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ST UART PI GGO TT

r no n ss o n o r

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ED I N B URGH b m v n n s uv

P EN GU I N BO O KS

H A R M O N D s w o n l‘ B
'
umn n n s n x
 p un ms m w x 950

ARCH

M AD E A N D P R INTE D I N G R E AT B R I TA I N

FOR P E N G U I N B O O KS L TD

BY WM C L O W E S AN D S O N S LT D
 CO NTEN TS

Pr e f ace

1 Th e Di sc o ve ry o f Pr e h i sto ri c I n di a
11 Pr e lud e Th e I n d i a n Sto n e A e
g
III Th e B a c kgr o und Ea r ly Agr i c u l
tu ra l C o mmun i ti e s i n We ste r n Asi a
i v Br o n z e Age Pe a sa n t C o mmu n i ti e s

o f We s te rn I n d i a

v Ci ti e s a n d T o wn s o f S i n d a n d th e

Punj a b
VI Th e Ti me o f Tro uble s a n d th e E n d

o f th e C i ti e s

C o n que ro rs fr o m th e We st Th e
'
vn

Ar ya ns a n d th e Ri gved a
 L I S T O F P L AT E S

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a
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LI ST O F FI GUR ES I N T E XT

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Wa re

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re ,

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1 1. Bro n z e M i rro r, Ku lli Cultu re

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 LI ST OF FI G UR E S IN T E XT

a f th Ci t d e l, aaa a H
ppa
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th ugh Ci ta Ha a
.
,

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f m ta mp a l M h j da
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C H R O N O L O G IC AL T AB L E S
 P R E F AC E

TH IS b o o k re n d e rs a n a cco u n t of o u r kn o wle d ge o f I n d i a n

r e h i sto r y fr o m th e e a rli e st ti me s to th e se ttle me n t o f th e

p
Ar ya n s m th e n o r t h we st l n th e se c o n d h lf o f th e se c o n d
-
a
mi lle n n i um B c I t d o e s n o t pr e te n d to b e mo r e th a n a sto c k

ta ki n g o f o ur i n c o mple te e vi d e n c e a n d i n te r r e t a a a
. .

p t i o n s

a
r e li mi n r y a
,

n d i n c e n ti v e to fu r th e r wo r k i n th e fi e ld S o me
p
fo rm o f wo r ki n g h ypo th e si s i s e sse n ti a l h o we v e r d r a sti c a
.

lly
i t ma a e r e vi se d a nd I h a e t h e r e fo r e a
,

y h v e t o b v tt e m p t e d to

i n di ca te W h a t se e m to me to b e th e n a tur e a
,

n d su c c e ssi o n o f

th e v a ri o u s hu ma n cu ltu r e s ma ki n g up th e pa tte r n o f th e
ea r li e st I n d i a
Muc h o f th e ma a
.

te ri l pr e se n te d i n th e bo o k i s e i th e r n e w
'

a n d h i th e r to u u b li sh e d o r 1 5 a s t h i m a d f th fi t
n
p y n e s s e o r e rs

ti me I t i s th e r e fo r e i n e vi ta ble th a ta gr e a t dea l o f te c h n i c a l
d e ta il ha ded a c h o f th e a me n t a
.

s to b e i n c lu n d mu r gu d
d re sse d to th e sp e c i a li st i n o ri e n ta la rc h a
,

e o lo gy Bu
'

t d e sp i t e

th i s i t i s h o pe d th a ta c o h e r e n t story o f th e ge n e r a
.

lcou rse o f

e ve n ts i n pr e h i sto r i c I n d i a ha
,

s be e n r e se n te d to th e n o n
p
spe c i a li st r e a d er
T h e o r i gi n a l wo rk o n wh i c h C h a pte r s I V to v i a re b a
.

se d

a s ca t i n In d i a ms (a n d to a
,

w rr i e d o u n mu se u ve r y li mi te d
e xte n t i n th e fie ld ) b e tw e e n 1 9 42 a n d I 9 45 i n th e i n te rv a ls o f
mi li ta ry i n te lli ge n c e d u ti e s M y gr a ti tud e i s d ue to my
fri e n d s o n th e Ar c h a a r ve y o f I n d i a
.

e o lo gi c l S u w h o h e lp e d

a nd en co u ra ge d me n o ta bly th e la te R a o Ba a
h d ur Dik sh i t
a a
, ,

fo rme r ly D i r e c to r Ge n e r l o f th e S urve y
-
n d Dr K
, N. .

Puri I n 1 944 Dr (n o w Pro fe sso r ) R E Mo rti me r Wh e e le r

a s a aa
. . .

w pp o i n te d Di re c to r Ge n e r l n d wh i le w e we re b o th i n
-

I nd i a a rn to Br i ta in he ha s sp a
-

n d si n c e my r e tu r e d n e i th e r

ti me n o r tr o uble i n gi vi n g me e ve r y ssi sta a

nc e It i s a
aa a
.

p le s n t d u ty to r e c o r d m y g r ti t ud e H e r e .
 P B E BAQB
’
IO

In my o w n un i ve rsi ty my co lle gues M r H J H Drum a

a
, . . .

mo n d n d Pro fe sso r Myle s D i llo n ( n o w o f th e I n sti tute fo r

a
Adv n c e d Studi e s i n D ubli n ) h ve be e n ki n d e n o ugh to a
aa
re d n d c r i ti c i z e i n d r ft C h
p a a
t e a
rs I I n d V I r e spe c ti v e ly
a a a
I n my d i sc ussi o n o f th e Ar y n c h ri o t I h ve b e e n ma te ri a
.

lly
h e lpe d b y M i ss H L Lo ri me r w h o mo st ge n e r o u sly llo we d a
me to r e a
. .
,

d i n typ e sc ri pt po r ti o n s o f h e r fo r th c o mi n g b o o k
a a
men ts I h ve b e e n p r ti c ula a a
,

Homer nd th e M o n u r ly fo r tu n te
a a ssi n g th e fi n l d r a a
.

i n h vi n g h d th e o pp o r tun i ty o f d i sc u fts
a
o f C h pte rs I II to VI wi th D r D o n ld M c Co wn o f th e a
a
'

a
Ori e n t l In sti tute o f th e Un i ve rsi ty o f Ch i c go Dr Cl ud e a
a a aa
.

S c h e ffe r s gr e t wo rk o n th e c o mp r ti ve c h r o n o lo gy o f
’ ”

a
we st Asi ti c si te s i n th e p e r i o d 2 500 to 1 1 00 pp e re d aa
a a
fte r my b o o k h d b e e n wr i tte n b u
a a
t I h ve b e e n
a
i n c o rp o r te c e r t i n r e vi se d d te s b e ri n g o n th e I n d i n
p r o ble ms O n th e wh o le o ur c o n c lusi o n s i n d e p e n d e n tly
, ble to
a
a a
a
a a a a
.
,

re c h e d we r e i n rel ti ve ly c lo se gre e me n t Th e i llustr

aa
ti o n s i n c lud e muc h m te ri l publi sh e d fo r th e first ti me a
.
,

nd

a ar e m i n ly b se d
,

'

a a
o n o r i gi n l d r wi n gs by th e a
uth o r a
a a a a
.

Fi gs 1 3 1 3 2 3 n d 2 5 r e b y M r L F V e n ble s n d
-
“

a a a
. . .
, , ,

Fi gs 4—1 0 n d 1 2 b y M i ss E M Ho w r d Th e h lf to n e -

aa a
pl te s re fr o m ph o to gr ph s suppli e d b y th e Ar c h e o lo gi c a a
. . . .

l
a a
S urv e y o f I n d i wi th th e s n c ti o n o f th e Di re c to r Ge n e r l a -

To th e E d i to r o f th i s se r i e s Pro fe sso r M E L M a a
.

llo w n
a a a
. . .
, ,

I o w e d e bt o f gr ti tud e fo r h i s h e lp i n th e c o n str uc ti o n n d
a
d e t i l o f th e b o o k a
s we ll a
s fo r th e i n i ti l 1 n v1 t ti o n to a a
a
,

tte mpt th e syn th e si s w h i c h i s h e re pre se n te d

'

S T U A R T P I G G O TT
 CH AP T E R I

77mD i sco very f

o P reh i s to ri c I ndi a
Ame re ma
n o f le tte rs
’

re ti re d fro m th e wo rld aa
ll tti
nd o ng

a ay pup a
, ,

h is wh o le ti me to ph i lo s o h i
p c l or li te r r r o se s, is

Asi a
ti / R ah
cc e se rc es, 1 (1
Tn s
'

d i sti n c ti o n
‘
a
be tw e e n h i sto ry n d pre hi sto ry i n I n d i
’ ‘ ’
a
is aa p e c uli rly e lusi ve o n e : o n e c n s y wi th He n r i Be rr aa
aa
In d i a a
, ,

h s h d so me e p i so de s b ut n o h i sto ry
’
n d in deed
‘

a aa
, ,

th i s un f i r ge n e r li z ti o n d o e s c o me h o me wh e n o n e i s
a a
tte mpti n g to Wo rk o ut n y so r t o f c o h e re n t c h r o n o lo gi c l a
a a
fr me wo rk i n pe ri o ds lle ge d ly w th i n th e r e lm o f r e c o r d e d
i

a
In d i a n h i s to ry ; b u t n e ve r th e le ss th e r e r e c e rt i n ph se s o f a a a
a n c i e n t In d i a n cu ltu r e wh i c h li e d i sti n c tly b e yo n d a
n y po s

a
si ble fo r m o f li te r r y r e c o r d We ste rn Asi ti c pr e h i sto ry i n a
ge n e ra a aa a
.

l e n ds wi th th e pp e r n c e o f th e r ts o f wr i ti n g i n
a a aa a
Meso po t mi th e dj c e n t p r ts o f Ira n a n d i n E gypt i n

a a a
, ,

th e ce n tu ri e s i mme di te ly fte r 3000 Wi th th e rt o f

w ri ti n g th e r e c o me s th e r e c o r d o f d yn a a
a
sti e s ki n g li s ts nd -

a a
,

th e li ke wh i c h h o we ve r c o n tr o ve rsi l i n d e t i ls ye t c n b e
a a a
, , ,

i n te r pr e te d to fo rm th e o utli n e o f f i rly re li ble c h r o n o lo gy

aa a
i n te r ms o f c tu l ye rs be fo r e th e C h ri sti n e r a a
a a a
.

But i n I n d i th o ugh wri ti n g w s kn o wn n d e mplo ye d i n

a
n d se c o n d mi lle n n i a a
,

th e th i r d B G th e pe c u li r sc r i pt i s
a a
. .
,

s ti ll u n d e c i ph e re d n d th e c i vi li z ti o n wh i c h pr o d uc e d i t i s
a s pr e h i s to r i c a a a
lso fo rm lly li te r a a
,

s Mi n o n C re te te b ut
a n re a d sc r i pt Th i s I n d i n sc r i pt m y h aa a
,

w i th n u ve be e n
use d up to a a
b ut fte r th i s th e re i s a
.

bo ut 1 500 c o mple te

g pi
a
a a k w w i tt d u m t t la
'

n n y n o n r e n o c e n s o n s o n e o r c y o r

me t l un ti l w e c o me to th e i n sc ri pti o n s o f Aso k se t up a bo ut a
th e mi ddle o f th e th i rd c e n tu ry B c . .
12 THE D I S CO VE R Y OF

r e c o rd s o f i n te rve n i n g pe r i o d s w e h ve to d e pe n d o n
th e a
o cc ai a as on l c o n t c t wi th th e We ste r n wo rld , wh e r e r e c o r d e d
hi t y as or a ta w bli h d d i i pli
s n es o h i f ma s e ti t sc ne, r on t e n or on o

b e taext d f m th l g d a
r c e ro
y li t u g i a l e li t ea t ur en f r or r c er e o

I dia a
n lly t ami tt d f
or tu i :
r ns e or cen r es

S p h i t i I di a ma a a
,

o re y i
s or c i w i d t n m b ll n ts es se n se e r ce

h uma mmu i ti n co i n th ub ti
n t f m th O ld
es e s -
co n nen ro e

ath Ch i ti a a i may
,

St oneAg t m wh e o so e e re n e r e r s n er or n n

w ll b y d th i li mi t Th d i v y ad i t p
,

re gi ons e e on s e sc o er n n er re

a f I d i ap h i t y mu t th a
.

t ti on o n n f re ly s or th m s e r e o r e re on e s e

m th o d ah a
e v b s u d i Eu p t tud y th
s e een se u f n ro e o s e co r se o

h uma d v l pm t b fn e e o th a
d v t f w i tten hi t y
e o re e en o r en s or

(w h i h a ac u l b g i s wi t h rt h i e
p atei ns f th g i e ncor or on o e re on

in qu ti i t th R maE mp i ) Th
es on n o e m th d th
o n re e se e o s, e

t h i qu f ah al gy a i th i d i ti ti v ly i
.

ec n es o rc eo o re , n e r s nc e sc e n

a a a
,

ti fi cf m f th
or p t
s o d y f m e
p t i v l
r e se n
y m d o co r e o e rn

a a a a a
,

g rowt h th u g h m, y p o t h v b f m inli st E gli

ec s h e een r o n s

me n si n c e th e e i gh te e n th c e n tu ry

a aa
.

T h e i n tr o d uc ti o n to I n d i o f E u r o e n h b i ts o f th o u
p g h t
a a a
,

i n c lud i n g th e c o n c e pt o f h i sto r y n d o f h i sto ri c l r e se r c h :

wa s br o u a
gh t b o ut b y me n W h o se pri m r y i n te r e sts we re n o t a
aa c d e mi c th o ugh th e i r e d uc ti o n w s suffic i e n tly bro dly a a a
a a a a a
,

b se d i n th e h um n i ti e s fo r th e m to ppr e c i te th e v lue o f
su c h s tu a
d i e s n d e v e n to un d e r t ke th e m th e mse lv e s i n th e a
a a a a a
,

i n te rv ls o f b usy pr o fe ssi o n l li ve s i n n e x c ti n g c li m te
a a a
.

Th e gr e t c o n tri b uti o n s m d e to th e kn o wle d ge o f o ri e n t l

li n gu a aa
i sti c s n d c o mp r ti ve p h i lo lo gy b y suc h figur e s s Si r a
a a a a
Wi lli m J o n e s o r C r e y o f S e r mpo r e i n th e l te e i gh te e n th
c e n tu a aa
r y w e r e l n th e mse lve s aa
p r tl p r c ti c l
y th e tr n sl t ion
a
o f th e B i b le a or n u a
n d e rst n d i n g o f Hi n d u l w we r e th e

aa aa a
,

i mme d i te i ms th o ugh th e pure ly c d e mi c i ssue w s

n e ve r fo rgo tte n a a
Th e fo un d ti o n o f th e As i ti c S o c i e ty o f
aa a a aa
.

Be n g l m rks th e e st b li sh me n t o f n ti qu ri n i n te re sts i n
I d i aa
n w ll a f h th a p st f a hewhi h i s o t e o er s ec s o r e se rc c n

h p h a f h ti m w uld b la d aph i l a
, ,
‘
hi l
’
t e r se o t e e, o e c sse s o so c
p ,
 P RE H I ST O R I C I ND IA 13

ad th i ati quai ai m w uld b p pa

n s n ed r n s o e re r to c o n c e r n i tse lf
wi th ay p i d f I d i apa
n t hi t i
er o p o n
’
s s ,
s or c or ~

re h i sto r i c , th a
t
it e n co un tere d
But th e fa c t th a t th e e a
.

rli e r Bri ti sh se ttle me n ts we r e i n

B e n ga l a a
r e gi o n sti ll lmo st wh o ll u
y n kn o wn fr o m th e vi e w

a a r e th e n a a
,

p o i n t o f p r e h i s t o r i c n t i q u i ti e s n d w h e t ur l lux u r i
a n c e o f vege t a ti o n r e n d e rs a i n s i n vi si b le wi th i n a
,

n y ru

deca d e ga ve li ttle i mpe tus to th e stud y o f fie ld mo n ume n t s

o f In d i a n a i ty Th e gre a a
, l

n ti qu t c o n tri buti o n o f th e Be n g l
Sc h o o l o f a a aa
.

n ti q u r i e s mu st lw ys b e th e i r i mme n se li n gu
i sti c stud i e s An d lth o u a gh fie ld a rc h a e o lo gy n d th e o b se ra
va ti o n a me n ts o f a
.

nd r e c o r d o f mo n u n ti qu i ty wh e th e r
r eh i sto ri c e a r th wo r ks o r me d i e va la bb e ys h a
,

p d b e c o me b y
th e e a a a
,

rly n i n e t e e n th c e n tu ry r e c o gn i z e d E n gli sh p sti me

a mo n g th e e d uc a te d squi re a r c h y In d i a w a s n o t E n gla nd

Th e We ste r n Gh a
.
,

ts we r e so me th i n g ve ry d i ffe r e n t fr o m th e
mi ld pa s to r a l slo pe s o f Wi ltshi r e : tr a vel w a s d i fli c u lt a nd

da n ge ro u s ; th e c o u n try u n ma ppe d d i sta n c e s we r e i mme n se

I t i s th e r e for e n o t surpri si n g th t a a rc h a a
.

e o lo gi c l fi e ld wo rk -

ha d to wa
:
i t fo r a lte r e d c i r c u msta n c e s e ve n we r e th e me n
,

i n te r e ste d i n suc h pu rsu i ts to b e fo u n d i n th e se rvi c e s o f th e

Co mpa n y o r th e a rmy

Cur i o usly e n o ugh th e d i sc o ve ry o f th e gr e a

.

t pre h i sto r i c
a
i li z ti o n o f n o r th we ste rn I n d i awi th whi c h th i s bo o k
,

ci v -

la a a a a ri a
,

r ge l
y d e l s w s t h e c c i d e n t l r e su l t o f V i c t o n e n te r

pri se i n th a t mo st c h a ra a
,

c te ri sti c e n gme e r m t i v i t f th
u
g c y o e

a ge r i lwa a y c o n s tr c ti o n B y cac i d e n t to o w e kn o w th e

msta n c e s i n so me d e t i l a a n d th e y a
, .
, ,

c i rc u r e wo r th r e c o u n ti n g

I n 1 8 5 6 tw o br o th e rs Jo h n a n d Wi lli a
.
,

m Br un to n we re e n
ga ge d i n la a a st I n d i a n R i lwa a
, ,

y i n g o u t n d b u i ld i n g t h e E y
fro m K r a a c h i to L a h o r e Jo h n w a s i n ch a r ge o f th e so u th
e rn se c ti o n h i s br o th e r o f th a t i n th e Pun j b fr o m Multa a n

n o r t h wa a
, ,

rd s h t m t w t v e ry d e li gh tfu l
J o n i n r e i r e e n r o e
bo o k o f me mo i rs fo r h i s gr n d c h i ld r e n c o ve ri n g th e ye a
a
.
, ,

rs

a a ea a
,

1 8 1 2 to 1 8 d i t h i h t ll h h h d h rd o f
99 n, n s e e s o w e
 '

14 TH E D l sc o v s n v o r

r ai t i ty B a
ui n e d h mi a
nc en ba d t cy f af m t i rr
e li n no ve r r ro ne

a i lwa a a
, ,
I
f h t h b ui ld i g I h d b m u h
‘

a
o y
e r e w s n een c en e r

i d m my mmd h w i t
c se h w g ba lla e tf r e s, ow w e e re to et s or

f h R i lwa a a
,

h li
t e y
ne o I f ll I
t e h d w t u t h i u i d e r e re r e, s r ne

i ty bui lt f b i k w uld f m a a a a a
.

c o g d q u
r c y fs, b ll o t or r n rr or s

B a h mi a ba
d (a m di a ath f ff tua
.
,

r n l i ty) e lly
ev c w s e r e o re e ec

plun de re d by th i s un c o mpro mi si n g E n gli sh en gi n e e r ad

n

a
,

th e li n e l i d
Multa n — L h o r e li n e r a a
n n o t fa r fr o ma
.

N o w th e n o th e r

a n c i e n t c i ty b y t h e n a sh a pe le ss h e a p o fh uge dusty mo un ds ~

pa r t o f wh i c h h a
, , ,

d b e e n ro bb e d o f br i c ks to b ui ld th e mo d e r n
v i lla ge o f Ha ra a
pp o n th e si te Jo h n must h a ve to ld Wi lli a m
o f h i s b ri lli a n t sc h e me fo r o bt a i n i n g b lla st fo r th e tr a a a
, .

ck :

pre h i sto ri c c p i ta a
l o f th e Pu nj a b H r ppaw s plun de re d aa a
a th le ssly a s Br a h mi n b a d ha a
n d to d a a a
, ,

s ru d be e n y th e t r i n s

mble o ve r a h un d re d mi le s o f li n e l i d o n a nda a
,

ru se c u r e fo u

ti o n o f th i r d mi lle n n i um br i c k ba
-
ts D uri n g th e bri c k ro b - -

bi n g a i ti e s o f va a
.

n ti q u ri o u s ki n d s We r e fo u nd n d so me o f

a
,

th e mo r e c u ri o u s ke pt b y th e wo r kme n n d th e e n gi n e e rs

Th e Br un to n c o n n e xi o n wi th a rc h a
.

e o lo gy d o e s n o t h o w

e ve r e n d h e r e A t K a ra n to n w a s ca a
,

c h i Jo h n B r u p t i n o f t h e

C o rps o f Vo lun te e rs a n d h i mse lf a a

, .
,

n e x c e lle n t sh o t h e h d

a a
tr i n e d mo st e ffi c i e n t r i fle te a
, , ,

m wh i c h c o mpe ted wi th th e
la r L i n e R e gi me n ts st a a
,

r e gu ti o n e d th e re Th e ge n e r l c o m
ma ndi ng w a a a a
.

s mu ch n n o ye d t th e re p e te d vi c to r i e s o f th e
Vo lun te e r R i fle te a ms : h i s n a me w a s Cu n n i n gh a m a nd
’

wh e n h e r e ti re d fro m c ti ve se rv1c e m 1 8 6 1 h e w s a a a
,

pp o i n t e d
Di r e c to r Ge n e r a - l of a n Ar c h a e o lo gi c l S u rve y o f No rt h e r n a
In d i a Ge n e r a l C un n i n gh a m i s o n e o f th e gr e a te st figure s o f
ry I n d i a n a rc h a nd he ha a
.

n i n e te e n th c e n t u

a
-
e o lo gy d vi si te d
H ra a a a
,

pp i n 1 8 5 6 w h e n th e B r u n to n d e pr e d ti o n w s i n p ro

gre ss He o bt i n e d v r i o us a a a
,

n ti q u i ti e s fro m th e wo r kme n
di n g e n gra v e d st e a ti te se a a
.
,

i n c lu ls o f type wh i c h w e n o w
kn o w to b e c h a a
r c te r i sti c o f th e
p r e h i sto r i c I n d u s a nd P u n

ja b c i vi li z a t i o n w i th th e ,s y m b o l s o f n un k n o w n s c ri p t u p o n a
 P R E HI ST ORIC INDIA 5

I 5
th e m ad h
n t e fi gure of abull
Cun n i n gh a a
m r e li z e d th a t
a
th e se se s e re so me thi n g qui te o utsi d e th e r n ge o f I n d i aa
.
,

l w n

a n ti q uti e s kn o wn
i to h i m : h e fe lt th e y we r e e xtr e me l
y
a n ci e n t a
n d i mpo r t n t I t w a a s not u n ti l se ve n ty y e a rs la te r
th a t th e i r true si gn i fic n c e w a a a a
.

aa
s r e c o gn i z e d n d th e c i vi li z

ti o n n o w n a me d fro m th e si te o f Ha ra pp w s i d e n ti fi e d n d a
aa a
d e fin e d
T h r e e ye a a a
.

fte r C un n i n gh m s v i si t to H r pp in
’
rs

a a a
,

1 8 5 9 D rwi n s Ori gi n of Speci e s w s p u bli sh e d n d i n th e

’

sa a
me ye r Si r Jo h n Eva a
n s wi th F lc o n e r a
, ,

n d Pr e stwi c h th e

ge o lo gi sts m a a
,

d e th e f mo u
'

s vi si t to Abb e v i lle w h e r e t h e y

we re c o n vi n c e d o f th e ge o lo gi c l a a i ty o f ma n ma
,

n ti q u -
de
fli n t i mple me n ts sso c i a a
te d wi th e xti n c t spe c i e s o f m mma a ls
I n 1 8 6 3 Lye ll publi sh e d h i s Geo logi ca
.

of M a n : i n Eu

n i z ed Bu
ro p e a

a
t le s t P la

t i n th i s s me ye a
aa e o li th i c M a

r th e ge o lo gi st Bru
n w a
l E vi de nc e of th e An ti qu i ty
s be i n g re c o g

c e F o o te fo u nd

th e first I n di n p la aa e o li th i c i mp le me n t n e a r Ma aa
.

dr s nd

a
,

th e fi rs t ste p i n th e c o n c e pti o n o f th e e sse n ti l u

fl

n i ty o f th e

a
e rli e r Sto n e Age c u ltu r e s th r o u gh o ut th e O ld Wo rld h a d
be e n ta ke n Fmth e r di sc o ve ri es we r e so o n to b e ma
'
de a nd

r e c ogn i z e d fo r wh a
.
,

t th e y we re wi th i n th e li mi ts o f th e ge o
a a
lo gi c l a nd rc h a e o lo gi c a l kn o wle d ge o f th e d a y T
‘

o d a y w e

a
c n wi th so me sh o w o f p r o b a bi li ty r e fe r th e se e a
.

rli e s t sto n e

a
to o ls fr o m In di to a a a
d te so me wh e r e ro un d fo ur h un d r e d

Afte r th e se i n i ti a l re c o gn i ti o n s o f pre h i sto ri c I n d i aFo o te

i n th e so uth e sta bli sh i n g th e e x i ste n c e o f th e O ld Sto n e Age ,
a a
C unn i n gh m i n th e n o r th sh o wi n g th e pr o b ble pr e se n c e o f
a a
n c i e n t c i vi li z ti o n s o u a
tsi d e th e r n ge o f re c o rde d h i sto ry
n i n e te e n th c e n t u- ry a n ti qu a a
r i n i n ve s ti ga ti o n i n I n d i a
turn e d mo re to th e e luc i d a ti o n o f th e ve ry c o mple x pro b
a
le ms o f th e lle ge d ly h i sto ri c e r a s Alth o u gh by th e be gi n
n i c ti o n s wi th i n I n di a
a
.

n i n g o f th e pre se n t c e n t u r y c o mmu

a
h d be c o me ve ry go o d a a a a
n d th e p o li ti c l si tu ti o n p e c e fu l
aa a a a a
,

rc h e o lo gi c l fi eld wo rk de c li n e d r th e t h n i n c r e se d
r
-
,
 '

16 THE DISC O VE R Y o r

ad m n a
e n o f th e c
li b ad age f i t t f Si re n r n o n e re s s o r

J o n es o r G al C u i gh a en er mw b f u
nn n e re n o t to e o n

t eh B i ti h i I d i a
r I
s naai f th n t w s s e

fa
.

o f h pi t e o n e e rs o

o utm d d a o d pe h i b
n l a rea E g
re li h m a
en s m ki g e a s n n s n s o n

h oo ka h k pi g aa or ti v mi t
ee n A h al gi a n la ti vi ty
e s r e ss rc eo o c c

a aa li d i t ai a d qua t ly fi a d Sta t d pa
.

w s c n z e n o n n e t e -
n nce e e r

m t i whi h w k
en n w c mpa a
or ti v ly f ad th i
e rs e re c o r e ew n e r

t h i qu a u f t u h wi th E u p ad v l pm t
,

ec n e w s o t o o c ro e n e e o e n s.

Th ugh h A h al gi a
o t e l Suv y f I d i a
rc eo o d i d wi thi c r e o n n

ah i v a i d a ah i
,

i li mi t d p w
ts e o e rs, bl b d y f
c e e co ns er e o o r e se rc n

I d i aa
n ti qui ti i th fi t qua
n n t
es n tuy f i li f y e rs r e r- c e n r o ts e, et

i t w a u ti l th i t tw ti th a
s no t n e t a tt ti
n n e een a -
en es en on w s

a
a
“

h Happa
di t d
re c e th p h
to i t i i t
o se w h re x i t h
s or c s d b es o se e s en ce een

ha lf up t d b y Cu i gh a
-
s s ec e m nn n vi d on t e r e e nc e

d i t f aI d i a ffi f h S uv y h la
.

I i h
t s to t e c r e o n n t
n o ce r o t e r e t e e

M R D Ba j i th a t Ha a a a
,

r p
n er
p g t tw i i ty M h r j
’
3 re n c o en o

da Si d a g i d a a a a
. .
, ,

r o ln n w
9 s re c o d v t i
n z e t r t d
i n 1 22 n ex c onss e

i th a t y aW k aHa a ppa ha a a
,

n e r or d b gu t y r li e n tw o e rs e r er

f Da a a a a
.

ud n h di
er tit e y re cR m S h
on o i h w k t h n t e or t e tw o

di a a
,

s it b i g
es e n t d b y h th
co or -
Di
n t G e l f t e en re c o r - en er o

A h al gy i I d i aS i J h Mah a
a
rc eo o n n ll r o n rs

Th M h j d a a d Ha a a a
.
,

e o en o-
pp rov t i n t i u d r ex c o ns co n n e

v a a a h Si d i t
,

wi th i t upti n f
e rr l o n s, or se er se so n s t t e n s e

{T m 9o 1
93 a
2 2 to d h e
1 m 1 th n i t i on h t o re nor e rn s e n t e

P uja a a a
,

b f m 9
n ro
9 1 d g i
2 0 to f m 9 33 1 21 934 n n ro 1 to 1

tly i th th i la a x a va w k th a
.

C u onc rre n g w l ti s r t
e - sc e e c on or

g a A i a h la
,

re t xpl e fW t o re r o t S i Au l St i
e s e rn s t e e r re e n,

suv y h li ttl k w aa f Ba lu h i ta
,

ud t kn er o o to r e t e e -
no n re s o c s n

on h tt m w te ex re dg e f B i ti h I d i a
e s e rn e ad ah e o r s n n to se r c
f p hi t i
or re it hi ts or c s j u y i N th B a
es: s lu h i t a
w o o rn e s, n or c s n

i n 1
9 6 7 2a d i —2
S u t h B a l
nu h i t a n i 9 7
o 8 b o u g h t c s n n 1 2 — 2 r to
li gh t a va ta m u t f ma t ia l ffi t a t i mp ta f
,

s o n o er o rs -
r e or nce or

li ki g h p h i t y f
n n t e th w t
re s or I di a wi th h th
o nor -
e s e rn n t e o er

aa f ai t i vi li a
re s o ti
nc en i I aa c d M z
p t a mon i a n r n n e so o .
18 THE p rs o o v n x v o r

Fo r th e ah i
cve me n ts o f th i s fi e ld wo rk un der
e -

ad lt te rr i n o n e c a a a
,

i n d i ffi c u n h ve n

a
c o n d i ti o n s n ot

a
pr i se b ut un fo r tun te ly th e s me c n n o t b e sa a a
,

id
o f th e e xc a a
,

v ti o n wh i c h sh o uld pro vi d e us wi th th e
ba c kgro u n d fo r o u r stu d y Cri ti c i sm i s h e r e i n e vi t b le a nd a
a a
lso n e c e ss ry i f th e I n d i n ma a
te ri l i s to b e e v lua a a
.
,

te d
c o rre c tly

h o use s dr a
da
,
O f th e b r o a
ins a
.

n t e vi d e n c e ev
d fa
n d so fo r th a
c t s o f to wn p la

t M o h e njo d a
e n i f i ts d e t a
,

i l i s ske tc h y
nni ng

ro w e h a
str e e ts

ve bun -

n d th e r e c o g
-

a
,

a ,

a a a s Va
, ,

n i ti o n o f th e gr e t u r b n c i vi li z ti o n o f th e I n d u lle y
a a
wo uld h rd ly h ve b e e n po ssi ble wi th o ut th e wh o le s le a
a
me th o d s o f e xplo r ti o n wh i c h we r e i n fa c t e mplo ye d Bu t
aa a
M o h e njo d ro a n d Ch a a a
.

th e re p o r ts o n H r pp -
n h ud r o -

a
,

p ubli sh e d m e i gh t 1mpre ssi ve qu r to vo lume s be twe e n 1 93 1

a a a
n d 1 943 c n n o t i n ll fa i r n e ss b e sa i d to a pp ro c h th e a
aa aa
r c h e o lo gi c l st n d a ro e a a a
, ,

r d s se t i n Eu h l g b
p n r c e o o y y
a
th e 1 8 90 s
’
n d i n c o mmo n e m plo yme n t si n c e th e 1 g2 o s ’

a
Th t th e r e i s n o i n h e re n t i mpo ssi bi li ty i n a
.
,

pplyi n g t h e se
st a n da a
rd s n d me th o d s to I n d i n e xc a va a
ti o n s h a s be e n h a p
a
p i ly but ll to o bri e fl y sh o wn by th e re c e n t wo r k c a r ri e d o u t

a aa a
i n I n d i by n rc h e o lo gi st tr i n e d i n a nd a a tsta
, ,

n ou nding

e xp o n e n t o f th e h i g h e st sta nda ro pe a
,

r d s i n Eu n te c h n i q u es

Pro fe sso r R E Mo r ti me r Wh e e le r s e x c a va a
.
,
’
ti o ns o n I n d i n
si te s b e twe e n 1 945 a n d 1 948 h a a
. .

ve c ut ruth le ssly c ro ss th e
o ld tr a d i ti o n s wh e r e by str ti fi c a a
t i o n w s i gn o r e d a nda le ve ls
‘

we re fixe d by me a su r e me n t fro m da tum By th i s i na ‘

i n Wh e e le r s wo r ds th e so c lle d str a a
.

c re d i ble syst e m ti
’ ’ “
-

a a a a
, ,

fic ti o n o f th e I n dus V lle y c i vi li z ti o n ls d o mi n te d n o t
”

a a a
by lo c l o bse rva a
,

ti o n b ut t lo n g r n ge b y th e se le ve l -

a aa a aa
,

t K r chi I t 1 8 su rv1v lo f n o b so le te d e vi c e e vo lve d i n

a aa
th e a
llu avi l pl i n s o f th e gr e t ri ve r v lle ys o f Egypt a - nd

a aa a
Me so po t mi as ro ugh substi tute fo r e x c t o bse r v ti o n i n a
a aa a
i ll c o n tr o lle d
- m ss e xc v ti o n s I t h s n o pl c e wh a
“
-
”
t a
e o f mo d e rn fi e ld a a
.

so e ve r i n th e te c h n i q u rc h e o lo gy Th e
’
-

1 946 e xc va a
.

ti o n s o f th e h i th e rto un re c o gn i z e d d e fe n c e s o f
 P R E HI S T O R I C I N DI A 19

aa aa
‘

th e aa a
bi t d e l of H r pp h ve gi ve n n e w si gn i fic n c e to th e
a a a
c i ty a a
n d h ve e st bli sh e d th e first su r e f c ts i n th e str ti

a
,

gr p h y o f th e si te
a aa aa a
.

An e x mple o f wh t c n be do n e h s t le st be e n se t fo r
'

a aa a a a a
P ki st n n d I n d i a n d i t i s h o pe d th t th e tr d i ti o n m y
a a
,

b e c rri e d o n b y fu tur e wo r ke rs w h o h ve re c e i v e d so me
a a a a
tr i n i n g i n th e me th o d s n e w to I n di i f f mi li r to us i n
a a a
,

En gl n d O n ly b y th e fr e qu e n t i n te r c h n ge o f p e rso n s nd

a aa aa a a a
.

i d e s i n Eu ro pe n n d O ri e n t l r c h e o lo gy c n t h e se st n

a a a a
d r ds be pre se r ve d n d ke pt up to d te I t i s l r ge ly th e
a a a a a
.

Bri ti sh w h o h ve be e n to bl me i n th e p st fo r i n d e qu te
aa a a aa
fi n n c i l suppo rt o f th e Arc h e o lo gi c l S ur ve y o f I n di nd

a aa aa
,

fo r th e f i lu r e to ke e p i t bre st o f de ve lo pme n ts i n e xc v
ti o n te c h n i que
aa aa
.

S i d e b y si d e wi th th e c o lle c ti o n o f m te ri l i n I n d i nd

a a a a
B luc h i st n n e w wo rk w s be i n g c rri e d o ut i n o th e r c o un
aa a aa
,

tri e s o f We stern Asi I r n i n p r ti c ul r w s yi e ldi n g up th e

aa a
.

se c r e ts o f h e r pre h i sto ry to th e e xc v ti o n s o f th e Fre n c h nd

a a a
Ame ri c n s i n th e 1 930 s n d th e i n de fa’
ti g ble Si r Aure l
aa a a
,

Ste i n m d e n o te wo r th y se ri e s o f e xplo r ti o n s fro m F rs to

a a a a
L ke U rmi wh i c h fi lle d i n th e ge o gr ph i c l b a c kgr o u n d fo r

th e di s tri b u a
ti o n o f th e c ulture s fo un d i n str ti fie d c o n te xts i n
aa a
th e e xc v ti o n s Alre d y n 1 9 33 Pro fe sso r Go r d o n C h i ld e
i
a aa a a
.

h d m de pe n e tr ti n g syn th e si s o f th e No rth we st I n d i n
-

aa a
m te ri l i n i ts re l ti o n to th e o th e r c ultur e s o f t h e mo st
a a aa
n c i e nt E st ; te n ye rs l te r th e a
c c i d e n ts o f w a r br o u gh t me
a a a a
to N e w De lh i
a
n d e n ble d me to st r t o n

C h i lde s b si c wo rk i n th e li gh t o f th e c c umul te d n e w
’

kn o wle d ge o f th e i n te rve n i n g d e c a
a
a a
de n d th i s h s be e n
a
r e vi si o n o f

a a
,

c o n ti n u e d si n c e th e w r b y Dr D o n ld M c Co w n o f th e

a a
.

O ri e n t l I n sti tute o f Ch i c go
a a
I n ve s ti g ti o n o f th e In d i n Sto n e Age w s n e gle c te d a
a
,

fte r th e pi o n e e r wo r k o f Bruc e Fo o te u n ti l th e 1 g3o s wh e n

’

a a
, ,

M r Mi le s Burki tt turn e d to th e i n te rp re t ti o n o f c e rt i n
a a aa
S o uth I n di n m te ri l t muc h th e s me ti me s o th er
‘ -
a a
 20 THE D I SCO VE R Y OF

wo rke rs we r e i n v e sti ga
'

t
a
lo gi c l ph e n o me n a in t
j o i n t e x pe d i ti o n b y th e
i n 1 935 , le d
b e e n supple me n te d b y th a t o f M o vi us a n d K r i sh n a sw a mi
d i e s o f th e se i n ve sti ga to r s h a ve ma d e us a a
.

Th e stu c qu i n te d
a
wi th n e xtr e me ly i mpo r ta n t se r i e s o f O ld Sto n e Age h u ma n

i n du str i e s a s so c i a te d wi th ge o lo gi c a l d e po si ts wh i c h i n th e
r i ve r te rr a c e s o f th e Hi ma la a a a
,

r e g i o t ll e v e n t s se e m to
y n
-
n

o ffe r pr o mi si n g c o rr e la
,

ti o n s w rth th e kn o wn se que n c e i n
No r th e rn Eur o p e
But th e r e a s ga
.

r e sti ll e n o r mo u p s i n o ur kn o wle d ge o f
In d i a n p r e hi s to r y a n d th a t just me n ti o n e d b e twe e n th e
O ld Sto n e Age a n d th e e a c h i sta a
,

rli e st se ttle me n ts i n B lu n is

ou tsta n d i n g i n i mme ns i t a ar d ly le ss o b sc u

a
y n d o b sc u ri t
y H r e

a r e th e h a a a
se o f th e H a ra
.

pp e n i n gs f t e r th e c o ll p p p C i v i l i
z a ti o n i n th e mi d d le o f th e se c o n d mi lle n n i u mB o a p e ri o d

tr a d i ti o n a lly a sso c i a te d wi th th e a rr i va
. .

l fr o m th e we st o f th e
I n d o E ur o pe a
-
n— sp e a ki n g tri b e s w h o c a lle d th e mse lve s th e
Arya n s bu t sc a rc e l a tt t d b d i re c t a rc h a e o lo gi c a l e vi
y e s e y
d e n c e Ne ve r th e le ss th e ti me i s ri pe fo r a sto c kt a ki n g a nd a
,

a tte mpt to sse ss o ur pr e se n t kn o wle d ge o f pr e h i sto ri c I n d i a

a
.

b e fo re n e w wo rk a nd u p to d t e t e c h n i qu es o n ce a
- -
g i a
n a
aadv n c e th e h o ri z o n o f o ur kn o wle dge .

N otes to Ch pter I a
Fo r a g al a u
e n er t f a h a l
cco gi al w n k o I d
rc i a R
e
eo oa li g c or rn n se e ve n

I d i aP a ali w k h P a la
,

n t ( d J Gu
’
5 s mi i ge n n e r er or on t e eo

by K i h a a A i t I di a
. .
,

li th i p i d
c mm t d
er o 13 c o en mi e on r s n sw ln nc en n ,

no 3 3 J h B u t 1 B k a o n d i t d b y P
r n on s f ’
J H oo w s e e ro esso r

Cla a a a
.

a
. . .

p h m d pu b li h dn i 9 39 I d d i tis e hn 1 p i l p t n on to t e s e c re or s

aa d t la t i th i b k h A h al gi a
.

o n ex c ti f v o ns r e e rre o er l n s oo t e rc eo o c

Su y f I d i a h apub li h d a ad A ua
,

r ve o n l g si fM m i s e l on se r e s o e o rs n nn

R p t Th la
e or s . tt i e i i a b ya
e r se r e s ad apub li a
s now ti
)

n e n ce, n c o n,

A i t I d i a a ta d i
nc e n n w 94 6 sf u s p artet f h ni h h1 a o r r s o w c ve

a a a a a
, ,

pp ed S i re h f
. m t
ncei f h D
t e m i i
or f I d
on oi d f t e o n o ns o n n o
 P RE H I ST OR I C I ND IA 21

a a th h ab
P ki s t n a ue re s een no nn o n ce me n t on future ah a rc eo

l gi a
o l pub li a
c ti c o ns

us e x c a
va
.

D ta il d
e i ti i m f th
e tad acrd f c s o e s n r o th e pr e v i o ti o ns in
I d ia
n b f ud
rs to A i t I di a
e o n rn nc en n 3
no 1 43— 1 49 , b y P ro
a al gy
, .

fosso r R E M Wh e e le r th e n D i r e c to r - Ge n e r l o f Ar c h eo o rn

a i th a mm ah ud a by my
. . .
,

In d i , w co en t on Ch n - ro s e lf.
 CH AP T E R I I

P relu
de The Indi aSt n one Age

Th e y th i n k th e se fi n i sh e d spe c i me ns o f ski ll i n th e a rt o f c hip

p g
i n th a
pt th e h uma
ro v e n ra c e i s o f g re a te r a n ti q u i ty th an ha s

b e e n pre v i o usly su pp o se d ; an d t h e fa c t th a t th e r e i s n o o th er

re li c to pro ve th e po s i ti o n th e y c o n s i d e r o f n o mo me n t wh a t
e ve r
T L P ea c o c k GU”Gra
.

nge . .
,

THE ah al gi a rc l eo o d f p h i t i h uma ttl m t

c re c o r o re s or c n se e en

in I di a n g ba k o esap i d f g l gi a c to l m t er o o eo o c re o e n e ss

wh o sei mm i ty l a v i wi th ut v y mu h m a
ens e es t i g h o er c e n n to t e

or di a n y p r T h v a t
e rso n p i d f t i m e i v l s d i g er o s o e n o ve n eo

l gi a fi a l ph a f h a t ua
.

o lc k i g vre c i th
on n e en n o sel n se s o t e n r

t a f mafi t a a h y a
,

se qu wh
e n ce e re rpp ces o t h u g h t n rs e r, o e c n

b e xp
e d i t m f lay a ti ll l a
r e sse n er s o v th mi d so r e r s, s e e e n

h ab a
,

u fa
b wi ld d S u h
e e re k i g h w v c re c on n tt mpt d; o e e r, s een e e

ad h ult h a v m w i th m m a
.
,

n t e re s s e et g m t; so e e s re o re e en

t h e m th d e mpl y d i v lv a
o s e o lati
e b tw n o h e c o r re on e een t e

g logi a
eo l ph c m af h Pl i t eno en p i d a o d h
t e e s o cen e er o n t e
fl u tua c ti g uv f la an c rdi a tie o wi th wh i h th
so r r ha p on c o se

p en ni g m s se eb l l y to t d e a d
c o se h u lt h a
co n n ec e n t e re s s

t pla h b gi a
,

b een o ce t i g f h p i de e m wh
nn n b ut
o t e er o so e e re o

y a a g T
e t h i
rs fa t a t i a
o lly mo t t i m s m n s c re o e e se e to
b l g h a li t t l ma wh i h a
.

e on t e e d f h i pp d t
r es oo s tt t
e o c e s o ne c es

h
t e xi t e f ma aa
s ence t l ui g b i g i
o n s h O ld oo -
s n e n n t e

W ld a or h u d d th ua nd y a la re t th o i s n d ubt e rs er e re s no o

a b ut h
o lati v ly mp t t t h i q u th a
t e re e co t h ad v l p d
e en ec n e s e e o e

i ma
n ki g t nt l s one ta i g i a
oo s b l pa
to c e r tt di n re c o n z e e r n s, s

t i gu
n i ha b l al a
s t i Euop ad p b a
e t e s b ly i Af i a
n r T e n ro n r c o

ma a a
.
“

t h i ti m
s y
e b l
to o g h k u
l l f m M
e on d j k t i
t e s J v ro o o er o n

la m g l gi t a h ali t p ta
,

c i m d by e so e eo o s s ti v s t e e r es re re se n e
 TH E I NDI A N ST ONE AG E 23

ti me on wa r d s to o ls a a
n d fo ssi ls c rr y o n th e sto r y o f m n s a
’

a
e rli e r e vo lu ti o n a c ro ss th e mi lle n n i a
to th e c o mi n g o f
‘
mo d e rn ti me s whi c h fr o m th e ge o lo gi c l st n d po i n t i s
’
aa a
me re fifte e n o r twe n ty th o usa n d ye a a
,

rs g o

a a
.

Th e wh o le o f th i s e po c h c o n sti tute s th e m j o r ge o lo gi c l
di vi si o n o f th e Qua a
te r n ry Pe ri o d a nd th e su b di vi si o n -

kn o wn a s th e Ple i sto c e n e ph a se Arc h a a

e o lo gi c lly th e h u a m n
r e ma i ns a a a
.

n d to o ls fro m Ple i sto c e n e d epo si ts r e c l s se d to

ge t h e r a s th e P la a e o li th i c o r O ld Sto n e Age ph se o f m n s

a a a ’

a
d e ve lo pme n t n d bo th th e Ple i sto c e n e n d th e P l e o li th i c aa
a r t h e r d i vi d e d i n to tw o ma a
,

r e fu j o r subd i vi si o n s Lo we r n d
t th e r e a a
,

U pp e r Bu r e o th e r i mpo r t n t su bdi vi si o ns o f th e
a a
.

Ple i sto c e n e ge o lo gi c l se que n c e li n ke d to th o se fluc tu ti o ns

a a a
i n so l r r a d i ti o n lre a
,

d y me n ti o n e d
a
.

Th r o ugh o ut th e Ple i s to c e n e th e r e o c c u rr e d c ert i n e n o r

'

mo us rh yth mi c c li ma ti c c h a n ge s spr e a d o ve r m n y th o u a
sa n d ye a ti n g a lte rn a a aa
.
,

rs b u t c o nsti t u te ph se s o f c o mp r ti ve
h ea a
t n d c o ld i nth e n o r th e rn r e gi o n s o f th e O ld Wo rld a nd

ro b a a aa
,

p b ly c o rr es p o n di n g p h s e s o f w e t o r d r y c l i m t e f r t h e r

so u th Th e c o ld ph a se s d u ri n g wh i c h th e li mi t o f wh t i s a
n o w th e No r th Po la r i c e sh e e t sp r e a
.
,

-
d so uth i n Eu ro pe to

fo rm a c o n ti n u ou a
s i c e m ss to th e R i ve r Th a me s i n E n gl n d a
a a
n d i n th e Hi m la y a s o f N o r th I n d i a r e c h e da th e f o o t h i lls

a a a
r e th e f mi li r I c e Age s o r gl c i a a l p e ri o ds se p a a
,

a
r te d by

i n te rgla c i l ph a a
b o th o f v r yi n g pe ri o d s o f dur a
,

se s ti on
Fo ur m i n gla a a a aa
.
,

c i l p e ri o ds h ve b e e n r e c o gn i z e d se p r te d

b y thr e e i n te r gla ci a ls a a
a a
,

n d th e stu d y o f P l e o li th i c m n i s
a a
,

c lo se ly li n ke d to th e se gr e t c h n ge s wh i c h W e r e di r e c tly

re s po n si b le fo r th e li mi ts o f la a nd a v i la a
,

ble fo r h um no c c u
a a a
p ti o uo r se ttle me n t n d fo r th e c li m te be yo n d th e fi i n ge s
a aa
,

o f th e z o n e o f p e rm n e n t u n i n h bi t ble i c e

Th e P la a a
.
,

e o li th i c pe ri o d i s o n e o f i mme n se , mo n u me n t l
a
i n n i ti o n o ve r mi lle n n i a a
wi th h um n pro gr e ss s de d uc e d a
a a a a aa
, ,

fro m th e t n gi b le r e m i n s o f m n s h n di wo rk th t h ve ’
24 P RE LUD E

s urvi ve d , ma ki n g b ut th e slo we st i m gi n ble mo ve s D aa ur i n g

a aa
th e Gr e t I n te rgl c i l pe ri o d pr o b a a a
.

’
bly l sti n g fo r n e rly
2 0 0 0 00 y e a a a a
,

r s th e c h n ge s l n th e t
yp e o f t o o l m n u f c t ur e d
a a aa a ti a aa
, ,

r e m tt e rs o f r c h e o lo gi c l mi n u e wh i h r e v e l l w
c s o

a a
i n c r e se i n m ste ry o f th e te c h n i que o f fi a c tu
'
ri n g a nd

fla ki n g sto n e s to th e r e q ui r e d sh pe i f i n th e la a te r P le i sto
c e n e th e r e aa
p pe r s so me a c c e le r ati o n i n mo d i fyi n g to o ls a nd

we a p o n s th i s i s o n ly o n th e ge o lo gi c a l t i m e s c
-
ale i n w h i ch
a a a a a
,

fifty th o us n d ye rs m y b e c o me si gn i fi c n t
p e ri o d o f

cha n ge

a
An d s i n t i me so i n sp a c e th e Pa a a
.

l e o li th i c c u ltu r e s h ve

a n e n o r mo u s du a
r ti o n A t a
gi ve n p e r i o d i n th e Ple i sto c e n e
o ne ca aa
.

n t ke lmo st wi th o ut se le c ti o n to o ls fr o m S o uth
In d i a Afri c a a a
th En gl n d wh i c h sh o w i d e n ti c a
, ,

n d So u l te c h
aa
f c tur e a n d fo r m a a
ll th r e e a re a
,

n i qu e s o fm n u nd i n s e sse n

ti a lly th e s a a a
me e vo luti o n c n b e tr c e d le a d i n g up to a
,

nd

a
d e ve lo pi n g fr o m th e se fo r ms n d me th o d s o f ma fa
_

nu c tu re

To o l ma ki n g tra aa a a
.

-
di ti o n s i n th e P l e o li thi c h ve tr n s c o n -

a
ti n e n t l d i stri bu t i o n s : wh t h a ppa e ns a t o n e e n d o f th e ar e a
se e ms to b e h a pp e n i n g mo r e o r le ss si mu lt a n e o u sl
y t at h e

o th e r

aa a
.

Th r o ugh o ut th e P l e o li th i c pe ri o d th e b si s o f su b si st
ence w shu a n ti n g a n d fo o d ga th e rrn g l n o n e fo r m o r a
-
n o th e r

a s to vi su li z e a a sma la
,

n d th e e vi d e n c e p e rmi ts u ll po pu ti o n
li vi n g i n ti n y gro ups o f fa mi li e s o r sma ll tr i b e s fo llo wi n g th e
a an i m ls th e y ki lle d fo r fo o d o ve r gre a a
,

t tr c ts o f c o un tr y
a
Li fe w s i mp e rma n e n t pr e c a s a n d i so la a a
.

ri o u te d n d i d e s
a a
, ,

cou ld n o t re d i ly b e tr ns mi tte d fr o m gr o up to gro u p D i d

s to b e li e ve i n a
.

syc h o lo gi st s pe r mi t u ro u m m
aa a
p g p i n d w e i g h t
a
we ll se e i t s r e spo n si ble t n e rly sta
,

ge o f th e e vo luti o n
a
m n c o n sc i o usn e ss fo r th e slo w c h a
,

o f th e h u n ge s i n t o o l
‘

a
te c h n i ques o ve r v st re gi o n s o f th e e a a
r th s h b i t a rfa
,

b le su
’
ce

r vi vi n g e le me n t s o f P la a aa
.

Th e su e o li th i c m te ri l c u lture
a a
r e c o n fi n e d to to o ls m d e o f i mp e ri sh ble sto n e a a nd u n ti l

U ppe r P la a
e o li th i c t i me s w e h rd ly h a a a
,

v e e ve n th e c e r t i n
.

26 ,
P R E L U DE

aa
Ple i sto c e n e ti me s fi ve gl c i l peri o ds Ic e Age s) se p r te d ’
aa
by i n te rgla ci a ls m th t a a re a

Th e i mpo r ta e n c e 1 8 th t i t a a ppe a
.

n c e o f t h i s se qu r s to r u
'

aa
mo re o r le ss p r lle l wi th th a t lo n g a g o d e t e r m i n e d fi rs t in
th e Alps n d la a te r i n No r th e rn Euro pe Th e I n d i a n
g l a c i a
a
ld pp e a r to c o rr e spo n d to th e ma
.

ti o n s w o u i n I c e Age s o f
Eu ro p e ( e xc lu d i n g th e first) a n d th e la st gla ci a ti o n s i n I n d i a
i va a
,

se e m e q u le n t to th e th r e e pe ri o d s o f m xi mum i n te n s i ty
i n th e la s t Eu r o pe a n gla a
c i ti o n As b o th i n E u ro pe a
'

nd in

aa a a
m n m de to o ls h ve b e e n fo un d i n ma
.
,

In d i -
n y o f th e

a a
r i ve r t e rr a a
,

c es sso c i te d wi th th i s se que n c e o f c li m ti c
a a
c h n ge s o n e wo u a ld e xpe c t th a t th e lo n g d i st n c e c o rr e l ti o n
-

a a a ra
,

e st bli sh e d b e twe e n th e n tu l ph e n o me n wo u ld b e r e
pa e t e a
d i n a
th e t o o l t yp e s n d t h i s i s i n d e e d th e c se w i t h
aa a aa
p r lle l e vo luti o n i n te c h n i que s ta
,

ki n g pl c e i n b o th re s
a
I t i s p ro ba ble th t th e No rth We st I n d i a n c li ma
.

-
ti c se que n c e
aa
c n a aa
lso b e ex te n d e d to t ke i n U pp e r Bu rm n d No r th

a aa
C hi n a n d th e r e i s re a so n to th i n k th a t th e n tur l fo rc e s
a a a a aa
,

r o b b ly m i n ly c h n ge s i n so l r r d i ti o n i
( p ) r e sp o n s b l e

aaa a
fo r th e gl c i l n d i n te r gla c i l pe r i o d s o f th e mo r e n o r th e r y
l
aa aa
re s m y a a lso h a ve pro d uc e d th e lte rn ti n g pe ri o ds o f
aa a aa a
c o mp r t i ve ly w e t o r d ry c li m te (plu vi l n d i n te r pluvi l
a
pe ri o d s) i mpli e d by ge o lo gy a nd th e re m ms o f fo ssi l
a n i maa
a a a
ls i n S o uth I n d i n d i n E st Asi

a a a
Ag i n st th i s n tura l ba n d o f c h n gi n g c li m a
.

c kgr o u ti c
a a a
ph se s i n Asi an d Euro pe w e c a n tr a c e c e r t i n i mp o r t a nt

ma j o r gro upi n gs o f t o o l typ e s wh i c h pre suma bly re pr e se n t

a a aa
,

si mi l r gro u pi n g o f h um n tr di ti o n s o r te c h n i que s Wh i le
a a
ri n g o r fl ki n g sto n e i n to th e sh a
.

th e pr o c e ss o f fr c tu pe
r e qu a
i re d fo r sp e c i fi c p u r p o se cu tti n g o r c le vi n g fo r
'

a
a a a a
,

i n st n c e h s c e r t i n b si c pri n c i ple s m c o mmo n wh e r e ve r

su a
ch m n a ufa c tu
"
re i s c rri e d o u t ye t n e v e r th e le ss t h e re i s

a a
so me i n d i c ti o n th t wi th i n c e r t i n la ar ge ge o gr a a a a
,

p h i c l re s

a
th e re w s a p r e fe re n c e i f n o t h i n g mo re f o r c h a r a c t e r i sti c

aa a
, ,

te c h n i que s th ro ugh o ut th e Lo we r P l e o li th i c Th e pri m r y .

 THE I NDIAN ST O N E AGE 27

di visi o n of te c h n i que s sugge ste d by rc h e o lo gi sts wh e n aa th e

po ssi bi li ty o f ma ki n g th e se ma a
,

j o r gro up i n gs w s first en

to o l i ma d by fla
s ki g e h i ppi g a wa y f m a n pa t or c n ro re n

bl k u ti l h
oc n ulta t f mi a
t e re s ti fa t y a p i i pl
n or s s s c or r nc e

b a dly aa l g u ulptu I fla k t l h w v h
d ta
ro n o o s to sc re . n e o o s, o e e r, t e
fi tp
rs i
ro c e ss h a la
s g flato k f ma e bl k f t
c r e e ro oc o s one

ad th
n w k hi i
en to h fi i h d t l Th p du ti
or t s n to t e n s e oo ; e ro c on

t l a ua lly p d u d fla
i

o f c o re oo s n t r k i h yp ro f ce es n t e ve r ro c e ss o

maufa n tu ad th c re , w i tun ft ma d i t t l
e se ere n rn o en e n o o o s,

b u th t i ae relwa y a s v y h i g h p p d s a f t l
er m ad re on er nce o oo s e

f m h
ro I
t e c o re h fla k i d ut i n t e h e th ha d h e n s r e s, o n t o er n t e
t h i qu a pp a ly wh ta
.
,

c o re ec n e t i th u
e rs o n en co n c w tr e c o re

to o l ultu c ab t ad
re s c n e r ce

i gi a ha by m a
.

Th i s or l i mpl di vi i
n s uth i ti b
e s on s so e or es ee n

fa th i d ma j g oup a
a
m di fi d by h i t d u ti
o e t e n ro clli d on o r or r e

h fla k i d ut i bu n i d d w h y f pa
,

to t e e n s r es t di
t co s e re o rt o se r e s

ti cti
n ad mp i i g t l p um d b u d ah p
on, n co r s n oo s re s e to e se s c o

p e rs Th i h pp h ppi g
s c o l g up ( ai h ab
er- c o n a ll d to o ro s t s ee n c e

v y lum i ly) i f pa ti ulai mw a A i ai

.
,

er c s s o r c i r rt n c e to s s n ce t

ta ti v N th I di a L w Pa la
,
,

i lud
nc es i d i ti
cer n s nc e or n n o er eo

li th i i d ut i
c n wh i h a g a
s r es d d b y th ah al gi t
c re r e r e o er rc eo o s s

awi thi h fla
s n k ul u wi th ut h
t e e c i ty f fu th
t r e s, o t e n e c e ss o r er

di ti ti
s nc I S uth a
on d C t a
n l I dia
o h w v th
n i en r n o e er, e re s

a bu d a ultu a
,

b u
.

n t vi d n e f en ce o t wh i h th i
c o re c r es o c e re s no

di p ut ad i ta i gi fui o i t h i qu b tw
‘

s e, n n cer n re o ns s n n ec n es e een

h
t e tw o ma i I di ag up ab n n n ro s c n e se e n

I I di a lf u f u a ma
.

n i n tse t ly in o rt f h k lt n e n o re ns o t e s e e o ns
f Pa lali thi th ah a di v d th ugh A i a ha
, ,

o eo v b c n e ee n sc o e re o s s

p d u d m f h m t i mp a f ma
,

ro ce so e o t vi d t e os o rt n e ence o n s
’

e aly v luti I h Upp Mi

r e o on d p i t f h S i wa
n t e er oc e n e e os s o t e

h T ti a a a a
.

li k Hi ll ( wi thi s y g nl g it l pe i d d
er p r eo o c er o n se r

a ph a
,

t d f m h Pl i t
e ro t e by h m i g Pli
e s o cen e t e te rv e n n o ce n e se

ad may mi lli y a) h a di v d i mp tat

,

n n v b on e rs e ee n sc o e re or n

re ma i ff il a
ns o p wh i ho ss m ha v es upi d a pla c se e to e occ e ce
28 P RE LUDE
i n th e vo luti o n o f th e c o mmo n sto c k fro m whi c h m n a
e nd a
th e c o n te mpo r a r
y a n t h r o o i d s e ve n t u
p ally p s r un g T h e e vl
d e n c e o f t h e se a pe s a n d o f o t h e rs fro m Afr i c a , pro b a
.

bly
a lly a gge sts th a t c e r ta
,

e qu n c i e n t su i n e le me n ts i n th e sku ll o f
mo d e r n ma a a
,

n (th e str u c tur e o f th e lo we r f i

j w o r n s t n ce)

a r e e xtr e me ly a n ci en t a nd a r e fo r e sh a
,

d o we d i n th e se fo ssi ls
a n d th a t th e pro c e ss o f d i ve r ge n t spe c i a li z a
, ,

ti o n w h i c h
ha s go n e o n o ve r th e mi lle n n i ai s a
,

r tly o n e i n whi c h
p
lls o f c o n te mpo r a ry a a a
,

th e sku p e s re m o re s p e c i li z ed

a n d mo r e r e mo te fi o m th e c o mmo n a n c e stra l fo rm t h a
,
'

n ,

o ur o w n .

By th e Mi d d le Ple i sto c e n e 1 t i s po ssi ble to d i stmgul sh tw o

a a
m i n gro ups o f fo ssi l me n , th e Ne o n th ro pi c n d P l e o n a aaa
aa a aa
th ro pi c ste ms, n d s t h e y h ve lr e d yb y t hi s ti me r e c h e d a
a c o n si d er abl d
e g r e e o f d i ve rge n c e , th e pe ri o d i n wh i c h th e
e

un d i ffe re n ti a
t d
e c o mmo n a n c e sto r s li ve d mu st b e ve r y r e

mo te I ri E uro p e a t le a st t h e r e i s e vi d e n c e t h a t th e N e o n a
p wh o se skulls d i ffe r li ttle fr o m th a
.

th ro pi c gr o u t o f mo d e r n
a
m n is a sso c i a
,

te d wi th th e typ e o f to o ls wi th i n th e c o r e c ul
tur e s a n d th a t th e P la a a lls b e a
,

e o n th r o pi c ste m wh o se sku r

a
gr e te r r e se mbla n c e s to th e c o mmo n ma n a e sto c k ma
, ,

p y
-

p o ssi bly b e a sso c i a a

,

te d wi th th e c h o ppe r to o l c ulture i n E st
-

Asi a ; c e r t i nal y y b l a t e r P a la e o li t h i c t i m e s th e d e sc e n d an t s o f
th i s pa r ti c u la r gr o u a
p r e e sse n t i a l ly m a k e a
rs o f fl ke to o ls -

Th e Ea st Asi a n re p r ese n t a ti ve o f th e P a la eo a n th r o i d a
.

p e i s

th e fa mo us P i the ca n th ropu s o f Ja aav n d h i s r e la ti ve s fro m

C h o uko uti e n i n C h i n aI n th e la tte r si te r o ugh qua
,

r tz i te

i mple me n ts sso c i a a te d wi th th e h uma a

.

n fo ssi ls h ve b e e n c o n

si d e r e d a s c o mp a ra ble to o th e rs fro m No r th I n d i a a n d o th e r

Asi a ti c lo c a li ti e s a a
s w e sh ll se e la te r
a a
.
,

To sum u p t h e b c k g ro u n d o f th e O ld Sto n e Age i n I n di

i s th e pr ese n c e o f c li ma ti c ph a
,

se s d u r i n g th e Ple i st o c e n e

wh i c h c a n b e c o rr e la te d wi th si mi l r ph a a se s i n E u ro p e a nd

pr o b a bly wi th o th e rs i n S o uth I n d i aa n d A fri c awh e r e

,

a r e la a a a n st t h i s n a ra
,

p lu v i l c o n d i t i o n s p c e g l c i t i o .n s A g i t u l
 TH E I N D I A N ST O NE AGE 29

se tti n g c n b e se t tw o ma
a a
i n tr d i ti o n s i n i mple me n t m n u a
fa c tu re o n e i n th e n o r th o f I n d i a r e la te d to o th e r si mi la r

fla ke Or c h o ppe r i n d ustri e s kn o wn fro m se ve r l E a a st Asi a ti c

si t e s ; th e o th e r i n th e so u th b e lo n gi n g to th e c o re to o l fa -
m
i ly wh o se d i str i buti o n i n c lud e s Afri c a a
, ,

n d We s t e r n E u
'

ro p e

Wh i le n o h uma n fo ssi ls h a
.

v e b e e n fo u n d th e e vi d e n c e fr o m

gge sts th e te n ta
,

e lse wh e r e i n th e O ld W o rld su ti ve c o n c lusi o n

th a t to o lso f th e fl a ke o r c h o ppe r t r a d i ti o n ma y b e t h e p r o d u c t s

o f th e An c i e n t o r Pa la eoa n th r o pi c ste m i n h u ma n e vo lu ti o n
u h a P i k cq n th ropu s) a n d th a t t h f h e c o r e te c h n i qu
( s c s t e o s e o t e

we re ma d e b y th e e a r li e st re r e se n t
p a t i v e s o f H o m o s a p i e m i n

th e M o d e rn o r Ne o a n th m i c fa m i l W i h h i u li i
’
p y t t s o t n e n

r mi n d s w e c a r n to c o n si d e r th e I n d i a
.

ou n tu n e vi d e n c e i n

sli gh tly mo r e d e ta
,

il
Th e e a rli e s t i n d i c a a
.

ti o n o f to o l m ki n g me n 1 n Ple i sto c e n e
“

In d i a a pp e r s a
t o b e i n t h e l a s t p h a se o f th e S e c o n d Gla c i a
t lo n o r a t th e b e g m n i n g o f th e S e c o n d ( Gr e a t) I n te r gla ci a l
I n d e po si ts o f thi s ge o lo gi c l a a r th e rn I n d i a
.

g e i n N o m t h e

P o twa a a a a a a a
,

r
(R w l p i n d i ) r e g i o n n d p e r h p s g i n i n C e n t r l
In d i a i n th e U ppe r Na rb a da va lle y (Ho sh a n ga ba
,

d j ubb ul
r e d i stri c t la a s ha a
, ,

p o , ) r ge r o u g h fl k e t o
-
o l v e b e e n fo u nd ,
n d
sh o u ld b e lo n g to th e ver y e n d o f th e L o we r Ple i sto c e n e
a se a n d b e c o n t e mpo r a a
r y wi t h th e e r li e r P i th e c a

a
h n th r o
p
o i d s i n ja v a I n We s t a n d C e n tr l E u ro
p a t t h i s t i m b t h
p e e o

c o re a n d fla ke i n d ustri e s a re r ec o gn i z a
.
,

ble i n d i sti n c ti ve
fo rms Th e I n d i a n fla ke i n d u
-
s tr y 1 8 kn o wn a s th e P re So a -
n

ndi ca a
.

i ndu str
y to i t e i t s c h r o n o l o g i c l p o si t i o n b e f o r e th e

ma i n se ri e s o f Lo we r Pa la lture s 1n th e va
,

e o li th i c c u lle y o f
th e S o a n R i ve r a tri b uta r
y o f t h e I n d u s i n t h e P o t w a r r e gi o n

nj a b Th e se e a r l fla a a
,

o f th e P u y k e t o
-
o l s h v e n o c lo s e r e l ti v e s

i n o th e r As i a ti c i n d ustr i e s a s fa r a a a
.

,
s th e se r e kn o wn t

p re se n t
I n th e S e c o n d I n te r gla ci a l P e r i o d o f th e Hi m la aa
.

y s h o w

ma
,

e ve r we ll d e fi n e d h u n indu s tri e s b e lo n gi n g to th e tw o

a
m i n gro ups a lr e a d y r e fe rr ed to c a a
,

n b e tr c e d i n ri v e r
 3 0 P RE L U DE
a ad
te rr c e s n oth e r d e posi ts ln No rth We st I n d i
-
a
a
.

co n ve n i e n t to de lfirst wi th th ose to o ls wh i c h c o me

o f th e aa
So n n d
th e S lt R a a
,

n ge Th i s
a
th re e ph se s h a a a
.

s b e e n c lle d th e Sc n Cu ltu re

a a a
, .

Th e E rly S o n i n d u stry c o n t i n s tw o

p le m e n ts o,
n e se ri e s m d e fr o m r o u a n d e d
co u rse e xe r c i se so me c o n tr o l o ve r th e fo r m o f th e i mp le me n t

a
s o n ly th e mi n i mu a a
m fl ki n g n e ce ss ry to o bt i n c h o ppe aa
a
sh p e i s fo u n d Su a
c h m ssi ve pe bble to o ls h ve b e e n fo u
-
a n

in a a a a a a a
.

p p ro x i m t e ly c o n te m p o r r y ( o r r t h e r e r li e r
) P l e o

a a a
li th i c d e p o si ts i n S o uth n d E st Afri c b u
a a
th e fo rm so gre tly d i c t t e d b y th e r w m te ri l m ke s i
a
,

d n ge ro us to i n si st o n suc h c o mp ri so n s Th e o th e r typ e a
t th e si mpli c i ty o
a aa
,

, a
a a
wi th i n th e E rly S o n c o mprlse th i c k , h e vy fl ke s a a a
. .

n d th

a
e qu lly c r u a
d e p re n t c o re s fro m wh i c h th e y we re de ta ch ed

Th e se fla ke i mple me n ts h ve b e e n c o mp a
-
a re d to th e e r li e st a
a
fl ke to o ls o f Eu
- a a
r o p e i n th e C l c to n i n i n d u s tri e s a n d so me

a a a
,

rc h e o lo gi sts wo u ld th e r e fo re i n c lud e th i s spe c t o f th e

a
S o n wi th i n a
ge n e r l Cl c to n i a a a n fa mi ly o f fl ke to o l:
’
a -

a
{

d i stri b ute d o ve r mo st o f th e O ld Wo rld Bu t re c e n tly i t h

“

b e e n sugge ste d by th e Ame rlc n rc h a aa a

.

e o lo gi st Mo vi u s th t
4»
an e w gr o u p o f c h o pp e r to o ls must b e re c o gn i z e d lli e d tc
- a
a a
th e Cl c to n i n fla a
,

ke to o ls b u t n o t p r t o f i t I n th i s c h o pp e r
-

a a a
.

to o l gro up Mo vi us wo uld gro up th e So n i n dustry s we ll s

a a aa aaa
a aa a
o th e r si mi l r i n d u stri e s i n Bu

a a
rm

a
( th
aa
e

a
A
aa
n y t h i n ) M l y ,

a
(T m p n i n ) n d j v ( j
P i t n i n ) n d p f o b b ly lso th e

a
gh qu r tz i te n d li me sto ne t00 13 fo un d wi th P i t/w ea
, , ‘

ro u n

th ropu a s t Ch o u a
ko uti e n If th i s l st c o rre l ti o n we re c o rre c t a
ld a ffo rd a ve r y v lua a a
.
,

i t wo u ble li n k be t w e e n to o l gro ups n d -

typ e s o f fo ssi l ma n a nd g i ve mo r e r e li ty to th e Eaa st Asi a ti c

a
,

c h o pp e r to o l gr o u
-
p o f th e M i d d le P le i s t o c e n e s t h e pro

du c ts o f th e P la a a a
e o n th r o pi c b r n c h o f th e h u ma n fa mi ly .
 "
EB B I NDI AN ST ONE AG E

ina
fli i i s I t v i g i t b twe e n No rth e rn I n di nd aa
Bum
n t e n er en n s es e

ah uld a pp ai f fi ld w a
.

r s o e r e o rk i s u n d e rt ke m

a
-

Th e So n i n d u str y d e ve lo p s i n te c h n i qu e s th e ge o lo gi c l a a
c o n te xt be c o me s l te r th e Ea a rly So a n i s m i n ly o f e a r ly a
a
Mi d d le Ple i sto c e n e d te wi th i n th e S e c o n d I n te rgla ci a l
pe r i o d n d da a te d by th e so l r r d i a aa
,

ti o n me th o d be tw e e n
a a a a
, ,

bo ut nd y e rs g o B y th e e n d o f t hi s

a n ts i n sto n e fla
.

p e r i o d h o w e v e r t e c h n i c l d e v e lo p m e ki n g
-

a
, ,

c n b e se e n di vi di n g i n to tw o th e i n d u s tr i e s wh i c h b e c o me

di sti n c t i n th e La te S o n i n dus tri e s a a pp re n tly b e g i n n i a

n g
i n Th i rd Gla a r vi vi n g la
,

c i l ti me s b u t su ter I n o n e o f th e se
a a
.
,

th e pe bble e le me n t i s re t i n e d i n pro n o un c e d fo rm b ut i n
a a a a
,

th e o th e r th i s pri mi ti ve fe tu r e i s di sc rde d nd u se i s m d e

of a a
te c h ni que o f pre p ri n g th e c o re be fo re de ta c h i n g th e

a a aa a
fl ke si mi l r to th t wh i c h pp e rs mo re o r le ss c o n te m
p o a
r n eaa a
o u sly i n S o u t h A fri c P le s ti n e n d W e s t e rn E u r

a a a aa
, ,

o pe I t i s ge n e r lly fe lt h o we ve r th t th e p p e r n c e o f t h i s

a a a a aa
.
, ,

p rti c ul r te c h n i que n e e d i n di c te n o mo re th n p r lle l

e vo lu a a
ti o n i n fl ke pro duc ti o n i n th e v ri o us re gi o n s i n wh i c h
i t o ccu a a a
r s Th e se fi n l p h se s o f th e S o n i n du stri e s pe rsi s t

a aa a aa
.

i n to th e L s t I n te r gl c i l pe r i o d n d b e yo n d nd re d i s

aa a
,

tri bu te d f r fie ld i n No r th We st I n di -

a a
Th e c o re to o l f mi ly o f Lo wer Pa
.

- l e o li th i c sto n e i mple
me n ts i s re pre se n te d by a la r ge n u mbe r o f finds c e n tr e d i n
a a a aa
,

So uth E st I n di b ut lso c o mi n g fro m C e n tr l n d We ste r n

-

I n di aa n d e ve n re prese n te d i n th e re o f th e So aaa n Cu ltu re

a
i tse lf To th i s I n di n r e pre se n t ti ve o f th e c o r e to o l gro up
. a -

aaf a
fro m i ts ppa t ma i re oati re n n c o n c e n tr on

Th a a a a
.

pp e f f t l e f th irtyp f m
n ce o f u i t ew oo s o s e ro o r s es

of S d I t gla
e ial dat i th iv
n er t a yt m f
c e n e r e r- e r r ce s s e o

h S aa
t e d I du
o a bl u
n n la h i d ut y wi th
n s en es s to c o rr e te t e n s r

th glaia
l qu ad s wi th ag a l h l gi a l o e n er c ro n o o c

ultualt a
e c se en ce n

sc h m a e d th p i te, th n f th e di ti
e rs s e n ce e re o e c r r on
3 2 P R E L UD E
th e type o f to o l r e pr e se n ts i s sh o wn b y th e o c c urre n c e o f
e vo lve d fo rms o f c o re to o ls wi th L a -
te S o a n type s m o n e si te

i n th e sa me r e gi o n ( Ch a un tr a ) I n So u t h a n d C e n t r al I n d i a
wh e r e e vi d e n c e o f pluvi a l p e ri o d s r e pla c e s th a t o f gla ci a
,

ti o n
c o r e to o ls h a ve b e e n fo un d i n a a a
,

-
p lu v i l p e r i o d w hi c h m y
a te i n pa r t wi t h th e S e c o n d I n t e r gla c i l ph a a
s

e qu se b u t wh i c h
go e s o n i n to Thi r d I n te rgla a
c i l ti me s o r e v e n la
,

te r
Th e to o l type o f th e M a d ra str y i s e sse n ti a lly pe a
.

-
s In d u r

sh a a a a a a a
O

e d o r o v l fl k e d o b o t h f s i n su h t
p n c e c w y s o p ro

d uc e a tti n g e d ge th e so c a lle d h a nd a
,

co n ti n u ou s cu
‘ ’
-
x e -

Th e r e i s c o n sta n t i n te r a c ti o n b e twe e n th e M a d ra s a n d So a
.

i n d ustri e s a nd a s o n e wo u ld e x pe c t th e c o r e to o l e le me n t -

i s s tr o n ge st i n th e so uth a th e a st wh i le th e fl a
, , ,

n d so u -
ke o r
c h o pp e r typ e s d o mi n a te wh e n o n e c o me s fa
,

r th e r n o r th

e g i n th e K u rn o o l a re a A d e ve lo pme n t i n te c h n i que c a n

b e tr a c e d o ve r th e lo n g r a ro m E a
. . .

n ge o f fi n d s f rl M i d d le to
y
Ea rl U
y pp e r P le i st o c e n e t i m e s i n w h i c h t hi s g r e a t e r sk i ll i s

a i r e d i n th e pr o c e ss o f fl a
,

c qu ki n g wi th th e c o n se que n t pr o
d uc ti o n o f mo r e e la bo ra te ly fin i sh e d a a
,

n d sm lle r to o ls
Th e r e i s some e vi d e n c e th a t sugge sts th a t th e pri m r y fla a
.

ki n g
i n th e M a a
d r s i n d ustry w a s d o n e (a s i n th e S o a n ) wi th a

a
h mme r sto n e a -
n d th e fi n e r wo rk o f th e la te r p h a se s wi th a

a a
b r o f wo o d o r h o r n wh i c h lo n e wi ll r e pr o d uc e th e c h ra a
,

te ri sti c fla t fla a
ke sc rs (Th i s h a a
,

s b e e n sh o wn e x e ri me n t lly
p
-

ro pe a n Pa la
.

i n th e stud y o f th e Eu e o li th i c i n d u stri e s ) Bu t

ma n y o f th e h a nd a xe s o f th e Ma d ra rn o o l a re a
.

s i n th e K u
'

wh e r e S o a a a
r e mo r e o r le ss ma
,

n i n flu en ce w s st r o n g nu

fa re d by S o a e s o f sto n e fla ki n g I n a
,

c tu n t e c h n i qu -
d d i ti o n t o
th e r e gi o n s me n ti o n e d t o o ls o f th e M a d ra stry h a
.

s In d u ve
be e n fo un d i n I n d i a a s fa th a s th e Ri v e rs C a uve ry a
,

r so u nd

Va i ga i i n th e we st r o un d Bo mb a y a n d n o r t h o f th e N a r

ba da a n d n o r th e a st a s fa r a r re a
,

s th e u c h e s o f th e S o n
pp e
-

a
atri b ut ry o f th e Ga
, ,

n ge s

Th e M a d ra s tr y i s a lmo st e x a c tly si mi la
.

s In d u r i n i ts to o l

te c h n i que s a ti o n to th e L o we r Pa la
,

n d th e i r e vo lu ,
e o li th i c
34 P REL UD E
ad n th e slo wn e ss o f h um n ap ro gre ss m te c h n o lo gi c a a
l c h i e ve
r um n i n UMuth mm
aa a aaa
Th e fin l ph se s o f th e P l e o li th i c pe ri o d i n I n di re
a
sti ll o b sc u a
re Th e r e se e ms to h ve be e n so me c o n ti n u n c e o f

a aa a aa
.

th e l te r S o n tr d i ti o n i n fl ke éto o ls wi th th e c h r c te ri sti c
aa a a
te c h n i que o f c o r e pre p r ti o n (th e so c lle d Le v llo i s te c h -

n i qu e
)a aa
su a
r vi vi n g i n mo r e th n o n e r e (t h e P u n j b th e

aaaa a a aa
,

N rb d n d i n So u th I n d i ) i n to th e l st Gl c i l pe ri o d
a a a a a a
,

nd o ssi bly b e yo n d d i t h s b e e n c l i me d th t c er t i n
p n

aa a
,

sto n e i n d u s tri e s fr o m Ku r n o o l i n th e D e kk n n d ne r Bo m

a a a a
b y r e pr e se n t new type o f to ol b se d n o t o n th e m s si ve
a a a a
fl ke but o n th e sle n de r bl d e d e t c h e d fro m c o re
a aa a a
.

