B e tw e e n th e Devil an d

th e D e e p S e a
S h ri n ki n g O pt io ns fo r W o
C on te m po ra ry In d ia
m en in 4~
-- - --- - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - '- - - - -
N IRMALA BA N ER JE
E

ln lro du ct io n
Th i., t", :,a y re v ic-.., .
th\:' sh rin ki ng op tio ns be
con1r.1, tin in ns b· ·t w ,!e ll fo re In di an w om en : th
th e persistently ho us eh e
of ge nd t·r in g ,111d th e ol d- or ie nt ed pr ac tic es
ch al le ng es po
se d by a ra pi dl y m od
-1 ec on o my ·whi ch h:n ,e er ni zi ng
m :id e w om en in cr ea sin
radati o n an d vi ol en ce . gl y ·vu ln er ab le to 9-eg
Th e ra pi d fall in th e se -
ch ild re n ap pe ar s to be x ra tio am on g In di an
a reflection of ·t he se tre
J lev el. Th e w id es pr ea
d sw itc h fro m br id e pr ic nd s at th e ho us eh ol d
J co m m un iti es ha s no e to do w ry in al m os t al
do ub l
,.~ ro ot s lie in th e na tu re of t ac te d as its tri gg er in g m ec ha ni sm , bu t its
,j In di an ec on om ic de ve lo
few de ca de s: Th e pr oc pm en t ov er th e pa st
es s of m od er ni za tio n ha
~I
·'
th e tra di tio na l oc cu pa tio
ns no n- vi ab le ; at th e sa
s rendered m an y of
m e time, ag ric ul tu re
can no lo ng er ab so rb
a m uc h la rg er w or kf or
re le as ed fro m th os e oc ce . Bu t fo r th e w or ke rs
ho ld in th e ne w ly -o pe ne
cu pa tio ns , it ha s be en
di ffi cu lt to ge t a fo ot - ' I,

of the-m ha ve be en co nd
d ve nu es of wo rk . Th er
ef or e, m or e an d m or e
•;
I
em ne d to w or k in un ce I

liveliho od s w hi ch do rta in an d po or ly pa id
no t fit well into th e ea
life. Al o ng w ith th is th rli er -pa tte rn s of fa m ily
e va lu e se t on m an y of
ge uing er od e d b e ca us w om en 's sk ill s is al so
e th es e ha d be en .valu
thos e ea rli e r w ay s of ed ch ie fly as a pa rt of
life . Th es e tra di tio ns ha
aiso be e n re sp o ns ib le ve , to a la rg e ex te nt ,
-l fo r m an y of w om en 's ha
ma rk et a nd th ey co nt in nd ic ap s in th e la bo ur
ue to co nf in e w om en ·
- - th e lab ou r hie ra rc to th e lo w es t ru ng s of
hy . In sp ite of th es e ad
trainin g an d so c ia lizat ve rs e ou tc om es ,· w om
io n at th e ho us eh ol d le en 's .
lo red to th os e sa m e ho us ve l co nt in ue to be ta i-
eh ol d- or ie nt ed roles. Th
th e ne ed s of th e ec on is m ism at ch be tw ee n
om y an d th e social en
do w m en ts th at w om en
 44 NIRMALA UA
NF.RJEE
.
.,
...
•r ... ~ .- '"' "" .., . .. ,.. • f f"'
. are p ro v id ed
reflected in th
w it h lies at th
e 'r o o t o f th
.b -'• I-~ ( j,,,
~ ,'1-
'·"' ' ~' ~ t.;
1. ,
l
e falling fe m ei r gr ow in g . '
At the sa m e al e/ m al e ch il d d eg ra d at io n
ti m e , a sm al l sex ratio . as B e cw e e n th
its sh ar e o f tht! se ct io n o f In e D ev il Jn d
be dian ~ o m en c_h e D ee p S ea
e u o f dovtelop t'lt!flts an d o p p o 1 tu n it le s ha s re ce iv ed process co n ti
n u es th ro u g h 45
ment, In th e ge ne rn'tecl th
ro ug h tht! pr oc holds g o o d un o u t in fa n cy
they wc1•c, to fast gl ob al iz - iversally, it I.! a n d ch il dh oo d . Sin
b e se en fn po ln g econcm,y tion can co m lo g ic al to co ce this rule
sphere~. M y es sit.Ions o f em o f th e 1990s, e ab o u t o n ly n cl u d e that th
sa in en e In di an !iltua-
en ed visibility y poses th e q u es ti o n o f thl'Oll8h a sy st
ce 11nd p o w er
Jl Is to b e re g ar w h et h er or no In m an y infancy . Mothe em
ire breast-feedirsngo f girl chlfclren a re g iv en leatssic n~glect o f girls from
class di ff er en d ed as a si g n t th ei r he ig ht ; girls ar e b re
ce in g en d er o f so m e ne w - nesses-ciuririg m.itritlon w hi
· This es sa y in g p at te rn s ly d ev el o p in infancy an d as t- fe d for a le they
is d iv id ed in . g ch il d h o o d a sh or te r p er io d ; th
di sc us se s w h to th e fo ll o w and Sen 1995 re taken less eir ill-
in g four p;irts :1
y th e falJ.ing
fe m al e/ m al e : th Th is kind o f43 -4 4) . se ri ou sl y (D re
indicators o f
d el ib er at e an child sex ratios e first brie fly fants by th~ir n e g le c t- li te ze
da ta to hi gh
li gh t th o se d
ti -f em al e viol
ence. T he se
ca n b e u se d
as o w n families ra ll y co d ea th -o f he lp le
mestic :; ph ere is ss
ge _n d er _id eo lo
g ie s tlrnt h av
is ti n ct iv e an
d pe rs is te nt as pe
co n d p ro v id
es . And, u n li k e ce rt a inl y a form o f vi ol en fem ale in-
o th er -f o rm s ce in th e d o -
e m ec o n o m y e m ad e w o m
pq rt ic ul ar ly · en 's integratio
ct s o f In d ia n w e d o h av
ch an ge s that
e a fairly u n
am b ig u o u s
o"r-domescic-; ioi~-;.;ce,
im p ac t o f_th e di ff ic ul t. T h n.into th e m o are ta ki ng pl a n d objecti ve h er e
ch a~ g ih g p at e third se ct io d- ac e an d th ei m ea su re o f
pe ct s o f w o m te rn s o f li ve n di sc us se s Although di sc r in tens th e
th e ri m im lt io n ag
divisions am
en , T h e last se
ct io n re fl ec ts
li ho od o n the
m ar ri ag e p ro a new p h en o
m en o n in In di a in s t g irls b y ity o ve r time.
o n g ·w o m en o n the ap p ar en s- a, th e re c en t their o w n fam
o f vi ol en ce ag an d th ei r po t cias s- b as ed ca use o f fr es ili es is n o t
airis.t w o m en ss ib le impact h co n ce rn b o fall in th e chil
: o n th e tr aj ec ca us e o f its ir1 th fo r re se a d sex ra tio is
to ry crea se d in te n rc h er s and po a
lh e d ec ad es si ty a n d w id l icy -m a ke rs
p re ce d in g in er sp re ad th an ev be -
ratio ha d fa vo d ep en d en ce er be fo re . In
T h e V u ln er ur ed girl s, as , th e overall
a b le G ir l Chi high child m or w as w b e ex fnd ia n child
l3y n o w there: ld ta lity d em o g p ec te d in the se x
! is a vast li te though Indi a ra p h i c re g im h ig h fertility /
. 1961, .B ar d~ ra tu re o n In di still ex hi bi ts e pr evailin g th
an 1974, Mitr a\ ,': niissing fe '.h~ all-India ch a n o t d is si m en. H o w ev er
Ag-r)l~o:trl ·1?9 a 1980,. fyi_ille mai"es' (Visar il d se x ra ti o h il ar pattern o ,
.5, 199~, 1997 ,r.19.81;" Ky"rici- ia ll ftrst w en as b ec o m e in f d em o g ra p h
i- an d S.<:n 1 9. y
\ · have-fo,c~_s ed
as indicato~?
_th e gi.rl~.h il d
o n s ~_ratios
o f th e. !?.Ow
, fu _st to m en
in _In d_ia _'s ch il
ing vio"lence
ti o n ·a few) :
d popl,llat[on
in tl~is es sa y
visu alizing th
83,

