weeks later the traffic
have been opened on the bridge.
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4. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
[6] EUGENE J. OBRIEN, DAMIEN L. KEOGH: Bridge deck analysis, Taylor &
Francis e-Library, 2005
[7] E. C. HAMBLY: Bridge deck behaviour 2nd edition, E & FN Spon, 1991
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Ileana Ctlina Prodescu, Consilier divizie Poduri, dr. inginer specialist, I.P.T.A.N.A.
S.A., e-mail: ileanaprodescu@gmail.com
Carmen Gdea, ef de colectiv n divizia Poduri, inginer specialist, I.P.T.A.N.A. S.A.,
e-mail: gadea.carmen@iptana.ro
Ecaterina Ioni, inginer specialist divizia Poduri, I.P.T.A.N.A. S.A.
Radu Adrian Iordnescu, drd. inginer. proiectant, divizia Poduri, I.P.T.A.N.A. S.A.,
e-mail: r_iordanescu@yahoo.com
Constantin Iordnescu, Director Divizia Poduri, inginer specialist, I.P.T.A.N.A. S.A.
Rezumat
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Abstract
The national road 17A, between km 77+379,42 km 77+748,76 crosses the Suceava
River and the Radauti - Dornesti - Siret railway on a bridge. The bridge has 18 spans:
9x23.0m + 1x36.060 m + 8x23.0 m.
After the floods in June - July 2010 the pier P3 was scoured and rotated in longitudinal
direction, and the bridge decks adjacent to pier P3 inclined and slipped from the bearing
devices. Then, after several days, pier P3 went on leaning and slipping, resulting in the
collapsing of spans D3 and D4, which induced a small leaning to pier P4 towards pier P5.
In order to bring the bridge to the normal exploitation parameters in a short time, it was
chosen the solution consisting in the demolition of pier P3 and in the execution of a new
superstructure. The superstructure shall be 46.0 m long covering the spans 3 and 4. The
following works were necessary: consolidation of piers P2 and P4, the execution of a new
superstructure consists of a composite steel and concrete structure - 46.0 m long and the
restoring of the carriageway overall bridge, ensuring the water runoff from the structure.
Esthetically, to maintain the level of the composite bridge deck soffit at the same cote with the
concrete bridge deck in the adjacent spans, resulted an imposed construction height (about
1.70 m) inferior to the recommended range for simply supported composite structures.
Keywords: scouring, beam collapse, substructure consolidation, new composite steel and
concrete superstructure
1. SITUAIA EXISTENT
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3. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1] **** STAS 1844:98 Poduri metalice de osea. Prescripii de proiectare, Institutul
Roman de Standardizare, 1975
[2] **** STAS 1911:98 Poduri metalice de cale ferat. Prescripii de proiectare,
Institutul Roman de Standardizare, 1998
[3] **** STAS 1545-89 Poduri pentru strzi i osele; Pasarele Aciuni, Institutul
Roman de Standardizare, 1989
[4] **** STAS 3221-86 Poduri de osea. Convoaie tip i clase de ncrcare, Institutul
Roman de Standardizare, 1986
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Abstract
This paper describes the realisation of a cut-and-cover tunnel along the Orastie-Sibiu
highway, between km 71 +870.15 +210.16 and 72, inserted to reduce the impact of the road
layout on the existing morphology. The longitudinal development overall (tunnel more inlets)
is approx 416m, 340m laid in tunnel. The relevant soil stratigraphy, from top to bottom,
features the transition from silty-clay material and marl, a substrate consisting mostly of sands
and clay sands; from a hydraulic point of view, the volume of soil is free from water. The
deriving geotechnical characteristics, together with the boundary conditions represented by
the expropriation limits, make feasible a 2:3 sloping development upstream of the two edges
of the tunnel, interspersed with 3 m wide banks. The type section, featuring two lanes in each
direction + emergency lane for a total of 13.25 m, has an internal width of 16.50 m
considering the 1.00 m sidewalk along the inner edges inside and the 0.75 m + 0.25 m
sidewalk along the outer edges. The transversal slope is equal to 4% consantly. Within the
geometry of the sidewalks, all the systems for regimentation and drainage of water, coming
either from platform or back side of the diaphragm, are arranged. Special attention has been
paid in respect this issues: although there are no natural aquifers and the slopes have been
properly treated, subhorizontal drains are realised to pick up any water leaks from ground
level through small states of loose material
From the structural point of view, the tunnel features a 1.0 thick slab on top with
vertical members consisting of r.c diaphragms distributed constinuously on the sides and
discontinuously along the central alignment. Lanes are laid on a foundation element made up
of a .6 m thick slab. While the deck is constrained to the lateral and central diaphragms
through opportune reinforcement, the foundation slab is unconnected.
Additional flexible retaining diaphragm walls have been also required to accomodate
the usptream slopes.
The calculations have required sophisticated analyses carried out with the software
code PLAXIS, taking into account non-linear soil material properties and staged
construction.
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1. INTRODUCTION
The tender project for the realization of lot n.4 of the Orastie-Sibiu
highway, between prog 71+800 and 72+300, involved the deep incision of a
natural relief, the top of which is home to a wide wooded area. The arrangement
of the eyelashes sides of the road was entrusted to a series of retaining walls
made of prefabricated concrete slabs, bound by nailing to the ground behind.
The slope of accommodation was expected between 60 and 70 from vertical.
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2. Definition levels at the foot of the slopes and top surface of the tunnel
through verification of geometric compatibility with the limit of expropriation;
3. Definition of the project section and the geometry of the tunnel and pre-
sizing of the geometries of the structural elements constituting the lining of the
tunnel;
4. Modeling and analysis of soil-structure interaction by means of the FEM
solver Plaxis .
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2. ANALYSIS
The software code PLAXIS has been used to model the intervention with
complete consideration of the staged construction sequence.
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Plaxis also suggests the following relation between E50,ref and Eur,ref:
Eur,ref = 3xE50,ref
In our case, we have processed first of all the results of SPT tests by
means of the correlation proposed by Ohta & Goto (1978):
,
,
54,33
0,303
9,81 9,81 1000
Then we have determined the average value of G0, and we have applied to
the average a safety factor of 1.20 to obtain a cautious characteristic value of G0.