N o w su ch i d u
n str i e s r e c h r c t e ri sti c o f th e fin l ph se s

aa a aa
o f th e P l e o li th i c i n E u ro e
p n d i n c e r t i n
p r ts o f We s te rn

a a aa aa
.

Asi d uri n g th e L st Gl c i l Pe r i o d Co mp r ti ve stud y o f

a a a
.
,

th e se i n d ustri e s h s sh o w n th t th e y r e li ke ly to b e d i v i si ble
aa a a
i n to th re e m i n e rly gr o u p s ll o f whi c h o ri gi n te o utsi d e
a a a
,

Eu ro pe n d pr o b b ly i n Wes te r n Asi O f th e se gr o ups

“

a a a a
.
,

wh i c h i n Europe n str ti fie d si te s c n b e sh o wn s r e pre

a
se n tmg su a
c c e ssi ve w ves o f fo lk mo ve me n t we stw r d s th e
-
'

aa a
,

se c on d i s th e Au ri gn c i n (fbr me r ly kn o wn s M i d dle Au
: ri g

a a aa
w

aa a
n ci n ) n d i s n o t kn o wn to o c c u r f r th e r e st th n P le s -

a a aaa a
s

a
,

ti m e n d Tr n sc u c si ; b u t i t h s b e e n su g g es t e d t h t i ts

a aaaaaa aa
.

i n t o f o ri gi n sh o u ld li t l t f w t h I r n i n;
p o e e s s r y s e

paa a
l t e u n d so m e o f t h e Ch i n e se i ndu s tr i es o f th e S h u i tu n g
a aa a
, ,

ko uR i ve r sugge st th t Au r i gn c i n fb r ms m y e xi st t h e m

a aa
Th e t h i r d o f th e se e rly U ppe r P l e o li th i c i n d ustri e s th e
a a a aa aa
,

Gr ve tti n i s i n f c t kn o wn fr o m si te s s f r e st s Kur d i
’

a aa a a n d i t i s c le r th a
,

t th e i d e n ti fi c ti o n
'

st n i n N o r th e rn I r q

a a a
, ,

o f tr u e bl d e i n d u stri e s i n I n d i wh e th e r o r n o t re l te d to
aa a a
,

th e gr o u p s lr e d y k n o w n w o u l d th ro w v e r y c o n s i d e r b le

aa
,

li gh t o n U ppe r P l e o li th i c pr o b le ms
aa a
.

Fo r th e pr e se n t th e r e i s n o t e n o u gh m te ri l to fo r m
'

a a
b si s fo r d i sc u a n d th e mo st h o pe fu

aa
ssi o n l li n e o f re se rc h
aa
,

wo uld se e m to b e th e e xc v ti o n o f c ve s n d r o c k-sh e lte rs

 THE I N DI A N ”
ST ONE AGE $5

M gd a a
le n i a n w er e M d in £ 8 84 i n aa
v
c aKu e ne r r

type th i s c ultur e 1 8 o n e re stri c te d a

si n c e lmo s t e n ti r e ly to
”

a a a
,

Fr n c e I t wi ll b e se e n h o we ve r ( p 2 37 be lo w) th t c e r t i n
me ta l ha Ga a
. .

r p o o n s fr o m th e n ge s V lle y o f mi d se c o n d

a
mi lle n n i um n o d te a re c o pi e s o f b a a
,

rb e d bo n e o r n tler

n tln U ppa a a a
.
,

p o i n ts i P l e o li th i c o r Me s o li th i c tr d i ti o n
'

a a a
.

I n p sn n g me n ti o n mu
'
st b e m de o f th e p i n ti n gs fo u nd

a a
i n c e r t i n C e n tr l I n d i a a a a
a
,

n r o c k sh e lt e rs s i n th o se t Si n g n -

a
e se p i n t i n gs h a a a a
,

u T h b l i m d U P l
a
p t ve e en c e s pp e r e o

a
:

P lm: a n d c o mp re d w i th th e well kn o wn se ri e s i n th e c a
.

ve s -

o f We ste r n F ra a
nce a n d Sp i n b u a
t Go r do n s r ec e n t wo rk h s
’

sh o w n th a aa
t n o t o n ly i s t h e re n o e vi d en c e o f a
,

P l e o li th i c
a
d te bu a , a a
t th t i n fe ren ti l e vi d e n c e m k e s i t d fi c u a lt to d te

est C lui v id
on c f th s i te ev i I d i af a
e n ce y or e ex s en c e n n o n

Pa lali h i mpa a
.

Upp er ultu eo bl t th m f Eu p
c c re s c o r e to e o ro e

or h N a
t e Ea ti h f e rill t b f u d I ma
s s, t y b
e r e o r e , st o e o n t not e

i h u i g i fi a h ah A ya h i ai dut y f Buma
.

w t o t s n c nce t t t e n t n n s r o r

a
( h pp
c o l ultu mpa a bl
e r -to o S a c a
) pp are c o h a r e to e n e rs to ve

co n ti u d u i t up d b y ut i d i flu
n e n n e rr u ti l h l a
te l o s e n en ces n t e oc
N li h i whi h ma t y w ll h av b a v y t v t
a
eo c, c e e een er re c e n e en

I Eu p a d N th a d Ea t Af i a mi a ga i i Pa
.

n ro e n or l n s r c n n es

i h ab h w th ai i mm di a gla ia
,

ti n e, t s e en t ly p
s o n l t n e e o st - c

tim wh e s,h i ama ki g i fi a

en t e l t a ce wt wi th i i
s n ts n re r e to n ts

m b u d va i u gi a l i dut i ultu g ew
lali th i a
e se n t o n s, r o s re on n s r es o r c re s r

up b ad U pp se Pa on
u d i ti f
er bla d l eo c ons o e -to o s

b u h wi g a ma a
,

t s o k d t d n y d u e rh eb l d en en c to re c t e se e s to

m af mp i
e to l ma d la
co g ly f w d
o s te to o s b I a e r e o oo or o ne , n
 aa
3 6 p R E L Un E

la rge number o f re gi o n s in S o uth or Centr l I n d i so uth o f

a line Jo m mg th e Uppe r Ga nges to the Ra nn o f Cutch a
,

nd

aa a n d in N orth West Punj a

,

s por d ic lly el sewher e (in Sind -

b)
there occur stone industries c onsisting o f such d i mun i ti v e
implements whi ch a r e comp a a
r ble to the Ca p sian group o f
post gl a cia l Mesolithic industri es o f Europe a
,

-
n d N orth

AfricaThe Ca psia n industry i s represented in Kenyaa

,

nd

it h a a
s been cl imed th t certa a in skeletons from G ujera
.
,

t
a llegedly o f the sa me d a te a a loca
,

s l microlithic industry
s how H a mitic or Ne gr o i d ch a ra cteristics Wha
,

tever we ight
we give to this ev idence there i s nevertheless a
.

likelihood
a a a
,

th t the Indi n microlithic industr ies r e not unconnected

with those mov es from North Africa ea a
stw rds which c n be a
a
tr ced in other regions
a
The Indi n microlithic industries h a a
.

ve not been found t

a n y site in a a
geologic l deposit o f known a g e nor in such
s tra a a
tigr phic l rel a a
tionship to e rlie r hum a n industries tha
,

t
aconnex ion with the fina a
l ph ses o f Pa la eolithic cultures c a n

be shown But there i s evidence th a t the industries survived

a aa
in cert in re s a t lea st down to e a
.

rly historic times They

‘ ‘

ma a a a a
.

y truly repre s ent tr n s ition fro m P l e olithic indu stries

to those o f a more a dva a

nced or speci liz ed type but this
t ra ns ition need not ha ve ta ken pl a ce a a peri od a s remote a
,

t s

the p a ra llel phenomenon in countries fa rther west since the

a
a
P l eolithic cultures themselves ma a a
,

y h ve very long po st
g a
l aci l survi v la
The fa a
ct th t the microlithic industries o f India
.

s eem to

aa
represent the rriv l o f new peoples prob a bly from the west
ra a
ther th n the fa ct tha t they a a a
, ,

re n evolution out o f more

-
aa
o r less non e x istent U pper P l eolithic bl a de industr y r e
la tes them mo re to those cultures which follow them th a
,

n to
those they supersede It i s not known whether the India n
c o mmunities which m a de the microliths were (a
.

s their coun

a a
te rp rts in E urope wer e ) hunters n d food-g therers in th e a
a
P la eolithic tra dition or whether they were a ‘

gricultur a lists ;
 T HE I N D I AN S T O N E A G E 37
still less i s it known whether it c a n be shown th a t i n India
a s in ce rt a i n other regions o f the O ld World there ex isted a
,

st a ge o f huma n progress in whi ch the a rt s o f agriculture a

,

nd

stock b reedin g were pra

- ctised but met a l wa s not known a
so c a lled Neolithi c sta
,

- ge o f development
There certa in ly ex ist a a a a
.

v st
q u n ti ty o f ground stone x e s

o f the type known in Neolithic contex ts el sewhere from

‘

ma ny sites sca a
,

ttered over the c ountry not infrequently sso

ci a te d with microlith s but so fa r no di stinctive ha a
,

bit tion
site h a s been found which pl a ces a
,

llegedly Neolithic ’

ma a
teri l in stra tigra phica l rel a tion ship to the e a rliest known
a gricultura l communi ties in Ba luchista n or S ind Typology
or colour sta ining o f the surfa ce o f a x e is a a
.

- n very untrust
worthy guid e to a n tiquity a n d cl a im s fo r high d a ting fo r a
r fa ce finds on these grounds c a
,

su n be ignored O n the other

ha nd cert a in stra tified sites h a

.

ve produced ground stone

“

a x es a n d pottery in a distinct cul tur l l a yer a a

,

n d thes e need ,

to be con s idered
The South India n stone a x e cultur e s h a ve been put on a
.

new footing by Wheeler s recent work in Mysore Sta ’

te Hi s
ea rlier work on the Coroma ndel co a s t in 1 9 4 h a
.

5 d provided
the fi rst fix ed d a te in the sequence o f in digenous cultures in
tha t region by esta blishing their rel a tions hip to imported
coins a in aRoma
,

n d potter y o f the firs t c entur y A D n

tr a ding post t Ar i k me d u nea a a
r Pondicherr y With d a
. .

-
ted
types o f na a
.

tive pottery now identifi ed it w s possible to use

this evidence in Mysore in conjunction with finds o f Rom a n
coi ns o f the sa me period n d in the Chita a
ldrug region a
s equence w a ta blished a
,

s es s follows

I Stone Ax e Culture Thi s w a s ch r acteriz ed by polished a

pointed butt x es o f loc a a
l r OCk a a
. .
,

-
nd crude mi crolithic
industry in j a sper flint a ga te a n d c ryst l Two sma ll a
copper objects show tha aa
, , , .

a
’

t met l w s known but ex tremely

sc arce Pottery w s h nd ma
. aa
de r rely p inted or incis ed -
, a .
38 P RE L UD E
The beginni ngs o f thi s pha se ma y go b a ck to ea rly in the
firs t millennium B c a nd it w a s fo llow ed a bo ut 2 0 0 =

by a
. .
,

I I M ega li th i c Cu lture This w a s a n i nt rusive iron u sing -

culture m a king wheel turned pottery a n d building e la

. .

a
-

a
,

bor te meg lithic to mb s It continued into the first cen

tury A D overl a
.

. .pping with
,

III The historica l An h m Cu ltu re d ate d in i ts e a rlier a

’

ph a ses by R om a n coins o f the e arly first century A D a

.

nd

pottery o f Ar ik a me d uty pes a

. .

n d continuing to the third ,

century A D . .

This evidence then shows th a t in Certa in a rea s o f S outh

Indi a a t le a Ne o lithic cultures r e o f re la tively la a

, ,
‘ ’
s t the te
da te surviving a lmo st to the d wn o f recorded history a
Whe eler h a s published a ma
.
,

p s howing the known d i str i bu

ti on o f stone a x es a n d mic rolith s in India ; they a ppe a r to
occur a lmo st ex clu sively to the south a n d ea st o f aline from
the Gulf o f Ca mb a y to Luckno w with a few microlithic
“

sites between C mb y a n d Ka ra aa
,

chi
Ex tra va ga nt c l ims h ve b een ma a a d e fo r a ver y e a
.

rly Ne o
lithic culture in K a shmir The ex ca va tions t Burz h om a a
b etween S rina ga ra n d Ga nd a rb al do not seem to ha
.
,

ve been
very sa tisfa cto ry a a m
,

n d the repo rt upon them i s cert in ly os t

in a dequa t e A sequence w a s found a
,

. s follow s :

a
L yer A Buddhist fourth century A D
, . .

La
yer B Sherds o f highly polished bl a ck wa re and

others with incised p atterns

a
L yer C U nwea thered post gl a cia l loess 9 feet in -

thickness a t the b a
,

se o f whi c h o n virgin

soil w as a he arth with polished a

, ,

x es bone

awls a
, ,

n d pottery
,
.

In interpreting this sequence th e ex c va tors co mp a red the a

potte ry from Lay e r B w ith the
j h a
ng r W a re de
\
scribed in a
 aaa
T H E I N D I AN s rc NE
'
AGE 39
Ch q ee r V ha w hi c h i s I ts elf un d te d but i s c ert i nly l t er th n
. a a
th e midd le o f th e secon d mi llen n i um B c O n the other h n d

are ound at hough it mig ht be Wheel

. .

"
th e poli sh ed w s s s er s

Bla ck Poli hed Wa e k own f in a ’

Nb th nc f om
‘ ’
r e rn s r n or st e r

Ta ilad a t d betwee n th fifth ad eco d ce tu ie B

,
‘

x e e n s n n r s c

ad prea d wi dely ov r the M a urya n kingd om But wha

.
, ,
.

n s e t
e th d a te f La yer B it i obviou ly highly d agerou t
.
,

ev r e o s s n s o

r ga ai mplying uch apaa

,

e rd the 9 fe t f l e o g f t i me
o e ss s s ss e o

t ha t h Neolithic ma
t teria la t i t ba e would b f aa
a
e s s e o n n

ti q u
z i ty fabeyond the a
‘
r lie t M op ta mia na
’
g ric u lt ur el r s es o

culture f the fi fth or i th millennia ah abeen d

s o s x s s o ne

by the a va tor There i rea

ex c lly no va lid r a
s on f rega d s e s or r

i g the Ka h mi r Ne lithic culture a f a a

.

n s yp r ven
o ntiq ui ty so n o

beyond perha p the fir t mi ll nnium s fe llowed l a s lly e B c oc

by a rela tively ra pid a ccumula

. .
,

t i n f i nd depo it ed oi l

In S i d a
o o w s s

h i i ad Sukkur a d a ga i n ne a r Ka ra chi a
.

t R t t
'

n o n n

Drigh R oa d ach a ra cteri tic indu t y m a

, ,

de from hert or s s r c

flint from h Sukku lim tone h ab n known f m a

,

t e r ny es s ee or

yea Some long thi n bl a

rs de ad th o i ca l ore from s n e c n c s

w h i ch t hey ha ve been truck a preci ely comp a ra

.

pp a
b le tos re s

tho e from the Ha

s ra Culture f 5 5 a a d o c 2 —
00 1 00 n n

a th er ea uch aAmri in S ind or tho in

.
,

th e r rli r ultm e c es s s se

the Z h b Va h i eh a ga in produce aimil a

.

lley o w r fli nt i s n

ugge t ai depend t ad
,

d u t y Bu s r t other impl me t e n s s s n n en n

a a a a a
.

m y b o b l rly t di t i e h i l the pre rence f rch ic

on, w u e s o s r

i a uch aL va lloi fla king ad o a l ha nd ae i a

,

v v l s, s s e sddi n v -
x s, n

ti n t th
o core ad bla
o e d dce ugge t th a
s nt the R h i e s, s s s o r

i d u try ma
n y
s be f el a tiv l y gre a t a ti quity
”

o Of rt h d a t e n e e

a ppa ently c mpa ra b l indu t y from R a

.

o f th e r oich ur in e sr

Hyde a ba d (D kka) St a
r te aa
e y not hi n g
n one c n s
'

O u evidence therefore how th a t L ower P a la

.

r eolithic s s

culture withi n the core ad fla

, ,

s k e ( or chopper ) group were n s

b th pr ent i I d ia a
.

t th beginni g f M d d l P l mt
'

o es n n e n o e e o ce n e

s t Gl ci a
close o f th e l a “

l Perio d in a aa
y r a
th er
‘

w compaa
ble r
40 P R E L UD E

to tha t o f the Pa la eolith ic indus tries o f BurmaThe mi cro

lithic flint industries ma y be contempora
.

ry w i th those o f
fa irly e a rly post gl a cia-
l da te in E urope a n d the N e a r Ea st

or they ma a a
,

y be l ter ; in n y event they s eem likely in the

a b sence o f the Upper Pa la eolithic bla
,

de ind ustries which

might be considered a ncestra l to them in India to represent
anew cultura l, a n d perh a
,

p s ethnic element These micro

lithic cultures a ga in h a d a long surviva
.
,

l side by side with

communities m a king pottery a n d ground stone a
,

x es in the

Neolithic tra dition The origi n o f thes e Neolithi c cultures i s

unknown though they a
.

r e more likely to be the resu lt o f

folk movements from the west th a
,

-
n o f independent invention
withi n IndiaNeither i n Centr l India a nor in Ka shmi r c n a
s uch cultures be d a ted sa tisfa
.

ctorily much before 5 00 B C on

the evidence a t present a va il a
. .

ble
The bl a de industries in Sind , while cert inly in pa a
.

rt r e
la ted to their counterp a rts in the AmrI or l a ter cultures
nevertheless h a ve some cla i ms to a Pa laeolithic a ncestr y a
,

nd

arela tively a ncient d a te O ther a spects o f the flint i ndustry

a r e presum a bly introducti ons to the region from fa

.

rther west
with the e a rlies t a a
a
g ricultur li st s

To underst nd the subsequent prehistory o f India

.

we mus t
look beyond i ts present frontiers to the other l a nds o f West
ern Asia A knowledge o f the sequence o f prehistoric cultures
in Persiaa aa
i s necess ry fo r a a
.

n d Mes opot mi n under

st a nding o f the Indi a n ma teria l which h a s to be comp a a
.

red n d
a
equ ted with th a t o f the more westerly l a
,

nds our knowledge

o f wh i ch i s gre a a
,

ter So in the n e x t c h pte r we turn to the

s tory o f th e e a rly a a a
.

'

g ricultur l communitie s in W e stern A si

be tween the fifth or six th a n d the second mi lle n mu m

a
No te s to Ch pte r II

P le isto c e ne c ultures a
ro n o lo gy in th e O rien t a
nd ch s w e ll a s e lse

w he re a
re d i sc usse d b y P ro fe sso r F E Z e u ne r in Da ti ng th e P a st

an d th e I n d i an ma te ri al i s c o nve nie n tly summa

. .

ri z e d b y
 C HA P T E R I I I

Commu
n i ti es i n Western Asi a

Th e E a
rth h ah s er ad h uplad h r
h ill-si d e s n er n s, e s is th e wid e
pl ain sh e 18 t h
e b ar f pla
e n re f ma
o y u ts o n ses : m a
y h s e

had a
,

stre tc h o ut h er nd b b u ti ful
n u!e o n to s

n eco nomy b a
W IT H a sed o n hunting a me n d so g a
th ring
e of

fruits or other e dible vegeta ble p roducts little development

o f th e a rts o f living w a s po ssible in either W estern Asi a
,

or
Northern E urope ; a a a a
,

n d with the fin l withdr w l o f the ice

sh eet l a rge tr a cts o f the O ld Wor ld were sp a rse ly pop ula ted
by sma ll hunting groups o n whom the ch a nging clima
.

tic
conditions imposed suc c e ssi y e problems genera tion a
,

fter
genera tion a s the herd s o f a nima ls migr a
,

ted or died out

It w a s a decisive moment in the history o f m a a
.
,

nkind
moment sprea ’
d over severa l thousa nd yea rs when ma n

instea d o f following the a ni m l s in sea rch o f clim aa tes a

,

nd

regions where he could continue h i s a ncient w a y o f li fe u n

cha n ged elected to a da pt himself to h i s ch a nged envi ron

ment a n d find new method s o f obt a
,

ining food
This process o f a da pt ation to environment c a
.

n be s een

a
t king pl a ce over much o f E urope a n d in North Afric a from
a bout onwa rd s in the so ca lled Mesolithic sta ge -

The a x e seem s to be invented to a tta

.
,

ck the trees o f the e n

c ro ac h i n g fore sts in the north a n d with the sm ller g a me a
now a va il able fo r the cha se the d og i s domestic a
,

ted to help
in hunting But thi s Mesolithic sta ge w a s o n ly a
,

n ingen iou s

prolonga tion o f the P la eolithi c w a a

.

y o f life with but little

modifica tion a n d the insecurity o f the food supply w a
,
s still
 E AR L Y A G R I C U L T U R AL c e M MU N I T I E S
‘

43
th e re to render the form a a
ti on o f l rge o r permn en t s ettle a
m The e ss e nti a l s ti ll l a a
.

e n ts i n i po ssi b le cking w s the d i s

c o v e ry o f a tec hn ique o f fo od p r o d uc ti o n o ver whi c h a a
.

l r ge
degre e o f huma n control fi o uld be e x erci sed nd it i s thi s a
r e vo ltlti o n a the cha
,

r y concept nge ove r from hunt er to -

fa rmer a n d s tockbree d er th a t la y be h ind the a ncie n t c i vi

a
4

li z tio n s o f the O ld W orld Wi th t h e forma tion o f a gr i c u l

a
tur l commun i ties it w s possible fo r ma a a
.

n to live within

a
fr mework o f compa ra tive e c onomic se curity to a a
,

ccumul te
r plus m a teria l reso urces a a
,

some su n d ther eby to incr e se h i s

leisure a n d stimul a te the a ctivities o f o t h er c r a

,

ftsmen on h s
i
'

beh lfa
f We c a nnot tr a c e thi s proces s in Indi a i tself a
1
n d on th e

w hole it s e e m s im prob a ble tha t thi s e ssentia l tr a

,

nsition fro m
food ga therin g to fo o d p roduction w a s ma d e independen tly
in Indi a a s ea rly a s i t w a s fa rth er west A griculture begins
in the a rch a e o logic a
.

o f th h cu ltiva
'
“
a
i n g o f gr i ns o f th e whea
l reco rd
t a
,

tion o f rice the other s ta

, s e e with th e g ro w

a
n d b r l e y t ypes The pre hi stor y

ple Asia tic cr op i s a

,

t
a a
a a
, ,

r e ent very ob cure I t s e e ms rob b le th t ric c ultiv t ion

p s s p e

be g a n ea rlier in Indi a tha n i t did i n Ch ina n d tha

.

t th e
knowled ge re a ched the la tter countr y by w a a
,

y o f th e Y n gt z e

to ma ke i t s a ppe a ra a
,

nce in the Chi nese Br o n Z e Age bout

2 000 B C t h e Neolithic c ro p i n N orth Ch i n a ha vi ng be en
millet But b y 2 000 B C a gricultur e h a a
. .
,

d been e st bli sh ed fo r
a t le a s t thr ee t ho usa n d ye a rs in Pe rsia a ia a
. . .

n d Mesopot m
‘

a n d fo r a sa ster n I ndi a a m
,

t ho u nd in W e n d it i s to th e r

stre tc hi ng betwe e n Bers ian d E gypt th a a

,

t we must look fo r
e vi de nce o f t h e tr a nsi tion from huntin g to f rming a
It i s not o nly a rc h a eology tha t p oi n ts t h e w a aa
.

y t o t h is re

ba i t the e viden ce o f b ota ny a a

,

n d z oolo gy Th e wild gr s s e s

a nc e stra l to the present c ultiva ted type s c f w h e a ta a

.

n d b r ley

ha ve t heir na tura l ha a
bi t t o ve r jus t t his a rea

g l a c i al c lim a tic c ond i ti on s wer a

, w her e pos t

e s uit ble fo r the ir growth

a a
.

Wild b rle y i s distri buted from Asi M inor thro ugh

 a
44 THE BA CKG ROUND E A R LY A G R I CU L TU RA L
Tra nsca uca si a to Persi aTurkest n a n d Afgh a n ist a n a nd

prob a a
bly l so in Ara bi a a n d Abyssini a a
, , ,

Th e primitive v ri ety
o f whe a t known a
.

s Em mer ( Tri ti cum d i o coccu m) ex tends from

S yri a a n d Pa lestine through Mesopot a mia to West Persia
a n d prob a bly a ga a
in l so in Abyssinia a
,

( though the ccept

a nce o f this region a s an a ncient centre o f wild cerea l s de
pends o n certa in bota nica l a ssumptions not u n ivers lly a
a ccepted ) ; a nother primitive form Tri ti c um mo n ococcum i s
know n wild from the B a lka ns through Asi a
, ,

M inor to North
S yria a n d the borders o f Kurdi st a n a n d Pers i a It i s c le a r

tha t the a pprecia tion o f the possibilities o f gra ss seed s a s a

.

stu ff which might be ga i f a a

food thered even not cultiv ted t

firs t would be li kely to be g ined by the a a

,

ncient hunting
groups who inha bited these a rea s a n d th a
,

t communities
a ssured o f a gra in crop a t le a
, ,

st could be formed once the

potentia lities o f delibera te sowing a ha

,

nd rvesting were
r a sped Gra in crop s ca n ha ve more th a n one u se : ma n ca
g n

not live by bre a d a lone a n d fermen ted beer c a n be m a

.

de
from most cere a ls a n d i s likely t o be a s old a sa
,

griculture
To the mind o f primitive ma n it ma a a a
.
,

y be s import nt s the
tribes in Northern R hodesi a
,

food crop were found when

E urope a ns first visited them to endure a n a nnu a
,

l food short l
’

a a a a a a
,

g e r ther th n encro ch upon the gr in se t side fo r beer !

We do not know whether the most a ncient a griculture

went side by side with domestic a tion o f a nim a l s : the two
elements in mix ed fa rming ma y h ave two di fferent origin s

a
gr in growing from the food ga therers (perha ps ma
,

-
inly the
women o f the tribe) a n d domestic a tion from the hunters
who h a a
d lre a dy t a med the dog a n d indeed gr a
, ,

m might
ha a
ve been grown first o f ll to provide food to induce wild
a a
nim ls to come under subjection But in Just the s me a
regions a s those in which the noble gr a sses grow wild c a
.

‘ ’
n

the wild a ncestors o f sheep go a ts a nd c a

,
”

ttle be identified
With the wild sheep this i s p a rticula rly clea
.
, ,

r with the Mou

flo n distri buted from the Mediterra ne a n through Asia
,

Minor
 o o muumi us a i n w a sr n n x ASIA ? 4
45
a a a aa
to Persia
the Punj a
thi s a
,

a
th e

g in It c a
ba
U ri l
n d Ba
from

nnot h a
Per
luchist n
si Turke st n a

a
n d the Arg l e stwa

ve been long before gr in growing

,

,
a
n d Afgh n i st n

r
ds of aa
a -
,

a n d stock breeding even i f differing in origins bec a

.

me com
a
-

b i n e d i n one distinctiv e e c onomy ; a n d ma n h a

, ,

d become
mix ed fa rmer
Thi s need not in itself h a a
.
p

ve ent i led wholly settled com

mun i ti e s p a stora lism ma y i nvolv e complete mobility an d
ltiva tion soon ex ha usts the la
,

e ve n primiti ve hoe cu -
nd I f
there i s no river inund a tion to provi de fres h mud ea ch ye a
.

-
r
the settlement must seek new fields ever y fe w sea
,

sons? But
~

ca mping sites ma be r e visited regul a rly an d some o f the

y
-

tribe ma a a a
,

y rem in more or le ss perm nentl y gto u rd the

crops The incre sed a a
n d more a ssured food supply o f a
.

fa a
rming c o mrri un i ty llows fo r l rger fa milies a a
.

n d childre n

ca a
,

n be put to more uses m herdi ng weeding or hoeing th n

the limited spec i liz ed skill s o f a a a

,

hunting tribe dmi t

a
In P lestine we h a ve most interestin g a a a
.

rch eologic l e vl
d e nce o f a tribe whose economy i s cha nging from the hunt
ing a n d food collecting st ge to th a
-
a
t o f food production -

Thes e folk were still l a rgely hunters in the Mesolithic tra

.

di
tio n a n d they h a d (prob a bly se a son a l) ca mps a
,

t the mouth s

o f ca ves where they a a

,

lso buried their de d Their flint

bla des knives a n d skin scra pers o f the a ncient hunting ma
.
,

-
n

a
n d bone spe a r tip s b a rbed points a
, ,

n e r were found ; - nd

a a
, ,

g o rge s fo r fi sh c tch i ng
-
But in ddition there were fou n d

sma a a
.

ll flint bl d es se t with gum into grooved sh fts o f bone

th e bl a des finely notched a n d se t i n a line to m ke a a
,

con
ti n u ou s sa w edge a -
n d the bone c a rved a t one end into a

c onvenient h a ndle sh ped s a n a a a

nim l s hea a
,
’
d These com
s a r e in fa s a
.

o s i te tool ct sic kle s or corn cutting knive n d the

p
-

si lic a in the gra ss or corn st lks h a a

, ,

s polis hed the edges o f the

fli n ts into a bright lustre fro m cons ta nt use a fe at ure we

know to be distinctive o f n y flint tools used fo r stra a

,

w cut -

ting And on the fla t rock floor a t the c a ve mouth were

’

.
[
46 THE B A CK G R O U N D E A R LY ”
A G RI WL T U R A L
 con n ux t tr ms LN W E S T ER N AS I A s 47
ho llo w s m de by poundi ng a o ut th e gr in in to flo ur a , ad n

Whether Na tm fi n s (n med from one o f their c m

th e se a a p a
fi l es in th e W di e l N a f) grew graa
»

tu in the mse lves or were

- -

re a p ing w i ld seed i s unkn o wn b u t t h e w e ll m a de si c ld e s l oo k -

a s ifa a a a
,

ri c ultu re l e d y d vel pe d
g w s r e o

These N a fia n sites ca nnot be d a ted a ccur a tely b ut a

.

tu ll
a a a
,

p r o b bi liti e s toge ther i mply d te we ll be fo r e 5 0 00

O ur e a rlie st hi s torica l da tes i n Wes te r n Asi a ar e roun d a

.

b o ut
a nd a a a
3 00

th a
0

t the y r e ea
a
ye rs seems the ve ry lea
ll we
rlier th a
c

a n s y o

n th is d a

s t spa
f the
te a
p rehi
n d th a
storic culture
t o n e th o us a
ce o f ti rn e into whi ch we c n
s i
nd
s

a
a
c o nnpr ss th e long se ries o f successive prehi s toric ph a ses i n

Me sopota mi a o r Pe rsi a The rel a a

.

tionship o f thes e ph se s .
”

te e tu a buria
r l or l cu m ab e ta bli h d fr m the tra sto ti s, c n e s s e o s

fi a i in the a
t on n ient et lement i t where vill a ge a fter t
‘

c c s s e s,
vill ag or t wn a fter tow
e abuilt ad rebuilt th ub
o n w s n on e r

bi h f i ru i ed pred ece or un il a mound tell i ‘ ’

s o ts n ss t o r s

f rm d whi ch ma a a a
,

o e y b mu h h u d ed f et hig h e E s c s n r e x

aai f uch at ll ma a
.

i C
‘ ’
c v t on o y g v s eque e A B e D E e s nc

the la ite ath r

, , , ,

f om the fi
r t ttl ment rst to h s se e on t e s : no e

mound ma y begin a D ad continue on only thr ugh E

t n n ot o

bu F G a
t to d H A d ly i h ab n fou d h a dn re o en t t s een n t t 1e

arli t huma
,

n o cupa
.
,
‘
A l el (i ’
h ev x ti n recog i d ) m
t e e es c o n z e

a r auch aSouth r M opota miama

.

one e s s
y b p eced e d e n es e r

by a rli r c up a
, ,

e tion I II I II i c ountry
e o c h n rth s, to t e
th a a
n o

ha bitable aa the Me op ta mi a
, , ,

t w ti m
s h n So u t e w e rn s o

w ati ll u d r h a
s s n i ent Per i a
n n Gulf T c ti nu th i
e t e c s o on e s

dia ga mm a tic a a a a
.

id nce f a
r y f de i bi ng tr tifi tion
w i f in
o p h e sc r s c s

a a l co c et d a
,

E fi d w e c tu
n ev e e k wn fr m o n n r e t , no o

abe fitted into ah i t ri ca

l pha
t A B C a
o bjec t who se styl e c n e we s o s

aa y th a
a d Dp h a a e a rli er tha
.

c t n o nc e s , .
n , , n se s re
48

a
THE
we find the s me rel a
B A C KG R O U N D

th t the scheme 18 v lid fo r a

a
E A R L Y A G RI C U L T U R A L
tive sequence , the more su
a la rge reaa a
re c n we be
n d not jus t fo r a
a
a (Ta
,

single site o r few close together ble I p

In Mes opot mia asuch a s equence h a
.
, .

s been pretty well

e sta blished to cover t lea a s t five prehi storic period s before

a
the E rly Dyna stic period a bout 2 8 00 B C a n d this c a n be

fa irly closely correl a ted with a simil a r sequence in Persia a

, . .
,

nd

Syri aFor the mome n t it will be instructive to look a t the

a a a a a
.

e rli e s t o f the s e f rming communitie s in e ch re

Not fa r from Mosul a site h a s recently been ex c a va
.

ted
which h a s reve a led the mo st a ncient a gricu ltura l commun ity
yet known in Mesopota miaIn the ea rliest level on the
a
ori gin l ground s urfa a
.
,

ce below the mou nd know n s Tell

a a
H ssun were found wh t seem to be c a a mping sites o f a not
wholly settled people with hea rth s a n d indic a tions th t a a
,

ny

aa
h bit tio ns a r e likely to h a
,

v e been tent s But these people

w ere a lrea dy mix ed fa rmers fo r not only were a bund a

.

nt
bones o f ca ttle a n d s he e p found but sto ne hoes still reta
,

in
ing tra ces o f the bitumen tha t fa stened th e m in their h a
, ,

ndles
a n d stone rubbers a n d pestles a n d mort a
,

rs fo r grinding or
pounding corn into flour The people were u sing s tone to o ls ”

a a a rough but quite good pottery orn a

.

n d m king mented
with inci sed lines
But v ery soon there w s perm nent h a a a
bita
.

tion on the top

a
o f the old c mp fi r e s with little hou ses o f room s se t round
-

a a a
courty rd one cle rly recogn i z ble a a a
,

s kitchen with i ts
brea d oven a aa
n d stor ge j rs still r e m i n i n g a a
, ,
'

nother the liv

ing room a detaa a
,

-
nother ched b ke house with two sunk -

s tor a a
ge bins fo r gr in in th e courtya rd ne a a
,

rby More th n
thirty such gr in stora a ge bins were found in the a re e x c a a
.

ya ted a n d they rec a ll simila r structures proba bly o f about

a
the s me a a a a
, ,

g ( or r ther l ter ) in E y
g p t In thi s vill ge too
a
e

were found sickle fli n ts like t h e N a fia n ones lre a

.
,

-
tu dy men
ti o n e d which h a a
,

d been se t in slightly curved wooden h fts

The houses h a
.
,

d been built o f the tempered mud which

’
50 THE B ACKGROUND E A R L Y A G RI C U L T U R A L
a
does to the l nds to th e w est It seems unlikely on th e wh o le
tha t the el a bora te techn i ques o f a griculture a
.
, ,

nd sligh tly

a
l ter o f th e i pv e n ti o n o f meta
,

l lurg y we r e evo lv e d ind e

pendently i n severa l a re a a
,

s o f the O ld W orld n d i n th e

a
present st te o f our r ch a a a
,

eologi c l knowledge th e origins o f

a
these b si c c ontributions to huma n civiliz a tio n mus t b e
a ss um e d to li e in the a rea betwe en Asi a lvfi n o r a
‘
n d Turke
‘
-f

sta n
So f r aas I ndi a
.

i s concerned th erefo re we must loo k west

a
w rds fo r th e i ntroduction o f th e a rts o f a gri cultur e a
, ,

nd i t

will be seen thro ugh out th is book h o w the Indi a n ma a

,

ter i l
a
c n be properly under stood only in te r ms o f i ts gene r l a
a
Western Asi tic setting And a s the rel a
.
.

ti ve chr onology o f
th e Indi a n prehistoric : cultures i s still in a aa
.

pro visio n l st ge
we must co ntinu a lly ma aa
,

ke reference to the Meso pot mi n

a n d to a less ex tent the Persia n s equence usi n g th e ge n e ra lly
a a
greed n mes o f the successive ph s es to indic te th e a a a
.
,

p
prox im a te ch ronologi ca l po sition in th e a bs ence o f a c tu l a
a a a a
.

'

d tes O nly in North B luchist n wh ere the str tified

sequence in the R na a
Ghund a i tell h a
.
,
,

s bee n worked o u t
‘

ca n w e attempt a n y thing o f a loc a l India a

,

n ti me sc le -

a a
.

But befor e turn i ng to the pre hi sto n c n d e r ly hi storic

ence a fter the time o f the first occup a tio ns o f H ssun a a
,

sequ

a a
n d S i lk there 1 8 a n i m o rt a
p nt point to be touched up o n
W e ha ve s i d th a a t these ea rlies t a gricultur a
.
.
,

l settleme nts
w ere in a sto n e a
‘

g e implying ’
by thi s th t t h e p e ople w h o a
l i ved in th ese settlements a aa
,

n d tilled the dj cen t fie lds

knew nothing o f a n y met a l fo r m a
, ,

king tool s o r other obje cts

Th e sequence Stone Bronz e a a
.

nd Iron Ages or igin lly

wor ked out fo r North er n Europe i s a s it h ppens rel a a
, , ,

tively
a a
v lid in m ny othe r re gi o n s e spe c i a lly i n so fa r a
, , ,

s the u
'

se o f

chipped or ground stone inva ria a

,

bly seems to h ve come

before the use o f a n y met a l But peopl e ma y m o ve s tr a ight
t o f astone a a a
.

ou i u b
‘ ’ ’
i
‘
g e into n ron g e when th s n e w s

a
.

st nce i s sud denly introduced to them fr o m o u tside or th e ,

 m aa m a a aaas
w a
s
e n te s w st se 55
a
ddi ti on l ma
s kno ledg f m a y ha w e o et ve n o e ffe ct on

a pre se nt d
t th e a af od
y li ve g th e r i n g noma
o -
a
di c e x i stence
a te d n o t h i n g but a
.
,

to whi ch i ro n h s c o n tri b u spi ke : to $ on s 1

a ncient pr hi to ic communitie f;
Neve rth e l e ss, in th e e s r s o

A i a do fi d tha t fa a fter the a

.

W t e s e rn irly o s w e gri n s on
a a
»

ltual a
‘

a
,

c u y f lif irfl ur i hing w eco d ry revolution

o r
ey s o s s n

di ov y i ma de t h di covery tha t c rta a

,

sc er s in ton e s e s es c n,

u d r p cia f fi ring b m a de b y h e a
,
.

n l cond it n
e s e t tu m i o s o e to

i dt a a a a a
. . ,
,

a
t uo
gh u b t wh i o h b h mmered or
s c t
s i nt zn e e c c n e s o

ake utting d g Th i
r

ay l d f rm ad ta
n : c ke
e n e o , n on en c e e . s

or it ma
a
y a
a
pp
lod es , n d ; by w e a
e a r a s the n tive met a l on top o f the
th e ri n g b e x pos ed o n th e s urf c e I t mu
r
vei n s o r

st
'
a
a a a a
e .

so on h ve be en di sc o ver ed th t thi s n ti v e me t l cou ld b e

ha aa
mmered in to sh pe n d a s i t i s w i d e ly d i stri buted i n th e
aa aa a an d Pers i a
,
.
.

u p l nd r e s o f No r thern M e so po t mi i t i s no t
a a
'

sur p risi ng th t the e rli e st c o ppe r o bj e cts fou n d a

,

t fo r i n

a a a
s t n ce S i lk a wl s a n d bits o f w r e h a
,

r e li t tle pi ns mme red

i

a n md te d met l wh i ch h a
.
, , ,

from th e u d been pic ked up from

a
.

the surf c e
a
To sme lt c o pp e r fi o fn th e o r e a a
.

r el tive ly lo w te mper
'

a a
ture , 700 to Bo o ? CL, i s ne e d e d i n r e duci ng tmo sphe re
°

i e one i n wh ich a ccess o f fre e a

, .

i r (ox yge n) i s pre ve nted

No w i t h a t th a
. .. .

s been poi nted o u t pri mitiv e pottery kil n s }

nd a a
.

wo u ld pr ov id e just the se condition s lthough si n i ple

gh } pots c a n be ba aa a m
,

ro u ked quite s tisf cto r ily in n ope n

a s so o n s ny a aa a
ttempt i s m d e to co ntrol the c o lour o f th e
aa a a
:

b ove ll to p in t it w ith p a a
.

e z ttc ri o r nd tter ns clo sed

ki ln i s a a
b so lute ly n e cess ry Th e tr a nsi tion from a
, ,
'

c lo se d lki ln
'
'
.
52 THE B A C KG R O U N D E A R L Y A G R I CU L T U R A L
'

to a a
smelting furn ce involves no gre t ment l l bour to a aa
conceive a n d it i s not surprisi ng therefore th a t we should
find evidence o f the ea a
, ,

rliest copper smelting mong the

a
m kers o f p a i nted potter y in the A ncient O rient
But there i s a
.

nother process invo lved i f fu ll use i s to be

ma de o f copper a n d th a t i s melting it when in met llic form a
a
so th t it c a n be c a st Now thi s requires a
,

much higher tem

e ra an d one which could be re a
.

p tu re
5 C
°
ched only in
amore a dva nced type o f kiln th a n would produce the he a
.
, ,

t
necessa ry fo r smelting fr om the ore So fo r a long time c0 p
st h a a a
.

p e r mu ve been worked by h mmerin g n d cutting o n ly

whether from the n a tur l met l or from metaa a
,

l smelted from
ore a n d the further development o f fu rn a ce types seems to
ha ve ta ken pl a ce in Mesopota mi aCerta a
,

in met llurgis ts
think th a t smelting ma a a a
.

y h ve been invented s technique

only a fter n a tive copper supplies were worked out but the
evidence fo r this ra ther c o n tr a
,

d i c to r y se q uen c e i s not con

‘

c lu si v e

By th e time the e rlies t a a

gricultura
.

l communities were
being founded in Western India it i s un lik ely tha t the l ck a
o f copper tool s in them me a ns a nything more tha n poverty
a n d th a t th e i r sto n e a a a
,

"
g e w s forced’
on the m by s heer l ck
o f pu r ch a sing po wer A t a ll event s it i s not long before India n
meta llurgy gets under w a a a a
.

y u sing loc l copper n d l so tin

ores a n d in gener a l terms a ll the prehistoric India
,

n cultures
we sha ll h a ve to dea l with a r e form a lly in a
,

Bronz e Age
The cl a ssific a
.

tion o f the prehistoric cultures o f Mesopo

ta a
mi with which we must begin i s m a de by using con
a a a a
, ,

ve n i e n t t yp e s i te-
n me s f o r the v riou s ph s e s s o th t f o r

ins ta nce U ruk i s not o nly a pl a ce (the Biblica l Erech a

, ,

nd

the modern Ara b Wa rka ca a

,

n be u sed when t lking o f

) but it
the U r uk Culture
‘
th a t i s the va
’
rious types o f r c h i te c a
ture pottery tool s sculpture a n d so on m a de by a certa
,

in
group o f people a ta certa in time a n d we c a n a lso sa a
, , , ,

y t h t
a nother culture i s o f Uruk d a te th a t i s contempora
,

ry w ith
,
 C OM M UN I T I E S IN W ESTE RN ASIA 53
a the U
th e pl c e uk Cultu re holds in the who le Mesopo
r

mia
ta a a a aa
.
.
,

n equence
s This i s fund ment l method o f r c h e o
a a a a
.

logic l terminology n d w e sh ll use it simi l rly in d e sc r i b

a
,

ing the Indi n cultures ; with it there goes the system o f

numbering successive str t in site o rtell o f m ny period s aa a a
a
o f occup t on Here the norm l
i

n d mo st r tion l pr ctice aa a a a
aa
i s to revers e the ctu l s equence o f ex c a a
.

v tion in which o f
course the topmost ( n d l a a
tes t) occup a
,

tion i s dug into fi rst

a a a
,

n d number from the e rliest settlement to the l tes t

’

aa
.

This then gives h ndy method o f reference to the se

a a a
, ,

q u e n c e R om n numer l s being u sed fter the type site -

a a aa a a aa
,

n me so th t one h s S i lk I S i lk II n d so on s n mes fo r
a a
, , ,

succe ssive occup tions A form o f subdivis ion i s necess ry

a a
.

when we find th t there r e successive level s o f rebuildi ng by

a
the s me group o f people on the site but where there i s no
a a a a
,

s ign th t the continui t

y h s been broken n d thi s c n be
a a a a
,

done by using II 1 1 6 n d so on .A new Rom n numer l

aa a
, ,

sho u ld indic te new group o f people living on the site

a a a a a
letter fter numer l tha
,

t there h s been no ch nge o f pOpu

a a a
l tion, but th t the ex istin g folk h ve rebuilt their town ”
a a
Unfortun tely this method o f numbering h s not been uni
a aa a a
formly dopted by ex c v tors in the O r ient so th t cert in
a a a a a
,

sites r e numbered b ckw rd s their l test occup tion i s I

a a a
n d t heir e rlies t m y be XX or so It i s impossible to r e
a
.

number these sites without c using untold con fus ion so the
a a a a
,

re der mu s t be on h i s gu rd n d remember fo r ins t nce

a a a a a a
,

th t Giy n V i s e rly but Si lk IV i s l te in the gener l

sequenc e
"
a a a a a aa
.

The e rliest ph se in Mesopot mi we h ve lre dy de

s cribed , a
n d it i s best k now n from i ts typ e site s H ssu n aaa -
.

Th e fo llo w i n g are th e ma i n si tes n umb e re d b a c kw a rd s : i n M eso

‘ ’

a
mi aA pa
po t h ( I—X) Ga a
h i ya r ( I XX a
c f U uk ( I XVI II) w r - — r —

Uq a i aG i ya ( I V) S uah ab la
, , , 7 ,

i ( I—VI I I ) ; i
r P n ifi d
e rs n — s s e en re c ss e

ly aA D b u A i ali I I di a
.
,

lm
ppa
re c e n t sh — t M h j s t e e r e s t se tt e en t n n o en o

da a d Ha a ha ad i ay y em f f hi h a
.
, ,

ro n r ve e x tr o r n r s st s o re e re n c e , w c re
 a
54 . THE B A C K G RO U N D E A R L Y A G RI CU L T U R A L
Although the economic stru c tu r e o f Si alk I in Pe rsi i s so
'

s imil a r d isti nction s in pott ery types e tc m a ke c ompl e te a

e qu a tion with H a s sun a I ina dvis a ble a nd th e sa me a
, , .

pplie s
to sites such a s Mersin in Asi a Minor a n d Ra s S ha a
,

mr in
S yri a But the e a rlies t level a t Nineveh (Nineveh I ) a
,

n d per

ha ps tha ta t Tepe Ga wr a a a a
.

( G wr A rch ic f) seem lik e ly to

b e more strictly comp a ra ble O f these sites Si a lk I a lon e h a s

pa inte d pottery a n d on thi s point we mu st m a ke a necessa

.
,

, ry

d igression
After the very e a r ly a Stone Age pha
.

n d primitive ses
‘ ’

s uch a s Ha ssun a I the most distinctive fe a

,

t ure o f the pr e

historic cultures o f Mesopota miaa n d even more o f Persia

,

i s the frequent a
, ,

n d sometime s ex clus i ve o c currence o f pot

t e ry p a inted with designs in one or less frequently two or

more colours Suc h pa
, ,

i n te d pottery wit h i ts enormou s re per

'

t oi re o f designs a n d styles fo rm s the b a

.
,

sis o f much o f our

c la ssific a tion o f prehisto ric W estern A§ia n cultures a

,

n d in

Ba luchista n where so little scientific ex c a va tion h a

,

s bee n

ca rrie d out comp a rison o f p a

,

inted potte ry s tyl e s i s th e only

method o f di sent ngling the va a rious region a
,

l group s o f
people a n d their t r a de a n d movement s

The invention o f th e tec hnique o f pot p a

.

inting w i th t h e -

a ttend a nt necessitie s o f mor e el a bora te kilns fo r ba

,

king the
v esse l s s eem s to h a ve ta ken pl a ce in the highla nd s o f North
PersiaNorthern M esopota miaor S yri aa n d w e sh a
,

ll s e e
t ha t i ts a ppe a ra n ce in th e south o f M e sopo ta miawhe n t ha
, , ,

t
re gi o n b eca me ha bit a
,

ble owing to t h e shrinking o f th e P e r

s ia n Gulf in prehistoric times i s due to immigra
,

tion from th e
mo unta in r e glo n s into th e pl a ins Cultures u sing p a
,

in ted
wa r es h a ve been tr a ced northwa rd s int o Turkesta n a
.

nd

s out h e a
-
stwa rds th r o ugh P er sia
c int o S o uth Ba luchista n ; Af
a a a a a a a a
aa
g h n i st n i s n rch eologic l b l nk t pre sent but i n N orth
Ba luch is t a n a ga in th e p a
,

inted po ttery re ppe rs O n th e

ba s is o f a compa ra tive ex a mina tion o f th e grea a
.

t m ss o f

a
-

ma teri a l from sites sprea d over such a wide a re t h e Amer i ,

 um m W E fS T E n N S
'

x d w w s i N A IA 55

Th ese Buff Wa r es a n d R e d W res ha ve on the whole a a

a ff Wa a
,

c o n t r sted dis tri bution with t h e B u

,

re 1n the sout h n d
R e d Wa re 1n the north a di s tri butio n wh i c h 15 re pe a
,

ted 1 n
a
B lu ch ista a
n s w e sh a ll s e e
To return to t he M esopo ta mi a n s equence th e Ha la
.
,

u
'

C
'

f l
tu re kn ow n from S yria a n d fr om N orth M e s opot m i sh ows aa
alre a dy a n ea se o f copper ston e a
, ,

r ly u n d mu d abri c k bui ld
a
‘
-

ings (i ncludi n g some rem a rk b le s tructures th t ma a a

, ,

y be
fo rm o f t e mple ) a nd a very fi n e p a int ed pot tery whi ch often
us es red a n d bl ack p i nted d e si gn s o n a a h uff b a
.

se The ori

s po tt ery a a a
.

g i m o f t hi nd
p rob bly the cul ture m y be in
S yr i a o r Kurdi s t a n b ut t h ere i s a n a llie d t ype o f wa
, ,

re
"

, ,

str ong a ffi ni ties wi th c e rt in wa res i n P er si At Ha a ss un a a

a
S ma rra Wa re i s stra tifie d below true Ha la
.
,

f pottery but
’

el sewhere i t see m s to be in th e ma in c onte mpora ry a

,

n d th e

tw o s tyles ma sen t tw o gr oup s o f peo ple,the Ha a

,

y r e pre l f folk

aa
be ing ind i g en ous to thei r no rthern re gi o n (wi th poss ib le con
t c ts w ith No rth P ersia
the rri va
)
a
a n d th e S a

l o f llied but distinct dr a

m a rra W are
fts o f popul a
, ind i c
tion from
ting a
a
f rther South Th e bes t kn ow n s ites a r e Tell Ha la f in S yr i a
, ,

aa a a
.

( st r t below t h e hi s toric c ity) A r

p c hi y h ( lev el s VI to X )
a a
n d S ma r i awher e t here w a s a
, ,

,
pr ehi st oric ceme te ry be .

de rived fro m the Pers ia n h i ghl n d s a pp ea ra a a

a
m rks t h e firs t colo ni z a
aa
po t mi Th e s tr a
. ti fic a
t io n o f th e s ou
n d i ts

thern pa
n ce

rts o f M eso
ti on o f sites i n the n orth s hows tha t
,

e st a
bh sh m outh i s n o t lik e ly to be much e a
en t in th e s rlie r
Se ttl e me nts a
n d c e met eries a a
.

r e known ; t h er e w s s ome u se

o f co ppe r ; field s Were ti lled with s tone h oes like t hose o f

 5 6 THE BACK G RO UND EARLY AG R I CULT UR AL
Ha ssun a I; a n d ho u ses bu i lt o f stone or mud bricks Rec ently

too it h a s been di scovered th a t monumenta

.

l temples were
built by the Al U b a id folk, the pl a ns o f which foresh a dow
those o f l a ter times At Ur aFlood o ccurred during this
,

‘ ’

ti me covering the site with a thick l a a

.
,

yer o f river mud n d

other import nt sites a a a a
, ,

r e E ridu
(A bu S h r in where the
temples were ex c a va Tell U q a ir (Area
,

ted in IV)
Uruk I X— XVIII a n d Tepe G a wra XI II— XI X
a
The nex t ph s e i s one o f peculia
.
,

r interest in the prehi story

”

o f Mes opota miathough we c a nnot dwell on it here O n e o f

i ts o tst a u
nding cha ra cteristics i s the sudden cha
, .

nge over
from p a inted pottery to wa res which a r e pl a a
.

in n d either
red or grey frequently with polished surfa a
,

ce This Uru k -

re ( occupying level s V to X on the type site ) cle a

,

Cu ltu rly
ma rks the a ppea ra nce o f new people with new elements o f
civiliz a tion in the regi on ; engra ved cylind er se ls writing a
a
-

on cl y sculpture in the round a n d s tone built temples a

,

-
re

a mong the innova tions a n d these in m a ny wa ys foresha

,

dow
the a chievements o f the civiliz a tion which we c a n ca
,

ll S umer
ia n Settlements o f the Uruk Culture a ppe a r str tifi ed a
a bove those o f Al U b a a
.

id not only on the ty pe site but t

a
G wr a a
,

(V I I I b— X I ) N ineveh ( IV — III ) U q ir ( V — VIII )

a
, , ,

n d el sewhere

a
Wh t blending o f cultura l tra diti ons took pla
.

ce between
the a ncient peoples whose individua lity i s shown by their
a
p i nted pottery a n d the newcomers whose style o f pot
a
m king must indic a te a sh a rply contr a a a
,

s ted cultur l herit ge

we do not know but from the a m lga m pa a

,

inted styles o f
pottery certa inly r e emerged n d in the prob a bly ra a
,

-
ther
a
de t N s r period we find a cha ra a
,

short j em cteristic w re with

’

designs in bl a a
ck n d plum red Thi s ph a se i s recogni z a ble t a
Ur a a a a
.

t U ruk ( II III ) G wr
—
(VI I — VIII ); U q ir ( II— IV
)
a n d other sites a n d the U ruk innova a
, , ,

tions o f writing n d
a
se l m a king were developed We a r e now a ppro a
,

- ching so
r to the recorded history a
;

ne a n d king li sts o f M e sopot a mia

.

-
5 8 THE B A C K G R O U ND E A R L Y A G R I CU L T U R A L
ca st met l tool s a a
n d o th e r fea tures fit in w i th Si lk II I so ’
=
a -

Hiss r I ca a nnot be much e rlier tha n la a

,

te Uruk t ime s In the

nex t ph a se Hissa r II t h e o ld p a in ted pottery tr a
.

dition i s
interrupt e d b y t h e a ppe ara n c e o f pl a
, ,

in bmn i sh e d gre y '

a
bl ck w a re not like t h e gre y wa k but i ndi c a
,

re o f U ru ting
a
, ,

ne w c omers fi o m o uts i d e th e p inted potte r y te rritory pr ob

‘

a bly i n Je md e t Nas r o r eve n la ter times Wi th the Hissa

,

r II I '

se ttleme n t w hen th s p ottery beco me s d omina

.

i
,
nt we will ,

a afa
Su
s is mou ite e c a vated m a ny year a g when
s s i t x s o s

tra phy a t prope ly under t od M C

tigr a ha
,

s w s no r s o c ow n s

hown t h at t h ld S u a nam Su a
.
.

‘ ’
s I which he e o A i s re - es
‘
s
’
s

contempora y with U b a id Hi a r I Si alk III a d G iya

, ,
’

r n ss n
‘

V ;a bo th i Su a B h aa ctual imp rted U uk p t y ad

, ,

s s s o o te r
'

0 ve r n

i definit ly d a t d to thi pha e Su a C i equa ted with ‘

so s e e s s s s

a a a a a
,

j m
ed t N r d
e S u D (which
s u ed be n ll ed S u s s to c
‘
s

II ) ab hown to be contempor a ry with E arly D yna

,
’
c n e s tic .
'

S ume r
In S outhe rn Persiai n th e F a
.

rs d i stric t tw o prehistoric
s ites h a ve been ex ca va t e d ne a r Pers epolis Ta n Aa a
, ,

l i B ku nd - -

B T h e B s i te prov ed th e e a rlier a n d BI maequ a

,

y te wi th
Ha a BII with Ha la
.
,

ss un f w hile o n the A site A I begins in

a a
e rly Ub i d ti mes a n d the oc c upa
, ,

tio n go e s o n into U ruk

times in A V
There i s one importa nt site which h a s been e x c a va
.

te d in
Rus si n Turke sta
a n a t Ana une r Aska ba d Here t h e first a
s et tleme n t An a zuI a seems t o be o f H a la fd a te a a
, .

n d h s c on

n e x i o n s with Si lk II a n d G i ya n Vaaa
, ,

n d in I b c opper firs t

a a rs an d th e p inted pot te ry tra a n a ea

,

p pe d itio lr dy pre s ent in

Ia continues thr ough U b a id into Uruk time s As a t Hi ssa r

grey w re s ppe a aa
r to m a rk a
, .
,

n intrusio n o f n e w peo ple in to

the a re a a
t th e end o f lb a n d th e tw o typ e s con tin ue s ide by

s id e in An a u II when o ther innova

,

ti ons in pottery styles

migh t poi n t to tr de or immigr tio n from Ba a luc hi sta a
,

n By
An a u I II a culture i s e st ablis h e d which h a s ma
.

n y po ints o f
“
 “
c on ue mfi a s IN
‘

W E ST E R N
“

A SI A 59
si mi la
ri ty th e m o f E sse x I I I, ad
n th e y wi
i ll b e d i so usse d

It wi ll be se en therefo re th a t in P ersi a n d Turke sta n a

a n i fic ant rela
, ,

th ere i s se rie s o f culture s which show sig tion

’

s hi s b e tween them selve s a ca n b e equ a a

l

p n d which ted in d te
w i th the M e so pot a mi an seq uence : It h a
,

s not been possi b le ,

i o w i n g th e Mesopota mi a n pra ctice a n d We mu s t sti ll re fer

their site a n d s equence n umber in t h e str a ti fi c a

,

to th em b y
'

t ion It s ounds complic a ted but in a sse ssing the po siti o n o f

th e prehi s to ric Indi a n culture s in th e gener a l W estern Asia

.
,

tic picture we sha ll ha ve co ns t a ntly to refer to the m in

'

te rms o f Per si a or Mes opota miaThis ch a pter i s a n a

,

ttempt
to c la rify this b a
a
c kground to th e Indi a n ma te ri a l so th a
.

t the ~

re a d er w ill h v e some a a a a a
,

p pr e ci t ion o f wh t tr de rel tion s

a
in E rly Dyn a stic time s or pottery o f Gi ya
’
n V types m y
‘
a
me a n when he enco unters the se phra s es l a ter in the book
'

But we must re turn to the M es opot a mia n sequenc e a

.

fter
j e m d e t Na sr times t a
w h i c h point we enter th e re a
‘

lm s of
‘

rec ord ed histo ry Lists o f kings a n d o f dyn a

,

s tie s we re begin

n ing t o b e c ompile d a t le s t by 2 000 B G.a a

.

n d th ou gh m uch ~

of the ea rliest p a rt i s fa b ulous esp e ci a lly th e estim a

.
, ,

ted l en gth
o f r ei gns (fo r e x a a
,

mple the pre Flood dyn s ty o f e i gh t ki n gs ‘

-

to get her re igning fo r y e r e ve rt h ele a f ai rly a

a
s n ss

c o herent ch ro nologic l ske let on h a s been piece d to ge t her

fro m a bout g e s The E a a rly Dy n a sti c P eri od o f t h e K ing

d o m o f S umer a ppea rs to begin t this d a te a a

.

n d o n t h e e vi
'

de nce o f a rcha e o logy a n d s tr a tigra a

,

phy h s b een d ivi d ed i n to

t hr ee (E D I to The se subd ivisio n s ne e d n o t con
ch i n d e a li n g with th e I n d i a n ma teria l a
. .

c e rn u s very m u nd
th e re i s n o pl a ce her e to d e scr i be in a n y de ta i l th e a
,

‘
ch ieve
ments o f E a r ly D yn sti c Su a
mer with i ts fully liter a
“

te urb a n
culture a dva nced met llurg a a
n d monument a
,

l buildi ngs
a n d sc u
,

lp ture y ,

In E D I h s bee n fo u a
nd a t se ve ra l sites i n th e Ba ghd a
.

. . d
 60 TH E B A CK G R O UND E A R L Y A G RI CU L TU RA L
r egion a type o f p a inted pottery c a lled S ca rlet W re with a ’

some a a
,

ffinities to i ts predec e ssor Je md e t N sr pottery but

with a bright sca rlet p a int instea
, ,

d o f the deep plum red used

in the e a rlier period This pottery turns up ga i n in S usa D a
a n d we sh a ll se e th a t very importa nt comp a ri sons c a
.
,

n be

a
m de between S ca rlet Wa re a n d cert a in pottery in South
a
B luchista n Another link between Mesopota mia an d Ba lu
c h i sta n in E a rly D yn a s tic time s we sh a ll se e to be cert a
.

in
s tone vessel s with c a rved surfa ce orn a ment which turn up in
E D I II once in one o f the fa mous R oya l Tomb s o f U r
‘ ’

which must ra nk a s the be st known site s o f a

. .
, ,

n cient Sumer

a n d belong to the E D I I I ph a se

Ancient Mesopota miaw a s divide d into a

. . .

kingdom o f
S umer in the south a n d o f Akka d in the north The nex t
‘

importa nt point in i ts e a
.

rly history i s the rise o f the Kingdom

o f Akk a d under S rgon a a n d h i s conque st o f Sumer thus
forming a n Akk a di an dominion over a ll Me sopot a miaThis
, ,

event prob a bly occurred shortly b efore 2 30 0 B C a

.

n d the

period o f a century or so under S a rgon a

. .
,

n d h i s s uccessors i s

u su a lly known a s the Akk di a a

n Period sometimes a s the

Sa rgon i d And a fterwa rd s ca me bre a k up a

-

n d insecurity
-

a
who w s king who w s not king ? sks a a a a
.

’
‘
contempor ry
a
w riter desp i ringly a s the uni fied a utocra tic rule o f S a
,

rgon
ga ve w a a a s a n d the ri se a a
,
‘

y to immedi te civil w r n d f ll o f
city sta- tes By shortly before 2 1 00 B C the so c lled Third -
a
Dyna sty o f U r w a s est a blished with wide a uthority a
. . .

nd

there followed the divided rule o f the city sta tes o f I sin a
,

-
nd

a
L rsa Beyond this d a te (round a bout 2 0 00 we need not
follow the fortun es o f Mes opota a a
.

mi under the rulers o f B by

Io n a n d Assyr i a : W a
e h ve little concern in Indi with the a
grea t civiliz ations before the time o f Cyrus n d fter the end aa
o f the Sumeri a a
n empire we re co n cerned more w i th b a
,

ba ri an s th a n with the city d wellers -

a seems the only site in Persi a a a

.

7 Giy n where succession c n

ced from cultures whi ch c n be equa a

“

be tra ted with the pre

 COM M UN I T I E S I N W E STE RN ASIA 61

hi storic sequence o f Mesopot mia a

to the E a rly Dyn a s tic

e riod a n d beyond The begi nning o f Giya n IV seem s con

p
a
te mpo r ry with Susa D a n d therefore w ith some ph a
.

se or

a
ph s es o f th e E a rly Dyn a n d it prob a a
,

s tic period bly ended

in Akka dia n or l a ter ti mes Giya n III cont i ns a a
,

cylinder
a
se l o f a type known 1 n the First D yn a sty o f B a bylon (a
.

bout
1 80 0 1 600
-
a n d there ma y be a a
g p between i ts end a n d
the beginning o f Giya n II which seems to go on to 1 40 0
There ma a a
g p before Giya
, .

y be nother n I which goes on to

th e introduction o f iron a
,

n d includes the grey polished pot

aa
te r y lre dy referred to in connex ion with Hi ssa a
,

a
,

r II I n d
An a u III The fin l occupa tion o f Giya n (or r a se a
.

ther i ts u s

ac emetery) must be a or l a
.

bout 1 300 ter

We a r e left wit h a
.

problem which mus t be touc hed on

a
before le ving the Mes opota mi a na n d Persi n m a teri l a nda a
tu rn i n g o u r a ttention to th a t from IndiaIn describing the
str a a
ti fi c tion a t Tepe Hissa ra nd a t Ana u I ha
.

ve mentioned
the intrus ion o f unp i nted grey or bla a ck w re which cuts a
a cross a a
n d fi n lly suppl a nts the old p inted pottery N ow a
this i s more tha na cha nge in fa shi on a mong the m a
.

kers or
pur cha se rs o f pottery ; such r dic a aa
lly different type o f
aa
w re ssocia ted with qui te di fferent tra ditions o f kiln build
i ng a n d fi rin g c n o n ly mea a n the a rriva
,

l o f new people m
North Persia a n d Turkest a na
,

t thi s time And thi s i s borne

out by the ot he r finds which show a ll the innova tions tha

.

t
aa
,

might be ex pected from the rriv l o f fresh settlers new

types o f copper a n d bronz e tool s a n d wea pons a nd a t Hi ss a r
a t lea a cons idera ble a a
,

s ilver a

a
st
,

h ve seen ttested a a
-
ccess o f we lth m the form o f gold
n d semi precious stones Thes e newcomers a

t His sa r Giya n n d An a
.

ua
re

a
s we

mong th e
, a ,

s ites whose e a rlier prehistoric occup a a

, , ,

tions we h ve studied
a a
n d they a l so known to ha ve settled a
,

t two other s ites not

a
‘

re

a
v ery f r fi o m Hissa
'
r a t Sh a h Tepe where they repl ced
a a a
m kers o f p in ted w re s o f the His sa r II type a nd a t Tur a
, ,

ng
Tepe nea rby where no e rlier o ccupa a ti on i s a
,

, ttest ed There .
62 THE B A C K G R O U BID E A R L Y A G RI C U L T U R A L
1

al o e ide ce f m a ker o f the a me grey p t from Na

r Ana
is s v n o m s s : o s es

g a T pe a de A k ab a d both nea n u a d th s i a n e r e; s ;

emetery conta ini ng i mila r wa re ( Cemetery B) aSi i k;

, ,

c s t
‘
n

overlying the ea rli pr hi t i d epo i Fina lly t a e f er e s or c s ts r c

the a
s o

me folk h a been f und i Afgh ai a aN a

s d i Ali
ve o n z rr st n t -

ll h a
-
t

W ha ve to recon ider a ll th e e ite a a

,

e s
g in h n s s s s w e w e

come to de a l wi th th eve t f ll wi g the b a

a
»
k up f h e n s o o n re -
o t e
Ha ap pr C ul ure in I di ai Ch ap er V I but f the pre e
t n n t or s n t
ha t i the da te f uch ettlem nt aha
,

the problem i s w t s. o s s e s s t
f Hi a r I II It i cl a r th at a gr am ay f h obje ct
.

o ss ? s e e t n o t e s

fo und th ere h a ve clo e p a rallel a mo g E a ly D y ai s s n r n st c :

S ume i a
thi h a
s

a
n m ta r
led Certa
l work or a
in archa
s
me ad oth er fea
e

eologi t to reg rd the d a

-
ture ad
te s i a
,
n

s s
n ts n

a.

o
s,

ss r
n

1 11 a
a
st
fe 8
a
ppro i ma
t r 2 00 B C
nc Ana
s ting to tha f Ea
d wi t h Hi a
u III But this i e
e,
rly D yn a
x

r I II
.
ti
mu t ta
m to m v y ha
.
, a not mu h
k f i
rd
n
t o

v
ss

w se e
,

on e

s
s

e
s
c

er
e , or
c

nt

to
ub ta ti ae a
.

ppa
s s d furth r di fi cultie will be een
n t n h n e f s s w e w e

me t d a l with the Ha ra r ad h
,

co o e Cult u di g e n t e sw ce e e n :

even ts i n Indi a
a a
.

Th e ns we r seems to depend l rge ly on two thin gs : th e

co nce pt o f cultures z o n e d o utw a r d s in: d ate fro m th e cen tre s
‘

o f h igh e r civiliz ation a n d th e r el ationshi p likely to ex ist b e ~

aaa a
,

tween th e b r b ri ns o f the ste ppes n d th e rich townsme n

o f the fertile river-pl a ins If we look to the north a
.

n d west o f

Sumer i n Ea rly Dyn stic time s a a

.

n d the n ex t e ight o r nin e

a a
.

centuries we c n se e th t round the e dge o f the ci viliz ed

a
worl d s it then ex iste d a a aaa
, ,

re number o f b rb r i n tribe s i n
a
v rious form s o f loc a
, ,

l Br onz e Ages These stretch fro m ‘

a
Asi M inor to South Russi a a n d the Ca uca su s a nd as I
-

aa
think e stw rds to the other si d e o f th e Ca spi a
,

n Fro m time
to time the se people b uried their kings or Chi efta
.
,

ins with
en ormous pomp a n d with a s much tre a sur e a s they could

a a
m ss Such tombs ha ve been fo und fo r insta nc e a aa
.

t Al c

Hfi yfi k i n Asia Mi nor a t Ma ikop n d Ts rska a a a a

.
, ,

nd y in
South R ussia a a aa
,

; less roy l but simil r r e the g r ves i

‘
n
’
.
 y eo u M UN I T ms -LN W E S TE R N AS IA 63

Hissa
rIII while a
t Tur ag T p
n e e the r e afound acentu y
w s
‘

a a a a ah T a
, ,

g og h d f bj re t o r o o e c ts ( kn o w n s t m fe
‘
re re o

ba
A e a
,

d ) wh i h w re qu
st r i
’
c e te li kely th e furn i s h i n gs of s uc h

quite comp a ra ble in gener l terms I n a ll these finds w er e a

a a a
.

a
old nd ilve ve el d other obj ect ( m ny howing
‘

g fs r ss s n s s

strong Sum eri n a ffinities) a

nd fine bro nz e o r copper tools
a
a a aa
,

nd we po ns The evidence fi o m these buri ls n d

tre sures o f wa a a
.
,

rriors (from whic h o n e c n ex clud e s un d er

dispute Hiss r III a a a aa
,

n d Tur ng Tepe) i s qu i te re so n bly

s betw een a a
bo u t 2 300 a
, ,

Co n sis te nt n d 2 0 00 B C b ut n o t . .
,

d a a
Hi ss r I I I n d An u III se ttlemen ts a
te s t h e a a
n d th e ce me

te ri e s at Sh a h Tepe Tur ng T epe n d i n th e Hiss r site a a a

itself? The grey w a re techn i que i s ver y a a
, ,

-
n cie n t in As i

a
M n or nd with the b rb ri n in ro a ds into Mesopota aaa mi a
know n fi o mdocumenta ry evidence a a
, ,

ctu l objects coud be l

a
looted or cr ftsmen induced to serve under b a rb a ria
,

n poten

a a
t tes in time o f trouble. Ap rt from th e n o rm l course o f a a
pea ce time tra
-
d e the sudd en c qu i si tion o f we lth in S u a a
a
me r i n styles by the no rthe r n nom ds ma a a
,

y r e fl ect r idi ng
a n d la nd pira cy long the c ra
-
va a
n routes o r e v en c ross th ea a
frontiers into Me sopot a mi aa t a time when i ts rich civiliz a
tion w a s tempor a rily we kened by intern l disruption In a a
this contex t the grey wa re settlements a t Hi ssa ra a
.

-
n d An u

a r e likely to be Akk a diana t the e a rliest As we sh a

*
ll se e
there i s re a
.
,

s on to connect these cu ltures with the di spersion

o f Indo E urope a n spe a
-
king tribes in the ea rly second mi l
le n n i um B C The proba ble ch r onologic l rela tionships a
discussed a bove a r e summ a riz ed in Ta
. .

ble I (p .

Si n c e th i s w a s w r i tte n Sc h afic
'

er h adi s sc usse d th e d tea f Hi aI I I

o ss r

aa
nd ss i gn e d i t to th e pe r i o d 23 00 —2 1 00 ad a te w i th w hi c h I
a
g re e .
64 THE B A CK G R O UN D E A R LY A G R I C U Lr ti R A L

P ro fe sso r V G Ch i ld e
’
s New Li gh t on the M ost Anci ent E at s

till re mams th e bes t ge ne ra la

. .

s c c o un t o f th e pre h i to ri c O rie n t bu t
s
ca pa rati ve Arch a
,

n n o w b e supple me nte d b y A L P e rki n s Co m e o logy

a a a a n stitute o f Ch ic a a
.
.
,

of E r l
y M esopo t mi ( O rie nt l I go nd

aa St a ti g aphy q a ly I a(i bi d
,

D M c Co w n ti The Co mp r ve r r r r n

ith a full b ibli gra aa ad it d i v ed in

.
, .
,

w ph y f ti
o o ex c v o ns n s es sc o er s ce

19 34 p t f
ex ce T ll H a u n aorp ub li he d b y S t n L
ssl y d ad Fu a d s e e o o n

Sa fa ri f a mNa Ea
,

tm S tu di ( 945 ) 55 I th i
’

n o e r s z es , Iv 1 2 n s c o n n ex xo n

h Si a f ut ta nd i g imp rta R Gh i h a
.
,
lk r p rt i n
'

t e e o s o o s n o ce rs rn n

i ll d S i a
.
,

F u o es lk ( t
e v l 9 3 8 w o o s. , 1

Th N a tu
e fi aM lith i Cultu i d
n e so ib d b y P r f r D c re s e sc r e o e sso

Ga rr d i Th St Ag of M ut Ca
.

o n e ml V l
one e F th o n r e o 1 or e

t hn l gy f a rly pp r ad br n w rking pa
.
,

ec o o o e co ep by n o z e o se e e rs

H H C ghla n in M a 939 9 ; A ti qu ai j u a
,

o n, 1 l 2 n r es o rn x x n

a
. .
, ,

22 -
3 8 ; H M j m
u Arch
r yo n i n Amer
L111 —
93 1 24 I
’
o

ha ve disc usse d so me o f th e pro b le ms o f th e Hiss r d a a

. . . . .

tin g in Anti
u
q yi t x v u 1 6 9 1 8 2 s e e also T Bu rto n B
-ro wn S tu d i es i n -

Ch a a
.
, ,

Thi rd M i llenni w n Hi sto ry p V I n d D H G o r d o n

a n Hi a
a r ad th Ind o Ira nian Co nne c tio n M a
. .
, .
,

S i lk, G iy
’
n in
‘
ss n e -

a 1 9 6 —2 4 1 Th e fi nd s fro m N ama z ga Te pe a
, ,

Ind i , x x vn re

rasi a Septen tri ona av —2 1 a

.

pub lis h e d in E u li s Anti gu 9 nd

a a
, ,

N d i Ali - -
In Revu e des Arts As i ti qu
es, x 111 1 0 —2 2

a a aff r mo nume n ta
.

S in c e th is b o o k w s writte n Dr Cl ud ’
e Sc h e e s l

a
pp ad e re (Ox fo rd ,
 C H AP T E R I V

B ronz e Age P aaC mmu t

e s nt o n z z es c
f
y Western Indi a
th ro ugh th e sto nes th e liz a rd a n d th e sn a ke
Ru s tle th e i r b rittle l e n g th

Sca ve n ge r kite s h a n g wa itin g fo r th e d e ad

Ov e r th e o ld a n d so lita ry ra m
le pic ks i ts w a
,

An d th e mu yu
a
p th e d r ie d ri ve r be d -

(V S c kvi lle Wes t The La

.