es
I
1991 , the over
rhe overall s~
t d o w n to :9
all f~ll m ~h~s
x ratio . ~ h is
0 girls \p ~ r 1 0
e ra ti o s h as
cr ea
0 0 bo ys in 19
singly ad ve rs

bee.n much st
e to girls ;
61. fr o m th en
co
,

: Expei:ts (P ad
1987, A gn ih ot
ri .199q) :}):av:¢
nun;il?~:r ~'o fg ir
l~ i:.s'.: by 'p.o:'t
.ti~U}ri,r~gl9 ji e~ n s 'a, n·~~
·ch~-Ji'i~r~'.n ·:c~,nllo
~. in d··c1,1l_tu~e.
;P.PPW;lh[!on·a_
~speciflc. soci ph~noi:nen_~Q,:_b u t ·e ss en -
irn'r ne di at el y
~lt~(tl},~·qeo~ri-
~ '.t
cdntim.ies·rO-f~
H through:o.ur
ch li d. ho od til
'natui-a(patt~
m h o w ev.e_r, is
. tha n thefr .m
cfren ~reJ~ss
al e'. CbUhtel'par
q _u it e Qfff~-~e~
C:S a"nd'_di~e.a girl infants
iikely to ·p_rcw@:fa
~acuial "i!Tlbal
µ'rice", n at ~)re
10~/Jo:o i?_o y s ('? 10 Pt:QVi~e.s fo r .a· sese'. _To'. compen·5?te fo r thilis-
0 _.girls;;_rhls
at birth s·tarts
.b ei n ~ co n'ec
te d al m o st im
w it hi n _the h o u se h e 1s p ar ti cu la rl ee p er th an in
m an ab h ~ 19 o ld ag ai ns t w he n the chil y tr ue
82, Cl ai k.198 d se x _ratio (p of the 19 81
sh q w n' tf:ia(.su ch a .short 3, ,19.87 , D y so n w he reas th e se
x ra tio o f th e
o p u la ti o n 0
-6 ye ars) fell by -9 1 p er io d
fall in th e re la ~lso, as T ab le to ta l p o p u la 1.8 p er ce n t,
ti ve 1 sh o ~ s , this ti o n fell b y on
ural
al
all states : in th
e p re v io u s d
fall d µ ri n g th
e last de cad e
ly 0.8 p er ce n
t.
ciuafry starts ~b .
i
"ris'fr(i"~t: T n e·J
Jidn•g'against gferlxs'. iiiallcni5'1n
had fallen, ~u
c in
ec ad es , th e
ch il d sex ratios o
to o k p la ce in
dency o f fo ili ng _se ve ra l o th er s , th ey h f a fe w st at es
.il pedodJfroin-91!: o~t child se x ra ti
os h as n o w af
ad gone up .
T h at th e te n
J.~- ~~1~ d~y_ try rather th an fe ct ed all part -
l the. ag e b f n s) . It th e~ a few tr ad it io s o f th e co u n
ve lo pm en t (D na l p o ck et s
t;
a~e
in e' o r so . T h
b~rri tb ~ g h er
e as G up ta an d
Mari B h at 19
is in de ed · ane~ k in d o f d e -
-
:S es, affecting ir 98 , Banerjee
if~rits ·a n d ch an d Ja in 20 01
tal in th ei r ca T he A n ti -G ).
T~e main fa ct
o r b eh in d th
ir l C h il d B
ia s: T he n
x· 1;atio at "brrth gi s has al w is hi st o1 y o f
in it ia l sh o,rtfa
H 'in th e n u m b er
o f ab o u t Inrldian f ·1·ay s b ee n th e st n eg le ct or ev
en in fa nt ic id
ro
rnediatelv af te c lg irLs f ami ies . A11 o
f v er In ·· - n g cu ln .i re o f _ "'" ""~'
e of
rw ar ds an d th ~ :~ u r o so n . • d ia h o u se h o so g __
pr l..l.l..i... •
e s m th ei r al lo ' ld s [·-e n d to ct ence m m o st
c1ht1es that ar ca ti o n , es p ec ·- · ·
e co n si d er ed ia ll y of th os e 1scrunmate- m .
cal ca re an d v al u ab le , as fo g o o d s an d -fa-
ac ce ss to ed u r ex am pl e, m
ca ti o n . ·.I n fa ilk, g o o d m ed
m il ie s with li i-
mited re sm lr
r·,..-
 I
this different ial may extend even to basic necessiti es to the extent
that it sometim es proves fatal for girls . For example , Leela Visaria's
fiel~wor k had shown that when a male child was ill, day labourer
families would willingly sacrifice a day's wage to take him to a clinic
or a doctor, but not so for a girl child (Visaria 1988).
Over and above this widespr ead son preferen ce, certain regions
and cast~s- were tradition ally known to discour~ g~IE,~_ml;;>_~q f!!:ieir
commun it1es from bringing up too many girls. British officers in the
nineteen th century arid later the census reports till 1931, had noted
that there was always an unnatur al shortage of girls among the
populati ons of certain regions and castes . Several authors have shown
how particula r gro ups a t ce rt a in points in time had sought a higher
s tatu s within their commun ities b y practisin g an elaborat e structur e
of hyperga mo~s maEriag e which made the b!rth of a daughte £ 2ar-
ticularly unwelco me among them (Inden 1976, Pocock 1972, Banerjee
and Jain 2001). Althoug h the bias existed within the househo ld, sanc-
tions for the practice and t!1e__irr:!pera tives behind it wer~_pi_:_ovided by
the commun ity and its social authorit ies . Househo lds could ignore
these sanction s only at th e peril of los ing their much-va lued .~ocial
status.
The maj o rity of Indian hCJus<·holcls, however , did 1101 p;irtlclp alc
in these statu s-ga ining ~ante ."- and clrd nor marry off 1hei1 daughte rs
by paying a dowry . Instead, the: much more common practice was
for the groom's family to pa.x__~ bride p,:lce. Particula rly In pea.!ant or
artisan househo lds a healthy bride was an asset transferr ed from one-
family to another for which paymen t of bride price by the groom 's
family was conside red logical by all. Even among the status con-
scious nineteen th century Bengali Brahmin s, marriage s of males in
most families outside the small elite section of 'kulins' 'were by pay-
ing a bride price .
And Now
The recent increase in the number s of missing girls, howeve r, is of a
differen t characte r. Apart from the usual pra~tice of neglecti ng the
welfare of little girls, there are signs of a greater degree of delibera -
tion and plannin g by individu al families in determin ing their compo-
sition and the number s of girls to be found in them . Das Gupta (1987)
had noted that in her fieldwo rk area the girls who went missing were
likely to be of higher birth orders and that this event was more likely
to occur in families with educate d mothers than in others. In other
~ I
~~_:,_,.~
. :-t '
Between the Devi/ and the Deep Sea 47
,.i words, when people, especial ly middle class people, begin to con-
trol the sizes of their families, the births they set out to avoid are
preferab ly those of girls (Das Gupta and Mari Bhat, op cit: 74) .
The bulk of the excess in the deaths of girl children still occurs
after the age of one (Dreze and Sen 1995: 143--44) and can be ex-
plained by the same practice of neglecti ng the health and nutrition
of little girls. But it is plausibl e thilt the accelera ted shortfall in the
number of girls during the last decade was at least partly due to more
planned decision s by families about how many children (and of which
sex) to have. Alread y, there is some evidenc e that the sex ratio at
birth has become more male domina ted. One study had shown that
there were 106 males to 100 females in the period between 1949 and
1958; accordin g to recent informa tion from the Central Statistica l Or-
ganisatio n , this figure had gone up to 110 males in 1989/199 1(ESCAP
1997:18- 19, Tables 9 and 10) . Earlier, Kynch and Sen's data on hos-
pital births in Mumbai had shown ~ similar imbalan ce between the
numbers of male and female babies born (1983).
There have been many recent journalis tic reports of poor fami-
lies, especial ly in south India , practisin g female infantici de for this ·
end . It is even more likely that many families have been using the
new clinics providin g amnioce ntesis tests, followed by the abortion
of female foecuses , to attain their desired family size and compos i-
tion . As Das Gupta and Mari Bhat have shown, the increase in the
nllmber of girls gone missing during the 1981-91 decade could have
been brought about only by 0.5 per cent of'the total concept ions In
that period being wasted in this way 0998: 76, Table 4.1: 76 and 83-
84) . With amnioce ntesis tests being widely available in most areas
and abortion s being legal and easily availabl e, such an eventual ity is
very much within the realm of the possible . My argumen t is that the
delibera tion shown by individu al familie~ in planning these de.aths
of little girls sets them in a differen t category . What is more, these
decision s are now being made by individu al families purely on the
basis of their own private calcul_;Hi9.r!§. 9.f_cQs..ts_an.~ pefits; there is
no pressure of C()mffiL)~ity ti-~tj.itiq_ns, s:_~mpar able to earlier limes,
that can sh~re th<=: blame. As such, they can
cases of delibe~ te _anq_'?{a_n.!,91). violenc e .
rightly be regarde d as
. The other reason why the re~~;{t- tr~nds are of special concern
relates to the spread of these pr.actice s to 1ridia's Schedul ed Caste
populati ons. For the first half of this century, the shortfall in the rela-
tive numbers of Hindu girls was almost totally confined to a few up-
 - - -"-1111-., , --
1 · -=
1~=-~::-:.~
:; ; -_..- -~-;· - ·'
-4_4_N_"I_.._·_·_·_ ·_·
NI RM AL -----
A BA NE RJ EE ------
,, ~
~~ - - - -- --
- - -·:·_ ·
pe r an d m id dl e ca 1.· ·,_ I