From G0 we have calculated E0 = Eur,ref through the well known elastic relation:
E = G*[2(1+)]
E50,ref = Eur,ref / 3
c oed ur
Teren
kN/m3 kPa () kN/mq kN/mq kN/mq
Argila
Prafoasa 19,3 33,9 22,1 29,6x103 29,6x103 88,8x103
alterata
Argila
19,4 53,4 25,4 27,0x103 27,0x103 81,0x103
Prafoasa
Argila
19,4 38,1 21,7 22,0x103 22,0x103 66,0x103
Nisipoasa
Nisip 19,5 0,2 32,0 100x103 100x103 300,0x103
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Seismic actions have also been taken into account, using the Wood
approach, suitable for rigid underground structures, which provides the
definition of a pseudo load applied to the full height and is commonly regarded
as conservative in most cases. The well-known formula for calculating the above
action is:
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x=419433.14
y
y=476050.62
x
y
ORASTIE x
x=419099.84 AMONTE
y=476043.67
SIBI U
y x=419438.9491
y=476023.5351
x
AVAL
LUCRARI DE SUSTINERE
PROFIL LONGITUDINAL
PARTE AMONTE
Scara 1:500
SIBIU
ORASTIE
Scara 1:500
Santuri de garda
AMONTE
SIBIU
Santuri de beton
AVAL
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3. CONCLUSIONS
This paper, within the limits of these few pages, describes the process the
authors have followed in the design of this cut-and-cover tunnel, proposed a
variant over the original tender design. Taking into account the staged
construction, with fully non linear behavior of the soil, the resulting design has
allowed for significant cost savings both in terms of sections used and of soil
movements needed, while retaining at the same time very good structural and
geotechnical performances.
REFERENCES
[3]. Lambe T.W. & Whitman R.V: Soil Mechanics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc; 1969.
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Rezumat
Pasajul superior situat pe DJ 102, peste DN1B, are rolul de a fluidiza traficul i de a
spori sigurana circulaiei n zona interseciei existente semaforizate.
Soluia tehnic aleas pentru realizarea pasajului, inel central giratoriu suspendat cu
raza interioar de 40.0m, din care se desprind bretelele de acces ale DJ 102 precum i ale DN
1B, rezolva din punct de vedere al traficului posibilitatea efectuarii tuturor manevrelor de
circulaie, inclusiv intoarcerea. Circulaia autovehiculelor pe inelul central se va face
respectnd reglementrile corespunzatoare unei intersecii giratorii.
Structura inelului central este o caset continu din beton armat ce reazem pe 12 pile
dispuse radial. Bretelele de acces se desprind tangenial din inelul central i sunt de asemenea
alctuite din casete de beton armat.
Fundarea, att pentru culei ct i pentru pile, se face direct.
Aparatele de reazem au fost alese pe baza deplasrilor rezultate din calculul structurii
i asigur o comportare optim la solicitrile maxime date de seism i de variatiile de
temperatur. Acestea se vor realiza din neopren, cu disipator de energie.
Se asigur continuitatea trotuarului i a pistei de biciclete, din lungul DJ102, prin
realizarea unor scri circulare prevzute cu rampe i a unei pasarele pietonale, amplasate n
interiorul inelului central.
Pe pasaj se vor monta stlpi de iluminat care vor asigura iluminatul nodului rutier i
pozarea catenarelor necesare liniei de troleibuz n cazul extinderii reelei de transport public
spre localitatea Puleti.
Pe amplasamentul lucrrii s-au identificat reele de utiliti (gaze, petrol, energie, ap,
canal, telecomunicaii) ce se vor devia i proteja.
La acest pasaj s-a urmarit imprimarea unui aspect arhitectural deosebit prin asigurarea
continuitii feelor exterioare ale pereilor casetelor suprastructurii, fr intersecii n unghi, i
de asemenea prin forma pilelor, a cror elevaii preiau nclinarea casetelor, i prin
amprentarea feei betonului la zidurile de sprijin ale rampelor.
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Abstract
The overpass situated on DJ 102, over DN1B, improves the traffic fluidity and safety
in the area of the semaphore signaled existing crossroads.
The technical solution chosen for the execution of the overpass, a suspended
roundabout central ring with the inner radius of 40.0m out of which the access slip roads of
DJ 102 and of DN 1B separate, solves the problem of executing all the traffic movements,
including U-turns. The vehicles traffic on the central ring shall be done observing the
regulations for a roundabout crossroad.
The structure of the central ring is a reinforced concrete continuous case supported by
12 piers radially disposed. The access slip roads separate tangentially from the central ring
and they also consist of reinforced concrete cases.
The foundation is direct, both for abutments and for piers.
The bearing devices were chosen based on the displacement resulted from the
structure calculation and they ensure an optimum behavior at the maximum loads given by
earthquake and by the temperature variations. They shall be of neoprene, with energy
dissipater.
The sidewalk and the cycling lane shall be continued from along DJ102, by the
execution of circular stairs provided with ramps and of a pedestrian footbridge, located inside
the central ring.
On the overpass, lighting posts shall illuminate the road interchange. They shall be
used also for laying the catenaries for the trolleybus lines in case of prolonging the public
transport network towards Paulesti locality.
On the site, there are utilities networks (gas, oil, energy, water, sewage system, and
phone) that shall be moved and protected.
This overpass shall have a pleasant architectural aspect due to the continuity of the
outer sides of the superstructure cage walls, without angle crossroads and due to the piers
shapes whose elevations take over the cage inclination, and due to the concrete face printing
at the retaining walls of the ramps.
1. SITUAIA EXISTENT
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2. SOLUIA PROIECTAT
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3. MODELAREA STRUCTURII
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Din acest motiv a fost inclus n model doar o parte a suprastructurii, avnd
rezemri pe patru pile pe giraie i pe cte patru pile ce susin bretelele de acces
de pe DN1B. La capetele tronsonului modelat au fost prevzute rezemri
compatibile cu deformaiile structurii, acest model oferind rezultate suficient de
corecte. Pe acest model au fost aplicate aciunile permanente, aciunile
provenind din ncrcrile utile, aciunile termice, contracia betonului. Cu
ajutorul acestui model au fost stabilite eforturile secionale ce au servit la
dimensionarea consolelor ce susin trotuarele. In figurile 3.3 i 3.4 sunt
prezentate modelul de calcul cu elemente finite plane i forma deformat sub
ncrcarea cu oameni pe trotuare. n figura 3.5 este prezentat distribuia
eforturilor unitare normale din ncrcarea cu oameni pe trotuare.
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4. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2]. R. PASCU: Comportarea i calculul elementelor din beton, Editura Conspress, 2008
[3]. Cresterea accesibilitatii catre partea de nord a polului de crestere, in special catre
Spitalul Judetean din Municipiul Ploiesti, prin realizarea pasajului peste DN 1B, in
continuare DJ 102, Contract 13043/4355/2010, SC IPTANA SA C.J. PRAHOVA
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Rezumat
Abstract
SC EXPERT PROIECT 2002 SRL BETARMEX SRL joint venture has prepared in
2012 the Technical expertises and Feasibility studies for 5 bridges: Giurgiu Bridge, over
Danube, on DN 5 km 64+884, Slatina Bridge over Olt, on DN 65 km 48+570, Poiana Sarata
Bridge over Oituz on DN 11 km 90+450, Arginesti Bridge over Jiu on DN 6 km 268+371 and
new Cosmesti Bridge over Siret on DN 24 km 7+620.
In the article there are presented the proposed solutions for Slatina Bridge over Olt, on
DN 65 km 48+570 and Cosmesti Bridge over Siret on DN 24 km 7+620.
For Slatina Bridge there were 5 options each of them with several constructive
variants: rehabilitation of the existing bridge versus construction of a new 4 lanes cable
stayed- bridge. All variants are presented in the article.