.
-
nd ) ,

THE regions o f Western India which comprise B luchist n a a

the Ma kra n n d Sind a a r e tod a a
,

y forbidding b rren moun

a a
t i ns rid desert a n d sa a
,

ndy w ste But th r ough them on

the ea stern bound a
.
, ,

r y o f the region the River Indu s con

trolled by the Sukkur B rra ge a a a a

ttend nt irriga
, ,

n d i ts tion
ca a a
n ls brings strip o f rich lluvi l l a a ands The M kr a n a
c oa st stretches e a stwa rds from the Persi a n border a t Gwa ta
, .

r
fo r over three hundred miles o f un i nviting sa ndhi ll s a nd

ma ngrov e swa mp s a t the mouth s o f sh llow turgid stre a a ms

whi le behind the n a r row co a st al pl a in the mount a
, ,

ins rise
stony a n d bare in fa a
nt stic eroded sky lines like a luna -
r la nd
sc a pe Inl a nd a s the m a ssif build s u p northw ard s it run s in
irregul a r ridges which rise a
.
, ,

bove the 7 ooo feet contour : the -

intervening river v lleys such a a s those o f the M a a

,

shk i the

Na l or the Ha b R ivers a r e i sol ated one from a nother a

, ,

nd

ea st to we st communic a tion must follow the regul a

, ,

- -
r routes
whi c h ta ke a dva nt a ge o f the l a ks or p a sses a
,
‘
cross the
ra nges or ga a
ining the v lleys o f the rivers running e a stw a rd
into S ind follow the courses o f the M ul a or the Ga
, ,

j obliquely
to the pl a
,

in below
Around K a lat the mount a ins n a rrow to less tha na
.

hun
dred miles from ea st to west from the desert o f U pper S ind
 B RO NZ E A GE P E A S A N T C O M M U N I T I ES 67

round J a
a ba
coba d to th high pl a te a ua bove the
e —feet
contour stre tchi ng from beyond the P ishin Lora Ri ver to
Sista na n d the He lmu n d Oa a n d the pe a
"
sis k s rise to over
feet a t Koh —i Ma ra n The modern Quettaa
-
n

o r ien ta l Ca mberley spra

.
,

wls un lovely b y the si de o f the

a ncien t ca rava n tow n a t the he a d o f the gre a t Bol a n Pa
,

a
.

ss

lin king Ka nd h a a
r to the India n Pla ins ; wide fertile va
,

lley
be tween the mounta
.
,

ins where in spring the fruit blossom -

a
-

riv ls in i ts brightn e ss the snows still lingering on the heights

E ven with i ts modern irriga tion the S ind Desert rema

.

i ns
repellent a a rti ficia a
a
n d inhospit ble bey ond the limi ts o f th e l
w a terw ys The ever shifting mouths o f the Indus lose the m
-

se lves i n a wilderness o f l a goons a n d ma ngrove swa

.

mps -

while 2 0 mi les inl a nd old shore li n e s c a

,

n be rec o gniz ed with

-

a a
,

cli ffs n d promo nto ries looking out ove r desert o f long
d ri e d mu d Beh ind K a a
r ch i the foothills o f the Ki rth a r
R nge rise s tonily fr om the sa
a nd a
.

n d hot springs in the little

a a a
,

v lleys gi ve ris e to un e x p e cted secret o ses o f lush tr opi c l

Northwa rd in th e dre ry cou n try a a

round La rk nathe a
s oil i s so impregn a ted with sa lt tha
, ,
'

t d r yi ng in the summer
hea t tha t rises to 1 2 0 i n the sha de it h s a a
,
°
brittle shi ning
a s hes b e n e ath th e st ep lik e a sa ta
,

cru st th t c ru
‘

n i c moc kery o f

sno w The whole l a n dsc a pe i s whitened a n d forms de ad a

ba c kgroun d to the ugly stunted tr ees a
.
,

n d gre y green bus hes -

th a t s tud the pl a in
It i s in these mounta inous a n d deser t a rea s th a t the ea
.

i
rl est
ag r i cultu ral com m un ities yet known in Indi a h a
ve bee n

identifi ed Hum a
aa
n settlement in the region i s likely to go -

b ck t lea
.

a
s t to the be gi nning o f the third millennium B C

a
. .
,

n d shows from the beginning sign i fic nt links with the

a ncient Bronz e Age cultures o f the regions fa

,

rther west The

a bund a nt evidence o f a ncient occup a tion in the Ba
.

luchi
bi lls or the Indus pl a in i mplies less ex a cting c li rn ti c con a
di ti o ns i n the pa s t tha n t prese nt a nd a
though historic a
,
l ,
68 BRONZE AGE P EASANT C OMMUNITIES
evidence implies tha t by the time o f Alex a nder conditions in
‘

Ba luchista na pprox ima ted to those o f tod a y yet we sh ll se e a

in the nex t ch a pter th a aa
,

t there i s good evidence fo r he vier

ra infa ll a n d ex tens ive forests in the Indus V lley in ncient a a
times The very fa ct tha
, ,

a
t kiln burnt bricks were used so -

la vishly in the H a rapp culture shows tha ta

.

lmost unlimited
timber must h a ve been a va ilable fo r fuel in the third mil
lennium B C Awestwa rd ex tension o f the mo n so o n r i n s by
'

a
acomp ra a
tively sma ll a mount could entirely cha
. .

nge the
cha ra cter o f thi s western India n region
a a
.

It i s less e s y to find evidence o f the former clim te o f

a
B luchista n tha n it i s fo r the Indus V lley Tod a y the terri a
tories o f the M kra n Kha a
r n a n d Jh ala a a a
.

w n in South B lu

c h i sta n whi c h cont a in a la

, ,

rge number o f preh is toric settle

ments a r e very sp a rsely popul ted (not more tha a
,

n two per
so n s to the squ re mile in Kha a aa a
,

r n) n d this popul tion i s

pa rtly migra
,

tory The settlements which w ill form the sub

s ch a a re a s will be seen tod a
.

jc e t o f thi pter y repre sent ed by

tell s o f a ccumul a a
, ,
’
ted debris which c n result only from
settled communities continuou sly inh biting o n e site fo r a
centuries In the Kolw region such settlements a a r e pa r

la rly numerou s a n d tod a y this tra

.

ti c u ct i s (to quote Stein )

by fa r the gre test dry crop a a rea o f Ma kr a a
,

n n d i ts ex port
-

o f ba rley to o ther p a rts in ye rs o f good r infa a a

,

ll i s co ns ider
a ble Y e t he goes o uto sa
’
y how r a
re such r ain f ll i
‘
s n d a a
how prec a rious this cultiva tion in Kolwai s shown by the
.
, , ,

very sca nty popul a tion o f the tra ct being pra ctic lly a a
,

ll
noma dic Thi s noma ’
dism or sea son l migr a tion i s under the a
present conditions a ma rked fe a ture throughout B luchista a
.

n
a nd a ga in one c a nnot do better tha
,
’
n to describe it in Stein s
words :

In consequence o f the uncert inti es besetting a gri a

culture o ua ll unirrigated l and very considera ble portion a
nd o w mn g or tena
o f the l a nt popul tion i s a
-
ccustomed to a
 o r W E S TE R N INDIA 69

a a
nn ully f the winter months to the pl a
or i ns o f S ind
i n s ea a a
i

rch o f employment They thus void lso the cut .

a
ti ng c old o f the wind s which swe ep down fi o m the hi gher '

a
v lleys a t tha t se s on But in the spring when the grea t
hea t o f the Indus va lley begins to m a ke its elf felt they a
.

ll
return with their fa milies a n d w ith such sa vings a
,

s there

a r e inves ted in foods tu ffs But fo r thi s s e a s on al migra

a
tion
s uccessi on o f unfa vour a ble yea rs such a s i s fa
.

irly frequent
”

would be ma rked b y fa mine conditions besides ca

a
us ing
aa
whole re s o f cultiva tion to rel ap se into th e a ppe a
,

r nce
ofa ba re cl ay desert .
’

aa
It i s cle r th t such sea son l migr a tion i s ha a
rdly comp a t
ible with the form a tion o f tell s whi ch ma y ris e to a
‘
hundred
a
feet n d more a bove the surrounding countryside in i m ,

pressive witness o f long endur ing continuous settlement In

-

the prehistoric p a st the popul a tio n must ha ve been en a

.

bled
by successful a
,

g riculture to live in s ome pro sperity in those

sa me va lleys which tod a y su pport only the most sca nty a

,

nd

noma dic hum a n occup a tion under w retched condition s

In h i s ex plora tions in Ba luchista
.

n thes e problems 0
clima te a n d popul a
.

tion were o f course much before Sir

Aurel Stein s eyes a n d he w a s able to identify a la
, ,
’
rge series
of a rtificia l stone built d a ms n d terr a ces known loc a a
,

-
lly in
a a a a a a a a a a
,

J h l w n s g b r b n ds cle rly de s igned to i d the irrig

tion o f fields The d a te o f thes e i s unkn own b ut a
,

s S tein

re m a rks they must reflect not on ly clim a

.
, ,

tic conditions with

a
agre ter ra infall but a lso a la rge popula
,

tion to provide th e
necessa a aa
,

ry l bour fo r their construction In the M s hk i

a aa a
V lley p rticul rly we ll preserved p a ir o f m a
.

ssive stone
-

fa ced d a ms were found 1 6 ya rds a pa rt a

,

n d designed to con

aa a
t in n d guide flo o d w ter coming from the hill s a bove ; a
,

-
nd

a
the se were ssocia ted with terr a ced field s Nea r the La ko ri an

Pa a
s s f rther to the north a mos t impressive irriga
.

a
tion wo rk
a
w s found which w a s in fa ct a huge b a rr ge still st a
, ,

nding up ,
70 BRONZE AGE P EASANT C OMMUNITIES
to 1 2 feet high a n d ha ving a tota l length o f 348 ya r d s con

structed in such a a y a a
considera
,
.
,

w s to impo und ble reser

a
voir o f w ter behi nd it The d a m ha d a well bui lt stone -

fa cing conta i ning blocks up to 4 by 3 by 2 3 feet in siz e a

.

3
nd

w a s ba cked by a n ea rthen r a mp Even though the a g a

,

e nd

culture o f these works a

.

r e still unknown their presence i s

m
i porta nt in indic a ting grea ter ra in fa ll in a ntiquity a
,

n d it

i s by no me a ns improb a ble th a t they do i ri fa ct d a te b a

,

ck
to the prehistoric occup a tion o f the B a
, ,

luchi Hill s
In S ind even i f the ra infa ll w a s he a
.

v ier in prehistoric

times cultiva tion mu st h a ve depended to a la

,

rge ex tent on
irriga
,

tion works connected with the Indu s At the present

da a a a a
.

y there i s n nnu l incre s e in the flow o f the river in

Spring owing to the melting o f the winter snows in the Hima
la ya W here the river rises This would h a ve ca used a
,

s n

a nnu a l inund a tion in primitive conditions comp a ra

.
,

ble to
but less equa ble a n d depend a ble th a n th a t o f th e Nile a
,

nd

more comp a ra ble with the Tigris Euphra

“ -
tes floods And
under these primitive conditions it i s importa
.

nt to remember
tha t there a re only tw o re a lly fix ed points in the course o f
the river in Sind a t S ukkur a nd a t Kotri wher e it cuts

through h a rd limestone inste a

,

d o f soft soils Between these

points where the ch a nnel c a nnot va
.

ry i ts position the Indus

would under na tura l conditions without ma n ma
, ,

d e em -

ba tend to a lter i ts Course yea rly a

, ,

n k me n ts,a fter every suc

c e ssi v e inund a tion There i s indeed a bund a
,

n t eviden ce from

the sites o f the Ha ra pp aCulture tha t such a lter a

.

tion o f
course with consequent disa strou s flood s w a s not u n

common i n a
, ,

ncient times
Before le a ving the geogra phica l b ckground a a
.

n d turning

to a n ex a min a tion o f the prehistoric cultures themselves

a ttention must be dra wn to L a ke M a nchha
,

r , w hich lies b e
tween the I n dus a n d the foothill s o f th e Kirth a r Ra nge o f
the B a luchi mounta ins ne a r J ohi This i s norma lly a l ke a
a bout 8 to 1 0 miles in length a nd a s much in bre a
.

,
dth but ,
 o r W ESTE R N I N DI A 73

be ing conne cted with the I n d tn a

nd lso recei ving dr in a age a
fi o m the hill s to the west in the inund tion perio d it b e a
comes enormously swollen occupyi ng a n area
,

, o f s ome 2 00

FIG . 2

squa re miles though nowhere more tha n i o feet deep

Ma ar s fi e ld work in S ind r eve a a
.
,

ju m d
’
-
led number o f pre
historic sites a round th e edge o f L ake M a nchh a r some now
islanded a t h i gh wa ter though n e a a
,

"
-
r the edge o f the m x i

mum ex te nt o f flooding To the M a a a

,

,
. nchh r region le d two
7 2 B RO N Z E A G E P EASANT C OMMUNITIES
o most importa
f th e nt routes from B a luchista n in use tod a y
the more northerly thr ough the Mul a Pa ss a n d down the

course o f th a t river turns south a

,

long the edge o f the foot

hill s a n d runs to J ohi a n d the M a nchh a
,

r region while the

s outhern route comes from the M a shk a ia n d Na l va
,

lleys over
'

the La k P h usi a n d the La k R ohel entering S ind a tPa ndi

Wa hi ne a r Johi In a
,

ddition to these two routes there i s

clea r evidence o f tr ffic down the va lleyo f the Gaa
.
,

j R iver to
the sa me regi on m prehistoric times
As we ha ve seen in the preceding cha pter it h a
.

s been

possible to ma ke a broa d cl ssifica a

,

tion o f the prehis toric cul

tures in Persia on the grounds o f the techniques employed in
pottery p a inting in the south Bu ff w re a
-
n d in the north -
a
Red wa - re In B luchi sta n we c a a
n ob serve a simil a r distino
tion with Bufl Wa res in the south a n d R e d Wa
.

res in the
a
north In ddition models o f huma n figures in cl a
,

y known
from both north a n d south di ffer in ch a ra
.
, ,

cter Within the

Bu ff wa re province o f South B luchista na a
.
,

- n d S ind other su b
divisions must I think be m a de a n d u sing n a mes ta ken
lture c an be well identified we c a
, , ,

from sites where the cu n

then m a ke a schem e o f grouping a

,

s follows
( Fig 2 ) .

I Th e Que ttaCulture (fro m site s m the Bol a

n P a
ss)
a
. .

Th e Amri N l Cu
lture (from two sites,
-
the first in Sind
a a a a a
,

the second t the he d o f the N l V lley in B luchi

s ta
n) ;
3 T h e K u lli Culture ( from aite in Kolwain S outh Ba
s lu
a
.

c h i st n ) .

B Re d -
w aCultu
re res

ites in the Z hob Va

. .

4 Th e Zh o b Cultures (from s lley o f

luchista
North Ba
.

n) .

In a ddition to these cultures ma ny prob ably prehi storic

sites di scovered by Stein in B luchi stana jumda
n d by M a a
,

r in
Sind produced pottery th a t cannot in the present st te o f , ,
a
74 BRONZE AGE P EASANT . CO M M U N I T I ES .

formedby combining thi ck an d thin b nds occur a

n overall a
pa
ttern m ade up o f di a a
gon lly di vided squ a a
,

res p irs o f ,

FIG 3. . Typic a
l Qu tta
eWa
r e

Opposed tri angles a nd most distinctive va rious stepped

an d ova
, , ,

l motifs
Now the outsta nding fea
.

ture o f this group o f po ttery i s

tha t despite the very l a
,
rge number o f sites discovered by 7
 OF WE S T E R N INDIA 5
75
S tei n in B a aa
luch is t n n d by M a j u m d r in S ind s it e saw hic h
yielde d a n a a a a
,

g greg te o f m n y thou s n d s o f pot s herd s ther e

i s nothi ng s tric tly compa ra ble to th e Quetta ma teri l s a aa

,

e grey wa s with bl a a a
.

g roup T h re -
bowl ck p inted orn me n t
it i s true a ppe a a
r l so in cert a in Z ho b Va lley sites (e g a
,
.

t Su r

Ja nga l) a n d in S ist a n, but fo r p a ra llel s to the predomina

. .
,

nt
Buff wa re we c a n o n ly loo k outside Ind i a to the west Here
We immedi a tely find precis e p r a a
lle l s i n group o f ea a
,
, .

rly
pott ery fr om sites in the Fa rs province o f Persianota bly
a t Ta l i Ba a a
,

- -
kun ne r the s ite o f P er s epoli s W e sh ll s
e e when
a
de li ng with the S ha hi tump cemetery a t a la ter sta ge th a
,

-
t
cer ta in forms o f this pottery h a d a very long surviva
,

l in
Southern P e rsi a an d Ba luchista n but thi s deriva tive wa re i s
d i st inctively unlike th a t fi o m the Quetta sites Quett a wa
,

a
a
i B ku n si te it self Susa I Giya
a a
a
re lly does seem co mp r ble to th t represente d by the T a
nV a n d S i n lk II I a n d ma
re
l
.

-
y
be equ a lly e a rly in d a
.
, , , .
,

te This i s supported by the evidenc e

fr o m An a u in R ussia n Turkesta
.

n whe re i n tr usw e elements

a a a a n d II include bl a
,

p pe rin g be t ween A n u I ck o n r ed - -

pa inted wa re bu ff wa re w i th orn a ment in red a n d bl a

,

ck - -

a n d bu ff w a n a a
,
, ,

re with distinctive stepped motifs ssem

bl a ge whi ch seems to point strongly to B a luchista n a s i ts

prob a ble point o f origin

Pending further fi e ld work n d ex c a vaa
.

-
tion the fuller con
tent o f the Quett a Culture which seems to be the e a
,

rlies t
yet i dentified i n Western I n di a must re ma
,

, in un kno wn to us .

When we turn to the nex t group o f cultures within the Buff

wa a
r e cl ss we h a ve rel a tively a bund a nt info rma a
.

tion on
number o f sites sca ttered o ver l a rge a a
reathough th e evi
dence i s none o f i t derived fi o ms cientific or l a rge sc a
,

- '
le e x -

c aa
vi t o ns
The composite title dopted the Amri N a a
.

l Cultu
re I ndi -

cates the tw o ex tremes o f v ri tion which c a aa

n be seen in a
, ,

otherw ise a llied group o f pottery types which c a n be divided

into th r ee ph a ses The e a rliest typologic lly (though a a

,

. s wi ll ,
7 6 BRONZE AGE P EASANT C O MMUNITIES
be seen not perh a ps chronologica lly in a ll ins t a nces) i s
represented a t Amri in S ind where ch a ra cteristic wa re w a
,

first identified by Ma jumd a r the l a

,

test by the cemetery o f

Na l in B a luchista n ex ca va ted by Ha rgrea ves ; a
,

n d the site Of

Nund a

ever tha
ra discovered by S tein in S outh Ba
v e n i e n t represent a
,

tive o f a
t these pottery types a
middle ph a
r e re a
luchis ta n isa
se It i s cle r how

lly linked a
. a
,

n d this with
con
,

other fa ctors (nota bly the a bsence o f cl a y figuri nes o f a

, , ,

ni

a
m l s or huma ns in a ll three ph a se s
) seem s to justi fy their

tre a tment under one inclusive hea

,

d
The geogra phica l distribution o f the Amri pha
.

se i s r e r e
p
s ented m a inly by sites in S ind a t the foot o f the Kirth a r
Ra nge a n d between the B a ra n a n d the G a j R iver s In i ts

la ter pha ses i ts m a in a rea o f occup a a

.

tion i s in South B lu
c h i sta n from the hea dwa te rs o f the Kech K a ur north ea st -

wa rd s through Kolwaup the Ma shk a i Va lley to N a

,

l in
a a a a a sites fa
,

J h l w n n d with s por dic rther north up to the

Bol a n Pa ss a t Quetta a n d others a t the he a dwa
,

ters o f the
Kol a chi a n d down the Kol a chi Ga a a
,

-
j v lley s into Sind bove
a
L ke M a nchha r a long the routes a lre a dy referred to It h a
,

a lso been recently reported from La s Bel a Sta te a

.
,

t the s outh

e rn end o f the B a luchi Mounta ins

Turning now to the type a n d ra
.

nge o f the settlements we

find tha t in pra ctica lly a ll insta nces the sites ta
,

ke the form o f
tells formed by the debris o f a ccumul a ted occup a tions a nd

ra nging from 1 0 to 40 feet in height It i s diffi cult to estima te

the rel a tive a rea s covered by the i ndividua
.

ca use quite often the cha
ture i s distinguished w a
mound or comes from tria
S uch a n occupied a
l settlements b e
ra cteristic pottery by which the cul
s picked up on ly on the surfa ce Of the
l trenches in the uppermost level
re a on top o f a tell will o f course be fa
.

sm a ller th a n the overa ll dimensions o f the mound a t i ts b a se

For insta nce the Ka rgushki d a mb in R a ks h a n is a

.

-
tell some
a a s ba a
,

6 i d f
’

53 0 by 3 0 y rd s t t se n 4 0 eet high but Stein s

a
tri l trenches (which yielded typica l Na l sherds a ssoci a
,

ted
 OF W ESTERN IND IA 77
w ith th e wa ll s o f buildi ngs) were a de a bove the 3o feet m -

c ontour where th e a re a v ila ble fo r occ upa tion h a aa

d dimin
i sh e d to a bout 2 00 by 1 00 ya rds a n d one c a nnot a
,

ssume

tha t the preced i ng 30 feet o f unex ca va ted ma teria l wa

,

s
'

a
necess rily the product o f the sa me culture
However a t Nund a ra
.

itself the settlement producing the

a
,

potter y o f the type design te d fr om th is site seems l i kely to

ha ve occupied a n a rea not fa r removed fi o m the tot l 2 2 0
'

a
by 1 8 0 ya rds o f the tell while a t Ba n d h n i in Sind the re o f aa
Amr i occupa tion ma a a a
,

y h ve been s much s 40 0 by 2 30

ya rds But a t the Sind sites o f Pa ndi Wa hi a n d Gh a z i Sh h a

where ex c va tion showed tha a t the Amri wa
.
,

re level s were
defi n itely a t the b a s e o f the mounds the rea s were a bout a
a a
n d 1 70 by 1 6 0 y a a
,

1 5 0 by I I 5 y r d s rd s respectively n d
other sites h ve simila a
r proportions The a vera
,

ge siz e o f the
s fa r a s it h a a
s been scert a ined a a
.

settlemen ts t pres ent s eems

in fa ct to ha ve been somethi ng under two a cres a

, ,

bout the
siz e o f the a re enclosed by the lowest contours a a t Tepe

Ga wrato in s t nce a
, a
well known prehis toric site in Mes o -

aButhi in Sind there i ama

At Ko h tr ll ettl ment on a
s s s s e

hill pur which h adouble defen ive wa

-
s ll built a ro the s s s c ss

ba e f th pur to form i E uropea

s o e n a rcha
s eol gic al ter n o

mi l gy apromontory fort f the ite Thi f fi fi éa

,

no o ti -
o s s or on

ugge t comp a ri on with a nother Sind ite tha t on Th a

.
,

s s s s s rr o

Hill Here i ai ola ted fla t topped h ill now i la

,

s nnd but on
s -
n

wha t athe prehi toric coa

.
, ,

w s t line from which it would s s -

ha e projected aa promontory or aai l a nd in tid a

,

v s l s n s

mahe The fortifica tion aa t K h t aButhi ta

"

rs s ke the s, s o r s

form f double wa ll curved ad f maive con tructi on ad

.
,

o s, n o ss s n

25 0feet a
p a
rt cutting ff th outhern he a dl a
nd f the hi ll o e s o

in true promontory fort ma nner The e wa ll a now

,

-
s s re

ruined though atretch f origina ce h abeen e po ed a

l fa
.

s t o s x s

ad their na ture aum

,

one point on t h inner d f e e e n c e sr n w s

recogni ed by Ma jumd a
z r wh en he vi it d ad reported on s e n
7 8 BRONZE AGE P EASANT CO MMUNITIES
the site Amri wa re occurs on the surfa ce; but there i s lso a
evidence o f considera ble occup a tion with pl i n red wa a
.

a
re
a llied to th a t o f Ha ra pp a n d it i s therefore uncert in to a
whi ch pha
,

s e the defences belong though the Amri period

s eems the most likely A t D h i lla n i jo ko t a ga

,

-
in i n Sind there
a r e tra ces o f a defensive wa
.
, ,

ll surrounding the Amri s et tle

ment but in genera l th e villa ges a ppea r to h a ve been un
defended by w ll s or r mp a a a
,

rts
Stone w a s u sed fo r buildin g a t le a st the found a
.

tion courses
o f wa ll s in most Of the sites where a rchitectur a l rema n
i s
could be identified a ta ll; in some o f the Sind sites e specia lly
it i s prob a ble tha t the upper p a rts o f the wa lls were Of mud
brick o r pi sée a n d th a ta couple o f courses Of stones a lone
formed the found a tions But a t Nund a raKa rgushki d a
,

mb -

a n d R o d ka n in B a luchi sta n coursed stone sl a

.
,

bs se t i n mud
morta r were used fo rthe w lls o f houses a
'

a t le st up to wina
dow height a nd a t the l a tter site l a rge blocks ltern ted with a a
triple courses o f sma ll fla decora a
,

t stones to give tive effect

At Nun d a ra a
some w ll s o f mud bricks were found a
.

s w e ll

a s the m a sonry structures the individu a l bricks me a

,

suring

a
,

2 I by I O by 4 inches while mud bricks o f the s me d i me n

‘

a
s ions were u sed to m ke the rect a ngul a r tombs o f two infa
,

nts
a nd a n a dult in the N a l cemetery At Nund a ratoo the
refinement o f whi te pl a ster over the inner f ces o f stone a a
.
, ,

nd

brick wa ll s w a s ob served

In the Sind sites o f Pa ndi Wa hi a n d Gh a z i Sh a

.

h where
a bund a nt occupa tiona l debris w a s found but no tr a
,

ce o f
buildings could be identified it ma y be assumed t h a t i
p ée s

w a s u sed ex clu sively a n d th a t it h a s (a s a t Quetta

,

) d i si n te

gra ted i n the course o f centuries It i s a lwa ys possible how »

ever th a t mud bricks were in fa

,
.

ct present but unrecogn i z ed

by the ex ca va
, ,

tors
O wing to the ex tremely limited ex c a va tions which h a
.

ve
ta ken pl a ce a n d the a bsence o f a n y det a iled field surveys o f
the rema ins which a re briefly recorded a s vi sible on the su r
 ”O F ‘
W E S TE R N I ND I A 79
ae a a ut
O

f c o f c e rt
- i
n s ites our knowledge
,
of the l y -
o of the

o ri e n t ai aleat i
to n s t ea st p a
s rt o f the s ite a
n th e s o uth
n d in -

th e mos t interesting hill fortress o f K o h tr a a lrea

,

s Buth i dy
mentioned Ma jumd a r describes the sur fa ce indica
,

tions o f
the o utlin es o f countless rooms both l a rge a n d sm a
,

ll group
i n g themselve s int o blocks s ep a r ted fr om one a a
, ,

nother by

roughly cours ed blocks h a

- s a t leas t four ex terior b as tions n d a
the rem ins o f a
a n entr ance while the ruins o f a slighter outer

a
defence w ll lie a bout 1 00 fe e t a w a a
,

y The publi s hed pl n i s

h ow eve r v er y in dequa a
.
,

te
i It i s possible to saa a a
.
,

a
.

y litt le m ore bout th e pl ns o

~
f i n d i v i
du l bm ld i n gs or gro u f r oo ms O n n o Site d o es a b u i ld
ps o n y
i n g o r gr oup o f ruin s Suggest a temple or p l ce a aa
.

n d the

a a
seem to belong to sm ll p ri v a a
,

l n s re c o ve re d ll te hou s e s
p s
.

ll in to block a
ted element fa
a bout 4
s s 0 feet s qua
re with i n ,

fi a u a
m l rge r ooms or co rty rds I 5 b y 1 5 feet or 1 5 by I O feet
o

a a a
,

w sm ll c o mp rtn i e n ts 8 by 5 feet or less n d in two o f the

‘

blocks there s ee ms to be a a a a
,
'

f i rly c o ns i ste n t pl n o f l r ge
m
roo s or courty a r ds e ach s soci a ted with h lf adoz en
, a a
the S ind sites ; a
te ri s ti c o f t K o h tr a
s Buth i a Structur e inter
p re te d by Ma j u md ar as a b ath occupied the corne r o f one
“

room by the entr a nce a n d In the sa me house th e rema i ns o f

a s t irwa ay implying a ccess to a fla t roof or a
,

n up er storey
p
we r e found D oorw a ys Of ho us es o f whi ch on ly stone fo un d a
, ,

tion s rem i ned wer e raa rely po ssi ble to identi fy a

.

s such

nd ation s would continue to form the door S ill but a

,

a
fou t
a
K r gushki d a mb a doorw a
- y w s found s ti ll ret aining tr a ces
o f i ts wooden lintel a nd a t R o d k n in a
, w ll still st n di ng a , a a
80 BRONZE AGE P E A S A NT C O M M UN I T I E S
5 feet high a window apre erved foot 4 i che W ide i
w s s 1 n s ts

by overl a
, , ,

top formed pping corbelled cour e f tone At s s o s

N ud a aevera l chamber with wa ll pre er ed t a

.

n t s height s s s v o

fa t le at feet in one in ta
s nce h a d no Opening i the

a
o IO s s n

wa ll ad conta ined a m aive qua re tone built pill a

, ,

n r in the ss s s -

centre S uch ch a mber a be t be e pl a i ned acell r s c n s x s s,

entered by tra p door from the room a bove the centra

.

-
s l pil
laa ti g a additiona
,

r c nl upport to the floor

s s

The width f oa dwa y between hou e abe mea

.

o r ued s s s c n s r

in a f in tan e
ew 6 to 8 f eet a
s t Nu d a
c aad na
s rrow n r n

alley 3 fee t to feet 6 inche wide a t L ohri a d K ht a

,

s 2 s n o r s

Buthi
In a ddition to this informa
.

tion on the settlement s ites we

a re fortun a a
,

te in h ving knowledge o f two cemeteries one In

Ba luchista na a
,

n d one in Sind both with pottery o f the N l

a
ph se which in fa ct derives i ts n a
,

me from the former site

The Sohr d mb o f Na lw a a
s ex c a va ted on a fa i rly l a a
.
,

-
rge sc le
but a t the D a mb Buthi cemetery in Sind little work w a
,

s done

a n d h i s therefore to N l th a a lles t inform a

,

t we turn fo r our fu
tion on th e buri l rites o f the culture a
When Ha rgrea ves bega n h i s work a t N l the site h a a
.

d
a lrea dy been l a rgely plundered by pred a tor y d Iggmg a t the
beginning o f the present century by a n E nglish colonel o f

a ntiqu ria n lea anings whose a cquisitive enthusia s m fo r

p i nt pots more tha

a n outweighed a
,

n y ves tiges o f scientific

interest he ma y h ave po ss es sed a n d to who s e di s credit the

remova lan d sub sequent disa ppea ra nce o f a t le a
,

st 2 00 vessel s

from the cemetery must be pl a ced Ha rgrea ves foun d th t a

the buri ls h a d been m aa de in the deserted r ui n S o f a
.

settle

ment on the lower slopes o f the ma m tell o f the site ; this

settlement in which he m a de severa l tria l cuttings did not
itsel f yield a ny a rtifacts ch a ra cteristic o f the Amri N a
, ,

l Cu l -

ture a n d the sc anty pottery find s fa ll in a ll prob a bility into

the Z hob Culture series under which hea ding the occup a
,

tion site i s therefore described .

 82 BRONZ E A GE P EASANT C O M M UN I T I E S
inhuma tions (the d u lt a a
n d two infa n ts lrea dy refer red to) a
were enclosed in recta ngul a r mud brick gr a ves the i n d i vi -

du a l bricks me a N o tr a
,

suring 2 1 by
9 by 3§ i n c h e s ce o f '

covering w a s detected At D a mb Buthi the fra ctio na ri a

.

l bu ls
were conta ined in contiguous sm ll rect ng l a a au
.

r ston e built
a
-

cha mbers a bout 5 by 8 feet presum a bly a n logous to the

brick constructions a tNa
, ,

l though the possibility o f their

a
being re lly rooms o f b a a
,

ndoned dwellings must not be

ex cluded
Gra ve goods with the fra ction a l buri a ls a
.

-
t b o th sites con
si sted in the m a in o f pottery vessel s a nd a fla t copper a
.

x e

a ccomp a nied one buri a la t Na l A nim l bones m a a

,

i nly sheep
or goa t were found in a t lea s t si x gr ve s a t this site a a
.
,

nd

there were bones o f o x a t Da

, ,

mb Buthi no doubt food O ffer

ings At e a ch site there w a s a buri l with red pigment a
a
pl ced in a a
p ir o f mussel shells a t Da mb Buth i a n d with a
.

a
colour grinder a t N l A gre a a
t number o f bea
'

-
d s were found
a t N l in the sa me a re a s a s though not directly a ssoci a
.

ted
with the fra ction l buri ls ; shell aa a n d pottery b a ngles were a
,

distinctive fea
,

ture in the S ind site

The complete i n h II ma t N lha aa a
.

ti o ns d no pottery ssoci
'

a ted with them the only gra ve goods being be d neckl a -

ces a
with the two infa nts but there w s no direct evidence th a a
,

t
these buria ls were not contempora r y with th e rem a
,

inder o f
the cemetery
In the cemetery a aa a a
.

re t N l two ho rds o f copper i mple

ments were found with no directly a ssoci a ted skeleta l re
a
m ins These a ga in are presum a bly c o n te mpo ra
,

r y w i th the

n d pottery a n d the a a
l

buri a ls a
.

x e found with o ne o f the fr c

ti o n al buri als i s o f a type simil a r to those in the hoa

,

rds
'

As we h a ve a lre ady seen we h a ve to rely m a

.

'

inly on pot
te r y in distingui shing one culture from a
,

nother (Fig The

two pottery types N a l wa re a n d A mri wa
.

re seem to me to
be p a a
r llel slightly divergent products o f a
, ,

single culture

the economic n d a a
rchitectura l a spects o f which ( s fa a a
, , ,

r s
 WE S T E R N J N D I A 38
'

t 0 1?

a
they c n be stu di e d) h a
?

ve jmt bee n discuss ed a

’
s the A mri

Na re ; In So uth B luch ista a ch a s Nun d r a a

»

l Cultu

a
i n or n ment se em to repr esent a
n sites su

yield sherds o f vessels which , i n forms a

n a
n d mor e p rtic u

nce stral stock

la a
r ly

, ,

4 Amri ad Nund a
ra b a k r a d Nunda
rab 0w ls
a
n o . . n e e s n

( d p int
re ti l
pp d )
s e
 l

84 BRONZ E AGE P E A S AN T Co M M U N lTIE S

1
which deri ved on the one ha nd the on ly slightly e volved
‘

Amri wa re found a cross th e mount ins in Sind n d on the a a

l wa a
other the highly developed N a
a
,

re which seems to re ch
the height o f i ts specia liz ation a t the type site in Jh la w a n -

a a
the he d o f the N a
,

t l River the cemetery jus t

described But despite the divergences even in their most
ex treme forum the two pottery styles show tra
.
,

ces o f their
common origin In the following description o f the wa res in
grea a
ter det il we sha ll look first o f a ll a t the fe a tures sha
.

red
by the sub groups a-
n d then a t the ch a ra cteristic divergences
The va st m a a l n d o f Amr i wa a
.

jority o f ll vessels o f N a
.

re
ha ve a distinctively very fine soft buff or pinkish p a s te

which ma a a a a a
,

y s ometime s ppro ch n o ff w hi te n d occ s-

ion
a lly ha ve a green tinge O n this a white slip i s frequently
a pplied s a a ba ckground fo r p a inted orn a a
.
,

ment At N l i t
sel f where the l a rger sca le o f ex ca va tion n d the a bunda a
.

nce
o f int a ct vessels provided by a cemetery ga ve a
,

more e x
tended series th a n i s otherwise a va il able a limited number
o f ve ssel s o f grey or even d a
,

rk brownish colour sometimes

-

a
verging on bl ck w ere found either unorna
,

mented or w ith
motifs in relief or light p a int quite unlike the more a
, ,

bun
da nt vessels o f p a le p a ste The ex cellence a
,

n d ho mogeneity

a
o f the p s te in a ll the vessel s a
.

r e s hown by the ex tremely thin

a a
w lls often obt ined The pots a r e norm a lly wheel turned -

When we come to ex a
. .

mine the forms o f the pots diver

gence i s more a pp a rent th a n in wa re or orna ment The
sc a nty potsherds permit fe w complete restora
.
,

tions o f the
Amri vessel s but the ta ll globul a r bea kers from fo r insta nce
Lohri a n d Da mb Buthi in S ind ta
, , ,

ken in conjunction with

numerous rim a n d s houlder fr a gments o f the sa
,

me type from
a ll the Sind sites seem likely to be one ch a ra cteristic form
S imil a r pots a a a
.

r e sugges ted by sherd s from B luchist n fo r

insta nce a t Z il a a n d Hor K la t a a

ssoci a
,

-
ted with more speci
fica lly Na l forms a nd a s will be seen the orn a
,

a
ment on these
bea kers a l so presents close p ra llel s to Amri pa
, , ,

tterns .
 o r W E STERN IND IA 85

A distinctive type w hi ch c a n b e i dentified on a t lea

“

P s t tw o

Amri s ites (Amri itself a nd P a ndi W a hi ) i s sha llow pedest a a l

foot wh i ch ma belong to ve ssel s o f be a ker type or le ss
y
proba bly to bowls not otherwise identified At Na la
, ,

single

p e desta l foot h a th ough higher a

.
,

s been recorded n d more

‘

columna r tha n those suggested by the A mri sherd s a

,

nd

a lmost cer t a inly from a bowl or o ffering sta

,

nd type o f vessel-

In such Ba luchi sta n sites a nda ra

.

s Nu where the pottery i s

domestic a n d does not present the high degree o f s tyli z a
,

tion
present in the funer a ry vessel s from the N a l cemetery a
str a
,
’
ight sided bucket type occurs together with simple
-

b ea k er forms less globul a r th a n the norm o f Amri wa re

Neither o f these forms a ppea rs in the N a
.
,

l cemetery where
the bulk o f the vessel s a r e va ria
,

tions on bowl types with the

dia meter grea ter tha n the height Actua l bowl s ra nge from
sha llow open form s (a lso cha ra cteristi c o f a da rk wa
.

re peen
lia a
r to the site ) glob ul r bowl s in which the rim incurves so
tha t th e shoulder di meter ex ceeds tha a t o f the mouth sma
,

ll
s tra i ght sided cup s a n d squ a t shouldered pots ra ther simil a
,

-
r
to the bowl s A very rem a rk a ble form found not only a t Na
,

l
but a lso a t ma ny other sites o f the culture in Ba luch ista na
.
,

nd

in Sind i s the stra ight sided ca nister type o f vessel w h i ch i s

-

the most distinctive o f a ll the N a

, ,

l pottery types Most o f -

these types recur a t the cemetery o f D a

.

mb Buthi mix ed with

other forms such a s ta ll bea kers more specifica lly cha ra
,

c
Peculiaa r to N a l itself a sm a
, ,

te ri sti c o f Amri w re re ll
sa
.

ucers pinched in on four sides to form vessel s so like the

modern Indi a n ch i mgh tha t one ma a a
,

y ss u m e th t they like
their recent a na logues were used a s la
,

mps A couple o f
double cylindric a l pots fi o m Na l ma a
, .

y l so be noted
The p a inted orna
.

ment on the two groups o f pottery

a ppe rs aa t first sight to present a bewildering complex ity o f
motifs but there a re cert a in ma in cl a ssific a tions which si m
”

pli fy the iss ue D esigns representing a nima l or pl a

,

nt form s
a re a bsent on Amri w a re but on the other ha nd a r e typica
.

, l
 86 B R ONz E
‘

AGE P EASANT C OMMUNITIES

OnNa l pots A n Amri sherd with p a rt o f the repres enta tion
of a n o x from T a ndo R a h i m Kh a n a nd a
.

possible second
ex a mple fi o m Ch a uro serve merely to empha s iz e the to ta
,

l
a b sence a t a ll other sites ex cept where (a s shown below it i s
)
d erived from Ku lli wa re Aga in the ma te ri l from N3 1 not a
only h a li ar to itsel f but l a cks severa l pa
.
,

s mo ti fs pecu tterns
which a ppea r fa rther south a nda ra a n d other sites a
'
,

t Nu nd

a lso in Amri wa re The decora tive motifs ma y there fore be

divided conveniently into two he a
.

ds first motifs common

to Amri a n d the southern N a l culture sites (such a
,

s Nu
'

da ra) with a s m a ll su b group o f moti fs peculi a -

r to A mri i t

s elf a secondly motifs common to a ll N a

,

nd l sites but not

present a t Amri a nd a Subdivision o f motifs peculia
, , ,

r to the
Na l cemetery itself All motifs a r e firmly outlined in a bl a
,

ck
or brownish p a int a pplied w i th a s ti ff bru sh R e d p a
.

int i s
used a s a s econd a ry colour in Amri a n d the N und a ra
.

group
o f sites a nd a t Na l itself a nd a fe w othe r sites this red p a int
is a ugmented by yellow blue a
,

n d green pigment s to form

a n el a bora te polychrome style This use o f blue a

, ,

n d yellow i s

very rem a rk a ble a s it i s a

.

lmost unknown el sewhere in pre

historic W estern Asia
,

The orn a ment a l fea tures common to Amri a

.

n d to such

S outh B a luchista n sites a s N und a raK a rgushki d a mb a nd -

s ome others a r e in the m a in a First a pa

, ,

s follows nelled
a rra ngement i s common the p a
.
,

nel s being outlined hori

z o n tally a n d vertic a
,

lly with multiple lines Then within the

rect a ngles SO formed a frequent motif i s a second a ry p a
,
.

nel
o f bl a ck a
,

n d white Chequers
- -
outlined by concentric rect
a ngles o f a lterna te red a n d bl a ck lines Fin a
,

lly there i s much

use o f horiz ont a l (less commo nly vertica l) ba nds a m
.

de o f
s uch moti fs a s solid di a monds corne r to corner h a tched - -

d ia monds sm a
,

ll chevrons Ioop s (so metimes multiple) the

sigm a orn a ment a S ca le p a
, , ,
‘ ’
nd ttern ‘ ’

In S ind but a pp a rently not in B a luchista n there a

.
,

ls o
a ppe a r motifs peculia r to the Amri wa re o f th a
, ,

t region b e ,
 s . s OF W E S T E R N INDIA 87

ginni ng with the use o f red p i nt in a bro d h ori z onta a l ba nd a

betw een bl ck lines a a
t the top (a n d i n o n e ex a mpl e a t le s t a
the b ottom) o f th e d e c o r a te d re a
'

o f th e p o t There a a r e tw o

interestingv ri a a
tions on the chequer motif a
.

criss c r o Ss o f -

a
vertic l a n d hori z ont a l lines a rr a nged in p a nels a n d pa nel s
o f s qu a res h lf fi lle d dia a gon lly O n e ex a mple a a t le a
, ,

-
st S hows

a
l rge poi nted ov l forms outlined by multiple a a lterna
.

ting
red a n d bl ack lines But these divergent types o f orn m ent a
a a a
.

( ex c e pt the us e o f bro d red hori z ont l b n d s which i s

a lmost con s t nt) a a a

a
,

r e dis tinctly uncommon nd most pots

a
h ve orn menta l motifs i n common with the Nun d ra a
,

s tyle

Wh en w e turn to the decora

.

tive motifs di stinctiv e o f the

Na l style the ma in fea ture notice a ble I S a tendency to use
multiple p a rallel lines to form not only p a nels but such p t a
terns s dia a a
gon l step s o r stepped chevrons equ l a r med a -

crosses dia monds circles a n d numerous v a ria

,

tions o f over
a a a
, , ,

ll curved motifs i
n m i i lt
i p le w vy p ttern s The s e geo
a
metric motifs r e most distinctive Of the Na
. .

l s tyle combined
in the Nund a ra region with the use o f red a nd a a
,

t N l itself

a nd a a
n logous s te s with red blue green a n d yellow p a
,
i

int
used in fla t blocks o f colou
, ,

r b ut not i n lines (Fig «

a
-

In a ddition striking represent a tions o f a

.
,

nim l s occur in
Nun d a ra w re there a are a nima l s prob a bly lions fishes a
,

nd , , ,

birds represe nted the bodi es Often b in g filled i n with red

e
a
p i nt A single representa ) : o ccurs (a a
,

aa
tion o f n O t Hor

aa
K l t : Fi g 8 bottom c entr e) a n d he rt sh a
.

ped motifs -

ba i m o f the lea ves o f th e fi zfi a

.
, , ,

s ed on th e R l tree lso occur

a n d ma a a
, ,

y owe their origin s we sh l l see to influence f rom

the Indus Va lley The pi p l or s a cred fig w s a a a a
, ,

ccounted
holy tree in prehistoric Indi a a n d s till r eta ins i ts sa
.
, ,
' ‘
nctity
tod a y A t R ohel jo Kund Pa -
ndi Wa - hi K e r c h a t a n d oth er

Sites in S in d d ecora tive moti fs such a s a a

.
, , ,
.

nim l s or rows o f
w h i ch a a a
,

styli z ed ibex he ds f ppe r to be derived from th e

Kulli Culture; a ppe a ra longsi de th e norm a a a
, , ,

l N l or n men t
In th e m tur e Na a
l ph s e a a
, ,

s seen in th e cemeter y itself th e ,

88 AGE EASANT OMMUNITIES
’

B RONz E P C

FIG aa a
P o lyc h ro me N l W re (r e d p int stipple d , ye llo w
aa aa
5
“

h o riz o nt l n d b lue ve rtic l sh d in g)

decora tive repertoire i s a t once more limi ted a n d more com

plex The simple p a tterns o f Chequers di a mond s red out -

lined p anel s a sigm a signs s eem to h a

.
, ,

nd
‘ ’
ve been forgotten
th e multiple outlined rectilinea r a a
, ,

-
n d curved figures h v e

become complica ted a n d domin a nt a n d overall in tersecting

,
9 0 BRONZE AG E P EASANT C OMMUNITIES
avery long pa rallel Sided chi el with Un pla yed edge a-
d s s n

a gment f a
nother fr a tapering a or chi el The other cop
, ,

o x e s

rd i R oom A5 compri e d two a

per ho a
.

n e with Slightly s x s

yed ad curved cutting edge ad a

pl a rrow elonga
, ,

S n ted s n n

butt aa or chi el with lightly pl a

s, n x e yed edge ad a
s very s s n

elongated b a h a ped butt atra ight ided a p a

r s-
rt f a '
s -
s s w o

tanged knife or pe ar hea d ad a gment prob a

nother fra
, ,

s -
bly n

fa knife No a na ly e were m a de f the e to l but a fr a

, ,

o
'
s sg o s o s,

ment f aimi l a r type f a found nea r ga

.

o s ve o x e :

per cent .

2 14.

tra
ce
A fe w other fra gments o f copper implements were found a t

Na l (a
nd a s we h a ve seen one a x e w a s found with a buria l)
a nd a copper b a ngle a t N und a r aAt Gha z i S ha
, ,

h in Sind
there w a s a copper bea
,

d in the Amri level s

These copper tools a r e interesting from sever a
.

l points o f
view The composition o f th e meta
.

l with i ts surprisingly
high proportion o f n i ckel Should prove to be a valu a
.
,

ble
pointer to the source o f the n a
,

tive ore when more i s known

a bout the distribution o f impurities in n a tive Copper deposits
o f the O rient W e know th a t certa i n copper object s from

Mesopota mi a ha d a rel a tively l a

.

rge proportion o f n i ckel in

their composition two E a rly Dyna s tic S pecimens from U r

a n d Ki sh respectively h a d a s much a a
,

s nd per
c ent though the a vera a nd a
,

ge i s below this possible

'

source fo r S umeri a n copper the mounta ins o f O m a

.
.
,

n yield
a n ore with a perceptible nickel content O n the other h a
, ,

nd
nickel i s sometimes present in the copper u sed a
.
,

t M o h e njo

da ro an d Ha ra pp rising to a
per cent in one object a nd

in a nother a n d i ts presence i s a
.
,

to ttested in the ores o f

Ra jput a n aa n d Afgh a ni sta
,

n There i s therefor e in the

pre sent sta te o f our knowledge a a
.
, ,

n unfortun tely wide field

 OF W E S TE RN I NDIA g r

a
over whi ch we c n lo ok for a prob a ble origin fo r the N l a
copper : it m y be a a loc l B a a
luchi o r e fo r a ncient Oopper
workin gs a re a llege d to ex is t in tha ta reaThe compa ra
,

tively
sm ll aa mo unt o f a rse n i c suggest s a source different perha
.

a
ps
a
from th t w hi c h produced the copper o f the Ha ra pp Cul
tur e
The types o f tools will be commented on a t a la a
.

ter st ge
when we come to discuss the a ffi n i ties n d d a a
te o f the culture ,

but fo r the present it i s suffi cient to notice the primitive form

offl t aa x e s imil a r in genera l terms though not in deta
a
il to
those o f equa lly pri mi tive type from the Ha ra
, , ,

pp Cultur e
AS we S h a ll se e the more Sophi stica ted sh aft hole a
.

x e known -

in Mesopot mi from E a aa r ly D yn a s tic times i s a la

, ,

. te comer ,
-

In Contra s t to their a bund a n ce th r oughout most o f th e

ancient Bronz e Age cultur es o f Persia a n d Mes opot a miathe
virtu l a ab sence o f sta mp sea ls i n W estern Indi a
,

a
- i s very
ma rked ex c ept th a t i s in th e H r a ppa
’
C u ltu r e w ith i ts

a a
, , , ,

very distinctive series o f squ re se ls so well known : In th e

a
Amri N l Culture the re i s only o n e s ea a
,

-
l c ert i n ly recorded
a a
n d th t i s fro m the N a l cemetery Here w a s found a
,

a
curious
a
se l o f irregula r sha pe en gra ved with a
.

vulture outlined n d
cross h a tched in the techn i que o f the bird dr a
,

-
wings on the
pottery with i ts foot on a sn a
ke The ma teri l o f the sea l is a
a
ste tite; the s urfa ce a rtifici lly blea a
ched whi te in a ma
, .

a
nner
very common in the Ha rapp Culture There w a s a l so a
Copper sta a
mp se l found during the N a l ex ca va
.

tions butt

there i s nothing to a a
ssoci te it directly with either the e a
,

rlier
settlement or th e l a ter cemetery on the site though a s we

sh all se e in Ch a pter VI it i s likely to be rel a ti vely l a

, ,

,
te i n

Bea ds were found in some a bund a nce in the N a l cemeter y

biconic a
l or b arrel S haped an d ma de o f a gate or ca rnelia
,

n
a
-

nd an a gate bea dwa s found a z i S ha

t Gh a a
,

h in S ind L pi s .
92 BRONZE AGE P EASANT C O M M UN I T I E S
aa
‘

w l o found in Sind a
s s Pa ndi Wa hi L a pi awe ha ll t s, s s se e

in Ch a p ter V i ae otic ub ta nce much a

, .

s lued in the
n x s s v

ancient O rient ad prob a bly obta ined mo tly from Per ia

,

pp a
n s s

or Afgha ni tan It au ed by the Ha ra folk a

,

s w d there s s n

al a pi bea d from other ite in B a luchi ta n An importa

-
.
,

re s s nt s s s

ub ta nce u ed aN a ma king be a d e pecia

.

s s l f s t lly tiny or s, s

athe a rtificial pa te with gl afrit known afa

pp a
di cs s, w s ience s ss s

aub ta nce well k own i the Ha

s s ra Cu lture but not
n
“

el ewhere in prehi toric We tern Indiaad fitting in with

s s s n

the evidence f the whitened te a tite e a

,

o l Another point f s s o

conta ct ma a a a
.

y be f
f orded by per for ted tone weight from s

Na la d two other from a

n ite prob a bly f the a s me culture s o s

aNicha
t raa ll f which a very imil a o r in S ha pe to weight re s s

from M h j d a ro A we h a
,

ppa
o e n O- ll h y tem f weight in S s se e , t e s s o s

the Ha ra Culture i curiou a d di tinctive but the N a

.

l s s n s ,

weight does not fit into the known series though th e type i s

distinctly simila r to the M o h e njo d a
,

ro specimen -

In the Da mb Buthi cemetery were pottery a n d shell br a

.

a
ce
lets simil a r to those o f the Ha rapp Culture a nd in a t least

s even Amri sites in Sind were found chert bl a des a

,

n d core s;

this pre meta llic industry o f stone tools h a

- s been mentioned

in Ch a pter II a n d need not nece ssa rily imply a pa rticul arly

grea t a ntiquity fo r there i s a notice a ble surviva l o f such
bla des in the Ha rapp a Culture itsel f Fin a
,

lly it should be
noticed tha t there w s no evidence th a t a a
n y o f the cl a
.

y
figurines o f a nim a ls found in the N a l ex c a va tions were a sso

ci ate d with the cemetery a n d in view o f their tot l a bsence a

from a ll other sites o f the Amri N a l Culture they ma a
,

y s fely -

a
be ttributed to th e pr e v i o us settlement (o f Red wa
,

'

re folk) -

into the ruins o f which the cemetery w a

,

s dug

We a r e now in a position to summ a

.

ri z e our knowledge o f
the Amri N a l Culture a
-
n d to review it in i ts rel a tionship with
other India n prehistoric cultures a n d those O f the Bronz e Age

O rient a t large The sma ll settlements with houses built o f

stone or mud brick comp a re a s we sh a
.
,

ll se e with those o f
, , , ,
 OF W ESTE RN INDIA 93
Kulli or the Z hob V lley people : the l a a
aaa
ck o f burnt bricks
sugges ts th t a a
n y c o nta ct w ith the H r pp Culture w a
a
s

not o f so fund a me nt l a ch ra cter a a

s to introduce thi s w y of a
building Of la y out a n d hou- s e pl n s we know little -a
n d we a
ca n o n ly sa aa a a
.
,

y th t here s with the other B luchi s t n cul

tures there i s genera a
liz ed resembla nce to the villa
,

g e or
sm a ll urb a
,

n communities known throughout the Ancient

a
E st in the prehis tor ic pe riods which even though not
contempor ry in d a ate with those o f Indiarepresent the
, ,

ba
,

ckground from which they emerged

The buri a l rites a s seen in the cemeteries O f Na la n d Da
.

mb
Buthi with either tot l or fr a a
ction l inh um a tions d o not a
a
give uS m n y p oi nts o f con t ct else w here Crema a
, ,

tion seems
the rite in the Z hob Culture n d prob a a aa
-
.

bly g in in Kulli
a
O n Th rro Hill in Sind there a aa a
.
,

r e bur i l c i rns ne r the

a a
, ,

de fended settlement presum bly covering inhum tions but

a a
the ssoci ted pots suggest form o f the H ra a a a
,

pp Culture
a a
r ther th n re la a
aa a
ti o n shi p with the Amri w re from the site
a
s
.

At H r pp itself the buri ls in the R 3 7 Cemetery were

e x tended inh u ma tions contempor ry with the occup tion a a
o f the city a a a a
,

n d in the l ter H Cemetery t the s me site the

a
e rliest ph s e h a a
d both norm l a n d fr cti on l inhum a a a a
,

tions
a
l id in the e a rth with a ccomp nying po ts the second ph se a a
a
fr ction a a
l buri ls in pots Both ph s es a a a
, ,

ppe red to be sub se

que nt to the ma a
.

*
in occup tion o f the city O n the whole
then the rites o f the N a a
.
,

l cemetery sugges t comp ri son with

a
the fi r st ph se o f the H Cemetery t H ra aa a
pp ra ther tha
,

n
with other Sites but this c n h rdly be t ken s signi fyi ng a
, aa a a ny

close connex ion between the two in culture or chronology

In Sind th ere i s cert in a a a
mount o f direct str a tigra a
.

p hi c l
evidence fo r fix i ng the posi tion o f Amri wa re a a a
a
t le st in rel

tion to the H r a pp C a
ul tu re A t
'

the type si te o f A mri

. it sel f -
,

ai i paa a
rgud i ng a d ai l la a
ppa
To p int c te o nt e re te r et te r o n , I sh o uld y s

th aId
t ap h a o not
l l d pccema i b ui al i
t t e so -c e o st- c re t on r s n th e Ha
ra
Cu lu a b i g b ui a
t re l a
salle n r s t .
 94 BRONZE AGE P EASANT C OMMUNITIE S
hi the tra
.

aGhai S ha
t h L ohri ad Pa
z ndi Wa tified n s se

a a a a
, ,

q u how d
ence s on e ch ite e
e rlier occup tio with A mri
s n n

wa re (ad am a ll proportion f N a l type ) l a

ppa
n s ter uper eded o s s s

by a Ha ra Culture ettlement A P a
,

i j Kotiro in the s t
-
-
o -

Ga a a
.

j V lley however the two culture eem to be mi ed d s s x n

chronologic a lly indi tingui h a ble At Gha i Sh a h the la

, , ,

s ter s z

occupa f e tr eme intere t aconta

.

pp a
tion i s o ining
x o ly s s n o t

ra
n

Ha type f bl a ck ured p ttery but other whi ch

s o -
o -
o s

S how motif derived fi m Kulli ource ad on one pot even

,

s o s s, n

Nund a ra ( N al) p attern or p ainted on in bl a ck on a trong s s

red b a ckground Thi a ll ugge t th a t there aa s

pp i s s s w s ro x

ma te contemporaeity be een alea t the l a ter pha

.

n e f tw t s s s o

the Amri N a l Culture a d tha t f Kulli ad perh a

a
-
p with n o n s

the e a rlier ettlement f the H a s ra pp C u1 ture in S ind

s o ; fu r

ther Kulli influence i perceptible aRohel j Kund in the s t -

o-

Ga j V a lley on herd contempor a ry s ith N und a r

s a or N a l w

s tyle ad on evera
s, n l other ite in S ind But in the N a
s l s s

cemetery awe h a ve een there i l aevidence f con

.

ppa
s s s c e r o

ta ct with the H a ra Culture a d f wh a

, ,

pp a
t it i worth there n or s

i a ingle herd f Na l wa re from the po t Ha ra a

,

s s s o (J h u k s -
r

Culture) level a the ite f L hui da

t ro s o o -

The a i ma l orn a ment aNu d a a(ad to a le e tent a

.

n t n r n ss x t
Na l) O ffer a very intere ting p int f comp a
Kulli Culture O n the Nu d a
lion but once a ) a p a
s,
s

pot the a
ri on with the
nim a
inted with curiou hori onta
.

n ox
l (m a
re
s

i ly
lly
n a o

r
o

s
s

z
n

ba nded tripe down their forequa

s s ter ad loin ad th i r s n s, n s

s a me peculia r trick occur not on the p a inted pot but on s s,

the p a inted a i ma l figurine in the Kulli Culture (Fig

n s

The u f broa d ba nd f red p a int athe top ad bottom

.

se o s o t n

o f the ma in orn a menta l one f a ve el i a ga in aa rra ngez o ss s n

ment common to Amri wa re ad th a t f Kulli ad the Na l n o n

c ai ter i comp a ra ble with the qu a

,
‘
n s
’
s t bottle form known s

in Kulli Mehi ite ( Fig -

But the u f the pipa
s s l—lea f se o

moti f ad tha t f inter ect i ng circle aNa l mu t a ga

.

ppa
n o in be
s s, t s

rela ted to Ha ra ad mu t the fa ience bea

,

,
d the
n so s s,
 OF W E STERN INDIA
‘

95
.

Wh i te n e d stea
ti te sta
mp -
se la
a d p e ha
p n r s th e s tone w ei g ht .

va g uely comp a r a
ble to N l but n a
o mo r e ; the s ingle sherd

from Ch a a se o f a ye llow b a
,

n h u d ro however w ith i ts u
-
, ck ,
s

a oppe a
tool s r e in p rt comp aa ra ble w ith Ha
a
Th e N l c r

ra pp types though the a a

r e dissimil a r in outli ne But
a
x es

th e spea aa
rhe d n d the s w c n be ma aa tched i n the H r a a
.
, ,

pp
a
ser ies s ca n the long b a r Chi sels a nd we sh ll se e in
-
a
Ch a a pter VI th t thes e to o ls provide a a
, ,

mos t i n i po rt n t link
aa
between N l n d the myster ious copper imple ments o f the
aa
G nges B a
ha s l a
s in whi ch se e m rel a

ter In
,

d te
ted to those o f Ha ra pp but a ,

p e r p
When we turn to the prehistoric cultures o f Persi or o f a
Mesopot mia a fo r p a a
r llels to the Amri N a l Cul ture We meet -

wi th Va g ue corre s pondence s but never more The pottery

a
i s cle rly a membe r o f the Buff wa
.
,

r e group but while th e re

-

is a a
gener liz ed re sembla a
,

nce i n motifs (especi lly i n Amri

a
w r e) there Is nothi ng o f the precision which ex ists betw een
Quetta w re a a n d th a t from F a rs Indee d the Fa rs m a ter i l a
a
i s kin to Amri only in the bro des t terms a a a
.
,

n d th e lmos t
a
cons t nt use o f a ncill ry red pa a int in the India
,

n potter y
divides it Off completely from th e rest o f the Persi n series ; a
the Je md e t N sr wa a res o f Mesopota mi a provide the only
pa a
r llel an d thos e a ga in o n ly in very gener l terms Th e a
dr a w ing o f the a nim a ls a t Na la n d N und a ra
, .

mi ght be com
pa red with the fi rm co mpetent outlines seen o n engra ved
a
bone n d S hell pl a ques in E a rly Dyn a
,

s ti c Sumer but in no

other respects c a meria n conta cts be tr a

,

n Su ced ; If in i ts
ea rly sta ges the Amri N l Cultur e h a a s a va guely Ira ni a
‘
,

-
n

origin i ts l a ter developments either took pl ce in is ola a

,

a a
tion
‘

or were the result o f cont ct wi th the H ra a

,

p p C ulture to
the ea st The firm a ss ured sty le o f N l with i ts sens e o f de a
sign a n d Sp a cing i s very re ma rk ble a a
.
, ,

n d unlike mo st W es t

e rn Asia a
tic p in ted potte ry There i s more th n a a
, ,

. sugges tion
9 6 BRONZE ACE P EASANT CO MMUNITIES
off a milia ri y with incru ta ttion ad i la y technique uch a s n n s s s

tho e f E a
s rly Dyna
o tic Sumer ad the tota l e ffect i
s n s ex

tremely S ophi tica ted ad competent

,

s n

The third di tinctive culture within the Bu ff wa

.

s re group -

which abe identified in W e tern India

c n i th at na med from s s

aSouth Ba luchi ta n ite in the Kolwa region athe Ka

s s lli s
“

Cu ltu r A before it i di tingui hed m a

e. S inly on the grounds s s s

fa ve y ch a a cteri tic p a inted pottery tyle ad i known

,

o r r s s n s

from a rel atively limited number f ite in South Ba

,

luchi o s s

s ta n lying ma inly in the Kolwa di trict (where tri a l trenche s s

in the typ ite f Kulli were ma de by S tein) ad tha

,

e -s o t f n o

Ma hk a
s i wi h outlier on the D a t ht River a d a le ast s n t s o ne

pora dic occ urr e nce faa wa y ne a r the hea dwa

,

s ter f the r s o

Kora ka n R iver
Wh ile tra ce f i influence in potte y tyle a per
.

s o ts r s s re

ce p i bl
t into Eea tern Per i a the culture doe
s not appe a r to s s

ha ve cro ed the mounta in b a rr er ea twa

,

inting tra ditio a

ss rd into the Indu i s s s

pla in though h influence f i t pot p a t e o s -

ns re

re ogni a ble on a lien wa re in the L a ke M a nchha

,

c z r regi on s

ad in the Ga
n j V a lley O ver m t f the are a f ettlement os o o s

in Ba luchi ta n Kulli wa re i l a
.

s rgely coincident ith the s w

Nu d a a ad N a l wa re f the Amri N a
,

n r n l Culture but it doe so -

s

not eem to occur in region afanorth atho e inha

,

s bited s s r s s

by the m a ker f N a l wa re between the type ite ad the

s o -
s n

Bola n Pa nor ah abeen noted a ss, bove do i m a

s ke s ts rs

a ppea r to ha ve ma de the e a twa rd move in Jh a laa h i ch

, ,

s w n w

i a
s tte ted by Na s l wa re in the Kol a chi ad Ga j V a lley n s

In a ddition to the di tinctive cha ra

.

cter f the pottery form

s o s

ad orna
n ment the Kulli Culture i gi ven further definition s

ad i independent ta tu i d i the Amri N a

, ,

n ts l Culture i
s s v s- -
vs -
s

s trengthened by a difference f buri a l rite ad the a bun o n

da nce f cl a y figurine f women a

o d a nima l on a lmo t
s o n s s

every site Of the culture identified

Not bly a a shk i two s tr a
t the site o f Mehi in the M a a
.

ins
ca
,

n be Ob served in the culture one represented by the nor ,

9 8 BRONZE AGE P EASANT C OMMUNITIES
2 miles d ista nt a t the type site A somewh a -
t S imi lar use o f
stone i s s een a t Ad a sta ja mb which surfa
.
,

-
,ce finds suggest i s
, ,

o f the Kulli Culture Mud bricks ( o f unspec i fied si z es were

)
a pp a rently used in a ddition to stone a t Mehi wh ile a a
.

w ll o f
the l a test occupa tion level a t S ha hi tump h a d stone fo un d a
,

- -

tions a nd a n upper structure o f mud bricks e a ch 1 9 by 1 0 by

3 i nche s

At Kulli where the most e x tensive a rchitectura l rema

.

ins
were found a fla gged p a ving w a s found a t one point a
,

nd

there were indic a tions o f a wooden flooring over a cellara

, ,

a nother Here to o a s a t N und a rastone wa lls were some

times fa ced interna lly with white pla
.
, , ,

s ter O wing to the

sc a nty ex ca va tions in the sites o f the culture little c a n be sa
.

id
o f the hou se s A t Kulli room s r a nging fro 1 2 by 8 feet to 8 m
by 6 feet were found a n d the sa me type o fw indowless a
.

nd

doorless cell a rs a sa t Nun d a ra occurred The lower trea

,

ds o f
aa
astone st irw y a t Kulli Imply a ccess to a fla t roof or to a
.

upper storey
Inform a tion a bout buria l rites i s even more sc a
.

nty A
flex ed inhuma tion buri a lwa s found a lli a ta
.

t Ku depth o f 4
feet in the debri s o f the settlement ; there were no gra ve
good s a n d consequently i ts a ssoci a tion with the culture i s
unproven At Mehi however S tein cut a trench through a
crema tion cemetery the buri ls o f which h a a
.
, ,

d been deposited
in the superficia
,

l 6 feet o f debris On the western slope o f the

tell Here minor va ria tions o f the crema tion rite (which
s eems to h a
.

ve been performed on the spot) were observed :

in some buri a l s the crem a ted bones were in pots ; in others
deposited di rectly in the soil ; while in one si x chi ldren s ’

sk u lls h ad been pl a ced over a single c rem a ted dult Pottery a

cl a y figurines a n d Copper object s compri sed the gra
.
,

ve goods -

but a s o n ly ten buri a ls were found in a

,

trench 75 feet long

by 6 feet wide there does no t a ppea r to ha ve been a ma rked
concentra
,

tion The position o f the cemetery on the slope

O f the mound a n d so outside the settlement a reawould
.
,

,
 OF WESTE RN IND IA 99
a
ll ow x
o f i ts l with the fina
being coeva se o f occup a
l pha tion
o f th e s i te
_

The discussion o f the pottery from th e Kulli settleme nts i s

a
complic ted by the pres ence o f va ried tra ditions whi ch c a n

not be sep a ra ted stra tigra phic a lly Ma jumd a r sa w the d a n

ger o f considering the ma teria l fro m Mehi s nec ess a a

.

rily o f
period a n d styli s tic consider a tions suggest t ha t there
a r e tw o ce r a mic stra ins repres enting a n ea rlier p a inted wa
,

re
loc a l to th e regi on on whi ch impinged a pla a a
,

in w re m ni
festly a n o ffshoot o f the Ha ra a
,

pp Culture O ft hese two the

decora ted pottery a lone should perha
.
,

ps be credited with the

title Kulli a n d the hybrid types which a

a
r e fo rn i e d with
’

th is a n d the H a rapp wa re be dis tinguished a s aMehi

,
’

pha
,

se from the site wh re it i s be s t represe nted Bu

a
t i t is
e
a
s fer to sep a ra te out Only the unmis ta ka ble Ha ra pp wa
.
,

re
a a
n d to tre t the hybrids a long with the res t o f the p a inted

a
pottery
a
We Sh ll return to the H a ra
.

pp Culture elements in South

Ba luchi sta n when dea ling wit h this culture a n d i ts colonie s

in a a
l ter cha pter ; fo r the present we ma y notice th at d i s

ti n c ti v e potter y a ppe a rs a at Su tka

aa
t three sites g e n d o r-

which a ppe a rs to be a s ettlement o f the H a

aa
,

r pp Culture
pra ctica lly unmix ed with n y l o c l fea tures a a
’
t Mehi nd

to a
, ,

lesser ex tent Kulli The pottery i s not only mix ed w ith

a a a
lli style p inted sherds but the a da pta
.

c tu l K u -
tions o f
Kulli de cora tive schemes a ppe a r on vessels whos e sh a pes a
,

aa
re

thos e o f Ha ra pp not bly the offering sta

‘
nds or footed
-

pla tes a n d there i s more th a na

,

sus picion o f influences flo m

a
the Indus V lley on th e orn a menta tion o f certa
,

a
in sherds In
the dis cussion o f Kulli wa re below Ha ra
.

pp elements in th e
‘

a
pottery collected by Stein re referred to only in so f r a a
,

they combine to form genuine hybrids with the loc a l wa re

The a a
ctu l p a ste o f the pottery i s norm a
.

lly bu ff or pinkish
th e former rel a tively soft b i t the l a a
,

a
tter especi lly in those pots
show ing influe n ce fr om Ha rapp wa re usu lly somewh a a
,

,
’

t
 mo a
m m aa m U N I TI E s
a aa a
BRONZE s o n x o o s
'

h mflo m
s dq u m
m sh m i iy
ss i le vrc d n EEb éfi ln m lh a o st li p ‘

a a
whiti sh slip on wh i ch p i nted orna
a
ment i s pl c e d mfi nly i n
am am a
, ,. i

m
a
b l nk h lw tli lh n z bo ch si o n ll
'

fi ne d i nn bre d t h i w rfi l
’

e
:

a mp a ym
'

b a u a
n d sl p re ri tl n d e rxH h ppi s i n fl e nc g dbl
l c ks d q srcd w

a a mmmh
Vay maam i ama
’
4
m
to d u
si i poh
p ci o ri sti so sfi si t p s ;o n o fs o g n i o h lzofi t
a m m a a
.

llb gl ll pvo t nti t rdh fi n e s; p le

’ ‘ '

re c r e e st ls

m ri i sd d i fbr 1 me < s a a a a aa
a
fi l t e s,e l
§ q rb i g lsp g tO
i r ge ij rs, l n d l
'

a
p v

i n b n e i nst n ée fi r w sseD i i th i i n ci se d zo i tn mm Mi i o o pyi i i g l a u a

a
'
‘ ’
i

a
.

st d h d fi ri fi n b n o Oi l q n i lmq l) li l 0 i i c i fI O lB vi o li o q b o l s m s o b
'
‘ '

m a
'

h éro ss cs vr i e flwi r bp e rtq i gx ldfi d q r i n g li tli e i o nlylltyjdé c os-s

aa a
d
’

a
f

t i lfli l d e c e i t o b H h gi p e i i n fld e n c e vb fi ngs fli sh e s rh st nd s:
'
'

f m a
a aa
l

Clo bu a a
maa a a
léf h e ke rs i q s m fllé b s e d o fi n i ks g u t lbrlb o t tlni lsh pd dg
'

a
.

mm , S llfi i cli Sh éi s zi i d B tr i gh tg-hi d e d mi sz r q m mmfi n ; m

aaa u
i n d e i s i nd i i i du l n d d i sti n ti ge M i n i s sq i i li str i gh t si d ed m aa a '

a
j ( Fig rL arge tor a
ge ve el s ometime pa
ss i tq a
s, s ml s n

fi m plai l ha dfi l a da
.

dW
a
shi ne i fz n s v pp li h d eb lf fi n i
‘
r

i th a
mi a
aa
d o i rmlon wh é) {sh o uld énsi Sdmé i mmW
aa a
l i d l
’

t pp y w e t w x

a
« z - .

b h d? s We ll : (Tdi e; t ll c ylin d ri c l fp e Or t e d pz m s e ls ; w h i c h

a a
,

mi gh t be rh r i i e rs or c h ee se e prée sse s g re ,gh o w cmrpqo rsi i ini l i i

’

a
to IIHhx f pii réLMpés s lto lb o pmb éb hy i n tri nsi ve fl c o q q s { lo i n f a
a
‘
'
‘

a ra
i

b fiEh gi fl
qh fi m i p i n t e d d e n o r ti o n lri rr K u lli m n d lm m i s t s
o f]h o de mbfi n on er e m
p e seE t ti o na lrfi i o fi t e n ve e m w hi c h ; i n a
a a a a
/

i i m yd i i st gn tu s ra i n s! f ri e h e d fi d t ln a
a
h sti d gne pfh séh th ti o ns
a
i '

a aa a m
a
,

o fi n i n i lh n d l l n t o h i fi fi m t h m j m i t efl t fi
m a
p s s e e r s o o n o
f '

j
'

j
m for ms lsing le {c onti n i i b fi s b n d a
a
li ke ( po t s ( i
’
t

a mu h d t h e zpbt i M e t ph o ni c a lly i b i s sc o n c ei y e d i i n th e m s s a
a
'

a
)

a
d e r s h h m th e mth md h d i a mna a
,

a a
n fi r d f i i h yl ti m n nli n lN l
ng
'

ér h é
w ro i bf} a a rh i n ln m
.

a
n i m lsi w i p hi n l Ho se lsqu re m i i i ebo pes, m i gh t
'

a a
s

be o o h rpa rd cld o d lro sta mi pls e lfi e o m h etfi i e z e r lépr e se n tso j t

a
st n d a rd amén d } nm mi n i rn ls i oli s ua mpe d aa
a
i m i lli bli li fti u llyfdr u
’
t

c ttlh xi h u o l so m m i m a
n fi p
a
t
e t i e s o f
r e l e s cd i nh te ; n g
g ri l f r n t e s
q fi é ly
a
e lo q g te tl f i b ri n; s a q nzla
'

i d s c p n llw i tl n l fi r rh a li z dd i t n m s o n d a '

a '
1 02 BRONZ E AGE P EASANT CO MMUNITIES
( Fig Above the ma jor a nima ls W sha ped figures ma -
y
represent c onventi ona liz ed bird s a fi sh i s present in a t le a
.

st

one insta nce a n d va rious rosettes a

,

n d other symbols fill the

ba ckground on s ome pots a as Childe h a

,

n d ex pre ss s re

ma rked a h orror va i remin i scent o f th a

,

cu t o f the Dipylon
va se p a
,

-
inters o f prehistoric Greece A sty listic sequence o f
degenera
.

tion seems to ex ist on the Kulli pots in which the

ba ckground becomes progressively crowded with irreleva
,

nt
symbol s a n d the dra wing o f the c a ttle a n d trees beco es m
hea vy a n d clum sy until one re a ches the a b surdities o f the
ba lloon bodied s ta
,

-
g beetles which seem to peer out in d i s
-

tress from a n a tmosphere thick W ith d isintegra ting goa ts

a nd
‘
sigma motifs ’

The c a ttle a r e u su a lly shown a

.

s tethered either to one o f

the trees between w h i c h th e y sta nd or to a n indetermin a

,

te
obj e ct which on a sherd from Mehi h s t a a
'

ken on pr e sum
a bly under Ha
,

ra a
pp influence the form o f the sa cred
,
‘

bra z ier so ch a ra cteristic o f the sea l s o f th a

,

t cu ltur e ( Fig 7
i

top ) The presence on this sa me sherd a

,
.

nd
’

on others
s tylistica lly deb a o f the he a rt sha ped pipa l lea
.
, ,

s ed -
f on the
trees which in the e a rlies t scenes a r e spiky a bstra
,

cti ons
a ga in must imply the introduction o f motifs from the ea
, ,

st

a s we h a ve seen rea son to believe o f i ts introduction into Na

,

i
wa re O n one Kulli vessel with i ts friez e in a n ex ception a l
sta te o f completeness one c a n se e th a ta bull a nd a cow a
.
,

re

represented a n d it i s likely th a t this w a s norm a a

,

lly the c se
The technique o f p a inting i s entirely in bl a ck with a
.
,

fle x
ible brush a n d within a n outline the interior o f the a ni ma
,

ls i s
filled by a pa ttern o f thick stripes or by a ne a t dia gona
,

l cross
ha tch o f fine lines The eye i s a lwa ys ex a ggera ted a n d dra wn
a s a full circle o f white round a bl a ck disc a
.

n d the whole
'

body i s fa nta stic a lly lengthe ned though rea listic deta
,

il i s
given to the legs a n d hoofs In the more degenera
,

te forms
however the body becomes globul a r ra ther tha n elonga
.
,

ted
a aa
n d n tur li stic det a il s cea s e to a ppe a r The ca ttle a
, ,

r e the
.
1 04 P EASANT C O MMUN ITI ES
( B os i n d i c u
s ) whi ch a
ppea
r every s

h go a t e

ba nd o f
a nother
un c o m
fe atures
are circul ar

a
eye forms o f
the tree by Ha rapp
conta cts n t o f pottery

certa
,

inly
The ge o me
a
n c ti o n
with the
foregoing r b t ra
rely in p a
nel s
‘

an d n o r ma
Ey
z ont a
l li g
si
no
’

out in r e li e ffo n
Do ub l

loops i s a n h
eye mo ti fi o f
’
a
R e d pa int
o f bro a d
decora tive
layers at Sh ahi
the cemetery on

ad
n so
1 06 BRONZE AC E P EASANT C OMMUNITIES
horses a n d eleph a nts which constituted the sole visible evi
dence o f sa nctity sa ve fo r the gre a se o f lib a
,

tions over the rock

fa ce
The Kulli figurines a r e o f cl a y a n d the a nim a ls a
.

re

a an d the det a
,

p i nted though not the women iled modelling

o f the l a tter i s more el a bora te th a n tha t o f the a nima
, ,

l s The
wa a
re i s usu lly pinkish bu ff sometimes a
.

lmost white
Ca ttle figurines were found in very l a
.
,

rge numbers 6 6
were found fo r ex a mple in the restricted a rea s S tei n dug

a
into t Kulli a n d no less th a n 85 were found in a
, ,

restricte d
a rea on the lowest occup a tion flo o r a t Sha
,

hi tump which
- -

looks more l i ke Offerings m a ssed a ta sh ri ne th a

,

n the stock o f
atoy sh Op The siz e o f the figures i s from 3 to 4 inches long
-

a n d the ch a racteristic fe a tures o f the humped ca ttle a

,
.

re well

enough suggested The eyes a re p a inted in a nd a dditiona l

orn a ment ta kes the form o f ver tica l stripes a
.
,

cross the body

a nd a line o f short tra nsverse stroke s down the shoulders a
,

nd

forelegs ( Fig This decora tion which a s we h a ve seen

reca lls the trea tment o f the a nima ls p a inted on the Nund a ra
.
, , ,

pots ma y be purely an a dornment o f the figurine or m y a

imply a prehistoric custom o f p a inting the rea l nim a a
, ,

l in the
ma nner o f the g y ochre spots a a n d stripes th a t on festiva ls
a dorn the grey white Bra hmini bullocks o f the present d y
- a
From one site ( Men da mb) comes a
.