th e M us lim s al so stes. In th e no rt hw es t pare of In di

11
IJ ec we cn ch e
D ev il a n d £h e
sh a, th e Si kh s an d
of th e so ci al gr ou ar ed th es e ce_n de nc ie s . But, p re -1
D e ep Se a 4
-- -- - 9
ps , w hi ch la te r ca 95 0 , a lm o st no ne . . ru r til e 1nc . • . lic rn tic in o f la nd
Ca st es , ha d sh ow m e tu be Li be lle rca .-;(ln.-. re as 1n g
· , _. . \V ·sl lle ·•' fro m m :H gi na l fo rmer,
n an y si gn s of su d as Sc he d uk d
Ja in op . cit, Ta bl ch an ti- fe m a le bi:l.s
(B an er je e a nd
r I ·lt'
an< :-, 'Hc" •C'rllp. pc1s in \ · ng al Tll1:: rc 1 .
s no sy .s1t:rn:1t1.('
e 7) . In re ce nt ye
ar s ho w ev er , Ag I thi!; , liu1 i1.· p\>1ts . ug cs l tin ! 11 : pr
11 :1 d i1.·e h as Oll W
d:n:.i aho11 1
th at th e Sc he du le n ih1 s11 ,., .
d Caste po pu la tio
n ha s co nt ri bu te
>\ri has sh ow n I eve11 :1nu ,n g ,c., ~., 1 •lim •in d Cl in st1
' I ,. , _.,
. . l>
. . . . . cc:n :tl'Cl![)tc:.:d
pr op or tio na te sh
ar e to th e ~<:_ma_~e~ d m or e th an its . . ,
111 u 11 111e:, 1I I . . 1· , tit 1 . on lv e xc e
.111 ( 1>111111un1t1 c :-. . So m e. 11.·1b..ll .
ad e . All st at es ex
ce pt Kera la ha ve
go n~ . mis_$i ng in th
e 19 81 -9 1 dec-
I . I) )(; 1
pt i< 111 ... . ~e1:o nd ly
, l'. (jl la lly rcrnar
<.: om-
sh ar ed in th is tre
I
I th ,.:n . I1,1, Vl.. I) t ·t:n kw urg,1nizecl . k: ibl y,
sh ow n th~t, in 19 nd . H e ha s fu rth er . .s< ,u al pr ot es ts .
81, th e anti-girl ch g1vt.ng 0 1. t·• i•"--1·1,•g (if do w ry O n ly tlw or re s ist an ce to
I