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For Cosmesti Bridge there were 3 solutions: continuous prestressed concrete girder of
on 4 spans; continuous steel girder on 4 spans or a cable stayed bridge.
Podul peste Olt la Slatina este o structur alcatuit din 5 tabliere grinzi
cu zbrele avnd talpa superioar parabolic i calea jos, simplu rezemate avnd
fiecare deschidere de 80m.
In anul 1985 tablierele au fost lrgite i consolidate fiind aduse la clasa E
de ncrcare, tablierele 1 si 5 fiind complet nlocuite, structura fiind i n prezent
sub circulaie n aceast configuraie. Spre deosebire de tablierele 2, 3 si 4 care
au fost tabliere nituite alctuite din oel OL37-2n, tablierele noi 1 si 5 sunt
tabliere sudate alctuite din oel OL37-4k.
Obiectivul Studiului de Fezabilitate a fost de a stabili capacitatea portant
a podului existent avnd n vedere noile standarde europene i, deasemenea de a
stabili necesitatea creterii capacitii de trafic prin introducerea unei traversri
suplimentare.
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Figura 4. Opiunea 5
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Figura 7. Seciuni transversale pod nou peste rul Siret la Cosmeti Soluia 1
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Figura 11. Dispoziie general pod nou peste rul Siret Soluia 2
Figura 12. Seciuni transversale pod nou peste rul Siret la Cosmeti Soluia 2
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Figura 13. Dispoziie general pod hobanat peste rul Siret Soluia 3
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Rezumat
Lucrarea prezint varianta ocolitoare a municipiului Vatra Dornei, care are 3814.16m
lungime, din care 2587 m n tunel (cca. 68%). Varianta se desprinde din DN 17 n partea de
Vest a municipiului i revine n partea de Nord - Est a acestuia, dup ce ocolete municipiul
Vatra Dornei i localitatea Argestru.
Traseul variantei ocolitoare strbate muntele Runcu prin 2 tunele:
Tunelul Mic (T1) ntre km 0+590 km 0+797, L = 207 m;
Tunelul Mare (T2) ntre km 0+860 km 3+140, L = 2280 m.
Tunelele sunt amplasate pe traseul variantei ocolitoare a municipiului Vatra Dornei,
subtraversnd mai nti un bot de deal pe 207 m paralel cu Valea Dornei i apoi dealul Runcu
pe 2280 m ntre valea prului Selesvai i malul drept al rului Bistria.
Pentru traversarea rului Bistrita, a cii ferate CF 511 Ilva Mic Suceava i a
drumului naional DN17, a fost proiectat un viaduct la km 3+330.
n lucrare sunt prezentate tipurile de seciuni de tunel pentru fiecare tunel, seciuni de
staionare, seciuni de galerie tip. Este prezentat soluia de realizare a viaductului.
De asemenea sunt prezentate : metoda de calcul pentru validarea i verificarea
seciunilor tip propuse, tehnologia de execuie (Noua Metoda Austriac), echipamentele cu
care sunt echipate tunelurile, modul de alimentare cu energie electric de siguran, centrul de
control al tunelului.
Abstract
The article presents the Vatra Dornei By-Pass road, 3,8 km length, out of which
2587m runs into a tunnel (approx. 68%). The by-pass starts from DN17 in western side of the
city and closes in the north east side, after by passing Vatra Dornei and Argestru.
The proposed alignment crosses Runcu mountain through 2 tunnels:
Tunelul Mic (T1) between km 0+590 km 0+797, L = 207 m;
Tunelul Mare (T2) between km 0+860 km 3+140, L = 2280 m.
1282
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The tunnels are located on Vatra Dornei By-Pass underpassing a 207 m hill area,
parallel with Vatra Dornei river, then going under 2280 m Runcu Mountain between Selevai
valley and right bank of Bistrita River.
A viaduct has been design for over-passing Bistrita River, CF511 Ilva Mic Suceava
railway and national road.
The article presents the typical tunnel sections, istop sections, gallery details. Its also
presented the technical solution for the viaduct.
The following aspects are detailed: foundation soil behaviour model, the calculation
method for the validation and verification of the typical proposed sections, construction
method (New Austrian method), tunnelling equipments, power supply solutions, tunnel
control center.
1. INTRODUCERE
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pentru care s-au stabilit 3 tipuri de seciuni specifice Noii Metode Austriece de
execuie.
Spre exemplu tipul IIIa, prezentat n Fig.1, este alctuit din: - o susinere
primar exterioar din beton torcretat cu grosimea de 15cm, arce cu zbrele
nglobate la 1m distan, i ancore betonate 32mm avnd lungimea de 3m la
distana de 2m transversal i longitudinal n ah la 2m; - o cptueal interioar
din beton armat cu grosimea de 30cm cu radier bolt ntoars din beton armat de
45cm.
Pentru validarea i verificarea seciunilor tip propuse au fost realizate
calcule numerice, cu ajutorul unui program de calcul cu elemente finite, pentru
seciunile de tunel tip Ia, IIa i IIIa, pentru seciunile prin parcare tip Ib, IIb i
IIIb i pentru seciunile de galerie tip Ic i IIc. Modelul adoptat este
bidimensional cu un domeniu de 70m nlime i 70m lime. Acoperirea luat
n calcul este de 29m.
Terenul a fost modelat cu elemente triunghiulare, cptueala exterioar i
cptueala interioar cu elemente tip plac, iar ancorele cu elemente tip bar.
Fazele luate n considerare au fost: excavarea, montarea ancorelor,
torcretarea, betonarea cptuelii i montarea planeului.
Modelul de comportare al terenului a fost Mohr-Coulomb.
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4. LUCRRI POD
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5. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
1291
SECIUNEA C. Geotehnic/ Section C. Geotechnical engineering
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Rezumat
Abstract
The settlement evolution with time (also known as consolidation process) is a very
important issue when we consider the behavior of embankments founded on soft soils. The
main theory used was Terzaghi and Peck consolidation theory. This theory didn t offered
consistent results comparable with real measured ones. This is why we propose a different
theory describet by Maurice Biot in 1941. In this paper we make a comparison between the
two theories and the measured values.