-
bull figurine with the
s tumpy s ty li z ed legs pierced fo r wheel x les a n d with a hole-
a
through the hump fo r a string to pull it a long ; cla y wheels
a
h ve a lso been found on other sites ; a n d in this c se we a re a
o bv iously de a ling with a child s toy This i s a ’
convenient
a a ofa
.

p l C e to mention the little modelled repre s ent tion dog

on the edge o f a pot from Mehi a n d there a re a lso cert i n a
model birds often hollow a n d wi th a hole a a
,
’
’
t the t il
which i f a droitly held to the lips c a
,

n be blown into in such

a a w a a a
, ,

y s to prod uce s urpri s ingly loud hootin g noi se s I

o nce found to my own a stoni shment ( a n d even more to th a
,

t
O f the a ttend a nts) in the Centr l Asia a
n Museum one d a y in
 o r W ESTERN ~
INDi A 1 07

bird whis tles a more common in the

a
re -

n d it i s prob bly t here t h a

‘

a t we should
lo o k fo r their origin in the Kulli sites
le figurines lthough less bunda a nt th a a
s

The fema
.

a
n those o f
ca ttle a r e widesprea
,

d mong th e sites o f the Kulli Culture

a nd a a a i na a
,

r e o f very re t intere st ( Fig They l l term te t

g
the wa ist in a slightly spl a yed fi a t bottomed pedes ta a
.

l nd -

the a s a re akimbo with the h a

, ,

rm nd s on the h i ps (once only

FIG 8 P i t d b ull fi gurin Kulli Culture a

a d
nima
a Nu d a
n e e s,
ra
. . n
l p tt ry
s on n o e

above the b re a t ) There i no a ttempt ana

s s tur ali m s t s

fa
ce whi h i pinched out f h cl a y into a fanta
.

c s tic o t e s

ma king a a b urd c aric a

,

fil
ro e, ture re embling
n s s

much aaca red hen with the eye ma

s s de fi m s
'

applied pellet ad no indic a

,

tion f the s n o

a hown on ever a
ts l figurine but there
re s s s,

h e ma terna la pect t s ,
 m
ma
308 BRONZ E A G E TP E w n E o M MUN ITIE s
’
‘

M eflw o fm r e pr e se n téd ld s fl gg b ut m j fi g riu

a m
n v

m
hi s éd r e e se d te d x d h old gt tyo i i fi fd n ts mu s M qq c mi l a
a a
a a a
Although the f ces o f t h flse / fi gd re s i rfg m ske floln ly pr o l
9-

m m m slfi e d m fi b é mq fi e séfi t a
a
s w ed ) fi re r “ d d f

a
‘

M ILK m
) ? i the i i Sh h i fid ress grlf gi t b m bme q tsgb n d mwp i n n a
sx i
(
' ’

vt l . Q

a
b

a
vi s i t oq En

j q rn f mf; o n
"
i M Cl a
d
} be m
22 Di ll {I i
{
mi xe s bm a . i i i up:

3 d} a
l idw
r a
bmc
fila m i ” S W: m1; ll
u mm
y fi guri ne s o fw m n lli C ltu
0 ! 12 1)
n o .
g o e ,
Ku r6
I IO BRONZE AGE P EASANT C OMMUNITIES
on wheel s w a s found a t one site cl ay wheel s fo r such
mova ble models ha ve been found more tha n once a nd a t
Mehi a n d Sh a hi tump there h a ve a
,

a
-
lso been foun d bits o f ‘

cl a y models o f c a rts Now cl a y c rts a

a
re very common i n

deed i n the Ha ra pp Culture a n d fra

.

gments o f them turn

a a
,

up on lmost every site o f the culture however sm ll so

their presence a t S ha hi tump a n d M ehi ma a
, ,

a
-
y be ex pl ined in
terms o f Ha ra pp imports The S ha hi tump fra
a
gment i s
-

indeed very much o f th e Ha ra pp type a n d though th a

.
,

t
from Mehi 1 5 o f a less common form there a
, ,

re pretty good

pa ra llel s fo r 1 t a t Ch a n h ud a ro a t le ast so th a
,

-
t on the whole
the c a rts in the Kulli Culture c a nnot be cl a imed a
,

s n eces

a ri l
y a n inte g r a l p art o f the culture an d a r e more lik ely
to belong to Ha ra pp a tra de a n d tr a ders i n the Ma s hk a ia
,

nd

the Ma kra n regions In the hill country o f Ba luc h 1 sta n ca rts

would be less essenti a l to the fa rming communities th a
.
,

nm
the Indus pla in
A very import a nt group o f vessels ca
.

rved out o f soft stone

comes from Mehi a nd a s we sh a ll se e h a s the most interest

ing connex ions not only with the Ha ra pp a

, , ,

Culture to the
ca st but a lso with Mes opota mia to the west ( Fig There
a r e severa l types o f vessel represented sm a ll cylindrica
.

l pots
between 2 a nd
3 inche s a cro ss a nd a couple o f inche s or les s

deep ; l a a rger one 4 inches in dia meter divided into four

comp a rtments ; a nother a lso in four comp a
, ,

rtments but
squ a re ; a
, ,

n d s ome simple cup s one unfini shed The more

ela bora te pots a r e decor a ted with fine engr a ved p a
.
,

tterns o f
chevrons a n d ha tched tria ngles a n d seem l i kely to h a ve held
cosmetics such a s eye p a
,

int or ointment o fs ome kind like

-

the a laba s ter b o x o f ointment in the N ew Test a

,

ment story
Now pots simila r to these from Mehi a ppea
.

r i n the sites me
Ba mpur a n d in S i st a n a lrea dy mentioned a s s howing in

their pottery types evide n ce o f Kulli conta cts a

,

n d in both

pla ces imita tions o f the stone in h a rd grey pottery a re a

,

l so
found reca
,
lling th e fra gment from Sh a hi tump When we -
.
 " 1? W E STE R N IN D IA
'

0 1 1 !
J
5
'

c ome to disc uss the c onnex i o ns o f th e Kulli Culture wi th

Ma a a a a
aa
m
p o t m i we sh ll s e e h o w i mport nt thes e s tone p o ts

ar e A fr gment o f a circ ul a r vesse l w s found a t M o h e njo a

a
d ro in the e rliest settlemen t rea ched a n d p rt o f a a a
.

squ re

one in a later occup a

,

tion lev el O n the whole these vessels

.
,

FIG t ne ve sse ls Kulli C ulture

1 0. I nc i se d s o

form one o f the most interes ting l i nks between wes t a a

.
,

a
n d e st

from the borders o f Syr i a to the Indus th t we ha

,

v e yet ,

touched upon
“

The Mehi cemetery w a s s urpri singly rich in copper a

.

nd
“

bronz e obj ects mong i ts gr a a ve good s deposited with the

-

a
crem tions though not themselves b u rnt a n d the mo st out
“

a s in d ia
, ,

s t nding fi n d i s the copper mirror inche meter with

5
a
t h e h ndle (a lso o f c opper) representing a a
, ,

s tyliz ed fem l e
 li l w BRONZ E AG E‘
W EM E N EG E ’O HM U N I T I E S

m m m
a
ly pb l kh d é fl f i muse flmfi th e i mo mléw my
a
on i fl e c o
‘

m a a
.

y p i nti ng! t ri dk z mlt h w so ph l s ti c ti o mo f ifli e n d m

'
bi w n d b
maa a
fi t hmMe h i t i mro b “ 591 l
‘ -
a
m
o n g d i re milks W . e

so ties o f the whole

th e otherw i se more adn th e

u
Kulli C lmre:

a a
m l msfia
e w mgw fa
a ’
mili a
a
of os r in
a
‘

E m
aa a
bmM M VH Efl yfl élyfitfi ém ’ fi éi bbfi e fr
sy é fifi s

ks ss s i s W M w s rsé e i éi sfi fi é fi b lé fi i é fibdtfi ééfi fth é

f I l
c n ti sn n fi

a
a
Mehi mirror h ndle a
m a aa
w sésu
m a a
aa aa
e s sfi s s éga i
-

i M i
y figurines o fmomén rfia
n d th e cl a

sss téss m h qsm i d flsm

uh c sffi i fléh éé m l rm g i i ss s sssa
d
om
fi
rmd
n
’

a
am
i b
' '

z r
p s n s s
am
ss y
r
m
és ls i a w i m s w sfi é i m é l
g e efi usi o fi m
1 1 4. BRONZE AGE P EASANT C OMMUNITIES
Kulli tha n in Amri N a l ta king the form o f a ctua
a
-
l imports
a n d e vidence which implies the pres ence o f Ha rapp tr a
,

ders
in S outh Ba luchista n but nevertheless there i s no tra ce o f
the burnt bric k a rchitecture which i s so cha ra
,

a
cteristic o f
a ctua l Ha ra
a
pp settlements wherever they occur As we
sha ll se e a t lea st one Ha ra pp tra ding post conta
.

ining burnt -

brick buildings i s known in t h e M a kra n but a t Mehi a pa

,

rt
from modific a tions o f the loc a l pot p a
, ,

a
inting styles the con-

n e x i o n s with H ra pp a ar e no more th a
,

n could be provided
by the visits o f c ra va a
ns a n d the occ a sion al sojourn o f mer
cha nts i n the town There i s good evidenc e tha t tra de e x
cha nges did ta ke pla ce a n d good s a
.

n d even people found

thei r w a y from the B a luchi sta s pl a

,

n hill s to the Ind u

a
in
These Ha ra pp connex ions imply o f course tha
.

t there
w a an a pprox im a te contempora
, ,

s neity between th e cultures

in the two a rea s a nd a s fa r a s ca n be deduced from the Ha

ra a
pp moti fs such a s pipa
,

l lea ves in troduced on the n a tive

pots it looks a s though this conta ct took pl a
, ,

ce when the
Kulli pot p a inting style w s well developed a a n d perha
,

-
ps
even p a st i ts prime A t S h a hi tump there i s stra -tigra phic l a
evidence o f a g level s (d a
.

sort fo r the three Kulli buildin

a
ted
a s a pprox ima tely contempora ry with Ha ra pp by a bit o f a
,

ca rt model to which reference h a s alrea dy been m a de) a

a
- re

them selves e rlier th a n a cemeter y tha t ha s been dug into

the ruins o f the l a st ph a s e settlement N ow the Sh hi tump a -

cemetery i s a s we sh a ll se e pretty well d a ted a

.

a
n d i s con

tempor a ry with the end o f the H ra a

, , ,

pp Culture in th e
a
Indus V lley so this fi ts in well with the other evidence fo r
the rel a tive d a
,

te o f the Kulli Culture .

There i s further evidence from Sind which gives the r e

verse side o f the intercha nge o f p inted motifs a a
,

n d styles

on the pottery At R ohel jo Kund in the Ga -

j-V a lley a nd a t

Gha z i Sh a h nea r La ke Ma nchha r a ni m a a

.

ls p inted in the
Kulli style a ppea r on pots which a
,

re not thems elves Kulli

wa re At the former site they seem to be some form o f the

.
 o r W ESTERN INDIA 1 15

A mri N l gr oup,
- ad aGhai S ha
a h th ey a ve el with a
n t z re ss s

ba ckground f bright red lip typica l f the p a inted wa

ppa
o re f s o s o

the Ha ra Culture At thi ite the tra tific a tion how s s s s s

tha t aettlement with Amri a re afollowed by one

.

s w w s

ma king or a t le a t u ing bl ack — red p a sinted wa re ome

s -
on s

time with the Kulli type f a i ma l a d piky tree but a

,

s l o o n s n s s; s

with other motif cha ra cteri tic f M h j da ro ad Ha

ppa
s s o o en o -
n

ra
pp a
S by th e e intere ting borrowing between pot
'

o s s s

pa inter we aget a fa ir idea tha t Kulli ad Ha ra

.

s c n wer n e,

by ad l a n rge flouri hing ide by ide ad we ha ve a

s lre a dy s s n

een tha t the decora ted tone pot found in S outh Ba

, ,

s luch i s s

sta n ad aocia n ted with h K ulli Culture were a

ss l o occ a t e s

ally imported to the Indu Va

o

pp a
i
s on lley s

Nor doe tha t e ha u t the Ha ra

.

ppa
s Kulli conne ion
x s -
x s

f the out ta nding piece f Ha ra at i abron e

.

O ne o s s o r s z

figure f a da ncing gi rl de cribed in a

o later ch a pter ad it i
-
s n s

mo t intere ting to find th a t her ha irdre ing i ju t tha

, ,

s s t een ss s s s

on the Kulli figurine with the he a vy loop f h a ir ca r ied

s, o r
over the na pe f the neck ad th a t (a
o ga i n following the n

Kulli fa hion) h wea r a couple f b a ngle a

,

t her right
wri t but h a
s s e s o s

her left a m loa ded with bra celet from the

‘

s s r s

wri t to a bove th elbow The merch a

,

s nt retur i ng from the

e s n

Ba luchi hi ll ma a a
.

y well h ve brought
s b ck ith them wome w n

awell amercha
s ndi e
s s 1

When we look beyond India to the a ncient civili a

.

tion z s

o f We tern A ias we find clea rly defined ad mo t importa

s nt n s

point f imila
s o rity between the Kulli Culture ad the l a
s nd n s

o f El a m ad Me opota miaThe l a
n nd cas pe with a nima l
‘
s s
’

f ie e on the Kulli pot find clo e tyli tic p a ra

.

r z llel on pot s s s s s s s

known from S u a ad Khu i ta n ad a s l from the D iya

n la z s n so

region ne a r Bag hd ad a d n a med f rom their u f a bright n se o

d pa i t in a ddition to bla ck ca rlet wa

, ,

re
~

n re (Fi g O
‘
s
’
n

the e ve el we find la rge a nima l ta ndi ng a bout in a la

.
,

s ss s nd s s

sca pe f piky tr
o ad often with the pa
s e e s,ce bet een their n s s w

leg or over thei he a

s d filled in with ma r ller figure s s s
 6 B RONZE A GGM P E WS JADEE Q O MM U N I T I E S

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’

1 1
' '

nsna lly a a
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.
,

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fi g
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S o pth lB luchist n ;za

1

n d h elte simil ri ty gi ve s w m m
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'

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i rfi c e tt a i fi Sta
a m Sh ub l ct s rgr yh l t 113 11 ro mb c
, c

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'
’ ’
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.

me nt
a
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'

p r o b a b l y i m i t
za ti n g; s o m e [ki nd 1o f1 w b w e
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‘

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a
1

m o tly fi n a tt h e d a b yn fi a g r n e n t
. fi o m zth e { D sht R i v e r (i n
1
tls é -
. c
1 18 BRONZE AGE P EASANT C OMMUNITIES
s
ym b o l o f Indi a n religion then as in contempor ry Hindu a
st an ; from S usatoo c o me s the sc a rlet wa re pot so simil a r -

in trea tment to Kulli wa

, ,

re
Thi s evidence o f S umeri n tra a
de with the M kra n a a
.

nd

a
B luchista n a n d the pre sence o f Indi n merch a nts in the a
grea t cities o f El a ma n d S umer in E rly D yn stic times i s o f a a
course o f fi rs t ra te import nce Th a a
,

-
t the connex ions were
a
with S outh B luchista n a a
.
,

a a
n d not with the Indus V lley o r

the H ra pp Culture seems cle r en ough n d we sh ll s e e a a a

tha a
t it w s not until five hundred yea rs l ter th t the tra a a
,

de
between the Indus a n d the Twin R ivers w a s est ablished
a
Ag in it seems likely th a t tr ade w a s by s e a a n d not overl a
.

nd
a
fo r there i s no tr ce o f Kulli conta cts l a a a
, ,

ndw rds f rther

west tha n Ba mpur just over the border into Persi n M kr n a aa
a a
n d the F rs province o f P ersi a
, ,

though ex plored by Stein

a
a a a
, ,

h s produced no evidence o f Kulli coloniz tion or tr de but

o nly cultures ch a a a
,

r cteri z ed by long persisting p inted pot -

te r y style b a sed on th a t o f Ta l i Ba kun but surviving fo r

- -

a
m ny centuries An a ncient Indi a
, ,

a
n legend which found i ts
w a aa a a aa
.

into the j k or reinc rn tion stories o f Buddh

'

y t s w s

o f the merch a nts who went by se a h o m India a

, ,

to the l nd o f
'

Ba bylon bringing with them a mong other ra rities pea cock a

a
tr ined to screa m a t the sn a pping o f the fingers a n d to

da nce a t the cl a pping o f the h a nds which stood in the ’ ‘

forep a rt o f the vessel n d , fla a a

,

pping i ts wings , uttered sweet

s ound a a
n d d nced In such stories m y be enshrined the
’
a
va a
gue tr ditions o f prehistoric tra a a
.

de n d o f the merch nts

coming with ivory a pes a a
,

n d pe cock s r e c mu s o mtme n ts in
p
s tr ange stone pots a a a
, ,

n lien tongue n d religious c ustoms

aa
from the M kr n to the wh a a
, ,

rves o f S umer e rly in the third

millennium
We must now turn to North Ba
.

luchista n a
’

n d p r ticul a rly a
a
to the v lley o f the Z hob R iver which runs north e stwa a
,

rd s -

from the mounta ins behind Quett a a a a

,

n d the Bol n P ss

Here a a
region north wes t o f the Bol a
.

n d in the Pi shin Lor -

n -
 OF W E S TE R N INDIA 1 1
9
aa a
P s s re number o f te lls which h a ve yielded evidence o f
prehistoric occup a tion The sites a r e not a s numerous a s

those o f Sind or S outh Ba luchista

.

n but they nevertheless

show cl e a a
r evidence o f group o f c ultur e s w h i c h a
,
'

lthough
a llied to those we h a ve been describing in genera
,

l terms yet
ha ve distinctive points o f difference which justify us i n cl a
,

ss

ing them s a a
se p a ra te group conne cted with the R e d wa re
Cultures o f Pe rsi a ra ther tha n the buff wa r es ch a ra
,

of the S outh B luchista

ther ex plora
a
tion would enl a
n sites It i s very prob ble th t fur
rge the geogra
.

phic l bound a
a
cteri stic

a
a
ries
o f thes e Zh o b Cu ltu res a s we c a n ca ll them : there i s certa inly
a n ex tension southw a rds to the he a d o f the N a
,

l R iver well
to the south o f the Bol a n Pa
,

ss

Tha nks to work ca rried out by the l a te Briga dier R oss a ta

site in the Z hob V a lley we h a ve a n inv lu a a

ble stra tifi ed
e n c e o f hum a n occup a tion in a large tell tha t o f Ra na
,

se q u
'

Ghund a i whi ch c a n serve a s a fr amework into wh ich c a

,

n be

fitted the m a teria l known from surfa

,
.

ce finds elsewhere We
a r e therefore in a much better position tha n i n South Ba
.

lu
c h i sta n to form s ome s ort o f a chronologica l scheme fo r the
a
v rious pottery styles a scheme which ma y be uncert a in in
terms o f a ctua l da tes in yea rs but which does give a rel a
, ,

tive
a
,

loc l sequence
Ross s work a t the R a naGhund a i tell i s a
.

n ex cellent
’

a
e x mple o f wh a t ca n be done by intelligen t ob serva tion on
s uch a site without ex ca va tion in the o r d i n a r
y s e n se o f the

a
'

wo rd work which might h a ve been c a rried out on a

,

doz en
B luchi sites but h a s not been a ttempted so fa r The Ra na
Ghund a i mound i s up to 40 feet h i gh a n d i s being a
.
,

ctively
dug a wa a
y by the loc l villa gers who use th e a sh la de n soil -

from the a ncient occup a tio n level s a s ma

,

This fa
a
te i s one common to most tell s ne a
n d though n a tura lly it mea
nure on their field s
r modern vill ges
ns the d estruction o f the site it
a .

neve r theless does provide in ma n y i ns t ances a

, ,

complete
c ross section o f the mound a n d i ts str a taFrom the ex posed
, ,

- .
2 BRONZ E
a
20

a
4

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n d o th e n ma m mpupa
s r s s p ss e n ec p c s e
teri a
s

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'

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meti ng the to th a fi w ha
e s z b

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t f

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1 22 BRONZ E AGE P EASANT C OMMUNITIES
R ana Ghund a i en able us e tha t the pot were very fi s to se s ne,

well ma de bowl with either a

- foot ring or a pede ta
s, l ba e -
s s

ad ea ch with a frie e f tyli ed bull or bl a

,

n ck buck in z o s z s

which the vertica l el nga tion f the leg ad hor i a

,

con o o s n ns s

tra t to the hori onta

s l elonga tion f the Kulli a mma
z l o s

There i a cri per le na li tic h a

tura
.

s ndling f the R G II
s ss s o

anima l th an f tho e in the Kulli Cul ure ad awe ha

,

s o ll
s t n s s

there a good p a ra llel to the tyle f bowl ad the

,

se e re s s o s n

treatment f the a nima l found in Nor hern Per ia

o s t s .
6

FIG 13 Bo w ls pa
inte d with c a ttle an d b la
ck b uck R aa
i I I ph a
n
Gh un d a
. .
,

se

The occup a tion o f R G II does not seem to ha

v

ve been o f
very long dura tion a n d only one bu ilding level c a n be

tra ced followed by sterile m a l implying tempora

teri a
,

ry
a ba ndonment o f the site R G III however i s a
,

period o f
some length with three ph a ses o f building a nd a
.
, ,

continuous
pottery evolution which in i ts turn i s derived from the wa
,

re s
o f R C II In R G II I a the fi n e brush work o f R C II con -

es a lmost a n a fi e c ta a
one could a
.

ti n u n d becomes ti o n
'

lmost
use the terms a pplied to a simila r stylistic sequence in D a n

i sh N eolithic pottery a n d talk o f agra nd style followed by a

pretty style a n d red p a int a ppe rs being used a
-
s a s econd a
colour even though the ba ckground i s itself a
,

red slip pro

d uc i n g a curious red o n re d technique Among other pa
, ,
‘ ’
t
- -

terns ex ecu ted in this two colour style a

.

re multiple lined
‘
-
'
-

s qu a res in red a n d bl ack which reca ll those o f Amri a nd ,

 OF W ESTERN INDIA 1 23

w hi ch might indi ca te a pprox ima t e co ntempor a neity and

a
p
inter cha nge o f idea s ; in Amr i w a re to o there a r e sm ll

pedesta l feet with groups o f vertica l lines jus t in the m a nner

o f R C II a n d I I IaThe ma i n occup a tion o f the S ur J ang l a
site s eems to be comp a ra ble with R G H R: a
.

n d with the su c

c e ed i n g where ta ll ca rafe like vessel s a ppea r whi ch-

aa
lso t Sur J nga a aa
,

o cc u r -
l (Fi gfi In this ph s e n d in the

FIG ad ca raf Ra aGh u d a

Bo wls i I I Ia ad 1 1 16
a
. 14 . n e, n n n

ph s es

ne t R G 11 1 the bru h work on the pottery p a

x 0, inting
s -

coa r en ad the b a ckground i almo t inva bly a

ri a
,

s s n deep s s

red ; compa
ra ble ite f th i p i d a Peri a
s mo Ghund a
s o i s/ er o re

ad nMogul Ghun d i nea r Fort S a a

ndem n ( Fig I a
The end o f the R G 1 110 ph se seem s to h a a
.

ve been violent
a
s we s ha ll se e in Chapter VI there i s evidence o f bur n i n g
an d the site ma a a a a a
, ,

y h ve been s cked n d t ll event s in

R C IV a n d V we encounter quite d i fferent tr a ditions in pot
q u e n c e from R G I I to 1110 i s

la ter pha s es however we c a n

R G III period a s a
, ,

whole by
 BRONZE

a m aah a lé i mi é s a
ha
m in
a
} G é
' '

s rto sb e R EI I I l
a
;
a
( se e r / n Ot fse r
g n en t
{h mlztfi c h a h te r I
“
m m d flg Mfi éiw
h fl M é s b z© It w

a a a m a
a ai a
,
)
fi l l) 1 l
.
s
i N l) : x ; l ll O i l a
li i i l f r If.
q rn o o 9 d 03 s sl

ups o f R a n

tempora
ry

rega rd to estima th
ting the siz e o f
S outh
on th e
in both
a
a
re a
nd i
s
f

enormous mound o f D a
i s ve ry sm ll o nly
nd a tE
ba
t$ 9 ( h
ya
" a a3
x J i
b o ut 0 ya
e i e ri ci bf fh e s

r Kot south o f L or la
n
é
rds a
a l g
/ x
a
ii
cross
the
1
,
' i

a
"’

a
a a
.

a
i 5 0 0 y rd s
a a a
,

m
a a
m m
d y} f h i h A h i d fi l h
’

ld i l s
'

g n xq e
e t r e e t g s l s tt e r e i s x th e
u a fHa a a
.

rtr z ldi n a
( ns i
fi occ p ti on c
r pp ls e ttl e m é n t l
o n
g p o s t d
s ns
i si he zmh ipli e s a
i lo fi gi s e ri es i o ffi mlpb r ta ms pr eh i snmi q m nsw n
aa
the spo itg; lb ppa mre n tl
‘
i yfE rlier) lha n rtli e l a
mi d éflb bfgtllh lth i i fl
l 0 } s um s a rl]l o b a a
aa
fmrlle n n i mfl me a B ll l {Ml a
"
i t fl ?
aH
q s )
t) n

t g Br
1
“ a ofi b lly : n bth i n g i s sh wl/ 1 so ff
'

Hfi dlh e w e ttle
xx iw n ts o f lR G ;I H z oh b us ds W i th
‘ ‘

a
.

msn mbélur ts v r yi i i g) fi b n p ni j b yo ngsfe e t tb lti ns y/ thi bll

' ”

r oq

a
lléd Dc h i d i b émro ri lys951 f e et; s q ua vén e sfq m a
a
zi v l ne : k m ( 1083 xi v id; ( t
’

rM o
gh ul fi h u n d i v t
‘

h em e w e re s
f
w t h s a
i o f u a ? i mm
j fi léld e fe fi s i vb
'

a
z

a
W llctd wh e se tfle i n e nfi; lBui lfi i n gma tegl zls se e m mth vbzbe e h
’

a
a
f

a
fld érf fmi h d a ti o n s wi th mi d a b ri sksz a a
,

o fh o l bo lste g nz si llssh e s
'
“
. )
126 BRONZE AGE P EASANT C O MMUNITIES
ad Nund a
n r abut on the whole h i cl a f pottery i pee t s ss o s n

liar to North B aluchi ta n Al o from S u j aga laone or two

,

s s r n re

piece f thi n h a rd grey wa re bowl with p a inted orna

.

s o -
ment s

in bl a a a a a a
,

ck be t p
,
r lleled in
s the Quett ite d in S i t n s s n s .

The development o f the pottery in R G 1111: i s very well

s hown a t the site o f Feri a no Ghund a i He re the red slip a s

aba ckground i s const nt a n d paa inting on this i s in bl a

.

ck
a lone while the brush work h a s become co a
,

-
rser A common
sha pe i s the sm a ll bea ker or bottle with a solid pedes ta
, .

l foot
a a
,

n d thi s type s erves to link th e N l settlement with thi s

ph a se ( Fig I There a re a couple o f sherds from Feria no
Ghund a i with fa irly na tura listic a nima ls p a
.

inted on t hem
( prob a bly deera a n d a bull ) a n d two more h ave fi s he s de
w i se th e decora s a
,

p i c ted but othe r tion i ll geometric Some

fra gments with h a tched z ones suggest compa rison with Sista
.
,

n
sherd s though a t these sites the p a inting i s b la ck on bu ff
In common with the Kulli Culture o f S outh Ba a
.
,

luchist n
the Z hob Va lley sites h a ve produced anumber o f cl a
,
°

y
figurines o f c a ttle a n d women a nd though the s tr tified a
deposits o f Ra na Ghund a i conta
, ,

ined none o f these their

occurrence a r Ja nga l Feri a no Ghund a i Moghul Ghu
,

t Su n
a
d i a n d Ka n da ni s well a a s a t Da b r Kot suggests tha a
, ,

t
they sho uld be a ssigned to the R G III ph a
, ,

se L ittle need be

sa ll s but one cl a
.

id o f the fe w figurines o f humped bu y fi g ur

ine (from P e ri a n o Ghund a i ) seems to represent a horse a
,

nd ,

i s interesting in connex ion with the finds o f horses teeth in

’

RC I a t the ty pe site -

The fema le figures a however o f gre a

.

re ,
t interest (Fig
,
.

Li ke those o f the Kulli Culture they end below the

wa ist in little pedesta ls a n d they a re a lso in severa a
,

l inst nces
a dorned with severa l neckl a ces though these a
,

r e more

sc hema tically shown tha

,

n those from th e southern region

But the fa ces a re tota a
.

lly d ifferent hood e d with coif or

s ha wl they h a ve high smooth forehea d s bove their sta ring a
circula r eye holes their owl bea k nose a
, , ,

-
,
n d grim slit mouth
- .
 o r W E S TE R N I N D I A 127

The result i s terr ifyi ng even in a ti ny model not more tha n

2 inches hi gh a n d in two from D a bar Kot a
,

ll pretence i s
thrown a side an d the fa ce i s agrinning skull Wh a tever ma
,

y
be sai d o f the Kulli figurines these c a a
.

n h rdly be toys but

seem ra ther to be a
, ,

g ri m embodiment o f the mo ther godde ss -

who i s a lso the gua rdia n o f the de d a a

n underworld deity

FIG . 16 . a
Cl y fi gurin e s of wo me n
, Z h o b Cultures
a
concerned like with the corpse a n d the seed corn b u n ed -

a a
be ne th th e e rth
The fertility a
.

s pect so often connected with such under

world gods i s indeed represented by other models fo r which

no p a a a
r llel s c n be found in South B luchi s ta a
,

n From
‘

Moghul Ghunda i is apha llus c rved in stone a a

.

n d there i s

another prob a ble ex ample in rough potter y from P e ri a

,

no

a
Gh und i a n d from thi s site too comes a figur ine con s is ting
a a a
sly ex gger ted fem le vulva a a
,

of n e n or
m ou n d thighs .
1
38 3 11 0 a A a
m f n m sv m x mv m m s

mpmfi sdqum . Jo H md fi fl mo fi o m mi h m :
(
1 13 m al a
i
sz o 9

ph a
s
m a m
‘
h ugl li td e t i llum
a
mm
é fi i d é g fl bfi m m
a
fi cs s s
m
e

fii b lb lgd e si M e d fl h md x fim j th ro ugh o u
aa
o k fi 511 i e g t
a am
,

RGa MMnd J HLro mth W i tt; En d usw lgo a fbu ndn t 8 :

th e o w a
ldm a
h fl tt mp oba
bly f mw esi fi no 551111156 1559
a
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m
,

m
aa a
3 153; f m ;pr ese nt; ttoD b ruK m i be gffi rmsfg is
'

ti nc ti ve st ttle mmtgé m b s w e d ztr pe s M M QW MW

In d u a a
s V lle jfi b n w mb e seb rx t oth eris i tQS su a
a aa
c h tflbs s tq h e d

a m
,

c rn e li n b e d s fi mn M e gh td Gh m dpi nd fii m emiw
‘

m it m da
ia
Mlkmd WQ Kmu
m
aa
th e s i s ? li 19 113151 13 i t n
tsj fno 3

a
V )

a aa m a
5 c (

mm
;

ed g fs r lld bd g fi th e cH r ppi dee d s tfi n hn g

’
-

m ma egu . a
b lfy likely vto j bmo fiSi mi l r pri gi n vlz uo mi o n o m; i
n . t)
 H ppa
aa 9 46 S e c ti o n th ro ugh
ita a
P L AT E 2 . r 1 :

d e fe n c e s of c d el ( d e t i l)
P L ATE 8 . H rppa
aa 9 46
1 : a gu i
Cl y fi r n es
1 30 BRONZE AG E P EASANT C O MMUNITIE S
respons e to the na tur l fa unaa a
n d th e di ffering types o f

domestica ted bea s t in the two culture s but a pa rt from this

the simila rities a r e so s triking th a t we c a n cl aim Hissa rIa
,

nd

R G II a s pa ra llel developments within the R e d wa re a re a -

Whether we c a l so equa ate the d a tes o f the two pha

.

n se s i s

not so certa in but the Ba luchi sta n evidence does show tha
a
t
R G II must ha ve a fa ir degree o f priority over the Ha ra
,

pp
Culture a n d i ts d a te should therefore be well b a ck in the
fourth millennium B C perh a p s contempora
,

r y with Je md e t

Na sr R G III would begin in E a rly Dyna stic times a

. .
,

a
n d con

tinn e to overl a p with the H a rapp Culture in Akka a

.

di n
times or even l a ter
As we sha ll se e in Cha a
.
,

pter VI there w s evidence o f vio

lent destructi on a
,

t the end o f the R G 1 1 11: settlement ; thi s

a n d the simil a a
r t le told by the b ur mn g o f the settlement on
the Sohr d mb o f N l h a a a ve some significa
-

- nce when we come

to di scuss the mov ements o f peoples into Indi from the a
a
west in the second h lf o f the second millennium The tot l a
a
ch nge i n po ttery types im ies a m
n ex tinction o f the e a
.

rlie r
cultur e a t le s t a t Ra ana Ghund i a n d the b rb rous qu a a lity aa
o f the pottery he a vily decora
,

ted in relief which follows on

a
the p inted wa res forms a striki ng contr a st to th e e a rlier
tra ditions It did not me n the end o f hu a a
n settlement in m
Ba luchis ta n but it mus t ha ve me a nt a considera
.

ble redue
tion in the popul a tion a n d yet the a ncient cra
,

ft o f pot
pa inter never entirely died out From sites in th e Quetta
,

a
region h v e come pots p a
a
.

inted with designs copied from

a
S ssa nia n f brics o f the six th a n d seventh centuries A D

brought by tra ders through the Bol a n P ss a n d one h a a

. .

a
only to w lk through the b a z aa rs o f Quetta or Pesh a wa
,

r
to se e se t out fo r s le p inted pots ga a a y with their bl a ck
a n d r e d designs th a t so disconcertingly resemble the a
,

ncient
a
p tterns but m de the d a
, ay be fore ye sterd a
“

y in the loc a l

P ostsc ri pt . Since this book w awritten

s ,
Ii ss Be a
tic
r e de
 o r W E S T ERN I ND I A 131

Ca
rd i h d a
area pa
to the S ociety o f Antiqu ries o f
per
s a
London describing her work o f reconna issa nce in centra l
B luchis t n since the w a
a a
r Sh e h as ex tended the known d i s

Wa a a aa
.

tr i b uti o n o f Quett re southw rd s n d mplifie d our

know ledge o f the other cultures considera
,

bly distingui shin g

aals o new po ttery type (Tog u Wa a
,

re ) ; Her discoveries on
th e l a ter prehi storic s ites in B aluchista n a r e referred to in

Ch a pter VI .

Th e b ai a unt
s c cco a lu hi ta p tt ry atha
of th e B t fP c s n o e w s o ro

f e sso rCh i ld in A i t Egypt 93 3 umma

e nc en ri d in N Li gh t th 1 s z e ew on e

M t A i t Ea Ch a a a a
, ,

os t
nc e n ps I X d b d fi t h nd tu d y n se on rs - s

f th ma t ia l in I dia aw ll ah rigi a
. .
,

o e er n l r port b y S i Au l
s e s t e o n e s r re

S t in (An A hal gi a
e l Tu i
rc eo o Wa i i taa
c d N th B a luh i ta
o r n z rs n n or c s n

( 9 9) a
1 2 d A A ha n
o l g i n a l T u
rc i G de i a o ca d N C o r n e ro s n

Ma jumda r (E pl a
. .

ti i Si d (
x or Myons tudi in th ligh t
n n 1 ow n s es e

o fm r r o nt w rk ad a
e ece d ta il d
o a mi a n ti n f th rigi a e l e t e -e x n o o e o n

ma t ia l a um ma ri d in A i t I d i a
,

—
8 6 i bi d nc e n 1 2
er re s z e 4 n no

ad in am r
, .
, .

6 4 ; A ti q ty 6 9— 8
'

2 — 0 n w x v11 1 1 2, n o e

a a a
, ,

p p o u l r f r m in S m
o A i t C i i o f I d i
e Ch
nc en p I I t es o n

di u i n f f rm r li ma
, . .

S i Aur l S t in ti nd iti
’
r e e s sc ss o i o o e c c co o ns n

S uth Ba
o lu hi ta ni nta
c i d i h i G d ia
s s co v lum 7 3 4 5 ne n s e ro s o e, —1 2 -
2

a a a
, ,

1 1 3 4
-
T h
1 1 d ri p ti n e f h esc L k e M h h or r gi no i g iv
t en by nc e o s e

Ma a a a
.

ju m d r E p l ti i S ix d C
or h p V ons n n

Th Qu tta i t I di a
, , . ,
.

e p tt r
e y i d ri b
o d b ye m in A s e sc
3 e e nc e n n no

a a ind r f h Ba lu h i ta n wa
.
,

3 4 1 1 d —1
th r m 2; n e er in e o t e c s es

i bi d 1 I ha v a l utili d u pub li h d ma e t ia l so z e n s e er

b ta i d by M a jumd a h i la
.
,

o ne t j ur y i S i d b y h ki d
r on s s o ne n n t e n n e ss

f M Kri h a D vaad th a u t f Th a Hill i b ad

,

o r s n e n e cco n o rro s se on

rk th r i 943 Th N a
,

my ow n fi ld e -
w o l m t ry i d
e e n 1 rib ed b y e ce e e s e sc

Ha rgr a v E a a i Ba luh i ta 9 5 ad h a t a
.

e ti
e s, xc v o ns n c s n 1 2 n t t

Ba mpur (P r ia n Ma kra
e s n) b y S i Au l S t i in A h al g i a l r re e n rc eo o c

R econn a i a i N W I di ass nces ad SE I a

n n 6 n r n 10 —1 1 0

t y f th Indi a m r h a nt aBa
. . . .

Th e s or o e b yl n (th B d n m e c s t o e oe

j a
i ta k a) i f r m Ts h j d ta ok a t a n E e B C w ll t 8 3 Thr s. o e e c . , 111 , e

rib d i J u N aE a
, . .
, .

i d on c e s t Stu di
e sc e n o rn . e r s e rn e s,
 CH AP T E R v .

Ci ti es ad T
n o w ns o
f Si n d ad th n e P uj
n b a
la
N o w th e n d b e tw e e n th e Jh e lum a n d th e B e a
s i s sa
id to h o ld
nin e natio n s an d fi ve th o u sa n d c itie s e ve ry o n e o f th e m a s

large a t I th in k th i s i s e x a a
,

s Ko s ; b u e r ted
gg .

FR O M the h ills to th e a a
pl in s ; from diffi c ult mo un t i n ous a
co u a a
ntry where e ch seclud ed v lley i s c ut o f? from i ts ne igh
bo u a
rs to grea t region linked from no rth to s outh by a river
sys tem forming a na a
tur l highwa y o f commun i ca tio n ; from
vill a ges or a a
t th e most rustic m rket towns to ci ties which in
-

si z e an d orga n iz ation ra nk high a mong the urb a na

, ,

chi ev e
ments o f the Whole Ancient Or ient ; this i s the tr a nsition we
a
m ke in turni n g from B a luchist n a a n d the
prehi storic com

a a
mun i ti e s described in the l st ch pter to the pl a
,

ins through
whi ch flow the Five Rivers o f th e P unj a a
.
,

b n d to the south
a
s In th 1 s re t a r ea aa a
, ,

the Ind u g where Ind i re lly be g ins e st

w a rd o f the Ba aa
luchi mount in b rrier we e ncounter a
.
, ,

nother
a
,

group o f prehi storic settlements whi ch though they sh r e

a a
wi th the B luchi st n Vill a ges a common a gricultur l ba a
,

ck
ground a n d cert a a
in fe tures o f cultura la ffi nity yet in mos t
respects present a contr a st r ather tha na a
,

simil rity

The va riety in styles a n d techniques a mong the products

o f the B a luchi sta n communities the strongly individu liz ed a
g roup s o f pottery types fo r i n st n ce a permi ts u s to vi su a liz e

the ex isten ce o f little pea sant sta tes ea

,

ch more or less self;

a aa a a
cont ined w i thin n tur l a re such s th e Z hob Va a lley or
those o f the Kolw a a aa n d M sk i T h e si mil ritie s we c a a
, ,

n de

te e t b etween th e loc a a
.

liz ed cultur e s r e the o utc ome o f c o m

mo n necessiti es a mon g fa rmi ng peo ple s worki ng difficult a
la nd ; there i s no evidence o f a n y uniform a a a
,

rbitr ry st n
1 34 C ITIES AND TOW NS
‘

la rge towns a long the line o f the now dry Gha gga
- r River i n
the desert a re a s o f Ba ha wa lpur S ta te The northern ca pita
,

a
l ’

Ha ra a a
.
,

p p i s in the Punj b bout 1 0 0 mile s south we s t o i -

La hore ; the southern city M o h e njo d a

, ,

ro i s on the Indus i n
-

S ind ne a rly 2 0 0 miles north o f K a ra

, ,

chi The very ex istenc e

o f these l a rge cities a n d o f the bigger town s a
.
,

s well must

presuppose aconsidera ble a gricultur a l popul a

, ,

ti on pro
d uc i n g a n a dequa te surplus beyond i ts immedi a te n eed s fo r
sa le to the towns a n d the inva ri a
ble use o f burnt cl a y brick s

throughout the Ha ra pp aCulture must imply fa a

,

r
gre t e r

timber resources fo r firing the kilns th a n the present vegeta

tion o f t a ma risk a ld a
aa
n d scrub wo u fford U nder the presen t
clima tic conditions o f S ind the Ha r pp sta te a sw e ca
.

n infer

it from the t a ngible rem a ins could h a rdly ha ve been

a chieved Y e t it w a s brought into being a
-

n d survived fo r

centuries in this very region a n d we c a n look only to ch a

.

ng
ing n a tura l conditions fo r a n ex pl ana
,

tion
Fortun a tely we h a ve a ra ther rem a rka ble a
.

mount o f evi
dence fo r conditions in the thi rd millenni um B C in this a re a
,

The Ha ra a
pp Culture counted a mong i ts a
. .

ch i ev

representa tion a la r t whi ch concerned itsel f l a rgely

ma ls a n d na tur a l form s a n d thes e represent a tions o
a
tempor ry w ild n d domestic a a ted a a
,

nim ls
a
the ctua l
ca va ti o n s From these

were such a a
.

s to f vour

a n d the tiger a s well a s

none o f which survives

( e x cept the ti ger sometime s found in Sind ) But on
the a ncient engra ved sta mp se a ls a ll these a nim a
.
,

-
l s su
adeity who a ppe a rs a s a lord o f be a st s with the m in a
in h i s dom a ins M a
a
ny other re
a re known from H a rapp a
.

rt

tiger h a a
,

a
ve in f ct been found
Ha ra pp .
 OF S IN D AN D THE P U NJ A B 1 35
Among other wild a n im a ls kno wn from one or both o f
these sources we ma y noti c e the river crocodile
-
o f gh a ri al
type still a n inh a bita nt of the I ndus ; some species o f bea
,

r
monkey squirrel a n d pa rrot ; the Ba ra singh a a
, ,

deer n d the
horns a t le a s t o f the Ka shmir spotted S a m bhur a
, ,

n d hog

deer but these m y ha a

ve been impor ted The j a ck a l a
, ,

nd

the wolf were there n o t fa r from the edge s o f the towns ; r a

.

ts
mongoose liz a rds a n d tortoises mus t h a ve been fa m i lia
, ,

r in
s treet or courty a rd ; a n d fi sh from the rivers w a s ea
, ,

ten
Direct evidence o f tree s i s confined to the lucky surviva l ofa
.

a
fe w e h r r e d be a ms o f which those o f deod a
,
r mus t ha ve been
brought down from the h i ll s to the north though sissoo still
sweet smell o f i ts fre shly sa
,

g row s in S ind the cloying wn -

wood i s a n ess enti a l pa rt o f life in North W estern India -

tod a y .

Though none o f the evidence i s conclus ive yet the infer

ence from the fa unathe wood needed to burn so ma
,

ny
mi llion bricks a n d the implica tion o f aflouris hing gri a
,

cultura l ba ckground a ll s uggest a clim a

,

te different from
tha t o f tod a y when a t M o h e njo d a r o th e r a nge in a nnua
,

-
l
tempera
,
°
ture i s between 1 2 0 F in summer to firo st in winter
with a ra i nfa ll o f less tha n 6 inches in the yea
.
,

r The very use

o f burnt b ri c k a s a building m a teria l ins tea
.

d o f the sun dried -

mud brick common to the Ancient E a st ma y imply the

nec essity o f fi nding something more dura ble under con
d i ti o n s o f frequent or cons ider ble ra
sys tem o f dr a i ns in the citie s ma
aal
infa
s o
ll a
be e x
n d the el a

pla
,
bora
i ned in con
te
y
n e x i o n w ith a grea ter volume o f r a in w ter -
a
The record o f the chron i clers o f Alex a nder the Gre a
.

ts ’

ca
g p gm ai ns sugge s t s th at in the fourth century Sind ( the
w a s still a a
fertile tr ct o f country a nd ,

o f th e persistence o f conditions kinder

1 36 C ITIE S A ND TOW NS
south western monsoon re a
- ha a
s shifted e a stw a rd s an d th t a
a
the Indus w s formerly within the a rea o f monsoon r a
,

ins
‘

O n the whole this ex pl a nation seems more likely th a

.

n the
a ltern a tive view tha t the northern storm belt w s deflected -
a
southw a rds by conditions i n immedia tely post gl a cial tim es -

a n d th a t the e ffect persisted fter the esta a

,

blishment o f other
wise norm l climaa tic conditions Though S outh B luchista n a
ha d certa inly re a ched i ts present conditions o f a rid clim a
.

te
by the time o f Alex a nder s retre a t the Indus re gion ma
’

y
ha ve preserv ed i ts moister clim a
,

te within the western fr in ge

o f th e mons oon until l a ter centuries
Within the a re a a lre a
.

a a
dy described the uniform products
o f the H a ra pp civiliz tion c a n be tr a
,

ced with the mono

tonous regul a rity o f a highly orga n i z ed commu n i ty under
-

some strong system o f centr a liz ed government controlling

production a n d distribution a n d no doubt levying a
,

system

o f thlls a n d customs throughout the territory under i ts rule

As we sh a ll se e there i s no e vidence to imply tha

.

a
t the cities
o f Ha ra a
pp n d M o h e njo d a ro were n o t contempor ry : l a a
,

-
id
out to a common ground pl a n ea ch with i ts defenced cita
-
del
a
towering bove the rest o f the town they seem to h a
,
'

ve been
tw in c a a
pit l s a northern a nd a
,

southern o f one u n i ted king

dom O ne i s reminded o f historic a l pa ra

, ,

llel s in North West -

Indiawhen S a ka s a sh a na s ruled from T x il a a

.

a
n d Ku or
‘

Pesh a wa r in the north n d Muttra in the south over a

,

single st a
, ,

te
In the region which might re a son a
.

bly be considered the

Northern Kingdom fourteen vill a ge or sm a a
a
ll town sites re
known in a ddition to Ha rapp a n d one su spects th a
,

t fi e ld
work would produce more in the Punj a
,

b where on ly two
a r e now known the rem a inder being concentra ted e a
,

st o f

the Indus a n d S utlej in Bh a wa lpur S ta

,

te (Fig In the
Southern Kingdom o f M o h e njo d a ro there a re a
.

-
bout seven
a
teen such sub sidi ry settleme nts m a ny occupying sites
aa
lre dy lived o n by pe a sa nts o f the Amri a n d rel a
,

ted cultures .
1 38 C ITIES A ND TOW NS
perha
ps connected with aport on the h ore o f the Ar bi n
s aa
Se a
These settlements (such sites a s th a t la
.

st mentioned e x

c e te d ) do not seem to h a
p ve been l aid out fo r defence a nd a t

the c a pita l cities the defences o f the cita del s a lone ha

,

ve been
proved to ex ist though town wa ll s a r e by no me a ns u nlikely
Communic a tion by the river would provide a grea t na tura
.
,

a
l
thoroughfa re north a n d s outh linking the c a pit l s Ha raapp
on the b a nks o f the R a vi a n d M o h e n o da
j ro on the
-
Indu s

a n d pa ck tra ils over the p a

-
sse s into B a luchista n would serve
the tra ders into those p a
a
rts
The a b solute uniformity in the products o f the Ha ra
.

pp
Culture c a nnot wholly be ex pl a ined by a rigidly en forced se t
o f laws There mu st h a ve been a strongly e st a blished com
me r c i al code a nd a st and a
.

rdiz ed technique o f production

which could control the siz es o f bricks the c a pa city a n d type

t on the wheel in a va
,

o f pots ( tu rn e d o u riety o f depressingly

utilita rian forms) a n d the sys tem o f weights a n d me a
/

sures

A t M o h e njo d a ro itself the strict ob serva

.
,

-
nce o f street front
a ges through successive centuries o f the town s rebuilding ’

implies heredity o f l a nd tenure a n d tra de such a s might lie

in guild s a nd a ca ste sys tem A t Ha ra pp a we sha ll se e th a t

a
the gricultura l output w a n i cr a
.

s under mu l control with

p
grea t gra na ries stra ngely foresha dowing those o f the R oma
,

n
Army In the a bsence o f a n y e ffective grinding m a chinery
flour w a s produced by orga ni z ed gra
.
,

m pounding by c o olie-

la bour which w a s housed in miser a ble rows o f identic lly a

pl a nned tw o roomed cotta
a
ges There i s aterrible e ffi
,

ci ency a bout the Ha ra pp civiliz a tion which reca lls a

.

ll th e ‘

worst o f Rome but with this CM IY contrived system

goes a n i sol a tion a nd a st a gn tion h a a
rd to p a ra a
,

llel in n y
a
known civ iliz tion o f the Old World , though perh a p s not
without comp a ra ble situ tions in the New aa mong the
a ncient South a n d Centr l Americ a a a
,

a
n civiliz tions
The rema rka ble uniformity o f the Ha ra
.

pp Culture i s in
 O F SIN D AND THE P U NJ A B 1 39

a xp not on ly spa ti ally b u a

a
‘
f ct e re sse d t lso in the dimens ion o f

time At Ha ra pp its elf the first town on the site overlying a

,

pe a sa nt settlement rel a ted to the North Ba luchista

.
,

n culture
a reai s a lrea dy in a ll i ts known respect s typica l o f the cul
ture in i ts full m a turity But here a nd a t M o h e njo d a
,

ro -

where the grea test depth o f a ccumula ted stra ta ha

.
,

s been re
'

co rded ther e i s here a fter no ch a nge In the l a tter site the re

Were a t le a
s t n i ne ph a
.
,

s es o f rebuilding in the city s history

’

often interrupted b y disa

,

strou s river flood s but from top to

bottom o f th e a ccumul a ted l a yers o f debris no cha nge c a

,

n be

detected in the content o f the m a l culture a

teri a n d it i s

rea son a ble to suppose th a t the less ta

,

ngible e le me nts e f th e
people s lives were simil a
’
rly un mo d i fi e d Ce r t i n ly the / a
s cript which should be a n index to ch a nging modes o f
thought 1 5 tota lly u ncha nged throughout As we look tod a
,

y
a t the unva r ying succes sion o f building ph a s es a
.
,

t M o h e njo

da ro towering 30 feet a bove us a s we sta nd on the lowes t

street level we encounter in monument a
,

-
l form th e first I n
st ance in the stor y o f India o f the inn a te cons erva
,

tism o f
thought th a t i s repea ted through the centuries ; cons er va tism
a
th t ma y so e asily become s t agn ation e s peci lly when a
developed in isola
,

*
tion
Although the dur a
.

tion o f time implied by this long suc

cession o f re b ui ld i n gs must be a t least seven hundred ye a rs
or more yet there a re no m a teri l cha nges perc eptible sa ve a
in a rcha eologic l minutia a
e Curious ly primi tive fe a
,

tures
a
s the type o f fla t bronz e a x e or the spe a
.
,

such r without mi d
rib persist uncha nge d a
a
n d unimproved Although the re i s

good evidence o f tra de between the Ha ra pp kingdom a

, .

nd

al ady m
AS i d pre
5 3 h a ai ent one
p i
on t e ex c v t on re o rts on

M h j daa d Ha a ppa u a ad i ay ai i d i
.
,

e x tr not t on st n

ph a ( u
o en o- ro n r se n or n r n

gu i hi g h
s u i
n t e ai g aph y
s a
c c ess ve d d) se s tr e str t r w s n o t re c o r e
a h ma a a a a a
.

Th e re i p i
re d E ly I
t re e m d i d nL
‘
h
er o s,
’
r , n te r e te n te , e c

ha a ly P i d P h a I i f ll m d i a P ri d
‘ ’
d by I
so t
B t r er o se s o ow e n te r e te e o

P h a I I I Th i i mp i bl y m i i g d i th f ll i g au
’
se . s o ss e s ste s n o re n e o ow n cco n t.
I 4O
‘

C ITIES AN D TOW NS
t hose o f S umer a n d Akka d yet the dec isive techno logi c l a
a dva nce m a rked by the m a king o f a x es a
,

n d other tool s with

s ockets fo r the h a ndle known in Mesopota mia fi o m the b e

d millennium never rea ched the me ta
,

g i n ni ng o f the thi r l
s mith s o f the Indu s a n d the Punj a b Indeed so fa r as we c a
,

tell it i s likely th a t the first sha ft hole a x e seen a

.
,

-
t M o h e n jo
da ro w a s bra ndished by a n inva
,

der from the west who took

pa rt in the sa cking o f the city perha ,
ps a bout the mi d d le o f

a
the second millennium B C
This sta gna tion a n d uniformity in the H a ra
. .

pp Culture
t hroughout i ts known dur a tion renders it peculi a rly di fficult
to a ssess not only the s equence in the l a rger towns but a lso
their rel a tions hip one to a nother It i s improb a ble tha t the
n i ne building ph a ses known a t M o h e njo d a
.

-
ro (where v irgin
s oil h a s not been re a ched ) a re a

a
ll sub sequent to the si x
identified a t Ha ra pp but such a tra nsference o f the se a t of
a
,

g overnment to s outhern site ( or indeed the rever se proc e ss

with M o h e njo d a ro the ea rlier site) a nd a tota l dur a

,

-
tion o f
th e tw o cities between fo r over a thousa nd yea
a
rs i s th e o re ti
a
c lly not impo ssible The H a ra
,

pp Culture i s known only in

i ts m a ture form ; it h a a
.

s no known begin n i ngs no tent tive

e a rly ph a ses be fore the outline s a

,

r e firmly fix ed A n origin

o utside India i s inherently improb a ble b ut w h e r e a

.

n d in
‘

w ha t form this origin w a

,

s i s quite unknown

The combina tion o f el a bora te soc i a la n d economic orga

.

ni

z ati On over a huge empire with a n isol a tion whi ch rendered

ma a
ny o f i ts technologic l processes a stoni shingly primi tive

a
m kes one think not so much o f contempor ry Sumer or a
a
E gypt but r ther o f the Centra l America n pre Columb a
-
n
c ivili z a tions. Here simil a rly one finds grea t a rchitectura
,

a
l
a ch ieveme nt (fa r su rp a a
ss ing th t o f the H a ra pp civiliz tion a
indeed) ; the rigorously a uthorita ri a n rule a n d el abora te re
li gi o u s conceptions th a t we ma
a y be permitted to in fer from
the H ra a pp evidence ; a primitive hiera tic scri pt n d a a ‘

a
t echnologic l b a ckwa rd ness which in Ame rica w a
,

s so e x
1 42 C ITIES AND T OW NS
red b a ckground suggest th a t the m a i n rel a tions hips should
lie with the red wa re group o f cultures in North Ba luchista
,

-
n
ra ther th a n those using the b ull wa
,
”

res o f the southern region

But direct connex ion i s in the present sta
.

te o f our knowledge
impossible to prove though the sma ll a mount o f ma teria l
a va il able from the recent ( 1 946 ) ex ca va tions a t H ra a
,

p
shows th a t the first town on th a t site overlies a s ettlement o f

people using pottery which a ppea rs to belong to the North

Ba luchista n group in tha t ph a se o f development s een in the

1 11 0 ph a se a t Ra na Ghund a The m ture Ha a

,

a
i (Fig
ra pp Culture in the Punj a
.

b then i s Sub sequent to R G 11 10

S i mil a r evidence i s a va ila ble from sites fa
, , .

a
rther south O n e
o f the B a ha wa lpur towns o f the Ha ra a
.

pp Culture overlies
settlement with bl a ck o n bu ff wa -
re lthough this does not
-
a
seem to be clo sely a llied to a n y o f the B a chi st n wa a
,

lu res
known to us a t present but a t thr ee prehi storic vill a ges in
S ind se ttlements with pottery o f the Amri cl a a
,

a
ss h ve b een

superseded by tho se o f H a ra
,

pp folk : thi s evidence fi ts m

with wha t we know or su spect of the chronologic l position a
o f Amri in the bu ff w a
, ,

a
-
re sequence There i s further evidence
tha t Ha ra pp tra ders a n d prob a
.

bly coloni sts were in South

a
B luchi sta n a t the time the Kulli Culture w a
, ,

s flourishi ng

there a n d the cemetery a t Na l seem s to be th t o f people a

ha ving some conta cts with the civiliz a tion o f the Indus a
,

nd

the Punj a b As this cemetery w a s dug into

the ruin s of a

s ettlement o f R G 1 1 1 6 folk this a a

.
[

a
g in fi ts in well with the
evidence o f stra tigra phy a t Ha ra pp i tse lfi It looks a
,

s though

the urb a n culture o f the pl a ins w a s a pprox i ma tely contem

o ra r y with the hill pe a sa ntr i es m a king pottery in the s tyle
p
o f Kulli N a l a n d Feria no Ghund a i ; only a pprox ima tely
contempora ry a sthe Kulli style seem s to ha ve sta
, ,

a
rted before
’

Ha ra pp folk a rrived in South Ba luchista n a n d th a t o f Na

,

l
i s likely to h a ve gone on ra a
,

a
ther longer th n the period o f
a
m x imum prosperity o f the Ha ra pp kingdom
At three sites in S ind on the top o f ruined a
.

,
n d deserted
 o r e u AND T HE P U NJ A B 1 43

a
H ra a
pp towns o r vill a ge s settlements w ere found whi ch
c o n ta i ned ev idence o f the a rriva
,

l in the region o f new peoples

with a n a lien a n d more b rb a ric w a a a a
a
y o f life th n th t o f the
complex urba n pa ttern o f Ha ra p p There i s a
a
little evi
dence th t simil a r folk c a me to M o h e njo d a ro in the d a
.

a
ys o f -

i ts declin e a nd t Ha ra a
pp a s a t Ch a n h ud a ro in S ind -

th ere w a s a fina l occup a

, , ,

tion o f people buil di ng rough h uts

o n top o f the ru ins o f the d efences a n d s tructures o f the cit a

d el a n d b uryi ng their de a d in acemetery dug into the

r ubbis h tip s o f the de serted city In B a luchista n wha
,

t s eems
'

to be a contempora r y cemetery w a s dug into the rui ns o f a

.

a
‘

Kulli settlement co nta ini n g evidence o f Ha ra pp conta cts

a ga in the evidence i s cons isten t
,
.

Thes e newcomers who co incide so suspici ously with the

end o f the Ha ra pp a civiliz a tion ca me to India
,

fi o m the ‘

w es t To unders ta nd them a n d to a sse ss the prob a ble d a

,

te o f
their rr ivaa l we mus t turn to the countries west o f Indi a
.

hich the H ra pp tra a ders h a a d conta cts Here a ga

,

with W in
a
th e det i led evidenc e will be reviewed a ta la ter st a
.

aa
ge when
we disc uss the r el a tions o f the H ra
,

pp kingdom with
‘

foreign powers but fo r the present we ma y look to Me s op o

a
t mia fo r evidence o f co nnex ions between the Indi a
,

n civili
za ti o n prehis toric by rea s on o f i ts undec iphered script a nd

th o se o f the Tigri s a n d E uphr a

, ,

tes where some form o f

w ritt en record en a bles us to r ega rd them s hi storic fi e m a a
,

da te not long fter 300 0 a

a
As we s w in the previous ch pter the re i s good evidence a
fo r tr a a
ding co n t cts between South Ba luchista n a
,

n d the folk

lture a n d Sumer in the E a rly D yn a

,

o f the Kulli Cu s ti c
“

pe rio d a bout 2 8 0 0 B C Th t the tra a

de conta
,
.

cts o f South
'

a a
B luchist n were not westwa rds by se a
. .
,

routes i s shown by
a
th e bund a nt evidence t such sites a a s Mehi o f reciproc a l
me r c a ntile rel tions ea a stw a rds a n d overla

a
nd with the Ind us
a
V lle y a n d th e Ha
'

ra
'

p p C ulture The shifting sho a ls a nd

th e ma ngrove swa mps o f the Indus mouths c a n never h a

.

ve
 14 4 C I T I E S A N D T O W NS
enco ura a
ged the es t blishment o f a a
a a
merch nts m y h a
aa a
between H r pp a n d the wes t s ilin
por t there n d th e Kulli
v e been mi ddle men i n the ori i n l tr de
-

fa
rom h
g
rb ur
,

on a
aa
g o s

the Ma a
kr an co st At a ll ev ents ther e i s no a
,

a
bsolutely c e r
a
t in evidence tha t Sume r a n d the H r a a
.
,

pp empire wer e in
touch in E rly D yna a stic times : clea r signs o f cont ct first a
a a
ppe r in Akka a th a a
.

di n times t i s bout 2 300 In

Northern Persi there a a a a
»

re cert in points o f evid e nce su

a a a gg t
ing tha a
t some ph se o f the Ha rapp c ivi liz tio n w s con
a
tempor r y with the Hiss r III period a a a a
a
~
nd t An u in
R ussi a n Turkesta n Ha ra a
, ,

pp cont c ts seem perceptible in

Ana a
,

u III on independent showing contempor r y with

a
Hiss r III The d a a a
.

ting o f these ph s es 18 sti ll so mewh t

a
controversi l but some time between 2 30 0 a
.

n d 2 000

a
,

seems prob ble

s ive b a rb a ria a a
.

The intru
a a a a aaa
ns responsible fo r the fi n l o ccup

tion o f the r uined H ra a

pp sites t Ch n h ud ro H r pp -

a n d el sewhere seem a lso to h a ve connex ions with the Hissa

, ,

III— A na

the North Ira

u III complex o f cultures perha
senting their fin l s t ges a

ni a
aa
n—Turkesta
nd
, a
migra
ps indeed r e pr e
tion e s twa
,

rds from
n regi ons O n the whole th e ir
a
a rriva l in India i s not likely to h a
.

ve been until two or three

a
centuries fter 2 0 00 the roun d figure o f 1 500 i s con
ve n i e n tly a pprox ima te So the evidence from the west sug
gests tha t the m a ture Ha ra a
pp civiliz a a
.

tion n d it must be

repea ted tha a

t this i s the only ph s e o f the culture we know t . a
present flourished within the millennium 2 500 1 5 00 —

O f i ts end we a r e more cert a in th a n o f i ts beginning but we

ca n sa a a as little a
,

y th t d u ring th t mi llennium there w pp r e c i

a ble cha nge i n the fa bric a n d pa ttern o f thi s enigm a tic
c ivili z a tion In the fo llo vvi n g p a ges therefore, we a
'

r e less

a
h mpered th a n we might be by methods o f ex ca va
.
,

tion whi ch
a
were str tigra phica lly uncritica l a n d we c n u a
a
se the whole

a
body o f ev idenc e to build up picture o f the H r a a
,

pp people
a n d their a chievements .
1 46 C ITIES AND TOW NS
element in the popul a tion of the north a n d i s wide spre a
'

d
elsewhere a mong the upper socia l cl a sses S uch people a re

medium to ta ll in sta ture with a complex ion ra

.

nging from
da rk to light olive brown a long hea da n d fa ce a nd a na
,

-
r

row a n d rel atively pronounced nose ; bl a ck h a ir a

, ,

n d eye s

ra ngi ng from bl a ck to brown a n d ch a ra cteristica lly l a

,

rge
a p
n d o en The body i s slenderly built

The a rcha eologica l evidence shows tha t this long he a

. .

ded -

Mediterra ne an type i s everywhere in W es tern Asi a a ss oci

a ted with the ea rliest a gricultur a l settlements : a t Si a lk or

AI U b a
’
id Ana u or Alisha r The Al U b a i d skull s sho w
’ —

singula rly close a na logies to tho se from M o h e njo d a ro a

.
,
,

nd -

their Afgh a ni a cha racte ri stics ha ve bee nrema

,
’
n rked upon
J ust a s the evidenc e from the p a inted pottery of Ba luchista
.

a
n
a n d tha t lying behind the p inted wa a
res in the Ha ra pp
Cultu r e poin ts to a n eventu a l homogeneity a mong these
a
v rious simple a gri cultura l economies so the a ctu l physic a l a
type shows a a
,

n essenti l e thnic community over th e whole

a a
re a n d the a ppea ra nce o f these e rly Mediterra nea a
.

’
n
folk in prehistoric Indi a must be rel a ted to ex p a
,

nsi on from
the west
But there 1 5 a nother a nd a
.

more primitive element r e pr e

se nted in the M o h e njo d a
b

ro people Thr ee skulls b e lo n g to

-

wha t ha s been cl a ssed a s the Proto Aus tr a

.

loid group (th e -

Veddoid type o f some writers) a n d these h ve some cl im to a a

represent the a borigina l inh a bita
,

nts o f the country Here

a na logies lie with the Au stra lia n bl a ckfellows a
.
,

nd the Ved
a
d hs o f Ceylon : current O pinion tend s to the view tha t Aus
a
tr a li received her borigina a
l popul a tion by migra tion
b rough Ceylon a n d Mel a nes ia from S outhern India where
the type i s well represented tod a y Of sma ll sta ture with a
,

da rk skin colour a ppro a ching bla ck wa

.
,

-
vy or curly ( but
never fi i z z y) bl a ck h ir long hea a ds broa d fla t nose a
,

nd
'

a
, ,

fleshy pro truding lips these people form the m in element

i n the South a n d Centr l Indi a n a a
borigina
, ,

l tribes o f the
 OF SIND ‘

AN D TH E P U NJ A B
present d a y a s well s la rgely a
con s tituting th e so c a lled -

ex te rior ca
,

a
s tes o f H in du s ociety
‘

The rb ma i n i n g skulls from the H ra a

.

pp Culture Include
one (from a buri l which ma
'

a y be l ater th an the m a m o c c u
’

a n o f M o h e njo d a a so n o f typic a
,

p ti o ro ) -
o f pe r lly Mon
golia n type by no mea ns surprising o f course : the type h a s

been present in China Since Upper P a la a

,

eolithic times nd

a
cert i nly one perha ps a s ma ny a s four which we re short

hea ded a n d com pa ra a

, ,

ble with the so c lled Alpine type This -

physi c a l type i s repres ented a t Si a lk a s a sm a

.

ll proportion o f ‘

the popul a tion during periods II III a nd IV a n d i ts

origi n h a s been much discu ssed ; but thes e round he a

, , ,

ded -

folk ma y h ave their or i g i n s m a n U pper P a l a

eolithic s u r

a
viv i with reduced he d a n d fa a
ce siz e a n d pa r llel to the a
emergence o f the specia liz ed round hea
, ,

ded Mongoloi d form

-

Th e S i a lk evidence sugges ts tha t such cra ni al types ma a

.

'

y l so
occur in the Ira ni a n pla tea u in the thi rd a n d fourth mil

leni a The India n skulls a r e more likely to be rel a ted to a

physica l ty pe prob a bly indigenous i f ra re in Western Asia
tha n to a fford evidence o f r a cia
, ,

l movement from the wes t

a
tow rds the v a a
lley o f the Indus t this ti me r Th e r e i s r e a
la a
ted short he ded element in the India
-
n popula tion tod a y
s cattered through ma ny regions a n d some a
,

nthropologists
w ould include in this group the Bra huis o f Ba luchista
,

n
though others rega rd them a lt o f a
,

a
s the re su mix ture betwe en
Pro t o Austr loid a
'
-
a n d Mediterra ne n types In gener l how a
ever the Alpine types tend to h a ve a lighter pigmenta
,
.

tion
tha n these ra ces with a bund a nt body h ir a a a
,

nd roundish
fa
,

ce with strong nose

The sum o f the evidence from the skulls then shows tha
.

a
t
in the Ha ra pp Culture there w a first the a bori gina
, ,

s l
Proto Austra loid ty pe perha p s then a a a
, ,

-
s now r n king mong

the under dogs o f the so cia

, , ,

l system ; second th e pr e d o mi
’
-

na nt Medi terra nea ns presum a a

,

bly the m in contributors o f

the a gricultur l a a
n d urb a n fea
,

tures o f the whole W estern

‘
1 48 C ITIES AND T bW N S
a
Indi n prehi storic world a n d with the m rob bly th e sho rt
p a
hea ded Alpine element ; thirdly a n occ a sio n al for e igner
‘ ’

from the north e a ntry o f Nep l or Assa a

, ,

st — the hill cou

- - m , or ‘

beyond possibly from Chi naitself

'

bu t he 1 5 p e rh a
"
ps
present a s a n inva
,

de r
a
.

The eviden ce from sculptured represent tions must o f

course be ha ndle d with some r eserve but it i s a t lea
,

st n e t

incomp a tible with th e kno wled ge ga

, ,

ined from the s kull s

themselv es Four works o f r t fro mM o h e njo d a aro c a n r e lly
’
-
a
be t a ken into considera a
.

'

tion n d o f th e se the first i s the little

'

bronz e sta tuette o f a girl lre a a a

,

dy referred to in Ch pter IV
a s showing clo se simil a rities in h a ir dressing a nd a
,

dornment -

a
to the cl y figurines in the Kulli Culture o f S outh Ba luchi
s ta n Thi s girl seems certa inly o f the Proto Austr loid type - a
with full lip s a nd if a s seem s likely sh e i s indeed a
.
,

p
r e re

sc n tati o n o f a Ba luchista n type one ma a a

, , ,

y note in p ss ing th t
the very d a rk complex ion a ss oci a ted with the Proto Austr a
,

loid group would b e in a ccord with the n me gi ven to a

So u thern B luchista a
n in cl a ssic a l tim es Ge d r o si athe
country o f the d a
,

rk folk
A sculptured lime stone hea d showing a ma bea a
.

n with rd
a nd a n el a a
bor te c o i flur e with abun a t the b a ck bound ‘ ’

round by a
, ,

fillet would fit well enough into th e Medi

terr a ne a n fa ci al type while th e trea tment o f the eyes in a
,

other ra ther simil a r hea d might indica te a Mongoli a n ca

,

st

o f counten a nce ; but thi s resembl a nce should not be stressed

undu ly But the most import a nt piece o f sculpture th a t of
the Well known be a rded ma n we a ring a a
.
,
“
-
trefoil decor ted -

r obe i s ra ther puz z ling from a n ethnic point o f Vi ew It h a

'

bee n Strgge ste d tha t one should se e in thi s sculpture a

.
,

r e re
p
sc u ta a
tion o f n Armenoid type with short hea d a physic l a
type which a pp e ar i to be pre s ent in Mesop ot ami a from
a
E r ly Dyn a stic times o nwa rd s a s a
.

n ingr e dient o f the po pu

la aa
tion but which t S i lk i s known only from the l te C eme a
a
~

a a
,

te ry B n o t likely to be e rlier th n 1 00 0 n d in th e
'

,
1 5 0 C ITIES AND TOW NS
Between the most southerly site in B a ha wa lpur a n d the

ne a rest site fa rther south in Kh a irpur S ta te i s a n inter va l

but thi s l a cuna ma
, ,

o f 1 5 0 mile s y be due to incomplete

fi e ld work over the intervening a
-
rea a nd settlement ma y be
virtua lly continuou s However from thi s point s outhwa
,

rds
a n d south we stwa rds nea rly to Ka ra chi a
.
,

-
r e clus te red s ettle

ments o f which the chief i s the city o f M o h e n jO d a ro ne a r -

the northern limit o f the a re a o f concentr a tion suggesting a

,

popul a tion owing a llegia nce to the ruling powers in tha

,

t city
It i s I think improb a ble th a
.

t furth er fi e ld work will bring -

to light more cities o f the first ra nk such a s the two a lre a

, ,

dy
known improb a
,

ble though o f course not impossible O n

the evidence a s it st ands a t present we a r e entitled to r e g a
.
,

a
rd
the Ha ra pp kingdom a s governed from two c a pita
,

l cities
35 0 mile s a p a rt but linked by a continuou s river thorough
fa re Th a t th e Northern a
,

n d S outhern kingdom s i f we like

to sep a ra te them in this m a nner were in fa

.
,

ct only sub
d i v I SI o n s o f a
,

uni t i s shown bv the complete uniformity in

ma teria l culture from the most northerly to the most south
erly site ignoring a n y im a gina ry bound a ry we ma y dr a w
between B a h wa a
lpur a n d Kh a i rpur fo r insta nce Wha
,

tever
the system o f rule a n d however enforced it c a n ha
.
,

rdly be
tha t o f two competing city sta a
,

tes but must represent com

-

mon a uthority ha ving a dua l se a

,

t o f government
The a rcha eologic a l evidence o f continuous occup a
.

tion o f
the city sites over centuries with a
-
t M o h e n jo d a ro a t lea st -

the preserva tion o f the initia l street pl a n from first to l a

,

a
-
st

with pra ctic a

,

lly no encro chment on the building lines o f -

hous es where they fa ced upon m a in streets or subsidia ry

la nes shows tha t continuity o f government w a s somehow

a ssured throughout this long time a n d th a t wha

,

tever the
cha nges o f dyn a sty or o f individu a a
,

l s I n power the tr dition

w a s tra nsmitted unimp a ired a n d o f co n st a nt va
,

lidity W hile
it i s d a ngerous to ma
.

ke deductions from the evidence with

a n y confidence one c a
,
n nevertheless sugge st th a t such a
 o r SIND A N I) T HE P U NJAB 151

continuity over genera ti ons i s likely to h a ve been enforced

by religious sa nctions a n d th a t in i ts rem a rka ble co ns er
va ti sm a n d scrupulous preserv a a
, ,

a
tion o f even the det i ls o f
a
everyd y life inta ct fo r centuries the tex ture o f the Ha ra pp
civ iliz a tion h a sa str o ng l th e o c r ti c tinge a a
,

y n d s urely implie s

a
asoci l system wherein the uncha nging tra
,
. .

a
ditio n s o f the
m
te p le we re o f more ccount th an the ambiti o ns o f a n in

dividu a l ruler or the secul a r insta bility o f the court a

“
“

n d in

whi ch the form o f l a nd tenure w s d icta a

,

ted by the pries tly

hiera rchy .
In the two cities the impression o f centra liz ed powe r
‘

a lrea dy implicit in the distribution a n d ch a ra

,

cter o f the
s ettlements a s a whole i s immedi tely a a
,

n d d ve r w h e lmi n ly
g
a pp a r ent The two sites a re l a id out to a
,

common ground
pl a n in whi ch on the western edge o f the c i ty r o se a
.

n im
’

pressive cita del a n a pprox im a te recta ngle or p a ra a

, , ,

llelogr m
with i ts long a x i s north a n d south a n d me a s uring a
,

bout 400
by 2 0 0 ya This w a s formed o f a n a rtificia l pl a
,

rds (Fig t
form over 30 feet high o f mud brick fa ced with bu
.

rnt brick
revetments a n d s trong defensive w a lls c a
,

r rying on i ts forti

fi e d summit a group o f buildings which a s we sh a ll se e l a

,

ter
a r e not priva te houses but hous es with aceremonia
, ,

l or
public cha ra cter To this high defended cita
,

del belonged
processiona l terra ces a n d monument l ga tewa a
-
.

ys ; below it
la y the s treet s a n d hou s e s o f the to
w n an d the indu s tri l a
qu a rters o f a semi servile l a a
,

aa
-
bouring cl ss ( Fig
Here to quote Whee ler whose work a t Ha ra
.

pp h s so
forcibly demons tr a ted the essenti a l ch a ra
, ,

cter o f the cities

a n d their rulers ,

wha tever the source o f their a uthority a nd a d omi

na nt religious element ma a a
a y f irly be ss umed the lord s

o f Ha rapp a
dmi nistered their city in a fashi on not t e

mote from tha t o f the priest kings or governors o f S umer - -

a n d Akk a d In Sumer the we a lth an d discipline o f th e ,

1 52 C ITIES AN D T OW N S (I
1 54 C ITIES AND T OW NS
w i ld a
nce tor s wh a t i s known a
s of s bre a d whe a t (with 2 1
chromosomes a s aga inst I 4 a n d 7 in th e o th e r two m a in whea t
‘

groups) a a
.

r e unknown but it i s interes ting to note th t th e

most primitive form s o f the cu ltiva ted va a

,

rieties re grown
tod a y in Persi aAfgha nista n the region a round Bokha ra
n d We stern Indi a a n d there i s some re a
,

Ka shmir a
, ,

son to

think tha t the sp/z a ma a s mabe the

, ,

e roc occ u n d com p c tum form y

ea rliest forms o f bre a d whe a t a rising out o f hybridiz a tion
o f the other whe a ts wit h kindred gra O n bot a nica
,

sses l
s Va a sugges ted th a a
.

round s s uch worker s a vilov h ve t bre d

g
whea t origin a ted on the Hi m l a ya n edge o f Afgha a nist a n;
others h a ve looked to the region betw een the Z a g ro s Moun
ta ins a n d the Ca spi an The a rcha eologic a l evidence i s sli ght
but impressions o f bre a d whe a t gra ins o f the Tri ti c umvulga
.
,
’

re

group were found in potsherd s from An a u I in Turkest a n

a n d point to the e a
,

a
rly emergence o f the type in regions not
too remote from Western Indi awhere the Ha ra pp Culture
e v idence shows th a t bre a d whe a
,

ts were being grown in the

a
third millennium B C
We sh a ll se e th at the stora ge o f gra in w a t Ha ra pp a a
. .

s t

le a st a n d by inference a t M o h e n jo d a ro a s well c a
,

rried out
-

a s pa rt o f a government a gricultura l policy a n d th a t a

, ,

d
ja cent to the municip a l gra na ries the prep a ra
, ,

t ion o f flour
the equiva lent o f corn milli ng w a s l so p a rt o f a a
,

-
controlled
economy using orga niz ed l a bour It i s to be presumed th a t
other sta te controlled industries would be brick ma fa
.

-
nu c -

ture a n d th a t the supply o f wood fuel fo r this a n d fo r

pottery b a king both in terms o f m a

,

-
ss production would-

involve s ome sort o f forestry force No brick kilns ha ve so fa

, ,

b een discovered ; a s the s e a r e likely to h a ve been l a

.

a
rge they
w ould cert a inly h a
,

ve been Se t outside the m in occupied

a re a o f the city where the smoke wo u ld not offend the i n
ha bita nts Pottery kilns a re known only in the l test ph a a
,

-
se

o f the city a t M o h e njo d a ro a n d bespe a k dec a

.