w as no hi gh er th ild bi as am o ng th ur lx 1n w om e n .
the
an ·in th e re st of th es e so ci a l gro up s m ou n te d a ca m pa .· . . s m ov em e nt had
4 ye ar s . B ut in th e po pu lat io n in th ig n ag ai ns t 1t in , ~
e ag e gr ou p 0- th e 19 80 s, an d e _
re sp on si bl e fo r
e ag e gr ou p 5- 9
ye ar s, th e Sc he d
be en vo ic es w ith
in th e m ov em en ✓ e n \h e n th er e ha
m os t of th e ex ce u le d Ca ste s w er e tra st, in th e first t in ._ fa vo ur of do d
w or ds , no t· on ly ss in th e de at hs ha lf of th e tw en tie w ry .- ln sh ar p co
do es th e ev id en ce of gi rls .· In ot he r tive ca m pa ig ns m th ce nt ur y th er e n-
so ci al gr ou ps ha po in t to th e po ss o u nt ed by va ri ou w er e m an y effec
vi ng be gu n to .p ra i bilit y o f th es e pe op le ag a in st th s co m m un iti es an -
di ca te s th at _Sc he ct is e fe m al e in fa e gi vi ng or ta ki ng d gr ou ps of young
du le d Caste:' girls nt icid e; it al so In · of do w ry anc..
pi :o po rtl on ac e pa or e no w be in g - m arria ge ce i·e m on le s Th e co nt
poverw•and m a de to be ar a d ra st be tw ee n th at l .ig ,ll ns l ex pe ns iv e
un de rg o (A gn ih rt of th e de p riv ati on ch at th e ir fa ls- ;.1 cc ep ta nc e o f to ·
da y se em s to iig . hi st or y an d th e m
ot rl 1996). · mlli es hi at us b et w ee n .th ni fy th at therde . . ee. k
e m ar ke t va lu es of br id 1s 1n fa ct a ~rowhin
;ic ce pt ed th~ t b rid es an gr oo g
es ar e th e bu ye rs 5
Th e im m ed ia te
Br id e Pr ic e an d D ow
ry th is in cr ea si ng de in a se lle r's m ar ke ms . oc1ety as
re as o~ f; r this :g va lu at io n of w om r. \"v'hat ex pl ai ns
Th e ne xt se ct io n
fr om di ve rs e so ci
al gr ou ps to ha ve
ro w in g rel uc ta nc
e am on g fam ilies at te m pt s to un ra en in so ~i et y an d th ek ~ o my
an d t9 br in g u p ve l th e lo gi c of ?
co ur se , th e fact da u gh te rs is, of th e m a r ~
th at in all se ct io ns
in cr ea si ng me_0! of In di an so cie ty
ce qf do w ry . C om th er e is no w an W om en ·a nd M
of gr oo m s pa yi ng m u n ities w hi ch ha ar ke ts
a br id e pr ic e to th d lo ng tra d it io n~
sp ac e of a ge ne ra e girls ' fa th er s, ha Th e m aj or ity of
tio n on w o, sw itc ve , wi th in th e In d ia n w om en ar
ries. A nd th e de he d to gr oo m s co lle th e rn::uriage an d e at a se ve re di
m an ds se em to ct in g fa t do w - th e la bo ur m ar ke sa dv a nt a ge in bo
be es ca la tin g (K ts : th ei r po s ition th
re al qu es tio ns of ap ad ia no t di sc on ne c te d !> in th e tw o ar e
co ur se ar e: w hy 19 94 ). T he si nc e th ey bo th st
ab le to re si st th es ha ve th e fa m ili es ize th ei r da ug ht em fr om th e w ay
e de m an ds ? W hy of gi rls be en un - er s . Th e ba rg ai ni fa m ili es so ci al -
In g up ? W ha t de ln de ed is th e pr ic th ei r fa m ili es is ng po w er o f un m a
ve lo pm en ts in th e o f gr oo m s go - lo w be ca us e of rri e d gi rls an d
fo r th is ? e ec on om y ha ve da ug ht er m ar ri ed th e co m pu ls iv e
· be en re sp on sibl e a_s so on as po ss ib ne ed to ge t ev er
T he is su e ca n .b e N at io na l Fa m ily le af te r pu be rt y. y
br id e pr ic e co do se en fr om tw o an gl es : firstly, H ea lth Su rv ey co A cc or di ng to th e
w ry an d its sp re th e tra ns i.ti o n _fro ce nt of ru ra l an d nd uc te d · in 19 92
ov er 20 pe r ce nt /9 3, ov er 45 pe
c'o un i:r y_·a~ dt o' ai
m os t ali' co m m u;
ad , literally, to a
itl es . Th is ha s ta
'i1 co rn er s or' thm.e 19 97 : 98 , Ta bl e:
04 ) . Q ve r tim e
of ur ba n gi rls w
er e m ar ri ed (ESC r
ab ly fa st qv er th ke n p la ce re m ar k- up fr om 15 .9 in th e m ea n ag e at APJ
e last 25 -3 0 ye ar s. 1961 to 20 ye ar s m ar ri ag e ha s go
m un ity in W es t Fo r ex am pl e, in tw e en th e m ed ia in 19 92 /9 3 . Bu e ne
Be ng al , ev en pr os th e Bart1jivi co m n·ag e at m ar ri ag e th e di ff er en ce b~
ag o _ha d to pa y pe ro us fa m ili es - ea rly tw en tie s an of w om en w ho -
a br id e pr ic e to th tw o ge ne ra tio ns d of th os e w ho w er e ch ~n in th ei
m un ity th e sa m e e fa th er s of girls; th an 1.5 ye ar s in w er e in th ei r fo r
families ar e no w ha In th e s: im e co m bo th ur ba n an d ru rt ie s w as no m
de m an ds th ey ha un te d by w or rie s - l9 97 :53-'.--SS) . ra l ar ea s (i bi d ., or e
ve to m ee t to ge t ab ou t th e do w ry T ab le s 44 an d 46
an d Ja in 20 01 A th ei r da ug ht er s m T he im pe ra tiv e: to ,
pp .I) . Simllarly, G ar ri ed (B an er je e se ek ea rly m ar ri ag
gr ow in g pr ac tic ~p ta 09 97 ) no te va lu e at ta ch ed in e ar is es fr om th
e of gr oo m s de m s chat th e ne w ly In di an so ci et y to e tr em en do us
an_d in g a do w ry c-on~ ,'.in th ei r ~e w om en 's ch as tit
is on e of th e m ai xl _1ality w ith in m y an d th e. ne ed to
n ar ri ag e . T he pr es
l~~s 1_r 1on of •~ la1T1 tig e an d th e so ci
i\y ar e ~till crucially al
getting rn am ed In cl l'p en cl en t on th
go od time . And th ei r da ug ht er s
e m ad sc ra m bl e
by families of all
 inr o ma rgi nal Tra nsl oca l Mo der nit ies an
lan d-h old ers (da Corea
an d Ve nka ces hw arl u 199 d Transfonna'tfons. ·' ·a,59
all the se cas es wo rke 9). In
rs wh o hav e had ver y res
du e w opp res siv e Jab our rel ati ons tric ted age ncy
(Le rch e 199 9), du e to kin
ear lier ans for ma tio ns hav e bee n par
trf the wa y in wh ich the nor ticu lar ly str iki ng in the sou th, .beca1:1se
lig at1 ons ow ed to em plo shi p ob~ th Ind ian ma rria ge sys tem
yer s to wh om the y are ~nd rap idl y spr ead sou thw has sud den ly
200 0) or du e to bei ng sile ind ebt ed (Ka pad ia ard s and tra ns for me d-o
nce d by the gag cre ate d by wo rds , 'po iso ned '-s ou th r in Ra vin dra n 's