1. INTRODUCERE
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4. CONCLUZII
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0.16
0.14
0.12
Tasarea (m)
0.1
Biot
0.08
Terzaghi si Peck
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
tim p (zile)
REFERENCES
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Rezumat
Abstract
Keywords: embankment, sliding slope, monitoring, under pressure ground water level
1. INTRODUCERE
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82 82
80 80
78 78
76 76
74 74
Adancime (m)
Adancime (m)
72 72
70 70
"0" 02.09.2011 "0" 02.09.2011
"1" 10.09.2011 68 "1" 10.09.2011 68
78
78
76
76
74
74
72
72
70 70
Adancime (m)
Adancime (m)
68 68
66 66
"0" 02.09.2011 "0" 02.09.2011
"1" 10.09.2011 "1" 10.09.2011
64 64
"2" 21.09.2011 "2" 21.09.2011
"3" 04.12.2011 "3" 04.12.2011
"4" 29.12.2011 62 "4" 29.12.2011 62
"5" 20.01.2012 "5" 20.01.2012
"6" 19.03.2012 "6" 19.03.2012 60
60
"7" 21.04.2012 "7" 21.04.2012
"8" 17.05.2012 "8" 17.05.2012
58 58
-25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
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74
74
72
72
70
70
68
68
66 66
64
Adancime (m)
64
Adancime (m)
62 62
60 60
"1" 10.09.2011 58
58 "1" 10.09.2011
"2"21.09.2011 "2"21.09.2011
"3"04.12.2011 56 "3"04.12.2011 56
"4"29.12.2011 "4"29.12.2011
"5" 20.01.2012 54 "5" 20.01.2012 54
"6" 19.03.2012 "6" 19.03.2012
52 52
"7" 21.04.2012 "7" 21.04.2012
"8" 17.05.2012 "8" 17.05.2012
50 50
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
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Rigola Rigola B0
I1-F3
A0
Fisura stabil
B0
Directia si sensul
A0 I2-F2
vectorului deplasare
I3-F1 Structura
B0 (rambleu)
Directia si sensul
vectorului deplasare
A0 Structura
(culee)
Figura 10. Direcia i sensul vectorilor deplasare n amplasamentul
monitorizat (schi)
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4. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[3]. Standard Test Method for Monitoring Ground Movement Using Probe-Type
Inclinometers ASTM D6230-98.
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Rezumat
Alegerea traseului optim pentru drumul public se reflect n costul i durata execuiei
acestuia. De multe ori, acest traseu ntlnete zone cu capacitate portant redus, fie din cauza
desfurrii lui pe lng cursul unui ru, chiar n albia major a acestuia, fie c traverseaz
alte zone n care nivelul pnzei freatice este ridicat, denumite zone mltinoase.
Cnd nu se impune limitarea amprizei drumului, realizarea rambleurilor cu taluzuri
stabile pe astfel de terenuri impune att lucrri pentru mbuntirea terenului suport ct i a
materialului din corpul drumului. Uneori, n astfel de zone, platforma drumului trebuie
limitat prin lucrri de sprijinire de dimensiuni considerabile, proiectarea i execuia unor
taluzuri stabile fiind imposibil din cauza obstacolelor ntlnite. Este foarte important ca
aceste zone s fie evideniate nc din faza de recunoatere a traseului, apoi prin studiul
geotehnic, pentru ca lucrri adecvate acestor situaii s fie cuprinse din prima faz de
proiectare.
Articolul prezint lucrri de sprijinire a rambleurilor nalte i consolidarea terenului
de fundare n cteva zone cu probleme de acest gen ntlnite pe tronsonul de autostrad Deva-
Oratie.
Abstract
Choosing the optim alignement for the public roads is reflected in costs and
construction time. Most of the times, this alignment meets areas with reduced bearing
capacity, either because near river location or because it crosses areas with high groundwater
level, also known as swampy areas. Sometimes in these areas, the road platform must be
supported by special works of considerable dimensions, as designing and construction of
stable slopes is impossible due to obstacles.
It is very importans that these areas can be identified very soon, maybe even during
preliminary field analysis, and then in the geotechnical study, in order to design adecvate
work during the first phase of design.
The paper presents high embankment support and protection of the subgrade works in
some critical areas on the Deva-Orastie highway alignment.
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1. ZONE MLTINOASE
Km 4+535 Km 4+700;
Km 28+340 Km 29+340;
Km 30+560 Km 30+680;
Km 31+640 Km 31+760.
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drenaje;
zid din beton armat pe coloane din beton armat =1080mm km 31+762 km
31+910;
pmnt armat cu geogrile km 31+762 km 31+910.
2.2. Drenaje
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2.3. Zid din beton armat pe coloane din beton armat =1080mm km 31+762
km 31+910
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Figura 11. Execuie zid de sprijin Figura 12. Execuie zid de sprijin
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Acest tip de lucrare const dintr-un pinten din anrocamente pe saltea din
fascine prevzut n albia rului Mure, pentru protecia lucrrii de sprijinire pe
coloane mpotriva eroziunii rului.
Pentru acest tip de lucrare se indic s se foloseasc piatr brut sau
spart, care asigur o mpanare i o stabilitate superioar celei din bolovani de
ru. Greutatea bucilor de piatr trebuie s fie cuprins ntre 150200kg/bucata,
pentru a nu fi antrenate de curentul de ap. Aezarea bucilor de piatr se face
mecanic i manual, pentru o bun mpnare prin reducerea la minim a volumului
de goluri. Piatr brut utilizat trebuie s ndeplineasc condiiile de calitate
prevzute n SR 667:2001.
La baza lucrrii s-a prevazut un geotextil rezistent pentru evitarea
mpotmolirii pietrei.
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3. CONCLUZII
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Rezumat
Abstract
The Paper presents the results, interpretation and intervention measures obtained from
inclinometer monitoring performed for a retaining structure built for the accomplishment of a
hydrotechnical structure on Jiu River. The accomplishment of the hydrotechnical structure on
Jiu River required a retaining structure of approximately 100m length adjacent to the slope
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which is crossed by the railway line Tg. Jiu - Simeria. The retaining structure made of
1500mm piles also keeps in safe condition the adjacent E79 road section.
Monitoring the behavior of the support structure and of the slope, the layout and the
depth of the monitoring equipments, is the result of a complex analysis of the site, of the
neighborhoods and the risks to be monitored and managed. This paper presents the "peak of
the iceberg" related to site monitoring, being the result of several steps necessary to be
performed in order to accomplish the monitoring program: establishing geotechnical or
structural issues that require resolution / tracking, establishing the concept of monitoring
systems and monitoring plan, establishment of: monitored points, equipment, frequency and
type of data acquisition, processing methods, interpretation and issue resolutions for the data.
The results of the geotechnical monitoring and topographical survey compared with
the design assumptions can lead to intervention measures to ensure and restore structural
stability for the construction during execution stage or exploitation stage.