-
dence : even
q uite sm a ll pottery kil n s a r e tod a y se t outsid e the town wa
,

-
ll s
 o r S I ND A ND THE P U NJ A B 1 55

in Indi a p rtly to a avoid the smoke a n d pa rtly to obvia te

the risk o f fire to a dj a cent premis es But in the degenera te
da ysa t M o h e njo d a
.

ro they were built in the town even in

-

the street .

a
O n e o f the most interes ting cr0 ps grown by the people o f
the Ha ra pp ci viliz a tion w a s cotton o f which a fortun a te
single find a t M o h e njo d a ro h a
,

s given conclu sive evidence

-

Fr a gments o f a true c e tto n te x ti le dyed red w i th ma

.

dder
”
‘

were found sticking to the side o f a silver va se a n d it i s cle a

, ,

r
tha t the pl a
,

nt whi ch produced the fibre i s o f the Gossypz um

'

ar bo reu ji z type th a t grown tod a ya s a cultiva ted form a

'

nd

not one o f the wild cotto ns Cotton cloth i s likely to ha

.
,

a
ve
been a n import a nt a rticle o f commerce fo r the Ha ra
.

pp
civiliz a tion a n d it i s prob a ble tha t some a t le a st o f the tr a de
with Mesopot mia a
w a By l a
,

s in cotton good s ter historic

times i n th a t country Indi a n cotton w a
.

s known under the

'

na me o f ri u dlz u a n d this in the form s i nd o n p a ssed into Greek

In a ddition to veget a ble crops the fa

.
,

a
rming economy
which la a a a
,

y behind the H r pp kingdom s pro s perity n tur ’

a lly included va rious domestic a ni ma l s We a re fortun a te in

ha ving a n a dmira ble series o f z oologica l repo rts o n the a
.

a
ni

ma l bones from Ha ra pp to form the b a si s o f a deta i led su r

vey The India n humped bull or z ebu ( B os i ndi cu s) w a s

aa a
d omestic ted s in B luchista n so to o w a s a a
.
, -
,

sm ller short ,

horned humpless species The origin o f the humped bull i s

obs cure : wild S pecies a r e not kn own a nd one c a n rega
, .

rd it
aa
only s domestic ted va a
riety w hich ultim a tely goes b a
,

ck
to the common stock represented by the Pleistocene B o:
na ma d i cu s It i s a
breed specific lly Ind i a n in aa ncient ti mes
the ch a ra cteristic hump di fferenti a a
.
,

ting it fi o m contempor ry '

d o me sti c a te d b r e e d s el sewhere in Western Asi a ; and a s we

ha m
a
goes b ck to the R aa na Ghund a
,

ve seen it cert i II
pha se o f N orth B a luchist n perh a a a
,

ps contempor ry with
Hissa rIa n d Je md e t Na sr a a
,

a
t le st
O ther domestic nim a a
l s in the H ra a
.

pp Culture i nclude
1 56 C ITIES AND T OW NS
the India n domestic bu ffa lo (B os o a
g ( p d ega
t C a ra -

a
y

g r u s r i n di c us ) s heep r d om es ti c u s ) n d pig ( S u
s

c ri s ta s va s ) The go a ts a ppea
.
, .
, ,

tu r dom es ti cu r to belong to the

sa me group a s tho se o f K a
. .

s hmir which produce the superb

wool from whi ch the fa mous K a shmir sh a wl s a r e ma de a

a
nd

so the possibility o f go a t wool being used in the Ha ra

,

pp
C ulture must be borne in mind The sheep prob a bly forms
domestic a ted fi o m the wild U ri l stock a n d simil a a
.
,

'

r to sheep
from Si lk I a a n d An a u seem likely to belong to a
,

long
legged long ta iled r ce which includes va a
,

-
rious wool pro -

d uc i n g forms a n d the pigs belong to the le a

,

n bri sk bristly
s pecies known in Indi a tod a
, , ,

y
There i s evidence o f the domestic a
.

a
tion o f the dog from the
ea rlie st d a ys o f the Ha ra pp Culture This a nim l h a d in a
fa ct been the e a rliest in E urope to be d omes tica ted ha
.

ving
been ta med fo r hunting in post gla cia
,
.

l mesolithic times -

by 8 00 0 B C or so The evidence o f bones a n d repre sent a

,

a
tions
from Ha ra pp sites s how a t le a st two types o f dog one a
.

kin
to the modern p a ria ha ma a
,

s ti fl type The fo r
‘

n d the other

mer ( Ca s ; r lz amppensz s) comes nea a

.

ms te ngge m nu r the origin l

' ’

a a
.

n cestr l type o f dog derived from some form o f medium

s iz ed wolf prob a bly from E a stern E urope or We stern Asia

,

There i s very interesting evidence o f domestica ted ca ts a

.
,
'

a
s

well bones from H ra pp a a

n d from Ch a n h ud a ro brick -
a ”

over which, when soft a n d unb a ked a dog h a d ch a s ed a a

,

c t

both lea ving their ch r a a

, ,

cteristic foot prints the d eep -

press o f the p a ds a n d their spre a d indic te the speed o f both a

a a the dog s imprint slightly over l a pping the c a
a
n i m ls
’
’
ts
s hows th a t he c me second The c a a t from Ha
’
ra pp (Feli s
o crea tar d o m es ti c a a
.

sely resembled th e
) s eem s to h v e clo
a
o rdin ry E urope a n domestic c a t in a aa
, . .

ppe r nce
a
The c mel i s n a a
nim l whose e a a
rly history s a a
.

d o me sti
ca te d be a st i s curiou sly Ob scure though it w s ex tens ively a
used by the Assyri a a
,

ns from the ninth century B C onw rds

Tod a y no wild c mels ex ist both species one humped a
a
. . .

nd ,
-
,
 x
5 8 C I T I ES AN D TOW NS
ea rlier But the origin o f the ca mel i s a n eni m a a mong the
g
bea sts o f burden a n d o f tra a
. .
,

nsport in the Anci ent O rient n d

the horse i s a t lea s t not a n origi na l inha bita
,

nt o f Mesopo
ta mi abut i s given the significa nt Sumeria n na me o f the a ss

o f the mount a ins when it first a a a

,
’
p pe rs prob bly in m
J d et
e

Na sr times It w a s pres um a
,

bly i mpo r te d f r o m the mo un ‘

ta ins o f Highl a nd Persia or Turkesta n which wi th Ba

.

luchi
s ta n formed a common geogra phic a
,

l province within which

the ea rliest evidence o f horse ta mi ng comes -

Turning now to adescription o f the a ctua l cities a

.

a
nd

towns o f th e H a ra
a
pp people we must obviously first con
sider the two c a pita ls a t Ha ra pp a a
,

n d Mo h en o— d
j r o Bo th
S ites h ve certa a in striking fea
, . ,

tures in common visible even

on the surfa c e before ex c a va tion a n d thes e s imil a rities ha
,

ve
been confirmed by the work o f a rcha eologists during the pa
,

st

twenty yea rs The Situ a tion o f the two sites i s essentia

a
lly
s imil a r ea ch by the side o f a river Ha rapp lies beside a
.

o ld confluence o f two bra nches o f the R iver Ra a

.
,

vi tribu
ta ry o f the Indus a nd a lthough a t the present time the ma
,

in
r iv e r cha nnel i s 6 miles a wa y in the circumsta a
,

- nces o f he vier
ra i nfa ll , which we h ve seen a a
r e likely to h a
,

ve ex isted in the
th ird millennium the city mus t h ve stood on ground a
lia ble to be flooded a n d it seem s prob ble th a t the grea t a
ra mp a rt or bund o f mud a
,

n d mud brick which form s th e

‘ ’
-

ea a
rliest ph se o f the cita del defences on the site w a s designed

prim a rily a s a n emb a nkment to keep o utflo o d wa

,

ter -

M o h e njo d a ro sta nds on wha t i s significa

.

- ntly known in
the loc lity a a s The I sl a nd a n rrow strip o f l a a
nd between
the ma in bed o f the Indus a n d the W estern N r a Ioop a nd a
w a s subject to flooding until very recent times when the

building o f a long emb a nkment prevented a

,

recurrence o f
floods There a r e rem ins o f a a
preh i storic emba nkment b e
twe e n the city n d the nea a rest p a
.

rt o f the river running fo r

—
‘

a t lea mile a a n d the ex c a va tions produced clea

,

st r evidence
a
,

o f se ver l suc c essiv e flood s in the hi sto r y o f the site with the ,
 OF S IND AND
1
THE , P U NJ A B 1 59

con m
S ue n t d e po si ti o n O f l ayer s o f S ilt Indeed so gre a t h as

the volume o f silt brought down by the Indus been tha

.
,

t to
da y the s ur f a ce o f the pl ai n i s s ome 3 0 feet higher th a n the
lowest found a tions rea ched There i s some e vidence o f a n

a ncient bra nch o f the river wa

.

a
shing the edge o f the city on

the west in prehistoric times At Ha ra pp evidence fo r peri

odic floods i s not a s cle a ra s at M o h e njo d a
.

ro but there seem

-

to ha ve been tra ces o f a protective emb a

,

nkment on the west

Of the city here a l so
In the ma tter o f a a
ctu l pl a na n d la a
.

aa
y out the two -
citie s re

strikingly simila r a n d Wheeler s recent work a t Ha

’
r pp
ha s thrown much light on the Signific a
,

nce o f this uniform

pl a nn ing In both sites the ex t nt rema a ins cons is t o f a n irre

a a a aa a
.

g u l r s erie s o f mound s tow rd s the e s t n d recog n i z bly

higher a n d more comp a ct mound pla ced more or less cen
a
tr lly a n d on th e ed ge o f th e site to the we st In bo th cities

aa a a a
th i s mound i s ro ughly a
.

p r llelogr m in p l n me suring
a a a a a
bout 400 y rd s n orth—south n d 2 00 y rds e st—west a
,

a
t

Ha ra a
pp it rise s Up to 50 feet bove the lev el o f the sur
aa a
rounding pl in t M o h e njo da ro to 35 or
- feet t lea st

A t th e l a atter site enough h s been recov ered o f the origina

.
,

l
a a a
s tr eet pl n to S how th t this high mound to the wes t s t n d s

a aa a a
c entr lly between the two m i n e st wes t s treets — nd s
w e

a a
S h ll se e it ma a s o f ma
,

y h v e formed one o f s erie jor bu i lding

blocks in aa symmetric l la
,

y out -
( Fig I 8 )
We now know th a t th e se mounds a r e th e ruined remn a
. .

nts
o f impressive fortified cit del s a i n which on a n a rtificia l
a a
, ,

pl tform o f mud brick 30 feet or more high stood cert in

bui ldings o f peculia a
r pl n defen ded by a ba ttered wa
,

ll o f
a
b ked brick fa cing the mud brick core with recta
a ngul a
,

-
r
towers a n d gre a t ga a
tew ys (Figs 1 9 n d 2 0 P ls I a
,

a
nd

a a a
.
.
,

T h e H r pp evidence i s full n d i s derived from th e fir st

a
ex c va a
a
,

tion to be conducted on the Indi n prehistoric sites

wh i ch follows modern rcha a eologic l techni que but here
the bui ldings on the top a s to render their pl a
a
,

re so r uined n
1 60 ITIES AND T o w NS
‘

C
‘

FIG . I g. a
( fte r Wh e e le r )
 A ND
'

T O W NS
I

162 C ITIES “
 OF S I N D A N D . fr HE P U NJ A B 1 63

ao Wheeler aa
At M o h e njo -d ble t S how by a
r little w s o

fi ld work ra ther tha n by a ctu al e ca va tion tha t imil a

,

e - r x s

defence mu t ha
,

s ve urrounded the we ter mo t mound on

s s s n s

tha t ite now crowned by a

s Buddhi t upaf the third s st o or

Ma r ha ll a d Ma cka y in the ea
,

fou th entury
r c A D rlier s n ex

aai h a d hown th a t the tupa mound h a d conta ined a

. .

c v t o ns s s

grea t recta a a a a
tely a
g ul r pl tformn f mud brick le t feet high o t s 20

ad bui lt immedi a fter the ea lie t buildi ng pha

, ,

n e r s s

recogni ed on the ite (where vi gin oi l a

z s not re a
s ched r s w

o ing to the wa
w ter ta ble) O th i pla tform h a
-
d been ome n s s

covered by the tup a ad i t court whi ch the

.

building new s n s

e ca va tor unfortuna tely did not remove it i a third ra

,

te
‘

x s : s -

arch i tec ura l monument ad it i to be hoped th a

t t the ite n s s

will be dea lt i th a ti fa cto i ly in the future But a

w s dj a
s cent r

to it aa rema rka
.

w s ble comple f building de cri bed by x o s, s

Ma r ha ll a a
s va t hydrop a
s thi c e ta bli hme t Memorie
s s s n
’
s

f Ma tlock or Ba den Ba den however a h a dly a pplica

.

o -
ble re r

to the a ctu al tructure on the M h j d a o cita

, ,

s del though
s o e n O- r

the centr a l f a ture i cert a inly a grea t ba th or ta

,

k in
‘ ’
e s n

modern India n nomencl a ture nea rly 4 by 4 feet ad bui lt

,

0 2 n

f very fine brickwork It i 8 feet de p a d tep origina

,

o lly s e n s s,

with wooden trea d on the brickwork lea d do n into a

.
,

s ch w e

end ; the whole wa lling i b a cked wi h bitumen to m a

,

k it s t e

wa ter tight ad there i provi ion f dra

-
n i ning the b a ths s or

when needed Ar u d it aaloi ter ad on th ee ide a

,

o n w s C s n r s s

f ma ll room li k e cha
.

86 11 6 8 o s nging room in one f whi ch

s, -
s, o

In a ddition to th i s b th buildi ng there w s a no ther l rge a -

a a
bui ldi ng some 2 30 by 78 feet pl a nned as a s ingle a
,

r c hi te c ,

rounding the Grea t Ba th a n d cont i n i ng n arr a n gement a a

o f r ooms th a t s ugg es ted to i ts ex c vator th t it might be a a a
,

a a
commun l es t bli shment or bo lle ge o f some sort : i ts pl n ‘ ’
a
a a a a
,

i s cert i n ly un like n y o f the norm l hous e p l ns known -

fi o m th e res t o f the town To the so uth o f the se b u

'
i ldin gs w s . a
1 64 C ITIES AND TOW NS
a
nother tructure o f equ a
s lly curious pl a n muc h lte re d a nd a '

r ebuilt but a a aaa a aa

,

pp rently origin lly ne rly squ re h ll bout

a
80 feet e ch w a y with i ts roo f s uppo r ted on twenty rect
a a
ngul r pilla
,

rs o f brickwork
In a ddition to these ex ception l buildings th e cita a
del a rea
.

a t M o h e njo d a ro l so cont ined wha a t a ppe a a

,

-
r fi o m their
a
pl ns to be hous es simi l a r to those in the rema i n i ng a re s o f a
the city But the gener l ch a a a
r cter o f the cita del a rchi tectur e
a
i s ob viously do mi n ted by the pres ence o f the Grea t Ba
.

th
the Collegia te Building the Pill a red Ha ll a
,

n d one suspects

by wha tever str ucture lies benea th the stup a a

, , , ,

The i mplic
tion i s in Wheeler s word s th t w e ha ve here a a
.

’
centre o f ‘

religious or a dministra tive life on a Significa a

, ,

nt sc le The ’

Grea t Ba th t kes i ts pl a a
ce well in sa a
.

cred site when one

considers the ta nk a a
.

‘
ncill r y to every Hindu temple o f the
’

middle a ges a nd while the a ctu l temple ca nnot yet be a

i ty o f religious tr dition on the stup a a
, ,

identified conti nu site

a
,

aa a
would be by no me ns un likely
A t Ha r pp it w s found th a t the Wes tern Ga tewa y ha
.

d
like the rest o f the Cita del been te rribly robbed a
,

n d wrecked

by the brick robbers but enough rem ined fo r p a a

,

-
tient e x
ca va ti o n to di sent a ngle the rem a ins o f ceremon i l terra a
,

ces
a nd a processiona lwa y le ading up from a r amp or flight o f
s tep s to th e a ctu l g tewa aa
ys the terra ces being provided
with gu a rd rooms a a
,

t the outer ngles ( Fig

-
These were
a ll situ a ted in a curious curved re entra
.

nt o f the defen sive -

wa ll not ex pl a
‘
ined by the norma l need s o f defence We
a r e driven b a ck upon the conclusion tha t the pla nwa
.
,

s de
'

s igned to conform with the need s o f some s ort o f ceremony

u
rel i gio s or secula r or both in which the terra ce or terr ces a
pla yed a domina nt role a n d to which procession l a ccess a
a A va a
,

w s requi red riety o f process ion l ceremo ni es to

whi ch the scheme could be a d pted suggests itself but choice a
a
i s un pr ofi t ble until we h a ve more knowledge Of Ha ra pp a
,

n
religion n d a a
dministra tion .
’
r6 6 C ITIE S AN D '

T O WN S
w ithi n the m i n b lo cks w a as an irregula r network o f sma
'

ll
a
'

ro a ds l a nes and ll eys roughly following the g ener l lines a

o f the la a a
, ,

a
y out n d divi
- d ing the block s into individu l h o u s e s

At H r a app it w a s impossible to determine a a

.

n
y de t il s

ul-WW
a a
r (a
ft r M aka
J f l f ?

FIG . 21 . L y-o ut of c ity b lo c k M o h e njo

,
-
d o e c y)

the gener a l lay out an d lmo s-

t none o f a
individu l hou s e s a
It h s a a
lre ady been pointed out tha ta
, .

series o f c o n stru c

ti o n al ph ases c n a
be distinguished t H ra p a nd a t a a
 o r sm n AND TH E P U NJA B 167

occupa aa
a
th e sit es
’
ti ons the or igin l pl ns o f buildings were
a t le s t in the l a tter city strictly followe d a
,

n d c onsequently

the street la a a
, ,

y out pre -
served throughout lthough intern l
a ltera tion a n d su b di vision were often m a
,

de to houses Th e
s tr a tific a tion i s discussed i n deta il l ater in this cha pter a
.
,

nd

here it i s suffi ci ent to note th t the ma a a

,

a
form t h t fo r our immedi a
ti o n s o f occup a tion l a
te ri l cul ture i s so uni
te purpose th e entire ccumul
a
n d cons truction a l debri s on the tw o
a a
a
sites m y be consider e d s a a
single entity a nd a rchitectura l
fe a a a
,

t ure s de scribed in term s pplic ble to th e whole

Whi le th e b uildings t M o h e njo da a ro whi ch c a
.

n -

a bly be cons idered a s hou se s or shop s or which combined

both functions showed va ri a

,

tions in siz e which no doubt

corresponded to the respective st tus a a a
,

n d we lth o f their
'

occup a nts their gener l pl a nwa a

s much the s me Bu i lding a ’

in th e better cl a s inva a
ri bly c a a
.
,

ss hou ses w
-
rried out in well
fi re d bricks norm a lly I I by 55 5 by 2 5 inches though there°

a re va ri ants a n d wa ll s were a lwa ys b ui lt solid not with a

, ,

fa ced rubble core There seems to ha

, ,

ve been wide use o f mud

pla stering ins ide the hous es a n d prob a bly norm a
.

lly out
a
side s well though one o r two insta
,

nces o f more or less de

c o ra ti v e brickl yi ng ra a
ther suggest th a t th e se p rticula a a
,

r w ll s
were l e ft unpl a stere d The usu a l method o f l a ying w a s the

E nglish bond o f a ltern a te courses o gh e a d e rs a

.

n d stretchers

Following norm a l orienta l cus toms the outs ide wa

.

ll s o f
houses fi o n ti n g the streets were a s fea tureless s possible a a
,

nd
‘

bro ken on ly by doorwa ys These h a d a n a ver a ge width o f

a bout 3 feet 4 inches a n d norm a lly h a d fla
.

t timber lintels

though some were corbelled Pra ctic lly no tra a

, ,

ce o f win
a
dows w s found e ve n in well preserv ed wa a
.

lls n d they
-

a a a
, ,

were prob bly very hi gh in the roo m n d sm ll with

gra tings o f whi ch some fi a a
,

g m e n ts in s tone survi ved M r :

s ha a a
.

ll c ommented on the forbidding bl nk w ll s o f brick

whic h fr ont one tod y in the e x c va a a
ted stree ts o f M o h e njo J
 AND To w
'

1 68 c i r rn s ns

da
ro ad a ptly comp a n
r d the ite to the ruin f a L a e s s o n

ah i indu t i a l qua rter even with pl a ter ad colour the

, .

c s re s r s n

s ma ller l ane a d a lleywa y mu t h a

s ve been tra
n nge ad s s s n

s ecret pla ce to wa lk in s

The norma l pl a n f well to do hou e eem to h a

.

o ve been - -
s s s s

ba ed on a uty a
s d t which aco cce raga ined by a
r door
‘

o ss w s

which norma lly led o from the ma in t eet but from aide
,

n t s r s

alley ; there i often provi ion f a s wa tchma n immedia tely s or

in ide the en ra
s nce Round the courtya t rd or on two or three
ide o ly a grouped r om f a
.

s s n re m
y g S e including o s o v r iz s,

ba th oom with very well ma

r s de brick floor ad ela bora te - s n

dra in run i ng out to the treet though pri ie a pra

s n ti s v s re c

ca
,

lly unknow Rubbi h hoot occur however unning out

n s -
s s r

th rough the wa ll into a brick b ui lt recta ngul a

.
, ,

r bin out i de -
s

pre um a bly cle a red by order f the mu i cip a l a

,

s uthoritie o n s,

who mu t simil a rly h a sve been re pon ible f the el a bora te s s or

dra ina ge y tem whi ch aunder the t eet ad into which

in cou
s s r n s r s n

hou e dra s in commu i ca ted The m a

s i n dra ld be n s

clea red by lifting l a rge peci a lly m a de brick m a

.

‘
h ole s n

cover ad the whole conception how a rem a rka

,
’
s n ble con s s

cern f a ni ta tion ad hea lth without p a ra

,

or s llel in the O rient

n

in the prehi toric p a t or a t the pre ent d a

s y So a k pits took s -
s

the eventua l ewa

.

ge s

Firepla ce were pra ctica lly non e i tent a d uch a

.

s ti -
x s n s r

fi ia l he ating a aneeded apre uma bly obta

,

c s w s ined from w s s

cha rco al bra ier Sta irwa y implying upper torey or a

z s s, s s t

lea t fla t roo f were common a ome i ta nce bea

.

d m
hole f d efinite upper floor were fou
s s, n In s ns s

nd Cha
,

pp a
s or red pine s r

ra fter were found aHa ra ad i oo i a l o a

.

s tte ted
t n s ss s s s

fi 0m M h j d a qua red bea

,

‘
ro W here putlog hole f
o en o -
m -
s or s s

up to 4 feet in p a n were found Wood aa

,

I s l o u ed f w s s s or

d or lintel a d a we ha ve en f the trea

.

o - s, n d f the tep
s se or s o s s

into h Gre a t Ba th Wooden pill a r ma a

, ,

t e y h e been u ed s v s

though ra rely ; a po ible lime tone c a pita l a d ba

.
,

f ew e ss s s n s s

ha ve been found The flaroof f hou e were co ered with . t s o s s v

I 7o C ITIES AND T OW NS
the ba re footed sl a ves h a d stood a s they po u n d e d th e gr a m ‘

a n d rem a ins o f whe a t ba rley a n d ch aff were in fa

,

ct found in
s ome o f the centr a Behi nd these a ga i nw a
,

l hollows ( P I s

agrea t gra nary st a nding on a

.

brick built podi um I 5 0 feet -

wi de a n d prob a bly a t le a st 2 0 0 feet long with buttressed

wa ll s a n d divided by a centra l a isle on ea

,

ch side o f which
were ra nged the individua l stora ge blocks ra
,

ised on bri ck
sub structures a bove the d a mp ground a n d ea ch mea suring

a a a a a
,

0 by f eet A g in not f from the gr n ry n d working

5 2 0 r

pl a tforms were meta l workers furn a

,
.

-
ces whi ch once more
’

emph a si z e the semi indu stri a liz ed n a ture o f thi s qua

,

a
-
rter o f
Ha ra pp
It i s inevita ble th a t one should mention sl a ve l a
.

bour when -

describing this piece o f pl a nned economy : the sta nd a rdiz ed

little houses in dre a r y rows the gre a t Sta te Gra na r
y the
mun i cipa l flour mill s Prob a bly the nea rest p a ra
, ,

-
llel to the
coolie lines i s the Workmen s Vill a ge a t Tell e l Am a rna
.

’
- - -

with i ts simil a r blocks o f identic lly pl a nned cotta a

,

a
ges but
the Ha ra pp la a a a a a
,

out mu t nted te the E gypti n by t le st

m
y s-

a illennium The concentra tion o f va rious tr a des a nd in

stri e s into specific qu a

.

du rters or streets i s o f course common

in orienta l towns up to the present d a a a a
, ,

y s it w s in mediev l
E urope ; a n d there w a s co ns ider ble centr a a
,

a
liz ed control o f
tra de a nd in du str y i n a ncient Sumer But thi s relega
‘

tion o f
pa rticul a r group o f occup a tions to a restricted re a a
.

o f the

city with the provision o f a housing scheme evidently dra wn

out in the city a
,

a
rchitect s office represents something more
’
‘

consciously orga niz ed To the Ha ra pp civiliz a

,

tion we must
presuma a
bly ttribute the firs t re lly orga a
.

niz ed industry in
Western As iaa s di stinct from th a t ofa c ra ftsme n s guild
’

The wa a a
.
,

ter supply o f the two cities w s obt i ned fr om

-

ex cellently constructed well s with brick lin ing a nd a

‘

s su
'
c

c e ssi v e rings o f brickwork h a d to be a a

,

dded s the ground

lev el withi n the town ros e from long occup tion a n d flood a
silts thes e well s now st a
, nd up in the ex c v ted sites like gro aa
 SIND AND
'

o r .
'
T HE P UN JA B

apriva te upply to individua s l houe but other a lmo t cer s s, s s

ta i ly we e f pub li u
n r erving the purpo e f the wa
or cter se , s s o

ta ll or pi a u f mode n Indi aR ound uch well hea d ha

,

s o r ve s -
s

been found innumera ble fi a a

.

g m f m produced little '

e n ts o ss-

la a a a
.

c y cup
th ere aa
cup a
ugge ting
ritu l ta
th
s, s t in contempor
boo on drinking twice from the aa
s ry Hind ui m ,
s s ,

d tha
w s me s
'

t ea
n ch cup ath own a wa y or ma hed after w s r s s It

ha
,

d been ued s

The el a bora te y tem f dra in ad the a

.

lmo t ubiqu
s s i tou o s n s s

ba throomha ve alrea dy been mentioned The b a

s th would be
ta ken ain modern Indiaby pou ing wa
.

s t r over the body r e

fi ma la g jain the m a ll b a th room i th i well p a

, ,

o r e r, ved s -
w ts -

bri ck floor ad i outlet dra »

i n in one corner S ome f the
n ts o

floor till how the poli h f b a re feet upon them prob a

.

s s s bly s o

ai ded b ythe oil u ed to prevent the kin from drying in a

,

s hot s

clim a te
Apa rt from the two citie the Ha ra pp aci i li a
.

tion i s, v z s

repre ented by a s la rge number f m a ll town ad vill a ge o s s n s

o f a yi g
v i
r a d nt atu a d
s z ea l ea t two fortified ite
n s s, n t s s s

There i con idera ble va ria

, .

ment ra
s tion in the i e f the e ettle
s s z o s s

ng ing from uch ite aCh ah ud a

‘

s, ro who e s s s s n -
s ex

ta nt rema i n cover aa rea by 7 feet to h a

,

mlet lik

a
s n 1 00 0 00 s e

Ami la a ba feet It i impo ible to e tim a

,

pp a
re 3 by te
ra
no 00 2 00 s ss s

preci ely the a re af the Ha occup a tion aD b a

, .

s o r Kot t
which afaait i known occupie only the upper p a
,

s r s s rt f s o

the gre a foot high tell Thi tell h a adia

, ,

t I oo -
meter f
-
s s o 1 2 00

feet athe b a e but it ma a a a a

.

t y h ve covered
s re ome 45 n s 0

feet a cro ad imila rly aS ad h aaa lla on the Gha gga

,

ppa upa
ss, n s r t n n w

River the Ha ra ti aconta i ned within the top

occ on w
‘

9 f et on
e ly o f a 8 foot high mound mea uring 75 by 5
2 - -
s 0 00

a
In the sm ller sites th e use o f burnt brick i s not so ubi
q u i to u s s in the cities ; a
a circum s tance not ltogether su r a
p r isi n
g when the d e m a n ds on fi i e l an d l a
bour implied by
1 7 2 C ITI ES AND T OW NS
uch building m teria la a
r e considered But it i s i n

a
s teresting to
note tha t ba ked bricks o f the sta nd a rd Ha ra
.

pp proportions
occur a s fa r a field a s R up a r on the U pper S utlej D era wa r
in Bika ner a nd R a ngpur in K a thi wa r a s a a a
,

s well t
Ch a n h ud a n d in sites in the L a rka na
s

ro a
, ,

-
neighbourhood
At D a ba r Kot burnt bricks were found but mea
.

suring 2 4 by

1 6 by 4 inches a n d 2 1 by 1 6 by 3 inches : these a

,

a
re out side
the ra nge o f v ri a a
tions recorded in the Ha ra
.

pp bricks but
on the sa a
,

me site were lso mud bricks 2 1 by 1 0 by 3 inches -

which o ffer a better comp a rison a nd a r e them selves p a ra

,

l
leled I n si z e a aa
n d m teri l on sites o f bo th the Kulli a n d the

-
a
Amri N l Cultures At S utka ge n dor burnt brick s tructure
-
s

were recorded in the nineteenth centur y by Mockler a

.

nd

some bricks found by Stein not i n si tume a

,

a
sured 1 6 by 6 by

2 5 inches a
.
a
g in not within the known Ha ra pp ra nge
a
Sever l sites in Southern Sind h a d stone found a
.
,

tions on
a
which w lls o f mud brick or o f terre pi sée presum a bly stood
to judge by the a bsence o f stone debris on the sites a
,

n d the

a
continu tion o f the stone footings unbroken by doorwa ys
( e g a t A m i l n o where the a
footing s r e cle a r ) Mud a
brick -

a
w ll s a ppea r to h ve ex isted t S a a
ndha na w a a
lla h while a
. . .
,

Sutka a a a m
,

g e n dor the outer w ll s o f houses were

-
sonry fo r t

lea s t 5 fe et a n d the inner p rtition w ll s h a a

d a 3 f oot high a - -

ma a
,

sonr y found tion supporting mud bricks A t thi s site too

the use o f wooden pill rs w s dedu a a a

.
, ,

ced fi o m the stone b ses

a
found in position by S tein
O f the sm a ller un fo rti fi e d sites o f the Ha ra
.

pp Cu lture
Ch a a a
n h ud r o h s been ex c a va ted to the gre a test ex tent a
,

-
nd

shows a a
gener l resembl nce on a sm a a
ller sc le to the a
cities with the nota ble ex cep tion tha
, ,

a
t the five successive re
building ph ses within the Ha a ra lture occup a
,

pp Cu tion o f
the site a aa
r e sep r ted by l yers o f flood borne debri s a nd -
a
a
th t rebuilding did not follow the pla
,

n o f the precedin g
settlement D r i ns wells a a
n d hou se pl ns conform to those -
a
o f the cities O f the other sites little det il h a a
.
, ,

. s been recorded :
1 74 CIT I E S A N D T OW N S
pi ctogra phs a pp r o x i rn ti n a g to th e H a r a
p p a scri p t c rv e d o a
n
'

t h e livi n g rock a t mo r e th a a
a
n one
poin t n t h hi ll d th e

m
o e n e r

a re buri a l ca irn s a pp a ren tly o f some for o f th e H ra a

,

p p
Cultme Cl o se by
The interpreta tion o f these pro vmc i a
.

l si tes d o es not pr e
a ta n y diffi culties th e y represe nt th e mo re o r les s pe a
l

s nt a
a nd a aa
a
g ri c ultur l b ckgr o u n d whic h th e e x is tence o f the citie s

p res uppo s e s So m e o f the m mu s t h a v e b e e n chi e f ly tr d i ng -

3

po s ts S utka a a a a
.

g e n — d o r s ee m s cle r c s e in point n d p r o b
a bly D a ba r Kot a s well a n d th e former ma a a a
,

y h v e h d n
a
-

dded importa nc e a a
s providi n g co t c t w i th the se a
,

n
—
go i ng-

a
tr de o f the P ersia n Gulf a n d the Ar a b ia n Se a
S o me in dica tion o f wh a a
t this tr de did in fa a
.

ct involve c n
b e ga ined fr o m th e deta il e d ex a mina tio n a nd a na
aa
lysis o f the
va rio us ston e s a
»
n d m et a l s used i n the Ha r pp civiliz a tion
fo r decor a tive or utilita ri a n purpose s From the west bitu
me n a la a n d prob a b ly ste a tite seem likely to h a
.

ba
.

ster ve
a
b e en obt ined from B luchista a n; a n d fa rther a fie ld Afgha
, ,

ni

s ta n ma y h a ve been a source fo r silver though Per si a i s per

ha ps a more likely region Fro m Persi ato o gold ma a
,

y h ve
be en obt ined a a n d m o re certa inly si lve r le a d a
.
, ,

n d ti n Two

se rn i precious ston es tur quoise n d l a a pis l a z uli a a

, , , .

e- -
r e c e rt inly

a
o f P e rsi n or Afgh a n or igin the la tter most proba
, ,

bly fro m
B daa ksh a fa
,

ri mo u s fo r i ts precious ston es throughout th e

centuri es, so th a t the poet M i r writing in D e l h i in th e
fiftee n th century co uld n a tura lly sa a
,

, y o f the fe ture s of hi s

beloved
Of th e b e a uty o f y o ur e y e s I sh a ll
te ll th e ga z e lle s o f Hin d u s ta n ;

O f th e tinc tu r e o f y o ur lips I sh a ll
te ll th e rub ie s o f Ba da ks ha n .

Th e conspi cuous deposits o f h ema a

tite the red i r on ox i de ,
a
in th e isl nds o f th e Persi n Gulf n d nea a a
,

r Hormuz e x
a a a
,
.

p lo i te d i n ncient time s b y Sumer l so se em likely to h ve

a a
,

pr ovided this red C olouring m tte r fo r Indi .

‘
a O F s IN D A N D T H E P U N J AB

a
I 7S
.
l
~

So uth wa rds th e K th i a a
a
w r regio n , in whic h there i s
sig n i fic a ntly en oug h a t lea s t one H a ra
. , ,

pp settlement would
a
h ve provided the d ra n k shell s u sed fo r in l y a a
, ,

n d other

d ecora tive p u r po ses aga tes ca rneli a ns onyx n d ch lee a a

dony fo r bea ds a n d prob a bly rock crys t a l a
, , ,

s well The fi s h

o f the Ari a s specie s tod a y dried a n d sa lted in l a r g e qua

.
,

nti
ti es on th e We s te r n Indi a n co a st a
,

n d known fi o m th e t e

ma i ns o f i ts bone s to h a ve been e a ten a t M o h e n jo d a ro ma

z
,
,

y
-

a a
lso h ve come from this region or th a t o f Ka ra
,

c hi
a s R jputa na a a
.
,

E st o f the Ind u i s most likely to h ve pro

v i d e d the copper a n d prob a bly the le a
,

aa a
d (froi n Ajmer ) us ed
by the Ha r pp met l smi ths a nd from thi s regi on to o -

a sla a
te j S pe r bloods tone green ch a lcedony a
, , , ,

s te tite nd

other sto nes fo r be ds would ha a ve come The D eh k a

, , , , ,

n is
likely to h ve provi d ed a a methys ts n d a ra r e s tone a ma a
.

a
, ,

z onite must h ve come fi o m th e Nilgiri Hills or less prob

'

a bly fro m K a Ka shmir a n d the Him a la ya

, ,

shmir n for e s ts
would ha ve pro vided d e o d a prob a bly flo a
, .

r w ood ted d o wn
the rivers a s the sub sta nce si la a
r ,

j f
'

s well z t u s ed in olk m e di -

e me a n d the hor ns o f deer a lso believed to h a ve me dic in a

, ,

l
pro perties And perha p s fi o m beyond the mounta
, ,

i ns in th e
m
Pairs E a r kesta n or even Tibet or Burm ac me a
,
.

s t Tu

ja
, , ,

d e i te
All th i s tra de q uite a p rt from tha a
.

aa a
t within the boun
da ve inv olve d a
rics o f the H r pp kingdom itself must h a
a
,

considera ble me rch a nt cl a ttend a nt orga a

,

ss with the niz

tion o f c a ra v ns a a
long recogn i z e d tra de routes a
,

n d not i m -

prob a bly the provision o f ha lting pl ce s o r c a ra v n se r a I s In -

a a
the remoter dis tricts : I h a ve suggested th a t such sma ll sites
a s Ami la n o in S ind mi ght re pres ent such s er i s In the tr a ns a
port o f good s one would ex pect c mels to t ke a a a
.

c o ns pI c u ou

a
s

a a a
,

pl ce though p ck horse s m y well h ve been us ed e spe c i -

a lly i n the mount i nous regions a n d whaa a

, ,

t looks like little

a
cl y m o del o f a pa ck sa d dle h a s been fo und a ka
,

aa
)

t Jh u-
r in

S i nd pr ob a
, bly o f th e Ha r pp period But ma n y nim ls . a a
 f

1 76 C ITIES AND .
,
To s

c abe u ed f tra
n n por t in th mounta
s or in a a nyone i ll s e s, s w

rea li e who h aeen the flock f long h a

z s sired go a t coming s o - s

o er the p ae to India
v from L a da kh ea
ss s ch with a little p ack
f rock a lt lung a cro i b a
,

o -
s ck s ss ts

For lower ad hea ier tra cart a

.

ppa
s n port the n v s ox -
w s ex

i ly u ed in the Ha ra f ca
,

te n s v e s Culture Mod l rt i e s o s n

cl a y aa mong the commone t a

.

re ntiqui tie on h pre s s t e

hi toric ite f the Pu j a

s s b a d Sind a
s o d the type p n n n re re

ented i e a ctly tha t which tod a y crea k a d gro a

,

s s x n with s n s

i ts ungrea ed nea rly olid wheel in the villa

s ge round s s s

M h j da ro ad in fa ct carrie your lugga

,

o en o - ge from D okri
n s

ra ilwa y ta
,

tion to the ite when you i it it The type we

s s v s i

now know i uncha nged even in i wheel b a

.
,

ppa
s e f the ts -
s or

recent Ha ra e ca ation ha ve re ea led ca

, ,

rt rut belong
x v s v - s

ing to aea rly pha e f the city occup a

n tion ha ving a width
s o
’
s

o f a m 3 feet 6 inche which i tha

s e t f the modern ca rt in s, s o s

Si d Such thing h a
n ve a long ur iva l va lue the ta
s nda rd s v -
s

ga uge f modern Engli h c a aa lrea

.

o rt dy fi ed by the s s w s x

third century i n the e i l a nd B C s s s

While river tra ffic mu t h a ve been con i dera

. . .

ble there i s s s

no direct evidence f the u f boa t a

,

d only p o se o s, n tw o re re

sc uta tio e i t O ne i a ns rough dra xwing cra

s tched on aherd s s s

f pottery but one arecogni e the high prow a d tern a

.

o c n z n s

ma ta d furled a il ad ateer ma n wi h a
, ,

s n long teering
s n s s t s

aThe other i amore ca refully e ecuted engra ving on a

,

o r. s x

s ea l a d how cle a n rly a ve el with ery high prow ad

s s ss v n

tem ad a ppa rently m a de f reed the l a

,

s n hing f whi ch o s, s s o

a di tinctly een Amid hip i aqua re c a

,

re s s bin (or hrine) s s s s s

perh a p ma de a l o f reed or aa tent A teer ma

.
,

s s n i very o s, s s s s

ketchily dra wn in ea ted on a ra i ed pl a

.

s tform in the bow s s s

Ve el f imil a r ype afaa abe judged from p

.
,

ss s o s t s r s c n re re

ai were ch a ra cteri tic f prehi toric Me opota mia

,

se n t t o n s, s o s s

Though not trictly concerned with tra de ad the tra

.

s n n s

port f me ch a ndi e thi i a conve ient pl a ce to dra

pp a
o r ws s s n

a ttention to a nother type f vehicle i the Ha ra

,

Cultur o n e,
 1 7 8 C I T I E S AN D T O W N S
s a
ug gest th t the mercha
nts r etur ning a
long th e s outherly

otic d a ncing a a am
histic ted ch r s mi ght be though t
a
ex n d un sop

to tickle the fa ncy o f the tired bu siness men o f Ha ra pp or

M o h e njo d a -
ro
From merch a nts n d tra a
de to writing a nd a rithmetic i s a
.

rea s on a a
ble enough tr n sition : Speis er h a s put the whole r e

la ti o ns h i p into a delightfully cynica l phra se w riting w a

‘
s

not a delibera te invention but the incident l b y produc t o f a -

astrong sense o f pr iva

,

te property It i s not surprising then

tha t the b ulk o f the inscriptions in the Ha ra pp civili z a a , ,

tion
tha t ha ve survive d a re cut on st a mp se a l s engra -
ved with
figures o f a nima ls or le ss often o f god s a n d hum a ns a
, ,

n d e vi

d e n tly used a s a mea

,

ns o f identifying the property o f indi

vi d u a ls ( Fig Ap a rt from the s ea l inscriptio n s there a re

infrequent short sta

.
,

mped signs on pots or in scriptions

s cr a tched on a
.

ft er firing A group o f inscribed objects which

Sta nd a lone a r e sm a a
ll copper t blets with 1n sc r1pti o n s a
.

nd

outline engra vings o f n i m ls a a

Lea ving fo r the time being the type a n d sign i fic a
.

nce o f the
a
s e ls thems elves we manote a a s a

aa
y fe w defin i te f ct bout t h e

Ha aa
r pp script O nce g i n it i s nec ess ry to s a a a
t it h a
,

y th s

no t been re a d or tra nslitera ted the l a ngu a

.

ge it repres ents i s
qui te unknown ; the script h a s no direct a ffi n i tie s with a ny

other know n a ncient script in Western Asia ( or indeed el se

Thes e fa cts h a
a
w her e ) ve not however deterred the i rre
spons ible theo rist a a a a
.
, ,

n d the H r pp ins cription s h ve been

rea d with a bl nd a ssura a
nce a nd a comple te l a c k ofa
,
‘
ny

a uthority by more tha n o n e person a n d given more th a n one

a
interpret tion O ne c a n only sa a a a a
,

.
y th t p r t from ,
ttempt s

a
to connect it with the ninete enth century script o f the -
‘ ’

na tives o f Ea s ter I sl an d in the Pa cific the H ra pp script a

ha s perh a ps suffered less from luna tics tha n the Mino a
,

n But
a
perh ps it i s only th e shortness o f th e a v il a ble Ha ra a a
.

pp m
sc ri p ti o ns th at h s deprive d us o f such entert i ning fa
a nta sies a
 o r e D AND T un P U NJ A B 1
19

aa ai p eem
Th e H r pp
”

sc r t s s to a employ d ao a
h ve l f e t t o

abou 4 6 chara ludi ng vaia they a

. .

t ce0 hu t rs, t, ex c n r ts, c n

p ba
ro bly b b ugh t d wn
e ro o to not mor ha 5 di fferent
e t n 2 0

symbo ls This i n itself sho ws tha

re t we a e ount ring h
nc e t e
script a t a al te sta ge o f i ts d e velo pment fo r i f w e turn to
aa
Meso po t mi fo r a a
n lo g ies w e fi n d tha a a
,

t th e E rly Dyn s tic

Sume ria n scri pt emp loys a bo ut 900 cha ra cters n d th e num a
ber in th e U ruk peri od syll a ba ri e s i s believed to be so me

thing lik e Ther e i s a te n de nc y to re d uc e th e number

a
o f ch r a cters a aa
s l ngu ge a n d wri t ing develo p n d this evi a
denc e o f ma tur ity in th e Ha r p a a a
,

s c ri pt i s in reci s e c ord
p p c

a nce with th e oth er ev ide nce so o fte n stre ssed in this boo k
th a t we kn o w th e culture o n ly i n i ts l a a
, ,

te r ph ses And o n e o f
th e mos t s trikin g proo fs o f the ess enti a l st gna a
.

a
tio n o f th e
Ha ra pp c i vi liz atio n i s the fa ct th a t the r e i s no developmen t
a a
t ll in th e scr ipt throu ghout the whole M ry o f th e long a
occup a tio n o f the grea t cities

The script i s essentia a

.

lly pic togr phic e ve n though we

ca nno t r ec o gn iz e ma
,

ny o f the o bjects represented I t i s stiff

a a
n d i s ex ac tly co mp a a a
.

n d precise r ble in i ts fo r m l i ty to th e
a
,

hi e r o glyphic script o f E gypt n o equi v le nt to th e mo re c ur

sive development s such a s a ppe a red in the hiera ti c n d de a
a
.

me tic h nds o f E gypt or in th e c uneiform scripts o f Me so

po ta aa a
,

mi h s been r ecogn i z ed i n pr ehi sto r ic Indi Whi le

this ma a a a
.
,

y be tho ugh t to b e d u e p r tly to t h e b s e n ce o f ny

documents o f amore or less te mpor r y n tur e such a a a s

wo uld be written in E gypt o n p a pyrus o r in Sumer on cla

,

y
a
t ble ts yet even in such thin gs a s r ough ins cr iptio n s

a a a
,

scr tch e d on pots the si gns r e still the form l des igns kno wn

from the ca refully cut se l insc ri ptions a .

a
know n but it c n b e de duce d tha
t the l a
ngu g e w s re d a a a
a
,

from r ight to le ft though when s econd line o f i nscriptio n

, .
1 80 c r r rE s
' '

AND TOW NS
is present the bo w troph edon pra ctice s know n in e a rly Greek a
a ltern a a
tely from right to left a
, ,

o f re ding the lines n d from

left to right seems to h a ve been followed Cert in sign s c n a a

be identified s norm a ally comin g either a a
, .

t the e n d or t th e
begi nn i n g o f in scriptions n d others m y represent nume a a
a
r ls there ma a a a
,

y h ve been some sys t e m o f ccent s or d i

a
c ri ti c ls u sed The signs a
r e o f cours e not lph betic a n d by aa
a a
n logy they could represent either syll bles ideogra a
.
,

ms or
determina tives to indic a a
, ,

te the cl ss o f thing to which the

O ne mi ght rea son bly suppose th a a

a
A

t the inscriptions on the

a
s e ls repres ent person a l n mes n d perh ps titles aa a n d there

a
,

i s no evidence to suggest direct connex ion between the

device engra ved on the sea a
l n d the legend though on the
little copper ta blets there does a ppe r a genera a a
,

s l rule to
b e concord a nce between the a ni m a a
, ,

l represented n d the
a
group o f sign s ccomp nying it There a a a
a
r e no monument l

or public inscriptions known in the H ra pp c iviliz a a

.

tion no
a
hint o f nything wh ich could be rega aa
,

rded s business docu

ment priva a
te letter n historica l record or aa litera ry com
position When bilingu a l inscriptio ns a a
, ,

re found n d the

script i s eventully re a a a a
.
,

d by their me ns it i s unlikely th t we
aa a a
,

s h ll le r n much bout the life n d thought o f the pe Ople :

a
cert i nly there w ill be no new liter tur e revea a
a
led
As it sta nds the H ra a a
.

pp script i s unique intrusive n d

without descend a nts I ts rel a a
, ,

tionship to the ncient scripts

aa
i s likely to be n logous to the E gyptia aa
.

o f Mesopot mi n
sys tem o f writing its elf wholly different from a nythi ng
known in Sumer but perha aaa a
,

ps ins pired by it s f r s the ide

a
spoken l a ngua a
, ,

aa
o f r epres enting ge by fix ed se t of symbols
’

goes The pp rent priority o f Mesopota mi i n the i n v e n a

tion o f writing implies th a t Indialike E gypt derived the
.

a
b sic idea of a wri tten sc ript from tha t source but a
, ,

s in

E gypt th e scri pt e rly took on a a

ch a ra a a
, ,

cteristic lly loc l form

The ty pe o f l a ngu ge likely to h a a
, .

v e been spoke n with in the

 82 CITI ES TOW NS
a
1 A ND

they ma y h ve been u sed am on g a merch a n t pop ul ati on

la a
rgely ignor nt o f the a r t o f wri ting or written a rithm etic
but this seems a little unlikely The w a
,

y in w hi ch thi s weight
a
s prese rved or enforced throughout the whole a re a
.

s ystem w

o f H ra a p s ettlement an d from beginn i ng to e n d o f the

known dura tion o f the culture i s rem a rka ble
Fr a a a x a a
.

gm e n t r y evidence o f equ lly e ct s

y tem f me s
s s o

ur e me n t h a s b e en recovered From M o h e njo d a ro ca me a

.

broken sc le engra a ved on shell o f which mn e a ccur a

.

tely
d ivid e d interva l s r em a ined indic a ting a decim a l sca
,

le o f
1 3 2 inches prob a bly ri sin g to afoot o f 1 3 2 inches ; a nd a
,
‘ ’
- -
t

Ha ra ppa abronz e rod w a s fo u nd m a rked o ff in u ni ts o f

0 3 6 76 inch whi ch c a n be rel a ted to a sca le b a sed on a

cubit o f 2 0 6 2 inches a unit frequently u sed in the a

,

n c 1e n t

world The inferences fi jo rn these tw o sca les were tested a

,

a
t

Ha ra pp a n d M o h e njo d a ro by a
.

-
check s eries o f over 1 5 0
mea surements o f a rchitectur a l deta ils with the result tha t
the concur rent use o f tw o uni ts o f mea surement a
,

cubit o f
be tween 2 0 3 a n d 2 0 8 inche s a nd a
,
’
foot o f between 1 3 0
‘
-

a n d 1 3 2 inches w a s proved M e a
,

-
surement s resolved them

ltiples o f one or other of these st nd a a

.
,

a
s elves into simple m u rd
un i ts fo r insta nce the Gre a t Ba th a t M o h e njo d ro i s 36 by -

2 1 units o f a foot o f 1 3 1 inches a n d the circu la

a
r working
pl a tform s fo r flour pounding in the Workmen s Qu a
,

-
rter t ’

H raa pp a ha d a dia meter o f I O feet o f 1 3 2 inches -

The l a te S i r Flinders Petrie one o f th e fe w persons to h a

.

ve
s tudied a ncient metrology on a wide b a si s pointed out th a
,

t
inch foo t w a s very widespre a d in Western Asia a
,

the nd

in prehistoric a nd R om a n Europe surviving indeed a s the

builder s foot used in E nglish medieva

,
’
l buildings The
a
Roy l Cubit o f 2 0 6 2 inches i s equ a lly widesprea d a
.

a
nd
‘ ’

s ubdivides into p a lms a the H ra pp mea a

,

n d digits sure

ha ving on it divisions o f one h a

,

l f digit correct to within 0 3

- -

per cent Behind these a ccura tely constructed sc les a a

,

aa
nd of

c ourse behind t h e whole la a

.
,

y out - o f the H r pp street sys

 '
‘

o s S I ND AN D T H E
’
fl
P U N JA B 1
3
tems a n d hous e pl a a
ns mus t lie so und kn o wledge o f pra
- c

tic al geometr y a n d la
,

nd surv eyi ng
The engra ved sea ls alrea
.

dy refer red to in conn ex ion with

the ins cripti ons cut upo n th e m h a ve h owever other cl a ims
to our a
.
, ,

tten tion ( Fig The scen es depicted upon them

a
usu lly consist o f representa tions o f anim a
.

ls sh o w n i n profile
'

a n d frequently ca rved with a brilli a

,

nt sureness o f touch :

FIG . 22 . Impre ssio n s fro m ls M o h e njo da

mp se a
in s c ribe d sta -
, ro -
 1 84 C ITIE S AND T OW N S i s;

some a nima l a my hica l in ention uch achimera

s re t ad v s, s s s n

but other nota bly the ma gnificent erie

"

unicor ns , s, f s s o

humped ad dewla pped bull monumenta

n l f a ll their s, or

mini a tu e i e a f bea t immedia tely recog iz a ble a

ppa
r s z re o s s n s

lik ly to be fa milia r wild or ta me to the Ha ra a

,

e rti t s s

Some ea l how myth ologica l cene whi ch gi e u hi nt a

a
, .
, .

pp a
s s s s s v s s s

to the po ible tra i in Ha ss ra religiou thought

s ns d
-

s n

the will be commented on l a ter when dea

,

pp a
se ling with the
problem f Ha ra religion There i a cl a f ca
pp a
s o lled s ss o so -

ma ll ea l from H a ra which eem to be a

.

s s s mong the very s

object from a a
a
f ew y f h s ite which how ignific
n nt o t e s s s s

s tr tifica tion f they a confined to the lower level or re s.

entia l fea ture f the ea l i th a

,

Bu the t e ss t they belong to o s s s

the cl a k own a ta mp ea Such ea

'

ss n l l were pre ed
s s -
s s s s ss

di rectly on t the oft m a teria ea

.

l u ed f
o ling in the nor
s s or s

ma l ma nner f a modern ea l or a Sign t ring further th a

,

ppa
o n s e -

ha t the Ha ra ea l a u ua lly qu a ala a

i

t re Now h s s re s s t e se s

method f ma rking property i f grea ta ntiquity a

.
,

o d i u s o n ts se

i ve y wide pre a
s r d in the Ancien E a s t but one peculia r t s

development the cylinder ea to the ea

,

ttern or a
l which i rolled ling -
s s on s

produce aontinuou ba nd f p a
,

to c oblong cene s o n s

i entirely a Sumeria n invention ad i a ppea ra nce in a

,

s y n ts n

a cul ure in prehi toric We tern A iaabe ai

,

n c 1e n t t s s s c n ttr

buted fa irly confi dently to Sumeria

'

n influence af i h s or

ta nce the ra re cylinder ea l in prehi toric Egypt The fa

,

pp a
s ct s s s

tha t cylinder e a l a ara re in the Ha ra civili a tion a

.

s s re s z s

t hey a in E gypt t e e the independence f the Indi a

re s r ss s n o

culture f a y but the

o mo t indirect
n a d light Sume ian s n s r

influence a d the u f ta mp ea
n l certa inly ca nnot be
se o s -
s s

a t ributed to th a
,

t t ource s

The ta mp ea l i known in one form or a nother aa

.

s -s s rly s e

aHa la f time in Syri a a a

, ,

s (with decor tive

s p tte n r s, not

na tura li tic de ig ) ad imil a r button ea l a ppea ri h s

a s s n t e
-
s s ns n

Ta l i Ba kun A pha e i Southern P er i with cl a y ea li ng

t they were i ndeed u ed f thi purpo e a
- - s n s s s

howing tha
,

s d s or s s , n
 1 86

in which the hea d h s been a a

ffi x ed sep r a tely with et l a ma
pegs the a rms a n d legs a re a
lso designed to be m o re th a n m
o n e piec e simil a rly held together a n d the n i pples a a
,

r e inl i d

in some sort o f pla ster The sa nd stone torso too h a s ha

,

d ln
la id nipples origi n a lly a s well a s di scs on the shoulders a nd a
.

a
s ep r a te a tta ched he a
,

d Th e te c h n i q ue o f the sculpture d i f
cets a
-

fers in the two figures; the d a ncing figure showing fa

.

nd

s tri a
tions a bsent in the evenly rounded conto urs o f the torso :
’

it seems unlikely th a t they a r e by the sa me ha nd

Archa eologica lly the circum st a nces o f findi ng a
.

r e not

wholly sa tisfa ctory a s the str a tigr a phic l re cord doe s not a
furnish us with precise evidence But we ma
,

y turn f o r com
ara v e evidence to other sites M o h e n jo d a a
.

ti ro h s prod u ced
p
-

a
s ever l pieces o f stone sculpture in convincing a rcha eologic a
.

l
contex ts a n d o f these the be rded ma n we a ring a n ema
broidered ga r ment i s justly fa mous Here i s a n a r t tr a
,

dition
more hiera tic more form l tha n the n aa r li sm o f the Ha a
.

tu

ra a
pp to rso but we m y note a ga a
in the use o f inl a y a
,

nd

meta th e trefoil s on the robe a n d the disc on the b a

,

l red
r ight a r m ; prob a bly the eyes a n d perh a ps the e a rs m y a lso a
ha ve held i n la e so c ke ts fo r a met l (prob a a
aa h h
y s w i le t bly
gold ) coll r c a t the b a a
l

se o f the h a ir on e a
, , .

n be seen ch side s

be h ind the e rs And in a t le st one other minor piece o f a

s culpture in ste a tite from the sa me site a cha
.

rming little
bull sockets fo r meta l ea rs ho rns a re a ga a
.
,

,
n d eyes , in pro
vi d ed
Now this a
work i s a
.

dornment o f sculpture with inl y a

fr e q ue n t fa
sh mn in pre hi storic Wes tern Asi a
n d met al
but
a
one not cha ra cteristic o f e a
rly historic Indi a
,

a
n sculp ture O n e
i s therefore inclined to a ccept the two Ha ra
.

pp sculptures
a s a uthentic ex pressions o f pre hi storic Indi a na r t in the third

mi llennium There i s however ddition a l evidence to

‘
a
s upport this View From M o h e njo d a ro a
, ,

l so comes the e x -

a a
.

ui i e little bronz e figu re of D ncing Girl more th an

a
q s t -

once r eferred to lrea dy w i th a

,

s ens itive modelling o f the

,
 n p 1
‘
OF SIND AN D THE P U NJ A B

a rcha
in a
eologica
ll deta
l conte t a
il f ha
d we h ve een tha
irdre ing ad a
s o
t it repr ent
x

dornment aophi tica

,

ss
n

ted n
a s

s s
es s,

ver ion f the fem a le type known in the rough chema

,

s o ti ed s z

a
,
,

p ott ery figu i ne in the Kulli

r C ulture
s nd i likely to rep e s t

s nt tr a a a a a
,

e d be tween M
e h j d ro d S outh B l u
o ch i t n
en o -
n s

The um f evidence therefore ugge t tha t na tur a

.

s o li ti s s s s c

hum a n culpture whi ch even fore ha dow l a ter Indi a na

, ,

pp a
s rti s s s

tic modes aproduced in the Ha w s ra civili a tion ad z n

aa lrea dy e enti a lly India

,

w s n ss .

a
O ne thing which needs to be stressed in connex ion with
the sculptura la r t o f the H a ra pp civiliz a
-

la
comp a ra
a
ck o f n y monumenta
ble with the a
tion i s the complete
l or public composition s
b sence o f public ins crip
si tu ati on
tions I f the
a
lptur es or a n y o f them repre sent deities then they c a
.

s cu n

ha ve gr a ced only p ri va te shri nes ; i f indi vidua ls they c a

, , ,

ha ve pl a yed no p a rt in a n y st ate ritua

,

l And in the whole

field o f Ha ra pp a a rt this priva cy a lmost secrecy obta
.

ins
a n d one h a s a u a
, , ,

n ncomfort ble i mpression o f cities o f fo r

b i d d i n gly bl ank wa ll s behind whi ch we a lth 1s ho a rded a nd

jea lously gu rded a

The sculptures give us a little in form a tion a
.

bo ut the cloth
i n g n d haa irdressing o f the people the short bea r d s worn

by the men the ha ir b o und b a ck by a fillet with i ts two end s

ha nging down behi nd the embroid ered robe worn so a
,

s to

lea ve the right shoulder b a re The a bund a nt cla

,

y figu r i nes

P o f women s ome prob a

.

bly toys others godlings in household

s hrines Sho w a s do the comp a ra ble figur es from Ba
, ,

luchi
s ta n deta ils o f el bora te hea a
d dresses a nd a n a bund a
, ,

nce o f -

necklets a nd orn a men ts n d such rich orn ments a a

s w e ca a
,

de duce from th e fig ures r e in fa ct known fi o m ma a

,

n y fin d s

in the Ha ra pp sites a .
 '

1 88 CITIE S AND TOW NS t

preserved inta ct entire p a rures coll a rs gir dles n d n e c k a

la a a a
, , ,

ces O n e suc h find i s lmost cert i nly th e result o f v e r y

aa
.

a
su c c e ssfi i l burgl ry c rried out in the thi r d millennium

For in a hole dug down 7 or 8 feet benea

a
th one o f the cott ges
in the coolie lines a -
t Ha ra pp w a s found gre t m ss o f a aa
jewelle ry o f gold a n d semi precious stones -
there were
nea rlyfive hundred pieces o f gold ra nging from rmlets to a
bea ds a a
n d m ny complete neckl a ces ma
,

de up o f multiple
s trings o f be a ds a n d met a l The situ a tion o f th e find ma
,

kes i t
very unlikely tha t it w a s a cquired by lega l mea ns a
.

n d it

looks a s if a pa tricia n la a
,
’
dy s jewel chest w s rifled ; or per -

a
h ps this w a s the stock i n tr de o f a a a
aa a
- -
jeweller (who must h ve
been the Ca rtier o f H r pp ca rried o ff by bur gl r who a a
hid the swa g but fa
,

iled to recover it
Four hoa rds o f simil a rj e w e lle ry from M o h e njo da
.

ro s eem -

aa
however to h ve di fferent history,fo r they a re a
,

ll si gn i
fi ca a
n tly fro mthe l test occup a a a
,

tion o f th e city n d prob bly

belong to a time when it w a lrea a
,

s dy beginnin g to go down
hill We sha ll se e in th e nex t cha pter th t there i s evidence a
a
th t the end o f the Ha ra a
pp civili z a tion w a s brought a
.

bout
a
or t lea st precipita aa
ted by b rb ri a n inro a
,

ds from the west

a n d the M o h e njo d a a
ro ho rds some o f them p a
, ,

-
cked in silver
a
j rs a wra a
,

nd pped in cloth r e eloquent testimony to

troubled times They ma a a
,

y h ve been hidden h stily by the i r

a
origin l owners fo r s fety during ra a a a
.

id o r they m y r e pre
a a a
,

sent loot g t h ered together by th e r i ders n d left behi nd in

a
atempor ry retre t but wha a tever th eir history they cer
ta i n ly tell o f ins ecurity a n d the coll a pse o f the old tra
,

a
ditions
o f the H r a a
pp kingdom
a
The a ctu l jewe ller y worn includes gold pla
.

ques with
a a
orn ment l white p ste inla a y pl a in gold rmlets n d globu a a
a
l r be a ds gold conica a
,

l orn ments which we know from the

e vidence o f the Kulli figurines were worn over th e c a
, ,

rs by
‘

women a nd a grea t va a
,

riety o f neckl ces or girdles often

ma de o f mul tiple str ings o f bea ds sep r ted by sp a aa

, ,
‘
cers
 ITIES AN D TOW NS
a
1 90 C

mirrors w ith a h ndle were used fo r the toi let ; kohl or so me

r com etic seem s to h a
si mi la ve been us ed a nd a pplied with
‘

s peci a
l little rods ; while raz ors were certa
,

inly us ed fo r

a
There re some a greea ble toys usu lly m a a
de out o f b ked a
cl a y th ough here it i s not lwa a
ys possible to ma ke sha a
,

rp
distinction between c hildren s toys a
,

n d figurines wh i ch might
’

a dorn a hous ehold shrine (Pl But c ttle with mova a ble
hea ds th a t wa a a a
.

g gle w i th s tring n d monkey s th t s l i de

down a rope a n d owing to the delibera tely ben t perfora
,

tion
ca n be stopped a t will by tightening th e string a r e clea
, ,

rly
“

fo r fun a n d not fo r wors hip a n d the sa me ma a

,

y be s i d o f
ma ny o f the toy ca rts The model c a rt m a de o f cl a ywa s a
,

fa vourite toy in ea rly historic Indi aa

.

n d indeed Th e Li ttle

Cla a a a
,

y C r t i s the title o f one o f t h e be s t know n pl

-
y s o f ncie n t
Indiawr itten s omewhere before th e eighth century A D
the plot turns on the hiding o f jewel s in a sm a
, . .

ll boy s toy
’

ca rt Then there a r e pottery whistles m a de in the sh a pe o f a

h e n or other bird which c a n be m a de to give a
.

surp ri singl y
loud coo i n g noise when blown in the right w a
,

y
-

A couple o fb ri cks h a
.

ve been found roughly scored with

lines ma rking out a ga me : one conta i ns p a rt o f the whole
pa ttern whi ch might either ha ve been simil a r to a kn own
S umeri a n ga mes boa -
rd or a nother type from E gypt The
other b ri ck h a a
.

s row o f depressions into which pebbles or

s omet hi ng si mil a r such a s be a ns could be flicked in the
ma nner o f the ga mes o f cert a in Africa
, , ,

n tribes Both bricks

prob a bly ca me from p a vements a n d contrive to give a
.

con
v i n c i n g picture o f hou sehold serva la ying a n d prob a
,

nts p bly
ga mbling in a sh a ded corner o f the courtya
,

rd Dice were
certa inly used a n d mu st me n ga ame s o f cha nce : the a rra
.
,

nge
ment o f the spots w s not the sa a me a s th at us ua l tod a
,
‘ ’
y
when a n y two Oppo site side s a
,

d d up to s even but 1 i s oppo

site 4 a a a
,

site 2 Oppo d oppo ite 6 Incident l ly s imi

3 n 5 s

la rly m a rked piece h s bee n found a a s fa r a wa y a

, , .
,

s Tepe
 o r! a
m r ) AND
‘
TH E
‘

‘
P U NJ A B 191

a
,

G arain th o th f Ira
w q w ith o th r
e n e viden er f I d i n o e c o n

conta i w f th g ea
,

ct Th i u f d i c i intere ti g i
s s se o t e s s n n v e o e r

p pula rity f ga mbling on om e ga me f cha n ea

.

o o mong th e s o c

A ya n who e a rrival i n Indi aawe ha ma

ppa
r s, s ll rk the s s se e , s

end f the Ha ra ci vili a

,

o tion z

Turni ng now fi m the mi nor a t a d cra ft to more b a

.

'
o ic r s '
n s s

ma nufa cture we mu t con id er fir t the pottery The re a

s, d s s s er

ha no doubt felt aert a i n relief in the e c a

.

s p e from the mi nu c s

tiae of pottery t yle a d orna ment tha t ha d to occupy

s s n
'
so

much f Cha pter IV but we c a nnot a ltogether lea

a
o ve out f o

a ccount h pottery f the Ha a a

,

t e
p p civili tion even i f it o r z

doe not ha ve the overwhelmingly importa nt pl a

,

s ce in the
culture th a t it h ain the l fully e plored communitie f s e ss x s o

Ba luchi ta n where much depend on l ca

s l ce am c va ri so s o r i

a nt i detecting cultura
,

l diff rence
‘

s n e s

Potter ki ln a k wn from the l a te t pha

.

s
’
s se f M h j
re no s o o en o ~

da ro ,when the l a ck ning f mum pa la utho ity the d a

s y e o cr r i n s

o f th ecity s declin e permi tted their ere c tion withi n the resi
’

denti a la re s They a r e circul a a

r with a stoke hole a n d fur -

na ce benea th aperfora ted floor origina lly covered by a

.
,

domed roof a n d represe nt a ra ther more evolved type th n a

tha t foun d in Si a lk III ; they a ls o comp r a
re a a
,

ble with those

fro m S usa a n d Me so pot mi a n sites o f Early D yn stic d te
'

a a a ;

cle a rly repr es ent po tters qua rter a ’

The Ha ra ppa rt pl in ma
potter y i s fo r th e most p a a
.

ss

produced wa re s fo r purely utilit ri n purp o se s peculia aa

,

r in
aaa a
,

i ts types to the H r pp ki ngd o m its elf n d without reco g

niz a b le anteced e nts or a n a
,

logues outside Among the ty pes .

consists o f apla r is ed foot usu lly r efer red to a

tt er on a s a
n a , a

a a aa
ti on s s urely s S mi n pottery betokens R om n occupa a
tion in E urope The se offeri ng st nds derive from the .
- a
 1 92 c rr
'
ms A N D T O W N S
a
pedest lled bow ls known fo r in s t nce in the Z hob Va a lley
aa a a
, ,

i n the R n Gh u nd i II ph s e : this type i s not however

represented a mong the Buff w re gro p of B a a u
luchis ta
, ,

-
n ex
cept fo r possible ex a mples in the Amri pha
a
se

a
The decor ted pottery o f the Ha ra
.

pp Culture (P ls 6
a n d 7) gi ves one a n immedi a
.

te clue to i ts likely origins fo r

aa
it i s bl c k o n red wa re the designs bei ng p i nted on a a
,

- -

deep red lustrous slip This strongly suggests th a

,

t i ts con
n e x i o n s lie with the N orth B a luchi st n w res such a aa
.
,

s those

o f the R a a
n Ghund a i III ph se t Feri a aa
no Ghund i a a
a
,

aa a a
nd

othe r sites Bu t alre dy the Ha r pp styles h ve t ken on a

ch a ra a
cteristic lly individua
.

l form which do not in them

selves seem to owe much to N orth B a luch ist n styles o f pot a
a
p inting ; on the other h a nd they ha ve certa in quite strong
a
simil r ities with the Kulli s ty le o f th e s outh

Two groups o f p a tterns a m

.

re of co mon occurrenc e : the

'

geometri c or a bstr act forms include the distinctive intersect

ing circle motif repea aa a a
ted s n ov er ll p ttern a nd sm a ller a
but significa aa a
.
,

nt group employs n tur listic motifs o f pl nt

a nd aa a
n i m l design s It i s diffi cult to m ke comp a ra tive co m
a
ment on the first group o f p tterns ex cept to note tha ta
.

a
cer
a
t in kidney sha ped motif i s Common to Ha ra a
,

a
-
pp shell in l ys
n d gold jewellery a s well a
s to pot orn a ment a n d th a t the
a nd on a a
,

intersecting circle p ttern i s fou vessel from the N l

ce meter y, though there p a a
i nted on to buff b a ckground The
aa
n tur listic design s a r e interes ting They a re u sua lly p a
.

inted
aa
in spr wling sl a pd ash tech ni que which covers a aa
.

ll th e v il
a a
ble a a a
re o f the vessel in n irregul r ma ss o f foli age a
,

n d ten

a
d ril s mong which birds (sometimes pea cocks ) a n d less

a aa a
frequently nim l s t ke the ir pl ce It i s a n untidy lux uri a
,

nt
a and ha s nothing o f the form li sm a
.
,

s tyle n d s e ns e o f preci s e

a a
p tterni ng found in so much o f the B luchis ta
,

n potter y ; one
a a aa
lm o s t feel s th t the h rd rid hi ll country produced a - t ut a
muscul a r style o f p ai nting but th a
, ,

t down in the humid

aa
,

pl ins lush jungle style grew up .

1 94
'
o r r rn s AND TOW NS
n tura
a li tic cenes ltern a
s s a
ted with metopes o fchequer work -

The surviving sc enes show fi r st o f a a

.

ll the bough s o f tree

with a bird sea ted on one o f them by which i s a
,

d o e suckling
her kid w i th two birds a fish a nd a sta r in the upp e r p a
,

rt o f
th e pa nel ; a n d secondly a ma n with one h nd r a ised a a
, ,

n d the

o ther touching h i s hea d a nd a child with upra ised a rms

wi th tw o fishes a a
cock i n th e field Fra
, ,

nd gments o f two
other p a nels show a tree the he a da nd a rm o f a ma a
.

n nd

perh a ps a hoo ded cobra on one a la a

, ,

n d on the other rge

bra
,

nching tree
It i s a l t to pin down th e sources o f these va
.

s difficu rious
motifs a s it i s to produce a pedi gree fo r a a
a a
n y other fe ture o f

the Ha ra pp civiliz tion I h a ve suggested Kulli s likely aa

a a
s

sour ce a t le ast in p rt a n d one ma y note th a t la

,

rge buff w re -

pots i n which chequer work p a nel s alt ern a te with bra

, ,

-
nching
trees a n d ibex fi gu r e s occur in the Khura
-
b cemetery in Per
si an Ma kra n this po tt ery will be discussed in the nex t ch a p
te r,a n d ma a x im a a a
y
a
y be ppro tel contempor ry with the l ter
pha ses o f the H a ra pp Culture i e a bout 2 00 0 or a bit
la
. .

a
ter
O n e other type o f pa mte d po ttery in the Ha ra
.

pp Cultur e
s hould be mentioned th a t in w hi ch the design i s p a inted i n
'

s ever a l c olours Such polychrome wa re i s very ra

,

re in the
a
Ancien t O rient lthough p inting in two co lours usua a
.

lly
bl a ck a i s not unusu a l an d crop s up in va
, ,

n d re d ri ous c ul
tures a t va rious times Tell H la l,Je md e t Na a
,

sr fh e Z hob

a
V lley or Amr i fo r insta nce But true polychromy such a
,

a
s

we find on the sherds from Ha ra pp a a

.
, ,

n d Mo h en o —
j d ro
which a re p i nted in reda n d green on a a
bu ff slip or tha t
from Ch a n h ud a ro which a ppea rs to sh ow a na tura
,

listic
‘

s cene o f bir d s nd a anim a ls i n bl ack white a n d red on a yel

low ground i s very ex ceptiona l Nevertheless a s we h a
, ,

ve
a a
seen i n the l s t ch pter polychr ome wa a
.
, ,

re employing very
full ra nge o f colours including red blue green a
,

n d yellow

i s ch a ra cteristic o f the N a lture o f Ba luchista n a

, , , , ,

l Cu n d it ,
 or e m AN D TH E
‘

P U NJ A B r9 5

a
ms d i fi onlt to d i sso c i te tlri s s em th e fe w e x a mples i n the
a
se e t

Ha ra pp sites The Ch a
. n h ud a ro sherd a
-
t le a s t with i ts u se,

o f ye llo w colo u r i n g st ro n gly s u ggest s some so rt o f c o n n e x i o n s

w ith th e N a l seri es o f p a
,

in ted pots
An a a
r tifi c i l sub sta nce m a nufa ctured a n d u sed i n th e Ha
.

a
s

ra pp civiliz a tion a n d o f so me i mporta n c e i s fa ie nce This

3 esse nt ia lly a co mposition o f some b a s e mi x ed w i th ao w
, , .

a a
p
de r ed gl z e whi ch i s then fi red to fo r m vitre o us s ub sta
,

nce

w ith a gl a z ed surfa ce whi ch c a r e d in ma n ufa

,

n b e colou ctur e
by th e a d ditio n o f v ri ous miner a a l s ubsta
.

n ces to th e c o m

p o s i ti o n m pro c e s s o f ma nu f c tu r e ias c o m ple x i n t i m a tel y

a a s e o f fri ts a n d gl a
.
,

sso ci ted w i th th e u z es , though n o t n e c e s

sa ri ly with the ma nufa c tu r e o f gl a ss its elf S u ch a n el bora te a

a
.

techn i que i s not likely to h v e been in v ented in d ependently

in se ve r a l a r ea s o f W estern As ia in prehistori c times It i s
ow n a t le st a a
s ea r ly a s j e md e t Na
.

n e v e r th e lee s km sr times in

M eso pot mi a aa n d Syri awhen f i e n c e bea ads a re lr md y a

commo n a nd a b o ut the sa me time i t ppe a a
,

a
r s in E gypt

while a i n El m it a a ctua lly a ppe rs to ha a

, ,

t S us ve been
kn o w n to th e people o f the first pha se o f oc cu a
p ti on a nd

buria l o n th e site Thi s S usa I pha s e should i n genera l te rms

a
be co n tempor ry w i th th e l a ter pa rt o f th e Al U b a rcl a
.

'
’
nd

a
th e fi rst h lf o f th e Ur u k pe r i o d s i n M e so po ta mi aso th e
a a r liest a a a
,

pr w e n o e o f f ie n c e th e re se em s to m rk i ts e pp e r :

a n c e i n We stern Asi a
But i t d oes n o t a ppea r i n th e Ba lu
a ltures e x c e pt a t N l wh e re a a fe w be ds r e a aa
.

c h i st n c u
'

o bv io us H raa ppaimp o rt ; a
, ,

nd else wher e in th e region s

a
imme d i te ly to th e w t o f In d i i ts a a
ppe a ra a
.

nc e i s spor d i c
a n d la te a s fo r ins t a a a
nc e th e solit ry h e d fro m An a
a
uIII
a nd a nother fro m Sha h Tepe Th e use ( fa ie n ce by the
people o f the H ra a a a
.

pp ci v ili z tion then seems like ly to be

aa
d e ri v e d fi ro m M e so po t mi o r pe r h a s El m a a
, ,

p t s o m e s ti ll mr
a
i d en ti fi e d st ge of th e c ultu
‘

r e s e r li e r e vo lu
’
a ti o n fo r i t i s

ent t a a ll lev e ls i n th e e x c a a
,

fre qu v t e d si te s fro m th e begin

ning to the end o f th ei r occ up tion w h e r e i t w a a

,

,
s mu ch moref
1 96 c rr m s ?A N D T O W N S
ex tensively employed tha n fo r ins t nce in E arly Dyn stic
, a , a
a
Sumer
The meta l in dustry o f H ra pp h a s ma a a
.

ny curious n d i h
te re sti n g features Like a ll the e a
rly urb a n civiliz a
a
tions o f
Western Asiatha t o f Ha ra pp w a s form a
. ,

,
lly

m king tools a
a n d we a pons In Cha pter III we sa w how the

use o f copper s eems to h a ve been discovered a

.

mong the
a
m kers o f p a inted pottery in the Persia n highl a nd s or some
a dj a cent region first by using n a a
tur l pieces o f r a w met a l
a n d ha mmering them into sh a pe a n d la
,

ter by smelting i t
from the ore a n d melting it so th a a a
,

a
t it could be c st An lysis
o f the meta l from which H a ra pp tools were ma
.

de shows
a
cert in signific nt impurities a a ccident lly included which a
give a n indic a tion o f the possible sources o f the na tur l ores a
from whi ch it w s obta a ined fo r there i s no rea
a
s on to thi nk

th a t smelting w a s not known to the H a ra

,

a
pp folk from the
ea rliest ph a se a t whi ch we know the culture In the H a rapp
a
c pper there i s norma lly a little n i ckel (usua
.

lly below 0 5
per cent a n d seldom a
bove 1 0 per cent ) but the propor
a
tion o f rsenic i s higher a
. .

a
n d i s sometimes ex cessive Now th is

a
s ence o f r se n i c shows th a s u n likely th a a a
.

p re t it i t the H r pp
a
people were obt ining their copper from the s me sources a
a s th e Sumeri a ns who were working ore s with slight nickel a
content but with no significa nt a rsenic n d which ma a
,

y
a
h ve been obta ined in O m a
, ,

a
n on the south wes t side o f the -

Persia n Gulf The Ha ra pp copper most likely ca me from

Indi a
a
n ores in the R a a a si a
.

j t
pu n dis trict though Per n
r e not a
,

bsolutely ruled out

a aa
sources

The H ra pp met l smiths were m a a

.

-
nuf cturing objects
in copper either cr ude or refined ; in bro nz e (copper with
“

a x i ma a a a
,

pp r o te ly l o per cent o f tin deliber tely or ccident lly

a a a
dded ) n d in copper a rseni c lloy a
-
a
lmost cert a i nly cci a
a
dent l but one whi ch g ve a n a a dded h a a
,

rdness to the met l

a
Actu l representa tive a a aa
.

n lyses re s follows :
1 98 o rri ns AND i

r o w ms
a
gent Thi s permits good ca stings t o be m a de even by the
complica ted ci re perdue method i n which a a
.

model i s m de i n
w a coa ted in cla y a n d then he a ted unti l the w a
,

x x i s melted

a nd a bsor bed in the ba ked mould ; the molten meta l ca

, ,

then b e po ured in to t a ke the ex a ct sha pe o f the origina lw a x

model S uch figures a s the D a ncing Girl from M o h e njo da

-
ro
-

m ust ha ve been c a
.

st by thi s process w i th sub sequent work

in ch a s ing a n d finishing the surfa ce ; a

,

n d the little model

ca nopied c a rts were a l so presum a bly m a de in thi s m a

a
nner
But th e curio us fa ct i s th a t closed mould c a
. .

-
s ting either by re
a a
,

p r d ue or by le ss mbiti o u s proc e ss e s involvi n g mo ul d s in m o r e

th a n one pie ce w a s never u s ed in th e Ha ra pp i i c
i
vili z a ti on to
produce tools whic h grippe d the ir ha fts by me a n s o fa
,

s ocke t

a lthough thi s te chnique w a

,

s di sc o vere d in S u me r in very

ea rly times a n d fro m th i s centre i ts a de ption w a s ra pid in

mos t region s round a
a
bout
Th e a x es prod uced by the H a ra pp meta l smi ths i n pa
.