rel a tio ns (da Co rta and Ve att ach ed lab our Ind ian ma rria ge (R avi nd ran
nk ate shw arl u ] 99 9) are , 1999:WS-39)
tes t , dep art , sec ede fro m no_w abl e to pro - 1•n rhe last thr ee dec ade s .
the do tni nio n of the lan Th e ma rria ge sys tem s of pei;
ne w sub jec tho od . Th is new dlo rd, ma rk the ir l_~~-':l~ar Ind ia ha ve be en
act ive sub jec tiv ity tha t com dif fer ent from tho se of the dis tinc tjve ly
res i s ts, eva des and rej ect pla ins against, no rth for cen tur ies . In
s a sup eri or aut ho rity is ma rria ge S)'Stem', ren ow ned thi s 'Dr avi dia n
der nit y in low er- cas te Ind the dia crit ic of mo - in ant hro po log ica l cir cle
ia, and the re is no go ing (Tr2 i.1trn inn -19 81) , it has s wo rld wid e
cla im to rig hts h as to be bac k. Thi s ne w bee n the clo sen ess of kin
hea rd , bec aus e it is ma de celebr;:i.tc d within ma rria ge, tha t has bee n
vo ice , bu t bea rin g a new not onl y in a ne w so tha t the ide al bri de gro
per son a an d spe ak ing fro h::i~ !)•::en her mo the r's yo om for a wo ma n
Th e op pre sse d 'un tou cha m a new loc a tion . un ger bro the r (G oo d 198
ble ' no w spe ak s as the 1993). Wh ile ma rria ge wit h 0, 1991 ; Ka pad ia
the bo nd ed wo rke r bec om dis obe die nt Dalit , a mo the r's bro the r (m am
es utt erl y rec alc itra nt a nd the ide al ma rria ge, oth er an in Tam il) is
ne gin g on his inh eri ted run s aw ay, re - pre fer red hu sba nd s for
deb t, the rur al po or bec mo the r's bro the r's son and a wo ma n are her
tiv e . Bu r the ne w vo ice tha om e pol itic ally ac- her fat her 's sis ter 's son .
t cla im s the sub alt ern 's rig dia n ma rria ge has kep t ma Th us sou th In-
alm ost sol ely a ma le vo ice ht to be hea rd is rria ge all} anc es lite ral ly
(K apa dia for thc om ing ) . ily '-a nd this arr ang em ent 'wi thi n the fam -
Th is ne w pol itic al im agi has en ab led fam ilie s to
nar y is me dia ted by a dia and wealtl} ~. iJ .b in ..~ kee p the ir lan d
loc al mo der nit ies an d tra lec tic bet we en ~o o. Th is has ha d a pro
nsl oca l for ma tio ns. Th e ilie- n-iarit;l situ atio n of sou fou nd im pac t on
=o rk of ord ina ry pe op le 'qu oti dia n me nta l th Ind ian wo me n . Th ey
' (A pp adu rai 199 6:5 ) no qu enc e ofr his ma rria ge sys hav e, as a con se-
ing ne = pos sib ilit ies for w inv olv es ima gin - tem , usu all y ma rri ed me n
the ms elv es an d ne w fut sin ce chi ldh ood , the y hav the y hav e kn ow n
dre n. Th eir wo rk of the ure s for the ir chil- e ma rri ed ver y lar gel y wi
im agi nat ion is no w to use wh ich the y gre w up or in thi n the vil lag es in
an d the res ou rce s off ere the ir mo bil e live :; vil lag es clo se by an d the
d by the ma ss me dia to clo se an d con tin uin g int era y hav e enj oy ed
for the se dia cri tics of mo thi nk thi ngs ane w, cti on wi th the ir nat al fam
der nit y 'of fer ne w res ou ri:lge . Th is is ent ire ly dif fer ilie s ·aft er ma r-
pli nes for the con str uct ion rce s and new disci- ent fro m the far sad de r wo
of im agi ned sel ves an d im Ind ian Hin du bri de. Sh e rld of the nor th
(ib id . 199 6: 3). Th is has agi ned wo rld s' wa s nev er ma rri ed to a
me ant tha t in the spa ce any on e fro m her ow n vil clo se rel ativ e or to
an d the rur al , new im agi bet we en the urb an lag e. Ins tea d .he r fam ily
nar ies tha t lin k bo th are ing her a com ple tel y un rel too k pri de in fin d-
Th ese im agi nar ies of the coi r,in g int o bei ng . ate d bri de gro om fro m a
'ur ban ize d rur al' ha ve ext After ma rria ge she wa s all vil lag e far aw ay.
of low er- cas te spi ritu alit y,
by em hra cin g bo th Am hed kar
end ed the ran ge
sio ns. Th is ma de no nh Ind
ow ed to vis it he r pa ren ts
only on . rare occ ii-
dh ism ::1nd dev oti on to ref itc neo -Bu d - ian wo me n far mo re vu lne
orm i st sai nts lik e lb111d.1 ria ge tha n wo me n in the rab le aft er ma r-
gio ns of op pre sse d gro up s. Th ese new rclr sou th, be cau se the lat ter
s art icu lal c the spi ritu al /; the con tin uin g mo ral and alw ays enj oy ed
,ur Ix1n1zc· c I rur a I' low er· ,•- .:t·c·•·
cii:rn tra nsl oca l and aff irm
.......1, .,, .''<J
mo Jcm itic s or lilt '
. . 11nccting the loc al wit h ,1 pa11-l11 -
r
t Th ese two ma rria ge pat ter
ma ter ial sup po rt of the ir
ns are ori en ted ve ry dif
par ent s.
ing ne w spi ritu al per spe cti . _ Ind ia (br oa dly sp ea kin fer ent ly. No rth
sol ida riti es spa nn ing vas ves tha t _env1s1on g) ha s wh at an thr op
t reg ion s, rat he r tha n a 'h.r e_e ~~ 1o us' ma rria ge olo g _ists cal l a
,~T ran slo cal Me an ing s an clu ste r of vil lag es . str uc tur e-t ha t is, wo me
d Tra nsl oca l Marriage-. Th ~~s _ip_ arry_\1_p.w.atds' (Pa rry 197 n of low er soc ial
t ~ rop ria te tra
nsl oca l me ani ng s an d to ese att em pts wo ma n is ma rrie d by he r 9; Ra hej a 19 88 ). Th is me
aff irm the m as the cor_e of fam ily (al l ma rri age s be ans tha t a
loc af ~o der nit ies are als o ria ges ) co a .family of the ing arr ang ed ma r-
ref lec ted in oth er em c.r gin sam e cas te bu t of lJ.! ghe
of rur al ide nti ty. r sug ges g sel f-c ':'n tru ct1 ons her O'Wn. In ord er to ena ble r soc :Ia fst atu s th:,.n
t tha t suc h a pro ces s 1s ref the up wa rd mo bil ity of
mo du lat ion s in ma rri age lec ted m the new and , by im pli cat ion , of the the ir da ug hte r-
pat ter ns an d the tra nsf ms elv es- the fam ily ha ve
att ach to ma rita l exc han ges orm ed va! ues tha t to pro vid e a sig -
in bo th rur al an d urb an sou nif ica nt finaq,s!~J.'..&!ft' in
th Ind ia. These- cas h a~~ kin d. tQ.!oJUtt
1
fa..n1ily. It is• thi s -obl iga tor y 92m .'.~_Q!.S,h~ r-~ ~u s
'gif t' _tha t is.;:all~£.'.9.9.~!X
.'.:_.The giv ing of
;r,:,,;.,.,.,,.
~:~ Ai.\ ...... .
 160 KAR IN KA PAD IA