1. INTRODUCERE
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Orientarea tubulaturii
nclinometrice IC3
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 -100 -75 -50 -25 0 25 50 75 100
"1" 23.09.2008 0 "1" 23.09.2008 0
"2" 22.10.2008 "2" 22.10.2008
"3" 24.10.2008 1 "3" 24.10.2008 1
"4" 27.10.2008 "4" 27.10.2008
"5" 29.10.2008 2 2
"5" 29.10.2008
"6" 03.11.2008 "6" 03.11.2008 3
"7" 06.11.2008 3 "7" 06.11.2008
"8" 10.11.2008 "8" 10.11.2008 4
"9" 13.11.2008 4 "9" 13.11.2008
"10" 17.11.2008 "10" 17.11.2008 5
"11" 20.11.2008 5
"11" 20.11.2008
"12" 25.11.2008 "12" 25.11.2008 6
"13" 01.12.2008 6
"13" 01.12.2008
"14" 08.12.2008 "14" 08.12.2008 7
"15" 15.12.2008 7
"15" 15.12.2008
"16" 14.01.2009 8 "16" 14.01.2009 8
"17" 20.01.2009 "17" 20.01.2009
Adancime (m)
Adancime (m)
18 18
19 19
20 20
Deplasare relativa A0-A180 (mm) Deplasare relativa B0-B180 (mm)
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Orientarea tubulaturii
nclinometrice IC4
-200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200 -200 -150 -100 -50 0 50 100 150 200
0 0
"1" 23.09.2008
1 "2" 22.10.2008 1
"1" 23.09.2008 "3" 24.10.2008
"2" 22.10.2008 2 "4" 27.10.2008 2
"3" 24.10.2008 "5" 29.10.2008
"4" 27.10.2008 3 "6" 03.11.2008 3
"5" 29.10.2008 "7" 06.11.2008
"6" 03.11.2008 4 4
"7" 06.11.2008 "8" 10.11.2008
"8" 10.11.2008 5 "9" 13.11.2008 5
"9" 13.11.2008 "10" 17.11.2008
"10" 17.11.2008 6 "11" 20.11.2008 6
"11" 20.11.2008 "12" 25.11.2008
"12" 25.11.2008 7 "13" 01.12.2008 7
"13" 01.12.2008 "14" 08.12.2008
"14" 08.12.2008 8 "15" 15.12.2008 8
Adancime (m)
"15" 15.12.2008 "16" 14.01.2009
Adancime (m)
9 9
"16" 14.01.2009 "17" 20.01.2009
"17" 20.01.2009 "18" 16.02.2009 10
"18" 16.02.2009 10 "19" 19.02.2009
"19" 19.02.2009 "20" 27.02.2009 11
"20" 27.02.2009 11
"21" 04.04.2009
"21" 04.04.2009 "22" 12.04.2009 12
"22" 12.04.2009 12
"23" 16.04.2009
"23" 16.04.2009 "24" 22.04.2009 13
"24" 22.04.2009 13
"25" 29.04.2009 "25" 29.04.2009 14
"26" 26.05.2009 14 "26" 26.05.2009
"27" 12.06.2009 "27" 12.06.2009 15
"28" 17.06.2009 15 "28" 17.06.2009
"29" 29.06.2009 "29" 29.06.2009 16
"30" 18.07.2009 16 "30" 18.07.2009
"31" 23.07.2009 "31" 23.07.2009 17
"32" 30.07.2009 17 "32" 30.07.2009
"33" 11.08.2009 "33" 11.08.2009 18
"34" 21.08.2009 18 "34" 21.08.2009
"35" 02.10.2009 "35" 02.10.2009 19
"36" 15.10.2009 19
"36" 15.10.2009 20
20
Deplasare relativa B0-B180 (mm)
Deplasare relativa A0-A180 (mm)
Orientarea tubulaturii
nclinometrice IC5
9 "16" 14.01.2009 9
"17" 20.01.2009 "17" 20.01.2009
"18" 16.02.2009 "18" 16.02.2009
"19" 19.02.2009 10 10
"19" 19.02.2009
"20" 27.02.2009 "20" 27.02.2009 11
"21" 04.04.2009 11
"21" 04.04.2009
"22" 12.04.2009 "22" 12.04.2009 12
"23" 16.04.2009 12
"23" 16.04.2009
"24" 22.04.2009 13 "24" 22.04.2009 13
"25" 29.04.2009 "25" 29.04.2009
"26" 26.05.2009 14 "26" 26.05.2009 14
"27" 12.06.2009 "27" 12.06.2009
"28" 17.06.2009 15 "28" 17.06.2009 15
"29" 29.06.2009 "29" 29.06.2009
"30" 18.07.2009 16 "30" 18.07.2009 16
"31" 23.07.2009 "31" 23.07.2009
"32" 30.07.2009 17 "32" 30.07.2009 17
"33" 11.08.2009 "33" 11.08.2009
"34" 21.08.2009 18 "34" 21.08.2009 18
"35" 02.10.2009 "35" 02.10.2009
"36" 15.10.2009 19 19
"36" 15.10.2009
20 20
Deplasare relativa A0-A180 (mm) Deplasare relativa B0-B180 (mm)
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factori, al cror efect rebuie eliminat: condiiile meteo din ziua efecturii
msurtorii, reperul fa de care se realizeaz monitorizare topografic etc.
Urmare a rezultatelor monitorizrii de suprafa, topografic, i de
adncime, inclinometric, s-a recurs la analizarea stabilitii seciunilor critice
ale versantului i structurii de sprijin.
Seciunile transversale au fost instrumentate cu informaiile rezultate din
monitorizarea inclinometric cu privire la adncimea de producere a deplasrilor
majore, respectiv schimbri de pant n diagram, seciunea inclinometrelor IP4-
IP2-IC4 fiind prezentat n Figura 4.
Urma a rezultaelor aciunii de monitorizare au fost reanalizate condiiile
de stabilitate care au condus la adoptarea de msuri de intervenie specifice
zonei de structur reprezentat de seciunea monitorizat. Astfel, pentru anumite
seciuni s-a dispus tensionarea suplimentar a ancorajelor, realizarea unei berme
temporare n faa structurii de sprijin, iar pentru seciunea adiacent
inclinometrelor IC3-IP7 realizarea unui rnd suplimentar de ancore.
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Vector maxim la partea superioara a tubulatur Vector maxim la partea superioara a tubulatur
analiz de risc.
(mm) - raportat la prima citire (mm) - raportat la prima citire
"1 "1
" "
" 2 23.0 "2 23.0
" 9 " 9
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
" 3 22.1 .20 "3 22.1 .20
" 0 08 " 0 08
" 4 24.1 .20 "4 24.1 .20
" 0 08 " 0 08
Bucharest, 4-5 July 2013
Tub IC3
Tub IC3
9" .0 00 9" .0 00
2013
Timp (data)
Timp (data)
" 2 04 2.2 9 "2 04 2.2 9
2 .0 00 2 .0 00
" 2 " 16 4.2 9 "2 " 16 4.2 9
3" .0 00 3" .0 00
" 2 22 4.2 9 "2 22 4.2 9
4 .0 00 4 .0 00
" 2 " 29 4.2 9 "2 " 29 4.2 9
5" .0 00 5" .0 00
" 2 12 4.2 9 "2 12 4.2 9
6" .0 00 6" .0 00
" 2 17 6.20 9 "2 17 6.20 9
7 .0 0 7" .06 09
" 2 " 29 6.2 9 " 2 2 9 .2
8" .0 00 8" .0 00
" 2 18 6.2 9 "2 18 6.2 9
9 .0 00 9 .0 00
" 3 " 23 7.2 9 "3 " 23 7.2 9
0" .0 00 0" .0 00
" 3 30 7.2 9 "3 30 7.2 9
1 .0 00 1 .0 00
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200
Tub inclinometric IC1
180 Tub inclinometric IC2
Tub inclinometric IC3
160 Tub inclinometric IC4
Tub inclinometric IC5
140
Deplasare (mm)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 390
Timp (zile)
4. CONCLUZII
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[2]. PEZZETTI G., "Measurements and Monitoring: What do "They" expect from?",
FMGM 2011, Berlin
[3]. DUNNICLIFF J., "Geotechnical Instrumentation for Monitoring Field Performance",
John and Wilez /sons, New York, 1988,
[5]. ASTM - "Standard Method for Monitoring Ground Movement Using Probe Type
Inclinometers", D6230-98
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Abstract
This article presents the causes that produce landslides, the nature and the volume of
the geotechnical investigations, the assessment of the slopes stability calculus and the
tensions effect of the moving terrain on the works accomplished for the safety road.