-
r

ti c u la r a r e o f the si mplest fla t type whic h a ppe a

a
rs in the very

ea rliest s ta ge s o f the m nufa c ture o f met a l tools in m a ny

pa rts o f th e O ld World a a
n d c n indeed b e ca st from a n ope n

mould o f the most primitive type (Fi g Q 4) Fla ta

,

a
x es o f re
p
ci se ly the H a rapp forms a ppe a r in S i a lk III Hissa
.

r Ic
G iya n V0 a aI a period a pprox ima
, ,

n d S us tely contem
a a a a a a
,

p o r r y with l te A I b id e rly U ruk in Me s op o t mi ;

the y ma y b e d ate d to the fourth i f not the fi f th millennium
But r o ugh sh a ft hole a
-
d z e s in co pper o r bron z e were
a a
lre dy bein g ma de in S i a lk I II a n d S us a I sid e by side
with th e more primitive fla t type a n d in th e Al U b a
,

id c ul
’

ture i tself a a
n d in th t o f Je md e t Na sr there a
,

re model s in

po tte ry th t a a ppe a r to r epresent a dva nced type s o f meta l

s ha ft h ole a
-
x es It i s tru e th t aa t M o h e njo d a ro a - simil a r
cl a y model w a t a alow leve l whic h a a
.

s found g i n seem s to

a
repre s ent form o f sh ft hole a a but the a
.
,

-
x e bsenc e o f th e
type a mong the a b und a nt met l work me a
a ns th t it w a a
,

- s

never a do pte d fo r pr cti ca a l u se In Sumer ho we ver the

.
, ,
 o r s mn A m; THE P U N JA B 1 99

FIG . 24
. GOppe r ad
n b ro n z e to o ls ,
Ha
ppaCa
ul
rtu
a
r e

ha ft ho le a a
n d th e a p plic a tion o f thi s pr inciple d h ft i n g
'

a a a
s -
x e

to other tools a a
n d w e po n s were u n ive rs l by E rly D yn s ti c

a
times
It a a a ara z a w a
.

pp e rs t h ere fore th t the H pp civili tion s

ba lture whi c h h a d inhe rited the e a rly Ir a ni a

, ,

s ed on some c u n

tr a di tion o f the pri i n i ti v e fla t copper or b r o n z e x e a n d th

'

a t a
evolution o f the form w a s a rr ested p a
,

rtly by th e in h er ent
cons erva tis m o f the I ndi a n culture a a
n d p rtly by th e l ck o f a
e ffective conta ct with Mes opota mi a or immedia tely a dj cent a
Ela m where the sh a ft hole type a
-
ppe rs to h a a
i le h a d the
a aa
,

lo n ges t life in Western Asi S o me th ing si mi l r c n i n de ed

a a
be obs erve d t Hi ss r i n N orth P si w h fl e s h ft h o le ‘
aa '
a '
-

types first a a a a a
,

p pe r i n H i ss r I II tog e th e r w i t h l rge body o f

ma teria a
l i n dic ting stro n g i n fluen c e fro m S umer pr ob bly a
not ea rli er tha aa
n Ak k di n ti mes (a a
,

bout And s
a
w e sh ll se e i n the n e x t c h a a aa
,

t t h p r n e f th em
‘

er e p e c o
«
p
we a a s t o be rela a
,

p o n s in H i ss r 11 1 3 ted to t h e s m e m o ve

a
me n ts o f people th t bro ugh t the first sh ft h ole to w to a -
 C I T I ES A N D T O W N S
aa a a
2 00

s a
eem lmost self imposed the H r pp met l smiths pro
- -

d uc e d a a a
,

m ss o f competent workm ns hip in chisels knives

ra a
, ,

z ors S pe rs ( though without the strengthening mid rib so -

a
,

soon developed in m ore progressive centres o f met l work -

ing) fi sh hooks n d the fl t x es a

-
a lre a aa
dy mentioned ( Fig
A t Cha mb u d ro especia a
lly these a x es tend to t ke on a a
.
,

-
n

elonga ted form na rrower tha n the a rcha ic Irani an form s

a n d they a r e comp a ra a
,

ble with the long Chisels from the N l

cemetery a n d other tool s from N orth Indi a discussed in the
nex t cha pter There w a s lso wide r a aa
nge o f bronz e a n d less

fr equently silv er bowls cups v ses a a

.

n d other vessel s none

a
n y subtle ty o f form a
, , , ,

o f which however shows n d thes e

co mp a a
, , ,

re ll too well in their uninspi red mediocrity with the

aa a
pottery o f the culture
a
The gener l impression we obta a
.

in fr om the H r pp rts
a n d cr a

a
fts i s indeed one o f competent dullness As I wrote i n
a nother contex t the Ha ra pp sites a
.

,
n d objects

i a
mply ll too e ffectively the el abor te orga niz tion o f an a a
a a a
urb n merc ntile cl ss whose products l a ck not only th e
a
b rb a a
ric spont neity o f the older n d more primitive cul a
tures but ev en the cheery no u ve uf i che vulga a
rity o f E rly a
a an d di spl ay inste a d a dea
,

Dyn stic Sumer d level o f

bourgeoi s mediocrity in a lmost every bra nch o f the visu l a
aa a
rts n d cr fts .

The dea
d ha a a a
a a aaa
nd of
conserv tism in design r ther th n in ,

tec hnique li e s he vy on ll the H r pp products Complex

a
technic l proc esses wer e known well understood a a
, .

nd d
mira a
, ,

bly org niz ed fo r production but the output suffered

aa a
from s t nd rdiz tion a nd a lmost purita a a aa
,

n nic l utilit ri n
i sm Working within such n rrow limits o f tra a
dition l forms a
fossili z ed over the centuries into rigid inesca pa a a
.
,

ble ment l
pris on the rtist or cra a a a
,

fts m n could h ve found little outlet

a a
s ve in dev eloping technic l vi rtuosity The p ttern o f Ha a
,

ra a
pp civiliz a tion seems to ha ve precluded grea
.

t monuments
 C ITIES AN D T O W NS
godd esses a re comm o n in th e Hinduism o f th e c ount ysi d e
r
toda y the gra ma dev t s o f ma a
a ny a rus tic s hr ine ; th e pr ie sts
sign i fi c a gh a r e not th e Bra h mins wh o s e a
,

n tly en o u utho rity

da a
te s b c k to t h e Ar y n inva a
, ,

sion o f the mi ddle o f th e first

millen ni um E u but o utc s tes who sti ll know th e wa

. .
, a ys o f
t h e g ods before th e god s

a
.

An d thi s i s not th e only link w ith contempor ry Hinduism

Th e re i s m ore t h a n o ne r epresenta a
.

tion on se ls fro m M o h e n jo
da ro a n d Ha ra ppa of a ma le god h orne d a n d three fa c ed -

s itting in t h e po sition o f a
, ,

y g
o i hi s leg s ben t doubl e h e el to -

h e el a rroun ded on one s e a l by four bea

, ,

n d su s ts th e ele

pha nt th e tiger the rhinocero s a bu ffa lo with a

, ,

n d th e

couple o f deer by the throne a t h i s feet There c a

, , ,

n be little

doubt tha t we ha a
.

ve here t h e pr ototype o f the m e t go d

S hiv a as Lord o f the Be a s ts a n d Prin ce o f Y ogis ; h e ma y h a v e

been co n ce iv ed a s four fa c ed a-
n d w ith h i s fo ur a nima ls
lo oks to the four qu a rte rs o f the ea
,

rth This would in deed

a
r ec ll the symbolic a l elepha nt l i on horse a
.

n d bull o n the

Ma urya a t Sa rn a
, , ,

n column o f the third century th Th e

d eer by the god s throne m a ke a nother sign ifica

.

’
nt li nk with
la te r religio n a n d w ith S a rn a th fo r simila rly pla ced they
a re the inevit a ble a ccomp a niment o f Buddh a in representa
, , , ,

tions o f th e De er Pa rk S ermon
There i s a a
.

ls o ev idence o f some form o f ph lli c wo rship

w ith repr e sent a tio ns o f the m a le a n d fema a
,

le gen er tive
orga ns ; o f tr e e wor sh i p in which a
-
deity i s sho wn in the
bra nc hes o f the sa cred fi g tree or pi pe d still rega
-
rded a s a

5 holy tree In a n cient times pipa l lea

,

a
[ v es pro v id ed the mo tifs

fo r m a ny pottery pa inters in th e Ha ra pp C ulture a

.

-
nd

others under i ts influen ce such a s Kulli a n d Na l Th e sea l

r epre senta tions a ga in show wh a t must be sa cre d a a
.
,

nim ls
suc h a s the humped bull whose priv ileged po siti o n tod y a s a
a
he noses h i s w y unmolested throug h th e b z a a a
»

, ,

'

rs helpin g
a a
hi ms elf to wh t ever t kes h i s holy fa n c y mu st d a te ba
,

ck to
a s a
,

th e third millen n i um B e on the b n ks o f the Ind u n d the

 o r 31 m: A N D . THE P U NJAB

Ra v i O th e r e mi t ni ma a
ls o n th e se a
- ls s t nd i n fro n t o f c um a
o o s ma nge rs or sa c re d b r a
.

z ie rs so m e h o w c onnecte d wi th
‘
-

Th e two se a
On e o r ls o n whi ch a her o i s sh o wn d efe tin g a
ti g ers o r o the r bea s ts ( Fi g 2 2 bo tto m right) sug ge st com
pa meria n hero w h o b a
.
,

r ison w i th th e S u ttles with lio ns

En kidu or G ilg a mesh a here pmh a a
,

nd
ps th e re m y b e

ev i d e n c e 10 ? afa a a
,

i n t str in o f commo n tr d iti on o r e ve n

o f Su a
meri n i n fluence i n re li gi o us m tte rs d uri ng th e a
time o f th e flo ur ishi ng o f th e Ha ra pp Cultur e But on ll a ; a
o ther c o unt s the r elig i o n a fro m the a rch a e o l o gica
,

s i ml l
a
re m i ns i s s i gn ifi c a n tly d istin ct from a
,

n y oth ers kno w n i n

a
Weste r n As ia n d i s e sse n ti lly India a n from th e s ta rt The
a b sence of a ny bui ldin g th t c a a
, .

n be inter rete d convi n cingly

p
a s a a
te mple m y be due to th e ch a nces th a t such s tructur e a
ma y s till be c o n ce led a
be n e a th th e s tup a a t M o h e n jo —d a
ro

a n d t ha a a
a
t n othe r h s been bodily re move d b y the bri c k
s o b b er s a t H a r a pp but it i s nevertheless c urious th a t no

a a
;
suc h bu ildin g h s been tr c ed in these or a n y other site We

a
kn ow t h t the form l pl a a
n o f the S umeria n te mple w a
.

a lre d y fi x ed in Al U b id times a
a a n d simil a rly in such a
aa
’

cons erva tive ci vi li z a tio n a s th a t o f Ha

,
.

r pp o n e would e x
pe o t a ri g id an d re cogni z a ble fo rmul a o f temple building fro m -

a
the e rlies t da ys O n e would ex pect a lso to find minor s hrines
o f rec ogn iz a a
ble pl n o utsid e the c ita del a rea s The a
.

bsence o f
a a
.

s uch buildings does imply th t house h old s hrines were o f

n
y
more import n c e tha a n c ent ra
a
liz ed worship in sp e cific temples
‘

The links b etween th e Ha ra pp re ligion a a

.

n d c ontempo r r y

a
Hinduism re o f c ourse o f immens e intere st providing a
"

they d o some e x pl na a
tio n o f those m a ny fe tures tha atca
,

n n ot

be derived fro m th e Ary n tra a

diti o ns bro ug ht into I n d ia
a fter or concurre n tly with th e fa ll o f the H r pp civi liz a aa a
tion Th e o ld fa a
ith s d i e h rd : it i s eve n poss ible tha tea
, ,

a
rly
h istor ic Hindusoc iety o w e d m ore to H ra pp tha a
.

n i t did to
2 04 CITIES AN D
— TOW NS
U ntil recently li ttle w a s known o f the b u ri als o f the Ha
ra a
pp peo ple It i s norma l in the a ncient orient l c ities to a
fi n d even in the hea rt o f the occupied re s buri a aa a
.

ls m de
a mong or under the houses a a
, ,

n d contempor ry with the liv ing

a
inh bita nts but despite th e cl a ims o f M rsha ll a n d those a
who followed h i m I do not feel tha t n y true buria a
,

aa a
ls coni
a
tempor ry with th e H r pp civiliz a tion were found with i n
th e city precincts on either o f th e two m in sites It i s a g in a a
a n inst a nce o f the Indi a n individua lism a n d perh a ps a
.

a
other ex mple o f strict urb a n bye l a w s A t M o h e njo d ro a a
,

- -

ssorte d a a a
.

series o f skeleto ns were found o f ges sex es nd

a nthropologica l types individu a
, ,

lly or m groups o f up to
fourteen persons a n d in a ll insta nces the bodies la
,

y in
disorder a n d other circums ta nces suggested violent or a a
,

cci
dent a l dea th a n d in no s ens e a a a
a
deliber te buri l deposit
At H a ra pp a cu rious tightly p a cked m ss o f huma a
.
,

- n skull s
a nd a
,

fe w other bone s representi ng over twenty people

w a
, ,

s found on the out skirts o f the city : the deposit i s u n ex

pl a ined but i s h a rdly a norm a l buri a l Fr gme n t ry bones a a

from a nother site in this city were cl a imed s afr a ctiona a
.
,
‘ ’
l
buria l but ma y be mod e rn ; a n d a definite fr ction al buri l a a
a t M o h e njo d a ro w a s a ssocia ted with a pottery vessel o f a
,

type now known to belong to a ph a se following the Ha ra pp a

civi liz ation The groups o f broken pots cited by M rsh ll a s aa
a llied to fra ctiona l buria l groufi s seem to h a ve no cl a
.

im to
a n y funera ry significa nce wh a tever
There rem a in the so ca lled post crema tion urns a
.

a
‘ ’
-
t -

M o h e njo d a ro a
-
n d Ha ra pp c o n ta i mn g miscell a neous a
a rtifa cts orna a aa a
,

ssortment o f sherd s ments n d nim l but

never hum a n bones These urns which were found benea
, , ,

th
s treets a n d hous es w ere rega aa a
.
, ,

rded by the ex c v tors s the

buri a l depo sits o f bodies completely crem a ted a
,

n d (inv oking

modern Hindu pra ctices) were supposed to h a

,

ve been
a
thrown into river or otherwise disposed o f; With Wheeler
I ca nnot rega s ha ving a a
nything to do with huma
,

r d thes e n
2 06
'

GTT I E S
*

AN D vow msq
which th e bod y, pr ob a bly tha t o fa girl h ad bee n b u r i e d i n a s

w oo d en co ffi n a n d wr a ppe d i n a
,

shrou d o f reed s o f whi ch

-
»

c e ss ti ll rema
i

tr a Sh e ll reed shrouds or e e fi i ns a
,

i ne d re - ‘

afa irly ob vi o us fi n m o f protec tion fo r th e c e s pse n d r e

r aa
kno wn i n S umer i n Ea rl Dr n a a a a a
,
.

t
y y s ti c n d A k
s k d i n t i me s ( th t :

between a bout 2 80 0 a n d 20 0 0 BTe x a n d se c o n te mpo r r y a

w ith H a r pp a a a a a
,
.
,

) n d the us e o f s uch m o d e o f buri l m the :

R 3 7 ceme tery h a s be en con sid e red by D r W he e ler to im ly

z
p

Fa rther a field o t her c e meteries o r group s o f b uri lsw lro lly a

a
’

o r pa r ti ally o f th e Ha ra pp Culture h a
.
,

v e been id e nt ifi e d

n ot a
bly a t De ra wa r o n th e Gh a gg r River in Ba a a aa
,

h W lpu :

a
S t te He re w a s a ee me t e ry a s t z o o ya a
:

t le a
r
r d s sq u re whi ch
a
yie lded i n tri l d i ggi n g b y Stein: fr a ction a l buri a
.
.

ls sh el e
‘
f :

tons w hic h h a d bee n : removed from some o ther pla ce befo re

the fina l buria l a
a
n d so in disorder o r in c omple te
) In the
“

R 3 7 cemetery the r e were gr o up s o f Ha ra

.
,

pp pot s,
t ime s a s ma ny a s twenty o n e i n a singl e gr a ve At D e r a a
a
-
w r “

the cemetery a t Ha ra a
pp lies outside the a dja
.

s ,
cent ,

moun ds which up wpo to afe e t gh represen t the ruins o f the

h i

a three l a
:

a a
, , ,

s ettlemen t At S u t k g e n —
d o r i n th e M kr n rg e po ts

c onta ining cre m a ted huma n bo nes a n d sm ll vesse l s a a

.
,

she ll
2

ba ngle a nd a n orna
, .

mented d is c were found b urie d upr igh t

"

i n th e de b ris o f the fo r t wa
,

ll on th e outs ide : evidently th e y :

w ere deposi ted la te in the site s: his tory a t a

’
time w h e n the
a a
w ll w s b e e o mi n g rui n o us They seem li kely to belong to
a
;

the Ha ra pp Culture m Vi e w o f the: sherd?o f a typic a

.

l ofi e r
“
t s

ing sta
-
nd in one buri a l
O utside th e defe n si ve wa lls o f th e settleme nt o n Th a
.

rr o

Hill i n Si n d: M a jumd r ex c a va ted some rema a

rk b le sto n e a
built cha mbers in sma ll? ova l ca irns, which, a
,

conta
gr aves or igi n a lly conta i n ing in huma
a
ined n o tr ce o f ske le ton se e m ex plic a
t ion buria
'

a
lthough th ey
ble only a
ls: now rot ted
s ,

a wa y The cha mbers were bui lt o f dirty w llin g a n d were a

recta ngul r vera aagin g a bo ut 1 0 by 3 feet n d with wa a
.

, lls 1
‘
 OF M m T H E P U NJ A B
D
'
A 20 7
‘

st am
d i g up n to e feet from th e flo o r Th ey were e nc los ed in
’

a
lm a aa a
.

by 2 0 fe et b ve r ll, n d c o nt i ned pottery

aa a
b t
'

c s o rr re

w hich in c lu
d ed o fle ri n gt st n cls n o t un li ke th e H r pp
‘ ’ ‘

a f

Th e c e me tery o f M ehi habee d e cribed a b ve i Cha p s n s o n

ter IV h c a nty ma te ia l ad impe fect reco d m a

ppa
: t e s k it r n r r e

d i ffi ult t ae th Ha
c o ra element th re b ut certa
ss ss e i e n

a a a a
,

d
a
l in w r p i clud i g ve l h ped li k fl
a
”

p re t - e o s, n n ss e s s e ow er

p ot a d a h
na llow lb t d su p m y h av H a a pp afofi niti e
e c e r s,

ad th a me hould a a
,

n e s pp ly the ery
s imil r ve el i the to v s ss s n

K h ma h cem t ry ver th bo de in P e i a n Ma kra Th

.

e e o e r r rs n e
‘

a ma a t M ehi a d pr b a ction a
bly fr a l buria la
.

it ti
'

r e w s cr e o n t n o

emete r y i t i s d i fi i c ult to cite a n y signific a ra

pallels fo r"
a
c nt

thes e t llous buria ls the Ba luchista n ceme tery o f N a l

aa
lr e dy described h s po ints o f simi l a a
rity to R 3 7 in the
n umerous vessel s buried with the dea d a nd in R
37 th e re

w a s a
t lea st one brick edged gra ve co mp a ra bl e w i t h those a
,

-
t

a
N l But the l a r ge group s o f pots a re a c o rrmmn fe a ture i n
the pr e hi stori c a n d histo ric gr ave s o f Western Asia : w e sh a
.

ll
find th em recurr i n g fo r ins t n c e in the Sh hi tump c a a
a
-

te ry l te r th a an th e Ha ra pp perio d in th e M kr a a a
a
n nd

a g in i n th e Ce metery H a
a t Hara a a
, , ,

p it el f im i l rl f l te
“

p s s y o ,

We a re n o w in a po sit ion to c o rrs i d e r a fina la spect o f th e

Ha ra z a i s rela o n s wit h for eign power s a nd

p civili tion t ti
in conse quence i ts da te n d posi tion vi a a
,

e vi s th e contem -

ra
ry civiliz a s of W estern Asi a e ha a a
t
,

po tion W ve lre dy se en
IV , th t there w a
a s c o n tact esta a
.
,

i n Ch pter blishe d betw een

the mercha n ts o f the Kulli Culture in S outh B a luchist a n
and those o f Ea rly Dyna s tic S u
‘

mer pr ob a bly soon a fter

re tha
,

bu t it i s d i ffi c ult to be su
aaa
2 800 e c t conne x ions b e
'
-

tw een H r pp a n d S ume r were re a lly estab lish ed s e a a

t .
,

a
rly ;

a a as found i n a
,

s th is A t M o h
. e n jo -d ro the r e w ve r y e rly , _
2 08 C I T I ES AN D TOW NS
level a fragment o f a c rved stea a ti te vesse l o f type id entic l a a
with those know n fro m South Ba luchista a
,

n n d in S ume r in
E rly Dyn a
a stic times a n d thi s mi ght be used s evidence fo r a
equa ting th is pha se o f the c ity with E a a
,

aa a
rly D yn stic S umer
a a
But s we h ve seen conta
.

cts between the H r pp Cul

a
~

a a
ture n d th t o f Kulli (which seems to h ve origina
, ,

ted th i s
a
type o f ste tite vessel) were continuous throughout the life
o f the two gre a a a
t cities n d I h ve pointed out th t there i s a
aactu l ev idence o f p a a
l rly strong Kulli c onta
,

rticu ct in the
a a
l s t ph s e o f their histor y Together with the pottery on
a
whi ch I b sed thi s suggestion there were lso found a a
.

Mo h e njo d a r o fr a gments o f two stea

a
,

-
tite box es (or vessel s)
a
from the l tes t level s ; w e must a
’

ssume th a t the type h d a

a
long life in South B luchist n a n d ca annot use the presence
o f fr a gments o f these stone v essel s in th e sites o f the Ha ra a
,

pp
Culture a s da ting m a a
a
teri l
In Sumer there i s no a b solutely cle a r ev idence o f Ha ra
.

pp
conta ct until Akk a dia n times th a t i s from 2 300 to 2 000
B C or a little l a ter In deposits o f this period however a
,

number o f typica l Ha aa a
r pp engr ved se a ls h a
. .
.
, ,

ve been found
a a
n d one se lin g which shows on i ts b a
,

ck the imprint o f
co a a
rse cloth Th e se ls (a n d other pieces o f evidence such a

a
’

pieces o f typic l H ra aa pp inla a

.
,

a
y work die with the pe c u
-

lia r Ha rapp system o f 8 p0 ts a nd a scr atched representa

,

a
‘ ’
s

tion o f a humped bull ) suggest Ha rapp merch a nts esta

,

b
a
li sh e d in Sumeri n cities a nd enga ged in tra de whi ch ma ay
well ha ve included cotton go ods How long this tr de rel a a
a a
little uncert a
.

ti o n sh i p continued i s in, but it seems likely “

to h a ve cea sed soon fter 2 000

Unfortuna tely evidence o f the complementa ry a spect o f

this tra de Sumeria n go od s in the Indus V lley or the Pun a

a a a r e three cylinder se a
,

j b i s sc nty There l s from M o-

h e n jo

da ro a pure ly Sumeria n type here prob a bly m a de by a

.
,

Ha ra a
pp l a a
pid ry fo r clients who seem to h a
,

ve a cquired
outl a ndish ta stes in such m a tters : c a n they h a
‘

ve been re
a ro C T I IES AND
‘

T OW N S
ppa
'

b etween au t a
nti fi ns r ed a
f i ence h e d fro a mHa ra ad n

ao he
n t r from Crete o f s 1 6 00 ad thi poin i com
n s t s

a
.

me n te d
a
on i n Ch pte
VI bel o w r

F rom Ha ra pp M o h e njo -d a ro a n d Ch a n h ud a
.

ro come ’
- '

bronz e pins or rod s orn a me nted in a di sti n c tive m a

,

nne r
either wi th spira l top s or with represent tions o f a n ima ls a
These se em to bel o ng to agrea t pr ovince o f b a rb a ri a
.

,
n

a
met l wo rk w hich str etched from the Ca
-
uca su s to Turke

st an a round th e n orthern fri n ge s o f th e ki ngd oms o f S umer

a n d A kka d with i ts ma in pha ct ivity roun d a
,

se o f pr o du bo ut
a or ra ther l a ter a
,

ooo n d th oc curre n ce o f these pins e

a t va s l e ve l s in the India n sit es implies tha

,

ri o u t odd impo rts

from th e b rb a a
rous region s o f Western Asi occa sio n a a
a
lly
rea c hed th e o t h e rwi se a lmost closed kingdom o f Ha ra
a
pp
To sum up the n the Ha ra pp civili z a tio n while l a
.

rgely
ffi c i e n t a n d esse n ti a lly Ind ia n in i ts origin s a
, , ,
,

se lf su-
n d in th e

whol e fa bric a n d tex tur e o f i ts peculi a

,

r co nstitution never
'

th e le ss did ha ve certa in intermit ten t outside conta

,

cts Th e
tr a de with S umei seems a lmost c e rta inly to h a
.

'

ve bee n i n i ti
a ted by the S outh B a luchista n merch a nts o f th e Kulli Cul
ture in E a rly Dyna sti c times a n d it i s n o t stra ining th e evi
denc e to a ttribute to these me n a l so the est a
,

»
blish me n t o f
“
fa ctories in the S umeri a
”
n cities where colonies o f I n d ia n
me rch a nts lived a n d worshippe d i n their tr a ditiona l wa
The Ha ra pp tr a a
ders a cquired a busi ness which w a s a lrea
y .

dy
flo urishing by a bout 2 300 B G a n d they a ga in must h a ve

ha d their resident rep r esen ta tives in U r a n d La ga sh a

.
,
.

nd

o ther centres o f tr a d e using the ch a ra cte ristic sea l s o n me r

ch a n d i se a documents In connex ion with this tra
,

a
nd de
su r ely se a b o ri re up the P ersia n Gulf the for tified st tion a
.
,

~ t

a
tk ge n d o r must h a ve pla yed a pa rt a
,

Su - t the c onve rge n ce

a
o f the routes in l nd from the l i t tle ha rb ours between Gwa ta
,

a
r
Ba y n d G w ad ar pe r ha p s oth e r po rt s ex i sted a t t h e mouth s

o f the I n dus

Ov erl a nd there w a s oc c a s io n al Co mi n g a
.

n d going the
 AN D

aau
S EN D THE P U NJA B
“

o r / .
21 1

a a aa a a
p rt d u
re o f u T u
nii b ive fi ro s c r v to r e st n , to

a
'

n
g r n

ba k la
c p i ad tu r q u is;a fo i gn
n pin a a c ui i y d o se , re s r os t n

a ad t ubl aud h faCapi a

,

tl f unr
es o e st nn hore ro e ro n t e r s s s

Wh a ab ough bak fi m Sume in the h ip W ho e

.

t w s r t c o
'

r s s s

a
nchor were a
s
‘
t Tygri s a n d E uphr a tes weighed we ma y
,

ne ver know from a rcha eology a lone P erha p s inscri ptions in

o n e or ot h e r l and wi ll some d a a
.

y tell u s : I nd i n c o tton cer

ta i n ly seems a
?

n in e vit a
bl e ex port fo r whi ch some a d e qu ate
return must ha ve been ma
,

aa
de
a
While th e n te c e d m ts o f th e Ha r pp ci viliz a
.

ti on st ill

a
;

likely to be e a r l i e r tha n a b o ut 2 5 09 s e n d th a t the n y a

rea so n a a
,

bly close po int o f co n t ct with th e West wh e re writ

te n records a va il a a
ble i s: be twee n th e ye a rs 2 0 0 a
,

re
3 n d
It i s not improb a ble th a t tra de rela
,

2 000 B C ti ons w ith

S umer ce a s ed soon a
. .

fter this ti me when the s truggles b e

tween Ha mmura bi a n d Ela m ma a
,

y h V e c losed the frontiers

fo r a ti m e And just a s S umer w a s su ffering from th e inro d s a
o f the b a rb aria m
the hills so to o in t h e rch a eologi c a a
.

a
ns fr o l
record o f the Ha ra pp cities a n d towns a n d i n th e vi ll a
, ,

g e s o f
Ba a
luc hi s t n w e fi n d e vide n ce tha t ki ngshi p a n d th e esta b ;

li s h e d orde r o f th i n gs co me to a n end a n d th e b rb r ia aa
,

ns
a a r a a a a e r l ter th n t h a a a
. .

pe t d t e r t h t o f th e les s s m e e ssfi i l
p
a tt a cks o n th e Mesopo t a m n kin gd o m s Her pos i tio n f ra i

a
ther to th e e a st sa fo r a n d the u n c h a a a
.

v e d I ndi : time n gi ng
“

a
civili z ti on o f th e Indu s a n d P unj b w a s left fo r a a
,

a
century
o r tw o to revolve slowly roun d th e fix ed po i nt s o f uthori ty
s
‘
”

in the sa c red cit a del s a s it h a d d one fo r so long Bu t the end

Wa s del a yed not a verted In the nex t ch a a

,
.

a
pter we sh ll se e
wha ta rch aeolo gy tells us o f the e n d o f th e Ha rapp civili z a
.
,

tion a n d the c o mi n g 01?th e b r b a ri n s ,

a a .

Th e b ais c e vid e n c e {be th e H ra

appai ili a
ti c v z on is co n ta
in e d in
2 12 CITIE S AND ‘
TOW NS

am a a E pl ai i S i d ( 934) (f M j umd
a
J N C r, x or t ons n n 1 or

ma a a a a a a
. .

M V H M
a
s ll i ) S
e r s te s
; t E i pp R E s, xc v t o ns t r
'

Ha a a
. . . . .

Wh l e e e r, pp 94 6
‘
h D fr d C m t 1
y R 37 i : t e e e n c es n e e er n

A i I
nc e n t dia 3 ( 947) 5
n 8—
3 ;
no; E M a k a y C h a 1h u d aE 1 0 c n - ro x

aai umma E Ma ka Ci ili a

.
, ,

c v t o ns i i y s T h I d u i r es n c e n s v z t on
Ea
.
,

V G Ch ild N Ligh h M tA i e, ew t on t e os nc e n t st

Ch a aia Ch a
. .

p V III ; S P i gg tt S m A i C i i of I o p II o e nc e n t t es n
’

h ph y i a
. .
, . .

R p t e h ku ll
or s o n t i h mm t e s l typ s w p t co en s o n t e s c e s re re

td a h a
se n e i u
re i n aa ti t e v r o p t ; a l H F F i d s ex c v o n re or s se e so r e e

i h a
. .

r c d H W M ull i A h p
s n m 8 — 6 B S
3 3 4 ; er n n t ro os, x x v 0

ha Ra ia la (O f d P a I d ia
. . . .

Gu lE l m i h P pu
c i e mph l t
en ts n t e o t on x or e s on n n

Affa H V Va m t H uma d Si a
,
‘
i ll i L O i lk
’
rs, o s, es sse en s ns e

i ll a Si a a atype f
. .
,

i F u lk V l M d i t —1
’
n o es e 3 9 F h o 11 , 1 1 2 or t e e e rr ne n o

Th Ra of E u p a
. .
,

ku
'

s ll ,C S C se e . . oon, p i lly 46 e c es ro e es ec 1

— 0
5 9
Th g a ma ha b
.

i e i r n re p t d i ns h k it d ve een re or e on n t e w or s c e

a ad i th i i d tti g d i u d b y H P a k i Ma
a
b o ve , n n e r w e r se n sc sse e e n n,

a a a a a a
.

1 9 39 3 6 d 53 T h n i m l f m H pp h b ed ib dn s ro r ve een e sc r e

i a a a a a a R ma i f m Ha appa
.
,

i l m h D P h d A im l
'

n p s g p
ec ono r r s n e ns ro r

ad i th i d i i d ua
, .
,

ppa
n l p t
n e n v re o r s.

F th pla i g f M h
or e j d a ad Ha
nn n a ad h i gh i
o o en o -
ro n r n t e s

fi ac f h
n ce o i ta d l t R E M Wh l i A i t I d i a o 3
e c e s, se e ee er n nc e n n n

a a
. . .
, .

u m i bi d 78
a
8 6 f— th i d i l
— f t or
5 4 74 77 ; g p g p or e r n- o n n s,

ma f th Ha a a b d by M a
, .
, .

Th ll
e s it er s pp ultu es o d i jum
e r c re re e sc r e

d aE pl a
r, ti x i S i d ( 9 34) a
or d by S t i
ons A A h al g i a
n nlT u 1 n e n, n rc eo o c o r

i Gd ia 6 7 (Suka g d ) ; A A h al gi a
0— 1 l T u i Wa t i en or n rc eo o c
'

n e ros -
o r n z
i aa d N th B a luh i ta 55 6 4 (D a b aK ) I a
,

r st n n or m i d bt d
c s n, -
r ot n e e to

M K i h a D a u pub li h d i f ma h Gh a gg a
.

r r s n f ev ti or n s e n or on on t e r

Ri it
ve r s b i fly d e s, i b d by S t i i G g f a
r e e sc r e e n n eo w n x c rx

a a a
.
,

1 73
— 8 1d m y 2, u t
n f A m i l m b d i h cco ult f fi ld n o no e o es t e re s o e

w o rk th e re in 1 942

a aaa
.

Th e q uo t ti o n fr o m th e po e t M i r i s fro m tr n sl ti o n b y P ro
fe sso r Ah me d Ali , a
n d th t b y P ro fe sso r Spe i s e r i s fro m The a
B egi nn i ngs of Ci vi li z ti o n i n M esopo t mi , S upple me n t to j o ua
rn Am aa
a
er

a f my mm t h Haa
. .

Ori ent Soc 1 939 Th e ub st s n ce o

pp co en s o n t e r

a ati l i Th B uli gt M aga

. .
, .

sc ulptur e i s t ke n r fro m my c e i n e r n on z ne , e x

33 37, y pe rmi ssi o n o

— 3 b f th pub li h ad th q u ta
ti e s e rs, n e o on
 C HA P T E R V I

A h o st w h o se o ns l a
u g h t w alik ah u a ap
s e '

rr i c ne, e o ple w ho
h d a kn o w a c i ty
aty T ada
n e ve r n

t a
.

( Th i rd Dy n s t U)
e r- e r

T H E d u lp aa
tt e rn o a ah b gi
f pre h i st o r i c We ste r n In d i tt e e n

d mi ll i um wi h h g a t ub a
a
i g f h t e se c o n t t e

a
n n o enn re r n

c i vi li a ti
z f Ha app
on o i h p lai
r a d h i m p l
n p
t e a t ns n t e s er e s n

co mmu i ti i n h Baes lu h i tah i ll h a

n t e d du d a c lm t s n s, en re os

ua n lt ed f
er v or i gh t h u d d y a al a
se en or e t; h n re e rs t e s t e
Ba lu hi c ttl m t th m l a li k ly h a
se e en s e v b se v e s ta b re e to e een es

li h d a a
s e ly a3
s e r ad m f th m p h a
s 0 00 B C p a n so e o e er s e r

f vi l t h a g i h ah a
. .
,

li er Th i e re vi d s no e ence o o en c n e n t e rc eo

l gi a d f th i ti m ; vi lla g a d
.

o c l re c o r o s t d t w e es re e se r e o ns

bui lt a afl d ttl m t a ma
,

re

s m ll
h i ll
a ft
lf u
h va
,
ffi i
se

t ga
t e
er

-
s

i a
i ti
ti
i
oo

h
f h Ha a
o r n ew

m t va
,

c e n t so c e

a m
d
ll y
i
bu h

i
f h
on o
es

h
se

t e
e

t e re
en s

o e
re e,

e s o
t t e

t e

t e
s or s or ppn z
p r e re n

p la i ti
n s co n u t h i ayn ef li f u af
f
e r wt d b y h u t iod e n ec e t e o s e

wo rld
ai wh a
ti ma t o c c urr e d to bre a
.

But n n ti o n of k th i s lo n g
se c lu si o n o f pe a c e fu l i f st a gn a n t c o mmu n i ti e s i s to b e fo u nd

i n th e str a ti fi c ati o n o f th e R a na Gh un d a
, ,

i mo un d He re th e r e
ha d b e e n c o n ti n uo us o c c upa ti o n o f th e si te a c c o mpa
.

n i e d by

a n e vo lvi n g po tte ry style fr o m a ti me li ke ly to b e la te i n th e “

fo ur th mi lle n n i u m up to o n e mo r e o r le ss c o n te mp o r a
a
ry

w i th so me pa r t o f th e H a ra
pp c i vi li z a t i o n t h e R G I IIc
a rh a s a
,

p h s e p e p b o u t 2 0 0 0 A t t h i s p o i n t th e r e i s e v i

d e n c e th a t th e se ttle me n t w a s sa a
,

c ke d n d bu
‘
rn t e ve r y

wh e r e o ve rlyi n g th e fo un d a ti o n le ve l [ o f th e R G I I I
a
e

p h se ]th e r e r e p o c k e t s a
of a sh e s a s th o u g h so m e g r e t , a
 T HE TIME 0 11 TR O U B LE S 21 5
c o nfi a
g ai r t on ata
h d k pla en oe
’
Bri g d i e r R o ss i n h i s
w ro te a
t a ti fi a
,

d e sc ri pti o n o t e s r f h ti
c o n o f th e s i te Ab o v e thi s b u rn t

la R G I V ph a h ac o m
.

a
r i n th e t tt t h w
y e se e p o e r
y yp e s s o

a c o r se b o wls a e a
, ,

p l e t e b r e k fr o m t h o se b e lo w pp r w i t h
a
p i n te d o rn a me n t b o ld a nd not a
‘
lto ge th e r un ple a si n g i n a

so me wh a t ta wd ry style An d th i s se ttle me n t w a
,

s o n c e mo r e
’

d e s tro ye b y fi r e a
d nd a g i n i n RG V a a ch a n e i n
g p o tt e r y
sh o ws n ew fo lk se ttli n g o n th e a n c i e n t fla me sc o r c h e d R a na
,

a
Gh un d i te ll; th e po tte ry i s n o w un pa
,

i n te d wi th re li e f
a urfa
,

p t t e r m e n c r u s t e d o n to i t s s c e

Th i s e vi de n c e o f vi o le n c e n d o f r a a a a
.

p i d ly c h n g i n gp p o u l
-

ti o n s c a n me a n o n ly th t th e RG I V a a n d R G V ph se s re pr e a
se n t a ti me o f tro u ble s o f i n se c uri ty a n d r i di n g a rs o n a
nd a
a a a a a a
, ,

p i ll g gi n i n N o r t h B lu c h i s t n T o t h e R n G h u n d i e v i
d en ce c a n be a d d e d th a t o f Na l wh e r e th e la a
.

st ph se o f th e

aa
-

Z h o b wa
,

-
r e se ttle me n t o n t h e si te w s lso b u rn t d o w n to

ch a d e g re e th a t th e te ll i s sti ll c a a
,

su lle d S o h r D mb th e R e d
Mo un d fro m i ts fi re re d d e n e d so i l At D a ba
,

- r K o t th e u pe r
p
6 fe e t o f th e te ll e x po se d i n se c ti o n sh o we d n o le ss th a
.
,

n fo u r

th i c k sh la a a a a
, ,

y e r s i m l
py g i n r e pe t e d d e st r u c ti v e c o n fl g r

ti o n s o f th e la te r se ttle me n ts a r re d a
,

n d h e r e th e r e o c c u bun
a
d n t fr a gme n ts o f th e e n c ruste d wa
,

r e o f th e R G V t yp e o n

th e su rfa c e At th i s si te to o o n e o f th e la te r s e ttle me n ts w a
a
s

a
th t o f th e Ha ra a
.

pp fo lk s o th e s c k i n
g o f th e se tt le m e n t i s

a a a
,

pp r o xi m t e ly d t e d
I n So uth Ba c h i sta
.

lu n t h e r e se e ms n o r e c o r d e d e vi d e n c e o f

si mi la r bu r n i n g m t h e la te r se ttle m e n ts b u t i t mu st b e t e

a
me mb e re d th t h e re li ttle e x c va ti o n h a a
,

s be e n d o n e A t o n e

aa sm ll t e ll a t Sh a mp n e a r ba t a
.

si te h o we ve r hi tu r Tu -

c e me te r y h d be e n ma a i ns of a ba a
, , , ,

d e i n th e ru n nd o n ed

a
v i ll g e o f th e Ku lli Cu ltu r e wh i c h c a n a ls o b e e qu te d w i th a
th e pr e se n c e o f H ra a a
n th e r e gi o n b y me a ns o f a
,

pp f
blk i
fr a gme n t o f a c l y to y c a a rt o f c h a ra c te r i s ti c type S o th e
a
Sh h i t ump c e me te r y i s la t e r th a re a
.

n th e Ku i li C u lt u
aa
- nd

s o me
p h a se o f Ha r pp In th e a re a
. e xc a v a te d b y Ste i n
 2 16 THE TIME o r TR O U B LE S
twe lve i n h uma ti o n b uri a ls we r e fo un d a nd n a d d i ti o n aa l
a ma a
,

se ve n gr o u p s o f gr ve go o d s wi th n o r e c o gn i z
-
b l e hu n

r e ma i ns
ma ti o n s wh e r e i d e n ti fie d a ll a a
.

Th e i n h u pp e r e d to b e of

c o mp le te b o d i e s l i n g o n t h e i r b a k s o r si d e s wi th th e le gs
y c

fle xe d Gr a a
ve go o d s i n mo st i ns t n c e s c o nsi ste d o f gro up s o f
-

r o r b r o n z e to o ls a a a
.
I

p o t s b u t c o pp e n d o rn m e n t s s t o n e b e d s

a nd a la ba a ri a
, ,

st e r c u lso o c c u r re d T o bu l St i A ’
s
p w s e n s

a a
n d B h d ri c h e r gr a ve g o o d s t h a
.
,

-
n th e o th e rs T h e ske le to n

ri a l A se e ms to h a ve b e e n th a t of a ma
, .

d i sc o ve r e d i n b u n

bu ri e d c r o u c h e d o n h i s r i gh t si d e ; i n th e gr ve t h e r e w e r e a
a
mo r e th n fifty po tte ry bo wls c ups a n d be a ke rs a c o pp e r

st a mp se a l a sto n e pe stle a be a a
, ,

-
d o f r ub y li ke sto n e -
s to n e

a
bl d e a nd a gr o up o f twe lve ma a a a
, , ,

r i n e sh e lls
(N t i c se llu s )
a a
g i n st th e skull Buri a l B (c e r ta i n ly ma le ) h a d a ga in a
wea lth o f po tte ry ve sse ls st a
.

c ke d i n n e sts o f u p t o fi v e b o w ls

an e c kla c e o f la pi s a ga te a n d o n yx b e a ds a c o pp e r spe a
,

h ea d nd a a h ea a a
, ,

vy sh ft h o le c o pp e r x e Th e prese n c e o f
-

a n i ma l b o n e s so me c h a a a
.
,

r r e d i n c e r t i n o f th e ve sse ls e co m

pa a a a aa
, ,

n yi n g t h e se n d o th e r b u ri ls su gge sts th t fun e r l b ke

me a ts h a d b e e n de po si te d wi th th e c o rp se
a a
ri ls i s c o ns i ste n t a aa
.

Th e po tte ry fro m ll th e b u nd ch r c

te ri sti c ( Fi g Th e w re i s ve ry go o d h aa rd n d th i n a
a
v ryi n g fro m gr e y to p i n ki sh a n d so me ti me s h a vi n g a c le a
.
, ,

r
aa
,

aa
y e ll o w i sh b u-
ff c o lo ur T h e c o m m o n e s t fo rm i s sh llo w

b o wl usua r th e r so p h i st i c a te d fo o t ri n g a
.

a
lly wi th nd -

lli e d fo r ms a r e d e e pe r b o wls wh i c h m y a tta in a a

, ,

c o n si d e r

b le si z e o r b e r e p re se n te d b y sma ll c up s o f si mi la r pr o file

Th e r e a a la r o r co n i ca l a
.
,

r e tw o type s o f b e ke rs glo b u nd
’

ch a ra a wh i c h me r ge i n to sma
, ,

sq u t p o t s ll b o ttle s
’
c te r i sti c
‘

wi th sma ll n e c ks a n d fe e t a nd a bulbo u s b o dy Exc e pti o n a l

fo rms a r e fo o te d b o wls a

and a b o wl o n fo ur le gs a nd a
.

cou p,
le

o f tri ple ve sse ls e c h o f th re e c o nj o i n e d u n i ts

Th e p a i n te d o rn a a a
.

me n t i s e xe c ute d wi th so ft brush n d
i n pa a
i n t wh i c h v ri e s fro m bl c k th ro u a
gh w rm se pi to a a a
2 18 THE T IME UB LES
aa
r
0 1? TRO

aa a
a
i s e i th e r upi e d b y sw s ti k o r lli e d mo ti f b o ve w h i c h
occ

z ona
,

l p tte r n s run o r th e wh o le i n te ri o r i s d i v i d e d i n to
a a a a
,

qu r te rs wi th i n wh i c h c i rc u l r e le me n ts r e pl c e d o r th e
a a a M lte se squ r e i s e mplo ye d I n th e e xte ri o r z o n a
,

s o c lle d
-
l
a a a r n me n t swa a a a a a a
.

nd
p n e lle d o st i k s n d n g u l r s
pi r l s r e

a
use d i n d d i ti o n to th e mo r e fr e q ue n t c h e vr o n s lo z e n ge s n d a
a a a
,

tri n gle s O n e ve sse l h s tw o c o lo ur c h e vr o n s i n re d n d

‘

bla
.

ck

a aa
aa
.

T h e n e r e st p r lle ls to th i s po tte ry c o me fr o m th e c e me
te r y o f K h u a
r b n e r Ba mpur 1 50 mi le s to th e we st o ve r th e
a
P e r si n fr o n ti e r th e d te o f wh i c h a a a a
,

m
a aa a
p p e r s t o pp r o x i t e

a a
,

to th t o f K u lli n d H r pp At K h u r b th e ve sse ls we r e

a
.

ve ry si mi l r to po ts fr o m th e Me h i c e me te ry (b e lo n gi n g to
a a a a
th e l te s t ph se o n th t si t e e ve n p o ssi bly d a ti n g fr o m fte r
aa aa
i ts b n d o n me n t) As a
,

wh o le th e Kh ur b n d o th e r c e me
aa a
.
,

te ri e s n e r B mp u r r e li ke ly to b elo n g to th e c e n t u ri e s

a a
ro u a a
n d o r p rob b l j u
y st ft e r 2 000 B u t u l ti m t e l y t h e

a a aaa
, , ,

S h h i tump n d si mi l r w re s re d e sc e n d e d fr o m th e po t
-

a
te ry o f th e Bu aa ff w r e gr o up b e st r e p re se n te d i n S u
-
s I nd
a
o th e r si te s i n F a rs a nd a t gr e te r r e mo ve fr o m t h a t of
aaa a
S m rr Th e sh p e o f th e ve sse ls th e a rr a
, , ,

n ge me n t o f th e

a a aa a
.
,

p tt e rn s n d m u c h o f th e c t u l d e c o r t i v e r e e r to i r e r e
p
a
m i n s r e la a a
ti ve ly un a
,

lte r e d b ut th e d e ge n e r te p tt e rn s th e
a a a a
fl c c i d br ush wo rk n d th e th i n p i n t be tr y th e fa c t th a
, ,

- t
a a aa a aa a
S h h i tump w r e i s r c h i sti c n o t rc h i c n d e n ble us to
-

a aa a
c c e pt wi th c o n fi d e n c e th e l t e d te i mpli e d b y i ts a
, ,

sso c i t e d

a a
fin ds I t r e pre se n ts i n fa c t th e fi n l e x pr e ssmn o f tr a d i ti o n
a a
.

p e rs i s ti n g i n So u t h e r n Pe r si fro m
p e r h p s t h e fi f t h m i l
le n n i um un ti l th e b e gi n n i n g o f th e se c o n d ; to th i s tr a di
a
ti o n lso be lo n g th e li ttle c o n i c l l b ste r ve sse ls fr o m th e aaaa
c e me te r y un c h a n e d i n fo rm
g n d su b a a
st n c e fro m th e i r

a a
,

e r li e r r e p r e se n t ti ve s

O f th e o th e r o bj e c ts fr o m th e c e me te r y, th e c o ppe r spe a
.

- r

a a a a a a a
,

n d s h ft h o le b ttle -
x e fr o m b u
- ri l B i n d i c te t h t th i s i s

th e gr ve o f a aa w rri o r Fi g 2 6 ) Th e spe r h e d 9 i n c h e s
. a a -
,
 AN D T H E n un e s THE c rr rn s 2 19

a
.

lo n g , a mi d i b ad a
h s no ll Ha a
pp
-
ypr b u h n re c s r t e s, t t e

stea d y mad a wi h ah a
- f h l
e x ei h i dia mtt s t- o e 1 Q nc es n e e r,

d i v f m S um i aa d Akk a d i ap
,

m
se e s to er e ro
yp er n n n r o to t e s,

wh i l i e am paa
ts ll ls i g i fi atly
ne r t ugh m f m
r e s n c n e no co e ro

h g a m f h i ft a f ba ba i at i b b y d h fi i g
, ,

t e r i o c e nso r r n r es e o n t e n e

in aI
S o uth Ru
s si n th e lo o s e ly- kn i t s tr uc tur e o f s e mi
ma babaia a d o ve r th e s te ppe a
.

di so c i e ty nd
“

no c r r n spre

a
,

l g on th e fr o n ti e rs o f th e mo r e se ttle d c o mmu n i ti e s i n

FI G . 26 . Co ppe r spe a at
r , sh f -h o le a adx e, n co mp am rt e n te d
2 20

Me so po ta
S ume ri a
mi a
n me ta
THE

o r Pe rsi a

-
TIM E
su

l smi th s wo uld h a
c h type s u
,

,
OF TR

ve a
,
O U B LE S

wi de a
a
lti m te ly o r i gi n te d b y
n d o fte n r a
p i d
a
d i str i b uti o n
Th e c o ppe r sta mp se ls fro m S h a a
.

-
h i tu mp fi ve o f wh i c h
-

a a
,

we r e fo un d re e ve n mo re e xpli c i t i n th e i r we ste rn r e l ti o n
Th e y a re a ll o f o n e di sti n c ti ve type a
,

s h i ps (Fi g nd i t i s

si gn i fic a n t th a t th e o n ly o th e r e xa mple fr o m B a a
.
,

luc h i st n
c o me s fr o m th e fi n a l ph a se o f th e S o h r D a mb a t Na l a nd is

rh a a a
,

p e p s to b e s so c i t e d w i t h i ts d e s tr u c t i o n b y b u rn i n g
aa l r wi th aa si mple p a tte rn o n th e i r fa
.

T h e y r e ll c i r c u ces

a a a
,

bu i lt u p i n c o m p r t m e n t s b y p r o j e c t i n g s t r i p s o f m e t l n d
a a i la a a
,

se ls o f ge n er lly si m r type h ve b e e n fo u n d i n Hi ss r I I I)

a n d HM i n An uI I I a a nd a t Su s a in a c o n te xt wh i ch su g
ge sts a da a or li ttle la a te r An d a s w e sh a
, ,

te b o ut 2 000 ll
a
t le a st o n e si mi l r se a a
.
,

l i s kn o wn fr o m S i n d
a a
se e sh o r tly

wh e re i t i s l te r th a a n th e H r a
, ,

p ri o d T h v d
‘

pp e e e i e n c e

i s th e r e fo re str o n gly i n fa a
vo ur o f re g r d i n g th e se me ta
.

l
o bj e c ts i n th e S h a h i -ftump c e me te ry a
-
s i n di ca ti n g a da te
a fte r 2 00 0 a nd a sso c i a te d wi th mo ve me n ts fr o m th e
’

we st
D o th e se o bj e c ts r ep r e se n t tr a d e o r mi gr a a
.

ti o n ? To n ti c i
p a t e th e f ur t h e r e v i d e n c e d i sc u ss e d b e lo w th e la tt e r se e m s

th e mo r e li ke ly a lo c a a
,

nd si n c e th e po tt e r y r e p r e se n ts l
tr a di ti o n i t se e ms li ke ly to o th a t mi gra ti o n w a
, ,

s o n e o f per

so ns tr a ve lli n g li gh t b ri n gi n g wi th th e m only th e po r ta
,

b le
pro p e r ty o f se a ls sp e a rs a n d ba ttle a xe s Ca n th e se b e w a
,

- r

a
b n ds e n s la vi n g o r ma a
.
, ,

r ryi n g th e lo c l wo me n w h o wo u ld
‘

a
m ke th e po ts a n d i s th e S h a mp c e me te ry i n so me w a
, ,

h i tu -
y
r e la t d o th e sa a a a Skulls a
,

e t c ki n g o f th e B lu ch i s t n vi l g l e s ? re

s le n d e r e vi d e n c e a n d de du c ti o n s fr o m th e i r me a su r e me n t s

must b e use d wi th c a aa
uti o n b ut th e n to mi st w h o e x mi n e d a
ll o f th e S h a mp ma ri e d wi th th e spe a r a
,

th e sku h i tu -
n bu nd

a x e r e p o r te d t h a t i t sh o we d tra c e s o f mi xe d o ri gi n a nd in
‘

a
c e r t i n r es p e c ts te n d s to a
p p r o x ma
i t e to th e C a spi a n o r No r

d i e typ e o f sku ll U n fo rt u
’
. na te th o ugh th e se c o n d a dj e c t i v e
 TIME
'
”
2 22 TH E OF T R O U B L E S,

ohah h d d a abe
te c n e xpre sse d af ll w
s o o s, fo llo wi ng no r ma
l
p ati
r c ce in th e se ma
tt e r s :

ah ud a I b Ch n Ha a pp a C
-
u lt u ro r re

Ch a h ud a Ia n -
ro

Ch a h ud a I I n J uk aCultu
h -
ro r re

Ch a h ud a I I I n J h agaC ultu -
ro n r re

Th fi a e l ph a f
n u p a t f set h i i t o i l l b
o cc d b d i on o s s e w e es c r i e

la t ad f th p
e r, n t ora e d wi th h Ch a
re s e n hu w e re c o n c e r n e t e n

d a I I ph a a ttl m t f p pl f th Jh u kaCultu
a
ro se se e en o eo e o e r
'

re

ttl m t a f qua a m g th H a a
, .

Th i s se e tten w s one o
p p s e rs on e r

rui ns of th I ph a a d wh i l t h
e t m t ha
se v b n e e r e se e s o e een

ugh b ui ldi g f h u wa ll wi th b i kb a
,

so m e ro re n t o bb d o se s r c s ro e

f m th
ro o pat f th i
er t t h r s oh ut m t h a e sb e, o er s se e o ve een

ma d f m p i ha
e o b l wa
so lli g uch ama
e er s tti g ugh ly
e n s s n ro

u d a ta a a
, ,

se t ro gnu l b i k fl re c w h i h
n i i r t r c o or, c n o ne ns nce

w a m 7 by 8 f t v a
s so e 1 ll Th b i kfl ee mi gh t a
o l er e se r c o o rs so

p t d a ta f t t ad a t a
.

b i e n te r re e s s ll v t th y
nces or e n s, n e en s e

sugg t a th
es quali d a
r d t v yp ma t
er s ttl m t n no er er ne n se e en on

h
t e s i t Fi pla a ai t
e re ti g i ces va ti re m ti m n n e re s n nno on so e es

wa a
.
,

ro ugh ly b ui lt i t d y i n h for u i uoorh u w ll s or n c es o no s o se s

or ma d f mall tagula u v d tti g f b i k

e o s re c n r or c r e se n s o r c s on

aa
Th e l u m te r i
ltu p t d a m g th c p i m i t
re rei v re se n e on e se r e

habi ta ti i lud a b u d at ad h a
o ns nc at i ti p y ; es n n n c r c er s c o tte r

stamp a l ;a mul t b a
-
se d m a
s lt l a d pi b
e s a wl
e s et oo s n ns o ne s

ad ap tt y h a I i sa
.

n d ot ( Fi ger lt g th
e aui u
-
re s t o e er c r o s

ad d i ti ti v a mbla a a
. .

n s ncg t t ie g t sseg ly w i th t h t f e, con r s n s ro n o

h Ha
t e pp a
a Cultu i upplat ad y
r W i th ut l a
re t s n s, n et no t o c e r

ta wi th i t Th p t y i a bufi wa wi th a va
'

con ct e i d
o t er s re , r e

a a a a
.
.

re
p t i f
er o r e o m t p i t d i
o rn i b l k d end Th n e on t n c n re e

ma ll f t d j a a
.

f m i lud
or s nc d b ttl
e s f ty p -
whi h
oo e rs n o es o es c

ha g ve a l pa a ll l i
en er Balu h i a b u h r ff i g
e s n c st n, t t e o er n

stad ad a
n su wi th a
n l p d pa
s tt c e rs h d g mut oo e ern o n t e e e s
 lli Cultue a
THE THE
°
AN D E ND
'
o i rIE s 223
'
OF

aa af m h Ka
m Ha
r p

a
d e ri ve e i th e r fro p t i ro t e r t ts

Ha a ppr i fl u -
d
n p h a T h
en c e a g f a m se t i q u i e
e r n e o o rn en s t

ai d ad mpl y g m i ad tyli d p lat f m

.

v r e n e o s eo e tr c n s z e n or s

al ha v a mb la
,

wh i h i g
c n e ne r g e h t
str o n re se nce to t e r e es o n

Kulli wa O th re i mpl g m t i pa er s tt a mpai d

e eo e r c e rn s cco n e

wi th b a ta l ba a
.

d h iro d
or z o n f plum d ll h Am i
n s o re re c t e r

i b la ka d b i gh t d ab pa a
'

styl ; l e h v
c o se -se t c e ro n s n c l n r re c n e r

ah d f m Z a a a u hi t a
a
l l d p
e e i ly r e c se on y k
s i Ser u t h B l ro n o c s n

a a
,

wh th
e re p
o tt er b m
e rn s t h d
to o h m c u lt i n
p l e c e t e e

l p a d ba ll a d t m m ti f fj h a kaf i ta u
'

oo s n -
n -
s e o s o r, or ns n ce o cc r

aSaPam ad Ja i da ai ma
,

t r- ro mb A d n f h- l n one o t e tw o n

a a a a a
.

re se n t ti C h
o ns h u d t i lly u l i k ro s re not e one

a
re
p n n
-

f m F i a gh u d a
ro er no i i N th Ba
-
n lu hi ta n or c s n

a
.

I g n l th
en er h Jh u k pen, tt t e
y f m th S i d i t r o er ro e n s es

avai ty f l m i h i h Kulli ad
,

mbi
a
se em t s o co ne r e o e e e n t s, n w c n

p b
roa b ly H a a p p m t i
r f p d m i at o w i t h a u
s d re ly i o g n e, n n er n

a I i i fa t j ut wh a
”

Am i t mi gh t b xp t d f m
a
r i str n t s, n c s e e ec e ro

aa Ha a a a a
.
,

ti v
n e, n on- pp u b t t urm i h l l
s p p u l
s r ti n t e oc o on,

wi th a ta i i fui
cer n f nv l t a i
s on o f m S uth Ba no lu h ie s r ns ro o c

sta I lan t d m ti f
so e uld b t ad fa
o s co th w t f e r ce r er es or ex

a mpl h plat f m wi th d ub l pi a u i Si a
.

e t e n or l olk I I I e -s r s o cc rs n

ad i Hi aI b b u i th tu up a
n n ss r ga
t t i i h laen t m rn s n n t e e ce e

a a a
,

te r
y f J i o i i
w h M
nr k n f t e d b l w O r hn r e e r re to » e o n t e

a ga d Jh a kap tt y a
.

wh l h o e t me re se e s n o re so n to r e r r o er s

ayth i g b u aa ti v p d u t a i i g u f h d i tu b d
ppa
n n t n e ro c r s n o t o t e s r e

con di ti ad f lk mv m t a
o ns n o ft -
h fa o ll f h Ha e a
en s er t e o t e r

e mpi wh re , fuge t i b
e n re w lea vi g Ba
e lu h i taa
r es d
e re n c s n n

a
se ttli n g i n S i n d
A mo st i n te r e sti n g c o n tr a st a
n d c o mp a ri so n wi th Ha ra
.

pp
is a ffo r d e d by th e Jh u k r se ls a nd a lli e d mu le ts fo u nd aa a
a bu n da n tly i n Ch a n h ud r o 11
( g
F i T h e se ls ar -
e a '

a ”

a
m d e o f potte ry fa i e n ce sto n e a n d me t l a nd a r e to t a a
.

lly
a
d i ffe r e n t i n th e i r o rn a
a
, , , ,

me n t l mo ti fs fr o m th e we ll kn o wn
a
-

H ra app se r i e s ; th e y a lso l c k n y i n sc ri pti o n s But th e y a re a

s ta mp s e a a lly c i r c ular e xc e ti o n a a
.

ls (u
-
su p ll y sq u r e ) wi th i n ,
 a
2 24 THE TIME o r TR O U B LE S
th e gre a t We ste r n Asi ti c fa a mi ly o f suc h o bj e c ts n d c e r t i n a V

aa a n e o f th e fa a a aa
,

p r l le ls c n b e n o t e d O i e n c e se ls h s p tt e r n

a a a a
.

p r e c i s e ly c o m p r b l e wi t h th t o n th e C O pp e r se ls fr o m th e

a a
S h h i tump c e me te r y ; th e tre tme n t o f n i m ls o n tw o
-
a a

I N S

a ft h l a a
Co ppe r shd i t a d fai
d p tt y h a
M G n s, s o n e
t Jh uka
n en ce
7 p o e x e n

ta l a d b a d a
2
mp a
-
. .

d
y a d Ma
es r

j umd a
s, o er e -r

Ma ka
e n

ltu (a
s - se s n ,

Cu f re te r ) c n r
'

2 26 THE TI ME o r TR OUB LE S
head t i a ma
-r e s ka
bl fi d ad i i d i ffi ult
s re ugg t
r e n n t s c to s es

a a a a
,

m
ppa h Ba
p ll
r l b u
e s, h t wi t h
t o n ce
y h i g k wo re t e c o n tr s n t n w e no

of h Ha
t e a lu h i C u
r ltu i mph aori dt e c re s s e s z e

aaa a
.

Th e pi c tur e gi ve n b y th e Jh uk r m te r i l i s n o t d i ssi rn i l r
‘

a
fr o m th t o f th e le ss b u a a
n d n t r e li c s fr o m th e S h h i - tump a
ce aa
me te r y I n b o th c ulture s th e po tte r y pp e rs to r e pre se n t
aa a
amo r e o r le ss i n d i ge n o us typ e i n l te st ge o f e vo luti o n o r
.

d e vo luti o n b ut th e sma a
lle r po r t ble o bj e c ts su ch a s se a ls
a
b e ds me ta a a a a
, , ,

l i mple me n ts n d w e p o n s n d h b i ts o f d r e ss

a aa
, , ,

i mpli e d b y th e use o f p i n s ll su gge st th e rri v l o f n e w blo o d

a a
,

i n th e re gi o n At Ch n h ud r o o n e o f th e mo st i n te re sti n g
a
-

a a a nd i t ca
.

fe tur e s i s th e use o f f i e n c e by th e Jh u k r p e o ple n

a a a a
,

h r d ly b e e x pl i n e d i n n y w y e xc e pt by th e su
‘

p si ti o n
fi
‘

p o

th a a
t th e i n v d e rs c o n sc ri pte d o r aa t le a st we r e p r e p r e d to

a i r e th e pro d uc ts o f lo c a l c ra
,

c qu ftsme n ski lle d i n th i s te c h

rvi ve d th e H a ra pp di sa st e r s a a
,

n i qu e w h o su n d w e r e se t to

a a
wo rk i mi t ti n g s b e st th e y c o uld th e typ e o f be a ds de
ma n d e d by th e i r n e w r u le r s Alth o ugh th e n e wc o me rs ma y
a a
h ve kn o wn f i e n c e b y si gh t th e y r e un li ke ly to h a a
.

ve

a ld m ke i t th o ugh a a
,

b r o ugh t wi th th e m c r ftsme n w h o c o u s

a a a aa
,

w e h ve se e n so me f i e n c e b e d s m y h ve be e n i mpo r te d

a
fr o m th e E a aa
,

i n to I n d i ste r n M e d i te r r n e n r e g i o n A t
th e se th re e si te s i n S i n d wh e r e th e Jh uk r Culture h a a
.

s be e n

fo u a
n d w e c n fe e l o n ly th t w e a a aa
aa
r e wi tn e ssi n g th e rr i v l of

aaa
b r b ri n s e i th e r a s th e d e str o ye r s o f th e H a c i vi li z a
,

r pp

a a a
,

ti o n o r fo llo wi n g h r d i n th e w ke o f th e first r i de rs I t i s
a aa aa
.

th e i r po r t ble o bj e c ts th t re si gn i fic n t n d wh i c h gi ve th e
c lu e to th e i r o r i gi n s : h e re fo r o n c e w e c a n r e le g te p o tte r y
'

a
to a se c o n d r y p la a a
c e i n e sti m ti n g th e c o n te n t o f th e se lli e d a
cu ltu re s

aa a
I t i s c o n ve n i e n t h e r e to s y fe w wo r d s a b o ut th e Jh n ga
.

a a a a aaa a
-

C ulture wh i c h t C h mb ud ro I I I pp e rs s fin l o c o n -

a a a
,

p ti o u o f th e s i t e f t e r th e
J h uk r se ttle m e n t L i ttle enou g h
aa
.

i s kn o wn o f th e c u lt ure r e c o gn i z e d o n ly h e re n d t th e
aa a aa a
,

type si te n d lso i n S i n d e x c e pt th t i t m rks bre k wi th

-
, ,
 N
AN D THE END OF THE CI T I E S 22 7

th e o ld p a i t d p tt y
n e t a d i t i a d
o h a i er t a d a g r
y o n s, n s ns e re or

b la k waWi th i
c rei d a m t T h p tt y l k p i mi
n c se o rn en e o er oo s r

da t i wh lly u k w ad i ma a
.

ti v b u i
e, t ts e s
y o p n t n no n, n t re r e se

a a a ad
.

p yu l
re l l u l t u oc t i ct d m ll t i b
re re s r c e to s r e or tw o , n

ma y b a li
e no t hta he fi
r t f er t u i n A t t e rs ew cen r es

Jh agai t lf a
n rpp a se t l y a i at d w i t h h
re n p i m i t i v sso c e t e r e

wa we
,

h d wh i h l k upi i uly li k p tt y f
"

re , re s er s c oo s s c o s e o er o

S u ga n da t a b ut h e, d oth i d tuy
t e se c o n or r cen r B C

M h j d a h vi d h fi a
. .

Wh tu
en w e rn to f o en o- l ro t e e e n ce or t e n

a a a a a a
,

p h f h
se s o i t y h i
t e c t y i l b u ’
d s t t h s or C h h u s ess n n n t n

d a a th m ha a a u a
ro
d n d e re v b
o e s n o t se e
y t l to e een n c

ttl m t ma a lla f h Ha
v

ui
a
se e d en h ft
e on h p t e r ns er t e co se o t e

r a pp C u l t u a l a t re i h a a t x a v
e at ds B u not n t e re s e c e t

a v th l v a l ig i fi a ad i
, .

th e re re ne er t p i t
e e ss se er s n c n o n e r s to s

ub d t a
t r t fa
e ffa
s i f ll w d by di u
e o pti rs ad d a o y a o e sr on n ec t

th i i t aa th I ha v a lr a dy d a w a
,

s s e s t o e rs tt ti h e e r n en on to t e

h a f j w ll y a
.

o d r s o d th
e e p i u bj t f u d i h
er n o er re c o s o ec s o n n t e

la t t t a
es ta aM h j da ad p i t d u th ath e
s r t o en o -
ro n o n e o t t
h i di g f uh h a d i a typi a lf a tu f d i t u b d a
,

n o s c o r s s d i c e re o s r e n n

se c u d i ti
re c o n th i a g od a
ons ly I d i ap a e re all lf m s o e r n n r e ro

h t w
t e o f Ra i h i Ja
n o i p u ta t whr um u h a
n d r s e e re n e ro s o r s

a
,

o f co i ns co tt i but d t th t ubl d ti m sf ll wi g
uld b e r e o e ro e e o o n

th lla
p
e co f th M a uyad y a ty a ly i th e
se o d e r n n s e r n se c o n cen

tuy r M ay f th la g t b a d f pp t l a n o e r es o r s o co er oo s t

M h j da t
o b l g t th la
en o - t ph a f th i ty ro oo, e on o e er se s o e c

ad mph ai th f li g f i ui ty th a t mut h a
, ,

n e s z ev b e ee n o n se c r s e een

in p e o plemi n d s ’
s

aa fa a a
.

Th e c tu l b u i ld i n gs n d th e i r c o ns tr uc ti o n sh o w ll
i n g o fi i n th e se la
-
'

tte r d y le ve ls s we ll: str e e t fr o n t ge s r e -

a a a a
n o t so stri c tly o b se r ve d bri c kwo rk m y b e sh o dd y n d a a
la a a a
, ,

r ge h o use s r e d i vi d e d u i t o sm ll r r o o ms to t ke mo r e
p n e

p e rso n s wi th lo we r e d s t n d r d o fa m e n i ty Po tte r y ki ln s aa a
aa a
.

llo we d to b e b ui lt w i th i n th e c i ty b o un d ri e s i n th e D K
aa
re

ar e , o n e e ve n i n th e mi d dle o f stre e t sh o c ki n g p i e c e o f a a
de c de n c e whi c h c o uld n e ve r h a ve b e e n c o n d o n e d b y th e
228 -
THE TIME o r TRO UB LE S '

Ci ty Fa
th e rs of a ali
ge n e r a ti o n I n se c ur i ty th e t h re a
n e r er t
o f ra s e s s li t u i n to fla a
.
,

i d s th e b i g h o u p p ts t h e sl c k e n i n g o f
c i v i c pr i d e a n d th e d e c li n e o f re si d e n ti a l a re a
, ,

s o f th e c i t
y
i n to i n d ustr i a l slums a re a ll fa mi li a r enou gh si gn s o f d e c a
d ence a n d i m e n d i n g c o lla a a
,

p ps e A n d t h t r i d s i f n o t h i n g
mo r e we r e ta ki n g pl c e a a
,
.

t t h i s t i me i s sh o wn b y th e h u d
r d e r e d i n th e s tr e e t o r o n a
,

d le d ske le to n s o f pe rso n s mu
s ta i rc a se mur d e r e d un d e r c i r c umsta n c e s wh e r e n o o n e w a s

c o n c e r n e d wi th gi vi n g t h e m b u ri a l b ut r a th e r a n xi o u s to

sa
,

ve h i s o w n li fe by fli gh t
Th e r e a re a fe w pi e c e s o f si gn i fi c a nt a rc h a e o lo gi c a
.

l e v1
d e n c e wh i c h c a n b e r e la te d to th i s ti me o f tr o uble s a ‘ ’
t

28 Co ppe r sh ft h o le a aa d e M
x e- oh enjo d a
aka
FIG. z

a
.
-
,
-
ro

( fte r M y)c

M h j da A
o en o -
ro
pp a a d cow i t h a er h a ft t ubx e f-
z e s -
e or

ha fti g a f ud i a la
t ta tum ad i a mpl t ly
.

a
n w s o n n e s r n s co e e ex o s

bj t a m g th m t a f th H a a
,

i
t c o ec on l typ e e
pp C u lt u es o e r re

( g
F i B ut i i h aa t i t i
t s c f a u m rb f
c er s i t i c o n er o s es n

N th P i a Hi aII I S h a h T p Tu a
.

or e rs ss r gT p li k ly e e, r n e e e

a a a a a
,

to b epp i m t l
rox y t m p e y w i t h
con h A ekk d i or r t e n

p i
er o d i M np t am i a
e soa d u vo i i g i t h int ( g
s a r v n n o er s es e t

A u ad i th B m t y aS i a lk ) p b a b ly ala t ah
. .
,

ss r n n e ce e er t ro s e s t e

n ni th tu y
cen I i a i mp t f m th w t a
r t s n d a or ro e es n

w a a a
,

e
p f
on o li k w ly th r, w h l e d t
on f m h e d o e to e ro t e se c o n

mi ll en ni um ad t b ta k i tn o id a ti
e wi th hen n o cons er on t e

sha ft h l a f m S h a
-
o e x es h i tump a ro d Ch a h ud a I I -
n n -
ro

i a l a g up f wh a t a nly b a
.

Th e re s so ro o ll d w d up c n o e c e s or s,
2 30 THE TI ME OF TR O UB LE S
fo ud i ai mp tat
n n n or n me te r y lyi n g b e yo n d th e li mi ts o f
ce

th e c i ty o n th e so u th th e c e me te ry H de mo n str bly sub a

se qu e n t to aa a
th e H r pp p e r i o d Sto n e h s n o te d th t a a
aa a a
.

Wh e e le r s e xc v ti o ns p ro d uc e d se ve r l se gme n te d f i e n c e
’

a aa
b e ds o f types c lo se ly c o mp r ble to th t e qu te d wi th th e a a
aa
lV a
Ii n o n f i e n c e b e d o f c 1 6 0 0 i n th e se su pe r fic i a l
a a a
.

l ye rs o f th e c i t de l Th e summi t o f th e C i t de l Mo un d
a a
.

i s mu c h d i s tu r b e d b y b ri c k r o bb i n g nd V ts d i d n o t “

a a a a
,

e st b li sh n o ccu p ti o n l ye r to wh i c h th i s p o tte ry c o uld

a aa
b e ssi gn e d b u a t Wh e e le r i n 1 946 w s ble to sh o w th t h i s

a a a t th e We s t Ga
,

fo u r th ( n d fi n l) p e ri o d o f c o n s tr u c ti o n te
a a a a a aa
n d i ts sso c i te d t e rr c e s w a s i n f c t c h r c te ri z e d b
y j u s t
a a a a a
‘

th i s p e c uli r po tte ry Th i s l st ph se fo llo we d n i n te rv l ‘

a a a
.

du ri n g wh i c h th e s tr u c ture s r e l ti n g to th e t e rr c e s h d

a aa a
f lle n i n to d e c y n d h d b e e n c o ve r e d by d e b ri s I t i s re pr e
a
.

se n te d b y fr gme n ts o f p o o rly c o ns tru c te d b u i ldi n gs pr e

a a
,

su m bly d we lli n gs wi th w lls so me ti me s o n ly o n e b ri c k i n

,

thi c kn e ss
a
I t se e ms li k e ly th t so me o f th e str u c tu ra l r e m i n s fo u nd a
a aaa a
i n th e e rli e r e xc v ti o n s o n th e C i t d e l M o n d i n th e a
a a
u
a
upp e rmo st str t be lo n g p r tly to d e c de n t ve rsi o n o f th e
aa a a
H r pp o c c up ti o n wi th so me mi n gli n g o f th e i n tr usi v e
a
,

c e me te ry H e le me n ts Th e typ i c l c e me t e ry H po t fr o m

a a a
.

Str tum I I , r e c o r d e d b y V ts wo uld sugge st th t to th i s

p h se sh o uld b e a
a a a a
,

ttri b ute d th e b d ly b ui lt w lls m de o f re

-

use d bri c k b a t s wh i c h h e n o t e s a s ch a ra
,

-
c te ri sti c o f th i s

a m Amo n g t h e se s tr uc tur e s m y b e n o te d c i rc ula a a

,

st r tu r

aa a a a
.

b i n o r gr n r y sti ll st n di n g 6 fe e t h i gh n d 4 fe e t i n d i
me te r a aa a gh ly squa
,

nd r e s o f b r i c k p vi n g r o u r e wh i c h r e

a ka lture I n Ch a a
, , ,

c ll t h o se o f th e Jh u r Cu n h ud r o I I -
Th e
aa a a a
sso c i te d wi th th e c h a
.

si mi l r p ve me n t s rr e d r e m i n s o f

a a a a a aa aa
p i n e n d b mb o o i n wh t i s lle ge d to b e H r pp str
tu a a
m e lse wh e re o n th e C i t d e l Mo un d r e suspi c i o usly sug
g es t i v e o f t h e hu t aaa a a a
s o f b r b r i n s qu tte rs r t h e r t h n o f a ny

s tru c tu r e s li ke ly to b e wi th i n th e C i t a d e l wa lls i n th e d a ys of
 AN D rH i t
'

T HE
f'
E ND o r CI TI E S 23 1

i ts s p le n d o ur b ut th e e x c a va ti o n r e c o r d s d o n o t c o n t a in
gh e vi d e n c e fo r us to e xpre ss ad e fin i te o pi n i o n I t
,

e no u

sh o u

ti o n a
ld b e n o te d i n pa
l bu ri a lw a s fo u
ssmg th a

n d i n th i s sa
t wh a
me a
ta pp
re a
e a
a
rs t o b e

sa a
a ‘
.

fi a c

a
nd w ssi gn e d
’

to th e H a ra not a
,

pp C u l t u re I f i t i s m o r e o r le ss mo d e rn

gra ve i t i s muc h mo r e li ke ly to b e sub se que n t to th e Ha

.

ra a
,

a a n te m o r a a
.

pp o c c u p t i o n t h n c o p r
y w i t h i t ; th e b r c h y
4

c e ph a li c skulls o f Alp i n e type wi th h i gh b r i d ge d n o se s i n th e -

gra ve a t a ll e ve n ts i mply a n i n tr u si ve e th n i c e le me n t a nd

ma a a a
,

y c o n c e i v b l y b e c o n n e c t e d w i t h i n v d e rs i n t h e l s t
p h a se o f t h e s i t e
’
s p r e hi sto r y

Un que sti o n a ble e vi de n c e o f th e a rr i va l o f n e wc o me rs a

.

a a
t

Ha ra
pp a f t e r th e m i n a p h se o f o c c u p a t i o n o f th e c i ty i s

h o we ve r a ffo r d e d b y th e la
,

r ge c e me te r H i ts lf f t
y e o w o

a
, ,

a
p e r i o d s b o t h o f w h i c h h v e be e n sh o wn b y th e r e c e n t e x

ca va ti o n s to b e la te r th a n th e R 3 7 c e me t e ry o f H r a a
,

pp
a a e r c e me t e r y w a a a a a
,

g e T h i s l tt s si tu t e d i n n t u r l h o ll o w
whi c h a t so me t i me a
.
,

fte r th e d i su s e o f th e c e me te r y

fille d up le ve l wi th d e b ri s wh i c h c o n t i n e d a a ma ss o f Ha
, ,

ra
p p ap o t sh e r d s a nd it w a s i n to th i s d e b ri s a t p ao i n t so me

1 2 0 ya r d s to th e n o r t h e a st o f c e me t e ry R 3 7 t h a t th e gra
, ,

-
ve s
a ra
,

o f c e me t e r y H we r e d u

a g I t i s c h c t e ri s t i c o f t h e

ti sm o f th e H a ra a n o si gn i fi c a n t ch a
.

pp C u lt u r e t h t n ge i n

th e typ e s o f po tt e ry c o u ld b e d e tec te d be twe e n th e la y e rs

un d e rlyi n g th e R 3 7 c e me te ry th e c e me te ry i tse lf o r e i th e r
o f th e tw o d e b ri s la
, ,

-
y e rs o v e r l y i n g i t B u t w i t h c e m e t e r y H
th e c h a n e is a ru t a
.

b n d d e c i si ve
‘

g p
Th e e a ri a ls i n c e me te r y H ( Str a tum I I ) a
.

r li e r b u re e x

te n de d i n h uma ti o ns n o rma lly lyi n g n o r th e a st a n d so u th

a
-

we st wi th th e le gs sli gh tly fle x e d a nd a t n a ve r a
,

ge d e pth o f
si x fe e t b e n e a th th e pr e se n t sur fa
, ,

c e Ab o u t twe n ty fo ur suc h -

a n d i n th e a re a ex c a va a
.

bu ri ls we r e fo u te d : so me we r e c l i me d
a s di sme mb e r e d o r fr a c ti o n a l b ut i t i s n o t c le a r wh e th e r

th ese we r e n o t so me ti me s th e r e sult o f a rba

,

n c i e n t di stu n ce

ri a ls a r e some ti me s a c c o mpa n i e d by th e r e ma
.