/ ' Tra nsl oca l Mo dem itie s an

'do wr y' has be en cen tra l to d Tr an sfo rm ati on s 161
this ma rri3 ge sy ste m- an d
hav ing mo re da ug hte rs tha con seq uen tly ,
n son s has me ant tha t fam While thi s de mo gra ph ic
nan cla l lt'>ss, 'th us d'1 ugh ter ilie s suf fer fl. exp lan ati on Is im po rta nt,
s In nortl1J.!1dla h"V!_~,g!J iec::e of thi s co rnp ~x pu zzl It I.!! on ly on e
a flnanclJtl !ln bll it~ , bec aus
e a dau gh ter me ons 'do wr
J..C :.JQ.~cm.JL9 p
e . 'Do wr y' Is a ph eno rnt ;:n
on
exc ess of ...•xp l:rn·atl on s ava ila ble to elu cid ate It. I tha t has an
•tory gift tha t an no un ces y', the obl lga - sug ge st tha t an en-
the soc ial Inf eri ori ty of the com pa.Sslng ex pla na tio n
Co nse qu ent ly the re are wo ma n's fam ily . for thi s ma rria ge sw itc h can
villages in the no rth ern sta ,,
c
on ly be fou nd
wh ere the re ha ve be en no te of Ra jas tha n t h rou gh :'.."mu ch bro ad er soc io- cul tur al
..!.:.'.~:.:..:
•
ana lys is. Th at 1s
....,::.:...=..=..:,...:,------;---:---~
. .
fem ale chi ldr en for ma ny cle say arg ues tha t 'c!o w1 wh y thi s es-
fem ale bab y ha vin g be en cad es- -ev ery y' h~ s to be vie we d as a n - .
pro mp tly kil led off at bir th of mo der nit y, a inodes.!l!JY_ ex em pla ry ex~ r~s s_!_Q_ n
So uth Ind ia's 'Dr avi dia n' (K ris hna ji 200 0) . lh.a.u:au...QD.ly.be_und er: s.to
ma rria ge sys tem , on the con lar ge- sca le tra nsf orr :1_~ t_i_~£1 od. wi thi n the
ten ded to pre ser v,: _m tra ry, is in-
tar ian , 'iso ga~ 91; 1_s' ma
arr ia~ am on g eg_1:1.~ls.
It Is the ref ore an ega li- Tnefeare --·n1any clu es ~_ 0J_ _tJ:.i~.po.lit l<;.a.l ~con<:>my
in the rec ent ant hro po log ~f S(? uth Jn~ i_a .
rri a~ ,structure. Th is me ans logical resc;1rch on rur al 1ca l an d SO CIO -
gai ns hig her sta tus or
class mo bil ity thr ou gh
tha t nei the r sid e so ~h Ind ia wh ich sug ge
bo th par tie s rem ain s equ ma rri ag e-t he sta tus of ma rriage p3t ter ns has to st tha t thi s shi ft in
al. Most im por tan t of all, b e'J ,~e rpr e ted in no rm ati
gif t-g ivi ng has be en the the dir ect ion of and the ref ore ca nn ot be ve, cul tur al cer_n2s
exa ct rev ers e of nor th Ind ex pla ine d sol ely in de mo
ian 'do w ry' -in Kache r, it bec om es cle ar gra ph ic ter m.s:'·
sou th Ind ia it is the l:>~i tha t, he re too , we are wi
d,_e's fam ily _t_ha~ __fl1L! _s_t ~~ ti on of a loc a l-:-or r_?t_her tne ssi ng the c re a-
'br ide we alt h ' or ~ k e eiv e a gif t of , ~ tra nsl ~c-~I _mo de_rni ty
' . He re the fin anc ial bu rde stra nge cla im to ma ke , . Th is ma y see m a
gro om 's fam ily , wh o hav n is on th e in the con tex t of the pe
e to per sua de the bri de' s fam ·do wr y-d em an d '. Ho we ver rni cio us s pre a d of
the ir d au g hte r in ma rri age ily to giv e the m , th e co nn e ctio ns be tw ee
. In sho rt, the wa y the sou che cre ;:i ti o n of :1 tr:i ns/ loc n 'do wr y' a n d
ria ge sys tem of bri dep ric th Ind ian m a r- a l mo der nit y a re clo se, tho
e fun ctio ns, ma kes it th e dia ' hid de n . Rav ind ran ' s rec ug h so me wh at
site of the no rth ern ma rria me tri ca l op po - en t fie ldw ork in Ta mil Na
ge 9:1stom of 'do wr y' (G oo du pro vid es se v-
1994). Fu rt her , wo me n's soc ial d 199 1; Ka pad i a era l clu es he re ( 1999) . Sh
e qu ote s yo un g, rur al me
p_9_sitio n .b.a.s be <;_~~'.~-~~ 1Ja_ ch::it 'do wr y' is bo th a ne ces n w ho inf orm h er
in the sou th, wi th dau gh ~L?Jf.fere n c sar y soc ial pra cti ce an d
ter s not inf req uen tly bei ng a po sit ive soc ial
lan ded pro pe rty thr ou gh e nd o we d wit h ph en om en on . Be tw ee n
inh eri tan ce (M uk un d 199 the m the y id~ ~): '. fou r
cal ly dif fer ent fro m inh eri 9) . Th is is rad i- ·d ~~~! -~?- -~ i~ _n :?d ern ke.Y-, .at trib.11.i:es. . .of ,
tan ce pra cti ces in nor th Ind ,
Ye t in the rec en t pasc, wit ia . cau se me n tod ay are mo __(~ _it is nec.~S§.?-.i:Y ,. (c) it is de se ro ed -_be - ,,
hin the last thr ee de cad es, re acc om pli she d tha n in
spr ead In sou th Ind ia lik 'do wr y' has an? the ref ore de ser ve 'do pre vio us de ca de s · · '
e .an epi dem ic, and wit h as wr y', an d_ ig l~ ab les
des pit e the fac:t tha t no xio us res ult s, u2 ~a I9.. m.9b_ility :
It com ple tel y aff ron ts tra dit As 11a gan gam (cu ltu
1

VCllues, Ma ny rei tea rch ion al '-0\.1th Ind ian red beh avi ou r) dev elo ps,
ers hav e bee n bew ild
ere d by thi s ma ssi ve so- wid esp rea d . In ear lie r 'do wr y' has be co me
cial shi ft fro m bri de pri ce to tim es the boy s we re un
wh at Is eff ect ive ly 'gr oo mp nc.,t given a 'do wr y' . We are ed uc ate d, so the y we
Inf orm ant s the ms elv es hav rlc e' (R ao 1993). edu cat ed, mo der n , we des re
e no t bee n ver y hel pfu l her erv e it ('d ow ry' ) .
giv en a wi de va rie ty of e, as the y hav e My fat her nev er rec eiv ed
rea son s for the cha ng e (K any 'do wr y'- my mo the r
cen tra l de mo gra ph ic arg apa dia 1993). A ~au ght ers . I rec eiv ed 5 ,00 wa s on e of six
um ent , rei ter ate d in rec ent 0 cas h and 10 'pa vu n' (go
tha t thi s ch an ge in ma rri age dis cus sio ns, is dow ry '. Th ey say it is wr ~n ld sov ere ign s) as
no rm s is du e to a s~_sir ~~ g to tak e 'do wr y', bu t it is
rel eva nt ag e gro up . Be of m~ n_.io. .th~ ca use she bro ug ht cas h, nec ess ary . Be -
it wa s po ssi ble for me to
0 no rm ati vel y req uir ed bet
the rat e of gro wt h of the
cau se of the co nsi de rab le
we en a bri de an d gro om
ag e ga p tha t is
an d be cau se of
;.
I
and im pro ve my ea rni ng s
nd
(Ra vip dra n 1999: WS 39 ).
inv est in bu sin ess