The landslides produce significant losses concerning the roads, water networks, sewer
drains, electricity, gases, telephony etc. located near the road. These damages can be
amplified by gases explosions and water losses from the network.
By breaking the road traffic, the villages will be isolated and supply means,
emergency interventions (ambulance, the fire brigade) will not have access.
The main causes that produce landslides near the road are: the absence off the
maintenance works and prevention, deforestation, humidity excess from slopes and road
body, geomorphology, physical and mechanical reduced parameters of lands area etc.
Their monitoring with piezometers and inclinometers (this kind of monitoring helps to
measure and assess in time the terrain-structure behaviour). geotechnical site investigations,
use of photogrammetry in landslide research etc.
The methods used for analysing the slope stability are : Limit echilibrum mehtod that
includes Culmann method, Morgenstern-Price method, Bishop method etc.
The finite element method, applied in the geotehnic filed, is used to calculate the state
of the deformation and stress induced by engineering works.
The monitoring of the landslide evolution and the level of the groundwater pre and
post execution are made by using inclinometer and piezometer, measurements topographical.
The solutions and sliding remediation are : drainage system for the causes elimination, that
produced the landslides, antierosion prevention works, structural works for creating saftey
roads.
There will be presented one case study : landslide on national road 10, Siriu area, Km
83+200-83+600.
The landslides are natural disasters that produce important human lives
loss and also significant damages. These may intervene by natural evolution of
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The causes that lead to landslides are many. The most frequent are:
Vast areas of deforestations
Humidity excess from slopes and road body the water is the main factor
that produces landslides.
Geomorphology and physico - mechanical reduced parameters of lands area
Lack of works maintenance etc.
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2. MONITORING
3. STABILITY ANALYSIS
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The solutions and sliding remediation are many, among which there are :
A drainage system is essential to allow water to flow off and away from the
road as quickly as possible. This is achieved by a system consisting of the
following components: road surface drainage which enables the water to flow
off the road surface, side drains, catch water drains which catch surface water
before it reaches the road etc.
Figure 3. Drainages
The retaining walls are a sort of engineering work applied in the roads field.
Their achieving is different, depending on their destination, also geological and
hydrological conditions.
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In the second part, there is presented a case study. In this study, there are
showed the intervention solutions for creating safety roads.
5. INTRODUCTION
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Figure 6. Layout
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3 Carriage
way
4 The road 165 Major, the
between body road is
km subsidenced,
83+190- and the
83+355 pavement
presents
longitudinal
and cross
cracking area.
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frost. Morphologically, the area presents rugged relief with variable slopes and a
rugged terrain.
Figure 7.
Figure 8.
7. WORK DESCRIPTION
For treating the slope instability and carriage way, the following criteria
were considered:
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For providing surface water drainages, throw ditches to lateral ravine and
towards culverts, paying attention to geomorphology of the slope, drainage
system will be redesigned.
Embedment of the existing retaining wall into a new stabilization system, for
providing the stability.
Therefore, there were designed and executed the next type of works,
which are shown in figure 4.
Figure 10.
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Figure 11.
8. CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES
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Rezumat
Alegerea traseului unui drum nou se bazeaz n general, din punctul de vedere al
geotehnicianului, pe o cartare geotehnic detaliat, pe investigaii geotehnice specifice
tipurilor de lucrri ce urmeaz a fi executate, pe cercetarea harilor topografice, a harilor
geologice, a aerofotogramelor i a documentelor preexistente. Dar toate acestea se dovedesc
uneori a nu fi suficiente pentru predicia unui fenomen de instabilitate atunci cnd factori
naturali preexisteni, ajuni n anumite condiii limit, se asociaz cu factori antropici, inereni
realizrii unui astfel de obiectiv.
Studiul de caz, ales pentru a exemplifica modul n care complementaritatea factorilor
naturali cu cei antropici a dus la declanarea unei alunecri de teren l reprezint "Centura
Municipiului Iai n zona km. 7+900".
Pe aceast zon traseul centurii traverseaz, printr-un viaduct, o vale larg cu pante
relativ reduse (circa 7o) al crei debit este influenat de volumul de precipitaii. La cartarea
geologic efectuat pentru realizarea studiului geotehnic necesar proiectrii, valea era seac,
iar terenul nu prezenta niciun semn de instabilitate.
Deci informaiile geotehnice avute la dispoziie naintea proiectrii indicau conform
criteriilor Eurocodului 7 o zon cu risc geotehnic "major" i cu "potenial ridicat de alunecare"
dar nu se putea prezice dac se va produce sau nu alunecarea i mai ales unde i pe ce
suprafa.
Dup executarea structurii i a rampelor de racordare, dup o perioada cu ploi
abundente, s-a observat apariia unei fisuri, pe drum, n spatele culeei A1 care continu pe
corpul rampei i mai departe n terenul natural urmrind curba de nivel. S-a observat
deasemenea i o deformare a geometriei taluzului de rambleu de pe partea dreapt.
Cunoscndu-se acum o suprafa relativ de dezvoltare a alunecrii, s-a dispus, n
conformitate cu Eurocod 7. Partea 1. Metoda observaional, nceperea unei monitorizri
topografice, nclinometrice i piezometrice.
Rezultatele obinute din cele 3 foraje geotehnice, cu adncimea de 20m, executate
pentru montarea echipamentelor piezometrice i nclinometrice au confirmat prezena
argilelor grase la partea superioar a terenului i prezena infiltraiilor de ap n filmele de
nisip. Deasemenea au identificat, n jurul adancimii de 7,0m, apariia unei zone critice,
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Abstract
From a geo-technicians point of view choosing the path for a new road is generally
based on a set of rules. Among these we mention: detailed geotechnical mapping, specific
geotechnical investigations related to the works to be performed, and studying all relevant
documentation pertaining to the area in question.
However, there are times when all these turn out to be insufficient for predicting
instability phenomena. Such is the case, for example, when preexistent natural factors to be
found at certain boundary conditions, will randomly combine with human factors arising in
the course of fulfilling such an objective.
The present paper is trying to illustrate the way in which the above-mentioned joint
factors - natural and man-made - may lead to landslide hazards. The case study chosen is "Iai
city ring road, km (7+900) section Romania.
In this area, the road is in the form of a viaduct which crosses over a slightly tipped
large valley (slopes of approximately 7) whose discharge flow is variable and in direct
connection with precipitation levels registered. All through the time of the geological
mapping performed on the valley, the terrain was dry and showed no sign of instability.
Therefore, while the geo-technical data available revealed a section with a major geo-
technical risk" and with a high landslide potential, important information such as the exact
timing or location of the landslide could not be derived and thus remained unclear.