Th e b u ins of
 2 32 TH E TIME o r TR O UB LE S
fo o d -
o a a ti r di m mb d g a
ffe ri n gs in one t g r ve n en e s e ere o

had b lai d wi th h d a
een d ma a d la g n umtb f e e n n r e e rs o

p tt
o y er l w alw a
y
v e sse s
p t I l y t
e re
g av s r e se n n on w o r es w e

ay th bj t f u d a w mawi th a g ld b agl
.

h
ma
o er o ec s o n : o n o n

wi t a
n e on er

r s d th t h
,
n i i g t th i th
e kull f a th
re e r e n n ee n e s o no er

lo o pe d ro un d wi th go ld wi re ‘
fo r se c uri ty or

aWh
s ath
e e le r r ad er s r onic a
lly re ma
r ks

t b ui a
la me te ry H ( Str a
.

Th e l i
er r s n ce tum I ) we r e o n ly
s o me t w o to th r e e fe e t b e lo w th e pr e se n t s u rf c e n d co n aa
a a a a a
,

s i st e d o f t r u e fr c ti o n l b u r i ls i n l r g e o t s w i th u t
p o n
y
a c c o mpa a a
,

n yi n g gr ve go o d s o r o ffe r i n gs T h e b o n e s i n m n
-
y
i ns ta a a
.

n c e s s h o we d th t th e b o d i e s mu st h v e b e e n e x
p edo s

a a
fte r d e th fo r so me ti me b e fo r e b ur i a l wh e n o n ly th e skull
a a
,

nd fe w lo n g b o n e s we re se le c te d fo r d e po si ti o n i n th e
c e me t e r y A b o u t 1 40 suc h bur i a ls w e r e fo un d a nd doz en
'

a
o f th e s e w e r e o f b a a
.
,

b i e s b ur i e d wh o le n d c r o uc h e d up i n th e
aa
n e r l j rs T h e se j r s w e r e c lo se d aa
,

fu t th e mo u th b y li d s o f
br o ke n po ts Th e po tte r y fro m b o th str a ta
.

o f th e c e me t e r y i s

d i ssi mi l r fr o m th t o f th e H r a
a a re a a a a
.

C u lt u d lt h o ugh
a
pp n

a a a a
,
.

c e r t i n c h r c t e r i sti c fo r ms r e c o n fin e d to th e u
pp e r n d
aa
lo we r str t r e spe c ti v e ly thi s d i sti n c ti o n i s fun c ti o n l r th e r aa
th a ra a e o f wa a a
,

n cu ltu l n d th e t e c h n i qu nd i t i g i
re
p n n s

e sse n ti a a a
lly th e s me i n b o th ph se s o f th e c e me te r y We c n a
t h e n r e ga aa aa
.

rd i t s wh o le n d s th e pr o d uc t o f o n e c ultur e
d e spi te th e c h a ri a
,

n ge i n b u l c usto ms .

Be fo r e p r o c e e d i n g to d i s c uss th i s po tt e ry h o w e v e r i t wi ll
a a
, ,

b e c o n ve n i e n t to summ r i z e th e ve r y s c n ty kn o wle d ge
a a
va i l b le o f th e h uma n type s r e pr e se n t e d N o d e qu t e r e a a
a aa e d o mi n a
.

p o r t h s ye t pp e re d b u t t h n t sku ll fo r m i n th e -

a a a str a
,

e rli e r ph se se e ms to h v e b e en th e pr o t o A u lo i d type -

a aa ll a a
,

n d th e re i s t le st o n e s u c h sku mo n g th e se c o n d ph se
a
b uri ls But i n th e se b ur i ls t h e r e c a
a n b e tr a ced sm ll a a ‘

a a a
lo w h e d e d r c e suc h a mo n g th e pr e se n t a
.
,

- s i s se e n b o ri
aaa a n d pr o b a
,

g i n l o
p p u l t i o n o f In d i b ly (
’
t h o u g h n o t cer

ta i n ly ) fr o m tli e se c o n d ph a a
,

se o f th e c e me te r r e tw o sku ll
y s
2 34 THE TI ME o r T R O UB LE S
o f ama; n on ak a a th
lt no a t wi th a
er ve sse l pe co c s e rn e

t f
so r o tau wi th h h
cen f a g a
r t d O
t e
‘

o rn s o o or eer ne

ma ka bl va f m h upp t atum h aa ti u
.

re r e se ro ou
t e er s r s con n s

fi f d i g b gi
r ez e o es i g wi t hn p a k a
e d f
nn nll w d by tw o e coc s n o o e

ag up i wh i h amawi th W i ld flyi g h a
ro n c i h ld n n r o s tw o
f wh i h i a m a b ad f
,

co w b hi d
s, e n d g Th
one o c s o en co es n o

pa b f ll w d b y a t ad i a a
.

tt e rn , to e o
y v
o i
e f n ex r or n r e rs o n o

De si gn s ra
ts fro m Ce me te ry H Happ a
ak (Afte r Va
FIG . 29 . on po ,

( b l c on re d )
. ts)
 AN D T H E .
‘

E ND o n T HE CITI E S 2 35

o bj e c ts li ke li ttle adad ad th a h mab s t n r s, n en not er n

‘

e tw e e n

tw o c o w ( bull ) a s h wi th a
or i gl ta
s eda db t c i s n e s n r e w een ts
f a a lli g a Mi ah ull wi th d ubl ;
,

h o rn s , ll h e W ld or t or re c n no n o e

a Th wh l i fill d i wi th ta l a v ad i g
d i mi la i g a
x e e o e sc e n e s e n s r s, e es, n z

a g a wd h b a kg u d i a
.

z s, n s g r z -
z oth
s c ro t e c ro n n n er

v e ssel wh hu mp d a e re ttl ta d b e tyli c d t e s n e tw e e n s z e re e s

ugg t v p a ti a la a
, .

I i v y di ffi u lt l gu hi
‘

t s er c to s es e en r n o es to t s

r mae ka ble r i f p tt y A a se r e s o wh l i i qui t wi th ut o er s o e, t s e o

a a a
.

p ll rl i y e f h n k w n u l tu o f
t e h A i no t O i n c t res o t e n c en r en

ad n a ly a a a a ad
,

n o e yc t h n t h ong u p i s g f i m l t e ro n s o n s n

t re e s d a ll th
o e s re c ai ma l a d la d a
e p d ig ‘
n f s n n sc e
’
es ns o

Kulli wa i a th m re th ag
n r a l t m a
er d h
o re ta n en er er s n t e s r

ad bi d m ti f i a i a
n r ti o
o a
s nll i mi lap a sso c tt p t n re c s r e rns o n o s

fi m h Gi yaII
-
o t e mt y f n 55 ce T h
e er t a t o c 1 —
0 1 200 e re

m t f h a i ma l a t f m th a
.

en o t e d m i qu
n i t di ff s n t en s e e re n ro

k w i ay f h p h i t i wa f B a
no n n n o t e lu h i ta re s or c re s o c s n or

I di a
n bu a lth ugh tm t i ti m ad p a o re e i i w th o e n e n s c t s or

m ti i g th a t h t a tm t f h h umafigu ad
, ,

en on n t e re en o t e n r e s, n to
so m xt t th a e e t f m f h ai ma
en o l i so a lt g th e o di
t e n s s not o e er s

si mi la r th a t Sa
to maa wa ad i aaon l gu i P rr ia re n ts n o es n e rs

i bl t h a i mi la ma a
.

i
I i j ut p t th it
‘

t s s o ss e y p t
e se s r es re r es e n t

l a e t aai t I a
s n ia
n c en N th M p t a r n mi a t a n i i
or or e so o n s r n n

h
t e c ul u p i b l f h bui a
t re re s l i
o ns m t yH B y d
e or t e r s n ce e er e on

aa a a a
.

th i s, w e c y t h i g t
n s h u g h g noi h p n i b l l t i o n t e o ss e re on

lli yl ma a a
,

sh i p wi th h Ku s t e y p i t B l u
st h i t e l m t o n to c s n e e en s

aw ll Th m t y H p p1 a ta
s e e ce e er i ly m e0 e re c e r n n ew c o e rs to

h Ha a pp a th y a m f m wh a t a
.

t e w ld b ut wh
r or e re e c e ro or w s

th i la a va at ll u
,

e r t r h i t y ly fu the s or ti
on r e r ex c on c n e s

ma i a a ia
.

Th e re re f tt d pi n ewfi f sc i b
e re eces o n o rn t o n to e

b ugh t t g th
ro di
o e tly e r, n o t t d wi th h Ha re c a pp a co n n ec e t e r

c i vi li a ti zad i on d bu n wi th ut i mp ta A
ts e n t no t o or nce

a y fi d fi m Ku a
.
,

str n m i ‘

o h N th W t F rr ti P n t e or - es ro n er ro

i aui u yp f fla p p a wi th la t a
,

vi nce , s c r o s t e o l lu g tc o er x e er s

th e so c -
a lle d trun n i o n -
cel t ’
, t ha
th a s awi d e d i stri b uti o n i n
 m
u
'
I A
,

"H
l>l !
I
u I,
J
'

2 36
.
m

O U B LE S
1

T I ME
o y
J
1 U.
T HE
l
OF TR
' I i
'
n
”
l
L
.
L ,

W e ste rn Asi appe a

a rs to be re
pre se n e t d
o n ly by ap s eci me n fr o m T ur
'

ag T n e pe in
aad th a
N o r t h e r n P e r si t f m Ku a n ro rr m
Tua a
.

Th e g T p wr u ld nb e e x e o e con

t mp a a I II A a
,

e y w i
ort h H i r u III ss r — n

a a
,
,

b b ly ly i h d mi ll um
ad th Kua
p ro t e r n e se c o n enni

m fi d ma a a
“

n
y g leu rr n

i mply ai a l f m th w t arr v t a m s ro e es so e

wh a t lat da t er e

a
.

An o th e r fi n d sugge sti n g w e ste rn c o n

ta c ts o f r ath e r late r d a
te i s th t o f a b ro n z e
sw o r d fr o m R a ja n
p ur I n th e P u nj ab a
r e ma r ka b le we a a a a
,

ap on w i t h n e l b o r t e

h i lt o f type w e ll kn o w n i n th e Lur i sta n

g ar ve s o a li k ly t b
f P e r si aw h i ch re e o e

a a a
,
.

b out 4 d i
1 mi l 0 0— 1 2 00
t n s r o

oth f m th
e rsCaua u f a ro
pp e c s s o ro x 1

ma t ly th a
em dat ( Fi g Thi e s e e s

w d tad a i I dia
.

s or l sth ugh th n s one n n ,

o e re

type s ah gah i h Upp

one fr o m F t
’

r n t e er

G ag sV all y a
,

n d th
e th f m K ullu e n e o er ro r

in Hy d a
ba d St a t D a Th F a
er h e, ecc n e t m

a
a a a
a
.

g h h d
r t i d ol t h t h
r i con n e no e ss n r

te e n swo r d s s i d to b e o f c oppe r n d a
sli gh t mi d r i b s ; a ll b ut o n e h a
, ,

w i th d - !

ch a ra c te r i sti c h i lts c a s t i n o n e wi th th e

b la de a n d s re a
p d i n
g o u t I n to an te n n a e
‘

n d t hi s w a
,

a s th e type o f th e fo u r swo r d s

fr o m K ullur Swo r d s wi th h i lts o f th e

‘

ja r I n th e L a
.

Ra n
p u r type o c c u te Br o n z e

Age T a li sh gr a v e s o f th e Ca uc asu s a ga in
a n d r e r e se n t i n g a
,

P I0
. 3
0 B
m R a
ro n z e
.

a b ou t —
1 350 1 2 0 0 p
s c h o o l o f me t a
S w o rd f
nj a
r o

ja n pu r P u b,
l Wo rk c lo se ly i n to uc h w i th -
 2 38 THE T IME o r T RO U B L E S

i mi ti ve e qui pme n t w a s tr a ns fo rm e d i n to me t a l wh e n th e
“

pr

kn o wle d ge o f me ta llu s re a d a m o g t h e m T h e i m li d
r
gy p n
p e

e xi ste n ce o f h a r po o n s o f fo r ms si mi la
.

r to t h o se kn o wn i n

ma n y me so li th i c c u ltur e s o f E u ro pe a n d W e ste r n Asi a i s

o f so me i n te r e st a nd h a s b e e n c o mme n te d o n i n C h a t r II
‘

p e

Th e d a te o f th e se h o a rd s o f a x es a nd h a r o o ns c a
.
,

p n n o t be
fix e d pre c i se ly Th e a xe s a ba ro b a

a
nd r c e lts l h
‘ ’
-
p b y o w e t e i r

o r i gi n to type s wi t h i n th e H a ra a u
.

pp o r lli e d c l t ur e s I n

We ste r n I n d i aun le ss w e a ssu me a n i n d e pe n de n t i n ve n ti o n

o f me t a llurgy i n a
,
.

n o t h e r c e n tr e o r c e n tr e s o f r e h i st o r i c
p
In d i a a n d o n e s i n sti n c t i s t h e r e fo r e to d a te th e fin d s wi th i n
’

th e pe r i o d o f t h a t c ultur e o r i n o n e sh o r tly a
,

fte r i ts e n d Th e
c o n c e n tr a ti o n r o un d R a gge sts th e e x plo i ta
.

n c h i su ti o n o f th e
lo c a l c o ppe r d e po si t s th e r e a n d th e d i st r i b u ti o n of th e fin d s
we stwa r d s to R a j pur 30 0 mi le s e a st o f H a ra a
,

pp d o e s

s tr e n gth e n th e i d e a th a t th e r e w a s a spr e a d o f mi eta llur gi c a

, ,

l
te c h n i que s a e r e sp o ns i b le fo r th e m fr o m th e

a
n d o f th e l
p pe o

c o n fi n e s o f th e H a ra n gd o m e a a
, ,

ki s t r d s I t wo u l d b
pp w e

te mpti n g to a sso c i a
.

te th i s mo ve me n t wi th so me thi n g mo re
th a n tr a de a n d to se e i n i t th e c o lo n i z a ti o n o f th e Ga n ge s

Ba ge e s a n d d i spla nj a
,

si n b y r e fu c e d pe r so n s fi o m th e Pu b
a
'

n d th e I n d u s Va lle y d ur i n g th e ti me o f th e b r e a k up o f th e
a
-

Ha ra
pp e m p i re a n d t h e c o m i n g o f th e r a i d e r s f r o m th e

we st Th e d e po si ti o n o f h o a r ds i tse lf su gge sts a ti me o f I II

a a a a a a
.

se c u ri t
y n d e c o n o m i c i n s t b i li ty n d m y m e n t h t t h e

ge e s we r e n o t le ft un d i s tur b e d fo r lo n g a s th e I n va
,

r e fu si o n s

ga th e r e d mo me n tum a
,

n d p r e sse d o n b e yo n d th e o ld fi o n '

ti e rs o f th e Ha ra ppa ki n gd o m a n d d o wn i n to th e Ga
,

n ge s

Va lle y But h e r e w e le a ve a rc h a e o lo gy fo r th e a mbi guo us

'

h i n ts o f le ge n d a n d tr a
.

d i ti o n
m h o we ve r th e e vi d e n c e fro m Ba c h i st a n a
.

I n su lu n d fr o m

Si n d a nj a b i s re a so n a
, ,

n d th e Pu bly c o n si ste n t i n i mplyi n g

th a ta t so me p e ri o d li ke ly to h a ve b e e n b e fo re 1 5 00 B C (to
use a e lo n g e st a ra
. .

c o n ve n i e n t ro u n d figu l i h d u l u l
re
) t h b
-
s e c t
t ra d i ti o n s o f No r th We ste r n I n d i a -
we r e r ud e ly a n d ru th
 AN D T H E END OF THE CI T I E S 2 39

le ssly i n te rrupte d b y th e ai va
l f
rr o n ew pe o ple fr o m th e we st .

th e gr ve s a aSh a
hi tu
t mp
a
-
s

we re pre d o mi n n tly c o n que ro rs w h o tr ve lle d li gh t n d

a d o pte d th e po tte r y tr a
a
ugge st th t th e se n ew rr i v ls
a
d i ti o n s o f th e r e gi o n s i n wh i c h th e y
aa
,a
a
e st b li sh e d th e mse lve s In Si n d a t Ch n h ud r o a b r -
a aa
aa aa a
.
, ,

b ri n se ttle me n t ppe rs i n th e d e se r te d rui n s o f th e H

raa p p tow n a
n d h e r e so me lo c l c r ft sme n ma aa y h v e r e a
a a a
,

m i n e d to wo rk fo r li e n m ste rs wh i le th e po tte ry sugges ts

a aa a
ar e surge n c e o f lo c l n o n H r pp e le me n ts At M o h e njo
,

a aa a aa
, .

d ro i t se e ms c le r th t th e c i vi li z ti o n th t h d su r vi ve d so

aa a a a a
a a a aa a
lo n g w s lr e dy e ffe te n d o n th e w n e wh e n th e r i de rs
c me nd t H r pp w e kn o w fi o m th e e v i d e n c e o f th e r e
'

a a a aa
,

bu i ldi n g o f th e Ci t d e l w lls th t th e i n h bi t n t s we re o n th e
‘

a a
d e fe n si ve i n th e l s t d ys o f th e c i ty th o ugh th e se pr e
a a a a
ti o n r y me sur e s d i d n o t suffic e to ke e p wa
,

c u y th e i n

a a a
.

tr u d e rs wh e r e ve r th e y c me fi o m w h o fte rw r d s se ttle d o n
a a a
, ,

th e ru i n s n d bu ri e d t h e i r d e d I n c e me te r y H fo r ge n e r

a a
ti o n s Fro m th e G n ges V lle y c o me s e vi de n c e sugge sti ve o f
a a a aa
.

spr e d o f t e c h n i qu n d p e 0 p1e s e s tw r d fi o m th e o ld

aa a
‘
es

a a
H ra pp ki n gdo m s d n ge r th r e te n e d fi o m th e we st '

a a
.

Th i s mo ve me n t o f pe o ple s th i s s c k o f th e n c i e n t c i ti e s
“

aaa a
,

b y th e o ute r b r b ri n s i s so me th i n g n o t c o n fin e d to I n di i n
a a aa
,

th e c e n tu ri e s I mme di te ly fte r 2 000 I n Me so po t mi

a aa a a
th e ki n gd o m o f S r go n o f Akk d r p i dly di si n te gr te d fte r

a aa a
th e d e th o f h i s so n N r m si n wh e n th e Gu -
ti n d o t h e r
a a
,

tr i be s bro ke i n upo n th e l n d Th o ugh th ere w s re c o ve ry

a a a a
.

n d c o n si d e r b le p r o sp e ri ty e sp e c i lly i n th e so u th th e b r
aaaa a a
, ,

b ri n tt c ks we r e r e n e we d c o uple o f c e n tu r i es l te r w h e n

a aa
,

th e c o n te mp t u ou s i f fi i gh te n e d scri be wr o te i n ye r d te -
’

a
o f th e Th i r d Dyn sty o f Ur o f th e Amu arru h o s t w h o s e

a a a a a a
,

o n sl u gh t w s li ke h urri c n e pe o ple w h o h d n e ve r
a a
,

kn o wn c i ty I t i s th e pe ri o d th t se e s th e ri se o f th e Hi tti te
’

a aa a
.

Empi re i n As i Mi n o r wh i le rc h e o lo gi c l e vi de n c e o f
fo lk mo ve me n ts i s c le a r i n S yr i a a nd a a a
,

- g i n i n No r th Pe rsi ,
'
 2 40 T HE T I ME O F TRO UBLE S
wh e r e i n th e Hi ssa r I I I ph a se th e e le me n ts a
li e n to th e o ld
p a i n te d p o
t t e r
y c u l tu r e s a lre d y a
b e gi n n i n g t o sh o w t h e m
se lv e s i n Hi ssa r I I d o mi n a te th e to wn I n th i s ph a se a
,

s m

t h e c o n te mpo r a a a n g Te e a a
.
, ,
,

r
y s i te s t T u r
p n d S h h T e
p e w e

se e t h e a a ra o o ls a a a
,

pp e n c e o f n o ve l t
yp e s o f t n d w e p on s n d
o rn a me n ts b a se d o n t h o se o f E a rl
y D y n a s ti c a n d A k ka dia n

ti mes i n M e so po ta mi aa n d n o w fo r th e fi rs t ti me s
pr e a d i n g
e x t e n si v e ly a mo n g th e b a r ba ri a n t ri b e s w h o h a
,

d b r o ke n
d o wn th e fro n ti er s o f th e c i vi li z e d c o mmun i ti e s c a rr yi n g o ff

lo o t a kn o wle d ge o f n e w tec h n i que s a btle ss a a

,

n d do u c tu l
c ra ft sme n to th e i r o w n c h i e ft a
, ,

i ns cou
’
r ts

Fr o m th e C a spi a n thi s mo v e me n t o f w a r ba n ds a
.

-
n d mi

g r a t i ng e
p p o le c a n b e t ra c ed a s fa r ea s tw a r d s a s A n a u i n

R ussi a n Tu r ke s ta n W h e r e th e t h i rd ph a se o f th e si t e s o c e n
’

a s h o ws c le a r tr a e s o f c o n ta a
,

a
p t i o n c c t b o t h w i th H i ss r I II
a n d le ss s tro n gly wi th Ha ra
p p I t i s i n th i s c o n te x t o f fo lk

mi gra ti o n s a a
.
, ,

a
ro u n d 2 000 B C n d th e s u b se q ue n t fe w c e n
ta r i e s th a t w e ca c h i vi ll ge s a a
. .
,

n se t th e e n d o f th e B l u

a
n d th e

Ha ra pp c i ti e s b ut th e r e i s e vi d e n c e th a ta s e c o n d wa
,

ve o f

e s t o r c o lo n i z a t i o n fr o m th e we s t le ft tr a c e s i n Ba
,

c o n qu lu
c h i sta n n ea r ly a th o us a n d ye a rs la te r
At bo th Gi y n a a a a
n d S i lk th e l t e s t se ttle me n ts a
.

n d c e me

te rle s o n th e si te s r e pr e se n t a se mi ba r ba ri a r e th a

a
-
n cu ltu t
nu mbe re d mo n gst i ts a c h i e ve me n ts h o w e ve r th e d o me s ti a

ca t i o n o f th e h o r se fo r ri d i n g n d pr o ba a bly c h a a
, ,

r i o tr w l l
y s e

a
Typi c l po tt e ry a n d br o n z e a a
rr o wh e d s fro m th e t e ll o f N a
.

d
i Ali i n Afgh a
-
n S i st a n sh o w th a t th e se pe o ple h a d re a ch ed

th e b o r d e r s o f I n d i aa nd a t Mo gh u l gh un d a -
i i n No r th
Ba luc h i sta n a s ma a ri a ls pro d uc e d a
,

ll c e me te r y o f c i r n b u -

wh o le rr a a y o f b r o n z e o bj e c ts r i n gs b r a c e le t s h o rse — b e ll s

aba a nd a tri po d ja typi c a l o f th e B c e me te ry a

, , ,

n gle r t
Si a lk In S o ut h B luc h i st a a n th e c e me te ri e s o f Ji w a n ri a
,

nd

Za n gi a n h a ve po t s o f d i sti n c ti ve s h a e s r e la
.

t d t t h fro m
p e o o s e

th e sa a
me Pe r si n c e me te r y a n d fr o m L o n d o n o t fa r fr o m N a l
c o me pa i n te d sh e r d s i n a r o vi n c i a r si o n o f t h e S i a
,

p l v e l k B
2 42 THE TI ME o r TR O UB LE S
57 Sh h i -
tum
Th e
p c e m e te r y i s lso a
d e sc r i be d b y a
a a a a a
.

S te i n , Arch To u r in c ro si , 8 8—1 0 5 , n d th t o f Kh u r b (B u
p )
r m
aa a a
.

i n Arch Reconn i ss nc es 1 0 6 —1 1 0 I d i sc u sse d th e Sh h i - tu mp st mp

a
. .

s e ls i n Anti qu i ty x vn 1 79—1 8 1 th e sku ll fro m th e c e me te r y

‘

a
w s d es c ri b e d b y S e w e ll i n Arch To u r i n Gedro s i , 1 9 1 - 2 0 0a
Th Jh uka Cu upa ti a t Ch a h ud a i d
. .

e ltu r re o c c i b d by
on n -
ro s e sc r e

Ma ka cy C h a h u — d a E n a a ti ro f th
x c v
p i ons m y t or e n s , se e no e

A i t I dia ka ra d L h umj d a
,

in nc en 3
n 45 Jh u no 1 n o o- ro w e re

i b d by M a j umd ai E pl a Ja
.
, , .

d esc r e ti i Si d r n wh
x or ons n n e re n

g h a i a
r sl p ub li
so h d th u g h h las t l ki g p tt y (i th C
e o t e e- oo n o er n e en

al A i aM u u Th la t ph a f
,

m) i mm t d
a
tr s n t se s no co en e on e e ses o

M h j d a ad Ha a pp a d l a aa
.

o en o - ro n i b d i th
r t re e sc r e n e re e v n ex c v

u a V a d th fi a upa
a
tio tt r ep t q or s t d i Ch pt o e n l ti
er f th n e n o cc on o e

Ha a a a
,

rpp i t d l cb y W h l e i A i t I d i ee er 3 5 9 3 6n I nc e n n no -
1 n

a m pa
. .
, ,

h
t e s p e (p 4p 8 8
er6 ) th H m t y
-
i d i u d u
e p p l ce e er s sc sse s e

i gi a l p t b y Va t i E a a a
t Ha a a
.
,

m i g th
ent n e or n re ti or pp s n xc v o ns r

Th e co
pp a d b er i m p nl m t f m
ro n z e h G a g B a i e a en s ro t e n es s n re

d i sc usse d b y me i n Anti qui ty x v m ( i 944) 73 1 —1 8 2

, wh e re th e

aa i ai g d a af
,

K urr m x e s w r o n gly ss ne to th e R n c h i d i stri c t i n s te d o

to th e W F P Th e
N n Ra
j apu w r s o rd 18 ti a
a l Mu u
i n th e N m on se

M gh ul gh u d ai a
. . . .

of An ti q ui ti e s E d i n b urgh Fo r th e o i - n c rn s se e

a a a
.
,

Go rd o n M n i n I nd i x x v n
in 234 ; t h L d i t d i
e on o s e w s s

c o ve re d b y M i ss B d e C rd i (se e p . a . 1 3 a1 b , ) o ve .
AN D THE END OF THE CITI E S 2 43

C h ro n o lo gi c a
l Ta
bl e II
 CH AP TE R V I I

Con que ro rs ro m th e Wes t

f Ti le Ar
y a ns

n d t/z e Ri ve
g
’
a a
a
Th e w ai l
rr o r s
’
ook ath u d
i s li ke n e ro us r a
i n c lo ud
-

am d i th ma a a
,

w h en r e w il h k , e se e l p o f b ttle
s th e

B e th o uv i c to ri o us w i th un w oun d e d b o d y ; s o le t th e

th i c kn e ss o f th y m i l pr o te c t th e ea
Wh o so w ould ki ll us w h e th e r h e b e , at ag
s r n e fo e or

one of us
aa at
,

M y ll th e Go d s d i sc o mfi t h i m M y ne re s c lo s e s t
a a
.
,

m i l i s pr y er

a
.

Ri gve d , v 1, 7

T O W A R D S th e e n gh te e n th c e n tur y tw o E ur o pe a
d o f th e e i ns

r e si d e n t i n I n d i a aFre n c h mlssmn a r
y a n d a n E n gli sh a d
mi n i str a to r ma d e (a a a a
,

pp r e n tly i n d e e n d e n tl
p y) n o u t st nd

i n g li n gui sti c d i sc o ve ry Coe ur d o ux i n 1 76 7 a n d S i r Wi lli a

,

m
a
.

J o n e s i n 1 78 6
pu b li sh e d th e c o n c l u s i o n s t h e y h d b e e n le d t o

by a st u d y o f Sa n skr i t th e a n c i e n t In d i a n li tu r gi c a l la n

a a a
,

g u g e ( p
r e r e se n t e d fo r i n s t n c e i n t h e R i g v e d ) w h i c h t h e y
b o th pe r c e i v e d to h a v e th e mo s t r e ma r ka b le a
,

ffi n i ti e s wi th
th e L a ti n a n d Gr e e k t o n u
g e s i n v o c a b u l a r a n d g ra mm a r It
y
th e m t h a t suc h s tr i ki n g si mi la
.

s e e me d to r i ti e s c o u ld b e
a cco u n t e d fo r o n l b
y y s u pp o s i n g t h a t t h e s e la n g u a g e s ha d a
c o mmo n o r i gi n i n so me e x ti n c t t o n gu e a n d th a t th e r e h a d
be e n a d i sp e r sa l o f pe 0 p1e s to e a st a n d w e st Th i s su
pp o s i t i on .

alai
Th e tr ns t o n s fr o m th e Ri g ve d a th
a re o se o f Gr i ffi th s (1 b ut i n
af i a ew n i n st c e s, n cons ult ai t on w i th P r o fe sso r Di llo n , I h a ve ve n tur e d to

sub i tut a
st l ai e te rn aa l ph a l gy
t ve w o r d s fo r his so me ti me s r ah t er b n r se o o

W hi l my i e p ta f h Ri g d ah ab b ad alai
.

e i n t r re t on o t e ve s e en se on tr ns t ons

ly I f l h a m a mp mu b ma
o n ee t d b y ah al gi
t so e h a tte t st e e rc eo o sts w o re

S ak i h la b ai al a h b a
,

n o t ns r t sc o d utli rs fi ig ifi
to o t n t e st t e ro o n es o ts s n

ca n ce.
2 46 C O N QU E R O R S F R O M TH E W EST .

th e a a
Ori e n t Th e s te m gro up i n c lude s th e B lti c a n d S la vi c
la age s Arme n i n I r n i a a a a a a n d i ts la
.

n gu n n d S n s kri t te r
In d i a a
n d e ri v ti ves R e la a
, , ,

te d to th e ce n tu mgro up i s th e N sh ili
di a a
.

le c t o f Hi tti te i n th e se c o n d mi lle n n i u m wh i c h m n y
li n gu i sti c sc h o la rs wo u ld bri n g i n to c lo se re la
”

ti o n sh i p wi th
th e I t a lo C e lti c gro u
-
p L e ss i m p o r t n ce i s a a
tt c h e d to t a
hi s

msa tem di vi si o n by c o n te mpo ra a

.

c en tu r y p h i lo lo gi sts th n b
y
-

aa a
th o se o f th e p st n d n o th e r gro up i n g b se d o n th e p a a ssi ve

a r ha
,

n d d e po n e n t i n s b ee n di sti n gu
- i sh e d wh i c h i n c lud e s
Hi tti te ,To c h a ri a n Ph r ygi a n I ta li c a
,

n d C e lti c

tti n g a
.
, ,

Bu t cu c r o ss th e se d i vi si o n s su c h c lo se li n u
g i s t i c

pa a a
r lle ls c n b e tr a c e d wi thi n th e wh o le kn o wn I n d o E u ro -

a
pe n gro up th a a
t i t h s b e e n po ssi ble to r e c o ns truc t wi th
th e e sse n ti a ls o f th e o ri gi n l p a re n t laa
,

so me c o n vi c ti o n n

a a ra a n d Ve r b a e qu ti o n s c a a
,

u g n d i ts c u lt u l b c kgr o u l b
“

g e n e

ma d e th r o ugh si x o r e i gh t la a ge s r e pre sen ti n g i de a

.

n gu s or

a n d me n t a a
l to a a
n d n o t d i c ta
,

o bj e cts wh i c h r e fu so c i e ty te d
by c h a n ge s o f e n vi r o n me n t ; fo r i n st a n c e r e la ti o n sh i p wi th i n
th e fa mi ly re pr e se n te d by th e wo r d s fo r fa Sa
,

th e r ‘
n skr i t
’

p i ta’

r G r e e k w ow 6p L ti n pa
-
ta
e r I ri sh thi a
r G e rma ni c
f a d a r

To c h a ri a ci td r Ar me n i a n ha ir or a aa
, , , ,

c h r c te ri sti c d o me s
'

n p

a
ti c te d a n i ma l suc h a a a
,

s h o r se S n skri t ds v Gre e k 371 71 0 9

‘ ‘

La s, Ce lti c och An glo S a xo n eh u Li th ua nia a

, ,

ti n e q u u
’
-
n sz w tz

To c h a ri a n ya kw e B a a ti o n s a a
, , ,

se d o n su c h e qu s th e se h ypo
t h e ti c a r ope a n i ty h a
.
,

l I n d o Eu -
n c o mmu s b e e n r e c o n str u c ted

of a gri c ultura li sts w h o h a d a lso d o me sti c a

,

te d th e h o rse
a a n so c i a se rs o f c o ppe r a
,

t r i li n e l i l str u c tu re u n d br o n z e b u t
p
a n d w o rsh i ppe r s o f a a a
,

n o t o f i ro n n th e o n o f t h
p n r o p o

mo r ph i c go ds w i th a c e r ta i n r i tua l T h e me th o d h a
,

s i ts

da th e gr e a t Sa n skri t sc h o la
.

'

n ge rs r A B K e i th o n c e r e

ma r ke d th a t by t a ki n g th e li n gui sti c e vi d e n c e to o li te r a
. .

lly
o ne cou ld c o n c lud e th a t th e o r i gi n a l I n d o Eu ro pe a n s ea
-
p k
e rs kn e w b u tte r b ut n o t mi lk ; sn o w a n d fe e t b u t n o t ra in
a nd ha t n e ve r th e le ss th e b ro a d o utli n e s r e c e r t a a
, ,

n d s ! Bu in
enou gh a,
n d th e str u c tu re o f th e so c i e ty a s wo r k e d o u t fr o m
 VE D A
‘

T HE ARY AN s AN D TH E RIG 24
7
th e li n gui sti c e vi d e n ce i s c o n vi n c i n g
ugh wh e n i t i s te ste d eno

aa
g i n s t o ur kn o wle d ge o f se c o n d mi lle n n i um rc h e o lo gy i n
-
aa
a a
a
We ste rn As i n d E ste rn Eur o pe
'

Th e re i s o n e o th e r po i n t o f So me i mpo rt n c e Th e re h a a
.

a a a a
.

be e n gro wi n g ppre c i ti o n mo n g li n gu i sts o f th e c o n c e pt

a a
o f th e ge o gr p hi c l d i s tri bu a aa aa
ti o n o f l n gu ge s n d l n gu ge

ti o n ofadi ti s nc ti o n be twe e n c e n tr a
l l n gu ge a aa a
r e s wh e re

va c o mmo n a n d ra pi d a a
,

inno ti n i o s n d pe ri p h e r l r e gi o n s
, ,

ch aged
n th i s c o n te xt e qu ti on s ma
In a y w i t h so m e c o n fi
a
d e n c e b e m de be tw e e n a r e s ge o gr a aph i c a
.
,

lly re mo te i f th e se
a a a
s t h e y mac o n t i n t h e a
,

re wi th i n th e p e ri p h e r l z o n e y
a i va ls lo st i n th e c e ntr l r e a aa o f ra
,

s me su rv p i d d v l o m t
e e
p e n

a a
Gr mm ti c a a
li ri ti e s i n To c h a ri a a
, .

l pe c u n fo r i n s t n c e r e c u r

a
i n th e I t lo Ce lti c gro up a n d Hi tti te a
, ,

-
n d Old I ri sh b o t h

pre se r ve a a
rvi va
,

r c h i c su ls lo s t e lse wh e r e
An d i t se e ms li ke ly th a t th i s c n b e t a a
ke n a
.

ste p fu r th e r to

d e th e ri tua la
,

i n c lu n d myt h o lo gy w i th wh i c h so mu c h o f th e

a
e rly la n gu a ge s we r e c o n c e rn e d so th a t i t i s n o t by c h a
a
n ce

th t e le me n ts o f th e c ur i o us a n d c o mpli c a te d ri tua
,
i

l o f th e
a n c i e n t I n di a n h o rse sa c ri fi c e a
-
r e fo u nd a g in a a
mo n g th e
a
Alt i Tu r ks o f mo d e rn t i me s a n d su r v i ve d u n ti l th e twe lfth

r y A D i n I r e la n d We sh a ll se e i n d e e d th a
,

c e n tu t th e wh o le
re of a n c i e n t I n di a a n d th e ma
. . .
, ,

s tr u c tu n so c i e ty n n e r o f i ts

aa
w rf r e a s re fl e c te d i n th e e a rli e s t S a
,

n s kri t te xts i s o ft e n

a
, ,

s tri ki n gly r e mi n i sc e n t o f th e I ri sh h e r o i c t le s o f th e Ce lti c

'

I r o n Age a
lth o ugh so wi d e ly se pa ra te d fro m th e m i n ti me
a n d Sp a
,

ce

Th e lo c a ti o n o f a po ss i b l e I n d o E u ro
pe a-
n h o m e la nd a nd

th e i d e n ti fi c a
,

ti o n o f th e c ultur e i mpli e d b y th e li n gui sti c e v i

d e n c e wi th a c o mp a ra ble a rc h a e o lo gi c l ph e n o me n o n a ha s

a ma tte r o f d e b a te si n c e th e i d ea w a la
,

b een s firs t fo r mu te d
i n th e la st c e n tu r y Na ti o n a li sti c fe e li n g h a s so me ti me s vi t i

a te d th e q ue st i n Euro pe a s wh e n th e Ge r ma n sc h o o l h e a
.

,
ded
 2 48 CO N QU E R O R S ‘

ER O M T H E W E ST

b y K o ssi n aplad ce th e o r i gi n a
l h o me o f th e In d o -E uro pe as n

in th e N o r th E u a pla
ro
pe i p p l d W i t h b l
n d N n, eo e on or

di wh i l i I d i a
c s, al f th mi aul us h al d t uch
e n n o ve o e r c o s e o s

fa ta
n i aad i a
s es ti s f th A y a f m th N th P l
er v on o e r ns ro e or o e

i
s x h uat o d y a s n Bu p e i b l
rs B Cli g u i t a d a ha
t re s o n s e n s s n rc e

l gi t h a v a ga
. .

o o s s g d i e di g h p re e i bl n re gi f i r n t e o ss e re on o or

g i na l at i v
s re ly li m i t d a d
e ly i g m w h e b t n t h n so e e re e w ee n e

D aub a
,

n d th O u G i l
e n li gui ti g u d l k d
e x s e s, o n n s c ro n s, oo e

h H u ga i apla aap i b l aaf th v luti

.

to t e i n r n ns s o ss e re or e e o on

o f th ali t I d Eu p a p h wh i l th h a
e e r es n o -
ro v ug
e n s eec e o e rs e s

g t d C t a lA ia Mu h pla a a
,

es e en r y h sb m d f t ch i g ui s e en e o e s

fi a ta w rd ( u h ath a tf a
.

c n cef i o c er n o b sh t s
) i c s or e ec -
re e n

li mi ti g d w th p n o i b l aa n by e a fit a o ss tu a e lf a re re so n o s n r e

tu bu h
r e s, al u f a
t t e c m f pla
r e e ss t ad ai ma se o l n es o n s n n s

a m g a on i u p p1 v r o v t da s y ( t
e0 h b i
es e i E en
g l a d o e
‘
ro n
’
n n n

ad Am i aa a
n ft
er c all t re t ta lly d i ff er t b i d !) w o o e re n r s

wa u f th d ag fa tt a g a t ai mp t a
, ,

rn s s o ehi g n er o c n to o re n or n ce

to s c uh a gum t r en s

aa ad
.

Th m t e bl h yp th i
os re so n whi h
e m o e s s, n one c se e s

b e st t a ti fy h d mad f ph i l l gy ad ah al gy i
o s s t e e n s o o o n rc eo o s

th a t i gi a lly put f wa a
,

or n d by P f J L
or M y r d th r o e sso r re s n e

la t Hald P a ad d v l p d by P f
.

e k ro e e, n Ch i ld e e o e r o e sso r e

I d E u p ala a a
,

wh i h c th se e s e gn u g o- l i rog m e g n n e s e vo v n on

h
t e ali t a
e g i ultu a
r es li t f thr c S uth R u i a t pp r s s o e o ss n s e es

ad h e lad atwad th C api aS aO li gui i

n t n s e s r s to e s n e n n st c

th i aah a fa h la
.

ev id en ce d b s v u d by u h
re een o re s c sc o rs

aS h a
s c d i th la
r er t tuy ad th ah al gy a
n e s cen r n e rc eo o s w e

a a a
,

now k w it no m p i d t
se e h m s tot t i f t ro v
y b k e e os s s c or c

g ro u d f
n m a t i aol c u lt u i a
er d a w i t h t h reh i t n ccor n ce e n s

g i ve n b y th l a gu a g i te l f I n t
n h i S u th Re u i a se a a s o ss n re

h ba la t th i d ad a
.

t e i ultu s c c th re i n ly e d mi ll e r n e r se c o n en

n iu m a th a t f a w g i ultu a
s li t p h a
o p p a t l y r c r s s, er s r

no ma di b ut uffi i c tly d ta s y f c en m a ll m t se i en r or s ce e e r e s:

to b f m d p
e or uma b ly l
e t re s la ti v ly ta bl ttl c o se o re e s e se e

T h y d m ti a t d h p ad a ttl ad th
,

m t en s . e o es c e s ee n c e , n e
 2 50 C O N QU E R O R S 12 11 61 14 THE W ES T
b e gi n n i n g of m i ll e n ni u
th e se c o n d m i n t h e e x t n t 11r a
sc r i ti o ns a n d d o cu m e n ts o f th e H i tti te e m i r e
p p .

Abo ut th e b e gi n n i n g o f th e si xte e n th c e n tur y Me so

p ao t m i a s u ff e re d o n c e g i aa
n fr o m th e i n ro a d s o f th e m o u n

a
t i n e e rs fro m th e n o r th o n th e b r e k u p o f t a
h e F -
i rs t D y n st y a
a
o f B b ylo n wh i c h h a d be e n b ro u gh t to i ts c li m x b y th e a
a
gr e a t H mmur b i n d n e w dyn sty w a aaa a
,

s se t u p u n d e r th e

a
K ssi te s Wh o se mo n a rc h s be a aa
,

r I n d o Eu r o e n n me s T h e
p
-
y
a
must h ve c o me fro m th e n o r th o r n o r th e a st a nd i ndica
.
,

-
te
a a a a
,

th e b e gi n n i n g o f th e gr e t d i spe rs l o f I n d o E u r o pe n Spe k -

aa
e rs e s tw rd s L i ttle i s k n o wn o f th e d yn sty whi c h a
how
a
.
, ,

e ve r e n d u r e d fo r o ve r fi v e h u n d r e d y e rs ; b u t du ri n th i
g s

a
ti me w e h ve th e first i n ti m ti o n s o f a a a
,

n o th e r I n d o Eu ro
p e -
n

gr o up o n th e n o r th we st fr o n ti e r o f th e Ka
-
ssi te ki n gd o m th e

a aa
,

Mi t n n i , w h o o c c up i e d th e d i stri c t r o un d th e h e d w te rs o f
a
th e K h b u r Ri ve r , a
n d e xe rc i se d a uth o r i ty o ve r c o n si d e r a
a ble po r ti o n o f No r th e rn Syr i a
I n th e fo ur te e n th a
.

n d fifte e n th c e n t r y
u
I n d o E ur o
ua
-

p ea n n a m es a r e fr e q e n t m o n g th e M i t n n i a n ru le ars nd a
a ppe a r i n th e d i plo ma ti c c o r r e spo n d e n c e fr o m El Arh a a
,

rm

i n Egypt a n d B o gh z K e u a
i th e H i tti te c a p i t l i n A s i M i a
n o r
‘

a
i n d o c ume n ts wr i tte n i n mo d i fie d c un e i fo r m sc r i pt o n c la
, ,

y
a
t ble ts But th e mo st e x c i ti n g d o c ume n t i s tr e a ty b e twe e n a
b i luli um a a
n d th e M i ta n n i n M tti u z a a aa
.

th e H i tti te ki n g S u
'
’

aa a
i n b o ut 1 38 0 i n wh i c h th e la
,

so n o f D u sr tt tte r i n vo ke s
a a
l i la n i M i i t tra s i i l i la a
, ,

h i s go ds s wi tn e ss i n th e fo rmu s— -
ni - - -

a
a
U ruw n s si i l i luI n d m i l ni N a a a sa a t ti i a o un a
,

- - - - - - - - - -
T h e se
- - - -

a
c n o n ly b e th e go d s Mi tr aV a a n d In d ra a
.

ru n o f th e

a n c i e n t In d i a n th e o n a a r e c o r d e d i n th e e r li e st S a a
,

, ,

s n skr i t
n
p
r e li gi o u s t e xts (su ch a s th e Ri g ve d a e sc r i b e d la a
a
) d t e r n d t h e

a
l s t d e i ty i s li ke ly to b e th e N sa tya s a a a a
,

n lte r n ti ve n me
fo r th e h e a ve n ly twi n s th e As vi n s i n th e sa me li t e r a
,

tur e
a
T h i s Hi tti te tre ty d o e s n o t o f c o ur se me a a
, , .

n t h t th e r e we r e

a
I n d i n s i n th e Mi t a a a
, ,

n n i n ki n gd o m t th i s ti me b u t i t do es

a m
a
,

o i n t to j u st th t c o mmo n s to c k o f myt h o lo gy o n g th e
p
 ~
r rr3 A x Y AN s A N D T HE RIG VE D A 25 1

ur o pe ap
n e0 p1e sth a
t th e lmgui sti c e q ua
ti o n s wo u
. ld

ea

An d th e r e i s a
a
s te r n br n c h o f th e gr e a

d d i ti o n a
t I n do Euro pe a n f mi l

l e vi d e n c e wh i c h th o u
-
y
gh n o t c o n
a .

s i ve p o i n ts i n th e sa me d i re c ti o n to a a
,

e lu c o mmo n c u ltu r l

h e ri ta ge Amo n g th e Bo gh a me n ts o f a
,

z Ke u i d o cu b o ut th e
sa me d a fra a
gme n t ry h aa a
.

te th e r e i s n d boo k o n c h ri o t

ra c i n g wri tte n b y a aaa a

co u
,

th e te c h n i c l te rms u a
Mi t n n i n n me d Ki kkuli a
se d fo r so m n y

rse h e e mplo ys fo rms wh i c h a

a
nd

turn i n gs ro un d th e
r e ve r y n e r to S a
mo n g

a
n skri t
,
’

a a
i k va rtannatemv rta nn p ana a
z a va r ta nna sh a tta ba rta nna fo r

o n e th r e e fi v e o r se ve n la p s o f th e r a c e (S a n skri t va rt n a a
, , ,

m
aturn i n g) A c la ss o f mi li t r y n o b i li ty th e ma a ri a
, , ,

nn u i s me n

a
ti o n e d i n th e s me te xt a a te d w i th th e S a
.
, ,

n d mi gh t b e e qu n

skr i t m ry a yo ua a He r e a a a
,

n g h e ro g i n o n e mus t b e d e li n g
a a a a
.
,

{w i t h c o mm o n i n t e r e s ts n d s o r ts
p c h r i o t r c i n g s-
w e

a aa lge d i n b y th e e a
,

s e gerly i n d u
“

sh ll se e r li e s t I n d o

a
w

a a a nd a
,

Eu r o pe n S p e ke rs i n I n di te r mi n o lo gy whi c h
aa
sh o ws th t S n skri t a n d Mi t a nni a n co u ld h a r dly h a ve d i

v ge
(
r e d mu c h i na v o c b u la ry b
y t h e ear l y f o u r t e e n th c e n tur y

a
Ar c h e o logi c lly a a
n d li n gu i sti c a lly th i s i s th e n e a r e st o n e

ca r o pea n spe ke rs t o wa a
r ds I n d i a
,

n b ri n g I n d o Eu -
i n th e
se c o n d mi lle n n i u m Wh e n w e turn fr o m th e M i ta n ma n

ki n gd o m to Pe rsi a a n d b e yo n d w e le a ve li te ra te so c i e ti e s
a
n d e n te r a wo rld i n whi c h di re c t a rc h a e o lo gi c a
,

l e vi d e n c e i s
la c ki n g a nd W h e re n o r a a
l tr a d i ti o n h a s ha n d e d d o wn th e

e a r ly I n d o E u r o e n li te r a
p
-
t a
ur e i n su c h w a y th a t ath e d a t e

o f i ts c o mp o si ti o n c a n be a rri ve d a t o n ly b y mo r e o r le ss

a p r o xi m a t e c o m p u t ati o n i n th e c o mple te a b se n ce of e i
p p
gra aa
ph i c o r p l e o gra a ac h e c k In
,

h i l i d i d
'

t p v
a
p c e v e n c e o r o e

a
th e Avest a th e Ri gved a a
.

P e rsi n d i n In d i c o n sti t u te tw o
I n d o Eu ro p e a n re li gi o u s te x s whi c h li n gu i s ti c a l l h ou l d
-
t y s

t b e lo n g to t h e p e ri o d u n d e r d i sc u ss i on b u t w e a r e e n ti r e ly
i d e e n d e n t o n i n t e rn a ev i d e n c e fo r t h i s a
,

l t t r i bu t i O u
’

on
p r .
2 52 CO N QU E R O R S FR O M T H E WE S T :

c o n c e rn h e re i s wi th th e Ri gved aa n d wi t h th e e v i d e n c e
' "

wh i c h c a n b e e xtr a
,

c te d fr o m i t to c o n tr i b u te to o u r kn o w

le d ge o f th e ma te r i a l cu lture o f i ts c o mpo se rs wh i c h i n i ts
tur n c a n be a sse sse d a ga i n st th e a rc h a e o lo gi c a
,
.

l e vi d e n c e T o
a n ti c i pa te th e r e i s n o r e a so n a b le d o ub t th a
.

t i t d o e s r e pr e
se n t a t e x t go i n g b a c k i n i ts e ss e n ti a
,

ls to th e mi d d le o f th e
s e c o n d mi lle n m m B C u a nd i n th e li gh t o f o ur kn o wle d ge
o f th e a rc h a e o lo gy o f c o n t e mpo r a r y W e s te rn Asi a i t ta
,
. .
,

ke s
i ts pla ce na tur a lly a s a ch a ra c t e r i st i c a lly I n d o E uro pe a
,

-
n

d o c ume n t o f t h a t ti me
Afte r th e e x ti n c ti o n o f th e H r a a az a ti o n t h e r e a
.

pp c i v i li re

o n s o r ma s k n o wn i n I n d i a
,

n o i n sc ri t i nu sc ri t u t i l th e
p p n

mi d d le o f th e thi r d c e n tury T o th i s d a te b e lo n g th e
fa mo us i n sc r i pti o n s c ut a t th e c o mma n d o f A so ka o n su r fa ces

o fn a tur a l ro c ks o r o n pi lla a a
a
u m
a
rs to
p p g
ro te B d d h i s i n t he
Br h mi sc ri pt wh i c h i tse lf a
,
i
pp e r s t o b e o f S e m i t i c o r i g n

a n d th e r e a fte r o n e h a s a mo r e o r le ss r e gula
, ,

r se r i e s o f e i
p
ra h i c m o n u m e n ts T h e c li ma t e o f In d i a i s m o t u
g p s n

fa vo ur a ble to th e pr e se r va
.

ti o n o f d o c ume n ts wr i tte n o n suc h

e r i sh a b le m a t e ri al s a s
p a r c h me n t b a r k o r le a e s a d o b
p v n
p r

b ly th e e a r li e st I n d i a n ma s th e fr a a
,

a
,

nu sc r i
p t i g m e n t r
y B u d
d h i st r e li gi o us t e x t wri tte n o n bi r c h b a r k i n th e la
-
te fifth
c e n tu r
y A D a n d fo u n d i n th e J a u li a n mo n a st e r
y a t T a x i la
Th e B a kh sh a li ma sc ri pt o f th e sa me ma te ri a
. . .

nu l se e ms th e
n e x t c la i ma n t fo r h i gh a
, ,

n t i qu i ty th o ugh th i s i s o n ly o f th e
twe lfth c e n tur y Di r e c t i n fo rma ti o n o n th e e a r li e s t ma
,

n u

s i n In d i a s i n c i d e n ta a a
.

s c ri
p t i ll y e xt r o r d i n r i l y d i ffi c u lt t o

c o me b y Pa er w a a
, ,

p s i n tr o d u c ed b
y t h e M o s le m s i n t o I n d i
i n th e th i r te e n th c e n tur y b ut mo st o f th e e a r l ma
.

y n u s c ri
p ts

o n th i s o r si mi la b st a nces h a v e lo n g a a
,

r su o d d r be e n
g e c y e o

d e vo ur e d b y wh i te a n ts

a
.

Alth o ugh c e r t i n Hi n d ur e li gi o us te x ts we re wri tte n d o wn 1

i n th e I n d i a n M i d d le Age s a n d la te r th e wh o le tr a d i ti o n o f
th e Bra h ma ns ve h e me n tly Oppo se d t h i s d e se c r a
,

ti o n o f th e
h o ly wo r d b y c o mmi tti n g i t to th e wr i tte n fo r m Ess e n ti a
.
. lly,
2 54 CO N Q UE R O R S F ROM THE W E ST

Eur o pe ag
n ro aa up
p ly
t one c n C e lti c pr a c ti c e a
ci et s th e

b y C aai Ga
.

ul f th e fi r st c e n t u
-

re c o rd e d es r n o I t is
r
y
a
'

a g i n s t th e pri n c i ple s o f th e Drui d s h e wri te s to c o mm1 t ’

D ur i n g th e i r n o vi ti a te i t i s s a
, ,
’

th e i r d o c tr i n e s to id
a
th t th e y le a r n by h e r t i n n u a
me r a ble ve rse s I n th e tw o ’

i lli te r a a a
.

te p e ri p h e ri e s o f th e I n do Euro p e n d i spe rs l i n we st -

a nd ea st o n e se e s th e sa aa
,

me te c h n i que o f th e o r l tr n smi ssi o n

o f sa c r e d lo r e : a te c h n i que un n e c e ssa ry a
,

n d so lo st i n r e

gi o n s wh e r e wr i ti n g h a a aa a a
, ,

d b e e n c qu i r ed t n e rly st ge
a
Wi th th e se pr e li mi n a ri e s w e c a

a
.

n tu rn to th e n c i e n t re li

gi o n s bo o ks o f Hi n d ui sm a n d th e i r c h ro n o lo gy Th e y
'

re

wr i tte n i n th e I n d o Eur o p e a n la a ge S ns kri t n d a s a a a

.

-
n gu

wh o le th e y fa r o r fi v e ma i n di vi si o n s a
,

ll i n to fo u mo n g
wh i c h th e p o e ti c a s th e Ri gved st a a a a
, ,

l c o rp u s k n o wn n d s lo n e
-

i n th a ta ll th e o th e r wo r ks pr e supp o se i ts e x i ste n c e a nd in

la g a
r e p r t c o n s i st o f c o mme n t a r i e s b a s e d u p o n i t I t m u s t 1
t h e r e fo r e b e pla c ed first i n a ny a tte mpte d se que n c e a
.

nd

n ea rly r e la te d to i t must b e a
,

gro up o f th re e o th er Ve di c
”

bo o ks th e Sd ma ve d (i n s ta
r u c ti o n s f o r th e t u n e s t o w h i c h t h e

Ri gved a ld b e c h a a a
,

h ymn s sh o u n te d
) t h e T j u rv e d (p r o se

a
pr ye rs a n d spe lls b a o n th e Ri g ve d an d so me ti me s a
a
,

se d
’

me r e ly p r a ph r a si n g i t) a n d th e Ath a rva ve da (v e r se i n c n t aa
t i o n s w i th o c c a si o n a
,

l pr o se th e re c o me th e
d h ma zz s a
w h i c h a s t h e i r n me i mp li e s a a
r e wo r ks o f p r i es t

a
r gi c l e xe ge si s b a a
, , ,
‘

ly li tu se d o n th e V e d i c b o o ks n d th e

Upa n i sh a a
se c r e t t e c hi n gs o f me t a p h ysi c s I n a
,

* ‘ ’
d d i ti o n
ds
th e r e a r e th e Szi tms wh i c h a c h c o n d en se d ma a
,
.
,

r e mu nu ls o f
'

r i te s a c c o mpa n yi n g th e V e d i c p r a
,

rs
y e

Th e po si ti o n o f th e Ri gved a a s th e a
.

rc h e t i h i n th i s
'
yp e w t
se r i e s h s a alr e a d y b e en po i n te d o ut a n d i n te r n a l e vi d e n c e
ma ke s i t c le a r th a t th e Szi tra s a re la te r th a n th e B rd /z ma zz a
,
’

a n d th e Upa n i sh a a s so t h a
’
ta ro u gh r e la ti o n shi p o f th e va ri

s wo r ks se e ms e sta bli sh e d But wh e n w e c o me to fi n d a

,

ou .

Th i s w o rd is abli h
s o w e ll e s t s ed i n th i s fo rm i n E n gli sh th a t to use
‘
mo d i fi e d by ad i ai i al ould b e pe d n ti c a
’
th e 3 cr t c w .
 TH E A R YA NS AN D TH E RIG VE D A 2 55

c h ro n o lo gi c al fr a me wo r k a ga i n s t wh i c h th i s se que n c e c a n be

a
se t w e h ve ve r y li ttle to go o n Th e o n e c e r t i n fa c t se e ms a
to be th a t th e d o c tri n e pr e a ddh a a
.
,

c h e d b y Bu i s e sse n ti lly
ba se d o n a n d d e ve lo ps o u t o f th e ph i lo so phi c a l c o n c e pts c o n
a
t i n e d i n th e Upa n i sh a ds a n d th e r e i s a re a so n a ble c o n se n sus
o f e vi d e n c e to pla c e th e d a te o f Bud d h a s dea th a s wi thi n a
,
’

d eca d e o r so o f 5 00 Th e Upa msh d r th e re fo r e mus t h a

.
'

a , ve ,

b e e n i n e x i ste n c e i n th e si xth c e n t u ry

Be yo n d th t d aa te w e h ve to d e pe n d o n a a
so ph i c a

ge n e r a
l dea
a
d r e c ko n i n g i n ve n te d b y M x Mu
-

lly c c e pte d b y wh i c h th e B n i h ma
,

na
so r t o f

s re a
lle r a
p h i
aa
lo

n d s ti ll

ssi gn e d to

t h e s e ve n t h a th e la te r Ve da
,

n i n th a n d t e n th ,

e le ve n th o r tw e lfth c e n tu
a
n d e i gh th c e n tu ri e s B c

n d th e o ld e r e le me n ts o f th e Ri gve d a

r i e s Th e se d a
.

te s M i llle r la
. s to th e
,

to th e

te r i n
'

m da te s o n ly a n d la tte rly th e r e h a
.

si s te d w e r e mi n i mu s be e n

a so r t o f t a ci t a
,

gr e e me n t (i n flue n c e d n o d o ubt b y th e d i s
c o v e ry o f th e M i t a n ni a n d o cu me n t o f a b o ut 1 38 0 wi th th e
na a
me s o f Ri gved go d s) to d a te th e c o mpo si ti o n o f th e Ri g
’
a
ve aso me wh e r e a b o ut 1 40 0 1 5 00— b ut wi th o ut a n
y
a bso lute ly c o n c lusi ve e vi de n c e
Y e t t e ste d a ga i n s t th e b c kgr o un d o f a a rc h a e o lo gy a
.

nd

a
,

th e mo ve me n t s o f pe o ple s 1n We ste rn Asi ln th e mi d d le o f

th e se c o n d mi lle n ni u mBc a s w e ca n n o w b e gi n to d i sc e r n

aa a a
. .

t h e m th i s d te h s muc h to r e c o mme n d i t I n th e l s t c h p
te r w e h a ve se e n th a t t h e r e i s go o d a rc h a e o lo gi c a
.
,

l e vi d e n c e
fo r th e a a
rr i v l i n No r t h We s t I n d i a
-
o f i n va d e rs fro m th e we st
i n th e c e n tu ri e fo llo wi n g 2 00 0
s th e se n e e d n o t b e I n d o

Eu a
r o pe n s b u aa
t th e i r rri v l i s li ke ly to b e c o n n e c te d wi th

a a
,

th e ge n e r l mo ve me n ts fro m th e we st bo ut th i s ti me i n
w h i c h th e I n d o Eu a
r o p e n s we r e i n vo lve d
- Th e e st a bli s h
me n t o f th e K ssi te aa n d th e Mi t n n i a a
n ki n gdo ms i s a
.

si gn i

fi ca n t p o i n te r to w a rri o r b a nds r e ssi n g e a s tw a rd a t lea st to

p
t h e Pe rsi a n fr o n ti e rs a n d th e a ppe r a n ce o f n ew c u a ltu re s i f

not a a c h No r th Pe r si n si tes s Hi ssa a a

, ,

c tu l e th n i c typ e s i n su r

I II a a
n d S i lk ma a a
,

g i n n o t be u n c o n n e c te d wi th fo lk
, y
 "l
2 56 C O NQU E R O RS F R O M THE W E ST l
mo ve me n ts spr e d o ver th e fi rst h lf o f th e a a se c o n d mi lle n ~

ni u aad
m wh i le th e po tte r y fr o m An u II I m a Tur ke st n n
‘

Na Afgh aS i t a aw ll ah
M gh ul gh ui d a
,

d i Ali i - - t n i n s n s e s e o -
r

ad j i ai m t i h w th a f th s a
,

n w t l i nr ce m e e r e s, s o s c o o n es o e e s e

p p l
eo w t a
b li hed fat h at a
t alat d a
e re e st a u d s e r er e s er e, ro n

1 I OO— I OOO

We sh a
ll aa xa se emi a tith t f h ma nt ia l ue lu n on o t e er c t re

o f ht e co mp f h Ri g d a
o se rs o a xt at d f m h at e llu ve s e r c e ro t e

ti ly mpa ti b l wi th wh a
,

i
s o ns i h t xt i
n t e e s en tre k w co e w e no

ah i ti m f m ah al gi a
,

o f con d i ti ons t t s l id e f m ro rc eo o c ev en ce ro

o th e gi
r re f a ly I d Eu p a l i a
o ns o e r ti n au dn o -
ro e n co on z o ro n

t h e edg f h es o ld i ty i vi li a
t e o ti i A ia c ad h A g a c z o ns n s n t e e e n

aj uti fi d i a pti g h Ri g da ah a
.

I th i k n w e re s e n cce n t e ve on rc e

l gi a aag ui d um t f h p i d
,

o o l g ud
c ro n s, s en ne oc en o t e er o

a a a
,

p re se r v d i t e t b y n h t c t f f ht e cons q u n e r o t e c o n se en ces

i f h mat e gi w d w c a
lt r d b y a
or ha i b a e re d th A p i e e rs re n e c

ab a da at ad a da
.

c n lt
e d b ugh t up
e re t ro pt d to e , re c s n e to

ha gi g t a i li t a h I di a
,

s ui t h t e c t i h
n n tu s es n e ro c er re t e n n

e
p i h
c s, t M a h d
e bh d m a a d h R d m dy a a a t ab l n t e g re no t e ex

a tat f m g i g b a th a
,

mpl f thi t h i
es o s, e r ex k fu th n or s o n c no r er n

t h fi tf
e rs tu i
ew I a li gi u t t th
ce n r es A D d n re o s ex e re 15 n o n e e

d l t aa ah i m xpla aa wh i g i fi
. .

to e e e n n c i ro n s or e n n ct o se s n

c a i f g tt M a
n ce s or m g i f l a u t th a h p
o en e n s o e ss cco n n t e re

f w d a d ph a W d
.

i
c se quse ence o or s u l n r se s e o no t o rs e v e s

w y u d uly a b ut h m a m g f ah a i ph a i
.
‘

o rr n o t e h e n o rc c r se s n t e

B k fP a
oo o lm s v i Hym A i t ad M d
s or e en n ns n c en n o e rn

Th Ri g d a i au i u d u m t I l gth i i a
a
.

e ve s c r o pp s i oc en n en t s ro x

ma t ly qua h I li a d a ad
.
,

e l e d h 0 m)
to t e g th n t e ; to e er, n co n

i t f v a
s s s o
’

o th uad p m
er o h ym s n Th va y f oe m s, o r ns e se r ro

a a a a
.

m o re o r l p i h
e ss e t h ym fc cp i d
n s,
p y h ns o r se , n r e rs to t e

g d o s, mato gi p ll ad f a gm t f p pula g a
c s e s n ll f r en s o o r so n s, o

v y va
er y i g
r t a d a
n d m
s t i m n t ur g ui a d v
so e es r e, en ne, n e en

ubli m b u f q u tly h i ld i h vulgaad b ut a r o sc re

’
s

g i la
s e, re en c s n

M aM i lll ma k d T h la gua b a t ad lf
, ,

x e r re r e e n e s e or e n se

i uly li t a a a a
.

c o n sc o s y d h m
er t i
r l,
m p i t
ni b d
t e e r c co os on ,
se
2 58 C O N QU E R O R S F R O M THE W E ST

es ta b li s h e d tr a d i ti o n o f li te r a a
te ur b n c ultur e Th e si tua ti o n
i s i n fa ct a e r o rs a
.

lmo st r e v e rse d fo r th e c o n qu r e se e n to b e

le ss c i vi li z e d th a a
, , ,

n th e c o n qu e re d I n th e Ri gve d w e se e (o r
ra th e r a c c i d e n ta lly gli mpse ) th i s c o n que st fr o m th e Ar y a
.

o i n t o f Vi e w a l o n e : th e y a r e th e h e r o e s a n d sc a n t t ri b u t e i s
p
a
,

i d t o t h e i r c o n t e mpti b le O ppo n e n t s mo r e ski lle d i n th e

p
a r t s o f pe c e th a a n i n t h o se o f w a r fa t a s w e Sh a
,

r e Bu

a
ll se e th e
H ra a pp tra n li ke ly to h a
.
, ,

d i ti o n i s ve ry u ve b e e n sud d e n ly
a a
n d to t lly wi pe d o u t

Wi th thi s kn o wle d ge i t i s c le a r th a ld b e d a
.

t i t wo u n ge r

t th e ma te ri a
,

ou s i n t ryi n g to wo r k o u l c ultur e o f th e fi rst

'

Arya n i t i e s i n No r t h We s t I n d i a
,

n c o mmu to u

a
-
se e vi d e n c e

fr o m wo rks c o mpi le d a ta ti me wh e n Ha ra e me n ts ma
,

pp e l y
ha ve pe rme a te d Arya n so c i e ty I n th e e n sui n g se c ti o ns o f
th i s c h a a se d o n ly th e Ri g ve d a
.

t e r th e r e fo r e I h v e u w h i c h
p
d o e s se e m li ke ly to r e pr e se n t fa lly th e e n tr a a
, , ,

i th fu nce
p h s e o f
Ar ya n c o n qu b e fo re th e I n d o E ur o pe a n tr a d i ti o n h a
a
e st -
d
b e c o me mi xe d wi th Ha ra pp e le me n ts wh i le o c c a si o n a
,

lly
a
m ki n g r e fe re n c e to th e la
,

te r te xts
E ve n wi th th e se li mi ta
.

ti o n s h o we v e r w e sti ll e n c o un te r
c o n si d e r a ble d i ffi c ulti e s i n us i n g th e te xt o f th e Ri gve das a a
, ,

so u r c e fo r i n fo r ma ti o n o n m a t e ri a lcu lt u r e I n th e h ymn s th e

tr a nsi ti o n fr o m th e mo r e o r le ss li t e r a l to th e wh o lly me t a
.

h o ri c a l i s o ft e n su d d en a n d fr e qu e n tly a lm o st i mpe r c e pt
p
i ble Th e ph ysi c a lw a r ch a ri o t o f a n Ar ya n Ch i e ft a
,

-
i n tur n s
wi th b e wi ld e ri n g ra n da
.
,

p i d i ty i n t o th e n o o y su n ;
-
t h e r o i s t e r

i n g yo un g c a ttle r a i d er s a
,

-
r e su d d e n ly th e fo u r wi n d s o f

h ea ve n An d th e a c c i d e n t o f su r vi v a l o f wo r d s d e sc r i pti v e
of a spe c t s o f ma te r i a ltur e i s r e a
.

l cu lly d e pe n d e n t o n t h e i r
a da p t ab i li ty to r e li gi o u s me t a p h o r a n d th e i r
pp r o p ri aa t e

n e ss to th e w a rr i o r a ri sto c r a c y fo r wh o m th e h ymn s we r e

c o mpo se d ; c h a ri o ts a r e d e sc r i b e d i n su c h d e ta i l th a t aod m
e rn c o a c h bu -i ld e r c o u ld p r o b a bly turn o ut p ssa aa
ble re pli c a
o f In d r a
s ve h i c le
’
b ut w e h a
,
rd l
y k n o w W h a t th e A r y a n

h o use lo o ke d li ke .
 “

THE ARYA NS AN D Tr a
n RIG VE D A 2 59

But th e re i s muc h th a t w e ca n r e c o ve r a n d i n te rp re t i n th e

aa a
li gh t o f r c h e o lo gi c l kn o wle d ge We a re b u i ld i n g u p p a m
a
tur e o f Ar y n c o mmun i ti e s pr e suma bly se ttle d i n so me re a a
.

o f N o r th We s t I n di a
o r we stw a r d s i n Afgh a n i st n a a ati me
a
- t
a
ue sts h d n o t e x te n d e d fa r th e r e a st t h a
, ,

wh e n t h e i r c n th e

Amb la a r e gi o n o f th e Pu nj a b : so me sc h o la rs a r e i n c li n e d to

aa
th i n k th t th e Ri gved w s c o mpo se d i n th i s pa
a r ti c u la r dis

tri e t S uc h d e sc ri pti o n o f la n d sc a p e a s i s c o n ta i n e d i n t h e

a n o wle d ge o f s n o w c a a
.

h ymns i m p li es k -
p p e d m o u n t i ns

fa a
i rly c e r t i n ly th e Hi ma la a a a a n d o f gr e a
,

y s n d l t r i v e rs ;

wh i le th e r a a a
,

i n f ll se e ms to h ve b e en ple n tiful e n o ugh to

“

su gge st t h a a
t th e we stw r d e x te n s i o n o f th e mo ns o o n r e gi o n
wh i c h w e h a ve se e n i s li ke ly to h a ve i n flue n c e d th e c li ma
,

a
te
d uri n g th e h e y d a -
y o f th e H a r a pp C u l t u r e sti ll a ff e c t e d th e

nj a b I n mo d e r n I n d i a Luc kn o w i s usua lly t a ke n a

,

Pu s r e re
p
se n ti n g th e a r o xi ma nda ry b e twe e n th e W h e a
.

t b u t g w
aa
pp e o -
r o

i n g r e s to th e we st a n d th e r i c e la n d s to th e e a st a n d th e

Ri gved a aa a
,

kn o ws n o th i n g o f ri c e n o r o f th e tr o pi c l n i m ls
ch a s th e ti ge r b o th o f whi c h a a
,

su r e me n ti o n e d i n th e Ath r

va ve d a a
,

wh i c h i mpli e s th t by th e ti me o f i ts c o mpo si ti o n
Ar ya a aa
,

n t e r ri to r
y h d b e e n e xt e n d e d e s tw r d s d o w n t h e

Ga n ge s th o u gh a s w e ha

a
ve se e n th e ti ge r i s de pi c te d o n th e
a
H ra a
, ,

pp se l s

a
Th e Ri gved h ymn s r e fle c t th e spi r a a ti o ns a
.

n d li fe o f me m

b e r s o f th e uppe r c l sse s o f a a so c i e ty wh i c h i n c o mmo n wi th

r o pe a w a a
,

o th e r I n d o E u n c o mmu n i ti e s s fo r m ll d i v i d d
y e
-

i n to a a
th re e fo ld gr d i n g o f wa ri e s ts a a i sa
,

rr i o r s n d t
p r ns

aa
Kg tnj s B ra h ma ns a a i §y a s c o mpa ra
, ,

' nd V ble wi th th e mi li tes,

a s a ri tes o f R o ma
, , ,

m i n d qu i n so c i e ty o r th e e u i s d ru i d
fl ne q te es

a n d ple bes o f th e C e lts o f Ga a

ul s r e c o rd e d by Ca e sa
, , ,

r i n th e

first c e n tur y But i t i s i mp o r ta a

n t to r e li z e th a t th e c o n
c e pt o f c ste aa s kn o wn i n la a
te r li te r ture i s qui te un kn o wn
a a aa
Th e tri p r ti te rr n ge me n t i s pe r h a ps a
, ,

i n th e Ri gved
'

a
.

o bvi o u s en ou gh d i vi si o n o f re spo n si b i li ti e s wi th i n com

a
‘

a
1

mun i ty b ut i ts fo rfn l r e c o gn i ti o n i s c h a
,
r c te ri st i c a lly
 QU E R O R S m T H E W E ST
a
2 69 CON Fn o ‘

Ind o Th e h ymn s re c o mpo s e d b y th e pri e sts o n

th e i r ow n a f h wai th i pa
aa
be h lf n d o n th t t o t e rr o rs , e r ro n s,

ad a a
n dd red ma i ly ag up f ath p m ph i
r e sse n to ro o n ro o or c

d i ti
e h d i fi d ai fi i a
e s, o r to t l li qu ide ma u d he e s cr c , so ro n t e

a
,

cu lt f wh i h h W h l g up f h ym
o c t e i lly t d.
o e ro o ns s re cen re

I v a
n l f h g d
se er a h A ya h m l
o t e o s w e c n se e t e r ns t e s e ve s

ma g i fi d n h i e
p p t i to T h g a
e ro ct t g d f h ro or o ns e re es o o t e

Ri g da i I nd a wh m a a m
. ,

ve s b u r — q u to f h h y o o t one r te r o t e ns

aa d a h a a a
,

dd d h i t h i f h A b t l
l ta y b a
rc r e sse
p n
y e s t e o eos s o t e r n t e~

l a a a d d a
,

e d ; t er g m d l
s ro n -
r e d p ,
c o o ss ,
w n -
e r e ,
n ot

b e lli e d fr o m d r i n ki n g, h e i e ld s th e th un d er b o lt i n h i s mo r e
a
w

g do li ke mo me n t s , b u
-
t fig h t s li k ea h er o w i t h b o w nd -

a a
r r o ws fr o m h i s c h r i o t aa
He i s s tro n g , y o un g , i mmo r t l, n d
a a a a
.

n ci en t ,
’
s Ke i th
p u t s i t ; h i s
pp e ti te i s e n o r mo us n d h e

u p di gi u quati ti ad a
.

d e vo rs fb f p
ro idg k
o s n es o ee o rr e n c e s,

wi lli g th m d w wi t h h i t i a ti g a ma wi th m a
, ,

s n e o d n t e n ox c n r or e

ad b th h i d unk ad i af e ff t a d
,

n o s r ib d e n n e ss n ts t r-e ec s re e sc r e

i g fi d li ty H i aa ttl a ad a
.

Wi th i co n v n c n id b all e . e s c e-r er , n o ve

h e i s th e d e str o y e r of th e s r o n gh o
t ld s of th e en e my th e vi c

a a th i ques t o f th e h a
,

to r i o us le d e r o f th e Ary n s i n e r con te d
ai n c en t e mpi r e i n th e P unj b a W i th h i m figh t th e yo un g
wai ad h Maut h se e m to be c o mma
.

rr o r - b n t e r s, w o n d e d by

R ud ai a I d a ad y i so me w a a
,

l r r v to n r n et n y s hi s c o un te r
p rt

u aa i la a a a
, ,

n bl ss pi d y u g u i
g g e, r u l f th ld d o n n n r
~
er o e w or n

wi th h ma l v l t ha at i ti Wh h d v l p i la
, , ,

t e e o en t c r c er s cs i
c e e o n er

Hi d ui m i h p
n s f Si a n t e e r so n o v

Th p t a ay i th i al ba ba
.

it e i ti
or r s c i m
rr conv c on n e r r t e ss r r s

u i uly ami tt d i a a
,

so c r o s h ph i ti
tr n st d S k i e n t e so s c e ns r t v e rs e

Th a i th a t f h I i h ta l th a
. .

tm ph
e os e re t fl s h o t e r s es re ect t e co n »

d i ti o n s Ce lti c I r o n Age o f th e first c e n tur y

of th e m UI
ste r a n d No rt h Br i t a i n ; In d ra i s o fte n r e mi n i sc e n t o f th e
gr o te sq ue Da gd a ti a
W i th h i s i n s a ble a pp e ti t e R u d ra an d th e

Ma ts ma ke o n e th i n k o f Fi rm a n d th e fi a nn a
,

ru th e yo u ng

ba n d o f h e ro e s a n d th e c ttle r a i ding i s a s fa mi li a a
.
,

r Bu t th e -

Ar y a n r e 1 v1n gs a re c a t o n th e pla i n s o f th e P unja

.
,

rr i e d o u b,
262 C O N QU E R O R S F ROM THE W E ST

pi th e t d mci wh i c h ma y r e fe r to un b a ke d bri c k
'

a
w lls ; so me a re a utumn l whi c h ma a a a
, . .

y m e n t h t t h e y w e r e

p ro t e c te d fr o m th e ri ve r flo o d s a f te r th e r ms I n d r a i s a
a a a
.

p ur m d r t h e fo r t d es tr o y : T h o usmi te st fo e me n d o wn
e r
‘

a n d ma ny a a
th o ub r e a ke st d o wn th e se ve n c i ta
, ,

c i t de l
’
de ls ’

s ath e b a s pr a s fo r ts a a
,

d m h i i se He re nd u m
‘
y r s s g e c o n s e s

aga
.

rme n t

a
tta c k se e ms to h a
.

Th e v e i n c lud e d se tti n g fi r e to th e
bu i ld i n gs
m ki n d le d fi re b e b urn t up a ll th e i r we a p o n s

An d ma d e h i m ri c h w i th ki n e a n d ca rts a
,

n d h o rse s (11 1 5 ) ,

s a
y a tsh no er h ymn ofo ne of th ose f vo ure d a by th e w ag
r- od

a at a
.

d e str u
a
An d i t i s po ssi ble th t o n e c n r c e r e fe r e n c e s to th e o

ti o n o f th e bun ds bui lt to p ro te c t th e Ha ’
ra
pp c i t i e s fro m

a
flo o d so th t th e w te rs tur n e d a a ga i n s t th e m; i t i s di ffic u lt to
r e o f th i s b e c a use o f th e po ssi bi li ty o f a a
,

b e su su dd e n t r n s i
ti o n to th e me ta a a a
,

p h o r i c l u s g e o f w o r d s d e sc r i b i n g I nd r i n

h i s c e le sti l c h r aaa c te r o f j u pi t er Plu v i u s r e le a s i n g th e r a i n s

a n d sw e lli n g th e ri ve rs b u t th e a sso c i a ti o n o f flo o d a nd co n s -

a
que st i s si gn i fi c n tly bro ugh t to ge th e r i n th e sa
,

me h ymn
fr o m w h i c h th e l st qu a
o t ti o n i s ta ke n : a
Th e mi gh ty ro a ri n g flo o d h e sta ye d fro m flo wi n g a nd ca rr i e d

th o se w h o sw a m n o t sa
,

fe ly o v e r
Th e y h a v i n g c r o s se d th e s tr e a ma tta
,

i n e d to ri c h e s
He sla ugh te re d Va laa rst a a
.

n d bu p r t th e d e fe n c e s o f th e
,

aa
He to re w y th e i r d e ftly-b ui lt d e fe n c es
Th h taff b a f u d h g ld
e re t e s t au ( u 5)
- e re r o n t e o en re s re , x

A d anga i h t f h n,iv
‘
path ll b a
ad a
e se s k re e t e r e rs
’
s
’
n
‘
n s of

yi ld d t h i ma
,

ly mi gh t (
’
iv
r e rs e e o s n n

a aaa
.