po pu lat ion , the arg um ent dR~vi ran als o no tes ho

tha t the re are far mo re ma has be en ma de w, for the po or, 'do wr y' is
rria gea ble yo un g wo me n a_n ow,_ ~he ref o~~ · an 'as pir stil l ou t of rea ch
few er 'ol de r' me n of a . sui ava ila ble for the ati on ' for ·~ wr y' is vie
tab le age . Tl ~< !.r .ri ~g e -J.~Jy _po s!t ~v e, le~ ,u~ a: we d as an en~
me nt, first pu t for wa rd by sq ue ez e' arg u- e ~n d lau da ble asp iri llo_n:
Ca ldw ell et al. Cl 983) has _ -- -
wit h ne w dat a, by Da s Gu
pta an d Sh uz hu o 09 99 ) an
be en rei ter ate d, ~ ver y po or Sc he du led Ca ste
d Ra o 09 93 ). do wr y' for his so n- th is fat her des cri bed ho w h
fo I . h' . . . . d f
wa e asp ire
r 11s c tld ren -be ca us e s par t of his asp 1ra t1o ns for a be tte r fut ure or
the son had 'co mp let ed
cla ss nin e' . He
 . : ;_·- .' ·; .;~~'. _J~,w-;J
.: •! . ~: {1
,_. ~-:.11·.d-
m
Trans kJcal Moder ntties and Tr.a,rlj fdrliir/ iNoYzJ:· ~ ·. :;_ l't;ij
ic- ·~ ~·~1 { e;,
.himse
. lf was illitera
, te and had
. never been offere d 'dowry ' b t th ,
bnde broug ht one sovere ign of gold, a goat and a·cow , u . e son 5 that are wreak ing enviro nmen tal havoc , which they
and the collud -
' (ibid.) . ·
ing state ignore , they pull in vast pr~fits . T'.rup pur's 'self-m
These repres entati ve v_iews resona te with the comm ents ade' men
on 'dowr y' e makin g their fortun es by produ cing knitw ear for globa ·1
that I heard in 1987- 88 in rural Tamil Nadu (Kapa l marke ts .
dia 1995) . They ~ ari notes chat the new custom of I
indica te _chat the reaso n why the alien practi ce of 'dowr 1 'dowr y'-dem and is playin g a key
y' is being role in capita l accum ulatio n in this indust rial milieu :
<!J)_P-rO.R._n~ ~~d and~ atura lized '_Qy_or dif!ary ~_o uth Indian
s is precis ely severa l peopl e I Interv iewed said that marrlaae dowrle
becau se tt 1s so d1Her ent from their own isoga mous lf had bc:an
system of increa singly key to the initial capita l that young Goun
bridep rice . Toda y peopl e do not_'.'{ant ~rddit ional eq~al der groom •
ity of status , brough t into knitw ear compa nies (after the expor t boom
~ _e y w an ~ up 'Y<ifd mobil ity in a c;~pJtalist_r!1_a~ket econo of the late
m y . Upwa rd 1980s]. Unm::i rried Goun der men told me how precis
class m o bilit y is prec is el y wh a t 'dowr y ' is design ed
pursui t o f upw ard mobil it y throug h_marrj: ige is ,\·hat
r~ engin eer: th e has beco me . The y co uld expec t severa l pauns (gold
e 'dowr y' giving
sover eigns) , a
'dowr y ' is abo u t. c.1 ;· anJ perha ps even a buildi ng in town,
as befit their value a s busi-
It allow s an y famil y that has the financ ial me::.ins , to conne ness me n w hom po[en tial fathers -in-law could cemen t
ct , throug h ties with . An
marria g e, with a wealt hier, highe~ -status family (of older Go under man , Muthu samy, insiste d, howev er,
the same caste) . that it is only
As a result , s o uth India ns are no lohge r seekin g marria r:owad ays that dowri es are given to the brideg room' s house
ge partne rs for , and.th at
their childr en from amon g their own kin , as they at one time mone y was given as bridep rice to the daugh
used to--an cl as ter (Char i
they =ere, until recen tly, social !~ requir ed to do. Instea forthc oming : 22) .
ished relativ es and their marria geable childr en are d impov er-
being left in the The identi ficatio n of 'do=r y' with invest ible
lurch by better -off famili es, who seek 'status ' marria capita l in
relativ es ('stran gers ', 'perttz ') even from faraw ay (Kapa
ges =ith non- men's perce ptions indica tes that 'do-wr y' prom otes not these youn g
dia 1993) . The just class mo-
'Dravi dian marri age system ' is theref ore vanish ing off bility but greate r busin ess profits .
the face of the ·• F1nan da1 profit and class mobil ity, Chari stress es,
earth , being aband oned by the 'Dravi dians' thems elves is what every -
with extrem e one in this indus trial town is after. It is 'the dazzl e of
rapidi ty. This hurtli ng pace sugge sts not only the eager mone y powe r'
ness, but also (forth comin g: 4) that fuels all indust rial effort in this new
the despe ration , of ordin ary peopl e who are trying boom town.
to find ways to We are a long way indee d from the rigid, ascribed
make both ends meet in an inflati onary econo my, Immo bilitie s of
and who see the the traditi onal caste order . At the same time, howe ver,
new marri age style as one way to do so . The move it is impor tant
to 'dowr y '-mar- to note that this new class mobil ity does not neces
riage is often deepl y guilt- ridden , due to the negle cted sarily mean that a
kinsh ip obli - radica l reorg aniza tion of caste hierar chy occur s. On
gation s, but every one recog nizes that societ y has chang the contra ry, it is
ed, and that like!}' that the highe r castes stay at the top, thoug h
the new rules of the game requir e break ing the old this may also in-
ones . volve an agricu ltural ly domin ant caste transi ting to an
From the indus trial boom town of Tirup pur in Tamil urban doma in
Nadu , Chari and becom ing the hegem onic caste in a new urban
(1997 , forthc oming ) descri bes how the new c~-°-~~pt_'?L~ order . This has
-~~!f-QB.de happe ned in Tirup pur, where Chari obser ves that 'the
man' is today becom ing a celebra:<::d ide3-_L This new Non-B rahmi n
notion is held, Move ment : . .work ed discur sively , in highli ghting caste
by smali -~ -r ba·n -entre pi-ene urs; to typify ideal mode as an effect
rn male beha: - of powe r rather than natur e and thereb y openi ng peopl
iour . This is signif icant, given that the notion of 'bei~g e's sense of
self-m ade' 1s occup ationa l choic e. Yet, the very fact that 'self qiade
entire ly antith etical to the tenor of traditi ~nal T~mtl entre prene urs'
caste ,value s. in Tirup pur are all Goun der men dema nds ana.ly sis
Withi n the caste -orde r there was no such thing as of the caste and
self-m ade status , gende r politic s of..cia ss._mo bility' (forth comin g·: 39; italics
there was only ·ascri bed status , pre-en 1inen tly the in origin al).
caste sta~us that ~y-~3:t:-iralizin and norma lizing the practi ce of 'do-w
one was b 01- n w1·th . Self-m ade status is achie ved statu ___, s-a notio n that ry', ordin ary
radica lly challe nges caste- based values . Such consi peopl e in south India -incl u ing su or mate c
derati ons hardly tes if they have
troubl e the ebull ient entrep reneu rs who are craftin the means to includ e thems elves in this ~pen sive pursu
g their mo~e rn it-are mark -
ing their comm itmen t to moder nity. They have little
identi ties in a thrivi ng indust rial conte xt. Using indust
rial practi ces matte
' r-the centra l.diacri _____________
. ·- ·:tic
choic e in the
- of transl ocal mode rnity in India
.,.-,--today
--.... ls
 164 KARIN KAPADIA ,

Transloca l ,Hoder nit ics a nd

Tm mf om wti ons
und oub ted ly cla ss- bas ed sta
tus . Th e cas te ord er c1n no
lon ger offer
-- - -- 165
fny sta tus tha t can com pet
e wit h the sut us rnnft·1H·d
of mo ney pow er' . Th is me by 'the daz zl e Ji)Pf<)I )l·,·'·1tl' •Slll ll , Th is• i.s ra11l v wli 1.· :1 rna n is up:-ct ;111
ans chat nn f:un ily with ;1 wh en 'dnw1 y ' 1h:11 h::is hcL . / .. . d (J ll tr:1gc:d
can in face cho ose noc co giv dec ent i11corn e 'll 1m1111 1.-.l'll ..... not d e l1 , , l . • .