Once the structure and joining ramps works done, a road crack occurred following a
period of heavy rain. The crack was located behind the A1 bridge abutment and continued
along the ramp reaching downwards into the ground, somehow following a level curve. In
addition, the road crack was accompanied by a geometrical deformation which was noticed on
the right side of the embankment. With an approximate landslide area thus roughly pinned
down, further examination of EuroCODE 7, Part 1 - Observational Method suggested
proceeding a topographical, inclinometrical and piezometrical monitoring process.
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Three geotechnical drillings were then performed, each being 20 m deep, so that the
standpipes and inclinometrical tubes could be mounted. The data provided confirmed indeed
the presence of plastic clay layers close to the ground surface, as well as of water infiltration
throughout the thin sand layers. Also, as a result of the inclinometrical measures carried out, a
critical area was identified some 7 m below surface level. This critical area had clearly
originated the failure and the plastic-consistent soft clays noticed here were quite different in
terms of consistency from the ones noticed during the initial stage of the investigation.
Finally, the phenomenon under discussion was described as being a slow, plastic
landslide, of the deep creep type, whose cause seems to have been the quick pace of
building the embankment combined with the heavy rain water which had infiltrated through
the sand layers down into the high-plasticity clay layers.
The undisturbed soil samples which were collected during the three drillings were then
modeled in the laboratory in order to obtain values of the shear strength parameters as close to
the values in the actual critical slip section as possible.
Based on the results obtained as well as on the topographic, inclinometric, and
piezometric measurements, a further analysis of the massifs stability could be pursued.
The stability analysis carried out under various assumptions with the help of the
SLOPE/W software has led to choosing the appropriate solution of designing and
dimensioning the consolidation works: caissons with a double role - of drainage and of
structure consolidation.
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zona II - zona critic aflat n jurul adncimii de 7,0m constituit din argile -
argile grase plastic consistente - moi cu filme de nisip saturate, n care s-a
produs ruperea i n care fenomenul este nc activ. Aceast zon include i
partea superioar a argilei mrnoase.
zona III - situat sub planurile de alunecare i constituit din roca de baz
(argil mrnoas cenuie, stratificat, plastic vrtoas - tare).
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Soluii analizate:
Avnd n vedere c principala cauz a apariiei fenomenului de
instabilitate a fost stabilit ca a fi aciunea apei n exces asupra terenului, iniial
s-a analizat realizarea doar a unui sistem de drenaj. Aa cum se observ din
analiza Geoslope (fig 2.) acesta, dei era necesar, nu era suficient deoarece nu se
ndeplineau condiiile impuse de calcul n regim dinamic (Fs = 0.908).
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A urmat analiza unei soluii reprezentat prin chesoane circulare (cu Dext
= 4.00m i Dint = 3.00m) att n amonte, ct i n aval de structur (rambleul
drumului), chesoane care, mpreun cu un sistem de drenaj format din drenuri
orizontale de adncime, ar fi asigurat att stabilitatea, ct i drenarea apei
(Figura 3 si 4). Deoarece costurile unei astfel de lucrri i perioada mare de
execuie erau mai mari dect limitele acceptate de beneficiar a fost nevoie s se
analizeze i o a treia variant, mai avantajoas d.p.d.v. tehnico-economic.
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Fs = 1 021
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2. CONCLUZII
1
extras din SR EN 1997-1. Eurocod7; Proiectarea geotehnica. Partea 1;Reguli generale. Cap.2.7.
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BIBLIOGRAFIE
[3] PREDA D., SAULEA E.: Asupra unor puncte noi fosilifere n argilele sarmatiene
din Podiul moldovenesc, Acad. R.P.R. Bul. stiintific, 1948
[4] PROF. DR. ING. SANDA MANEA: Expertiz Tehnic. Centura Iai,
Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti, 2011
[5] DR. ING. ANDREI OLTEANU, ING. CRISTINA TOMSA: Raport de Monitorizare
nclinometric, Universitatea Tehnic de Construcii Bucureti, 2011
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Rezumat
Toate tipurile de materiale geosintetice sunt utilizate, pe scar mai mic sau mai mare,
n lucrrile de infrastructura transporturilor, respectiv pentru protecia mediului.
Armarea cu geosintetice permite realizarea unor lucrri inginereti dificile i chiar
imposibil de realizat pe unele amplasamente, cum ar fi execuia de terasamente pe terenuri
dificile de fundare, foarte slabe sau sensibile la umezire, realizarea de taluzuri abrupte sau
construcia de lucrri de susinere.
Interaciunea geosintetic pmnt (frecarea ntre fee i/sau caracteristicile de
ncletare) reprezint un element cheie ce joac un rol important n cazul structurilor din
pmnt armat sau n alte aplicaii unde este important rezistena materialului geosintetic la
alunecare sau smulgere.
De asemenea, fluajul sub aciunea ncrcrilor de lung durat reprezint una dintre
cele mai importante proprieti a materialelor geosintetice utilizate ca armturi. ncercarea la
fluaj permite stabilirea duratei de exploatare a lucrrilor care nglobeaz materiale geosintetice.
ncercrile efectuate pe materialele geosintetice trebuie s fie n conformitate cu
cerinele unei anumite aplicaii practice i s aib ca scop comun alegerea celei mai potrivite
soluii. De exemplu, n cazul unei lucrri de armare a unui masiv de pmnt, este necesar
att cunoaterea caracteristicilor de tip efort deformaie ale materialului geosintetic utilizat,
ct i determinarea parametrilor de interaciune pmnt-material geosintetic.
n lucrare se prezint ncercrile de performan rezistena la forfecare i la fluaj
efectuate pentru ansamblul pmnt-geogril n cadrul acestui studiu, precum i rezultatele
obinute i concluzii privind utilizarea geogrilelor n cadrul lucrrilor de mbuntire a
caracteristicilor pmntului. Este evideniat rolul unei selecii corecte a materialului
geosintetic care urmeaz a fi utilizat pentru lucrri de pmnt armat.
Abstract
All types of geosynthetic materials are used on small or large scale, in transport
infrastructure works and environmental protection respectively.
Geosynthetic reinforcement allows the achievement of hard or even impossible
engineering works on some sites, such as the execution of embankments on difficult
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foundation ground, very weak or sensitive to damping, or the construction of steep slopes or
retaining works.
Geosynthetic soil interaction (friction between surfaces and/or clenching features) is
a key element that plays an important role for reinforced earth structures or other applications
where the geosynthetics strength to slippage or pullout force is very important.
Also, creep under long term loads represents one of the most important properties of
the geosynthetic materials used as reinforcements. Creep testing allows to determine the
service life of works that include geosynthetic materials.
The tests performed on geosynthetic materials must comply with the requirements of a
particular practical application and must have as a common goal choosing the right solutions.
For example, it is necessary to know the strain-stress characteristics of the geosynthetic
material used in an earth reinforcement work, as well as the soil-geosynthetic material
interaction parameters.