In th e p st th e se fo rts o f th e d g/ s n d th e di m: we r e
‘ ’

aa
,

c o n si d e r e d to b e e i t h e r myt h o lo gi c l o r t b e st th e pri mi ti ve
ea r t h wo rks nd p li sa a ade s o f th e suppo se d a bo ri gi n e s o f
a
No r th e rn I n di at th e ti me o f th e Arya n c o n qu e st Bu t no w
aWh h aa
.
,

s e e le r id s s ,
 THE A R YA N S ’

AN D T HE RIG VE D A

h av ha g
e cd t h p i tu nH e h a
v a hi gh l y v
e lv d c re e re w e e -e o e

i i li a ti a A yatyp
.

c v ti f
z lly
on o o k w
e sse n non- r n e, n w no n to

ha v mpl y d mai v f ti fi a
e e o ti ad k w a
e l ss e or c o n s, n no n so to

ha v d mi ad h i v
e o y t
n m f th
te w t I d
t e i a r e r-s s e o nor - e s e rn n

aati m d i a f m th li k ly p i d f h ali
'

t e not st n t ro e e er o o t e e r er

A yai va
r i n f th an t gi O i u
s o ns o m t ati a l i re on n c rc s n ev

d I d a
e nce, ta d au dn r s n s cc se .
’

Th e ah al gi a rc l vi d eo o gi v ci d t a i l
e i C h ap t
ence V en n e n er

fi ts so w ll wi th h ta e l f qu t i h Ri g da
t e e o th a ti i co n es n t e ve t s

ay th
a
d i ffi u ltc m to c o elui to Th f t n o f h er co n c s on e or s o t e

da a a a a a
.

g u s h i t
re d l t f h H
e c
p p i v i li
e s o i w t k e d r c z t on, re c e

ad plu d d by h abad h i v k d I d aL d
n n e re t e w r- n s w o n o e n r or

fH t ; a th y la a pt h i
,

o os s ugh t d th
s e h w u
s ld e re o se w o o not cce s

sup ma re y c

M p ta mi a h A ya w
.

Li k h Amu u
e t e rr i n e so o t e r ns ere

a a a
,

1 h h d k i h i f l i f i
’

p p
e0 e w v o w ty ne T er y no n c e r w o e s

l a t d i h Ri g aad i fafr m b i g th a
.

ly p
'
c e r r e se n e n t e t
ve d n s r o e n

mpli a t d u b a ga i a ta di ti a
,
,

o f h t e co c ti
e r l n h
or n z on r on to t e

ai t t f i ta
nc en c e n re s o l i vi li a ti i
or en h c z on s n ce t e

o f h th i d mi ll
t e iur m I b l g en n h i mpl p a tt t f
e on s to t e s e e rn o

a a
.

g i
r c u lt u l mm u ri t i k cow t h ug h u
n t h p h
esi t noi n ro o t e re s or c

w ld f Eu p ad A i a
or o ro up ti ll a
e d a ft n th R maEm s n er e o n

pi re m ba b au th a h H m i w ld a
o re r ro s d a
n t e o er c or n ne re r

to th a t f B wu o lf I b a eokg u d i aa g i ultu a
ts l c ro n s n r c r eco n o

my wh i h i lud h g wi g f a a
.

c nc g i
es t e p b u i row h i h
n o r n c ro
‘

,
t n c

a ;w a
i mpo r tlth i n ce e s r e c ko n e a
d in
ttl f ll wi g h I d
c e, o o n t e n o

ia
Lai aaba di t n, w r- n sd e sc r i b d a h h d e ki g w
e s t e or e s e n co s

ad th
n e ro o t of th e ve r b to pro te c t ’
si mply i mpli e s to

g uad r co ws
As i n a
ll i mp l pat a
l
s i e s or so c e ti e s, th e Ar ya n vo c a
bu la ry

i s ri c h i am f
n n v ya p es or e . er s ec t o f th e . h e rd wi th sp e c i a
,
l
2 64 . CO N QU E R O R S F ROM TH E W ES T

wo r d s fo r a
‘
a ag acow lfwi th a ba a st rft n e c
’ "
c ow rre n e

a ath
a a a
,

c l i g v n
’ ‘

y ld re e - d e m
r- o y m ox
’
n so on one co

a a a a a
, ,

p h
re i fi
t e i t y fnA b n w d f o m l R dr b l k d or p s or c e s e c

a a a
,
.
,

p l d e d li g nh t l u d w -
co om t i d re d h co d s re en one n er s

ti a afl
, ,

w e red i ff t d b y d i ti t i
e re n e i k ut i th s nc ve n c s c n e e r s, o

l wi g a
o n w ll k w u m h i h ui v d i Wa
e -
no n c l
sto f w c s rv e n
‘
e s, or

ins ta n ce, h la t
to t tu y M i lk i d
e s ly f m d ai m
ce n r ev en t or e n

a a
.

p or t t i t n m f d i e t i t h o f h e u d e b u tt r er b u t re s or s c r s or e

ma
, ,

th e rei di s no t id f h
re c ev ki g f h u
en ce o c e e se - n nor o t e se

of f m t d ma mi lk (k u ai t t pp
,

er en e mi ) i re s h
’
o ss n t e n c en s e e

t a r di i tTh on w w milk d th e co ti m a
s da ere
y a d a t a e re e es n c s r

ap ati d ma
.
,

ti on w s r c b i gu d f
se h ox en l pu p e n se or t e n or r o se s

f fa m t ap t ad b f af ly a t ah ma i m a
.

o r r ns or n ee w t s re e e en s t e n e

S la a a a
,

di h s y i
‘
g w f n g u tco s t i b uor f h i g h
es s t ’
w s n t r te o es

a a a a a a a a
.

p r i se Ato y q
n u i d
r I d n s h m p i
re b f
n n r w s c on ee

a t da a a a
,

e t er :h p t e y H i d
r e se nu d t i-
f h i m d n h oc r ne o s n t e

i tua t d wi th h la
,

l p h i b i ti ffl h f d i t
'

r ro on o es oo s connec e t e er

a a a a a
,

(p ost B d k
-
m d g )
r i d f tz m i g t i e w h i h
s o t
r i l
ns
y r on c re e n re

ali A yab li f
,

f o re ig h
n to t e e r er r n e e s

Th A yafea r a
.

e r n ll th f th
sts C lt th ec i h o se o e e s: e re s t e

a a a
k wi th h gu t w a
b ro n z e c uld ( S k i t
ro n m I i h i ) l
nsu g v r t h cfi r s co re s n o er e re

Ch a
,

by p h o t- oo s, i ti g f t th e mpi es s n or e on s
’

Po r t i o n
a
Th e tr i l fo rk o f th e fle sh - c o o ki n g
-
’

c a
uld ro n , th e v e sse ls o t uf o

h i c h th e b r o th i s po ure d ,
w

a
Th e w r mi n g po ts, th e c o v e rs -
of th e d i sh e s; h o o ks; c ai rv n g

ad
.

bo r s (I ,
1 62)

a s one a aa
h ymn lo v i n gly l at d en ume r te s Me t w a '

s so r o s e on

a a a a a
.

sp t i d mut
s, d g tnfl h w t i d d i ti to n n o -
es e re e en n on to

b f L a au d f may pup , u h a li g
,

ee th e er w s se or n r o se s s c s s
~
n s,

t i g ha i t t a ad h i p ad m t
.
.

b ow -
s r n i s, c r o -
r c e s , r e n s, n
'

w s, n so e so r

o fa ta i g p ad h w tti g f h h i d p paa
nn n t y
r o c e ss n t e e n o t e e re r or

t t hi g i t a i mpli d by f
to s r e c inh e Ri g da re e re e re n c e s n t ve .

Th g a i g w m li k ly h a
e r v b ba nly k w ro n se e s e to e een r e no n

a ha f m T ll Ha la
, ,

s w e v f ti m i N t h
e M
se e n , ro e es n or e rn e so
266 CO N QU E R O R S F ROM T HE W E ST

be e n c ai aa
ut b y h e rd sm n rme d wi th n o x go d
rr e d o a a a -

a a
s

Th e flo c ks i n c lu de d b o th sh e e p n d go ts ke pt fo r th e i r wo o l
a a a a
,

s mu ch s th e i r fle sh Th e S n skri t w o r d fo r sh e e p i s use d
'

a a a
.

b y tr n sfe r e n c e fo r wo o l n d n o d o u b t sh e e p s wo o l w s
’

a a a aa
,

mi n ly use d but th e re i s e vi d e n c e th t go t s wo o l w s lso ’

a a a aa
,

use d , pr e sum bly fi o m suc h lo n g h i t e d n i m ls s th o se o f

'
-

a aa a
K sh mi r lre dy me n ti o n e d i n C h pte r V Th e wo o l wh e n
a a a
, .

sp u n w s w o ve n , pr o b b ly b y wo me n , o n lo o m o f wh i c h
a a a
t h e n me s o f w r p, wo o f n d sh u a
ttle r e pr e se rve d
uaa a a aa
.
,

B t, p r t fro m c ttle th e r e lly c h r c te ri sti c d o me sti

ca a a a a
,

te d n i m l o f th e Ar y n s w s th e h o rse Fr o m th e d e sc ri p
a a
.

t i o ns o f th e c o lo uri n g Of h o rse s i n th e Ri gved , Ri d ge w y c o n

c lu a a aa a a
d e d th t t h e y h d c h e stn ut h e ds n d b c ks sh d i n g o ff
a a
,

i n to d u n o n th e lo we r p r ts o f th e b o d y i n th e m n n e r o f th e

t pp k w aP a ad
,

wi ld h f h
o rs e o t e s el ki h es no n s rz e w s
’
s o rse , n

th a t th y w e f M g li a U pp A i a
e er o t i t k Th y
on o n or er s c s oc e

ha ta ai a t l a h a
.
—

se e m v b
to k pt i e ll een e nd n s s on o cc s on e s

w e re h bbl d wh o pu eu t g a St al
en l i w t om to r z e ons e re so e

ti m g ld d b u ma w p ia lly u d ad a
.

es e e t re s ugh t e re es ec se s r

ai ma a h ai t ad i d i g m t h a
,

n l i s n w r-c r o s, v b v y n r n se e s o e een er

e x pti a
ce la don f m d a n t h i qu f w a
n e ve r fa Th ior e ec n e o r re s

ma a a a a
.

w ll h v b
e ly d u e h f t t
een h t h i v
rt t i e to t e t
f ti u
y p
~
c e n en on

o s p rr m m u a u ta
s se e bly la
s t i h d v lp
to c o e n cco n e n t e e e o

m t fh
en o ha ad th a
o r se - ta u a tf a
r n e ss, figh ti g
n se c r e se or n

ma uld h a
n co d ly b atta i d wi th ut th m M i li ta
r e y ne o e r

a va l y ak w A y i a ad th A h a
.

c r w th s n o n to m id e ss r ns n e c e en s,

ad th i v ti f ti up mut b aai t i ta
n e n en on o s rr l s s e n nc en o r en

co n rt i buti h mah i p I I d i ati up l p a

o n to o rse pp a
ns n n s rr -
oo s e r

avi g f h aS ah i i th
.

on c r n d
s o tuy t e se c o n cen r t nc n e

D e aa cc d n a ga n v d pp von n l f a en th la r t e Co er e sse o r er er

da t f m N th I d i ab u i a
e ro or y a th in a d pt i m u t t n n c se e r o on s

ha l ga aly A yaph a
, ,

v b e ee nft h on er t e e r r n se

Th A yah ha ti ally a
.

e r em n v b u d
o rse s se to e e en se e sse n s

c ha i t ar o i ma l wh t h
-
n i wa fa ads, i b d la
e ter n r re , s e sc r e er on

ha i t a aafa
,

or f or c i g wh i h
r o -r
v ui t p t I
c n , m c w s o r e s or . t se e s
 r HE AR YAN S AN D T H E RIG VE D A 26 7

to h a
v b e een indulge d i n pur e ly fo r mu se me n t a ad n fo r
pri z es a( xe
c e pt a a uh a
on fe w fo rm l re li gi o us o c c si o n s , s c s

h
t e ro a
l a
t i ) a d h a t k la al g a t e r ce

i t tu d a
n oo
y c o n se c r p on ce on

u t a ma k u d wh i h h h a d a
,

co rs e o r ro m n c t e c r o s rn e n c e

ba k a ga
c i h a i ka ataaad f th f th Mi ta i a
n t e v r n n so or o e nn n

Gui d h Tuf m ti d ab v S u h aa u i
~

e to t e r en one o e c r c e -c o rse s

a a a a
.

p u m
re s b ly th t f th R m i u e d h G k
n c es o r o e o n c rc s n t e re e

adBm u h ath a
-

r ta
vs t Olympi awh e aa wi th i d d
c s er r ce r en

afi t i d u d aa v lty i th mi dd l f th
,

th ugh h a
h o rse s w s rs n tr o ce s no e n e e o e

th
se v e n tuy cen i t a i g ti ll ma
r i d o c r o -
r c n s re ne

p pulaO i
o mi d d
r f h ai
ne t C lti h
s re n e to o o t e nc en e c o rse

a ah F a f Ca maad th a mbli i
.

r c es i t t e th r o r n n e o er sse es n

Th e h o rse av b pp a
a d m ti a e t d i S uth
rs to h e een o es c e n o

Ru i a ss by Mi d dl Kub ati m ( b tw e ad 5 n es e een 2 000 n r 00

ad p ta n ti re fP a l ki h
r e se n a pp a a
o ns o rz e w s
’
s o rse e r on

s i lv b wl f m h a
er o th ali Ma
ro i k p t mb Bu th
t e r er e r er o o t e

f m A a u ad S i a lk h w th a t aa a
.

e vi d en ce ro n pp n t l y s o s n re n

d m ti a
o est dh c ak w i P i aad Tuk tai
e o rse w s no n n e rs n r es n n

a m a a a a a a a
a
l ti d i g i i B lu h i t it

a
e s, n e rs s
ve r
y y e r pp n n c n n

Ra ‘
ngh und a-
i I a d t h u gh a ly i n h n H a a p p C u l o r re t e r

a t th f h ld th a t h A ya w
, ,

tu O re ne c nno e re o r e , h o t e r ns e re t e

fi t p pl t d m ti a i I di a
.
,

rs eo t h h
e o o es ci w t e t e o rse n n or on ts es

e rn b d la or d b u th y w
e r- n ta i ly a
s, m g h fi t
t e e re c e r n on t e rs to

i t du
n ro h i d af a
ce t p i d t ae p t m
e a d po i b l
r by i r ns or e o ss e ts

u F th i fa
se or mw k e rd a w f u wh l d a
r or t m ox - r n o r- ee e c r s se e

ha u d ad h
.
,

to v b e ee n b d l ly f u wi th h
se n o rse s re so e or se t e

wh l d h a wa fa
,

li gh t t w o- i tf p t
ee e cr r o or s or or r e

P a ti a th i g ab gl ad f h a pp a a
.

lly no t e
a
r c c n c n e e ne o e r nce o r

la y u
-
of A
to ya tt l m n t f r h h u
n se b u w a e en , or o t e o s e s, t e re

a
D wn do e s m k e h o me ly r us ti c a a aa
n ce i n h er o x a
aa
ppe r

dr wn c rt, re mi n di ng us o f D e me te r a
, ,

n d o f th e T e uto n i c
 68 QUE RO M THE W E ST
2
co N R O R s F
4

a am
.

go d d e ss Ne r th a
d esc r i b e d by i m ge w s si i
l aly t ap
r r ns or ted ; a n d o f th e atua cl a
l i tua t ay r c r s c rr i n
g a
d e i ty
’
s th ro n e kn o w n i n E ur o pe fr o m and
De n m ak ad d a r ti g f m th fifth n n tu y ro n a d e ce n r o w r s

All th e A y ab ui ld i g ; h a a a
, .

t h v b f
‘

r n n s o w e v e r, e r
pp o e een o

W d ad th h u
oo n m t hab e o s e se e ta g u la i t h a
s o ve e e n re c
n r, w

th a th a
,

t h d c e f d i id d i t m
ro o v e r m n o m o re n o ne oo or co

a a a
,

p m
rt t ; en
p i b ly m p ho ss m y b so t ru
e d t i m
r
py lse s e co ns e o

ha Ca ttl a d h p aw ll ath h u h ld w
'

t t th
'

e e n s ee s e s e o se o
'

e re

u d ai gl f If th li gui ti eq ua f th S akri t
, ,

n er s n e ro o ti e n s c o n o e ns

d f a d o wa a a a a
.

( l u d m t h i ll f h
'

w or or y d td ory p c y w s se e or or t e

ky) Wi th th L a ti a ta i t b ta li t a
,

d f th k lly
’

o o rs o e s e n n e s o e en e r

ld h a th me ai n g f a
,
"
it h u h m b tw e
'

s o ve
p e f r d n t
O h o rc o e e een

j
ro e c t i g d a l l O f th b u i l d i g T h i
s a h i t t eu a l d n s
'

at i ti f th mga h u , k
e n rc
p n w ec r e
-

ha
.

i i i th e
Eu p a
‘ ‘

v ce s c r c er s c o e e ro n o se now n n

T a re d a d Ea tn tl as e rn t aa ly a roth b gi
e i g e s s e r s e e nn n

f th th i d n i ll
e i i um i
ad ta i nly a i a t d i h sso c
'

k s f I d —E u p ala
o r r enn n cer e w

aly p a a
‘

th i i i G
'

e e r s e er o n o ro e n n es re e ce
g g n

b ut i t i d a a a
,

a
u t f th n l
m ga
gs n e ro s
gy o o rc e e o

t a
.

A i s th e i th e Ay ro n , h Ou s g th e
so

,a
n l e r n

a e
'
n ce n r

h a th h aap si ti fp u li ai mp t d i tli
‘

e r s o on o ec r or nce n s e

f u f th h u h ld
oc s o e li gi Ou i t
o se Th U
o re f Oa ti g s r e s; e se o r s n

s
p i t as d bn a u ld ro n z e w i t h fl sch f k s t i
r o n s,m p a l
‘

t h e -
or o e e

a uy g bb t f b i led b f h aa l a dy b m ti o d
m g th h u h ld g a
s vo r o e s o o ee s re ee n en ne

ad p uma b ly a
, ,

h re s o n mut b e k o se o e r s e re c

d a
.

o ne d d l qu r f
s e g i di g
- e ns
p t l or a n d m r n t a f n o r es es o r rs or

a a
,

p o u d n i g th n i t fl u
e c o rn t h f m n o
p b o b ly r : t h e or er re ro e

ta
,

la tt er c er i ly f d t i th R g da
n re e r re P tt ry o l a
n e z ve o e
‘

v e sse s re

a a a a a a a a
.
,

g m
1n ~ t d
en i one d t h d i k v i l bl n t f t e i lu
r nd d e e s s nc e

m a a
,

e d th m e f wh i h u
n e o i n i gly tl c ug h th e
r n s c o nv c n i ro

a
v

u
t

I d Eu p a a la a a a
,

bu w
'

i th t i s l
’

n o- ro e t n vo c
gg t t r es y
o s l
es n e r

i n ve n ti mm n t a
on co ll b a h o ( S a ko i t m afdhu G r k
nc es ns r re e

C lti mi d O ld Hi gh G ma m taOld Sla

,
’
9 ‘
vo n i c ,

ti ng d i k aum wh i h ap b
v, e c er n e

m d u) A th i t i a
, ,

e 2 no er n ox c r n w s s c w s ro L

a bh a ki d f b e b w d f m g a
.
,

n n o e i r T h my t i li qu
re e roid r n . e s c
2 70 C O N QU E R O R S F ROM THE
‘
W E sT
s
'

a ve b e e n a r e gu la r c lu b h o use o r me eti n g h ll fr o m a
'

to h - -

wh i c h wo me n we r e e xc lud e d a
,

n d i n wh i c h n o t o nly th e bu si

n e ss o f th e c la n w s di sc u sse d b u a
t o r d i n r y fa r e rs go ssi p a m ’

w a a Th e re to o th e me n ga mble d a t a ga
,

s r e t i le d me o f ‘

ch a a a a
.

l d w i t h nu t d u u ll d d d i g
a
i
‘ ’
n ce
p y e s n s y r e n e r e c n

th o ugh i t ca n no t h a ve b e e n pla
,

m
a
y e d c c o r d i n g t o t h e e t h ods
usua l wi th ma rke d d i c e (su ch a s t h o se kn o wn i n th e Ha ra
pp
C ultur e fo r i ns ta n c e ) Th e n u ts we r e th ro wn to wa rd s a h o le
nd a n d b e t s we r e l i d a a
.
,

o r d ep r e ssi o n i n th e gr o u c c o r d i n g to

so me c o mpli c a t e d syste m : I o n c e wa tc h e d wh a t must h a

,

ve
be e n si mi laa r ga me a lso p l y e d wi th n uts th r o wn t o wa a rd s a
,

h o llo w i n th e gr o un d i n a vi lla ge o f th e K a n gr a
,

d i st r i c t i n
th e Hi m la ya a T h e st a
,

n fo o th i lls ke s we r e e vi de n tly o fte n

o n e o f th e h ymns o f th e Ri g ve a a(x 34) i s arue ful
.

h i gh
’

a
G mble r s L a me n t i n wh i c h h e pr a
'

,
’
y s fo r b e tt e r l u c k n e xt
ti me He h s ga a
mb le d a wa r a a
,

y e v e n h l S W l f C o t le s t h e r ‘

a i n th e o ld d a
.
,

ffe c ti o n s y s

Sh e n ev e r ve x e d me nor w aag y s n r w i th me b ut to my
ad m a g a
,

fr i en d s n e w s e ve r i u r c o s

y e t n o w
‘
my wi fe h o ld s me a
l f h oo er mo th e r h t e s me a ’
Sti ll
ga a
, .

th e me c ll hi m s

a a
Th e g me ste r se e ks th e g mb li n g d e n , ad w d h i -
n on e rs, s

aa a
b o d y ll fi r e , Sh ll I b e luc ky?

ad a
n ll h and i t wa th
e c th o b y h i fa
s t o rn e o e rs s e

P la y t wi th
no d i ; ult i at h y l
cea d E j y h
no, c v e t c o rn -
n n o t e

a a a a
.

g i d d
n, m th t nl t h u ffi eei t w e s c en

a hy a h y i f 0 ga
.

Th e re ttl thre t c mb l l e, e re t w e, er

Th i m i t
e re ti g i d
s so e f Afyamui
n e re s Gym
n ev en ce or n s c.

ba
l u d t a mpa
s w e re se y d ai g ad i ao cco d di ti t n nc n n n on o

th i s a m th e r e we re r e e d flute s o r pi p e s a
,

n d th e d r u stri n ge d

me n t o f th e lute c la ss a nd a ha
,

i n st r u r
p o r ly re w h i c h i s

aa
me n ti o n e d s h vi n g se ve n to n e s o r n o te s Th i s la
, ,

st p i e c e o f

i n fo rma ti o n i s i mp o rta r kn o wle d ge o f a

.

n t fo r o u
« n ci en t
 THE AR YANS AN D THE R IG VEDA 271 N

sc a
l es , s uc h ah ap
s r s, a a
lyre s, n d fl ute s, r e kn o wn fr o m We s t
e rn A ia s f mv y a ro er a a a ae rl ti me s
y ( b o w -
sh pe d h r p w s use d

i J md t Nati m
n e e ad th m la
sr e s, b a t ty p w
n o er o re e or e es e re

ai w ll k w f u d i th Ealy Dy ati R ya
,

s s e no n o n n l Tomb
e r n s c o s

aU ) Th i g d vi d th a
,

t r e re s t th
oo i t um t w
e en ce e se ns r en s e re

t u t d a di g h h pta a
.

cons r c e c co r t in l ( vto t e t e o n c sc e se e n n o e s,

wi th h i gh th mpl ti g th ta v awi th a ll E u p a
mta
t e e co e n e oc e, s ro e n

i t u
ns r l mui
en f th p s c t da y) o T h i he pt a t i
r e se n s e on c

a l i th b a xi t (a
.

sc e s i e fm d Hi d umui Wh
s s o o i
e rn n s c, e re t e s s s

in o th gi
e r re f h w ld ) i d b y i d wi th a th
ons o t e or ms e s e no e r, o re

p r i m i t i v a l
e , sct h a t f fi e, t h op ta t i
ve n o b a d e s, o r t e en on c, se

on qui ta l ha
n m y ad p i mi ti v v a
r on lt a n d i ti r I i u e oc r o ns t s o r

ma l mui a l a l wi th h th i d a
.

nor s c sc ed v th h t e mi r n se en t e se

i t va ha tly ta
,

tone n er l mi i g Gui s, ss n k th i qu
r yen s re c e n en s es

mui a l a l ata g fu th ad la
.

ti on o f h t t e w o s c sc es t di s e r er n re e t

to o u ah al gi a
r rc l k wl d g a
eo o c d h ma k i no l ath a
e te, n e es t c e r

h
t e s re p a d f h h o p t at i
t e al i i e ti m a t ly a
o n c sc i at d e s n e s so c e

wi th i t um ta ns r l m ui en i gi a ti g i h ai s c or t ub a n n n t e nc en r n

c i vi li a z ti fW t
o ns o A i ab u di p e s e rn d b y d i s i gi t s e rse e on ts o r
a l h m b y I d Eu p ap pl i
,

n o e n o- h ro e d mi ll
n eo es n t e se c o n en

n i um ad la t H t a a a
n er ly di p e a l
r I di a
c es n e r s e rs to n

ad v t Ch i aad ala w twa

.

n e en o t d i ffui
n n d wi th h er s on es r s t e
C lti p p1 wi th B i ta i ap h a p i la t pla f ai
,

e c e0 e s, r n s er s ts s ce o rr

v a li n h mi d d l
t e f h fi t mi ll e o iu m t e th a
rs t h enn so t e
H b i d af lk
e r e n g ti ll ta
o -i so nh ai ss t p I d Eu re n t e nc en re - n o- ro

p am d f h p t a a l t da y (I i d ta
,
'

t i
'

e n o e o t e en o n c sc lly h e o nc en t e

a a a a
.

p en t t i on ci d i m d i v d f
o m W t A
er f i p l
e
y iro
p t es r c s ts r

j a mui )
, ,

i m d
n o e rn z z s c

Am g h Ri g a a h a
.

h ym th i ( )
'
on t e ve w
ns hi e re s one 1x 1 12 c c n

ha th th aa ulaly i a ly l ut f
,

dly b
'

r e o er n se c r r c sc rc e e ss o o

pla th ath S g f S g i h H b w li gi u ll
ce n e on o on s n t e e re re o s co ee

ti on wh i h h a b c ma d a s li ttl m een a pp p i a t
e b y th e o re ro r e e

i ti f af a i Fl w I d u fl f I d a a k ’
n se r on o re r n o n ow or n r s s e

a ah upl t Omi tti g th pi u ai d a l ft

, , ,

ft er e c co e . n e se o s s e s, w e re e
2 72 CO N QU E R O R S FR O M THE W EST

w i th aa
nlm qui al po e m (i t u
os t s e s th e S a
c o llo n s kr i t e q u i
va le n ts fo r D a d a nd M um r a
‘
th e r t h a
’
n Fa th e r a nd
‘ ’ ‘ ’

‘
Mo t h e r fo r i n sta ’
n ce
) w h i c h g i v e s a su r
p ri s i n g ly n a t ur a l
a r e o f th e Ar a a
, ,

n d fr e sh pi c t u sc e n e i t h P u j b f th
y n n e n o e

mi d d le o f th e se c o n d mi lle n n i um B C (T h e sylla b i c me tr e i s
th at o f th e o ri gi n a
. .

l) .

We a
ll h a a i uh p a d pla ve v r o s o es n ns

ad may a h a
n y f m n re t e w s o en

Th a f ma
e cr k f j b d ts n se e s or o s to o ,

th e pr i e st h i s flo c k, th e le e c h th e si c k .

Th e a mi th rr o w s
-
w i th h ad d y
r r re e ds
ad f a
th
n f e e rs ro m th e ai y bi d r r s,

Br On z ad gl i g a
e fo r th e
l ti ps n ow n co s,

k ut th ma h ll pa
,

y h im b t
’
se e s o e n w o es .

I a
ma p t d a
d al h oe
’
s e ec

ad m th g i d
, ,

n th qumo er r n s c o rn o n e e

As cow s go fo llo w i n g , o n e o n o n e
w e a a a
ll se e k w e lth i n d i ffe r e n t w
y s .

Th h e li k ali gh lad
o r se at es t- en c r

ga t a t at th la ugh ad j t
,

y h os s tr c e n es

M al g f ma a tu ala
i

n on s or w o n n r s

th pah d f g l a
,

e gi g f th
rc i e ro s on n or e r ns .

P e rh ap t h i
s u ld b lai
s co m d a th a l i t k
e w c I d e s e e r es no n n o

E ur o p ae
p a t
n a l p m at a
s or ll v t i t g ioe a gli mp f : e en s ves se O

lo st se culap t y i S ak i t f th
r oe r aly ph a d i bi g
n ns r o e e r se , e sc r n

th e e ve r
y d a y li f f th p p l t h
e oa t w uld de m u h t eO e, w e o o c o

ma a
.

re c o ve r But h i u
p p t eb h i d th R i gn d i t h r o se e n e ve s e

tuff f aad t th i
.

t
s e rn e r s o w mu tr ,
tun o s w e s now rn .

Ev e n th o ugh th e c o mpo si ti o n o f th e h ymn s i s li ke ly to b e

la te r th e c o n d i ti o n s th e y r e fle c t a re th o se o f vi c to r i o us co n

c c e ss T h e w a rr i o r ari sto c r a
,

u e r o r s i n th e firs t fl u sh o f su c y
q
th e Kga trij a s a re th e h e r o e s a n d th e gr e a t go d s a re ma
.
,

de in
t h e i r i ma a e la so ld i e r a
, ,

d i s th e tu d f h d h i
‘

e
g ; I n r t r
yg o o t e n s ,
2 74 C O N QU E R O R S F ROM THE .
w a sr
5
sta a
n d r d c e rt a i n ly n o t a ttai n e d b y th e h e si t a
nt e i t pe r i
me n ta l me t a llur gyo f Te ll Ha l f ti me s a a
,

n d I fi n d i t d i ffi c ult
to ac c e pt t h i s r e pre se n t a
ti o n s th t o f a wh e e le d ve h i c le a aa
,

a
ll
a ati ti m i Sum
.

But b y th e b e gi n n i n gs o f E r ly D yn s c es n er

w e a
r e o n fi rm gro u nd a a v l fE D I da
S c rle t W r e ’
t e sse s o e

wh l d h a t ayi g
. . .

sh w li gh t
o tw o - i t wi th h i gh f ee e c r o s ro n s c rr n

one or p pl ad d a
tw o w i th b y a
eo e by n ; h
r n e er s se s o r o x en t e

w h l a p ee s t d (v y h ma
r e re ti a
r e se n elly) a li d A d i er sc e c s so n n

li gh tly la
t Ea ly Dy a li f f m U a d Ka fa ja
.

h
t e s ti er r h n s c re e s ro r n

ad h fa m u i la i d St a da d f m h R ya
,

n on t e o s n l T mb n r ro t e o o s

f U si mi laa d a w ha i t a h w i g a t d ta il
‘
o r, r ss -
r n c r o s re s o n n re e

wi th li d wh l ma ha
,

so d f lf d i
ee s d w ll d t g th e o tw o -
sc s o e e o e er

a ga i t h h ub "
ns (
t eO h St a d a d t h h a i t n a fi
t e t ‘
n r
’
e c r o s t rs

i gh t a a a a
.

s pp b fe u wr h l d to b ut S i d e y S m o i t h r-h ee e s ne s

a a
, ,

p i t
o n e d u t h i io h t, u lt f u i u s P i s l i
t e k t h
re s o c r o s c sso - e ec

n i qu f p e o ti g f t a
re la d la
r e se n t a l vi w f th
n am
ro n n er e s o e s e

o bj t i ec v ti !) Th ugh th
n o ne co n ha i t d ub tl
en on o e se c r o s o e ss

c re ak d a d umbl d
e n th i lum y wh l y t wh
r e on h e r c s e e s, e en t e

pa i far o aa t fu ll p d ai
sse s w sh fi a l h s ee s n t e n sc e n e s o n t e

Stada d th y mut h a a ta bl a
,

n r
’
,ve b e dd d t s een no e e e r r o r to

th e e n e mi e s o f S umer wh e n first e n c o un te re d
Ea m si mi la r ch a
.

r ly i n th e se c o n d mi lle n n i u r i o t s we r e i n

use i n Asi a Mi n o r b ut wi th tw o i mp o r t n t mo d i fic a ti o n s : a
th e y h a ve li gh t sp o ke d wh e e ls a nd a re d r a wn b y a a
,

p i r of

ch c h a r i o ts a lso ma ke th e i r first a a ra
,

h o r se s S u pp e n c e i n th e

Ae ge a sso c i a a a
.

n cou n tr i e s si gn i fi c n tly te d wi th I n d o Euro -

a a a a a
,

p k ft t h i t i m i M i l n d Gr e e c e

m
p e n s e e rs so o n e r s e : n n

e ri c p e r i o d) a
,

b e fo re I 50 0 (to su r vi ve o f c o u
‘
r se to th e Ho nd

i n C r e te a b o ut 1 45 0 B C A c e n tury o r so la
, ,

te r th e r e i s so me
a a a
. .

e vi d e n c e to su g g e s t t h t o u g A c h e n r i n c e s w e re o n
y n p
o cca si o n se n t to th e Hi tti te c a i t a l b t ra i n ed i n ch a ri o try
‘

t
'

o e
p
I n E gypt th e e a rli e st re p r e se n ta ti o n o f suc h a ch a
.

ri o t i s o f

th e ti me o f Ame n h o t e p I a b o ut 1 55 0 a t th e b e gi nn i n g o f
th e c a mp a le rs ga a a
, ,

i gns o f th e Ei gh te e n th Dyn sty r u i n st th e

 TH E AR YANS AN D THE R IG VE D A
a
2 75
‘

a aa
Le v n t, wh e n c e c h ri o t w r f r e se e ms to h ve b e e n i n tr o
-
a
aa
d uc e d i n to th e Eg ypti n r my By th e e n d o f th e fifte e n th
a
. .

c e n tury c h ri o ts we r e b e i n g e xp o rte d to E gypt b y th e

'

Mi t ainn th e mse lves (Fi g

I n C e n tr l a a a aa
.

n d No r t h e rn E u r o p e th e pp e r n c e o f th e
a
c h ri o t a a
mo n g th e I n d o -Eur o pe n Ce lts i s n o t tte ste d b e a
fo r e th e fifth c e n tu ry i n th e Mi d d le Rh i n e n d th e a
Ma rn e u
( lt i mate ly pr e sum ab ly d e r i v e d fr o m W e ste rn Asi a
'

) ,

F I G.
3 1 a a
R e pre se n t ti o n s o f c h ri o ts, 1 5 th to 1 3 th c e n turi e s

aa
.

, fr o m Z i n c i rli , E gypt, M y c e n n d Cypru

B c
. . e s
ad n th e r e a a
fte r w e h v e c o ns i d e r a ble e v i d e n c e fo r i ts str u c i
‘

tur l fe aa tur e s wh i c h c o n fir m i ts ge n e r a l r ela ti o n sh i p w i th

th e e a r li e r se r i e s fr o mth e a
,

n c i e n t O ri e n t n o w un d e r d i s
cu ssi o n S i r Cyr i l F o x s r e c e n t b r i lli a n t i n te r r e t a ti
’

p o n o f the
Ce lti c e vi d e n c e h a s gi v e n a le a a
.

d wh i c h m y b e fo llo we d i n
ex a

Ea
mi n i n g th e o r i e n t a
I t lo o ks th e r e fo r e a
r ly Dy n a
,

s ti c S u
l ma

me r a
te r i a

n d th a
,
l
s i f th e b ttle c a a
r w a

t i ts us e w a
.

s a

s
n i n ve n t i o n o f
-

-
‘

o t h e r t e c h n o lo i c a a a
.

g l d e v i c e s s u c h s m e t a ll u r gy n d t h e

sh a ft h o le a x e (a ro ba a a
,

-
nd
p b ly th e h e pt t o n i c sc le i n i n s tr u
me n t a l musi c ) b y th e I n d o E ur o pe a n s o n th e n o r th e r ly
'

fr i n ge s o f th e ki n gd o m o f S ume r a n d Ak a a
,

k d s o o n f t e r 2 0 0 0

gi ve n a d d e d spe e d a n d li gh tn e ss b
y th e u se o f h o r se s a n d
th e i n v e n ti o n o f th e spo ke d wh e e l a n d s re a d b t h e m i
p y n

th e i r e x pa n si o n to e a st a a
r se , a
,

n d w e st I t r e m i n e d of cou n

e sse n t i a lw e a a r mi e s o f B a a a a
.
,

p o n o f th e b y lo n i n d A ss y r i u n ti l

we ll i n to th e first mi lle n n i um a s a v e h i c le to c a rry a

bo w m a
n

Ar y a n ch a a s i t a ea r s i n th e Ri g ve d a a a
.

Th e ri o t h s
pp
n a s a a
, ,

me (mt/ m ) w hi c h i n I n d o Eu r o p
-
e n w h e e l
“

w
‘
o rd ,
’

re
p r e se n t e d b
y t h e L a t i n ro ta C e lt i c r o t/z O l d H i g h G e r m a n

ra d a a niau n Ta ta a n d si mi la
, ,

n d L i th r rl
y c o m m o n t o t h e

w h o le la a ro u a r e th e w o r d s fo r wh ee l a a
, ,

n gu

a
g ge p x le n v e

a a
, , ,

nd
y o k e T h e b o d y o f t h e c h ri o t i s d en o te d b
y w o r d
w h ich is a lso use d fo r a a n d i m li e s a
.

b uc ke t p m o re o r

le ss c lo se d v e h i c le un lik e th e C e lti c I ro n Age ve r si o n o pe n

ba ck a t a gr e e i n g wi th th e We st e r n Asi a
, ,

n d fr o n t b u ti c M y
cena ea n a n d E gypti a n ch a a r i l Fo x h a
, ,

r i o t s wh i c h
( s S i r C y s

r e ma a re a u r i n c i p le o f a
, ,

r ke d
) ll b i l t o n th e
p m o d e r n m i lk
flo a t T h e ma t e ri a l o f w h i c h t h i s bo d y w a s bu i lt i s un kn o wn
b ut b y a na lo gy i t i s li ke ly to h a
.
,
.

ve be e n o f wi c ke r wo r k
'

a a c ha a a a
( A e g e n nd C e l t i c ri o ts
) o r
p e r h p s le t h e r ( s i n

E gypt ) o n a li gh t wo o d e n fr a
,

me wo r k
T o th e wo o d e n flo o r o f th e c h a ri o t w a s a tt a c h e d th e a
.

xle
a a a ra
,

r e n tl b l t h t i w u l d r o j e c t fise e o f th e
“

pp y y e e r s
p s : t o p
2 78 C O N QU E R O R S F R O M T HE W EST .

fun c ti o n ti ve ly a n d mi gh t b e a
e ffe c poi n te r to th e Ar ya
'

wh e e ls h a v mg mo re t h a
, .

n fo u r I ts o c c u rr e n c e i n th e tw o

p e ri ph e r l r e a aar o pe a
. .

s o f I n d o Eu m c ulture so r e mo te i n -
‘

ti me a n d sp ace i s f sci n a ti n g a a
,

a
n d i t s ti llfsu rvi ve s i n T u r ke

a Th e w h e e ls we r e sh o d wi th me ta a
, ,

st n l tyr e s s we re th e

Ho me ri c c h a ri o ts a
.
,

n d th o se o f th e I r o n Age C e lts j u st me n

ti o n e d
ai gl t a a
.

Th e h o rse s we re h r n e sse d
l p l wh i h to s n e cen r o e, c

aa ta p ba i a
,

on l gy wi th k w
n o p ti nobly n re re se n o ns , ro r o se n

c uv f m h b tt m f h
r e ro ha
t e i t a d th o o ti ued o t e c r o n en co n n

t a
s r i gh t t m t th y k a o lm t h iee ta lly Th i u
e o fa e os or z on s se o

y k a f m f ha app p i a
.
,

o e, or o t x bu v y urn e ss ro r e to o en t er n

s ui ta bl t a h e ( w i t h i
o a C o rseau p u t i th a p a i t yt, s o n te n t, e c c

o f th h e f ff t i ly qua
o rse s e lt it i ta t
or s on agu e o s re s s n ce o str n

la ti on l) i h w v ha a
s, ct i tio f h wh l ai
e e r, c t r er s c o t e o e nc en

w ld a
or d th b gi ni g f th m d e etyp f h a i g
nn n s o e o e rn e o rn e ss n

ad h llai u ti l R maI mp i a
,

l ti m i
s n o t se e n

u
n o rse -c o r n o n er es n

E p u rO a t th e a li t T h y k i
e e d ur i v a ll
es y w i th t h e o e s se n e rs e

ha th D y a
.

c i t wh th
r o i Ei gh t e erty E gypt n i C lti e en n s or n e c

B i ta tuy B c ad f m th Ri g da
,

r i f h fi t
n o t e rs cen d ipr n ro e ve e sc r

a th a a p t i fa
. .
,

ti ons w e c t ll n se e t i g t hep l i n re s ec s ts s en n o t o e

is e qua lly typ i a l f I d E u p ap a c ti o Th p bl m n o- ro e n r c ce e ro e

at p vi d at g y t li gh tly fl i bl j u ti b tw
.

w s o ro e s ro n e s ex e nc on e een

p l a a a h a
.

o e d y k n ll w f u qu o e , tol t wh th o i or ne s r e ss e er t e n

ma h ki g a d t h i Wad
,

l w s p ulli g e re n or c by p ec n n s s one ro

i di g a b lt th ugh h h a ai fa
,

v n t ut pi s o i t p l
n or o ro t e c r o - o e ne r ts r

en d a ga,i t wh i h th w d ns y k a la
c h d wi th t he g oo en o e w s s e on s

A wi th h l a
s th th g h y b i d h h a
t e e i t y ke
er h ld
on t e n t e c r o o to o

S o le t yo ur wa
ve b e a
r up he
t i
p n s, ad y
n e, O Wa
te rs , a
sp re

ath ve rse s run I t re c a lls th e e xt an t E gypti n exa mple a a

a
nd
'

s e

de sc ri pti o n o f th e yo ki n g o f Pri am s W ggo n i n th e Ili a

.

th e d
’
 THE A R Y AN S AN D T HE l R I G VE D A 2 79

ath
t e endth e re o f a n d sli ppe d th e ri n g o v e r th e u r i gh t
p pi n
wh i c h wi th th re e turn s o f th e stra y a
,
.

p th e l sh e d to th e kn o b

an d th e n b e la p e a
,

y e d i t c lo se r o un d th e o l n d tu rn e d th e to n gu e,

Th e r e i s So me de n c e fo r th e us e o f tr c e s o n th e o ute r
e vi a
si d e s a a a
n d o n e wo r d ( 05 72? mi gh t h ve th e si gn i fi c n c e o f a
a
sw i n gle gtre e o r spli n te r b a
,

r to wh i c h th e se we r e f s te n e d
-

a a ta n a
.

Tw o h o rse s we re u su lly e mplo ye d b u ddi ti o n l o n e o r

tw o a n i ma ld o n o c c a si o n b e h a
,

ls c o u rn e sse d o u tsi d e o n e i s
a a
se e n , i n de e d i n su ch a po si ti o n o n o n e o f th e S c rle t W r e
a a a
s c e n e s me n ti o n e d a
,

b o ve fr o m Sume r n d th e pr c ti c e w s
a
,

lso kn o wn i n Ho me ri c ti me s
a a a
.

Th e c h ri o t h e ld tw o p eo ple th e w rri o r n d h i s dr i ve r
a a a n d se e ms to h a
, .

Th e w rri o r w s o n th e le ft ve b e e n pro
'

a aa
v i d e d wi th a a
,

se t wh i c h h e c o u ld u se t le st wh e n h e w s
a a aa a
c ti ve ly e n ga ge d i n w a rfa
,

not re Hi s we p o n w s bo w n d
a
so me ti me s aa a aa
.

s pe r b u t h e di d n ot u swo rd , t le s t t th e

a u
se

ti me o f th e first Ar ya n a dve n t i n I n di th o gh a
,

wo r d use d
aa
fo r kn i fe i n th e Ri gveda ta ke s o n th e si gn i fic a
,

nce of
‘ ’
w e

p o n W hiaa aa
c h mi gh t b e a swo r d o r d gg e r i n th e Atk rv ve da

a a a
n d th e E p i c s T h e c h a ri o te e r h d n o se t p ro vi d e d one of

a
h i s ti tle s sth d tr h e w h o sta
.

n ds e mp h si z e s th e d i s ti n c ti o n
’

a
b e twe e n h i m a n d th e bo w ma t h i s c lli n g w a
, , ,

n bu s one of

a aa
h o n o ur n d h e mi gh t be th e n o ble wa
,

rri o r s ki n s m n
'

s in
’

Ho me ri c Gre e c e a n d I ro n Age I re la
, ,

nd

a a
Th e di me n si o n s o f c e r t i n p a r ts bf th e c h a
.

ri o t re gi ve n

aa a aa lba Sili ra
,

i n te r ms o f u
‘

r th er l te te x t th e Su l
'

in g z o r

a
fi n ger s bre d th s Th e le n gth s gi ve n a
, , ,

r e fo r th e p o le th e
‘ ’ ’
-

aa a a a
xle n d th e yo ke n d i f th e se a re c a
.
,

lc u l te d o n th e s su mp
a a a a aa
, ,

ti o n th t 1 6 ngqli e qu lle d 1 fo o t (th e v lue usu lly ssume d

a a a
fo r th e ngu la) i t p r o d u c e s p o le n e r ly 1 2 f e e t lo n g a n a x l e

a nd a yo ke o f 5 fe e t 4 i nc h e s a
,

o f so me 6 fe e t 6 i n c h e s ll o f
a
w h i c h se e m s tr a o w i t i s po s si ble to e s ti ma
, ,

n ge ly l r ge N t e

a a a
c e rt i n di me n si o n s o f a
‘
n c i e n t We s t As i a
.
ti c c h ri o ts f i r ly
2 80 CO N QU E R O R S F R O M Ti m W E ST
au a
t ly f
cc r e ma ro a
l r g e n umb e r o f r e pr e se n t a ti o n s n d th e a
a aa
,

p o le le n g t h c o n s t n tl y se e n i n
p r o fi le i s lw y s so m e w h e r e

a
b e twe e n 6 fe e t n d 7 fe e t 6 i n c h e s lo n g T hi s a
, ,

g r e e s w i t h t he
e x ta n t E gypti a a a
.

ro n A e
n c h r i o ts
( 6 fe e t ) n d t h o s e o f I g
E ur o pe (6 fe e t 6 i n c h e s to 7 fe e t ) I f w e d o pt v lue fo r th e a aa
a la aa a
.

ngu of 5 i c h e o b t i o l l gt h o f b u t 7 f t 0
7 n w n
p e e n o e e 1

a a a a
,

i n c h es n d si n c e wo rd (p mzi g ) e xi sts wh i c h sugge sts th t

’

a
th e Ar y n po le h a a
si gn i fic n t pr o j e c t i o n fo r wa a
,

d r d o f th e

T HE C HARlO T ( E ATHA)

IN G

AXLE HO
'

FLOO R

FIG .
32

y o ke th i s wo uld b eaa bl O u fid i it i
v e ry r e so n e r con en ce n s

i n c re a a la
, .

l u
se d wh e n w e t th th dim i c thi
c e e o er ens ons o n s

a lu a d ai at aa l l gth f a b ut 4 f t 6 i h

a
v e, n rr v e n x e- en o o ee nc e s,

ad ay k wi d th f a
n ob ut 3 f t 6 i
e- h It i t u th a
o t th
o ee nc es s r e e

E gypti a h ai t h aa
.

n wi d wh l b
c r o f6 f t 5 i s h e ee -
se o ee nc e s,

b ut th Eu p aIe Ag v h i l h a
ro ed wh a n t i st d a
ro n y th e e c es o e

tad a
s d ga
n ug f a r t i B i ta i 4 f t 6 i
e o h c t 4 f
r s t n r n ee nc es o ee

ad aaa t l a
, .

8 i h nc k w i th M d i t
e s, n o ne no t i n n e e e rr ne n e s n

th e firs t mi lle n n i um wi d th s (o n e E gypti n tw o

B C Y o ke - ~
a
ro e a a a
. .
,

Eu A
a
p n I r o n g )
-
e v r
y b e tw e e n 2 fe e t 8 i n c h e s n d
3 e e t 1 0 } i n c h e s so o n e fe e ls str o n gly t h a
f 1 t th e Sulba S tra -

me a re me n ts a r e i n t h e c o r re é t r a ti o a a
,

su n d t h t t h e y mu st b e
‘

,
 C O N QU E R O R S F ROM THE W E ST

w ai W k
rr o r e fr o m th e Ri gvétl th a
now
'

a
t th e b o w w s ke pt '

a
la n eed e d a s a a
.

re x d u ti l
e n n d th e n str u n g ; th e b o w stri n g w -

c o w h i d e th o n g a nd i t w a lle d b a c k to th e e a a
, .

- s pu r (n o t s in

Ho me ri c Gr e e c e to th e b r e st) Th e a a
,

rro ws w e r e ti pp e d

wi th me t l a a a m a a a
.
,
'

nd y h v e b e e n b r b e d n d t h e l e ft w r i s t
a a
, ,

w s pro t e c t e d fr o m th e r e c o i l o f th e b o w stri n g by wri st

-

a
gu r d o r bra cer Bu t w e ca n n o t fi n d d e c i si ve e vi d e n c e

wh e th e r i n fa a
.

o f th e typ e o f b o w ct i t w s si mple o r

c o mp o si te

Th e di stri b uti o n o f b o w typ es a mo n g mo d e rn pri mi ti ve s

-

a a
n d wh t w e kn o w o f i ts e a rly h i sto ry su gge st th t th e re re a a
a aa
tw o ma
Afri c a
i t b
i n f mi li e s

w i w h i h h
si mp le b o ws o f wo o d wi th

n c e n tr e o f d i stri bu

a d i w
a
ti o n n d pe rh ps o ri gi n n d c o m
u d t b u i
m i n ly

ld
a
a u
, a a
p o s e o s n c o r n n s n e r e se o p
sh o r te r sti ffe r b o w wh i c h i s kn o wn o n th e ste pp e s nd S i b e a
ri a Pe rsi aa a nd a a
, ,

i n Tu rke y nd I n d i mo n g th e No r th
Ame ri c a Da a
n i sh e xa a
, , , ,

n E sk i mo Th e re i s
. mple d ti n g fro m
th e M e so li th i c p e r i o d Th e e vi d e n c e fro m Cr e te su ggests th e
y
a aa
.

d o pti o n o f th e c o mp o si te h o rn b o w by th e Mi n o n s t th e
'

sa me ti me s th e y a a c qu i re d th e use o f th e w r c h ri o t, a nd a a
-

a a
]

c o mp o si te b o ws i n n c i e n t E gypt r e c o n fi n e d to o n e i n th e

a
Ni n e te e n th D yn sty (th e ti me o f th e w rs wi th Syri a nd aa
th e a a
d pti o n o f th e c h a ri o t
) a d h e o th e r la h a a
a
n t s t e s t e

si xth o r se ve n t h c e n tu ry a n d p r e su m bly o f S c yth i n a

Re prese n t a
ti o ns in a
Assyri o f first mille n n i um d te sh o w a
a
th t bo wme n i n c h ri o ts u a
se d a
c o mpo si te b o w : i ts sh o r te r

fo rm wo u ld b e n dv n ta aaa
ge o ve r th e lo n ge r si mple b o w
‘

a
I t i s o n th e w h o le li ke ly th t c o mp o si te b o ws o f h o rn a
.
.

nd

si n e w we re i n ve n te d i n th e Asi ti c s te pp e n d ma y h a v ea a
a
fo rme d p r t o f th e e a ro p e n a a
,

rly I n do Eu r mo u ry S uc h
-

a a
bo ws m y i n f c t h a ve b e e n use d by th e Arya n s i n In d i a
.

a aa a
.
, ,

Wh te ve r th e typ e i t w s w e ll lo ve d we po n wi th th e -

a
tw n g o f th e b o w stri n g s o un di n g i n th e w rri o r s c r li ke a a a
, ,
,

’
-

wo ma a
,

n s e n d e rme n ts
’
 THE AR YANS AND THE RIG VE D A 2 83

Wi th Bo w le t us w i n ki n e , wi th Bo w i n b a
ttl e, wi th
Bo w b e t
v i c o ry in o ur h o t e n c o un te rs ,

Clo se to h i s c aafa
ir, s n to spe a
k h s e r
p e sse s, h o ld i n g
a
,

h er we ll lo v e d
- fri e n d i n h e r e mbr c e s.

a
S tr i n e d on th e b o w sh e w ma
wh i p li k a s e rs e o n th i s
tri n g th a mba
,

Bo w -s t pre se rv e s u in h t( s t e co VI , _
75 )

Th e re li gi o a a
us b e li e fs o f th e Ar y n s h ve be e n th e subj e c t
o f a li t a er tu a
r e o f th e i r o w n n d thi s c o mp le x s tudy li e s
p f th i b k W h a t d i p ai g th
,

b y d h
e on t e sc o e o v s oo e e no e n ss n e

ath p m phi g d I d aRud ah Asvi ad th

.

n ro o or c o s n r r t e n s, n e

Ma ut ; h I d E u p a ky g d Dy a u pi tah ld a
, ,

r s t e n o- ro e n s o s- r, o s

i mp ta t pla i h Ri g a aad lVIi a ad Vau a

,
’
le ss or n ce n t e ve s o tr n r n

u g d S uya ad h da w g dd Usaa p
, .

Th e s n- o r n t e i n- o e ss s re erso n

fi a c i t o ns of a tua l ph
n m a r j ut aAg i i th a eno t ffi en s s n s o re ,

S ma h d i fi d i t xi a
,

t e ti g j ui f h uk w t

a
or o e e n o c n ce o e n no n

a a
,

p l tn w hi
on h h g d
c t eu d o w h i h
s c m u h
ro f se n on c so c o

V d i i tua
e c r l t Th la
c e n re s ti h i p f th A yap pl e re o ns o e r n eo es

th i g d i th a t fa fra k xp ta f fa
.

to e r o s s ti
o v u if h n e ec on o o rs t e
ri gh t ai fi s cr ap f m d ad th
c es re er o r t w d h at d e n e c o rr e c or s c n e

ad K i th a y i a h p i t a
,

n e th r lly pi tu
er c n c yi g u c re s t e r es s s n n

ah a m d t I d aW h a v u wi h ; y u h a
,

s e o n r
‘
e v gi ft ; e o r s es o e s

a wi th u g ad xp ti g th a
, ,

h e re re w e o r so n t h g d wi ll
s n e ec n t e o

se e th a t h x h ag i fa
t e e ci n e s r
’

Ri tua l i ma ad t d th h ath b u
.

i ly d m ti
s n o es c, n c e n re on e e r t

a vai u h ym a pp p i a
,

th e re re r o s t f pl ugh i g
ns f ro r e or o n or or

d i vi g a
r n ttl t a
c d f m pa
e o tu f mai a
n ro g a d f s re , or rr es n or

fu a l Th i vi d th a ta t m p l w b ui lt

a
n er s e re s no e y ence n e es e re

ad th a ltai la b a t th aa
.
,

n e th i g m
r s no n pi l f tuf
o re e or e n e o r

b ut i th a i ma th a t pla y d ai mp ta t pa
,

n e l n ifi s cr ce s ti e n or n r n

V di i tu
e c r al h p t wh i h h e b a
t e os t ati d f ai fi
to c t e s w s e or s cr ce

a t up wi th id a m y a a f
'

w s se bl co ns d h
er e c e re on
‘

n t e re re re e r

wh a m t b ma
,

e m i e es n o n e h ym ( i 8 ) n t H ll p l
to se e o e s er o es o r

ta a a a a
,

s k s tues pe i li T h
n i fi i
n e s. l p t u
(y p ) i
e s crdd d c os s r esse
2 84 CO N QU E R O R S FROM TH E W E sT

Y e Wh o m r e li g i o us me n a fi mly plat d ; th
h ve r n e o uFo r e st
S o vr a n w h o m th e a h afah i d
x e s s o ne

a a tad i a
,

L e t th o se S t ke s d i v i hi h h
ne w c e re re s n ng b e f i n to
gr au n t s w e alh t w i th s to re
—
o f c h i ld r e n

a ad pla d
.

0 me n , w h o li ft th e l d le s up ,
th e se h ew ed n nte in
th e gr o und

Br i n gi n g ab l e ss i n g to th e fi e ld , sh ll b e a au p r o r re c i ou gi ft to
s

th e g o d s

L ik e a h afl
sw ns t t ee i n le n gth e n e d li n e , th e P i ll ah ars ve c o me
to u aay d i
s rr e n b r i gh t c o lo urs
Th o s tak up
e s es o n th e e ath r w i th r a
mgs th t He c k th e m

On e c a n o n ly c o mme n t th a t th e se tti n g up o f
i n p ssi n g , a
sa c r e d po sts i n li n e s a ar i tua l w e ll a
,

tteste d i n
n d c i r c le s i s

Bro n z e Age E uro pe a mo n g th o se wh o s e tra d i ti o n s a re c o n

n e c te d wi th th e b a ttle a x e fo lk o f th e S o u th R ussi a
r n ste ppe s

a n d th e r e ma
,

y b e so m e u n d e r l i n g r e li i o u
y g s c o n t i n u i t y b e

twe e n th e tw o a re a s wi t h i n th e I n d o E u ro e a n la n u a e
p g g
-

gr o ups ; a n d th e r e i s a n o t h e r po ssi b le po i n t o f c o n ta
. .

a
fl

c t wi t h

r e g r d to b u ri al r i te s
T h e Ri g ved a ri a l tr a d i ti o n s i s a
.

e v i d e n c e fo r b u lmo st c o n
fin e d to a si n gle fu n e ra l h y mn (x Th e re i s r e a so n to

b e li e ve th a t i n th e e a r ly Ar y a n ph a ma ti o n a
,

se i n h u n d c re

ma ti o n w e r e a lte rn a
.

ti ve r i te s e xi sti n g si d e b y si d e , th o ugh
t h e la tte r w a s so o n to b e c o me d o mi n a n t Th e h ymn d e sc r i b e s

a ma ti o n c e r e mo n y i n w h i c h th e wa rr i o r s b o w i s ta
.

n inhu ke n
’

fro m h i s h a nd a s h e li e s i n th e g r v e a n d h e I S c o mmi tt e d to a
M o th e r E a
, ,

r t h wi t h t h e mo v i n li e s
g n

a
Be t ke th e e to th e a
p
l f E ath th o r e hi o th e r , o f E r th a fa r

s pr adei g n v e ry ki n d ad g aci u n r o s

u g Da a
, .

"
Yo n m wo o l so ft un to th e g ue rd o n
e, - -
g i v e r ,
my h s e

a a
th e e fr o m d e str uc ti o n s b o so m
a
’

pr e se rv e
a
.

H e v e th yse lf, E
th r n or pr e ss th e e d ow nw rd he vi ly
a
ff d h i m a a
,

or
y e s c c e ss , g e n tly te n d i ng h i m,
C h i m aa
o ve r m th ,
s
,

o er w r
'
a
p h s e r ski r t a
b ut h o
'

er ch i ld , 0
 2 86 C O N QU E R O R S FR OM THE W E ST

p ro b le m to b e d i sc u sse d w h ta w a a
s th e r e l ti o n b e tw e e n

v i c to r s a n d va n qu a a a
i sh e d fte r th e e n tr n c e p h s e o f th e 1 11
va si o n ? Ha ve w e a n y e vi d e n c e to su a
gge st th t th e i m pre ssi o n
so se d u lo u s ly pr o p ga a te d b y th e Arya n s t h e mse lve s i n t h e i r

li te r a tur e th a t th e y c o n que re d utte rly th e wr e tc h e d (l va a

:

a n d th a t ll th a a a
t fo llo ws fte r i s th e glo ri o us t a le o f I n d r a
,
'

’
s

da rli n gs go i n g o n f ro m s tr e n gth to str e n gth ma y b e t i n g e d

wi th p a r ti sa a a
n fe e li n g to s y th e le s t ? O n th e fa
,

c e o f 1 t su ch

a a
r e ly i mpr o b b le Th e pe 0 p1e th e Ar y a
, ,

e xte r mi n ti o n i s su ns

a tta c k e d we r e n o t b a a
.

r b ro u s fo r e st tri b e s o r si mple h i ll me n -

b ut me mb e rs o f a n a nci e n t a n d e la bo ra te c i vi li z a ti o n t h a
,

t
h o we ve r un p r e p a
,

r e d i t mi gh t b e fo r i ts vi o le n t e n d cou ld
a
h r dly h a ve va a
wa
,

n i sh e d y wi th o ut ti n ge i n g p ro fo un d ly th e
th o u a a
gh ts n d li te r ture o f th e c o n que r o r s I t i s un li ke ly th a t
th e Myc e n a aa
e n b r ds h a d muc h goo d to sa a
.

y o f t h e M i n o n s

gh o f a n c i e n t h i sto ry to r e a a
,

b ut w e kn o w e n o u li z e th t th e
I n d o Eu-
ro p e a a
n str i n i s n o t th e o n ly o n e t h a t c o mbi n e d to
fo r m th e e ve n tu l p a a tte r n o f Gre e k li fe a n d th ou

aa a
gh t :
S i n c e th e d i sc o ve ry o f th e H r pp C ultur e i t h a s be e n

r e c o gn i z e d th a t ma n y e le m e n ts i n me di e v l a a n d mo d e rn

Hi n d ui sm wh i c h c a n n o t b e tr a c e d to a n Ar y a n so u rc e a re ,

i n fa a
c t fo r es h d o w e d m wh a t w e kn o w b y i n fe r e n c e o f th e
lts o f th e o ld e r c i vi li z a
, , ,

r e li gi o u s cu ti o n Th e r e 1 s n o n e e d to
e la a
b o r te th i s p o i n t wh i c h h a s b e e n d e mo n stra te d 1 n d e ta
.

il
a n d h s w o n ge n e r l a
a a a Cle a a
,

c c e pt n c e rl f t t h fi t
y e r e r s

a a
d r sti c Arya ti o n o f th e Punj a
.
,

a aa
‘
niz
’
b so me so r t o f mo dus
rri ve d a t ; i f n o t th e r e e a stwa r d s i n th e Ga
,

a
n ge s
'
’
vi ven z w s

Ba si n a s th e fro n ti e r r e c e d e d e a stwa rd s a n d Ha ra pp i d e a
,

a o f th e Br a a n s If w e a
,

e d th e r e li gi o u m
a
p e r m e t s th o u g h t h re

ri gh t i n th i n ki n g t h a t th e Ha ra z a
.

p p c i vi li t i o n l i k e m o s t o f
i ts c o n te mp or a r i e s i n W e ste r n Asi a w a s la
,

r ge l ri e s t r u l d
yp e
-

th e gro w t h i n p o w e r o f th e Br a a
h m n s o ve r th e K sa tr i ya
, ,

a
c o mmo n p la ti o n mi gh t fa
,

wh i c h i s c e o f Ve d i c e vo lu ll
a
-

na a
tur lly i n to i ts pla ce a p h e n o me n o n a ri si n g fr o m a
,

b le n d i n g o f th e tw o cu ltur a l t ra d i ti o n s I n th e Ri gve d a th e
’
g
o
.
 THE AR YANS AN D T HE R IG VE D A 2 87

p ri ests th o ugh i mpo r ta

nt do no t se e m to a
v y d mi h o ld er o

a a pt (a mut) h
, ,

ppa
n ti g p i tin i i y A d if
os on n so c e t n w e cce s w e s t e
Ha a ugh t a
.

r i flu nli gi u t h e n c e o n re o s o xp t c n w e not e ec

ai mi lami xtu i th a maa

,

to s e e s r lm f h u re ti vi ty
n o e r re s o n c ?

Th D a k Ag
e f I di a r i h d ha
es o lf f h fi t mi l
n n t e se c o n o t e rs

len n iu m a udd ly i llumi a

B C t d
re s ud a b ut 3
en n e ro n o 00

b y li gh t f m h W t M gah aG k ah
. .
,

B C ro t e es e st e n e s, re e t t e

ut f h fi t f h g a f h Ma uy a
. . .
,

co r o t e t v ig rs o t e re so e re ns o t e r n

dy a n ty Ch ad a
s gupta Ma uya n w t a bj ti v a u t
r r ro e n o ec e cco n

i vi li a i wh i h h f u d h i m lf wh i h h au
, ,

o f h t e tic z on n c e o n se c s s r

i d i fra t a a
,

v ve gm t H p
n p i
en s t u f e g i m w h
r e se n s i h c re o re e c

ha ta t l v a la g pa I dia
.

d bli h d
es s e c o n rot f N th o er r e r o or e rn n

al at fi lly li t a
t e s : t ub a h i gh ly ga
i er i e, d a rd u li g
n, or n z e n r n

f m ai mp i ta ag a t wa ll d t w a
,

ro iv
n d l wi thi r e ss e c e n re e o n t

Pa ta li pu a h Ga tr g Th ta on t t i h ld t g th by a
e n es e s e s e o e er

a a a a
.

p o w fu l er m y w i th r ffi d i v i d d i t i w d p r o t ce e n o sx e r

m t d a a a a
,

e n s, li g p ce t i v ly w i tnh v l
re s y i fe t y el i g h t m c r n n r o

bi l a m u ( ha i t ) h a vy a m u ( l ph at ) qua
, ,

e r o r c r o s e t r o r e e n s r er

ma ad ma i t a f a gi ad fi a
, ,

t lly
’
t
s e r s s o res n n en n ce o w r en n es , n n

li a i wi th h a
so n va lf N l t e la
n b a t ly ga o rc e s i d i o e ss e or e or n z e s

wh i h h aa mi i t y f a g i ultu ad
.

h
t e c i vi l vi se r ce, c s n s r o r c re n

p ubli k c w or t lli g a ds c o n rot u ti i i gan ti ro aa l c o ns r c on, rr on c n s,

mi n e s,f t lad t a x
o r e s s, ad b i g ga m h u ti g Th ci ty
n e s, n -
e n n e

a ffi i t i d pam t
.

co u i l ub d i vi d d lik h
nc s e e t e w r o ce n o s x e rt e n s,

d a l wi th i d ut y w i gh t a d m a gi t a
,

e s n s r u e ti f
s n e s r e s, r e s r on o

bi th ad d a t l f ta f a
,

r s th n e t h p s, c o n r o ll ti ol s e s o s, co ec on o s es

a ad th up vi i f h a ffa
,

t x n e s i er ff s on i g vi i t o t e rs o o re n s o rs

d b y pa t i li a l i gh t l a d h a
, .

u my
.

Th ki g e h n w o s ccee s r ne r e s t e r

i fa t y qui pp d wi th 6 f t b w ad
, , ,

whi h i lud c nc es n n r e e -
oo o s n

o th wi th la
e rs hi g w d ; th s a m Bud d h i t b u
s n s or s e re r e so e s s, t

e sse n ti a lly h pi tu i t efa Hi d u i tyc re s one o n so c e

u ly m th i g v y fa mi li ai thi ta
.

Th i e re s s re so e ntli g er r n s s r n

a a a a
,

p i c t u f re o u t h i t i ng i m w i t h i or
p w r v n re e, ts o er o e r so

la g at a
r e t f I d i ath r c t l f ma
o n ufa tu a
: d f
e c o n ro o n c res , n o

w i gh t a
e d m a s u ; h e la n b a t i ty i vi li a
e s re s ti t wi th e or e c c z on,
 r
,

2 88 Co N QU E R O R s FR OM THE w s s

a go ve r n me n t 7 th e pi c ture w e c a n r e c o n s tr u

a
i ts c e n tr li z ed ct

fr o m th e e vi d e n c e o f th e Ha ra pp c i v i l i z a t i o n i s a f t e r l l a
n o t so d i ssi mi la r Th e Ma ury a n e mpi r e ma
, ,

y b e t h e r e s u l t o f
i n d i ge n o us e v o luti o n o f th e Ar ya n tr a
.

d i ti o n fr o m th e h um
b le b e gi n n i n gs i n th e lo g c a
,

b i n s o f th e We st to th i s so ph i s ti
ca te d b u re a uc r a t i c st a te a th o usa n d ye a r s la ter b u t ca n w e

i gn o r e a lto ge th e r th e o th e r mo r e a rba n tr a
,

n ci e n t u d i ti o n
o f In d i a w h i c h th e Ar y a u d Ch a n d ra a a r a
, ,

f gu t M u
n s o n ?
p y
w a s not a fo re i gn e r n o i n va d e r suc h a s Ha r a o r Ba b u
,
.

s r ,

c o mi n g i n fro m th e n o r th w e s t to i mpo se h i s wi ll o n th e I n
-

dia e o ple b u t a ro d u c t of a lo n g tr a d i t i o n w i t h i I d i a
n
p p n n

i tse lf; h e must h a ve b a le o n lo n g e s ta

,

se d h i s r u bli sh e d c us
-

to m i n wh i c h w a s b le n d e d th e a n c i e n t c i vi c tr a

a
d i ti o n o f
Ha ra a a a a a a
,

pp w i th i t s b u r e u c r c y n d m e r c n t i l e o r g n i z ti o n

a ba rb a t i n vi go r a ti n g Arya n wa
, ,

n d th e mo r e ro u s bu rr i or

ca s te wh i c h c o u ld ma ke th e st a t e s tr o n g a ga i n st i ts e n e mi e s
a n d i mpla n t so me t h i n g to o ffse t th e fa ta l t e n d e n c y to sta gn a
ti o n a nd deca y t h a t h a d b e e n Ha r
pp s aa
d o w ’
n f a ll
Pe r h a sa a a a a
.

u e to o mu u
a
p s i t w o ld b c h t o y t h t C h n d r g p t
Ma ur ya a n d h i s d yn a sty w e r e th e gh o st s o f th e H a ra
pp
E mpi re si tti n g c r o wn e d o n th e r u i n s th e re o f o r to c la im in
To yn b e e s ph r a th a t th e Ha ra a
n gd o m w a a a
, ,

ki
’ ‘
se
pp s pp
to t h a t o f th e M a ury a t to th e c o mple x pa
,

r e n te d s Bu tte r n
’

o f th e I n d i a n M i d d le Age s th e a rb a n c i v i li z a
.

n ci en t u ti o n o f
th e P u nj a b a n d th e I n d u s su re l
y c o n t r i b u t e d n o t a li t t l e
"

An d th i s w a s a
.

c o n tri b u ti o n n o t o n ly i n th e sph e re o f r e li gi
ou s spe c u la ti o n o r i n tr d i ti o n s o f ri tua a l a n d c e r e mo n i a l
O b se rva n c e s : th e w h o le ch a ra c te r of me d i e va l Hi n d uso c i e ty
a n d th e str u c tu r e o f i ts
p o li t y a n d g o v e r n m e n t s e e m i n

e v i ta b ly a
r e fl e c ti o n o f th e Br o n z e A e c i vi li z
g t i o n a o f S i n d
a n d th e Pu nja b .

Th e li te r a
tu re on th e Ary ai ns s enor mo us but th e b est ge n e r a
l
au ai a aV
,

cco n ts re n C mb i dg r e Hi s to ry of I n d i , ol
. 1; V G Ch i ld e ,
.
"
.
 I NDEX
a
Al U b i d c ulture 5 5 — 6 D ah Ri ve r, 1 1 6—1

a
s t 7
aa
,

Al c Hu yu k 6 2 , 2 49 De C di r B 31 1

a a
.
, , ,

D o me s ti c n i m ls , 44, 82 , 12 1
a
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 PEOPLES OF THE WOR LD

I n th
h i sto ry ,
e P e li c
c
a
ultur e
n se r i e s

or c v i i li a
ti
re

f a
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on
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n

a i I di a ad Th A t f M i th i lud
.

d d i ti on to P reh i s to r c n n e z e cs o ex co , e se nc e :

THE R O MA N S R H Ba 96 . . rro w A1
THE GR E E KS H D F Ki t to A22O
S aO F ala
. . .

TH E IR ISH i 84 e n
’
o n A1
THE W E L SH A2 I 5
THE A ME R I C A N UN ION A 2 O7
A I
H STOR Y OF THE An d re w Ro th s te i n A2 2 2

AL SO AVAI LAB LE

P R E H I S TO R I C B RI T A I N
a
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w es

A 1 15
‘
at i h i gly i i d a
An nd i um tati a
s on s l pi tun v v c rc s n c re of th e r
p e
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n ti n f h B i ti n s n r o ns o t e r sh I sle s A
fai a i gly h uma tu dy Th S p ta
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sc n t n t n s . e ec or

E T R U S C A N P L A CE S
D.H L . a w re n ce

A 75 6
Th i s i s a u t f La ai v vi di d cco n o w re n c e s
’
sc o v e r i e s ad m d i ta
n ti e o ns

i l t Et u i a
‘
i th mi d d l f I ta
’
ly h ag up f t l
fl u i h d u ti l h R ma
n os r r n e e o w e re ro o w e ve

i ty ta
,

c t - s es o n ce o r s e n t e o ns w i pe d th e m o ut i n th e
th i d ad f u th
r tu i n o r cen r es

T H E AN C I E N T WO R LD *

T R Glo ve r
. .

A 1 20

A c o n c i se h i sto ry o f th e ah icad d i e ve i me n ts n sc o v e r e s o f th e Gr e e ks
ad n Ro m a by n s, g u i h d
n h la fam i l
si a e sc o r r n o t o n ly wi th th e

w ri tte n so u b rc e s l a
l i th h g g a
so w ph y a d p
t e eo r n r e se n t c o n d i ti o n s

i n th e lad f hi
n s o w ch he w ri te s .

ONE SHI LLIN G AN D SI X P E N CE E A CH

Tw o SHI L L I N G S TT w o S H I L L I N G S A N D S I X P E N CE
 C HA E O L O CY AND A N C fEN T HI STORY

W H A T H AP P E N ED I N H I S T O R Y

A 1 08

a
Th i s b o o k, spe c i lly wri tte n fo r th e P e li c n se r i e s n d n o w i n i ts a a
fo u a a
r th l r ge e d i ti o n , tr c e s th e c h n ge s i n m ter i l we ll b e i n
g nd a aa -
a
a
me n t l o utlo o k wh i c h to o k pl c e fro m th e b e g i n n i n g o f re c o rd e d a
h i sto r y up to th e b r e k up o f th e R o m n E mpi r e a -
a .

T H E P Y R AM I D S O F E G Y P T

a
A 1 68
Mr ad h ai h i t d th
Ed w r umulat d l ai g f a tu y
s s n er e e cc e e rn n o cen r

i ifien ah u h P y a
t mi d h h a a
c r e se mi d m t f
rc o t e r s, e s ex n e os o

ad a all h h aa d ai g b y
.

b n lu i d mi d Th li
o ve e s c n e ne r w n s

M J C ui k h a ai gulaly l api tu f th Wa
, , .

r k R rgi s n
y o se ve s n r c e r c re o e

i wh i h th P y a
.

n c mi d w t ut d
e Th Li t
r s e re c o n s r c e .
’
e s e ne r

AR C H A E O L O G Y O F P AL E S T I N E T

A 1 99

In th i s i mpo r ta
n t b o o k P r o fe sso r Alb r i gh t ho a aa
t a
ma
w IS n ex c v or s

aa h la u y h d i
,

we ll s sc o i r, d is thi rv e s t e sc o v e r e s e n s hi s to r i c
reg i a
on d th n t i b ut i th y h a ma
e con r d uk on e ve e to o r now le d ge o f
h ai
t e t a h li th
nc en r H
c es w a l i mat ia
lo ve e re e re v e s, n er not hi th e r
a a a ah th
.

to p ubli h d t
sh li ghe t whi h h l gi
e l c rc eo o c r e se rc ro ws upo n
h O ld a T ta
,

t e d N n m t ew es en s .

Le o n ad W
r o o lle y , a re n o w in ai c t ve pre p aai r t on .

O N E SHI LLIN G AN D SIX P E N CE E A CH

TT w o S H I L L IN G S AN D SI XP E NCE
 P R I M I T I V E AR T
'

Le o nh ad Ada
rm
A 67
ad a f aw a
—
Th i s r e pr i n t r e vi se d n e n l rg e d o o rk spe c i lly w ri tte n fo r
aB k d i b ai u f m a
, ,

P e li c n oo s, e sc r es th e v r o s t or s wh i c h th e rt i s t i c 1 m

m d th pla
a Eu a aa
th o u
-

w ho ro i
e e ns of r o pe tw e n ty s n d ye
g t rs o o

a ai g h h umafi gu
,

th e mo d e rn N e gr o i n v e n ti n g n ew w y s ofc rv n t e n re

a
m o n g th e fo r e sts of th e I v o ry Co ats .

R U S S I AN A R T
aaaTa
T mr lb t Ri o ce

A 1 82

A sur v e y of R ussi aAn rc h i

t
ec u
p i n ti n g , sc u
t re lpture a ad n th e
at f om a
,

mi n o r r s r th e te n th c e n tury to th e pr e s e n t d y .

E U R O P E AN P A I N T I N G AN D S C U L P T U R E T

A S2

a u t f th d
A sh o r t cco n o e e ve lo p me n t o f th e fi n e rts a a n d in p a
r

la f pa a
,

i u
t c i ti g i E u
r o n n n r o pe fr o m th e e rli e st t i mes to th e pr ese n t
da
,

y .

T H E M E AN I N G O F ART
Herbert Re d a
( A 213

a
De sc ri be d i n th e St r wh e n i t fi rst ppe r e d s th e b e st po c ke t a a a ‘

i n tr o d uc ti o n to th e u n d e rs t n d i n g o f a
rt th t h s e v e r b e e n pub a aa
li sh e d , th i s b o o k 18 i llu
’
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str te d wi th s i x ty si x pl te s n d so me li n e aa
a
-

a
d r w i n gs I t h s b e e n n e w ly re vi se d fo r th e P e li c n se ri e s
. a .

TO N E s HI L L I N C AN D S I X P E N CE
Tw o SHI LLIN GS AN D SI X P E N CE E ACH
 MO D E R N P A I N T E R S

a
Th e P e n gui n S e ri e s o f M o d e r n P i n te r s c o n ti n ue s, b y d i n t o f c re fu
‘
lty aa
pl n nae d c o m b i a a
n ti o n o f g o o d q u li ti e s , to pr o vi d e t h e b e st v lu e fo r a
aa
mo n e y o b t i n ble i n thi s o r , I suspe c t , n y o th e r c o un try a
Th e Li s tene r

HE NR Y MO O R E

D UN C AN GR a
A N T — / R y mo nd A/Iorti

J O H N PIPE R J oh n a
B e tjem n

P AU L N ASH Herbe r tR a
d e

VI CTO R P ASM O R E Cli ve B e ll

E DW AR D B AW D E N — j . M Ri ch rd s
. a
ST AN LE Y S PE N CE R E ri c Ne w to n

B E N SHAHN ja
mes a
Th r ll S o by

W I L L I AM N I CH O L SON Ro bert N i ch o ls

B E N N I CHO L SO N mmerso n
j oh n S u
P R A N CE S H O D GKIN S Myf ay E a
nw v ns

DA VI D J O N E S Ro bi n Iro ns i de

P AU L K LE E Do u
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s p
oo er

E DW ARD HO P PE R Lloy d Goo dri ch

Eah c vo lume i s 7% adn con a

i
t ns 16 a
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ha
lf t -
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w h i te re pr o d uc ti o n s , nd aa aa
I 6 -p ge ppr e c i a
a
-

’
ti o n o f th e r ti st s w o r k.

THRE E SHI L L I N GS AN D SI X P E N CE E ACH