e 'do w1 y ·, no on e c:1n ope · dt• ed he d11c: t11 -.; lit'l

vu u l. I , lrt c,1 _1h 1.,
out , bcc ;:iuse ;lll~ l'. r ll 1, ly 111 'r grt· t·cl . bul lil t· 111IL'1 1.-..11
eco nom ic com pet itio n and y ,,t hi.-.;
soc ial mo bil ity are intrinsic a nµcr 1:. ·- 1 1,·1,.·ly 1,, dt:r ivc fro11111 .
the new , ma rke t-o rie nte d fea tur es of 110 "- .
11-. . 11 der ive s fru m :i sen
. .
.,L' o f li111er
eco no mi c ord er of wh ich disappointrlH'II[ , ;in 'insulc' .
eve ryo ne is a
par t. On ly som e cas tes livi
'rur al urb ani sm ' hav e not
ng in iso lat ed are as wh ere
the dem and s of
pro fou nd inSl'CUriry, bot h eco
tha l IS de ep ly fcl~ . It al ~o den
nom ic an~ ex1ste~t1al. E~o
vc..: s tm,~
. .
his
rea che d and wh ere kin shi curiry bec aus e ma le occ upa nom,c ms e-
ma in sal ien t, an d the lan p link s still re- tio ns are ~ei ng put inc rea sin
dle ss Da lit com mu nit ies the new pos t-re for ms reg ime gly at nsk m
wo me n are oft en the ma am ong wh om enc our agi ng che ap lab our
in _bre ag ~l_nn _e r_s,_ <;~_~_tinu this vol um e). Exi ste ntia l ins (se e Ba~eqee,
bride.p.tic..~marriag~ wit h cro e to .m: act ise ecu rity bec aus e soc ial v:i.l_ues
ss- kin . Th us in sout_h Ind ia_ ::1nd sliding, alte rin g so rap idl are
mo der nit y has me ant cha t th~ .P.Ur-?ui.t of y in con tem po rar y Ind ia tha slipping
com_rri~ nit! es- b.~Y<:_~p_ro2 rn ma le's sen se of sel f dep t the mo d-
I(ldiaQ_ mechai:iis!ll <~( cJa~s !E~~-d th_e _IJQl,1}:i e ire -th us end s inc rea sin gly on wh at
mo!=>_ qu he can ac-
in the ir--e gal itar ian ma rria ge ility thr o~_gh ma rri~ e, _a1'.d hav e trade_sl on wh at he ach iev es and con
sum es . I~ th 1s ' sen se, 'd
pra cti ces for a tran sloc aC ma bec om es cen tral am ong the . ow ry·
tem tha t can exp res s the ir rria ge sys- ach iev em ent s of this con sum
up wa rd asp ira tio ns. Fro m jec t-w hil e sim ult ane ous ly ens c sub-
the app rop ria tio n of 'do wry this per pec tiv e, pro vid ing the mo st pub lic
.' is par t of an arti cul atio n acc om pli shm ent s and wo rth me asu re of his
cia l ide nti ties tha t spe aks a wit h lar ger so- . Th is per spe cti ve on 'do wry
des ire to se ize the new opp co exp lain che int ens e fee lin ' may hel p
cla ss mo bili ty . Wi thi n this ort uni tie s for gs tha t it gen era tes in me n
new im agi na ry, 'do wry ' bec me an tha t we beg in to con do . Thi s doe s not
am ong the 'res.g urc e.s for ex om es ce ntr al ne the a pp a llin g tre atm ent
~r i:m ent ~ wit h-s df- m;i _i[) g' brid es wh ose familie s a re me ted out to
199 6: 3) . (Ap pad urai una ble to pro v ide the 'do
- pro mi sed -or , in ma ny cas wry ' tha t was
Thi s is wh y pol icy ma ker es, th e fur the r 'do wr y' th at
s and soc ia l ref orm e rs ca :.1fter ma rria ge. Bu t it doe s hel is dem and ed
tha t 'do wr y' is go ing co dis nno t e xpe ct p co exp l a in wh y 'do wr y'
app ear as Ind ia 'mo der niz so rapidly thr oug h the vase is spr ead ing
for lor n hop e, bec aus e, in es'. Th is is :i pen ins ula of sou th Ind ia,
the po pu lar ima gin ary , 'do from the min isc ule Bra hm in wh ere , apa rt
nity . It Is the qui nte sse nti al wry ' is mo der - cas tes , it har dly exi ste d fifty
mo der nit y bec aus e It pro vid (Cal9JleH 1983: 346 ). Th is yea rs ago
tra ck to cla ss mo bil ity . Th es the fost- ana lys is als o sug ges ts tha
the sin gle lar ges t sum of mo
e cap ita l tra nsf er em bod ied
In 'do wr y' Is ge,mg to be eas y to get rid of, bec aus e it has bec om e an
t 'do wry ' is not
ney tha t mo st me n wlll rec '-""" of the mo der n sel f-c ons tru
ent ire lives. In a nat ion -st ate eiv e ctio n of mo st me n. Fro m this inte gra l par t
tha t is hur tlin g to hig h cap ital In the ir 'do wry ' em erg es not onl y as per spe ctiv e,
as it can , 'do wr y' is 'ne ces ism as fast pos ses sin g str on g pos itiv e
sar val ue in new
wh o don 't rec eiv e it are left y' to eve ry ma n, bec aus e tho se me n ma le ima gin arie s, ac ~s
cas te and cla ss, bu t als o as
beh ind . Th is exp lain s wh y translocal m od em i~ a key dia crit ic of
ma rrie d for lov e and did not me n 'wh o
ask for a "do wr y" or tho se
"do wry " tha n the y had ho wh o got less
ped
the y fee l tha t the y hav e bee for , bec om e bitt er and fru str ate d- T.. ije cto rie s of Mo der n Hi
n den ied the ir due s' (Ra vin era rch ies
WS-39). . dra n 199 9:
Much res ear ch con firm s cha
It is like ly tha t thi s fru stra t cas te dis cri mi nat ion is bec
tio n is so int ens e bec aus e sal ien t tod ay (M aye r 1996; om ing less
bec oll) .e cen tra l to the ord 'do wr y' has Ful ler 199 6) . It is bei ng cha
ina ry ma n's sen se of his ou sly -an d oft en vio len tly llen ged vigor-
sel .f.: ton stru ct rep res ent ing modern sel f-a -by the sub ord ina ted cas
a dee ply des ire d ide ntit y. lon ger pub licl y acq uie sce in tes , wh o no
,,fh ore tha n a lad der to cla 'Do wry ' is far the ir hum ilia tio n . Th is has
ss sta tus , it has bec om e the me nta l imp act on soc ial nor had a fund a-
V ack now led gem ent of a mo st pub lic ms thr ou gh ou t Ind ia . Eve
ma n's wo rth tha t he is eve dis crim ina tion doe s oc cu r-a n wh ere caste
Wh en 'do wr y' is giv en, a ma r like ly to rec eiv e . nd it is still vig oro usl y pra ctis
n's edu cat ion , abilities, fam nan t cas tes in som e are as (H ed by domi-
fut ure pro spe cts are all com ily sta tus and um an Rig hts Wa tch 1999}-.c-t
pu ted , in ord er to pre sen t is tha t suc h dis cri min atio n he key poi nt
him wit h an is los ing its soc ial legitimacy
leg itim acy of cas te ide olo gy . Thi s loss of
is con nec ted wit h Ind ia's tran
sfo rma tion