The paper presents the performance tests resistance to shear and creep carried out
in this study for the soil-geogrid ensemble and also the results and conclusions obtained on
the use of geogrids in ground improvement works. It is highlighted the role of an adequate
selection of the geosynthetic material to be used for soil reinforcement works.
1. INTRODUCERE
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3
1
2
Figura 1. Schema cedrii prin smulgere n cazul unei lucrri de pmnt armat,
unde: 1- pmnt necoeziv (nisip i pietri) compactat, 2- lungimea de ancorare a
geosinteticului, 3- plan de cedare al ansamblului pmnt-geosintetic
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caseta
fixa
geosintetic
caseta
m obila
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Fluajul sub aciunea ncrcrilor de lung durat reprezint una dintre cele
mai importante proprieti a materialelor geosintetice utilizate ca armturi, fiind
determinat n cadrul acestui studiu pentru materialele geosintetice analizate.
Avnd n vedere faptul c materialele polimerice sufer alungiri sub
eforturi de ntindere cu variaie continu n timp, este necesar i cunoaterea
comportamentului la fluaj a acestor materiale. Pentru a se cunoate mrimea
deformaiilor plastice de ntindere ca i deformaii remanente, se propune
realizarea ncercrilor materialelor geosintetice la fluaj. ncercrile la fluaj se
realizeaz prin aplicarea unei fore de ntindere pe epruveta de material
geosintetic pentru o perioad de timp ndelungat, la o temperatur constant i
nregistrarea alungirii materialului la anumite intervale de timp. Rezultatele sunt
exprimate sub forma unei curbe tipice de fluaj, care pune n eviden variaia
deformaiei specifice (%) cu timpul.
Concluziile acestei ncercri sunt utile la proiectarea infrastructurii i
suprastructurii cilor de comunicaie, pentru stabilirea duratei de exploatare a
lucrrilor care nglobeaz materiale geosintetice. De exemplu, n cazul
terasamentelor realizate pe terenuri slabe de fundare, durata de via este
cuprins ntre 5 i 20 de ani, iar n cazul terasamentelor realizate pe versani
naturali cu pant mare, poate ajunge pn la 100 de ani [2].
Ca i n cazul ncercrii clasice de traciune, ncercarea la fluaj sub
eforturi unitare se poate realiza pe probe supuse i unui efort normal, conform
modului real de solicitare a materialelor geosintetice n lucrrile de pmnt
armat.
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a) b)
Figura 4. ncercarea de traciune a geogrilei: a) aplicarea efortului de ntindere;
b) ruperea probei
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8000
7000
6000
5000
Forta [N]
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
[%]
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60
50
40
[kPa]
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(%)
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80
70
60
[kPa]
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
(%)
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160
140
120
Deplasare [0.01 mm]
100
Series1
=6.163 kPa
80
=12.327 kPa
=18.197 kPa
60
40
20
0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 192 216 240 264 288 312
Timp [ore]
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5. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
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Rezumat
Abstract
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1. INTRODUCERE
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de 6...7 m, construit tot din pmnturi loessoide. Drenarea n zona aval era
prevzut cu o saltea drenant care se descarc ntr-o rigol.
Soluia de extindere cu supranlarea digului era fezabil tehnic i
convenabil economic [2] dar restriciile de mediu au impus trecerea la
depunerea de lam dens i ndeprtarea depunerilor de balta Cla, din aval, parte
a rezervaiei biosferei Delta Dunrii. Ca urmare, soluia a fost respins.
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6. CONCLUZII
BIBLIOGRAFIE
[1] Al. CONSTANTINESCU: Expertiza iazului Alum Valea lui Flam, 2009
[2] S. HANCOCK, C. WOLKERSDORFERL: Renewed Demands for Mine Water
Management , Mine Water and the Environment, Volume 31, Issue 2, pp 147-158,
2012.
[3]. Proiectul Tehnic de nchidere parial a iazului de decantare Valea lui Flam n
vederea trecerii de la depozitarea hidraulic la depunerea n lam ngroat a
sterilului rezultat n urma prelucrrii bauxitei proiect IPROLAM, 2009.
[4]. Raport de sintez a comportrii iazului de decantare Valea lui Flam, Alum Tucea
i UTCB, 2011.
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PROIECTARE SI CONSULTANTA
SC PRO CONS XXI SRL a fost infiintata in anul 1999 si are ca domeniu de activitate: Activitati de
arhitectura, inginerie si servicii de consultanta tehnica legate de acestea - cod CAEN 7112.
Societatea are implementat si certificat sistemul de management al calitii, n conformitate cu SR EN
ISO 9001:2008, sistemul de management de mediu, n conformitate cu SR EN ISO 14001:2005 si sistemul
de management al sanatatii si securitatii ocupationale, n conformitate cu OHSAS 18001:2007. Activitatea
desfasurata in cadrul societatii se conformeaza in totalitate standardelor tehnice, normelor si instructiunilor
departamentale ale Ministerului Transporturilor.
Societatea este certificata de Asociatia Profesionala de Drumuri si Poduri din Romania sa desfasoare
servicii de proiectare si consultanta pentru lucrari de: drumuri, poduri, consolidari, alimentari cu apa si
canalizare, protectia mediului; realizeaza studii de fezabilitate, analize tehnico-economice, proiecte tehnice
si detalii de executie, caiete de sarcini, verificarea proiectelor cu personal atestat, expertize tehnice cu
personal atestat, consultanta, asistenta tehnica si supervizare lucrari.
Societatea a obtinut Agrementul Tehnic Feroviar eliberat de Autoritatea Feroviara Romana- pentru
serviciul feroviar critic: proiectare in domeniul infrastructurii feroviare, respectiv detine Autorizatie de
Furnizor Feroviar emisa de Autoritatea Feroviara Romana- pentru urmatoarele categorii de servicii
feroviare critice: proiectare, expertizare si consultanta in domeniul infrastructurii feroviare si de metrou.
Compania are o stabilitate economica solida. Rezultatele pozitive se datoreaza profesionalismului,
managementului si planificarii detaliate a tuturor activitatilor, se bazeaza pe eficienta si creativitatea
personalului.
Personalul intruneste toate cerintele necesare derularii activitatii in oricare dintre domeniile in care
societatea activeaza. Societatea este in permanenta preocupata de instruirea personalului. Este un colectiv
tanar cu dorinta puternica de a invata si cu mare deschidere spre toate noutatile in domeniu.
Tratam fiecare proiect cu maxima seriozitate, respectam cu strictete termenele de predare, ne implicam in
gasirea celor mai eficiente solutii din punct de vedere al calitatii lucrarilor, timpului de executie si al
costurilor de realizare al acestora.
Conducerea SC PRO CONS XXI SRL a definit direciile sale de aciune pentru imbuntirea proceselor
de proiectare i prestrii serviciilor, prin practicarea unui management performant i implementarea unor
tehnologii de ultim or pentru satisfacerea cerinelor clienilor actuali i atragerea celor poteniali.
Suntem permanent interesati s cunoastem cerintele implicite ale clientilor nostri, reliefate de
marketing i nglobate n ofertele personalizate.
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